,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,9 ?is1 ! text file1 italics delimit$ by und]scores1 & bold text delimit$ by equal signs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,radiol>ia4 ,,! ,,microscope ,,its ,,hi/ory1 ,,con/ruction1 ,,& ,,application ,,be+ ,a ,,famili> ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,in/rum5t1 ,,& ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,microscopical ,,sci5ce ,,by ,,jabez ,,hogg1 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,f4,r4,m4,s41 ,,=m]ly ,,& ,,= ,,tw5ty-,,five ,,ye>s ,,surgeon ,,to ,,! ,,royal ,,we/m9/] ,,oph?almic ,,hospital2 ,,pa/ ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,m$ical ,,microscopical ,,society2 ,,honor>y ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,academy ,,( ,,sci5ces1 ,,philadelphia2 ,,( ,,! ,,m$ico-,,legal ,,society1 ,,new ,,york2 ,,( ,,! ,,belgian ,,microscopical ,,society1 ,,etc42 ,,au?or ,,( 8,,elem5ts ,,( ,,natural ,,philosophy10 8,a ,,manual ,,( ,,oph?almoscopic ,,surg]y10 ,,etc4 ,,) ,,upw>ds ,,( ,,n9e ,,hundr$ ,,engrav$ ,,& ,,col\r$ ,,illu/rations ,,by ,,tuff5 ,,we/ ,,& ,,o!r ,,arti/s ,illu/ration3 ,an #ah? ,c5tury ,microscope4 ,,fifte5? ,,edition ,,re-,,con/ruct$1 ,,re-,,writt51 ,,revis$1 ,,& ,,enl>g$ ,,?r\gh\t ,,london ,,& ,,new ,,york ,,george ,,r\tl$ge ,,sons1 ,,limit$ #ahih ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,i4,d41 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,london ,,& ,,tonbridge4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fifte5? ,,edition4 ,! ,fir/ ,edition ( ?is "w appe>$ 9 #ahed1 a "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,microscope :5 ! in/rum5t1 z an aid to orig9al sci5tific rese>*1 may be said to h be5 9 its infancy4 ,!n c]ta9ly x 0 seldom employ$ 9 ! laboratory or ! m$ical s*ools4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 z ,i anticipat$1 x has ass]t$ its prop] position1 & has at l5g? become "o ( ! mo/ important auxili>ies to sci5ce1 & a direct inc5tive to orig9al "w1 :ile x has d\btless ex]cis$ consid]able influ5ce ov] ! /ud5t's p[] ( obs]vation1 & mat]ially assi/$ 9 8 /udies1 let 8 ultimate object & pursuits be :at !y may4 ,! great] use made ( ! ,microscope has likewise conf]r$ b5efits ( untold value ^u ! arts & indu/ries ( ! c\ntry1 !reby add+ to ! national prosp]ity 9 ways z manifold z unique4 ,! ,microscope has also prov$ ( imm5se value 9 ! promotion ( ! heal? ( ! community1 & ! art & sci5ce ( heal+1 s9ce ! !ory ( m$ic9e has become a sci5ce1 re/+ on ! m9ute microscopical exam9ation ( animal tissues4 ,! "w ( rese>* 9 ! si/] sci5ces & by o!r me?ods has1 dur+ ! la/ decade1 receiv$ a correspond+ impetus1 :ile x has und\bt$ly t5d$ t[>ds elaboration & specialisation 9 all dep>tm5ts4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! progress ( microscopical sci5ce has become m dep5d5t ^u ! speciali/ = ga9+ accurate k & = c]ta9 important details se5 to be bran*+ out 9 _m directions4 ,!re nev] 0 a "t :5 ! in/rum5t 0 s con/antly & g5]ally resort$ to & ) s mu* confid5ce & advantage1 z ! pres5t4 ,x has %[n itself equal to ! task impos$--t ( tea*+ ! eye to see ?+s t are new1 & also1 :at is p]haps ( m importance1 to p]ceive ?+s :i* _h be5 entirely ov]look$4 ,! old] defects1 p]haps1 arose f two causes2 ! want ( m c>eful tra9+ ( ! organ ( vision1 & ! want ( suffici5t p[] & precision 9 ! optical "p ( ! ,microscope itself4 ,bo? ( ^! ob/acles h be5 to a consid]able ext5t remov$1 & all educational sy/ems are look$ ^u z incomplete )\t a k ( ! ,microscope4 ,a /ep has already be5 tak5 9 ano!r direction1 t ( furni%+ special =ms ( in/rum5ts1 bett] adapt$ to ! uses to :i* !y w h]eaft] be put1 & purposely design$ = *emical & analytical processes1 = petrological pursuits1 ! geometrical measurem5t ( cry/als1 = special "w 9 connection ) manufactur+ indu/ries1 = ! dairyman1 & ! f>m]4 ,= ! detection ( adult]ations--t ( butt]1 = example--a new] =m ( in/rum5t has be5 devis$1 namely1 a 8,butro-refractomet]10 by ! help ( :i* any adult]ation ( ?is univ]sal article ( diet w at once be reveal$4 ,! =m ( in/rum5t ^u :i* ! optician has exp5d$ a great] am\nt ( skill ?an p]haps on any o!r is ! ,bact]iological ,microscope1 z may be inf]r$ f ! l>g] space ,i h devot$ to ?is important adjunct1 s9ce by orig9al rese>*1 !re c be no d\bt a /ill great] future is 9 /ore = sci5ce 9 ?is special dep>tm5t ( microscopy4 ,b p]fect success 9 ?is direction rema9s v mu* ) ! practical optician1 & ! fur!r improvem5ts made 9 ! optical "p ( ! in/rum5t1 s9ce x is admitt$ t ! highe/ !oretical p]fection has n yet be5 rea*$4 ,x is a commonplace rem>k t e "q solv$ is a /ep t[>ds new problems wait+ solution4 ,x is equally obvi\s t _m difficulties mu/ be enc\nt]$ by e au?or :o uses 8 be/ endeav\rs to supply a /&>d volume or ev5 a fairly compreh5sive text-book on ! ,microscope1 "o t w rema9 a sure guide = any l5g!n$ p]iod4 ,su* a success ,i reg>d z sc>cely possible4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 notice t my e>li] "w has met ) a great am\nt ( appreciation1 & its utility ackn[l$g$ 9 ! pa/ by a dem& almo/ unprec$5t$1 edition aft] edition be+ call$ =4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t my task has be5 accompli%$ ) an e>ne/ desire to assi/ 9 diffus+ a love = an in/rum5t :i* has be5 my con/ant companion = upw>ds ( sixty ye>s4#a ,moreov]1 ,i h a firm conviction ( ! real utility ( ! ,microscope 9 ! "w ( education1 its practical value 9 _m bran*es ( sci5ce1 art1 & manufactur+ indu/ries4 ,^! are my *ief reasons = apply+ myself once m to ! task ( revision1 rewrit+1 & re>rang+ & br++ ?is book z f> z possible into l9e ) ! k ga9$ 9 *emical pa?ology & bact]iology4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ! fir/ "p1 my subjects h z f> z possible be5 treat$ f a hi/orical po9t ( view4 ,?is me?od has enabl$ me to affix dates ( introduction ( special inv5tions & improvem5ts made 9 ! in/rum5t & its appliances4 ,! enl>gem5t ( my pages has enabl$ me to devote m space to bact]iological processes1 & by ! fur!r addition ( plates & sev]al hundr$ illu/rations to m fully elucidate ! subject matt] ( my text4 ,9 an ,app5dix ,i h introduc$ a selection ( 8,=mul & ,me?ods0 ( /a9+1 m\nt+1 etc41 also tables ( ! 8,metrical ,sy/em10 n[ 9 g5]al use 9 ! laboratory2 toge!r ) comp>ative !rmometric values1 all ( :i* ,i tru/ may prove ( s]vice to ! /ud5t4 ,be=e br++ ^! few prefatory rem>ks to a close1 a pleas+ duty devolves ^u me--t ( t5d]+ my ?anks = cordial aid receiv$ f ,pr(essor ,dr4 ,,edg> ,,crook%ank 9 deal+ ) 8 special subject1 ,bact]iology4 ,f 8 valuable 8,text-,book on ,bact]iology0 ,i h extract$ mu* useful matt]4 ,i am equally indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,cambridge1 = mu* in=mation on 8,economic ,botany10 & ! great advances made 9 ! k ( ! uses ( plants1 & ! indu/rial value ( bact]ia 9 p>ticul>4 ,my ackn[l$gm5ts are also due to ! ,messrs4 ,,w>ne = _m illu/rations plac$ at my disposal1 & = useful facts d]iv$ f _! 8,royal ,natural ,hi/ory40 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be se5 t ! results ( a l>ge am\nt ( indep5d5t obs]vation h be5 consign$ to my pages4 ,z ! ref]5ces %[1 rec\rse has be5 _h to orig9al s\rces = tru/wor?y1 reliable in=mation on _m subjects4 ,^! are con/antly1 almo/ daily1 be+ add$ to1 z is made manife/ by ! num]\s p]iodical publications ( ! day devot$ to ?is & k9dr$ sci5ces2 ! =emo/ & mo/ important among :i* is t almo/ exclusively giv5 to microscopical sci5ce1 8,! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( ,london10 ! p]usal ( :i* ,i comm5d to my read]s4 ,,london1 ,,july1 #ahih4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,! ,au?or ( ?is ,publication ent]$ ^u 8 task ) "s hesitation & diffid5ce2 b ! reasons :i* influ5c$ him to und]take x may be briefly told1 & !y at once expla9 8 motives1 & plead 8 ju/ification1 = ! "w :i* he n[ v5tures to submit to ! indulg5t consid]ation ( 8 read]s4 ,x _h be5 to him = "s "t a subject ( regret t "o ( ! mo/ useful & fasc9at+ /udies--t :i* belongs to ! doma9 ( microscopic obs]vation--%\ld be1 if n :olly neglect$1 at be/ b coldly & indiff]5tly appreciat$ by ! great mass ( ! g5]al public2 & he =m$ a /rong op9ion t ?is apa?y & inatt5tion 7 ma9ly attributable to ! want ( "s concise1 yet suffici5tly compreh5sive1 popul> acc\nt ( ! ,microscope1 bo? z reg>ds ! managem5t & manipulation ( ! in/rum5t1 & ! v>i$ wond]s & hidd5 realms ( beauty t are disclos$ & develop$ by its aid4 ,he saw ar\nd him valuable1 erudite1 & spl5did volumes1 :i*1 h[ev]1 be+ *iefly design$ = circulation among/ a special class ( read]s1 7 necess>ily publi%$ at a price t r5d]s !m practically unatta9able by ! great bulk ( ! public4 ,!y are c>eful & beautiful contributions to ! objects ( sci5ce1 b !y d n adequately br+ ! value & *>m ( microscopic /udies home1 s to speak1 to ! firesides ( ! p4 ,day aft] day1 new & int]e/+ discov]ies1 & amplifications ( tru? already disc]n$1 h be5 made1 b !y h be5 ei!r sacrific$ 9 s]ials1 or1 m usually1 devot$ to ! pages ( class publications2 & ?us ?is mo/ important & attractive /udy has be51 9 a great measure1 ! prov9ce ( ! few only1 :o h d]iv$ f x a ri* /ore ( enlight5m5t & gratification3 ! _m n hav+1 h[ev]1 p>ticipat$1 to any great ext5t1 9 ! in/ruction & ent]ta9m5t :i* always foll[ 9 ! tra9 ( microscopical sci5ce4#b ,! manifold uses & advantages ( ! ,microscope cr[d ^u u 9 su* pr(usion1 t we c only attempt to enum]ate !m 9 ! briefe/ & mo/ rapid mann] 9 ^! prefatory pages4 ,x is n _m ye>s s9ce ?is invaluable in/rum5t 0 reg>d$ 9 ! light ( a co/ly toy2 x is n[ ! insep>able companion ( ! man ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! m$ical _w1 its utility & necessity are fully appreciat$1 ev5 by ^? :o =m]ly 7 sl[ to p]ceive its b5efits2 n[1 k :i* c\ld n be obta9$ ev5 by ! m9ute/ dissection is acquir$ readily by its assi/ance1 :i* has become z ess5tial to ! anatomi/ & pa?ologi/ z are ! scalpel & b$side obs]vation4 ,! smalle/ portion ( a diseas$ /ructure1 plac$ "u a ,microscope1 w tell m 9 "o m9ute to ! exp]i5c$ eye ?an c\ld be asc]ta9$ by long exam9ation ( ! mass ( disease 9 ! ord9>y me?od4 ,microscopic ag5cy1 9 ?us assi/+ ! m$ical man1 contributes mu* to ! alleviation ( ^? multipli$ 8ills :i* fle% is heir to40 ,s fully impress$ 7 ! ,c\ncil ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons ) ! importance ( ! facts br\ght to light 9 a %ort space ( "t1 t1 9 #ahda1 !y det]m9$ to e/abli% a ,pr(essor%ip ( ,hi/ology1 & to =m a collection ( prep>ations ( ! elem5t>y tissues ( bo? animals & vegetables1 heal?y & morbid1 :i* %\ld illu/rate ! value ( microscopical inve/igations 9 physiology & m$ical sci5ce4 ,f t "t1 hi/ological anatomy des]v$ly became an important bran* ( ! education ( ! m$ical /ud5t4 ,9 ! /udy ( ,vegetable ,physiology1 ! ,microscope is an indisp5sable in/rum5t2 x enables ! /ud5t to trace ! e>lie/ =ms ( vegetable life1 & ! functions ( ! diff]5t tissues 9 ! gr[? ( plants4 ,valuable assi/ance is d]iv$ f its ag5cy 9 ! detection ( adult]ations4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( fl\r1 an article ( s mu* importance to all1 ! ,microscope enables u to judge ( ! size & %ape ( ! />*-gra9s1 _! m>k+s1 _! isolation & agglom]ation1 & ?us to di/+ui% ! />*-gra9s ( "o meal f ^? ( ano!r4 ,x detects ^! & o!r +r$i5ts1 invisible to ! nak$ eye1 :e!r comb9$ 9 atoms or aggregat$ 9 cry/als1 :i* adult]ate our food1 our dr9k1 & our m$ic9es4 ,x discloses ! lurk+ poison 9 ! m9ute cry/allisations :i* its solutions precipitate4 8,x tells ! murd]] t ! blood :i* /a9s him is t ( 8 bro!r1 & n ( ! o!r life :i* he pret5ds to h tak52 & z a witness aga9/ ! crim9al1 x on "o occasion appeal$ to ! v s& on :i* he trod at midnight40 ,! zoologi/ f9ds 9 ! ,microscope a necess>y coadjutor4 ,to ! geologi/ x reveals1 among a multiplicity ( o!r facts1 8t our l>ge coal-b$s are ! ru9s ( a gigantic vegetation2 & ! va/ lime/one rocks1 :i* are s abundant on ! e>?'s surface1 are ! catacombs ( myriads ( animal tribes1 too m9ute to be p]ceiv$ by ! unaid$ vision40 ,by 8conduct+ ! eye to ! conf9es ( ! visible =m10 ! ,microscope proves an effective auxili>y 9 def9+ ! geometric prop]ties ( bodies4 ,its influ5ce z an in/rum5t ( rese>* ^u ! /ructure ( bodies has be5 comp>$ to t ( ! galvanic batt]y1 9 ! h&s ( ,davy1 ^u ,*emi/ry4 ,x detects ! smalle/ /ructural diff]5ce1 h]et(ore inappreciable1 &1 z an ally ( ,*emi/ry1 enables u to discov] ! v small *anges ( =m & col\r effect$ by te/-fluids ^u solids2 & dissects = u1 s to speak1 ! mo/ multiplex comp\nds4 ,x op5s out to ! m9d an ext5d$ & va/ tract1 opul5t 9 wond]s1 ri* 9 beauties1 & b\ndless 9 ext5t4 ,! ,microscope n only assi/s /udies1 & develops objects ( pr(\nd int]e/1 b also op5s up innum]able s\rces ( ent]ta9m5t & amusem5t1 9 ! ord9>y conv5tional acceptation ( ^! t]ms2 disclos+ to u peculi>ities & attractions 9 abundance2 impress+ u ) ! wond]ful & beautifully skilful adaptation ( all p>ts ( creation1 & fill+ our m9ds ) additional rev]5ce & admiration = ! b5efic5t & ,almighty ,creator4 ,! ,au?or w conclude ^! prefatory obs]vations ) a few words 9 explanation ( 8 arrangem5ts1 by way ( deal+ ) ! in/rum5t & developm5t ( 8 subject4 ,he has s\ght1 9 ! volume t he n[ lays be=e ! public1 to po9t out & elucidate at once 9 a practical mann] & 9 a popul> /yle1 ! va/ fund ( utility & amusem5t :i* ! ,microscope af=ds1 & has endeav\r$ to t\* ^u mo/ ( ! int]e/+ subjects = microscopic obs]vation z fully z ! re/rictions ( a limit$ space1 & ! nature ( ! succ9ct summ>y1 w\ld p]mit4 ,to h dwelt ^u ea* 9 complete detail w\ld h necessitat$ ! issue ( _m exp5sive volumes--& ?is w\ld h entirely fru/rat$ ! aim :i* ! writ] _h 9 view2 he has1 !re=e1 cont5t$ himself ) ! humble1 b1 he tru/s1 n useless1 task ( sett+ up a f+]-po/1 s to say1 to direct ! inquir] into ! wid] road4 ,9 ! section ( ! "w devot$ to ! m9ut] portion ( creation1 he has v5tur$ to dwell some:at long]1 9 ! belief t t dep>tm5t is m especially ! prov9ce ( ! microscopi/4 ,he has arrang$ 8 topics "u special head+s1 & 9 sep>ate *apt]s1 = ! sake ( p]spicuity & precision2 & has br\ght ! ev]-welcome aid ( illu/ration to convey 8 explanatory rem>ks m vividly to ! m9ds ( 8 read]s4 ,f9ally1 x is ! ,au?or's hope t1 by ! in/rum5tality ( ?is volume1 he may possibly assi/ 9 br++ ! ,microscope1 & its valuable & delightful /udies1 be=e ! g5]al public 9 a m famili>1 comp5di\s1 & economical =m ?an he f\nd x at ! p]iod ( its publication1 s t1 9 ^! days ( a diffus$ ta/e = read+ & ! spread ( *eap publications1 he may ?us supply fur!r ex]cise = ! intellectual faculties2 contribute to ! additional amusem5t & in/ruction ( ! family circle1 & aid ! /ud5t ( nature 9 inve/igat+ ! wond]ful & exquisite works ( ! ,almighty4 ,if x %all be ! good =tune = ?is "w1 :i* is n[ confid$ ) great diffid5ce to ! consid]ation ( ! public1 to succe$1 9 h[ev] slight a degree1 9 fur!r+ ?is design1 ! ,au?or w feel fully repaid = ! am\nt ( "t & lab\r exp5d$4 ,,london1 ,may1 #ahed4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,page ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,microscope #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,light--,,its ,,propagation--,,refraction--,,sph]ical ,,& ,,*romatic ,,ab]ration--,,human ,,eye--,,=mation ,,( ,,images--,,visual ,,angle--,,abb',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,microscopic ,,vision--,,def9ition ,,( ,,ap]ture--,,num]ical ,,ap]ture--,,abb',s ,,ap]tomet]--,,/]eoscopic ,,b9ocul> ,,vision #ab ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,simple ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes--,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,a*romatic ,,microscope--,,improvem5ts ,,9 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,microscope3 ,,! ,,ross-,,jackson1 ,,p[ell ,,& ,,leal&1 ,,beck',s1 ,,bak]',s1 ,,pillis*]1 ,,zeiss1 ,,leitz1 ,,watson',s1 ,,van ,,heurck',s ,,ed9burgh ,,/ud5ts'1 ,,swift',s1 ,,& ,,bact]iological #gb ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,appli$ ,,optics--,,eye-,,pieces--,,a*romatic ,,objectives ,,& ,,cond5s]s--,,magnify+ ,,p[] ,,( ,,eye-,,pieces ,,& ,,objectives--,,me?od ,,( ,,employ+ ,,! ,,cond5s]--,,its ,,illum9ation ,,mirror--,,accessories ,,( ,,! ,,microscope--,,f9d]s--,,micromet]s--,,c am]a-,,lucida--,,microscope ,,9 ,,position ,,= ,,draw+--,,abb',s ,,te/-,,plate--,,micro-,,photography--,, pol>isation ,,( ,,light--,,! ,,micro-,,spectroscope #aci ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,practical ,,microscopy--,,manipulation--,,mode ,,( ,,employ+ ,,! ,,microscope--,,work+ ,,accessories--,,me?ods ,,( ,,prep>+1 ,,h>d5+1 ,,/a9+1 ,,& ,,section ,,cutt+--,,cutt+ ,,h>d ,,/ructures--,,inject+ ,,app>atus1 ,,mat]ial1 ,,etc41 ,,employ$ ,,9 ,,bact]iological ,,inve/igations--,,w>m ,,*amb]s ,,& ,,incubators--,,prep>+1 ,,m\nt+1 ,,cem5t+1 ,,& ,,collect+ ,,objects #beh ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,microscopic ,,=ms ,,( ,,life--,,?allophytes1 ,,pt]idophyta1 ,,phan]ogam--,,/ructure ,,& ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,! ,,cell--,,pa?og5ic ,,fungi ,,& ,,m\lds--,,p>asitic ,,diseases ,,( ,,plants1 ,,man1 ,,& ,,animals--,,indu/rial ,,uses ,,( ,,fungi ,,& ,,sac*>omycetes--,,desmidiace ,,& ,,diatomace--,,li*5s1 ,,mosses1 ,,f]ns1 ,,fl[]+ ,,plants #cec ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,protozoa--,,rhizopoda--,,gromia ,,& ,,=am9if]a--,,infusoria--,,ciliata--,,ro tif]a--,,porif]a--,,sponges #dgh ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,zoophytes--,c,,l5t]ata--,,m$us--,,cora ls--,,hydrozoa--,,mollusca-- ,,annulosa--,,worms--,,entozoa--,,anneli da--,,cru/acea #eae ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ar?ropoda--,,insecta--,,ara*nida--,,ac >9a--,,ixodid--,,mites ,,& ,,ticks #ehc ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,v]tebrata--,,int]nal ,,& ,,ext]nal ,,/ructures #fcc ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,m9]al ,,& ,,geological ,,k+doms #fgj ,,app5dix4 ,,dr4 ,,m]c] ,,on ,,illum9ation1 ,,& ,,abb',s ,,!ory--,,micro-,,spectroscope--,,=mul1 ,,me?ods1 ,,cem5t+1 ,,cle>+1 ,,h>d5+1 ,,& ,,m\nt+--,,tables1 ,,metric ,,& ,,!rmometric #fgb ,,index #fia ,,description ,,( ,,plates1 ,,col\r$ ,,& ,,pla94 ,,frontispiece4 ,,radiol>ia4 ,9 ?is ,plate ,fig4 #a %[s ! elegant lattice-sph]e ( ,rhizosphra2 ,fig4 #b repres5ts ,sphroz\m1 ^: skeleton consi/s ( loose spicules1 arrang$ tang5tially2 ,act9omma1 ,fig4 #c1 possesses ?ree conc5tric lattice-sph]es1 jo9$ by radiat+ sp9es2 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 & #f1 repres5t ,li?omespilus1 ,ommatocampe1 & ,c>pocanium2 ,fig4 #g repres5ts a deep-sea =m 7,*all5g]ia71 ^: oval case is =m$ ( a regul>1 v f9e-me%$1 network2 ,fig4 #h depicts ! elegant lattice-sph]e ( ,heliosphra2 ,figs4 #i & #aj1 ,cla?rocyclas & ,dictyophimus4 ,,plate ,i4--,page #djj4 ,,protophyta4 ,,?allophytes4 ,fig4 #a4 ,peziza bicolor--#b4 ,truffle3 a4 ascus ( spores2 b4 mycelium--#c4 ,sphria h]b>um3 a4 piece ( dead plant1 ) ,s4 h]b>um natural size2 b4 section ( same1 slightly magnifi$2 d4 ,ascus ) spores1 & p>aphyses m magnifi$--#d4 ,peziza pygma--#e4 ,apical =m ( same--#f4 ,p4 corpulasis3 ,ascus ) spores & p>aphyses1 m]ely giv5 z a fur!r illu/ration ( /ructure 9 ,peziza--#g4 ,yea/ heal?y--#h4 ,yea/ exhau/$--#i4 ,phyllact9ia guttata--#aj4 ,yea/ ) favus spores & mycelium ( fungus--#aa4 ,favus f]m5t1 ) odium & bact]ia--#ab4 ,pucc9ia spores1 gr[+ 9 a sac*>9e solution--#ac4 ,a]obic bact]ia--#ad4 ,spores & mycelia f eczema produc$ by yea/--#ae4 ,volvox globator--#af4 ,amboid condition ( portion ( volvox--#ag4 ,pucc9ia buxi--#ah4 ,ditto1 m enl>g$--7#ag to #bj illu/rate ,ascomycetes47--#ai4 cidium grossul>i f transv]se section ( leaf ( currant3 a4 sp]mogones on upp] surface2 b4 p]i!cia ) spores--#bj4 ,phragmidium bulbosum1 developm5t (--#ba4 ,palmella p>iet9a1 trans4 section ?r\gh a sp]mogone1 %[+ gre5 gonidia & sp]matia escap+--#bb4 cidium b]b]ida1 f leaf ( b]b]ry--#bc4 ,vau*]ia sessilis--#bd4 ,/ephanosphra pluvialis3 a4 ,full-gr[n example1 g]m cells sp9dle-%ap$ ) flagella2 b4 ,re/+-cell2 c4 division into f\r2 d4 ,free-swimm+ ciliat$ "y specim52 e4 ,amboid condition--#be4 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f & g1 ,developm5t ( li*5 gonidia--#bf4 ,palmella /ell>is 7li*571 v]tical section ?r\gh apo!cium1 %[+ asci1 spores1 & p>aphyses1 ) gonidia & filam5t\s m$ulla3 a4 ,sp]matophore ) sp]matia--#bg4 ,moss gonidia assum+ amboid =m4 ,typical =ms ( ,protophyta2 #g to #ad1 modes ( developm5t or rudim5t>y conditions2 ,conf]voide1 #bc2 ,vau*]ia1 ,/ephanosphra1 #bd2 ,volvox1 #ae1 c4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,page #dab4 ,,protophyta4 ,,alg4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,c]amium acan?onotum--#bh4 ,clo/]ium1 ,triploc]as gracilis--#bi4 ,cosm>ium radiatum--#cj4 ,micra/]ias d5ticulata--#ca4 ,docidium pri/id--#cb4 ,calli?amnion plumula--#cc4 ,diatoma1 liv+3 a4 ,licmophora spl5dida2 b4 ,a*nan!s longipes2 c4 ,grammatophora m>9a4 ,^! figures are int5d$ to %[ ! g5]al "* ( ! endo*rome & gr[? ( fru/ule--#cd4 ,calli?amnion refractum--#ce4 ,jung]mannia albicans2 b4 repres5t+ elat] & spores--#cf4 ,leaf ) an!ridia1 or male elem5ts1 repres5t$ m magnifi$ at a to ! left ( ! figure--#cg4 ,c]amium e*9otum--#ch4 ,pleurosigma angulatum1 side view--#ci4 ,deless]ia hypoglossum--#dj4 ,pleurosigma angulatum1 front view1 endo*rome n repres5t$--#da4 ,c]amium flabellig]um4 ,,plate ,,iii4--,page #dgi4 ,,protozoa4 ,figs4 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb4 ,^! figures are f draw+s made by ,major ,ow51 to illu/rate =ms ( liv+ ,polycy/9a1 sket*$ f life2 ^! convey a fa9t idea ( ! ri*ly col\r$ appe>ance ( ! natural /ructure2 ,figs4 #dh to #eb--ec4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 r\nd =m--#ed4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 ! usual elongat$ =m--#ee4 ,greg>9a s]pul--#ef4 ,greg>9a ,sieboldii2 illu/ration ( septate =m1 ) reflex$ hook-l processes--#eg4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 ency/$--#eh4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 m advanc$ & pseudo-navicell =m+--#ei4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 free pseudo-navicella (--#fj1 #fa4 ,greg>9a lumbricorum1 amboid =ms (--#fb4 ,cruciate sponge-spicule--#fc4 ,a/romma ,humboldtii--#fd4 ,ezoon ,canad5se1 repres5ts appe>ance ( a portion ( ! natural size--#fe4 ,ezoon ,canad5se1 magnifi$1 %[+ portions ( cell-walls left uncol\r$1 ! animal s>code inhabit+ x col\r$ d>k gre5 z 9 nature1 & conv]t$ by fossilisation into a silici\s m9]al2 ! n>r[ b&s pass+ betwe5 ^! are processes 7/olons7 ( ! same sub/ance--#ff4 ,act9ophrys sol1 budd+--#fg4 ,eugl5a viridis3 a4 contract$2 b4 elongat$ =m--#fh4 ,ac9eta tub]osa--#fi4 ci/es longicornis 7,davis7--#gj4 ,oxytri*a gibba 7side view7--#ga4 ,oxytri*a pellionella--#gb4 ,?uricola valvata1 exp&$--#gc4 ,cyclidium 7glaucoma7--#gd4 ,oxytri*a sc9tillans--#ge to #gi1 #hj to #he1 illu/rate types ( ,=am9if]a discov]$ by ,major ,ow51 liv+--#ge4 ,globig]9a ac]osa1 n4 sp41 brok5 op5 to %[ int]ior--#gf4 ,globig]9a1 n4 sp41 brok5 op5 to %[ int]ior--#gg4 ,globig]9a hirsuta--#gh4 ,globig]9a univ]sa--#gi & #ha4 ,g4 ,bulloides--#hj4 ,cono*ilus vorticella--#hb4 ,globig]9a inflata1 s9i/ral %ell--#hc4 ,pulv9ul9a ,mi*el9iana--#hd4 ,p4 ,can>i5sis--#he4 ,p4 ,m5>dii4 ,,plate ,,iv4--,page #ead4 ,,metazoa4 ,,bryozoa4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,h>tea elegans--#hg4 ,side view ( ,synapta spicula--#hh4 ,ophioglypha rosula 7v immature specim573 a4 ,claw hooks2 b4 palmate spicula4 ,! developm5t ( ?is species is describ$ by ,g4 ,hodge1 9 8,transactions ( ,tyneside ,naturali/s' ,field-,club0--#hi4 ,sp9e ( a />-fi%1 p>ticul>ly int]e/+ z %[+ ! reticul> calc>e\s network obta9+ 9 ?is z 9 all o!r h>d p>ts ( ! ,e*9od]mata--#ij4 ,v m9ute ,spatangus1 obta9$ f /oma* ( a bream3 _m ( ! sp9es are gone1 b ! /ructure ( ! %ell is intact & =ms a beautiful object1 int]e/+ 9 connection ) ! s\rce :5ce obta9$--#ia4 ,ophioglypha neglecta3 wriggl+ or brittle />fi%4 ,! plate does n admit ( a figure on a scale suffici5t to %[ ! full beauty ( ?is object--#ib4 ,tubul>ia ,dumorti]ii--#ic4 ,p$icell>ia m&ibulata f ,ura/] glacialis--#id4 ,p$icell>ia =cepi=ma1 f ! same--#ie4 ,cri/atella muc$o2 #if4 ,edge-view ( /atobla/2 #ig4 e>ly /age 9 developm5t ( same--#ih4 ,lophopus cry/all9us--#ii4 ,plumatella rep5s ) ova1 on subm]g$ /em--#ajj4 ,tnia e*9ococcus--#aja4 ,hydatids f human liv]--#ajb4 ,bilh>zia hmatobia--#ajc4 ,amphi/oma conicum--#ajd4 ,tri*9a spiralis f fle%y "p ( ,hambrc' pork--#aje4 ,tri*9a spiralis male1 sep>at$ f muscle4--#ajf1 #ajg4 ,fasciola gigantea4 ,,plate ,v4--,page #eef4 ,,mollusca4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,velut9a lvigata1 portion ( l+ual membrane--#aji4 ,velut9a lvigata1 "p ( m&ible--#aaj4 ,hybocy/is bl5nius1 portion ( palate--#aaa4 ,sepia (fic9alis1 portion ( palate--#aab4 ,aplysia hybrida1 "p ( m&ible--#aac4 ,loligo vulg>is1 "p ( palate--#aad4 ,haliotis tub]culatus1 "p ( palate--#aae4 ,ci/ula cat5ata1 "p ( palate--#aaf4 ,patella radiata1 "p ( palate--#aag4 ,acma virg9ea1 "p ( palate--#aah4 ,cymba olla1 "p ( palate--#aai4 ,scap&] ligni>ius--#abj4 ,oneidoris bilamellata1 "p ( palate--#aba4 ,te/acella ,maugei1 "p ( palate--#abb4 ,pleurobran*us plumula1 "p ( m&ible--#abc4 ,turbo m>moratus1 "p ( palate4 ,l+ual membranes ( ,mollusca2 draw+s made f specim5s 9 ! collection =m$ by ,f4 ,e4 ,edw>ds1 ,esq41 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,typical examples ( ! num]\s =ms ( ,odontophors met ) 9 ,ga/]opod & ,cephalopod ,mollusca4 ,,plate ,,vi4--,page #ehb4 ,,insecta4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,egg ( ,c>adr9a morpheus1 mottl$ ru/ic mo?--#abe4 ,egg ( tortoise-%ell butt]fly1 ,vanessa urtic--#abf4 ,egg ( common footman1 ,li?osia complanula--#abg4 ,egg ( %>k mo?1 ,cucullia umbratica--#abh4 ,maple-aphis--#abi4 ,egg %ell ( ac>us1 empty--#acj4 ,egg ( h\se-fly--#aca4 ,m\? ( ,tsetse-fly1 ,gloss9a morsitans--#acb4 ,vap\r] mo?1 ,orgyia antiqua3 ant5na ( male--#acc4 ,vap\r] mo?3 ant5na ( female2 a4 bran* m magnifi$ to %[ rudim5t>y condition ( ! p>ts--#acd4 ,tortoise-%ell butt]fly2 head 9 pr(ile1 %[+ l>ge comp\nd eye1 "o ( ! palpi1 & spiral tongue--#ace4 ,tortoise-beetle1 ,cassida viridis2 "u surface ( left =e-foot1 to %[ ! bifurcate t55t app5dages1 "o ( :i* is giv5 at a m magnifi$4 ,?is =m ( app5dage is *>act]i/ic ( ! family4 8,we/ on ,feet ( ,insects10 ,l9n4 ,trans4 vol4 xxiii4 tab4 #dc-acf4 ,egg ( blue argus butt]fly1 ,polyommatus argus--#acg4 ,egg ( mottl$ umb]1 ,erannis defoli>ia--#ach4 ,egg ( ,ennomos eros>ia1 ?orn-mo?--#aci4 ,egg ( ,aspilates gilv>ia1 /raw-belle--#adj4 ,bl[-fly1 ,musca vomitoria3 left =e-loot1 "u-surface1 to %[ t55t hairs2 a b m magnifi$2 a f bel[1 b f ! side--#ada4 ,h\se-fly l>va--#adb4 ,am>a communis3 left =e-foot1 "u-surface1 to %[ =m ( t55t app5dages1 ( :i* "o is giv5 m magnifi$ at a4 ,^!1 9 gr\nd beetles1 are met ) only 9 ! males1 believ$ to be us$ = sexual purposes4 ,^! app5dages are c>efully protect$ :5 n 9 use1 z expla9$ by ,we/--#adc4 ,ephydra rip>ia3 left =e-foot1 "u-surface4 ,?is fly is met ) sometimes 9 imm5se numb]s on ! wat] 9 salt-m>%es2 x has no p[] ( climb+ on glass1 z se5 by ! /ructure ( ! t55t hairs2 ! c5tral tactile organ also is peculi>1 ! :ole act+ z a float1 "o atta*$ to ea* foot1 enabl+ ! fly to re/ on ! surface ( ! wat]2 a4 an enl>g$ ext]nal hair--#add4 ,egg ( bot-fly1 ! l>va j escap+--#ade4 ,egg ( p>asite ( pheasant--#adf4 ,egg ( ,scatophaga--#adg4 ,egg ( p>asite ( magpie--#adh4 ,egg ( ,jodis v]n>ia1 small em]ald mo?4 ,,plate ,,vii4--,page #fcc4 ,,v]tebrata4 ,fig4 #adi4 ,toe ( m\se1 integum5ts1 bone ( foot1 & vessels--#aej4 ,tongue ( m\se1 %[+ erectile papill & muscul> lay]--#aea4 ,bra9 ( rat1 %[+ vascul> supply--#aeb4 ,v]tical section ( tongue ( cat1 fungi-=m papill & capill>y loops pass+ into !m1 vessels--#aec4 ,kidney ( cat1 %[+ ,malpighian turfts & art]ies--#aed4 ,small inte/9e ( rat1 ) villi & lay] ( muc\s membrane expos$--#aee4 ,nose ( m\se1 %[+ vascul> supply to roots ( :isk]s--#aef4 ,vascul> supply to int]nal gill ( tadpole1 dur+ "o phase ( developm5t--#aeg4 ,section ?r\gh scl]otic coat & ret9a ( cat's eye1 %[+ vascul> supply ( *oroid vessels cut cross-ways--#aeh4 ,int]ior ( fully-develop$ tadpole1 exhibit+ he>t1 vascul> arrangem5t & vascul> sy/em ?r\gh\t body & tail4 ,?is plate is design$ to %[ ! value1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ( inject$ prep>ations 9 ! del9eation ( animal /ructures4 ,by ?us artificially re/or+ ! blood & di/5d+ ! tissues1 a bett] idea is obta9$ ( ! relative condition ( p>ts dur+ life4 ,,plate ,,viii4--,page #bbj4 ,,pol>iscope ,,objects4 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one--#aei4 ,qu>tz--#afc4 ,granite--#afa4 ,sulph4 ,copp]--#afb4 ,salig99e--#afc4 ,sulph4 ,iron & ,cobalt1 cry/alliz$ 9 ! way describ$ by ,?omas--#afd4 ,borax--#afe4 ,sulph4 ,nickel & ,pota%--#aff4 ,kreat9e--#afg4 ,/>* granules--#afh4 ,asp>tic ,acid--#afi4 ,fibro-cells1 or*id4--#agj4 ,equisetum cuticle--#aga4 ,holo?uria spicula1 ,au/ralia--#agb4 ,holo?uria spicula1 ,port ,ess+ton--#agc4 ,deutzia scabra2 upp] & "u surface--#agd4 ,cat's tongue1 process--#age4 ,prawn %ell1 exuvia ) cry/als ( lime--#agf4 ,grayl+ scale--#agg4 ,scyllium caniculum scale--#agh4 ,rh9oc]os horn1 transv]se section--#agi4 ,horse ho(--#ahj4 ,dytiscus1 elytra ) cry/als ( lime4 ,,plate ,,ix4--,page #cfb4 ,,typical ,,plate ,,( ,,bact]ia ,,& ,,s*izomycetes4 ,fig4 #a4 ,cocci1 s+ly1 & v>y+ 9 size--#b4 ,cocci 9 *a9s or ros>ies 7/reptococcus7--#c4 ,cocci 9 a mass 7/aphylococcus7--#d & #e4 ,cocci 9 pairs 7diplococcus7--#f4 ,cocci 9 gr\ps ( f\r 7m]ismop$ia7--#g4 ,cocci 9 packets 7s>c9a7--#h4 ,bact]ium t]mo--#i4 ,bact]ium t]mo #djjj 7,dall+] & ,drysdale7--#aj4 ,bact]ium septicmi hmorrhagic--#aa4 ,bact]ium pneumoni cr\pos--#ab4 ,bacillus subtilis--#ac4 ,bacillus murisepticus--#ad4 ,bacillus diph!ri--#ae4 ,bacillus typhosus 7,eb]?7--#af4 ,spirillum undula 7,cohn7--#ag4 ,spirillum volutans 7,cohn7--#ah4 ,spirillum *ol] ,asiatic--#ai4 ,spirillum ,ob]mei]i 7,ko*7--#bj4 ,spiro*ta plicatilis 7,flgge7--#ba4 ,vibrio rugula 7,prazm[ski7--#bb4 ,clado?rix ,fr/]i 7,cohn7--#bc4 ,clado?rix di*otoma 7,cohn7--#bd4 ,monas ,ok5ii 7,cohn7--#be4 ,monas ,w>m+ii 7,cohn7--#bf4 ,rhabdomonas rosea 7,cohn7--#bg4 ,spore-=mation ( ,bacillus alvei--#bh4 ,spore-=mation 7,bacillus an?racis7--#bi4 ,spore-=mation 9 bacilli cultivat$ f rott5 melon 7,frnkel & ,pfeiff]7--#cj4 ,spore-=mation 9 bacilli cultivat$ f e>? 7,frnkel & ,pfeiff]7--#ca4 ,involution-=m ( ,cr5o?rix 7,zopf7--#cb4 ,involution-=ms ( ,vibrio s]p5s 7,w>m+7--#cc4 ,involution-=ms ( ,vibrio rugula 7,w>m+7--#cd4 ,involution-=ms ( ,clo/ridium polymyxa 7,prazm[ski7--#ce4 ,involution-=ms ( ,spirillum *ol] ,asiatic--#cf4 ,involution-=ms ( ,bact]ium aceti 7,zopf & ,hans57--#cg4 ,spirul9a-=m ( ,beggiatoa alba 7,zopf7--#ch4 ,v>i\s ?read-=ms ( ,bact]ium m]ismop$ioides 7,zopf7--#ci4 ,false-bran*+ ( ,clado?rix 7,zopf74 ,,plate ,x4--,page #dbj4 ,,desmidiace4 ,fig4 #a4 ,eua/rum oblongum--#b4 ,micra/]ias rotata--#c4 ,desmidium quadrangulatum--#d4 ,didymoprium ,grevillii--#e4 ,micra/]ias1 sporangium (--#f4 ,didymoprium ,borr]i--#g4 ,cosm>ium ,ralfsii--#h1 #i4 ,xan?idi--#aj4 ,x4 armatum--#aa4 ,cosm>ium cr5atum--#ab4 ,c4 ,sphrozosma v]tebratum--#ac1 #ag4 ,sporangia ( ,cosm>ium--#ad4 ,x4 fasiculatum--#ah4 ,/aura/rum hirsutum--#ai4 ,ar?rodesmus conv]g5s--#ae4 ,/aura/rum tumidum--#af4 ,/aura/rum dilitatum--#ba4 ,p5ium--#bb4 ,eua/rum ,didelta--#bc4 ,docidium clavatum--#bd4 ,p$ia/rum biradiatum--#be4 ,clo/]ium1 %[+ conjugation or self-division--#bf4 ,volvox1 p>5t cell ab\t to break up--#bg4 ,p5ium ,j5n]ii--#bh4 ,aptogonum desmidium--#bi4 ,p$ia/rum p]tusum--#cj4 ,anki/rodesmus falcatus--#ca4 ,p>5t cell ( ,clo/]ium--#cb4 ,/aura/rum gracilis4--#cc4 ,conjugation ( ,p5ium m>g>itaceum--#cd4 ,spirotnia--#ce4 ,clo/]ium ,,plate ,,xi4--,page #dbh4 ,,diatomace4 ,fig4 #a4 ,ara*noidiscus--#b4 ,act9ocyclus 7,b]muda7--#c4 ,cocconeis 7,algoa ,bay7--#d4 ,cocc9odiscus 7,b]muda7--#e4 ,i/hmia en]vis--#f4 ,zygoc]os rhombus--#g4 ,campilodiscus clypeus--#h4 ,biddulphia--#i4 ,gallionella sulcata--#aj4 ,tric]atium1 f\nd 9 ,?ames mud--#aa4 ,gomphonema gem9atum1 ) _! /alk-l atta*m5ts--#ab4 ,dictyo*a fibula--#ac4 ,eunotia--#ad4 ,cocconema--#ae4 ,fragil>ia pect9alis--#af4 ,m]idion circul>e--#ag4 ,diatoma flocculosum4 ,,plate ,,xii4--,page #dch4 ,,micro-,,photograph ,,( ,,te/ ,,diatoms4 ,tak5 ) ,zeiss's #c mm4 ,n4,a4 #adj by ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,c>vell = ! ,au?or4 ,fig4 #a4 ,portion ( ,surirella gemma1 magnifi$ #a1jjj--b4 ,brok5 ,fru/ule ( ,pleurosigma angulatum1 #gej--c & #e4 ,tric]atium favus --#a1jjj--d4 ,navicula rhomboides #a1cjj--f4 ,pleurosigma =mosum1 %[+ black dots--#g4 ,p4 =mosum1 %[+ :ite dots1 #gej4 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,page #ded4 ,,phan]ogami--,,elem5t>y ,,tissue ,,( ,,plants4 ,fig4 #a4 ,elem5t>y ovid cells--#b4 ,bran*+ tissue--#b;,a & #c4 ,spiral vessels f ,opuntia vulg>is--#d4 ,/ellate tissue1 section ( ru%--#e4 ,mu%room spawn--#f4 ,/>* f ,t\s-les-mois--#g4 ,/>* f sago--#h4 ,/>* f rice--#i4 ,:eat-/>*--#aj4 ,rhub>b />* 9 isolat$ cells--#aa4 ,maize-/>*--#ab4 ,oat-/>*--#ac4 ,b>ley-/>*--#ad4 ,section ( ,potato cells1 fill$ ) heal?y />*--#ae4 ,potato />* m highly magnifi$--#af4 ,section ( ,potato ) ne>ly all />* abs5t--#ag4 ,potato ) />* de/roy$ by fungoid disease--#ah4 ,ciliat$ sp]magones--#ai4 ,hairs ( /++-nettle--#bj4 ,section ( cellul> p>5*yma ( ripe /rawb]ry4 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,page #dgb4 ,,/ellate ,,& ,,cry/all9e ,,tissue4 ,fig4 #a4 ,epid]mis ( husk ( :eat1 spiral vessels & silici\s cry/als--#b4 ,section ( cane1 silici\s cell walls1 int]nal portion fill$ ) granul> bodies--#c4 ,cuticul> lay] ( ! onion1 %[+ cry/als ( calcium c>bonate & oxalate--#d4 ,cells ( g>d5 rhub>b1 ) cry/all9e bodies & raphides--#d;a4 ,ano!r lay] fill$ ) />* gra9s--#e4 ,section ( pe>1 te/a1 scl]og5\s & granul> tissue--#f4 ,/ellate hairs1 s9u\s cells & silici\s p>5*yma ( leaf ( ,deutzia scabra1 "u surface--#g4 ,silici\s cuticle lay] ( grass1 ,ph>us cri/atus4 ,,plate ,,xv4--,page #dhb4 ,,rhizopoda4--,,gromia4--,,=am9if]a4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a/rorhiza limicola--#b4 ,lieb]khnia paludosa--#c4 ,micro-gromia socialis und]go+ fission--#d4 ,a colony ( ,h]twig's ,micro-gromia socialis--#e4 ,g4 ,lieb]khnia--#f4 ,egg-%ap$ ,gromia1 ,g4 ovi=mis1 ) pseudopodia ext5d$1 magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s4 8,h]twig ,ueb] ,micro-gromia1 ar*iv4 fr ,mickr4 ,anat4 bdx40 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,page #eaj4 ,,sponge ,,spicules4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a portion ( sponge1 ,hali*ondria simulans1 %[+ silici\s spicula imb$d$ 9 ! s>code matrix--#b4 ,spicula dive/$ ( its matrix by acid--#c4 ,gemmule ,spongilla fluviatallis enclos$ 9 spicula--#d4 ,birotulate spicula f same--#e4 ,gemmule aft] be+ /eep$ 9 acid %[+ reticulat$ coat+ ( birotulate spicula--#f4 ,gemmules ( ,geodia--#g4 ,gemmule 9 m advanc$ /age ( gr[?--#h4 ,skeleton ( ! ac]ate =m cov]$ by r[s ( sp9es--#i4 ,%[+ r+s ( gr[? & horny cov]+1 & bundles ( spicula ( ! g5us ,v]ongia--#aj4 ,sph]o-/ellate spicula ( ,te?ya--#aa4 ,tricuspidan*orate & sph]o-/ellate spicula--#ab4 ,acuate-bi-clavate & o!r =ms ( spicula f ,geodia--#ac4 ,clavate spicula cov]$ ) %ort sp9es4 ,,plate ,,xvii4--,page #eah4 ,,zoophytes1 ,,a/]oids1 ,,nudibran*s1 ,,& ,,e*9oids4 ,fig4 #a4 a4 ,a/rophyton scutatum--b4 ,doris p9natifida1 back & side view--c4 quorea ,=bes9a--d4 ,m$us bud--e4 ,?aumantias corynetes--f4 ,e*9us 9 an e>ly free /age--g4 ,e*9us sphra--h4 ,cydippe pyleus--i4 ,ascidi--k4 ,botryllus violaceus1 on a ,fucus--l4 ,cory/es cassivelaunus--m4 ,eurynome asp]a--n4 ,ophiocoma rosula--o4 ,pagurus ,prideauxii--p4 ,ebalia ,p]mantii4 ,,plate ,,xviii4--,page #eeh4 ,,%ells ,,( ,,mollusca4 ,fig4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( sp9e ( ,e*9us--#b4 ,ano!r section ( ,e*9us1 %[+ reticulat$ /ructure1 ! calc>e\s portion dissolv$ out by acid--#c4 ,horizontal section ( %ell ( ,haliotis spl5d5s1 %[+ /ellate pigm5t--#d4 ,%ell ( crab ) granules 9 articul> lay]--#e4 ,ano!r section ( same %ell1 %[+ hexagonal /ructure--#f4 ,horizontal section ( coa*-spr+ %ell1 ,t]ebratulata rubicunda1 %[+ radiat+ p]=ations--#g4 ,transv]se section ( %ell ( ! ,p9na +5s--#h4 ,cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime1 f oy/] %ell4 ,,plate ,,xix4--,page #fcf4 ,,v]tebrata4 ,fig4 #a4 a4 ,sph]oidal epi!lium cells1 fill$ ) c5tral nuclei & granul> matt]2 b4 muc\s membrane ( /oma*1 %[+ cells1 ) op5 m\?s ( tubes at ! bottom ( ea*1 magnifi$ #ej diamet]s--#b4 a4 ,diagram ( a portion ( ! involut$ muc\s membrane1 %[+ cont9uation ( its elem5ts 9 ! follicles & villi1 ) a n]ve ent]+ ! submuc\s tissue4 ,! upp] surface ( "o villus is cov]$ ) cyl9drical epi!lium2 ! o!r d5ud$1 & ) d>k l9e ( basem5t membrane runn+ ar\nd x2 b4 epi!lium cells1 sep>at$ & magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s1 a c5tral nucleus1 ) a nucleolus1 se5 9 c5tre2 c4 pavem5t epi!lium cells1 f ! muc\s membrane ( bron*ial or air tubes ) nuclei1 & nucleoli 9 "s2 d4 vibratile or ciliat$ epi!lium1 nuclei visible1 & cilia at ! upp] free surface1 magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s--#c4 a4 is "o ( ! tubul> follicles f a pig's /oma*1 cut obliquely to display upp] "p ( cavity1 & ! cyl9drical epi!lium =m+ its walls1 a few cells deta*$2 b4 %[s a section ( a lymphatic1 ) capill>y blood-vessels1 di/ribut$ b5ea? ! muc\s surfaces--#d4 ,cells ( adipose tissue1 or fat1 magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s--#e4 a s+le fat-cell sep>at$1 & magnifi$ #bej diamet]s--#f4 ,a capill>y ( blood-vessels di/ribut$ ?r\gh tissue--#g4 ,section ( ! ,t5do-,a*illis z x jo9s ! c>tilage1 %[+ /ellate cells ( t5don1 se5 to be gradually coalesc+ to =m r\nd or oval cells ( c>tilage--#h4 ,a v]tical section ( c>tilage1 ) clu/]s ( cells arrang$ 9 columns previ\s to _! conv]sion into bone--#i4 ,a small transv]se section ( ! same1 %[+ ! gradual *ange ( ! c>tilage cells at a4 into ! true bone cells1 lacun1 at b4 ) *>act]i/ic canaliculi--#aj4 ,a /ellate n]ve corpuscle1 ) tubul> processes issu+ =?1 at a4 fill$ ) corpuscles conta9+ black pigm5t1 above :i* is a corpuscle ! nucleus ( :i* is se5 to h nucleoli2 at b4 a corpuscle enclos$ )9 %ea?1 & fill$ ) granul> matt] tak5 f ! root ( a sp9al n]ve--#aa4 ,! cont9uity ( muscle1 ! upp] portion1 ) connective tissue ( ! l[] portion1 f ! tongue ( a lamb--#ab4 ,bran*$ muscle1 end+ 9 /ellate connective cells1 f ! upp] lip ( ! rat--#ac4 ,*oroidal black pigm5t-cells f ! human eye4 ,,plate ,,xx4--,page #feh4 ,,bone ,,/ructure4 ,figs4 #a4 & #b4 ,transv]se section ( ! human clavicle 7coll> bone71 %[+ ,hav]sian canals1 conc5tric lam91 & conc5tric arrangem5t ( bone cells--#c4 ,transv]se section ( ! femur ( an o/ri*--#d4 ,transv]se section ( hum]us 7=e-arm7 bone ( a turtle1 ,*elonia mydas--#e4 ,horizontal section ( ! l[] jaw-bone ( a cong] eel1 9 :i* no ,hav]sian canals are pres5t--#f4 ,a portion ( ! cranium ( a sir51 ,sir5 lac]t9a--#g4 ,portion ( bone tak5 f ! %aft ( hum]us ( a ,pt]odactyle1 %[+ elongat$ bone-cells *>act]i/ic ( ! ord] ,reptilia--#h4 ,horizontal section ( a scale1 or flatt5$ sp9e1 f ! sk9 ( a ,trygon 7/+-ray71 %[+ l>ge ,hav]sian canals1 num]\s wavy p>allel tubes1 also bone-cells ) canaliculi communicat+ z 9 d5t9e4 ,,errata4 ,prefaces1 page vi41 l9e #bb ,ins]t 8a0 into 8admitt$40 x41 l9e #ac ,ins]t 8!0 be=e 8assi/ance40 xii4 ,ins]t 8=0 at comm5cem5t ( l9e #bd4 ,page #cc1 l9e #ac ,= 8,rabbit0 read 8,kitt540 #dhf1 #d? l9e f bottom ,/rike out 8,! late40 #eaa1 two l9es f bottom ,= 8,plate ,,xiii40 read 8,plate ,,xvi40 #ehd1 #e? l9e f bottom ,ins]t 8,/alk-,ey$0 be=e 8cru/aceans40 #fbd1 l9e #ab ,= 8or0 read 8&40 #fcc1 ,plate ,,vii4 ,numb]+ ( figures-- ,= 8#aeb0 read 8#aeh40 ,= 8#aeb;a0 read 8#aeb40 7,pr(essor ,abbe1 errone\sly ref]r$ to m ?an once z 8! late0 is1 ! au?or is happy to say1 9 excell5t heal?74 ,,! ,,microscope4 ,,"p ,i4 ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ! ,microscope4 ,! in/rum5t kn[n z ! ,microscope d]ives its designation f two ,greek words1 7mikros71 small1 & 7skopeo71 to see or obs]ve2 & is an optical in/rum5t by means ( :i* objects are s magnifi$ t details invisible or indi/9ct to ! nak$ eye are cle>ly se54 ,its orig91 s f> z yet c be trac$ back1 seems to be ( a d\btful nature4 ,x is tol]ably c]ta9 ! anci5ts _h little or no conception ( ! magnify+ p[] ( l5ses2 ?is may be surmis$ f _! writ+s4 ,! eld] ,pl9y incid5tally /ates t ! physicians ( 8 day caut]is$ by means ( 8a globe ( cry/al40 ,! le>n$ ,greek physician1 ,gal51 h[ev]1 demon/rates conclusively t 9 ! fir/ & second c5turies ( our era ! use ( magnify+ l5ses 0 q unkn[n ei!r to ,greek or ,roman4 ,moreov]1 ! writ+s ( ,ar*im$es1 ,ptolemy1 & o!r le>n$ m51 %[ t1 al?\gh !y _h "s idea ( ! action ( refraction at plane surfaces1 z ( wat]1 yet ( ! refraction at curv$ surfaces !y _h =m$ no conception4 ,inde$1 !y ref] q indiscrim9ately to ! sph]ical =m1 or ! disc1 or ! plane surface ( ! wat]1 b n "o ( !m speaks ( ! l5ticul> =m1 or ! curvature ( _! surfaces4 ,z to ! m p[]ful optical in/rum5ts1 ! telescope & microscope1 al?\gh x w\ld appe> t ,alhaz5 9 ! #aj? or #aa? c5tury1 ,rog] ,bacon 9 ! #ac?1 & ,fraca/oro & ,bapti/ ,porta 9 ! #af?1 _h =m$ "s idea t l5ses might be made & comb9$ s t di/ant objects might be se5 cle>]1 or ne> ones magnifi$ beyond ! p[] ( normal vision2 yet we hold ) ,kepl]1 t no in/rum5t analog\s to our telescope 0 kn[n be=e ! e>ly "p ( ! #ag? c5tury4 ,! comb9ation ( l5ses associat$ ) ! "n ( ,galileo1 01 he tells u1 ( ,dut* orig91 & ( a date ant]ior to t ( 8 telescope1 con/ruct$ by him 9 #afji2 & ?is w\ld appe> to be ! probable orig9 ( ! microscope consi/+ ( a comb9ation ( a convex object l5s ) a concave eye l5s4#c ,x n[ appe>s almo/ impossible to assign ! exact date ( ! fir/ production ( ! microscope 7z di/+ui%$ f ! simple magnify+ l5s71 b ^? :o h made a special inve/igation1 agree t x mu/ h be5 inv5t$ betwe5 #aeij & #afji1 & t ei!r ( ! ?ree spectacle-mak]s ( ,middelburg1 ,holl&1 ,hans ,janss51 8 son ,za*>ias ,janss51 & ,hans ,lipp]%ey1 may h be5 ! inv5tor1 ! probabilities be+ 9 fav\r ( ! ,janss5s1 & !re ! "q mu/ rema94 ,! hi/ory ( ! mod]n microscope1 l t ( nations & arts1 has _h its brilliant p]iods1 9 :i* x %one ) uncommon spl5d\r1 & 0 cultivat$ ) extraord9>y ard\r2 ^! p]iods h be5 succe$$ by int]vals m>k$ ) no discov]y1 & 9 :i* ! sci5ce seem$ to fade away1 or at lea/ to lie dormant1 till "s fav\rable circum/ance--! discov]y ( a new object1 or "s new improvem5t 9 ! in/rum5ts ( obs]vation--awak5$ ! att5tion ( ! curi\s1 & reanimat$ ! _s ( rese>*4 ,?us1 soon aft] ! inv5tion ( ! microscope1 ! field x pres5t$ to obs]vation 0 cultivat$ by m5 ( ! fir/ rank 9 sci5ce1 & :o enri*$ almo/ e bran* ( natural hi/ory by ! discov]ies made by means ( ?is in/rum5t4 ,! ,mod]n ,microscope4 ,to ! celebrat$ ,dr4 ,hooke belongs ! hon\r ( publi%+ an acc\nt ( ! comp\nd in/rum5t 9 #affe 9 8 8,micrographia40 ,8 fir/ claim1 h[ev]1 is f\nd$ on ! application ( a lamp adju/able on a pill>1 toge!r ) a glass globe ( wat] & a deep plano-convex cond5s+ l5s4 ,by means ( ?is arrangem5t1 he says1 8,! light c be direct$ m directly on ! object "u exam9ation40 ,9 ! fur!r description giv5 ( 8 microscope1 he expla9s3 8,x has f\r draw-tubes = l5g!n+ ! body1 & a ?ird l5s to ! optical comb9ation40 ,?is1 x w\ld appe>1 0 only br\ght into use :5 he wi%$ to see ! :ole object at once3 8,! middle-glass l5s1 convey+ a v great company ( radiat+ p5cils 7( light7 :i* w\ld /ray away2 b :5 ,i _h occasion to exam9e ! small p>ts ( a body1 ,i took out ! middle glass & made use ( "o eye-glass ) ! object-glass40 ,f ,hooke's description ,i ga!r t he also introduc$ ! ball-&-socket movem5t into ! con/ruction ( ! body ( 8 in/rum5t4 ,?is has f\nd _m imitators s9ce 8 day2 "s ( !m h gone s f> z to claim ! inv5tion z "o q new4 ,= small accessories1 :]e ! lev]age ne$ n be consid]$1 ! ball-&-socket has prov$ conv5i5t en\gh2 b n1 h[ev]1 if appli$ to ! /& ( ! microscope4 ,hooke1 9 8 e>ly "w1 express$ dissatisfaction ) ! ,engli%-made l5ses he _h 9 use4 ,he compla9s ( ! 8ap]tures ( ! object-glasses1 :i* are s small t v few rays are admitt$2 none w admit a suffici5t numb] ( rays to magnifie ! object beyond a det]m9ate bigness40 ,s we may take x t he ?us e>ly discov]$ ! great importance ( an increase 9 ! ap]ture ( 8 microscope4 ,o!r improvem5ts ( importance 7 made1 & he 0 ! fir/ to describe a useful me?od ( e/imat+ ! magnify+ p[] ( 8 l5ses1 & ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 a prom95ce & a depression 9 ! object "u inve/igation1 :i* he 0 made m fully aw>e ( :5 prep>+ draw+s = ! illu/ration ( 8 8,micrographia ,illu/rata02 ?is w\ld be 9 #affd1 if n e>li]4 ,8 book creat$ no little s5sation on its fir/ appe>ance1 & x soon became sc>ce4 ,hooke 7says ,mr4 ,mayall7 8mu/ und\bt$ly be cr$it$ ) ! fir/ sugge/ion ( imm]sion l5ses40 ,nev]!less1 9 8 8,lectures & ,collections10 publi%$ 9 #afgf1 he appe>s to be no long] en?usia/ic ov] 8 d\ble microscope1 & once m he rev]ts to ! simpl] in/rum5t ( 8 e>li] days4 ,:e!r ?is *ange ( op9ion 0 due to ! publication ( ,leeuw5hoek's obs]vations ) 8 simple microscopes x is impossible to say4 ,z e>ly z #afgc ,leeuw5hoek communicat$ "s important discov]ies made by a simple microscope ( 8 own con/ruction to ! ,royal ,society2 he1 h[ev]1 gave no p>ticul>s ( ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t4 ,dr4 ,adams1 writ+ to 8 fri5d 7,sir7 ,hans ,sloane1 says3 8,!y appe> to be sph]ules lodg$ betwe5 two plates ( gold or brass1 9 a hole ^: diamet] appe>s to be no bigg] ?an t ( a small p9's head40 ,at 8 dea? he bequea!d to ! ,royal ,society a cab9et conta9+ tw5ty-six ( ^! microscopes2 ! cab9et & ! microscopes long ago disappe>$1 b n be=e !y 7 c>efully exam9$ & describ$ by ,mr4 ,h5ry ,bak]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,9 8 report to ! ,royal ,society1 he says3 8,!y consi/$ ( a s]ies ( convex-l5ses1 rang+ 9 p[] f #abj to #ae1 & magnify+ f #afj to #dj diamet]s40 ,?is mu/ n[ be reg>d$ z an ev5tful p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! microscope1 s9ce ,leeuw5hoek's discov]ies creat$ a great s5sation ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,& all fur!r improvem5ts 9 comp\nd in/rum5ts appe> to h be5 laid aside = "s consid]able p]iod 9 consequ5ce3 & ! pocket in/rum5t ( ,wilson1 toge!r ) t ( 8 scroll /&>d 7se5 on ! cov] ( ?is book71 & :i* 0 "o ( ! fir/ simple microscopes ) a mirror m\nt$ on ! base 9 a l9e ) ! optic axis4 ,! discov]ies once m made1 & at a mu* lat] p]iod 7#agch71 by ,dr4 ,na?aniel ,lieb]kuhn ) 8 simple microscopes1 & by means ( :i* he discov]$ ! m9ute /ructure ( ! muc\s membrane ( ! alim5t>y canal1 & :i* alone w\ld h immortalis$ 8 "n _h we n pres]v$ 9 use to ?is day an important adjunct ( e mod]n in/rum5t1 ! ,lieb]kuhn reflector4 ,9 ! ,museum ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons ( ,engl&1 !re is a small cab9et ( two draw]s1 conta9+ a set ( twelve ( 8 simple microscopes1 ea* be+ provid$ ) an orig9al injection4 ,! =m ( ! in/rum5t is %[n 9 ,figs4 #a & #b4 a b repres5ts a piece ( brass tub+ ab\t an in* long & an in* 9 diamet] & provid$ ) a cap at ea* extremity4 ,! "o at a c>ries a small d\ble-convex l5s ( half an in* focal l5g?2 :ile at b !re is fix$ a cond5s+ l5s ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,9 ,fig4 #b ! in/rum5t is se5 9 section1 & expla9s itself4 ,x is held by ! h&le 9 su* a position t ! rays ( light1 f a lamp or a :ite cl\d1 may fall on ! cond5s] b1 & conc5trate on ! speculum l4 ,?is aga9 fur!r cond5ses ! rays on ! disc c1 :]e ! object is held1 & its adju/m5t made by ! mill$-head screw d1 s z to br+ x )9 ! focus ( ! l5s a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,f ?is digression ,i pass on to ! evolution ( ! comp\nd microscope4 ,! e>lie/ workable =m kn[n 0 t design$ by ,eu/a*io ,div9i1 :o br\ght x to ! notice ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #affh4 ,x consi/$ ( two plano-convex l5ses1 comb9$ ) _! convex surfaces reta9$ 9 apposition4 ,8 idea 0 subsequ5tly improv$ ^u by a ,london optician4 ,n long aft]w>ds1 ,philip ,bonnani publi%$ an acc\nt ( 8 improv$ comp\nd microscope2 & we are c]ta9ly indebt$ to him = two or m =ms ( ! movable horizontal microscopes1 & = ! comp\nd cond5s] fitt$ ) focuss+ ge> = illum9at+ transp>5t objects by transmitt$ light4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 pass by ! _m *anges made 9 ! /ructure & =m ( ! in/rum5t by ! celebrat$ ,dr4 ,culpep]1 ,sc>let1 ,cuff1 & _m o!r inv5tors4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--,lieb]kuhn's ,microscope4 ,b5jam9 ,m>t9's ,microscope4--,b5jam9 ,m>t91 ab\t #agdb1 0 busily engag$ 9 mak+ improvem5ts 9 ! microscope1 & ,i may say he 0 c]ta9ly ! fir/ to provide accurate results = det]m9+ ! exact magnify+ p[] ( any object-l5s1 s t ! obs]v] might /ate ! exact amplification 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( diamet]s4 ,he devis$ num]\s improvem5ts 9 ! me*anism & optical arrangem5ts ( ! in/rum5t2 ! rack & p9ion focuss+ adju/m5ts2 ! incl9+ movem5ts to ! pill> c>ry+ ! /age2 & ! rectangul> me*anical motions to ! /age itself4 ,he 0 famili> ) ! pr9ciples ( a*romatism1 s9ce x appe>s he produc$ an a*romatic objective ab\t #agei1 & he is said to h s5t an a*romatic objective to ! ,royal ,society ab\t t date4 ,b an +5i\sly con/ruct$ microscope by ,m>t9 f\nd its way to ,george ! ,?ird1 ! gr&fa!r ( our ,que51 & aft]w>ds came into ! possession ( ! late ,pr(essor ,john ,quekett1 ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons1 :o pres5t$ x to ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( ,london4 ,?is microscope w ev] associate ,m>t9's "n ) ! e>lie/ & be/ =m ( ! in/rum5t1 ev5 %\ld he n receive full recognition z ! inv5tor ( ! a*romatic microscope4 ,on ?is acc\nt ,i introduce a c>efully made draw+ ( s s+ul>ly p]fect a =m ( ! e>ly ,engli% microscope to ! notice ( my read]s4 7,fig4 #c47 ,! description giv5 ( x by ! late ,pr(essor ,quekett is z foll[s3--8,x /&s ab\t two feet 9 height1 & is support$ on a tripod base1 ,a2 ! c5tral "p ( ! /em1 ,b1 is ( triangul> figure1 hav+ a rack at ! back1 ^u :i* ! /age1 ,o1 & frame1 ,d1 support+ ! mirror1 ,e1 are capable ( be+ mov$ up or d[n4 ,! comp\nd body1 ,f1 is ?ree in*es 9 diamet]2 x is compos$ ( two tubes1 ! inn] ( :i* conta9s ! eye-piece1 & c be rais$ or depress$ by rack & p9ion1 s z to increase or dim9i% ! magnify+ p[]4 ,at ! base ( ! triangul> b> is a cradle jo9t1 ,g1 by :i* ! in/rum5t c be incl9$ by turn+ ! screw-head1 ,h 7connect$ ) an endless screw act+ ^u a worm-:eel74 ,! arm1 ,i1 support+ ! comp\nd body1 is suppli$ ) a rack & p9ion1 ,k1 by :i* x c be mov$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 & a jo9t is plac$ bel[ x1 ^u :i* ! body c be turn$ into ! horizontal position2 ano!r b>1 c>ry+ a /age & mirror1 c be atta*$ by a screw1 ,l ,n1 s z to conv]t x into a horizontal microscope4 ,! /age1 ,o1 is provid$ ) all ! usual app>atus = clamp+ objects1 & a cond5s] c be appli$ to its "u surface2 ! /age itself may be remov$1 ! arm1 ,p1 support+ x1 turn$ r\nd on ! pivot1 ,c1 & ano!r /age ( exquisite workman%ip plac$ 9 its /ead1 ! "u surface ( :i* is %[n at ,q40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,m>t9's ,univ]sal ,microscope4 #aghb4 ,?is /age is /rictly a micromet] "o1 hav+ rectangul> movem5ts & a f9e adju/m5t1 ! movem5ts be+ accompli%$ by ! f9e-?read$ screws1 ! mill$ heads ( :i* are graduat$4 ,! mirror1 ,e1 is a d\ble "o1 & c be rais$ or depress$ by rack & p9ion2 x is also capable ( removal1 & an app>atus = hold+ l>ge opaque objects1 su* z m9]als1 c be sub/itut$ = x4 ,! accessory in/rum5ts are v num]\s1 & among/ ! m rem>kable may be m5tion$ a tube1 ,m1 conta9+ a speculum1 :i* c take ! place ( ! tube1 ,r1 & s =m a reflect+ microscope4 ,! app>atus = hold+ animalcules or o!r live objects1 :i* is repres5t$ at ,s1 z well z a plate ( glass six in*es 9 diamet]1 ) f\r concave wells gr\nd 9 x1 c be appli$ to ! /age1 s t ea* well may be br\ght 9 succession "u ! magnify+ p[]4 ,! l5ses belong+ to ?is microscope are tw5ty-f\r 9 numb]2 !y v>y 9 focal l5g? f f\r in*es to "o-t5? ( an in*2 t5 ( !m are suppli$ ) ,lieb]kuhns4 ,a small arm1 capable ( c>ry+ s+le l5ses1 c be suppli$ at ,t1 & :5 turn$ ov]1 ! /age ( ! in/rum5t becomes a s+le microscope2 !re are f\r l5ses suitable = ?is purpose1 _! focal l5g? v>y+ f "o-t5? to "o-=tie? ( an in*4 ,! p]=mance ( all ! l5ses is excell5t1 & no pa9s appe> to h be5 sp>$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,!re are num]\s o!r pieces ( accessory app>atus1 all rem>kable = ! beauty ( _! workman%ip4#d ,9 addition to ! movem5ts describ$ by ,quekett1 ! body-tube ) its support c be mov$ 9 an arc conc5trically ) ! axis ( ! triangul> pill>1 on ! top ( :i* x is fitt$ ) a worm-:eel & endless-screw me*anism1 actuat$ by ! screw-head1 ,t1 bel[4 ,x mu/ !re=e be admitt$ t ,m>t9 l$ ! way f> beyond 8 contempor>ies1 bo? 9 ! design & ! evolution ( ! microscope4 ,fur!rmore1 9 8 8,new ,elem5ts ( ,optics10 #agei1 he dealt ) ! pr9ciple ( a*romatism1 by ! con/ruction ( an a*romatic telescope4 ,at a some:at lat] p]iod !re liv$ 9 ,london a philosophical in/rum5t mak] ( "s repute1 ,george ,adams1 :o publi%$ 9 #agdf a qu>to book1 entitl$ 8,micrographia ,illu/rata1 or ! ,k ( ! ,microscope ,expla9$40 ,?is "w fairly well describes 8! nature1 uses1 & magnify+ p[]s ( microscopes 9 g5]al1 toge!r ) full directions h[ to prep>e1 apply1 exam9e1 & pres]ve m9ute objects40 ,adams' book 0 ! fir/ ( ! k9d publi%$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & x contribut$ 9 no small degree to ! advancem5t ( microscopical sci5ce4 ,adams writes3 8,we owe ! con/ruction ( ! v>iable microscope to ! +5uity & g5]osity ( a noble p]son4 ,! app>atus belong+ to x is m conv5i5t1 m c]ta91 & m ext5sive ?an t ( any o!r at pres5t extant2 consequ5tly1 ! advantage & pleasure att5d+ ! obs]vations 9 view+ objects ?r\gh x mu/ be z ext5sive 9 proportion40 ,?is is believ$ to apply to ,m>t9's sev]al microscopes1 & t especially con/ruct$ = ! k+1 aft]w>ds improv$ ^u by ,adams4 ,ano!r e>ly =m ( microscope1 ,wilson ,simple ,scroll 7#agdf71 /amp$ on ! cov] ( ?is book1 & has ?us become famili> to microscopi/s1 0 also made by ,adams4 ,we n[ closely approa* a p]iod f]tile 9 ! improvem5t ( ! microscope1 & 9 ! discov]ies made by its ag5cy4 ,! *ief ( ^? among ! hon\r$ names ( ! "t we f9d ,trembley1 ,ellis1 ,bak]1 ,adams1 ,hill1 ,swamm]dam1 ,lyonet1 ,ne$ham1 & a few o!rs4 ,adams some:at s>ca/ically obs]ves 8t e optician ex]cises 8 tal5ts 9 improv+ 7z he calls x7 ! microscope1 9 o!r words1 9 v>y+ its con/ruction & r5d]+ x diff]5t 9 =m f t sold by 8 neighb\r2 or at ! be/ r5d]+ x m complex & tr\blesome to manage40 ,!re 7 no d\bt good reasons = ^! & o!r /rictures ^u inv5tors z well z mak]s ( microscopes1 ev5 9 ! ,adams' day4 ,9 ! ye> #aghg ! 8,microscopical ,essays0 ( 8 son 7 publi%$1 9 :i* he describ$ all ! in/rum5ts 9 use up to t p]iod4 ,look+ back1 & tak+ a g5]al survey ( ! "w ( ne>ly two c5turies 9 ! hi/ory ( ! microscope1 x _c be said t ei!r 9 its optical or me*anical con/ruction any great am\nt ( progress 0 made4 ,?is 9 "p may h aris5 f ! fact t no press+ ne$ 0 felt = ei!r delicate focuss+ or high] magnification4 ,at all ev5ts1 x 0 n until ! application ( a*romatism to ! in/rum5t t new life 0 infus$ into its use1 & a great impetus 0 giv5 to its developm5t1 bo? optically & me*anically4 ,9 ! ye> #ahbc a /rong desire became manife/ = improv$ =ms ( ! in/rum5t1 9 ,france by ,m4 ,selligue1 by ,frau5h(] 9 ,muni*1 by ,amici 9 ,mod5a1 by ,m4 ,*evali] 9 ,p>is1 & by ,dr4 ,gor+1 ,mr4 ,prit*>d1 & ,mr4 ,tully 9 ,london4 ,! result 0 t 9 #ahbd a new =m ( a*romatic object-glass 0 con/ruct$ ( n9e-t5?s ( an in* focal l5g?1 compos$ ( ?ree l5ses1 & transmitt+ a p5cil ( eighte5 degrees2 & :i*1 z reg>ds accurate correction ?r\gh\t ! field1 0 = "s ye>s reg>d$ z p]fect4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] 0 ! fir/ to sugge/ ! great importance ( introduc+ mat]ials ( a m highly refract+ nature into ! con/ruction ( l5ses4 ,he wrote3 8,!re c be no ess5tial improvem5t expect$ 9 ! microscope unless f ! discov]y ( "s transp>5t sub/ance :i*1 l ! diamond1 comb9es a high refractive ) a l[ disp]sive p[]40 ,hav+ exp]i5c$ ! greate/ difficulty 9 gett+ a small diamond cut into a prism 9 ,london1 he did n conceive x practicable to gr9d1 poli%1 & =m x into a l5s4 ,mr4 ,prit*>d1 h[ev]1 0 l$ to make ! exp]im5t1 & on ! #a/ ( ,decemb]1 #ahbd1 8he _h ! pleasure ( fir/ look+ ?r\gh a diamond microscope40 ,dr4 ,gor+ also tri$ its p]=mance on v>i\s objects1 bo? z a s+le microscope & z an objective ( a comp\nd in/rum5t1 & satisfi$ himself ( its sup]iority ov] o!r k9ds ( l5ses4 ,b "h ,mr4 ,prit*>d's lab\rs did n end4 ,he subsequ5tly f\nd t ! diamond us$ _h _m flaws 9 x1 :i* l$ him to ab&on ! idea ( f9i%+ x4 ,hav+ be5 prev5t$ f resum+ 8 op]ations on ?is refractory mat]ial = a "t he made a ?ird attempt1 & met ) ano!r unexpect$ defect2 he f\nd t "s l5ses1 unlike ! fir/1 gave a d\ble or triple image in/ead ( a s+le "o1 9 consequ5ce ( "s ( _! p>ts be+ ei!r h>d] or s(t] ?an o!rs4 ,^! defects 7 f\nd to be due to pol>isation4 ,mr4 ,prit*>d hav+ le>n$ h[ to decide :e!r a diamond is fit = a magnifi] or n1 subsequ5tly succe$$ 9 mak+ two planoconvex l5ses ( adamant2 ^! prov$ to be p]fect = microscopic purposes4 8,"o ( ^!1 ( "o-tw5tie? ( an in* 9 focal l5g?1 is n[ 9 ! possession ( 8 ,grace ! ,duke ( ,buck+ham2 ! o!r1 ( "o-?irtie? ( an in* focus1 is 9 8 own h&s40 8,9 consequ5ce ( ! high refract+ p[] ( a diamond l5s ov] a glass l5s1 ! =m] mat]ial may be at lea/ "o-?ird z ?9 z t ( ! latt]1 & if ! focal l5g? ( bo? be equal1 say1 "o-eightie? ( an in*1 ! magnify+ p[] ( ! diamond l5s w be #b1acc diamet]s1 :]eas t ( glass w be only #hjj40 ,at a date 7#ahab7 be=e ,brew/] propos$ diamond l5ses he demon/rat$ a simple me?od ( r5d]+ bo? s+le & comp\nd microscopes a*romatic4 8,/>t+10 he says1 8) ! pr9ciple t all objects1 h[ev] delicate1 are be/ se5 :5 imm]s$ 9 fluid1 he plac$ an object on a slip ( glass1 & put above a drop ( oil1 hav+ a great] disp]sive p[] ?an ! s+le concave l5s1 :i* =m$ ! object-glass ( ! microscope4 ,! l5s 0 !n made to t\* ! fluid1 s t ! surface ( ! fluid 0 =m$ into a concave l5s1 & if ! radius ( ! outw>d surface 0 su* z to correct ! disp]sion1 we %\ld h a p]fect a*romatic microscope40 ,"h we h ! imm]sion sy/em =e%ad[$4 ,%ortly aft] ^! exp]im5ts ( ,brew/]'s 7 9 progress1 ,dr4 ,gor+ is said to h discov]$ t ! /ructure ( c]ta9 bodies c\ld be readily se5 9 "s microscopes & n 9 o!rs4 ,^! bodies he nam$ te/ objects4 ,he !n exam9$ ^! te/s ) ! a*romatic comb9ations ( ! ,tullys1 & 0 l$ to ! discov]y t 8! p5etrat+ p[] ( ! microscope dep5ds ^u its angle ( ap]ture40 8,:ile ^! practical inve/igations 7 9 progress10 writes ,&rew ,ross1 8! subject ( a*romatism engag$ ! att5tion ( "s ( ! mo/ pr(\nd ma!maticians 9 ,engl&1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 & ,pr(essors ,airy & ,b>l[4 ,mr4 ,codd+ton & o!rs contribut$ l>gely to ! !oretical exam9ation ( ! subject2 & al?\gh ! results ( _! lab\rs 7 n applicable to ! microscope1 !y ess5tially promot$ its improvem5t40 ,ab\t ?is p]iod 7#ahab7 ,pr(essor ,amici1 ( ,mod5a1 0 exp]im5tally engag$ 9 ! improvem5t ( ! a*romatic object-glass1 & he inv5t$ a reflect+ microscope sup]ior to ^? ( ,newton1 ,bak]1 or ,smi?1 made z e>ly z #agch1 & long ago ab&on$4 ,9 #ahae ,amici made fur!r exp]im5ts1 & introduc$ ! imm]sion sy/em2 :ile ,frau5h(]1 ( ,muni*1 ab\t ! same "t con/ruct$ object-glasses = ! microscope ( a s+le a*romatic l5s1 9 :i* ! two glasses1 al?\gh plac$ 9 juxtaposition1 7 n cem5t$ toge!r4 ,doll&1 x has be5 said1 introduc$ a*romatic l5ses2 b al?\gh he con/ruct$ _m a*romatic telescopes1 he did n apply ! same pr9ciple to microscopes1 & ^? :i* he sold 7 only modifications ( ! comp\nd microscope ( ,cuff4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on employ$ a new =m ( comb9ation 9 a microscope con/ruct$ = 8 own use1 & by :i* 8he 0 able to see di/9ctly ! f9e/ m>k+s ^u ! scales ( ! ,lepisma & ,podura1 & ^u ^? ( ! gnat's w+40 ,8 d\blet is /ill employ$1 & to :i* ,i %all ref] "u 8,simple ,microscopes40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c;a4--,sir ,david ,brew/]'s ,microscope1 ( ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury1 rec5tly pres5t$ to ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,elem5t>y ,optics4 ,value ( ,inductive ,sci5ce--,light3 ,its ,propagation1 ,refraction1 ,reflection--,sph]ical & ,*romatic ,ab]rations--,human ,eye1 =mation ( ,images ( ,ext]nal ,objects 9--,visual ,angle increas$--,abbe's ,!ory ( ,microscopic ,vision4 ,! advances made 9 physics & me*anics dur+ ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies fairly op5$ ! way to ! atta9m5t ( great] p]fection 9 all optical in/rum5ts4 ,?is has be5 p>ticul>ly exemplifi$ ) ref]5ce to ! inv5tion ( ! microscope1 z briefly sket*$ out 9 ! previ\s *apt]4 ,inde$1 9 ! fir/ half ( ! pres5t c5tury ! microscope c sc>cely be said to h held a position ( importance among ! sci5tific in/rum5ts 9 frequ5t use4 ,s9ce !n1 h[ev]1 ! zoologi/ & botani/ by its aid h laid b>e ! intimate /ructure ( plants & animals1 & !reby h op5$ up a va/ k+dom ( m9ute =ms ( life previ\sly undreamt (2 & 9 connection ) *emi/ry a new sci5ce has be5 f\nd$1 t ( bact]iology4 ,= ^! reasons x w be ( importance to ! /ud5t ( microscopy to beg9 at ! beg9n+1 & x w be my endeav\r to introduce to 8 notice su* facts 9 physical optics z are closely associat$ ) ! =mation ( images1 &1 s to speak1 sy/ematise su* /epp+ /ones = "w h]eaft] to be accompli%$4 ,elem5t>y pr9ciples only w be adduc$1 & )\t attempt+ to involve my read]s 9 intricate ma!matical problems1 & :i* = ! mo/ "p are unnecess>y = ! atta9m5t ( ! object 9 view4 ,i !re=e pass at once to ! consid]ation ( ! propagation ( light ?r\gh c]ta9 bodies4 ,! microscope1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 dep5ds = its magnify+ p[] on ! influ5ce ex]t$ by l5ses 9 alt]+ ! c\rse ( ! rays ( light pass+ ?r\gh !m be+ ,,refract$4 ,refraction takes place 9 accordance ) two well-kn[n laws ( optics4 ,:5 a ray ( light passes f "o transp>5t m$ium to ano!r x und]goes a *ange ( direction at ! surface ( sep>ation1 s t its c\rse 9 ! second m$ium makes an angle ) its c\rse 9 ! fir/4 ,?is *ange ( direction is a resultant ( refraction4 ,! brok5 appe>ance pres5t$ by a /ick p>tly imm]s$ 9 wat]1 & view$ 9 an oblique position1 is an illu/ration ( ! law ( refraction4 ,liquids h a great] refractive p[] ?an air or gases4 ,z a rule1 ) "s few exceptions1 ! d5s] ( ! two sub/ances has ! great] refractive p[]2 h5ce x is cu/om>y 9 enum]at+ "s ( ! laws ( optics to speak ( ! d5s] m$ium & ! r>] m$ium4 ,! m correct designation w\ld be ! m refractive & ! less refractive4#e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,law ( ,refraction4 ,let ,r ,i 7,fig4 #d7 be a ray incid5t at ,i on ! surface ( sep>ation ( two m$ia1 & let ,i ,s be ! c\rse ( ! ray aft] refraction4 ,!n ! angles :i* ,r ,i & ,i ,s make ) ! normal are ! angle ( incid5ce & ! angle ( refraction respectively1 & ! fir/ law ( refraction is t ^! angles lie 9 ! same plane1 or ! plane ( refraction is ! same z ! plane ( incid5ce4 ,! law :i* connects ! magnitudes ( ^! angles1 & :i* 0 discov]$ by ,snell1 a ,dut* philosoph]1 c only be /at$ ei!r by ref]5ce to a geometrical con/ruction1 or by us+ ! language ( trigonometry4 ,describe a circle ab\t ! po9t ( incid5ce1 ,i z a c5tre1 & drop p]p5dicul>s f ! po9ts :]e x cuts ! rays on ! normal4 ,! law is t ^! p]p5dicul>s1 ,r ,p1 ,s ,p1 w h a con/ant ratio1 or ! s9es ( ! angles ( incid5ce & refraction are 9 a con/ant ratio2 t is1 s long z ! m$ia ?r\gh :i* ! ray fir/ passes1 & by :i* x is aft]w>ds refract$1 rema9 ! same1 & ! light also ( ! same k9d1 !n x is ref]r$ to z ! law ( s9es4 ,indices ( ,refraction4 ,! ratio ( ! s9e ( ! angle ( incid5ce to ! s9e ( ! angle ( refraction1 :5 a ray passes f "o m$ium to ano!r is t]m$ ! relative index ( refraction4 ,:5 a ray passes f vacuum into any m$ium1 ?is ratio is always great] ?an unity1 & is call$ ! absolute index ( refraction1 or simply ! index ( refraction = ! m$ium 9 "q4 ,! absolute index ( air is s small t x may be neglect$ 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( solids & liquids2 b /rictly speak+1 ! relative index = a ray pass+ f air into a giv5 sub/ance mu/ be multipli$ by ! absolute index ( ! air1 9 ord] to obta9 ! true index ( refraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,vision ?r\gh a ,glass ,plate4 ,critical ,angle4--,x w be se5 f ! law ( s9es t1 :5 ! incid5t ray is 9 ! less refractive ( ! two m$ia1 to e possible angle ( incid5ce !re is a correspond+ angle ( refraction4 ,! angle ref]r$ to is t]m$ ! critical angle1 & is readily comput$ if ! relative index ( refraction be giv54 ,:5 ! m$ia are air & wat]1 ?is angle is ab\t #dh #cj4 ,= air & ord9>y k9ds ( glass its value v>ies f #ch to #da4 ,! ph5om5on ( total reflection may be obs]v$ 9 sev]al famili> in/ances4 ,= example1 if a glass ( wat]1 ) a spoon 9 x1 is held above ! level ( ! eye1 ! "u side ( ! surface is se5 to %9e l a mirror1 & ! l[] "p ( ! spoon is se5 reflect$ 9 x4 ,effects ( ! same k9d are obs]v$ :5 a ray ( sunlight passes into an aqu>ium--on ! o!r h& rays fall+ normally on a uni=m transp>5t plate ( glass ) p>allel faces keep _! c\rse2 b objects view$ obliquely ?r\gh ! same are displac$ f _! true position4 ,let ,s 7,fig4 #e7 be a lum9\s po9t :i* s5ds light to an eye n directly opposite to x1 on ! o!r side ( a p>allel plate4 ,! em]g5t rays :i* ent] ! eye are p>allel to ! incid5t rays2 b z !y h und]gone lat]al displacem5t1 _! po9t ( conc\rse is *ang$ f ,s to ,s1 & ?is is accord+ly ! image ( ,s4 ,! rays 9 su* a case :i* compose ! p5cil t ent]s ! eye w n exactly meet 9 any "o po9t2 !re w be two focal l9es1 j z 9 ! case ( sph]ical mirrors4 ,! displacem5t produc$1 z se5 9 ! figure ref]r$ to above1 increases ) ! ?ickness ( ! plate1 its index ( refraction1 & ! obliquity ( incid5ce4 ,?is furni%es "o ( ! simple/ means ( measur+ ! index ( refraction ( a glass sub/ance1 & is ?us employ$ 9 ,pi*ot's refractomet] 78,des*anel074 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,refraction ?r\gh a ,prism4 ,refraction ?r\gh a ,prism4--,a prism is a portion ( a refract+ m$ium b\nd$ by two plane surfaces1 incl9$ at a def9ite angle to "o ano!r4 ,! two plane surfaces are t]m$ ! faces ( ! prism1 & _! incl9ation to "o ano!r is ! refract+ angle ( ! prism4 ,a prism pres]ves ! prop]ty ( b5d+ rays ( light f _! orig9al c\rse by refraction4 ,a cyl9d] may be reg>d$ z ! limit ( a prism ^: sides increase 9 numb] & dim9i% 9 size indef9itely3 x may also be reg>d$ z a pyramid ^: apex is remov$ to an indef9ite di/ance4 ,let ,s ,i 7,fig4 #f7 be an incid5t ray 9 ! plane ( ! pr9cipal section ( ! prism4 ,if ! ext]nal m$ium be air1 or o!r sub/ance ( less refractive p[] ?an ! prism1 ! ray on ent]+ ! same w be b5t ne>] to ! normal1 tak+ su* a c\rse z ,i ,e1 & on leav+ ! prism w be b5t away f ! normal1 tak+ ! c\rse ,e ,b4 ,! effect ( ^! two refractions is1 !re=e1 to turn ! ray away f ! edge 7or refract+ angle7 ( ! prism4 ,9 practice1 ! prism is usually s plac$ t ,i ,e1 ! pa? ( ! ray ?r\gh ! prism1 makes equal angles ) ! two faces at :i* refraction occurs4 ,if ! prism is turn$ v f> f ?is position1 ! c\rse ( ! ray may be altoge!r diff]5t f t repres5t$ 9 ! figure2 x may ent] at "o face1 be int]nally reflect$ at ano!r1 & come out at ! ?ird4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! m9imum numb] ( sides1 i4e41 ! b\nd+ faces1 exclusive ( ! ends1 :i* a prism c h is ?ree4 ,9 ?is =m1 x con/itutes a mo/ valuable in/rum5t ( rese>* 9 physical optics4 ,a convex l5s is practically m]ely a curv$ =m ( two prisms comb9$1 _! bases be+ br\ght into contact2 on ! o!r h& ! concave l5s is simply a rev]sal ( ! position ( ! apices br\ght into contact1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa4 ,bo? convex & concave l5ses are !re=e closely relat$ to ! prism4 ,reflection4--,! laws t gov]n ! *ange ( direction :i* a ray ( light exp]i5ces :5 x /rikes ^u ! surfaces ( sep>ation ( two m$ia & is ?r[n back into ! same m$ium f :i* x approa*$ is z foll[s3--,:5 ! reflect+ surface is pla9 ! direction ( ! reflect$ ray makes ) ! normal to ! surface ! same angle :i* ! incid5t ray makes ) ! same normal2 or1 z x is usually express$1 ! angles ( reflection & incid5ce are equal4 ,:5 ! surfaces are curv$ ! same law holds good4 ,9 all cases ( reflection ! en]gy ( ! ray is dim9i%$1 s t reflection mu/ always be accompani$ by absorption4 ,! latt] probably prec$es ! =m]4 ,mo/ bodies are visible by light reflect$ f _! surfaces1 b be=e ?is takes place ! light has und]gone a modification1 namely1 t :i* imp>ts col\r peculi> to ! bodies view$4 ,:5 light imp+es ^u ! surface ( a d5s] m$ium "p is reflect$1 "p absorb$1 & "p refract$4 ,b = a c]ta9 angle dep5d+ ^u ! refractive index ( ! refract+ m$ium no refraction takes place4 ,?is angle is t]m$ ! angle ( total reflection1 s9ce all ! light :i* is n absorb$ is :olly reflect$4 ,multiple images are produc$ by a transp>5t p>allel plate ( glass4 ,if ! glass be silv]$ at ! back1 z x usually is 9 ! microscope-mirror1 ! second image is bright] ?an ! fir/1 b z ! angle ( incid5ce increases ! fir/ image ga9s ^u ! second2 & if ! lum9\s object be a lamp or c&le1 a numb] ( images1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 w be visible to an eye prop]ly plac$ 9 front4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! reflect+ p[] ( a surface ( glass increases ) ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,conjugate ,foci ( ,curv$ ,surfaces4 ,concave ,surfaces4--,rays ( light proce$+ f any giv5 po9t 9 front ( a concave sph]ical mirror1 are reflect$ s z to meet 9 ano!r po9t1 & ! l9e jo9+ ! two po9ts passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! sph]e4 ,! relation betwe5 !m is or %\ld be mutual1 h5ce !y are t]m$ conjugate foci4 ,by a focus 9 g5]al is meant a po9t 9 :i* a numb] ( rays ( light meet1 & ! rays :i* ?us meet1 tak5 collectively1 are t]m$ a p5cil4 ,fig4 #g repres5ts two p5cils ( rays ^: foci1 ,s s1 are conjugate1 s t1 if ei!r ( !m be reg>d$ z an incid5t p5cil1 ! o!r w be ! correspond+ reflect$ p5cil4 ,ea* po9t1 9 fact1 s5ds a p5cil ( rays :i* conv]ge1 aft] reflection1 to ! conjugate focus4 ,! pr9cipal focal di/ance is half ! radius ( curvature4 ,b x w n escape att5tion t concave mirrors h two reflect+ surfaces1 a front & a back4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n practically di/urb its virtual focus1 s9ce ! a*romatic cond5s] :5 br\ght into use collects & conc5trates ! light receiv$ f ! mirror ^u an object = ! purpose ( r5d]+ x m di/9ctly visible to ! eye :5 view+ an object plac$ on ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,! images se5 9 a plane mirror are always virtual1 & any sph]ical mirror1 :e!r concave or convex1 is ne>ly equival5t to a plane mirror :5 ! di/ance ( ! object f its surface is small 9 comp>ison ) ! radius ( curvature4 ,l5ses4 ,=ms ( ,l5ses4--,a l5s is a portion ( a refract+ m$ium b\nd$ by two surfaces :i* are portions ( sph]es1 hav+ a common axis1 t]m$ ! axis ( ! l5s4 ,l5ses are di/+ui%$ by diff]5t names1 accord+ to ! nature ( _! surfaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,conv]g+ & ,div]g+ ,l5ses4 ,l5ses ) %>p edges 7?ick] at ! c5tre7 are conv]g5t or positive l5ses4 ,l5ses ) blunt edges 7?9n] at ! c5tre7 are div]g5t or negative l5ses4 ,! fir/ gr\p comprises3--7#a7 ,! bi-convex l5s2 7#b7 ! plano-convex l5s2 7#c7 ! conv]g5t m5iscus4 ,! second gr\p3--7#d7 ,! concave l5s2 7#e7 ! plano-concave l5s2 7#f7 ! div]g5t m5iscus 7,fig4 #h74 ,pr9cipal ,focus4--,a l5s is usually a solid ( revolution1 & ! axis ( revolution is t]m$ ! pr9cipal axis ( ! l5s4 ,:5 ! surfaces are sph]ical x is ! l9e jo9+ ! c5tre ( curvature4 ,f ! great importance ( l5ses1 especially convex l5ses1 9 practical optics1 x w be necess>y to expla9 _! prop]ties some:at at l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,pr9cipal ,focus ( a ,convex ,l5s4 ,pr9cipal ,focus ( ,convex ,l5s4--,:5 rays :i* 7 orig9ally p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis pass ?r\gh a convex l5s 7,fig4 #i71 ! effect ( ! two refractions :i* !y und]go1 "o on ent]+ & ! o!r on leav+ ! l5s1 is to make !m all conv]ge approximately to "o po9t ,f1 :i* is call$ ! pr9cipal focus4 ,! di/ance ,a ,f ( ! pr9cipal focus f ! l5s is call$ ! pr9cipal focal di/ance1 or m briefly & usually1 ! focal l5g? ( ! l5s4 ,! radiant po9t & its image aft] refraction are kn[n z ! conjugate foci4 ,9 e l5s ! "r l9e p]p5dicul> to ! two surfaces is ! axis ( ! l5s4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! l9e drawn ?r\gh ! sev]al l5ses1 z se5 9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #h74 ,! po9t :]e ! axis cuts ! surface ( ! l5s is t]m$ ! v]te4 ,p>allel rays fall+ on a d\ble-convex l5s are br\ght to a focus 9 ! c5tre ( its diamet]2 conv]sely1 rays div]g+ f t po9t are r5d]$ p>allel4 ,h5ce ! focus ( a d\ble-convex l5s w be at j half ! di/ance1 or half ! l5g?1 ( ! focus ( a plano-convex l5s hav+ ! same curvature on "o side4 ,! di/ance ( ! focus f ! l5s w dep5d z mu* on ! degree ( curvature z ^u ! refract+ p[] 7t]m$ ! index ( refraction7 ( ! glass ( :i* x may be =m$4 ,a l5s ( cr[n-glass w h a long] focus ?an a simil> "o ( fl9t-glass2 s9ce ! latt] has a great] refract+ p[] ?an ! =m]4 ,= all ord9>y practical purposes we may consid] ! pr9cipal focus--z ! focus = p>allel rays is t]m$--( a d\ble-convex l5s to be at ! di/ance ( its radius1 t is1 9 its c5tre ( curvature2 & t ( a plano-convex l5s to be at ! di/ance ( twice its radius1 t is1 at ! o!r end ( ! diamet] ( its sph]e ( curvature4 ,! conv]se ( all ?is occurs :5 div]g5t rays are made to fall on a convex l5s4 ,rays already conv]g+ are br\ght toge!r at a po9t ne>] ?an ! pr9cipal focus2 :]eas rays div]g+ f a po9t )9 ! pr9cipal focus are r5d]$ /ill m div]g+1 ?\gh 9 a dim9i%$ degree4 ,rays div]g+ f po9ts m di/ant ?an ! pr9cipal focus on ei!r side1 are br\ght to a focus beyond x3 if ! po9t ( div]g5ce be )9 ! circle ( curvature1 ! focus ( conv]g5ce w be beyond x2 & vice-v]s4 ,! same pr9ciples apply equally to a plano-convex l5s2 all[ance be+ made = ! d\ble di/ance ( its pr9cipal focus2 & also to a l5s ^: surfaces h diff]5t curvatures2 ! pr9cipal focus ( su* a l5s is f\nd by multiply+ ! radius ( "o surface by ! radius ( ! o!r1 & divid+ ?is product by half ! sum ( ! radii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,pr9cipal ,focus ( ,concave ,l5s4 ,9 ! case ( a concave l5s 7,fig4 #aj71 rays incid5t p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis div]ge aft] pass+ ?r\gh2 & _! directions1 if produc$ backw>ds1 w\ld approximately meet 9 a po9t ,f2 ?is is its pr9cipal focus4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only a virtual focus1 inasmu* z ! em]g5t rays d n actually pass ?r\gh x1 :]eas ! pr9cipal focus ( a conv]g+ l5s is real4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,pr9cipal ,c5tre ( ,l5s4 ,optical ,c5tre ( a ,l5s4--,second>y ,axes4--,let ,o & ,o 7,fig4 #aa7 be ! c5tres ( ! two sph]ical surfaces ( a l5s4 ,draw any two p>allel radii1 ,o ,i1 ,o ,e1 to meet ^! surfaces1 & let ! jo9+ l9e ,i ,e repres5t a ray pass+ ?r\gh ! l5s4 ,?is ray makes equal angles ) ! normals at ,i & ,e1 s9ce ^! latt] are p>allel by con/ruction2 h5ce ! incid5t & em]g5t rays ,s ,i1 ,e ,r also make equal angles ) ! normals1 & are !re=e p>allel4 ,9 fact1 if tang5t planes 7indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ! figure7 are drawn at ,i & ,e1 ! :ole c\rse ( ! ray ,s ,i ,e ,r w be ! same z if x _h pass$ ?r\gh a plate b\nd$ by ^! planes4 ,let ,c be ! po9t 9 :i* ! l9e ,i ,e cuts ! pr9cipal axis1 & let ,r1 ,r d5ote ! radii ( ! two sph]ical surfaces4 ,!n f ! simil>ity ( ! triangles ,o ,c ,i1 ,o ,c ,e1 we h 7,o ,c7_/7,c ,o7 ,r_/,r2 :i* %[s t ! po9t ,c divides ! l9e ( c5tres ,o ,o 9 a def9ite ratio dep5d+ only on ! radii4 ,e ray ^: direction on em]g5ce is p>allel to its direction be=e ent]+ ! l5s1 mu/ pass ?r\gh ! po9t ,c 9 trav]s+ ! l5s2 & conv]sely1 e ray :i* 9 its c\rse ?r\gh ! l5s trav]ses ! po9t ,c1 has p>allel directions at incid5ce & em]g5ce4 ,! po9t ,c :i* possesses ?is rem>kable prop]ty is call$ ! c5tre1 or optical c5tre1 ( ! l5s4 ,?is diagram may also be tak5 to prove my =m] proposition1 t ! convex l5s is practically a =m ( two prisms comb9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,conjugate ,foci1 "o ,real1 ! o!r ,virtual4 ,conjugate ,foci1 "o ,real1 "o ,virtual4--,:5 two foci are on ! same side ( ! l5s1 "o 7! mo/ di/ant ( ! two7 mu/ be virtual4 ,= example1 9 ,fig4 #ab1 if ,s1 ,s are a pair ( conjugate foci1 "o ( !m ,s be+ betwe5 ! pr9cipal focus ,f & ! l5s1 rays s5t to ! l5s at a lum9\s po9t at ,s1 w1 aft] em]g5ce1 div]ge z if f ,s2 & rays com+ f ! o!r side ( ! l5s1 if !y conv]ge to ,s be=e incid5ce1 w 9 reality be made to meet 9 ,s4 ,z ,s moves t[>ds ! l5s1 ,s moves 9 ! same direction m rapidly2 & !y become co9cid5t at ! surface ( ! l5s4 ,=mation ( ,real ,images4--,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #ac7 be an object 9 front ( a l5s1 at a di/ance less ?an ! pr9cipal focal l5g?4 ,x w h a real image on ! o!r side ( ! l5s4 ,to det]m9e ! position ( ! image by con/ruction1 draw ?r\gh any po9t ,a ( ! object a l9e p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis1 meet+ ! l5s 9 ,a4 ,! ray repres5t$ by ?is l9e w1 aft] refraction1 pass ?r\gh ! pr9cipal focus1 ,f1 & its int]section ) ! second>y axis1 ,a ,o1 det]m9es ! position ( a1 ! focus conjugate to ,a4 ,we c 9 l mann] det]m9e ! position ( b1 ! focus conjugate to ,b1 ano!r po9t ( ! object2 & ! jo9+ l9e a b w !n be ! magnifi$ image ( ! l9e ,a ,b4 ,x is evid5t t if a b 7 ! object1 ,a ,b w\ld be ! image4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,real & ,magnifi$ ,image4 ,! figures #ab & #ac repres5t ! cases 9 :i* ! di/ance ( ! object is respectively great] & less ?an twice ! focal l5g? ( ! l5s4 ,! focal l5g? ( a l5s is det]m9$ by ! convexity ( its surfaces & ! refractive p[] ( ! mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$1 be+ %ort5$ ei!r by an increase ( refractive p[]1 or dim9ution ( ! radii ( curvature ( ! faces ( ! l5s4 ,! increase or decrease ( sph]ical ab]ration is det]m9$ by ! %ape or curvature ( ! l5s2 x is less 9 ! bi-convex ?an 9 o!r =ms4 ,:5 a lamp or o!r s\rce ( light is plac$ at ! focus ( ! rays con/itut+ t portion ( its light :i* falls ^u ! l5s1 ! light is s refract$ z to become p>allel4 ,%\ld ! s\rce ( light be br\ght ne>] to ! l5s ?an ! focus ! refract$ rays are /ill div]g5t1 ?\gh n to ! same ext5t2 on ! o!r h&1 if ! s\rce be beyond ! focus1 ! refract$ rays are r5d]$ conv]g5t s z to meet at a po9t :i* is ma!matically relat$ to ! di/ance ( ! lum9\s s\rce f ! focus4 ,! =m] arrangem5t is t ) :i* we are mo/ famili>1 s9ce x is ! ord9>y magnify+ glass4 ,concave ,l5ses4 ,! refract+ influ5ce ( a concave l5s 7,fig4 #ad7 w be precisely ! opposite ( t ( a convex4 ,rays :i* fall ^u x 9 a p>allel direction w be made to div]ge z if f ! pr9cipal focus1 :i* is "h call$ ! negative focus4 ,?is w be1 = a plano-concave l5s1 at ! di/ance ( ! diamet] ( ! sph]e ( curvature2 & = a d\ble-concave1 9 ! c5tre ( t sph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,a ,virtual ,image =m$ by ,concave ,l5s4 ,9 ,fig4 #ad ,a ,b is ! object & a b ! image4 ,rays incid5t f ,a & ,b p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis w em]ge z if !y came f ! pr9cipal focus ,f2 h5ce1 ! po9ts a b are det]m9$ by ! int]sections ( ! dott$ l9es 9 ! figure ) ! second>y axis1 ,o ,a1 ,o ,b4 ,an eye on ! o!r side ( ! l5s sees ! image a b1 :i* is always virtual1 erect & dim9i%$4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! microscope1 ei!r simple or comp\nd1 ! curvature ( ! l5ses employ$ is usually sph]ical4 ,conv]g5t l5ses1 ) sph]ical curvatures1 h ! defect ( n br++ all ! rays ( light :i* pass ?r\gh !m to "o & ! same focus4 ,ea* circle ( rays f ! axis ( ! l5s to its circumf]5ce has a diff]5t focus1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ae4 ,! rays a a1 :i* pass ?r\gh ! l5s ne> its circumf]5ce1 are se5 to be m refract$1 or come to a focus at a %ort] di/ance beh9d x ?an ! rays b b1 :i* pass ?r\gh ne> its c5tre or axis1 & are less refract$4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is defect ( l5ses ) sph]ical curvatures1 :i* is call$ sph]ical ab]ration1 is t a well-def9$ image or picture is n =m$ by !m1 = :5 ! object is focuss$1 = ! circumf]5tial rays1 ! picture project$ to ! eye is r5d]$ indi/9ct by a halo or confusion produc$ by ! c5tral rays fall+ 9 a circle ( dissipation1 be=e !y h come to a focus4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! c5tral rays1 ! picture =m$ by !m is r5d]$ indi/9ct by ! halo produc$ by ! circumf]5tial rays1 :i* h already come to a focus & cross$1 & n[ fall 9 a /ate ( div]g5ce1 =m+ a circle ( dissipation4 ,! gross] defects ( sph]ical ab]ration are correct$ by cutt+ (f ! passage ( ! rays a a1 ?r\gh ! circumf]5ces ( ! l5s1 by means ( a /op diaphragm1 s t ! c5tral rays1 b b1 only are conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( ! image4 ,?is defect is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 by us+ ! m5iscus =m ( l5s1 :i* is ! segm5t ( an ellipsoid in/ead ( a sph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,sph]ical ,ab]ration ( ,l5s4 ,! ellipse & ! hyp]bola are =ms ( l5ses 9 :i* ! curvature dim9i%es f ! c5tral ray1 or axis1 to ! circumf]5ce b2 & ma!maticians h %[n t sph]ical ab]ration may be practically got rid ( by employ+ l5ses ^: sections are ellipses or hyp]bolas4 ,! rem>kable discov]y ( ^! =ms ( l5ses is attribut$ to ,desc>tes1 :o ma!matically demon/rat$ ! fact4 ,if a l1 a l1 = example 7,fig4 #af7 be "p ( an ellipse ^: great] axis is to ! di/ance betwe5 its foci f f z ! index ( refraction is to unity1 !n p>allel rays r l1 r l incid5t ^u ! elliptical surface l a l1 w be refract$ by ! s+le action ( t surface into l9es :i* w\ld meet exactly 9 ! f>!r focus f1 if !re 7 no second surface int]v5+ betwe5 l a l & f4 ,b z e useful l5s mu/ h two surfaces1 we h only to describe a circle l a l r\nd f z a c5tre1 = ! second surface ( ! l5s l l4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,conv]g+ ,m5iscus4 ,z all ! rays refract$ at ! surface l a l conv]ge accurately to f1 & z ! circul> surface l a l is p]p5dicul> to e "o ( ! refract$ rays1 all ^! rays w g on to f )\t suff]+ any refraction at ! circul> surface4 ,h5ce x %\ld foll[1 t a m5iscus ^: convex surface is "p ( an ellipsoid1 & ^: concave surface is "p ( any sph]ical surface ^: c5tre is 9 ! f>!r focus1 w h no appreciable sph]ical ab]ration1 & w refract p>allel rays incid5t on its convex surface to ! f>!r focus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,aplanatic ,d\blet4 ,! sph]ical =m ( l5s is t mo/ g5]ally us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! microscope4 ,if a true elliptical or hyp]bolic curve c\ld be gr\nd1 l5ses w\ld v ne>ly approa* p]fection1 & sph]ical ab]ration w\ld be consid]ably r$uc$4 ,ev5 ?is defect c be fur!r r$uc$ 9 practice by obs]v+ a c]ta9 ratio betwe5 ! radii ( ! ant]ior & po/]ior surfaces ( l5ses2 ?us ! sph]ical ab]ration ( a l5s1 ! radius ( "o surface ( :i* is six or sev5 times great] ?an t ( ! o!r1 w be mu* r$uc$ :5 its m convex surface is turn$ =w>d to receive p>allel rays1 ?an :5 its less convex surface is turn$ =w>ds4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t 9 l5ses hav+ curvatures ( ! k9d ! object w\ld only be correctly se5 9 focus at "o po9t--! ma!matical or geometrical axis ( ! l5s4 ,*romatic ,ab]ration4--,we h yet to deal ) "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! ph5om5a ( light1 ,,*romatic ,,ab]ration1 ^u ! correction ( :i*1 9 convex l5ses 9 p>ticul>1 ! p]fection ( ! objective ( ! microscope s mu* dep5ds4 ,*romatism arises f ! unequal refrangibility & l5g? ( ! diff]5t col\r$ rays ( light t toge!r g to make up :ite light2 b :i*1 :5 treat$ ( 9 optics1 is always associat$ ) a*romatism1 s t a comb9ation ( prisms1 or l5ses1 is said to be a*romatic :5 ! col\r$ rays aris+ f ! disp]sion ( ! p5cil ( light refract$ ?r\gh !m are comb9$ 9 due proportions z !y are 9 p]fectly :ite light4 ,a l5s1 h[ev]1 ( uni=m mat]ial w n =m a s+le :ite image1 b a s]ies ( images ( all col\rs ( ! spectrum1 arrang$ at diff]5t di/ances1 ! violet be+ ne>e/1 & ! r$ ! mo/ remote1 e o!r col\r giv+ a blurr$ image2 ! sup]position ( ^! & ! bl5d+ ( ! diff]5t elem5t>y rays furni%+ a complete explanation ( ! beautiful ph5om5on ( ! ra9b[4 ,%>pness ( outl9e is r5d]$ q impossible 9 su* a case1 & ?is s\rce ( confusion is kn[n z *romatic ab]ration4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r x is possible to rem$y ?is evil by comb9+ l5ses ( two diff]5t mat]ials1 ,newton made "s trials ) a comp\nd prism compos$ ( glass & wat] 7! latt] conta9+ a little sug> ( lead71 & he f\nd x impossible by any arrangem5t ( ^! two1 or by o!r sub/ances1 to produce deviation ( ! transmitt$ light )\t sep>ation into its compon5t col\rs4 ,if ?is ratio 7 ! same = all sub/ances1 z ,newton suppos$1 a*romatism w\ld be impossible2 b1 9 fact1 its value v>ies greatly1 & is f> great] = fl9t ?an = cr[n glass4 ,if two prisms ( ^! sub/ances1 ( small refract+ angles1 be comb9$ into "o1 ) _! edges turn$ 9 opposite directions1 !y w a*romatise ea* o!r4 ,! *romatism ( l5ses may1 h[ev]1 be some:at fur!r r$uc$ by /opp+ out ! m>g9al rays1 b z ! mo/ p]fect correction possible is requir$ :5 l5ses are comb9$ = microscopic uses1 o!r means ( correction are resort$ to1 z w be se5 h]eaft]4 ,i %all fir/ proce$ to %[ ! deviations :i* rays ( :ite light und]go 9 trav]s+ a l5s4 ,if p>allel rays ( light pass ?r\gh a d\ble-convex l5s ! violet rays1 ! mo/ refrangible ( !m1 w come to a focus at a po9t mu* ne>] to ! l5s ?an ! focus ( ! r$ rays1 :i* are ! lea/ refrangible2 & ! int]m$iate rays ( ! spectrum w be focuss$ at po9ts betwe5 ! r$ & ! violet4 ,a scre5 held at ei!r ( ^! foci w %[ an image ) prismatic fr+es4 ,! :ite light1 ,a ,a 7,fig4 #ah71 fall+ on ! m>g9al portion ( ! l5s is s f> decompos$ t ! violet rays are br\ght to a focus at ,c1 & cross+ !re1 div]ge aga9 & pass on to ,f ,f1 :ile ! r$ rays1 ,b ,b1 d n come to a focus until !y rea* ! po9t ,d1 & cross ! div]g5t violet rays1 ,e ,e4 ,! foci ( ! int]m$i>y rays ( ! spectrum 7r$1 gre51 & blue7 are int]m$iate betwe5 ^! extremes4 ,! di/ance1 ,c ,d1 limit+ ! blue or violet1 & ! r$ is t]m$ ! longitud9al *romatic ab]ration ( ! l5s4 ,if ! image be receiv$ ^u a scre5 plac$ at ,c1 violet w pr$om9ate & appe> surr\nd$ by a prismatic fr+e1 9 :i* violet w pr$om9ate4 ,if ! scre5 be n[ %ift$ to ,d1 ! image w h a pr$om9ant r$ t9t1 surr\nd$ by a s]ies ( col\r$ fr+es 9 an inv]t$ ord] to ^? se5 9 ! =m] exp]im5t4 ,! l9e ,e ,e jo9s ! po9ts ( int]section betwe5 ! violet & r$ rays1 & ?is m>ks ! mean focus1 ! po9t :]e ! col\r$ rays w be lea/ app>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,*romatic ,ab]ration ( ,l5s4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is c5tury ! optical correction ( *romatic ab]ration 0 p>tially br\ght ab\t by comb9+ a convex l5s ( cr[n-glass ) a concave l5s ( fl9t-glass1 9 ! proportion ( :i* ^! two k9ds ( glass respectively refract & disp]se rays ( light2 s t ! "o m$ium may by equal & contr>y disp]sion neutralise ! disp]sion caus$ by ! o!r1 )\t at ! same "t :olly neutralis+ its refraction4 ,x is a curi\s fact t ! m$ia f\nd mo/ available = ! purpose %\ld be a comb9ation ( cr[n & fl9t-glass1 ( cr[n-glass ^: index ( refraction is #aeai1 & disp]sive p[] #jjcf1 & ( fl9t-glass ^: index ( refraction is #aehi1 & disp]sive p[] #jjcic4 ,! focal l5g? ( ! convex cr[n-glass l5s mu/ be #d-a_/c in*es1 & t ( ! concave fl9t-glass l5s #g-b_/c in*es1 & ! comb9$ focal l5g? #aj in*es4 ,! diagram 7,fig4 #ai7 %[s h[ rays ( light are br\ght to a focus1 ne>ly free f col\r4 ,! small am\nt ( residual col\r 9 su* a comb9ation is t]m$ ! second>y spectrum2 ! violet ray ,f ,y1 cross+ ! axis ( ! l5s at ,v1 & go+ to ! upp] end ,p ( ! spectrum1 ! r$ ray ,f ,b go+ to ! l[] end ,t4 ,b z ! fl9t-glass l5s l l1 on ! prism ,a a ,c1 :i* receives ! rays ,f ,v1 ,f ,r1 at ! same po9ts1 is int]pos$1 ^! rays w unite at f1 & =m a small circle ( :ite light1 ! ray ,s ,f be+ n[ refract$ )\t col\r f its primitive direction ,s ,f ,y into ! direction ,f f4 ,9 l mann]1 ! correspond+ ray ,s ,f w be refract$ to f1 & a :ite col\rless image be ! result4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,correction ( ,*romatic ,ab]ration4 ,! a*romatic aplanatic objective con/ruct$ on ! optical =mula enunciat$1 did n meet all ! difficulties exp]i5c$ by ! skill$ microscopi/1 9 obta9+ resolution ( ! f9e/ te/ objects1 & :]eby ! intr9sic value ( ! objective 79 8 e/imation7 mu/ /& or fall4 ,!re 7 o!r di/urb+ residu>y elem5ts besides ^? ( ! second>y spectrum1 & :i* at a lat] p]iod 7 met by ! practical skill ( ! optician1 :o appli$ ! screw-coll>1 & by means ( :i* ! back l5s ( ! objective is made to approa* ! front l5s1 ?us m accurately %ort5+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! eye-piece1 :]e ! image is ev5tually =m$1 & ! back l5s ( ! objective4 ,9 ?is diagram ,l ,l is a convex l5s ( cr[n-glass1 & l l a concave "o ( fl9t-glass4 ,a convex l5s w refract a ray ( light 7,s7 fall+ at ,f on x exactly 9 ! same mann] z ! prism ,a ,b ,c1 ^: faces t\* ! two surfaces ( ! l5s at ! po9ts :]e ! ray ent]s1 & quits4 ,! ray ,s ,f1 ?us refract$ by ! l5s ,l ,l1 or prism ,a ,b ,c1 w\ld h =m$ a spectrum 7,p ,t7 on a scre5 or wall1 _h !re be5 no o!r l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,virtual ,image =m$ by ,convex ,l5s4 ,=mation ( ,virtual ,images4--,! normal eye possesses a consid]able p[] ( adju/+ itself to =m a di/9ct image ( objects plac$ at v>y+ di/ances2 ! ne>]1 )9 a c]ta9 limit1 ! l>g] x appe>s1 & ! m di/9ctly ! details are br\ght out4 ,:5 br\ght )9 a di/ance ( two or ?ree in*es1 ! images become blurr$ or q indi/9ct1 & :5 br\ght clos] to ! eye1 _c be se5 at all1 & x simply ob/ructs ! light4 ,n[ ! utility ( a convex l5s1 :5 int]pos$ betwe5 ! object & ! eye1 consi/s 9 r$uc+ ! div]g5ce ( ! rays =m+ ! sev]al p5cils :i* issue f x1 & s5d images to ! ret9a 9 a /ate ( mod]ate div]g5ce1 t is1 z if !y _h issu$ f an object beyond ! ne>e/ po9t ( di/9ct vision1 & s t a m cle>ly def9$ image may rea* ! s5sitive membrane ( ! eye4 ,b1 n only is ! c\rse ( ! sev]al rays 9 ea* p5cil alt]$ z reg>ds ! re/1 b ! c\rse ( ! p5cils !mselves is *ang$1 s t !y ent] ! eye "u an angle correspond+ ) t "u :i* !y w\ld h arriv$ f a l>g] object situat$ at a great] di/ance1 & ?us ! picture =m$ by any object corresponds 9 all respects ) "o :i* w\ld h be5 made by ! same object increas$ 9 its dim5sions & view$ at ! smalle/ ord9>y di/ance ( di/9ct vision4 ,= in/ance1 let an object ,a ,b 7,fig4 #bj7 be plac$ betwe5 a convex l5s & its pr9cipal focus4 ,!n ! foci conjugate to ! po9ts ,a ,b are virtual1 & _! positions c be f\nd by con/ruction f ! consid]ation t rays ?r\gh ,a1 ,b1 p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis1 w be refract$ to ,f1 ! pr9cipal focus on ! o!r side4 ,! refract$ rays1 if produc$ backw>ds1 mu/ meet ! second>y axis ,o ,a1 ,o ,b 9 ! requir$ po9ts4 ,an eye plac$ on ! o!r side ( ! l5s w accord+ly see a virtual image erect1 magnifi$1 & at a great] di/ance f ! l5s ?an ! object4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ( ! simple microscope4 ,! ,human ,eye4 ,to ga9 a cle> insight into ! mode 9 :i* a s+le l5s s]ves to magnify objects1 x w be necess>y to rev]t to ! ph5om5a ( ord9>y vision4 ,an eye free f any defect has a consid]able p[] ( adju/+ itself to v consid]able di/ances4 ,"o ( ! special functions ( ! eye is br++ ! rays ( light1 by a s]ies ( dioptric me*anisms1 to a p]fect focus on its n]v\s s5sitive lay]1 ! ret9a4 ,! eye 9 ?is respect has be5 comp>$ to a photographic cam]a4 ,b ?is is n q correct4 ,! ret9a is de/9$ simply to receive ! images furni%$ by ! dioptric app>atus1 & has no influ5ce ^u ! =mation ( ^! images4 ,! lum9\s rays are refract$ by ! dioptric app>atus2 ! images w\ld be =m$ q z well--inde$1 ev5 bett] 9 c]ta9 cases--if ! ret9a 7 n !re4 ,! dioptric app>atus & its action are absolutely indep5d5t ( ! ret9a4 ,! same laws ) reg>d to ! passage ( ! rays ( light into ! human eye hold good1 z ^? already enunciat$ 9 ! previ\s pages4 ,z to *ange ( direction :5 rays are pass+ obliquely f a m$ium ( l[ d5sity to t ( a high] d5sity1 i4e41 x *anges its c\rse1 & is b5t t[>ds ! p]p5dicul>4 ,on leav+ ! d5s] = ! r>] m$ium x is b5t once m f ! p]p5dicul>4 ,aga91 by means ( a convex l5s1 ! rays ( light f "o s\rce w be refract$ s z to meet at a po9t t]m$ ! pr9cipal focus ( vision4 ,9 ! eye !re are sev]al surfaces sep>at+ ! diff]5t m$ia :]e refraction takes place4 ,! refractive index ( ! aque\s hum\r & ! te>s p\r$ out by ! la*rymal gl& is almo/ equal to t ( ! cornea4 ,we may1 !re=e1 speak ( ! refract+ surfaces z ?ree1 viz43 ,ant]ior surface ( cornea1 ant]ior surface ( l5s1 & po/]ior surface ( l5s2 & also ( ! refract+ m$ia z ?ree--! aque\s hum\r1 ! l5s1 & vitre\s hum\r4 ,^! sev]al bodies are s adapt$ 9 ! normal eye t p>allel rays fall+ on ! cornea are conv]g$ to a focus at ! mo/ s5sitive spot 7! yell[ spot1 or fovea c5tralis7 9 ! ret9a1 a po9t repres5t+ to ! pr9cipal focus ( ! eye4 ,a l9e drawn f ?is po9t ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! cornea is call$ ! optic axis ( ! eye-ball4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,n]ve & ,/ellate ,cell ,lay] ( ,cornea1#f /a9$ by *loride ( gold2 magnifi$ #cjj diamet]s4 a1 ,n]ve cells4 b1 ,/ellate cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,ant]ior section ( ,eye1 %[+ *ang$ =m ( l5s dur+ ! act ( accommodation1 a volunt>y action 9 ! eye4 ,m1 ,cili>y muscle2 ,i1 ,iris2 ,l1 ,l5s2 ,v1 ,vitre\s ,hum\r2 ,a1 ,aque\s ,hum\r2 ,c1 ,cornea & optic axis4 ,b z we are able to =m a di/9ct image ( ne> objects1 & z we notice :5 we turn our gaze f f> to ne> objects !re is a di/9ct feel+ ( muscul> ef=t 9 ! eyes1 !re mu/ be "s means :]eby ! eye c readily adapt itself = focuss+ ne> & di/ant objects4 ,9 a photographic cam]a ! focus c be readily alt]$1 ei!r by *ang+ ! l5ses1 employ+ a l5s ( great] or less curvature1 or by alt]+ ! di/ance ( ! scre5 f ! l5s4 ,! la/ me?od is obvi\sly impossible 9 ! rigid eye-ball1 & !re=e ! act ( focuss+ = ne> & di/ant objects is associat$ ) a *ange 9 ! curvature ( ! l5s1 a faculty ( ! eye t]m$ accommodation 7,fig4 #bb71 a *ange *iefly accompli%$ by ! cili>y 7muscle7 processes1 :i* pull ! l5s =w>ds & inw>ds by virtual contract+ p[] ( ! cili>y muscle1 & by :i* its susp5sory ligam5t is relax$1 & ! front ( ! l5s all[$ to bulge =w>d4 ,9 e case1 h[ev]1 accommodation is associat$ ) contraction ( ! iris1 ! special function ( :i* is t ( a limit+ diaphragm 7an iris-diaphragm71 ,fig4 #bc4 ,9 an ord9>y sph]ical bi-convex l5s1 z already po9t$ out1 ! rays ( light pass+ ?r\gh ! p]iph]y ( ! l5s come to a focus at a ne>] po9t ?an ! rays pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tral portion4 ,9 ?is way a c]ta9 am\nt ( blurr+ ( ! image takes place1 & :i*1 9 optical language1 is t]m$ sph]ical ab]ration4 ,?is defect ( ! eye is capable ( correction 9 ?ree possible ways1 & :i* x may be well to repeat3 #a4 ,by mak+ ! refractive index ( ! l5s high] at its c5tre ?an at its circumf]5ce2 7#b7 ,by mak+ ! curvature ( ! l5s less ne> ! circumf]5ce ?an at ! c5tre2 7#c7 ,by /opp+ out ! p]iph]al rays ( light by a diaphragm4 ,! two latt] me?ods are ^? resort$ to 9 mo/ optical in/rum5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--a4 ,equatorial section ( ,eyeball1 %[+ ,iris & ,cili>y ,processes1 aft] wa%+ away ! pigm5t1 ?ree diamet]s4 #b4 ,n]ves ( ! ,cornea ( ,kitt5's ,eye1 /a9$ ) iod9e4 #c4 ,fibres or ,tubules ( ,l5s1 #bej1 se5 to be made up ( sup]impos$ cr5at$ lay]s1 & is !re=e n homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 b made up ( a numb] ( extremely f9e tubules1 ^: curvatures are ne>ly sph]ical4 ,9 ! human eye an attempt is made to apply all ^! me?ods1 b ! mo/ important is ! ?ird1 t ( apply+ ! diaphragm =m$ by ! iris1 a circul> semi-muscul> curta9 ly+ j 9 front ( ! ant]ior surface ( ! l5s4 ,! iris is also furni%$ ) a lay] ( pigm5tal cells :i* effectually /op out all p]iph]al rays ( light t o!rwise w\ld pass into ! eye1 creat+ circles ( diffusion ( a di/urb+ nature to p]fect vision4 ,?is delicate membrane1 !n1 is kept 9 con/ant action by a two-fold n]ve supply1 d]iv$ f five or six s\rces1 :i* x is unnecess>y to describe at l5g?4 ,b ! eye1 ) all its m>vell\s adaptations1 has an obvi\s defect1 t ( second>y or uncorrect$ *romatic ab]ration4 ,*romatic ,ab]ration ( ! ,eye4--,:ite light1 z previ\sly expla9$1 is compos$ ( diff]5t wave l5g?s2 & accord+ly z ^! undulations are ei!r long] or %ort]1 s d !y produce on ! eye ! impression ( diff]5t col\rs4 ,we h se5 h[ a p5cil ( :ite light may1 by means ( a prism1 be decompos$ into a multi-col\r$ b&4 ,9 an ord9>y magnify+ read+-glass ^! col\r$ fr+es are always se5 ar\nd ! m>g9s4 ,9 practical optics *romatic ab]ration is p>tially correct$ by employ+ two diff]5t k9ds ( glass 9 ! con/ruction ( c]ta9 comb9$ l5ses4 ,9 ! human eye *romatism _c be correct$ 9 ?is way2 h5ce a blue light & a r$ light plac$ at ! same di/ance f ! eye appe>s to be unequally di/ant3 ! r$ light requir+ great] accommodation 9 ! eye ?an ! blue1 & ?is accord+ly appe>s to be ! ne>] ( ! two4 ,?is visual error may be exp]im5tally %[n & expla9$4 ,!re is a k9d ( glass :i* at fir/ sight appe>s d>k blue or violet1 b :i* really conta9s a great deal ( r$4 ,take an ord9>y microscope lamp1 hav+ a metal or opaque *imney1 & drill a circul> hole 9 x1 ab\t #c mm4 9 diamet]4 ,?is op5+ %\ld be j at ! height ( ! flame2 cov] x ov] ) a piece ( gr\nd glass & a piece ( ! r$-blue glass4 ,?us w be =m$ a lum9\s po9t ^: light is compos$ ( r$ & blue1 i4e41 ( col\rs f> ap>t f ea* o!r 9 ! spectrum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,*romatic ,ab]ration ( ,eye1 %[+ ! wave diff]5ces ( ! blue & r$ rays ( light 7,l&olt74 ,if rays com+ f ?is po9t ent] ! eye1 ! blue rays 7,fig4 #bd71 be+ m /rongly reflect$ ?an ! r$1 w come to a focus soon] ?an ! latt]4 ,! r$ rays1 on ! contr>y1 w be br\ght to a focus lat] ?an ! blue1 :ile ! latt]1 pa/ _! focus1 are div]g+4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #bd7 be ! section ( a p5cil ( rays giv5 (f f a r$-blue po9t suffici5tly di/ant s t ^! rays may be reg>d$ z p>allel4 ,! focus ( ! blue is at b1 t ( ! r$ at r4 ,an eye is adapt$ to ! di/ance ( ! lum9\s po9t :5 ! circle ( diffusion1 receiv$ ^u ! ret9a1 is at its m9imum4 ,?is is ! case :5 ! s5ti5t lay] ( ! ret9a lies betwe5 ! two foci ,e4 ,9 ?is case ! po9t w appe> z a small circle1 compos$ ( ! two col\rs1 t is to say--violet4 ,if ! ret9a be 9 front ( ?is po9t1 at ! focus ( ! blue rays = in/ance1 ! eye w p]ceive a blue po9t surr\nd$ by a r$ circle1 ! latt] be+ =m$ by ! p]iph]y ( ! lum9\s cone ( r$ rays1 :i* are focuss$ only aft] hav+ pass$ ! ret9a4 ,! blue po9t w become a circle ( diffusion l>g] 9 proportion z ! ret9a is ne>] ! dioptric sy/em1 or z ! focus = blue is f>!r beh9d x4 ,b ! blue circle w always be surr\nd$ by a r$ r+4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! ret9a is beh9d ! focus = r$1 ! blue cone w be great] 9 diamet] ?an ! r$1 & we %all h a r$ circle ( diffusion1 l>g] 9 proportion z ! ret9a is f>!r f ! focus1 b always surr\nd$ by a blue r+ ,m4 ,if ! blue-r$ po9t is five metres1 or m1 di/ant1 ! emmetropic#g eye w evid5tly see x m di/9ctly1 i4e41 z a small violet po9t2 ! hyp]opic eye1 ^: ret9a is situat$ 9 front ( ! focus ( its dioptric sy/em1 w see a blue circle1 surr\nd$ by r$2 ! myopic eye1 ^: ret9a is beh9d its focus1 w see a r$ circle1 surr\nd$ by blue4 ,! size ( ^! circles w be ei!r l>g] or small] :5 ! pr9cipal focus ( ! eye is ei!r 9 front ( or beh9d ! ret9a4#h ,! refractive surfaces ( a p]fectly =m$ eye are v l an ellipsoid ( revolution ) two axes1 "o ( :i*1 ! major axis ( ! ellipse1 is at ! same "t ! optic axis & t ( rotation2 ! o!r is p]p5dicul> to x1 & is equal 9 all m]idians4 ,eyes1 h[ev]1 p]fectly con/ruct$ are r>ely met )4 ,! curvature ( ! cornea is ne>ly always great] 9 "o m]idian ?an 9 ano!r4 ,its surfaces !n _c be reg>d$ z entirely belong+ to an ellipsoid ( revolution1 s9ce ! solid figure1 ( :i* ! =m] w\ld con/itute a "p1 has n only two axes1 b ?ree1 & ^! unequal4 ,?is irregul>ity is n1 h[ev]1 always great en\gh to produce discom=t & x is !re=e disreg>d$4 ,b 9 o!r cases ! diff]5ce ( curvature 9 ! diff]5t m]idians ( ! eye atta9 to a high] degree1 & vision falls f> bel[ ! av]age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--,l9es z se5 by ! ,a/igmatic4 ,! refractive anomaly allud$ to is t]m$ a/igmatism 7f ! ,greek1 privative1 1 a po9t--inability to see a po9t74 ,! way 9 :i* objects appe> to su* a p]son w ma9ly result f ! way 9 :i* he sees a po9t4 ,take1 = example1 ! v]tical to be ! mo/1 & ! horizontal to be ! lea/1 refractive m]idian3 place a v]tical l9e 7,fig4 #be1 ,i7 at a /at$ di/ance be=e ! eye1 & ! l9e w appe> elongat$1 ow+ to ! diffusion image ( ea* ( ! po9ts compos+ x4 ,x w also seem to be some:at broad5$1 z at ,,ii4 ,if ! v]tical m]idian is adapt$ to ! di/ance ( ! v]tical1 ! l9e w appe> v diffuse & broad5$1 z at ,,iii4 ,all ^! little diffusion l9es ov]lap ea* o!r1 & give ! l9e an elongat$ appe>ance4 ,h5ce a /raight l9e is se5 di/9ctly by an a/igmatic eye only :5 ! m]idian to :i* x is p]p5dicul> is p]fectly adapt$ to its di/ance4 ,a v]tical l9e is se5 di/9ctly :5 ! horizontal m]idian is adapt$ to its di/ance4 ,x appe>s indi/9ct :5 its image is =m$ by ! v]tical m]idian4 ,! way 9 :i* an a/igmatic p]son sees po9ts & l9es l$ to ! discov]y ( ?is rem>kable irregul>ity 9 ! refraction ( ! eye4 ,! late ,a/ronom] ,royal1 ,sir ,george ,airy1 suff]$ = "s ye>s until1 inde$1 he discov]$ h[ x c\ld be correct$4 ,?is anomaly ( curvature ( ! refractive surfaces ( ! eye is n[ kn[n to prevail l>gely among ! m civilis$ races ( mank9d4 ,x is1 !n1 ( v great importance :5 us+ high p[]s ( ! microscope4 ,9 mo/ p]sons ! visual p[] ( bo? eyes is r>ely q equal2 on ! o!r h&1 ! m9d ex]ts an important influ5ce1 dom9ates1 z x 71 ! eye 9 ! int]pretation ( visual s5sations & images4 ,an example ( ?is is pres5t$ 9 ,:eat/one's pseudoscope1 kn[n to produce precisely ! opposite effect ( 8 /]eoscope--conveys1 9 fact1 ! conv]se ( relief produc$ by ! latt] & bett] kn[n in/rum5t4 ,visual ,judgm5t4--,! app>5t size ( an object is det]m9$ by ! magnitude ( ! image =m$ on ! ret9a1 & ?is is inv]sely proportional to ! di/ance4 ,?us ! size ( an image on ! ret9a ( an object two in*es long at a di/ance ( a foot1 is equal to ! image ( an object f\r in*es long at a di/ance ( two feet4 ,an object c be se5 if ! visual angle subt5d$ by x is n less ?an sixty seconds4 ,?is is equival5t to an image on ! fovea c5tralis ( ! ret9a ( ab\t #d #i across1 & :i* corresponds to ! diamet] ( a cone3 s t :ile we h _h "u consid]ation ! optical & physical conditions ( human vision1 we h likewise tak5 a lesson on ! action ( l5ses us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! microscope4 ,! ,!ory ( ,microscopical ,vision4 ,x has be5 said t no comp>ison c be in/itut$ betwe5 microscopic vision & macroscopic2 t ! images =m$ by m9ute objects are n del9eat$ microscopically "u ord9>y laws ( diffraction1 & t ! results are dioptrical4 ,?is ass]tion1 h[ev]1 _c be accept$ unconditionally1 z w be se5 on m c>eful exam9ation ( ! late ,pr(essor ,abbe's ma/]ly exposition ( 8,! ,microscopical ,!ory ( ,vision10 & also 8 subsequ5t inve/igations on ! e/imation ( ap]ture & ! value ( wide-angl$ imm]sion objectives1 publi%$ 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 ,! ess5tial po9t 9 ,abbe's !ory ( microscopical vision is t ! images ( m9ute objects 9 ! microscope are n =m$ exclusively on ! ord9>y dioptric me?od 7t is1 9 ! same way 9 :i* !y are =m$ 9 ! cam]a or telescope71 b t !y are l>gely affect$ by ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* ! m9ute con/ruction ( ! object breaks up ! incid5t rays1 giv+ rise to diffraction4 ,! ph5om5a ( diffraction 9 g5]al may be obs]v$ exp]im5tally by plates ( glass rul$ ) f9e l9es4 ,fig4 #bf %[s ! appe>ance pres5t$ by a s+le c&le-flame se5 ?r\gh su* a plate1 an uncol\r$ image ( ! flame occupy+ ! c5tre1 flank$ on ei!r side by a r[ ( col\r$ spectra ( ! flame1 :i* become dimm] z !y rec$e f ! c5tre4 ,a simil> ph5om5on may be produc$ by du/ scatt]$ ov] a glass plate1 & by o!r objects ^: /ructure conta9s v m9ute p>ticles1 or ! me%es ( v f9e gauze wire1 ! rays suff]+ a *>act]i/ic *ange 9 pass+ ?r\gh su* objects2 t *ange consi/+ 9 ! break+ up ( a p>allel beam ( light into a gr\p ( rays1 div]g+ ) wide angle & =m+ a regul> s]ies ( maxima & m9ima ( int5sity ( light1 due to diff]5ce ( phase ( vibration4#aj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,9 ! same way1 9 ! microscope1 ! diffraction p5cil orig9at+ f a beam incid5t ^u1 = in/ance1 a diatom1 appe>s z a fan ( isolat$ rays1 decreas+ 9 int5sity z !y are fur!r remov$ f ! direction ( ! incid5t beam transmitt$ ?r\gh ! /ructure1 ! int]f]5ce ( ! prim>y waves giv+ a numb] ( successive maxima ( light ) d>k int]spaces4 ,:5 a diaphragm op5+ is int]pos$ betwe5 ! mirror1 & a plate ( rul$ l9es plac$ ^u ! /age su* z ,fig4 #bg1 ! appe>ance %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg;a1 w be obs]v$ at ! back ( ! objective on remov+ ! eye-piece & look+ d[n ! tube ( ! microscope4 ,! c5tre circles are ! images ( ! diaphragm op5+ produc$ by ! direct rays1 :ile ^? on ! o!r side 7always at "r angles to ! direction ( ! l9es7 are ! diffraction images produc$ by ! rays :i* are b5t (f f ! incid5t p5cil4 ,9 homog5e\s light ! c5tral & lat]al images agree 9 size & =m1 b 9 :ite light ! diffraction images are radially drawn out1 ) ! out] edges r$ & ! inn] blue 7! rev]se ( ! ord9>y spectrum71 =m+1 9 fact1 regul> spectra ! di/ance sep>at+ ea* ( :i* v>ies inv]sely z ! clos5ess ( ! l9es1 be+ = in/ance ) ! same objective twice z f> ap>t :5 ! l9es are twice z close4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg;a4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! diffraction spectra may be demon/rat$ by "s v /rik+ exp]im5ts1 :i* %[ t !y are n by any means accid5tal ph5om5a1 b are directly connect$ ) ! image :i* is se5 by ! eye4 ,! fir/ exp]im5t %[s t ) ! c5tral beam1 or any "o ( ! spectral beams alone1 only ! cont\r ( ! object is se51 ! addition ( at lea/ "o diffraction spectrum be+ ess5tial to ! visibility ( ! /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh;a4 ,:5 by a diaphragm plac$ at ! back ( ! objective1 z 9 ,fig4 #bh1 we cov] up all ! diffraction spectra ( ,fig4 #bg;a1 & all[ only ! c5tral rays to rea* ! image1 ! object w appe> to be :olly depriv$ ( f9e details1 ! outl9e alone w rema91 & e del9eation ( m9ute /ructure w disappe>1 j z if ! microscope _h sudd5ly lo/ its optical p[]1 z 9 ,fig4 #bh;a4 ,?is exp]im5t illu/rates a case ( ! oblit]ation ( /ructure by ob/ruct+ ! passage ( ! diffraction spectra to ! eye-piece4 ,! next exp]im5t %[s h[ ! appe>ance ( f9e /ructure may be creat$ by manipulat+ ! spectra4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi;a4 ,:5 a diaphragm su* z t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi is plac$ at ! back ( ! objective1 s z to cut (f ea* alt]nate "o ( ! upp] r[ ( spectra 9 ,fig4 #bg;a1 t r[ w obvi\sly become id5tical ) ! l[] "o1 & if ! !ory holds good1 we %\ld f9d ! image ( ! upp] l9es id5tical ) t ( ! l[]4 ,on replac+ ! eye-piece1 we see t x is s1 ! upp] set ( l9es are d\bl$ 9 numb]1 a new l9e appe>+ 9 ! c5tre ( ! space betwe5 ea* ( ! old 7upp]7 ones1 & upp] & l[] set hav+ become to all appe>ance id5tical1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #bi;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj;a4 ,9 ! same way1 if we /op (f all b ! out] spectra1 z 9 ,fig4 #cj1 ! l9es are app>5tly aga9 d\bl$1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #cj;a4 ,a case ( app>5t creation ( /ructure1 simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! =ego+1 ?\gh m /rik+1 is af=d$ by a network ( squ>es1 z 9 ,fig4 #ca1 hav+ sides p>allel to ?is page1 :i* gives ! spectra %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca;a1 consi/+ ( v]tical r[s = ! horizontal l9es & horizontal r[s = ! v]tical ones4 ,b x is readily se5 t two diagonal r[s ( spectra exi/ at "r angles to ! diagonals ( ! squ>es1 j z w\ld arise f sets ( l9es 9 ! direction ( ! diagonals1 s t if ! !ory holds good we ought to f9d1 on ob/ruct+ all ! o!r spectra & all[+ only ! diagonal ones to pass to ! eye-piece1 t ! v]tical & horizontal l9es h disappe>$ & are replac$ by two new sets ( l9es at "r angles to ! diagonals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb;a4 ,on ins]t+ ! diaphragm1 ,fig4 #cb1 & replac+ ! eye-piece1 we f9d 9 ! place ( ! old network ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #cb;a1 ! squ>es be+1 h[ev]1 small] 9 ! proportion ( #a 3 #b1 z !y %\ld be 9 accordance ) ! !ory prop\nd$4 ,an object su* z ,pleurosigma angulatum1 :i* gives six diffraction spectra arrang$ z 9 ,fig4 #cc1 %\ld1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 %[ m>k+s 9 a hexagonal arrangem5t4 ,= !re w be "o set ( l9es at "r angles to b1 a1 e1 ano!r set at "r angles to c1 a1 f1 & a ?ird at "r angles to g1 a1 d4 ,^! ?ree sets ( l9es w obvi\sly produce ! appe>ance %[n 9 ,fig4 #cc;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,a great v>iety ( appe>ances may be produc$ ) ! same arrangem5t ( spectra4 ,any two adjac5t spectra ) ! c5tral beam 7z b1 c1 a7 w =m equilat]al triangles & give hexagonal m>k+s4 ,or by /opp+ (f all b g1 c1 e 7or b1 d1 f71 we aga9 h ! spectra 9 ! =m ( equilat]al triangles2 b z !y are n[ fur!r ap>t1 ! sides ( ! triangles 9 ! two cases be+ z #c 3 #a1 ! hexagons w be small] & ?ree times z num]\s4 ,_! sides w also be arrang$ at a diff]5t angle to ^? ( ! fir/ set4 ,! hexagons may be entirely oblit]at$ by admitt+ only ! spectra g1 c1 or g1 f1 or b1 f1 etc41 :5 new l9es w appe> at "r angles1 or obliquely incl9$1 to ! m$ian l9e4 ,by v>y+ ! comb9ations ( ! spectra1 !re=e1 diff]5t figures ( v>y+ size & positions are produc$1 all ( :i* _c1 ( c\rse1 repres5t ! true /ructure4 ,n only1 h[ev]1 may ! appe>ance ( p>ticul> /ructure be oblit]at$ or creat$1 b x may ev5 be pr$ict$ be=e be+ se5 "u ! microscope4 ,if ! position & relative int5sity ( ! spectra 9 any p>ticul> case are giv51 ! "* ( ! resultant image1 9 "s in/ances1 may be work$ out by ma!matical calculations4 ,a rem>kable in/ance ( su* a pr$iction is to be f\nd 9 ! case record$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 :]e a ma!matical /ud5t :o _h nev] se5 a diatom1 work$ out ! purely ma!matical result ( ! int]f]5ce ( ! six spectra b-g ( ,fig4 #cc 7id5tical ) ,p4 angulatum71 giv+ ! draw+ copi$ 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,! special feature 0 ! small m>k+s betwe5 ! hexagons1 :i* _h n1 be=e ?is "t1 be5 notic$ on ,p4 angulatum4 ,on m closely scrut9iz+ a valve1 /opp+ out ! c5tral beam & all[+ ! six spectra only to pass1 ! small m>k+s 7 f\nd actually to exi/1 ?\gh !y 7 s fa9t !y _h previ\sly escap$ obs]vation until ! result ( ! ma!matical d$uction _h %[n t !y ought to be se54 ,^! exp]im5ts seem to %[ t diffraction plays a v ess5tial "p 9 ! =mation ( microscopical images1 s9ce dissimil> /ructures give id5tical images :5 ! diff]5ces ( _! diffractive effect is remov$1 & conv]sely simil> /ructures may give dissimil> images :5 _! diffractive images are made dissimil>4 ,:il/ a purely dioptric image answ]s po9t = po9t to ! object on ! /age1 & enables a safe inf]5ce to be drawn z to ! actual nature ( t object1 ! visible indications ( m9ute /ructure 9 a microscopical image are n always or necess>ily con=mable to ! real nature ( ! object exam9$1 s t no?+ m c safely be inf]r$ f ! image z pres5t$ to ! eye1 ?an ! pres5ce 9 ! object ( su* /ructural peculi>ities z w produce ! p>ticul> diffraction ph5om5a on :i* ^! images dep5d4 ,fur!r inve/igations & exp]im5ts l$ ,abbe to disc>d s mu* ( 8 !oretical conclusions relat+ to sup]impos$ images hav+ a di/9ct "* z well z a diff]5t orig91 & z to _! capability ( be+ sep>at$ & exam9$ ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,9 a lat] pap] he writes3 8,i no long] ma9ta9 9 pr9ciple ! di/9ction betwe5 ! absorption image or direct dioptrical image & ! diffraction image1 nor d ,i hold t ! microscopical image ( an object consi/s ( two sup]impos$ images ( diff]5t orig9 or a diff]5t mode ( production4 ,?us x appe>s t bo? ! absorption image & ! diffraction image he held to be equally ( diffraction orig92 b :ile a l5s ( small ap]ture w\ld give ! =m] ) facility1 x w\ld be p[]less to reveal ! latt]1 because ( its limit$ capacity to ga!r 9 ! /rongly-deflect$ rays due to ! excessively m9ute bodies ! microscopical objective has to deal )40#aa ,abbe's !ory ( vision has be5 que/ion$ by ma!maticians1 & s9ce 8 dea? ,"l ,rayleigh w5t m deeply into ! "q ( 8! !ory ( ! =mation ( optical images10 ) special ref]5ce to ! microscope & telescope4 ,he has %[n t two l9es _c be fairly resolv$ unless _! compon5ts subt5d an angle exce$+ t subt5d$ by ! wave-l5g? ( light at a di/ance equal to ! ap]ture2 also1 t ! measure ( resolution is only possible ) a squ>e ap]ture1 or "o b\nd$ by /raight l9es1 p>allel to ! l9es resolv$4 ,"l ,rayleigh's ,!ory ( ! ,=mation ( ,optical ,images1 ) ,special ,ref]5ce to ! ,microscope4#ab ,( ! two me?ods adopt$1 t ( ,helmholtz's consi/s 9 trac+ ! image repres5tative ( a ma!matical po9t 9 ! object1 ! po9t be+ reg>d$ z self-lum9\s2 t ( ,abbe's ! typical object 0 n1 z we h se51 a lum9\s po9t1 b a grat+ illum9at$ by plane waves ( light4 ,9 ! latt] me?od1 ,"l ,rayleigh argues t ! complete repres5tation ( ! object requires ! co-op]ation ( all ! spectra :i* are focuss$ 9 ! pr9cipal focal plane ( ! objective2 :5 only a few are pres5t ! repres5tation is imp]fect1 & :olly fails :5 !re is only "o4 ,he !n proce$s to %[1 by ! aid ( diagrams & ma!matical =mula1 h[ ! resolv+ p[] c be adduc$4 ,on fur!r criticism ( ! ,abbe spectrum !ory1 he obs]ves 8t al?\gh ! image ultimately =m$ may be consid]$ to be due to ! spectra focuss$ to a giv5 po9t1 ! degree ( con=mity ( ! image to ! object is ano!r "q4 ,! consid]ation ( ! case ( a v f9e grat+1 :i* might af=d no lat]al spectra at all1 %[s ! incorrectness ( ! usually accept$ idea t if all ! spectra are utilis$ ! image w /ill be incomplete1 s t ! !ory 7orig9ally promulgat$ by ,abbe7 requires a good deal ( supplem5t+2 :ile x is inapplicable :5 ! incid5t light is n p>allel1 & :5 ! object is1 = example1 a d\ble po9t & n a grat+4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( a grat+1 ! spectrum !ory is inapplicable1 if ! grat+ is self-lum9\s2 = 9 ?is case no spectra c be =m$ s9ce ! radiations f ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ! grat+ h no p]man5t phase-relations40 ,= ^! reasons ,"l ,rayleigh advises t ! "q %\ld be reconsid]$ f ! old] po9t ( view1 accord+ to :i* ! typical object is a po9t & n a grat+4 ,su* treatm5t w %[ t ! !ory ( resolv+ p[] is ess5tially ! same = all in/rum5ts4 ,! peculi>ities ( ! microscope1 aris+ f ! div]g5ce-angles n be+ limit$ to be small1 & f ! diff]5t "* ( ! illum9ation1 are !oretically only diff]5ces ( detail4 ,^! inve/igations c be ext5d$ to grat+s1 & ! results s obta9$ confirm = ! mo/ "p ! conclusions ( ! spectrum !ory4 ,fur!rmore1 t ! function ( ! cond5s] 9 microscopic practice 9 ?r[+ ^u ! object ! image ( ! lamp-flame is to cause ! object to behave1 at any rate 9 "s degree1 z if x 7 self-lum9\s1 & ?us to obviate ! %>ply-m>k$ int]f]5ce b&s :i* arise :5 p]man5t & def9ite phase-relations are p]mitt$ to exi/ betwe5 ! radiations :i* issue f v>i\s po9ts ( ! object4 ,?is is capable ( ma!matical pro(2 & 9 ! case :]e ! illum9ation is su* t ea* po9t ( ! r[ or ( ! grat+ radiates indep5d5tly1 ! limit to resolution is se5 to dep5d only on ! wid? ( ! ap]ture1 & ?us to be ! same = all =ms ( ap]ture z = ^? ( ! rectangul>4 ,t ,abbe's !ory ( microscopic vision is fairly op5 to ! criticisms pass$ on x by ,"l ,rayleigh mu/ be tak5 = grant$4 ,def9ition ( ,ap]ture2 ,pr9ciples ( ,microscopic ,vision4 ,x mu/ be well )9 ! la/ half-c5tury t ! a*romatic objective-glass = ! microscope 0 br\ght to p]fection & its value became g5]ally recognis$4 ,prior to ! discov]y ( ! a*romatic pr9ciple 9 ! con/ruction ( l5ses x 0 assum$ t ! =mation ( ! microscopic image took place 7z we h already se57 on ord9>y dioptric pr9ciples4 ,z ! image is =m$ 9 ! cam]a or telescope1 s x 0 said to be 9 ! microscope4 ,?is belief exi/$1 x w be rememb]$1 at a "t :5 dry objectives only 7 9 fav\r & ! use ( ! t]m angle ( ap]ture 0 misund]/ood1 :5 x 0 suppos$ t ! diff]5t m$ia ) diffraction-indices 7 us$2 & ! angle ( ! radiant p5cil 0 believ$ n only to admit ( a comp>ison ( two ap]tures 9 ! same m$ium1 b likewise to admit ( a /&>d ( comp>ison :5 ! m$ia 7 entirely diff]5t 9 _! refractive qualities4 ,x 0 dur+ my t5ure ( (fice z secret>y ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society 7#ahfg to #ahgc71 t ! ap]ture "q1 & also t ( num]ical ap]ture1 came "u discussion1 bo? be+ met by ! majority ( ! ,fell[s ( ! ,society & practical opticians by a non-possumus4 ,opticians alleg$1 t is1 be=e ! value ( ap]ture became fully recognis$ 7#ahfj71 t ! a*romatic objective _h rea*$ a /age ( p]fection1 beyond :i* x 0 n possible to g2 inde$1 n only opticians1 b physici/s ( high /&+1 z ,pr(essor ,helmholtz1 :o made _m important contributions to ! !ory ( ! microscope1 & :o1 aft] duly weigh+ all ! kn[n physical laws on :i* ! =mation ( images c be expla9$1 emphatically /at$ t 9 8 op9ion 8! limit ( possible improvem5t ( ! microscope z an in/rum5t ( discov]y _h be5 v ne>ly rea*$40 ,a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago ,i v5tur$ to ?r[ a d\bt ^u s que/ionable a /atem5t4 ,i det]m9$1 if possible1 to submit ! ap]ture "q to an exhau/ive exam9ation4 ,my views 7 accord+ly submitt$ to two ( ! highe/ au?orities 9 ?is c\ntry--,sir ,george ,airy1 ! !n ,a/ronom] ,royal1 & ,sir ,george ,/okes1 ,pr(essor ( ,physics at ,cambridge ,univ]sity--bo? ( :om agre$ ) me t ! possible increase ( ap]ture w\ld be att5d$ ) great advantage to ! objective1 & op5 ! way to an ext5sion ( p[] resolution 9 ! microscope4#ac ,! discussion aft]w>ds took a w>m turn1 z w be se5 on ref]5ce to 8,! ,mon?ly ,microscopical ,j\rnals0 ( #ahgd1 #ahge & #ahgf4 ,! confusion into :i* ! ap]ture "q at ?is p]iod _h laps$ 0 no d\bt due to ! fact t its oppon5ts _h n yet grasp$ ! true mean+ ( ! t]m ap]ture4 ,x 0 believ$ to be synonym\s ) 8angul> ap]ture10 mu* 9 use at ! "t4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 appe> q unacc\ntable t ev5 ! old] opticians %\ld h conf\nd$ ! latt] ) ! =m]2 & s entirely disreg>d$ ! fact t ! angles ( ! p5cil ( light admitt$ by ! objective _c s]ve z a measure ( its ap]ture1 & t high refractive m$ia c greatly r$uce ! value l5g? ( waves ( light4 ,:5 ! m$ium 9 :i* ! objective works is ! same z air1 x is n t a comp>ison c be made by ! angles ( ! radiant p5cils only1 b by _! s9es4 ,= example1 if two dry objectives admit p5cils ( #fj & #ahj1 _! real ap]tures are n z #a 3 #c1 b z #a 3 #b only4 ,ap]ture 9 fact is comput$ by ma!maticians by trac+ ! rays f ! back focus ?r\gh ! sy/em ( l5ses to ! front focus1 ! front focus be+ ! po9t at :i* ! :ole cone ( rays conv]ge z free z may be f ab]ration4 ,if ! front focus be 9 air1 no p5cil great] ?an #hb1 8d\ble ! angle ( total reflection10 c em]ge f ! plane front ( ! l5s2 &1 obvi\sly1 if no great] cone c em]ge to a focus "o way1 nei!r c any great] cone ent] ! body ( ! l5s f ! radiant4 ,?is angle1 !n1 ( #hb1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ! limit = dry l5ses or objectives4 ,?is limit1 x w be se5 on m c>eful exam9ation1 is v ne>ly ! maximum angle t c be comput$ = a l5s to h a front focus 9 air4 ,?is c be prov$ by ! consid]ation ( ! angle ( ! image ( rays1 z !y are radiat$ f ! object itself 9 balsam3 = al?\gh ?is angle ( image rays view$ z nasc5t f a self-lum9\s object capable ( scatt]+ rays 9 all directions1 may be #ahj 9 ! sub/ance ( ! balsam & cov]-glass1 ( ! #ahj only #hb ( ! c5tral portion w em]ge into air--all rays beyond ?is limit are int]nally reflect$ at ! cov]-glass4 ,?is cone1 !n1 ( #hb becomes #ahj 9 air1 & a l>ge "p mu/ necess>ily be lo/ by reflection at ! fir/ incid5ce on ! plane front ( ! l5s4 ,b ) a =mula p]mitt+ ! use ( a wat] m$ium betwe5 ! front l5s & ! cov]-glass1 ! ap]ture ( ! image rays may rea* #abf--;d\ble ! critical angle f glass to wat]2 & ) an oil m$ium1 ! ap]ture w be f\nd to be limit$ only by ! =m ( ! front l5s t c be con/ruct$ by ! optician4 ,to sum up1 !n1 ! effect ( ! imm]sion sy/em1 greatly assi/s 9 ! correction ( ab]ration1 gives increas$ magnification & angul> ap]ture1 increase ( work+ di/ance betwe5 ! objective & object1 & r5d]s admissible ! use ( ! ?ick] glass-cov]4 ,! ap]ture "q w\ld 9 all probability h rema9$ unsolv$ _m ye>s long] 7t5 or twelve ye>s elaps$ aft] ,i br\ght ! "q "u discussion be=e opticians gave way71 b = ! =tunate circum/ance t ! em95t ma!matical & practical optician1 ,pr(essor ,abbe1 ( ,j5a1 0 ab\t to visit ,london4 ,?is came (f 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sev5ties1 :5 ! late ,mr4 ,john ,mayall & myself _h ! good =tune to int]view him4 ,! subject discuss$ 0 naturally ! increase ( ap]ture & ! !ory ( microscopical vision4 ,he readily at our reque/ und]took to re-inve/igate ! "q 9 all its be>+s on ! microscope4 ,x is almo/ unnecess>y to add t ! conclusions he came to1 & ! results obta9$1 h prov$ ( ine/imable value to ! microscopi/ & practical optician1 & x may well seem necess>y to expla9 some:at at great] l5g? ! conclusions ! le>n$ ,pr(essor came to1 & by ! adoption ( :i* ! microscope has be5 plac$ on a m sci5tific basis ?an x _h be=e atta9$ to4 ,sev]al pap]s 7 publi%$ 9 ext5so 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 & ,i am greatly indebt$ to ,mr4 ,frank ,crisp1 ,,ll4,d41 = an excell5t resum ( ,abbe's ,monograph4#ad ,! ess5tial /ep 9 ! consid]ation ( ap]ture is1 z ,i h said1 to und]/& cle>ly :at is meant by ! t]m4 ,x w at once be recognis$ t its def9ition mu/ necess>ily ref] to its prim>y mean+ ( op5+1 & mu/1 9 ! case ( an optical in/rum5t1 def9e its capacity = receiv+ rays f ! object1 & transmitt+ !m to ! image receiv$ at ! eye-piece4 ,9 ! case ( ! telescope-objective1 its capacity = receiv+ & transmitt+ rays is necess>ily measur$ by ! expression ( its absolute diamet] or 8op5+40 ,no su* absolute measure c be appli$ 9 ! case ( ! microscope objective1 ! l>ge/ con/ruct$ l5ses ( :i* hav+ by no means ! l>ge/ ap]tures1 be+1 9 fact1 ! l[] p[]s ( ! in/rum5t1 ^: ap]tures are = ! mo/ "p b small4 ,! capacity ( a microscope objective = receiv+ & transmitt+ rays is1 h[ev]1 z w be se51 e/imat$ by its relative op5+1 t is1 its op5+ 9 relation to its focal l5g?4 ,:5 ?is relative op5+ has be5 asc]ta9$1 x may be reg>d$ z synonym\s ) t d5ot$ 9 ! telescope by absolute op5+4 ,t ?is is s w be bett] appreciat$ by ! foll[+ consid]ation3-- ,9 a s+le l5s1 ! rays admitt$ )9 "o m]idional plane evid5tly increase z ! diamet] ( ! l5s 7all o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same71 & 9 ! microscope we h1 at ! back ( ! l5s1 ! same conditions to deal ) z are 9 front 9 ! case ( ! telescope2 ! l>g] or small] numb] ( em]g5t rays w !re=e be measur$ by ! cle> diamet]1 & z no rays c em]ge t h n fir/ be5 admitt$1 ?is w give ! measure ( ! admitt$ rays "u simil> circum/ances4 ,if ! l5ses comp>$ h diff]5t focal l5g?s b ! same cle> 8op5+s10 !y w transmit ! same numb] ( rays to equal areas ( an image at a def9ite di/ance1 because !y w\ld admit ! same numb] if an object 7 sub/itut$ = ! image2 t is1 if ! l5s 7 us$ z a telescope-objective4 ,b z ! focal l5g?s are diff]5t1 ! amplification ( ! images is diff]5t also1 & equal areas ( ^! images correspond to diff]5t areas ( ! object f :i* ! rays are collect$4 ,!re=e1 ! high] p[] l5s ) ! same op5+ z ! l[] p[]1 w admit a great] numb] ( rays 9 all f ! same object1 because x admits ! same numb] z ! latt] f a small] portion ( ! object4 ,?us1 if ! focal l5g?s ( two l5ses are z #b 3 #a1 & ! fir/ amplifies ,n diamet]s1 ! second w amplify #b ,n ) ! same di/ance ( ! image1 s t ! rays :i* are collect$ to a giv5 field ( #a mm4 diamet] ( ! image are admitt$ f a field ( #a_/,n mm4 9 ! fir/ case1 & ( #a_/7b,n7 mm4 9 ! second4 ,z ! 8op5+0 ( ! objective is e/imat$ by ! diamet] 7& n by ! area7 ! high] p[] l5s admits twice z _m rays z ! l[] p[]1 because x admits ! same numb] f a field ( half ! diamet]1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! admission ( rays by ! same op5+1 b diff]5t p[]s1 mu/ be 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! focal l5g?s4 ,9 ! case ( ! s+le l5s1 !re=e1 its ap]ture is det]m9$ by ! ratio betwe5 ! cle> op5+ & ! focal l5g?4 ,! same consid]ations apply to ! case ( a comp\nd objective1 sub/itut+1 h[ev]1 = ! cle> op5+ ( ! s+le l5s ! diamet] ( ! p5cil at its em]g5ce f ! objective1 t is1 ! cle> utilis$ diamet] ( ! back l5s4 ,all equally holds good :e!r ! m$ium 9 :i* ! objective is plac$ is ! same 9 ! case ( ! two objectives or diff]5t1 z an alt]ation ( ! m$ium makes no diff]5ce 9 ! p[]4 ,illu/ration3 #ahj ,oil ,angle4 7,num]ical ,ap]ture #aeb47 ,illu/ration3 #ahj ,wat] ,angle4 7,num]ical ,ap]ture #acc47 ,illu/ration3 #ahj ,air ,angle4 #if ,wat] ,angle4 #hb ,oil ,angle4 7,num]ical ,ap]ture #ajj47 ,illu/ration3 #ig ,air ,angle4 7,num]ical ,ap]ture #ge47 ,illu/ration3 #fj ,air ,angle4 7,num]ical ,ap]ture #ej47 ,fig4 #ce4--,relative diamet]s ( ! 7utiliz$7 back l5ses ( v>i\s dry & imm]sion objectives ( ! same p[] 7#a_/d-;947 f an air angle ( #fj to an oil angle ( #ahj4 ,?us we arrive at a g5]al proposition = all k9ds ( objectives3 #a/1 :5 ! p[] is ! same1 ! admission ( rays 7or ap]ture7 v>ies ) ! diamet] ( ! p5cil at its em]g5ce2 #bnd1 :5 ! p[]s are diff]5t1 ! same ap]ture requires diff]5t op5+s 9 ! ratio ( ! focal l5g?s1 or conv]sely ) ! same op5+ ! ap]ture is 9 inv]se ratio to ! focal l5g?s4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t j z 9 ! telescope ! absolute diamet] ( ! object-glass def9es its ap]ture1 s 9 ! microscope ! ratio betwe5 ! utilis$ diamet] ( ! back l5s & ! focal l5g? ( ! objective def9es its ap]ture also1 & ?is is cle>ly a def9ition ( ap]ture 9 its prim>y & only legitimate mean+ z 8op5+20 t is1 ! capacity ( ! objective = admitt+ rays f ! object & transmitt+ !m to ! image4 ,if1 by way ( illu/ration1 we comp>e a s]ies ( dry & oil-imm]sion objectives1 & comm5c+ ) small air angles1 progress up to #ahj air angle1 & !n take an oil-imm]sion ( #hb & progress aga9 to #ahj oil angle1 ! ratio ( op5+ to p[] progresses also1 & atta9s its maximum1 n 9 ! case ( ! air angle ( #ahj 7:5 x is exactly equival5t to ! oil angle ( only #hb71 b is greate/ at ! oil angle ( #ahj4 ,if we assume ! objectives to h ! same p[] ?r\gh\t we get rid ( "o ( ! factors ( ! ratio1 & we h only to comp>e ! diamet]s ( ! em]g5t beams1 & c repres5t _! relations by diagrams4 ,fig4 #ce illu/rates five cases ( diff]5t ap]tures ( #a_/d-;94 objectives1 viz43 ^? ( dry objectives ( #fj1 #ig1 & #ahj air angle1 a wat]-imm]sion ( #ahj wat] angle1 & an oil-imm]sion ( #ahj oil angle4 ,! inn] dott$ circles 9 ! two latt] cases are ( ! same size z t correspond+ to ! #ahj air angle4 ,a dry objective ( ! maximum air angle ( #ahj is only able to utilise a diamet] ( back l5s equal to twice ! focal l5g?1 :ile an imm]sion l5s ( ev5 only #ajj utilises a l>g] diamet]1 i4e41 x is able to transmit m rays f ! object to ! image ?an any dry objective is capable ( transmitt+4 ,:5ev] ! angle ( an imm]sion l5s exce$s twice ! critical angle = ! imm]sion fluid1 i4e41 #if = wat] or #hb = oil1 its ap]ture is 9 excess ( t ( a dry objective ( #ahj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,?is excess w be se5 if we take an oil-imm]sion objective (1 say #abb balsam angle1 illum9at+ x s t ! :ole field is fill$ ) ! incid5t rays1 & use x fir/ on an object n m\nt$ 9 balsam1 b dry4 ,we !n h a dry objective ( ne>ly #ahj angul> ap]ture1 =1 z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #cf1 ! cov]-glass is virtually ! fir/ surface ( ! objective1 z ! front l5s1 ! imm]sion fluid1 & ! cov]-glass are all approximately ( ! same index1 & =m1 !re=e1 a front l5s ( extra ?ickness4 ,:5 ! object is close to ! cov]-glass ! p5cil radiat+ f x w be v ne>ly #ahj1 & ! em]g5t p5cil 7obs]v$ by remov+ ! eye-piece7 w be se5 to utilise z mu* ( ! back l5s ( ! objective z is equal to twice ! focal l5g?1 t is1 ! inn] ( ! two circles at ! head ( ,fig4 #ce4 ,if n[ balsam be run 9 b5ea? ! cov]-glass s t ! angle ( ! p5cil tak5 up by ! objective is no long] #ahj1 b #abb only 7t is1 small]71 ! diamet] ( ! em]g5t p5cil is l>g] ?an x 0 be=e1 :5 ! angle ( ! p5cil 0 #ahj 9 air1 & w be approximately repres5t$ by ! out] circle ( ,fig4 #ce4 ,z ! p[] rema9s ! same 9 bo? cases1 ! l>g] diamet] d5otes ! great] ap]ture ( ! imm]sion objective ov] a dry objective ( ev5 #ahj angle1 & ! excess ( ap]ture is made pla9ly visible4 ,hav+ settl$ ! pr9ciple1 x is /ill necess>y1 h[ev]1 to f9d a prop] notation = comp>+ ap]tures4 ,! a/ronom] c comp>e ! ap]tures ( 8 v>i\s objectives by simply express+ !m 9 in*es1 b ?is is obvi\sly n available to ! microscopi/1 :o has to deal ) ! ratio ( two v>y+ quantities4 ,9 consequ5ce ( a discov]y made by ,pr(essor ,abbe 9 #ahgc1 t a g5]al relation exi/$ betwe5 ! p5cil admitt$ into ! front ( ! objective & t em]g+ f ! back ( ! objective1 he 0 able to %[ t ! ratio ( ! semi-diamet] ( ! em]g5t p5cil to ! focal l5g? ( ! objective c\ld be express$ by ! =mula n ,s9 u1 i4e41 by ! s9e ( half ! angle ( ap]ture 7u7 multipli$ by ! refractive index ( ! m$ium 7n7 9 front ( ! objective 7n be+ #aj = air1 #acc = wat]1 & #aeb = oil or balsam74 ,:51 !n1 ! values 9 any giv5 cases ( ! expression n ,s9 u 7:i* is kn[n z ! 8num]ical ap]ture07 has be5 asc]ta9$1 ! objectives are in/antly comp>$ z reg>ds _! ap]ture1 &1 moreov]1 z #ahj 9 air is equal to #aj 7s9ce n #aj & ! s9e ( half #ahj #aj7 we see1 ) equal read9ess1 :e!r ! ap]ture is small] or l>g] ?an t correspond+ to #ahj 9 air4 ,?us1 suppose we desire to comp>e ! ap]tures ( ?ree objectives1 "o a dry objective1 ! second a wat] imm]sion1 & ! ?ird an oil imm]sion2 ^! w\ld be comp>$ on ! angul> ap]ture view z1 say #gd air angle1 #he wat] angle1 & #aah oil angle1 s t a calculation mu/ be work$ out to arrive at ! actual relation betwe5 !m4 ,apply+1 h[ev]1 ! num]ical#ae notation1 :i* gives #fj = ! dry objective1 #ij = ! wat] imm]sion1 & #acj = ! oil imm]sion1 _! relative ap]tures are imm$iately recognis$1 & x is se51 = in/ance1 t ! ap]ture ( ! wat] imm]sion is some:at less ?an t ( a dry objective ( #ahj1 & t ! ap]ture ( ! oil imm]sion exce$s t ( ! latt] by #cj4 ,! advantage ( imm]sion1 9 comp>ison ) dry objectives1 becomes at once app>5t4 ,in/ead ( consi/+ m]ely 9 a dim9ution ( ! loss ( light by reflection or increas$ work+ di/ance1 x is se5 t a wide-angl$ imm]sion objective has a l>g] ap]ture ?an a dry objective ( maximum angle1 s t = any ( ! purposes = :i* ap]ture is ess5tial an imm]sion mu/ necess>ily be pref]r$ to a dry objective4 ,t p5cils ( id5tical angul> ext5sion b 9 diff]5t m$ia are diff]5t physically1 w cease to appe> 9 any way p>adoxical if we recall ! simple optical fact t rays1 :i* 9 air are spread out ov] ! :ole hemisph]e1 are 9 a m$ium ( high] refractive index su* z oil compress$ into a cone ( #hb r\nd ! p]p5dicul>1 i4e41 twice ! critical angle4 ,a cone exce$+ twice ! critical angle ( ! m$ium w !re=e embrace a surplus ( rays :i* d n exi/ ev5 9 ! hemisph]e :5 ! object is 9 air4 ,! :ole ap]ture "q1 not)/&+ ! innum]able p]plexities :i* h]et(ore surr\nd$ x1 is 9 reality completely solv$ by ^! two simple consid]ations3 ,fir/1 t 8ap]ture0 is to be appli$ 9 its ord9>y mean+ z repres5t+ ! great] or less capacity ( ! objective = receiv+ & transmitt+ rays2 & second1 t :5 s appli$ ! ap]ture ( an objective is det]m9$ by ! ratio betwe5 its op5+ & its focal l5g?2 ! objective t utilises ! l>g] back l5s 7or op5+7 relatively to its focal l5g? hav+ necess>ily ! l>g] ap]ture4 ,x w\ld h>dly1 !re=e1 s]ve any useful purpose if we 7 "h to discuss ! v>i\s errone\s ideas t gave rise to ! cont5tion t #ahj 9 air mu/ be ! maximum ap]ture4 ,among/ ^! 0 ! sugge/ion t ! l>g] em]g5t beams ( imm]sion objectives 7 due to ! fact t ! imm]sion fluid aboli%$ ! refractive action ( ! fir/ plane surface :i*1 9 ! case ( air1 prev5t$ !re be+ any p5cil exce$+ #hb )9 ! glass4 ,also ! v curi\s mi/ake :i* arose f ! assumption t a hemisph]e did n magnify an object at its c5tre because ! rays pass$ ?r\gh )\t refraction4 ,a fur!r errone\s view has1 h[ev]1 be5 s widespread t x seems to be desirable to devote a few l9es to x1 especially z x always appe>s at fir/ sight to be bo? simple & conclusive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg;a4 ,if a dry objective is us$ ^u an object 9 air1 z 9 ,fig4 #cg1 ! angle may approa* #ahj1 b :5 ! object is m\nt$ 9 balsam1 z 9 ,fig4 #cg;a1 ! angle at ! object _c exce$ #hb1 all rays outside t limit 7%[n by dott$ l9es7 be+ reflect$ back at ! cov]-glass & n em]g+ into air4 ,on us+ an imm]sion objective1 h[ev]1 ! imm]sion fluid :i* replaces ! air above ! cov]-glass all[s ! rays =m]ly reflect$ back to pass ?r\gh to ! objective1 s t ! angle at ! object may aga9 be ne>ly #ahj z ) ! dry l5s4 ,! action ( ! imm]sion objective 01 !re=e1 suppos$ to be simply t x repair$ ! loss 9 angle :i* 0 occasion$ :5 ! object 0 transf]r$ f air to balsam1 & m]ely re/or$ ! conditions exi/+ 9 ,fig4 #cg;a ) ! dry objective on a dry object4 ,z ! result ( ?is errone\s supposition1 x foll[$ t an imm]sion objective c\ld h no advantage ov] a dry objective1 except 9 ! case ( ! latt] be+ us$ ^u a balsam-m\nt$ object1 its ap]ture !n be+ 7z 0 suppos$7 8cut d[n40 ,! error lies simply 9 ov]look+ ! fact t ! rays :i* are reflect$ back :5 ! object is m\nt$ 9 balsam 7,fig4 #cg;a7 are n rays :i* are f\nd :5 ! object is 9 air 7,fig4 #cg71 b are additional & diff]5t rays :i* d n exi/ 9 air1 z !y _c be emitt$ 9 a sub/ance ( s l[ a refractive index4 ,la/ly1 x %\ld also be not$ t x is num]ical & n angul> ap]ture :i* measures ! quantity ( light admitt$ to ! objective by diff]5t p5cils4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch;a4 ,fir/ take ! case ( ! m$ium be+ ! same4 ,! popul> notion ( a p5cil ( light may be illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #ch1 :i* assumes t !re is equal int5sity ( emission 9 all directions1 s t ! quantity ( light conta9$ 9 any giv5 p5cils may be comp>$ by simply comp>+ ! cont5ts ( ! solid cones4 ,! ,b\gu]-,lamb]t law1 h[ev]1 %[s t ! quantity ( light emitt$ by any bright po9t v>ies ) ! obliquity ( ! direction ( emission1 be+ great] 9 a p]p5dicul> ?an 9 an oblique direction4 ,! rays are less int5se 9 proportion z !y are m incl9$ to ! surface :i* emits !m1 s t a p5cil is n correctly repres5t$ by ,fig4 #ch1 b by ,fig4 #ch;a1 ! d5sity ( ! rays decreas+ cont9u\sly f ! v]tical to ! horizontal1 & ! squ>es ( ! s9es ( ! semi-angles 7i4e41 ( ! num]ical ap]ture7 con/itut+ ! true measure ( ! quantity ( light conta9$ 9 any solid p5cil4 ,if1 aga91 ! m$ia are ( diff]5t refractive indices1 z air 7#aj71 wat] 7#acc71 & oil 7#aeb71 ! total am\nt ( light emitt$ ov] ! :ole #ahj f radiant po9ts 9 ^! m$ia "u a giv5 illum9ation is n ! same1 b is great] 9 ! case ( ! m$ia ( great] refractive indices 9 ! ratio ( ! squ>es ( ^? indices 7i4e41 z #aj1 #agg & #bbe74 ,! quantity ( light 9 p5cils ( diff]5t angle & 9 diff]5t m$ia mu/ !re=e be comp>$ by squ>+ ! product ( ! s9es & ! refractive indices1 i4e4 7n ,s9 u#b71 = ! squ>e ( ! num]ical ap]ture4 ,! fact is !re=e made cle> t ! ap]ture ( a dry objective ( #ahj does n repres5t1 z 0 suppos$1 a maximum1 b t ap]ture increases ) ! increase 9 ! refractive index ( ! imm]sion fluid2 & x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ?is result has be5 arriv$ at 9 /rict accordance ) ! ord9>y propositions ( geometrical optics1 & )\t any ref]5ce to or d$uctions f ! diffraction !ory ( ,pr(essor ,abbe4 ,!re /ill rema9s "o o!r po9t = det]m9ation1 namely1 ! prop] function ( ap]ture 9 respect to imm]sion objectives ( l>ge ap]ture4 ,! explanation ( ! increas$ p[] ( vision obta9$ by increase ( ap]ture 01 t by ! great] obliquity ( ! rays to ! object 8%ad[ effects0 7 produc$1 a view :i* ov]look$ ! fact1 fir/1 t ! utilisation ( increas$ ap]ture dep5ds n only on ! obliquity ( ! rays s5t to ! object1 b also to ! axis ( ! microscope2 & exactly z !re is no ac\/ic %ad[ produc$ by an ob/acle1 :i* is only a few multiples ( ! l5g? ( ! s\nd waves1 s !re c be no %ad[ produc$ by m9ute objects1 only a few multiples f ! light waves1 ! latt] !n pass+ completely r\nd ! object4 ,! ,abbe diffraction !ory1 h[ev]1 supplies ! true explanation ( ?is1 & %[s t ! increas$ p]=mance ( imm]sion objectives ( l>ge ap]ture is directly connect$ 7z might h be5 anticipat$7 ) ! l>g] 8op5+s0 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 :i*1 z we h already expla9$1 su* objectives really possess4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ord] t ! image exactly corresponds ) ! object1 all diffract$ rays mu/ be ga!r$ up by ! objective4 ,%\ld any be lo/ we %all h n an actual image ( ! object1 b a spuri\s "o4 ,n[1 if we h a co>se object1 ! diffract$ rays are all compris$ )9 a n>r[ cone r\nd ! direct beam1 & an objective ( small ap]ture w transmit !m all4 ,) a m9ute object1 h[ev]1 ! diffract$ rays are widely spread out1 s t a small ap]ture c admit only a fractional "p--to admit ! :ole or a v l>ge "p1 & consequ5tly to see ! m9ute /ructure ( ! object1 or to see x truly1 a l>ge ap]ture is necess>y1 & 9 ?is lies ! value ( ap]ture & ( a wide-angl$ imm]sion objective = ! obs]vation ( m9ute /ructures4 ,num]ical ,ap]ture4 ,measure ( ,ap]tures ( ,objectives4 ,n4,a4--,num]ical ap]ture1 z x is t]m$1 is measur$ by ! scale ( measurem5t calculat$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,abbe1 & :i* has s9ce be5 g5]ally recognis$ & adopt$4 ,he %[$ t ev5 9 l5ses made = ! same m$ium 7z air7 _! comp>ative ap]ture z comp>$ ) _! focus 0 n correctly measur$ by ! angle ( ! rays grasp$1 b by ! actual diamet]s ( ! p5cil ( rays transmitt$1 :i* dep5d1 z already se51 m ^u ! back ( ! l5s ?an ! front4 ,to get a geometric measure = comp>ison1 he took ! radii1 or half diamet]s 7^: relative proportions w\ld be ! same71 & :i* geometrically are ! s9es ( ! semi-angle ( ! out]mo/ rays grasp$4 ,abbe fur!r %[$ t if ?is s9e ( half ! outside angle 7 multipli$ by ! refractive index ( ! m$ium us$ we %\ld h a numb] :i* w\ld give ! comp>ative ap]ture ( any l5s1 :atev] ! m$ium4 ,?is numb]1 !n1 det]m9es bo? ! num]ical ap]ture & ! resolv+ p[] ( ! objective4 ,! foll[+ table ( num]ical ap]tures %[s ! respective angul> p5cils :i* !y express 9 air1 wat] & c$> oil1 or glass4#af ,! fir/ column gives ! num]ical ap]tures f #jbj to #acc2 ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r?1 ! air1 wat] & oil 7or balsam7 angles ( ap]ture f #bc #d air angle to #ahj balsam angle4 ,! !oretical resolv+ p[] 9 l9es to ! in* is %[n 9 ! six? column2 ! l9e ,e ( ! spectrum be+ tak5 f ab\t ! middle ( ! gre51 ! column giv+ 8illum9at+ p[]0 be+ ( less importance2 :ile 9 us+ t ( p5etrat+ p[]1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t sev]al data beside t ( #a_/;a g to make up ! total dep? ( vision ) ! microscope4 ,,abridg$ ,,num]ical ,,ap]ture ,,table4 ,correspond+ ,angle ,limit ( ,resolv+ ,p[]1 7#b u7 = 9 ,l9es to an ,in*4 ---------------------------------------- ------- 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 7#g7 7#h7 7#i7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #acc 444 #ahj #jabb #f #abh1bbe #ach1ihiafh1ijg #agfi #geb #acb 444 #afe #efabj #cc #abg1bfa #acg1iddafg1fcg #agdb #geh #acj 444 #aee #chaag #ce #abe1ccc #ace1hedafe1jig #afij #gfi #abh 444 #adh #dbaad #dd #abc1dje #acc1gfdafb1eeg #afch #gha #abf 444 #adb #ciaaa #ei #aba1dgg #aca1fgdafj1jag #aehh #gid #abd 444 #acg #cfaji #bj #aai1edh #abi1ehdaeg1dgg #aech #hjf #abb 444 #acc #dajf #de #aag1fbj #abg1didaed1icg #adhh #hbj #abj 444 #abh #eeajd #ae #aae1fib #abe1djdaeb1cig #addj #hcc #aah 444 #abe #caja #ej #aac1gfd #abc1cadadi1heg #acib #hdg #aaf 444 #aba #bf #ii #bi #aaa1hce #aba1bbdadg1cag #acdf #hfb #aad 444 #aah #j #ig #aa #aji1ijg #aai1acdadd1ggg #acjj #hgg #aab 444 #aad #dd #id #ee #ajg1igi #aag1jddadb1bcg #abed #hic #aaj 444 #aaa #cf #ib #dc #ajf1jea #aad1iedaci1fih #abaj #iji #ajh 444 #ajh #cf #ij #cd #ajd1abc #aab1hfdacg1aeh #aaff #ibf #ajf 444 #aje #db #hh #bg #ajb1aie #aaj1ggdacd1fah #aabd #idc #ajd 444 #ajb #ec #hf #ba #ajj1bff #ajh1fhdacb1jgh #ajhb #ifb #ajb 444 #ajj #aj #hd #ah #ih1cch #ajf1eicabi1ech #ajdj #ihj #ajj #ahj #j #ig #ca #hb #ag #if1daj #ajd1ejcabf1iih #ajjj #ajjj #jih #aeg #b #id #ef #hj #ag #id1dhb #ajb1dacabd1deh #ifj #ajbj #jif #adg #bi #ib #bd #gh #bj #ib1eed #ajj1cbcaba1iah #ibb #ajdb #jid #adj #f #hi #ef #gf #bd #ij1fbe #ih1bbcaai1cgh #hhd #ajfd #jib #acc #ea #hg #cb #gd #cj #hh1fig #if1adcaaf1hch #hdf #ajhg #jij #abh #ai #he #aj #gb #cf #hf1gfi #id1jecaad1bih #haj #aaaa #jhh #abc #ag #hb #ea #gj #dd #hd1hda #ia1ifcaaa1geh #ggd #aacf #jhf #aah #ch #hj #cd #fh #ed #hb1iac #hi1hgcaji1bah #gdj #aafc #jhd #aad #ag #gh #bj #fg #f #hj1ihd #hg1ghcajf1fgh #gjf #aaij #jhb #aaj #aj #gf #h #fe #ah #gi1jef #he1ficajd1ach #fgb #abbj #jhj #ajf #af #gc #eh #fc #ca #gg1abh #hc1fjcaja1eih #fdj #abej #jgh #ajb #ca #ga #di #fa #de #ge1bjj #ha1eac #ii1jeh #fjh #abhb #jgf #ih #ef #fi #db #fj #j #gc1bgb #gi1dbc #if1eah #egh #acaf #jgd #ie #bh #fg #cg #eh #af #ga1cdc #gg1ccc #ic1igi #edh #acea #jgb #ib #f #fe #cb #ef #cb #fi1dae #ge1bdb #ia1dci #eah #achi #jgj #hh #ea #fc #ca #ed #ej #fg1dhg #gc1aeb #hh1hii #dij #adbi #jfh #he #da #fa #cj #ec #i #fe1eei #ga1jfb #hf1cei #dfb #adga #jff #hb #cf #ei #cj #ea #bh #fc1fca #fh1igb #hc1hai #dcf #aeae #jfd #gi #cf #eg #ca #di #dh #fa1gjb #ff1hhb #ha1bgi #daj #aefb #jfb #gf #ch #ee #cd #dh #i #ei1ggd #fd1gib #gh1gci #chd #afac #jfj #gc #dd #ec #ch #df #cj #eg1hdf #fb1gjb #gf1aii #cfj #affg #jeh #gj #ed #ea #db #dd #ea #ee1iah #fj1fab #gc1fei #ccf #agbd #jef #fh #f #di #dh #dc #ad #ec1iij #eh1ebb #ga1aai #cad #aghf #jed #fe #bb #dg #ed #da #cg #eb1jfa #ef1dcb #fh1egi #bib #aheb #jeb #fb #dj #df #b #dj #j #ej1acc #ed1cdb #ff1jci #bgj #aibc #jej #fj #j #dd #aj #ch #bd #dh1bje #eb1beb #fc1dii #bej #bjjj #jde #ec #cj #ci #cc #cd #bg #dc1che #dg1jbf #eg1adi #bjc #bbbb #jdj #dg #i #ce #j #cj #ca #ch1efd #da1hja #ej1gii #afj #bejj #jce #dj #eh #cj #cj #bf #ch #cc1gdd #cf1egf #dd1ddi #abc #bheg #jcj #cd #ef #bf #d #bb #df #bh1ibc #ca1cea #ch1jii #jij #cccc #jbe #bh #eh #ba #dj #ah #ef #bd1ajc #bf1abf #ca1gdi #jfc #djjj #jbj #bc #d #ag #ah #ae #g #ai1bhb #bj1ija #be1djj #jdj #ejjj 7#a7 ,num]ical ,ap]ture4 7n s9 u a47 7#b7 ,air 7n #ajj74 7#c7 ,wat] 7n #acc74 7#d7 ,homog5e\s ,imm]sion 7n #aeb74 7#e7 ,:ite ,light4 7 #jebfi 1 ,l9e ,e47 7#f7 ,mono*romatic 7,blue7 ,light47 #jdhfa 1 ,l9e ,f47 7#g7 ,photography4 7 #jdjjj 1 ,ne> ,l9e hk47 7#h7 ,illum9at+ ,p[] 7a#b47 7#i7 ,p5etrat+ ,p[] 7#a_/;a47 ,abbe's ,ap]tomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,abbe's ,ap]tomet]4 ,! ap]tomet] is an auxili>y piece ( app>atus inv5t$ by ,abbe1 = te/+ ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( objectives & det]m9+ _! num]ical & angul> ap]tures4 ,?is accessory ( ! microscope involves ! same pr9ciples z t ( ,tolles1 :i* ! late ,mr4 ,j4 ,mayall & myself br\ght to ! notice ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( ,london 9 #ahgf4 ,abbe's ap]tomet] 7,fig4 #ci7 consi/s ( a flat cyl9d] ( glass1 ab\t ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 & half an in* ?ick1 ) a l>ge *ord cut (f1 s t ! portion left is some:at m ?an a semicircle2 ! "p :]e ! segm5t is cut is bevell$ f above d[nw>ds1 to an angle ( #de1 & x w be se5 t !re is a small disc ) an ap]ture 9 x d5ot+ ! c5tre ( ! semicircle4 ,to use ?is in/rum5t ! microscope is plac$ 9 a v]tical position1 & ! ap]tomet] is plac$ ^u ! /age ) its circul> "p to ! front & ! *ord to ! back4 ,diffus$ light1 ei!r f ! sun or lamp1 is assum$ to be 9 front & on bo? sides4 ,suppose ! l5s to be measur$ is a dry "o-qu>t] in*2 !n ) a "o-in* eye-piece hav+ a l>ge field1 ! c5tre disc1 ) its ap]ture on ! ap]tomet]1 is br\ght into focus4 ,! eye-piece & ! draw-tube are n[ remov$1 leav+ ! focal arrangem5t undi/urb$1 & a l5s suppli$ ) ! ap]tomet] is screw$ into ! end ( ! draw-tube4 ,?is l5s1 ) ! eye-piece 9 ! draw-tube1 =ms a l[-p[] comp\nd microscope4 ,?is is n[ ins]t$ into ! body-tube1 & ! back l5s ( ! objective ^: ap]ture we desire to measure is br\ght into focus4 ,9 ! image ( ! back l5s w be se5 /ret*$ across1 z x 71 ! image ( ! circul> "p ( ! ap]tomet]4 ,x w appe> z a bright b&1 because ! light :i* ent]s normally at ! surface is reflect$ by ! bevell$ "p ( ! *ord 9 a v]tical direction1 s t 9 reality a fan ( #ahj 9 air is =m$4 ,!re are two slid+ scre5s se5 on ei!r side ( ! figure ( ! ap]tomet]2 !y slide on ! v]tical circul> portion ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! images ( ^! scre5s c be se5 9 ! image ( ! bright b&s4 ,^! scre5s %\ld n[ be mov$ s t _! edges j t\* ! p]iph]y ( ! back l5s4 ,!y act1 z x 71 z a diaphragm to cut ! fan & r$uce x1 s t its angle j equals ! ap]ture ( ! objective & no m4 ,?is angle is n[ det]m9$ by ! arc ( glass betwe5 ! scre5s2 ?us we get an angle 9 glass ! exact equival5t ( ! ap]ture ( ! objective4 ,z ! num]ical ap]tures ( ^! arcs are engrav$ on ! ap]tomet]1 !y c be read (f by inspection4 ,a difficulty is n infrequ5tly exp]i5c$ f ! fact t x is n easy to det]m9e ! exact po9t at :i* ! edge ( ! scre5 t\*es ! p]iph]y ( ! back l5s1 or r ! limit ( ! ap]ture4 ,zeiss1 to meet ?is difficulty1 made a *ange 9 ! =m ( ! app>atus--furni%$ a glass disc m\nt$ on a metal plate1 ) a slot = ! purpose ( its m accurate adju/m5t4#ag ,/]eoscopic ,b9ocul> ,vision4 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one's rem>kable discov]y ( /]eoscopic vision l$1 at no di/ant p]iod1 to ! application ( ! pr9ciple to ! microscope4 ,x may !re=e prove ( int]e/ to inquire h[ /]eoscopic b9ocul> vision is br\ght ab\t4 ,inde$1 ! curi\s results obta9$ 9 ! /]eoscope _c be well und]/ood )\t a previ\s k ( ! fundam5tal optical pr9ciples involv$ 9 ?is contrivance1 :]eby two slightly dissimil> pictures ( any object become fus$ into "o image1 hav+ ! actual appe>ance ( relief4 ,! inv5tion ( ! /]eoscope by ,sir ,*>les ,:eat/one1 ,f4,r4,s41 #ahch1 & improv$ by ,brew/]1 0 *>act]is$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el z 8"o ( ! mo/ curi\s discov]ies1 & beautiful = its simplicity1 9 ! entire range ( exp]im5tal optics10 l$ to a m g5]al appreciation ( ! value ( ! conjo9t use ( bo? eyes 9 convey+ to ! m9d impressions ( ! relative =m & position ( an object1 su* z ! use ( ei!r eye s+ly does n convey ) any?+ l ! same precision4 ,:5 a ne> object hav+ ?ree dim5sions is look$ at1 a diff]5t p]spective repres5tation is se5 ) ea* eye4 ,c]ta9 p>ts are se5 by ! "r eye1 ! left be+ clos$1 t are invisible to ! left eye1 ! "r be+ clos$1 & ! relative positions ( ! portions visible to ea* eye 9 succession diff]4 ,^! two visual impressions are simultane\sly p]ceiv$ by bo? eyes1 & comb9$ 9 ! bra9 into "o image1 produc+ ! effect ( p]spective & relief4 ,if tru?ful "r-&-left monocul> pictures ( an object be s pres5t$ to ! two eyes t ! optic axes :5 direct$ to !m %all conv]ge at ! same angle z :5 direct$ to ! object itself1 a solid image w be at once p]ceiv$4 ,! p]ception ( relief ref]r$ to is closely connect$ ) ! d\bl5ess ( vision :i* takes place :5 ! images on correspond+ portions ( ! two ret9a are n simil>4 ,b1 if 9 place ( look+ at ! solid object itself we look ) ! "r & left eyes respectively at pictures ( ! object correspond+ to ^? :i* w\ld be =m$ by x on ! ret9a ( ! two eyes if x 7 plac$ at a mod]ate di/ance 9 front ( !m1 & ^! visual pictures br\ght into co9cid5ce1 ! same conception ( a solid =m is g5]at$ 9 ! m9d j z if ! object itself 7 !re4 ,pr(essor ,abbe1 h[ev]1 cont5d$ t ! me?od by :i* dissimil> images are =m$ 9 ! b9ocul> microscope diff]s mat]ially f t ( ord9>y /]eoscopic vision1 & t ! pictures are unit$ solely by ! activity ( ! bra91 n by ! prisms :i* ord9>ily give rise to s5sations ( solidity4 ,?is c be only p>tially true1 z b9ocul>ity 9 ! microscope is due to diff]5ce ( projection exhibit$ by ! diff]5t p>allax displacem5t ( ! images1 & also to ! p]ception ( dep? imp>t$ by ! in/rum5t4 ,:eat/one 0 firmly conv9c$ t 8 /]eoscopic pr9ciple c\ld be appli$ to ! microscope1 & he !re=e appli$ fir/ to ,ross & !n to ,p[ell to assi/ him 9 its adaptation4 ,b :e!r ei!r ( ^! opticians made any attempt to give effect to 8 wi%es & sugge/ions is n kn[n4 ,9 ! ye> #ahea ,pr(essor ,riddell1 ( ,am]ica1 succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ a b9ocul> microscope by employ+ two rectangul> prisms beh9d ! objective4 ,m4 ,na*et also con/ruct$ a b9ocul> ) two body-tubes & a s]ies ( prisms4 ,b nei!r ,riddell's nor ,na*et's in/rum5t 0 ev] br\ght into use2 !y 7 ei!r too complicat$ or too co/ly4 ,x w be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ! b9ocul> /]eoscope comb9es two dissimil> pictures1 :ile ! b9ocul> microscope simply enables ! obs]v] to look ) bo? eyes at images :i* are ess5tially id5tical4 ,/]eoscopic vision1 to be effective1 requires t ! del9eat+ p5cil %all be equally sep>at$1 s t "o portion ( ! admitt$ cone ( light is conduct$ to "o eye1 & ! o!r portion to ! o!r eye4 ,select any object ly+ 9 an incl9$ position1 & place x 9 ! c5tre ( ! field ( view ( ! microscope2 !n1 ) a c>d held close to ! object-glass1 /op (f alt]nately ! "r or left h& portion ( ! front l5s3 x w !n appe> t dur+ ea* alt]nate *ange c]ta9 p>ts ( ! object w *ange _! relative positions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,portions ( ,eggs ( ,cimex4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 ,fig4 #dj a1 b are enl>g$ draw+s ( a portion ( ! egg ( ! common b$-bug 7,cimex lecticul>is71 ! op]culum :i* %\ld cov] ! op5+ hav+ be5 =c$ (f at ! "t ! "y 0 hat*$4 ,! figures exactly repres5t ! two positions t ! incl9$ orifice w occupy :5 ! "r- & left-h& portions ( ! object-glass are /opp$ (f4 ,?is object is view$ z an opaque object1 & drawn "u a two-?irds object-glass ( ab\t #bh ap]ture4 ,if ?is exp]im5t is repeat$1 by hold+ ! c>d ov] ! eye-piece1 & /opp+ (f alt]nately ! "r & left half ( ! ultimate em]g5t p5cil1 exactly ! same *anges & appe>ances w be obs]v$ 9 ! object "u view4 ,! two diff]5t images j produc$ are su* z are requir$ = obta9+ /]eoscopic vision4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t if in/ead ( br++ !m confus$ly toge!r into "o eye we c sep>ate !m s z to br+ toge!r a1 b into ! left & "r eye1 9 ! comb9$ effect ( ! two projections we obta9 at once all t is necess>y to enable u to =m a correct judgm5t ( ! solidity & di/ance ( ! sev]al p>ts ( ! object4 ,ne>ly all objectives f ! "o in* upw>ds ( any consid]able ap]ture give images ( ! object se5 f a diff]5t po9t ( view ) ! two opposite extremes ( ! m>g9 ( ! cone ( rays2 ! result+ effect is t !re are a numb] ( dissimil> p]spectives ( ! object bl5d$ toge!r at "o & ! same "t on ! ret9a4 ,= ?is reason1 if ! object "u view possesses bulk1 a m accurate image w be obta9$ by r$uc+ ! ap]ture ( ! objective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,diagram #c1 ,fig4 #da1 repres5ts ! me?od employ$ by ,mr4 ,w5ham = br++ ! two eyes suffici5tly close to ea* o!r to enable !m bo? to see ?r\gh ! d\ble eye-piece at ! same mom5t4 a a a are rays conv]g+ f ! field l5s ( ! eye-piece2 aft] pass+ ! eye-l5s b1 if n int]cept$1 !y w\ld come to a focus at c2 b !y are arre/$ by ! incl9$ surfaces1 d d1 ( two solid glass prisms4 ,f ! refraction ( ! "u incid5t surface ( ! prisms1 ! focus ( ! eye-piece becomes elongat$1 & falls )9 ! sub/ance ( ! glass at e4 ,! rays !n div]ge1 & aft] be+ reflect$ by ! second incl9$ surface f1 em]ge f ! upp] side ( ! prism1 :5 _! c\rse is r5d]$ /ill m div]g5t1 z %[n by ! figure4 ,! reflect+ angle giv5 to ! prisms is #dg-a_/b1 to accommodate :i* x is necess>y to gr9d away ! contact edges ( ! prisms1 z repres5t$1 o!rwise !y prev5t ! extreme m>g9s ( ! reflect+ surfaces f com+ into op]ation1 :i* are seldom made q p]fect4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--,pr(essor ,abbe's ,/]eoscopic ,eye-pieces4 ,fig4 #db repres5ts a sectional view ( ,abbe's /]eoscopic eye-pieces1 :i* consi/ ( ?ree prisms ( cr[n glass1 a1 b & b1 plac$ bel[ ! field-glass ( ! two eye-pieces2 ! tube c is slipp$ into ! tube or body l an ord9>y eye-piece4 ,! two prisms a & b are unit$ s z to =m a ?ick plate ) p>allel sides1 incl9$ to ! axis at an angle ( #che4 ,! cone ( rays f ! objective is ?us divid$ into two p>ts1 "o be+ transmitt$ & ! o!r reflect$2 t transmitt$ pass+ ?r\gh a b & =m+ an image ( ! object 9 ! axial eye-piece ,b4 ,adju/m5t = diff]5t di/ances betwe5 ! eyes is effect$ by ! screw plac$ to ! "r-h& side ( ! figure1 :i* moves ! eye-piece ,b1 toge!r ) ! prism b1 9 a p>allel direction4 ,! tubes c also be drawn out1 if great] sep>ation is requir$4 ,! special feature ( ?is in/rum5t is t on halv+ ! cone ( rays by turn+ ! caps1 an or?oscopic or pseudoscopic effect is produc$4 ,?is d\ble-ey$ piece arrangem5t ( ,abbe's has n be5 at all br\ght into use 9 ?is c\ntry2 ?is is p>tly ow+ to its orig9al adaptation = use ) ! %ort] ,cont95tal body-tube ( #afj mm41 & n = our #aj-;in* body4 ,! mo/ p]fect me?od ( secur+ pleas+ satisfactory /]eoscopic vision ( objects is t devis$ by ,mr4 ,w5ham4 ,9 8 b9ocul> microscope an equal division ( ! cone ( rays1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! objective is secur$ & aga9 unit$ 9 ! eye-pieces1 :i* act z "o1 s t ea* eye is furni%$ ) an appropriate & simultane\s view ( ! object4 ,! me?ods contriv$ by ! e>li] exp]im5t]s n only mat]ially int]f]$ ) ! def9ition ( ! objective & object1 b also requir$ exp5sive alt]ations & adaptations ( ! microscope1 & sometimes sep>ate /&s = _! employm5t4 ,mr4 ,w5ham's inv5tion1 on ! contr>y1 (f]s no su* ob/acle to its use1 & ! utility ( ! microscope z a monocul> is 9 no way impair$ ei!r :5 us+ ! high] p[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,! mo/ important improvem5t1 !n1 effect$ by ,w5ham consi/s 9 ! splitt+ up or divid+ ! p5cil ( rays proce$+ f ! objective by ! int]position ( a prism ( ! =m %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc4 ,?is is plac$ 9 ! body or tube ( ! microscope s z to int]rupt only "o-half 7a c7 ( ! p5cil1 ! o!r half 7a b7 proce$+ cont9u\sly to ! field-glass1 eye-piece1 ( ! pr9cipal body4 ,! int]rupt$ half ( ! p5cil on its entrance into ! prism is subject$ to v slight refraction1 s9ce its axial ray is p]p5dicul> to ! surface x meets4 ,)91 ! prism is subject$ to two reflections at b & c1 :i* s5d x =? aga9 obliquely on ! l9e b t[>ds ! eye-piece ( ! second>y body1 to ! left-h& side ( ! figure2 & s9ce at its em]g5ce its axial ray is aga9 p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( ! glass1 x suff]s no fur!r refraction on pass+ out ( ! prism ?an on ent]+4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 ! image s5t to ! "r eye is =m$ by rays :i* h pass$ ?r\gh ! left half ( ! objective2 :il/ ! image s5t to ! left eye is =m$ by rays :i* h pass$ ?r\gh ! "r half1 & :i* h be5 subjective to two reflections )9 ! prism1 & pass+ ?r\gh two surfaces ( glass4 ,! prism is held by ! ends only on ! sides ( a small brass draw]1 s t all ! f\r poli%$ surfaces are accessible1 & %\ld slide 9 s f> t its edge may j rea* ! c5tral l9e ( ! objective1 & be drawn back aga9/ a /op1 s z to cle> ! ap]ture ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,sectional view ( ! ,w5ham ,b9ocul>4 ,! b9ocul>1 !n 7,fig4 #dd71 consi/s ( a small prism m\nt$ 9 a brass box ,a1 :i* slides into an op5+ imm$iately above ! object-glass1 & reflects "o-half ( ! rays :i* =m an image ( ! object1 into an additional tube ,b1 atta*$ at an incl9ation to ! ord9>y body ,c4 ,"o half ( ! rays take ! usual c\rse ) _! p]=mance unalt]$2 & ! rema9d]1 ?\gh reflect$ twice1 %[ no loss ( light or def9ition wor?y ( notice1 if ! prism be well made4 ,z ! eyes ( diff]5t p]sons are n ! same di/ance ap>t1 ! fir/ & mo/ important po9t to obs]ve 9 us+ ! b9ocul> is t ea* eye has a full & cle> view ( ! object4 ,?is is easily tri$ by clos+ ea* eye alt]nately )\t mov+ ! head1 :5 x may be f\nd t "s adju/m5t is necess>y by rack+ out ! draw-tubes ,d1 ,e1 ( ! bodies by means ( ! small mill$ head ne> ! eye-pieces2 ?is w increase ! di/ance ( ! c5tres2 &1 on ! contr>y1 ! tubes1 :5 rack$ d[n1 w suit ^? eyes t are ne>] toge!r4 ,if ! prism be drawn back till /opp$ by ! small mill$ head1 ! field ( view 9 ! incl9$ body is d>k5$1 & ! rays f ! :ole ap]ture ( ! object-glass pass into ! ma9 body z usual1 nei!r ! prism nor ! additional body int]f]+ 9 any way ) ! use ( ! in/rum5t z a monocul> microscope4 ,! prism c be )drawn altoge!r = ! purpose ( be+ wip$3 ?is %\ld be done frequ5tly1 & v c>efully1 on all f\r surfaces1 ) a p]fectly clean cambric or silk h&k]*ief or a piece ( wa%-lea!r2 b no h>d sub/ance mu/ be us$4 ,dur+ ?is process ! small piece ( black5$ cork fitt$ betwe5 ! prism & ! ?ick end ( ! brass box may be remov$2 b x mu/ be c>efully replac$ 9 ! same position1 z x s]ves an important purpose 9 /opp+ out extrane\s light4 ,z ! b9ocul> microscope gives a real & natural appe>ance to objects1 ?is effect is consid]ably increas$ by employ+ ^? k9ds ( illum9ation to :i* ! nak$ eye is accu/om$4 ,! mo/ suitable are all ! opaque me?ods :]e ! light is ?r[n d[n ^u ! surface2 b = ^? objects t are semi-transp>5t1 z sections ( bone or tee?1 diatomace1 liv+ aquatic animalcules1 c41 ! d>k-field illum9ation by means ( ! p>abolic reflector w give an equally good result4 ,= p]fectly transp>5t illum9ation1 x is mu* bett] to diffuse ! light by plac+ "u ! object v>i\s sub/ances1 su* z tissue-pap]1 gr\nd glass1 v ?9 porcela91 or a film ( yell[ bees' wax1 run betwe5 two pieces ( ?9 glass4 ,to ensure ! full advantage & relief to bo? eyes 9 prolong$ obs]vations ) high z well z l[ p[]s1 & ) objectives ( l>ge ap]ture1 ,mr4 ,w5ham devis$ a comp\nd prism = use ) 8 b9ocul> microscope1 ! body tubes ( :i* are also made expressly to suit ! prism1 z extreme accuracy is necess>y to br+ !m into prop] position4 ,! ma9 prism some:at resembles 9 =m ! ord9>y ,w5ham prism4 ,ov] ! fir/ reflect+ surface is plac$ a second small] prism1 ! top plane ( :i* is p>allel ) ! base ( ! fir/1 s t direct rays pass ?r\gh )\t deviation1 b at ! two incl9$ surfaces ( ! prisms 7ne>ly 9 contact7 !re is a p>tial reflection f ea*1 :i*1 comb9$1 give z mu* light z 9 ! direct tube4 ,! reflect$ image f ^! two surfaces is direct$ up into ! incl9$ tube z usual4 ,a some:at lat] improvem5t is t ( ,dr4 ,s*ro$]1 ! high p[] prism1 by means ( :i* ! :ole ( ! rays emanat+ f ! objective pass ?r\gh x1 & ! full ap]ture ( any p[] is !reby effectively utilis$4 ,fur!rmore1 ,messrs4 ,ross h also con/ruct$ a "r- & left-h& pair ( eye-pieces1 :i* ensure great] p]fection ( ! image4 ,x 01 9 fact1 notic$ t ! size ( ! image 9 ! left-h& field glass slightly diff]$ f t ( ! "r :5 exam9$ by ! ord9>y ,huygh5ian eye-pieces4 ,to comp5sate = ?is diff]5ce1 ! left-h& eye-piece has be5 c>efully calculat$1 & its focus is n[ s accurately adju/$ t ! position ( ea* eye 9 obs]v+ is br\ght into "o plane ( ! b9ocul>4 ,! pairs ( ! sev]al s]ies ( eye-pieces ,a1 ,b & ,c h also be5 alt]$1 & ! effect is to greatly improve ! image & give increas$ com=t to ! obs]v]4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 :o w>mly esp\s$ ! b9ocul>1 & con/antly employ$ x 9 8 "w1 v truly said ( x3 8,! important advantages ,i f9d x to possess are 9 p5etrat+ p[]1 or focal dep?1 :i* is 9 e way sup]ior to t ( ! monocul> microscope1 s t an object ^: surface pres5ts consid]able inequalities is v mu* m di/9ctly se5 ) ! =m] ?an ) ! latt]40 ,?is diff]5ce may 9 "p be attribut$ to ! practical modification 9 ! angle ( ap]ture ( ! objective1 produc$ by ! division ( ! cone ( rays transmitt$ ?r\gh ! two halves1 s t ! picture or image receiv$ ?r\gh ea* half ( ! objective ( #fj is =m$ by rays div]g+ at an angle ( only ab\t #cj4 ,he confesses1 h[ev]1 t ?is does n satisfactorily expla9 ! fact t ! b9ocul> br+s to ! m9d's eye ! solid image ( ! object1 & ?us gives to ! obs]v] a good idea ( its =m & :i* c\ld h>dly be obta9$ by ! monocul> microscope4 ,c>p5t] cites 9 support ( 8 views ! w+ ( a little-kn[n mo?1 ,z5z]a sculi1 :i* has an undulat+ surface1 :]eon ! scales are set at v>i\s angles in/ead ( hav+ ! usual imbricat$ arrangem5t1 a good object = demon/rat+2 ! g5]al inequality ( surface & ! obliquity ( its scales1 :i* are at once se5 by ! b9ocul> ) a complet5ess n obta9$ by ! monocul> in/rum5t4 ,to "o unaccu/om$ to "w ) ! b9ocul> ! views express$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] z to ! extreme value ( ! in/rum5t = ord9>y "w may appe> some:at exagg]at$1 b f my own exp]i5ce1 hav+ long _h 9 con/ant use a ,ross-,z5tmay] b9ocul>1 furni%$ ) a special prism1 con/ruct$ = work+ ) a #a_/h dry objective or a #a_/aj imm]sion1 ! p]fection ( picture obta9$ 0 9 e case q equal to t ( ! monocul> microscope4 ,! relief to ! eyes c h>dly be ov]-e/imat$2 ! slight inequality ( ! p5cil rays may be reg>d$ r z a "p ( ! welcome re/ af=d$ :5 a prolong$ exam9ation is made2 x c]ta9ly appe>s to me to equalise ! slight physiological diff]5ce kn[n to exi/ betwe5 ! eyes ( mo/ p4 ,if "o image is se5 a little cle>] by ! /rong] eye1 ! weak] eye assi/s r m ! /]eoscopic effect ( ! object "u obs]vation4 ,! advantage ga9$ by ! b9ocul> is p]haps m appreciat$ :5 opaque objects are "u exam9ation1 z ! eggs ( insects1 & ! tongue ( ! bl[-fly1 specim5s ( mosses1 li*5s1 p>asites 7vegetable & animal71 ^: planes & inequalities ( surface require p5etration1 & :i* usually dem& m "t = _! obs]vation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--,swift-,/eph5son's ,erect+ ,b9ocul>4 ,no v>iation or *ange ( any k9d propos$ ei!r 9 ! =m ( ! in/rum5t or ! prism has prov$ ( suffici5t value or importance to br+ x into use1 & !re=e ,w5ham's in/rum5t is sc>cely likely to be sup]s$$4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! improvem5t effect$ 9 ! eye-piece =m by ,mr4 ,tolles1 ( ,bo/on1 ,u4,s41 is an exception to ! rule laid d[n4 ,x consi/s 9 m\nt+ ! prisms 9 a light mat]ial1 vulcanite1 made to fit into ! monocul> microscope body1 ?us tak+ ! place ( ! ord9>y eye-piece4 ,! image transmitt$ by ! objective is br\ght to a focus on ! face ( ! fir/ equilat]al triangul> prism by ! int]v5tion ( an erector-eye-piece ins]t$ b5ea? x4 ,! second set ( prisms h a rack & p9ion movem5t to adju/ !m to any visual angle4 ,! illum9ation ( bo? fields 9 ?is eye-piece is ne>ly equal 9 brightness4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son's erect+ b9ocul> 7,fig4 #de7 has prov$ to be ( "s practical value4 ,x has ! advantage ( be+ ( equal use ) high & l[ p[]s1 & ) little loss ( def9ition4 ,:5 us$ = dissect+ purposes x gives an erect image ( ! object4 ,x is equally useful z a work+ microscope1 = arrang+ diatoms & botanical specim5s ( e k9d4 ,! sub-/age tube w receive a diaphragm or illum9at+ app>atus2 ! eye-pieces h a slid+ adju/m5t = regulat+ ! wid?s betwe5 eyes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,an e>ly =m ( ! ,ross-,w5ham ,b9ocul>2 nose-piece & prism-hold] deta*$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,simple & ,comp\nd ,microscope4 ,microscopes are kn[n z simple & comp\nd4 ,! simple microscope may1 = conv5i5ce1 be divid$ into two classes2 ^? us$ 9 ! h& 7h& magnifi]s71 & ^? provid$ ) a /& 7m\nt$1 z x is t]m$7 = support+ ! object to be view$1 toge!r ) an adju/m5t = ! magnify+ p[]1 & a mirror = reflect+ ! light ?r\gh ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,visual ,angle4 ,a simple microscope1 m\nt$1 is pref]able to a s+le l5s1 be+ usually compos$ ( two or m l5ses sep>at$ by a small di/ance on a common axis2 ! increase ( ! size ( an object be+ ! angle x subt5ds to ! eye ( ! obs]v]1 or ! angle =m$ by ! comb9ation drawn f ! axis ( vision to ! extremity ( ! object1 z 9 ,fig4 #dg4 ,! l9es drawn f ! eye to a & r =m an angle1 :i*1 :5 ! di/ance is small1 is ne>ly twice z l>ge z ! angle f ! eye to o w1 =m$ by l9es drawn at twice ! di/ance4 ,?is is call$ ! angle ( vision1 or ! visual angle4 ,n[1 ! utility ( a convex l5s int]pos$ betwe5 a ne> object & ! eye consi/s 9 its r$uc+ ! div]g5ce ( ! rays =m+ ! sev]al p5cils issu+ f x1 s t !y ent] ! eye 9 a /ate ( mod]ate div]g5ce1 z if !y 7 issu+ f an object beyond ! ne> po9t ( di/9ct vision1 & a well-def9$ image is !reby =m$ ^u ! ret9a4 ,9 ! next ,fig4 7#dh71 a d\ble-convex l5s illu/rates ! action ( ! simple microscope1 ! small arr[ be+ ! object br\ght "u view1 & ! l>ge arr[ ! magnifi$ image4 ,! rays hav+ fir/ pass$ ?r\gh ! l5s are b5t into ne>ly p>allel l9es1 or p5cils div]g+ f "s po9t )9 ! limits ( di/9ct vision4 ,?us alt]$1 ! eye receives rays precisely z if !y _h emanat$ directly f a l>g] arr[ plac$ ab\t t5 in*es away f x4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! real & ! imag9>y object repres5ts ! magnify+ p[] ( ! l5s4 ,! object 9 ?is case is magnifi$ ne>ly 9 ! proportion ! focal di/ance ( ! l5s be>s to ! di/ance ( ! object :5 view$ by ! unassi/$ eye2 & ?is is due to ! object be+ m di/9ctly view$ s mu* ne>] to ! eye ?an x o!rwise c\ld be )\t ! l5s4#ah ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,virtual ,image =m$ by ,convex ,l5s4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! %ort] ! focus & ! ne>] ! eye ! magnify+ l5s is plac$ ! small] w be ! diamet] ( ! sph]e ( :i* x =ms a "p1 & unless its ap]ture be proportionally r$uc$1 ! di/9ctness ( ! image w be de/roy$ by ! sph]ical & *romatic ab]rations ( its high curvature4 ,nev]!less1 x 0 by ! use ( l5ses s con/ruct$ t ! old] microscopi/s--( :om ,leeuw5hoek 0 ! m em95t--7 enabl$ to d s mu* excell5t "w4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( simple pocket l5ses = ! mo/ "p consi/ ( a d\ble-convex1 or a plano-convex1 or a comb9ation ( bo?1 v>y+ 9 focal l5g? f a qu>t] ( an in* to two in*es4 ,sometimes !y are set 9 pairs ) a hole1 a small diaphragm1 cut 9 ! piece ( horn plac$ betwe5 !m4 ,^! are extremely useful = c>ry+ 9 ! wai/coat pocket2 to ! anatomi/ & field botani/ = exam9+ v>i\s objects & prep>ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,wolla/on's ,d\blet4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important improvem5t effect$ 9 ?is =m ( ! simple microscope 0 t ascrib$ to ! celebrat$ ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 :o devis$ a d\blet ( two plano-convex l5ses hav+ _! focal l5g?s1 9 ! proportion ( "o to ?ree1 m\nt$ ) _! convex side direct$ t[>ds ! eye ( ! obs]v]1 & ! l5s ( %ort] focal l5g? next ! object4 ,! explanation giv5 ( ! correction ?us effect$ 9 ,dr4 ,wolla/on's d\blet w be be/ und]/ood on ref]5ce to ! annex$ diagram1 l l1 9 ,fig4 #di1 be+ ! object = a segm5t ( ! cornea ( ! eye1 & d d ! /op or diaphragm4 ,n[1 x w be se5 t ea* p5cil ( light proce$+ f l l1 ! object1 is r5d]$ exc5trical by ! limit+ ap]ture or ! diaphragm d d2 consequ5tly1 !y pass ?r\gh ! l5ses on opposite sides ( _! common axis o p2 ?us ea* becomes affect$ by opposite errors1 :i* to "s ext5t balance & correct ea* o!r4 ,to take ! p5cil l1 = in/ance1 z x ent]s ! eye at r b2 r b is b5t to ! "r at ! fir/ l5s1 & to ! left at ! second2 & z ea* b5d+ alt]s ! direction ( ! blue ray m ?an ! r$1 & z ! blue ray falls ne>] ! m>g9 ( ! second l5s1 :]e ! refraction is great] ?an t ne>] ! c5tre1 & comp5sates to "s ext5t = ! great] focal l5g? ( ! second l5s1 ! blue rays w em]ge v ne>ly p>allel1 & col\rless to ! eye4 ,at ! same "t1 its sph]ical ab]ration has be5 dim9i%$1 s9ce ! side ( ! p5cil z x proce$s ?r\gh "o l5s passes ne>] ! axis1 & 9 ! o!r ne>] ! m>g94 ,?is mu/ be tak5 to apply to p5cils f>!/ f ! c5tre ( ! object4 ,c5tral rays1 x is obvi\s1 w\ld pass bo? l5ses symmetrically1 ! same portions ( rays occupy+ ne>ly ! same relative places 9 bo? l5ses4 ,! blue ray w\ld ent] ! second l5s ne>] its axis ?an ! r$2 & be+ ?us less refract$ ?an ! r$ by ! second l5s1 "s am\nt ( comp5sation w\ld take place1 diff]+ 9 pr9ciple1 & inf]ior 9 degree1 to t :i* is f\nd 9 ! exc5trical p5cils4 ,9 ! int]m$iate spaces ! corrections are /ill m imp]fect & unc]ta92 & ?is expla9s ! cause ( ab]rations :i* mu/ ( necessity exi/ ev5 9 ! be/-made d\blet4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 inf9itely sup]ior to a s+le l5s1 & w transmit a p5cil ( an angle ( f #ce to #ej4 ,! next /ep t[>ds improv+ ! simple microscope 0 9 relation to ! eye-piece1 & 0 effect$ by ,holl&4 ,x consi/$ 9 sub/itut+ two l5ses = ! fir/ 9 ! d\blet1 & plac+ a /op betwe5 !m & ! ?ird4 ,! fir/ b5d+ ( ! p5cils ( light be+ effect$ by two l5ses in/ead ( "o1 produces less sph]ical & *romatic ab]ration1 :i* are m ne>ly balanc$ or correct$ at ! second b5d+1 & 9 ! opposite direction1 by ! ?ird l5s4 ,ano!r =m ( simple l5s 0 devis$ by ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 ! 8,p]iscopic40 ,?is comb9ation consi/s ( two hemisph]ical l5ses cem5t$ toge!r by _! plane faces1 ) a /op betwe5 !m to limit ! ap]ture4 ,a simil> proposal1 made by ,sir ,david ,brew/] 9 #ahbj1 is kn[n z ! ,codd+ton l5s1#ai %[n at ,fig4 #ej3 ?is has a some:at l>g] field1 & is equally balanc$ 9 all directions1 z is made evid5t1 ! p5cils a b & b a pass+ ?r\gh "u precisely ! same circum/ances4 ,its sph]ical =m has ! fur!r advantage ( r5d]+ ! position 9 :i* x is held ( comp>atively little consequ5ce4 ,x is /ill us$ z a h& magnifi]1 al?\gh its def9ition is c]ta9ly n s good z t ( a well-made d\blet4 ,x is usually set 9 a fold+ case1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 & s contriv$ z to be admirably adapt$ = ! wai/coat-pocket4 ,x is usually sold ) ! small hold]1 ,fig4 #ej;a1 = hold+ & secur+ small objects dur+ exam9ation4 ,br[n+'s ,platyscopic ,pocket ,l5s is a useful =m ( pocket l5s = ! botani/ & m9]alogi/4 ,its focus is ne>ly ?ree times long] ?an t ( ! ,codd+ton1 & all[s ( opaque objects be+ m easily exam9$2 x has also a magnify+ p[] ( #ae1 #bj1 & #cj diamet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,! ,codd+ton ,l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej;a4 ,"o ( ! be/ comb9ations ( ! h& or pocket =m ( l5s is t kn[n z ,/e9heil's aplanatic l5s 7,fig4 #ea72 x consi/s ( a bi-convex l5s cem5t$ betwe5 two concavo-convex l5ses1 giv+ a relatively long focal di/ance & a l>ge flat field4 ,! high] p[]s ( ?is l5s are mu* us$ = dissect+ purposes4 ,?is h&y magnifi] appe>s to h sugge/$ a lat] comb9ation1 ! apo*romatic ( ,zeiss4 ,no h& l5s c comp>e ) ,/e9heil's 8l\ps40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,/e9heil's ,aplanatic ,l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,simple ,microscope4 ,:5 ! magnify+ p[] ( a l5s is consid]able1 or :5 its focal l5g? is %ort1 or x is wi%$ to use x ) great] precision & /ead9ess1 x %\ld be m\nt$ on a %ort /& ) a tubul> /em1 ) rack-"w focuss+ movem5t & mirror illum9ation4 ,fig4 #eb repres5ts a simple dissect+ microscope1 ) a glass circul> /age1 #d-a_/b in*es 9 diamet]1 support$ on ?ree legs--a h&y & useful =m ( in/rum5t = _m purposes4 ,! ,comp\nd ,microscope4 ,! comp\nd microscope diff]s f ! simple1 inasmu* z ! image is =m$ by an object-glass1 & fur!r magnifi$ by "o or m l5ses =m+ an eye-glass4 ,= a microscope to be a comp\nd "o1 its ess5tial qualification is t x %\ld h an object-glass or objective1 & an eye-glass or eye-piece1 s call$ because !y are respectively ne> ! object & ! eye ( ! obs]v] :5 ! in/rum5t is 9 use4 ,! microscope consi/s ( a tube or body1 & a /&1 an arrangem5t = c>ry+ ! body1 comb9$ ) :i* is a /age = hold+ ! object1 & a mirror = its illum9ation4 ,to ! m mod]n in/rum5t has be5 add$ a sub/age1 to c>ry a cond5s] & o!r accessories4 ,! body ( a microscope1 :i* c>ries ! sy/em ( magnify+ l5ses1 mu/ be plac$ at "o p>ticul> di/ance f ! object1 t]m$ ! focus1 9 ord] t a cle> image may be obta9$4 ,= ! purpose ( focuss+ two motions are suppli$1 ! "o = co>se adju/m5t1 ) l[] p[]s2 ! o!r = high] p[]s1 t]m$ ! f9e adju/m5t4 ,x is 9 ?is wise t ! magnify+ p[] ( ! comp\nd microscope is turn$ to good acc\nt4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 limits to ! use to :i* l5ses c be put ) advantage 9 ! direction ( magnify+ ! object1 j z !re are 9 v>y+ ! magnify+ p[] ( ! eye-glass4 ,defects 9 ei!r1 al?\gh n fir/ se51 t is1 :5 ! image is b mod]ately enl>g$1 are br\ght into prom95ce by great] amplification4 ,9 practice1 !re=e1 x is f\nd to be ( advantage to v>y ! p[] by employ+ object-glasses ( diff]5t values 7foci74 ,9 :atev] way increase ( amplification is br\ght ab\t1 two ?+s w always result f ! *ange3 ! proportion ( surface ( ! object ( :i* an image c be =m$ mu/ be dim9i%$1 & ! am\nt ( light spread ov] ! image proportionally less5$4 ,9 addition to ! two l5ses m5tion$1 x 0 f\nd to be ( consid]able advantage to introduce a ?ird l5s betwe5 ! object-glass & ! image =m$ by x at eye-piece1 ! purport ( :i* is to *ange ! c\rse ( ! rays 7b5d 9 ! p5cil7 s t ! image may n be f\nd ( too great a dim5sion = ! :ole to be br\ght )9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! eye-glass4 ,?is1 x w be readily se51 all[s m ( ! object to be view$ at ! same "t by ! field-glass1 z ! eye-piece ( ! microscope is t]m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ec repres5ts ! body ( an ord9>y comp\nd microscope ) its triplet object-glasses2 o is an object1 above x is ! triple a*romatic object-glass1 9 connection ) ! eye-piece e e1 f f ! plano-convex l5ses2 e e be+ ! eye-glass1 & f f ! field-glass1 betwe5 :i*1 at b b1 ! arr[ repres5ts ! diaphragm4 ,! c\rse ( ! light is %[n by ?ree rays drawn f ! c5tre1 & ?ree f ea* end ( ! object o2 ^! rays1 if n prev5t$ by ! l5s f f1 & ! diaphragm b b1 w\ld =m an image at a a2 b "h1 z !y meet ) ! l5s f f 9 _! passage1 are conv]g$ by x at b b1 ! diaphragm at b b int]cept+ a portion ( p]iph]al rays1 p]mitt+ only ^? to pass t are necess>y = ! =mation ( ! image1 ! fur!r magnification ( :i* is1 h[ev]1 "h br\ght ab\t by ! eye-glass e e1 precisely z if x 7 t ( ! orig9al object "u exam9ation4 ,x w be app>5t1 !n1 t ! field-l5s f f belongs 9 pr9ciple to ! object-glass1 or objective1 tak+ a %>e 9 ! image-=m+ rays1 al?\gh ?is is tak5 to be a "p ( ! eye-piece4 ,evolution ( ! ,mod]n ,a*romatic ,microscope4 ,! great advances made 9 ! optical arrangem5ts ( ! mod]n microscope necessitat$ important *anges & improvem5ts 9 its sev]al me*anical p>ts4 ,inde$1 z ! ap]tures ( objectives became increas$1 & focal planes became correspond+ly %all[]1 x 0 absolutely necess>y to apply a m s5sitive sy/em ( focuss+ ?an t = _m ye>s pa/ commonly 9 use4 ,! lead+ manufactur]s at once grasp$ ! situation1 & 9 a %ort space ( "t ! old] model microscopes 7 disc>d$1 & replac$ by in/rum5ts bett] 9 workman%ip & f9i%1 & 9 e way m suitable = ! /ud5t & ! promotion ( orig9al sci5tific rese>*4 ,f an e>ly p]iod ,engli% amateurs appe> to h be/[$ great] att5tion on ! improvem5t ( ! microscope ?an ^? ( any o!r c\ntry4 ,betwe5 #ahbj & #ahce ,tully1 ,prit*>d1 ,doll&1 ,james ,smi?1 ,&rew ,ross1 & ,hugh ,p[ell1 enc\rag$ by ,wolla/on1 ,brew/]1 ,gor+1 ,h]s*el1 & ,li/]1 work$ out innum]able comb9ations ( s+le & comp\nd l5ses to be employ$ z simple microscopes1 expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,! !ories prop\nd$ ab\t ?is "t = ! improvem5t ( l5ses & ! v>i\s comb9ations = amateurs 7 n ( la/+ value4 ,nev]!less1 !y 7 n :olly made 9 va91 z dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s !y h indirectly borne good fruit1 inasmu* z by work+ 9 ano!r direction ,pr(essor ,abbe 0 l$ to ! discov]y ( new & bett] k9ds ( glass1 by :i* ! second>y spectrum has be5 s ne>ly elim9at$1 & ! optical p>ts ( ! microscope s mat]ially improv$4 ,9 pursu+ ?is subject ,i w\ld n h x suppos$ t ,cont95tal opticians 7 ei!r idle or sup9e4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,ob]hus]1 ,fraunh(]1 ,*evali]1 ,na*et1 ,h>tna*1 & o!rs took an active "p 9 ! "w4 ,! comp\nd microscope made = anatomi/s by ! fir/-nam$ optician ab\t #ahbe has n be5 entirely sup]s$$4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to make a rotat+ /age1 to apply me*anism to focuss+1 & to introduce ! sy/em ( direct pu% or pull ( ! cond5s] tube )9 ! sub-/age socket4 ,na*et made o!r improvem5ts on ! ,ob]hus] microscope by apply+ "u ! /age a tail-piece hav+ a dove-tail$ groove 9 :i* a slide c>ry+ ! sub-/age 0 mov$ by a /ud-p94 ,m rec5tly ! lev] movem5t 0 sup]s$$ by ,am]ican opticians1 :o made o!r *anges4 ,h>tna* ultimately v mu* improv$ ,ob]hus]'s model1 & ?is rema9s ) u4 ,! ,engli% mod]n comp\nd microscope1 toge!r ) ! a*romatic objective1 we owe to a m9d teem+ ) sci5tific inv5tions1 ,joseph ,jackson ,li/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 :o 9 #ahbf suppli$ ,mr4 ,tully1 a well-kn[n ,london optician ( t p]iod1 ) orig9al draw+s = ! important improvem5ts 9 its me*anical details & accessory app>atus :i* foll[$ s soon aft]w>ds4 ,among ! _m +5i\s novelties enum]at$ 9 8 publi%$ pap]s we f9d ! graduat$ l5g!n+ ( ! body-tube ( ! microscope2 a /age-fitt+ = clamp+ & rotat+ ! object2 a subsidi>y /age2 a d>k-well1 & a l>ge disc to incl9e & rotate opaque objects2 a gr\nd-glass light mod]ator2 a live-box ) bevell$ flat-glass plate2 an erector-eye-piece2 an adapt] = us+ ,wolla/on's cam]a lucida = microscopical draw+2 &1 above all1 a comb9ation ( l5ses to act z a cond5s] "u ! object 7evid5tly ! fir/ approa* to ! pres5t a*romatic sub-/age cond5s]74 ,! value ( ! erector-eye-piece = facilitat+ dissections "u ! microscope is n ev5 yet suffici5tly appreciat$4 ,tully publi%$ a descriptive acc\nt ( ,li/]'s microscope1 ! fir/ "o ( :i* he made1 & ackn[l$g$ 8 indebt$ness to 8,mr4 ,li/]'s +5uity & skill40 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ,li/] made kn[n 8 discov]y ( ! two aplanatic foci 9 a d\ble a*romatic object glass1 & gave v]bal directions to ! ?ree pr9cipal mak]s ( microscopes 9 ,london1 ,james ,smi?1 ,&rew ,ross1 & ,hugh ,p[ell1 = ! future con/ruction ( ! a*romatic objective1 all ( :om 7 int5t on ! improvem5t ( _! sev]al models4 ,to ! latt] ! ,society ( ,arts aw>d$1 9 #ahcb1 a m$al = 8 improv$ me*anical /age movem5ts1 on ! 8,turrell sy/em10 :i* ,p[ell fir/ con/ruct$ = ,edmund ,turrell4 ,?is /age 0 made to rotate completely on its optic axis by means ( an obliquely-plac$ p9ion act+ on a bevell$ rack on ! inn] face ( ! /age-r+ support+ ! me*anism4 ,9 #ahcd ,p[ell once m receiv$ a ,society ( ,arts m$al1 8! ,iris10 = improvem5ts 9 ! application ( a new =m ( f9e adju/m5t4 ,ab\t ! same date 7#ahce7 ,&rew ,ross introduc$ ! socket-c>ri] ( ! body-tube ( ! microscope on a /rong /em1 ) rack b5t 9 ! middle1 ?us af=d+ space = a l>g] /age4 ,he likewise devis$ ! holl[ cross-b>1 plac$ at "r angles to ! rack-/em1 :]eby he 0 enabl$ to use a new sy/em ( f9e adju/m5t1 consi/+ ( a delicate screw ) l>ge mill$ head1 act+ by a po9t on ! long arm ( a lev]1 ! %ort arm ( :i* ends 9 a =k 9 contact ) a /ud plac$ on ei!r side ( a cyl9drical slid+ tube =m+ ! nose-piece ( ! body-tube1 & into :i* ! objective is screw$4 ,a spiral spr+ presses d[n ! nose-piece1 & aga9/ ?is ! screw & lev] act4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ really s5sitive focuss+ me?od appli$ to ! nose-piece2 x 01 & probably is1 "o ( ! mo/ delicate sy/ems ev] appli$ to ! microscope4 ,x has enjoy$ a long p]iod ( popul>ity1 & ,i believe x /ill survives 9 ,p[ell & ,leal&'s in/rum5ts1 :i* are v g5]ally admitt$ to be ( sup]ior excell5ce = all purposes :]e extreme delicacy ( focuss+ is an ess5tial elem5t4 ,! rival sy/em ( f9e adju/m5t--! %ort lev] & screw appli$ ext]nally to ! body-tube--kn[n z ! ,li/]-,jackson sy/em1 :i* appe>s to h be5 contriv$ to all[ ! body-tube to be support$ m firmly on ! limb or /em1 has _h its m]its ably realis$ 9 ! microscopes ( ,smi? & ,beck & _! successors1 b1 except z modifi$ by ! successors ( ,&rew ,ross 7,s*rd]'s =m71 x is1 ,i believe1 admitt$ t x has be5 sup]s$$ by o!r modifications lately introduc$ into ! ,ross-,jackson in/rum5t4 ,! ye> #ahcj 01 h[ev]1 a propiti\s p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! mod]n microscope1 z 9 ,janu>y ( t ye> ,mr4 ,li/] publi%$ 8 epo*-mak+ pap]1 8,on ! ,improvem5t ( ! ,a*romatic ,microscope40 ,?is appe>$ toge!r ) c]ta9 p]sonal practical directions 7= no man 0 ev] m anxi\s to communicate 8 k ?an ,mr4 ,li/]7 to ! be=e-m5tion$ opticians1 :i* l$ up to *anges la/+ until #ahdj1 :51 by ! ef=ts ( ?is g5tleman & 8 p]sonal fri5ds1 8,! ,microscopical ,society ( ,london0 came into exi/5ce4 ,among ! m prom95t memb]s ( ! ,society 0 ,mr4 ,george ,jackson1 a "n /ill well kn[n to microscopi/s1 & :o1 jo9tly ) ,mr4 ,li/]1 gave u ! ,jackson-,li/] =m ( microscope4 ,?is 0 =?) accept$ z a p]fect model4 ,soon aft] ,&rew ,ross effect$ a fur!r *ange 9 ! in/rum5t1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ed 9 its complete =m z left by ?is optician4 ,x is "h repres5t$ z hav+ a b> movem5t1 ) a claw foot bolt$ to two uprights to c>ry ! trunnions ) ! body & /age4 ,?is base1 is insuffici5tly wide & ext5d$ to c>ry s l>ge an in/rum5t ) its c5tre ( gravity s high4 ,! co>se adju/m5t b> also 0 rectangul>1 & ! f9e adju/m5t a lev]1 ) ! mill$ head 9 ! middle ( ! b>1 :i* involv$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( tremor2 )al x 0 an in/rum5t ( excell5t workman%ip1 & its defects 7 n reg>d$ z irrem$iable4 ,messrs4 ,ross1 h[ev]1 pref]r$ to con/ruct an entirely new model design$ by ,z5tmay]1 ! 8,ross-,jackson-,z5tmay]10 to :i* ,i %all ref] pres5tly4 ,a lat] model1 h[ev]1 has to "s ext5t tak5 its place1 8! ,hi/ological & ,bact]iological ,microscope10 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,an e>ly ,ross-,jackson ,microscope4 ,my ref]5ce to ! old] =m ( in/rum5t is *iefly ) ! view ( direct+ att5tion to ! s5sitive focuss+ sy/em1 appli$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance to ! nose-piece2 n[ plac$ bel[ ! co>se adju/m5t4 ,x c]ta9ly is a delicate =m ( f9e adju/m5t4 ,?is model possesses o!r po9ts ( int]e/ well wor? pres]v+1 :i* fully entitle x to occupy ! prom95t place giv5 9 ! li/ ( ! h\se ( ,ross4 ,9 ! ,ross-,jackson 8,hi/ological & ,bact]iological ,microscope0 mu* att5tion seems to h be5 giv5 to elim9ate c]ta9 weak po9ts 9 ! e>li] ,ross-,jackson model--defects /ill extant 9 /&s ( c]ta9 ,engli% & =eign mak]s--:ile reta9+ ! m practical improvem5ts ( bo? con/ructions4 ,/ead9ess is secur$ by an ext5sion ( ! tripod or claw-foot & ! %ort] & m solid uprights t su/a9 ! :ole weight ( ! in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,! ,ross-,jackson ,hi/ological ,microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,p[ell & ,leal&'s ,/ud5ts' ,microscope1 ) ,amici prism arrang$ = oblique illum9ation1 ! ,sub-/age & ,cond5s] be+ deta*$4 ,! ,ross-,jackson1 !n1 survives1 toge!r ) ! orig9al tripod /& ( ,hugh ,p[ell's1 ^u :i* he exp5d$ all ! res\rces ( ! practical optician1 & appli$ ! e>ly pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! ,li/]-,jackson in/rum5t1 b f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,h[ev]1 !re is h>dly a *oice betwe5 "o & ! o!r 9 workman%ip1 bo? opticians hav+ furni%$ microscopes ( a typical class & v high ord]4 ,! firm ( ,p[ell & ,leal& h b "o =m ( /&1 f :i* !y h nev] be5 tempt$ to deviate4 ,x is support$ on a true tripod base1 =m+ a solid & sub/antial support to ! body1 :i* is ( su* a l5g? z to give z ne>ly z possible ! /&>d optical int]val ( #aj in*es betwe5 ! po/]ior pr9cipal focus ( ! objective & ! ant]ior focus ( ! eye-piece2 ! v>iation 9 ! optical tube l5g? does n exce$ a qu>t] ( an in* ) objectives ( #a_/b in* & upw>ds4 ,! arm on :i* ! body is fix$ is #e-c_/d in*es long1 :i* n only gives a cle>ance ( #c-a_/b in*es f ! optic axis1 b also p]mits ( ! introduction ( a long f9e-adju/m5t lev]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,p[ell's l>g] ,no4 #b ,in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,p[ell & ,leal&'s ,/ud5ts' ,microscope arrang$ = direct illum9ation4 ,a4 ,second>y or ,sub-/age rack$ up to br+ ! ,a*romatic ,cond5s] close to ! object4 ,! cross arm encloses ! lev] me*anism = ! f9e adju/m5t1 z orig9ally devis$ by ,&rew ,ross4 ,?is cross arm is long] ?an t us$ by ,ross1 & c>ries ! body m =w>d1 s z to provide radial space = ! complete rotation ( ! /age & ! optic axis1 & at ! same "t ! lev] ( ! adju/m5t is l5g!n$1 & delicacy ( motion secur$4 ,! /age reta9s ! me*anical movem5ts inv5t$ by ,e4 ,turrell1 & fir/ appli$ by ,hugh ,p[ell4 ,x also rotates completely by means ( an obliquely plac$ p9ion act+ on a bevell$ rack on ! inn] face ( ! /age-r+ support+ ! me*anism4 ,f9d]s are engrav$ on ! plates1 & ! ma9 support ( ! /age-r+ is graduat$ = angle measur+1 a po9t] on ! r+ m>k+ ! unit ( motion 9 arc4 ,! sub-/age is c>ri$ by rack-"w1 & has rectangul> c5tr+ movem5ts1 support+ an inn] socket t c be rotat$ by rack & p9ion1 & :i* c>ries ! sev]al sub-/age accessories4 ,a f9e adju/m5t1 by screw-cone & /ud1 is appli$ by means ( an extra slide4 ,! /age is atta*$ to ! %ea? ( ! /em by a special arrangem5t ( screws1 by :i* ! rotation 9 ! optic axis c be c5tr$2 slid+ spr+ clips & a movable & a removable & adju/able angle-piece to hold ! slides are appli$ on ! upp] surface4 ,! body-tube is pivot$ to move lat]ally on ! top ( ! /em1 & an adju/able /eel /ud b5ea? s]ves to /op ! movem5t 9 ! axis4 ,su* is ,p[ell's pres5t in/rum5t1 & x repres5ts ! results ( sixty ye>s' /eady devotion to secure p]fection1 & at ! same "t embody ! be/ ideas ( me*anical design by ,&rew ,ross4 ,a *eap] =m ( /ud5ts' microscope is furni%$ by ,p[ell & ,leal&1 ) #c_/d-;in* /age movem5t1 co>se & f9e adju/m5ts to body1 plane & concave mirrors1 revolv+ diaphragm1 two eye-pieces1 & ,li/]'s d>k wells4 ,^! mak]s also adopt a gauge ( tub+1 ! size be+ su* t x w take 9 a b9ocul> body1 a ,huygh5ian #b in* eye-piece hav+ ! l>ge/ field-glass possible4 ,! tube ( ! sub-/age is ! same size1 s z to secure "o gauge ( tub+ ?r\gh\t4 ,?is all[s ( a ,kelln] or o!r eye-piece to be us$ z a cond5s]4 ,ross's ,microscopes4 ,messrs4 ,ross h m rec5tly introduc$ sev]al *anges & modifications 9 ! ,z5tmay] /&1 all t5d+ to improve x1 s t ! ,ross-,z5tmay] model takes its place z a fir/-class microscope4 ,messrs4 ,ross h lately manufactur$ o!r =ms ( microscopes2 "o especially design$ = ^? comm5c+ ! /udy ( bact]iology 7,fig4 #ei74 ,?is in/rum5t is "o ( ! /eadie/ among ^? lately con/ruct$ = high-class "w4 ,! circul> foot & %ort /\t pill> support ! :ole in/rum5t1 & a sub/antial knee-jo9t su/a9s ! full weight 9 ! upright or incl9$ positions1 :ile ! c5tre ( gravity is by no means di/urb$1 & absolute /ead9ess secur$4 ,! /age is ( ! horse-%oe =m1 :i* af=ds conv5i5t space = ! f+]s to lift ! slide up :ile ! oil is plac$ 9 contact ) ! objective4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is extremely s5sitive1 work+ smoo?ly & direct2 ?is is entirely cov]$1 to prev5t injury by du/4 ,! micromet] screw works directly 9 ! c5tre ( its fitt+s1 ! mill$ head be+ divid$ to read to #a_/ejj ( an in*4 ,! sub-/age is fitt$ ) a new c5tr+ co>se & f9e adju/m5t1 s t :5 us+ high p[]s ) ! ,abbe cond5s] accurate focus c be secur$ ) ! lea/ am\nt ( tr\ble4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,ross's 8,bact]iological & ,hi/ological0 ,microscope4 ,! am\nt ( activity %[n dur+ ! la/ few ye>s by opticians 9 ! manufacture ( new =ms ( microscopes r5d]s x some:at difficult to keep pace ) improvem5ts1 "s ( :i* are novel4 ,a fur!r s\rce ( congratulation is t economy has all along be5 /udi$2 s mu* s1 t ! in/rum5ts 9 "q are )9 ! rea* ( p]sons ( mod]ate means4 ,messrs4 ,ross & ,co4 h tak5 a new dep>ture 9 ?is respect1 & _! 8,eclipse0 ,microscope is an entirely new =m ( /& ) a r+ foot4 ,?is microscope has be5 produc$ = ! especial use ( /ud5ts1 & c be pur*as$ = a mod]ate sum4 ,x w be se5 at a glance 7,fig4 #fj7 h[ /eady ?is =m ( /& mu/ necess>ily be1 s9ce ! c5tre ( gravity is secur$ 9 e direction & incl9ation4 ,! body-tube c>ries eye-pieces1 numb]$1 ( ! ,cont95tal size & optical tube-l5g? 7#afj mm471 = :i* ! object glasses are adju/$1 & a draw-tube ext5d+ to eight in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,ross's ,rigid ,patt]n 8,eclipse0 ,microscope4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is indep5d5t ( set screws1 & n subject to d]angem5t4 ,x is extremely s5sitive & direct 9 action1 & f its con/ruction is equal 9 p]fection ( work+ to ! be/ t c be made4 ,its fitt+1 by a new contrivance1 is completely cov]$ at all po9ts1 be+ ?us pres]v$ f di/urbance or injury by du/4 ,! ,eclipse is furni%$ ) two eye-pieces1 #a & #a_/d object glasses ( highe/ excell5ce & l>ge angul> ap]ture1 bo? adju/$ to a d\ble nose-piece1 s t !y focus 9 ! same plane2 & a sw++ mirror & /age iris diaphragm4 ,9 8,w5ham's ,radial0 ,microscope ! *ief aim has be5 direct$ t[>ds provid+ a v consid]able range ( effects1 bo? 9 altitude & azimu?4 ,! lead+ pr9ciple foll[$ ?r\gh\t 9 ! con/ruction ( ?is =m ( /& is t ( facilitat+ ! "w ( ! microscopi/ & ( obta9+ ! maximum range ( oblique illum9ation 9 all directions4 ,?is is fairly well atta9$ by caus+ all ! movem5ts ( incl9ation & rotation to radiate f ! object z a common c5tre4 ,?us x has be5 f\nd possible to comb9e sev5 radial motions1 s t :5 ! in/rum5t is incl9$ backw>ds1 z 9 ,fig4 #fa1 or plac$ 9 ! horizontal1 z 9 ,fig4 #fb or rotat$ f 9 ! brass plate1 a p5cil ( light f a fix$ s\rce %all always rea* ! object & pass to ! objective4 ,! /age is made to rotate completely1 & its rectangul> motions are effect$ by mill$ heads act+ entirely )9 ! circumf]5ce4 ,! sub-/age is m\nt$ on ! ,z5tmay] sy/em1 ) two c5tr+ screws1 by means ( :i* ! optic axis is secur$4 ,x is also provid$ ) rectangul> & rotat+ motions4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is t ( ! ,ross-,jackson =m--a spiral p9ion & diagonal rackwork1 :ile ! f9e is on an entirely new pr9ciple design$ by ,dr4 ,h4 ,s*rd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,ross's ,w5ham ,radial ,microscope4 ,! 8,ross-,z5tmay] ,microscope0 is a ?or\ghly sub/antial & practical in/rum5t1 comb9+ elegance ( appe>ance ) /r5g? & firmness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,! ,ross-,w5ham ,radial ,microscope4 ,x is a true tripod model1 consi/+ ( a triangul> base ) two pill>s ris+ f a cross-piece1 :i* c>ries ! trunnions4 ,! sl[ movem5t is obta9$ by a second slide close beh9d ! fir/2 b to avoid ! friction ( rubb+ surfaces1 h>d5$ /eel roll]s are ins]t$ betwe5 !m1 :i* give a frictionless f9e motion1 am5able to ! slighte/ t\* ( ! mill$-head screw situat$ conv5i5tly at ! back ( ! limb1 ?r\gh :i* a /eel lev] passes :i* actuates ! sl[ motion slide4 ,! body ( ! in/rum5t is !re=e n t\*$ dur+ ! f9e focuss+1 s t all lat]al movem5t is avoid$4 ,! me*anical /age rotates axially1 & ! out] edge ( ! l[] plate is divid$ into degrees1 9 ord] to regi/] ! angles2 a simple mode ( adju/m5t is provid$ = sett+ ! c5tre ( rotation exactly co9cid5t ) ! focal po9t ( ! objective4 ,z ! plates ( ! /age h no screw or rackwork betwe5 !m 7^! are plac$ ext]nally71 !y are br\ght close toge!r1 ?us af=d+ ! advantage ( a ?9 sub/antial /age1 & ensur+ rigidity :]e mo/ requir$2 phosphor-bronze be+ us$ 9 its con/ruction4 ,! /age is atta*$ to ! limb by a conical /em1 ) a screw & clamp nut at ! back1 s t x c be easily remov$ = ! sub/itution ( a simple plate or o!r /age2 by turn+ ! /em 9 ! socket ! /age may be tilt$ sideways at any angle requir$4 ,a feature 9 ! ,ross-,z5tmay] /& is ! sw++ sub-/age & b> c>ry+ ! mirror1 hav+ its axis ( rotation situat$ f an axial po9t 9 ! plane ( ! object1 :i* consequ5tly receives ! light )\t requir+ alt]ation ( focus 9 any position ( ! b>2 by ?is means facilities are af=d$ = ! resolution ( objects requir+ oblique light & = ! developm5t ( _! /ructure4 ,rays are ?us obta9$ f any angle & indicat$ by ! graduat$ circle r\nd ! top ( ! sw+-b>1 & _m tr\blesome & exp5sive pieces ( sub-/age app>atus disp5s$ )4 ,! value ( ?is arrangem5t 0 long ago recognis$ 9 ,grubb's 8,sector ,/&10 ! movem5t ( :i* 0 obta9$ 9 a f> less effici5t mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,! ,improv$ ,ross-,z5tmay] ,model4 ,! base or foot ( ! ,ross-,z5tmay] in/rum5t is made 9 "o piece4 ,pref]5ce mu/ be giv5 to ! d\ble pill> support1 z ?is is firm]1 & all[s ! sub-/age to sw+ free :ile ! microscope is 9 a v]tical position1 z 9 work+ ) fluid prep>ations4 ,! sub-/age is provid$ ) screws = c5tr+1 &1 :5 det]m9$1 secur$ by a clamp+ screw4 ,! sub-/age1 ) its app>atus 9 place1 c be in/antly remov$1 by be+ drawn out sideways1 s z to use ! mirror alone1 :i* is a great conv5i5ce4 ,! me*anical movem5ts ( ?is in/rum5t are p]fect1 & well adapt$ to _! purpose4 ,messrs4 ,ross h o!r typical =ms ( microscopes4 ,_! 8,new ,indu/rial0 ,microscope1 = ! use ( f>m]s1 horticulturi/s1 textile & o!r trades1 = ! exam9ation ( produce & raw mat]ials1 is a surpris+ly *eap "o1 & des]v+ ( comm5dation4 ,! great utility ( microscopical rese>* to purposes ( advanc$ agriculture is fully recognis$1 & a less co/ly in/rum5t ?an t usually suppli$ = m complex inve/igations 0 mu* ne$$4 ,x is provid$ ) a broad squ>e /age = ! purpose ( receiv+ a glass di% to conta9 liquids or manifold objects1 & :i* may be mov$ on ! /age to br+ ! v>i\s p>ticles "u obs]vation4 ,a fitt+ b5ea? ! /age c>ries a plate ) diaphragm ap]tures = modify+ ! light1 & z se$s1 textile fibres1 & o!r opaque objects =m a l>ge portion ( ^? to be exam9$1 ?is sub-/age plate has a space betwe5 ! p]=ations :i*1 :5 br\ght into position1 provides a d>k gr\nd by prev5t+ ! passage ( light f und]nea?4 ,a cond5s+ l5s is1 h[ev]1 provid$ = ! bett] light+ ( opaque objects4 ,"h we h a microscope :i* comb9es effici5cy ) /ability1 :ile its v simplification all[s ( a really good & effective in/rum5t = ! small sum ( #c #cs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,ross's 8,new ,indu/rial0 ,microscope4 ,messrs4 ,beck's ,microscopes4 ,messrs4 ,beck h adopt$ :at may be t]m$ a rival sy/em ( f9e adju/m5t 9 _! mod]n microscopes4 ,! %ort lev] & screw appli$ ext]nally to ! body tube is peculi>1 ,i may say1 to ! ,ross-,jackson sy/em1 & 0 orig9ally devis$ to all[ ( ! body tube be+ support$ some:at m firmly on ! limb4 ,?is *ange _h its m]its fully realis$ 9 ! e>ly microscopes ( ,smi? & ,beck4 ,to _! successors1 ,r4 ,j4 ,beck1 ! microscope owes mu*1 & v _m important improvem5ts1 :ile all _! in/rum5ts & accessories are excell5t examples ( good workman%ip & f9i%4 ,9 _! ,pa?ological ,microscope we h a movem5t orig9ally f\nd 9 ,tolles' microscopes3 a v]tical disc1 by :i* ! c5tre c be rais$ or depress$ to correspond ) ! ?ickness ( ! slide4 ,! /age c also be br\ght into an inv]t$ position by rack & p9ion4 ,_! f9e adju/m5t has be5 greatly improv$1 z we %all pres5tly see1 :]eby x has be5 made m s5sitive & delicate ( adju/m5t4 ,! g5]al con/ruction ( _! microscopes z a rule possess ! foll[+ advantages3 ! /&s are /rong1 firm1 & yet n too light or too heavy1 ! in/rum5ts _c alt] f ! position 9 :i* !y are plac$1 z1 un=tunately1 w occasionally happ5 :5 jo9ts "w loose2 9 e position ! heavi] "p ( ! /& ma9ta9s ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,beck's ,pa?ological ,microscope 7,fig4 #fe7 is a ne>ly p]fect in/rum5t1 furni%$ ) a firm triangul> foot1 :i* ensures great /ead9ess 9 any position4 ,x has a well adapt$ jo9t = plac+ ! in/rum5t at any angle ( incl9ation2 co>se adju/m5t by spiral rack & p9ion2 f9e adju/m5t by delicate lev] & micromet] screw motion2 rack & p9ion focuss+ & screw c5tr+ sub-/age1 made to c>ry all cond5s]s & o!r sub-/age app>atus2 me*anical /age ) horizontal & v]tical trav]s+ motions4 ,! /age is atta*$ to ! in/rum5t by two screws & c !re=e be remov$ at pleasure1 leav+ a l>ge squ>e flat glass /age = ! culture-plate4 ,x is likewise provid$ ) f9d] divisions1 & z x always fits on to ! same place1 any p>ticul> portion ( ! object c be record$ & f\nd at any mom5t4 ,! triple nose-piece is a conv5i5t addition1 & a v acceptable "o to ! /ud5t :ile dilig5tly engag$ 9 hi/ological rese>*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,beck's ,pa?ological ,microscope1 ) squ>e & removable /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,beck's ,l>ge 8,cont95tal ,model0 ,microscope4 ,beck's ,l>ge 8,cont95tal ,model0 ,microscope is ( sup]ior f9i%4 ,x is provid$ ) a sub/antial horse-%oe foot1 :i* gives support to ! /rong1 well-balanc$ body1 jo9t$ = giv+ ! microscope any angle ( incl9ation4 ,! body is provid$ ) a draw-tube :i* c be rack$ d[n to ! ,cont95tal measurem5t4 ,x has a spiral rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 & a f9e adju/m5t ( ! mo/ p]fect workman%ip1 :i* w be describ$ 9 detail pres5tly4 ,x has a l>ge squ>e /age ) vulcanite top plate to receive culture prep>ations4 ,! sub-/age is ( ! mo/ approv$ =m = c5tr+1 & c>ries an a*romatic or ,abbe cond5s]1 iris diaphragm1 c4 ,! d\ble mirror c be swung out ( place = direct illum9ation & micro-photography4 ,altoge!r1 ?is in/rum5t is 9 e way fitt$ = critical or class-room "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,beck's 8,new ,f9e ,adju/m5t40 ,to return to ! f9e adju/m5t ( ?is1 z ( o!r =ms ( ,messrs4 ,beck's microscopes1 ! appli$ me*anism ( :i* is believ$ to be "o ( ! mo/ s5sitive & delicate "* yet contriv$4 ,x is con/ruct$ z %[n 9 ! accompany+ figure4 ,! body ( ! in/rum5t is support$ ^u ! b>rel ,d ,d2 ?is b>rel is accurately & smoo?ly fitt$ to ! triangul> core ,e ,e4 ,at ! top ( b>rel ,d ,d is screw$ ! cap ,g1 to :i* is atta*$ ! rod ,c2 ?is rod passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! core ,e ,e & connects ) ! lev] arm ,a at ,b4 ,! action ( ! spr+ ,j1 :i* is wrapp$ spirally ar\nd ! rod ,c1 raises ! body ( ! microscope & holds ! lev] arm ,a tightly aga9/ ! screw arm ,f4 ,! slighte/ motion1 !re=e1 ( ! screw ,f is communicat$ ?r\gh ! lev] ,a & ! rod ,c to ! body ( ! microscope4 ,! great delicacy ( ?is arrangem5t w be appreciat$ :5 x is notic$ t ! di/ance f ,i ,h is d\ble ! di/ance ( ,i ,b1 !re=e any motion at ,b is only half t at ,h4 ,?is adju/m5t is "o ( ! mo/ delicate made = use ) high p[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,beck's ,national ,b9ocul> ,microscope4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ,beck's ,b9ocul> ,national ,microscope1 ! body is held 9 a slid+ fitt+ 9 ! limb1 & is mov$ up or d[n by means ( a rack & p9ion motion4 ,?is con/itutes ! co>se focuss+ adju/m5t4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is effect$ by ! mill$ head1 :i* acts ^u ! body by means ( a lev] inside ! limb4 ,! upp] circul> surface ( ! /age is made ( glass1 & c>ries ! object hold]1 :i* is provid$ ) a l$ge & spr+ to hold ! object by means ( ! pressure ( an ivory-tipp$ screw1 s t x c be mov$ ab\t readily & smoo?ly4 ,! pressure ( ! screw is adju/$ by ! mill$ head1 :i* p]mits ( m or less pressure be+ made ^u ! edge ( ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,beck's ,/> ,microscope4 ,:5 ! /age is requir$ = o!r purposes ! object hold] c be unscrew$ & remov$4 ,b5ea? ! /age !re is a cyl9drical fitt+ = ! reception ( a diaphragm1 a pol>is]1 or o!r app>atus4 ,! mirror1 besides sw++ 9 a rotatory semi-circle1 is made to slide up or d[n ! /em4 ,! microscope is support$ by a firm pill> on a tripod base1 & ! body c be incl9$ at any angle conv5i5t = work+4 ,a sub-/age c be add$ at any "t = ! reception ( an a*romatic cond5s] fitt$ ) conc5tric screws--a necessity = m delicate microscopical rese>* "w4 ,beck's ,/> ,microscope is 9 e s5se a /ud5ts' or class-room in/rum5t4 ,x is firm & well made1 ) jo9t = incl9ation1 l>ge squ>e /age1 slid+ co>se adju/m5t & f9e adju/m5t by micromet] screw1 draw-tube1 iris diaphragm1 d\ble mirror on sw++ crank arm1 ,a or ,b eye-piece1 a "o-in* & qu>t]-in* objective1 ! magnify+ p[] ( :i* ranges f #che to #ahc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,beck's ,b9ocul> ,dissect+ ,microscope4 ,an e>ly b9ocul> microscope = dissect+ purposes 0 devis$ by ! late ,mr4 ,r4 ,beck4 7,fig4 #gj47 ,?is took ! =m ( a simple in/rum5t built up on a squ>e mahogany base ,a rais$ ab\t f\r in*es ^u f\r brass supports ,b ,b1 hav+ a l>ge circul> /age plate made to revolve on a second plate1 on :i* ! object is plac$ & br\ght "u ! eye = dissection4 ,on ! left h& side is a mill$ head rack & p9ion ,k1 :i* acts ^u a horizontal b> ,i = focuss+ ! magnify+ l5s4 ,ano!r b>1 ,r1 c>ries ! prism ,p & a pair ( eye-pieces arrang$ on ! pr9ciple ( ,m4 ,na*et's b9ocul> microscope4 ,mr4 ,beck pref]r$ to adopt ,w5ham's me?od ( arrang+ ^! prisms2 t is1 by all[+ half ! cone ( rays to proce$ to "o eye )\t int]ruption1 :ile ! o!r half is int]cept$ by ! prisms & transmitt$ to ! o!r eye4 ,b5ea? ! /age is ! ord9>y mirror ,l4 ,! cond5s+ l5s ,m is support$ on a sep>ate brass hold] let into "o ( ! supports ( ! /&4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ?is arrangem5t 0 f\nd inconv5i5t1 & ! microscope has !re=e n be5 br\ght into g5]al use4 ,messrs4 ,watson's ,microscopes4 ,among ,london opticians1 ! v>i\s microscopes manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,watson1 ( ,holborn1 are ( high f9i% & good workman%ip4 ,^? specially design$ = ! use ( /ud5ts possess m]its ( _! own 9 _! me*anical con/ruction1 & also embody a provision1 z inde$ d all _! in/rum5ts1 :e!r = /ud5ts or m pret5ti\s "w1 :]eby we> & te> 9 _! frictional p>ts c be comp5sat$ = by ! us] himself4 ,?is is effect$ 9 a simple b effici5t mann]4 ,! fitt+s are sprung1 & screws set j outside ! dove-tails4 ,! v slighte/ turn ( ! screws compresses ! dove-tails1 & a v l>ge am\nt ( we> c 9 ?is way be prev5t$4 ,i am glad to notice t ,messrs4 ,watson h adopt$ c]ta9 /&>d sizes recomm5d$ "s "t ago by ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society = ! diamet]s ( eye-pieces4 ,x w\ld be a great advantage if ! same /&>d became g5]ally recognis$ & br\ght into use1 s9ce x is a matt] ( mu* importance to microscopi/s4 ,watson's ,ed9burgh ,/ud5ts' ,microscope 7,fig4 #ga7 is a ?or\ghly effici5t "o = all practical purposes1 great c>e hav+ be5 be/[$ ^u its smalle/ details1 & x is n difficult to p]ceive ! reason ( its popul>ity among /ud5ts4 ,! tripod =m ( foot ensures great /ead9ess & firmness2 ! body c>ries ! small] #jib eye-piece1 & ) draw-tube clos$ is ( ! ,cont95tal l5g?4 ,! draw-tube is graduat$ to millimetres1 & :5 fully ext5d$ ! body measures #aj in*es4 ,! /age is provid$ ) me*anical & rot>y movem5ts2 ! comp\nd sub-/age ) c5tr+ screws1 rack & p9ion to focus1 & a means ( lift+ ! cond5s] out ( ! optical axis :5 n requir$ = use4 ,not)/&+1 none ( ! movem5ts are at all cramp$2 a cle> di/ance is ma9ta9$ b5ea? ! /age1 af=d+ pl5ty ( room = manipulat+ ! mirror4 ,bo? co>se & f9e adju/m5ts "w ) smoo?ness1 ! latt] be+ on ,watson's late/ improv$ pr9ciple--"o revolution ( ! mill$ head moves ! body #a_/cjj ( an in*4 ,! /age is ( extra l>ge size1 to all[ ( ! use ( l>ge culture-plates4 ,no ,cont95tal /& ( high] price comp>es ) ! ,ed9burgh microscope4 ,its height :5 plac$ 9 ! v]tical position is #aa-a_/b in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,watson's ,ed9burgh ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,sub-/age ( ,ed9burgh ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,?is view ( und]side ( /age ( /ud5ts' in/rum5t %[s ! mirror set at an angle = oblique illum9ation1 & sub-/age turn$ aside4 ,! v>i\s sizes ( ocul>s adopt$ by opticians & at pres5t 9 vogue cause consid]able confusion4 ,a /&>d size is specially ne$$ = /ud5ts' & small microscopes4 ,! /&>d long us$ by ,cont95tal manufactur]s is #jib ( an in*4 ,! adoption ( ?is size w\ld place ! eye-piece 9 ! same position z t ( ! univ]sal screw = ! objective1 =mulat$ by ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society _m ye>s ago4 ,! desirability ( us+ /&>d sizes has be5 fully recognis$ by ,messrs4 ,watson & !y are n[ adapt$ to mo/ ( _! microscopes4 ,! ,engli% diamet]1 #ace ( an in*1 kn[n z ! 8,ross0 size1 is reta9$ 9 all _! microscopes ( l>ge size4 ,watson's ,me*anical ,draw-tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,watson's ,me*anical ,draw-tube 7full-size74 ,an important feature 9 connection ) ! body-tube ( ,watson's ,ed9burgh ,/ud5ts' ,microscope 7z1 inde$1 9 all _! fully furni%$ in/rum5ts7 is t !y are provid$ ) two draw-tubes2 "o mov$ by rack-"w1 ! o!r slid+ inside ! body-tube4 ,! advantage is1 t ! body c be made v %ort or extremely long1 :ile suffici5t latitude c be giv5 to objectives correct$ = ei!r ,cont95tal or ,engli% tube-l5g?s1 & to adju/+ ! same = ?ickness ( cov]-glass by v>iation ( tube l5g?4 ,%\ld ! cov]-glass be ?ick] ?an t = :i* ! objective is correct$1 a %ort] tube-l5g? is necess>y2 if ?9n]1 ! body mu/ be l5g!n$4 ,?is is effect$ by means ( ! rackwork draw-tube4 ,! l5g? ( ! body :5 clos$ is #adb millimetres 7#e-e_/h in*es71 & :5 ! two draw-tubes are ext5d$1 #cje millimetres 7#ab in*es71 be+1 !re=e1 %ort] ?an ! ,cont95tal & long] ?an ! ,engli% tube l5g?s4 ,bo? draw-tubes are divid$ into millimetres1 & on ! rackwork draw-tube a d\ble scale is engrav$1 read+ cont9u\sly f ! slid+ draw-tube :5 fully drawn out1 or giv+ ! body l5g? :5 ! rackwork draw-tube alone is 9 use4 ,! utility ( ?is me*anical draw-tube is t x p]mits ( quick manipulation ) p]fect results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,watson's ,hi/ological ,microscope4 ,/& 8,a40--,height1 :5 plac$ v]tically & tube pu%$ home1 #i-a_/b in*es4 ,! inside top ( ! draw-tube is small] ?an ! rema9d]1 ! =m] mak+ a fitt+ = ! eye-piece ab\t #a in* long1 p]mitt+ ( ! tube be+ black5$ inside up to ?is fitt+1 ?us m9imis+ reflection4 ,! end ( ! draw-tube has ! univ]sal screw = us+ ! ap]tomet]1 c4 ,watson's ,hi/ological ,microscope 7,fig4 #gd7 is a some:at *eap] =m ( in/rum5t1 design$ = ! /ud5t2 al?\gh ( pla9] con/ruction x is q z well made z ! co/li] model4 ,x is provid$ ) spiral rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 & ) ?is motion ! greate/ smoo?ness is pres]v$4 ,!re is no backla%1 ! tee? ( ! p9ion nev] leav+ ! rack2 s effective is x t a high p[] c be p]fectly focuss$ by its means4 ,x is also furni%$ ) _! univ]sal patt]n ( f9e adju/m5t4 ,?is c be _h = #c #cs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,watson's ,semi-,me*anical ,/age4 ,messrs4 ,watson h among o!r accessories ( value introduc$ 9 connection ) _! sev]al microscopes a semi-me*anical /age1 :]eby !y are enabl$ to r$uce ! co/ ( manufacture4 ,fig4 #ge is an outl9e sket* ( ! same4 ,?is /age is ( ! horse-%oe %ape1 ) cut-out c5tre1 con/ruct$ ( #a_/d-;in* brass plate1 & measures ov] all #e-a_/d in*es wide by #d in*es deep4 ,fitt+ on ! edges ( ! ma9 /age is a frame :i* is actuat$ v]tically by means ( a d\ble rack & p9ion f b5ea?1 giv+ #c_/d-;in* ( movem5t1 hav+ controll+ heads on ei!r side ( ! /age2 on ! edges ( ?is me*anical frame a slid+ b> is fitt$1 consequ5tly movem5t may be imp>t$ ei!r by rackwork or by h&4 ,! me*anical movem5t1 h[ev] is 9 "o direction only2 b z ! b> c>ries ! object1 ! work] c easily move ! object out horizontally ) ! f+]4 ,! advantage ( ?is /age is t ! :ole surface is p]fectly flu%1 & ! p9ion heads are bel[ its level1 s t culture plates or cont9u\s sections may be conv5i5tly exam9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,new ,c5tr+ ,und]fitt+ = ,microscope4 ,ano!r addition ( consid]able value is ! c5tr+ und]fitt+ = /ud5ts' microscopes4 ,?is fitt+ places 9 ! h&s ( /ud5t work]s a means ( accurately c5tr+ ! sub-/age cond5s]1 at a l[ co/4 ,x consi/s ( ! usual und]fitt+ tube1 hav+ a flange at ! top :i* is fitt$ 9 a box betwe5 two plates4 ,! c5tr+ is effect$ by means ( two screws1 :i* press ! flange aga9/ a spr+1 z 9 ! ord9>y sub-/age c5tr+ movem5t4 ,! fitt+ c be adapt$ to any =m ( ,messrs4 ,watson's & mo/ o!r mak]s ( /ud5ts' microscopes4 ,watson's ,bact]iological ,improv$ ,van ,heurck's ,microscope 7,fig4 #gg7 is 9 e way a sup]ior in/rum5t1 & x at once conveys a fav\rable impression to ! practical work]4 ,:5 set up = use its _m conv5i5t po9ts--its excell5ce ( workman%ip & ! precision ( its movem5ts--seem to imply its special adaptation = ! bact]iological laboratory & = o!r high-class "w :]e absolute reliance has to be plac$ 9 ! results obta9$4 ,e detail ( ! in/rum5t is c>ri$ out 9 ! be/ possible mann]4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is effect$ by means ( a diagonal rack & spiral p9ion1 :i* ensures ! smoo!/ possible motion2 :ile ! f9e1 ! mo/ important movem5t 9 ! in/rum5t1 is made ) an extra long lev]1 a specialty ( ,messrs4 ,watson's1 & :i* imp>ts an extremely sl[ action3 ?is is n[ "o ( ! mo/ delicate & reliable =ms ( f9e adju/m5t4 ,by its means ! entire body is rais$ or l[]$ by means ( a mill$ head fix$ to a screw hav+ a h>d5$ /eel po9t act+ on a lev] aga9/ a po9t atta*$ to ! body slide1 9 a dove-tail$ fitt+ ab\t #b-a_/b in*es long4 ,ow+ to ! position ( ! controll+ mill$ head on ! limb1 x c be work$ ) ei!r h&4 ,ano!r feature ( importance is t1 9 us+ ! f9e adju/m5t ! di/ance betwe5 ! eye-piece & objective rema9s unalt]$4 ,all ! frictional p>ts ( ! microscope h spr+ slots to ! dove-tail$ fitt+s1 9 :i* comp5sat+ screws are fitt$4 ,^! are "s few ( ! m important po9ts1 to :i* mu* ?\ght & att5tion h be5 giv54 ,! body p]mits also ( ! use ( objectives ( any o!r optician1 s9ce its total l5g? :5 ! draw tubes are clos$ up is only #adc mm42 :5 ext5d$1 a total l5g? ( #cbj mm4 is available4 ,by ?is means an ample m>g9 is left = ! correction = cov]-glass ?ickness1 :e!r ! objective us$ be int5d$ = ! #afj mm4 or #bej mm4 tube l5g?4 ,! height ( ! microscope :5 plac$ 9 ! v]tical position is #ac-a_/h in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,watson's ,improv$ 8,van ,heurck ,bact]iological0 ,microscope4 ,! ,/age4--,a some:at new design has be5 us$ 9 build+ ?is up s z to r$uce vibration to a m9imum4 ,! bracket c>ry+ ! /age1 in/ead ( be+ screw$ on to ! front ( ! limb1 z is usually done1 is made 9 a solid ca/+1 tak+ ! sub-/age b5ea?1 & pass+ into ! jo9t at ! top ( ! foot4 ,! jo9t bolt goes ?r\gh ! :ole 7limb & /age bracket71 r5d]+ ! limb /age & sub-/age z firm z if x 7 "o piece2 a po9t ( consid]able importance4 ,! mirrors1 :i* are pla9 & concave1 are m\nt$ on a sw+ arm1 s t !y may be turn$ aside :5 direct illum9ation ( ! object is requir$4 ,on ! "r h& side also !re is a /eel clamp+ b> = fix+ ! microscope at any angle ( incl9ation4 ,! tripod foot1 :i* has sup]s$$ mo/ o!r =ms1 is adopt$4 ,at ! po9ts ( contact ) ! table ! feet are provid$ ) cork pads1 :i* give increas$ firmness & prev5t vibration to "s ext5t4 ,! sub-/age is provid$ ) a f9e adju/m5t ( simil> design to t employ$ = ! focuss+ ( ! objective4 ,x has become ne$ful to embody su* a ref9em5t1 9 ord] t sub-/age cond5s]s ( l>ge ap]ture1 su* z are 9 con/ant use = critical high-p[] "w1 may be adju/$ ) ! same facility & precision z ! objective--!y1 9 fact1 require x if ! be/ "w is to be got out ( !m4 ,no pa9s h be5 sp>$ by ,messrs4 ,watson to r5d] x absolutely p]fect4 ,watson's ,portable ,microscope4--,?is in/rum5t is simil> 9 g5]al detail to ! ,hi/ological ,microscope1 b ! foot1 mirror /em1 c41 are made to fold up 9 exce$+ly compact =m1 & :5 set up = use ! /& is p]fectly rigid4 ,portable microscopes are1 z a rule1 b make%ifts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a ?or\ghly s\nd1 practical in/rum5t & capable ( be/ "w ) ! highe/ p[] objectives1 hav+ good adju/m5ts & univ]sal size fitt+s ?r\gh\t1 s t ! objectives & app>atus made = ! l>g] in/rum5ts c be employ$ ) x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,watson's ,portable ,microscope4 ,height ( in/rum5t :5 plac$ v]tically & rack$ d[n is #i-c_/h in*es4 ,watson's ,petrological ,microscope 7,fig4 #gi7 is a modification ( _! ,ed9burgh ,/ud5ts' patt]n1 & design$ specially = petrological & m9]alogical "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,/ud5ts' ,petrological ,microscope4 ,a pol>iscope hav+ prisms ( l>ge size is suppli$ ) x1 ! analys] be+ fitt$ 9 ! body1 & ! pol>is] 9 ! "u-/age fitt+4 ,! latt] has a divid$ circle & a spr+ cat* at e qu>t] circle4 ,by remov+ ! pol>is] & )draw+ ! analys]1 = :i* provision is made1 ! microscope c be us$ = purposes ( ord9>y rese>*4 ,a ,kle9's qu>tz plate is fitt$ b5ea? ! analys]1 also 9 ! body ( ! microscope4 ,! /age1 :i* has a glass surface1 rotates conc5trically1 & has a divid$ circumf]5tial edge read+ by ! v]ni]s4 ,! eye-piece has cross webs to ! diaphragm1 & :5 x is desir$1 an analys]1 hav+ a divid$ circle fitt$ ) a calc-sp> plate1 c be us$ above ! eye-piece1 & cond5s] l5ses atta*$ to ! pol>is] = /]eoscopic purposes4 ,all ! fitt+s h ! univ]sal ?read1 & are int]*angeable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,swift's ,hi/ological & ,physiological ,microscope4 ,messrs4 ,swift's ,microscopes4 ,messrs4 ,swift's ,microscopes h a well-e/abli%$ reputation = quality & good workman%ip1 & !re=e c 9 no way suff] by comp>ison :5 plac$ beside ^? ( o!r opticians4 ,"o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ,messrs4 ,swift's microscopes--& ?is runs ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies--is t !y are all made to a /&>d gauge1 s t ! sev]al p>ts ( ! in/rum5ts1 z well z _! accessories1 are int]*angeable2 ! *eap] =ms1 ) ^? ( ! fir/ quality & f9i%4 ,%\ld ! /ud5t1 !n1 />t ) a ,no4 #a model1 he c at any "t build x up1 z x 71 ) ! accessories design$ = a ,no4 #c or #d1 t is1 = an in/rum5t ( d\ble ! price he />t$ )4 ,! optical c5tre is pres]v$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole s]ies ( microscopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,sw++ ,leg ,atta*m5t ( ,swift ,son's ,f\r-,legg$ ,microscope ,/&4 ,! tripod foot has1 x appe>s1 tak5 ! place ( "s ( _! o!r =ms ( in/rum5ts1 :ile _! f\r-legg$ tripod1 if x c be s designat$1 is a novelty ( q an unusual "*4 ,! sw+ leg is atta*$ to ! framework ( ! tripod by ! screw 7,fig4 ,a71 :i* is provid$ ) a p[]ful /eel spiral spr+1 compress$ betwe5 two /eel collets :5 ! screw is driv5 home1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 ,b4 ,! expansion ( ?is spr+ w obvi\sly take up & comp5sate automatically any we> & te> t is likely to occur betwe5 ! be>+ surfaces1 & x is !re=e impossible = ! fitt+ to get loose4 ,swift's ,f\r-legg$ ,microscope 7,fig4 #hj7 is "o possess+ great /ability 9 :atev] position x may be plac$2 ! body be+ support$ on a horse-%oe plat=m1 f :i* its f\r legs spr+1 ! two front legs be+ fix$1 :ile ! h9d legs are pivot$ to ! plat=m4 ,?is arrangem5t ( pivot+ ! h9d legs enables ! microscope to adapt itself to any unev5 surface1 ?us keep+ x always 9 a /eady position1 :ile x also r$uces ! dang] ( be+ upset by any lat]al movem5t ( an accid5tal nature4 ,! feet are /udd$ ) corks1 an additional aid to /ead9ess & fixity = microphotography4 ,! l5g? ( ! body f ! ocul> to ! nose-piece is #f-a_/b in*es1 & c be ext5d$ to #i or #aj in*es by means ( ! draw-tube1 :i* has a millimetre graduation4 ,! /age1 :i* is ( horse-%oe %ape1 is provid$ ) spr+ clips1 to :i* a movable me*anical /age c at any "t be atta*$4 ,! sub-/age p>takes ( two =ms1 "o be+ an ord9>y fitt+1 tak+ an ord9>y cond5s]2 ! o!r1 ! regul> rack & p9ion a*romatic cond5s] ) c5tr+ adju/m5ts4 ,x has a diagonal rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 ! f9e adju/m5t be+ made by micromet] screw ( ! f9e/ "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,swift's ,spiral ,rack & ,p9ion ,co>se ,adju/m5t4 ,fig4 #hb is int5d$ to illu/rate ! advantage ( ! spiral rack & p9ion :i* ,messrs4 ,swift fit to _! microscopes1 9 place ( ! ord9>y conv5tional horizontal rack & p9ion movem5t4 ,! advantage w at once be se51 s9ce !re is m ge>+ contact betwe5 rack & p9ion1 ?us ensur+ durability & r$uc+ loss ( "t or back la% to a m9imum1 ) less we> & te>4 ,! leaves ( ! p9ion also roll into ! tee? ( ! rack by degrees1 ensur+ a v mu* smoo!r action1 :i*1 if prop]ly made & fitt$1 prev5ts ! ge>+ ( ! two be+ felt by ! h& :il/ focuss+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,graduat$ ,supplem5t>y ,draw-,tube4 ,fig4 #hc is a supplem5t>y draw-tube ) rack & p9ion movem5t1 :i* c be adapt$ to any ( ,swift's microscopes 9 place ( ! ord9>y draw-tube1 ! size ( ! ?read be+ ( ! same diamet]1 s z to r5d] all draw-tubes1 z well z o!r p>ts ( ^! in/rum5ts1 int]*angeable4 ,! draw-tube be+ divid$ into millimetres c be ext5d$ f #afj to #bej millimetres4 ,"o advantage ( ?is arrangem5t is t ! correct adju/m5t ( any objective ) ea* eye-piece is easily f\nd & record$ = future obs]vations ) ! same comb9ation4 ,messrs4 ,swift's ,?ree-legg$ ,tripod ,microscope 7,fig4 #hf74 ,9 mo/ respects ! description already giv5 ( ! f\r-legg$ in/rum5t is applicable to ?is /&4 ,al?\gh ( an app>5tly diff]5t =m1 x c be built up1 z already expla9$1 into "o ( a high] class4 ,x is suitable 9 e way = hi/ological inve/igations4 ,! horse-%oe plat=m 9 ?is1 z 9 ! prec$+ /&1 is extremely s]viceable1 z x all[s ! pill> ( ! in/rum5t to re/ firmly ^u x1 ?us r5d]+ ! /& v rigid4 ,swift's ,bact]iological ,microscope 7,fig4 #hd71 design$ by ,pr(essor ,wright1 ( ! ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,netley1 a suffici5t w>ranty ( its excell5cy & p]fect adaptation = bact]iological high-class "w4 ,"o ( ! advantages connect$ ) ?is microscope is ! facility ) :i* x c be adapt$ = ei!r high or l[ p[] inve/igation1 )\t ! necessity ( add+ or deta*+ any "p4 ,! objectives1 arrang$ on a triple nose-piece1 are approximately 9 focus :5 revolv$ into position = imm$iate use1 ?us effect+ a sav+ ( "t 9 *ang+ ! objective4 ,moreov]1 ! nose-piece c>ry+ ! objectives is ( new con/ruction1 & fitt$ 9 su* a way t ! entry ( du/ is r5d]$ impossible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,swift's ,army ,bact]iological ,microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,"u-,/age ( same4 ,! ,abbe cond5s]1 fitt$ ) an iris diaphragm1 is m\nt$ on an ecc5tric arm1 s t x c readily be ?r[n out ( ! axis ( ! microscope :5 n requir$1 )\t hav+ to re-arrange ! focus :5 aga9 br\ght into position4 ,! cond5s] mu/ be turn$ aside :5 plate cultivations & prep>ations ( un/a9$ bact]ia are be+ look$ ov] = selection ( colonies = m\nt+1 9 :i* case an arm c>ry+ a quadrant ) ?ree ap]tures is br\ght into position 9 place ( ! cond5s]1 ! ap]tures be+ sev]ally c5tr$ by a spr+ cat* & us$ ) oblique light4 ,?is arrangem5t1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #he1 is se5 f ! "u surface ( ! /age4 ,! /age is suffici5tly l>ge1 s t :5 ,petrie plates are be+ exam9$ at ! extreme edges !re is little fe> ( _! ov]balanc+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,swift's ,hi/ological ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is ! ,swift's ,pat5t ,campbell ,diff]5tial ,screw1 :i* (f]s great facilities = delicate focuss+ ) ! highe/ p[] objectives4 ,! /& is ( ! mo/ sub/antial & rigid =m1 & ?us ensures ! microscope f vibration4 ,! "u-/age ( microscope 7,fig4 #he7 is se5 to be ( ! mo/ approv$ =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,swift's ,advanc$ ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,swift's ,advanc$ ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4--,9 ?is microscope 7,fig4 #hg7 we h a sup]ior in/rum5t = ! use ( ! advanc$ /ud5t1 :i* may be describ$ z ( high me*anical excell5ce1 well suit$ = e requirem5t ( "w4 ,! /& is ! well-kn[n tripod =m ( _! ,*all5g] ,microscope1 & admits ( ! in/rum5t be+ plac$ at any angle ( incl9ation2 ! body is %ort en\gh to "w ) objectives ( ,cont95tal mak]s1 & is provid$ ) a draw-tube1 to elongate x to ! /&>d ( #aj in*es1 ) a diamet] ( #a-c_/af in* to take ! same eye-pieces z ! l>g] /&s4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is by spiral rack & p9ion2 ! f9e1 by a c>efully made diff]5tial screw motion = delicate focuss+4 ,! /age is ( ! horse-%oe patt]n1 to :i* a me*anical /age c at any "t be adapt$1 z well z an a*romatic cond5s] to ! sub-/age se5 b5ea?4 ,"h ! /ud5t w f9d ! f\ndation = a sup]ior in/rum5t4 ,messrs4 ,bak]'s ,microscopes4 ,( ,messrs4 ,bak]'s l>g] /&s1 ! ,improv$ 8,nelson ,model10 ,no4 #b 7,fig4 #hh7 /& is select$ 9 pref]5ce to _! m elaborate ,no4 #a1 & _! simpl] =m1 ,no4 #c1 z a high-class in/rum5t1 & "o well suit$ = f9e critical "w2 ! =m] be+ some:at bett]1 only f hav+ extra adju/m5ts2 ! latt] possess+ no sup]ior advantage ov] ! 8,advanc$ ,/ud5ts'0 ,microscope4 ,?is microscope is m\nt$ on a solid tripod foot1 :i* insures /ability1 :e!r plac$ 9 a v]tical1 horizontal1 or incl9$ position2 ! front toes are slott$1 s t !y may be clamp$ to ! base plate ( a photo-micrographic app>atus1 fir/ introduc$ = photo-micrographic "w1 & w also be f\nd conv5i5t 9 ord9>y "w2 z ! f9e adju/m5t mill$ head is plac$ at ! bottom ( ! pill>1 in/ead ( at ! top1 ! m usual place4 ,= photo-micrographic "w ! advantage is t ! /ra9 ( ! pulley 9 su* app>atus actuates ! f9e adju/m5t1 & is less liable to cause vibration ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! advantage :5 ! in/rum5t is us$ = ord9>y "w lies 9 ! fact t ! weight ( ! h& is re/$ on ! top ( ! tripod1 ?us admitt+ ( /eadi] movem5t ( ! mill$ head4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is obta9$ by a 8,campbell0 diff]5tial screw1 ea* revolution ( :i* is equal to #a_/bjj m4m4 ,! draw-tubes be+ graduat$ 9 m4m41 all[ ( ei!r %ort or long tube objectives be+ us$1 clos+ up to #aej m4m4 & ext5d+ to #bhj m4m41 ! rack & p9ion adju/m5t to ! l[] tube af=d+ a ready means ( correction = cov]-glass ?icknesses4 ,! eye-piece gauge1 z w be se5 f its dim5sions1 is ( l>ge size1 be+ ! same z t adopt$ by ,zeiss = 8 long tube comp5sat+ ocul>s2 small] eye-pieces c1 h[ev]1 be adapt$ at any "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,bak]'s ,improv$ 8,nelson ,model0 ,microscope4 ,dim5sions4--,height :5 9 v]tical position & body rack$ d[n1 #aa2 ,height ( /age1 #d-a_/h2 ,height ( optic axis :5 9 horizontal position1 #h-a_/b2 ,spread ( tripod foot1 #h #h-a_/b2 ,diamet] ( mirrors1 #b-c_/h2 ,int]nal diamet] ( draw-tube1 #a-c_/aj4 ,! me*anical rotat+ /age is divid$ on brass to #a_/ajj in*1 ) clamp+ b>s & /op1 by :i* a specim5 c always be br\ght back to a c]ta9 position = regi/ration4 ,! sub-/age has rack-"w focuss+ adju/m5t1 & c5tr+ screws2 a f9e adju/m5t is add$1 if desir$4 ,on ! :ole1 ! in/rum5t is suitable = special critical "w1 & is equally well suit$ = photo-micrography4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,bak]'s ,advanc$ ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,dim5sions4--,height :5 9 v]tical position & body rack$ d[n1 #aa-a_/d2 ,height ( /age1 #d-c_/d2 ,wid? ( /age1 #d2 ,height ( optic axis :5 9 horizontal position1 #f-a_/b2 ,spread ( foot1 #f #f2 ,diamet] ( mirrors1 #a-c_/d2 ,int]nal diamet] ( draw-tube1 #aa_/ab4 ,explanatory lett]+ ( in/rum5t3 ,a1 ,huygh5ian eye-piece2 ,b1 draw-tube graduat$ 9 millimetres2 ,c1 nose-piece2 ,d1 co>se adju/m5t2 ,e1 f9e adju/m5t ) millimetre screw2 ,f1 horse-%oe slid+ /age1 graduat$ ) slid+ b> 9 v]tical & horizontal directions = use z f9d]2 ,g1 sub-/age rack & p9ion screw2 ,h & ,i1 c5tr+ screws to sub-/age2 ,j1 c>ri] = cond5s]2 ,k1 mirror ) movable arm support$ on solid tripod foot4 ,! po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ?is /& & ! ,no4 #a model are t 9 ! latt] ! f9e adju/m5t c>ries ! body only1 & n ! rack adju/m5t2 ! limb c>ry+ bo? ! body & ! sub-/age is 9 "o piece1 giv+1 if possible1 /ill great] rigidity2 ! rotation ( ! me*anical /age1 :i* is divid$ on silv]1 is complete1 & c be actuat$ by h& or rack "w2 x has a clamp+ screw & f9e adju/m5t to sub-/age4 ,bak]'s ,advanc$ ,/ud5ts' ,microscope 7,fig4 #hi7 may be describ$ z a typical in/rum5t1 equally suitable = hi/ological "w & t ( ! advanc$ /ud5t4 ,! int5tion ( ! mak] 9 simplify+ ! adju/m5ts & r$uc+ ! in/rum5t 9 size1 0 to furni% a well-f9i%$ portable in/rum5t at a mod]ate co/4 ,?is object has n be5 atta9$ by supply+ adju/m5ts ( second-rate quality1 b by r$uc+ _! numb] to a m9imum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,! ,mayall ,removable ,me*anical ,/age4 ,! tripod foot ( ! 8,nelson ,model0 is replac$ by a claw foot1 :i* is 9 effect a tripod1 z x re/s on ?ree po9ts2 x has n ! same wide spread1 b ?is1 f> f be+ a disadvantage1 r5d]s ! in/rum5t m portable4 ,x has rack & p9ion co>se & ,campbell diff]5tial screw f9e adju/m5ts1 draw-tube graduat$ 9 m4m41 ext5d+ to #ahj m4m41 eye-piece gauge ! same z ! ,cont95tal size1 l>ge squ>e op5 /age to af=d ! great] fre$om ( manipulation2 slid+ b> ) graduations on b> & /age1 :i* suffice = regi/]+ any giv5 field "u a l[ p[]2 holes are also drill$ 9 ! /age ready to receive an atta*able me*anical /age %\ld x be ?\ght advisable to add "o at a lat] date4 ,! sub-/age is ( ! univ]sal size ) rack-"w focuss+1 adju/m5t1 & c5tr+ screws4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,bak]'s ,model ,hi/ological ,microscope4 ,dim5sions4--,height :5 9 v]tical position & body rack$ d[n1 #aj-a_/b2 ,height ( /age1 #d2 ,wid? ( /age1 #c-a_/b2 ,height ( optic axis :5 9 horizontal position1 #e-a_/d2 ,spread ( foot1 #e-a_/d2 ,diamet] ( mirrors1 #a-e_/h2 ,int]nal diamet] ( draw-tube1 #aa_/ab4 ,messrs4 ,bak] h rec5tly introduc$ a simil> in/rum5t ) sw+-out sub-/age & adju/m5ts = comp5sat+ = we> & te> ( rack4 ,! /age is also some:at l>g] f back to front4 ,^! /&s are v suitable = bact]iological rese>*1 & = amateurs wi%+ to obta9 a /& :i* w c>ry all ! app>atus !y are likely to ne$1 )\t go+ to ! exp5se ( ! l>g] models1 no bett] in/rum5t c\ld be desir$4 ,_! 8,removable ,me*anical ,/age0 7,fig4 #ij7 is a modification ( ! patt]n design$ by ! late ,mr4 ,j4 ,mayall4 ,! v]tical movem5t is by rack & p9ion1 giv+ a range ( #a-a_/h in*4 ,! horizontal motion ( #a-a_/b in* is accompli%$ by means ( a quick-act+ screw4 ,! object is press$ tightly to ! /age ( ! microscope by means ( ?ree po9ts1 & ! :ole ( ! me*anical "p is firmly clamp$ by two ?umb screws :i* c be readily remov$4 ,! /age is made to c>ry slides ( any size less ?an #a-c_/d in* wide4 ,bak]'s ,hi/ological ,microscope 7,fig4 #ia7 is ( a diff]5t type to ! prec$+1 & is int5d$ to repres5t "o ( m$ium p[]1 af=d+ magnification ( ab\t #djj z a maximum4 ,x is suppli$ ) a diaphragm b5ea? ! /age1 )\t o!r illum9at+ app>atus ?an t ( ! mirror4 ,b if ! adju/m5ts ( su* a /& are good1 !re is no reason :y "s =m ( sub-/age cond5s] %\ld n be add$1 to make ! in/rum5t some:at m s]viceable4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a r too limit$ space b5ea? ! /age ( an in/rum5t ( ?is k9d to admit ( a sub-/age cond5s]1 consequ5tly x _c be said to be suitable = critical "w4 ,= all ord9>y /ud5ts' "w ?is microscope is c]ta9ly available4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--,r\sselet's ,tank ,microscope4 ,! /& ( ! ,model ,hi/ological ,microscope has ! same =m ( foot z ! m advanc$ /ud5t's /&4 ,x is some:at light]1 & m portable1 a matt] ( consid]ation 9 a /ud5t's microscope1 :i* (t5 has to be c>ri$ to & f a class-room4 ,x is provid$ ) rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 & a ,campbell diff]5tial screw f9e adju/m5t1 draw-tube1 & diaphragm2 ! diaphragm c>ri] be+ ( ! univ]sal size1 s t x c be replac$ by an ,abbe cond5s] at any "t4 ,) ! additions sugge/$1 ?is in/rum5t c be made equal to ^? ( a high] /&>d4 ,r\sselet's ,tank ,microscope 7,fig4 #ib71 = rapidly look+ ov] pond wat] & we$s1 consi/s ( a jo9t$ arm mov+ p>allel to ! side ( ! tank to c>ry an aplanatic l5s2 ! arm is focuss$ by means ( rack & p9ion fix$ to ! upright ( a mahogany /&1 ^u :i* ! tank c be plac$1 or x c be clamp$ directly to ! tank by means ( a screw4 ,?is h&y =m ( pond microscope is made by ,messrs4 ,bak]4 ,pillis*]'s ,microscopes4 ,mr4 ,pillis*] 7,new ,bond ,/reet7 is fav\rably kn[n = ! excell5cy ( 8 in/rum5ts4 ,he has lately br\ght out sev]al microscopes ( an improv$ =m4 ,8 l>g] model1 ! 8,new ,int]national10 consi/s ( a solid1 well-built1 firm tripod /& ( ! ,ross-,jackson patt]n1 :i* appe>s to be q 9 ! asc5dant among ,london opticians2 rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 & a sup]ior micromet] f9e adju/m5t2 sub-/age ) c5tr+ screws & rack & p9ion focuss+ adju/m5t2 a new =m ( slid+ p9-hole diaphragm & iris diaphragm2 ,b & ,c eye-pieces2 #e_/h & #a_/g objectives2 ,abbe cond5s]1 ,n4,a4 #abj2 9 e respect a p]fect model1 neatly pack$ 9 a mahogany case1 = a v mod]ate sum4 ,mr4 ,pillis*]'s ,no4 #b 7,fig4 #ic7 8,int]national0 ,microscope1 be+ ! ,army patt]n z well z ! /ud5t's1 is well adapt$ = cl9ical "w4 ,a firm tripod /& supports two d>k bronze uprights1 ) rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 e1 & f9e adju/m5t1 d1 ! /age1 i1 is wide & suitable = cl9ical "w1 & l>ge en\gh = dissect+ ^u4 ,! :ole in/rum5t is well made2 ! co>se adju/m5t is s good t ! "o-eigh? in* c be focuss$ ) ease1 & )\t us+ ! f9e adju/m5t4 ,= a few %ill+s extra1 a me*anical /age c be add$1 consi/+ ( lev]s1 hav+ an action simil> to ! movem5ts ( a p>allel rul]1 :i* is s easy ( adju/m5t t x c be work$ "u ! eigh?-in* objective ) ! h&s--an advantage 9 a cl9ical microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,pillis*]'s 8,int]national0 ,microscope4 ,! foll[+ ref]5ce lett]s s]ve to expla9 ! g5]al con/ruction ( ! microscope 7,fig4 #ic73--;a1 ! eye-piece2 b1 ! draw-tube2 c1 ! slid+-tube2 d1 micromet] or f9e adju/m5t2 e e1 ! co>se adju/m5t2 g1 ! mirror arm & mirror2 h1 sub-/age c>ry+ ,abbe cond5s]2 i1 ! /age ) spr+-clips2 j1 objectives screw$ into place & d\ble nose-piece4 ,! 8,kosmos0 is ,pillis*]'s *eap] model4 ,! /& ( ?is some:at novel & orig9al microscope is fram$ entirely ( brass & gun-metal4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is v s5sitive & p]fectly /eady1 admitt+ ( ! highe/ imm]sion objectives be+ us$4 ,! optical p>ts are con/ruct$ ^u pr9ciples consi/5t ) ! late/ improvem5ts4 ,x has a claw-foot /& ) a semi-circul> arm1 :i* c>ries ! body1 ) slid+-tube co>se adju/m5t1 & micromet] screw f9e adju/m5t1 ) a l>ge squ>e /age diaphragm & mirror4 ,! in/rum5t is neatly pack$ 9 a mahogany box1 toge!r ) ! ,a or ,b eye-piece1 #a-;in* & #a_/e-;in* objectives ( good def9+ & p5etrat+ p[]1 magnify+ f #cj to #chj diamet]s1 9 mahogany cab9et1 = ! mod]ate sum ( #e4 ,pillis*]'s ,b9ocul> ,microscope 7,fig4 #id7 is con/ruct$ on a plan some:at int]m$iate betwe5 t ( ,beck's & ,ross's well-kn[n patt]ns1 & 9 po9t ( f9i% is equal to any /ud5t's microscope 9 use4 ,! semi-circul> =m giv5 to ! arm c>ry+ ! body increases ! /r5g? & solidity ( ! in/rum5t1 al?\gh x is d\btful :e!r x adds to its /ead9ess :5 plac$ 9 ! horizontal position4 ,! /raight body re/s = a great "p ( its l5g? ^u a p>allel b> ( solid brass pl\gh$ into :i* is a groove = ! reception ( ! rack atta*$ to ! body1 ! groove be+ ( su* a =m t ! rack is held firmly :ile ! p9ion glides smoo?ly ?r\gh x4 ,a /eady1 uni=m motion is ?us obta9$1 :i* almo/ r5d]s ! f9e adju/m5t unnecess>y4 ,! b9ocul> bodies are incl9$ at a small] angle to "o ano!r ?an 9 mo/ in/rum5ts2 nev]!less1 ! range ( motion giv5 to ! eye-pieces by ! rack & p9ion enables ^? ^: eyes are widely sep>at$ to use ! in/rum5t ) com=t4 ,! prism is s well set t x illum9ates bo? fields ) equal int5sity4 ,! /age is provid$ ) rectangul> trav]s+ movem5ts to ! ext5t ( an in* & a qu>t] 9 ea* direction4 ,! mill$ heads :i* effect ^! are plac$ on ! same axis1 in/ead ( side by side1 "o ( !m--! v]tical "o--be+ repeat$ on ! left ( ! /age1 s t ! movem5ts may be communicat$ ei!r by ! "r h& alone or by bo? h&s act+ 9 conc]t4 ,! /age-plate has ! ord9>y v]tical & rotatory motions1 b to a mu* great] ext5t ?an usual2 & ! plat=m :i* c>ries ! object is provid$ ) a spr+ clip to secure ! object :5 ! /age is plac$ 9 ! v]tical position4 ,a new =m ( sub-/age ) c5tr+ screws is made to c>ry ! ,abbe a*romatic cond5s]1 diaphragm1 pol>is+ & o!r app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4--,pillis*]'s ,b9ocul> ,microscope4 ,cont95tal ,microscopes4 ,cont95tal ,microscopes4--,! bett] kn[n among cont95tal opticians are ,zeiss1 ,leitz1 ,seib]t1 ,rei*]t & ,h>tnack4 ,all seem to h vi$ ) ea* o!r 9 ! atta9m5t ( p]fection 9 ! manufacture ( ! mo/ useful =ms ( microscopes4 ,! late ,c>l ,zeiss did m = ! mod]n microscope ?an ei!r ( ! opticians ref]r$ to above4 ,i !re=e take a m$ium typical model ( 8 f a long s]ies ( highly-f9i%$ in/rum5ts = my illu/ration4 ,zeiss's successors h ( late endeav\r$ to p]fect ! me*anical details ( _! in/rum5ts 9 ?ree or f\r directions1 i4e41 fundam5tal features ( ! /&1 /age arrangem5ts1 means ( focuss+1 & illum9ation4 ,! ,/&4--,! g5]al =m ( ! /& /ill p>takes too mu* ( ! orig9al sam5ess ( type introduc$ by ,ob]hus]1 & modifi$ & improv$ by ,h>tnack2 ! 8,babu*90 /& be+ /ill 9 fav\r ) "s few mak]s4 ,! great] firmness & /ead9ess ( ,zeiss's /& 7,fig4 #ie7 is secur$ by ! horse-%oe =m ( foot1 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 is massive & well adapt$ to c>ry ! /\t uprights1 :i* support a well-balanc$1 sub/antial body-tube & a graduat$ draw-tube1 circul> /age ) a vulcanite disc1 #d in*es 9 diamet]2 a sub-/age ) c5tr+ arrangem5t = ,abbe's illum9at+ app>atus1 & iris diaphragm & o!r diaphragms = use :5 ! cond5s] is ?r[n aside4 ,! mirror is full-siz$1 plane & concave4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is regulat$ by a rack & pillion movem5t s p]fect t objectives ( m$ium p[] c be focuss$ by x alone4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is made by micromet] screw1 ! =ce ex]cis$ by :i* is transf]r$ to ! movable body by a s+le contact betwe5 two h>d5$ /eel surfaces4 ,?is ensures extremely delicate & uni=m motion ( ! body :i* c>ries ! tube4 ,! divisions 9 ! mill$ head ( ! screw furni% a means = ! regi/ration ( ! v]tical movem5ts ( ! tube4 ,9 ! late/ /&s1 ea* division corresponds to an elevation or depression ( ! tube 9 ! direction ( ! optic axis ( #jja mm4 ,by ?is means measurem5ts ( ?icknesses may be made ) a consid]able degree ( accuracy1 ! upp] & l[] surfaces ( ! object be+ successively focuss$1 & ! am\nt read (f on ! mill$-head1 by ! fix$ index4 ,9 do+ ?is1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to make bo? adju/m5ts by a rotation ( ! screw 9 ! same direction4 ,! ?ickness ( an object 9 air is !n equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two read+s4 ,by ?is means ! ?ickness ( any o!r sub/ance may be measur$--t1 = in/ance1 ( ! cov]-glass ( ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,zeiss's ,m$ium ,/& ,microscope4 ,! m$ium tube-l5g? ( ! microscope is #afj mm4 f ! atta*m5t ( ! objective to ! eye-piece end4 ,! draw-tube admits ( ! l5g? be+ increas$ or dim9i%$1 & ?is may be read (f by means ( ! millimetre scale engrav$ on ! tube4 ,my description ( ?is model also applies to ! high] class microscopes1 :i* w be f\nd 9 e way well f9i%$ & adapt$ to biological & sci5tific rese>*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,e4 ,leitz's ,m$ium-siz$ ,microscope4 ,e4 ,leitz's ( ,wetzl> ,microscopes4--,?is optician publi%es a s]ies ( twelve high-class =ms ( in/rum5ts4 ,by pref]5ce1 ! horse-%oe =m ( /& 7,fig4 #if7 is adopt$ 9 ! :ole ( ?is mak]'s models1 ! body be+ support$ on a h+e jo9t & clamp$ ov]1 & fitt$ ) a circul> revolv+ c5tr$ me*anical /age1 atta*$ to ! ord9>y /age by means ( a set p91 :i* fixes ! /age 9 position4 ,by remov+ ! screw1 ! /age c be deta*$2 9 ?is way1 ! /age s]ves = se>*+ ov] l>ge surfaces & regi/]+ ! results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,leitz's ,dissect+ ,microscope4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is made by rack & p9ion1 & ! f9e adju/m5t by micromet] screw1 ! head ( :i* is provid$ ) a scale read+ #a_/ajj mm4 ,! draw-tube is also cut & rul$ to millimetre scale4 ,! sub-/age has rack & p9ion movem5t1 & is arrang$ = ! ,abbe cond5s] & iris diaphragm4 ,?is is atta*$ to ! upp] /age by means ( a set p91 :i* fixes & reta9s x 9 position aft] p]fect c5tr+4 ,by remov+ ! p91 ! sub-/age c be ei!r deta*$ or swung aside by press+ a button4 ,9 %ort1 ?is microscope is 9 all respects well furni%$ & fitt$ ) ! requisite complex me*anism necessitat$ by mod]n high-class te*nicological "w4 ,leitz's /ud5ts' microscope1 ) slid+ body1 micromet] screw f9e adju/m5t1 concave mirror1 two eye-pieces & two objectives1 #c_/d in* & #a_/h in*1 9 mahogany case1 co/s #c #ajs4 ,leitz's dissect+ microscope1 ) a heavy foot & re/s1 is fitt$ ) two aplanatic l5ses1 magnify+ #aj1 #bj diamet]s4 ,rei*]t & ,seib]t adh]e to ! same model z t ( ,zeiss1 & !re=e require only a brief notice4 ,_! microscopes are *>act]is$ by sub/antial workman%ip1 suitable con/ruction1 & exact c5tr+4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is obta9$ 9 ! usual way by rack & p9ion1 ! f9e by micromet] screws1 :i* "w easily1 & are protect$ aga9/ we> & te> by hav+ _! work+ surfaces h>d5$4 ,! /&s ( ! bett] class in/rum5ts h micromet] screws graduat$1 & draw-tubes cut to millimetre scale4 ,_! me*anical /ages & sub-/ages & accessories are 9 e way well f9i%$2 /age =ceps1 te/s1 & an assortm5t ( cov] glasses & slides be+ add$4 ,_! fir/-class microscopes are s5t out 9 mahogany boxes4 ,on go+ ?r\gh ! cont95tal mak]s' catalogues1 x w be notic$ t _! well-equipp$ microscopes are r m co/ly ?an t ( _! ,engli% confr]es4 ,x is und]/ood ,messrs4 ,bak] & ,watson are ! con/itut$ ag5ts = ^! opticians4 ,na*et's ,microscope1 a new =m ( :i* 0 fir/ se5 at ! ,antw]p ,exhibition #ahib1 is v solidly built1 & has all ! qualities necess>y = hi/ological "w4 ,! /age rotates ab\t ! optic axis1 & c>ries a movable slide hold]4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is by rack & p9ion movem5t1 ! f9e by ! new sy/em ( micromet] screw 7describ$ 9 ! j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( #ahhf71 ) divid$ head indicat+ ! #a_/djj "p ( a mm4 ,! plane & convex mirror is m\nt$ on a jo9t$ arm4 ,! draw-tube is divid$ into millimetres4 ,! illum9at+ sy/em1 consi/+ ( a wide-angl$ ,abbe cond5s] 7,n4,a4 #adj7 ) iris diaphragm1 is rais$ or l[]$ by rack & p9ion screws4 ,! iris diaphragm1 be+ m\nt$ on a :eel1 is work$ by a tang5t screw1 :i* by a v slight movem5t causes ! ap]ture ( ! diaphragm to pass f ! c5tre to ! p]iph]y ( ! cond5s]4 ,altoge!r ! arrangem5t ( ! sub-/age is novel1 & ! in/rum5t is extremely well arrang$ & adapt$ to mod]n requirem5ts4 ,na*et & ,h>tnack1 ( ,p>is1 hold an almo/ equal rank z mak]s ( fir/-class microscopes1 & 9 po9t ( excell5ce ( workman%ip fairy rival ^? ( our ,engli% mak]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,na*et's ,class ,demon/rat+ ,microscope4 ,!re are v _m o!r ,london & ,cont95tal mak]s ( microscopes besides ^? especially m5tion$1 :o h well-su/a9$ reputations z opticians1 & :o1 f want ( space1 ,i h be5 oblig$ to pass ov]4 ,messrs4 ,newton's ,/ud5ts' ,microscope mu/ be m5tion$ ) respect4 ,x is a good & useful in/rum5t1 has a firm /& ) a rev]sible 7rotatory7 body movem5t1 :i* seems to ensure /ead9ess :5 br\ght into ! horizontal position = micro-photographic purposes4 ,!re are o!r opticians ^: microscopes h /ood ! te/ ( "t--,messrs4 ,coll9s1 ,cr\*1 c4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be tak5 z a well-e/abli%$ fact t ^? opticians kn[n to manufacture ! m highly-f9i%$ models also produce ! m s]viceable =ms ( /ud5ts' class-room1 & o!r microscopes4 ,! ,bact]iological ,microscope4 ,! microscope requir$ = bact]iological /udies %\ld be p]fect 9 all its p>ts4 ,) reg>d to ! *oice ( an in/rum5t1 x is v mu* a matt] ( price1 s9ce ! mo/ p]fect is usually ! mo/ co/ly2 ,i %all !re=e proce$ to give a typical example ( ! in/rum5t 9 use 9 a bact]iological laboratory4 ,! microscope %\ld possess ! foll[+ qualifications1 all ( :i* are absolutely necess>y = ! /udy ( su* m9ute objects z bact]ia & o!r micro-organisms4 8,! typical bact]iological microscope %\ld be well equipp$ ) objectives ( suffici5tly high magnify+ p[]1 & ) a special =m ( illum9at+ app>atus2 :ile ! me*anical arrangem5ts = focuss+ %\ld act ) ! greate/ smoo?ness & precision2 ! /age1 also1 %\ld be wide en\gh to admit ( ! exam9ation ( plate cultivations40 ,we w consid] ^! sev]al po9ts & recomm5dations s]iatim1 comm5c+ ) ! /&4 ,messrs4 ,watson ,sons' ,van ,heurck model /& s well answ]s ! sev]al conditions laid d[n by an exp]i5c$ tea*] ( bact]iology1 t ,i h no hesitation 9 pres5t+ x to my read]s z a typical in/rum5t1 "o 9 e way wor?y ( ! high praise x has already receiv$ f ^? :o h work$ ) x1 & ^: judgm5t may be reli$ ^u 9 e way4 ,! microscope is fully describ$ among ,messrs4 ,watson's in/rum5ts1 page #ajh4 ,! ,/&4--,a good firm /& is und\bt$ly ( ! fir/ importance = all high-class "w4 ,! /ead9ess ( ! in/rum5t & its entire fre$om f vibration dep5ds l>gely ^u ! =m ( ! /&4 ,i am glad to f9d ,dr4 ,crook%ank 9 accord ) me z to ! ,ross-,jackson model1 "o :i*1 9 my op9ion1 has n be5 entirely sup]s$$ by models ( a m rec5t date4 ,inde$1 ! late/ improvem5t effect$ 9 ! ,ross-,jackson =m1 9 :i* att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! spread+-out ( ! feet1 has conv]t$ x into z solid & firm a /& z ,p[ell's2 x is equally free f vibration :5 plac$ 9 ! horizontal position4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 f\r diff]5t =ms ( /&s--! tripod2 ! plate ) d\ble columns2 ! s+le column end+ 9 a plate or a b5t claw2 & ! horse %oe4 ,! tripod /&1 ) cork feet1 is by f> ! /eadie/ =m ( model4 ,! s+le upright pill> support %\ld unque/ionably be condemn$1 z x admits ( consid]able vibration1 & is mo/ inconv5i5t = laboratory "w4 ,! heavy horse-%oe =m is compact & firm1 & ! weight ( x c h>dly be consid]$ an objection4 ,! ,tubul> ,body is f eight to t5 in*es 9 l5g?1 to :i* is add$ a draw-tube ) an engrav$ millimetre scale4 ,by ext5d+ ! draw-tube great] magnification is obta9$1 b s9ce ?is is at ! co/ ( def9ition x %\ld h>dly ev] be employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( bact]ia4 ,a ,triple ,nose-piece is d\btless a conv5i5ce1 sav+ "t :i* is o!rwise sp5t 9 replac+ objectives ( diff]5t magnify+ p[]s2 !re is also less risk ( injur+ !m4 ,focus %\ld be obta9$ by means ( a rack & p9ion co>se adju/m5t1 toge!r ) ! mo/ approv$ k9d ( f9e adju/m5t4 ,! slid+ tube _c be recomm5d$1 z ! motion may be /iff1 enc\rag+ ! use ( =ce1 :i* 9 turn may result 9 ! objective be+ br\ght viol5tly into contact ) ! specim51 ?us do+ injury to ! l5s or damage to ! prep>ation2 or x may get too loose & readily slip out ( focus4 ,! ,/age %\ld be flat & rigid1 ei!r rectangul> or circul>1 s long z x is suffici5tly l>ge to accommodate plate cultivation4 ,a removable me*anical /age is ( great advantage = work+ ) high p[]s1 z a motile bact]ium c be con/antly kept 9 view1 :ile "o h& is engag$ 9 work+ ! f9e adju/m5t2 x may also be employ$ z a f9d]1 if engrav$ ) a longitud9al & v]tical scale1 & provid$ ) a /op4 ,! me*anical /age mu/ be removable1 s t ! /age prop] may be free f any atta*m5ts :5 requir$ = ! exam9ation ( cultures4 ,diaphragms4--,! plan ( us+ a s]ies ( sep>ate discs ( diff]5t sizes %\ld be avoid$1 z !y are easily lo/1 & bact]iological inve/igations may h to be made "u conditions 9 :i* x is difficult to replace !m4 ,a bett] plan is a revolv+ plate ) ap]tures ( diff]5t sizes1 b ! mo/ conv5i5t =m is ! iris diaphragm4 ,! ,sub-/age ,cond5s] is z necess>y 9 biological "w z 9 ! objective--9 fact1 ! cond5s] & ! objective %\ld be consid]$ z =m+ "o piece ( optical app>atus2 ! microscope mu/ be reg>d$ z incomplete )\t x4 ,x is by ! sub-/age cond5s] t ! rays ( light are conc5trat$ at "o po9t1 or on "o p>ticul> bact]ium2 = ! be/ def9ition x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be me*anical arrangem5ts = accurately c5tr+ & focuss+ ! cond5s]4 ,all ?is w be expla9$ & enl>g$ ^u "u 8,practical ,optics40 ,9 ! hi/orical review pres5t$ to my read]s on ! evolution ( ! mod]n microscope1 ,i h = ! mo/ "p reli$ ^u my long & close association1 ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( upw>ds ( half a c5tury1 ) microscopy4 ,i ne$ h>dly say ,i c\ld h v mu* ext5d$ my rem>ks ) pleasure & pr(it _h space p]mitt$1 & !reby mu* increas$ ! numb] ( names ( manufactur]s1 :o h well-e/abli%$ reputations = ! quality ( _! "w1 & ^: in/rum5ts1 m or less complete 9 design1 realise ! wants ( /ud5ts & ( t l>ge class ( pres5t-day work]s engag$ 9 microscopical pursuits to :om economy ( outlay is almo/ a fir/ consid]ation4 ,no valid reason1 h[ev]1 c be assign$ = splitt+ up1 z "s writ]s d1 ! sev]al =ms ( microscopes into "s six diff]5t classes1 :i* implies inf]iority 9 me*anical details or f9i%1 :]eas ! diff]5ce :olly consi/s 9 luxuri\s appliances to save "t1 & 9 accessories = special "w or orig9al rese>*4 ,be=e br++ ^! rem>ks to a close1 x is my wi% to direct ! /ud5t's att5tion to "o or two po9ts ( importance 9 connection ) ! use ( ! in/rum5t1 viz43 v>iations 9 body-l5g?s ( microscopes1 especially betwe5 ^? ( ,engli% & ( ,cont95tal manufacture4 ,! optical-/&>d measurem5t adopt$ 9 ?is c\ntry = ! body-tube-l5g? is #aj in*es2 & = its me*anical1 #h-c_/d in*es4 ,t ( ,cont95tal opticians is1 optical-tube-l5g? #gjh in*es1 or #ahj mm42 ! me*anical1 #fc in*es to #afh mm4 ,pr(essor ,abbe con/ruct$ an apo*romatic imm]sion objective especially = ! ,engli% optical tube-l5g? ( #ajf in*es 7 to #bgj m4m471 & me*anical tube-l5g? some:at less 9 measurem5t4 ,?is may be tak5 to mean a slight increase 9 ! /&>d value ( ! tube1 & !re=e ! addition ( ! rack-&-p9ion to ! draw-tube1 n[ g5]ally made a "p ( ! microscope1 is c]ta9ly ( "s practical value4 ,?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 :5 work+ ) ! ,engli% body-tube ( #aj in*es1 may be disc>d$2 x is1 9 fact1 only :]e ! %ort] ,cont95tal body is 9 use1 t s small a diff]5ce ( tube-l5g? ex]cises a di/urb+ effect ov] adju/m5t4 ,moreov]1 an object plac$ on ! /age ( ! %ort] body microscope w n be se5 ) ! same di/9ctness by ! draughtsman %\ld he wi% to make use ( ! cam]a lucida4 ,! optical tube-l5g? ( ! body is measur$ f ! back l5s ( ! objective to ! front l5s or pr9cipal focus ( ! eye-piece2 ! me*anical tube-l5g? f ! end ( nose-piece ( objective to ! top l5s ( ! eye-piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,h>tna* ,/ud5ts' ,model ,microscope4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,appli$ ,optics3--,eye-pieces2 ,a*romatic ,objectives2 ,cond5s]s4 ,x is almo/ unnecess>y to say t ! eye-piece =ms a mo/ important "p ( appli$ optics 9 ! microscope4 ,x is an optical comb9ation design$ to br+ ! p5cil ( rays f ! objective to assi/ 9 ! =mation ( a real or virtual image be=e x arrives at ! eye ( ! obs]v]4 ,great] att5tion has be5 giv5 ( late ye>s to ! improvem5t ( ! eye-piece1 s9ce flatness ( field mu* dep5ds ^u x4 ,opticians h !re=e s\ght to make x bo? a*romatic & comp5satory4 ,!re are sev]al =ms ( eye-pieces 9 use1 "s ( :i* p>take ( a special "*1 & ^! w receive att5tion 9 _! prop] places4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 cu/om>y among ,engli% opticians to d5ote ! value ( _! sev]al eye-pieces by ,roman capitals1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e4 ,cont95tal opticians1 on ! o!r h&1 h a pref]5ce = num]als1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e & #f1 or m1 & by :i* !y are recognis$4 ,! eye-piece 9 m g5]al use is t kn[n z ! ,huygh5ian 7,fig4 #ii72 ?is came into use upw>ds ( two c5turies ago4 ,x 0 con/ruct$ by ,*ri/ian ,huygh5s1 a ,dut* philosoph] & em95t man ( sci5ce1 secret>y to ,william ,,iii4 ,x 0 made = ! eye-piece ( a telescope he con/ruct$ ) 8 own h&s1 & x has be5 9 con/ant use z ! eye-piece ( ! microscope = ne>ly two c5turies4 ,x consi/s ( two plano-convex l5ses1 ) _! plane surfaces turn$ t[>ds ! eye1 & divid$ at a di/ance equal to half ! sum ( _! focal l5g?s--9 o!r words1 at half ! sum ( ! focal l5g? ( ! eye-glass & ( ! di/ance f ! field-glass at :i* an image f ! object glass w\ld be =m$1 a /op1 or diaphragm1 be+ plac$ betwe5 ! two l5ses = ! reason ab\t to be expla9$4 ,huygh5s himself appe>s to h be5 q unaw>e ( ! value ( an eye-piece s clev]ly con/ruct$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,huygh5ian ,eye-piece ,a1 ! dott$ l9es %[ position ( l5ses4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ,boscovi* to po9t out t1 by ?is important arrangem5t1 he _h correct$ a portion ( ! *romatic ab]ration incid5tal to ! e>li] =m ( eye-pieces4 ,let ,fig4 #ajj repres5t ! ,huygh5ian eye-piece ( a microscope1 f f be+ ! field-glass1 & e e ! eye-glass1 & l m n ! two extreme rays ( ea* ( ! ?ree p5cils emanat+ f ! c5tre & ends ( ! object1 ( :i*1 b = ! field-glass1 a s]ies ( col\r$ images w\ld be =m$ f r r to b b2 ^? ne> r r be+ r$1 ^? ne> b b blue1 & ! int]m$iate ones gre51 yell[1 & s on1 correspond+ ) ! col\rs ( ! prismatic ,spectrum4 ,! effect describ$1 t ( project+ ! blue image beyond ! r$1 ov]-correct+ ! object-glass z to col\r1 is purposely produc$2 x is also se5 t ! images b b & r r are curv$ 9 ! wrong direction to be se5 di/9ctly by ! convex eye-l5s2 ?is !n is a fur!r defect ( ! comp\nd microscope made up ( two l5ses4 ,b ! field-glass1 at ! same "t t x b5ds ! rays & conv]ges !m to foci at b b & r r1 also rev]ses ! curvature ( ! images z "h %[n1 giv+ !m ! =m be/ adapt$ = di/9ct vision by ! eye-glass e e4 ,! field-glass has at ! same "t br\ght ! blue & r$ images clos] toge!r1 s t !y produce an almo/ col\rless image to ! eye4 ,! *romatic ab]ration ( l5ses has be5 cle>ly expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,b let x be suppos$ t ! object-glass _h n be5 ov]-correct$1 t x _h be5 p]fectly a*romatic2 ! rays w\ld !n h appe>$ col\r$ z soon z !y _h pass$ ! field-glass2 ! blue rays ( ! c5tral p5cil1 = example1 w\ld conv]ge at b1 & ! r$ rays at r1 :i* is j ! rev]se ( :at is requir$ ( ! eye-l5s2 = z its blue focus is also %ort] ?an its r$1 x w\ld require t ! blue image %\ld be at r1 & ! r$ at b4 ,?is effect is due to ov]-correction ( ! object-glass1 :i* removes ! blue foci b b z mu* beyond ! r$ foci r r z ! sum ( ! di/ances betwe5 ! r$ & ! blue foci ( ! field-l5s & eye-l5s2 s t ! sep>ation b r is exactly tak5 up 9 pass+ ?r\gh ^? two l5ses1 & ! sev]al col\rs co9cide1 s f> z focal di/ance is conc]n$1 z ! rays pass ! eye-l5s4 ,s t :ile !y co9cide z to di/ance1 !y diff] 9 ano!r respect--! blue image is r5d]$ small] ?an ! r$ by ! great] refractive p[] ( ! field-glass ^u ! =m]4 ,9 trac+ ! p5cil l1 = in/ance1 x w be notic$ t1 aft] pass+ ! field-glass1 two sets ( l9es are drawn1 "o :ole & "o dott$1 ! =m] repres5t+ ! r$1 & ! latt] ! blue rays4 ,?is accid5tal effect 9 ! ,huygh5ian eye-piece 0 po9t$ out by ,boscovi*4 ,! sep>ation into col\rs ( ! field-glass is l ! ov]-correction ( ! object-glass--& op5s ! way to its complete correction4 ,if ! diff]5tly-col\r$ rays 7 kept toge!r till !y rea*$ ! eye-glass1 !y w\ld /ill be col\r$1 & pres5t col\r$ images to ! eye4 ,! sep>at+ effect$ by ! field-glass causes ! blue rays to fall s mu* ne>] ! c5tre ( ! eye-glass1 :]e1 ow+ to its sph]ical figure1 ! refractive p[] is less ?an at ! m>g91 s t sph]ical error ( ! eye-l5s may be said to con/itute a ne>ly equal balance to ! *romatic disp]sion ( ! field-l5s1 & ! blue & r$ rays l & l em]ge ne>ly p>allel1 pres5t+ a fairly good def9ition ( a s+le po9t to ! eye4 ,! same may be said ( ! int]m$iate col\rs ( ! o!r p5cils4 ,! eye-glass ?us con/ruct$ n only br+s toge!r ! images b b1 r r1 b x likewise has ! mo/ important effect ( r5d]+ !m flatt]1 & assi/+ 9 ! correction ( *romatic & sph]ical ab]ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,huygh5ian ,eye-piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,ramsd5's ,eye-piece4 ,! lat] =m ( ! ,huygh5ian eye-piece is t ( ! late ,sir ,george ,airy1 ! field-glass ( :i* is a m5iscus ) ! convex side turn$ t[>ds ! objective1 & ! eye-l5s a cross$ convex ) its flatt] side t[>ds ! eye4 ,ano!r negative eye-piece is t kn[n z ! ,kelln]1 or or?oscopic eye-piece4 ,x consi/s ( a bi-convex field-glass & an a*romatic d\blet eye-l5s4 ,?is magnifies t5 times1 b x 9 no way comp>es ) ! ,huygh5ian 9 value4 ,nei!r does x af=d ! same flatness ( field4 ,! ,ramsd51 or positive eye-piece1 is *iefly employ$ z a micromet] eye-piece = ! measurem5t ( ! values ( magnifi$ images4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is eye-piece is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aja1 a divid$ scale be+ cut on a /rip ( glass 9 #a_/ajj?s ( an in*1 e fif? ( :i* is cut long] ?an ! re/ to facilitate ! read+ ( ! m>k+s1 & at ! same "t t ( ! image ( ! object1 bo? be+ di/9ctly se5 toge!r1 z 9 ! accompany+ r$uc$ micro-photograph ( blood corpuscles1 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,! value ( su* measurem5ts 9 ref]5ce to ! real object1 :5 once obta9$2 is con/ant = ! same objective4 ,x becomes app>5t1 !n1 t ! value ( ! divisions se5 9 ! eye-piece micromet] mu/ be f\nd ) all ! objectives us$1 & c>efully tabulat$4 ,x 0 ,mr4 ,li/] :o fir/ propos$ to place on ! /age ( ! microscope a divid$ scale ( a c]ta9 value4 ,view+ ! scale z a microscopic object1 he obs]v$ h[ _m ( ! divisions on ! scale atta*$ to ! eye-piece correspond$ ) "o or m ( a magnifi$ image4 ,if1 = in/ance1 t5 ( ^? 9 ! eye-piece correspond ) "o ( ^? 9 ! image1 & if ! divisions are kn[n to be equal1 !n ! image is t5 times l>g] ?an ! object1 & ! dim5sions ( ! object t5 times less ?an t indicat$ by ! micromet]4 ,if ! divisions on ! micromet] & on ! magnifi$ scale are n equal1 x becomes a m]e rule-(-?ree sum2 b 9 g5]al ?is tr\ble is tak5 by ! mak] ( ! in/rum5t1 :o furni%es a table %[+ ! value ( ea* division ( ! micromet] = e object-glass ) :i* x w be employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,blood ,corpuscles & ,micromet]1 magnifi$ #acejj4 ,mr4 ,jackson's simple & *eap micromet] is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,x consi/s ( a slip ( glass plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! eye-glass1 ) ! divisions suffici5tly f9e to h ! value ( ! t5-?\s&? "p ( an in* ) ! qu>t]-in* object-glass1 & ! tw5ty-?\s&? ) ! eigh?2 at ! same "t ! half1 or ev5 ! qu>t] ( a division may be e/imat$1 ?us af=d+ ! means ( atta9+ consid]able accuracy1 & may be us$ to sup]s$e ! m complicat$ & exp5sive screw-micromet]1 be+ h&i] to use1 & n liable to d]angem5t 9 inexp]i5c$ h&s4 ,! positive eye-piece af=ds ! be/ view ( ! micromet]1 ! negative ( ! object4 ,! =m] is q free f di/ortion1 ev5 to ! edges ( ! field2 b ! object is slightly col\r$4 ,! latt] is free f col\r1 & is slightly di/ort$ at ! edges4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! field1 h[ev]1 to ! ext5t ( half its diamet]1 !re is no p]ceptible di/ortion1 & ! cle>ness ( ! def9ition gives a precision to ! measurem5t :i* is v satisfactory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,jackson's ,eye-piece ,micromet]4 ,%ort bold l9es are rul$ on a piece ( glass1 a1 ,fig4 #ajc1 to facilitate c\nt+1 ! fif? is drawn long]1 & ! t5? /ill long]1 z 9 ! common rule4 ,v f9e levigat$ plumbago is rubb$ into ! l9es to r5d] !m visible2 !y are !n cov]$ ) a piece ( ?9 glass1 cem5t$ by ,canada balsam1 to prev5t ! plumbago f be+ wip$ out4 ,! slip ( glass ?us prep>$ is secur$ 9 a ?9 brass frame1 s t x may slide freely into its place4 ,slips are cut 9 ! negative eye-piece on ea* side1 s t ! brass frame may be press$ across ! field 9 ! focus ( ! eye-glass1 z at m2 ! cell ( :i* %\ld h a long] screw ?an usual1 to admit ( adju/m5t = diff]5t eyes4 ,! brass frame is reta9$ 9 its place by a spr+ )9 ! tube ( ! eye-piece2 & 9 us+ x ! object is br\ght to ! c5tre ( ! field by ! /age movem5ts2 ! co9cid5ce betwe5 "o side ( x & "o ( ! long l9es is made ) great accuracy by means ( ! small screw act+ ^u ! slip ( glass4 ,! divisions are !n read (f z easily z ! in*es & t5?s on a common rule4 ,! op]ation1 inde$1 is no?+ m ?an ! lay+ ( a rule across ! body to be measur$2 & x matt]s n :e!r ! object be transp>5t or opaque1 m\nt$ or unm\nt$1 if its edges c be di/9ctly se51 its diamet] c be tak54 ,previ\sly1 h[ev]1 to us+ ! micromet]1 ! value ( its divisions %\ld be asc]ta9$ ) ea* object-glass2 ! me?od ( do+ ?is is z foll[s3-- ,place a slip ( rul$ glass on ! /age2 & hav+ turn$ ! eye-piece s t ! l9es on ! two glasses are p>allel1 read (f ! numb] ( divisions 9 ! eye-piece :i* cov] "o on ! /age4 ,repeat ?is process ) diff]5t portions ( ! /age-micromet]1 & if !re be a diff]5ce1 take ! mean4 ,suppose ! hundr$? ( an in* on ! /age requires eighte5 divisions 9 ! eye-piece to cov] x2 x is pla9 t an in* w\ld require eighte5 hundr$1 & an object :i* occupi$ n9e ( ^! divisions w\ld measure ! two-hundr$? ( an in*4 ,take ! in/ance suppos$1 & let ! microscope be furni%$ ) a draw-tube1 m>k$ on ! side ) in*es & t5?s4 ,by draw+ ?is out a %ort di/ance1 ! image ( ! /age micromet] w be exp&$ until "o division is cov]$ by tw5ty 9 ! eye-piece4 ,^! w !n h ! value ( two-?\s&?s ( an in*1 & ! object :i* be=e measur$ n9e w !n measure t52 :i*1 divid$ by #b1jjj1 gives ! decimal fraction #jje4 ,ent] 9 a table ! l5g? to :i* ! tube is drawn out1 & ! numb] ( divisions on ! eye-piece micromet] equival5t to an in* on ! /age2 & any measurem5ts aft]w>ds tak5 ) ! same micromet] & object-glass may1 by a %ort process ( m5tal ari?metic1 be r$uc$ to ! decimal p>ts ( an in*1 if n actually obs]v$ 9 !m4 ,9 asc]ta9+ ! value ( ! micromet] ) a deep objective1 if ! hundr$? ( an in* on ! /age occupies too mu* ( ! field1 !n ! two-hundr$? or five-hundr$? %\ld be us$ & ! numb] ( ! divisions correspond+ to t quantity be multipli$ by two hundr$ or five hundr$1 z ! case may be4 ,! micromet] %\ld n be fitt$ into too deep an eye-piece1 z x is ess5tial to pres]ve good def9ition4 ,a middle-p[] ,kelln] or ,huygh5ian is frequ5tly employ$2 at all ev5ts1 use ! eye-piece ( l[] p[] r ?an impair ! image4 ,! eye-l5s above ! micromet] %\ld n be ( %ort] focus ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in*1 ev5 ) high-p[] objectives4 ,! ,ramsd5 ,eye-piece4--,! cobweb micromet] is ! mo/ effici5t piece ( app>atus yet br\ght into use = measur+ ! magnifi$ image4 ,x is made by /ret*+ across ! field ( ! eye-piece two extremely f9e p>allel wires or cobwebs1 "o or bo? ( :i* c be sep>at$ by ! action ( a micromet] screw1 ! trap head ( :i* is divid$ into a hundr$ or m equal p>ts1 :i* successively pass by an index z ! mill$ head is turn$1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,a portion ( ! field ( view is cut (f at "r angles to ! filam5ts by a scale =m$ ( a ?9 plate ( brass hav+ not*es at its edges1 ! di/ances betwe5 :i* correspond to ! ?reads ( ! screw1 e fif? not* 7z 9 ! previ\s case7 be+ made deep] ?an ! re/1 to make ! "w ( enum]ation easi]4 ,! numb] ( entire divisions on ! scale %[s !n h[ _m complete turns ( ! screw h be5 made 9 ! sep>ation ( ! wires1 :ile ! numb] ( index po9ts on ! mill$ head %[s ! value to ! fraction ( a turn1 t may h be5 made 9 addition4 ,a screw ) "o hundr$ ?reads to ! in* is t usually employ$2 ?is gives to ea* division 9 ! scale 9 ! eye-piece ! value ( #a_/ajj? ( an in*4 ,! edge ( ! mill$ head is also divid$ into ! same numb] ( p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,ramsd5 ,screw ,micromet] ,eye-piece4 ,9 ,watson's ,ramsd5 screw micromet]1 ,fig4 #ajd1 ! micromet] scale 7se5 deta*$7 is rul$ on a circul> piece ( glass1 & ?is1 by unscrew+ ! top1 is dropp$ into its place1 & "o ( ! wires1 bo? be+ fix$1 is set a little to ! side ( ! field1 ! tee? ( ! screw be+ cut to #a_/ajj?s1 & ! drum giv+ ! fractional space betwe5 ! tee? to #a_/ajj?s1 s t ! #a_/ajjjj? ( an in* c be read (f4 ,?is micromet] eye-piece is con/ruct$ entirely ( alum9ium1 a decid$ advantage1 be+ s mu* light] ?an brass to h&le4 ,9 ! screw micromet] ( o!r mak]s1 o!r modifications are f\nd4 ,an iris diaphragm be+ plac$ bel[ ! web to suit ! p[] ( ! eye-piece employ$1 a guid+ l9e at "r angles to ! web is sometimes add$4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to see t :5 ! movable web co9cides exactly ) ! fix$ web1 ! indicator on ! graduat$ head /&s at z]o4 ,! ,comp5sat+ ,eye-piece4--,! v important improvem5ts effect$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! objective naturally l$ up to an equally useful *ange = ! bett] 9 ! eye-piece4 ,all objectives ( wide ap]ture1 f ! curvature ( _! hemisph]ical front l5ses1 %[ a c]ta9 am\nt ( col\r defect 9 ! extra-axial portion ( ! field1 ev5 if p]fectly a*romatic 9 ! c5tre4 ,:e!r an image be directly project$ by ! objective1 or :e!r x be exam9$ ) an aplanatic eye-piece1 col\r fr+es may be detect$1 possibly 9 an increas+ degree t[>ds ! p]iph]y4 ,?is residual *romatic ab]ration has at l5g? be5 v ne>ly elim9at$ by ! aid ( ! comp5sat+ eye-piece4 ,! con/ruction ( comp5sat+ eye-pieces is some:at rem>kable1 s9ce !y h an equival5t error 9 an opposite direction--t is1 ! image =m$ by ! r$ rays is great] ?an t correspond+ to ! blue rays2 consequ5tly1 eye-pieces s con/ruct$ s]ve to comp5sate = ! unequal magnification produc$ by diff]5t col\r$ rays1 & images appe> free f col\r up to ! m>g9 ( ! field4 ,zeiss's comp5sat+ eye-pieces are s arrang$ t ! l[] focal po9ts ( ea* s]ies lie 9 ! same plane :5 ins]t$ 9 ! body-tube ( ! microscope2 no alt]ation ( focus is !re=e requir$ on *ang+ "o eye-piece = ano!r4 ,?is ( itself is n only an advantage b also a sav+ ( "t1 :ile ! di/ance betwe5 ! upp] focal po9t ( ! objective & ! l[] "o ( ! eye-piece1 :i* is ! det]m9+ elem5t ( magnification1 rema9s con/ant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,a sectional view ( ,zeiss's ,comp5sat+ s]ies ( ,eye-pieces1 #a_/b ! full size4 ,a4--,plane ( ! upp] edge ( ! tube4 ,b4--,l[] focal plane ( eye-pieces1 ) _! l5ses 9 situ4 ,! ord9>y work+ eye-pieces1 ,huygh5ian & o!rs1 comm5c+ ) a magnification ( f\r diamet]s1 are s con/ruct$ t !y c be conv5i5tly us$1 z we are accu/om$ to use !m 9 ,engl&1 ) high p[]s1 ,zeiss's ,nos4 #ab & #ah comp5sat+ eye-pieces be+ adapt$ = use ) 8 l[] p[] apo*romatic l5ses ( #af & #h mm4 ,! numb]+ ( ! eye-pieces is c>ri$ out on ! plan orig9ally propos$ by ,pr(essor ,abbe--t is1 ! numb] d5otes h[ _m times an eye-piece1 :5 employ$ ) a giv5 tube-l5g?1 increases ! initial magnify+ p[] ( ! objective1 & at ! same "t furni%es figures = _! rational enum]ation4 ,x is on ?is basis t ! ,g]man comp5sat+ eye-pieces h be5 arrang$ 9 s]ies1 & 9 agreem5t ) _! magnify+ p[] & di/9ctive numb]+s ( #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #ab1 #ah4 ,( ^! sev]al eye-pieces1 #ab is f\nd to be ! mo/ useful4 ,! magnification obta9$ by comb9+ a comp5sat+ eye-piece ) any apo*romatic objective is f\nd by multiply+ its numb] by ! initial magnification ( ! objective1 z giv5 9 ! foll[+ pro(3--,an objective ( #cj mm4 focus1 = example1 gives 9 itself a magnification ( #hcc 7calculat$1 = ! conv5tional di/ance ( vision1 #bej mm472 eye-piece #ab !re=e gives ) ?is objective a magnification ( #ab #hcc #ajjj diamet]s4 ,! classification1 h[ev]1 ( ^! eye-pieces1 z furni%$ by ,abbe1 is dep5d5t ^u increase 9 ! total magnify+ p[] ( ! microscope obta9$ by means ( ! eye-piece z comp>$ ) t giv5 by ! objective alone4 ,! numb]+1 !n1 d5otes h[ _m times an eye-piece increases ! magnify+ p[] ( ! objective :5 us$ ) a giv5 body-tube2 ! prop] measure ( ! eye-piece magnification2 &1 at ! same "t1 ! figures = rational enum]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,b & ,c ,a*romatic ,eye-pieces4 ,comp5sat+ eye-pieces h be5 introduc$ = ! correction ( c]ta9 errors 9 high-p[] objectives--^? made ) hemisph]ical fronts4 ,all su* l5ses1 :e!r apo*romatic or n1 are greatly improv$ by ! comp5sat+ eye-piece1 b ! dry objective & ! l[] p[]s are c]ta9ly det]iorat$4 ,! l[] p[] comp5sat+ eye-pieces are ,huygh5ian1 ! high] are comb9ations1 ) no field-l5s1 & !re=e 9 work+ act z a s+le or positive eye-piece4 ,?is is ( importance to ^? :o "w ) l[ p[]s--! old] =ms ( objectives4 ,messrs4 ,watson & ,swift h adopt$ a new =mula = _! s]ies ( a*romatic eye-pieces1 :]eby _! magnification & flatness ( field are improv$4 ,^! also be> a con/ant ratio to ! initial p[] ( _! objectives4 ,! comp5sat+ eye-pieces ( ^! mak]s are con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple z ^? ( ,zeiss's = ! correction ( errors ( col\r 9 ! m>g9al portion ( ! field1 & consequ5tly are 9 e way z effective z ^? ( ,cont95tal manufacture4 ,figs4 #ajf1 #ajg1 & #ajh %[ 9 dott$ outl9e ! =m & position ( ! sev]al l5ses comb9$ 9 ^! eye-pieces4 ,projection ,eye-pieces are *iefly us$ 9 micro-photography1 & = scre5 demon/rations4 ,! cap ( ?is eye-piece is provid$ ) a spiral adju/m5t = focuss+1 ! diaphragm be+ plac$ 9 front ( ! eye-l5s1 an ess5tial arrangem5t = obta9+ an accurate focus4 ,! r+ se5 bel[ ! cap1 ,fig4 #ajh1 is graduat$ s t ! rotation = di/ance ( scre5 may be c>efully record$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--,! ,comp5sat+ ,eye-piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,projection ,eye-piece4 ,s*midt's goniomet] positive eye-piece1 = measur+ ! angles ( cry/als1 is s arrang$ z to be easily rotat$ )9 a l>ge & accurately graduat$ circle4 ,9 ! focus ( ! eye-piece a s+le cobweb is drawn across1 & to ! upp] "p is atta*$ a v]ni]4 ,! cry/als be+ plac$ 9 ! field ( ! microscope1 c>e be+ tak5 t !y lie p]fectly flat1 ! v]ni] is br\ght to z]o1 & !n ! :ole app>atus turn$ until ! l9e is p>allel ) "o face ( ! cry/al2 ! frame-"w be>+ ! cobweb1 ) ! v]ni]1 is n[ rotat$ until ! cobweb becomes p>allel ) ! next face ( ! cry/al1 & ! numb] ( degrees :i* x has trav]s$ may !n be accurately read (f4 ,goniomet]4--,if a high] degree ( precision is requir$1 !n1 ! d\ble-refract+ goniomet] inv5t$ by ! late ,dr4 ,leeson mu/ be sub/itut$4 ,) ?is goniomet] 7,fig4 #aji7 ! angles ( cry/als1 :e!r microscopic or o!rwise1 c be measur$4 ,x has remov$ ! e>li] difficulties incid5t to simil> in/rum5ts =m]ly 9 use4 ,among o!r advantages1 x is capable ( measur+ opaque & ev5 imp]fect cry/als1 beside microscopic cry/als & ^? 9 ! int]ior ( o!r transp>5t m$ia4 ,x is equally applicable to ! l>ge/ cry/als1 & w measure angles )\t remov+ ! cry/al f a specim51 provid$ only ! :ole is plac$ on a suitable adju/+ /age4 ,! value ( ! goniomet] dep5ds on ! application ( a d\bly refract+ prism1 ei!r ( ,icel& sp> or ( qu>tz1 cut ( su* a ?ickness z w p>tially sep>ate ! two images ( ! angle x is propos$ to measure4 ,dr4 ,leeson /rongly insi/$ on ! importance ( ! microscope 9 ! exam9ation ( ! planes ( cry/als subject$ to measurem5t1 z obliquity 9 _m cases arises f n only con*oidal fractures1 b also f imp]fect lam9 elevat+ "o portion ( a plane1 & yet all[+ a v tol]able reflection :5 measur$ by ! d\ble refract+ goniomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,leeson's ,goniomet]4 ,microscopes = cry/allographic & petrological rese>* are n[ specially con/ruct$ = measur+ ! angles ( cry/als4 ,erector eye-pieces & erect+ prisms are employ$ = ! purpose ( caus+ ! image pres5t$ to ! eye to correspond ) t ( ! object4 ,!y are also helpful 9 mak+ m9ute dissections ( /ructure2 ! loss ( light1 h[ev]1 by s5d+ x ?r\gh two additional surfaces is a drawback1 & impairs ! %>pness ( ! image4 ,na*et design$ an extremely +5i\s arrangem5t :]eby ! inv]t$ image became erect2 he adapt$ a simple rectangul> prism to ! eye-piece4 ,! obliquity :i* a prism gives to ! visual rays :5 ! microscope is us$ 9 ! erect position1 z = dissect+1 is an advantage1 z x br+s ! image to ! eye at an angle v ne>ly correspond+ to t ( ! incl9$ position 9 :i* ! microscope is ord9>ily us$4 ,! ,a*romatic ,objective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,pan-aplanatic ,a*romatic ,objectives4 ,! ,a*romatic ,objective1 ( all ! optical & me*anical adjuncts to ! microscope1 is 9 e way ! mo/ necess>y1 z well z ! mo/ important4 ,! ideal ( p]fection aim$ at by ! optician is a comb9ation ( l5ses t %all produce a p]fect image--t is1 "o absolutely p]fect 9 def9ition & almo/ free f col\r4 ,! me?od resort$ to = ! elim9ation ( sph]ical & *romatic ab]ration 9 ! l5s has be5 fully expla9$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,x w n[ be my endeav\r to %[ ! progressive /ages ( a*romatism & evolution ( ! microscope ?r\gh\t ! pres5t c5tury4 ,x is almo/ z difficult to assign ! date ( ! e>lie/ application ( a*romatism to ! microscope z to t ( ! inception & _m modifications ( ! in/rum5t 9 pa/ ages2 inde$1 ! "q ( priority 9 e /ep tak5 9 its improvem5t has be5 ! subject ( controv]sy4 ,among ! e>li] work]s 9 ! fir/ decade ( ?is c5tury w be f\nd ! "n ( ,b]n>do ,m>zoni1 :o 0 curator ( ! ,physical ,laboratory ( ! ,lyceum ( ,brescia4 ,he1 an amateur optician1 x has come to light1 9 #ahjh con/ruct$ an a*romatic objective1 & exhibit$ x at ,milan 9 #ahaa1 :5 he obta9$ ! aw>d ( a silv] m$al = its m]its1 "u ! au?ority ( ! 8,in/itute ,reale delli ,sci5zo40 ,?r\gh ! good (fices ( ! late ,mr4 ,john ,mayall "o ( ,m>zoni's objectives1 :i* _h be5 c>efully pres]v$1 0 pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( ,london 9 #ahij4bj ,?is objective is a cem5t$ comb9ation1 ) ! plane side ( ! fl9t-l5s pres5t$ to ! object4 ,?is 0 an improvem5t ( a practical k9d1 & ( :i* ,*evali] subsequ5tly avail$ himself4 ,9 #ahbc ,selligue1 a ,fr5* optician1 is cr$it$ ) hav+ fir/ sugge/$ ! plan ( comb9+ two1 ?ree1 or f\r plano-convex a*romatic d\blets ( simil> foci1 "o above ! o!r1 to increase ! p[] & ! ap]ture ( ! microscope4 ,fresnel1 :o report$ ^u ?is inv5tion1 pref]r$ on ! :ole ,adam's arrangem5t1 because x gave a l>g] field4 ,selligue subsequ5tly improv$ 8 objective by plac+ a small diaphragm betwe5 ! mirror & ! object4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ,tully 0 induc$ by ,dr4 ,gor+ to "w at ! a*romatic objective1 & 8 fir/ ef=ts 7 att5d$ ) a success q equal to t ( ,*evali]'s4 ,li/] on exam9+ ^! l5ses said3--8,! ,fr5* optician kn[s no?+ ( ! value ( ap]ture1 b he has %[n u t f9e p]=mance is n conf9$ to triple objectives40 ,amici1 ! amateur optician ( ,mod5a1 visit$ ?is c\ntry 9 #ahbg & br\ght 8 a*romatic microscope & objectives1 :i* 7 se5 to give increase ( ap]ture by comb9+ d\blets ) triplets4 ,! mo/ la/+ improvem5t 9 ! a*romatic objective 0 t ( ,joseph ,jackson ,li/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ! fa!r ( ,"l ,li/]1 & "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society ( ,london4 ,li/]'s discov]ies at ?is p]iod 7#ahbi7 9 ! hi/ory ( ! optics ( ! microscope 7 ( great] importance ?an !y h be5 repres5t$ to be4 ,t he 0 an en?usia/ is manife/1 =1 be+ unable to f9d an optician to c>ry out 8 =mula = gr9d+ l5ses1 he at once set to "w to gr9d 8 own1 & 9 a %ort "t 0 able to make a l5s :i* 0 said to be ! be/ ( ! day4 ,li/]1 9 a pap] contribut$ to ! proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society ! same ye>1 po9t$ out h[ ! ab]rations ( "o d\blet c\ld be neutralis$ by a second4 ,he fur!r demon/rat$ t ! fl9t l5s %\ld be a plano-concave jo9$ by a p]man5t cem5t to ! convex cr[n-glass4 ,! fir/ condition1 he /ates1 8obviates ! risk ( error 9 c5tr+ ! two curves1 & ! second dim9i%es by "o half ! loss ( light f reflection1 :i* is v great at ! num]\s surfaces ( e comb9ation40 ,^! two conditions !n--t ! fl9t l5s %all be plano-concave1 & t x %all be jo9$ by "s cem5t 7,canada balsam7 to ! convex--may be tak5 z ! basis = ! microscopic objective1 provid$ !y c be reconcil$ ) ! correction ( sph]ical & *romatic ab]ration ( a l>ge p5cil4 ,&rew ,ross 0 n sl[ to p]ceive ! value ( ,li/]'s sugge/ions & 9 #ahca he _h con/ruct$ an object-glass on ! l9es laid d[n by ,li/]1 ,fig4 #aab2 a a repres5t+ ! ant]ior pair1 m ! middle1 & p ! po/]ior1 ! ?ree sets comb9$ =m+ ! a*romatic objective1 consi/+ ( ?ree pairs ( l5ses1 a d\ble-convex cr[n-glass1 & a plano-concave ( fl9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,li/]'s d\ble-convex cr[n & plano-concave fl9t cem5t$ comb9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,&rew ,ross's #a_/d-;in* ,objective4 ,li/] propos$ o!r comb9ations1 & himself made an object-glass consi/+ ( a m5iscus pair ) a triple middle1 & a back plano-convex d\blet4 ,?is _h a work+ di/ance ( #aa & prov$ to be s great a success t o!r opticians--,hugh ,p[ell1 #ahcd2 ,james ,smi?1 #ahci--made objectives aft] ! same =mula4 ,! publication ( ,li/]'s data prov$ ( value 9 ano!r direction3 x /imulat$ opticians to apply !mselves to ! fur!r improvem5t ( ! a*romatic objective4 ,&rew ,ross 0 "o ( ! m e>ne/ work]s 9 giv+ effect to ,li/]'s pr9ciples & a %ort "t aft]w>ds f\nd t a triple comb9ation1 ) ! l5ses sep>at$ by %ort int]vals1 gave bett] results4 ,9 ! accompany+ diagram ! *anges made 9 ! comb9ation ( ! objective f #ahca1 & ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( ab\t tw5ty ye>s f ?is date1 are %[n4 ,ea* objective1 f ! #a_/b-;in* to ! #a_/ab-;in*1 is se5 to be built up ( at lea/ six or eight diff]5t fronts1 ! back comb9ations be+ a triplet =m$ ( two d\ble-convex l5ses ( cr[n glass ) an int]m$i>y d\ble concave l5s ( fl9t-glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--;,comb9ations ( ,e>ly ,dry ,objectives4 ,a1 ,d\ble-convex l5s2 ,b1 ,plano-concave2 ,c1 ,bi-convex & plano-concave unit$2 %[n 9 _! v>i\s comb9ations1 z at ,d1 =m ! #c-;941 #b-;94 or #a-a_/b-;942 at ,e1 #a-;94 & #b_/c-;942 & at ,f1 ! #a_/b-;941 #d_/aj-;941 #a_/d-;94 & #a_/be-;94 objectives4 ,comb9ation ,d 0 = _m ye>s kn[n z ! ,norfolk ,objective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,li/]'s ,correction ,coll>1 79 section74 ,no soon] _h ,ross con/ruct$ #a_/d-;in* a*romatic objectives on ,li/]'s =mula ?an he discov]$ an error :i* _h hi!rto escap$ att5tion1 viz41 t ! ?9ne/ cov]-glass ( an object produc$ a consid]able am\nt ( refractive di/urbance4 ,a m>k$ diff]5ce 0 obs]v$ 9 ! image :5 view$ ) or )\t a cov]-glass4 ,?is difficulty 0 fir/ met by ! addition ( a draw-tube to ! microscope body4 ,b z ?is also impair$ ! image1 ,li/] ov]came ! difficulty by m\nt+ ! front l5s ( ! objective 9 a sep>ate tube made to fit ov] a second tube c>ry+ ! two pairs ( l5ses4 ,?is arrangem5t l$ up to 8 inv5tion ( ! screw-coll> adju/m5t1 ! me*anism = apply+ :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aad4 ,! ant]ior l5s a at ! end ( ! tube is enclos$ 9 a brass-piece b conta9+ ! comb9ation2 ! tube a1 hold+ ! l5s ne>e/ ! object1 is !n made to move up or d[n ! cyl9d] b1 ?us v>y+ ! di/ance1 accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! glass cov]+ ! object1 by turn+ ! screw r+ c1 ?us caus+ ! "o tube to slide ov] ! o!r1 & clamp+ !m toge!r :5 prop]ly adju/$4 ,an ap]ture is made 9 ! tube a1 )9 :i* is se5 a m>k engrav$ on ! cyl9d]1 on ! edge ( :i* are two m>ks1 a long] & a %ort]1 engrav$ ^u ! tube4 ,:5 ! m>k on ! cyl9d] co9cides ) ! long] m>k on ! tube1 ! adju/m5t is made = an uncov]$ object2 & :5 ! co9cid5ce is ) ! %ort] m>k1 ! prop] di/ance is obta9$ to balance ! ab]rations produc$ by a cov]-glass ! hundr$? ( an in* ?ick2 su* glass cov]s are n[ suppli$4 ,! adju/m5t %\ld be te/$ exp]im5tally by mov+ ! mill$ edge :i* sep>ates or closes ! comb9ations1 & at ! same "t us+ ! f9e adju/+ screw ( ! microscope4 ,! difficulty associat$ ) ! cov]-glass ( old has1 by ! introduction ( ! homog5e\s imm]sion sy/em1 be5 v ne>ly elim9at$4 ,!re /ill rema9s1 h[ev]1 a di/urb+ am\nt ( residual col\r ab]ration 9 ! a*romatic dry objective1 & = ! correction ( :i* ,zeiss propos$ m\nt+ ! sev]al l5ses on a me?od some:at diff]5t to t s long 9 use 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,fig4 #aae %[s an objective 9 :i* ! screw-coll> r+ b b is made to adju/ ! exact di/ance betwe5 ! two back l5ses plac$ at a a4 ,! value ( ! screw-coll> is n que/ion$4 ,x is difficult to obta9 at all times cov]-glasses ( a p]fectly uni=m ?ickness2 !y w v>y1 & !re=e p]fect def9ition mu/ be obta9$1 z h]et(ore1 by adju/+ = ea* sep>ate prep>ation :ile ! object is "u exam9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,! ,cont95tal ,screw-coll> ,adju/m5t4 ,z e>ly z #ahdb ! excell5ce ( ,&rew ,ross's a*romatic objectives 7 ackn[l$g$1 & 8 =mula = _! con/ruction 0 g5]ally foll[$4 ,no d\bt _m ( ^! e>ly objectives ( 8 manufacture are /ill reg>d$ z treasures4 ,i possess a #a_/b-;in* & a #a_/d-;in*1 :i* ,i believe to be comp>able ) any a*romatic objectives ( ! same ap]tures ( ! pres5t day4 ,^! ,i h always f\nd mo/ s]viceable = hi/ological "w4 ,9 #ahej ,mr4 ,w5ham produc$ an a*romatic objective ( consid]able a*romatic value4 ,?is consi/$ ( a s+le hemisph]ical front comb9ation1 %[n 9 ! accompany+ enl>g$ diagram1 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,w5ham's =mula seems to h be5 g5]ally adopt$ by ,cont95tal opticians1 :o sold ^! l5ses at a r$uction ( price4 ,9 ,p>is1 ,prazm[ski & ,h>tnack--,i h _h "o ( ,h>tnack's e>lie/ imm]sions 9 use = _m ye>s--br\ght ?is =m ( objective to great] p]fection1 & 9 #ahfg ,p[ell & ,leal& adopt$ ! s+le front comb9ation sy/em 9 _! e>ly wat]-imm]sion objective1 :]eby ! focal di/ance 0 said to be 8practically a con/ant quantity1 :ile r$uction ( ap]ture by mak+ ! front l5s ?9n] ensures a mu* great] work+ di/ance )\t affect+ ! ab]rations1 s9ce ! fir/ refraction takes place at ! po/]ior or curv$ surface ( ! front l5s1 ! removal ( any portion ( ?ickness at ! ant]ior or plane surface simply cuts (f zones ( p]iph]al rays )\t alt]+ ! di/ance--any space be+ fill$ by ! homog5e\s imm]sion fluid1 or by an extra ?ickness ( cov]-glass40#ba ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,a ,s+le ,front ,comb9ation =mulat$ by ,w5ham = ,messrs4 ,ross 7enl>g$74 ,great improvem5ts 7 br\ght ab\t by ,r4 ,b4 ,tolles1 ( ,bo/on1 #ahgd1 9 ! objective1 z well z 9 ! optical & me*anical p>ts ( ! microscope1 mo/ ( :i*1 h[ev]1 mu/ be ascrib$ to ! criticisms & sugge/ions ( amateur work]s skill$ 9 ! exhibition ( te/-objects--! late ,dr4 ,woodw>d ( ,wa%+ton1 = example1 ^: s]ies ( photographs ( ! m difficult fru/ules ( diatoms h r>ely be5 surpass$4 ,su* results 7 due to improvem5ts made 9 ! optical "p ( ! microscope at 8 sugge/ion4 ,he came to ! conclusion1 arriv$ at ab\t ! same "t by ma!matical sci5ti/s1 t increase ( p[] 9 ! microscope 0 only possible 9 two directions1 ! qualitative & ! quantitative4 ,x 0 n[ t microscopi/s turn$ to ! late ,pr(essor ,abbe = assi/ance 9 p]fect+ ! objective 9 ! dioptric direction4 ,?is1 he po9t$ out1 mu/ be look$ = 9 fur!r improvem5ts 9 ! art ( glass-mak+4 ,a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ultimately br\ght to light a m9]al sub/ance1 ,fluorite1 :i*1 :5 comb9$ 9 ! prop] proportion1 "o "p to two ( ,g]man cr[n & fl9t glass1 0 f\nd to h ! qualities look$ =1 & to possess diff]5t relations ( a disp]sive & refractive p[]4 ,f ,pr(essor ,abbe's rese>*es1 begun 9 #ahgf1 we h _h ! ap]ture ( ! objective greatly enl>g$1 & ! homog5e\s sy/em br\ght into g5]al use4 ,previ\s to ?is date ! be/ made objective m]ely approximat$ to col\r correction4 ,und\bt$ly ! *ief object to be obta9$ 0 ! removal or dim9ution ( ! second>y col\r ab]ration4 ,?is1 toge!r ) o!r residual errors ,abbe po9t$ out 9 #ahhj1 l$ to ! improvem5t ( ! optical quality ( ! glass us$ 9 ! manufacture ( all optical in/rum5ts1 ! *ief difficulties be+ surm\nt$ 9 ! ,j5a glass factory1 :]eby a complete revolution 0 effect$ 9 ! microscopic objective4 ,! apo*romatic glasses ( ,zeiss1 ,p[ell1 ,beck1 ,ross1 ,watson1 ,swift1 & o!r mak]s1 9 :i* ! second>y spectrum has be5 totally elim9at$1 or only a negligible t]ti>y spectrum rema9s--t is to say1 ! objectives ( ^! mak]s--are n[ correct$ = ?ree spectrum rays1 & n two1 z 9 ! old] objectives2 & only ^? :o look =w>d = mak+ fur!r discov]ies 9 ! intimate /ructure ( bacilli or = resolv+ ! f9e/ diatom m>k+s c be said to fully appreciate ! importance & value ( ! inve/igations ( ! late ,pr(essor ,abbe1 & :i* h1 s to speak1 entirely *ang$ old empirical views z to ! value ( high ap]ture1 & demon/rat$ t high amplification1 unless associat$ by proportionally high ap]ture1 necess>ily produces untrue images ( m9ute /ructures4 ,x 0 he also :o introduc$ a practically p]fect sy/em ( e/imat+ ap]tures1 kn[n z ! 8num]ical ap]ture notation10 by :i* n only c an accurate comp>ison be made ( ! relative ap]tures ( any s]ies ( objectives1 :e!r dry or imm]sion1 b _! resolv+ p[] "u ! v>i\s conditions ( ! k9d ( light employ$4 ,_! p5etrat+ p[] & _! illum9at+ p[] c n[ be e/imat$ ) ma!matical exactness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4--;,diagram ( an ,apo*romatic ,comb9ation4 ,! practical advantages1 !n1 secur$ by ! adoption ( ! homog5e\s sy/em 71 on ! :ole1 great] ?an any be=e made or believ$ to be possible1 & :5 tak5 into acc\nt 9 connection ) ! improvem5t ( ! eye-piece 7also due to ,abbe71 almo/ p]fect a*romatism & homog5eity betwe5 objective1 object1 & eye-piece is secur$1 toge!r ) a %>p def9ition ( ! image ov] ! :ole visual field4 ,^!1 ) an increase ( work+ di/ance betwe5 ! object & ! objective1 & o!r important results1 h be5 plac$ )9 ! rea* ( ! microscopi/ by m5 ( sci5ce1 & ! outcome is ! g5]al adoption ( ! homog5e\s sy/em1 t]m$ by ,c>l ,zeiss1 a fell[-work] ) ,abbe1 !#bb apo*romatic sy/em ( con/ruct+ objectives4 ,relative ,m]its ( ! ,engli% & ,g]man ,objectives4 ,z to ! relative m]its ( ,g]man-made objectives1 no sup]iority c be claim$ = !m ov] ^? made by ,engli% opticians4 ,! ,cont95tal =m ( ! #a_/ab-;in* oil-imm]sion objective1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #aah1 on ! scale ( #f to #a1 consi/s ( f\r sy/ems ( l5ses1 namely1 ! front1 a deep hemisph]ical cr[n l5s ( high refractive index2 ! second front ( ! sy/em1 an a*romatic l5s ( su* a =m t x ga!rs ! light f ! hemisph]ical front2 ! middle l5s1 a s+le m5iscus2 & ! back an a*romatis$ l5s1 ! second front ( ! back be+ connect$ 9 su* a way z to comp5sate = ! sph]ical & *romatic ab]rations ( ! front l5s4 ,! fir/ homog5e\s imm]sion objective :i* came "u my obs]vation 0 manufactur$ 9 ! well-kn[n ,j5a work%op ( ,c>l ,zeiss1 ,decemb]1 #ahgg4 ,?is _h a v consid]able increase ( num]ical ap]ture1 upw>ds ( #ej p] c5t42 a cle> ga91 z an oil angle ( ev5 #aaj prov$ to be ( great] value ?an an angle ( #ahj 9 air1 :ile ! resolv+ p[] ( ! objective 0 increas$ 9 l proportion4 ,!re does n at pres5t appe> to be a b> to ! con/ruction ( objectives ( yet high] p[]1 ) increase ( ap]ture4 ,! available c\rse op5 9 ?is direction is ! fur!r discov]y ( ano!r vitre\s mat]ial & a suitable imm]sion fluid ) an index ( #ah or #ai1 & glass ) a correspond+ index1 s z to ensure homog5eity ( ! comb9ation4 ,zeiss ass]ts t 9 ! m difficult dep>tm5ts ( microscopical rese>* ! apo*romatic l5ses w supplant ! old] objectives1 yet !re are _m problems 9 microscopy await+ solution :i* d n dem& ! highe/ atta9able degree ( p]fection 9 ! objective1 & 9 ! majority ( cases ! old] a*romatic objective is all t is ne$ful1 provid$ x is good ( its k9d4 ,! a*romatic objectives & eye-pieces ( ! old] type h /ill an advantage1 z1 ow+ to _! simpl] con/ruction1 really good l5ses ( ! class requir$ c be pur*as$ at consid]ably l[] prices ?an ! objectives ( ! new s]ies4 ,^!1 f be+ m complicat$ 9 con/ruction1 involve a great] am\nt ( skill$ manual lab\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,! ,cont95tal #a_/ab-;94 ,oil-imm]sion ,comb9ation 7enl>g$ diagram74 ,! ,g]man glasses ( to-day af=d satisfactory evid5ce bo? ( skill & workman%ip display$ 9 _! production4 ,_! co/ is great]1 !n1 = ! reason giv51 z w be se5 on ref]5ce to ,cont95tal catalogues4 ,! dry s]ies ( objectives co/ some:at less1 a #a_/b-;in* 7num]ical ap]ture #jcj7 c be _h = #a #ajs41 & a #a_/f-;in* 7num]ical ap]ture #jfe7 = #b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! apo*romatic s]ies rapidly increase 9 price z ! num]ical ap]ture approa*es ! limit ( num]ical ap]ture #jdj4 ,! be/ ( ,zeiss's s]ies are ! #ab mm4 7#a_/b-;in*7 & ! #c mm4 7#a_/h-;in*71 num]ical ap]ture #ad1 bo? ( :i* possess ! optical capacity assign$ to !m4 ,^! objectives are und\bt$ly ! f9e/ to be met ) 9 ! work%op ( any optician4 ,a*romatic objectives ( ,cont95tal manufacture h be5 z mu* improv$ z ^? ( ,engli% make by ! introduction ( ! new] v>ieties ( glass1 z already expla9$1 :ile a new nom5clature has sprung up 9 consequ5ce4 ,we n[ h semi-apo*romatic & p>a*romatic4 ,! ,g]man opticians h foll[$ ,zeiss's lead1 s9ce almo/ ! same s]ies ( objectives are giv5 9 ! catalogues ( ,leitz1 ,rei*]t1 & ,seib]t1 :ile ! quality ( bo? dry & imm]sion objectives is f\nd to be mu* ! same4 ,! l[ price ( ,rei*]t's imm]sion objectives %\ld be not$1 z _! p]=mance is q p]fect4 ,a #a_/ab-;in* 7num]ical ap]ture #acj7 ( ,leitz's1 ) :i* ,i h work$ at bact]ia1 has giv5 me mu* satisfaction2 suppli$ by ,watson & ,bak] at #e4 ,a #a_/ab-;in* dry objective by ! same mak] 7num]ical ap]ture #jhg7 co/s #c1 & a wat] imm]sion #a_/ab-;in* 7num]ical ap]ture #aaj7 #c #es4 ,leitz rem9ds me t x requires a good l5s ( f six to sev5 hundr$ magnify+ p[] = ! exam9ation ( bact]ia4 ,= ?is reason he has con/ruct$ a new =m ( l5s1 a #a_/aj-;in* oil-imm]sion ( #be mm4 focus1 = ! purpose ( add+ to ! res\rces ( bact]iology4 ,?is l5s necess>ily has a l[] magnification ?an 8 =m] #a_/ab-;in* oil-l5s1 b z x is less co/ly to manufacture x is sold at a small] price4 ,! be=e-m5tion$ #a_/ab-;in*1 ) a ,no4 #c comp5sat+ eye-piece1 gives a magnification ( ov] sev5 hundr$ or eight hundr$ diamet]s4 ,to secure ! be/ results 9 us+ ! high] p[]s ( ,leitz's1 f ,no4 #e upw>ds1 a cov]-glass ( #jag mm4 9 ?ickness %\ld be us$1 & c>e tak5 to make ! l5g? ( ! draw-tube equal to #agj mm4 ,?is l5g? ( tube %\ld be adh]$ to 9 ! use ( ?is optician's oil-imm]sion l5ses4 ,if ! microscope be provid$ ) a nose-piece1 ! draw-tube %\ld be drawn out to #afj mm42 9 its abs5ce x %\ld be set at #agj mm41 a deviation ( #aj mm4 or m f ! correct tube-l5g? det]iorates f ! value ( ,leitz's oil-imm]sion objectives z ( o!r opticians4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! ,g]man apo*romatic comb9ation ( ?ree cem5t$ l5ses is t adopt$ by ,/e9heil long be=e1 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 well-kn[n h&-magnifi] 7see page #gg1 ,fig4 #ea74 ,zeiss's #c mm4 objective has a triple front1 balanc$ by two triple backs--9 all n9e l5ses--a some:at amplifi$ diagram ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aah4 ,! =mula = ?is comb9ation 0 furni%$ by ,tolles1 ( ,bo/on1 ,am]ica1 & x at once secur$ increase ( ap]ture 7! value ( ?is optician's _m contributions to microscopy has s9ce 8 dea? be5 g5]ally ackn[l$g$74 ,! metrical equival5t focus assign$ by ,zeiss to 8 s]ies ( dry a*romatic objectives is giv5 9 some:at ambigu\s t]ms1 :i* t5d to confuse r ?an classify !m2 = in/ance1 two l5ses ( ! same ap]ture--#bd mm4 & #af mm4--correspond+ to ! ,engli% #a-;in* & #b_/c-;in*1 ea* h assign$ to !m an ap]ture ( #jcj2 a #ab mm4 & #h mm41 correspond+ to ! ,engli% #a_/b-;in* & #a_/c-;in*1 h an ap]ture ( #jfe2 :ile a #f mm4 #a_/d-;in*1 & a #d mm4 #a_/d-;in* & #a_/f-;in*1 h ea* an ap]ture ( #jie4 ,na*et exhibit$ at ! ,antw]p ,exhibition a f9e #a_/aj-;in* oil-imm]sion1 :i* 0 highly prais$ by ! jurors4 ,x is necess>y1 to make ! fact p]fectly cle>1 t dry & imm]sion l5ses hav+ ! same angul> ap]ture h also a simil> def9+ p[]4 ,! p5cil ( rays1 h[ev]1 diff]s 9 int5sity & d5sity z ! rays em]g+ f ! cov]-glass ( ! object into air are v consid]ably deflect$1 & ! cone suff]s a correspond+ loss ( brightness4 ,on ?is important po9t1 !n1 ,i believe x w prove ( value to int]polate a cle> & full exposition ( ! *ange br\ght ab\t by ! cov]-glass4 ,x is n difficult1 !n1 to p]ceive ! importance ( ,amici's discov]y z to ! value ( a drop ( wat] ins]t$ betwe5 ! object & ! objective1 & x n[ seems some:at surpris+ x %\ld h be5 s long neglect$ by opticians1 s9ce x is at once se5 to dim9i% ! reflection :i* takes place 9 ! incid5ce ( oblique light4 ,! film ( wat] n only gives increas$ ap]ture1 b also great] cleanness & %>pness to ! image4 ,! film1 !n1 z already %[n1 collects ! /ray+ away ( p]iph]al rays ( light1 & s5ds !m on to ! eye-piece1 & greatly assi/s 9 r5d]+ ! image m p]fect1 & mat]ially aids 9 ! removal ( residu>y second>y ab]rations2 :ile ) air1 or dry objectives1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ab]ration takes place1 suffici5t to affect ! p5cils on _! passage f ! radiant to ! m$ium ( ! front l5s1 add+ a consid]able ratio to ! total sph]ical ab]ration ) ! objective1 :i*1 9 ! case ( wide angles1 increases disproportionately f ! axis outw>ds4 ,?is c only be correct$ by a r\gh me?od ( balanc+2 t is1 by introduc+ an excess ( opposite ab]ration 9 ! po/]ior l5s4 ,an uncorrect$ residuum1 rapidly increas+ ) l>g] ap]tures1 is !n left1 & ?is appe>s 9 ! image amplifi$ by ! total p[] ( ! objective1 s t ) a non-homog5e\s m$ium !re is a maximum angul> ap]ture :i* _c be surpass$ )\t und]go+ a p]ceptible loss ( def9ition1 provid$ work+ di/ance is requir$4 ,if we aboli% ! ant]ior ab]ration = all col\rs1 by an imm]sion fluid :i* is equal to cov]-glass 9 refractive & disp]sive p[]1 ! difficulty is at once ov]come4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we h an objective ( #adj 9 glass 7 #abe ,n4,a47 & wat] z ! imm]sion fluid1 ! ab]ration 9 front w\ld affect a p5cil ( #adj4 ,sub/itut+ a homog5e\s m$ium1 ! same p5cil1 contract$ to ! equival5t angle 9 t m$ium ( #aab1 w be admitt$ to ! front l5s )\t any ab]ration1 & may be made to em]ge f ! curv$ surface also )\t any di/urb+ ab]ration1 b contract$ to an angle v>y+ f #gj to #ij4 ,! fir/ consid]able sph]ical ab]ration ( ! p5cil !n occurs at ! ant]ior surface ( ! second l5s1 :]e ! maximum obliquity ( ! rays is already consid]ably dim9i%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai;a4 ,figs4 #aai & #aai;a w d\btless make ?is cle>]4 ,if ! objective ( #adj works ) wat] 7,fig4 #aai71 !re w\ld be a cone ( rays ext5d+ up to #gj on bo? sides ( ! axis1 & ?is l>ge cone w\ld be submitt$ to sph]ical ab]ration at ! front surface a4 ,b ) homog5e\s imm]sion 7,fig4 #aai;a7 ! :ole cone ( #aab is admitt$ to ! front l5s )\t any ab]ration1 !re be+ no refraction at ! plane surface2 & z ! sph]ical surface ( ! front l5s is )\t notable sph]ical ab]ration1 ! incid5t p5cil is br\ght f ! focus ,f to ! conjugate focus ,f1 & contract$ to an angle ( div]g5ce ( #gj-ij )\t hav+ und]gone any sph]ical ab]ration at all4 ,! problem ( correct+ a v wide-angl$ objective has ?us be5 r$uc$ by ! homog5e\s oil-imm]sion sy/em1 bo? 9 !ory & practice4#bc ,abbe's ,te/-plate4 ,abbe design$ ! te/-plate 7,fig4 #abj7 = te/+ ! sph]ical & *romatic ab]rations ( objectives1 & e/imat+ ! ?ickness ( cov]-glasses correspond+ to ! mo/ p]fect correction3 six glasses1 hav+ ! exact ?ickness m>k$ on ea*1 #jji to #jbd mm41 cem5t$ 9 succession on a slip1 _! l[] surface silv]$ & engrav$ ) p>allel l9es1 ! cont\rs ( :i* =m ! te/4 ,^! be+ co>sely rul$ are easily resolv$ by ! l[e/ p[]s2 yet1 f ! extreme ?9ness ( ! silv]1 !y =m also a delicate te/ = objectives ( ! highe/ p[] & wide/ ap]ture4 ,! te/-plate 9 its orig9al size is se5 9 ,fig4 #abj1 ) "o ( ! circles enl>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,abbe's ,te/-plate = e/imat+ ?ickness ( glass-cov]s4 ,to exam9e an objective ( l>ge ap]ture1 ! discs mu/ be focuss$ 9 succession1 obs]v+ 9 ea* case ! quality ( ! image 9 ! c5tre ( ! field1 & ! v>iation produc$ by us+1 alt]nately1 c5tral & v oblique illum9ation4 ,:5 ! objective is p]fectly correct$ = sph]ical ab]ration1 ! outl9es ( ! l9es 9 ! c5tre ( ! field w be p]fectly %>p by oblique illum9ation1 & )\t any nebul\s d\bl+ or indi/9ctness ( ! edges4 ,if1 aft] exactly adju/+ ! objective = oblique light1 c5tral illum9ation is us$1 no alt]ation ( ! focus %\ld be necess>y to %[ ! outl9es ) equal %>pness4 ,if an objective fulfils ^! conditions ) any "o ( ! discs1 x is free f sph]ical ab]ration :5 us$ ) cov]-glasses ( t ?ickness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if e disc %[s nebul\s d\bl+1 or an indi/9ct appe>ance ( ! edges ( ! l9e ) oblique illum9ation1 or1 if ! objective requires a diff]5t focal adju/m5t to get equal %>pness ) c5tral z ) oblique light1 ! sph]ical correction ( ! objective is m or less imp]fect4 ,nebul\s d\bl+ ) oblique illum9ation indicates ov]-correction ( ! m>g9al zone2 indi/9ctness ( ! edges )\t m>k$ nebulosity indicates "u-correction ( ! zone2 an alt]ation ( ! focus = oblique & c5tral illum9ation po9ts to an abs5ce ( concurr5t action ( ! sep>ate zones1 :i* may be due to ei!r an av]age "u or ov] correction1 or to irregul>ity 9 ! conv]g5ce ( ! rays4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,zeiss's ,cov]-glass ,gauge4 ,,cov]-,,glass ,,gauge4 ,zeiss has gone a /ep fur!r to lay ! microscopi/'s gho/ ( ! cov]-glass4 ,he inv5t$ a measur] 7,fig4 #aba7 :]eby ! precise det]m9ation ( ?ickness ( glass-cov]s c be obta9$4 ,?is measurem5t is effect$ by a clip project+ f a circul> box2 ! read+ is giv5 by an indicator mov+ ov] a divid$ circle on ! lid ( ! box4 ,! divisions se5 cut r\nd ! circumf]5ce %[ #a_/ajj?s ( a millimet]4 ,?is +5i\s gauge measures upw>ds ( #e mm4 ,?is necess>y & important digression has l$ me away f ! consid]ation ( ! a*romatic objective1 & to :i* ,i %all n[ return4 ,engli% ,imm]sion & ,dry ,objectives4 ,! homog5e\s imm]sion sy/em met ) its e>lie/ z well z its /aun*e/ advocates among ,engli% opticians4 ,among its m en]getic support]s 7 ,messrs4 ,p[ell & ,leal&1 :o 7 ! fir/ to con/ruct a #a_/h-;in* imm]sion objective on a =mula ( _! own1 & :i* 0 f\nd to resolve te/-objects n be=e capable ( resolution by _! dry objectives4 ,?is enc\rag$ !m to make a #a_/af-;in*1 acquir$ by ,dr4 ,woodw>d = ! ,army ,m$ical ,dep>tm5t1 ,wa%+ton1 & subsequ5tly a #a_/be-;in*2 nei!r ( :i* surpass$ _! #a_/h-;in* 9 ap]ture1 & a new =mula 0 tri$ 9 ! con/ruction ( _! fir/ oil-imm]sion objective4 ,?is _h a duplex front1 & two d\ble backs2 b ev5 ?is did n q accompli% :at 0 expect$ ( x1 & ano!r *ange 0 subsequ5tly made2 ! ant]ior front comb9ation became great] ?an a hemisph]e--a balloon-l5s4 ,?is at once gave an increase ( ap]ture to a #a_/ab-;in* objective ( #adc num]ical ap]ture4 ,aft] "s few m trials a m important *ange ( ! =mula took place4 ,! front l5s 0 made ( fl9t-glass1 & ! comb9ation took ! =m repres5t$ 9 diagram 7,fig4 #abb74 ,?is1 on an enl>g$ scale1 repres5ts ,p[ell's #a_/ab-;in* num]ical ap]ture #aej4 ,x is a homog5e\s apo*romatic imm]sion ( high quality & v flat field4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ?is comb9ation ! f\r curves ( ! l5ses are v deep comp>$ ) ^? ( o!r opticians4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,p[ell & ,leal&'s #a_/ab-;94 ,oil-imm]sion ,objective1 drawn on a scale ( #f-a4 ,messrs4 ,ross h made _m important improvem5ts & *anges 9 ! con/ruction ( _! sev]al s]ies ( a*romatic objectives2 ! calculations & =mul = :i* 7 made exclusively = !m by ,dr4 ,s*rd]4 ,! li/ is too long to quote1 b mo/ ( ^! l5ses are ( a high-class "*1 & "w ) admirable precision4 ,among ! be/ ( _! objectives1 ,i c comm5d a #a-;in* ( #cj & two oil-imm]sions1 a #a_/h-;in* ( #abj & a #a_/ab-;in* ( #abe num]ical ap]ture1 ea* ( :i* be> ! highe/ ocul>s equally well2 a good te/1 z ,i h always ma9ta9$1 ( excell5ce4 ,_! #a_/aj-;in* has a some:at l>g] ap]ture1 & !re=e %[s a f9e image ( ! podura scale4 ,! f9i% ( ,ross's sev]al s]ies ( objectives fully ma9ta9s ! high "* & reputation ( ?is old-e/abli%$ firm ( opticians4 ,messrs4 ,r4 & ,j4 ,beck h be/[$ great att5tion ^u ! improvem5t ( _! dry-objective s]ies1 mu* 9 dem& = hi/ological "w1 especially among ! /ud5ts ( city hospitals1 :o usually comm5ce _! pa?ological "w ) ! *eap] =ms ( objectives4 ,9 t case an in* objective ( ab\t #be air angle1 a #a_/b-;in* ( n less ?an #dj1 & a #a_/d-;in* or #a_/e-;in* magnify+ f #ej to #bej diamet]s1 is q suffici5t = mo/ ( _! "w4 ,= bact]iological rese>*1 ,messrs4 ,beck supply a #a_/f-;in* imm]sion tak5 f a s]ies1 hav+ a high ap]ture & a bett] f9i% at a mod]ate price4 ,_! #a_/aj-;in* imm]sion has 9 my h&s prov$ a s]viceable p[] = bact]iological rese>*2 x requires a good sub-/age illum9at+ a*romatic cond5s] to obta9 ! be/ results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4--a_/f-;94 ,engli% ,comb9ation1 l>gely us$4 ,messrs4 ,watson & ,sons h mu* enhanc$ _! reputation by ! m>k$ improvem5t lately br\ght ab\t 9 ! manufacture ( _! :ole s]ies ( objectives4 ,?is probably is *iefly due to ! introduction ( ! ,j5a glass into _! manufacture1 & :i* has enabl$ !m to give increase ( ap]ture to "o s]ies 9 p>ticul>1 t ( ! p>a-*romatic1 all ( :i* 9 consequ5ce are ( v high quality4 ,x is difficult to p>ticul>ise _! sev]al objectives1 ! :ole hav+ special features 9 proportion to _! magnify+ p[]s1 :ile mu* c>e seems to h be5 be/[$ on !m = ! elim9ation ( residual col\r4 ,a #a_/h-;in* ) correction coll> is compris$ ( a s+le deep & r ?ick front l5s1 plano-concave fl9t1 & d\ble convex-cr[n = ! middle & triple comb9ation = ! back1 ! latt] consi/+ ( two cr[n l5ses cem5t$ to a d5se fl9t 7,fig4 #abd7 drawn to scale ( #e-a1 ) l9$ portions int5d$ to repres5t ! fl9t1 & :ite ! cr[n glass l5ses ( ! comb9ation4 ,! initial magnification ( ?is objective is #hc diamet]s1 & ! num]ical ap]ture #id4 ,?is sup]ior objective c be _h = ! small sum ( #b4 ,ano!r rem>kably useful & *eap objective1 _! #a-;in* num]ical ap]ture #jba1 consi/s ( two a*romatic sy/ems =m+ ! front & back ) ! sep>ation betwe5 !m ( ab\t half an in*1 & may also be especially recomm5d$ = /ud5ts' "w4 ,9 ! accompany+ diagram ! l5ses are drawn on too l>ge a scale1 & !re=e ! di/ance betwe5 ! two comb9ations %\ld be mu* great]4 ,among ! m useful ( ,watson's s]ies1 ! #a-;in*1 ! #a_/b-;in*1 & ! #a_/f-;in*1 toge!r ) ! #a_/h-;in* dry-objective1 & a #a_/i-;in*1 w be f\nd ! mo/ s]viceable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,watson's #a_/h-;94 ,objective ,p>a-*romatic ,comb9ation1 scale #e-a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,watson's #a-;94 ,a*romatic ,comb9ation4 ,messrs4 ,bak] h _! own s]ies ( objectives1 mo/ ( :i* are s v ne>ly alli$ to ^? ( ! cont95tal opticians2 & :at has be5 said ( ,zeiss's & ,leitz's objectives may be tak5 to apply also to ,bak]'s1 :o h an e/abli%$ reputation = _! hi/ological s]ies1 all ( :i* are well suit$ = /ud5ts' & class-room "w4 ,messrs4 ,swift & ,son h a new s]ies ( objectives1 semi-apo*romatic & pan-aplanatic1 mo/ ( :i* are excell5t 9 quality & %[ increas$ flatness ( field toge!r ) t ( a*romatism2 ! index ( refraction 9 ea* s]ies hav+ be5 correctly det]m9$ toge!r ) exact radial focal di/ance1 ?us af=d+ m available ap]ture4 ,i may select = special comm5dation _! #a_/ab-;in* #e #es4 homog5e\s imm]sion objective1 :i* is 9 e way suitable = bact]iological "w2 its def9ition is v good1 z is se5 9 a micro-photograph ( podura scale1 giv5 fur!r on4 ,_! dry #a_/f-;in* c be _h = #a #afs4--a m>vel ( *eapness4 ,( _! g5]al s]ies ! mo/ useful = hi/ological "w are ! #a_/b-;in*1 ! #a_/c-;in* at #a #abs41 & _! #a_/e-;in* ( num]ical ap]ture #jhg at #c4 ,mr4 ,pillis*]1 ( ,bond ,/reet1 has manufactur$ _m excell5t objectives4 ,a f9e homog5e\s oil-imm]sion #a_/ab-;in* num]ical ap]ture #abe is wor?y ( special notice2 x w be f\nd suitable = bact]iological "w2 x has f9e def9ition ) a consid]able am\nt ( p5etration4 ,a m intellig5t idea ( ! magnify+ p[] ( ! objective comb9$ ) ! eye-piece w be ga9$ by consult+ ! table giv5 bel[2 precision 9 ?is respect has long be5 a desid]atum ) microscopi/s4 ,magnify+ ,p[]s ( ,eye-,pieces & ,objectives4 ,a ,,typical ,,& ,,initial ,,selection ,,( ,,p[]s ,,( ,,eye-,,pieces ,,calculat$ ,,= ,,! #aj-;,,in* ,,tube-,,l5g?4 ,,huygh5ian ,,eye-,,pieces4 ,,"n ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,,( ,,mak]4 #j or ,no4 #a #b #c #d #e #f ,bak] #f #h #ab #ae -- -- ,diamet]s4 ,beck1 ,r4 ,j4 #d #h #ae #bj #be n made4 ,leitz #e #f #g #h #aj #ab ,p[ell ,leal& #e #ge #aj #bj #dj ,rei*]t #be #ce #d #e #fe #bd ,ross #c #h #ab-a_/b #bj #be #dj #be ,swift ,son #f #i #ab #ae #ah #ba ,watson ,sons #d #f #h #aj #ab #ae ,zeiss #c #d #ee #g #i n made4 ,,comp5sat+ ,,eye-,,pieces ,,= ,,use ,,) ,,apo*romatic ,,objectives4 ,zeiss #b #d #h #ab #ah #bg ,diamet]s4 ,?is may be tak5 z a typical set1 fur!r treat$ ( among ,eye-pieces4 ,,initial ,,p[]s ,,( ,,objectives ,,calculat$ ,,= ,,! #aj-;,,in* ,,tube-,,l5g?4 ,?is is asc]ta9$ by divid+ ! di/ance ( di/9ct vision #aj in*es by ! focus ( ! objective1 ?us-- ,focus-in*es #d #c #b #a-a_/b #a #b_/c #a_/b #d_/aj #a_/d #a_/e #a_/f #a_/h #a_/ab ,initial magnify+ p[] #be #cc #e #ge #aj #ae #bj #be #dj #ej #fj #hj #abj diamet]s4 ,a ref]5ce to ! above table w at once %[ t ! nom5clature ( objectives expresses at once ! initial magnify+ p[]s1 b z mak]s h great difficulty 9 s calculat+ _! =mul s z to obta9 ! exact p[]1 ^! figures mu/ be tak5 z approximate4 ,?us a #a_/d-;in*1 :i* %\ld magnify #dj diamet]s if true to its description1 might actually magnify a little m or less4 ,! magnify+ p[]s ( ,zeiss's & o!r apo*romatic objectives c be asc]ta9$ by divid+ ! focal l5g? ( ! objective 9 millimet]s into #bej mm4 7! di/ance ( di/9ct vision71 ?us ,focus millimetres #bd #af #ab #d #c #b #ae ,initial magnify+ p[] #aje #aee #ba #fc #hc #abe #afg diamet]s4 ,! total magnification1 :5 any eye-piece is work+ 9 conjunction ) an objective1 is asc]ta9$ by multiply+ ! initial p[] ( ! objective by t ( ! eye-piece4 ,! above calculations are all = a #aj-;in* tube-l5g?4 ,%\ld1 h[ev]1 a %ort] or long] l5g? ( body be employ$1 ! magnification c at once be asc]ta9$ by a proportion sum4 ,if ! magnification be #ahj ) #aj-;in* tube-l5g?1 :at w\ld x be ) a #f-;in* body--#aj 3 #f 33 #ahj #ajh diamet]s4 ,abbe design$ ?ree diff]5t =ms ( eye-pieces3 #a1 ! se>*] eye-piece2 #b1 ! work+ eye-piece2 & #c1 ! project+ eye-piece4 ,! ,se>*] is a negative =m ( l[ p[]4 ,! work+ is bo? negative & positive1 ! positive =m ( :i* is con/ruct$ on a new] pr9ciple2 :ile ! projection is *iefly int5d$ = microphotography1 its field be+ small & its def9ition sup]latively %>p4 ,^! are sev]ally expla9$ among eye-pieces4 ,high-,p[] ,objectives4 ,po9ts ( ,importance = secur+ ! be/ results ) ,high-p[] ,objectives4--,always give to ! body-tube ( ! microscope ! l5g? = :i* ! objective is correct$1 #jafj mm4 = ! %ort cont95tal tube1 & #jbej mm4 = ! ,engli% tube 7#aj-;in*74 ,employ bo? dry & imm]sion objectives m\nt$ = correction1 comm5c+ ) a num]ical ap]ture ( #jge 7t is ab\t #ajj 9 air74 ,if ! graduation is n giv5 9 ?ickness ( cov]-glass apply to ! mak] to correct ?is omission4 ,) ! homog5e\s oil-imm]sion objective x is highly necess>y to utilise all m>g9al p5cils ( light1 to optically unite ! upp] l5s ( ! cond5s] ) ! prep>ation z well z ! front l5s ( ! objective by means ( a liquid hav+ ! same index ( refraction or at lea/ equal to t ( ! imm]sion4 ,c$> ,oil has be5 g5]ally adopt$ = ! purpose m5tion$1 ! bett] way ( us+ :i* is z foll[s3 place a drop on ! c5tre ( ! front objective1 or on ! top ( ! cov]-glass1 & !n l[] ! objective by means ( ! co>se adju/m5t until x comes 9 contact ) ! oil1 & c>efully br+ into focus by ! f9e adju/m5t4 ,if ! slide is held betwe5 ! f+] & ?umb ( "o h& & mov$ f side to side1 :ile ! o!r h& is work+ ! f9e adju/m5t1 !re c be no dang] ( injur+ ei!r ! objective or ! specim54 ,be=e putt+ ! microscope away1 take a f9e camel-hair bru% dipp$ 9 e!r1 alcohol1 or me?ylat$ _s1 & c>efully remove ! oil f ! objective & ! glass cov] ( ! object2 a s(t *amois lea!r or cambric pocket h&k]*ief w dry x (f1 or a piece ( f9e :ite blott+ pap] answ]s equally well4 ,%\ld ! l5s come accid5tally into contact ) ! ,canada balsam1 x mu/ be v c>efully remov$ ei!r by e!r or alcohol4 ,! =m] is by f> ! safe/1 z alcohol1 if n v c>efully us$1 quickly dissolves out ! balsam & loos5s ! cov]-glass ( ! object4 ,a*romatic ,cond5s]s4 ,! ,a*romatic ,cond5s] c no long] be class$ among ! accessories ( ! microscope1 s9ce x is an absolutely indisp5sable "p ( its optical arrangem5ts4 ,its value1 !n1 _c be ov]rat$1 & ! corrections ( ! l5ses :i* ent] into ! con/ruction ( ! cond5s] %\ld be made z p]fect z !y c be made--9 fact1 z ne>ly approa*+ t ( ! objective z x is possible to make !m4 ,x may !re=e be ( int]e/ to "k some?+ ( ! rise & progress ( ! a*romatic cond5s]4 ,9 my fir/ *apt] ,i h notic$ ! e>li] attempts made by ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 ^: exp]im5ts l$ him to fit to ! und]side ( ! /age ( 8 microscope a %ort tube1 9 :i* a plano-convex l5s ( ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* focal l5g? 0 made to slide up & d[n 7aft]w>ds mov$ up & d[n by two knobs72 to improve def9ition he plac$ a /op betwe5 ! mirror & ! l5s4 ,! /op 0 f\nd to act bett] :5 plac$ betwe5 ! l5s & ! object4 ,f ?is improvem5t ,dr4 ,wolla/on enunciat$ t 8! int5sity ( illum9ation w dep5d ^u ! diamet] ( ! illum9at+ l5s & ! proportion ( ! image to ! p]=ation1 & may be regulat$ accord+ to ! wi% ( ! obs]v]40 ,duj>d9 9 ,france & ,tully 9 ,engl& 7 at "w 9 ! same direction4 ,! =m] a ye> or two lat] on contriv$ an in/rum5t1 :i* he t]m$ an eclairage1 to rem$y ! defects ( ,wolla/on's1 & = illum9at+ objects ) a*romatic light4 ,?is 0 submitt$ = approval to ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 :o1 :5 ! use ( ! a*romatic cond5s] 0 fir/ broa*$1 us$ ^! enc\rag+ words3--8,i h no hesitation 9 say+ t ! app>atus = illum9ation requires to be z p]fect z ! app>atus = vision1 & on ?is acc\nt ,i w\ld recomm5d t ! illum9at+ l5s %\ld be p]fectly free f *romatic & sph]ical ab]ration1 & t ! greate/ c>e be tak5 to exclude all extrane\s light bo? f ! object & eye ( ! obs]v]40 ,?is f>-see+ obs]v] 9 optical sci5ce has borne good fruit1 & ! outcome ( 8 views is se5 9 ! great developm5t & improvem5t ( ! a*romatic cond5s]4 ,9 #ahci ,&rew ,ross made 8 fir/ useful =m ( cond5s]1 & gave rules = ! illum9ation ( objects 9 an article writt5 = ! 8,p5ny ,cyclopdia40 ,^!1 epitomis$1 read z foll[s3 #a4 ,t ! illum9at+ cone %\ld equal ! ap]ture ( ! objective1 & no m4 #b4 ,) daylight1 a :ite cl\d be+ 9 focus1 ! object has to be plac$ ne>ly at ! apex ( ! cone4 ,! object is se5 bett] sometimes above & sometimes bel[ ! apex ( ! cone4 #c4 ,) lamplight a bull's-eye l5s is to be us$1 to p>allelise ! rays1 s t !y may be simil> to ^? com+ f ! :ite cl\d4 ,x has be5 se5 t ,mr4 ,li/] =e%ad[$ ! sub-/age cond5s]4 ,! e>ly =m ( ,ross's cond5s] consi/s ( two small brass tubes made to slide "o 9 ! o!r4 ,to ! out] "o is atta*$ a flat brass plate :i* slides und]nea? ! /age ( ! microscope1 & by means ( a screw ! adju/m5t ( ! axis ( ! illum9ator is effect$4 ,! upp] portion ( ! app>atus c>ries ! a*romatic comb9ation1 :i* by a rack & p9ion movem5t is br\ght ne>] to1 or remov$ fur!r f ! object on ! /age4 ,! sev]al p>ts ( ! illum9ator unscrew1 s t ! l5ses may be us$ ei!r comb9$ = high p[]s1 or sep>at$ = l[ p[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4--,orig9al =m ( ,gillett's ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,messrs4 ,smi? ,beck greatly improv$ ^u ,ross's cond5s] by add+ ano!r a*romatic l5s to ! comb9ation1 ?ree be+ employ$ :5 us$ ) high-p[] objectives & two or ev5 "o ) ! l[]1 ! adju/m5t & focuss+ be+ made by rack & p9ion arrangem5t b5ea? ! /age4 ,"s fur!r *anges = ! bett] 7 made 9 ! cond5s] by ,p[ell1 & 9 #ahej an amateur microscopi/1 ,mr4 ,gillett1 fully grasp+ ! value ( controll+ ! cone ( rays pass+ into ! microscope1 devis$ a new =m ( cond5s]1 9 connection ) :i* a revolv+ s]ies ( diaphragms ( diff]5t values 7 made to pass betwe5 ! a*romatic l5ses & ! s\rce ( light4 ,&rew ,ross con/ruct$ ! fir/ cond5s] on ,gillett's pr9ciple1 & ?is prov$ to be "o ( ! mo/ successful pieces ( app>atus contriv$4 ,gillett's ,cond5s] consi/s ( an a*romatic l5s c1 ab\t equal to an object-glass ( "o qu>t] ( an in* focal l5g?1 ) an ap]ture ( #hj4 ,?is l5s is screw$ into ! top ( a brass tube1 & int]sect+ :i*1 at an angle ( ab\t #be1 is a circul> rotat+ brass plate a b1 provid$ ) a conical diaphragm1 hav+ a s]ies ( circul> ap]tures ( diff]5t sizes h g1 ea* ( :i* 9 succession1 z ! diaphragm is rotat$1 proportionally limits ! light transmitt$ ?r\gh ! illum9at+ l5s4 ,! circul> plate 9 :i* ! conical diaphragm is fix$ is provid$ ) a spr+ & cat* e f1 ! latt] indicat+ :5 an ap]ture is c5tral ) ! illum9at+ l5s1 also ! numb] ( ! ap]ture z m>k$ on ! graduat$ circul> plate4 ,?ree ( ^! ap]tures h c5tral discs = circul>ly oblique illum9ation1 all[+ only ! passage ( a holl[ cone ( light to illum9ate ! object4 ,! illum9ator above describ$ is plac$ 9 ! second>y /age i i1 :i* is situat$ bel[ ! g5]al /age ( ! microscope1 & consi/s ( a cyl9drical tube hav+ a rotatory motion1 also a rectangul> adju/m5t1 :i* is effect$ by means ( two screws l m1 "o 9 front1 & ! o!r on ! left side ( its frame4 ,?is tube receives & supports all ! v>i\s illum9at+ & pol>is+ app>atus1 & o!r auxili>ies4 ,directions = us+ ,gillett's ,cond5s]4--,9 ! adju/m5t ( ! comp\nd body ( ! microscope = us+ ) ,gillett's illum9ator1 "o or two important po9ts %\ld be obs]v$--fir/1 c5tricity2 & secondly1 ! fitte/ comp5sation ( ! light to be employ$4 ,) reg>d to ! fir/1 place ! illum9ator 9 ! cyl9drical tube1 & press upw>ds ! slid+ b> k 9 its place1 until *eck$ by ! /op2 move ! microscope body ei!r v]tically or incl9$ = conv5i5t use2 &1 ) ! rack & p9ion :i* regulates ! slid+ b>1 br+ ! illum9at+ l5s to a level ) ! upp] surface ( ! object-/age2 !n move ! arm :i* holds ! microscope body to ! "r1 until x meets ! /op1 :]eby its c5tral position is atta9$2 adju/ ! reflect+ mirror s z to ?r[ light up ! illum9ator1 & place ^u ! mirror a piece ( clean :ite pap] to obta9 a uni=m disc ( light4 ,!n put on ! l[ eye-piece1 & a l[ p[] 7! half-in*71 z m conv5i5t = ! m]e adju/m5t ( ! in/rum5t2 place a transp>5t object on ! /age1 adju/ ! microscope-tube1 until vision is obta9$ ( ! object2 !n remove ! object1 & take (f ! cap ( ! eye-piece1 & 9 its place fix on ! eye-glass call$ ! 8c5tr+ eye-glass10#bf :i* w be f\nd greatly to facilitate ! adju/m5t n[ "u consid]ation1 namely1 ! c5tr+ ( ! comp\nd body ( ! microscope ) ! illum9at+ app>atus ( :atev] description4 ,! c5tr+-glass1 be+ ?us affix$ to ! top ( ! eye-piece1 is adju/$ by its slid+-tube 7)\t di/urb+ ! microscope-tube7 until ! images ( ! diaphragms 9 ! object-glass & c5tr+ l5s are di/9ctly se54 ,! illum9ator %\ld n[ be mov$ by means ( ! left-h& screw on ! second>y /age :ile look+ ?r\gh ! microscope1 to enable ! obs]v] to recognize ! diaphragm belong+ to ! illum9ator1 & by means ( ! two adju/+ screws to place ?is diaphragm c5tral ) ! o!rs3 ?us ! fir/ condition1 t ( c5tricity1 w be accompli%$4 ,remove ! :ite pap] f ! mirror1 & also ! c5tr+-glass1 & replace ! cap on ! eye-piece1 also ! object on ! /age1 ( :i* di/9ct vision %\ld !n be obta9$ by ! rack & p9ion1 or f9e screw adju/m5t1 %\ld x h become d]ang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,! ,ross ,improv$ ,a*romatic ,cond5s]1 ) diaphragm /ops4 ,! re-publication ( ! orig9al directions is giv5 ) ! view ( %[+ :at a cle> conception ,gillett _h ( ! value ( 8 inv5tion4 ,! c>eful directions giv5 = c5tr+ mu/ be reg>d$ ) int]e/1 al?\gh ne>ly sup]s$$ by ! c5tr+ screw arrangem5t 9 connection ) ! sub-/age4 ,! be/ results1 he goes on to say1 w be secur$ by us+ ! pla9 mirror & focuss+ ! w9d[-b> on ! object1 :ile a :ite-cl\d illum9ator w af=d z mu* light z may be requir$4 ,x is a mi/ake to suppose t direct light is m critical ?an indirect4 ,z a rule1 ! /ud5t is giv5 to ov]-illum9ate ! object4 ,^! que/ions w1 h[ev]1 be discuss$ fur!r on4 ,v _m modifications ( ,gillett's cond5s] h1 s9ce #ahej1 become kn[n to microscopi/s4 ,ross's pres5t improv$ =m 7,fig4 #abg7 is made to drop into ! sub-/age ( ! microscope1 & :5 adju/$1 is an extremely effici5t in/rum5t4 ,! optical "p is simil> to a #d_/aj-;in* objective4 ,x has two sets ( revolv+ diaphragms1 ) ap]tures & /ops = %[+ surface m>k+s 9 a p]fect mann]4 ,abbe's ,cond5s]4 ,! ess5tial feature ( ?is cond5s] is its %ort focus1 :i* collects ! light reflect$ by ! mirror1 s z to =m a cone ( rays ( v l>ge ap]ture1 hav+ its focus 9 ! plane ( ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4--,! ,iris ,diaphragm1 & c>ri] = ,/ops4 ,! full ap]ture ( ! illum9at+ cone %\ld only be us$ :5 f9ely granul> & deeply /a9$ p>ticles 7protoplasm1 bact]ia1 c47 are be+ exam9$ ) objectives ( l>ge ap]ture4 ,9 all cases ! cone mu/ be suitably r$uc$1 ei!r by an iris1 or o!r =m ( diaphragm 7c5tral illum9ation74 ,by plac+ ! diaphragm exc5trically1 by means ( rack-"w atta*$ to ! c>ri]1 ! c5tral rays are exclud$ & a c]ta9 extra-axial portion ( ! illum9at+ p5cil falls ^u ! object 7oblique illum9ation74 ,:5 ! diaphragm is ?us exc5trically plac$1 ?is oblique p5cil c be direct$ f all sides by rotat+ ! c>ri] r\nd ! optic axis4 ,! c5tral /op diaphragm %uts (f all ! axial & transmits only ! m>g9al rays1 ?us produc+ d>k-gr\nd illum9ation4 ,! iris diaphragm 7,fig4 #abh7 is s %ap$ t ! edge ( its smalle/ op5+ closely approximates ! object-slide on ! /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4--,! ,abbe ,cond5s]1 deta*$ f ! ,sub-/age ( ! ,microscope4 ,! ,abbe cond5s] is ! mo/ popul> =m 9 use1 = all purposes4 ,ow+ to ! l>ge ap]ture ( ! cone ( light :i* x projects1 x c be employ$ ) ! highe/ p[]s2 by remov+ ! top l5s x c also be us$ ) l[ p[]s4 ,d>k gr\nd illum9ation may be obta9$ ) x up to a #a_/d-;in* objective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4--,optical ,arrangem5t ( ,abbe ,illum9ator1 #ab ,n4,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,optical ,arrangem5t ( ,abbe ,illum9ator1 #ad ,n4,a4 ,! cond5s] is made 9 two =ms ( #ab & #ad num]ical ap]ture by ,messrs4 ,watson4 ,! l5ses are m\nt$ 9 alum9ium4 ,fig4 #acj is 9 m g5]al use1 b by work]s ) high p[]s ,fig4 #aca is pref]r$1 z x ensures ! mo/ oblique illum9ation ) objectives ( l>ge/ ap]ture4 ,x is pref]r$ = photo-micrographic purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4--,! ,optical ,arrangem5t ( ,watson's ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,watson's ,a*romatic ,cond5s] 7,fig4 #acb71 #aj num]ical ap]ture1 %[n 9 section1 al?\gh orig9ally design$ = use ) ! micro-spectroscope1 is equally effici5t = ord9>y purposes4 ,?is cond5s] transmits a l>g] aplanatic cone ( light ?an ,abbe's4 ,x may !re=e be employ$ ) high] p[] objectives1 & by remov+ ! top l5s x is j z useful a cond5s] = l[] p[]s4 ,be+ con/ruct$ ) l5ses ( an unusually l>ge size1 x is well adapt$ = use ) ! micro-spectroscope4 ,x is c]ta9ly "o ( ! be/ all-r\nd cond5s]s 9 use4 ,! new ,s*ott glass ent]s into ! con/ruction ( ! l5ses1 & ^! are m\nt$ 9 alum9ium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4--,p[ell's ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,_m microscopi/s consid] on ! :ole t ,p[ell's sub-/age apo*romatic cond5s] ) coll> correction 7,fig4 #acc7 surpasses t ( ,abbe4 ,! me*anical arrangem5t ( ,p[ell's is v simple3 ! correction coll> is simil> to t ( an ord9>y objective1 x has a /eep] spiral slot & only half a revolution ( movem5t2 a long arc is fix$ to ! coll> s t x may conv5i5tly be rea*$ by ! f+]4 ,x is s con/ruct$ z to turn easily & smoo?ly at ! slighte/ t\*4 ,! coll> moves only ! back l5s ( ! comb9ation1 leav+ ! m\nt rigid4 ,! diaphragms are regulat$ by ,a & ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd;b4--,p[ell's ,apo*romatic ,oil ,imm]sion ,cond5s]1 ,n4,a4 #adj4 ,! object ( ! correctional movem5t is to increase ! maximum aplanatic ap]ture ( ! cond5s] by sep>at+ ! l5ses4 ,if ! back ( a wide-angl$ objective be exam9$ :5 an object is illum9at$ by ! full ap]ture ( ! cond5s]1 ! edge ( ! flame be+ 9 focus1 x w be notic$ t ! illum9at$ portion ( ! back l5s w be oval & po9t$ in/ead ( circul>4 ,also t :5 ! cond5s] is rack$ up1 al?\gh ! ext]nal %ape ( ! illum9at$ portion becomes m circul>1 two d>k pat*es w appe> on ei!r side ( ! c5tre1 %[+ ! op]ation ( ! sph]ical ab]ration ( ! cond5s]4 ,if "u ^! circum/ances ! l5ses are sep>at$ by means ( ! coll> adju/m5t1 ! black spots w be clos$ up1 & a circul> & ev5ly-illum9at$ disc ( illum9ation ( a l>g] size w result4 ,! :eel ( diaphragms1 or a s]ies ( graduat$ diaphragm discs to drop into a hold]1 is int5d$ = critical "w2 ! diaphragm c always be record$1 & ! id5tical illum9at+ cone reproduc$4 ,h5ce we h a simple me?od ( graduat+ ap]tures betwe5 any two contigu\s diaphragms2 if1 = example1 we place ! lev] to ! left1 s t ! l5s may be sep>at$ z f> z possible1 & use a ,no4 #f diaphragm1 & if1 on exam9+ ! object1 x is ?\ght t ! illum9at+ cone is n l>ge en\gh1 & if :5 ,no4 #g is turn$ on x is f\nd too mu*1 we c g back to ,no4 #f1 & by turn+ ! lev] #fj t[>ds ! "r1 clos+ ! l5ses & increas+ ! p[] a little1 we %all obta9 an ap]ture some:]e betwe5 ,nos4 #f & #g diaphragm4 ,?us we c by means ( ! correction coll> graduate ! ap]ture ) ! facility z ) an iris1 & we c record any p>ticul> ap]ture ) a degree ( accuracy =eign to ! iris4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! cone ( light transmitt$ by ! cond5s] is a v small "o4 ,p[ell also supplies an apo*romatic oil-imm]sion cond5s]1 num]ical ap]ture #adj1 b )\t coll> correction2 ,fig4 #acd %[s ! slid+ tube l[]$ by arm ,a & cell ,b )drawn = *ang+ /ops1 :i* c be done )\t alt]+ ! focus ( ! cond5s]4 ,fig4 #acd;a %[s ! cell ,b clos$ & rais$ by arm ,a close to ! back l5s ( optical comb9ation4 ,9 ,fig4 #acd;b six ( ! pr9cipal /ops are %[n4 ,p[ell's dry apo*romatic cond5s]1 ( ne>ly #ji aplanatic cone1 is also v good2 b ! high price ( all is a b> to _! m g5]al use4 ,! speciality ( ^! is ! conv]sion ( axis light into cond5s$ oblique incid5t light by ! refraction ( ! cond5s]4 ,messrs4 ,r4 ,j4 ,beck h v>i\s =ms ( a*romatic cond5s]s1 "s ( :i* p>take ( a some:at elaborate arrangem5t2 o!rs are simple & inexp5sive1 to suit ! /ud5ts' microscope2 z :5 ! light ( ! concave mirror proves insuffici5t = any object requir+ int5se transmitt$ light1 an a*romatic cond5s] mu/ be adapt$ to ev5 ! /ud5ts' =m ( microscope4 ,! late/ =m ( cond5s] 7,fig4 #ace7 is fitt$ ) revolv+ /ops & iris diaphragm1 & o!r appliances = obta9+ satisfactory results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4--;,beck's new] =m ( ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,beck's ,comp\nd ,illum9at+ ,app>atus 7,fig4 #acf74--;,x is useful 9 work+ ) ! microscope to be enabl$ to rapidly *ange ! illum9ation1 & = ?is reason ?is comp\nd =m ( cond5s] has be5 con/ruct$4 ,x consi/s ( an upp] portion ,a1 a wide-angle cond5s]1 ! ap]ture ( :i* c be r$uc$ at w by an iris diaphragm1 mov$ by ! lev] ,b4 ,?is c be us$ = all o!r purposes4 ,bel[ ?is diaphragm is a plate ,c1 :i* c be swung back out ( position at w1 z %[n 9 outl9e4 ,into a cell 9 ?is plate ! /ops ,d c be dropp$1 & ! cond5s] c be us$ = d>k field illum9ation1 or = high p[]s z an oblique illum9ator4 ,a l>ge-size pol>is+ prism ,e1 fa/5s to ! plate ,c1 & c be remov$ :5 n requir$4 ,9 ?is way any ( ! v>i\s modes ( illum9ation may be sep>ately or conjo9tly obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4--;,beck's ,comp\nd ,cond5s]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4--;,beck's ,sph]ical ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,_! cond5s] 7,fig4 #acg7 has a l>ge ap]ture1 & facilities = rotat+ ! s]ies ( diaphragms4 ,x is available = ei!r dry or imm]sion objectives up to #ac num]ical ap]ture on diatoms1 & wet or dry hi/ological objects4 ,! sph]ical =m ( ! front is work$ by a mill$-head t rotates a s]ies ( l5ses & diaphragms4 ,x also avoids ! inconv5i5ce ( hav+ ! connect+ fluid drawn away by capill>y attraction1 z w\ld be ! case if m\nt$ on a flat surface4 ,x is also less 9 ! way ( ! sub-/age movem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,watson's ,p>a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,! ,p>a*romatic ,cond5s] ( ,messrs4 ,watson 7,fig4 #ach7 0 made to meet a dem& = a cond5s] giv+ a l>ge solid cone ( illum9ation free f col\r4 ,! optical "p ( ?is cond5s] consi/s ( a full hemisph]ical front l5s1 & ! middle & back comb9ations ( su* =ms z to produce ! necess>y corrections4 ,! ,j5a phosphate cr[n & silicate fl9ts are us$ 9 its manufacture1 & to ^! are due its special qualities4 ,! total ap]ture ( ! cond5s] is #aj1 & x yields an aplanatic ap]ture ( #ij num]ical ap]ture4 ,! magnify+ p[] is #b_/g?s ( an in*4 ,f ?is x w be se5 t x is especially suitable = use ) high-p[] objectives4 ,x c also be employ$ )\t ! front l5s1 :5 ! magnify+ p[] is #d_/aj?s ( an in*1 & ! num]ical ap]ture #ce4 ,x is m\nt$ 9 an exce$+ly conv5i5t mann]1 ! iris diaphragm be+ fitt$ 9 su* a way z to be absolutely c5tral ) ! optical sy/em4 ,! arc ?r\gh :i* ! h&le controll+ ! iris travels is divid$1 & indicates ! ap]ture at :i* ! cond5s] may be work+ at any "t4 ,an important feature 9 ?is cond5s] is t x is almo/ :olly free f col\r4 ,z a rule cond5s]s ( ! same =m are f\nd difficult to "w )1 because ( ! small diamet] ( ! field or back l5s4 ,?is difficulty has be5 successfully ov]come by increas+ ! size ( ?is l5s1 & ! :ole ( :i* is fully utilis$4 ,mo/ ,london opticians h _! own especial =m ( a*romatic cond5s]1 design$ = & fitt$ to _! sev]al /&s & objectives1 v>y+ f a small price to ! m exp5sively-fitt$ accessories4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4--,swift's ,illum9at+ ,pol>is+ ,app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci;a4--,swift's ,diaphragms & ,c5tral ,/ops4 ,messrs4 ,swift's illum9at+ app>atus 7,fig4 #aci7 is conv5i5tly suppli$ ) num]\s useful appliances4 ,! optical comb9ation ,a is comput$ to be us$ z an effective spot l5s f a #c-;in* objective up to a six?4 ,c ,c are two small mill$ heads by means ( :i* ! optical comb9ation ,a is c5tr$ to ! axis ( ! objective4 ,! revolv+ diaphragm ,e has f\r ap]tures = ! purpose ( receiv+ c5tral /ops1 oblique light discs1 & sel5ite films4 ,d is a frame c>ry+ two revolv+ cells1 into "o ( :i* a mica film is plac$1 :i* c be revolv$ ) ease ov] ei!r ( ! sel5ites bel[1 :]eby *anges ( col\r c be obta9$ 9 exp]im5t+ ) pol>is$ light4 ,! d>ts & ,p ,a's indicate ! position ( ! positive axis ( ! mica & sel5ite films1 & by ?is means results c be record$1 etc4 ,ei!r ( ! revolv+ cells c be ?r[n into ! c5tre ( ! cond5s]1 & !re /opp$ by means ( a spr+ cat*2 :5 s arrang$ ! mica film1 c41 may be revolv$ 9 its place by turn+ ! cell ,d1 z bo? cells are ge>$ toge!r ) f9e rack$ tee?4 ,f is a pol>is+ prism m\nt$ on an ecc5tric arm1 r5d]$ c5tral :5 9 use1 or ?r[n out1 z se51 :5 out ( use4 ,g is ! rack dove-tail slide = indicat+ & focuss+ ! cond5s] on ! object4 ,! advantages associat$ ) ?is cond5s] consi/ 9 hav+ ! pol>is+ prism1 sel5ite films1 d>k-gr\nd1 & oblique light /ops1 s t !y may be br\ght close "u ! optical comb9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,bak]'s ,nelson ,a*romatic ,cond5s]4 ,bak]'s ,nelson ,cond5s]1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #adj1 is int5d$ = use ) _! m$ium in/rum5ts4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 _m pieces ( app>atus ess5tial to ^? ( a high] class4 ,x is applicable1 inde$1 to all in/rum5ts hav+ suffici5t dep? b5ea? ! /age to receive x4 ,x comprises an a*romatic comb9ation ( #ij ap]ture1 available ) all p[]s up to #a_/h-;in* t9t$ glass = neutralis+ ! yell[ rays ( artificial light1 focuss+ adju/m5t1 d>k-gr\nd illum9ator1 l>ge diaphragm ) rotat+ tube to c>ry oblique light /ops1 small :eel ( ap]tures1 pol>is+ prism ) two sel5ite films1 cle> ap]ture1 & oblique light-%utt] = l[ p[]s4 ,bak]'s ,/ud5ts' ,cond5s] 7,fig4 #ada7 is design$ to take ! place ( ,abbe's1 & co/s mu* less4 ,x transmits a l>g] aplanatic cone ( light1 & c be us$ ei!r ) high or l[ p[]s by remov+ ! front l5s4 ,x is equally useful = photo-micrographic "w4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,mayall's semi-cyl9d] or prism = oblique illum9ation 7,fig4 #adb7 is a conv5i5t =m1 z x p]mits ( ! semi-cyl9d] be+ tilt$ & plac$ exc5trically2 9 ?is mann]1 )\t imm]sion contact1 & by suitable adju/m5t1 a dry object c be view$ ) any col\r ( mono*romatic light4 ,if plac$ 9 imm]sion contact ) ! slide1 ! utmo/ obliquity ( incid5t light c be obta9$4 ,objects 9 fluid may be plac$ on ! plane-surface ( ! semi-cyl9d]1 & illum9at$ by ord9>y transmitt$ light1 or r5d]$ 8self-lum9\s0 9 a d>k field1 z ) ! hemisph]ical illum9ator or ,w5ham's imm]sion p>aboloid4 ,a concave mirror ) a d\ble arm is q suffici5t to direct ! illum9at+ p5cil4 ,?is semi-cyl9d] 0 orig9ally made by ,tolles1 ( ,bo/on1 = measur+ ap]tures1 b1 at ,mr4 ,mayall's sugge/ion1 ,messrs4 ,ross m\nt$ x z an illum9ator4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,optical ,arrangem5t ( ,bak]'s ,abbe ,cond5s]4 ,! spiral slot %\ld be fix$ close b5ea? ! l>g] l5s ( ! cond5s]1 & :5 prop]ly arrang$ w be f\nd a conv5i5t mode ( obta9+ oblique light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4--,mayall's ,semi-,cyl9d] ,illum9ator & ,spiral ,diaphragms4 ,! ,web/]-,coll9s ,univ]sal ,cond5s] 7,fig4 #adc7 is s well kn[n t x sc>cely calls = any l5g?y description4 ,x is an inexp5sive =m ( cond5s]1 design$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance = use ) ! /ud5ts' microscope4 ,x is fitt$ into ! sub-/age2 has an iris diaphragm z well z a s]ies ( revolv+ diaphragms mov$ by a mill$ head screw arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,! ,web/]-,coll9s ,univ]sal ,cond5s]4 ,oblique ,illum9ation4 ,w5ham's ,p>abolic ,cond5s]4--,mr4 ,w5ham's _m useful additions to ! microscope & its accessories dem& especial notice4 ,:5 m5tion is made ( ! v>i\s imm]sion cond5s]s 7illum9ators1 z he pref]r$ to call !m71 8 orig9al "r-angl$ prism1 8 truncat$ hemisph]ical l5s1 8 imm]sion p>aboloid1 & 8 reflex illum9ator1 9 :i* rays beyond ! angle ( total reflexion are utilis$ by reflex action f cov]-glass on to ! surface ( ! object1 e "o ( ^! well-devis$ inv5tions w always be spok5 ( 9 t]ms ( praise4 ,all 9 _! turn conf]r$ a great s]vice ^u ! microscope1 & enabl$ ! /ud5t to cle> up difficulties t /ood 9 ! way ( develop+ /ructure :5 a*romatic l5ses & dry-objectives 7 consid]$ p]fect4 ,! sup]ior illum9ation ( ! object 0 :olly due to1 & effect$ by1 reflect$ rays f ! object to ! ap]ture ( ! objective1 & obvi\sly1 reflex action c\ld only take place ) dry-objectives4 ,?is reflex action mu/ be reg>d$ z ,mr4 ,w5ham's special discov]y4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t x is n ! same z ! m mod]n a*romatic appliances us$ = ?r[+ direct rays ^u ! object1 & :i* prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ap]tures capable ( direct transmission up to #bg measur$ 9 ! body ( ! front l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4--,w5ham's ,p>abolic ,reflector4 ,! mo/ practical ( ,mr4 ,w5ham's inv5tions is probably ! hemisph]ical l5s1 s9ce adopt$ by ,messrs4 ,ross 9 connection ) _! excell5t ,z5tmay] /&1 & :i* has prov$ em95tly s]viceable4 ,b ! fact is t devices ( ! k9d = obta9+ direct oblique light require a ?9 /age1 & !re=e mo/ ( ^? :o possess ! e>li]-made microscope /& w\ld d\btless hail ! appe>ance ( any appliance :i* w conv]t axial light into oblique light2 z by s do+ ! possessors ( su* in/rum5ts1 9 :i* ! /age is g5]ally ( consid]able ?ickness1 w\ld enjoy ! pleasure ( see+ ! be/ resolution x is possible to get ) _! dry-objectives4#bg ,w5ham's ,p>abolic ,reflector4--,?is w be bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #ade1 :i* repres5ts x 9 section ,a ,b ,c1 & %[s t ! rays ( light r r r1 ent]+ p]p5dicul>ly at its surface ,c1 & !n reflect$ by its p>abolic surface ,a ,b to a focus at ,f1 c =m no "p ( ! l>ge/ p5cil ( light admitt$ by ! object-glass & repres5t$ by ,g ,f ,h2 b an object plac$ at ,f w int]rupt ! rays & be /rongly illum9at$4 ,a /op at ,s prev5ts any light f pass+ ?r\gh direct f ! mirror4 ,9 ! microscope ! p>abolic reflector fits into ! cyl9drical fitt+ "u ! /age1 & ! adju/m5t ( its focus ^u ! object is made by giv+ x a spiral motion :5 fitt$ 9--t is1 c>efully pu%+ x up or d[n at ! same "t t x is turn$ r\nd by ! mill$ edge ,b ,b4 ,x mu/ !n be focuss$ by ! rack & p9ion motion4 ,z ! rays ( light mu/ be p>allel :5 !y ent] x1 a flat mirror1 :i* 9 ?is case %\ld be add$ to ! in/rum5t1 is g5]ally us$2 daylight w !n require only direct reflection1 b ! rays f an artificial s\rce w h to be made p>allel by plac+ a side cond5s] betwe5 ! light & ! mirror1 ab\t #a-c_/d in* f ! =m] & #d-a_/b in*es f ! latt]4 ,ne>ly ! :ole surface ( ! mirror %\ld be equally illum9at$2 ?is may be te/$ by tempor>ily plac+ ^u x a c>d or piece ( :ite pap]4 ,p>allel rays c also be obta9$ f ! concave mirror1 if ! light is plac$ ab\t #b-a_/b in*es f x4 ,d>k-gr\nd illum9ation is n suitable = v transp>5t objects--t is1 unless !re is a consid]able diff]5ce 9 _! index ( refraction1 or !y are p]vad$ by air-cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4--,p>abolic ,reflector4 ,"o v rem>kable example ( ?is may be se5 9 ! tra*eal sy/em ( insects4 ,if any ( ! transp>5t l>v ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( gnat be m\nt$ 9 gelat9e & glyc]9e jelly1 slightly w>m$ b n en\gh to kill ! insect outright1 ab\t ! ?ird day ! fluids circulat+ 9 ! body w be absorb$ & replac$ by air4 ,illum9at$ by ! p>abolic cond5s]1 & view$ ) a b9ocul> microscope1 & a l[ p[]1 ! gnat-l>va becomes a sup]b object4 ,! body ( ! insect is b fa9tly visible1 & 9 its place is display$ a m>vell\s tra*eal skeleton1 ) ! tubes /&+ out 9 p]spective1 %9+ brilliantly1 l a /ructure ( burni%$ silv]4 ,un=tunately1 su* objects are n p]man5t1 = :5 ! :ole ( ! wat] dries up1 ! tra*eal tubes ei!r collapse or become refill$ ) fluid4 ,z to ! blackness ( field1 & lum9osity ( ! object1 ?is dep5ds ^u excess ( light f ! p>aboloid receiv$ beyond ! angle ( ap]ture ( ! object-glass4 ,x is f\nd 9 practice t m & m ( ! inn] annulus ( rays f ! p>aboloid has to be /opp$ (f1 until at la/1 ) high-angl$ objectives1 x is sc>cely possible to obta9 a black field4 ,! light1 on ! :ole1 mo/ suitable = ?is me?od ( illum9ation is lamp1 ! rays ( :i* %\ld 9 all cases be r5d]$ m p>allel by means ( a l>ge plano-convex l5s1 or cond5s]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,w5ham's ,hemisph]ical ,l5s4 ,w5ham's ,imm]sion ,cond5s]4--,mr4 ,w5ham1 9 ! ye> #ahef1 describ$ v>i\s =ms ( oblique illum9ators1 "o ( :i* 0 an imm]sion2 a simple "r-angl$ prism1 connect$ by a fluid m$ium ( oil ( cloves4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 ab&on$ = a ne>ly hemisph]ical l5s connect$ ) ! slide1 & al?\gh an improvem5t1 did n t\* ! po9t ( excell5ce ,mr4 ,w5ham 0 look+ =4 ,ultimately he adopt$ a semi-circul> disc ( glass ( ! exact =m & size repres5t$ 9 ! draw+1 ,fig4 #adf1 hav+ a qu>t]-in* radius1 ) a well-poli%$ r\nd$ edge1 ! sides be+ grasp$ by a simple k9d ( op5 clip atta*$ to ! sub-/age1 ! fluid m$ium us$ = connect+ ! upp] surface ) ! slide be+ ei!r wat]1 glyc]9e1 or oil2 an increase ( oblique illum9ation be+ obta9$ by sw++ ! ord9>y mirror sideways4 ,by means ( an illum9ator ( ! k9d difficult objects m\nt$ 9 balsam are resolv$4 ,?is simple piece ( glass collects & conc5trates light 9 a m>vell\s mann]1 & is by no means a bad sub/itute = "s ( ! m co/ly =ms ( a*romatic cond5s]4 ,x c be us$ ei!r 9 fluid contact ) ! slide1 or dry1 z an ord9>y cond5s]4 ,mr4 ,w5ham subsequ5tly contriv$ a small truncat$ glass p>aboloid1 = use 9 fluid contact ) ! slide2 wat]1 glyc]9e1 oil1 or o!r sub/ance be+ employ$ z a contact m$ium4 ,! rays ( light 9 ?is illum9ator1 be+ int]nally reflect$ f a convex surface ( glass1 imp+e obliquely on ! "u surface ( ! slide1 & are transmitt$ by ! fluid unit+ m$ium1 & int]nally reflect$ f ! upp] surface ( ! cov]-glass to ! objective4 ,to use ! reflex illum9ator effici5tly x mu/ be rack$ up to a level ) ! /age4 ,! c5tre ( rotation is !n set true by a dot on ! fitt+1 se5 ) a l[ p[]1 a drop ( wat] is !n plac$ on ! top1 & ^u ?is ! slide is laid4 ,m9ute objects on ! slide mu/ be f\nd ei!r by ! aid ( a l[ p[]1 by _! great] brilliancy1 or by rotat+ ! illum9ator2 ! effect on ! podura scale is sup]b1 ! :ole scale appe>+ dott$ ) bright blue spots 9 a zig-zag direction4 ,objects = ?is illum9ator %\ld be especially select$ & m\nt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4--,! ,amici ,prism4 ,! ,amici ,prism1 orig9ally design$ = oblique illum9ation1 consi/s ( a flatt5$ triangul> glass prism1 ! two n>r[] sides ( :i* are slightly convex1 :ile ! ?ird or broade/ side =ms ! reflect+ surface4 ,:5 prop]ly us$1 x is capable ( transmitt+ a v oblique p5cil ( light4 ,! prism is ei!r m\nt$1 z 9 ,fig4 #adg1 = slipp+ into ! fitt+ ( ! sub-/age1 or on an indep5d5t /&1 z arrang$ = ,p[ell's microscope1 page #he1 ,fig4 #ef4 ,me?od ( ,employ+ ! ,a*romatic ,cond5s] to ! ,greate/ ,advantage4 ,its ,illum9ation4--,good daylight is ! be/ = g5]al "w4 ,! microscope %\ld be plac$ ne> a w9d[ ) a nor!rn aspect4 ,direct sunlight %\ld nev] be utilis$2 ! be/ light is t reflect$ f a :ite cl\d4 ,a good p>aff9 lamp is ! mo/ s]viceable artificial s\rce ( light1 & x is q "u control4 ,z an illum9ant m (t5 br\ght into requisition 9 ! smoky atmosph]e ( t[ns1 ! p>aff9 lamp is on ! :ole ! h&ie/ & ! mo/ useful4 ,if gas-light c be br\ght into use z sugge/$ = micro-photography1 ) ! inc&esc5t mantle1 x w be f\nd to be ! pure/ & be/ =m ( artificial illum9ation = ! microscope4 ,among p>aff9 lamps ^? con/ruct$ by ,bak] & ,swift are all t c be desir$4#bh ,illu/ration3 ,sectional view ( ! ,optical ,arrangem5t ( ! ,aplanatic ,bull's-eye ,l5s1 fitt$ 9 gymbal on ! front ( ! lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4--;,bak]'s ,microscope ,lamp4 ,z ! *imneys ( ^! lamps are made ( metal1 & black5$1 no reflect$ light di/urbs ! eye4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to h ! wick ev5ly trimm$2 ! metal *imney has a glaz$ front1 giv+ exit to ! rays ( light1 ! flat ( ! flame be+ us$ ) l[ p[]s1 & ! image ( ! flame be+ reflect$ by a plane mirror to give equal illum9ation ( ! :ole field4 ,9 work+ ) high p[]s1 ! lamp is turn$ ) ! flame edge-wise1 & at ! same "t ! mirror mu/ be disp5s$ )4 ,by work+1 z x is t]m$1 directly on ! edge ( ! flame1 ! illum9ation is greatly increas$1 & a b& ( light c be conc5trat$ on any "p ( ! prep>ation x is desir$ to make a c>eful /udy (4 ,to obta9 ! be/ results1 "t & c>e mu/ be giv5 to ! illum9ation ( ! object4 ,! lamp & microscope hav+ be5 plac$ 9 position1 a l[ p[] is fir/ us$ & ! smalle/ diaphragm4 ,on look+ ?r\gh ! microscope x w probably be obs]v$ t ! image ( ! diaphragm is n 9 ! c5tre ( ! field2 by mov+ ! c5tr+ screw ( ! cond5s] ?is may be adju/$4 ,! l[ p[] is !n replac$ by a high p[]1 ! l>ge/ diaphragm us$1 & ! bact]ia or diatom br\ght into focus4 ,! diaphragm mu/ n[ be replac$ by "o ( m$ium size1 & by rack+ ! cond5s] up & d[n1 a po9t w be arriv$ at :5 ! image ( ! edge ( ! flame appe>s z an int5sely bright b& ( light4 ,if ?is is n exactly 9 ! c5tre ( ! field ! c5tr+ screw ( ! cond5s] mu/ aga9 be adju/$4 ,) reg>d to ! use ( diaphragms1 v>i\s sizes %\ld be tri$ :ile focuss+ ) ! f9e adju/m5t1 at ! same "t us+ ! correction col\r2 9 ?is way we obta9 ! %>pe/ possible image4 ,:5 ! cond5s] has be5 accurately c5tr$1 x w /ill be necess>y to focus x = ea* individual specim51 s z to correct = diff]5ce 9 ! ?ickness ( slides & ! lay]s ( m\nt+ m$ium4 ,correction = diff]5t ?ickness ( cov]-glasses mu/ be made by ! aid ( ! coll> adju/m5t 9 ! foll[+ way3 a high-p[] eye-piece is sub/itut$ = ! ord9>y eye-piece1 & ! faults 9 ! image w !reby be int5sifi$4 ,by mov+ ! coll> completely r\nd1 fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r1 :ile c>efully obs]v+ ! effect ( ! image1 x w be se5 to become obvi\sly worse :i*ev] way ! coll> is turn$4 ,! coll> mu/ !n be turn$ ?r\gh gradually dim9i%+ di/ances until an int]m$iate po9t is rea*$ at :i* ! be/ image results ) ! high-p[] eye-piece1 & on replac+ ?is by ! l[-p[] eye-piece ! %>pe/ possible image w be obta9$4 ,effect ( ! ,sub-/age ,cond5s]4--,! sub-/age cond5s] gives ! mo/ p[]ful illum9ation :5 x has be5 rack$ up until x almo/ t\*es ! specim54 ,x produces a cone ( rays ( v %ort focus1 & ! apex ( ! cone %\ld correspond ) ! p>ticul> bact]ium or gr\p ( bact]ias "u obs]vation4 ,! effect ( ! cond5s] )\t a diaphragm is to oblit]ate :at ,ko* has t]m$ a /ructure picture4 ,if ! compon5t p>ts ( a tissue section 7 col\rless & ( ! same refractive p[] z ! m$ium 9 :i* ! section is m\nt$1 no?+ w\ld be visible "u ! microscope4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! cells & _! nuclei & ! tissues d n diff] 9 ?is respect1 ! rays :i* pass ?r\gh !m are diffract$1 & an image ( l9es & %ad[s is develop$4 ,if 9 su* a tissue !re 7 m9ute col\r$ objects1 & if x 7 possible to m\nt ! tissue 9 a m$ium ( exactly ! same refractive p[]1 ! tissue be+ !n invisible1 ! detection ( ! col\r$ objects w\ld be mu* facilitat$4 ,?is is exactly :at is requir$ 9 deal+ ) bact]ia :i* has be5 /a9$ ) anil9e dyes1 & ! desir$ result c be obta9$ by ! use ( ! sub-/age cond5s]4 ,if we use ! full ap]ture ( ! cond5s] ! greatly conv]g$ rays play on ! compon5t p>ts ( ! tissue1 light ent]s f all sides1 ! %ad[s disappe>1 & ! /ructure picture is lo/4 ,if n[ a diaphragm is ins]t$1 s t we are practically only deal+ ) p>allel rays1 ! /ructure picture reappe>s4 ,z ! diaphragm is gradually increas$ 9 size ! /ructure picture gradually becomes less & less di/9ct1 :ile ! col\r picture1 ! image ( ! /a9$ bact]ia1 becomes m & m int5se4 ,:51 !re=e1 bact]ia 9 ! liv+ condition & un/a9$ tissues are exam9$1 a diaphragm mu/ be us$1 & :5 ! att5tion is to be conc5trat$ ^u ! /a9$ bact]ia 9 a section or 9 a cov]-glass prep>ation ! diaphragm mu/ be remov$ & ! field flood$ ) light--7,crook%ank74 ,! wide-angle cond5s]1 x w be und]/ood1 consi/s ( a comb9ation ( l5ses1 :i* conc5trate all ! light ent]+ !m to a small po9t1 & ! cond5s] mu/ be s accurately focuss$ t ?is brilliant cone ( light1 :5 x em]ges f ! upp] l5s ( ! cond5s]1 falls ^u ! object f all directions1 =m+ a wide-angle cone ( light1 at ! apex ( :i* ! object mu/ be plac$ 7see ,fig4 #adi74 ,t is to say1 ! object is illum9at$ by a cone ( rays pass+ ?r\gh x 9 all directions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4--;,front ,l5s ( ,cond5s]4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 objects :i* require a fully illum9at$ field1 :5 ! lamp %\ld be turn$ r\nd & ! ,h]s*el l5s cond5s] 7%[n 9 section1 ,fig4 #adh7 %\ld be us$ to collect ! light & ?r[ x ^u ! mirror4 ,= mod]ate p[]s1 z a f\r-t5? or "o-fif?1 ! cond5s] %\ld be us$ a little bel[ ! focus to give an ev5 illum9ation ov] ! :ole field4 ,moreov]1 z to ! use ( ! cond5s] = def9+ g5]al objects1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t to %[ diff]5t k9ds ( /ructure diff]5t ap]tures 9 ! iris diaphragm are necess>y1 & t :]eas "s objects %[ _! /ructure bett] ) a l>ge angle ( light cut d[n 9 int5sity by ! use ( blue glass1 o!rs %[ bett] ) a small p5cil ( direct rays4 ,= ! resolution ( diatoms x is (t5 necess>y to use oblique light only1 & = ?is purpose diaphragms ) c5tral pat*es are us$1 ! iris diaphragm be+ op5$ to its full ext5t4 ,an annul> r+ ( oblique light em]ges f ! cond5s] ^u ! object1 & x is 9 ?is mann] also t d>k-gr\nd illum9ation is obta9$ ) mod]ate & l[ p[]s4 ,,! ,,diaphragm4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4--,! ,diaphragm4 ,! e>ly =m ( diaphragm 9 use 0 t %[n 9 ,fig4 #aej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,%utt] ,diaphragm4 ,x consi/s simply ( a circul> brass plate ) a s]ies ( circul> op5+s ( diff]5t sizes1 arrang$ to revolve ^u ano!r plate by a c5tral p9 or axis1 ! la/ be+ also provid$ ) an op5+ z l>ge z ! l>ge/ 9 ! diaphragm-plate1 & correspond+ 9 situation to ! axis ( ! microscope body4 ,! holes 9 ! diaphragm-plate are c5tr$ & reta9$ 9 place by a b5t spr+ 9 ! second plate1 :i* rubs aga9/ ! edge ( ! diaphragm-plate & cat*es 9 a not*4 ,! blank space %uts (f ! light f ! mirror :5 cond5s$ light is ab\t to be us$4 ,x is usually made to fit 9 "u ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,?is has be5 almo/ sup]s$$ by ! iris diaphragm1 orig9ally design$ by ,wales1 ( ,am]ica4 ,x 0 made by ?is optician = 8 work+ /ud5ts' microscope4 ,an e>ly =m ( ! iris diaphragm is se5 9 ,fig4 #aea4 ,by press+ ^u ! lev] h&le at ! side ! ap]ture gradually closes up1 & )\t = a mom5t los+ sight ( ! object "u exam9ation4 ,! ,mirror4 ,! mode 9 :i* an object is illum9at$ is1 9 ! words ( ! late ,&rew ,ross1 8second only 9 importance to ! excell5ce ( ! glass ?r\gh :i* x is se540 ,to ensure good illum9ation ! mirror %\ld be 9 direct co-ord9ation ) ! objective & eye-piece2 x mu/ be reg>d$ z a "p ( ! same sy/em1 & t5d+ by a comb9$ s]ies ( acts to a p]fect result4 ,illum9ation ( ! object is recognis$ z ( ?ree k9ds or qualities--reflect$1 transmitt$1 & refract$ light4 ,= ! illum9ation ( transp>5t objects1 transmitt$ light is br\ght into use2 = opaque objects1 reflect$ light is ne$$4 ,! mirror %\ld be ab\t #b-a_/b or #c in*es 9 diamet]1 & x mu/ n be fix$1 b made to slide up & d[n ! /em "u ! /age1 s t ! rays ( light emanat+ f x may be br\ght to a focus4 ,! utility ( ! mirror is s obvi\s t x is occasionally pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce by writ]s4 ,to myself x appe>s to be an important accessory ( ! microscope1 & ,i %all !re=e proce$ to comb9e !ory ) practice 9 :at ,i h to say ) reg>d to ! mirror4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,pr9cipal ,focus ( ,mirror4 ,! microscope mirror %\ld be ! segm5t ( a true sph]e1 & its c5tre t ( a true curvature4 ,if ! mirror has a true circul> b\nd>y1 ! c5tral po9t on l9e ,a 7,fig4 #aeb7 ( ! reflect+ surface1 is ! pole ( ! same4 ,! l9e ,a ,c is kn[n z its pr9cipal axis1 & any o!r /raight l9e ?r\gh ,c1 :i* meets ! mirror1 is its second>y axis4 ,:5 ! incid5t axis is p]fectly p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis1 ! reflect$ rays conv]ge to a po9t ,f1 its pr9cipal focus4 ,s mu* = ! !ory ( ! mirror4 ,n[ we come to its practical use4 ,simple z ! mirror ( ! microscope may appe> to be1 if ! curve ( ! surface is n p]fect1 x w yield a second>y reflection or d\ble p5cil ( rays4 ,! plane mirror w occasionally be f\nd to emit m ?an "o reflection ( ! lamp-flame2 ?is we f9d may be correct$ by rotat+ ! mirror 9 its cell4 ,_m ye>s ago ,i propos$ to meet a difficulty ( ! k9d by arrang+ a rectangul> prism on a sep>ate /&1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #aec1 consi/+ ( a prism ,a ,b1 m\nt$ 9 gimbal ,c1 ,d1 & ,e1 secur$ to a brass tube ,g1 fitt$ to ! /em1 & ?us made to take ! place ( ! mirror4 ,! direct me?od ( employ+ ! mirror1 t m g5]ally resort$ to1 is by reflect+ rays f ! concave surface2 ! plane surface is pref]r$ :5 ! cond5s] is us$4 ,:i*ev] is employ$1 x %\ld n be =gott5 t ! optic axis mu/ be pres]v$ ?r\gh\t1 & s br\ght to ! c5tre ( ! op5 tube ( ! microscope4 ,ano!r me?od is to int]pose a bull's-eye l5s1 & 9 ?is way supply ! mirror ) a beam ( p>allel rays ( light4 ,! plane side ( ! bull's-eye l5s %\ld be turn$ t[>ds ! lamp1 s t lamp1 bull's-eye1 sub-/age cond5s]1 & objective1 are br\ght into an exact l9e1 ! bull's-eye be+ set at "r-angles to ! l9e4 ,a piece ( ?9 :ite pap] held across ! bottom ( ! sub-/age w s]ve to %[ :e!r ! rays ( light are fairly p>allel4 ,! next c>e is to focus ! object on ! /age1 & !n ! sub-/age cond5s] on ! slide2 fur!r correction %\ld be made by means ( ! c5tr+ screws ( ! sub-/age1 or by mov+ ! bull's-eye l5s or lamp slightly1 ?us p]fect+ ! arrangem5ts = work+ ) p>allel rays ( light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,rectangul> ,prism4 ,accessories ( ! ,microscope4 ,! accessories & appliances ( ! microscope h become s v num]\s1 t any attempt to describe !m & expla9 ! uses to :i* !y are put w\ld dem& m space ?an ,i f9d myself 9 a position to be/[ ^u !m4 ,i mu/ !re=e conf9e my rem>ks to ^? accessories 9 m g5]al use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,! ,lieb]khn4 ,hav+ describ$ ! me?od ( employ+ transmitt$ light1 ,i h a few words to add ) reg>d to ! illum9ation ( opaque objects by reflect$ light4 ,a v e>ly & effici5t =m ( opaque illum9ation is ! well-kn[n ,lieb]khn4 ,?is has n be5 entirely surpass$ by m rec5t inv5tions4 ,! concave speculum t]m$ a ,lieb]khn1 s nam$ aft] its celebrat$ inv5tor1 directly reflects d[n ^u ! object ! light receiv$ ei!r f ! mirror or bull's-eye l5s4 ,x consi/s ( a silv] cap1 :i* slides ov] ! objective 7,fig4 #aed71 a indicat+ ! l[] "p ( ! comp\nd body1 & b ! objective ov] :i* slides ! ,lieb]khn1 c2 ! rays ( light are collect$ to a focus ^u ! object at d4 ,! object may ei!r be m\nt$ on a slip ( glass1 or held by ! /age-=ceps1 f2 if v small1 or transp>5t1 x may be gumm$ to ! d>k well1 e1 or m\nt$ on a ,beck's opaque disc-revolv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,/age ,=ceps1 = hold+ objects :ile "u exam9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,beck's ,disc-hold]4 ,?is hold] w be f\nd useful = ! exam9ation ( opaque or o!r objects t _c be conv5i5tly held by ! /age =ceps1 ! specim5 be+ tempor>ily atta*$ to x by gum or gold size4 ,! hold] is int5d$ to rotate1 s t e portion ( ! object c be br\ght into view4 ,9 ?is way x w be f\nd useful 9 ! /udy ( insects1 =am9if]a1 c4 ,) ! ,lieb]khn1 h[ev]1 ! illum9ation ( opaque objects mu/ be m or less "o-sid$1 & !re=e1 ! silv] side-reflector has sup]s$$ x = g5]al use 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,to ensure a m p]fect illum9ation ( ! object1 ! bull's-eye l5s %\ld also be us$4 ,mr4 ,sorby devis$ a reflector to fit ov] ! objective4 ,x consi/s ( a semi-circul> cap2 is1 9 %ort1 a modification ( ! p>abolic reflector4 ,! light f ! mirror c1 by slightly v>y+ its incl9ation1 be br\ght into use ) ?is reflector4 ,! silv] side-reflector is usually made ) a ball-&-socket jo9t1 s t x c be turn$ 9 any direction4 ,x is secur$ to ! /age ( ! microscope by ! p91 :i* drops into a hole purposely drill$ to receive x1 & facility giv5 = turn+ up & d[n1 or 9 any position4 ,if daylight is us$ ! microscope %\ld be plac$ 9 su* a position t ! light f a :ite cl\d falls ^u ! speculum1 b ! light ( ! lamp is f> m manageable = use ) ! reflector4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,silv] ,side-reflector4 ,! ,lieb]khn is only int5d$ to be us$ ) l[ p[]s--a #b-;in*1 #a_/b-;in* & a #b_/c-;in*4 ,su* objects z ! elytra ( ! diamond & o!r beetles are well suit$ = exam9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--,sorby's ,modification ( ! ,p>abolic ,reflector4 ,:ile exp]im5t+ ) a p>abolic reflector 7,fig4 #aeh71 ,mr4 ,sorby saw ! value ( exam9+ objects "u e k9d ( illum9ation4 ,z on view+ specim5s ( iron & /eel ) ?is reflector he f\nd t1 f ! great obliquity ( ! illum9ation obta9$1 ! m brilliantly poli%$ p>ts ( ! specim5 reflect$ ! light beyond ! ap]ture ( ! objective1 & ^! c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f ^? p>ts :i* absorb$ light1 he !reupon proce$$ to place a small flat mirror 9 front ( ! objective1 & cov] half its ap]ture1 & at ! same "t /op (f by means ( a semi-cyl9drical tube ! light f ! p>abolic reflector4 ,?is arrangem5t produc$ ! rev]se appe>ance ( t fir/ employ$1 & x prov$ to be a useful aid 9 det]m9+ /ructure4 ,! ,bull's-eye ,cond5s+ ,l5s4 ,?is accessory is br\ght into con/ant use = ! purpose ( conv]g+ rays f a lamp or mirror2 or1 = r$uc+ ! div]g+ rays ( ! lamp to p>allelism ) ! p>abolic illum9ator1 or silv] side-reflector4 ,! =m 9 use is a plano-convex l5s ( ab\t ?ree or f\r in*es 9 focal l5g? 7,fig4 #aei74 ,x is usually m\nt$ on a brass /&1 s t x may be plac$ & turn$ 9 any direction1 & at any height4 ,:5 us$ by daylight1 its plane side %\ld be turn$ t[>ds ! object1 & ! same position ma9ta9$ :5 us$ = conv]g+ ! rays ( light f ! lamp2 b :5 us$ ) ! side-reflector ! plane side mu/ be t[>ds ! lamp4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 paid to ?is v necess>y accessory1 ! bull's-eye l5s4 ,a d\blet has be5 br\ght into use :i* has increas$ ! value ( ! bull's-eye cond5s] 9 bact]iological rese>*1 & 9 micro-photography g5]ally4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,bull's-eye ,l5s4 8,dur+ a rec5t inve/igation ( ! sph]ical ab]ration 9 d\blets1 x 0 believ$ to be impossible to con/ruct a d\blet ( ! =m kn[n z #8,h]s*el's d\blet' free f ab]ration1 al?\gh ^! d\blets figure 9 _m books on optics4 ,9 a cond5s] made by ,bak] ! ab]ration is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 #bg p] c5t4 less ?an ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's4 ,?is d\blet1 x appe>s1 diff]s f ,h]s*el's bo? 9 ! ratio ( ! radii ( ! m5iscus1 & also 9 ! ratio ( ! foci ( ! two l5ses2 inde$1 ! only po9t ( simil>ity is 9 ! fir/ l5s1 :i* is cross$4 ,to te/ ?is1 project ! image ( ! flat lamp-flame on a piece ( :ite c>d ) a plano-convex l5s 7! field-l5s ( ! ,huygh5ian eye-piece71 use fir/ ! convex side & !n ! plane side t[>ds ! c>d1 ! lamp be+ plac$ ab\t #f feet f ! l5s4 ,focus ! lamp-flame z %>ply z possible1 & a circul> halo ( mi/y light w be se5 to surr\nd ! lamp-flame2 b :5 ! plane side ( ! l5s is made to face ! c>d ?is halo ( mi/y light w be se5 to be greatly r$uc$1 & ! brightness ( ! image ( ! flame proportionately increas$4 ,if ! l5s1 !n1 7 /rictly aplanatic !re %\ld be no mi/y halo1 all ! light be+ conc5trat$ 9 ! image ( ! lamp-flame1 & ! image ( maximum brightness4 ,9 %ort1 ! diamet] ( ! halo or mi/y light is ! measure ( ! sph]ical ab]ration4 ,if ! cond5s] ref]r$ to above1 hav+ ! =m ( m9imum ab]ration = two planes1 be comp>$ 9 ! same mann] ) an ord9>y s+le bull's-eye ( ! same focus1 ! diamet] ( ! mi/y halo w be f\nd r$uc$ to a radius ( ab\t #a_/e-;in*1 b1 ) ?is new cond5s] !re is a fur!r r$uction1 s t ! radius ( ! mi/y halo measures only #a_/bj-;in*4 ,^! exp]im5ts are in/ructive1 because ! brightness1 or ! mi/9ess ( ! microscopical image is an associat$ ph5om5on40#bi ,a sectional view ( ! optical arrangem5t ( ,bak]'s aplanatic bull's-eye d\blet is %[n1 toge!r ) lamp1 9 ,fig4 #adh4 ,! ,microscope ,lamp4--,! introduction ( p>aff9 into h\sehold use has some:at modifi$ our views ) reg>d to ! mo/ suitable artificial s\rce ( illum9ation4 ,good p>aff9 burns ) a :it] & pur] flame ?an colza oil1 & consequ5tly is less liable to fatigue ! eyes4 ,! fir/ co/ ( ! lamp is trifl+2 = a mod]ate sum a h&y =m ( lamp c be _h1 m\nt$ on an adju/able slid+ r+ /&1 & ) a porcela91 metal or pap] %ade1 to protect ! eyes f scatt]$ rays ( light4 ,all opticians supply accept$ =ms ( lamps4 ,to give ! increas$ effect ( :it5ess to ! light 78:ite cl\d illum9ation0 z x is t]m$71 take a piece ( tissue pap]1 dip x into a hot ba? ( sp]maceti1 &1 :5 ne>ly cold1 cut out a circul> piece & secure x ov] ! l>ge/ op5+ 9 ! diaphragm plate4 ,?is w be f\nd to mat]ially mod]ate & s(t5 ! light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4--;,beck's ,complete ,lamp4 ,beck's ,complete ,lamp is con/ruct$ especially = delicate microscopical "w4 ,x has a burn] giv+ a flat flame2 ?is c be rotat$ to enable ! edge or ! flat ( ! flame to be us$2 likewise a metal *imney ) two ap]tures1 9 :i* #c #a glass slips slide2 ei!r :ite or col\r$ glasses may be us$4 ,a ,h]s*el aplanatic cond5s] is c>ri$ on a sw++ arm1 :i* rotates ar\nd ! lamp flame z a c5tre1 & c be clamp$ 9 any position4 ,! :ole lamp has a rais+ & l[]+ motion1 ) a spr+ clamp to hold x 9 any position4 ,! lamp is s design$ t at its l[e/ position ! flame is only ?ree in*es f ! table4 ,"h ! microscopi/ is furni%$ ) a lamp :i* w accompli% all he may require ) reg>d to illum9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4--,watson's ,microscope ,lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,glass ,hold] = c>ry+ ,col\r$ ,glasses4 ,watson's lamp 7,fig4 #afa7 has a metal *imney1 & is some:at simpl] 9 /ructure ?an ^? already ref]r$ to4 ,= ! /ud5t1 ! simpl] & *eap] =m w answ] e purpose4 ,a glass hold] = c>ry+ v>i\s t9t$ slips ( col\r$ glass to act z a scre5 or modifi] ( ! light is mu* employ$1 & assi/s 9 det]m9+ f9e /ructures 7,fig4 #afb74 ,nose-pieces & ,objective ,*ang]s4 ,a conv5i5t app5dage to ! microscope is ! rotat+ nose-piece1 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,*>les ,brooke1 ,f4,r4,s41 & int5d$ to c>ry two or m objectives1 :]eby a sav+ ( "t is effect$1 & ! tr\ble ( repeat$ly screw+ & unscrew+ is avoid$4 ,9 ! application ( ! nose-piece att5tion %\ld be giv5 to c5tr+4 ,messrs4 ,bak]'s objective *ang] is int5d$ to facilitate ! plac+ & replac+ ! nose-piece 9 position4 ,?is adaptation consi/s ( a mill$ head1 act+ on ?ree jaws1 hav+ a univ]sal screw ?read1 a decid$ improvem5t on ! screw4 ,zeiss has adopt$ a tube-slid+ objective *ang] ) c5tr+ adju/m5ts4 ,messrs4 ,watson met ! difficulty ( c5tr+ by mak+ ! nose-piece a "p ( ! body-tube ( _! microscopes 7,fig4 #afc74 ,?is1 :5 adapt$ to ! %ort] body ( ! /ud5ts' microscope1 fully comp5sates = want ( l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,watson's ,c5tr+ ,nose-piece ( ,microscope4 ,_! triple nose-piece is con/ruct$ ) mu* c>e1 & :5 9 use is f\nd v effective4 ,x is manufactur$ ( t v light metal alum9ium1 & :i* m9imises ! /ra9 produc$ by ! heavi] brass nose-piece4 ,f9d]s4--,! f9d] af=ds a necess>y & useful means ( regi/]+ ! position ( any p>ticul> object1 s t x may be readily f\nd aga9 at any subsequ5t p]iod4 ,9 ! "w ( exam9ation ! f9d] w save "t :5 mak+ a special rese>*1 ext5d+ ov] a consid]able surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,triple ,nose-pieces4 ,t ! f9d] has be5 ( use may be surmis$ f ! numb] inv5t$ & figur$ 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 ,by f> ! mo/ useful =m is t ( graduat+ ! plates ( ! me*anical /age1 divid+ a c]ta9 portion into #ajj p>ts4 ,p[ell & ,leal& h adopt$ ?is sy/em 9 _! ,no4 #a /&s1 :ile ,bak] & ,watson h add$ a graduat$ scale on silv] to #a_/ajj? mm4 z a f9d]1 & also a /age micromet] 9 #a_/aj? & #a_/ajj? ( a millimetre1 toge!r ) a ,maltwood f9d] = lodg+ ! position ( any desir$ portion ( a specim5 "u exam9ation4 ,! ,maltwood f9d] 7,fig4 #afe7 c be us$ ) any microscope1 & )\t a me*anical /age4 ,?is useful f9d] cont9ues to occupy a p]man5t place among ! accessories ( ! microscope4 ,x consi/s ( a glass slide1 #c #a-a_/d in*es1 on :i* is photograph$ a scale occupy+ a squ>e in*2 ?is is divid$ by horizontal & v]tical l9es into #b1ejj squ>es1 ea* ( :i* conta9s two numb]s m>k+ its 8latitude10 or place 9 ! v]tical s]ies1 & its 8longitude10 or place 9 ! horizontal s]ies4 ,! scale is 9 ea* in/ance an exact di/ance f ! bottom & left-h& end ( ! glass slide2 & ! slide1 :5 9 use1 %\ld re/ ^u ! l$ge ( ! /age ( ! microscope1 & be made to abut aga9/ a /op1 a simple p91 ab\t an in* & a half f ! c5tre ( ! /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,maltwood's ,f9d]4 ,dr4 ,pantacsek's f9d] appe>s to h "s advantage ov] ,maltwood's1 b x _c be us$ ) ! same facility1 & !re=e w n displace an old fav\rite4 ,! ,amyot f9d] ,i h long _h 9 use2 x is effici5t & inexp5sive--c inde$1 if misplac$ or lo/1 be replac$ by ! aid ( ! squ>e & compasses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aff4--;,amyot's ,object ,f9d]4 ,! ,ok$5 f9d] consi/s ( two graduat$ scales1 "o v]tical1 atta*$ to ! fix$ /age-plate1 ! o!r horizontal1 atta*$ to an arm c>ri$ by ! int]m$iate plate2 ! fir/ ( ^! scales enables ! work] to 8set0 ! v]tically-slid+ plate to any det]m9ate position 9 relation to ! fix$ plate1 :ile ! second gives ! p[] ( sett+ ! horizontally-slid+ plate by t ( ! int]m$iate4 ,micromet]s4--,x is ( ! utmo/ importance to h a means ( measur+ ) accuracy ! objects1 or "p ( objects1 "u obs]vation4 ,! mo/ effici5t piece ( app>atus = ! purpose is ! micromet] eye-piece1 ! e>li] =m ( :i*1 ,jackson's1 has be5 describ$ "u ! head+ ,eye-pieces 7p4 #add74 ,9 ! case ( micromet]s1 z 9 t ( mo/ o!r accessories1 e optician has 8 own adaptation & me?od ( employ+ ! same4 ,= ! measurem5t ( bact]ia1 a /age micromet] %\ld be us$ ) a cam]a lucida4 ,! /age micromet] consi/s ( a slip ( ?9 glass rul$ ) a scale consi/+ ( t5?s & hundr$?s ( a millimetre4 ,! image is project$ on to a piece ( pap] plac$ on ! table1 & ! draw+ made1 & ! object to be measur$ c be readily comp>$ ) ! scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4--,! ,ramsd5 ,micromet] ,eye-piece4 ,9 ! ,ramsd5 micromet] eye-piece1 z previ\sly expla9$1 two f9e wires are /ret*$ across ! field ( an eye-piece1 "o ( :i* c be mov$ by a micromet] screw4 ,9 ! field !re is also a scale ) tee?1 & ! int]val betwe5 !m corresponds to t ( ! ?reads ( ! screw4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ! brass head is usually divid$ into "o hundr$ p>ts1 & a screw ) "o hundr$ ?reads to ! in* is us$4 ,! bact]ium to be measur$ is br\ght into a position 9 :i* an edge appe>s to be 9 contact ) ! fix$ wire1 & ! micromet] screw is turn$ until ! travell+ wire appe>s to be 9 contact ) ! o!r edge4 ,! scale 9 ! field & scale on ! mill$ head1 toge!r1 give ! numb] ( complete turns ( ! screw & ! value ( a fraction ( a turn 9 sep>at+ ! wires4 ,9 ! micromet] eye-piece con/ruct$ by ,zeiss1 ! eye-piece ) a glass plate ) cross$ l9es is c>ri$ across ! field by means ( a micromet] screw4 ,ea* division on ! edge ( a drum corresponds to #ja mm4 ,complete revolutions ( ! drum are c\nt$ by means ( a figur$ scale 9 ! visual field4 ,9 ! micromet] us$ ) ,zeiss's apo*romatic objectives & comp5sat+ eye-pieces ! divisions are s comput$1 t1 ) a tube-l5g? ( #afj mm41 ! value ( "o int]val repres5ts1 ) ea* objective1 j z _m micra 7#jjja mm47 z !re are millimetres 9 its focal l5g?4 ,a value ( tables is !re=e n requir$ = ^! eye-pieces1 s9ce ! focus ( ! l5ses indicates _! micromet] values )9 #e p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4--,! ,wolla/on ,cam]a ,lucida4 ,! ,cam]a ,lucida w prove an extremely useful adjunct to ! micromet]1 & a l>ge numb] ( contrivances h be5 devis$ = its employm5t4 ,!re are ^? :i* project ! image on to ! surface ( a %eet ( pap] provid$ = ! draw+1 & ^? :i* project ! p5cil & pap] into ! field ( ! microscope4 ,! =m] me?od is t usually adopt$4 ,to draw an object1 ) ei!r a ,wolla/on cam]a lucida or a neutral t9t reflector1 su* z t ( ,beale's1 bo? ( :i* are made to slide on & take ! place ( ! cap ( ! eye-piece1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #afh1 ) its flat side upp]mo/1 ! :ole in/rum5t mu/ be rais$ until ! edge ( ! prism is exactly #aj in*es f a piece ( pap] plac$ ^u ! table2 ) ! latt] ! in/rum5t reta9s its v]tical position1 & ! image ( ! object is ?r[n on ! pap] plac$ 9 front ( ! /&4 ,! light mu/ be s regulat$ t no m ?an is really necess>y is ^u ! object1 :il/ a full light %\ld be ?r[n ^u ! pap]4 ,only "o eye is to be us$2 & if "o half ( ! pupil be direct$ ov] ! edge ( ! prism1 ! object w appe> ^u ! pap]1 & c be trac$ on x by a p5cil1 ! po9t ( :i* w also be se54 ,%\ld any blu5ess be visible 9 ! field1 ! prism is pu%$ too f> on1 & %\ld be drawn back till ! col\r disappe>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,microscope 9 position = draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,beale's ,neutral ,t9t ,reflector4 ,! position 9 :i* ! microscope mu/ be plac$ is %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7,fig4 #afi74 ,beale's neutral t9t reflector 7,fig4 #agj7 is mu* 9 use1 & its advantages are utility1 simplicity1 & inexp5siv5ess4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,! ,abbe ,model ,cam]a ,lucida4 ,! ,abbe model ( cam]a lucida has be5 br\ght into use because ! project$ image c be bett] illum9at$1 & is consequ5tly s mu* bright]4 ,?is =m is n[ made 9 alum9ium by ,messrs4 ,watson ,sons4 ,9 place ( ! image be+ trac$ by projection on pap]1 ! rev]se is ! case1 bo? ! pap] & p5cil are project$ into ! field ( view4 ,! mirror reflects ! pap] on to ! silv]$ surface ( a prism plac$ ov] ! eye-l5s ( ! eye-piece ( ! microscope1 & x is !reby convey$ to ! eye4 ,!re is a c5tral op5+ 9 ! silv]+ ?r\gh :i* microscopic vision is obta9$4 ,x is fitt$ 9 a new mann] by means ( a clo?-l9$ adapt]1 fitt+ ov] ! outside ( ! microscope tube2 ?is saves all tr\ble 9 c5tr+ & ensures conc5tricity4 ,:]e ! in/rum5t has capp$ eye-pieces1 ! cam]a lucida mu/ be adapt$ to ! eye-piece1 ! cap be+ remov$4 ,! app>atus c be disconnect$ f ! fitt+ adapt] by means ( a slid+ p91 & readily replac$1 or c be lift$ ov] out ( ! way1 z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,be+ made almo/ entirely 9 alum9ium x is v mu* light] ?an o!r =ms ( app>atus1 & does n cause vibration4 ,x c be us$ ) ! microscope at any angle1 ! only necessity be+ t ! pap] on :i* ! sket* is made %\ld be kept at ! same angle z ! in/rum5t4 ,micro-,photography4 ,micro-photography or photo-micrography1 z x is indiff]5tly t]m$1 has1 to a v consid]able ext5t1 sup]s$$ ! use ( ! cam]a lucida = ! del9eation ( images se5 "u ! microscope4 ,i may claim to be among ! fir/ work]s ) ! microscope 7#ahda7 to prove beyond a d\bt t ! cam]a c\ld be made to r5d] invaluable aid to ! microscopi/1 :]eby a great sav+ ( "t might be effect$1 & a draw+ obta9$ ) great] accuracy ?an t ( ! p5cil ( ! draughtsman4 ,x 0 ab\t #ahfd-e t ,dr4 ,woodw>d's e>li] micro-photographs 7 fir/ se5 9 ,london4 ,8 skill 9 ! manipulation ( ! microscope _h be5 long kn[n4 ,8 fir/ s]ies ( photographs ( te/ diatoms creat$1 ,i rememb]1 q a s5sation2 !y h probably nev] be5 surpass$4 ,^! 7 tak5 by sun-light1 magnesium1 & electric-light4 ,i 0 ! recipi5t ( a s]ies tak5 at a lat] date 7#ahgj71 & :i*1 b\nd 9 qu>to volume1 are almo/ z p]fect 9 def9ition z any ( a lat] date tak5 by oil-imm]sion objectives4 ,! objectives us$ by ,dr4 ,woodw>d1 ?r\gh\t1 7 a #a_/h-;in* ( ,wales's 7new s]ies71 & a #a_/af-;in* imm]sion1 ( ,p[ell ,leal&'s1 especially produc$ = "w ) ! cam]a4 ,! magnification v>i$ f #hjj to #c1jjj diamet]s1 a fru/ule ( ,grammatophora ,m>9a magnifi$ #b1ejj1 & a scale ( podura1 m>k$ #c1jjj 9 my collection1 are equal 9 def9ition to ^? tak5 by a high-angle #a_/ab-;in* oil-imm]sion4 ,pa?ological specim5s tak5 ) l[] p[]s are equally in/ructive1 a section ( epi!lial canc] %[+ bo? nuclei & cells ) di/9ctness4 ,dr4 ,maddox 9 #ahfd 0 also exp]im5tally engag$ 9 ! improvem5t ( ! processes ( photography = ! purpose ( promot+ ! "w ( microscopi/s4 ,8 lab\rs 7 att5d$ ) great success4 ,to him we are indebt$ = ! gelat9e dry-plate process1 :i* gave a rem>kable impetus to photography 9 g5]al4 ,dr4 ,maddox has1 = a p]iod ext5d+ ov] =ty ye>s1 dilig5tly & successfully cultivat$ & promot$ micro-photography4 ,among o!r work]s to :om we are indebt$ = improvem5ts 9 micro-photography ,i may m5tion ,w5ham1 ,drap]1 ,%adbolt1 ,highley1 ,ko*1 ,/]nb]g1 ,pr+le1 ,leitz1 & ,pfeiff]4 ,dr4 ,ko* ju/ly claims ! cr$it ( hav+ ext5d$ ! application ( micro-photography to ! del9eation ( bact]ia4 ,a s]ies ( in/ructive micro-photographs 7 publi%$ by him 9 #ahgg4 ,! importance ( ! cam]a has become m manife/ z ! "w ( ! bact]iologi/ has progress$4 ,ko* /rongly advocat$ micro-photography on ! gr\nd t illu/rations1 especially ( bact]ia1 %\ld be z true to nature z possible4 ,dr4 ,edg> ,crook%ank holds ! same op9ion1 & 9 support ( 8 views we h num]\s illu/rations ( ! bact]ia giv5 9 8 valuable 8,text-book ( ,bact]iology40 ,b he does n disguise ! tru? t !re are difficulties to be enc\nt]$1 ! fir/ ( :i* is ow+ to ! fact t ! smalle/ & mo/ int]e/+ bact]ia c only be made visible 9 animal tissues by /a9+4 ,?is drawback has be5 v ne>ly ov]come by ! use ( eos9-collodion4 ,) ?is m$ium1 & by %utt+ (f portions ( ! spectrum by col\r$ glasses1 ,ko* succe$$ 9 obta9+ photographs ( bact]ia1 :i* 7 /a9$ ) blue & r$ anil9e dyes4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 introduc$ a di/urb+ elem5t ( ano!r k9d4 ,ow+ to ! long] exposure requir$1 ! results 7 want+ 9 def9ition1 attributable1 x 0 ?\ght1 to vibrations ( ! app>atus produc$ by pass+ traffic1 or by assi/ants mov+ ab\t ov] ! floor ( ! laboratory4 ,ko* nev]!less %[$1 at ! great meet+ ( ! ,int]national ,m$ical ,association 9 ,london1 #ahha1 a s]ies ( micro-photographs ( bact]ia & tissue sections1 :i* 7 ! admiration ( all :o saw !m4 ,to meet a difficulty occasion$ by ! anil9e dyes1 ,ko* recomm5d$ t ! prep>ations %\ld be /a9$ br[n2 o!r exp]im5t]s f\nd t prep>ations /a9$ ei!r yell[ or yell[i%-br[n gave good photographic repres5tations2 b x is by no means an easy matt] to f9d a good diff]5tial /a9 ( bact]ia 9 ! tissues1 z ev5 ,bism>ck br[n is n entirely successful4 ,o!r bact]iologi/s h enc\nt]$ simil> difficulties at ! outset4 ,haus] succe$$ 9 %[+ ! value ( micro-photography 9 ! production ( pictures ( impression prep>ations & colonies ( bact]ia 9 nutri5t-gelat9e4 ,b to give ! g5]al effect1 z well z fai?fully reproduce ! m9ute details 9 ^! prep>ations ( bact]ia by ! aid ( ! p5cil1 w\ld 9 mo/ cases create insurm\ntable difficulties1 except 9 ! h& ( ! mo/ accompli%$ draughtsman4 ,haus] employ$ ,g]la*'s app>atus1 & ,s*leuss]'s dry-plates1 & obta9$ 8 illum9ation by means ( a small inc&esc5t lamp1 :i* gave a /rong :ite light4 ,! prep>ations s photograph$ 7 = ! mo/ "p /a9$ br[n1 & m\nt$ 9 ! ord9>y way 9 ,canada balsam4 ,9 #ahhd1 ,van ,erm5g5 succe$$ 9 photograph+ prep>ations ( comma-bacilli /a9$ ) fu*s9e & me?yl violet4 ,^! pictures af=d$ ! fir/ practical illu/ration ( ! value ( iso-*romatic plates 9 micro-photography1 & _! introduction m>ks a di/9ct era 9 ! progress ( micro-photography4 ,! iso-*romatic1 or m prop]ly ! or?o-*romatic1 dry-plate process 0 introduc$ because 9 photography blue or violet comes out almo/ or q :ite1 :ile o!r col\rs1 yell[ & r$1 are repres5t$ by a sombre %ade or ev5 by black4 ,?is is due to ! want ( equality ( /r5g? betwe5 ! lum9\s & ! act9ic or *emical rays ( light4 ,9 o!r words1 ! violet & blue rays are m *emically active ?an any o!r portion ( ! spectrum4 ,x 0 f\nd1 !n1 t if plates 7 col\r$ yell[ ) turm]ic1 ! blue & violet rays 7 int]cept$1 & _! act9ism proportionately r$uc$4 8,9 #ahha1 ! s-call$ iso-*romatic plates 7 introduc$4 ,! emulsion ( bromide ( silv] & gelat9e 0 /a9$ ) eos91 & x 0 claim$ t col\rs c\ld be repres5t$ ) _! relative int5sity2 *lorophyll & o!r /a9s h also be5 tri$1 & by su* me?ods ! ord9>y gelat9e dry-plates c be s treat$ t !y w reproduce v>i\s col\rs1 accord+ to _! relative light int5sity1 & ?us be r5d]$ iso-1 or :at is n[ kn[n z or?o-*romatic40 ,app>atus & ,mat]ial4 ,app>atus & ,mat]ial us$ 9 micro-photography h1 f "t to "t1 be5 greatly v>i$ by diff]5t work]s1 "s pref]r+ to use ! microscope 9 ! v]tical position ) ! cam]a sup]impos$ or fitt$ on ! eye-piece ( ! microscope tube2 o!rs1 aga91 pref] t bo? ! microscope & ! cam]a %\ld be array$ horizontally4 ,9 ano!r =m ! ord9>y microscope is disp5s$ ) & ! objective /age & mirror are adapt$ to ! front ( ! cam]a1 toge!r ) a suitable arrangem5t = hold+ ! object4 ,la/ly1 ! cam]a is la9 aside1 & an op]at+-room r5d]$ imp]vi\s to light1 takes its place1 & ! image is project$ & focuss$ ^u a gr\nd glass scre5 held 9 its place by a sep>ate support4 ,?is me?od has be5 made practical s9ce ! introduction into microscopy by ,zeiss ( ! projection eye-piece4 ,x is well kn[n t micro-photographs c be produc$ by employ+ ^! projection eye-pieces1 z well z = scre5 illu/rations 9 ! lecture-room4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,swift's ,horizontal ,app>atus4 ,) reg>d to ! position ( ! microscope & cam]a1 ! horizontal af=ds great] /ability ?an ! v]tical1 & is on ?is acc\nt to be pref]r$4 ,! simple/ app>atus consi/s ( a cam]a fix$ ^u a base bo>d1 f\r or five feet 9 l5g?1 ^u :i* ! microscope c be clamp$1 & :i* also c>ries ! lamp & bull's-eye l5s 7,fig4 #agb74 ,?is arrangem5t ,i h f\nd economical & useful4 ,no m elaborate arrangem5t is actually necess>y4 ,sunlight is no d\bt ! be/1 b a good p>aff9 lamp is a h&y & available illum9ant4 ,) ! =m]1 & rapid plates1 a %ort exposure ( ?ree or f\r seconds1 ev5 :5 high p[]s are us$1 is f\nd suffici5t2 :]eas1 ) ! p>aff9 lamp x w v>y f ?ree to t5 m9utes4 ,walmsley gives ! foll[+ table = exposures ) ! lamp3-- #a-a_/b-;in* objective #c to #de seconds4 #b_/c-;in* #g to #ij #d_/aj-;in* #a_/b to #c m9utes4 #a_/e-;in* #b to #g #a_/aj-;in* #d to #aj ,= micro-photography ! foll[+ practical rules mu/ be obs]v$4 ,! sub-/age cond5s] may be disp5s$ ) :5 l[ p[]s are us$1 z well z ! mirror1 & ! lamp s plac$ t ! image ( ! flat ( ! flame appe>s accurately adju/$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! field ( ! microscope4 ,! bull's-eye l5s is s int]pos$1 t ! image ( ! flame disappe>s1 & ! :ole field becomes equally illum9at$ ) high p[]s2 ! sub-/age a*romatic cond5s] mu/ be us$1 & a great] int5sity ( illum9ation is obta9$ by plac+ ! lamp-flame edgeways4 ,x is advisable to beg9 ! practice ( micro-photography ) l[ p[]s1 & a trial exp]im5t %\ld be made ) "s well-kn[n object z ! bl[-fly's tongue4 ,dr4 ,crook%ank is ( op9ion t1 9 ! case ( micro-organisms :5 _! biological *>act]s are /udi$ "u l[ p[]s ( ! microscope1 photographs are pref]able1 because !y give a m fai?ful repres5tation ( ! object4 ,a micro-organism1 ev5 "u ! highe/ p[]s ( ! microscope1 is s m9ute an object1 t to repres5t x 9 a draw+ requires a v delicate t\*1 & x is only too easy to make a picture :i* gives an errone\s impression to ^? :o h n se5 ! orig9al4 ,photography enables ! sci5tific work] to record rapid *anges1 & x is q possible z ! art advances we may f9d ! film m s5sitive ?an ! human ret9a1 & t x w br+ out details 9 bact]ia :i* w\ld be o!rwise unrecognis$4 ,! result1 !re=e1 ( exp]i5ce is t 9 rese>* laboratories x w come into m g5]al use z a fai?ful & graphic me?od4 ,i _c bett] br+ ^! obs]vations to a close ?an by giv+ a quotation f ,dr4 ,pi]soll's practical me?od ( obta9+ micro-photographs4 ,! ?ree ess5tial conditions to ensure success 9 micro-photography are3--7#a7 ,satisfactory app>atus2 7#b7 good illum9ation2 7#c7 suitable prep>ations4 ,) high amplifications 7#a1jjj diamet]s & ov]71 ! conditions are greatly *ang$ by ! approa* to ! limit bo? ( ! %ortness ( ! focus ( ! objective & ( ! l5g? ( ! cam]a :i* c be advantage\sly us$2 = ! fir/ exp]i5ce leads to ! adoption ( ! #a_/ab-;in*1 = ! second f\r feet is ! limit1 s9ce a giv5 high amplification1 say #b1jjj diamet]s1 c be m satisfactorily & m conv5i5tly obta9$ ) a sup]ior #a_/ab-;in* connection ) suitable optical means to increase ! initial magnify+ p[] ( ! objective1 ?an ) an unaid$ #a_/be-;in* l5s1 & ! plate remov$ to a great] di/ance4 ,until q rec5tly ! v>i\s amplifi]s (f]$ ! be/ means ( increas+ ! p[] ( an objective1 b ! introduction ( ! projection-ocul>s ( ,zeiss is an accessory piece ( app>atus1 f> sup]ior to any old] device4 ,^! projection-ocul>s resemble ord9>y microscopical ocul>s or eye-pieces only 9 g5]al =m & "n1 be+ optically a projection-objective 9 connection ) a collect+ l5s4 ,! new oil-imm]sion apo*romatic l5ses1 9 comb9ation ) ^! projection-ocul>s1 =m und\bt$ly ! m effici5t equipm5t = high-p[] "w2 x is z true = high-p[] photography z = microscopical obs]vation 9 g5]al1 t ! be/ results are obta9$ ) f9e & necess>ily exp5sive1 optical appliances4 ,if = ! satisfactory /udy ( ! intimate /ructure ( a cell1 or ( a micro-organism1 ! mo/ improv$ imm]sion l5ses are necess>y1 x is to be expect$ t1 = ! successful photography ( ! same1 tools at lea/ z good are ne$$4 ,sunlight c]ta9ly af=ds ! mo/ satisfactory illum9ation :]eby good micro-photographs c be obta9$1 z well z = record+ microscopical images4 ,t by good lamp-light fair impressions ( objects "u extreme magnification c be secur$ is enc\rag+1 b ! negatives produc$ by su* illum9ation seldom1 if ev]1 possess ! *>act]i/ics ( a really good sunlight negative1 :]e ! %>pe/ details are comb9$ ) an exquisite s(tness & h>mony ( half-tones4 ,if ! mirror ( ! microscope be ( good size1 x w only be necess>y to make an arm on :i* to support ! remov$ mirror outside "s s\!rly expos$ w9d[1 s9ce x is desirable to h a great] di/ance betwe5 ! mirror & ! /age ?an w\ld be possible 7 ! mirror atta*$ 9 its usual place4 ,:]e ! microscope mirror is too small to be satisfactorily us$1 a rectangul> wood-fram$ look+-glass is readily m\nt$1 ) ! aid ( a few /rips ( wood1 s z to turn ab\t bo? axes4 ,! rays f ! plane side ( ! mirror %\ld pass ?r\gh a cond5s+ l5s 7( #h-aj-;in* focus1 if possible71 s plac$ t !y are br\ght to a focus be=e rea*+ ! plane ( ! object4 ,! exact position ( ! cond5s+ l5s is a matt] ( exp]i5ce2 usually1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ fav\rable illum9ation is obta9$ at t po9t :]e ! field is brilliantly & uni=mly illum9at$1 j be=e ! rays =m ! image s\rce ( light2 ! ne>] ! focus ! less di/urbance f diffraction r+s4 ,ord9>y objectives w require ! employm5t ( mono*romatic light--produc$ ei!r by a deep blue solution ( ammonia-sulphate ( copp]1 or by ! gre5 glass scre5--s9ce ! optical & act9ic foci d n usually p]fectly co9cide4 ,p[]s up to ! #c_/d-;in* w require no fur!r cond5s]2 ) ! #a_/d or #a_/f-;in* objectives1 ! l[ p[] 7#a or #c_/d-;in*7 s]ves ) advantage z an a*romatic cond5s]1 :5 atta*$ to ! sub-/age4 ,! ,abbe cond5s]1 al?\gh s important = f9e microscopical inve/igation1 is n adapt$ to photography unless a v wide cone ( light is desir$1 :i*1 = ! majority ( prep>ations1 is "s advantage2 a l[-p[] objective1 us$ z a cond5s]1 is f\nd to be m satisfactory ?an ! ,abbe ) a small diaphragm4#cj ,! greate/ delicacy 9 manipulation is necess>y1 z 9 work+ ) a #a_/ab-;in* objective a turn too mu* ( ! f9e adju/m5t w cause ! image to vani%4 ,) f9e prep>ations ( bact]ia x is n easy to trace ! image1 & h5ce ! advantage ( comm5c+ ) a well-m>k$ object1 z t ( ! fly's tongue4 ,! developm5t & fixation ( ! image mu/ be proce$$ ) z 9 ! ord9>y photographic process4 ,9 ! text-books ( photography full acc\nts ( failures w be f\nd1 _! causes & prev5tion4 ,num]\s pap]s & sugge/ions = micro-photographic "w w also be f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 ,! ,projection ,eye-piece has become an ess5tial "p ( micro-photography1 & x is s arrang$ t x may be employ$ ) advantage ) objectives ( ei!r ! apo*romatic or ord9>y s]ies = photographic purposes1 project+ an exquisitely %>p image ( ! object on ! plate4 ,a diaphragm betwe5 ! l5ses limits ! field1 & a %>p image ( x %\ld appe> on ! scre5 :5 ! eye-piece is adju/$4 ,! adju/m5t may be effect$ by revolv+ ! eye-piece cap 9 a spiral slot1 s t ! eye or top l5s is ei!r br\ght clos] or remov$ f>!r away f ! diaphragm1 z may be requir$1 & divisions & a read] are usually provid$ = regi/]+ positions4 ,su* eye-pieces are made to fit any size microscope body4 ,initial magnify+ p[]s3-- ,engli% l5g? ( tube #aj-;94 #c & #f4 ,cont95tal #f-;94 #b & #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4--;,bak]'s ,pr+le ,v]tical ,micro-photographic ,app>atus4 ,! microscope & cam]a 7,fig4 #agc7 are "h se5 to be "p ( ! same in/rum5t4 ,! bell[s ( ! cam]a h an ext5sion v>y+ f #f 94 to #cj 94 ,! bo>d on :i* ! microscope & limelight jet are fix$ is made to turn out ( ! l9e ( ! cam]a to facilitate adju/+ ! in/rum5t & radiant1 ei!r limelight1 electric light or p>aff9 lamp2 :5 ?is is done ! bo>d c>ry+ ! same is turn$ back to a /op :i* br+s ! microscope into a c5tral position ) ! focuss+ scre54 ,an adju/m5t is suppli$ at ! side ( ! cam]a1 ge>$ to ! sl[ movem5t1 = f9ely focuss+ ! object ^u ! scre54 ,a light-exclud+ connection is fitt$ to ! front ( ! cam]a & microscope2 imm$iately beh9d ?is1 9 ! bell[s1 is an expos+ %utt] :i* is manipulat$ by means ( a small mill$ head4 ,two focuss+ scre5s are usually suppli$1 "o grey1 & "o pat5t plate1 toge!r ) a d\ble d>k slide4 ,mr4 ,&rew ,pr+le's v]tical micro-photographic app>atus is an excell5t =m2 x consi/s ( a heavy base & brass support1 c>ry+ a qu>t]-plate cam]a1 grey & pla9 glass focuss+ scre51 d\ble d>k back1 cam]a ext5d+ to #bd in*es1 & turn+ aside z %[n 9 ,fig #agc4 ,x is light-tight 9 all its connections4 ,to secure uni=m results 9 micro-photography1 only ?9 prep>ations1 :i* lie z ne>ly z possible 9 "o plane1 c be reli$ ^u = good & p]fect negatives4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,ross's ,arc ,lamp4 ,an electric arc lamp specially design$ = micro-photographic "w1 :]ev] ! electric curr5t is available1 is t kn[n z 8! ,ross-,hepwor? projection arc lamp40 ,! advantage ga9$ by ?is =m ( lamp is n only on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* x may be employ$1 b also on acc\nt ( its sup]ior p[] & quality4 ,x is ( prim>y importance t ! lamp employ$ to conv]t ! electricity into light %\ld be ( a good & reliable patt]n4 ,x is n ess5tial t x %\ld be automatic 9 its work+--_m exp]i5c$ micro-photograph]s pref]r+ a simple h&-fe$ lamp to ! "o ( a m complicat$ k9d1 be+ s mu* less difficult to keep 9 ord]4 ,a good h&-fe$ microscope-lamp has ! advantage ( great] simplicity & portability4 ,! arg& gas-light arrang$ = me _m ye>s ago = micro-photography may be employ$ ) advantage4 ,x is clean1 & always ready = use :5 br\ght d[n to ! table atta*$ by a piece ( india-rubb] tub+4 ,! inc&esc5t =m ( burn] enhances its value1 s9ce ! light is !reby r5d]$ :it]4 ,! arrangem5t is %[n 9 ! diagrammatic draw+1 ,fig4 #age4 ,ov] ! arg& burn] ,b1 is a pale-blue glass *imney1 re/+ on a wire gauze1 /age ,a2 ?is secures a uni=m curr5t ( air4 ,! col\r ( ! flame may be /ill m influ5c$ by a disc ( neutral t9t1 or o!r col\r$ glass1 ins]t$ into ! circul> op5+ at ,e1 9 a half-cyl9d] ( metal1 ,g1 us$ to cut (f all extrane\s light2 c be rotat$ on ! /age by ! ivory nob at ,h1 a metallic reflector ,i1 atta*$ to ! /&>d rod1 on be+ br\ght p>allel to ,f s]ves to conc5trate ! light & s5d x on to ! bull's-eye1 & ?r\gh x to ! mirror1 or directly to ! photo-microscopic cam]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4--,table ,inc&esc5t ,gas-lamp4 ,by remov+ ! %ield ,g1 & br++ ! %ade ,m ov] ! burn]1 x is at once conv]t$ into a useful microscopical lamp1 = all ord9>y purposes4 ,! screw ,r clamps ! lamp-flame at any height1 :ile ! support ,n c>ries a wat]-ba? ,o1 or a plate ,p1 bo? ( :i* w be f\nd useful 9 prep>+ & m\nt+ objects4 ,a special inc&esc5t gas-lamp is made by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,j4 ,beck4 ,pol>isation ( ,light4 ,common light moves 9 two planes at "r angles to ea* o!r1 :ile pol>is$ light moves 9 "o plane only4 ,common light may be turn$ into pol>is$ light ei!r by transmission or reflection2 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 "o ( ! planes ( common light is got rid ( by reflection2 9 ! o!r1 by absorption4 ,huygh5s 0 "o ( ! fir/ physici/s to notice t a ray ( light has n ! same prop]ties 9 e "p ( its circumf]5ce1 & he comp>$ x to a magnet or a collection ( magnets2 & suppos$ t ! m9ute p>ticles ( :i* x 0 said to be compos$ _h diff]5t poles1 :i*1 :5 act$ on 9 c]ta9 ways1 arrang$ !mselves 9 p>ticul> positions2 & !nce ! t]m pol>isation1 a t]m hav+ nei!r ref]5ce to cause nor effect4 ,x is to ,malus1 h[ev]1 :o1 9 #ahjh1 discov]$ pol>isation by reflection1 t we are indebt$ = ! s]ies ( spl5did ph5om5a :i* h s9ce t p]iod be5 develop$2 ph5om5a ( su* surpass+ beauty z to exce$ mo/ ord9>y objects pres5t$ to ! eye "u ! microscope4 ,c]ta9ly no m mislead+ "n c\ld well h be5 f\nd to describe ! causation1 9 "o p>ticul> direction1 ( small displacem5ts 9 ! m$ium1 ?r\gh :i* ! light waves are made to pass4 ,! effect ( 8pol>is+0 light is simply to alt] ! directions ( ! vibrations ( light1 & all[ ( c]ta9 waves to pass :i* are vibrat+ 9 "o direction only1 v]tical1 horizontal1 or oblique1 z ! case may be4 ,! mo/ effici5t ag5t discov]$ = ! pol>isation ( light is t ( ,icel& sp>1 cut & m\nt$ z a 8,nicol0 prism4 ,by cutt+ cry/als ( ,icel& sp> into two p>ts1 at a p>ticul> angle1 & cem5t+ !m toge!r aga9 9 ! rev]se way1 ,nicol succe$$ 9 %[+ t "o ( ! two pol>is+ p5cils c\ld be totally deflect$ to "o side1 :ile ! o!r is directly transmitt$ ?r\gh ! ,nicol prism1 & !reby ! beam ( light becomes at once 8pol>is$0 9 "o plane only4 ,no app>5t diff]5ce c be se5 9 ! prism on hold+ x up to ! light1 except x be 9 a v slight loss ( brightness2 b if ano!r simil>ly heat$ cry/al be held be=e1 & made to revolve ar\nd1 a qu>t] ( ! circle j :]e ! two cross ea* o!r1 total d>kness results4 ,?is ph5om5on alt]nately recurs at e quadrature ( ! circle4 ,a pair ( ,nicol prisms1 :5 appropriately m\nt$1 con/itute 8a pol>is+ app>atus0 = ! microscope1 "o be+ fitt$ into ! sub-/age1 & ! o!r ei!r imm$iately above ! objective or eye-piece1 :]e x c be easily rotat$1 ! object to be exam9$ be+ plac$ on ! /age ( ! microscope1 t is1 betwe5 ! pol>is+ & analys+ prisms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pol>iscope ,,objects4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,! significance ( pol>is$ light c5tres 9 ! fact t x af=ds a wid] insight into ! /ructure ( cry/als1 m9]als1 & a numb] ( o!r sub/ances1 & :i* c\ld n o!rwise be obta9$ )\t its aid4 ,its usefulness is multifold1 z ev5 glass itself1 :5 n prop]ly anneal$1 exhibits po9ts ( fracture1 by a display ( ,newton's r+s4 ,! k ?us acquir$ is turn$ to acc\nt by glass manufactur]s4 ,d\ble refraction4--,:5 an incid5t ray ( light is refract$ into a cry/al ( any o!r ?an ! cubic sy/em1 or into compress$ or unanneal$ glass1 x gives rise to two refract$ rays :i* take diff]5t pa?s2 ?is ph5om5on is t]m$ d\ble refraction4 ,att5tion 0 call$ to ?is 9 #afgj1 by ,b>tol91 :o fir/ obs]v$ x 9 ,icel& sp>2 & ! laws = ?is sub/ance 7 accurately det]m9$ by ,huygh5s4 ,icel& sp> or calc sp> is a =m ( cry/alliz$ c>bonate ( lime4 ,x is compos$ ( fifty-six p>ts ( lime & =ty-f\r p>ts ( c>bonic acid1 & is usually f\nd 9 rhomboh$ral =ms ( cry/allization4 ,to obs]ve ! ph5om5on ( d\ble refraction1 a rhomb ( ,icel& sp> may be laid on a page ( a pr9t$ book1 :5 all ! lett]s se5 ?r\gh x w appe> d\ble2 ! dep? ( ! blackness ( ! lett]s is se5 to be consid]ably less ?an t ( ! orig9als1 except :]e ! two images ov]lap4 ,9 ord] to /ate ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ) precision1 x is necess>y to att5d to ! cry/all9e =m ( ,icel& sp>1 :i* has equal obtuse angles4 ,if a l9e be drawn ?r\gh "o ( ^! corn]s1 mak+ equal angles ) ! ?ree edges :i* meet !re1 x1 or any l9e p>allel to x1 is call$ ! axis ( ! cry/al2 ! axis be+1 prop]ly speak+1 n a def9ite l9e b a def9ite direction4 ,! angles ( ! cry/als are ! same 9 all specim5s4 ,if ! cry/al is ( su* proportions t ^! ?ree edges spok5 ( are equal1 z 9 ! small] cry/al 7,fig4 #agf71 ! axis is ! direction ( "o ( its diagonals1 z repres5t$4 ,any plane conta9+ 7or p>allel to7 ! axis is call$ ! pr9cipal plane ( ! cry/al4 ,9 ! next diagram1 ,fig4 #agg1 ! l9e appe>s d\ble1 z a b & c d1 or ! dot1 z e & f4 ,or all[ a ray ( light1 g h1 to fall ?us on ! cry/al1 x w 9 its passage ?r\gh be sep>at$ into two rays1 h f1 h e2 & on com+ to ! opposite surface ( ! cry/al1 w pass out at e f 9 ! direction ( i k1 p>allel to g h4 ,! plane l m n o is designat$ ! pr9cipal section ( ! cry/al1 & ! l9e drawn f ! solid angle l to ! angle o is :]e ! axis ( ! cry/al w be f\nd2 ?is is its optic axis4 ,n[ :5 a ray ( light passes along ?is axis1 x is undivid$1 & !re is only "o image2 b 9 all o!r directions !re are two images4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,axis ( ,cry/als ( ,icel& ,sp>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,a ,rhomb %[+ ! passage ( ,rays ( ,light4 ,mr4 ,nicol1 ( ,ed9burgh fir/ succe$$ 9 mak+ a rhomb ( ,icel& sp> into a s+le-image prism4 ,8 me?od ( splitt+ up ! cry/al into two equal p>ts 0 z foll[s3-- ,a rhomb ( ,icel& sp> ( "o-f\r? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & ab\t f\r-eigh?s ( an in* 9 bread? & ?ickness1 is divid$ into two equal portions 9 a plane1 pass+ ?r\gh ! acute lat]al angle1 & ne>ly t\*+ ! obtuse side angle4 ,! sectional plane ( ea* ( ^! halves mu/ be c>efully poli%$1 & ! two portions cem5t$ firmly toge!r ) ,canada balsam1 s z to =m a rhomb simil> to t be=e division2 by ?is managem5t ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays are s sep>at$ t only "o is transmitt$3 ! cause ( ?is great div]g5ce ( ! rays is consid]$ to be ow+ to ! action ( ! ,canada balsam1 ! refractive index ( :i* 7#aedi7 is t betwe5 ! ord9>y 7#afedc7 & ! extraord9>y 7#adhcc7 refraction ( calc>e\s sp>1 & :i* w *ange ! direction ( bo? rays 9 an opposite mann] be=e !y ent] ! po/]ior half ( ! comb9ation4 ,! direction ( rays pass+ ?r\gh su* a prism is indicat$ by ! arr[1 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,pol>is$ light _c be di/+ui%$ f common light1 z already said1 by ! nak$ eye2 & = all exp]im5tal purposes 9 pol>isation1 two pieces ( app>atus mu/ be employ$1 "o to produce pol>isation1 & ! o!r to %[ or an analyse x4 ,! =m] is call$ ! pol>is]1 ! latt] ! analys]2 & e app>atus t s]ves = "o ( ^! purposes w also s]ve = ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,pol>is]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi;a4--,analys]4 ,pol>is+ ,app>atus = ,/ud5ts' ,microscope4 ,9 all cases !re are two positions1 diff]+ by #ahj1 :i* give a m9imum ( light1 & ! two positions int]m$iate betwe5 ^! give a maximum ( light4 ,! ext5t ( ! *anges ?us obs]v$ is a measure ( ! complet5ess ( ! pol>isation ( light4 ,! two prisms m\nt$ z %[n 9 ,figs4 #agi & #agi;a con/itute ! app>atus adapt$ to ! microscope4 ,! pol>is] slips into place bel[ ! /age1 & ! analys]1 ) ! prism fix$ 9 a tube1 is screw$ 9 above ! objective4 ,! def9ition is consid]$ by "s exp]im5t]s z some:at bett] if ! analys] be us$ above ! eye-piece1 & is c]ta9ly m easily rotat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,prism m\nt$ z an ,eye-piece4 ,me?od ( employ+ ! ,pol>is+ ,prism 7,fig4 #agi74--;,aft] hav+ adapt$ x to slide into a groove on ! "u-surface ( ! /age1 :]e x is secur$ & kept 9 place by ! small mill$-head screw1 ! o!r prism 7,fig4 #agi;a7 is screw$ on above ! object-glass1 & ?us passes directly into ! body ( ! microscope4 ,! light f ! mirror hav+ be5 reflect$ ?r\gh !m ! axes ( ! two prisms mu/ be made to co9cide2 ?is is done by regulat+ ! mill$-head screw until1 by revolv+ ! pol>is+ prism1 ! field ( view is entirely d>k5$ twice dur+ its revolution4 ,if v m9ute salts or cry/als are submitt$ = exam9ation !n x w be f\nd pref]able to place ! analys] above ! eye-piece1 z 9 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,?us ! pol>iscope is se5 to consi/ ( two p>ts2 "o = pol>is+1 ! o!r = analys+ or te/+ ! light4 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! two p>ts1 except :at conv5i5ce or economy may lead u to adopt2 & ei!r "p1 !re=e1 may be us$ z pol>is] or analys]2 b :i*ev] is us$ z ! pol>is]1 ! o!r becomes ! analys]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,m ,mod]n ,pol>is] & ,analys]4 ,opticians h _! own me?ods ( adapt+ ! pol>is] & analys] to _! sev]al microscopes4 ,watson's special =m ( app>atus is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aha1 ! pol>is] be+ adapt$ to ! sub-/age1 & ! analys] to screw into ! objective4 ,t\rmal9e4--,a semi-transp>5t m9]al1 ( a neutral or blui% t9t1 call$ t\rmal9e1 :5 cut into ?9 slices 7ab\t #a_/bj-;in* ?ick7 ) _! faces p>allel to _! axes exhibit ! same ph5om5a z ! ,nicol prism4 ,! only objection to :i* is t ! transmitt$ pol>is$ beam is m or less col\r$4 ,! t\rmal9e to be pref]r$ /ops ! mo/ light :5 its axis is at "r-angles to t ( ! pol>is]1 & yet admits ! mo/ :5 9 ! same plane4 ,make *oice ( a t\rmal9e z p]fect z possible2 size is ( less importance :5 int5d$ = use ) ! microscope4 ,transmission ( rays ?r\gh t\rmal9e is only "o ( sev]al ways 9 :i* light c be pol>is$4 ,:5 a beam ( light is reflect$ f a poli%$ surface ( glass1 wood1 ivory1 lea!r1 or any o!r non-metallic sub/ance1 at an angle ( #ej to #fj ) ! normal1 x is m or less pol>is$1 & 9 l mann] a reflector compos$ ( any ( ^! sub/ances may be employ$ z an analys]4 ,9 s us+ x1 x %\ld be rotat$ ab\t an axis p>allel to ! incid5t rays :i* are to be te/$1 & ! obs]vation consi/s 9 not+ :e!r ?is rotation produces *anges 9 ! am\nt ( reflect$ light4 ,= e reflect$ sub/ance !re is a p>ticul> angle ( incid5ce1 :i* gives a maximum ( pol>isation 9 reflect$ light4 ,x is call$ ! pol>is+ angle = ! sub/ance1 & its tang5t is always equal to ! index ( refraction ( ! sub/ance2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 x is t p>ticul> angle ( incid5ce :i* is ! complem5t ( ! angle ( refraction1 s t ! refract$ rays are at "r angles4 ,?is important law 0 discov]$ exp]im5tally by ,sir ,david ,brew/]4 ,t\rmal9e1 l ,icel& sp>1 is a negative uniaxial cry/al2 & its use z a pol>is] dep5ds on ! prop]ty :i* x possesses ( absorb+ ! ord9>y mu* m rapidly ?an ! extraord9>y ray1 s t a ?ickness :i* is tol]ably transp>5t to ! latt] is almo/ completely opaque to ! =m]4 ,its pale cobalt blue col\r enhances ! beauty ( c]ta9 cry/al & m9]al sub/ances1 b l ,icel& sp>1 ! pal] & m p]fect cry/als are becom+ sc>ce4 ,sel5ite is ano!r m9]al ( value 9 pol>isation exp]im5ts4 ,x is a native cry/all9e hydrat$ sulphate ( lime4 ,a beautiful fibr\s v>iety call$ sat9-gypsum is f\nd 9 ,d]by%ire4 ,! =m ( ! cry/al mo/ frequ5tly met ) is t ( an oblique rectangul> prism1 ) t5 rhomboidal faces1 two ( :i* are mu* l>g] ?an ! re/4 ,x is usually split up into ?9 lam9 p>allel to _! lat]al faces2 ea* film %\ld h a ?ickness ( f "o-tw5tie? to "o-sixtie? ( an in*4 ,9 ! two rectangul> directions ^! films all[ p]p5dicul> rays ( pol>is$ light to trav]se !m un*ang$1 t]m$ _! neutral axes4 ,9 two o!r directions1 h[ev]1 :i* =m respectively angles ( #de ) ! neutral axes1 ^! films h ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction1 a direction kn[n z ! depol>is+ axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--;,d>k]'s ,sel5ite ,films & ,/age4 ,! ?ickness ( ! film ( sel5ite det]m9es ! p>ticul> t9t4 ,if1 !re=e1 we use a film ( irregul> ?ickness1 diff]5t col\rs are pres5t$ by ! diff]5t ?icknesses4 ,^! facts admit ( v curi\s & beautiful illu/ration1 :5 us$ "u ! object plac$ on ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,! films employ$ %\ld be m\nt$ betwe5 two glasses = protection4 ,"s p]sons employ a l>ge film1 m\nt$ 9 ?is way betwe5 ! plates ( glass1 ) a rais$ edge1 to act z a /age = support+ ! object1 x is !n call$ ! 8sel5ite /age40 ,! be/ film = ! microscope is t :i* gives blue1 & its complem5t>y col\r yell[4 ,! late ,mr4 ,d>k] con/ruct$ a sel5ite /age = ! purpose 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,) ?is a mixture ( col\rs w be br\ght ab\t1 by sup]impos+ ?ree films1 "o on ! o!r4 ,by slight v>iations 9 _! positions1 produc$ by means ( an endless-screw motion1 all ! col\rs ( ! spectrum c be %[n4 ,:5 objects are ?us exhibit$1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t all negative t9ts1 z !y are t]m$1 are dim9i%$1 & all positive t9ts increas$2 ! effect ( :i* is to mask ! true "* ( ! ph5om5a4 ,= a c]ta9 ?ickness ( sel5ite ! ellipse w become a circle1 & we h ?us :at is call$ circul>ly-pol>is$ light1 :i* is *>act]is$ by ! prop]ty t rotation ( ! analys] produces no *ange ( int5sity4 ,circul>ly-pol>is$ light is n1 h[ev]1 id5tical ) ord9>y light2 = ! int]position ( an additional ?ickness ( sel5ite conv]ts x into elliptically 7or 9 a p>ticul> case into plane7 pol>is$ light4 ,x is necess>y1 = ! exhibition ( col\r 9 our exp]im5ts1 t ! plate ( sel5ite %\ld be v ?91 o!rwise ! ret>dation ( "o compon5t vibration z comp>$ ) ! o!r w be great] by sev]al complete p]iods = violet ?an = r$1 s t ! ellipses w be id5tical = sev]al diff]5t col\rs1 & ! total non-suppress$ light w be s5sibly :ite 9 all positions ( ! analys]4 ,two ?ick plates may1 h[ev]1 be s comb9$ z to produce ! effect ( "o ?9 plate4 ,= example1 two sel5ite plates ( ne>ly equal ?ickness may be laid "o ^u ! o!r1 s t ! direction ( greate/ ela/icity 9 ! "o %all be p>allel to t ( lea/ ela/icity 9 ! o!r4 ,! resultant effect 9 ?is case w be t due to ! diff]5ce ( _! ?icknesses4 ,two plates s laid are said to be cross$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,r$ is repres5t$ by p]p5dicul> l9es2 ,gre5 by oblique4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5ts w well s]ve to illu/rate "s ( ! m /rik+ ph5om5a ( d\ble refraction1 & w also be a useful introduction to its practical application4 ,take a plate ( brass 7,fig4 #ahc7 ?ree in*es by "o1 p]=at$ ) a s]ies ( holes f ab\t "o-sixte5? to "o-f\r? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 ! size ( ! smalle/ %\ld be 9 accordance ) ! p[] ( ! objective1 & ! sep>at+ p[] ( ! d\ble refraction4 ,exp]im5t #a4--,place ! brass plate s t ! smalle/ hole %all be 9 ! c5tre ( ! /age ( ! microscope2 employ a l[ p[] 7#a-a_/b or #b in*es7 objective1 & adju/ ! focus z = ! ord9>y microscopic object2 place ! d\ble image prism ov] ! eye-piece1 & two di/9ct images w be se52 by revolv+ ! prism1 ! images w describe a circle1 ! circumf]5ce ( :i* w cut ! c5tre ( ! field ( view2 "o ( :i* is ! ord9>y1 ! o!r ! extraord9>y ray4 ,by mov+ ! slide f left to "r ! l>g] orifices w appe> 9 ! field1 ! images se5 w n be completely sep>at$1 b w ov]lap1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,exp]im5t #b4--;,ins]t ! ,nicol's prism into its place "u ! /age1 /ill reta9+ ! d\ble image prism ov] ! eye-piece2 !n1 by exam9+ ! object1 !re w appe> 9 "s positions two images1 9 o!rs only "o image2 x w be se51 t at #ij ?is ray w be cut (f1 & t :i* 0 fir/ obs]v$ w become visible2 at #ahj1 or "o-half ! circle1 an alt]nate *ange w take place2 at #bgj1 ano!r *ange2 & at #cfj1 ! completion ( ! circle1 ! fir/ image w reappe>4 ,be=e proce$+ to make ! next exp]im5t1 ! position ( ! ,nicol's prism %\ld be adju/$1 & its angles br\ght p>allel ) ! squ>e ( ! /age4 ,! true relative position ( ! sel5ite %\ld also be det]m9$ by notic+ ! natural flaws 9 ! film1 :i* %\ld run p>allel ) ea* o!r1 & be adju/$ at an angle ( ab\t #df ) ! squ>e b>s ( ! /age4 ,exp]im5t #c4--;,if we n[ take ! plate ( sel5ite ?us prep>$1 & place x "u ! piece ( brass on ! /age1 we %all see1 in/ead ( ! alt]nate black & :ite images1 two col\r$ images compos$ ( ! con/itu5ts ( :ite light1 :i* w alt]nately *ange by revolv+ ! eye-piece at e qu>t] ( ! circle2 !n1 by pass+ along ! brass1 ! images w ov]lap2 & at ! po9t at :i* !y d s1 :ite light w be produc$4 ,if1 by accid5t1 ! prism be plac$ at an angle ( #de f ! squ>e "p ( ! /age1 no p>ticul> col\r w be p]ceiv$1 & x w !n illu/rate ! ph5om5a ( ! neutral axis ( ! sel5ite1 because :5 plac$ 9 ! relative position no depol>isation takes place4 ,! ph5om5a ( pol>is$ light may be fur!r illu/rat$ by ! addition ( a second d\ble image prism1 & a film ( sel5ite adapt$ betwe5 ! two4 ,! sy/ems ( col\r$ r+s 9 cry/als cut p]p5dicul>ly to ! pr9cipal axis ( ! cry/al are be/ se5 by employ+ ! l[e/ object-glass4 ,biaxial ,cry/als4--,to %[ p]fectly ! beautiful s]ies ( r+s & bru%es :i* biaxial cry/als exhibit1 x becomes necess>y to conv]t ! microscope1 = ! "t be+1 into 7s to speak7 a wide-angl$ telescope4 ,illu/ration3 ,huygh5ian ,eye-piece4 ,inn] draw-tube4 ,objective 9 draw-tube4 ,analys+ ,prism4 ,objective4 ,specim5 "u ,exam9ation4 ,sub-/age ,cond5s]4 ,pol>is+ ,prism1 fix$ 9 sub-/age bel[4 ,fig4 #ahd4--;,diagrammatic arrangem5t ( ! ,pol>is+ ,microscope4 ,9 ,sub-/age3 ,p1 pol>is+ prism2 ,c1 sub-/age cond5s] on /age2 ,m1 m9]al or cry/al4 ,on nose-piece3 ,o#a1 objective1 #d_/aj-;in*2 ,a1 analys+ prism4 ,9 ,draw-tube3 ,o#b1 #b or #c in* ,objective2 ,h1 ,huygh5ian eye-piece4 ,= ! purpose1 screw on a l[-p[] objective to ! end ( ! draw-tube 7,fig4 #ahd74ca ,z ! light requires to be pass$ ?r\gh ! cry/als at a consid]able angle1 a wide-angl$ cond5s] %\ld be employ$1 b x ne$ n be a*romatic4 ,! objective mo/ suitable is a #d_/aj-;in*1 ( #fd num]ical ap]ture1 b a #a_/d-;in* ( #ga num]ical ap]ture1 or a #a_/c-;in* ( #fe num]ical ap]ture1 w answ] ! purpose equally well4 ,z ! :ole ( ! back l5s ( ! objective %\ld be visible ?r\gh ! analys+ ,nicol prism1 ! back l5s ( ! objective mu/ n be too l>ge2 ?us a #a_/b-;in* ( #fe num]ical ap]ture w n be s effective4 ,! analys+ prism may be plac$ ei!r :]e x is 9 ! draw+1 bel[ ! /age1 or above ! eye-piece4 ,x works equally well above ! objective1 ! position x ord9>ily occupies 9 ! microscope4 ,= ! draw-tube a #b-;in* objective & a ,b ,huygh5ian eye-piece answ]s v well4 ,be=e screw+ ! objective on to ! end ( ! draw-tube c5tre ! light 9 ! usual mann]1 ! ,nicol's be+ turn$ s z to give a light field1 !n screw ! objective on to ! end ( ! ap]ture1 & put ! cry/al on ! /age1 rack d[n ! body s t ! objective on ! nose-piece ne>ly t\*es ! cry/al1 !n focus ) ! draw-tube only4 ,! sub-/age cond5s] %\ld be rack$ up close to ! und]side ( ! cry/al4 ,opticians1 h[ev]1 h m rec5tly furni%$ a special =m ( microscope 7,! ,petrological ,microscope1 ,fig4 #gi1 p4 #aab71 = ! use ( ^? /ud5ts :o may desire to prosecute s fasc9at+ a /udy1 & det]m9e ! optic axial angles ( cry/als4 ,fuess#cb lately introduc$ a new =m ( microscope = pol>is+ & view+ biaxial cry/als1 :i* he believes to be ne$$1 z 9 ! ord9>y microscope ! op5+ ( ! pol>is] is sc>cely a ?ird ( t ( ! cond5s]2 moreov]1 x is n absolutely necess>y t ! pol>is] & analys] %\ld be ,nicol's prisms4 ,?is fact 0 discov]$ by myself _m ye>s ago4 ,fuess utilises a bundle ( ?9 glass plates1 z 9 ! old] ,nuremb]g pol>iscope4 ,! frame hold+ plates c be readily adju/$ at ! prop] pol>is+ angle1 ! analys] be+ ! ord9>y small ,nicol1 screw$ above ! objective4 ,! illum9ator is an ,abbe's triple cond5s]1 ( num]ical ap]ture #adj1 :i* c be adju/$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,! front l5s ( ?is %\ld h a diamet] ( #aaab mm4 & ! l[] l5s ( #cj mm4 ,?is increase 9 ! cond5s] fully comp5sates = ! loss ( light by ! bundle ( glass plates1 & also enables ?ick sections ( cry/als to be exam9$ 9 conv]g5t pol>is$ light4 ,! ocul> us$ %\ld h a l>ge field2 ! ,a ,huygh5ian answ]s be/4 ,a sugge/ion to return to ! orig9al ,nuremb]g pol>is] is v opportune1 z ,icel& sp> is becom+ sc>ce4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,mickel accid5tally discov]$ t an opalesc5t mirror c be conv]t$ into an excell5t & inexp5sive sub/itute = ! ,nicol-prism pol>is]4 ,rotation ( ,plane ( ,pol>isation4 ,:5 a plate ( qu>tz 7rock-cry/al71 ev5 ( consid]able ?ickness1 cut p]p5dicul> to ! axis1 is int]pos$ betwe5 ! pol>is] & analys]1 col\r is exhibit$1 ! t9ts *ang+ z ! analys] is rotat$2 & simil> effects ( col\r are produc$ by employ+1 in/ead ( qu>tz1 a solution ( sug> enclos$ 9 a tube ) pla9 glass ends4 ,! action ?us ex]t$ by qu>tz & sug> is call$ rotation ( ! plane ( pol>isation1 a "n :i* suffici5tly expresses ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,9 ! case ( ord9>y qu>tz1 & solutions ( sug>-c&y1 x is necess>y to rotate ! analys] 9 ! direction ( wat*-h&s z se5 by ! obs]v]1 & ! rotation ( ! plane ( pol>isation is said to be "r-h&$4 ,9 ! case ( :at is call$ left-h&$ qu>tz1 & ( solutions ( non-cry/allisable sug>1 ! rotation ( ! plane ( pol>isation is 9 ! opposite direction1 & ! obs]v] mu/ rotate ! analys] aga9/ wat*-h&s4 ,qu>tz belongs to ! uniaxial sy/em ( cry/als1 & accord+ly exhibits "o s]ies ( r+s only1 & no p]fect c5tral black cross4 ,on revolv+ ! t\rmal9e ! col\r gradually *anges1 & passes ?r\gh all ! col\rs ( ! spectrum4 ,x c be cut to exhibit ei!r "r-h&$ pol>isation or left-h&$ pol>isation & also to exhibit /raight l9es4 ,calc ,sp>4--,a uniaxial cry/al %[+ only "o sy/em ( r+s1 & a black cross1 *ang+ into a :ite cross on revolv+ ! t\rmal9e4 ,topaz4--,a biaxial cry/al exhibit+ only "o sy/em ( r+s ) "o fr+e1 ow+ to ! wide sep>ation ( ! axes4 ,! fr+e & col\rs *ange on revolv+ ! t\rmal9e4 ,borax4--,a biaxial cry/al2 ! col\rs are se5 to be m int5se ?an 9 topaz1 b ! r+s n s complete--only "o set ( r+s c be se51 ow+ to _! wide sep>ation4 ,ro*elle ,salt4--,a biaxial cry/al2 ! col\rs are m widely spread out ?an ! =m]1 & only "o set ( r+s se5 at ! same "t4 ,c>bonate ( ,lead4--,a biaxial cry/al2 axes n s f> sep>at$1 & bo? sy/ems ( r+s are m widely spread ?an ^? ( potassium nitrate4 ,aragonite4--,a biaxial cry/al2 axes widely sep>at$1 b bo? sy/ems ( r+s se5 at ! same "t4 ,a f9e cry/al = display+ ! biaxial sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--;,cry/al ( ,potassium ,nitrate4 ,x 0 long believ$ t all cry/als _h only "o axis ( d\ble refraction2 b ,brew/] f\nd t ! great] numb] ( cry/als :i* occur 9 ! m9]al k+dom h two axes ( d\ble refraction1 or r axes ar\nd :i* d\ble refraction takes place2 9 ! axes !mselves !re is no d\ble refraction4 ,potassium nitrate cry/allises 9 six-sid$ prisms ) angles ( ab\t #abj4 ,x has two axes ( d\ble refraction4 ,^! axes are ea* incl9$ ab\t #b-a_/b to ! axes ( ! prism1 & #e to ea* o!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 a small piece be split (f a prism ( potassium nitrate ) a knife driv5 by a %>p bl[ ( a hamm]1 & ! two surfaces poli%$ p]p5dicul> to ! axes ( ! prism1 s z to leave ! ?ickness ( ! six? or eigh? ( an in*1 & !n a ray ( pol>is$ light be transmitt$ along ! axes ( ! prism1 ! d\ble sy/em ( r+s w be cle>ly visible4 ,:5 ! l9e connect+ ! two axes ( ! cry/al is incl9$ #de to ! plane ( primitive pol>isation1 a cross is se5 on revolv+ ! potassium nitrate2 x gradually assumes ! =m ( two hyp]bolic curves1 z 9 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,b if ! t\rmal9e be aga9 revolv$ ?r\gh half a quadrant1 ! black cross w be replac$ by :ite spaces1 z 9 ! second figure4 ,^! sy/ems ( r+s h1 g5]ally speak+1 ! same col\rs z ^? ( ?9 plates1 or z ^? ( a sy/em ( r+s revolv+ ar\nd "o axis4 ,! ord]s ( ! col\rs comm5ce at ! c5tres ( ea* sy/em2 b at a c]ta9 di/ance1 :i* corresponds to ! six? r+1 ! r+s1 in/ead ( return+ & encircl+ ea* pole1 encircle ! two poles z an ellipse does its two foci4 ,if ! ?ickness ( ! plate ( nitre be dim9i%$ or increas$1 ! r+s are dim9i%$ or increas$ accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! cry/al4 ,small specim5s ( v>i\s salts may be cry/allis$ & m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam = view+ "u ! /age ( ! microscope2 by arre/+ cry/allisation at c]ta9 /ages1 a great] v>iety ( =ms & col\rs w be obta9$3 we may enum]ate salic9e1 asp>ag9e1 acetate ( copp]1 phospho-borate ( soda1 sug>1 c>bonate ( lime1 potassium *lorate1 oxalic acid1 & all ! oxalates f\nd 9 ur9e1 ) ! o!r salts f ! same fluid1 a few ( :i* are %[n 9 ,plate ,,viii4 ,! late ,dr4 ,h]apa? describ$ a salt ( qu99e1 rem>kable = its pol>is+ prop]ties4 ,! cry/als ( ?is salt1 :5 exam9$ by reflect$ light1 h a brilliant em]ald-gre5 col\r1 ) almo/ a metallic lu/re2 !y appe> l portions ( ! elytr ( ! can?>ides beetle1 & are also v simil> to murexide 9 appe>ance4 ,:5 exam9$ by transmitt$ light1 !y sc>cely possess any col\r1 !re is only a slightly olive-gre5 t+e2 b if two cry/als1 cross+ at "r-angles1 be exam9$1 ! spot :]e !y int]sect appe>s p]fectly black1 ev5 if ! cry/als are n m ?an "o five-hundr$? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,if ! light be 9 ! slighte/ degree pol>is$--z by reflection f a cl\d1 or by ! blue sky1 or f ! glass surface ( ! mirror ( ! microscope plac$ at ! pol>is+ angle #fe #de--^! little prisms & films assume complem5t>y col\rs3 "o appe>s gre51 & ! o!r p9k1 & ! "p at :i* !y cross is *ocolate or deep *e/nut-br[n1 in/ead ( black4 ,dr4 ,h]apa? succe$$ 9 mak+ artificial t\rmal9es l>ge en\gh to surm\nt ! eye-piece ( ! microscope2 s t all exp]im5ts ) ^? cry/als ^u pol>is$ light may be made )\t ! t\rmal9e or ,nicol's prism4 ,! f9e/ rosette cry/als are made z foll[s3--,to a mod]ately /rong solution ( ,c9*onid9e add a drop or two ( ,h]apa?'s te/-fluid4#cc ,a few drops ( ?is is plac$ on ! c5tre ( a glass slide1 & put aside until ! fir/ cry/als are obs]v$ to be =m$ ne> ! m>g94 ,! slide %\ld n[ be plac$ ^u ! /age ( ! microscope1 & ! progress ( =mation ( ! cry/als closely wat*$4 ,:5 ^! are se5 to be l>ge en\gh1 & x is deem$ necess>y to /op _! fur!r developm5t1 ! slide mu/ be quickly transf]r$ to ! palm ( ! h&1 ! w>m? ( :i* w be f\nd suffici5t to /op fur!r cry/allisation4 ,^! cry/als attract moi/ure1 deliquesce1 & %\ld !re=e be kept 9 a p]fectly dry place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,9 ?is figure h]aldic l9es are adopt$ to d5ote col\r4 ,! dott$ p>ts indicate yell[1 ! /raight l9es r$1 ! horizontal l9es blue1 & ! diagonal1 or oblique l9es1 gre54 ,! arr[s %[ ! plane ( ! t\rmal9e1 a1 blue /age2 b1 r$ /age ( sel5ite employ$4 ,to r5d] ^! cry/als evid5t1 x m]ely rema9s to br+ ! glass-slide ^u ! field ( ! microscope1 ) ! sel5ite /age & s+le t\rmal9e1 or ,nicol's prism1 b5ea? x2 in/antly ! cry/als assume ! two complem5t>y col\rs ( ! /age3 r$ & gre51 suppos+ t ! p9k /age is employ$2 or blue & yell[1 provid$ ! blue sel5ite is made use (4 ,all ^? cry/als at "r angles to ! plane ( ! t\rmal9e produce t t9t :i* an analys+-plate ( t\rmal9e w\ld produce :5 at "r angles to ! pol>is+-plate2 :il/ ^? at #ij to ^! educe ! complem5t>y t9t1 z ! analys+-plate w\ld also h done if revolv$ ?r\gh an arc ( #ij4 ,?is te/ is a delicate "o = qu99e 7,fig4 #ahf1 a & b72 n only d ^! peculi> cry/als act 9 ! way j relat$1 b !y may be easily prov$ to possess ! optical prop]ties ( t rem>kable salt1 ! sulphate ( iodo-qu99e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,pol>is$ ,cry/als ( ,qu9id9e4 ,to te/ = qu9id9e1 x is m]ely necess>y to all[ a drop ( acid solution to evaporate to dryness ^u ! slide1 & to exam9e ! cry/all9e mass by two t\rmal9es1 cross$ at "r angles1 & )\t ! /age4 ,imm$iately little circul> discs ( :ite1 ) a well-def9$ black cross1 />t into exi/5ce1 %\ld qu9id9e be pres5t ev5 9 v m9ute traces4 ,^! cry/als are repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,if ! sel5ite /age be employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( ?is object1 "o ( ! mo/ gorge\s appe>ances 9 ! :ole doma9 ( ! pol>is+ microscope is display$3 ! black cross disappe>s1 & is replac$ by "o consi/+ ( two col\rs1 & divid$ into a cross hav+ a r$ & gre5 fr+e1 :il/ ! f\r int]m$iate sectors are a gorge\s orange-yell[4 ,^! appe>ances alt] on ! revolution ( ! analys+-plate ( t\rmal9e2 :5 ! blue /age is employ$1 ! cross assumes a blue or yell[ t9t1 v>y+ accord+ to ! position ( ! analys+ plate4 ,^! ph5om5a are analog\s to ^? exhibit$ by c]ta9 circul> cry/als ( boracic acid1 & to circul> discs ( salic9e 7prep>$ by fusion71 ! diff]5ce be+ t ! salts ( qu9id9e h m int5se depol>is+ p[]s ?an ei!r ( ! o!r sub/ances2 ! mode ( prep>ation1 h[ev]1 excludes ^! f consid]ation4 ,qu99e prep>$ 9 ! same mann] z qu9id9e has a v diff]5t mode ( cry/allisation2 b x occasionally pres5ts circul> corne\s plates1 also exhibit+ ! black cross & :ite sectors1 b n ) "o-t5? "p ( ! brilliancy1 :i* ( c\rse enables u readily to discrim9ate ! two4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,ur9>y ,salts1 se5 "u ,pol>is$ ,light4 a1 ,uric acid2 b1 ,oxalate ( lime1 octah$ral cry/als (2 c1 ,oxalate ( lime all[$ to dry1 =m+ a black cube2 d1 ,oxalate ( lime z x occasionally appe>s1 t]m$ ! dumb-bell cry/al4 ,ur9>y salts are m readily se5 "u pol>is$ light ?an by :ite light4 ,ice d\bly refracts1 :ile wat] s+ly refracts4 ,ice takes ! rhomboidic =m2 & sn[ 9 its cry/all9e =ms may be reg>d$ z ! skeleton cry/als ( ?is sy/em 7,fig4 #ahi74 ,a %eet ( cle> ice1 ( ab\t "o in* ?ick1 & sl[ly =m$ 9 /ill wea!r1 %[s circul> r+s ) a cross by pol>is$ light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,sn[ ,cry/als4 ,x is probable t ! conditions ( sn[ =mation are m complex ?an might be imag9$1 famili> z we are ) ! conditions relat+ to ! cry/allisation ( wat] on ! e>?'s surface4 ,a great v>iety ( animal1 vegetable1 & o!r sub/ances possess a d\bly refract+ or depol>is+ /ructure1 z3 a quill cut & laid out flat on glass2 ! cornea ( a %eep's eye2 sk91 hair1 a ?9 section ( a f+]-nail2 sections ( bone1 tee?1 horn1 silk1 cotton1 :alebone2 /ems ( plants conta9+ silica or fl9t2 b>ley1 :eat1 c4 ,! l>g]-gra9$ />*es =m spl5did objects2 t\s-les-mois1 ! l>ge/1 may be tak5 z a type ( all o!rs4 ,?is pres5ts a black cross1 ! arms ( :i* meet at ! hilum 7,fig4 #aij74 ,on rotat+ ! analys]1 ! black cross disappe>s1 & at #ij is replac$ by a :ite cross2 ano!r1 b mu* fa9t]1 black cross is se5 betwe5 ! arms ( ! :ite cross1 no col\r be+ p]ceptible4 ,b if a ?9 plate ( sel5ite be int]pos$ betwe5 ! />*-gra9s & ! pol>is]1 a s]ies ( delicate col\rs appe>1 all ( :i* *ange on revolv+ ! analys]1 becom+ complem5t>y at e quadrant ( ! circle4 ,we/ & ,ea/ ,india arr[-root1 sago1 tapioca1 & _m o!r />*-gra9s1 pres5t a simil> appe>ance2 b 9 proportion z ! gra9s are small]1 s are _! m>k+s & col\r+s less di/9ct4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,potato ,/>*1 "u ,pol>is$ ,light4 ,molecul> ,rotation4 ,= ! purpose ( /udy+ ! v>i\s int]e/+ ph5om5a ( molecul> rotation1 a few necess>y pieces ( app>atus mu/ be add$ to ! microscope4 ,fir/1 an ord9>y iron ?ree-arm$ retort /&1 to ! l[] arm ( :i* mu/ be atta*$ ei!r a pol>is+ prism or a bundle ( glass plates incl9$ at ! pol>is+ angle2 9 ! upp] an analys+ prism4 ,! fluid to be exam9$ %\ld be conta9$ 9 a n>r[ glass tube ab\t eight in*es 9 height1 & ?is mu/ be atta*$ to ! middle arm4 ,if ! prisms be cross$ be=e ins]t+ a fluid possess+ rotatory p[]1 ! light pass+ ?r\gh ! analys] w be col\r$4 ,if a solution ( sug> be employ$1 & ! light :i* passes ?r\gh ! second prism is se5 to be r$1 b on rotat+ ! analys] t[>ds ! "r ! col\r *anges to yell[1 & passes ?r\gh gre5 to violet1 x may be conclud$ t ! rotation is "r-h&$4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! analys] requires to be turn$ t[>ds ! left h&1 we conclude t ! pol>isation is left-h&$4 ,^! ph5om5a are :olly di/9ct f ^? accompany+ ! action ( d\bly refract+ sub/ances ^u plane pol>is$ light4 ,x is n easy to expla9 9 a limit$ space ! c\rse to be foll[$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( rotation produc$ by diff]5t sub/ances4 ,mono*romatic light %\ld be us$4 ,if we are ab\t to exam9e a sug> solution ) ! prisms cross$1 ! index atta*$ to ! analys] mu/ fir/ be made to po9t to z]o4 ,! sug> is !n introduc$1 :5 x w be necess>y to rotate ! analys] #bc to ! "r1 9 ord] t ! light may be ext+ui%$4 ,?is is ! am\nt ( rotation = t p>ticul> fluid at a giv5 d5sity & t height ( column4 ,z ! arc v>ies ) increase or decrease ( d5sity & height ( ! fluid1 x is ne$ful to r$uce x to a unit ( height & d5sity4 ,! foll[+ =mula is t giv5 by ,biot3--,p quantity ( matt] 9 a unit ( solution2 d sp4 gr42 l l5g? ( column2 a arc ( rotation2 m molecul> rotation4 ,!n m a_/7l p d74 ,! application ( ! pol>is+ app>atus to ! microscope is ( mu* value 9 det]m9+ m9ute /ructure4 ,x may also be def9$ z an in/rum5t ( analysis2 a te/ ( diff]5ce 9 d5sity betwe5 any two or m p>ts ( ! same sub/ance4 ,all /ructures1 !re=e1 belong+ ei!r to ! animal1 vegetable1 or m9]al k+dom1 9 :i* ! p[] ( unequal or d\ble refraction is suspect$ to be pres5t1 are ^? t %\ld especially be re-inve/igat$ by pol>is$ light4 ,"s ( ! mo/ delicate ( ! elem5t>y tissues ( animal /ructure1 ! ultimate fibrill ( muscles1 c41 are among/ ! mo/ int]e/+ subjects t might be /udi$ ) advantage "u ?is me?od ( inve/igation4 ,! *emi/ may p]=m ! mo/ dext]\s analysis2 ! cry/allograph] may exam9e cry/als by ! nice/ det]m9ation ( _! =ms & cleavage2 ! anatomi/ or botani/ may use ! dissect+ knife & microscope ) ! mo/ exquisite skill2 b !re are /ill /ructures 9 ! m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal k+doms :i* w defy all su* modes ( exam9ation1 & w yield only to ! magical analysis ( pol>is$ light4 ,=mation & ,pol>isation ( ,cry/als4 ,! inorganic k+dom w af=d to ! microscopi/ a nev]-end+ numb] ( objects ( unsurpass$ beauty & int]e/4 ,! ph5om5a ( cry/allisation 9 its v>i$ comb9ations c be made a useful & in/ructive occupation4 ,al?\gh ignorant ( ! means :]eby ! great majority ( m9]als & cry/als h be5 =m$ 9 ! va/ laboratory ( ,nature1 we c1 nev]!less1 imitate 9 a small degree ,nature's h&iworks by cry/allis+ out a l>ge numb] ( sub/ances1 & wat* _! num]\s trans=mations 9 ! smalle/ appreciable quantities1 :5 aid$ by ! microscope4 ,among natural cry/als we look = ! mat]ial = ! =mation ( our l5ses1 :ile ! v>ieties ( granites pres5t u ) ! e>lie/ cry/allis$ condition ( ! e>?'s cru/ z x cool$ d[n1 ! /ructure ( :i* is beautifully exhibit$ "u pol>is$ light4 ,9 ,plate ,,viii4 v>i\s cry/all9e & o!r bodies are display$4 ,9 ,no4 #aeh is a section ( new r$ s&/one2 #aei ( qu>tz2 & #afj ( granite4 ,special ref]5ce is made to o!rs 9 ! foll[+ li/ ( salts & o!r sub/ances :i* =m a beautiful s]ies ( objects = /udy "u pol>is$ light3-- ,,salts4 ,alum4 ,asp>ag9e4 ,asp>tic ,acid4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,no4 #afh4 ,bit>trate ( ,ammonia4 ,boracic ,acid4 ,borax4 ,no4 #afd4 ,c>bonate ( ,lime4 ,soda4 ,*lorate ( ,pota%4 ,*loride ( ,b>ium4 ,cobalt4 ,copp] & ,ammonia4 ,sodium4 ,*ole/]9e4 ,*romate ( ,pota%4 ,c9*on9e4 ,c9*onid9e4 ,citric ,acid4 ,hippuric ,acid4 ,iodide ( ,m]cury4 ,potassium4 ,qu99e4 ,iodo-disulphate ( ,qu99e4 ,kreat9e4 ,no4 #aff4 ,murexide4 ,nitrate ( ,bismu?4 ,b>ytes4 ,bruc9e4 ,copp]4 ,pota%4 ,/rontian4 ,uranium4 ,oxalate ( ,ammonia4 ,*romium4 ,*romium & ,pota%4 ,lime4 ,soda4 ,indurat$ ,s&/one1 ,h[?4 ,indurat$ ,s&/one1 ,bromsgrove4 ,gibralt> ,rock4 ,granite1 v>i\s localities4 ,no4 #afj4 ,hornbl5d ,s*i/4 ,labrador ,sp>4 ,norway ,rock4 ,qu>tz ,rock1 v>i\s4 ,no4 #aei4 9 ,bog ,iron ,ore4 ,qu>tzite1 ,mont ,blanc4 ,s&/one4 ,no4 #aeh4 ,sat9 ,sp>4 ,sel5ites1 v>i\s col\rs4 ,t9 ,ore1 ) ,t\rmal94 ,oxalic ,acid4 ,oxalurate ( ,ammonia4 ,p]manganate ( ,pota%4 ,phosphate ( ,lead & ,soda4 ,plat9o-cyanide ( ,magnesia4 ,plumose ,qu9id9e4 ,prussiate ( ,pota%1 r$ & yell[4 ,qu9id9e4 ,santon9e4 ,salic9e4 ,salign9e4 ,no4 #afb4 ,sulphate ( ,cadmium4 ,copp]4 ,no4 #afa4 ,copp] & ,pota%4 ,iron4 ,no4 #afc4 ,iron & ,cobalt4 ,no4 #afe4 ,magnesia4 ,nickel & ,pota%4 ,soda4 ,z9c4 ,sug>4 ,t>t>ic ,acid4 ,?ionurate ( ,ammonia4 ,triple ,phosphate4 ,urate ( ,ammonia4 ,soda4 ,urea1 & mo/ ur9>y deposits4 ,uric ,acid4 ,,m9]als4 ,agates1 v>i\s4 ,asbe/i=m ,s]p5t9e4 ,avantur9e4 ,c>bonate ( ,lime4 ,c>r>a ,m>ble4 ,,animal ,,/ructures4 ,cat's ,tongue4 ,no4 #agd4 ,grayl+ ,scale4 ,no4 #agf4 ,holo?uria1 ,spicules (4 ,nos4 #aga-b4 ,prawn ,%ell4 ,no4 #age4 ,,vegetable ,,cry/all9e ,,sub/ances4 ,,cuticle ( ,leaf ( ,correa ,c>d9alis4 ,deutzia scabra4 ,no4 #agc4 ,elagnus4 ,onosma taurica4 ,equisetum4 ,no4 #agj4 ,fibro cells f or*id4 ,no4 #afi4 ,oncidium bicallosum4 ,scal>i=m ,vessels f ,f]n4 ,scyllium ,caniculum4 ,no4 #agg4 ,,silici\s ,,cuticles1 v>i\s4 ,/>*es1 v>i\s4 ,no4 #afg4 ,! =mation ( artificial cry/al may be readily effect$1 & ! process wat*$1 "u ! microscope1 by simply plac+ a drop ( saturat$ solution ( any salt ^u a previ\sly w>m$ slip ( glass4 ,int]e/+ results w be obta9$ by comb9+ two or m *emical salts 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,to a ne>ly saturat$ solution ( ! sulphate ( copp] & sulphate ( magnesia add a drop on ! glass-slide1 & dry quickly4 ,to effect ?is1 heat ! slide s z to fuse ! salts 9 its wat] ( cry/allisation1 & !re rema9s an amorph\s film on ! hot glass4 ,put ! slide aside & all[ x to cool sl[ly2 x w gradually absorb a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure f ! air1 & beg9 to ?r[ out cry/als4 ,if n[ plac$ "u ! microscope1 num]\s po9ts w be se5 to />t out "h & !re4 ,! />t+ po9ts may be produc$ at pleasure by t\*+ ! film ) a f9e ne$le po9t1 s z to admit ( a slight am\nt ( moi/ure be+ absorb$ by ! mass ( salt4 ,developm5t is at once susp5d$ by apply+ g5tle heat2 cov] ! specim5 ) balsam & ?9 glass4 ,! balsam %\ld completely cov] ! edges ( ! ?9 glass circle1 o!rwise moi/ure w probably ins9uate itself1 & de/roy ! =m ( ! cry/als4 ,mr4 ,?omas succe$$ 9 cry/allis+ 8! salts ( ! magnetic metals0 at v high temp]atures1 ) v curi\s results4 ,9 ,plate ,,viii4 are se5 cry/als ( sulphate ( iron & cobalt1 ,no4 #afc2 & ( nickel & pota%1 ,no4 #afe1 obta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,add to a conc5trat$ solution ( iron a small quantity ( sug>1 to prev5t oxidation4 ,put a drop ( ! solution on a glass slide1 & drive out ! wat] ( cry/allisation z quickly z possible by ! aid ( a _s lamp2 !n ) a ,buns5's burn] br+ ! plate to a high temp]ature4 ,imm$iately a rem>kable *ange is se5 to take place 9 ! =m ( ! cry/al1 & if prop]ly manag$ ! 8foliation0 repres5t$ 9 ! plate w be fairly exhibit$4 ,! slide mu/ n be all[$ to cool d[n too rapidly or ! cry/als w probably absorb moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 & 9 s do+ ! cry/als alt] _! =ms4 ,imm]se !m 9 balsam1 & cov] 9 ! usual way be=e q cold4 ,sublimation ( ,alkaloids4--,! late ,dr4 ,guy1 ,f4,r4,s41 direct$ ! att5tion ( microscopi/s to ! fact t ! cry/all9e %ape ( bodies belong+ to ! inorganic _w might be ( s]vice 9 m$ical jurisprud5ce4 ,subsequ5tly1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,helwig1 ( ,may5ce1 inve/igat$ ?is subject1 & f\nd ! plan applicable n only to inorganic b also to organic sub/ances1 & especially to poison\s alkaloids4 ,by us+ a :ite porcela9 sauc] ,dr4 ,guy 0 able to wat* ! process ( cry/allisation m m9utely1 & to regulate x m exactly4 ,he 01 9 fact1 able to obta9 *>act]i/ic cru/s compos$ ( cry/als ( /ry*n9e weigh+ n m ?an #a_/cjjj? or #a_/ejjj? ( a gra94 ,morphia af=ds equally *>act]i/ic results4 ,= ! exam9ation ( ^!1 ,dr4 ,guy recomm5d$ ! use ( a b9ocul> microscope ) an in* object-glass4 ,b x is n to cry/all9e =ms alone t "o ne$ tru/2 ! :ole behavi\r ( a sub/ance z x melts & is conv]t$ into vap\r is em95tly *>act]i/ic1 & :5 once deposit$ on ! microscopical slide1 "u ! object-glass1 ! application ( re-ag5ts may give /ill m satisfactory results4 ,! re-ag5ts1 h[ev]1 :i* are "h to be appli$ are n ( ! k9d ord9>ily employ$4 ,col\r-te/s "u ! microscope are1 comp>atively speak+1 useless2 ^? t give rise to peculi> cry/all9e =ms are r to be s\ght aft]4 ,= in/ance1 ! cry/als produc$ by ! action ( c>bozotic acid on morphia are by !mselves almo/ p]fectly *>act]i/ic4 ,^! exp]im5ts %\ld n1 h[ev]1 be und]tak5 = m$ico-legal purposes by "o unskill$ 9 _! conduct1 = ! effects ( ! reag5ts !mselves might be mi/ak5 by ! un9itiat$ = ! result ( _! action on ! sub/ance "u exam9ation4 ,= ! special me?od ( proc$ure1 see ,dr4 ,w4 ,guy1 8,on ! ,sublimation ( ! ,alkaloids40#cd ,! ,micro-spectroscope4 ,spectrum analysis has1 f its fir/ introduction by ,kirs*(f 9 #ahei1 ma9ta9$ its fasc9ation ov] m5 ( sci5ce ?r\gh\t ! civilis$ _w4 ,microscopi/s1 a/ronom]s1 & *emi/s h assign$ to ! spectroscope a highly important position among/ sci5tific in/rum5ts ( rese>*4 ,at q an e>ly p]iod ( its hi/ory x appe>$ to ourselves to promise an ext5sion ( ! "w ( ! microscope 9 pa?ology & microscopy1 & second only to t ( a/ronomy & *emi/ry4 ,! *ief h9drances to ! use ( ! spectroscope 71 9 ! e>ly days1 ( a tw(old nature2 a widespread1 b q errone\s view ( ! s]i\s difficulties ( employ+ ! in/rum5t1 & ! want ( a fir/ aid to its use4 ,s valuable a means ( rese>* has ?is process ( analysis prov$ to be1 t ! discov]ies made by ! spectroscope appe> m>vell\s4 ,! spectroscope 0 fir/ made kn[n z a ref9$ in/rum5t = ! analysis ( light by two ,g]mans1 a physici/ & a *emi/1 ,kirs*(f & ,buns54 ,9 #ahfj1 ! latt] succe$$ 9 detect+ & sep>at+ two new alkal9e bodies f all o!r bodies f ! wat]s obta9$ f ! ,durkeim spr+s1 less ?an #jjjjb "p ( a milligramme ( :i* c be detect$ by spectrum analysis4 ,x is to ! lab\rs ( ,hugg9s1 ,norman ,locky] & o!rs t we are indebt$ = ! wond]ful discov]ies made 9 a/ronomy2 & *iefly s to ,brew/]1 ,h]s*el1 & ,talbot1 = %[+ t c]ta9 metals give (f light ( a high degree ( refrangibility2 t di/9ct b&s are situat$ at a di/ance beyond ! la/ visible violet ray t5 times z great z ! l5g? ( ! :ole visible spectrum f r$ to violet4 ,) reg>d to ! discov]ies made 9 connection ) physiological rese>*1 we are indebt$ to ,f4 ,hoppe1 :o 9 #ahfb fir/ describ$ ! absorption b&s ( human blood4 ,8 results 7 confirm$ by ! inve/igations ( ,pr(essor ,sir ,george ,gabriel ,/okes1 :o1 by add+ c]ta9 r$uc+ ag5ts to ! blood1 f\nd t he c\ld *ange sc>let blood into purple--8purple cruor9e0--& 9 ?is way ! place occupi$ by ! absorption b& 9 ! spectrum c\ld be made to *ange4 ,he r$uc$ ! hmoglob9 by robb+ ! blood ( its oxyg54 ,?us1 by ,/okes' & o!r me?ods1 we h s9ce arriv$ at extremely valuable results1 & ! explanation ( ! diff]5ce 9 col\r betwe5 art]ial & v5\s blood2 & x has also enabl$ u to %[ :]e9 ! brea?+ p[] ( ! r$ corpuscles resides1 & fur!r expla9s ph5om5a :i* be=e 8 inve/igations 7 inexplicable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,frunh(]'s ,spectrum ,l9es4 ,! spectroscope seems likely to be ( almo/ z great use 9 m$ic9e z x has already prov$ to be 9 sol> & t]re/rial *emi/ry1 if we may =m an op9ion f ! l>ge am\nt ( lit]ature :i* has appe>$ on ! subject4 ,! inception ( ?is magical in/rum5t arose on ! in/ance ( a discov]y made by ,dr4 ,wolla/on 9 #ahjb1 :o1 on mak+ a slit 9 ! %utt] ( 8 room1 in/ead ( a r\nd hole1 ! spectrum ( sunlight1 in/ead ( be+ compos$ ( a numb] ( col\r$ discs1 0 n[ a b& ( pure col\rs1 ea* col\r be+ free f admixture ) ! next to x4 ,moreov]1 he f\nd t ?is col\r b& 0 n cont9u\s1 z ,newton describ$ x1 b int]rupt$ "h & !re by f9e black l9es4 ,9 #ahad1 ,frunh(]1#ce a ,g]man optician1 discov]$ ^! l9es q indep5d5tly1 & mapp$ out #egf ( !m1 call+ ! m prom95t ( !m ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 :i* l9es he us$ z m>ks ( comp>ison4 ,he also f\nd t ! di/ances ( ^! l9es f ea* o!r may v>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! sub/ance compos+ ! prism2 ?us1 _! relative di/ances are n ! same 9 prisms ( fl9t-glass1 cr[n-glass1 & bisulphide ( c>bon1 b !y always occupy ! same position relatively to ! col\rs ( ! spectrum4 ,kirs*(f & ,ang/rm _h mapp$ out 9 #ahhj no less a numb] ?an #b1jjj ,frunh(] l9es1 a portion ( :i* are correctly %[n 9 ! accompany+ *>t 7,fig4 #aia74 ,9 #ahcj1 ,simms1 a ,london optician1 made an improvem5t 9 ! con/ruction ( ! spectroscope by plac+ a l5s 9 front ( ! prism1 s arrang$ t ! slit 0 9 ! focus ( ! l5s4 ,?is l5s turns ! light1 aft] x has pass$ ?r\gh ! slit1 into a cyl9drical beam be=e ent]+ ! prism4 ,ano!r l5s1 also introduc$ by him1 receives ! circul> beam em]g+ f ! prism1 & compels x to ?r[ an image ( ! slit1 :i* may be magnifi$ at pleasure = ea* ray4 ,! l5s betwe5 ! prism & ! slit is t]m$ ! collimat+ l5s4 ,?us ! foll[+ are ! ess5tial p>ts ( a *emical spectroscope3--7#a7 a slit1 ! edges ( :i* are two knife-edges ( /eel v truly gr\nd1 & exactly p>allel to ea* o!r1 & 9 a direction p>allel to ! refract+ edge ( ! prism1 to admit a p5cil ( rays4 7#b7 ,a collimat+ l5s2 a convex l5s ) ! slit at its pr9cipal focus1 :i* r5d]s ! rays p>allel be=e ent]+ ! prism4 7#c7 ,a prism ( d5se glass1 9 :i* ! rays are refract$ & disp]s$4 7#d7 ,an obs]v+ telescope con/ruct$ l an a/ronomical refractor ( small size1 & plac$ s t ! rays %all trav]se x aft] em]g+ f ! prism4 ,su* are ! ess5tials ( a "o-prism *emical spectroscope4 ,! =m ( in/rum5t 9 use ) ! microscope is ! 8direct vision0 spectroscope1 consi/+ ( two prisms ( fl9t-glass1 plac$ betwe5 ?ree ( cr[n-glass cem5t$ toge!r by ,canada balsam2 ! spectrum be+ view$ directly by ! eye4 ,! e>lie/ con/ruct$ =m ( micro-spectroscope is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aib1 ! ,br[n+-,hugg9s4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,sorby :o sugge/$ t ! prism %\ld be made ( d5se fl9t-glass & ( su* a =m t x c\ld be us$ 9 two diff]5t positions1 & t 9 "o x %\ld give twice ! disp]sion t x w\ld 9 ! o!r1 b t ! angle made by ! incid5t & em]g5t rays %\ld be ! same 9 bo? positions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4--,! ,br[n+-,hugg9s ,micro-spectroscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic;a4 ,figs4 #aic & #aic;a repres5t prisms ( ! k9d arrang$ to use 9 two diff]5t positions1 i & i be+ ! same angle z ,i & ,i4 ,= mo/ absorption-b&s1 p>ticul>ly if fa9t1 ! prism %\ld be us$ 9 ! fir/ position1 9 :i* x gives ! lea/ disp]sion2 :5 great] disp]sion is requir$1 s z to sep>ate "s p>ticul> l9es m widely1 or to %[ ! spectra ( ! metals1 or ,frunh(]'s l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum1 !n ! prism mu/ be us$ z 9 ,fig4 #aic;a4 ,?is answ]s well = liquids or transp>5t objects1 b x is1 ( c\rse1 n applicable to opaque objects4 ,to comb9e bo? purposes1 "s =m ( direct vision-prisms t maybe appli$ to ! body ( ! microscope is requir$4 ,fig4 #aid repres5ts an arrangem5t ( direct vision-prisms1 inv5t$ by ,h]s*el4 ,! l9e ,r ,r %[s ! pa? ( a ray ( light ?r\gh ! prisms1 :]e x w\ld be se5 t ! em]g5t ray ,r is p>allel & co9cid5t ) ! incid5t ray ,r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid;a4 ,ano!r v compact comb9ation is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aid;a4 ,any numb] ( ^! prisms 7,p ,p ,p7 may be us$1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( disp]sion requir$4 ,!y are m\nt$ 9 a simil> way to a ,nicol's prism1 & are appli$ directly ov] ! eye-piece ( ! microscope4 ,! slit ,s ,s is plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! fir/ glass 7,f7 if a negative1 or bel[ ! second glass if a positive eye-piece be employ$4 ,"o edge ( ! slit is movable1 &1 9 us+ ! in/rum5t1 ! slit is fir/ op5$ wide1 s t a cle> view ( ! object is obta9$4 ,! "p ( ! object ( :i* ! spectrum is to be exam9$ is !n made to co9cide ) ! fix$ edge ( ! slit1 & ! movable edge is screw$ up1 until a brilliant col\r$ spectrum is produc$4 ,! absorption-b&s w !n be readily f\nd by slightly alt]+ ! focus4 ,?is contrivance answ]s p]fectly = opaque objects1 )\t any prep>ation2 &1 :5 desirable1 ! same prism c be plac$ bel[ ! /age1 & a micromet] us$ 9 ! eye-piece ( ! microscope1 ?us avoid+ a multiplicity ( app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4--,! ,sorby-,br[n+ ,micro-spectroscopic ,eye-piece4 ,a lat] & bett] =m ( in/rum5t is ! ,sorby-,br[n+ eye-piece 7,fig4 #aie71 %[n 9 section 7,fig4 #aif7 ready = ins]t+ into ! body-tube ( ! microscope1 ! prism ( :i* is conta9$ 9 a small tube1 removable at pleasure4 ,bel[ ! prism is an a*romatic eye-piece1 hav+ an adju/able slit betwe5 ! two l5ses1 ! upp] l5s be+ furni%$ ) a screw motion to focus ! slit4 ,a side slit1 capable ( adju/m5t1 admits1 :5 requir$1 a second beam ( light f any object ^: spectrum x is desir$ to comp>e ) t ( ! object plac$ on ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,?is second beam ( light /rikes aga9/ a v small prism1 suitably plac$ inside ! app>atus1 & is reflect$ up ?r\gh ! comp\nd prism1 =m+ a spectrum 9 ! same field ) t obta9$ f ! object on ! /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,sectional view ( bright-l9e ,spectroscope2 ! lett]s also apply to ! /&>d spectrum scale 7,fig4 #aih74 ,a is a brass tube1 c>ry+ ! comp\nd direct vision prism2 ,b1 a mill$ head1 ) screw motion to adju/ ! focus ( ! a*romatic eye l5s ,c1 se5 9 ! sectional view z a triple comb9ation ( prisms4 ,ano!r screw at "r angles to ,c1 :i* f its position _c be well %[n 9 ! figure1 regulates ! slit horizontally4 ,?is screw has a l>g] head1 & :5 once recognis$ _c be mi/ak5 = ! o!r4 ,d ,d is a clip & l$ge = hold+ a small tube1 s t ! spectrum giv5 by its cont5ts may be comp>$ ) "o f an object on ! /age4 ,e is a r\nd hole = a squ>e-head$ screw1 op5+ & %utt+ a slit1 admitt+ ! quantity ( light requir$ to =m ! second spectrum4 ,a light ent]+ ! r\nd hole ne> ,e /rikes aga9/ ! "r-angl$ prism1 :i* is plac$ inside ! app>atus1 & is reflect$ up ?r\gh ! slit belong+ to ! comp\nd prism4 ,if any inc&esc5t object be plac$ 9 a suitable position ) ref]5ce to ! r\nd hole1 its spectrum w be obta9$4 ,f %[s ! position ( ! field l5s ( ! eye-piece4 ,! tube is made to fit ! microscope to :i* ! in/rum5t is appli$4 ,to use ?is in/rum5t ins]t ,f z an eye-piece 9 ! microscope tube1 tak+ c>e t ! slit at ! top ( ! eye-piece is 9 ! same direction z ! slit bel[ ! prism4 ,screw on to ! microscope ! object-glass requir$1 & place ! object ^: spectrum is to be view$ on ! /age4 ,illum9ate ) ! /age mirror if x be transp>5t2 ) mirror1 ,lieb]khn1 & d>k well1 by side reflector1 or bull's-eye cond5s] if opaque4 ,remove ,a1 & op5 ! slit by means ( ! mill$-head1 n %[n 9 figure1 b :i* is at "r angles to ,d ,d4 ,:5 ! slit is suffici5tly op5 ! re/ ( ! app>atus acts z an ord9>y eye-piece1 & any object c be focuss$ 9 ! usual way4 ,hav+ focuss$ ! object1 replace ,a1 & gradually close ! slit till a good spectrum is obta9$4 ,! spectrum w be mu* improv$ by ?r[+ ! object a little out ( focus4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #aig & #aig;a4--,! ,beck-,sorby ,micro-spectroscope ,eye-piece1 drawn on a scale ( "o half size4 ,e "p ( ! spectrum diff]s a little f adjac5t p>ts 9 refrangibility1 & delicate b&s or l9es c only be br\ght out by accurately focuss+ t p>ticul> "p ( ! spectrum4 ,?is c be done by ! mill$-head ,b4 ,disappo9tm5t w occur 9 any attempt at delicate inve/igation if ! directions giv5 be n c>efully foll[$ out4 ,opposite ,e a small mirror is atta*$4 ,x is l ! mirror bel[ ! /age ( a microscope1 & is m\nt$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,by means ( ?is mirror light may be reflect$ into ! eye-piece1 & 9 ?is way two spectra may be procur$ f "o lamp4 ,me?od ( us+ ! ,micro-,spectroscope4 ,a beg9n] ) ! micro-spectroscope %\ld fir/ make himself fully acqua9t$ ) ! spectroscope by hold+ x up to ! sky & not+ ! effects ( op5+ & regulat+ ! slit1 by rotat+ ! screw ,c1 ,figs4 #aie & #aig4 ,! l9es w be well se5 on clos+ d[n ! op5+4 ,?is screw dim9i%es ! l5g? ( ! slit1 :5 ! spectrum is se5 z a n>r[ ribbon ( prismatic col\rs4 ,! screw ,e regulates ! admission ( light ?r\gh ! ap]ture above ,d4 ,! bett] objects ) :i* to comm5ce ! /udy ( ! absorption b&s are1 anil9e dye1 mu* dilut$1 madd]1 p]manganate ( pota%1 & blood4 ,z ea* col\r v>ies 9 refrangibility1 ! focus mu/ be adju/$ by ! screw ,e4 ,:5 x is desir$ to view ! spectrum ( a v m9ute object1 ! prisms %\ld be remov$ by )draw+ ! tube conta9+ !m1 ! slit set op51 & ! object br\ght into ! c5tre ( ! field2 ! v]tical & horizontal slits mu/ !n be p>tially clos$ up1 & ! prisms replac$1 :5 a suitable objective is employ$ to exam9e ! spectrum4 ,= ord9>y obs]vations a magnify+ p[] ( an in* & a half or two in*es w be suitable1 b = small quantities ( mat]ial a high] p[] mu/ be employ$1 :5 a s+le blood corpuscle c be made to %[ its *>act]i/ic absorption b&4 ,aft] hav+ obta9$ ! be/ image ( any object on /age1 ?r[ x slightly out ( focus1 & sub/itute ! micro-spectroscopic eye-piece = ! ,huygh5ian4 ,opaque objects %\ld be exam9$ by reflect$ light1 by means ( ! bull's-eye cond5s]1 or side reflector4 ,mr4 ,sorby uses a b9ocul> microscope1 :i* enables him to regulate ! focuss+ & ?r[+ out ( focus ( ! object4 ,9 exam9+ cry/als or o!r small objects1 a small c>dbo>d diaphragm %\ld be plac$ b5ea? !m2 & :5 exam9+ ! spectra ( liquids 9 cells1 slip a small cap ) a p]=ation ( #a_/aj-;in* 9 diamet] ov] ! tube conta9+ ! #a_/b-;in* or #b-;in* objective4 ,sub/ances :i* give absorption b&s or l9es 9 ! r$ are be/ se5 by artificial light1 :ile ^? :i* %[ b&s 9 ! violet are bett] se5 by daylight4 ,by foll[+ rules ( ! k9d we are less likely to mix ! b&s ( ! absorption spectrum ) ! ,frunh(] l9es4 ,= example1 if ! edge ( a b& happ5s to co9cide ) a ,frunh(] l9e1 ! obs]v] is apt to imag9e t ! b& is bett] def9$ & m abruptly %ad$ on "o side ?an x really is4 ,illu/ration3 ,/&>d ,spectrum ,scale4 ,cells = use ) ,spectroscope4 ,fig4 #aih4 ,cells & ,tubes4--,^! are ei!r suppli$ ready-made by ! optician1 or c be =m$ out ( small pieces ( b>omet] tub+1 ) ! edges gr\nd d[n & cem5t$ on ord9>y glass slips4 ,9 ,fig4 #aih is se5 ! sev]al k9ds ( cells & tubes usually employ$1 :ile ! little flat tubes commonly 9 use z b\quet hold]s w be f\nd ( use1 ) ! side /age reflect+ spectrum z comp>ison tubes2 be+ ( diff]5t diamet]s !y all[ ( two or m dep?s ( col\r 9 ! fluid int5d$ = exam9ation4 ,9 ! case ( _m o!r fluids ! slop+ =m ( cell 7,fig4 #aih7 w be useful1 z diff]5t %ades ( fluids c be exam9$ )\t removal f ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,! deep] cells are cut f a piece ( b>omet] tub+ ( ab\t half to an in* long1 "o end be+ cem5t$ to a piece ( flatt$ glass1 & ! o!r cov]$ ov] tempor>ily or p]man5tly ) a ?9 piece ( glass on ! top1 held 9 its place by capill>y attraction1 ?us admitt+ ( ! tube be+ turn$ upside d[n4 ,re-ag5ts requir$4--,a dilut$ solution ( ammonia1 citric acid1 d\ble t>trate ( pota% & soda 7! la/ be+ us$ to prev5t ! precipitation ( oxide ( iron71 & ! d\ble sulphate ( ! protoxide ( iron & ammonia 7employ$ to deoxidise blood1 etc474 ,9 "s special cases1 dilute hydro*loric acid1 purifi$ boric acid1 & sulphate ( soda are requir$4 ,! "* ( /a9s ( blood v>ies ) age & ) ! nature ( ! sub/ance ) :i* x happ5s to be comb9$4 ,?is is important to rememb] 9 connection ) ,jurisprud5ce1 :5 ! micro-spectroscope is br\ght into use = ! detection ( blood /a9s4 ,! spectrum us$ 9 important cases ( ! k9d %\ld h a comp\nd prism1 ) en\gh1 b n too great disp]sive p[]1 o!rwise ! b&s become1 z x 71 dilut$1 & less di/9ct4 ,if ! blood /a9 is q rec5t1 ! col\r+ matt] w be hmoglob9 only4 ,?is easily dissolves out 9 wat]1 & :5 suffici5tly dilut$ gives ! spectrum ( oxy-hmoglob91 :i* on ! addition ( ammonia1 toge!r ) a small quantity ( ! d\ble t>trate1 a small piece ( f]r\s salt1 & /irr+ c>efully )\t ! admission ( air1 *anges ! spectrum ( r$uc$ hmoglob94 ,:5 /irr$ aga91 s z to expose ! solution z mu* z possible to air1 ! two b&s reappe>2 on gradually add+ citric acid 9 small quantities ! col\r beg9s to *ange1 & ! b&s are se5 to gradually fade away2 if !re %\ld h be5 mu* blood pres5t1 a b& appe>s 9 ! r$2 ! fur!r addition ( ammonia makes all cle> aga91 b does n re/ore ! orig9al b&s1 because ! hmoglob9 has be5 p]man5tly *ang$ into hmat94 ,?is reaction alone di/+ui%es blood f mo/ o!r col\r+ matt]s1 s9ce o!r sub/ances aft] be+ *ang$ by acids are re/or$ by alkalies to _! orig9al /ate4 ,!re are _m o!r curi\s facts connect$ ) ! spectroscopic analysis ( blood1 :i* are fully expla9$ & illu/rat$ by ,dr4 ,maemunn 9 8 book on 8,! ,use ( ! ,spectroscope 9 ,m$ic9e10 & also 9 ,dr4 ,?udicum's#cf reports & *>ts1 :i* are ! mo/ complete4 ,sir ,george ,/okes1 ,f4,r4,s41 0 "o ( ! fir/ to %[ ! ess5tial value ( ! spectral ph5om5a ( hemat9e1 & :o prov$1 aft] ,hoppe _h fir/ drawn att5tion to ! fact1 t ?is col\r+ matt] is capable ( exi/+ 9 two /ates ( oxidation1 & t a v diff]5t spectrum is produc$ accord+ z ! sub/ance1 :i* he t]m$ cruor9e1 is 9 a m or less oxidis$ condition4 ,! *>t app5d$ to 8 pap]#cg af=ds an imp]fect repres5tation ( ! *anges se5 9 ! spectrum4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #a4--;,art]ial ,blood1 ,sc>let ,cruor9e4 ,no4 #b4--,v5\s ,blood1 ,purple ,cruor9e4 ,no4 #c4--;,blood treat$ ) ,acetic ,acid4 ,no4 #d4--,solution ( ,hmat94 ,fig4 #aii4--,sir ,george ,/okes' ,*>t ( ! ,absorption ,b&s ( ,blood4 ,proto-sulphate ( iron1 or proto-*loride ( t91 causes ! r$uction ( ! col\r+-matt]1 b1 on exposure to air1 oxyg5 is absorb$1 & ! solution aga9 exhibits ! spectrum *>act]i/ic ( ! m oxidis$ /ate4 ,! diff]5t sub/ances obta9$ f blood col\r+-matt] produce diff]5t b&s4 ,?us1 hmat9 gives rise to a b& 9 ! r$ spectrum ,d2 hmato-globul9 produces two b&s1 ! second twice ! bread? ( ! fir/ 9 ! yell[ portion ( ! spectrum betwe5 ! l9es ,d & ,e1 ,no4 #a4 ,! absorption-b&s diff] accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! solution employ$1 & ! m$ium 9 :i* ! blood-salt is dissolv$2 b an exce$+ly m9ute proportion dissolv$ 9 wat] is suffici5t to br+ out v di/9ct b&s4 ,b repres5ts ! r$ end ( ! spectrum & ,g ! gre5 z x approa*es ! violet end4 ,mapp+ ! ,spectra4--,9 ! sectional view giv5 ( ! micro-spectroscope 7,fig4 #aif71 ! int]nal con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t is %[n1 & ! arrangem5t made = ?r[+ a bright po9t on to ! surface ( ! upp] prism is cle>ly se54 ,! mapp+ out is accompli%$ by means ( a photographic scale fix$ z a /&>d spectrum 7,fig4 #aih71 9 ! position ( ,a ,a1 illum9at$ by ! small mirror at ,r1 & focuss$ by a small l5s at ,c1 s t on look+ into ! in/rum5t "o c see ! spectrum accurately divid$ into "o hundr$ equal p>ts1 & scale read+s c be made at once2 ! only precaution ne$$ is to be sure ! ,d 7or ! sodium l9e1 if ,d _c be got7 always /&s at ! same numb] on ! scale4 ,to map absorption spectra on ?is scale we h to lay d[n a l9e1 z _m millimetres long z !re are divisions 9 ! scale1 & m>k ! position ( ! b&s on ?is l9e4 ,mr4 ,br[n+ supplies scales pr9t$ (f ready = use4 ,b ! mapp+ out ( spectra1 z ,mr4 ,sorby po9t$ out1 requires "s consid]ation2 s9ce ! numb] ( divisions dep5ds on ! ?ickness ( ! int]f]5ce-plate1 x becomes necess>y to decide :at numb] %\ld be adopt$4 ,t5 x 0 ?\ght w\ld be mo/ suitable2 b1 on trial1 x appe>$ to be too few = practical "w4 ,tw5ty is too _m1 s9ce x !n becomes extremely difficult to c\nt !m4 ,twelve is z _m z c well be c\nt$2 x is a numb] easily rememb]$1 is suffici5tly accurate1 & has o!r practical advantages4 ,) twelve divisions ! sodium-l9e #j comes v accurately at #c-a_/b2 ?us1 by adju/+ ! plate s t a bright sodium-light is br\ght into ! c5tre ( ! b&1 :5 ! ,nicol's prisms are also cross$ accurately at #c-a_/b1 p>allelism is secur$1 toge!r ) a wid] field ( obs]vation4 ,! g5]al "* ( ! scale w be be/ und]/ood f ! foll[+ figure1 9 :i* ! b&s are numb]$1 & giv5 bel[ ! pr9cipal ,frunh(] l9es4 ,! c5tre ( ! b&s is black1 & !y are %ad$ (f gradually at ea* side1 s t ! %ad$ "p is ab\t equal to ! int]m$iate bright spaces4 ,tak+1 !n1 ! c5tres ( ! black b&s z #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 ! c5tres ( ! spaces are #a-a_/b1 #b-a_/b1 #c-a_/b1 c41 ! l[] edges ( ea* #c_/d1 #a-c_/d1 c41 & ! upp] #a-a_/d1 #b-a_/d1 c41 we c easily divide ^! qu>t]s into eigh?s by ! eye3 & ?is is z ne> z is requir$ 9 ! subject be=e u1 & corresponds z ne>ly z possible to #a_/ajj? "p ( ! :ole spectrum1 visible "u ord9>y circum/ances by gaslight & daylight4 ,absorption-b&s at ! r$ end are be/ se5 by lamp-light1 & ^? at ! blue end by daylight4 ,illu/ration3 #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab 7,r$ end47 7,bue end47 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e b ,f ,g ,fig4 #bjj4-- ,on ?is scale ! position ( "s ( ! pr9cipal l9es ( ! sol> spectrum is ab\t z foll[s3-- ,a #c_/d ,b #a-a_/b ,c #b-c_/h ,d #c-a_/b ,e #e-aa_/af b #f-c_/af ,f #g-a_/b ,g #aj-e_/h ,at fir/ plates ( sel5ite1 :i* are easily prep>$1 7 us$1 because !y c be split to ne>ly ! requisite ?ickness ) p>allel faces2 b _! depol>is+ p[] v>i$ mu* ) temp]ature4 ,ev5 ! ord9>y atmosph]ic *anges alt] ! position ( ! b&s4 ,h[ev]1 qu>tz cut p>allel to ! pr9cipal axis ( ! cry/al is b slightly affect$1 & is n op5 to ! same objection2 b ?is is prep>$ ) "s difficulty4 ,! sides %\ld be p]fectly p>allel1 ! ?ickness ab\t #jdc-;in*1 & gradually poli%$ d[n ) r\ge until ! sodium-l9e is se5 9 its prop] place4 ,?is mu/ be done ) c>e1 s9ce a diff]5ce ( #a_/ajjjj-;in* 9 ?ickness w\ld make x almo/ wor?less4 ,! two ,nicol's prisms & ! int]v5+ plate are m\nt$ 9 a tube1 & atta*$ to a piece ( brass 9 su* a mann] t ! c5tre ( ! ap]ture exactly corresponds to ! c5tre ( any ( ! cells us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts1 & mu/ be made to correspond ) equal c>e1 s t any ( !m1 or ?is app>atus 9 p>ticul>1 may be plac$ on ! /age & 9 prop] position )\t fur!r adju/m5t1 :]eby bo? "t & tr\ble are sav$4 ,absorption ,spectrum ( ,*romule4 ,9 #ahfi ,i publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society#ch a pap] on results obta9$ by ! spectrum analysis ( ! col\r+-matt] ( plants & fl[]s1 "s ( :i* 7 ( consid]able int]e/ 9 _m respects4 ,my exam9ations ext5d$ to sev]al hundr$ diff]5t specim5s1 f :i* ,i 0 l$ to conclude t ! *romule ( fl[]s is1 = ! mo/ "p1 due to ! *emical action ( ! act9ic rays ( light ov] ! protoplasm ( ! plant1 m s ?an to t ( soil4 ,b z c]ta9 roots ( plants1 z ^? ( ! alkanet1 yield _! col\r+-matt] to oil1 & 9 a mu* small] degree to _s or wat]1 x foll[s !n t conclusions ( any k9d c only be drawn aft] a long & c>eful /udy ( ! "q4 ,"s ( ! results obta9$ 71 h[ev]1 ( "s int]e/ at ! "t1 t1 = example1 se5 9 ?ree diff]5t solutions ( ! *lorophyll ( ,c9*ona succirubra1 "o ( ?ree solutions 9 alcohol1 sc>cely col\r$1 hav+ 9 fact only a fa9t t+e ( gre5 col\r1 & ! spectrum ( :i* mu* a/oni%$ me at ! "t4 ,x gave f\r well-m>k$ absorption-b&s2 "o deep %>p l9e 9 ! r$2 ano!r1 r n>r[]1 9 ! orange1 co9cid5t ) ,d1 or ! sodium-l9e2 "o 9 ! gre51 ab\t b1 co9cid5t ) ! ,?allium gre5 b&2 & a f\r? on ! blue l9e ,f1 ne>ly z broad z t 9 ! r$4 ,! e!real solution gave diff]5t results4 ,x %[$ only ?ree b&s ( absorption1 ne>ly ! same z 9 ! la/ case 7?\gh all ( !m fa9t]72 b ! f\r? 9 ! blue 0 n app>5t1 ! :ole ( t end ( ! spectrum be+ absorb$ a little beyond ! gre5 l9e b4 ,?is solution 0 deep em]ald-gre51 & ev5 dilution did n alt] ! ph5om5a4 ,! acid alcoholic solution 0 z deeply gre5 z ! la/1 b gave only ! %>p broad absorption-b& 9 ! r$1 & two v fa9t gho/ly b&s 9 ! position describ$ above ( ! ,d & b l9es respectively4 ,fur!r additional rese>*es on ! *lorophyll ( plants furni%$ curi\s results1 ! *lorophyll be+ dissolv$ out by alcohol1 dige/$ = "s h\rs1 & )\t heat2 "s plants be+ fre%1 & o!rs dri$4 ,five classes ( ph5om5a exhibit$ !mselves1 b all agre$ 9 hav+ ! r$ absorption-b& broad1 %>p1 & well def9$1 "s hav+ ?is "o b& only1 ! ,lilac be+ ( ?is type4 ,!re are two classes 9 :i* two absorption-b&s occur4 ,"o has ! r$ & ! orange b&s1 ( :i* ! ,fu*sia1 ,gueld]-rose1 & ,tansy are examples2 ano!r1 9 :i* ! r$ & ! gre5 b&s are alone co-exi/5t4 ,ivy is ! type ( ! class1 & x is immat]ial :e!r we take la/ ye>'s leaves or ^? ( ! e>ly spr+2 ! results are ! same4 ,! f\r? class consi/s ( ! two =m] spectra sup]pos$4 ,?ree l9es occur1 ! r$1 ! orange1 & ! gre5 b&s1 at ,c1 ,d1 & b1 z be=e4 ,?is is by f> ! l>ge/ class1 & ,i h ?irty or =ty examples ( x4 no!ra bi5nis1 ,laure/9us1 c41 are types ) ! e!real solution ( ! leaves ( ,r$ ,b>k4 ,! fif? class consi/s ( ^? hav+ prop]ties simil> to ! alcoholic solution ( ,r$ ,b>k describ$4 ,b ,i only f\nd eight ( ^!1 & n all equal 9 col\r p[]1 namely3 ,b]b]ry1 ,sloe1 ,tea1 ,hyoscyamus1 ,digitalis1 ,s5na1 & ,r$ ,b>k4 ,! results obta9$ appe>$ at ! "t to be well wor? foll[+ up to a m practical conclusion ?an t arriv$ at4 ,x %\ld be not$ t 9 ! prep>ation ( vegetable col\r+ matt]s = ! micro-spectroscope1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to employ only a small quantity ( spirits ( w9e to filt] ! solution1 & evaporate x at once to dryness at a v g5tle heat1 o!rwise if we attempt to keep ! col\r+ matt]s 9 a fluid /ate !y quickly decompose4 ,x is necess>y also to employ v>i\s re-ag5ts 9 develop+ *>act]i/ic spectra4 ,! mo/ valuable re-ag5t is sulphite ( soda4 ,?is admits ( ! division ( col\rs into gr\ps4 ,x is bett] to use a dilute alcoholic solution = ! extraction ( col\r f plants1 & to obs]ve ! spectrum 9 a column ( ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 height4 ,by ?is means x is q possible to asc]ta9 t ! spectrum ( *lorophyll pres5ts sev5 di/9ct absorption b&s4 ,= fur!r in=mation on ?is int]e/+ subject ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to ,mr4 ,sorby's pap] 8,on a ,def9ite ,me?od ( ,qualitative ,analysis ( ,vegetable & ,animal ,col\r+ ,matt] by means ( ! ,spectrum ,microscope10 8,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc410 ,no4 #ib1 #ahfg4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,practical ,microscopy3 ,manipulation1 & ,mode ( ,us+ ! ,microscope4 ,9 ?is *apt] x w be my aim to discuss ! be/ practical me?ods ( employ+ ! microscope & its appliances to ! greate/ advantage4 ,fir/1 ! /ud5t %\ld select a quiet room = work+ 91 )1 if possible1 a nor!rn aspect1 free f all tremor occasion$ by pass+ vehicles4 ,! table select$ = use %\ld be firm1 & provid$ ) draw]s1 9 :i* 8 sev]al appliances c be kept ready to h&4 ,! microscope mu/ be plac$ at su* an incl9ation z w enable him to "w 9 com=t1 & )\t putt+ /ra9 on ! muscles ( ! neck or fatigu+ ! eyes4 ,! next important po9t is t ( light4 ,daylight1 9 "s respects1 is an advantage2 ?is %\ld come f a :ite cl\d on a bright day1 b z a rule m satisfactory results w be obta9$ by us+ a well-made lamp1 z ?is c be controll$ ) ease1 & us$ at a prop] height & di/ance f ! microscope4 ,to h a good =m ( lamp is z mu* to be desir$ = ! /ud5t z = ^? engag$ 9 ! m advanc$ "w ( microscopy4 ,:atev] ! s\rce ( light we mu/ on no acc\nt ov]-illum9ate4 ,! object hav+ be5 plac$ on ! /age ( ! microscope1 ! body %\ld be rack$ d[n to )9 a qu>t] or half an in* ( ! specim51 & !n1 :ile look+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece1 %\ld be sl[ly )drawn until a %>p image comes into view4 ,! f9e adju/m5t may n[ be us$ = ! m delicate focuss+ ( ! sev]al p>ts ( ! field4 ,accurate adju/m5t ( focus is requir$ :5 us+ a #a_/d-;in* objective2 details ( ! object1 z /ri1 be+ br\ght into view :5 a /rong] light is ?r[n obliquely ^u !m f ! mirror4 ,if a #a-;in* objective is us$ ! light (t5 proves to be 9 excess ( :at is requir$1 & ?is mu/ be regulat$ by ! aid ( ! diaphragm4 ,! iris diaphragm1 made to drop into ! "u-/age1 is m g5]ally employ$1 z :5 rack$ up to ! object x af=ds e necess>y graduation ( illum9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja4--;,bull's-eye ,l5s4 ,to illum9ate opaque objects ! light %\ld be ?r[n ^u !m f above by ! bull's-eye l5s 7,fig4 #bja74 ,! focus ( su* a l5s & ! lamp plac$ at f\r in*es f x1 is ab\t ?ree in*es = daylight1 or two in*es = artificial light4 ,a l>ge object may be plac$ ^u ! /age ( ! microscope at once1 b small] objects are ei!r laid on a glass slide or held 9 ! /age =ceps4 ,:5 illum9at+ objects f above all light f ! mirror1 or t :i* might ent] ! objective f bel[ ! /age1 %\ld be c>efully exclud$4 ,d>k-field illum9ation is a means ( see+ a transp>5t object z an opaque "o4 ,! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 is t all ! light %all be ?r[n f bel[ ! object1 b s obliquely t x _c ent] ! object-glass unless int]rupt$ by ! object2 ?is is be/ accompli%$ by ,w5ham's ,p>abola4 ,glass ( any k9d requires occasional clean+2 a piece ( s(t wa%$ *amois lea!r %\ld be us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! fronts ( ! objectives may be c>efully wip$1 b n unscrew$ or tamp]$ )2 a %ort ?ick-set camel's hair bru% may be pass$ d[n to ! back l5s1 & all du/ remov$ )\t do+ any h>m4 ,if ! objective is an imm]sion1 c>efully remove ! fluid f ! front l5s1 z ev5 di/ill$ wat] w leave a /a9 beh9d4 ,= remov+ oil see special directions giv5 at page #aga4 ,:5 clean+ ! eye-pieces1 :i* %\ld be done occasionally1 ! cells conta9+ ! glasses mu/ be unscrew$ & replac$ "o at a "t1 s t !y may n be made to *ange places4 ,any dirt ^u ! eye-pieces may be detect$ by turn+ !m r\nd :il/ look+ ?r\gh ! in/rum5t2 b if ! object-glasses are n clean1 or are injur$1 x w1 = ! mo/ "p1 only be se5 by ! object appe>+ mi/y4 ,! object-glasses1 :5 9 use b n on ! microscope1 %\ld be /ood ^u ! table ) ! screw d[nw>ds1 to prev5t du/ gett+ into ! l5ses1 & !y %\ld always be put into _! brass cases :5 done )4 ,a l>ge bell-glass %ade w be f\nd ! mo/ useful cov] = keep+ du/ f ! in/rum5t :5 n 9 use4 ,:5 look+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece be sure to place ! eye 9 close proximation to ! cap1 o!rwise ! :ole field w n be p]fectly visible2 x %\ld appe> z an equally well-illum9at$ circul> disc4 ,if ! eyela%es are reflect$ f ! eye-glass1 ! obs]v] is look+ ^u ! eye-piece1 & n ?r\gh x4 ,! ,mirror4--,! work+ focal di/ance ( ! mirror is t :i* br+s ! images ( ! w9d[-b>s %>ply out ^u ! object re/+ ^u ! /age4 ,9 o!r words1 ! focus ( ! mirror is t :i* br+s p>allel rays to a correct focus on ! object-glass4 ,if employ+ artificial light1 !n ! flame ( ! lamp %\ld be di/+ui%able2 a slight *ange 9 ! incl9ation ( ! mirror w ?r[ ! image ( ! lamp-flame out ( ! field4 ,! /ronge/ light is reflect$ f ! concave side ( ! mirror1 t f ! flat side is m diffuse & less int5se4 ,oblique light c be obta9$ by turn+ ! mirror on "o side & !n adju/+ x s z to illum9ate ! field f t position4 ,all ! necess>y me*anism ( ! microscope is easily & quickly le>n$4 ,! object-glasses or objectives are1 z previ\sly expla9$1 designat$ accord+ to ! focal di/ance ( a s+le l5s ( ! same magnify+ p[]4 ,?us a #b-;in* objective is und]/ood to be a comb9ation :i* has ! magnify+ p[] ( a s+le l5s ^: focal po9t is two in*es f ! object1 & s on ) ref]5ce to o!r p[]s4 ,by ! aid ( diff]5t eye-pieces an ext5sive range ( magnify+ p[] c be obta9$2 = example1 ! #b-;in* objective ) a deep eye-piece w give ! same amplification z ! qu>t] objective ) ! ord9>y eye-piece4 ,inde$1 = c]ta9 obs]vations1 ! comb9ation ( a wide-angl$ l[-p[] objective1 ) a deep eye-piece1 or comp5sat+ eye-piece1 is consid]$ to h an advantage4 ,x has be5 already expla9$ t two objectives1 "o ( mu* great] p[] ?an ! o!r1 b bo? hav+ only ! same num]ical ap]ture1 w %[ only ! same am\nt ( detail2 ! high] p[] on a l>g] scale4 ,t is1 suppos+ ) a #a_/d-;in* objective ( #aj num]ical ap]ture c]ta9 /ructure is resolv$1 !n a #a_/h-;in* sub/itut$ ) exactly ! same num]ical ap]ture1 b ) d\ble ! magnification1 no m resolv+ p[] w be f\nd 9 ! latt] objective ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,= ?is reason a d\bt has be5 express$ z to :e!r high-p[] objectives--especially ! m exp5sive oil-imm]sions1 made to transmit l>ge p5cils ( light ?r\gh _! l>g] ap]tures--are s well adapt$ = ord9>y rese>* z ! be/ s]ies ( dry a*romatic objectives1 or ev51 9 "s in/ances1 ! m$ium ap]ture l5ses2 und\bt$ly1 = hi/ological 7physiological & pa?ological7 "w1 ! latt] w be f\nd to meet ! /ud5ts' requirem5ts q z well z ! =m]4 ,! /ud5t or amateur w d well to comm5ce ) mod]ate or m$ium p[]s1 a #b-;in*1 a #a-;in*1 a #a_/b-;in*1 a #d_/aj-;in*1 or #a_/d-;in*4 ,^!1 toge!r ) ! ,a & ,b eye-pieces1 w give a range ( magnification f #cj to #bej diamet]s4 ,p5etration 9 ! objective is a quality = consid]ation1 z ! adju/m5t ( high p[]s is a "w ( delicacy1 & 9 "s cases _! p5etration is impair$ by ! arrangem5t made to obta9 f9] def9ition4 ,! value1 h[ev]1 ( p5etration 9 an objective is always consid]$ to be ( m or less importance4 ,x is a quality :]eby1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 a m p]fect insight into /ructure is obta9$4 ,z a rule1 ! objective hav+ ! l>ge/ work+ di/ance possesses ! bett] p5etration4 ,!oretically1 ! p5etration ( an objective decreases z ! squ>e ( ! angul> ap]ture increases4 ,= ?is reason ! m$ical /ud5t w be ju/ifi$ 9 *oos+ ! objectives ,i h nam$1 s9ce ^! w be bett] adapt$ to 8 "w & pursuits4 ,! p5etration ( ! objective is a relative quality assess$ at a diff]5t value by work]s ^: aims are widely diff]5t4 ,b = ! obs]vation ( liv+ organisms1 ! cyclosis )9 ! cell ( ! clo/]ium or valisn]ia1 = in/ance1 pref]5ce w und\bt$ly be 9 fav\r ( ! objective ) good p5etration4 ,resolv+ ,p[]4--,?is is a quality highly priz$ by ! bact]iologi/4 ,9 ! case ( ! high-angl$ apo*romatic oil-imm]sion1 ) its comp5sat+ eye-piece1 its resolution is f\nd to be ( v consid]able advantage1 because ( its capacity to receive & recomb9e all ! diffraction spectra t lie beyond ! range ( ! old] a*romatic objective1 ) its small] angul> ap]ture4 ,! actual loss ( resolv+ p[] consequ5t ^u ! contraction ( ap]ture f #ahj to #abh-a_/b is t5 p] c5t41 if n m4 ,resolution dep5ds1 !n1 ^u ! quality & quantity ( ! light admitt$1 ! p[] ( collect+ ! greate/ numb] ( rays1 & ! p]fection ( c5tr+4 ,9 o!r words1 ^u ! co-ord9ation ( ! illum9at+ sy/em ( ! microscope--mirror1 a*romatic cond5s]1 objective & eye-piece4 ,if diatoms are employ$ z te/-objects1 x %\ld n be =gott5 t !re are great diff]5ces1 ev5 9 ! same species1 9 ! di/ances _! l9es are ap>t4 ,= ?is reason rul$ l9es ( kn[n value1 z ,nob]t's l9es1 are to be pref]r$4 ,! foll[+ example w suffice to %[ ! value ( a dry #a_/h-;in* objective ( #abj 9 def9+ ! rul+s ( a #ai-;b& plate1 :i* is equival5t to ! #a_/fgjjj? ( an in*4 ,?is objective1 ) c>eful illum9ation1 %[$ !m all2 b :5 cut d[n by a diaphragm to #aaj1 ! eighte5? l9e 0 n sep>able2 fur!r cut d[n to #ajj ! sev5te5? 0 ! limit1 to #hj ! f\rte5?1 & to #fj ! t5? 0 b>ely rea*$4 ,flatness ( ,field4--,?is quality 9 ! objective has1 by ! introduction ( ! imm]sion sy/em1 lo/ mu* ( ! importance =m]ly atta*$ to x4 ,"s writ]s assume x to be an 8optical impossibility40 ,! comp5sat+ eye-piece has _h ! effect ( contract+ ! visual field1 consequ5tly ! p]iph]al imp]fections ( ! objective are ( a less di/urb+ "*4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 n be5 made p]fectly cle> :e!r ! highe/ p]fection ( ! two prim>y qualities ( a good objective1 def9+ p[] & resolv+ p[]1 c be always obta9$ 9 "o & ! same comb9ation ( l5ses4 ,d\btless1 def9+ p[] c be m satisfactorily det]m9$ by ! exam9ation ( a suitable object1 & ! p]fection ( ! image obta9$2 to assi/ 9 secur+ :i*1 a solid axial cone ( light equal to ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ap]ture ( ! objective mu/ be employ$4 ,to sum up1 !n1 8! focal p[] ( all objectives dep5ds 9 _! p]fect def9ition1 a prop]ty on :i* _! conv]g+ p[] dep5ds1 & 9 turn _! magnify+ action is dep5d5t2 aga91 focal p[] is ! curvature impr9t$ by ! l5s on a plane wave1 & is reciprocal ( ! true focal l5g?4 ,x is appropriately express$ 9 t]ms ( ! prop] unit ( focal curvature1 ! dioptric2 a unit ( curvature40#ci ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--,seil]'s ,te/ ,slide4 ,x may be tak5 z an axiom ) microscopi/s t 8nei!r ! p5etrat+ p[] nor ! high-p[] def9+ objective is alone suffici5t = e k9d ( "w4 ,! l>g] ! details ( ultimate /ructure1 ! n>r[] ! ap]ture--& ! conv]se2 ! m9ut] ! dim5sions ( elem5t>y /ructure1 ! wid] mu/ be ! ap]ture ( ! objective40 ,e work] ) ! microscope mu/ h satisfi$ himself ( ! tru? ( ?is /atem5t1 :5 engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ! movem5ts ( liv+ organisms1 or def9+ ! intimate /ructure ( ! m9ut] diatoms1 or ( ! podura scale4 ,te/ = ,illum9ation4--,dr4 ,c4 ,seil] recomm5ds ! human blood corpuscle z ! be/ te/ ( good illum9ation4 ,he prep>es ! object 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,take = ! purpose a clean glass slide ( ! ord9>y k9d1 & place ne> its extreme edge a drop ( fre% blood drawn by prick+ ! f+] ) a ne$le4 ,!n take ano!r slide ( ! same size1 ) gr\nd edges1 & br+ "o end 9 contact ) ! drop ( blood1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjb1 at an angle ( #de2 !n draw x ev5ly & quickly across ! und]slide1 & ! result w be to spread out ! corpuscles ev5ly ?r\gh\t4 ,blood discs be+ l5ticul> bodies1 ) depress$ c5tres1 act l s _m little glass-l5ses1 & %[ diffraction r+s if ! light is n prop]ly adju/$4#dj ,errors ( ,int]pretation4--,to be 9 a position to draw an accurate conclusion ( ! nature & prop]ties ( ! object "u exam9ation is a matt] ( great importance to ! microscopi/4 ,! view+ ( objects by transmitt$ light is ( q an exceptional "*1 r calculat$ to mislead ! judgm5t z well z ! eye4 ,x requires1 !re=e1 an unusual am\nt ( c>e to avoid fall+ into errors ( int]pretation4 ,among te/ objects ! precise nature ( ! /ructural elem5ts ( ! ,diatomace h giv5 rise to great div]g5ce ( op9ion4 ,!n1 aga91 ! m9ute scales ( ! podura ,spr+tails1 "o ( ! ,collembola1 & _! cong5]s ,lepisma sac*>9a1 ! /ructure ( :i* is equally debatable4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,beck1 9 an in/ructive pap] publi%$ 9 ! 8,transactions ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 says t ! scales ( ! ,lepisma c be made to put on an appe>ance :i* be>s little resemblance to _! actual /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,portions ( ,scales ( ,lepisma4 ,9 ! m abundant k9d ( scales ! prom95t m>k+s appe> z a s]ies ( d\ble l9es4 ,^! run p>allel & at consid]able int]vals f end to end ( ! scale1 :il/ o!r l9es1 g5]ally mu* fa9t]1 radiate f ! quill1 & take ! same direction z ! outl9e ( ! scale :5 ne> ! fix$ or quill end2 b !re is1 9 addition1 an int]rupt$ appe>ance at ! sides ( ! scale1 :i* is v diff]5t f ! m]e union1 or 8cross-hat*+s10 ( ! two sets ( l9es 7,fig4 #bjc1 ,nos4 #a & #b1 ! upp] portions74 ,! scales !mselves are =m$ ( "s truly transp>5t sub/ance1 = wat] in/antly & almo/ entirely oblit]ates _! m>k+s1 b !y reappe> unalt]$ z ! moi/ure leaves !m2 !re=e ! fact ( _! be+ visible at all1 "u any circum/ances1 is due to ! refraction ( light by sup]ficial irregul>ities1 & ! foll[+ exp]im5t e/abli%es ?is fact1 :il/ x det]m9es at ! same "t ! /ructure ( ea* side ( ! scale1 :i* x is o!rwise impossible to d f ! appe>ance ( ! m>k+s 9 _! unalt]$ /ate3-- 8,remove "s ( ! scales by press+ a clean & dry slide aga9/ ! body ( ! insect1 & cov] !m ) a piece ( ?9 glass1 :i* may be prev5t$ f mov+ by a little gum at ea* corn]4 ,no4 #c may !n be tak5 z an exagg]at$ section ( ! v>i\s p>ts4 ,a ,b is ! glass slide1 ) a scale1 ,c1 closely adh]5t to x1 & ,d ! ?9 glass-cov]4 ,if a v small drop ( wat] be plac$ at ! edge ( ! ?9 glass1 x w run "u by capill>y attraction2 b :5 x rea*es ! scale1 ,c1 x w run fir/ betwe5 x & ! glass slide1 ,a ,b1 because ! attraction !re w be great]1 & consequ5tly ! m>k+s on t side ( ! scale :i* is 9 contact ) ! slide w be oblit]at$1 :ile ^? on ! o!r side w1 = "s "t at lea/1 rema9 unalt]$3 :5 su* is ! case1 ! /rongly m>k$ v]tical l9es disappe>1 & ! radiat+ ones become cont9u\s4 7,see ,no4 #a1 ! l[] left-h& portion47 ,to try ! same exp]im5t ) ! o!r1 or inn] surface ( ! scales1 x is only requisite to transf] !m1 by press+ ! fir/ piece ( glass1 by :i* !y 7 tak5 f ! insect1 ^u ano!r piece1 & !n ! same process z be=e may be repeat$ ) ! scales t h adh]$ to ! second slide1 ! radiat+ l9es w n[ disappe>1 & ! v]tical ones become cont9u\s4 7,see ,no4 #b1 left portion47 ,^! results1 !re=e1 %[ t ! int]rupt$ appe>ance is produc$ by two sets ( un9t]rupt$ l9es on diff]5t surfaces1 ! l9es 9 ea* in/ance be+ caus$ by corrugations or folds on ! ext]nal surfaces ( ! scales4 ,nos4 #a & #b are p>ts ( a cam]a lucida draw+ ( a scale :i* happ5$ to h opposite surfaces oblit]at$ 9 diff]5t p>ts4 ,no4 #d %[s p>ts ( a small scale 9 a dry & natural /ate2 at ! upp] "p ! int]rupt$ appe>ance is n mu* unlike t se5 at ! sides ( ! l>g] scales2 b l[] d[n1 :]e l9es ( equal /r5g? cross ne>ly at "r angles1 ! l9es are entirely lo/ 9 a s]ies ( dots1 & exactly ! same appe>ance is %[n 9 ,no4 #e to be produc$ by ! two scales at a "p :]e !y ov]lie ea* o!r1 al?\gh ea* "o sep>ately %[s only p>allel v]tical l9es40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--,out] ,membrane ( ,upp] ,plane ( ,r$ ,beads ?r[n by ea* alt]nate hole ( grat+2 on l[]+ ! focus :ite int]spaces turn into blue beads4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd;a4--,out] ,membrane ( ,l[] ,plane ( ,beads ?r[n f rema9+ holes ( grat+2 on rais+ ! focus :ite int]spaces turn into r$ beads4 ,objective us$1 ,zeiss's apo*romatic #a_/ab-;in* oil-imm]sion1 num]ical ap]ture #adj1 magnify+ p[] #a1gej diamet]s4 ,a well-kn[n skill$ obs]v] ( te/ objects#da says3 8,practically ! resolv+ p[] ( our a*romatic objectives on l9$ objects rea*$ _! maximum 9 ! late ,dr4 ,woodw>d's h&s4 ,amphipleura pellucida 0 !n1 z n[1 ! f9e/ kn[n regul> /ructure ( ! diatoms4 ,!re appe>$ !n no?+ m to be ga9$ 9 resolution :5 "o ( ! apo*romatic #a_/ab-;in* objectives ( ,zeiss1 ) its entire abs5ce ( col\r1 pass$ into my h&s1 & ,i soon became conv9c$ t x possess$ ! p[] ( sep>at+ ! diff]5t lay]s ( /ructure 9 ! valve1 beyond ! grasp ( ! dry-objective4 ,! result ( ?is increase ( p[] enabl$ me to split up1 z x 71 ! "o plate ( silex =m+ ! valve ( ,pleurosigma =mosum into ?ree lay]s1 & :i* _h nev] be=e appe>$ to be possible2 prov+1 9 fact1 t magnification )\t correspond+ ap]ture is ( little or no acc\nt40 8,! intimate /ructure ( ^! te/ objects10 says ,mr4 ,smi?1 8is built up on "o plan1 ea* be+ compos$ ( two or m lay]s1 7#a7 a valve ) two lay]s1 z 9 ,pleurosigma balticum2 7#b7 two lay]s ) a grat+ & second>y m>k+s plac$ diagonally1 z 9 ,pleurosigma =mosum2 7#c7 ) two lay]s ( a net-l /ructure1 z 9 ,pleurosigma angulatum1 ! f95ess ( ! /ri or grat+s ( :i* measure ! #a_/ejjjj? ( an in*4 ,five o!r diatoms af=d evid5ce ( ?is comp\nd /ructure4 ,! pres5ce ( beads or hemisph]es 9 "o ( ! focal planes1 & depressions or pits 9 ano!r1 are emphasis$ 9 ! micro-photograph itself2 r$uc$ portions ( ! valve are repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #bjd & #bjd;a40 ,a portion ( a diatom valve1 ,pleurosigma angulatum1 micro-photograph$ on a high] scale ( magnification1 #d1ejj diamet]s1 is giv5 fur!r on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4--,sections ( an old-fa%ion$ ,glass ,tumbl]1 f photographs by ! late ,mr4 ,r4 ,beck4 ,errors ( int]pretation arise ei!r f ! small cones ( illum9ation af=d$ by ! dry-objective1 or ! oblique illum9ation =m]ly resort$ to = ! resolution ( ^! difficult te/ objects1 & sev]al ( ! lights & %ad[s result+ f ! refractive p[] ( ! object itself4 ,b ! mo/ common error is t produc$ by ! rev]sal ( ! lights & %ad[s result+ f ! refractive p[]s ( ! object itself4 ,to make ?is cle>1 ,i reproduce two r$uc$ photographs ( a small section ( an old-fa%ion$ glass tumbl]1 cov]$ ext]nally ) num]\s hemisph]es1 illum9at$ by transmitt$ light 7,fig4 #bje74 ,?is illu/ration well emphasises ! difficulty !re is 9 det]m9+ /ructure "u precisely simil> conditions to ^? we are accu/om$ to ( exam9+ valves ( diatoms "u ! microscope4 ,if ^! photographs be held 9 front ( a /rong light1 !y at once convey diff]5t impressions to ! m9d1 ! hemisph]es appe>+ depressions 9 ! "o1 & rais$ beads 9 ! o!r4 ,bo? are pr9ts f ! same negative1 b 9 m\nt+ are rev]s$2 & !re=e ! app>5t dissimil>ity is due to a slight inequality ( illum9ation1 :i* ! m9d accepts z light & %ade4 ,v simil> appe>ances to ^? describ$ w result if a ?9 plate ( glass 7 /udd$ ) m9ute1 equal1 & equi-di/ant plano-convex l5ses1 ! foci ( :i* w\ld v ne>ly lie 9 ! same plane4 ,if ! focal surface1 or plane ( vision1 ( ! objective be made to co9cide ) ?is plane1 a s]ies ( bright po9ts w result1 f ! excess ( light fall+ on ea* l5s4 ,if ! plane ( vision be next made to co9cide ) ! surfaces ( ! l5ses1 ^! po9ts w\ld appe> d>k1 9 consequ5ce ( ! rays be+ refract$ t[>ds po9ts n[ out ( focus4 ,la/ly1 if ! plane ( vision be made to co9cide ) ! plane b5ea? ! l5ses t conta9 _! sev]al foci1 s t ea* l5s may be1 z x 71 comb9$ ) ! object-glass1 !n a second s]ies ( bright po9ts w result f ! accumulation ( ! rays transmitt$ at ^? po9ts4 ,moreov]1 z all rays capable ( ent]+ ! objective are conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( ! second s]ies ( bright focal po9ts1 ! fir/ s]ies be+ =m$ by ! rays ( a cone ( light only1 x is evid5t t ! circle ( lea/ confusion mu/ be mu* less1 & !re=e ! bright po9ts bett] def9$ 9 ! fir/ ?an 9 ! la/ s]ies4 ,!re are no set ( objects :i* h giv5 rise to m discussion z to _! precise "* ?an ! scales ( ! podura 7,lepidocyrtus c]vicollis71 to ! intimate /ructure ( :i* ,mr4 ,smi? turn$ 8 att5tion1 & succe$$1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k1 9 8 attempt to settle ! /ructure ( ^! v m9ute scales1 & :i* h]et(ore h be5 describ$ z 8notes ( exclamation40 ,by ! aid ( ! same p[] z t employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( ! pleurosigma =mosum1 ! old conv5tional m>k+s h disappe>$1 & well-def9$ 8fea!rlets0 h tak5 _! place4 ,by c>eful focuss+ up & d[n1 a s]ies ( :iti% p9-l bodies is to be se51 ) an int]v5+ second>y /ructure4 ,a micro-photograph ( a portion ( a scale tak5 by ,mr4 ,smi? %[s t ^! p9-l bodies are ins]t$ 9 a fold ( ! basem5t membrane1 :i*1 9 8 op9ion1 furni% unmi/akable evid5ce ( ! fact t ^! project+ bodies are real1 & mu/ no long] be look$ ^u z m]e gho/s4 ,q rec5tly1 a micro-photograph ( a portion ( a podura scale 0 plac$ 9 my h&s1 tak5 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gif=d ) a ,swift's #a_/ab-;in* apo*romatic objective1 ( num]ical ap]ture #adj1 & a deep eye-piece1 hav+ a comb9$ magnify+ p[] ( #c1hbg diamet]s4 ,fig4 #bjf %[s a portion ( ! photograph :i*1 x w be admitt$1 supports ,mr4 ,smi?'s view ( ! /ructure ( ! podura scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,podura ,scale1 tak5 ) a #a_/ab ,swift's ,imm]sion #c1hbg4 ,_m o!r errors ( int]pretation are n unkn[n to ! exp]i5c$ op]ator ) ! microscope1 aris+1 = ! mo/ "p1 f an influ5ce ex]t$ by peculi>ities 9 ! int]nal /ructure ( c]ta9 objects2 = example1 t (f]$ by ! human hair1 & :i*1 :5 view$ by transmitt$ light1 pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a flatt5$-out b&1 ) a d>ki% c5tre1 due to ! refractive influ5ce ( ! rays ( light transmitt$ ?r\gh ! hair4 ,t x is a solid or tubul> /ructure is prov$ by mak+ a transv]se section ( ! hair-%aft1 :5 x is se5 fill$ up by m$ull>y matt]1 ! c5tre be+ some:at d>k] ?an ! out] "p4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a spiral outgr[? ( ! epi!lial scales1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 imp>t+ a /riat$ appe>ance to ! surface4 ,a cyl9drical ?read ( glass 9 balsam appe>s z a flatt5$1 b&-l /reak1 ( little brilliancy4 ,ano!r in/ance ( fallacy aris+ f div]sity 9 ! refractive p[] ( ! int]nal p>ts ( an object is furni%$ by ! mi/akes =m]ly made ) reg>d to ! true "* ( ! lacun & canaliculi ( bone /ructure4 ,^! 7 long suppos$ to be solid corpuscles1 ) radiat+ opaque filam5ts proce$+ f a d5se c5tre2 on ! contr>y1 !y are m9ute *amb]s1 ) div]g+ passages--excavations 9 ! solid osse\s /ructure4 ,t su* is ! case is %[n by ! effects ( ,canada balsam1 :i* infiltrates ! osse\s sub/ance4 ,air bubbles are a p]plex+ s\rce ( tr\ble4 ,! bett] way ( becom+ accu/om$ to deceptive appe>ances ( ! k9d is to comp>e ! aspect ( globules ( oil 9 wat] ) bubbles ( air 9 wat]1 or ,canada balsam4 ,! molecul> movem5ts ( f9ely divid$ p>ticles1 se5 9 ne>ly all cases :5 c]ta9 objects are fir/ susp5d$ 9 wat]1 or o!r fluids1 are a frequ5t cause ( emb>rassm5t to beg9n]s4 ,if a m9ute portion ( indigo or c>m9e be rubb$ up ) a little wat]1 & a drop plac$ on a glass slide "u ! microscope1 x w at once exhibit a peculi> p]petual motion appe>ance4 ,?is movem5t 0 fir/ obs]v$ 9 ! granul> p>ticles se5 among poll5 gra9s ( plants1 kn[n z fovilla1 & :i* are set free :5 ! poll5 is cru%$4 ,important vital end[m5ts 7 =m]ly attribut$ to ^! p>ticles1 b ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n %[$ t su* granules 7 common en\gh bo? 9 organic & inorganic sub/ances1 & 7 9 no way 8indicative ( life40#db ,pr(essor ,jevons succe$$ 9 ?r[+ light on ^! curi\s movem5ts4 ,he %[$ t !y 7 n due to evaporation1 z "s obs]v]s cont5d$1 z !y cont9ue :5 all possibility ( evaporation is cut (f1 :5 ! fluid is surr\nd$ by a lay] ( oil1 & enclos$ 9 an air-tight case3 b z ,pr(essor ,jevons po9t$ out1 ^! movem5ts are greatly affect$ by ! admixture ( v>i\s sub/ances ) wat]1 be+ increas$ by a small quantity ( gum1 & *eck$ by a drop ( sulphuric acid1 or a few gra9s ( "s sal9e sub/ance1 :i* increases ! conduct+ p[] ( wat] = electricity4 ,! ,br[nian movem5t1 n[ t]m$ p$esis1 mu* dep5ds ^u ! size ( ! p>ticles1 _! specific gravity1 & ! nature ( ! liquid 9 :i* !y are imm]s$4 ,! correct conclusions to be drawn by ! microscopi/ reg>d+ ! nature ( an object w necess>ily dep5d ^u previ\s exp]i5ce 9 microscopic obs]vations1 a k ( ! class ( bodies br\ght "u obs]vation1 & ! skill ( ! obs]v] 9 ! use ( ! in/rum5t--t is1 9 secur+ ! be/ focus possible ) any objective br\ght into use4 ,i am indebt$ to ,messrs4 ,beck = ! foll[+ s]ies ( illu/rations1 %[+ ! effect ( "u & ov] correction ( ! objective4 ,,directions ,,= ,,f9d+ ,,! ,,be/ ,,focus4 ,! me?od ( f9d+ & det]m9+ :5 ! screw-coll> adju/m5t ( ! high-p[] objective has arriv$ at a po9t ( p]fect def9ition & magnification is z foll[s3-- ,select any d>k speck ( du/1 or an opaque portion ( ! object1 & c>efully focus ?is small p>ticle by work+ ! screw ( ! f9e adju/m5t1 move ! screw up & d[n until y are satisfi$ ! image is ! %>pe/ & blacke/ t c be obta9$1 !n once m te/ ! focus a little above & a little bel[ :ile closely scrut9is+ ! effect on ! image4 ,x w n[ be se5 t :]eas 9 focuss+ on "o side ( ! be/ focus ! object disappe>s 9 a fog1 by focuss+ on ! o!r side x rema9s 9 view = a long] p]iod1 b alt]s its appe>ance2 x is n[ no long] a black dot1 b a bright dot ( light surr\nd$ by a black m>g94 ,! effects be+ ?us dissimil> on diff]5t sides ( ! be/ focus1 %[ t ! objective is n p]fectly adju/$ = ! cov]-glass 9 use4 ,! next /ep is to f9d out :e!r ! bright image is above or bel[ ! be/ focus1 z on ?is dep5ds ! direction 9 :i* ! adju/m5t-coll> %\ld be turn$4 ,to det]m9e ?is x is only necess>y to asc]ta9 :i* way ! sl[-motion mill$ head ( ! microscope turns :5 mov+ ! objective upw>ds4 ,9 ! case "u consid]ation1 ! bright image w be above ! be/ focus1 :i* %[s t ! cov]-glass 9 use is ?ick] ?an t = :i* ! objective is adju/$1 consequ5tly ! adju/m5t-coll> mu/ be mov$ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,podura ,scale ,te/4 ,if ! coll> be turn$ too f> 9 ! opposite direction1 x w be f\nd t ! bright image is bel[ ! be/ focus1 & ! cov]-glass is !n ?9n] ?an t = :i* ! objective is adju/$4 ,! coll> mu/ !n be turn$ back aga9 until ! effect on ea* side ( ! be/ focus is exactly simil>4 ,?is effect 9 ! case ( a circul> speck ( du/ w be t ! object disappe>s equally rapidly on ei!r side1 & does n in/antly vani% into fog1 on ei!r side pres5t+ ! bright spot appe>ance1 ?\gh n 9 s m>k$ a degree on ei!r side4 ,:5 ! object is 9 p]fect adju/m5t ! expansion ( ! outl9e is exactly ! same1 bo? )9 & )\t ! focus4 ,a diff]5t indication1 h[ev]1 is af=d$ by su* te/-objects z ! f9] diatoms1 & ! podura scale1 9 :i* we h to d ) a set ( di/9ct dots & o!r m>k+s4 ,if ! dots h a t5d5cy to run into l9es :5 ! object is )\t ! focus1 ! glasses %\ld be br\ght clos] toge!r2 on ! contr>y1 if ! l9es appe> :5 ! object is )9 ! focal po9t1 ! glasses %\ld be f>!r sep>at$4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! objective by ! screw-coll> 9 ! case ( ! podura scale %\ld be c>ri$ out 9 ! way describ$1 :5 ! foll[+ effects w be obs]v$ to take place1 usually 9 ! ord] ( _! arrangem5t4 ,fig4 #a %[s ! appe>ance ( a podura scale :5 ! adju/m5t ( ! object-glass is correct1 & ,fig4 #b %[s ! effect produc$ on ea* side ( ! exact focus4 ,fig4 #c %[s ! way 9 :i* ! m>k+s individually divide :5 all ! adju/m5ts are correct1 & :5 ! focus is alt]$ ! lea/ possible am\nt only ea* way4 ,figs4 #d & #e %[ ! two appe>ances on "o & ! o!r side ( ! be/ focus :5 ! adju/m5t is incorrect1 ,fig4 #f %[+ ! appe>ance ( ! same at its be/ focus4 ,! scales are magnifi$ #a1cjj diamet]s1 & ea* squ>e measures #jja ( an in*4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 ( f9d+ ! be/ focus ( an objective c sc>cely be accompli%$ )\t a sub-/age cond5s]4 ,x may !re=e be ( s]vice to ! /ud5t1 & to ^? :o are n dispos$ to pur*ase exp5sive =ms ( cond5s]s1 to "k t ei!r an in* or an in* & a half objective1 or convex-l5s m\nt$ on a simple wood5 r+ ) a flange1 c be arrang$ to slip 9 ! place ( ! diaphragm "u ! /age4 ,?is k9d ( cond5s] w prove to be ( consid]able value ) a #a_/b-;in*1 a #d_/aj-;in*1 & a #a_/d-;in*2 :ile a /ill m excell5t a*romatic cond5s] c be made out ( a ,/e9heil's aplanatic-l\p arrang$ to drop into ! c5tral fitt+ ( ! sub-/age4 ,z )\t a cond5s] ( "s k9d x is h>dly possible to ent] ^u any c\rse ( hi/ological or sci5tific rese>*4#dc ,work+ ,accessories4 ,,tr\ghs--,,live-,,cages--,,compressors4 ,a glass plate ) a l$ge1 & "s pieces ( ?9 glass1 al?\gh applicable = _m purposes1 are specially design$ = objects 9 fluid4 ,?us a drop ( fluid conta9+ ! object s\ght = is plac$ ^u ! slide & cov]$ by a piece ( ?9 glass2 or1 ! object be+ put ^u ! glass slide & ! ?9 glass ov] x1 ! fluid is appli$ ne> "o side1 & runs "u by capill>y attraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--,v>ley's ,live-box4 ,tr\ghs & ,live-box4--,^! are made ( v>i\s mat]ials1 glass1 vulcanite1 brass1 c41 expressly = exam9+ infusoria & live animals4 ,!y %\ld be s con/ruct$ z to admit ( ! use ( a m$ium p[]1 a #a_/b-;in* at lea/1 "u ! microscope4 ,!y %\ld also admit ( be+ easily clean$ & repair$ :5 brok52 matt]s r>ely ?\ght ( by ^? :o con/ruct !m4 ,an e>ly devis$ live-box 7,v>ley's1 ,fig4 #bjh7 consi/s ( two circul> pieces ( brass tub+1 "o slid+ ov] ! o!r c>ry+ a disc ( glass & fitt+ ov] ano!r glass ) bevell$ edges to prev5t ! fluid fl[+ away4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,ross's ,compressorium4 ,! ,compressorium is us$ = simil> purposes4 ,by a graduat$ pressure ! fluid is ?9n$ out & a high] p[] c be employ$ = ! exam9ation ( ! object4 ,ross's e>ly compressorium consi/s ( a plate ( brass ab\t ?ree in*es long1 hav+ 9 its c5tre a circle ( glass l ! bottom ( ! live-box4 ,?is piece ( glass is set 9 a frame1 ,b1 :i* slides 9 & out s t x c be remov$ = ! conv5i5ce ( prep>+ any object ^u x--"u wat] if desirable4 ,! upp] movable "p1 ,d1 is atta*$ to a screw-motion at ,c2 & at "o end ( ! brass plate1 ,a1 :i* =ms ! b$ ( ! in/rum5t1 is an upright piece ( brass groov$ s z to receive a v]tical plate1 to :i* a d[nw>d motion is giv5 by a s+le f9e screw1 surr\nd$ by a spiral spr+1 :i* elevates ! plate z soon z ! screw-pressure is remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,beck's ,p>allel-plate ,compressor4 ,beck's ,p>allel-plate ,compressor 7,fig4 #baj7 af=ds a m exact means ( regulat+ ! pressure1 & c be us$ = a v>iety ( purposes4 ,x is also easily clean$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4--,r\sselet's ,compressorium4 ,r\sselet's ,compressorium 7,fig4 #baa7 is a v effective =m = g5]al use4 ,x is s arrang$ t ! /ud5t has p]fect control ov] ! pressure to :i* ! specim5 %\ld be subject$4 ,! cov]-glass is l>ge 9 comp>ison ) t b5ea?2 be+ bevell$ causes evaporation to g on v sl[ly :ile ! pressure betwe5 ! two glass surfaces is kept p]fectly p>allel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,bott]ill's ,live-tr\gh4 ,bott]ill's ,live-tr\gh 7,fig4 #bab7 consi/s ( two brass plates screw$ toge!r by b9d+ screws1 & hold+ betwe5 !m two plates ( ?9 glass1 :i* are ma9ta9$ at a prop] di/ance by ins]t+ a semicircul> flat disc ( india-rubb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,glass ,tr\gh4 ,glass tr\ghs = *>a & polypes 7a sectional view ( "o %[n at ,fig4 #bac7 are made ( ?ree pieces ( glass1 ! bottom be+ a ?ick /rip1 & ! front 7a7 ( ?9n] glass ?an ! back 7b72 ! :ole is cem5t$ toge!r ) ,jeff]y's m>9e-glue4 ,! me?od adopt$ = conf9+ objects ne> ! front glass v>ies accord+ to circum/ances4 ,! mo/ conv5i5t is to place 9 ! tr\gh a piece ( glass wide en\gh to /& across diagonally1 z at c2 !n1 if ! object be heavi] ?an wat]1 x w s9k until /opp$ by ! glass plate4 ,at o!r times1 :5 us$ to view *>a1 ! diagonal plate may be made to press x close to ! front by means ( a w$ge ( glass or cork4 ,:5 us+ ! tr\gh ! microscope %\ld be plac$ 9 a ne>ly horizontal position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,web]'s ,slip ) ,convex ,cell = use z a ,live-tr\gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bae4--;,curr5t-slide ,live-cell4 ,cells = view+ liv+ objects1 & wat*+ _! movem5ts1 take _m =ms1 usually det]m9$ by ! mak]s = ! purposes !y are requir$ to s]ve4 ,! small] glass tr\ghs 7,figs4 #baf1 #baf;a7 are made = exam9+ ! small infusoria1 rotif]s1 c41 "s ( :i* take special =ms1 z ! d\ble or divid$ tr\gh 7,fig4 #bag7 int5d$ = view+ ! circulation ( ! blood 9 ! tail ( a small fi%1 & at ! same "t keep up a supply ( wat] & air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf;a4 ,! ,frog-plate consi/s ( a /rip ( plate-glass1 or wood1 pi]c$ ) holes on ei!r side1 ?r\gh :i* tapes are pass$ to secure ! frog 9 its place4 ,at ! extreme end is a %all[ glass tr\gh1 made to hold a suffici5t quantity ( wat] to keep ! web ( ! foot moi/ :ile "u exam9ation4 ,9 ?is way a cont9u\s view ( ! circulation ( ! blood ( ! animal is obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,gr[+ ,cells h receiv$ m att5tion f ^? :o devote att5tion to ! l[] =ms ( life1 ! con/ruction ( :i*1 = ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ a cont9u\s supply ( fre% wat] to objects "u obs]vation1 & = su/a9+ _! vital en]gy = a long p]iod1 is ( "s importance4 ,! employm5t ( live-cells is resort$ to by microscopi/s1 z d\btless !re is mu* to be discov]$ conc]n+ ! metamorphoses :i* "s ( ! l[] micro-organisms1 bo? ( plant & animal life1 pass ?r\gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,frog-plate4 ,holman's life slide consi/s ( a #c #a in* glass slide1 ) a deep oval cavity 9 ! middle to receive ! specim5 = obs]vation4 ,a %all[ oval is gr\nd & poli%$ ar\nd ! deep cavity1 =m+ a bevel4 ,f ?is bevel a f9e cut ext5ds1 to furni% fre% air to ! liv+ l[ =ms ( life :i* inv>iably seek ! bevell$ edge ( ! cavity1 ?us br++ !m )9 rea* ( ! highe/ p[]s4 ,he also contriv$ a conv5i5t =m ( 8moi/ *amb]10 or animalcule-cage 7,fig4 #bbj71 = ! purpose ( /udy+ ! gr[? ( m9ute organisms1 )\t 9 any way di/urb+ !m = a l5g!n$ p]iod4 ,?is is also f\nd useful z a dry *amb] = hold+ m9ute insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bai4--;,holman's ,life ,slide4 ,full size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--;,holman's ,moi/ ,*amb]4 ,z5tmay]'s ,holman ,syphon ,slide is us$ ei!r z a hot or cold wat] cell4 ,x %\ld be deep en\gh to hold a small fi% or newt1 & reta9 x )\t any undue pressure4 ,:5 9 use x is only necess>y to place ! animal into x 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bba71 ) "s wat]1 & secure x ) a glass cov]2 !n imm]se ! upp] tube 9 a j> ( wat]1 :ile ano!r1 at a l[] level1 ma9ta9s a curr5t4 ,:5 ! slide is on ! /age ( ! microscope1 "o j> %\ld /& on a l[] level ?an ! o!r1 ! slide be+ made ! highe/ "p ( ! syphon4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is suffici5t to keep ! cov]-glass 9 its place4 ,! exam9ation ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( infusorial life--rotif]s1 = in/ance--is facilitat$ by ! addition ( ! smalle/ p>ticle ( col\r+ matt]1 ei!r c>m9e or indigo4 ,a small quantity ( ei!r ( ^! col\rs %\ld be rubb$ up 9 a little wat] 9 a wat*-glass1 & a portion tak5 up on ! po9t ( a bru%1 & ! bru% run along ! edge ( ! cov]-glass2 suffici5t w be left beh9d to b>ely t+e ! wat] ) ! col\r1 & ?is gradually di/ributes itself ov] ! rotif]s4 ,"u ! microscope ?is m9ute quantity w be se5 l a ris+ cl\d ( du/1 & z x approa*es a rotif] x is :irl$ r\nd 9 diff]5t curves1 %[+ at once ! action ( its wond]fully rapid cilia4 ,?is col\r+ matt] appe>s to be dev\r$1 z x may be trac$ f ! m\? to ! dige/ive canal4 ,monads may be detect$ by ?is means1 & ! small] =ms ( alg1 ,eugl5a viridis & ,protococcus pluvialis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4--;,holman's ,syphon ,slide4 ,dipp+-tubes4--,9 deal+ ) infusorial or monad life x is conv5i5t to keep a /ock-bottle ready = _! reception1 & 9 a light fav\rable to heal?4 ,:5 a live specim5 is requir$ = exam9ation1 ! dipp+-tube is br\ght into requisition4 ,^! tubes are op5 at bo? ends1 & v>y 9 l5g? & diamet]4 ,_! ends %\ld be nicely r\nd$ (f 9 ! flame ( a bl[-pipe2 9 =m ei!r /raight1 or b5t & drawn out to a f9e po9t1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,:5 any special specim5 is requir$ = exam9ation1 !n "o ( ! tubes mu/ be pass$ d[n into ! wat]1 ! upp] orifice hav+ be5 previ\sly clos$ by ! =ef+]1 & kept tightly press$1 until its l[] orifice comes 9 contact ) ! object4 ,on ! f+] be+ remov$1 ! wat] ru%es up & c>ries ! creature s\ght = ) x4 ,! f+] is once m replac$ at ! top ( ! tube2 x is !n lift$ out1 & ! cont5ts deposit$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! glass cells describ$4 ,tubes ) india-rubb] cov]s c be _h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,dipp+-tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--,/ock-bottle4 ,moi/ & ,w>m ,/ages4--,9 addition to ! moi/ cells & *amb]s describ$ x is (t5 f\nd necess>y 9 work+ out ! hi/ories ( m9ute organisms to keep !m = "s "t "u obs]vation1 & z f> z possible 9 an undi/urb$ condition1 & x is equally necess>y to prev5t evaporation ( ! wat] 9 :i* !y are imm]s$4 ,"o ( ! be/ w>m /ages is t kn[n z ,maddox's gr[+ /age2 ?is c be _h ( any optician4 ,m elaborate adaptions are requir$ = ! /udy ( special organisms1 & = exp]im5tal rese>*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,b>tley's ,w>m ,/age4 ,9 t case ,b>tley's ,w>m ,/age 7,fig4 #bbd7 is recomm5d$4 ,!re are o!r =ms ( w>m /ages 9 use1 _m ( an inexp5sive k9d & readily adaptable to any /age4 ,b>tley's has prov$ useful2 x consi/s ( a vessel1 ,e1 ?ree p>ts fill$ ) wat] & support$ on a r+ /&4 ,?is may be kept at any temp]ature by ! small _s-lamp1 ,c2 a syphon tube d conveys ! w>m wat] along f1 & ?r\gh ! b5t tub+ :i* surr\nds ! object "u obs]vation on ! /age1 ,d1 & !n passes (f ?r\gh ! op5 end1 ,c1 into ! receptacle1 ,b1 plac$ to receive ! ov]fl[4 ,/eam c be us$ = heat+1 or ic$ wat] = obs]v+ ! effects ( cold ^u ! organism4 ,a simple =m ( w>m /age may be made ( an oblong copp] plate1 two in*es long by "o wide1 f "o side ( :i* a rod ( ! same mat]ial projects4 ,! plate has a r\nd ap]ture1 ! c5tre half an in* 9 diamet]1 & is fa/5$ to an ord9>y slide ) seal+-wax4 ,! drop or object to be exam9$ is plac$ on a l>ge-siz$ cov]-glass & cov]$ ov] ) a small] "o4 ,olive oil or vasel9e is pa9t$ r\nd ! edge ( ! small] "o to prev5t evaporation1 & ! prep>ation is plac$ ov] ! ap]ture 9 ! plate4 ,! slide be>+ ! copp] plate is clamp$ to ! /age ( ! microscope4 ,! flame ( ! _s-lamp is appli$ to ! extremity ( ! rod1 & ! heat is conduct$ to ! plate & !nce transmitt$ to ! specim54 ,9 ord] t ! temp]ature ( ! copp] plate may be approximately t ( ! body1 ! lamp is s adju/$ t a fragm5t ( cacao butt] & wax plac$ close to ! prep>ation is melt$4 ,pr(essors ,/rick] & ,s*f] h con/ruct$ w>m /ages = accurate obs]vations1 & :i* fully answ] e purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--,/rick]'s ,w>m ,/age4 ,/rick]'s ,/age 7,fig4 #bbe7 consi/s ( a rectangul> box ) a c5tral op5+1 ,c1 p]mitt+ ! passage ( light ?r\gh ! specim5 "u exam9ation4 ,! wat] makes its exit & entrance at ! side tubes ,b ,b1 & ! temp]ature is indicat$ by a !rmomet] 9 front4 ,9 ?is app>atus ei!r w>m or cold wat] c be cont9u\sly us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--,s*f]'s ,w>m ,/age4 ,s*f]'s app>atus 7,fig4 #bbf7 consi/s ( a vessel fill$ ) wat] 7se5 ne> ! /age7 :i* has be5 fir/ boil$ to expel ! air1 & !n heat$ by means ( a gas flame4 ,! w>m wat] asc5ds ! india-rubb] tub+ to ! brass box on ! /age4 ,! box is pi]c$ by a tubul> ap]ture to admit light to ! object1 & has an exit tube by :i* ! cool$ wat] f ! /age returns by ano!r piece ( tub+ to be reheat$ by ! gas flame4 ,!re is a gas-regulator1 by means ( :i* any temp]ature c be ma9ta9$4 ,me?ods ( ,prep>+1 ,h>d5+1 ,/a9+ & ,section ,cutt+4 ,num]\s me?ods are employ$ = ! prep>ation1 h>d5+1 /a9+1 & section cutt+ ( animal & vegetable tissues = ! microscope1 ! details ( :i* are modifi$1 or v>i$ z may be f\nd ne$ful1 f "t to "t1 by ^? ^: intimate acqua9tance ) ! subject entitles !m to make innovations & *anges 9 ?is v important dep>tm5t ( microscopy4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! orig9al work]1 =mul & me?ods w only be reg>d$ z f+]-po/s po9t+ out a means ( sav+ "t 9 turn+ ov] pages to f9d ?is or t special me?od ( /a9+4 ,= ?is p>ticul> reason ,i h collect$ all ! mo/ accr$it$ =mul toge!r 9 an ,app5dix at ! end ( ! book1 & arrang$ !m alphabetically = ready ref]5ce4 ,z to section cutt+1 ! /ud5t w d well to practise himself 9 mak+ dissections1 ?ick & ?9 sections1 ( vegetable & animal sub/ances4 ,! m$ical /ud5t w require no advice on ?is po9t1 z ! use ( ! scalpel1 & ^? in/rum5ts ne$$ = microscopical "w1 =m an important "p ( 8 education4 ,( all ! in/rum5ts contriv$ = delicate dissections1 none are m s]viceable ?an ^? :i* ! /ud5t may make = himself out ( ord9>y ne$les4 ,^! may be fix$ 9 h&les z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bbi1 9 addition to :i*1 a pair ( scissors & =ceps1 & a few small knives1 su* z ^? us$ 9 eye-op]ations1 w prove mo/ suitable4 ,! d\ble-blad$ scissors repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bbg1 ) curv$ blades1 are br\ght into use = cutt+ vegetable & o!r s(t /ructures1 ! disadvantage att5dant ^u ! use ( :i* is ow+ to ! curvature ( ! blades2 :5 deal+ ) flat surfaces1 ! middle ( ! section is left too ?ick to exhibit /ructure4 ,! d\ble-blad$ knife ( ,pr(essor ,val5t9 0 =m]ly held 9 high e/imation by ! microscopi/1 b ?is has be5 almo/ sup]s$$ by ! microtome1 :i* has tak5 ! place ( all o!r in/rum5ts1 s9ce by its aid uni=m s]ies ( ne>ly all sub/ances c be cut4 ,! /&>d unit ( a p]fect section cutt]1 ( any k9d1 has be5 fix$ by ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society at ! "o-?\s&? ( a millimetre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--,section ,scissors & ,=ceps4 ,! use ( ! razor = cutt+ sections has n be5 :olly ab&on$1 ! me?od ( us+ :i* is z foll[s3--,take ! tissue betwe5 ! ?umb & f+] ( ! left h&1 hold ! f+] horizontally1 s t its upp] surface may =m a re/ = ! razor to glide ^u1 take ! razor firmly1 & keep ! h&le 9 a l9e ) ! blade1 !n draw x ?r\gh ! tissue f heel to po9t & t[>ds y\rself4 ,:ile cutt+ keep ! razor well wett$ ) dilut$ me?ylat$ _s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--;,dissect+ ,knives4 ,"s prep>ation is requir$ = cutt+ sections ) ! s+le microtome4 ,! sub/ance to be cut mu/ be emb$d$ 9 "s o!r mat]ial1 z c>rot1 turnip1 potato1 ald] pi?1 p>aff91 or ?ick gum1 ) ei!r ( :i* ! cyl9d] or well ( ! microtome mu/ be s ne>ly fill$ z to leave only an excavation 9 ! c5tre = ! specim5 to be op]at$ ^u to occupy4 ,! v>i\s =ms ( microtomes 9 use1 & ! selection ( ! mo/ suitable1 is !re=e a matt] ( "s difficulty4 ,i mu/ cont5t myself by p>ticul>is+ two or ?ree typical =ms 9 g5]al use4 ,z all ! sub/ances int5d$ = cutt+ require prep>ation1 x w be fir/ necess>y to att5d to ! foll[+ directions giv5 by "o exp]i5c$ 9 section cutt+1 ,mr4 ,m4 ,j4 ,cole#dd3--7a7 ,always use fre% tissues4 7#b7 ,cut ! organs into small pieces ) a %>p knife4 7#c7 ,nev] wa% a specim5 9 wat]2 :5 x is necess>y to remove any matt]1 all[ "s weak salt solution to fl[ ov] ! surface ( ! tissue1 or wa% x 9 "s h>d5+ re-ag5t4 7#d7 ,all specim5s %\ld be h>d5$ 9 a l>ge quantity ( ! re-ag5t2 too _m pieces %\ld n be put into ! same bottle1 & keep !m 9 a cool place4 7#e7 ,9 all cases ! h>d5+ process mu/ be complet$ 9 spirits4 7#f7 ,label ! bottles1 /at+ ! cont5ts1 ! h>d5+ fluid us$1 & :5 *ang$4 ,att5tion to details is necess>y1 z if h>d5+ is neglect$1 good sections _c be made4 ,emb$d+ 9 ,p>aff9 ,wax or ,l>d4--,melt toge!r1 by ! aid ( g5tle heat1 f\r p>ts ( solid p>aff9 & "o "p ( l>d4 ,a quantity ( ?is may be made & kept ready = use4 ,melt ! p>aff9 mass ov] a wat] ba?1 take ! specim51 & dry x betwe5 ! folds ( a clo? to remove ! _s1 s t ! p>aff9 may adh]e to its surface1 place x 9 a small *ip-box1 9 ! desir$ position1 & p\r 9 en\gh melt$ p>aff9 to cov] x1 !n set aside to solidify2 :5 q cold break away ! box1 & cut sections f ! emb$d$ mass ) a %>p razor4 ,to infiltrate a tissue ) p>aff91 place ! specim5 9 absolute alcohol or *lor(orm = an h\r or two1 !n transf] to a ba? ( melt$ p>aff91 at its melt+ po9t 7ab\t #aaj ,f471 & keep x at ?is temp]ature = sev]al h\rs1 s t ! p>aff9 may p5etrate to ! middle ( ! tissue4 ,!n remove ! specim5 f ! p>aff9 & put x into a small *ip-box1 p\r 9 en\gh p>aff9 to cov] x1 & set aside to cool4 ,:5 q cold1 make sections z be=e1 ) a razor1 or fix x into a microtome1 ) a little melt$ p>aff94 ,! sections :5 cut mu/ be plac$ 9 turp5t9e to remove ! p>aff91 & !n into absolute alcohol to remove ! turp5t9e1 & f9ally 9 di/ill$ wat] to remove ! alcohol1 :5 !y may be =?) /a9$4 ,x is (t5 f\nd bett] to /a9 ! tissue 9 bulk be=e emb$d+4 ,9 ?is case ! sections w only require ! turp5t9e to dissolve away ! p>aff91 & may !n be m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,h>d5+ & ,prep>+ ,animal ,tissues = section cutt+ & microscopical exam9ation4--,fre% tissues are n well suit$ = microscopical exam9ation1 b x is sometimes advisable to obs]ve ! appe>ances ( a fre% specim51 especially if x is suspect$ to conta9 amaloid bodies or p>asites4 ,x w !n be necess>y to tease out a small portion ( ! tissue imm]s$ 9 a weak solution ( salt & wat] by ! aid ( a pair ( f9e ne$les 7,fig4 #bbi7 & ! dissect+ microscope 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,ne$les = teas+ out ,sections4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--;,dissect+ ,microscope4 ,! mo/ important po9t 9 connection ) an in/rum5t ( ?is k9d is1 t x af=ds firm & conv5i5t re/s = ! h&s1 & %\ld n be rais$ too high f ! table4 ,! /age %\ld ei!r be made ( glass1 or provid$ ) a glass di% = dissect+ "u wat]1 or pres]vative fluid4 ,a pair ( aplanatic l5ses1 m\nt$ on a focuss+ b> z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bcj1 w be f\nd ! mo/ conv5i5t to "w )4 ,inve/igations ( ?is nature %\ld be always c>ri$ out 9 ! mann] describ$1 b prep>ations ( ! k9d _c be pres]v$ any l5g? ( "t1 unless prop]ly h>d5$ 9 _s or ,=mal9 solution4 ,! me?od ( teas+ out "u ! light ( a cond5s+ l5s is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4--,me?od ( teas+ out ,muscul> ,fibre1 c41 9 a fluid m$ium "u ,cond5s$ ,light4 ,x may be z well to /ate at ! outset t physiological & pa?ological tissues c be h>d5$ by imm]sion 9 me?ylat$ _s alone1 or a saturat$ solution ( picric acid 9 me?ylat$ _s 9 ab\t a week1 & x is said to yield satisfactory results1 ev5 "s ( ! tissues be+ ready 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! only drawback is t sections ?us quickly h>d5$ mu/ be /a9$ ) picro-c>m9e4 ,b1 :atev] me?od ( h>d5+ adopt$1 ! tissue %\ld be wa%$ by means ( a /ream ( wat] = half an h\r1 to remove all traces ( ! h>d5+ ag5t1 & on its removal press$ betwe5 folds ( cotton clo? or f9e ,sw$i% filt]+ pap]4 ,! pr9cipal h>d5+ re-ag5ts usually kept 9 bulk ready = use are ! foll[+3-- ,absolute ,alcohol4--,?is is suitable = ! int]nal organs ( animals1 gl&s1 c4 ,^! organs mu/ be p]fectly fre%1 & %\ld be cut into small pieces1 s t ! alcohol may p5etrate !m z quickly z possible4 ,! h>d5+ is usually complete 9 a %ort "t4#de ,*romic ,acid & ,_s4--,*romic acid "o-six? p] c5t41 wat] solution two p>ts1 & me?ylat$ _s "o "p4 ,?is reag5t h>d5s 9 ab\t t5 days4 ,!n transf] to me?ylat$ _s1 :i* %\ld be *ang$ e day until all col\r is dis*>g$ f ! tissue4 ,?is is a suitable reag5t = ! prep>ation ( c>tilage1 n]ve trunks1 he>t1 lips1 blood vessels1 tra*ea1 lungs1 tongue1 inte/9es1 & gullet4 ,potassium ,bi*romate4---,make a two p] c5t4 wat] solution ( ?is salt4 ,?is w h>d5 specim5s 9 ab\t ?ree weeks4 ,!n transf] ! prep>ation to me?ylat$ _s1 & *ange x e day until all col\r is dis*>g$4 ,?is is suitable = sp9al cord1 m$ulla1 c]ebellum1 & c]ebrum4 ,mll]'s ,fluid4--,bi*romate ( pota% #cj gra9s1 sulphate ( soda #ae gra9s1 di/ill$ wat] #c-a_/b ounces4 ,?is h>d5s 9 f ?ree to six weeks4 ,!n transf]1 z be=e1 to me?ylat$ spirits1 & *ange x e day until col\r ceases to appe>4 ,mo/ suitable = lymphatic gl&s1 eye-ball & its int]nal /ructures1 z well z = t5dons1 & ?ymus gl&4 ,me?ylat$ ,_s may be g5]ally employ$1 b x has a t5d5cy to %r9k "s tissues too mu*2 x h>d5s 9 ab\t t5 days4 ,x is usual to *ange ! _s daily1 = ! fir/ ?ree days at lea/4 ,sk91 mamm>y gl&1 supra-r5al gl&s1 tonsils1 & all inject$ organs may be h>d5$ 9 x4 7,see note on ! adult]ation ( me?ylat$ _s ) rack-oil1 :i* utt]ly spoils x = use47 ,decalcify+ solution = bones & tee?4 ,take "o-six? p] c5t4 wat]y solution ( *romic acid1 & to e measur$ ounce add five drops ( nitric acid4 ,?is reag5t w s(t5 ! femur ( any small animal 9 ab\t ?ree weeks2 l>g] require a long] "t4 ,*ange ! fluid sev]al times1 & te/ its action by runn+ a ne$le ?r\gh ! ?icke/ "p ( ! bone4 ,%\ld x n pass ?r\gh easily1 !n cont9ue ! process until x does4 ,:5 s(t en\gh transf] to wat]1 let x soak = an h\r or two1 !n p\r (f ! wat] & add t5 p] c5t4 solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 & soak = twelve h\rs to remove all trace ( acid4 ,wa% aga9 9 wat]1 & transf] to me?ylat$ _s until requir$4 ,tee? require a l>ge quantity ( ! decalcify+ solution = s(t5+4 ,microtomes4--,! simple/ =m ( 8h&-cutt+ ma*9e0 is t work$ by a screw1 :i* raises ! prep>ation1 & at ! same "t regulates ! f95ess ( ! section4 ,:5 a numb] ( sections are requir$1 or :5 a complete s]ies ( sections ( an organ is desir$1 ,cole's simple microtome 7,fig4 #bcc7 is 9 e way adapt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--;,h& ,section ,cutt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--;,cole's ,section ,cutt+ ,microtome4 ,! me?od ( us+ x is z foll[s3--,screw ! microtome firmly to ! table1 & ) ! brass tube suppli$ ) ! microtome1 pun* out a cyl9d] ( c>rot to fit into ! well4 ,cut ?is 9 half longitud9ally1 & scrape out en\gh space 9 "o half ( ! c>rot to take ! specim52 !n place ! o!r half ( c>rot 9 position1 & make sure t ! specim5 is held firmly betwe5 !m1 b x mu/ n be cru%$4 ,n[ put ! cyl9d] ( c>rot & specim5 into ! well ( ! microtome & comm5ce cutt+ ! section4 ,a good razor w d1 b x is bett] to use ! knife :i* ,messrs4 ,watson supply ) ! microtome4 ,:ile cutt+ keep ! knife & plate ( ! microtome well wett$ ) dilute me?ylat$ _s1 & z sections are cut place !m 9 a sauc] ( dilute _s4 ,a numb] ( sections may be cut & pres]v$ 9 me?ylat$ _s until requir$ = exam9ation or m\nt+4 ,:5 a specim5 has a v irregul> outl9e1 x _c be v successfully emb$d$ 9 c>rot2 p>aff9 w !n be f\nd to be m suitable4 ,place ! tissue 9 ! well ( ! microtome 9 ! prop] position1 p\r 9 en\gh melt$ p>aff9 to cov] x1 & put x by to get cold & h>d be=e attempt+ to cut sections4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,! ,cambridge ,rock+ ,microtome4 ,cambridge ,rock+ ,microtome4--,?is new patt]n ,cambridge ,rock+ ,microtome 7,fig4 #bcd7 possesses advantages ov] o!r in/rum5ts 9 use = cutt+ flat sections1 & n p>ts ( a cyl9drical surface4 ,! tube conta9+ ! p>aff9 is #cj millimetres 9 int]nal diamet] in/ead ( #bj millimetres1 z 9 ! e>li] =ms4 ,! =w>d movem5t is also increas$1 s t an object #ab millimetres long c be cut ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g?4 ,x is provid$ ) a divid+ arc = read+ (f ! ?ickness ( ! section 9 ?\s&?s ( a millimetre4 ,! razor may be fix$ ei!r ) its edge at "r angles to ! direction ( motion ( ! object1 or diagonally1 = giv+ a slic+ cut4 ,! object c also be rais$ & fix$ 9 position cle> ( ! razor4 ,?is microtome has bo? /ead9ess & /iffness 9 its geometrical arrangem5t & be>+s1 :ile ! simplicity & effici5cy ( its me*anism = advanc+ ! section betwe5 ea* /roke ( ! razor is rem>kable4 ,al?\gh x may appe> m complicat$ at fir/ sight1 x is f\nd n to be s :5 br\ght into use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,ca?c>t's ,microtome4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce;a4--,section ,cutt+ ,hold] = ,microtome4 ,ca?c>t's ,freez+ ,microtome4--,?is is a conv5i5t & useful microtome = freez+ purposes4 ,s9ce its fir/ introduction x has be5 mu* improv$4 ,! clamp+ arrangem5ts give /ead9ess1 & ! pr9cipal screw is m effective2 ! freez+-plate is circul>1 & ! arrangem5ts made = prev5t+ ! e!r f rea*+ ! upp] plate secures ! object 9 view4 ,?is in/rum5t c n[ be us$ = emb$d+ z well z freez+4 ,! directions = freez+ are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,place a few drops ( mucilage 7"o "p gum to ?ree p>ts wat]7 on ! z9c plate4 #b4 ,take a piece ( ! tissue to be cut1 ( ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 & press x into ! gum4 #c4 ,fill ! e!r bottle ) anhydr\s me?ylat$ e!r1 & pu% ! spray po9ts into _! socket4 ,all _s mu/ ( c\rse h be5 previ\sly remov$ by soak+ = a night 9 wat]4 ,! tissue %\ld aft]w>ds be soak$ 9 gum = a l "t be=e be+ cut4 ,"w ! spray bell[s briskly until ! gum beg9s to freeze2 aft] ?is "w m g5tly4 ,be always c>eful to bru% (f ! froz5 vap\r :i*1 9 a moi/ atmosph]e1 may collect bel[ ! z9c plate4 ,if ! e!r %\ld t5d to collect 9 drops bel[ ! plate1 "w ! bell[s sl[]4 #e4 ,raise ! tissue by turn+ ! mill$ head1 & cut by slid+ ! knife along ! glass plates4 #f4 ,aft] use1 be c>eful to wipe ! :ole in/rum5t clean4 #g4 ,%\ld ! e!r po9t become *ok$1 cle> by means ( ! f9e wire provid$ = ! purpose4 #h4 ,! in/rum5t is int5d$ = use ) me?ylat$ sulphuric e!r4 #i4 ,9 clamp+ ! in/rum5t to a table1 or o!r support1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! z9c plate is 9 a horizontal position4 ,if ! plate be n horizontal1 ! gum w t5d to run to "o side4 ,! arrangem5t made = cutt+ & emb$d+ sections consi/s ( a cyl9drical tube 7,fig4 #bce;a7 fitt+ into ! pr9cipal well ( ! microtome1 )9 :i* is a h+$ plate1 ^u :i* ! screw acts1 z 9 an ord9>y vice4 ,to br+ ?is into use ! freez+ app>atus mu/ be fir/ remov$1 & ! emb$d+ tube plac$ 9 ! well1 & firmly press$ into place4 ,/a9+ ,animal ,/ructures4 ,specific /a9s are *iefly employ$ to assi/ ! eye 9 di/+ui%+ "o elem5t>y tissue f ano!r4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to /a9 all /ructures1 z c]ta9 p>ts are se5 to h a special aff9ity = "o col\r+ ag5t r ?an ano!r1 :]eby !y become m deeply /a9$1 & consequ5tly m cle>ly diff]5tiat$4 ,= /a9+ animal /ructures1 borax1 c>m9e1 & hmatoxyl9 are m frequ5tly employ$ ?an o!rs4 ,! =mul = ea* w be f\nd 9 ! ,app5dix 8,=mul & ,me?ods40 ,/a9+ ,process4--,place ! section 9 di/ill$ wat] to wa% away ! alcohol2 place a little ( ! c>m9e 9 a wat* glass1 & imm]se ! section 9 x = f\r or five m9utes2 !n remove x to a solution compos$ ( me?ylat$ _s five p>ts1 hydro*loric acid "o "p2 %ake well toge!r4 ,?is solution %\ld be kept ready = use4 ,imm]se ! section 9 ?is solution & leave x to soak = ab\t five or t5 m9utes if ov]-/a9$1 until ! desir$ t9t has be5 obta9$4 ,sections ( sk9 & fibr\s tissue may be left until ne>ly all col\r is remov$1 ! gl&s & hair follicles w !n be br\ght out m cle>ly4 ,! section mu/ be transf]r$ to me?ylat$ _s to remove all traces ( acid1 !n to oil ( cloves conta9$ 9 a wat* glass1 lift ! section f ! me?ylat$ _s by "o ( ! lift]s 7,fig4 #bej71 & c>efully float x on ! oil1 9 :i* x %\ld be all[$ to rema9 = ab\t five m9utes4 ,?is is ! cle>+ process1 ! object ( :i* is to remove ! _s & prep>e ! section = m\nt+ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,fir/1 h[ev]1 place ! section 9 filt]$ turp5t9e to wa% away ! oil ( cloves2 ?is is f\nd to answ] bett] ?an ano!r plan adopt$1 t ( remov+ ! section f ! oil ( cloves & m\nt+ x 9 balsam direct4 ,! oil1 h[ev]1 has a t5d5cy to d>k5 ! balsam4 ,logwood or ,hmatoxyl9 ,/a9s 7see ,app5dix = ! sev]al =mul74 ,/a9+ by ?is ag5t is effect$ z foll[s3-- ,aft] ! specim5 has be5 h>d5$ 9 any ( ! *romic acid solutions 9 use1 transf] x to a sev5 p] c5t4 wat]y solution ( bic>bonate ( soda = ab\t five m9utes1 !n wa% well 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,_s prep>$ prep>ations d n require to be transf]r$ to ! soda solution1 b all sections mu/ be wa%$ be=e !y are transf]r$ to ! logwood /a94 ,to a wat* glass ne>ly full ( di/ill$ wat] add t5 or tw5ty drops ( ! logwood /a91 9 :i* x %\ld rema9 = tw5ty or ?irty m9utes4 ,wa% well ) ! ord9>y tap wat]1 :i* w fix ! dye & cause x to become blue4 ,dehydrate 9 me?ylat$ _s1 cle> 9 clove oil1 & m\nt 9 damm> or ,canada balsam4 ,d\ble-/a9+ ) ,hmatoxyl9 & ,ros94--,/a9 ! section z direct$ above1 !n place x 9 an alcoholic solution ( ros91 ab\t "o gramme ( ros9 to an ounce ( me?ylat$ _s1 & let x soak = a few m9utes2 wa% well 9 me?ylat$ _s1 cle> 9 oil ( cloves1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,canada balsam %\ld be prep>$ = use z foll[s3--,"o ounce ( dri$ balsam to "o fluid ounce ( pure b5zole2 dissolve1 & keep 9 an outside /opp]$ bottle4 ,cle> ! section 9 clove oil1 & place x 9 turp5t9e1 clean a cov]-glass & slide1 place a few drops ( balsam on ! c5tre ( ! latt]1 take ! section f ! turp5t9e on a lift]1 all[ ! excess ( turp5t9e to dra9 away1 & ) a ne$le-po9t lift ! section on to ! balsam slide4 ,n[ take up ! cov]-glass ) a pair ( =ceps 7,fig4 #bcf71 & br+ its edge 9 contact ) ! balsam1 ease x d[n c>efully z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bcg1 s t no air bubbles are enclos$1 & ) ! ne$le po9t press ! surface ( ! cov] until ! section lies q smoo?ly & flat1 & ! excess ( balsam is press$ out4 ,! slide %\ld n[ be transf]r$ to ! w>m-*amb]1 & !re all[$ to rema9 = a day or two1 or until set & h>d5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--;,=ceps = ,m\nt+4 ,any exud$ balsam may be wa%$ away ) b5zole & a s(t camel's hair bru%2 !n dry ! slide ) an old piece ( l95 clo?1 & apply a r+ ( cem5t or ,japann]'s gold size4 ,o!r me?ods = /a9+ & m\nt+ w be f\nd to answ] q z well--t ( ,b5eke's is a useful "o = /a9+ connective tissue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--,mode ( plac+ ,glass ,cov] on ,object4 ,= /a9+ connective tissue a modification ( ,weig]t's me?od ( /a9+ fibr9e is resort$ to4 ,portions ( tissue t h be5 fix$ 9 alcohol hav+ be5 emb$d$ 9 p>aff9 & cut1 ! sections are deta*$ & plac$ on glass slides1 & /a9$ = t5 or tw5ty m9utes ) g5tian violet1 t5 p>ts1 well %ak5 ) wat] #ajj p>ts2 filt]1 & add five to t5 p>ts ( a conc5trat$ alcoholic g5tian violet solution4 ,aft]w>ds treat = "o m9ute ) lugol solution1 ( a port w9e t9t1 dry ) filt] pap] & decol\rise ) anil9e xylol 7anil9e oil two p>ts & xylol ?ree p>ts74 ,decol\risation hav+ be5 /opp$ at ! "r po9t 7judg$ f exp]i5ce7 m\nt ! sections 9 xylol balsam4 ,! fibres ( ! connective tissue %\ld appe> /a9$ ( v>i\s %ades ( violet4 ,d\ble ,/a9+ nucleat$ blood corpuscles4 ,two k9ds ( /a9+ ag5ts are requir$4 ,/a9 ,a3 dissolve five grammes ( ros9 9 half an ounce ( di/ill$ wat]1 & add half an ounce ( rectifi$ alcohol4 ,/a9 ,b3 dissolve five grammes ( me?yl gre5 9 an ounce ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,place a drop ( frog's blood on a glass slide1 & ) ! edge ( ano!r slide spread x ev5ly ov] ! c5tre ( ! slip1 & put x away to dry2 :5 q dry flood ! slide ) /a9 ,a = ?ree m9utes1 & wa% ) wat]1 n[ flood ! slide ) ,/a9 ,b = five m9utes1 wa% aga9 ) wat]1 & all[ ! slide to dry4 ,apply a drop ( ! prep>$ ,canada balsam & a cov]-glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4--,%adbolt's ,turn-table4 ,! blood ( su* mammals z are non-nucleat$ %\ld be treat$ 9 a slightly diff]5t way4 ,spread a drop or two ( blood on a slide & dry x quickly2 !n put ! slide on ,%adbolt's turn-table 7,fig4 #bch7 & run a r+ ( cem5t ar\nd x2 all[ ?is "t to dry1 & !n apply a second coat+1 & be=e ?is becomes q dry place on x a clean glass cov]1 & press x d[n g5tly ) "o ( ! f9e ne$les 7,fig4 #bbi71 until firmly adh]5t4 ,epi!lium4--,remove f ! m\? ( a frog by scrap+ "s squam\s epi!lium2 ! column> mu/ be tak5 f ! /oma*2 place x 9 glyc]9e1 or ,f>rant's solution on ! slide2 apply a cov]-glass1 & ) ! po9t ( ! ne$le press x d[n until ! epi!lium cells are sep>at$ & spread ev5ly ov] ! slide4 ,set ?is aside = a day or two1 !n wa% away any ( ! m$ium :i* may h escap$2 dry ! slide1 & run a r+ ( cem5t ar\nd ! edges1 on ! turn-table4 ,portions ( ! inte/9e ( a rabbit or o!r animal may be treat$ 9 ! same way4 ,if x is wi%$ to make p]man5t specim5s ( su* /ructures1 ! inte/9e mu/ be h>d5$ 9 a two p] c5t4 solution ( bi*romate ( pota% = a c\ple ( days1 !n wa%$ until all col\r is dis*>g$1 & remov$ to a solution ( picro-c>m9e = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 aft] :i* all[ ! /a9 to dra9 away1 :5 x w be ready = m\nt+4 ,by ! aid ( ! h&y little spr+ clip 7,fig4 #bci71 objects ( delicacy :5 m\nt$ may be left to dry & h>d5 = any l5g? ( "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4--,spr+-clip = ,m\nt+4 ,/rip$ muscul> fibre1 tak5 f ! pig1 mu/ be teas$ out 9 a two p] c5t4 solution ( bi*romate ( pota%1 9 :i* x %\ld rema9 = two or ?ree weeks1 :5 x may be transf]r$ to me?ylat$ _s1 & all[$ to rema9 until requir$ = m\nt+4 ,soak a piece 9 wat] to remove ! _s1 place a small fragm5t on a slide 9 a few drops ( wat]1 & ) a c\ple ( ne$les tease ! tissue up1 s z to sep>ate ! fibres4 ,dra9 away ! wat]1 & apply a drop or two ( ,f>rant's m$ium & a cov]-glass1 :i* cem5t d[n z be=e direct$4 ,fibr\s tissue may be s]v$ 9 ! same way4 ,yell[ ela/ic tissue mu/ be fir/ plac$ 9 a solution ( *romic acid & _s = t5 days1 & !n treat$ z direct$ = muscul> fibre4 ,non-/riat$ ,muscle4--,a piece ( ! inte/9e ( a rabbit %\ld be /eep$ 9 *romic acid & _s = t5 days1 !n wa%$ 9 wat]2 /rip (f a ?9 lay] ( ! muscul> coat1 & /a9 9 hmatoxyl9 solution4 ,well wa% 9 ord9>y wat] until ! col\r *anges to blue1 :5 x w be fit = m\nt+4 ,place a fragm5t on a slide & a drop ( wat]1 & c>efully sep>ate ! fibres ) a pair ( ne$les4 ,dra9 (f ! wat]1 z x is n[ ready = m\nt+1 place on slide1 & add a drop or two ( ,f>rant's m$ium1 & place on ! cov]-glass4 ,n]ve ,tissue4--,dissect out ! l>ge sciatic n]ve f a frog's ?igh1 & /ret* x on a small piece ( wood1 to :i* p9 bo? ends ( ! n]ve1 & transf] x to a "o p] c5t4 solution ( osmic acid = an h\r or two4 ,wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]2 tease up a small fragm5t on a slide 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bdj71 & apply a drop or two ( ,f>rant's solution & cov]-glass4 ,tissues conta9+ air %\ld be soak$ 9 wat] t has be5 boil$ = t5 m9utes2 ?is w displace ! air4 7,= ,f>rant's m$ium1 see ,app5dix47 ,glyc]9e ,jelly4--,dissolve "o ounce ( ,fr5* gelat9e 9 six ounces ( di/ill$ wat]1 & melt toge!r 9 a hot-wat] ba?4 ,:5 q dissolv$1 add f\r ounces ( glyc]9e1 & a few drops ( creosote or c>bolic acid4 ,filt] ?r\gh :ite filt]+ pap] :ile w>m1 & keep 9 a capp$ bottle4 ,?is may be us$ in/ead ( ,f>rant's solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,me?od ( ,teas+ out ,tissue4 ,nitrate ( silv] d>k5s by exposure2 x is us$ 9 a half p] c5t4 wat]y solution4 ,specim5s to be act$ ^u %\ld be wa%$ 9 di/ill$ wat]1 to remove e trace ( sodium *loride1 & !n /eep$ 9 ! silv] solution = "s two or ?ree m9utes1 aft] :i* !y %\ld be aga9 wa%$ until !y cease to turn milky2 !n place !m 9 glyc]9e & expose !m to ! action ( light until !y assume a d>k br[n col\r1 :5 !y %\ld be m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e or glyc]9e jelly4 ,by means ( ?is /a9 ! endo!lial cells ( ! lymphatics1 blood vessels1 c41 & ! nodes ( ,ranvi]1 con/rictions 9 m$ull>y n]ves1 are r5d]$ visible4 ,sections ( any ( ^! may subsequ5tly be /a9$ by logwood or c>m9e4 ,sev]al me?ods h be5 adopt$ = /a9+ ) gold *loride4 ,dr4 ,kle9's & ,pr(essor ,s*f]'s are among ! be/4 ,dr4 ,kle9's me?od ( %[+ ! n]ves ( ! cornea is z foll[s3--,remove ! cornea )9 fifte5 m9utes ( dea?2 place x 9 a half p] c5t4 *loride ( gold solution = half an h\r1 or an h\r2 wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & expose to ! light = a few days2 9 ! meantime occasionally *ange ! wat]4 ,!n imm]se x 9 glyc]9e & di/ill$ wat]1 9 ! proportion ( "o to two2 la/ly1 place x 9 wat]1 & bru% g5tly ) a sable p5cil to remove any precipitate1 :5 x w be fit = m\nt+ 9 glyc]9e4 ,! col\r ( ! cornea %\ld be grey-violet4 ,s*f] adopts ano!r me?od--a d\ble *loride ( gold & potassium solution4 ,osmic acid1 fir/ us$ by ,s*ultze1 is useful = ! demon/ration ( fatty matt]s1 all ( :i* x col\rs black2 x is also valuable = c]ta9 n]ve prep>ations4 ,specim5s %\ld be all[$ to rema9 9 a "o or two p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( ! acid f a qu>t] to tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 :5 ! /a9+ w be complet$2 b if x is desir$ to h>d5 specim5s at ! same "t1 !y %\ld rema9 9 x = "s few days4 ,osmic acid does n p5etrate v deeply1 !re=e small portions %\ld be select$ = imm]sion4 ,?is is a useful /a9 = infusorial animals4 ,*loride ( palladium1 ano!r ( ,s*ultze's /a9+ fluids1 is us$ to /a9 & h>d5 ! ret9a1 cry/all9e l5s1 & o!r tissues ( ! eye1 ! cornifi$ fat & connective tissues rema9+ uncol\r$4 ,! solution %\ld be us$ v weak3--,*loride ( palladium1 "o "p2 di/ill$ wat]1 #a1jjj p>ts4 ,specim5s %\ld be m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e at once1 or fur!r /a9$ ) c>m9e4 ,dr4 ,s*f] employs a silv] nitrate & gelat9e solution = demon/rat+ lung epi!lium2 ?is is made z foll[s3--,take ( gelat9e t5 grammes1 soak 9 cold wat]1 dissolve1 & add w>m wat] to #ajj cc4 ,dissolve a decigramme ( nitrate ( silv] 9 a little di/ill$ wat]1 & add to ! gelat9e solution4 ,inject ?is ) a glass syr+e into ! lung until di/5sion is pretty complete4 ,leave x to re/ 9 a cool place until ! gelat9e has set2 !n cut sections z ?9 z possible1 place !m on a slide ) glyc]9e1 & expose to light till ready = m\nt+4 ,( ! d\ble /a9s ,mr4 ,groves pref]s only ^? :]e ! d\ble col\r is produc$ by a s+le process--or /a9s 9 :i* "o col\r is fir/ employ$1 & !n ano!r4 ,s+le /a9s are picro-c>m9e1 c>m9e & indigo c>m9e1 anil9e blue & anil9e r$4 ,picro-c>m9e is specially useful = /a9+ sections h>d5$ 9 picric acid4 ,x is prep>$ 9 sev]al ways3-- #a4 ,add to a saturat$ solution ( picric acid 9 wat] a /rong solution ( c>m9e 9 ammonia to saturation4 #b4 ,evaporate ! mixture to "o-fif? its bulk ov] a wat] ba?1 all[ x to cool1 filt] f deposit1 & evaporate to dryness1 :5 picro-c>m9e is left z a cry/all9e p[d] ( r$-o*re col\r4 ,sections c be /a9$ 9 a "o p] c5t4 aque\s solution1 requir+ only t5 m9utes = ! process2 wa% well 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & transf] !m to me?ylat$ alcohol1 !n to absolute alcohol1 aft] :i* !y are r5d]$ transp>5t by imm]s+ 9 oil ( cloves or b5zole1 be=e m\nt+ 9 balsam or damm>4 ,to summ>ise ,mr4 ,groves' recomm5dations3-- #a4 ,let ! mat]ial be q fre%4 #b4 7a7 ,take c>e t ! h>d5+ or s(t5+ fluid is n too /rong4 7b7 ,use a l>ge bulk ( fluid 9 proportion to ! mat]ial4 7c7 ,*ange ! fluid frequ5tly4 7d7 ,if freez+ be employ$1 take c>e t ! specim5 is ?or\ghly froz54 #c4 7a7 ,always use a %>p razor4 7b7 ,take x ) "o diagonal sweep ?r\gh ! mat]ial4 7c7 ,make ! sections z ?9 z possible2 & 7d7 ,remove ea* "o z soon z cut1 = if sections accumulate on ! knife or razor !y are sure to get torn4 #d4 7a7 ,d n be 9 a hurry to /a91 b 7b7 ,rememb] t a weak col\r+ solution p]meates ! section bett]1 & produces ! be/ results2 & 7c7 ,t ! ?9n] ! section ! bett] x w take ! /a9s4 #e4 7a7 ,always use glass slips & cov]s free f scrat*es & bubbles1 & *emically clean4 7b7 ,nev] use any b extra ?9 circul> cov]s1 s t ! specim5s may be us$ ) high p[]s4 7c7 ,always use cold pres]vatives1 except 9 ! case ( glyc]9e jelly1 & nev] use w>m? to ha/5 ! dry+ ( balsam or damm>1 b run a r+ ( cem5t r\nd ! cov]4 #f4 ,label specim5s correctly2 keep !m 9 a flat tray1 & 9 ! d>k4 ,d\ble & ,treble ,/a9+4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,/irl+#df furni%es a brief b useful acc\nt ( ! me?ods he has employ$ ) mu* success4 ,osmic ,acid & ,picro-c>m9e4--,mix on a glass slide a drop ( ! blood ( newt or frog & a drop ( a "o p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( osmic acid1 & all[ ! slide to /& by4 ,?is w fix ! corpuscles )\t alt]+ _! %ape4 ,at ! end ( five m9utes remove any excess ( acid ) blott+-pap]1 add a drop ( a solution ( picro-c>m9e1 & a trace ( glyc]9e to prev5t evaporation1 & set aside = ?ree or f\r h\rs to see t no ov]/a9+ takes place4 ,at ! end ( ?is "t ! nucleus w be f\nd to be /a9$ r$1 & ! p]9ucle> "p yell[4 ,picric ,acid & ,picro-c>m9e4--,place a drop ( ! blood ( a frog or newt on a glass slide1 & add a drop ( a saturat$ solution ( picric acid3 put ! slide aside & all[ x to rema9 = five m9utes2 at ! end ( t "t1 :5 ! acid has fix$ ! corpuscles 7t is1 coagulat$ _! cont5ts71 any excess ( acid %\ld be remov$ z be=e4 ,a drop ( solution ( picro-c>m9e %\ld n[ be add$1 & a trace ( glyc]9e1 & ! prep>ation set aside = an h\r4 ,at ! end ( t "t remove ! picro-c>m9e solution by means ( a n>r[ slip ( blott+-pap]1 & add a drop ( ,f>rant's solution ( glyc]9e & apply glass-cov]4 ,! p]9ucle> "p ( ! corpuscles w be se5 to be highly granul> & ( a deep orange col\r1 :il/ ! nucleus is /a9$ r$4 ,"s ( ! corpuscles w appe> ( a delicate yell[ col\r1 & ?reads are se5 ext5d+ f ! nucleus to ! envelopes4 ,! prep>ation %\ld be pres]v$ & m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e4 ,picro-c>m9e & ,anil9e ,dye4--,= gl&ul> tissue1 none ( ! anil9e dyes answ] s well z iod9e gre51 us$ 9 ! =m ( a "o p] c5t4 wat]y solution4 ,/a9 ! tissue 9 picro-c>m9e1 wa% x 9 di/ill$ wat] acidulat$ ) acetic acid1 & /a9 x 9 a solution ( iod9e gre54 ,z x acts rapidly1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to ov]/a94 ,wa% ! section 9 wat]1 & !n transf] x to alcohol2 f9ally cle> ) oil ( cloves4 ,! wa%+ %\ld be done rapidly1 z ! _s dissolves out ! gre5 dye4 ,all prep>ations /a9$ ) iod9e gre5 mu/ be m\nt$ 9 damm>4 ,picro-c>m9e & ,iod9e ,gre54--,/a9 a section ( ! cancellat$ head ( a v "y bone 7ftal bone7 9 picro-c>m9e1 wa% x 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & /a9 x ) iod9e gre51 & m\nt 9 damm>4 ,all newly-=m$ bone is /a9$ r$2 t 9 ! c5tre ( ! osse\s trabecul1 ! residue ( ! calcifi$ c>tilage 9 :i* ! bone is deposit$1 is /a9$ gre54 ,_m ( ! bone corpuscles are also /a9$ gre54 ,ossify+ c>tilage1 ! back "p ( ! tongue1 ,pey]'s ,pat*es1 solit>y-gl&s1 tra*ea1 & bron*us1 may all be treat$ 9 ! same way4 ,9 prep>+ ! sk91 take a v]tical section f ! sole ( ! foot ( a ftus4 ,! cuticle & sup]ficial lay]s ( ! epi!lium are dy$ yell[1 ! rete ,malpighii gre52 & ! cont9uation ( ^! cells c be trac$ into ! ducts ( ! sweat-gl&s1 :i* are gre51 & =m a m>k$ contra/ to ! r$ /a9$ connective tissue ( ! cutis v]a1 ?r\gh :i* !y h to asc5d to rea* ! surface4 ,! out] lay] ( ! grey matt] ( ! c]ebellum ) ,purk+e's cells is1 :5 d\ble /a9$1 r$1 :ile ! inn] or granul> lay] is gre54 ,logwood & iod9e gre5 /a9s ! muc\s gl&s ( ! tongue gre51 & ! s]\s gl&s1 lilac logwood /a94 ,eos9 & ,iod9e ,gre54--,eos9 is us$ z ! gr\nd col\r4 ,/a9 ! tissue 9 an alcoholic solution ( eos91 :i* w col\r x v rapidly1 usually 9 a few seconds4 ,wa% ! section ?or\ghly 9 wat] acidulat$ ) acetic or hydro*loric acid1 a "o p] c5t4 solution1 & /a9 ) iod9e gre54 ,?is w d\ble /a9 bone & c]ebellum2 b if logwood is sub/itut$ = ! latt]1 ! c]ebrum & g5]al sub/ance become /a9$ by ! eos91 :ile ! logwood col\rs ! n]ve-cells a lilac4 ,gold ,*loride & ,anil9e ,dyes4--,! tissue mu/ be impregnat$ ) *loride ( gold1 & !n /a9$ ) ei!r anil9e blue1 iod9e gre51 or ros94 ,! tail ( a "y rat1 conta9+ z x does s _m diff]5t /ructures1 is an excell5t mat]ial = exp]im5t+ ^u4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! tail1 & place pieces half an in* long into ! juice ( a fre% lemon = five m9utes1 wa% x to get rid ( ! acid4 ,! f9e t5dons swell up "u ! action ( ! lemon acid1 & p]mit ( ! m ready action ( ! *loride ( gold solution4 ,place ! piece = an h\r or m 9 a "o p] c5t4 solution ( gold1 remove x & wa% x ?or\ghly1 & !n place x 9 a tw5ty-five p] c5t4 solution ( =mic acid = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is r$uces ! gold4 ,dur+ ! process ( r$uction ! prep>ation mu/ be kept 9 ! d>k4 ,! osse\s portion has !n to be decalcifi$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 ) a mixture ( *romic & nitric acid4 ,aft] decalcification pres]ve ! :ole 9 alcohol4 ,transv]se sections ( ! decalcifi$ tail are made1 & may be /a9$ ) a r$ dye1 z ros91 & aft]w>ds ) a wat]y solution ( iod9e gre54 ,m\nt 9 damm>4 ,inject+ ,small ,animal ,bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4--;,inject+ ,syr+e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--,wat] ,ba? & ,melt+ ,vessels4 ,! injection ( animal bodies practis$ by ! old] anatomi/s1 to r5d] ! vascul> sy/em m app>5t1 has n be5 sup]s$$ by ! m mod]n me?ods ( /a9+4 ,! me?od ( inject+ ev5 small bodies requires "s skill1 & a few pieces ( app>atus made expressly = ! purpose4 ,fir/1 a special =m ( brass syr+e ( su* a size t x may be grasp$ ) ! "r h&1 ! ?umb at ! same "t cov]+ ! button at ! top ( ! pi/on-rod :5 drawn out to ! full4 ,9 ,fig4 #bda ! pi/on rod is se5 )drawn1 a is ! body1 ) a screw at ! top = firmly screw+ d[n ! cov]1 b1 aft] ! pi/on1 c1 is replac$2 e is a /op-cock1 to ! end ( :i* ei!r ( ! small] cannul1 g1 is affix$4 ,! transv]se wires are = secur+ !m tightly ) ?read to ! vessels into :i* !y are to be ins]t$4 ,9 addition to ! syr+e1 two or ?ree t9n$ vessels are requir$ to conta9 size1 inject+ fluid1 & hot wat]4 ,! size mu/ be kept hot by ! aid ( a wat] ba?2 if a nak$ fire be us$ !re is dang] ( burn+ x4 ,a conv5i5t =m ( app>atus = melt+ ! size1 & aft]w>ds keep+ x at a prop] temp]ature1 is ,fig4 #bdb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,art]y ,ne$le4 ,a pair ( /rong =ceps = seiz+ ! vessel1 & a small ne$le 7,fig4 #bdc7 is also necess>y = pass+ ! ?read r\nd ! vessel into :i* ! injection pipe has be5 ins]t$4 ,^! complete ! li/ ( app>atus4 ,to prep>e ! mat]ial = opaque injections1 take "o p\nd ( ! f9e/ & mo/ transp>5t glue1 break x into small pieces1 put x into an e>!n pot1 & p\r on x ?ree p9ts ( cold wat]2 let x /& tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 /irr+ x n[ & !n ) a /ick2 set x ov] a sl[ fire = half an h\r1 or until all ! pieces are p]fectly dissolv$1 skim (f ! fro? f ! surface1 & /ra9 ?r\gh a flannel = use4 ,is+lass & cutt+s ( p>*m5t make an excell5t size1 & are pref]able = p>ticul> injections4 ,if gelat9e be employ$ an ounce to a p9t ( wat] w be suffici5tly /rong1 b 9 v hot wea!r x is necess>y to add a little m gelat9e4 ,x mu/ be fir/ soak$ 9 "p ( ! cold wat] until x swells up & becomes s(t1 :5 ! re/ ( ! wat]1 made hot1 is to be add$4 ,! size ?us prep>$ may be fix$ ) f9ely levigat$ v]milion1 *rome-yell[1 blue salts1 or flake :ite4 ,to prep>e ! subject1 ! pr9cipal po9ts to be atta9$ are3 to dissolve ! fluids & completely empty ! vessels2 relax ! solids2 & prev5t ! injection f coagulat+ too soon4 ,= ?is purpose x is necess>y to place ! animal1 or "p to be inject$1 9 w>m wat]1 z hot z ! op]ator's h& w be>4 ,?is %\ld be kept at ne>ly ! same temp]ature = "s "t by occasionally add+ hot wat]4 ,! l5g? ( "t requir$ is 9 proportion to ! size ( ! "p & ! am\nt ( its rigidity4 ,inject+ ! sy/ems ( ,vessels ) diff]5t col\rs3 ,c>m9e & ,gelat9e ,injection4--,c>m9e #cj gra9s1 /rong liquid ammonia #fj drops1 glacial acetic acid #dc drops1 gelat9e solution 7"o ounce 9 six ounces ( wat]7 two ounces1 wat] "o ounce3 dissolve ! c>m9e 9 ! ammonia & wat] 9 a te/ tube1 & mix x ) "o half ( ! w>m gelat9e1 add ! acid to ! rema9+ half ( gelat9e1 & drop x little by little into ! c>m9e mixture1 /irr+ x well ) a glass rod dur+ ! mix+2 filt] ?r\gh flannel1 & add a few drops ( c>bolic acid to make x keep4 ,x is v important t ! /a9 %\ld be q neutral1 ! te/ ( :i* is ! col\r & smell ( ! fluid4 ,x %\ld be a bright r$1 & all trace ( smell ( ammonia mu/ be remov$4 ,prussian or ,b]l9 ,blue & ,gelat9e4--,take #a-a_/b ounces ( gelat9e1 place x 9 a vessel & cov] x ) wat]2 all[ x to /& until all ! wat] is absorb$ & ! gelat9e is q s(t1 !n dissolve 9 hot wat]4 ,dissolve "o dra*m 7#fj gra9s7 ( ,prussian or ,b]l9 blue 9 six ounces ( wat]1 & gradually mix x ) ! gelat9e solution1 /irr+ well ) a glass rod dur+ ! mix+2 !n filt] z be=e4 ,wat]y ,solution ( ,b]l9 ,blue4--,dissolve #b-a_/b dra*ms ( ! blue 9 #ah ounces ( di/ill$ wat]1 & filt]4 ,?is /a9+ fluid is us$ = inject+ ! lymphatic sy/em4 ,directions = ,inject+4--,! animal to be inject$ mu/ be fir/ kill$ by *lor(orm1 & inject$ :ile /ill w>m2 to secure ?is place ! body 9 a wat] ba?1 at a temp]ature ( #ajd ,fahr5heit4 ,expose ! ma9 art]y ( ! p>ts to be inject$1 cle> a small portion ( x f ! surr\nd+ tissues1 & place a ligature ( ?9 tissue or silk r\nd x1 by means ( ! small art]y ne$le 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,) a pair ( %>p-po9t$ scissors make an oblique slit 9 ! wall ( ! vessel1 ins]t ! cannula1 & tie ! ligature firmly ov] ! art]y beh9d ! po9t ( ! cannula1 into :i* put ! /op-cock4 ,fill ! syr+e ) injection fluid1 :i* mu/ n be too w>m1 & take c>e n to draw up any air-bubbles2 ins]t ! nozzle ( ! syr+e into ! /op-cock & =ce 9 a little fluid2 remove ! syr+e s t ! air may escape1 re-ins]t ! syr+e1 repeat ! process until no air-bubbles escape1 & !n proce$ sl[ly ) ! injection4 ,half an h\r w be requir$ to complete ! process 9 an animal ! size ( a rabbit4 ,to judge ( ! complet5ess ( ! injection1 exam9e ! vascul> p>ts ( ! lips1 tongues & eyes2 if satisfactory1 tie ! ligature r\nd ! art]y & )draw ! syr+e2 place ! animal 9 cold wat] = an h\r to consolidate ! injection fluid4 ,:5 cold dissect out ! organs1 cut !m up1 & place !m 9 me?ylat$ _s to h>d54 ,*ange ! _s e tw5ty-f\r h\rs = ! fir/ ?ree days4 ,! h>d5+ process w be complete 9 t5 days4 ,to inject lymphatics by ! puncture process1 a small-siz$ subcutane\s syr+e %\ld be us$1 fill$ ) a wat]y solution ( ! prep>$ /a9s4 ,?ru/ ! nozzle into ! pad ( ! foot1 7or tongue71 & !n rub ! limb to cause ! injection fluid to fl[ along ! lymphatic vessels into ! gl&s4 ,:5 ! blue /a9 is us$ add a few drops ( acetic acid to ! _s :ile ! h>d5+ process is go+ on4 ,( ,inject+ ,diff]5t ,sy/ems ( ,vessels ) ,diff]5t ,col\rs4--,x is (t5 desirable to inject diff]5t sy/ems ( vessels di/ribut$ to a "p ) diff]5t col\rs1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! arrangem5t ( ea* set ( vessels & _! relation to ea* o!r4 ,a portion ( ! gall-bladd] 9 :i* ! ve9s h be5 inject$ ) :ite lead1 & ! art]ies ) v]milion1 =ms an attractive prep>ation4 ,ea* art]y1 ev5 to its smalle/ bran*es1 is se5 to be accompani$ by two small ve9s1 "o ly+ on ei!r side ( x4 ,by ?is me?od f\r diff]5t sets ( tubes h be5 inject$--! art]y ) v]milion1 ! portal ve9 ) :ite lead1 ! duct ) ,prussian blue1 & ! hepatic ve9 ) lake4 ,!re are also opaque col\r+ matt]s :i* may be employ$ = d\ble injections4 ,inject+ ! ,l[] ,animals4--,! vessels ( fi%es are exce$+ly t5d]1 & require great caution 9 fill+ !m4 ,x is (t5 difficult or q impossible to tie ! pipe 9 ! vessel ( a fi%1 & x w g5]ally be f\nd a mu* easi] process to cut (f ! tail ( ! fi%1 & put ! pipe into ! divid$ vessel :i* lies imm$iately b5ea? ! sp9al column4 ,9 ?is simple mann] beautiful injections ( fi% may be made4 ,mollusca 7slug1 snail1 oy/]1 c474--,! t5uity ( ! vessels ( ! mollusc (t5 r5d]s x impossible to tie ! pipe 9 ! usual mann]4 ,! capill>ies are1 h[ev]1 usually v l>ge1 s t ! injection runs v readily4 ,9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! bodies ( ^! animals are num]\s lacun or spaces1 :i* communicate directly ) ! vessels4 ,n[1 if an op5+ be made ?r\gh ! integum5t ( ! muscul> foot ( ! animal1 a pipe may be ins]t$1 & ?us ! vessels may be inject$ f ^! lacun ) comp>ative facility4 ,insects4--,injections ( insects may be made by =c+ ! injection into ! g5]al abdom9al cavity1 :5 x passes into ! dorsal vessel & is aft]w>ds di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! sy/em4 ,! sup]flu\s injection is !n wa%$ away1 & su* p>ts ( ! body z may be requir$ remov$ = exam9ation4 ,natural injection ( ,m$us may be effect$ )\t injur+ ! vessels1 ) an op5+ at ! side remote f x4 ,! m$usa mu/ be plac$ 9 a glass vessel1 ) ! bell d[nw>ds1 & a bell-j> end+ 9 a n>r[ tube above is plac$ ov] x & made air-tight2 ! m$usa is !n cov]$ ) ! injection-mass1 ! air 9 ! glass is exhau/$1 & z ! sea-wat] runs out by slits 9 ! l[] side ( ! annul> canal1 ! col\r$ fluid runs 94 ,9 ! case ( lee*es & l>ge species ( e>?worms1 ! natural injection is made f ! v5tral s9us4 ,9 all cases a glass tube is us$1 ) a f9ely drawn-out po9t4 ,! injection is complete :5 ! injection issues f ! c\nt]-op5+4 ,besides ! animals m5tion$1 l>ge cat]pill>s1 beetles1 & l>v ( v>i\s k9ds are fav\rable objects = injection2 ! glass cannula be+ introduc$ into ! po/]ior end ( ! dorsal vessel1 & ! c\nt]-op5+ made 9 ! v5tral vessel1 & vice v]s4 ,/a9+ ,liv+ ,protoplasm ) ,bism>ck ,br[n4--,h5neguy hav+ treat$ ,p>amcium aurelia ) an aque\s solution ( anil9e br[n 7kn[n z 8,bism>ck ,br[n071 f\nd t !y assum$ an int5se yell[-br[n col\r4 ,! col\r fir/ appe>s 9 ! vacuoles ( ! protoplasm1 & !n 9 ! protoplasm itself1 ! nucleus g5]ally rema9+ col\rless1 & becom+ m visible ?an 9 ! normal /ate4 ,if a yell[-t9t$ p>amcium be compress$ s z to cause a small quantity ( ! protoplasm to exude1 x is se5 t x really is ! protoplasmic sub/ance :i* becomes col\r$4 ,all ! ,infusoria may be /a9$ ) ,bism>ck br[n1 b no o!r anil9e col\r employ$ exhibits ! same prop]ty--!y m]ely /a9 ! ,infusoria aft] dea?1 & are 9 fact poison\s4 ,liv+ protoplasm does n z a rule absorb col\r+ matt]s1 & z ,infusoria are *iefly compos$ ( protoplasm1 attempts h be5 made to asc]ta9 :e!r protoplasm 9 g5]al1 ( animal or vegetable orig91 behav$ 9 ! same way 9 ! pres5ce ( anil9e br[n4 ,a tol]ably /rong solution ( ,bism>ck br[n 0 !re=e inject$ "u ! sk9 ( ! back ( sev]al frogs4 ,aft] "s h\rs ! tissues became uni=mly t9t$ a deep yell[2 ! muscul> sub/ance especially _h a v m>k$ yell[ t9t4 ,! frogs did n appe> 9 ! lea/ incommod$4 ,small fry ( tr\t plac$ 9 a solution /a9$ rapidly & cont9u$ to swim ab\t4 ,f9ally1 a gu9ea-pig1 "u ^: sk9 "s p[d] ( ,bism>ck br[n _h be5 introduc$1 soon pres5t$ a yell[ /a9+ ( ! buccal & anal muc\s membranes & ( ! sk94 ,se$s ( cress s[n on cotton soak$ ) a conc5trat$ solution ( ! ,bism>ck br[n spr\t$1 & ! "y plants 7 /rongly /a9$ br[n2 b on cru%+ ! tissues & exam9+ !m "u ! microscope1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t ! protoplasm ( ! cells 0 v feebly col\r$3 ! vessels1 on ! contr>y1 %[$ a deep br[n /a9 up to _! t]m9ation ( ! leaf4 ,! mycelium ( a m\ld develop$ 9 a solution ( ,bism>ck br[n 0 cle>ly /a9$ aft] hav+ be5 wa%$ 9 wat]1 :il/ x is kn[n t ! mycelium1 :i* frequ5tly =ms 9 col\r$ solutions1 picro-c>m9e1 hmatoxyl91 c41 rema9$ p]fectly col\rless4 ,o!r anil9e col\rs inject$ "u ! sk9 ( frogs /a9$ ! connective tissue z deeply z did ! ,bism>ck br[n2 b ! /ri ( muscle rema9$ col\rless4 ,we may conclude1 !n1 t ,bism>ck br[n possesses ! quality ( col\r+ liv+ protoplasm bo? 9 plants & 9 animals4 ,cutt+1 ,gr9d+1 & ,m\nt+ ,h>d ,/ructures4 ,take ! femur ( cat1 or rabbit1 remove z mu* ( ! muscle z possible & mac]ate x 9 wat] until q clean2 on removal hang x up to dry4 ,) a f9e saw make transv]se & longitud9al sections4 ,file ! section d[n until flat1 & smoo?4 ,take "s ,canada balsam1 place a piece on a squ>e ( glass & w>m g5tly ov] a lamp until ! balsam is pla/ic en\gh to all[ ( ! section be+ press$ into x1 & set x aside to consolidate4 ,take a hone 78,wat]-(-,ayr0 /one71 moi/5 x ) wat]1 & rub "o side ( ! section ^u x until q smoo?1 !n place ! glass slip1 ) ! section /ill atta*$1 into me?ylat$ _s1 & 9 a v %ort "t ! section w be sep>at$2 wa% x & rem\nt x on ! rev]se side1 & proce$ to rub x d[n on ! hone until x appe>s to be ?9 en\gh = m\nt+4 ,poli% bo? sides on a poli%+ /rop ) ,tripoli p[d]1 & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--,small ,la! = cutt+ & poli%+ ,sections ( ,tee?4 ,tee?4--,! enamel ( ! tee? is a mu* h>d] /ructure ?an t ( bone1 consequ5tly x is f\nd necess>y to h rec\rse to a cutt+ ma*9e4 ,h& ma*9es h be5 introduc$ = ?is purpose1 b ! small la! describ$ 9 ! e>li] editions ( my book has 9 no way be5 sup]s$$ by lat] cutt+ ma*9es4 ,fig4 #bdd repres5ts ! small la! us$ = cutt+ & poli%+ e k9d ( h>d sub/ance4 ,) reg>d to ! tee?1 two sections %\ld be made p]p5dicul> to "o ano!r ?r\gh ! middle ( ! cr[n & fang ( ! too? f be=e backw>ds1 & f "r to left1 :i* w %[ ! peculi> /ructure ( ! enamel4 ,! section mu/ be cem5t$ to ! c>ri] ( ! /ock ( ! la!1 or to ! metal plate a1 & kept 9 position by ! /eel hold] b2 ! :eel be+ set 9 motion by ! fir/ treadle4 ,! emb$d+ mat]ials 9 use are ei!r gum-%ellac or ,canada balsam4 ,! =m] is m g5]ally employ$ by ! lapid>y & gr9d] ( l5ses ?an ! latt]4 ,z ! enamel is liable to fracture "u ! saw1 x w be necess>y to less5 ! friction by dripp+ wat] on ! saw z x is made to revolve4 ,?ick sections c be quickly gr\nd d[n aga9/ ! corrondum :eel4 ,! f9al poli%+ ( ! section may be done on ! la!1 or by rubb+ ! flatt5$ surface ) wat] ^u a 8,wat]-(-,ayr0 /one1 & ultimately set up 9 ,canada balsam1 :i* mu/ n be too fluid1 or x w p5etrate ! lacun & canaliculi1 fill up ! int]spaces1 & cause !m to become q invisible4 ,z ! flatness ( ! poli%+ surfaces is a matt] ( importance1 ! /ones !mselves %\ld be te/$ f "t to "t1 & :5 f\nd to pres5t an unev5 surface mu/ be rubb$ d[n on a granite /one ) f9e s&1 or on a lead plate ) em]y p[d]4 ,if x is decid$ to use ,canada balsam z ! emb$d+ mat]ial1 ?is mu/ be prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,! section ( too? or bone mu/ be atta*$ to a slip ( well-anneal$ glass by h>d5$ ,canada balsam1 & its adhesion effectually secur$ by plac+ ! slide on ! cov] ( a wat] ba?1 or 9 ! hot-*amb] 7,fig4 #bef71 :5 ! balsam1 a ?ick drop ( :i* %\ld be us$1 w spread out by liquefaction4 ,! slide %\ld !n be remov$ & all[$ to cool 9 ord] t ! h>dness ( ! balsam may be te/$4 ,if too s(t1 z indicat$ by its readily yield+ to ! pressure ( ! ?umb-nail1 ! heat+ process mu/ be repeat$1 c>e be+ tak5 n to cause x to boil & =m bubbles2 if too h>d1 :i* w be %[n by its *ipp+1 x mu/ be remelt$ & dilut$ ) fluid balsam1 & !n set aside z be=e4 ,:5 x is f\nd to be ( ! "r consi/5ce1 ! section mu/ be laid ^u its surface ) ! poli%$ side d[nw>ds2 ! slip ( glass is next to be gradually w>m$ until ! balsam is s(t5$1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid ! =mation ( bubbles1 !n press ! section g5tly d[n ) a ne$le ^u ! liquefi$ balsam1 ! pressure be+ j appli$ on "o side r ?an ov] ! :ole surface1 s z to drive ! sup]flu\s balsam t[>ds ! opposite side2 f9ally1 an equable pressure ov] ! :ole w secure a p]fect atta*m5t ( ! section )\t air bubbles4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ^! %\ld pres5t !mselves 9 dry+1 & !y _c o!rwise be expell$ by pressure1 x w be f\nd bett] to take ! section (f & relay x z be=e4 ,! ?ickness ( ! lay] ( balsam may be r$uc$ by rubb+ x d[n be=e apply+ ! glass-cov]4 ,rock ,sections4--,small pieces ( rock may be gr\nd d[n by ! aid ( ! la!1 or on a z9c plate1 ) em]y p[d] & wat]1 until "o side is r5d]$ smoo? & flat4 ,!n fa/5 ! poli%$ side ( ! section to a squ>e ( glass on ! metal hold] ( ! la!1 ) dri$ ,canada balsam1 z direct$ = bone1 & all[ x "t to become consolidat$4 ,:5 mod]ately ?9 take a piece ( plate-glass & "s f9e em]y or putty-p[d] & rub ! section d[n z ?9 z possible4 ,:5 f\nd to be ?9 en\gh wa% x well 9 wat]1 & put x aside to dry1 or w>m x ov] a _s-lamp1 & ) a ne$le pu% ! section (f ! glass into a wat*-glass ( b5zole or turp5t9e1 & all[ x to soak until all ! balsam is dissolv$ out4 ,wa% aga9 9 turp5t9e1 & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam1 ) or )\t a cov]-glass4 ,sections ( e*9us sp9es1 %ells1 /ones ( fruits1 c41 are prep>$ 9 ! same way z ^? ( bones & tee?2 b :5 ! gr9d+ is f9i%$1 ! sections mu/ be pass$ ?r\gh alcohol into oil ( cloves1 aft] :i* !y %\ld be m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,if tol]ably ?91 sections ( ^! sub/ances c be cut 9 ! la!2 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 !re w be no actual occasion to atta* !m to glass at all1 except = ! purpose ( obta9+ a hold ^u ! specim5 = poli%+1 b ! surface ?us atta*$ mu/ aft]w>ds be completely remov$ 9 ord] to br+ into view a /ratum :i* ! ,canada balsam may n h p5etrat$4 ,) reg>d to small] bodies1 ^! c sc>cely be treat$ 9 any o!r way ?an by atta*+ a numb] ( !m to slips ( glass at once1 & 9 su* a way z to make !m mutually support ea* o!r4 ,?us 9 mak+ horizontal & v]tical sections ( =am9if]a1 x w\ld be impossible to slice !m ?r\gh unless !y 7 laid close toge!r 9 a b$ ( h>d5$ ,canada balsam1 & fir/ gr9d+ away "o side & !n turn+ & rubb+ d[n ! o!r4 ,my fri5d1 ,dr4 ,walli*1 _m ye>s ago communicat$ to me ! +5i\s plan adopt$ by himself :5 m\nt+ & turn+ a numb] ( ^! m9ute objects toge!r4 ,! specim5s be+ cem5t$ ) ,canada balsam1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to a ?9 film ( mica1 & !n atta*$ to a glass slide by ! same means1 :5 gr\nd d[n to ! ?9ness desir$1 ! slide mu/ be gradually heat$ j suffici5tly to all[ ( ! deta*m5t ( ! mica-film & ! specim5 x c>ries2 a clean slide ) a ?9 lay] ( h>d5$ balsam hav+ be5 prep>$1 ! mica-film is transf]r$ to x ) ! gr\nd surface d[nw>d4 ,its adhesion by dry+ hav+ be5 complete1 ! gr9d+ & poli%+ %\ld be proce$$ )2 & z ! mica-film w yield to ! /one )\t any difficulty1 ! specim5 n[ rev]s$ 9 position may be fur!r r$uc$ to ! requisite ?ickness = m\nt+ z a p]man5t object4 ,/a9+ & ,m\nt+ ,vegetable ,tissues4--,bact]ia ,i propose to treat ( 9 a sep>ate section4 ,vegetable tissues g5]ally w fir/ receive att5tion1 & _! diff]5tiation is bas$ on ! employm5t ( delicate gradations ( col\r /a9s4 ,! m /rik+ results are obta9$ by ,multiple ,/a9+1 :ile ! cell cont5ts are r5d]$ m palpable4 ,on ?is acc\nt col\r+ m$ia h be5 divid$ into nucle>1 plasmic1 & specific4 ,! fir/ are *iefly valu$ 9 proportion z !y prove to h a selective aff9ity = ! nuclei ( cells1 & leav+ ! protoplasm comp>atively un/a9$4 ,su* /a9s are ne$ful = fre% & "y tissues4 ,on ! o!r h&1 plasmic /a9s col\r tissue uni=mly1 & are us$ to give a gr\nd col\r by way ( contra/2 & specific /a9s are *iefly employ$ to di/+ui% c]ta9 elem5t>y /ructures f ! mass ( cellulose :i* =ms ! basis ( vegetable tissue1 & :i* is also met ) to a slight ext5t 9 animal membranes4 ,cellulose1 z x occurs 9 plant life1 pres5ts a v>iety ( physical prop]ties3 sometimes x is s(t1 z 9 "y plants1 & aga9 q d5se 9 old] /ructures4 ,?is fact acc\nts = ! v>y+ results obta9$ :5 cellulose is subject$ to ! action ( /a9+ fluids1 & :e!r ! cellulose occurs 9 a ne>ly pure =m1 z 9 cotton fibre1 or 9 ! modifi$ =m ( lign9e or woody-fibre4 ,/a9s :i* readily attack "y tissue h little or no effect ^u x 9 its matur] =m4 ,x is ( mu* importance1 !n1 9 ! /a9+ ( fibres1 z well z sections = ! microscope1 t ! cellulose %\ld take ! /a9 uni=mly4 ,! /a9+ ( tissues may be effect$ 9 f\r ways4 ,fir/1 :5 ! /a9 has suffici5t aff9ity = ! tissue to be reta9$ by x )\t ! int]v5tion ( any outside ag5t4 ,second1 :5 ! /a9 & mordant are mix$ & appli$ to ! tissue 9 "o solution4 ,^! two are ! simple/ & easie/ me?ods ( /a9+4 ,?ird1 :5 ! tissue is fir/ imm]s$ 9 ! /a9+ liquid & !n transf]r$ to "s o!r liquid :i* %all fix ! col\r ^u ! tissue4 ,f\r?1 :5 ! tissue is fir/ impregnat$ ) ! mordant1 or fix+ ag5t1 & !n imm]s$ 9 ! /a94 ,! la/ me?od is ! "o usually foll[$ 9 comm]cial works1 & x is to be recomm5d$ 9 ! /a9+ ( microscopical prep>ations :i* d n readily take ! /a94 ,nucle> ,/a9s4--,z 9 bo? vegetable & animal sections x is g5]ally ! nuclei :i* =m ! l&m>ks ( ! /ructure1 s ! mo/ important class ( reag5ts :i* are us$ 9 any ( ! bran*es ( microscopical "w are ! 8nucle> /a9s40 ,!re are sev]al ( ^! /a9s1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is ! hmatoxyl91 & :5 prop] solutions are us$ ! results are v satisfactory4 ,_m =mul h be5 giv51 b !re are ?ree only reliable1 ,delafield's1 ,kle95b]g's1 & ,ehrli*'s1 9 all ( :i* alum is pres5t z an +r$i5t2 ! idea be+ t ! alum9a =ms ) ! col\r+ matt] an insoluble lake1 & s acts z a mordant4 ,9 ,delafield's solutions a l>ge proportion ( alum to hmatoxyl9 is us$1 & me?ylic alcohol 7wood-_s 9 ! place ( rectifi$ _s74 ,= ,kle95b]g's solution _m diff]5t =mul exi/4 ,squire's improv$ =mul = bo? /a9s is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix1 8,=mul & ,me?ods40 ,hmatoxyl9 solutions /a9 ! nuclei violet1 & 9 ord] to *ange ?is into blue1 ! sections %\ld be transf]r$ to wat] tak5 f ! h\se supply1 n di/ill$ wat]2 b z ! alkal9ity ( ! wat] v>ies 9 diff]5t localities1 a bett] & m uni=m result is obta9$ by us+ a weak solution ( bic>bonate ( sodium 7half a gra9 to ! ounce74 ,c>m9e is also mu* 9 vogue z a nucle> /a91 & ! two solutions m g5]ally employ$ are ,gre5a*]'s alcoholic borax c>m9e1 & ,or?'s li?ium c>m9e4 ,"u ord9>y circum/ances !y act z g5]al /a9s1 affect+ ! gr\nd tissue z well z ! nuclei4 ,by subsequ5t treatm5t ) acidulat$ alcohol or acidulat$ glyc]9e ! col\r is dis*>g$ f ! gr\nd tissue )\t s]i\sly affect+ ! nuclei4 ,us$ 9 ?is way1 c>m9e becomes a good nucle> /a94 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! sections mu/ n be wa%$ 9 pure wat]1 z ! col\r w to a great ext5t be dis*>g$2 nor 9 acidulat$ wat]1 z ! c>m9e w be precipitat$4 ,alum c>m9e & alum co*9eal are useful nucle> /a9s1 n requir+ aft]-treatm5t4 ,picro-c>m9es are also l>gely us$4 ,! foll[+ =mul w be f\nd ! mo/ useful3-- ,ammonia ,picro-c>m9e4--,c>m9e1 "o gramme2 /rong solution ( ammonia1 ?ree cc42 di/ill$ wat]1 five cc4 ,dissolve ! c>m9e 9 ! ammonia & wat] ) a g5tle heat1 !n add saturat$ aque\s solution ( picric acid1 #bjj cc42 heat to boil+1 & filt]4 ,picro-,li?ium ,c>m9e4--,! foll[+ is g5]ally pref]r$ = use--,li?ium c>m9e solution1 #ajj cc42 saturat$ solution ( picric acid1 #bgj cc4 ,!re are sev]al anil9e dyes :i* are us$ = nucle> /a9+3 me?yl5e blue1 me?yl gre51 safran9e1 g5tian violet1 vesuv9e1 fu*s9e1 & ,h(fmann's blue4 ,! usual process is to /a9 9 #a_/d or #a_/b p] c5t4 aque\s solutions & wa% 9 me?ylat$ _s4 ,me?yl5e blue & me?yl gre5 h ! reputation ( be+ s readily wa%$ out 9 ! me?ylat$ _s z to be wor?less4 ,?is is obviat$ by wa%+ ! sections 7:5 remov$ f ! /a97 9 di/ill$ wat]1 previ\s to ! diff]5tiation 9 me?ylat$ _s4 ,treat$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! nucle> /a9+ is v beautiful4 ,?is also applies to ,h(fmann's blue & p>tly to vesuv9e2 ) ! latt]1 h[ev]1 x is n a necessity4 ,safran9e & g5tian violet work$ bett] by transf]r+ ! sections directly f ! /a9 into #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,contra/ ,/a9s4--,v frequ5tly o!r /a9s are us$ to dye ! gr\nd a col\r :i* is 9 contra/ to t employ$ = ! nuclei4 ,br[n1 orange1 or p9k are us$ aft] nucle> blue or gre54 ,c>m9e is g5]ally c\nt]/a9$ yell[ or indigo-blue2 & fu*s9e r$1 z 9 tub]cle bacilli1 is c\nt]/a9$ ) nucle> blue4 ,x is important t ! gr\nd /a9 %\ld be made weak] ?an ! pr9cipal /a91 s t ! :ole tissue may be %[n )\t detract+ f ! nuclei4 ,! foll[+ col\rs are us$ z c\nt]/a9s = animal sections1 b !y prove less useful = vegetable sections3 b5zo-purpur9e1 eos91 ery?ros9e1 orange1 acid rub91 & picric acid4 ,examples ( specific /a9s are fu*s9e1 me?yl5e blue1 & g5tian violet = bact]ia2 osmic acid = fatty elem5ts2 victoria blue & rose b5gale1 = demon/rat+ ela/ic tissue2 me?yl violet1 iod9e1 & safran9e1 = amyloid deg5]ation4 ,me?yl5e blue is "o ( ! mo/ useful ( anil9e dyes1 & "o ( ! mo/ v>iable 9 composition4 ,iod9e gre51 or me?yl gre51 has long be5 9 use z a reag5t = amyloid1 />*y matt]s1 9 ignorance ( ! fact t ! reaction is due to ! me?yl violet1 conta9$ z an impurity 9 ! iod9e gre54 ,x is exce$+ly difficult to obta9 a gre5 q free f violet4 ,z nucle> /a9s !y are id5tical1 & ! amyloid reaction1 be+ dep5d5t :olly ^u ! conta9$ violet1 v>ies1 n ) ! =mula ( ! gre51 b ) ! ext5t to :i* x has be5 purifi$4 ,cellulose reactions4--,aft] ! nucle> /a9s1 ! mo/ important reag5ts to ! botani/ are ^? :i* affect cellulose & its sev]al modifications4 ,pure cellulose is col\r$ yell[ by iod9e1 ! col\r be+ *ang$ to a blue on ! addition ( slightly dilute sulphuric acid1 or a /rong solution ( z9c4 ,solutions conta9+ iod9e1 iodide ( potassium1 & *loride ( z9c1 give a violet reaction ) unalt]$ cellulose1 & yell[ ) lign9e4 ,s*ulze's z9c re-ag5t mu/ be us$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( caution1 z ! *loride ( z9c & potassium und]go decomposition4 ,! =mula n[ 9 use is z foll[s3 ,take ( z9c *loride solution 7sp4 gr4 #ahe7 #gj cc41 potassium iodide #aj grammes1 iod9e #ja gramme2 b ?is solution c only be employ$ z a re-ag5t & n z a dye1 & /ructures /a9$ ) x _c be m\nt$ 9 any ( ! ord9>y m$ia1 & ! only fluid = r++ !m d[n is ca\t*\c cem5t4 ,cellulose c be /a9$ p]man5tly by c>m9e1 hmatoxyl91 nigros9e1 me?yl5e blue1 safran9e1 & fu*s9e4 ,! anil9e dyes are us$ 9 dilute aque\s solutions conta9+ "o-eigh? or "o-f\r? p] c5t4 ( dye4 ,:5 ! cellulose und]goes ! *ange kn[n z lignification its reactions are alt]$4 ,x is col\r$ yell[ by *loro-z9c iod9e1 r$ by phlorogluc91 yell[ by anil9e *loride4 ,! two latt] are mu* assi/$ by hydro*loric acid4 ,! results ( ^! reactions also _c be pres]v$ 9 ! usual m\nt+ m$ia4 ,sections conta9+ mix$ tissue1 p>tly unalt]$ cellulose & p>tly lignifi$1 give /rik+ results ) anil9e dyes1 & ) ?is additional advantage c be pres]v$ = ye>s4 ,d\ble ,/a9+4--,:5 a section is pass$ ?r\gh me?yl gre5 solution & aft]w>ds "o ( c>m9e1 ! lignifi$ portion is col\r$ gre5 & ! unlignifi$ r$4 ,acid gre5 may be us$ 9 ! place ( me?yl gre51 ) a simil> result4 ,:5 picric acid is us$ ) c>m9e1 +ros9e1 or ,h(fmann's blue1 ! picric acid dyes ! ligne\s portion & ! o!rs col\r ! unlignifi$ /ructure1 r$1 black1 & blue respectively4 ,eos9 /a9 is ! mo/ useful = sieve-tubes & plates4 ,make a /rong solution ( eos9 9 equal p>ts ( wat] & alcohol1 & /a9 ! section = five or t5 m9utes4 ,wa% well 9 me?ylat$ _s1 dehydrate1 clean 9 oil ( cloves1 & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam4 ,blea*+ ,process4--,! blea*+ & cle>+ ( vegetable /ructures be=e /a9+ is a v necess>y process1 especially s if />* be pres5t 9 any quantity4 ,cle>+ ag5ts are ( two k9ds--^? :i* act by virtue ( _! prop]ty ( /rongly refract+ light1 & ^? :i* dis9tegrate & dissolve ! amyloid cell cont5ts4 ,to ! fir/ class belong ! ess5tial oils1 z oil ( cloves1 ,canada balsam1 glyc]9e1 & o!r simil> bodies2 to ! second class1 solutions ( pota%1 ph5ol1 & *loral hydrate4 ,! actual value ( "s ( ^! ag5ts is que/ionable4 ,! process usually pref]r$ is z foll[s3 ,place ! sections 9 a fre% cle> solution ( *lor9at$ lime1 all[+ !m to rema9 until q blea*$1 say f two to f\r or five m9utes2 !n g5tly w>m 9 a te/-tube = a few seconds1 & quickly replace ! solution ) di/ill$ wat] & boil = two or ?ree m9utes2 repeat ! treatm5t ) boil+ wat] ?ree times2 wa% ) a "o p] c5t4 solution ( acetic acid1 & f9ally ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,! sections are !n q ready = /a9+ op]ations4 ,:5 ! /em is h>d & br[n1 a solution ( *loride ( lime %\ld be us$--a qu>t] ( an ounce ( *loride dissolv$ 9 a p9t ( wat]1 well %ak5 & /ood by to settle d[n1 !n p\r (f ! cle> fluid = use4 ,= h>d tissues ?is solution answ]s well1 b x is n suitable = leaves1 z !y require n only blea*+1 b ! cell cont5ts %\ld be dissolv$ out to r5d] !m transp>5t4 ,a solution ( *lor9at$ soda answ]s well = bo? /ems & leaves4 ,x is prep>$ z foll[s3-- ,to "o p9t ( wat] add two ounces ( fre% *loride ( lime1 %ake or /ir x well two or ?ree times1 !n all[ x to /& till ! lime has settl$4 ,prep>e mean:ile a saturat$ solution ( c>bonate ( soda--common wa%+ soda4 ,n[ p\r (f ! cle> sup]natant fluid f ! *loride ( lime1 & add to x1 by degrees1 ! soda solution1 :5 a precipitate ( c>bonate ( lime w be ?r[n d[n2 cont9ue to add ! soda solution till no fur!r precipitate is =m$4 ,filt] ! solution1 & keep x 9 a well-/opp]$ bottle 9 ! d>k1 o!rwise x spe$ily spoils4 ,sections blea*$ 9 *lor9at$ soda mu/1 :5 :ite en\gh1 be wa%$ 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & all[$ to rema9 9 x = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 *ang+ ! wat] f\r or five times1 & add+ a few drops ( nitric acid1 or at ! rate ( eight or t5 drops to ! half-p9t1 to ! wat] employ$ be=e ! f9al wa%+ takes place4 ,f wat] transf] !m to alcohol1 9 :i* !y mu/ rema9 = an h\r or m4 ,al?\gh alkal9e glyc]9e has be5 recomm5d$ = sev]al purposes 9 micro-te*nique1 x is n s well kn[n z x %\ld be h[ s]viceable x is z an extempore m\nt+ solution 9 vegetable hi/ology4 ,! be/ mixture = g5]al use is compos$ ( glyc]9e #b ozs41 di/ill$ wat] #a-a_/b oz41 solution ( pota%1 ,b4,p41 #a_/b oz4 ,?is comb9es ! refr+5t prop]ty ( ! glyc]9e ) ! cle>+ action ( ! cau/ic pota%1 :ile ! swell+ action ( ! pota% is consid]ably dim9i%$4 ,cutt+ ,sections ( ,h>d ,woods4--,! la! & circul> saw w be f\nd z useful = cutt+ sections ( ! h>d] k9ds ( woods1 z = bone /ructure4 ,x may be necess>y to subject ! old] & consequ5tly h>d] pieces ( wood to ! action ( /eam = a few h\rs to s(t5 !m1 & aft]w>ds transf] !m to me?ylat$ _s1 be=e mak+ an attempt to cut sections4 ,b ! m op5 woods1 ( "o1 two1 or ?ree ye>s' gr[?1 w %[ all t may be requir$1 & ^! c be cut by h&1 or ) ! microtome1 z already describ$4 ,) a little practice ! f9e/ & ?9ne/ possible slices may be cut by h&4 ,x is usual to take (f ! fir/ slice to give a smoo? & ev5 surface to ! specim54 ,!n turn ! screw to raise x a little1 spr9kle ! surface ) _s & wat]1 & cut ) a light h&4 ,remove ! cut sections ) a f9e camel's-hair bru% or a section lift] 7,fig4 #bej7 to a small vessel conta9+ wat]1 :5 ! ?9ne/ w float on ! surface1 & remove to me?ylat$ _s & wat]1 :]e !y %\ld rema9 until !y c be m\nt$4 ,sections ( h>d woods1 & ^? conta9+ gum-res9s1 or o!r insoluble mat]ial1 mu/ fir/ be kept 9 me?ylat$ _s or alcohol1 & f9ally transf]r$ to oil ( cloves1 to r5d] !m suffici5tly transp>5t = m\nt+ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,if ! /ructure ( an exog5\s wood is requir$ to be exam9$1 ! sections %\ld be made 9 at lea/ ?ree diff]5t ways3 ! transv]se1 ! longitud9al1 & ! oblique1 or1 z !y are sometimes call$1 ! horizontal1 v]tical1 & tang5tial1 ea* ( :i* w exhibit diff]5t appe>ances1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #bde3 b is a v]tical section ?r\gh ! pi? ( a conif]\s plant1 & exhibits ! m$ull>y rays kn[n to ! cab9et-mak] z ! silv] gra92 e is a magnifi$ view ( a "p ( ! same2 ! woody fibres are se5 ) _! dots l1 & ! horizontal l9es k indicat+ ! m$ull>y rays cut l5g?wise2 c is a tang5tial section1 & f a portion ( ! same2 ! m$ull>y rays m m1 & ! woody fibres ) v]tical slices ( ! dots1 are %[n4 ,in/ructive prep>ations w be secur$ by cutt+ oblique sections ( ! /em4 ,! sections se5 are made f ! p9e4 ,all exog5\s /ems1 h[ev]1 exhibit ?ree diff]5t appe>ances1 accord+ to ! direction 9 :i* ! section is made4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,sections ( ,wood4 ,bact]ia ,cultivation1 ,/]ilis+1 & ,prep>+ = ,microscopical ,exam9ation4 ,t bran* ( mycology :i* is n[ look$ ^u z a sep>ate dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 t]m$ bact]iology1 took %ape 9 ! ye>s #ahge-i1 :5 its f\nd]1 ! vet]an botani/ ,cohn1 :o recognis$ t ! protoplasm ( plants correspond$ to ! animal s>code1 publi%$ 8 exact mode ( /udy+ bact]ia4 ,b x 0 a pupil ( 81 ,dr4 ,ko*1 :o a ye> lat] discov]$ t a specific cattle disease1 an?rax1 0 due to a bacillus1 & x 0 he also :o gave u ! useful modification ( gelat9e z a m$ium 9 :i* to gr[ bact]ia2 he hit ^u ! me?od ( p\r+ melt$ gelat9e conta9+ di/ribut$ g]ms on to plates1 & ?us isolat+ ! colonies & ensur+ ! fur!r isolation ( ! spores1 & s facilitate ! prep>ation ( pure cultures on a l>ge scale1 & ) great sav+ ( "t4 ,! difficulty ( isolat+ a bact]ium & trac+ its life hi/ory "u ! microscope mu/ at fir/ sight appe> great4 ,a fur!r objection t su* "w is sl[ & difficult has no m weight "h ?an 9 any o!r dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 z w be se5 on proce$+ to foll[ out ! directions ,i am ab\t to furni% = ! use ( ! /ud5t4 ,app>atus1 ,mat]ial1 & ,reag5ts employ$ 9 ,bact]iological ,inve/igations4 ,a good microscope ) a wide-angl$ sub-/age cond5s]1 & objectives ( an in*1 #a_/d-;in*1 or #a_/f-;in*1 & a #a_/ab-;in* homog5e\s oil-imm]sion4 ,a l>ge bell-glass = cov]+ ! same :5 fum+ acids are 9 use 9 ! laboratory4 ,ab\t a squ>e foot ( black5$ plate-glass4 ,a :ite porcela9 slab1 or a %all[ photographic di% ( "s size4 ,glass bottles ) gr\nd /opp]s = alcoholic solutions & anil9e dyes4 ,glass bottles ) funnels = filt]+ solutions ( /a9s1 ) pipettes4 ,a specialis$ =m ( pipette = ! micro-*emical filtration ( solutions 7,fig4 #bdf74 ,a small /opp]$ bottle ( c$> oil 7,fig4 #bdg74 ,set ( small glass di%es or wat*-glasses = section /a9+4 ,/ock ( glass slides /]ilis$1 toge!r ) r\nd ?9 glass-cov]s1 9 boxes 7,fig4 #bdh74 ,ne$le hold]s & plat9um ne$les1 ) a packet ( ord9>y sew+ ne$les 7,fig4 #bdi74 ,plat9um1 or plat$ copp] section-lift]s 7,fig4 #bej74 ,glass rods1 drawn out to a f9e po9t1 = manipulat+ sections :5 acids are employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,bottle & ,dipp] = ,c$> ,oil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,pipette = ,micro-*emical ,filtration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--;,box = keep+ ,glass-cov]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,ne$le ,hold]s1 f9e ,lift] & ,hook = ,manipulat+ ,/ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,section ,lift]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,spr+ ,flat ,=ceps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea;a4--,=ceps ) f9e ,po9ts4 ,a pair ( small spr+ /eel plat9um-po9t$ =ceps = hold+ glass-cov]s 7,fig4 #bea74 ,"o or two pairs ( f9e-po9t$ =ceps 7,fig4 #bea;a74 ,collapsible tubes = conta9+ ,canada balsam & damm>4 ,s(t rags or old pocket h&k]*iefs = remov+ c$> oil f l5ses & cov]-glasses4 ,*amois lea!r = wip+ l5ses & remov+ du/4 ,reag5ts1 alcohol1 b]gamot oil1 celloid91 dissolv$ 9 equal p>ts ( e!r & alcohol4 ,ebn]'s solution4 7,see ,app5dix47 ,=mal91 glyc]9e1 gelat9e1 ,klebs' & ,kle95b]g's solutions4 7,see ,app5dix47 ,! latt] consi/+ ( a wat]y solution ( picric acid #ajj p>ts2 /rong sulphuric acid two p>ts2 filt]1 & add di/ill$ wat] #cjj p>ts4 ,mull] fluid4 7,see ,app5dix47 ,osmic acid1 a five p] c5t4 solution4 ,p>aff91 sp]maceti & xylol1 acetic acid1 hydro*loric acid1 a "o p] c5t4 solution ) alcohol4 ,ammonia liquid1 e!r1 picro-li?ium c>m9e1 pota% solution4 ,safran9e1 conc5trat$ alcoholic solution (1 & a wat]y solution4 ,turp5t9e1 vesuv91 wat] di/ill$ & /]ilis$4 ,aque\s solutions ( ! sev]al dyes may be kept 9 bottles ready = use4 ,to bo? aque\s & alcoholic solutions a few drops ( ph5ol1 or a cry/al ( ?ymol1 %\ld be add$ z a pres]vative4 ,= ! rapid /a9+ ( cov]-glass prep>ations1 x is conv5i5t to h ! mo/ frequ5tly us$ /a9s--fu*s9e1 me?yl-violet1 c4--9 bottles provid$ ) pipette /opp]s4 ,cle>+ ,ag5ts4--,oils ( c$> wood1 cloves1 origanum1 anil9e1 t]eb5e1 toluol & xylol1 b5zol & spirits ( turp5t9e4 ,m\nt+ ,m$ia4--,acetate ( pota% solution conc5trat$1 b5zole1 balsam1 glyc]9e jelly1 ,fanant's m$ium1 damm> & ma/ic1 ,canada balsam 9 xylol1 ,hollis's glue1 z9c :ite4 ,cem5t = fix+ small specim5s tempor>ily to a glass slide4 ,remove all traces ( moi/ure1 place ^u x a drop or two ( a m$ium prep>$ z foll[s3--,dissolve ov] a wat] ba? #ae grammes ( :ite lac 9 #ajj grammes ( absolute alcohol1 decant (f ! cle> liquid1 & /& x by = a :ile4 ,z ! alcohol evaporates f ! w>m$ surface ( ! glass slide a h>d transp>5t coat+ is left4 ,?is may be slightly s(t5$ at any "t by means ( a drop ( oil ( lav5d]4 ,aft] arrang+ ! objects ! heat ( a _s-lamp w cause ! oil to evaporate1 leav+ !m firmly atta*$4 ,objects may be m\nt$ on cov]-glasses 9 a simil> way4 ,a res9\s m\nt+ m$ium may !n be employ$ 9 ! usual mann]4 ,if glyc]9e or glyc]9e jelly is ! m\nt+ m$ium employ$1 collodion dilut$ ) two or ?ree times its volume ( oil ( lav5d] may be f\nd pref]able z ! fix+ ag5t4 ,! section %\ld be plac$ 9 position be=e ! prep>ation dries & ! oil is evaporat$4 ,me?ylat$ _s is (t5 s l>gely adult]at$ ) rock-oil z to r5d] x unsuitable = te*nical purposes4 ,ev5 to v>ni%es x imp>ts a fluoresc5t appe>ance z x dries (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beb4--;,iron ,box = hold+ ,/]ilis$ ,in/rum5ts & ,glass ,plates4 ,! ne$les & in/rum5ts us$ mu/ n be pass$ ?r\gh a ,buns5 burn] flame1 :i* is mo/ de/ructive1 b enclos$ 9 a %eet-iron box made = ! purpose 7,fig4 #beb71 & plac$ 9 ! hot-air /]ilis] = an h\r at #aej;,c4 ,! box c be op5$ at ! side1 & ea* in/rum5t )drawn ) a pair ( /]ilis$ =ceps :5 requir$ = use4 ,glass plates are /]ilis$ 9 ! same iron box1 & ! plat9um ne$les = inoculat+ nutri5t m$ia1 exam9+ cultivations1 c41 are s]v$ 9 ! same mann] be=e be+ us$4 ,! ne$les consi/ ( two or ?ree in*es ( plat9um wire fix$ to ! end ( a glass rod4 ,sev]al ( ^! ne$les %\ld be made by fix+ pieces ( wire into a glass rod ab\t six in*es long4 ,! glass rod mu/ be heat$ at ! extreme end 9 ! flame ( a ,buns5 burn]1 or bl[-pipe1 & ! plat9um wire held ne> "o extremity ) =ceps1 & fus$ into ! end ( ! glass rod4 ,"s ( ^! rods %\ld be /raight1 & "s b5t1 & o!rs provid$ ) a loop1 & kept especially ready = inoculat+ te/-tubes ( nutri5t jelly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4--;,damp ,*amb] = ,plate-cultivations4 ,glass ,di%es4--,sev]al %all[ glass di%es are requir$ = prep>+ damp *amb] cultivations1 ! upp] cov]s fitt+ ov] ! "u 7z 9 ,fig4 #bec71 9 ! c5tre ( :i* culture-plates are /ack$ "o above ! o!r1 & :5 necess>y plac$ 9 ! incubator4 ,app>atus = ,incubation & ,cultivations 9 ,liquid ,m$ia4 ,li/]'s ,flasks4--,li/] devis$ a globe-%ap$ flask ) two necks1 a v]tical & a lat]al "o1 ! lat]al be+ a b5t sp\t1 tap]+ t[>ds ! extremity4 ,:5 ! vessel is re/or$ to ! erect position aft] p\r+ out "s ( its cont5ts1 a drop ( liquid rema9s beh9d 9 ! end ( ! nozzle1 & ?us prev5ts ! regurgitation ( air ?r\gh ! sp\t4 ,a cap ( cotton-wool is ti$ ov] ! orifice1 & ! residue left 9 ! flask = future use4 ,! v]tical neck ( ! flask is plugg$ ) /]ilis$ cotton-wool 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bed4--,pa/eur's ,bulb ,pipette4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,/or+ ,cultivation ,tube4 ,/]nb]g advocates ! use ( a glass bulb1 provid$ ) a sl5d] neck drawn out to a f9e po9t & h]metically seal$4 ,special =ms ( tubes1 bulbs1 & pipettes 7 devis$ by ,pa/eur1 & are /ill 9 use at ! ,bact]iological ,in/itute1 ,p>is1 & kn[n z ! ,pa/eur's bulb pipette 7,fig4 #bed74 ,o!rs are provid$ ) lat]al or ) curv$ arms1 "o ( :i* is drawn out to a f9e po9t1 & ! sl5d] neck plugg$ ) cotton-wool1 z 9 ,fig4 #bee4 ,,! ,,w>m ,,*amb]1 ,,/]ilis]1 ,,& ,,incubator4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bef4--,pfeiff]'s ,w>m ,*amb]4 ,! ,w>m ,*amb]4--,?is is an accessory ( importance 9 bact]iological "w4 ,= ! cont9u\s heat+ ( specim5s dur+ cultivation x is an absolute necessity4 ,pfeiff]'s w>m *amb] 7,fig4 #bef7 is suitable = microscopical "w g5]ally4 ,x consi/s ( a h>d-wood box1 made air-tight1 ) doors & glass w9d[s to all[ ( ! specim5 be+ mov$ f "t to "t1 & kept "u con/ant obs]vation4 ,! box is m\nt$ on a metal plate tripod /&1 & is heat$ f bel[ by a small gas burn]1 ) a !rmo-regulator4 ,a p>aff9 lamp w d z well1 s long z x ma9ta9s a temp]ature ( f #be to #de;,c41 & )\t dang] ( injury to ! /& & l5ses ( ! microscope4 ,a !rmomet] is plac$ 9 ! air space to m>k ! temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beg4--;,crook%ank's ,incubator4 ,hot-air ,incubators & ,/]ilis]s are usually made ( %eet-iron1 9 ! =m ( a cubical *e/1 ) d\ble walls1 support$ on f\r legs1 z t ( ,dr4 ,crook%ank's 7,fig4 #beg74 ,!y are heat$ by gas or a lamp f bel[1 :ile ! temp]ature is indicat$ by a !rmomet] ins]t$ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! top1 z 9 t ( ! ,he>son's incubator4 ,te/-tubes1 flasks1 funnels1 cotton-wool1 c41 mu/ be /]ilis$ by exposure to a temp]ature ( #aej;,c4 = an h\r or m4 ,wire ,cages or crates are us$ = conta9+ te/-tubes1 especially :5 !y are to be /]ilis$ 9 ! hot-air /]ilis]1 or = l[]+ tubes ( nutri5t jelly into ! /eam /]ilis]4 ,all in/rum5ts1 ne$les1 scalpels1 c41 be=e us+ mu/ be c>efully /]ilis$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beh4--;,dr4 ,ko*'s ,/eam ,/]ilis]4 ,/eam ,/]ilis]s are made ei!r ( iron or t91 jacket$ ) ?ick felt1 & provid$ ) a conical cap or lid p]=at$ at ! apex to receive a !rmomet] 7,fig4 #beh74 ,inside ! vessel is an iron grat+ or diaphragm ab\t two-?irds ( ! way d[n1 :i* divides ! int]ior into two *amb]s1 ! upp] or /eam *amb]1 & ! l[] or wat] *amb]4 ,a gauge outside m>ks ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! l[] *amb]2 ?is %\ld be kept ab\t two-?irds full4 ,! app>atus /&s ^u ?ree legs1 & is heat$ f bel[ ) a ,buns5 burn] or a lamp4 ,x is employ$ = /]ilis+ nutri5t m$ia 9 tubes or flasks1 = cook+ potatoes or ha/5+ ! filtration ( ag>-ag>4 ,:5 ! !rmomet] indicates #ajj ,c4 ! lid is remov$1 & te/-tubes are l[]$ 9 a wire-basket by means ( a hook & /r+1 & ! lid quickly replac$4 ,potatoes or small flasks are l[]$ into ! cyl9d] 9 a t9 receiv] ) a p]=at$ bottom1 :i* re/s ^u ! grat+1 & admits ( ! cont5ts be+ expos$ to ! /eam g5]at$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ effici5t =ms ( incubators introduc$ into ! bact]iological laboratory is t kn[n z ,he>son's 7,fig4 #bei74 ,?is consi/s ( a *amb] surr\nd$ by a wat]-jacket1 ) wat] space bel[1 to af=d room = ! pipe1 ,l1 :i* conveys ! heat$ products f ! flame ( ! lamp1 ,t1 ?r\gh ! wat] & back aga9 to ! lant]n4 ,a is ! wat]-jacket surr\nd+ ! *amb] conta9+ ! cultures2 ,o1 ! pipe ?r\gh :i* ! wat] supply is admitt$2 ,n1 ! tap = employ+ ! same2 ,m1 ! ov]fl[ pipe2 ,s1 ! capsule 9 a case atta*$ by a tube to ! l[] plate outside2 ,d1 a lev] pivot$ on ! left1 c>ry+ at its free end a damp]1 ,f1 :i*1 :5 re/+ on ! *imney1 ,v1 effectually closes x2 ,p1 a screw = adju/+ ! damp] :5 />t+ ! app>atus2 ,h1 a lead weight = br++ m pressure on ! capsule2 ,k1 a !rmomet]1 ! bulb ( :i* is inside & ! scale outside ! *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,! ,baird-,he>son ,biological ,incubator4 ,! treat$ products ( combu/ion move 9 ! direction indicat$ until ! wat] & *amb] are suffici5tly heat$ to di/5d ! capsule4 ,:5 ?is po9t is rea*$ ! wire betwe5 ,s & ,p is pu%$ up by ! capsule1 & ! lev] causes ! damp] to rise m or less (f ! *imney1 ,v1 & on exam9+ ! !rmomet] ! inside ( ! *amb] is at l5g? f\nd to rema9 /eadily at ! requir$ temp]ature4 ,:5 ! !rmomet] regi/]s ! desir$ temp]ature1 ! lead weight mu/ be damp$ to ! lev] by means ( ! mill$-head screw :i* goes ?r\gh x4 ,aft] hav+ be5 once adju/$ ! heat 9 ! int]ior w rema9 con/ant1 not)/&+ ! utmo/ *anges ( temp]ature occurr+ 9 ^! latitudes1 nor w v great alt]ations 9 ! size ( ! lamp-flame s]i\sly int]f]e ) ! results4 ,! mill$-head screw1 ,p1 mu/ be turn$1 aft] ! fir/ adju/m5t1 dur+ ! :ole "t t ! incubator is 9 use4 ,obs]ve ! temp]ature be=e op5+ ! door2 obs]vations tak5 aft]w>ds are wor?less4 ,prep>ation ( ,nutri5t ,m$ia--,sep>ation1 & ,cultivation ( ,bact]ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--,plate ,cultivation ,%[+ ,colonies4 ,to cultivate micro-organisms artificially !y mu/ be suppli$ ) ! prop] nutri5t mat]ial1 p]fectly free f pre-exi/+ organisms4 ,! secret ( ,ko*'s me?ods greatly dep5ds ^u ! possibility1 9 ! case ( />t+ ) a mixture ( micro-organisms1 ( be+ able to isolate !m completely "o f ano!r1 & to obta9 an absolutely pure gr[? ( ea* cultivable species4 ,:5 /]ile nutri5t gelat9e has be5 liquefi$ 9 a te/-tube & inoculat$ ) a mixture ( bact]ia 9 su* a way t ! individual micro-organisms are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t x1 & ! liquid is p\r$ out on a glass plate & all[$ to solidify1 ! individual bact]ia1 in/ead ( mov+ ab\t freely z 9 a liquid m$ium1 are fix$ to "o spot1 :]e !y develop _! own species4 ,9 ?is way colonies are =m$1 ea* possess+ its own biological *>act]i/ics & morphological appe>ances 7,fig4 #bfj74 ,to ma9ta9 individuals isolat$ f ea* o!r dur+ gr[?1 & free f contam9ation1 x is only necess>y to ?9 out ! cultivation to protect ! plates f ! air1 & to h facilities = exam9+ !m f "t to "t1 & obs]v+ ! *>act]i/ic microscopical appe>ances4 ,! colonies on nutri5t gelat9e exam9$ ) a l[ p[] 7,fig4 #bfj71 if micro-organisms su* z ,bacillus an?races & ,proteus mirabilis1 ! nak$ eye appe>ances 9 te/-tubes ( ! gr[? ( ! bacilli ( an?rax & tub]cle1 & ! brilliant gr[? ( micro-coccus prodigiosus1 may be giv5 z examples 9 :i* ! appe>ances are (t5 v /rik+ & sometimes q *>act]i/ic4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 fir/ direct att5tion to a well-recognis$ fact1 t bact]iology only t\*es animal pa?ology at a few po9ts1 & t s f> f bact]ia be+ synonym\s ) disease g]ms1 ! majority ( ^! rem>kable organisms appe> to be b5efic5t r ?an inimical to man4 ,?is is ( imm5se importance to sci5ce1 z ,i %all attempt to %[ fur!r on2 al?\gh ev5 a brief description ( all ! useful f]m5ts due to bact]ia & br\ght into use w\ld occupy a volume to !mselves1 & call = a s*ool ( bact]iology q ap>t f t involv$ 9 ! m$ical aspect ( ! "q1 = ! purpose ( fully inve/igat+ problems rais$ by ! agriculturi/1 ! =e/]1 ! g>d5]1 ! dairyman1 brew]1 dy]1 tann]1 & o!r indu/ries1 :i* op5 up vi/as ( practical application1 & to "s ext5t are already be+ tak5 advantage ( 9 comm]ce4 ,! ,prep>ation ( ,nutri5t ,gelat9e & ,ag>-ag>4--,take half a kilogramme 7"o p\nd7 ( beef z free z possible f fat1 *op f9ely1 transf] to a flask or cyl9drical vessel1 & %ake up well ) a litre ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,place ! vessel 9 an ice-pail1 or ice-cupbo>d1 or 9 w9t] 9 a cold cell>1 & leave = ! night4 ,next morn+ comm5ce ) ! prep>ation ( all requisite app>atus4 ,?or\ghly wa% & r9se ) alcohol ab\t #ajj te/-tubes1 & all[ !m to dry4 ,plug ! m\?s ( ! te/-tubes ) cotton-wool1 place !m 9 _! wire cages 9 ! hot-air /]ilis]1 to be heat$ = an h\r at a temp]ature ( #aej;,c4 ,9 ! same mann] cleanse & /]ilise sev]al flasks1 & a small glass funnel4 ,9 ! meantime1 ! meat infusion mu/ be well %ak51 & ! liquid portion sep>at$ by filt]+ & squeez+ ?r\gh a l95 clo? or a meat press4 ,! r$ juice ?us obta9$ mu/ be br\ght up to a litre by transf]r+ x to a l>ge measur+ glass & add+ di/ill$ wat]4 ,x is !n p\r$ into a suffici5tly l>ge & /rong beak]1 & set aside aft] ! addition ( t5 grammes ( peptone1 five grammes ( common salt1 & #ajj grammes ( be/ gelat9e4 ,9 ab\t half an h\r ! gelat9e is suffici5tly s(t5$1 & subsequ5t heat+ 9 a wat] ba? causes x to be completely dissolv$4 ,! next process requires ! greate/ c>e & att5tion4 ,"s micro-organisms gr[ be/ 9 a slightly acid1 o!rs 9 a slightly alkal9e1 m$ium4 ,= example1 = ! gr[? & *>act]i/ic appe>ances ( ! comma bacillus ( ,asiatic *ol]a a fa9tly alkal9e soil is absolutely ess5tial4 ,?is slightly alkal9e m$ium w be f\nd to answ] be/ = mo/ micro-organisms1 & may be obta9$ z foll[s3--,) a clean glass rod dipp$ 9 ! mixture1 ! reaction ^u litmus-pap] may be obta9$1 & a conc5trat$ solution ( c>bonate ( soda mu/ be add$ drop by drop until r$ litmus-pap] becomes fa9tly blue4 ,if x is too alkal9e1 x c be neutralis$ by ! addition ( lactic acid4 ,f9ally1 ! mixture is heat$ = an h\r 9 ! wat]-ba?4 ,t5 m9utes be=e ! boil+ is complet$ ! :ite ( an egg beat5 up ) ! %ell is add$1 & ! liquid is !n filt]$ :ile hot4 ,dur+ filtration ! funnel %\ld be cov]$ ov] ) a plate ( glass1 & ! process ( filt]+ mu/ be repeat$1 if necess>y1 until a pale /raw-col\r$1 p]fectly transp>5t filtrate results4 ,! /]ilis$ te/-tubes are fill$ to ab\t a ?ird ( _! dep? by p\r+ 9 ! gelat9e c>efully & /eadily4 ,! object ( ?is c>e is to prev5t ! mixture t\*+ ! "p ( ! tube ) :i* ! plug comes into contact2 o!rwise1 :5 ! gelat9e sets1 ! cotton-wool adh]es to ! tubes & becomes a s\rce ( emb>rassm5t to subsequ5t proc$ures4 ,z ! tubes are fill$ !y are plac$ 9 a basket1 & !n /]ilis$4 ,!y are ei!r l[]$ into ! /eam /]ilis]1 :5 ! !rmomet] indicates #ajj cc41 = twelve m9utes1 = f\r or five successive days1 or !y may be transf]r$ to ! te/-tube wat]-ba?1 & heat$ = an h\r or two = ?ree successive days4 ,if ! gelat9e %[s any turbidity aft]1 x mu/ be p\r$ back into a flask1 boil$ = t5 m9utes1 & filt]$ aga91 & ! process ( /]ilisation repeat$4 ,nutri5t ,ag>-ag> is a sub/ance prep>$ f seawe$ :i* gr[s on ! coa/s ( ,japan & ,india1 & is suppli$ 9 long cr9kl$ /rips4 ,x boils at #ij ,c41 & rema9s solid up to a temp]ature ( ab\t #de ,c4 ,x is !re=e sub/itut$ = gelat9e 9 ! prep>ation ( a jelly = ! cultivation ( ^? bact]ia :i* w gr[ be/ 9 ! incubator at ! temp]ature ( ! blood1 & also at ord9>y temp]ature = bact]ia :i* lignify gelat9e4 ,! prep>ation is conduct$ on mu* ! same pr9ciples z ^? already describ$4 ,in/ead1 h[ev]1 ( #ajj grammes ( gelat9e1 only ab\t tw5ty grammes ( ag>-ag> 7#ae to #b p] c5t471 & to facilitate ! solution x mu/ be all[$ to soak 9 salt wat] ov]night4 ,flannel is sub/itut$ = filt] pap]4 ,! hot-wat] app>atus is inv>iably employ$4 ,! f9al results1 :5 solid1 %\ld be col\rless & cle>2 b if slightly milky1 x may /ill be employ$4 ,wort-gelat9e is us$ 9 /udy+ ! bact]ia ( f]m5tation4 ,x is made by add+ f five to t5 p] c5t4 ( gelat9e to be]-wort4 ,glyc]9e ,ag>-ag>4--,?is is made by add+ five p] c5t4 ( glyc]9e to nutri5t ag>-ag>1 aft] ! boil+ & be=e ! filtration4 ,illu/ration3 #a #b #c #d #e #f ,yell[4 ,yell[4 ,r$4 ,orange4 ,gre54 ,br[n4 ,fig4 #bfa4--,pure ,cultivation 9 ,tubes 7,crook%ank74 ,te/-tube ,cultivations4--,to inoculate te/-tubes conta9+ nutri5t jelly1 ! cotton-wool plug is remov$4 ,a /]ilis$ ne$le1 *>g$1 = example1 ) blood or pus conta9+ bact]ia1 is ?ru/ once 9 ! middle l9e into ! nutri5t jelly1 & /eadily )drawn4 ,! tube %\ld be held horizontally or ) its m\? d[nw>ds1 & ! plug replac$ z quickly z possible1 & an india-rubb] cap fitt$ ov] ! m\? ( ! tube4 ,! appe>ance produc$ by ! gr[?s 9 ! te/-tubes c be 9 mo/ cases suffici5tly exam9$ ) ! nak$ eye 7,fig4 #bfa74 ,9 "s cases ! jelly is p>tially liquefi$1 :ile 9 o!rs x rema9s solid4 ,! gr[?s may be abundant or scanty1 col\r$ or col\rless4 ,:5 liquefaction sl[ly takes place 9 ! ne$le tracts1 ! appe>ances :i* result are (t5 v delicate & 9 "s v *>act]i/ic4 ,! appe>ance ( a simple :ite ?read ) bran*+ lat]al filam5ts1 ( a cl\d9ess1 or ( a /r+ ( beads 9 ! track ( ! ne$le1 may be giv5 z examples4 ,9 "s cases mu* may be le>nt by means ( a magnify+-glass4 ,b5eke recomm5ds t gelat9e culture tubes %\ld be inoculat$ by mak+ a puncture q at ! side ( ! m$ium1 close to ! glass4 ,! advantage ( ?is me?od ov] ! plan ( inoculat+ ! mass 9 ! middle is t ! gr[+ culture c be microscopically exam9$ f ! outside1 & v>i\s details made out1 su* z ! nature ( ! gr[?1 ! comp>ative appe>ance ( colonies ne> ! surface & ^? situat$ m deeply1 & ! pres5ce ( "o or m di/9ct organisms4 ,if ! tubes us$ h ! opposite sides flat & p>allel1 su* exam9ations w be /ill fur!r facilitat$4 ,plate ,cultivations4--,by ?is me?od a mixture ( bact]ia1 :e!r 9 fluids1 excreta1 or 9 cultivations on solid m$ia1 c be s treat$ t ! diff]5t species are isolat$ "o f ! o!r1 & p]fectly pure cultivations ( ea* ( ! cultivable bact]ia 9 ! orig9al mixture e/abli%$ 9 v>i\s nutri5t m$ia4 ,we are enabl$ also to exam9e "u a l[ p[] ( ! microscope ! individual colonies ( bact]ia4 ,! same process1 ) slight modification1 is also employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( air1 soil1 & wat]4 ,9 ord] to spread out ! liquid jelly ev5ly on ! surface ( a glass plate1 & to ha/5 its solidification1 x is necess>y to place ! plate ^u a level & cool surface4 ,! glass plates are /]ilis$ 9 an iron box plac$ 9 ! hot-air /]ilis]1 at #aej ,c41 f "o to two h\rs4 ,! damp *amb]s = ! reception ( ! inoculat$ plates are prep>$ by cleans+ & wa%+ out ) "o 9 tw5ty c>bolic acid ! %all[ glass di% & bell-cov] 7,fig4 #bec74 ,a piece ( filt]-pap] %\ld cov] ! bottom ( di%1 moi/5$ ) ! same solution4 8,9 a glass-beak] ) pad ( cotton-wool at bottom place tube conta9+ cultivation1 ! ?ree tubes to be inoculat$1 ?ree glass rods :i* h to be /]ilis$1 & a !rmomet]4 ,liquefy ! gelat9e 9 ! ?ree tubes by plac+ !m 9 a beak] conta9+ wat] #cj ,c4 ,keep ! tubes1 bo? be=e & aft] ! inoculation1 9 ! w>m wat] to ma9ta9 ! gelat9e 9 a /ate ( liquefaction4 ,remove ! plug f ! culture & also ! plug ( te/-tube ) liquefi$ jelly4 ,) ! ne$le take up a droplet ( ! cultivation & /ir x r\nd 9 ! liquefi$ jelly4 ,replace bo? plugs1 & set aside ! cultivation4 ,hold ! fre%ly-inoculat$ tube almo/ horizontally1 !n raise x to ! v]tical1 s t ! liquid gelat9e g5tly fl[s back4 ,by repeat+ ?is motion1 & roll+ ! tube1 ! micro-organisms :i* h be5 introduc$ are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! gelat9e4 ,any viol5t %ak+1 & consequ5t =mation ( bubbles1 mu/ be c>efully avoid$4 ,inoculate ! second tube1 & also ?ird1 9 ! same way1 b ) ?ree droplets f a /]ilis$ ne$le4 ,! next process consi/s 9 p\r+ out ! gelat9e on glass plates & all[+ x to solidify4 8,remove cov] ( box conta9+ /]ilis$ plates1 )draw a plate ) /]ilis$ =ceps1 & rapidly transf] x to ! filt]-pap] "u ! bell-glass & quickly replace cov] ( box4 ,remove plug f ! te/-tube :i* 0 fir/ inoculat$1 & ! cont5ts are p\r$ out on ! plate4 ,) a glass rod ! gelat9e mu/ be !n rapidly spread out 9 an ev5 lay] )9 ab\t half an in* ( ! m>g9 ( ! plate1 ! bell-glass is replac$1 & ! gelat9e is all[$ to set4 ,mean:ile a glass b5* is plac$ 9 damp *amb]1 ^u :i* ! plate is plac$ :5 ! gelat9e is q solid2 precisely ! same process is repeat$ ) ! o!r tubes4 8,! colonies w be f\nd to develop 9 ! c\rse ( a day or two1 ! "t v>y+ ) ! temp]ature ( ! room4 ,! l[] plate w conta9 a c\ntless numb] ( colonies1 :i*1 if ! micro-organisms liquefy gelat9e1 spe$ily comm+le1 & produce 9 a v %ort "t a complete liquefaction ( ! :ole gelat9e4 ,on ! middle plate ! colonies w also be v num]\s1 b reta9 _! isolat$ positions = a long] "t2 :ile on ! upp]mo/ plate ! colonies are completely isolat$ f "o ano!r1 ) an appreciable surface ( gelat9e int]v5+4 8,! microscopical appe>ances ( ! colonies are be/ /udi$ by plac+ ! plate on a slab ( black5$ glass1 or on a porcela9 slab if ! colonies are col\r$4 ,a small diaphragm is us$1 & ! appe>ances /udi$ pr9cipally ) a l[ p[]4 ,a mu* simpl] me?od ( plate-cultivation is to p\r ! liquefi$ jelly into %all[ flat di%es2 !y take up mu* less room1 & 9 _m ways are m conv5i5t4 8,nutri5t ag>-ag> c also be employ$ = ! prep>ation ( plate-cultivations1 b x is mu* m difficult to obta9 satisfactory results40 ,microscopical ,exam9ation ( ,bact]ia4 ,bact]ia 9 ,liquids1 ,cultures1 & ,fre% ,tissues4--,9 conduct+ bact]iological rese>*es1 ! importance ( absolute cleanl9ess _c be too /rongly insi/$ ^u4 ,all in/rum5ts1 glass vessels1 slides1 & cov]-glasses %\ld be ?or\ghly cleans$ be=e use4 ,! same applies to ! prep>ation & employm5t ( culture m$ia2 any laxity 9 ! processes ( /]ilisation1 or insuffici5t att5tion to m9ute te*nical details1 w be foll[$ ) disappo9t+ results by contam9ation ( ! cultures1 result+ 9 ! loss ( mu* "t4 ,= ! prep>ation ( microscopical specim5s x w be f\nd conv5i5t to use a plat9um inoculat+ ne$le1 /]ilis$1 z be=e direct$1 9 ! %eet-iron box2 9 a few mom5ts x w be cool en\gh n to de/roy ! bact]ia ) :i* x is br\ght into contact4 ,un/a9$ ,bact]ia4--,! bact]ia 9 liquids1 su* z blood & culture-fluids1 c be inve/igat$ 9 ! un/a9$ condition by transf]r+ a drop ) a loop$ plat9um ne$le1 or a capill>y pipette1 to a slide1 cov]+ x ) a clean cov]-glass1 & exam9+ )\t fur!r treatm5t4 ,if x is desirable to keep ! specim5 "u prolong$ obs]vation1 a drop ( /]ilis$ wat] or salt solution mu/ be run 9 at ! m>g9 ( ! cov]-glass to c\nt]act ! t5d5cy to dry4 ,cultures on ! solid m$ia c be exam9$ by transf]r+ a small portion ) a /]ilis$ ne$le to a drop ( /]ilis$ wat] on a slide1 ?9n+ x out1 & cov]+ ) cov]-glass z already describ$4 ,tissues 9 ! fre% /ate may be teas$ out ) ne$les 7,fig4 #bdi7 9 /]ilis$ salt solution1 & press$ out into a suffici5tly ?9 lay] betwe5 ! slide & cov]-glass4 ,glyc]9e may 9 _m cases be sub/itut$ = salt solution1 especially = su* z act9omyces & m\ld fungi4 ,v small bacilli & micro-cocci are di/+ui%$ f granul> matt] or fat-cry/als1 or vice v]s1 by ! fact t ! latt] are alt]$ or disp]s$ by ! addition ( acetic acid1 & *ang$ by solution ( pota%2 e!r dissolves out fatty p>ticles1 :ile micro-organisms rema9 unaffect$4 ,baumg>t5 demon/rat$ tub]cle bacilli 9 sections by treat+ !m ) pota%1 :i* cl>ifi$ ! tissues & br\ght ! bacilli cle>ly into view4 ,9 exam9+ un/a9$ bact]ia ! iris-diaphragm %\ld be us$1 & ! sub-/age cond5s] c>efully c5tr$ & focuss$4 ,8's ,me?od ( ,/a9+4--,a slide is prep>$ z = bact]ia 9 ! fre% /ate2 ! reag5ts are !n appli$ by plac+ !m ) a pipette drop by drop at a m>g9 ( ! cov]-glass1 & caus+ !m to fl[ ?r\gh ! prep>ation by means ( a /rip ( filt]-pap] plac$ at ! opposite m>g94 ,babs' ,me?od is z foll[s3 ,a little ( ! gr[? spread out on a cov]-glass into z ?9 a film z possible2 :5 almo/ dry1 apply a drop or two ( a weak aque\s solution ( me?yl-violet f a pipette to ! film2 any excess ( ! /a9 mu/ be remov$ by g5tle pressure ) a /rip ( filt]-pap]4 ,cov]-glass ,prep>ations4--,a cov]-glass is sme>$ ) ! sub/ance to be exam9$ spread out into a suffici5tly ?9 lay]2 9 ! case ( cultures on solid m$ia1 diffuse ! bact]ia 9 a little /]ilis$ wat]4 ,by means ( ano!r cov]-glass ! juice or fluid is squeez$ out f betwe5 !m into a ?9 lay]1 & on slid+ !m ap>t ea* cov]-glass be>s on x a ?9 film ( ! mat]ial4 ,! cov]-glass is !n plac$ ) its film side upw>ds & all[$ to dry4 ,aft] a few m9utes x is pass$ f above d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! flame ( a ,buns5 burn] ?ree times4 ,apply two or ?ree drops ( an aque\s solution ( fu*s9e or me?yl-violet to cov] ! film1 wa% away any surplus /a9 aft] a few m9utes ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,! cov]-glass is !n all[$ to dry1 :5 ! prep>ation may be m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam1 or :ile /ill wet1 turn$ ov] on a slide1 & ! excess ( wat] remov$ ) filt]-pap]4 ,if necess>y to apply /a9 = a mu* l>g] p]iod1 p\r /a9+ solution into a wat* glass & all[ cov]-glass to swim on surface ) prep>$ side d[nw>ds4 ,crook%ank1 in/ead ( wat]y solutions ( anil9e dyes1 pref]s to use /rong] solutions1 & to r$uce ! /a9+ by a mom5t>y imm]sion 9 alcohol4 ,! me?od is z foll[s3 cov]-glass prep>ations are /a9$ ) c>bolis$ fu*s9e 7,neels5's solution7 = ab\t two m9utes1 r9s$ 9 alcohol = a few seconds1 & quickly wa%$ 9 wat]4 ,?is me?od is specially valuable = s>c9 & /reptococci4 ,gram's ,me?od4--,! :ole film is fir/ /a9$ violet ) g5tian-violet1 fix$ by a solution ( iod9e1 9 iodide ( potassium 9 ! bacilli1 b n 9 any dbris1 pus cells1 or tissue elem5ts pres5t4 ,transf] cov]-glass to alcohol1 ! bacilli alone rema9 /a9$1 ! violet col\r be+ *ang$ to blue4 ,by employ+ a contra/ col\r1 su* z eos91 a d\ble /a9+ is obta9$4 ,= /a9+ prep>ations ) g5tian-violet ,crook%ank employs ! foll[+ useful me?od3--,place f\r or five drops ( pure anil9e 9 a te/-tube1 add di/ill$ wat] to ?ree-qu>t]s full1 close m\? ) ?umb1 %ake ?or\ghly4 ,filt] ! emulsion twice1 p\r filtrate into wat*-glass4 ,to ! p]fectly cle> anil9e wat] ?us obta9$1 add1 drop by drop1 a conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian-violet till precipitation comm5ces4 ,cov]-glasses mu/ be left 9 ?is solution t5 m9utes1 transf]r$ to iod9e-potassic-iodide until ! film becomes uni=mly br[n1 !n r9s$ 9 alcohol4 ,! decol\risation may be ha/5$ by dipp+ ! cov]-glass 9 clove oil & return+ to alcohol4 ,aga9 imm]se cov]-glass 9 clove oil1 dry by g5tly press+ betwe5 two lay]s ( filt]-pap]1 & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam4 ,d\ble-/a9+ ( cov]-glass prep>ations4--,!y c be treat$ by ,ehrli*'s me?od = /a9+ tub]cul> sputum1 or by ,neels5's modification1 or by /a9+ ) eos9 aft] treatm5t by ! me?od ( ,gram4 ,ehrli*'s ,me?od is z foll[s3 ,five p>ts ( anil9e oil are %ak5 up ) "o hundr$ p>ts ( di/ill$ wat]1 & ! emulsion filt]$ ?r\gh moi/5$ filt]-pap]4 ,a saturat$ alcoholic solution ( fu*s9e1 me?yl-violet1 or g5tian-violet1 is add$ to filtrate 9 wat*-glass1 drop by drop1 until precipitation comm5ces4 ,cov]-glass prep>ations are float$ 9 ?is mixture = fifte5 m9utes to half an h\r1 !n wa%$ = a few seconds 9 dilute nitric acid 7"o "p ( nitric acid to two ( wat]71 !n r9s$ 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,neels5's ,solution & ,me?yl5e ,blue4--,ziehl sugge/$ ! use ( c>bolic acid z a sub/itute = anil9e blue4 ,neels5 recomm5d$ a solution ( c>bolic acid1 absolute alcohol & fu*s9e4 7,see ,app5dix47 ,gram's ,solution & ,eos94--,aft] us+ ,gram's me?od z above & decol\ris+ 9 alcohol1 ! cov]-glass is plac$ 9 a weak solution ( eos9 = two or ?ree m9utes1 wa%$ 9 alcohol1 imm]s$ 9 clove oil1 dri$1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,/a9+ ( ,spores4--,! cov]-glass prep>ation mu/ be heat$ to #baj ,c4 = half an h\r1 or pass$ ab\t twelve times ?r\gh ! flame ( a ,buns5 burn]1 or expos$ to ! action ( /rong sulphuric acid = sev]al seconds1 !n a few drops ( a wat]y solution ( anil9e dye appli$ 9 ! usual way4 ,to d\ble-/a9 spore-be>+ bacilli ! cov]-glass prep>ation mu/ be float$ f tw5ty m9utes to an h\r on ,ehrli*'s fu*s9e-anil9e-wat]1 or on ! ,ziehl-,neels5 solution4 ,! /a9 mu/ be heat$ until /eam arises4 ,/a9+ ( ,flagella4 ,ko* fir/ /a9$ flagella by float+ ! cov]-glass on a wat]y solution ( hmatoxyl91 transf]r+ !m to a five p] c5t4 solution ( *romic acid1 or to ,mll]'s fluid1 by :i* !y obta9$ a br[ni%-black coloration4 ,lffl]'s ,me?od4--,add toge!r aque\s solutions ( f]r\s-sulphate & tann9 7tw5ty p] c5t47 until ! mixture turns a violet-black col\r1 !n add ?ree or f\r cc4 ( a "o-9-eight aque\s solution ( logwood2 a few drops ( c>bolic acid may be add$ be=e transf]r+ to a /opp]$ bottle2 t is ! mordant4 ,! dye consi/s ( #a cc4 ( a "o p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic soda1 add$ to #ajj cc4 ( anil9e wat]1 9 :i* f\r or five grammes ( ei!r me?yl-violet1 me?yl5e blue1 or fu*s9e1 are dissolv$4 ,a cov]-glass prep>ation is made 9 ! usual way1 !n ! film is cov]$ ) mordant1 & cov]-glass held ov] flame until /eam rises1 ! mordant is !n wa%$ (f ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,! /a9 is filt]$ & a few drops all[$ to fall on film1 aft] a few m9utes ! cov]-glass is aga9 w>m$ until /eam rises4 ,! /a9 is !n wa%$ (f ) di/ill$ wat]1 & ! prep>ation is ready to be m\nt$ = exam9ation4 ,z ,lffl]'s process is some:at complicat$1 a modification has be5 said to af=d m satisfactory results4 ,a specim5 is tak5 f a rec5t gelat9e culture & dilut$ ) wat]4 ,a little ( ! fluid is !n transf]r$ to a w>m cov]-glass by means ( a pipette & all[$ to dry1 aft] :i* a drop ( ! foll[+ mordant is appli$3--,aque\s solution ( tann9 7tw5ty p] c5t471 t5 cc42 cold saturat$ solution ( f]r\s sulphate1 five cc42 saturat$ solution ( fu*s9e 9 absolute alcohol1 "o cc4 ,! cov] is next heat$ g5tly = a %ort "t until vap\rs are giv5 (f1 !n wa%$ c>efully4 ,?is process is repeat$ two or ?ree times1 & ! specim5 wa%$ aft] ea* application4 ,subsequ5tly1 /a9+ is effect$ by means ( ,ziehl's fu*s9e solution1 ! cov] is aft]w>ds w>m$ once or twice = ab\t fifte5 seconds1 !n wa%$1 & ! specim5 exam9$ 9 wat] to asc]ta9 if ! col\r is suffici5tly int5se4 ,if satisfactory1 ! prep>ation may !n be dri$ & f9ally m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam or damm>4 ,pres]vation ( ,prep>ations4--,aft] exam9+ a cov]-glass prep>ation ) an oil-imm]sion objective ! c$> oil mu/ be c>efully wip$ (f1 & ! slide set aside = ! ,canada balsam to set4 ,at a conv5i5t "t ^! prep>ations %\ld be seal$ ) a r+ ( ,hollis's glue4 ,bact]ia 9 ,sections ( ,tissues4 ,me?od ( ,h>d5+ & ,decalcify+ ,tissues4--,to h>d5 small organs1 su* z ! visc]a ( a m\se1 !y %\ld be plac$ on a piece ( filt]-pap] at ! bottom ( a small wide-m\!d glass j>1 & cov]$ ) ab\t tw5ty times _! volume ( absolute alcohol4 ,l>g] organs are treat$ 9 ! same way1 b mu/ be cut up into small pieces4 ,mll]'s fluid1 me?ylat$ _s1 or =mal9 may be us$4 ,tee?1 or osse\s /ructures1 mu/ fir/ be plac$ 9 a decalcify+ solution1 z ,kle95b]g's4 ,:5 suffici5tly s(t5$1 soak 9 wat]1 to wa% out picric acid1 & transf] to weak _s4 ,ebn]'s solution gives good results4 ,me?ods ( emb$d+1 fix+1 & cutt+4--,crook%ank f9ds t aft] h>d5+1 ! pieces ( tissue are emb$d$ 9 a mixture ( e!r & alcohol = an h\r or m1 !n transf]r$ to a solution ( celloid9 9 equal p>ts ( e!r & alcohol1 & left !re = sev]al h\rs4 ,! piece ( tissue is !n plac$ 9 a glass capsule1 & "s ( ! celloid9 solution p\r$ ov] x4 ,! capsule c be plac$ bodily 9 #fj to #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 & left !re until ! foll[+ morn+4 ,! celloid9 %\ld be ( ! consi/5cy ( wax4 ,! piece ( tissue is next cut out1 & aft] trimm+ is put into wat] until x s9ks1 !n transf]r$ to gum1 & cut ) ! freez+ microtome4 ,sections ( fre% tissues are to be float$ 9 #h p] c5t4 salt solution1 & !n c>efully transf]r$ by a plat9um lift] to a wat*-glass conta9+ absolute alcohol4 ,/a9+ ,bact]ia 9 ,tissue ,sections4--,weig]t's me?od is z foll[s3--,place sections = f six to eighte5 h\rs 9 a "o p] c5t4 wat]y solution ( any ( ! basic anil9e dyes4 ,to ha/51 place ! capsule conta9+ solution 9 ! incubator1 or heat x to #de ,c41 or a /rong] solution may be us$4 ,9 ! latt] case ! sections mu/ be treat$ ) a half-saturat$ solution ( c>bonate ( pota%1 z !y are easily ov]-/a9$4 ,9 ei!r case ! sections are next wa%$ ) di/ill$ wat]1 pass$ ?r\gh sixty p] c5t4 alcohol into absolute alcohol4 ,:5 almo/ decol\ris$1 spread out on a plat9um lift] & transf] to clove oil1 or /a9 ) picro-c>m9e solution 7,weig]t's7 = half an h\r1 wa% 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & treat ) clove oil1 & transf] to clean glass slide4 ,gram's ,me?od4--,sections are /a9$ = t5 m9utes 9 a capsule conta9+ anil9e-g5tian-violet solution1 !n plac$ 9 ! iod9e & iodide solution until uni=mly br[n1 !n plac$ 9 absolute alcohol1 & wa%$ by c>efully mov+ sections 9 ! liquid ) a glass rod4 ,:5 completely decol\ris$1 !y are transf]r$ to clove oil & !n to a slide4 ,d\ble-/a9+ is obta9$ by transf]r+ ! sections aft] decol\risation to eos91 ,bism>ck br[n1 or vesuv9 7,crook%ank74 ,=mal9 is an excell5t pres]vative fluid2 "o "p to #bj1jjj is suffici5t to prev5t f]m5tation4 ,= ! pres]vation ( vegetable sections1 a "o p] c5t4 solution is requir$2 ev5 ! fre% appe>ance ( vegetable /ructures is pres]v$ = "s "t :5 imm]s$ 9 x4 ,9 ! nutri5t gelat9e = biological specim5s1 if us$ e>ly1 w arre/ ! liquefaction ( ! gelat9e by bact]ia4 ,= h>d5+ x saves "t1 & is ev5 bett] ?an alcohol1 *romic acid1 pot4 bi*41 & _m o!rs4 ,x does n cause %r9kage ( ! cells4 ,tissue #a_/b to #c_/d in* ?ick h>d5s 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 pure =mal92 five to t5 p] c5t4 is be/ = loose tissue4 ,9 ano!r me?od1 by :i* "t c be sav$1 in/ead ( plac+ ! specim5 9 ! =mal9 & aft]w>ds 9 mucilage1 prior to cutt+ sections1 make ! mucilage ) two p] c5t4 7or /rong]7 =mal9 wat]1 & x w !n answ] bo? purposes at ! same "t4 ,prep>+1 ,m\nt+1 ,cem5t+ & ,collect+ ,objects4 ,v>i\s mat]ials are requir$ = prep>+ & m\nt+ microscopic objects1 z slips ( glass1 pat5t flatt$ plate measur+ #c #a in*1 ?9 glass cov]s1 glass cells1 pres]vative m$ia1 v>ni%es1 cem5ts1 a glazi]'s diamond1 & a ,%adbolt's turn-table4 ,! glass slides & cov]s1 al?\gh s5t out pack$ ready = use1 %\ld be imm]s$ 9 an alkal9e solution to ensure p]fect fre$om f any greas9ess d]iv$ f t\*+ by ! f+]s4 ,dr4 ,sell] recomm5ds a p>ticul> solution = ?is purpose4 7,see ,=mul1 ,app5dix47 ,v>ni%es & cem5ts mu/ be select$ ) c>e1 z ^! are n only expect$ to adh]e firmly to ! glass slide1 b also to resi/ ! action ( ! pres]vative fluid 9 :i* ! specim5 may be m\nt$4 ,among ! num]\s prep>ations employ$1 ,i may enum]ate ,canada balsam1 gum damm>1 ,v5ice turp5t9e1 ,japann]s' gold size1 us$ = clos+ up cells1 asphalte v>ni%1 ,brunswick black1 %ellac1 glue & honey1 ,hollis' liquid glue1 & m>9e glue4 ,to give a f9i% to ! m\nt$ specim51 col\r$ v>ni%es are sometimes resort$ to4 ,a r$ v>ni% ( seal+-wax is made by dige/+ p[d]$ seal+-wax 9 /rong alcohol4 ,filt]1 & place ! solution 9 a di%1 & evaporate by means ( a s& ba? to r$uce x to a prop] consi/5cy4 ,?is is said to resi/ ! action ( c$> oil4 ,= :ite1 z9c1 cem5t is ! be/4 ,?is is made ( b5zole1 gum damm>1 oxide ( z9c1 & turp5t9e4 ,cole gives ano!r =mula1 b ei!r ( ^! may be obta9$ ( ,squire1 :o supplies e k9d ( /a9+ & m\nt+ mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,walmsley's ,cell-mak+ ,turn-table4 ,cells = ,m\nt+4--,! m9ut] =ms ( life %\ld be m\nt$ 9 ?9 cells1 :i* may be readily made ) ,japann]s' gold size1 damm> or asphalte1 & a ,%adbolt or ,walmsley's turntable4 ,! glass slide be+ plac$ "u ! metal spr+s 9 su* a mann] t its two ends %all be equi-di/ant f ! c5tre 7a guide to ! position is af=d$ by ! circles trac$ out on ! brass71 take a camel's hair p5cil & dip x into ! ,japann]'s gold-size1 hold+ x firmly betwe5 ! f+] & ?umb1 & set ! :eel 9 motion1 :5 a p]fect circle w be =m$2 put x aside to dry1 or place x 9 ! w>m *amb] to h>d54 ,to cut cov]-glasses place a %eet ( ?9 glass "u ! brass spr+s1 & sub/itute = ! p5cil a cutt+ diamond4 ,a cutt+ diamond is n only useful to ! microscopi/ = ! above purpose1 b also = writ+ ! names ( m\nt$ objects on "o end ( ! slide4 ,x w be f\nd conv5i5t to make a numb] ( su* cells1 & keep a /ock ready = use4 ,!re are _m objects ^: /ructure is v transp>5t4 ,^! %\ld be m\nt$ dry4 ,scales f ! w+s ( butt]flies & mo?s1 ( ! podura & lepisma1 & "s ( ! diatomace are ( ?is class4 ,all t is necess>y 9 prep>+ objects = dry m\nt+ is to take c>e t !y are free f extrane\s matt]1 & fix !m p]man5tly 9 ! position 9 :i* _! /ructure w %[ to ! be/ advantage4 ,= m\nt+ specim5s ( great] ?ickness x is desirable to use deep] cells4 ,x w !n be f\nd conv5i5t to make a second or a ?ird application ( ! gold-size1 all[+ suffici5t "t betwe5 applications = ! v>ni% to dry4 ,cells ( a /ill deep] k9d are made up by cem5t+ r+s ( glass or metal to ! glass-slides ) m>9e glue or ,brunswick black4 ,! latt] w be r5d]$ m durable by mix+ 9 a small quantity ( indi>ubb] v>ni% 7made by dissolv+ small /rips ( ca\t*\c 9 gas-t>74 ,! process ( m\nt+ 9 glass-cells is simil> to t employ$ 9 mak+ v>ni%-cells1 except t a some:at l>g] quantity ( cem5t+ m$ium is requir$4 ,objects m\nt$ 9 ?is way %\ld be kept = a "t 9 ! horizontal position1 & a little fre% v>ni% mu/ be appli$ if ! cem5t %[s a t5d5cy to crack4 ,9 m\nt+ objects 9 balsam1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to h ! specim5 q dry be=e transf]r+ x to turp5t9e4 ,objects m\nt$ 9 cells %\ld become p]fectly saturat$ ) ! m\nt+ fluid be=e be+ f9ally cem5t$ d[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--;,glass-cells = ,m\nt+4 ,x is pref]able to m\nt & pres]ve specim5s ( animal tissues 9 %all[ cells1 to avoid undue pressure on ! prep>ation4 ,cells int5d$ to conta9 prep>ations imm]s$ 9 fluid mu/ be made ( a sub/ance imp]vi\s to ! fluid us$1 su* z "h repres5t$ 7,fig4 #bfc74 ,! surface ( ! fix$ glass-circle %\ld be slightly r\gh5$ be=e apply+ ! cem5t4 ,diff]5t modes ( m\nt+ may be employ$ ) advantage2 = in/ance1 entomological specim5s1 z legs1 w+s1 spiracles1 tra*e1 ovipositors1 /+s1 tongues1 palates1 corne1 %\ld be m\nt$ 9 balsam2 ! tra*ea ( ! h\se-cricket1 h[ev]1 %\ld be m\nt$ dry4 ,sections ( bone may ei!r be m\nt$ dry or 9 a fluid4 ,o!r objects1 z sections ( wood & /ones ( fruit1 exhibit _! /ructure be/ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,9 m\nt+ entomological specim5s1 ! fir/ ?+1 ( c\rse1 is ! dissection ( ! insect4 ,?is is be/ accompli%$ by ! aid ( a dissect+ microscope1 a pair ( small brass =ceps1 & f9ely-po9t$ scissors2 ! p>ts to be prep>$ & m\nt$ %\ld fir/ be c>efully deta*$ f ! insect ) ! scissors1 !n imm]s$ 9 a solution ( cau/ic alkali 7liquor potass7 = a few days1 to s(t5 & dissolve out ! fat & s(t p>ts4 ,! l5g? ( "t necess>y = _! imm]sion c only be det]m9$ by exp]i5ce1 b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! objects assume a c]ta9 am\nt ( transp>5cy :5 !y h be5 long en\gh 9 ! alkali2 :5 ?is is asc]ta9$1 ! object mu/ be plac$ 9 a prop] receptacle & put by to soak = two or ?ree h\rs 9 s(t or di/ill$ wat]4 ,x %\ld !n be plac$ betwe5 two slips ( glass1 & g5tly press$ till ! s(t] p>ts are remov$4 ,%\ld any adh]e to ! edge ( ! object1 x w be necess>y to wa% ! specim5 c>efully 9 wat]1 a process t w be mu* assi/$ by ! delicate t\*es ( a camel's-hair bru%4 ,place ! object n[ & !n "u ! microscope to see t all extrane\s matt] is remov$1 & :5 ?is is accompli%$ take ! specim5 up c>efully ) ! camel's-hair bru%1 or a lift]1 & place x on a piece ( v smoo? pap] 7?ick ivory note is ! be/ = ! purpose71 arrange x c>efully ) ! bru% & a f9ely po9t$ ne$le1 place a second piece ( pap] ov] x1 & press x flat betwe5 two slips ( glass1 & compress x by a small spr+ clip 7,fig4 #bfd74 ,a doz5 clips may be _h = a few p5ce4 ,:5 ?or\ghly dry 7:i* x w probably be 9 ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 if 9 a w>m room71 sep>ate ! glasses1 & g5tly unfold ! pap]2 !n1 ) a little c>eful manipulation1 ! object may be readily deta*$1 & plac$ 9 a little _s ( turp5t9e1 :]e x %\ld be all[$ to rema9 until r5d]$ transp>5t & fit = m\nt+4 ,! "t dur+ :i* x %\ld rema9 9 ?is liquid w dep5d on ! /ructure2 "s objects1 su* z w+s ( flies1 w be quickly p]meat$1 :ile horny & d5se objects require an imm]sion ( a =tnight or ev5 long]4 ,a pomatum pot ) a concave bottom & well-fitt+ lid w answ] admirably = conduct+ ! soak+ process 92 & x is well1 9 prep>+ sev]al specim5s at a "t1 to h two pots1 "o = l>ge & m$ium1 ! o!r = v small objects1 o!rwise ! small] w adh]e to ! l>g]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--,spr+ ,clip = ,m\nt+4 ,9 m\nt+ objects 9 fluid1 ! glass cov] %\ld come ne>ly1 b n q1 to ! edge ( ! cell1 a slight m>g9 be+ left = ! cem5t1 :i* %\ld project slightly ov] ! edge ( ! cov]1 9 ord] to secure x to ! cell4 ,m$ia = ,pres]v+ ,alg4--,! mo/ useful pres]vative m$ia = alg are *rome-alum1 =mal91 & camphor wat]4 ,! solution %\ld consi/ ( "o p] c5t4 ( *rome-alum & "o p] c5t4 ( =mal92 ?is w r5d] ! gelat9\s %ea? & matrix =m cle>1 :ile x w reta9 ! col\r ( ! alg 9 mo/ cases4 ,! ,*lorophyce d well 9 any ( ^! m$ia2 b o!r species1 z ,ulva ,lactuca1 are r5d]$ some:at brittle4 ,= su* use =mal9 alone4 ,! ,phophyce %\ld be plac$ :ile fre% 9 ! =mal92 ! l>g] =ms are bett] fix$ by plac+ !m = an h\r or two 9 *rome-alum solution4 ,! ,floride d well 9 any ( ! ?ree solutions1 b ! m delicate species1 ,griffi?sia1 require a two p] c5t4 =mal9 solution 9 sea-wat]2 ! plant pres]ves its natural appe>ance 9 ?is m$ium4 ,to pres]ve & m\nt diatomace 9 z ne>ly z possible a natural condition1 !y %\ld be fir/ well wa%$ 9 di/ill$ wat] & m\nt$ 9 a m$ium compos$ ( "o "p ( spirits ( w9e to sev5 p>ts ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,! silice\s cov]+s ( ! diatoms1 h[ev]1 :i* %[ v>i\s beautiful =ms "u ! high] p[]s ( ! microscope1 require m c>e 9 prep>ation4 ,! guano1 or infusorial e>? conta9+ !m1 %\ld fir/ be wa%$ sev]al times 9 wat] till ! wat] is col\rless1 all[+ suffici5t "t = precipitation betwe5 ea* wa%+4 ,! deposit mu/ !n be put into a te/ tube & nitro-hydro*loric acid 7equal p>ts ( nitric & hydro*loric acids7 add$ to x1 :5 a viol5t eff]vesc5ce w take place4 ,:5 ?is has subsid$1 ! :ole %\ld be subject$ to heat1 br\ght ne>ly to ! boil+ po9t = six or eight h\rs4 ,! acid mu/ n[ be c>efully p\r$ (f1 & ! precipitate wa%$ 9 a l>ge quantity ( wat]1 all[+ "s ?ree or f\r h\rs betwe5 ea* wa%+1 = ! subsid5ce ( "s ( ! light] =ms4 ,! s$im5t mu/ be exam9$ "u ! microscope ) an in* object-glass1 & ! silice\s valves ( ! diatoms pick$ out ) a co>se hair or bri/le4 ,dr4 ,rezn]'s ,me*anical ,f+] 7,fig4 #bfe7 = select+ & arrang+ diatoms1 adaptable to any microscope1 is made to slip on to ! objective f> en\gh to h a firm be>+1 & s t ! bri/le po9t c be br\ght into focus :5 depress$ to its limit4 ,x is clamp$ 9 its place by a small ?umb-screw4 ,! bri/le hold] slides into its place1 & is c>efully adju/$ to ! c5tre ( ! field4 ,:5 us+ ! f+]1 ! bri/le is fir/ rais$ by means ( ! micromet] screw till s f> )9 focus z to be ne>ly or q invisible1 !n ! objective is focuss$ on to ! slide1 & ! desir$ object s\ght = & br\ght into ! c5tre ( ! field2 ! bri/le po9t is !n l[]$ by ! screw until x rea*es ! object1 :i* usually adh]es to x at once1 & c !n be exam9$ by rotat+ ! bri/le wire by means ( ! mill$ head4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--,rezn]'s ,me*anical ,f+]4 ,! m$ium us$ = m\nt+ diatomace is ( consid]able importance1 inasmu* z _! visibility is ei!r dim9i%$ or mu* increas$ !reby4 ,pr(essor ,abbe1 exp]im5t+ ) ! m m9ute te/ objects1 diatoms1 c41 f\nd monobromide ( naph?al9e gave increas$ def9ition to mo/ ( !m4 ,?is liquid is col\rless1 some:at ( an oleag9\s nature1 & is soluble 9 alcohol4 ,its d5sity is #aeee1 & refractive index #af4 ,its index ( visibility is ab\t twice t ( ,canada balsam4 ,tak+ ! refractive index ( air z #aj1 & diatomace\s silex z #adc1 ! visibility may be express$ by ! diff]5ce #dc4 ,! foll[+ table may be con/ruct$ 3-- ,refractive indices ,visibility ( silex 7tak5 approximately74 7,refr4 index #adc74 ,wat] #acc #aj ,canada balsam #aed #aa ,bisulphide ( c>bon #afh #be ,sol4 ( sulphur 9 bisulph4 #age #cb phosphorus #baa #fg ,^! data relat+ to visibility mu/ be tak5 9 connection ) ! num]ical ap]ture ( ! objectives & ( ! illum9at+ p5cil4 ,! effect produc$ on diatoms is v rem>kable1 ! m>k+s on _! silice\s fru/ules be+ visible "u mu* l[] p[]s4 ,s t ! visibility ( ! diatom m\nt$ 9 phosphorus z comp>$ ) balsam is z sixty-sev5 to elev52 9 o!r words1 ! image is six times m visible4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son's phosphorus m$ium is compos$ ( a solution ( solid or /ick phosphor\s dissolv$ 9 bisulphide ( c>bon4 ,great c>e is requir$ 9 prep>+ ! solution ow+ to ! v inflammable nature ( ! mat]ials4 ,s small a quantity ( ! bisulphide ( c>bon is requir$ to dissolve ! phosphorus t ! diatom may be said to be m\nt$ 9 ne>ly pure phosphorus4 ,rem>kable en\gh1 ?is m$ium has ! rev]se effect ^u su* te/-objects z podura & lepisma scales4 ,^! lose _! *>act]i/ic m>k+s4 ,= m\nt+ m9ute objects1 c>bolic acid solution w be f\nd a useful m$ium--! pure/ cry/als ( c>bolic acid dissolv$ 9 j suffici5t wat] to r5d] !m fluid4 ,no m %\ld be dissolv$ ?an may be want$ = ! "t be+1 z if left /&+ expos$ to ! light x *anges col\r4 ,small cru/acean =am9if]a1 ! palates ( moluscs1 aft] boil+ a %ort "t 9 liquid pota% & well wa%+ to remove all traces ( alkali1 may be pres]v$ 9 c>bolic acid solution4 ,%\ld ! specim5s appe> cl\dy g5tly w>m ! slide ov] a _s lamp4 ,pres]v+ & ,kill+ ,rotatoria ) cilia 9 situ4--,mr4 ,c4 ,r\sselet's me?od ( pres]v+ & m\nt+ ! ,rotatoria#dg has be5 att5d$ ) s mu* success t ! old difficulty att5dant ^u ! pres]vation ( ^! v>i\s beautiful =ms ( infusorial life has be5 practically ov]come4 ,! process resort$ to consi/s ( f\r /ages1 namely1 n>cotis+1 kill+1 fix+1 & pres]v+4 ,9 deal+ ) rotif]s hi!rto1 ! difficulty has be5 t ( successfully kill+ !m ) _! rotat+ organs fully ext5d$4 ,x has be5 f\nd ne$ful to h rec\rse 9 ! fir/ in/ance to a n>cotis+ ag5t1 & "o t acts sl[ly4 ,! mo/ suitable is a weak solution ( ! hydro*lorate ( coca9e1 a "o p] c5t4 solution1 or ev5 weak]4 ,?is 0 fir/ propos$ by ,mr4 ,web] = keep+ ^! active little bodies quiet :ile "u obs]vation4 ,mr4 ,r\sselet c>ries ?is ag5t fur!r2 he appli$ x to n>cotise !m prior to kill+1 & ?is x does mo/ effectually4 ,! rotif]s are se5 to s9k to ! bottom ( ! live-cell1 & ! cilia gradually to slack5 9 motion1 & ! "t = kill+ has arriv$4 ,?is is effect$ by ,flemm+'s *romo-aceto-osmic acid4 ,a r weak solution mu/ be employ$--consi/+ ( #a p] c5t4 solution ( *romic acid1 #ae p>ts2 #b p] c5t4 osmic acid1 #d p>ts2 glacial acetic acid1 #a "p--:i* is at ! same "t a kill+ & fix+ m$ium4 ,! ^w 8fix+0 mu/ n be tak5 to imply simply fix+1 z x includes rapidly kill+ & h>d5+ & prev5t+ fur!r *ange 9 ! tissues ( ! rotif]s by subsequ5t treatm5t1 z m\nt+4 ,! animal1 !re=e1 mu/ rema9 quietly = a few m9utes1 & !n tak5 out & wa%$ 9 five or six *anges ( di/ill$ wat]1 & h5ce transf]r$ to ! pres]vative fluid4 ,all ?is mu/ be effect$ ) great c>e4 ,! be/ pres]vative fluid is simply di/ill$ wat]1 r5d]$ antiseptic by a trace ( ! fix+ solution 7ab\t eight drops to an ounce ( wat]7 giv+ ! slighte/ t+e ( yell[ to ! solution4 ,?is slight t+e ( col\r is imp>t$ to ! rotif]s1 o!rwise !y rema9 transp>5t & un*ang$1 :ile ! n]v\s tissue ?r\gh\t ! body is br\ght out to p]fection4 ,"s slight diff]5ce 9 treatm5t is requir$ by c]ta9 species1 z t ( ,asplan*na priodonta2 aft] ! application ( ! coca9e solution1 :i* %\ld be add$ sl[ly1 t is1 by lett+ a few drops trickle d[n ! side ( ! live-tr\gh2 ?is1 be+ heavi] ?an wat]1 s9ks to ! bottom1 ?us n>cotis+ ! rotif]s1 & assi/+ to kill !m ) ! cilia fully exp&$4 ,!y %\ld be left quietly = fifte5 m9utes1 !n ?or\ghly wa%$ ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,on fur!r exp]im5t+1 ,mr4 ,r\sselet f\nd t a weak] solution ( osmic acid alone1 #a_/d p] c5t41 answ]s q z well z1 if n bett] ?an1 ,flemm+'s fluid2 ev5 ?is mu/ be all[$ to act = only a v %ort "t--a m9ute at mo/2 ! rotif]s !n rema9 :ite & transp>5t1 except+ ! ova1 9 :i* a fat-l sub/ance1 leci!ne1 is secret$4 ,if !y become too mu* /a9$1 !y may be decol\ris$ by pass+ !m ?r\gh p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,= n>cotis+ ! foll[+ solution has be5 f\nd mo/ useful3--,take a #b p] c5t4 solution ( coca9e hydro*lorate1 #c p>ts2 me?ylat$ _s ( wood naph?a1 #a "p2 & di/ill$ wat]1 #f p>ts4 ,?is mu/ be add$ z be=e direct$1 drop by drop1 wat*+ ! effect ^u ! rotif]s "u ! microscope4 ,all ! rotatoria may be kill$ & pres]v$ 9 ! same way4 ,= m\nt+1 ,mr4 ,r\sselet pref]s a slightly holl[$-out glass cell1 ! advantage ( :i* is t ! rotif]s are kept to ! c5tre1 & _c move to ! edge4 ,a little difficulty at fir/ pres5ts itself to exclude air-bubbles1 b ?is1 ) a little c>e1 c be ov]come by plac+ a drop ( a two or ?ree p] c5t4 solution ( =mal91 j suffici5t to fill ! cell4 ,!n transf] ! rotif]s ) a dipp+ pipette to ! cell1 & l[] ! cov]-glass d[n v g5tly1 remov+ any excess ( fluid by blott+-pap]4 ,! be/ cem5t = ! cov]-glass is gold-size4 ,me?od ( ,cem5t+4--,aft] _m ye>s' exp]i5ce1 ,i h arriv$ at ! conclusion t = cem5t+ d[n ! cov]-glass !re is no?+ bett] ?an ei!r gold size or gum damm> v>ni%4 ,! latt]1 = "s prep>ations1 w be improv$ by ! addition ( a small proportion ( indi>ubb] dissolv$ 9 naph?a4 7,see ,app5dix47 ,%\ld glyc]9e be pref]r$1 c>efully wa% away any surplus quantity by g5tly syr++2 !n apply a r+ ( wat]pro( cem5t r\nd ! cov]-glass4 ,an inexp5sive "o c be made by dissolv+ t5 gra9s ( gum-ammoniac 9 an ounce ( acetic acid1 & add+ to ?is solution two dra*ms ( ,cox's gelat9e4 ,?is liquid fl[s easily f ! bru% & is wat]pro(1 r5d]$ m s if subsequ5tly bru%$ ov] ) a solution ( t5 gra9s ( bi*romate ( pota% 9 an ounce ( wat]4 ,an especial recomm5dation to ?is cem5t is its adhesiv5ess to glass1 ev5 %\ld !re be a little glyc]9e left beh9d on ! cov]4 ,aft] ! gelat9e r+ is ?or\ghly dry any k9d ( cem5t may be employ$4 ,a useful cem5t = fix+ m9ute objects1 diatoms1 c41 tempor>ily to ?9 glass cov]s1 be=e p]man5tly m\nt+ !m 9 ,canada balsam1 is made z foll[s3--,dissolve1 )\t heat1 two or ?ree gra9s ( gum arabic 9 "o ounce ( di/ill$ wat]1 !n add glacial acetic acid1 ?ree m9ims1 & ! lea/ trace ( sug>4 ,filt] c>efully ?r\gh filt] pap]1 & repeat ?is 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree or f\r weeks4 ,?is cem5t w be unaffect$ by ! balsam4 ,m\nt+ ,*>a4--,x is (t5 f\nd difficult to pres]ve & m\nt ! fruit ( *>a1 b ?is c be successfully accompli%$ 9 glyc]9e jelly1 by tak+ ! foll[+ precautions4 ,aft] clean+ ! specim5 place x 9 #ib p] c5t4 ( alcohol = sev]al h\rs1 !n transf] x to a mixture ( equal p>ts ( _s & glyc]9e = sev]al h\rs long]1 p\r (f ne>ly all ! mixture1 & add pure glyc]9e at int]vals till ! glyc]9e becomes conc5trat$4 ,! specim5 is !n m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e jelly 9 a cell j deep en\gh to take x )\t pressure4 ,!re are "s objects mu* m difficult to prep>e ?an o!rs1 & :i* tax ! pati5ce ( ! beg9n] 9 a mann] :i* c h>dly be imag9$ by any "o :o has nev] made ! attempt4 ,! /ructure ( _m creatures is s delicate z to require ! v greate/ c>e to prev5t mutilation1 & consequ5t spoliation1 ( ! specim54 ,! beg9n]1 !re=e1 mu/ n be disc\rag$ by a few failures 9 comm5c+1 b %\ld p]sev]e 9 8 attempts1 & con/ant practice w soon tea* him ! be/ way ( manag+ intricate & difficult objects4 ,! room 9 :i* he op]ates %\ld be free f du/1 smoke1 & intrusion1 & ev]y?+ us$ %\ld be kept scrupul\sly clean1 s9ce a v small speck ( dirt1 :i* may be almo/ invisible to ! nak$ eye1 w assume unpleasant proportions "u ! microscope1 & n only m>1 b possibly spoil a f9e & delicate prep>ation4 ,few /ud5ts on comm5c+ to "w ) ! microscope w fully realise ! fact t "u m$ium or high p[]s ! natural appe>ance ( almo/ all objects is *ang$ by ! refractive nature ( ! fluid m$ium 9 :i* !y are imm]s$ & :i* ent]s m or less into _! composition4 ,! rem>kable *anges effect$ by ! law ( diffusion1 :5 alkaloid sub/ances ent] into _! composition1 %[ ! necessity ( tak+ e precaution 9 ! employm5t ( pres]vative fluids4 ,glyc]9e af=ds an example ( ! *emical *ange induc$1 %\ld ! prep>ation h be5 pass$ ?r\gh an alkal9e solution4 ,air ,bubbles are a con/ant s\rce ( annoyance bo? 9 prep>+ & m\nt+4 ,^! may be remov$ f ! specim5 by g5tly w>m+ ! "u "p ( ! slide ov] a _s lamp1 or plac+ ! slide 9 ! w>m *amb]1 :5 ! bubbles w move t[>ds ! edge ( ! cov]-glass & ultimately disappe>4 ,! air-pump is pref]r$ by _m microscopi/s4 ,collection ( ,objects4 ,infusorial ,life1 ) all its fasc9ations1 0 fully unveil$ to naturali/s by ! celebrat$ ,ehr5b]g4 ,x 0 he :o t]m$ x infusorial1 because he fir/ met ) ! m int]e/+ =ms ( m9ute life 9 infusions ( hay & o!r vegetable sub/ances4 ,s9ce 8 day x is a well-kn[n exp]i5ce ( ^? :o take up ! microscope t ! mo/ int]e/+ objects to comm5ce ) are infusorial liv+ creatures ( suffici5t dim5sions to be easily und]/ood & se5 ) mod]ate magnify+ p[]s4 ,moreov]1 infusoria are m readily f\nd 9 almo/ any pool or runn+ /ream ( wat]1 ei!r ne> ! surface or cl++ to ! "u surfaces ( aquatic plants4 ,at "o "t all ! small %all[ pools 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london--,hamp/ead ,hea?1 ,clapham1 ,w&swor?1 & o!r commons--ab\nd$ 9 ! mo/ int]e/+ =ms ( life1 7 fam\s hunt+ gr\nds = ! m>vell\s volvox1 ! *>m+ dismid & diatom1 ! wond]ful budd+ & self-divid+ hydra4 ,a few h\rs' ramble furni%$ ! microscopi/ ) a b\ntiful supply ( ^! & _m o!r =ms ( life4 ,n[ all is *ang$2 our commons h be5 devot$ to o!r purposes1 & ) ! g5]al levell+ up all ! little pools h disappe>$1 & ! microscopi/ has be5 w>n$ (f & driv5 fur!r afield1 or seeks ! good (fices ( a c\ntry fri5d = an occasional peep into pond life4#dh ,a teaspoonful1 h[ev]1 judici\sly tak5 f a well-*os5 locality w (t5 be f\nd to conta9 a v>iety ( liv+ =ms1 e "o ( :i* w des]ve a c>eful & pati5t /udy4 ,( ! microscopic organisms1 ! collection ( :i* requires no o!r me?ods ?an ^? ord9>ily pursu$ by ! naturali/1 mo/ ( !m mu/ be s\ght = 9 pools or runn+ wat]s1 bask+ 9 ! sun%9e1 cl++ to leaves & rootlets ( all aquatic plants2 "s freely mov+ ab\t1 o!rs cl++ to /ones or pieces ( wood at ! bottom4 ,dismids congregate 9 %all[ wat]s or rise to ! surface 9 a quiet nook1 :ile ! diatomace are se5 cov]+ ! bottom ( cle> wat]1 to :i* !y give a yell[i%-br[n t+e ( col\r4 ,infusorial animal life1 z vorticell1 /5tors1 rotif]s1 & v>i\s polyzoa1 cl+1 z also d hydra1 9 colonies to vallisn]ia1 duck-we$1 frogbit1 or small bran*es dipp+ d[n "u wat]2 & if "s ( ! wat]-we$ is br\ght home ! little creatures w live & ?rive = sev]al weeks4 ,no wat]s1 h[ev]1 are s full ( m9ute animal life z ! sphagnum bog4 ,a numb] ( species ( diatoms1 z well z protozoids & ! small] molluscs1 w be f\nd 9 all peat bogs4 ,x is rem>kable1 too1 t ! same species1 ev]y:]e1 are associat$ ) ?is k9d ( moss4 ,"l ,sidney ,godolph9 ,osborn suppli$ 8 fri5ds ) moss gr[+ 9 a damp "p ( ! g>d5 walk ( 8 rectory2 ?is always furni%$ ! same species ( rotif]s4 ,^! prov$ to be mo/ int]e/+ objects to my fri5ds1 & 9 an e>ly communication ,i describ$ !m z inde/ructible1 s9ce !y w be> any am\nt ( desiccation2 nev]!less1 !y 7 reviv$ :5 a drop ( wat] 0 introduc$ into ! glass-cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4--;,collect+ ,/ick1 ,bottle1 ,hook1 & ,net4 ,! ,?ames mud always furni%es a numb] ( beautiful =ms ( tric]atum4 ,l[] d[n ! riv]1 z bracki% wat] is rea*$1 great] v>ieties ( diatoms appe>4 ,b to secure !m ! collector mu/ be provid$ ) a collect+ /ick4 ,a conv5i5t =m is furni%$ by ,messrs4 ,bak] 7,fig4 #bff74 ,?is consi/s ( an ord9>y walk+-/ick1 toge!r ) a l5g!n+ rod1 a cutt+ hook to cle> away we$s1 r+$ bottles ) screw tops1 & a net ) a glass tube atta*$4 ,_! uses are too obvi\s to ne$ fur!r description4 ,! silice\s skeletons ( diatoms are met ) 9 ! fossil /ate4 ,among ! fir/ discov]$ ( ! infusorial /rata 7 ! poli%+ slates ( ,bil9 & ,tripoli1 ! b]g-mehl or m\nta9 meal1 ! entire mass ( :i* is compos$ ( ! silice\s skeletons ( diff]5t species ( diatoms4 ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia1 is ri* 9 ! same organisms1 :ile ! great mass ( our *alk cliffs are compos$ ( =am9if]\s %ells1 xan?idi1 c4 ,"o rem>kable fact 9 connection ) fossil infusoria is t mo/ ( ! =ms are /ill f\nd 9 ! rec5t /ate4 ,! beautiful eng9e-turn$ discs1 ,cosc9odisci1 s abundant 9 ! ,ri*mond e>?1 may be met ) 9 our own seas1 & 9 great pr(usion 9 ! deposits ( guano on ! ,african & ,am]ican coa/s1 & 9 ! /oma*s ( ! oy/]1 scallop1 & o!r salt-wat] mollusc\s animals common to our %ores4 ,a great numb] ( infusorial e>?s may be m\nt$ z dry objects1 :ile o!rs require c>eful wa%+ & dige/+ 9 appropriate m$ia4 ,! f9] portions ( ! s$im5ts w be f\nd to conta9 ! bett] & m p]fect silice\s %ells4 ,prep>+ & ,m\nt+ ,app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,m\nt+ ,app>atus4 #a4--,ross's in/rum5t = cutt+ ?9 cov]+-glass = objects4 ,?is app>atus consi/s ( a b5t arm support+ ! cutt+ portion ( ?is app>atus1 :i* consi/s ( a v]tical rod ) a s(t cork at "o end4 ,a brass arm at "r angles c>ries ! diamond p>allel ) & close to ! ma9 rod4 #b4--;,cov]+-glass measur]4 ,to measure ! ?ickness ( cov]+-glass1 place x betwe5 ! brass plate & ! /eel be>+2 ! long end ( ! lev] w !n indicate ! ?ickness on ! scale1 to #a_/ej-?1 #a_/ajj-?1 or #a_/ajjj-? in*4 #c4--;,brass table on fold+ legs1 ) lamp = m\nt+ objects4 #d4--,:irl+ table ) ecc5tric adju/m5t = mak+ cells & f9i%+ (f slides4 #e4--;,air-pump ) glass receiv]1 #c-a_/b-;in* brass plate = m\nt+ objects & )draw+ air-bubbles4 #f4--;,improv$ table ) knife = cutt+ s(t sections4 ,?is consi/s ( an absolutely flat brass table1 ) a squ>e hole to receive ! wood1 or o!r matt]1 on a movable screw1 :i* adju/s ! ?ickness ( ! section4 #g4--,smi?'s hold] ) spr+ & screw = adju/+ pressure :5 m\nt+ objects4 #h4--;,cutt+ diamonds = cell-mak+ & cutt+ slips ( glass4 #i4--,writ+ diamonds = cutt+ ?9 cov]+-glass & nam+ objects4 #aj4--,page's wood5 =ceps1 = hold+ glass slips or objects :5 heat$1 dur+ m\nt+4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,microscopic ,=ms ( ,life--,?allophytes--,pt]idophyta1 ,phan]ogam--,/ructure & ,prop]ties ( ! ,cell4 ,! "t has long s9ce pass$ by s9ce ! value ( ! microscope z an in/rum5t ( sci5tific rese>* might h be5 call$ 9 "q4 ,by its aid ! f\ndation ( mycology has be5 securely laid1 & cryptogamic botany 9 p>ticul> has1 dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury1 made surpris+ progress 9 ! h&s ( ^? devot$ to pursuits :i* conf] b5efits ^u mank9d4 ,little m ?an ?irty ye>s ago practically no?+ 0 kn[n ( ! life hi/ory ( a fungus1 no?+ ( p>asitism1 ( infecti\s diseases1 or ev5 ( f]m5tation4 ,our k ( ! physiology ( nutrition 0 9 its infancy2 ev5 ! significance ( />*es & sug>s 9 ! gre5 plant 0 z yet n und]/ood1 :ile a numb] ( ! mo/ important facts relat+ to plants & ! physiology ( animals 7 unkn[n & undiscov]$4 ,:5 we reflect on ^! matt]s1 & rememb] t bact]ia 7 reg>d$ m]ely z curi\s animalcul1 t ru/s & smuts 7 suppos$ to be emanations ( diseas$ /ates1 & t spontane\s g5]ation /ill-surviv$ among u1 "s idea may be =m$ ( ! condition ( cryptogamic botany & ! l[] =ms ( animal life "s eight or t5 ye>s aft] my book on ! microscope made its fir/ appe>ance 7#ahed74 ,inde$1 long prior to ?is "t1 dat+ f t ( ev5 ! e>lie/ work]s ) ! microscope1 x 0 kn[n t ! wat] ( pools & dit*es1 & especially infusions ( plants & animals ( all k9ds1 teem ) liv+ organisms1 b x 0 n recognis$ def9itely t va/ numb]s ( ^! microscopic liv+ be+s 7& ev5 actively mov+ ones7 are plants1 gr[+ on & 9 ! v>i\s solid & liquid matt]s exam9$1 & z truly z visible & accept$ plants gr[ on soil & 9 ! air & wat]4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important discov]y 9 ! hi/ory ( cryptogamic botany 0 initiat$ "h4 ,! *ange1 !n1 t has come ov] our k ( microscopic plant life dur+ ?is la/ busy qu>t] ( a c5tury has be5 almo/ entirely due to ! initiation & improvem5t1 fir/ 9 me?ods ( gr[+ !m1 & 9 ! me?ods ( 8,microscopic ,g>d5+02 & secondly1 to ! great] k ga9$ 9 ! use ( ! microscope4 8,if we look at ! great gr\ps ( plants f a broad po9t ( view1 x is rem>kable t ! fungi & ! phan]ogams occupy att5tion on q o!r gr\nds ?an d ! alg1 mosses1 & f]ns4 ,alg are especially a physiologi/'s gr\p1 employ$ 9 que/ions on nutrition1 reproduction1 & cell division & gr[?2 ! ,bryophyta & ,pt]idophyta are1 on ! o!r h&1 ! doma9 ( ! morphologi/4 ,fungi & ,phan]ogams1 :ile equally or ev5 m employ$ by speciali/s 9 morphology & physiology1 appeal widely to g5]al int]e/ on ! gr\nd ( utility4 8,x is v significant t a gr\p l ! fungi %\ld h attract$ s mu* sci5tific att5tion1 & ar\s$ s g5]al an int]e/ at ! same "t4 ,b ! fact t fungi affect our lives directly has be5 driv5 home2 & :e!r z poisons or foods1 de/ructive m\lds or f]m5tation ag5ts1 p>asitic mildews or disease g]ms1 !y occupy m int]e/ ?an all o!r cryptogams put toge!r1 ! fl[]+ plants alone rivall+ !m 9 ?is respect4 ,a m>k$ feature ( ! p]iod 9 :i* we live w be ! great advances made 9 our k ( ! uses ( plants1 =1 ( c\rse1 ?is developm5t ( economic botany has gone h& 9 h& ) ! progress ( geological botany1 ! ext5sion ( our plant+1 & ! useful applications ( botany to ! processes ( home indu/ries40#di ,! intimate organic /ructure ( ! vegetable _w is se5 to consi/ ( a v>iety ( diff]5t mat]ials indet]m9able by unassi/$ vision1 & = ! mo/ "p requir+ high magnification = _! discrim9ation4 ,*emical analysis _h1 h[ev]1 %[n t vegetables are compos$ ( a few simple sub/ances1 wat]1 c>bonic acid gas1 oxyg51 nitric acid1 & a small portion ( inorganic salts4 ,out ( ^! simple elem5ts ! :ole ( ! imm5se v>iety ( sub/ances produc$ by ! vegetable k+dom are con/ruct$4 ,no "p ( ! plant conta9s few] ?an ?ree ( ^! univ]sally di/ribut$ elem5ts1 h5ce ! great] uni=mity 9 _! *emical con/itu5ts4 ,x w be se51 !n1 t ! me?ods ( plant *emi/ry are ( supreme int]e/ bo? to ! *emi/ & ! physiologi/1 or biologi/4 ,plants1 :ile !y borr[ mat]ials f ! inorganic1 & p[]s f ! physical _w1 :]eby !y are enabl$ to pass ?r\gh ! sev]al /ages ( g]m9ation1 gr[?1 & reproduction1 c\ld n accompli% ^! trans=mations )\t ! all-important aid ( light & heat1 ! comb9$ functions ( :i* are indisp5sable to ! p]fect developm5t ( ! vegetable _w4 ,light1 !n1 enables plants to decompose1 *ange into liv+ matt]1 & consolidate1 ! inorganic elem5ts ( c>bonic acid gas1 wat]1 & ammonia1 :i* are absorb$ by ! leaves & roots f ! atmosph]e & e>?2 ! quantity ( c>bon consolidat$ be+ exactly 9 proportion to ! int5sity ( ! light4 ,nev]!less1 light 9 its *emical "* is a deoxidis+ ag5t1 by :i* ! num]\s neutral comp\nds common to vegetables are =m$4 ,x is ! pr9cipal ag5t 9 prep>+ ! food ( plants1 & x is dur+ ! *emical *anges spok5 ( t ! specific heat ( plants is sl[ly evolv$1 :i*1 ?\gh g5]ally feeble1 is sometimes v s5sibly evolv$1 especially s :5 fl[]s & fruits are =m+1 on acc\nt ( ! increase ( *emical en]gy at ?is p]iod4 ,! action ( heat is measurable ?r\gh\t ! :ole c\rse ( vegetable life1 al?\gh its manife/ations take on v>i\s =ms--^? suit$ to ! p]iod & circum/ances ( gr[?4 ,^u ! heat g5]at$ dep5ds ! =mation ( prote9 & nitrog5\s sub/ances1 :i* ab\nd m directly 9 ! se$ buds1 ! po9ts ( ! roots1 & 9 all ^? organs ( plants :i* are 9 ! greate/ /ate ( activity4 ,! :ole *emi/ry ( plant life1 9 fact1 is manife/ 9 ?is production ( en]gy = draw+ mat]ial f its surr\nd+s2 !re=e ! organis+ p[] ( plants be>s a direct ratio to ! am\nt ( light & heat act+ ^u !m4 ,! liv+ m$ium1 !n1 :i* possesses ! m>vell\s prop]ty ( be+ prim>ily ar\s$ into life & en]gy1 & :i* ei!r =ms ! :ole or ! great] portion ( e plant1 is 9 its e>lie/ & simple/ =m no?+ m ?an a microscopic cell1 consi/+ ( "o or two col\rless p>ticles ( matt]1 9 close/ contact1 & :olly imm]s$ 9 a transp>5t sub/ance some:at resembl+ album5 7:ite ( egg71 t]m$ protoplasm1 b diff]+ ess5tially 9 its "* & prop]ties4 ,?is ne>ly col\rless organisable matt] is ! life-blood ( ! cell4 ,x is suffici5tly viscid to ma9ta9 its globul> =m1 & "u high p[]s is se5 to h a slightly consolidat$ film enclos+ semi-transp>5t p>ticles1 toge!r ) vacuoles :i* are ( a highly refractive nature4 ,^! small bodies are t]m$ nuclei1 & !y appe> to be furni%$ ) an extremely delicate envelop+ film4 ,9 a %ort "t ! nuclei increase 9 numb] & split up ! p>5t body4 ,! protoplasmic mass1 h[ev]1 is und\bt$ly ! true =mative mat]ial1 & is rightly reg>d$ z 8! physical basis ( life0 ( bo? ! vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 memb]s ( ! vegetable k+dom :i* some:at resemble animals 9 _! dep5d5ce ^u receiv+ organic comp\nds already =m$ = !m1 be+ !mselves unable to effect ! fixation ( ! c>bon ne$$ to effect ! fir/ /age 9 _! aft] *emical trans=mations4 ,su* is ! case ) a l>ge class ( fl[]+ plants1 among ,phan]ogams1 & ! leafless p>asites :i* draw _! support *iefly f ! tissues ( _! ho/s4 ,x is likewise ! case ) reg>d to ! :ole gr\p ( fungi2 ! l[] cryptogams1 :i* d]ive ! great] portion ( _! nutritive mat]ials f organic matt] und]go+ "s =m ( hi/olysis2 :ile o!rs belong+ to ?is gr\p h ! p[] ( orig9at+ decomposition by a f]m5tative 7zymotic7 action peculi>ly _! own4 ,!re are _m o!r protophytes :i* live by absorption1 & :i* appe> to take 9 no solid matt]1 b draw n\ri%m5t f ! atmosph]e or ! wat] 9 :i* !y exi/4 ,) reg>d to motion1 ?is 0 at "o "t consid]$ ! di/9ctive attribute ( animal life1 b _m protophytes possess a spontaneity ( p[] & motion1 :ile o!rs are furni%$ ) curi\s motile organs t]m$ cilia1 or :ip-l app5dages1 flagella1 by :i* _! bodies are propell$ ) consid]able =ce ?r\gh ! wat] 9 :i* !y live4 ,h5ce=? ?is protoplasmic sub/ance 0 de/9$ to take an important position 9 ! physiological _w4 ,x is1 !n1 desirable to ent] some:at m fully into ! life hi/ory ( s rem>kable a body4 ,x has a limit+ membrane1 compos$ ( a sub/ance some:at alli$ to />*1 t]m$ cellulose1 "o ( ! gr\p ( comp\nds kn[n z c>bo-hydrates4 ,! mode ( =mation & gr[? ( ?is cell wall is n yet def9itely det]m9$2 nev]!less1 x is ! univ]sal framework or skeleton ( ! vegetable _w1 al?\gh x appe>s to play no special "p 9 _! vital functions4 ,x m]ely s]ves ! purpose ( a protect+ membrane to ! globul> body call$ ! 8primordial cell10 :i* p]man5tly con/itutes ! liv+ pr9ciple ^u :i* ! :ole fundam5tal ph5om5a ( gr[? & reproduction dep5d4 ,sometimes ?is protoplasmic mat]ial is se5 to con/itute ! :ole plant2 & s ) reg>d to ! simple/ kn[n =ms ( animal life--! amba1 = example4 ,t s simple & m9ute an organism %\ld be capable ( indep5d5t motion is inde$ surpris+4 ,duj>d91 a ,fr5* physiologi/1 t]m$ ?is animat$ matt] s>code4 ,on a clos] /udy ( ! num]\s =ms ( animal life x 0 f\nd t all 7 alike compos$ ( ?is s>code sub/ance1 "s app>5tly n hav+ a cell wall4 ,! same seem$ to hold good ( c]ta9 high] =ms ( cells1 ! col\rless blood corpuscles = in/ance1 :i* "u high p[]s ( ! microscope are se5 to *ange _! %ape1 mov+ ab\t by ! /ream+ out ( ?is s>code4 ,at l5g? ! tru? dawn$ on hi/ologi/s t ! cell cont5ts1 r ?an ! clos+ wall1 mu/ be ! ess5tial /ructure4 ,on fur!r inve/igation x became app>5t t a f> clos] simil>ity exi/$ betwe5 vegetables & animals ?an 0 be=e suppos$4 ,ultimately x 0 made cle> t ! vegetable protoplasm & ! animal s>code 7 "o & ! same /ructure4 ,max ,s*ultz f\nd ?is to be ! case1 & to all int5ts & purposes !y are id5tical4 ,we h n[ to retrace our /eps & look some:at m closely into ! discov]y ( t important body1 ! cell-nucleus4 ,x 0 an ,engli% botani/1 ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 :o1 9 #ahcc1 dur+ 8 microscopical /udies ( ! epid]mis ( or*ids1 discov]$ 9 _! cells 8an opaque spot10 to :i* soon aft]w>ds he gave ! "n ( nucleus4 ,s*leid5 & ,s*wann's lat] rese>*es l$ !m to ! conclusion t ! nucleus is ! mo/ *>act]i/ic =mative elem5t 9 all vegetable & animal tissues 9 ! incipi5t phase ( exi/5ce4 ,x !n began to be taught t !re is "o univ]sal pr9ciple ( developm5t = ! elem5t>y p>ts ( all organisms1 h[ev] diff]5t1 & t is ! =mation ( cells4 ,?us 0 enunciat$ a doctr9e :i* 0 = all practical purposes absolutely new1 & :i* op5$ out a wide field ( fur!r inve/igation = ! physiologi/1 & l$ up to a full] k ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,9 fact1 x became a "q z to :e!r ! cell cont5ts r ?an ! enclos+ wall %\ld n be consid]$ ! basis ( life1 s9ce ! cell at ?is "t _h by no means lo/ its importance1 al?\gh x no long] signifi$ ! m9ute cavity x did :5 orig9ally discov]$ by ,s*wann4 ,x n[ impli$1 z ,s*ultz def9$ x1 8a small mass ( viscid matt]1 protoplasm1 end[$ ) ! attributes ( life40 ,! nucleus 0 once m re/or$ to its orig9al importance1 & ) ev5 great] significance4 ,9 place ( be+ a /ructure g5]at$ de novo f non-cellul> sub/ance1 & disappe>+ z soon z its function ( cell =mation is accompli%$1 ! nucleus is n[ kn[n z ! c5tral p]man5t feature ( e cell1 & inde/ructible :ile ! cell lives1 & ! p>5t1 by division ( its sub/ance1 ( o!r g5]ations ( nuclei & cells4 ,! ^w cell has at ! same "t receiv$ its f9al def9ition z 8a small mass ( protoplasm suppli$ ) a nucleus40 ,9 %ort1 all ! activities ( plant & animal life are really ! product ( en]gy lib]at$ solely ?r\gh hi/olysis1 or de/ructive processes1 am\nt+ to ! combu/ion t takes place 9 ! ultimate cells ( ! organisms4 ,b !re are o!r po9ts ( especial int]e/ involv$ 9 ! "q ( cell =mation beside ^? already m5tion$4 ,! cell & its cont5ts collectively are t]m$ ! endoplasm1 or :5 col\r$1 z 9 alg1 endo*rome4 ,) reg>d to ! out] lay] ( ! cell & its gr[? no?+ satisfactory has be5 cle>ly det]m9$ & f9ally accept$4 ,! cell z a :ole is a protoplasmic mass1 & n an emulsion1 z "s obs]v]s w\ld h u suppose4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a reticulat$ tissue ( ! mo/ delicate /ructure1 made up ( canaliculate spiral fibrils ) hyal9e walls capable ( expansion & contraction4 ,^! fibrils are probably compos$ ( /ill f9] spirals4 ,! visible granulat$ portion ( ! protoplasm1 ! only "p t takes a /a9 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 is simply ! cont5ts ( ^! canals4 ,x is ! *romat9 ( ,flemm+1 & is capable ( motion )9 ! canals4 ,! nucleus1 !n1 is probably no?+ m ?an a granule ( ! extra-cellul> net1 & is =m$ by ! junction ( ! sev]al b&s ( wall-?reads :i* trav]se x 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! cell wall ( plants possesses ! same /ructure z protoplasm1 & is probably protoplasm impregnat$ by cellulose4 ,x is ?is portion ( ! protoplasmic mass t is n[ recognis$ "u ! t]m octoplasm1 or primordial utricle1 & is ( s f9e & delicate a nature t x is only br\ght into view :5 sep>at$ f ! cell wall ei!r by fur!r developm5tal *anges1 or by reag5ts & c]ta9 /a9s or dyes4 ,x 01 9 fact1 discov]$ to be a slightly cond5s$ portion ( ! protoplasmic lay] correspond+ to ! octos>e ( ! l[] =ms ( animal life4 ,! octoplasm & cell wall c only be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by *emical te/s4 ,bo? nucleus & nucleoli are only r5d]$ visible 9 ! same way1 t is1 by /a9+ = sev]al h\rs 9 a c>m9e solution1 & wa%+ 9 a weak acetic acid solution4 ,) ! enl>gem5t ( ! cell by ! imbibition ( wat]1 cle> spaces1 t]m$ vacuoles1 are se5 to occupy a small portion ( ! cell1 :ile ! nucleus & nucleoli lie close to ! p>ietal lay]4 ,! int]e/+ ph5om5on ( cyclosis1 to :i* ,i %all h occasion to ref] fur!r on1 is n[ believ$ to be due to ! contractility ( c]ta9 wall-?reads /ret*+ f ! nucleus to ! out]mo/ lay]s ( ! cell4 ,an intimate relation%ip is !reby e/abli%$ betwe5 ! nucleus1 ! nucleolus1 & ! p>ietal lay]4 ,?is mu* has be5 made cle> by ! m sci5tific me?ods ( inve/igation pursu$ 9 ! use ( ! microscope4 ,nev]!less a l>ge & important class ( cells1 =m+ a k9d ( bord]l& betwe5 ! vegetable & animal k+doms1 /ill rema9s to be dealt )1 9 :i* ! cell cont5ts are only imp]fectly diff]5tiat$1 :ile num]\s o!r unicellul> organisms1 ow+ to _! extreme m9ut5ess1 t5uity1 & want ( all col\r1 are app>5tly devoid ( any nucleus1 & :5 pres5t c only be diff]5tiat$ by a resort to a specially conduct$ me?od ( prep>ation & /a9+4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a rem>kable feature 9 connection ) _m micro-organisms--t c]ta9 ( ^! protophytes possess motive organs1 cilia or flagella1 bodies at "o "t suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic (1 & belong+ to1 ! protozoa4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! me?ods ( plant *emi/ry are ( supreme int]e/1 ! m s because physiologi/s are 9 a position to isolate a s+le bact]ial cell1 gr[ x 9 c]ta9 m$ia1 & ?us devote special att5tion to x1 & keep x = "s "t "u obs]vation4 ,9 ?is way x has become possible to fur!r grasp facts 9 connection ) cell nutrition & ! nature ( its wa/e products4 ,we h1 !n1 arriv$ at a /age :5 ! hi/ory ( ! *emical *anges br\ght ab\t by bact]ia c be m def9itely det]m9$1 z we h "h to d ) ! vegetable cell 9 its simple/ =m4 ,! *emical "w p]=m$ by ^! micro-organisms has z yet occupi$ only a few ye>s2 nev]!less1 ! results h be5 ( ! mo/ rem>kable & enc\rag+ "*4 ,at an e>li] p]iod an int]e/+ discov]y 9 connection ) ! pa?og5ic action ( ^! bodies 01 by ! lab\rs ( ,s*enle91 ,rob91 & o!rs1 br\ght to ! notice ( ! m$ical pr(ession1 viz41 t c]ta9 diseases affect+ ! human body 7 due to vegetable p>asites4 ,9 #ahef an opportunity (f]$ itself = a ?or\gh inve/igation1 & ! microscopical "p ( ! "w fell into my h&s1 ) ! result t ,i 0 able to add consid]ably to ,s*enle9's li/ ( p>asitic sk9 diseases4 ,my obs]vations 7 9 ! fir/ in/ance communicat$ to ! m$ical j\rnals4 ,b ! g5]alisation arriv$ at 0 t 8,if !re be any exceptions to ! law t p>asites select = _! su/5ance ! subjects ( debility & decay1 su* exceptions are r>ely to be f\nd among ! vegetations belong+ to fungi1 :i* inv>iably d]ive nutrition f matt] 9 a /ate ( l[]$ vitality1 pass+ into deg5]ation1 or :]e9 decomposition has already tak5 place to a c]ta9 ext5t4444 ,x sc>cely admits ( a d\bt t all diseases obs]v$ ( late ye>s among plants h be5 due to p>asites ( ! same class fav\r$ by want ( vig\r ( gr[? & atmosph]ic conditions1 & t ! cause ( ! v>i\s murra9s ( :i* s mu* has be5 he>d is also due to simil> causes40#ej ,h]e91 !n1 is to be f\nd ! solution ( a difficulty t s long surr\nd$ ! "q1 b :i* subsequ5tly culm9at$ 9 ! specialisation & sci5tific developm5t ( bact]iology1 due to ! unceas+ lab\rs ( ,pa/eur1 ^: solid g5ius enabl$ him to ov]come ! prejudices ( ^? :o 7 at "w on o!r l9es1 & :o _h no conception ( ! functions t p>asitic organisms fulfil 9 nature4 ,go+ back to my e>li] exp]im5tal rese>*es to det]m9e ! "p tak5 by sac*>omycetes & saprophytes 9 f]m5tation1 ,i f9d1 f correspond5ce 9 my possession1 t 9 #ahei ,i demon/rat$ to ! satisfaction ( ,dr4 ,bell1 ,f4,r4,s41 ! !n head ( ! *emical laboratory ( ,som]set ,h\se1 t a v small portion ( putrefactive matt] tak5 f an animal body1 a p>asitic fungus 7,a*orion ,s*enle9ii71 a m\ld 7,asp]gillus or ,p5icillium71 & a yea/ 7,torula c]evisi7 w\ld 9 a %ort "t1 & indiff]5tly1 set up a f]m5t 9 sweet-wort & trans=m its sac*>9e elem5ts into alcohol1 diff]+ only 9 degree 7quantitative71 & n 9 k9d or quality4 ,?is1 !n1 0 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! direction t[>ds prov+ symbiotic action betwe5 ^! sev]al p>asitic organisms4 ,! only app>5t diff]5ce obs]v$ dur+ ! f]m5tative processes 0 t putrefactive 7saprophytic7 action comm5c$ at a some:at e>li] /age1 & t ! p]c5tage ( alcohol 0 also some:at less4#ea ,9 #ahef1 also1 ! robic bact]ia attract$ my att5tion1 &1 toge!r ) ! late ,rev4 ,"l ,sidney ,godolph9 ,osborne1 ,i expos$ plates ( glass 7microscopical slides71 cov]$ ) glyc]9e & grape sug>1 9 e conceivable place :]e we ?\ght x possible to arre/ micro-organisms4 ,! result is kn[n1 viz41 t fungoid bodies 7m\lds & bact]ial7 7 tak5 9 great numb]s1 & v>y+ ) ! seasons4 ,! air ( ! hospital & sick-room likewise engag$ att5tion1 ea* ( :i* prov$ especially ri* 9 p>asitic bodies4 ,dur+ ! *ol]a visitation ( #aheh ! air 0 ri* 9 robic & anrobic bact]ia1 :ile a blue mi/ :i* prevail$ ?r\gh\t ! epidemic yield$ a f> great] numb] ?an at any =m] p]iod 7repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,i41 ,no4 #ac74 ,?is blue mi/ attract$ ! especial att5tion ( meteorologi/s4 ,at a some:at lat] p]iod a m rem>kable fungoid disease1 ! fungus foot ( ,india1 mycetoma1 came "u my obs]vation1 a detail$ description ( :i* ,i contribut$ to ! m$ical j\rnals1 & also1 ) fur!r details1 to ! 8,mon?ly ,microscopical ,j\rnal0 ( #ahga4 ,int]lac+ mycelia1 end+ 9 hyph1 9 ?is de/ructive =m ( p>asitic disease 7 se5 to p]vade ! :ole ( ! tissues ( ! foot1 ! bony /ructures be+ involv$1 & x 0 only possible to /ay ! action ( ! p>asite by amputation4 ,s f>1 !n1 ! /udy ( p>asitic organisms _h at an e>ly p]iod %>$ l>gely 9 my microscopical "w1 ext5d+ ov] sev]al ye>s1 & ) ! result t ^! micro-organisms 7 f\nd to exhibit on occasions great div]sity ( "*1 & t diff]5t memb]s ( ! bact]ia 9 p>ticul> fl\ri% "u great div]sity ( action1 & (t5 "u entirely opposite conditions2 t !y fe$ ^u :olly diff]5t mat]ials1 & p]=m an imm5se v>iety ( *emical "w 9 ! m$ia 9 :i* !y live4 ,! /udy ( ! *emi/ry 7*emotaxis7 ( bact]ia has1 h[ev]1 greatly enl>g$ our conception ( ! *emical value & p[] ( ! vegetable cell1 :ile x is obvi\s t no m appropriate or remun]ative field ( /udy c\ld engage ! att5tion ( ! microscopi/1 z well z ! *emi/1 ?an t ( bact]ial life1 & :i* is s well calculat$ to enl>ge our views ( creat$ organisms1 :e!r belong+ to ! vegetable or animal k+dom4 ,pa?og5ic ,fungi & ,m\lds4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to g back to ! hi/ory ( ! p>asitic fungi to :i* diseases ( v>i\s k9ds 7 e>ly attributable4 ,! rude microscopes ( two & a half c5turies ago reveal$ ! simple fact t all decomposable sub/ances sw>m$ ) c\ntless multitudes ( organisms1 invisible to ord9>y vision4 ,leuw5hoek1 ! fa!r ( microscopy1 & ^: rese>*es 7 g5]ally kn[n & accept$ 9 #afge1 tells ( 8 discov]y ( extremely m9ute organisms 9 ra9-wat]1 9 vegetable infusions1 9 saliva1 & 9 scrap+s f ! tee?2 fur!r1 he diff]5tiat$ ^! liv+ organisms by _! size & =m1 & illu/rat$ !m by means ( woodcuts2 & !re c be no d\bt t 8 figures are int5d$ to repres5t lepto?rix filam5ts1 vibrios1 & spirilla4 ,9 o!r ( 8 writ+s attempts are made to give an idea ( ! size ( ^! 8animalcules02 he describ$ !m z a ?\s& times small] ?an a gra9 ( s&4 ,f 8 inve/igations a belief sprung up t mal>ia 0 produc$ by 8animalcules10 & t ! plague :i* visit$ ,t\lon & ,m>seilles 9 #agba arose f a simil> cause4 ,some:at lat] on ! natural hi/ory ( micro-organisms 0 m dilig5tly /udi$1 & ) increas+ int]e/4 ,mll]1 9 #aghf1 po9t$ out t !y _h be5 too mu* giv5 to occupy !mselves 9 f9d+ new organisms1 he !re=e devot$ himself to ! /udy ( _! =ms & biological *>act]s1 & x 0 on su* data he bas$ a classification4 ,?us ! sci5tific k ga9$ ( ^! m9ute bodies 0 consid]ably advanc$1 & ! subject n[ ent]$ ^u a new phase3 ! orig9 ( micro-organisms4 ,x fur!r resolv$ itself into two rival !ories--spontane\s g5]ation1 & developm5t f pre-exi/+ g]ms--! discussion ov] :i* la/$ m ?an a c5tury4 ,inde$1 x only end$ 9 #ahga1 :5 ! orig9ator ( ! ,abiog5esis !ory )drew f ! conte/1 & ! m sci5tific inve/igations ( ,pa/eur 7#ahfa7 f\nd g5]al acceptance4 ,?is indefatigable work] _h be5 inve/igat+ f]m5tation1 & /udy+ ! s-call$ diseases ( w9es & a contagi\s disease :i* 0 committ+ ravages among silkworms4 ,pa/eur 9 "t 0 able to confirm ! belief t ! 8muscad9e disease0 ( silkworms 0 due to ! pres5ce ( micro-organisms1 disc]nible only by ! microscope4 ,! oval1 %9+ bodies 9 ! mo?1 worm1 & eggs _h be5 previ\sly obs]v$ & describ$ by ,ngeli & o!rs1 b x 0 res]v$ = ,pa/eur to %[ t :5 a silkworm ^: body conta9$ ^! organisms 0 p\nd$ up 9 a mort> ) wat]1 & pa9t$ ov] ! leaves ( ! tree ^u :i* heal?y worms 7 f$1 all took ! disease & di$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,aft] ,d,r ,,crook%ank ,j4 ,t4 ,balcomb4 del4 ,,typical ,,=ms ,,( ,,bact]ia1 ,,s*izomycetes1 ,,or ,,fission-,,fungi4 ,z ! contagi\s p>ticles 7 transmitt$ to ! eggs1 ! me?od adopt$ = prev5t+ ! spread ( ! disease 0 z foll[s3--,ea* female mo? 0 kept sep>ate f ! o!rs1 & all[$ to deposit h] eggs1 & aft] dea? h] body 0 cru%$ up 9 a mort> z be=e1 & a drop ( ! fluid exam9$ "u ! microscope4 ,:5 any trace ( muscad9e 0 f\nd pres5t1 ! :ole ( ! eggs & body 7 burnt4 ,9 ?is way ! disease 0 combat$1 & ultimately /amp$ out4 ,pa/eur also po9t$ out t "o =m or cause ( disease mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ano!r4 ,= example1 muscad9e1 a true fungus 7,botrytis bassiana71 %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ano!r disease kn[n to attack silkworms1 t]m$ pebr91 ?is be+ caus$ by a bact]ium1 &1 accord+ to ! m rec5t rese>*es ( ,balbiani1 by a ,psorosp]mia4 ,botrytis is a true m\ld1 belong+ to ! ,oomycetes1 & alli$ to ! potato fungus1 ,p]onospora4 ,x is propagat$ by spores1 :i*1 fall+ on a silkworm1 g]m9ate & p5etrate its body4 ,a mycelium is !n develop$1 :i* spreads ?r\gh\t ! body4 ,hyph appe> ?r\gh ! sk91 & be> :ite *alky-look+ spores2 ^! become deta*$1 & float 9 ! air z an impalpable du/-l smoke4 ,damp fur!r develops ! fungus4 ,insects suff] mu* f ! ravages ( fungi4 ,! h\se-fly /ick+ to ! w9d[-pane is se5 to be surr\nd$ by ! mycelia ( ,p5icillium racemosum 7,spor5donema musc1 or ,saprolegnia f]74 ,9 o!r cases ,cordiceps attacks c]ta9 cat]pill>s belong+ to ! g5]a ,cossus & ,hepialus :5 !y are buri$ 9 ! s& & be=e _! metamorphosis into *rysalides2 !y are kill$ by ! rapid developm5t ( hyph & mycelium 9 _! tissues4 ,sphria milet>is1 a p>asite ( ,bombyx pilyoc>pa1 ! cat]pill> ( :i* is f\nd on p9e-trees1 is "o ( ! few fungi :i* may be reg>d$ z b5eficial to man1 s9ce x aids 9 ! de/ruction ( multitudes ( ^! cat]pill>s1 :i* o!rwise w\ld dev\r ! "y %oots & p9e ne$les4 ,gi>d specialises o!r p>asites ( insects1 :i* he t]ms ,entomophore4 ,o!rs1 ,e4 rimosa1 attack gras%opp]s & ! dipt]a1 envelop+ !m 9 a d5se coat+ ( mycelium & spores1 :i* spe$ily kills ! victim4 ,! /udy1 !n1 ( ! life-hi/ory ( g]ms1 microbes1 micro-organisms1 or bact]ia 7z !y are indiff]5tly t]m$71 op5$ up a new sci5ce1 t ( ,bact]iology4 ,by ! m rec5t advances 9 ?is sci5ce we are enabl$ to und]/& ! v important "p ^! m9ute organisms fill 9 ! great s*eme ( ,nature1 = almo/ exclusively by _! ag5cy ! soil is suppli$ ) ! requisite nutritive mat]ial = plant life4 ,&1 z already po9t$ out1 :]ev] organic matt] is pres5t--t is1 ! dead & useless sub/ances :i* are ! refuse ( life--su* mat]ial is promptly seiz$ ^u by micro-organisms1 by means ( :i* hi/olysis is rapidly accompli%$4 ,bact]ia require a p[] ( f #fjj to #a1jjj diamet]s or m = ! det]m9ation ( ! species to :i* !y belong4 ,! numb] ( species has be5 s mu* increas$ ( late t a bulky volume is f\nd to be insuffici5t = _! enum]ation4 ,i am1 h[ev]1 by ! c\rtesy ( ,pr(essor ,crook%ank1 enabl$ to pres5t my read]s ) ! typical =ms ( ?irty-n9e species ( ,bact]ia1 ,s*izomycetes1 or fission-fungi1 a selection1 x w be se51 *iefly tak5 f among pa?og5ic organisms--^? believ$ to orig9ate disease4 ,b _m ( ! suppos$ ,saprophytic =ms (t5 describ$ z orig9at+ disease are m]ely accid5tal associates1 t is1 liv+ 9 companion%ip = a "t4 ,size4--,9 ord9>y t]ms ( measurem5t1 bact]ia are on an av]age f #a_/bejjj? to ab\t #a_/ejjj? ( an in* long4 ,^! measurem5ts d n convey a def9ite impression to ! m9d4 ,x is calculat$ t a ?\s& million ( !m c\ld be conta9$ 9 a space ( #a_/be? ( an in*4 ,! be/ impression ( ! size ( ! bact]ia is1 p]haps1 obta9$ :5 x is /at$ t a #a_/be-;in* imm]sion objective gives a magnification ( ne>ly #b1bjj diamet]s1 & t "u ?is p[] ! bact]ia appe> to be ab\t ! size ( v small pr9t4 ,! /&>d ( measurem5t accept$ by bact]iologi/s is ! micro-millimet]4 ,"o millimet] is equal to ab\t #a_/bejjj? an ,engli% in*4 ,! numb] ( micrococci 9 a milligramme ( a culture ( ,/aphylococcus pyog5es aur5s has be5 e/imat$ by ,bujwid by c\nt+ at eight ?\s& millions4 ,n only d v>i\s species diff] 9 dim5sions1 b consid]able diff]5ces may be not$ 9 a pure culture ( ! same species4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are num]\s species :i* s closely resemble ea* o!r 9 size & %ape t !y _c be diff]5tiat$ by microscopic exam9ation alone1 & we h to look to o!r *>act]i/ics1 z col\r1 gr[? 9 v>i\s culture m$ia1 pa?og5ic p[]1 *emical products1 c41 9 ord] to decide ! "q ( id5tity4 ,reproduction4--,! reproduction ( bact]ia takes place = ! mo/ "p by fission & by spore =mation4 ,fission is a process ( splitt+ up or division1 :]eby an organism divides into two or m p>ts1 ea* ( :i* lives & divides 9 its turn4 ,if c]ta9 organisms are wat*$ "u ! microscope1 a coccus or bacillus w be se5 to elongate & at ! same "t become n>r[]1 until its two halves become free1 ! two individual organisms aga9 divid+ & subdivid+ 9 _! turn4 ,?is k9d ( reproduction is m readily se5 9 a high] class ( unicellul> organisms1 ! desmids4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! new organisms d n break away f ea* o!r1 b rema9 connect$ 9 gr\ps or clu/]s1 !y are t]m$ ,/aphylococci2 if !y rema9 connect$ 9 ! =m ( a *a91 or l a /r+ ( beads1 !y are t]m$ ,/reptococci4 ,if ! division takes place 9 "o plane1 ,diplococci are =m$2 if 9 two directions ,tetracocci1 or ,tablet-cocci1 are =m$4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is multiplication by fission1 ! g5]ic "n ( ,s*izomycetes1 or fission-fungi1 has be5 giv5 to bact]ia4 ,spores4--,a second me?od by :i* bact]ia propagate is by spores4 ,^! bodies are di/+ui%$ by _! rem>kable p[] ( resi/ance to ! influ5ce ( temp]ature & ! action ( *emical reag5ts4 ,"s ( !m w resi/ _! imm]sion 9 /rong acid solutions = _m h\rs2 also freez+ & v high temp]atures4 ,spore =mation may take place 9 two ways3 fir/ly1 by 8endog5\s spores0 7int]nal spores72 secondly1 by 8ar?rospores40 ,endog5\s ,spores4--,:5 ! =mation ( ! spores takes place 9 ! "m-cell1 ! protoplasm is se5 to contract1 giv+ rise to "o or m highly refractive bodies1 :i* are ! spores4 ,! enclos+ membrane ( ! organism !n breaks away1 leav+ ! spores free4 ,ar?rospores4--,:5 ! spore is n =m$ 9 ! p>5t bacillus1 b :5 entire cells 7ow+ to lack ( fav\rable conditions ( gr[?7 become conv]t$ into spores1 ! =mation is kn[n z 8ar?rog5\s10 ! s+le individual be+ call$ an ar?rospore4 ,:5 ! conditions are aga9 fav\rable1 spores g]m9ate1 giv+ rise to new bacilli4 ,! g]m9at+ spore becomes elongat$1 & loses its bright appe>ance1 ! out] membrane becomes ruptur$1 & ! "y bacillus is set free4 ,c]ta9 conditions1 su* z ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 ! case ( ! an?rax bacillus1 give rise to ! =mation ( spores2 :ile v>i\s k9ds ( bact]ia secure cont9u\s exi/5ce by develop+ spores :5 !re is lack ( prop] food mat]ial4 ,) ref]5ce to ! incr$ible rapidity ) :i* ! bact]ia multiply "u conditions fav\rable to ! gr[? & developm5t1 ,cohn writes z foll[s3--8,let u assume t a microbe divides into two )9 an h\r1 !n aga9 into eight 9 ! ?ird h\r1 & s on4 ,! numb] ( microbes ?us produc$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs w\ld exce$ sixte5 & a half millions2 9 two days !y w\ld increase to =ty-sev5 trillions2 & 9 a week ! numb] express+ !m w\ld be made up ( fifty-"o figures4 ,at ! end ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! microbes desc5d$ f a s+le individual w\ld occupy #a_/dj? ( a holl[ cube1 ) edges #a_/be? ( an in* long1 b at ! end ( ! foll[+ day w\ld fill a space ( tw5ty-sev5 cubic in*es1 & 9 less ?an five days _! volume w\ld equal t ( ! entire ocean40 ,aga91 ,cohn e/imat$ t a s+le bacillus weighs ab\t #jjjj1jjj1jjj1jbd1bdc1fgb ( a gra92 =ty ?\s& millions1 #a gra92 #bhi billions1 #a p\nd4 ,aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! desc5dants f a s+le bacillus w\ld weigh #a_/bfff? ( a gra92 aft] two days1 ov] a p\nd2 aft] ?ree days1 sixte5 & a half million p\nds1 or #g1cff tons4 ,x is q unneccess>y to /ate t ^! figures are purely !oretical1 & c\ld only be realis$ if !re 7 no imp$im5t to su* rapid increase4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 v>i\s *ecks1 su* z lack ( food & unfav\rable physical conditions1 int]v5e to prev5t unmanageable multiplication ( ^! bodies4 ,^! figures %[1 h[ev]1 :at a trem5d\s vital activity micro-organisms d possess1 & x w be se5 lat] at :at great spe$ !y increase 9 wat]1 milk1 bro?1 & o!r suitable m$ia4 ,! foll[+ bacilli1 among o!rs1 h num]\s flagella di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole ( ! organism3 ! bacillus ( blue milk 7,bacillus cyanog5us7#eb2 ! bacillus ( malignant dema2 ! hay bacillus 7,bacillus subtilis72 ,proteus vulg>is1 c4 ,! foll[+ h only "o or two flagella at ! poles3 ! ,bacillus pyocyaneus1 ! ,spirillum f9kl]i1 ! ,spirillum *ol] ,asiatic1 c4 ,! ,spirillum undala1 ,spirillum rubrum1 ,spirillum conc5tricum1 & ,s>c91 pocket-cocci1 h sev]al flagella4 ,micrococcus agilis h also sev]al flagella2 ^! possibly arise f "o po9t4 ,z ,i h already po9t$ out1 ! classification ( ! bact]ia is "o ( great difficulty1 s9ce new k9ds are be+ con/antly discov]$1 & at pres5t any attempt made 9 ?is direction c only be consid]$ z q ( a provisional nature4 ,! difficulties :i* /& 9 ! way may be surmis$ f ! fact t ,s>c91 pocket-cocci1 7 orig9ally believ$ to be a s+le species1 describ$ by me1 "u ! "n ( ,s>c9a v5triculi1 9 ! f\r? edition ( my book1 8z rem>kable bodies invad+ ! human & animal /oma*1 & s]i\sly int]f]+ ) its functions40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--,s>c94 ,! orig9al woodcut ( ^! curi\s p>asites is reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #bfh1 also 9 ,plate ,,ix41 ,no4 #g1 & :i* evid5tly belong to a diff]5t species1 numb]+ ?irty-n9e altoge!r4 ,q rec5tly ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,broadb5t1 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,man*e/]1 s5t me a supply ( ^! int]e/+ bodies lately discov]$ by him 9 an infusion ( c[ manure4 ,on exam9+ a drop ) a p[] ( #aejj diamet]s !y 7 discov]$ mov+ ov] ! field ( ! microscope ) a gyrat+ motion by ! aid ( flagella project+ f ea* corn] ( ! pocket4 ,aft] "s days1 hav+ atta9$ _! full gr[? ( f\r1 eight or sixte5 9 a pocket1 !y break up1 & recomm5ce ! =mative process4 ,s>c9 are c]ta9ly pa?og5ic 9 _! nature4 ,cocci 9 gr\ps1 or asso-cocci1 are simil>ly associat$4 ,^! sev]al =ms ( spiro-bact]ia are enclos$ 9 a transp>5t cell-wall1 & are sometimes describ$ z zoogla4 ,( bact]ia ! mo/ *>act]i/ic gr\ps are bacillus1 bact]ium1 & a species ( clo/ridium1 a bottle-%ap$ bacillus4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 difficult to draw a %>p l9e betwe5 s-call$ species4 ,spiro-bact]ia1 or spirilla1 possess %ort or long filam5ts1 rigid or flexible1 & _! movem5ts are accord+ly rotatory1 or 9 ! long axis ( ! filam5ts4 ,^! bodies are aga9 divid$ into comma bacilli1 or vibrios--a "n inv5t$ by ! old] microscopi/s :o fir/ describ$ !m--"s species ( :i* h a flagellate app5dage1 to :i* _! movem5ts are due4 ,an?rax1 ,spl5ic ,fev]1 has be5 long kn[n to be preval5t among cattle at c]ta9 seasons ( ! ye>1 & is believ$ to orig9ate f peculi> conditions ( climate & soil4 ,?is view ( spl5ic fev] on microscopical exam9ation prov$ an entire fallacy4 ,boll+] 9 #ahgb discov]$ t ! blood ( ! affect$ animal 0 /ill virul5t aft] dea?1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! spores ( ! bacillus1 & t ! soil also became infect$ & impregnat$ by ! disease g]ms :]ev] ! fev] fir/ broke out4 ,9 #ahgg ,dr4 ,ko* made a m c>eful inve/igation into ! s\rce ( ! disease1 & 0 able to give a complete demon/ration ( ! life-hi/ory ( ! spl5ic fev] bacillus1 & to (f] def9ite pro(s ( its pa?og5ic prop]ties4 ,he po9t$ out t ! rods grew 9 ! blood & tissues by l5g!n+ & by cross division4 ,fur!r1 t !y n only grew into long lepto?rix filam5ts b !y produc$ enorm\s numb]s ( se$s or spores4 ,he wat*$ ! fusion ( ! rods to ! =mation ( spores & ! spr\t+ ( fre% rods4 ,he fur!rmore inoculat$ a m\se1 wat*$ ! effect ?r\gh sev]al g5]ations1 & fully demon/rat$ t 9 ! blood & swoll5 sple5 ( ! animal ! same rods 7 always pres5t4 ,pa/eur & ,paul ,bret pursu$ ! same c\rse ( inve/igations1 :i* 7 always foll[$ ) precisely simil> results4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 pr9cipally due to ! rese>*es ( ,ko* t ! doctr9e ( contagium vivum 0 plac$ on a sci5tific basis4 ,subsequ5tly ,ko* =mulat$ me?ods ( cultivation1 & dictat$ ! microscopical app>atus ne$ful4 ,fur!rmore1 he furni%$ po/ulates = prov+ beyond d\bt ! exi/5ce ( specific pa?og5ic micro-organisms4 8,! *a9 ( evid5ce reg>d$ by ,dr4 ,ko* z ess5tial = prov+ ! exi/5ce ( a pa?og5ic organism is z foll[s3--#a4 ,! micro-organism mu/ be f\nd 9 ! blood1 lymph1 or diseas$ tissue ( man or animal suff]+ f1 or dead ( ! disease4 #b4 ,! micro-organism mu/ be isolat$ f ! blood or tissue1 & cultivat$ 9 suitable m$ia--i4e41 outside ! animal body4 ,^! pure cultivations mu/ be c>ri$ on ?r\gh successive g5]ations ( ! organism4 #c4 ,pure cultivation ?us obta9$ mu/1 :5 introduc$ into ! body ( a heal?y animal1 produce ! disease 9 "q4 #d4 ,9 ! inoculat$ animal ! same micro-organism mu/ aga9 be f\nd4 ,! *a9 ( evid5ce w be /ill m complete if1 f artificial culture1 a *emical sub/ance is obta9$ capable ( produc+ ! disease q indep5d5tly ( ! liv+ organism4 ,x is n en\gh to m]ely detect1 or ev5 artificially cultivate1 a bact]ium associat$ ) disease4 ,an endeav\r mu/ be made to e/abli% ! exact relation%ip ( ! bact]ia to disease processes4 ,9 _m in/ances disease bact]ia reg>d$ z ! actual contagia h be5 f\nd1 on a fur!r se>*+ inquiry1 to be entirely mislead+4 ,x is almo/ ne$less to rem9d ! en?usia/ t ! actual contagion ( ! disease mu/ be fully demon/rat$40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--,micro-,photograph ( ,typhoid ,fev] ,bact]ia4 ,magnifi$ #ajjj 4 ,tak5 by ,leitz's oil imm]sion #a_/ab-;in* ocul> ,no4 #d1 & sunlight exposure ( "o m9ute4 ,typhoid ,bacillus 7,fig4 #bfi74--,rods #a to #c 9 l5g?1 & #e to #h 9 bread?1 & ?reads4 ,spore-=mation has n be5 obs]v$1 b ! protoplasm may be brok5 up1 produc+ appe>ances :i* may be mi/ak5 = spores4 ,actively motile1 provid$1 "s ) a s+le & o!rs ) v num]\s flagella1 :i* are f ?ree to five times z long z ! bacillus itself4 ,!y /a9 readily 9 aque\s solutions ( anil9e dyes2 & gr[ rapidly at a temp]ature ( ab\t #fj ,fahr4 ,9 plate cultivations m9ute colonies are visible 9 ?irty-six to =ty-eight h\rs2 !y are circul> or oval1 ) an irregul> m>g94 ,on ag> !y =m a :iti% transp>5t lay]1 & !y fl\ri% 9 milk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--,plague ,bacillus1 ,bombay1 #ahig4 ,magnifi$ #abjj 4 ,! ,plague 7,pe/is ,bacillus74--,! ,bombay plague ( #ahig-ih w ev] be rememb]$ z "o ( ! mo/ appall+ visitations ev] kn[n4 ,! numb] ( dea?s w nev] be accurately det]m9$1 z ! native population1 among :om ! disease *iefly prevail$ & became s fatal1 conceal$ _! dead or c>ri$ !m away by night4 ,! outbreak f ! fir/ prov$ to be mo/ infecti\s1 its incubation la/+ f a few h\rs to a week only4 ,x prevail$ 9 all ! ov]-cr[d$ native qu>t]s ( ! city4 ,! rats & mice t infe/$ ! dwell+s ( ! poor 7 f\nd to be equally susceptible ) human be+s1 & ^! v]m9 also di$ by hundr$s4 ,^? t surviv$ left _! holes & made (f1 9 ?is way help+ to spread ! infective virus4 ,on exam9+ ! bodies ( dead rats1 !y 7 f\nd to h swoll5 legs1 ! blood be+ fill$ by bacilli & curi\s monads1 ) :ip-l app5dages4 ,! bacillus ( plague 0 discov]$ by ,kitasato 9 #ahid2 x is *>act]is$ by %ort rods ) r\nd$ ends1 & a cle> space 9 ! middle4 ,! bacilli /a9 readily ) anil9e dyes1 & :5 cultivat$ on ag>1 :ite transp>5t colonies are =m$ :i* pres5t an iridesc5t appe>ance :5 exam9$ by reflect$ light4 ,9 addition to ! bubonic swell+s1 ! neighb\r+ lymphatic gl&s 7 also swoll5 & block$ by bacilli4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bga4--,monads 9 ,rat's ,blood1 #a1bjj 4 7,crook%ank47 a4 ,monad ?read+ its way among ! blood-corpuscles2 b4 ,ano!r ) p5dulum movem5t atta*$ to a corpuscle2 c4 ,angul> =ms2 d4 ,ency/$ =ms2 e & f4 ,! same se5 edgeways4 ,my illu/ration 7,fig4 #bgj7 is f a micro-photograph tak5 9 #ahig1 :5 ! dea? rate /ood v high4 ,! g5]al di/ribution ( ! bacilli1 toge!r ) phagocytes & ! cont5ts ( swoll5 lymphatic gl&s1 magnifi$ #a1bjj 1 is f a prep>ation made 9 hospital4 ,! monads f ! rat's blood1 #abjj 1 se5 ?read+ _! way among ! blood corpuscles ( a rat1 & repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bga1 are some:at l>g] ?an ^? f\nd 9 ! ,bombay rats1 b ! flagella 9 ! latt] 7 q z m>k$1 :ile ! ency/$ =ms 7 :olly abs5t & ! blood corpuscles less cr5at$4 ,! :ite bodies 7,fig4 #bgj7 7 9 "s prep>ations1 toge!r ) ! lymphatic bodies1 m num]\s & m swoll54 ,) reg>d to ! conditions ( life ( ! bact]ia1 !y may be divid$ broadly into two classes4 ,:5 ! organisms draw _! n\ri%m5t f "s liv+ body or 8ho/10 !y are kn[n z 8p>asites40 ,^! are fur!r t]m$ 8obligate0 p>asites if !y exclusively live on _! 8ho/40 ,if ! bact]ia draw _! n\ri%m5t f dead organic matt]1 !y are call$ 8saprophytes40 ,^! are also divid$ into 8obligate0 & 8facultative0 saprophytes4 ,?us x w be app>5t t a p>asite "u c]ta9 circum/ances may readily become a saprophyte4 ,"s ( ! m important saprophytes are ^? organisms :i* play an important & useful "p 9 our e-day life1 su* z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ph5om5a associat$ ) f]m5tation1 & putrefaction ag5ts :i* trans=m dead & decompos+ organic matt] into _! simpl] elem5ts1 ?us complet+ ! great life cycle1 & r5d]+ ! dead & effete matt] aga9 ready = ! vital processes4 ,among o!r life manife/ations ( c]ta9 bact]ia may be m5tion$ ^? :i* h ! prop]ty ( g5]at+ col\r+ matt]1 ?\gh n *lorophyll4 ,! bact]ia !mselves are col\rless & transp>5t1 & ! pigm5t is m]ely =m$ z a product ( _! metabolism1 especially "u ! influ5ce ( light4 ,_m ( ! bact]ia give rise to v>i\s gases & od\rs1 p>ticul>ly ! anrobic organisms1 :i* orig9ate ^? f\l putrefactive gases 7ammonia1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 c474 ,! blood-ra91 ,micrococcus prodigiosus1 gives (f an od\r resembl+ trime?ylam94 ,micro-organisms h ! prop]ty ( produc+ v>i\s *anges 9 ! m$ium on :i* !y are gr[n4 ,9 _m cases album9\s bodies are peptoniz$ & gelat9e is liquefi$4 ,_m bact]ia h ! faculty ( resolv+ organic bodies into _! simple/ elem5ts2 o!rs1 aga91 h ! prop]ty ( conv]t+ ammonia into nitric & nitr\s acid4 ,c]ta9 microbes h ! prop]ty ( becom+ phosphoresc5t 9 ! d>k4 ,^! phosphoresc5t bact]ia are (t5 se5 on decay+ plants & wood2 sometimes 9 tropical climates ! sea becomes lum9\s ow+ to ! pres5ce ( c\ntless numb]s ( ^! organisms4 ,aga91 !y are frequ5tly se5 on ! surface ( dead fi%1 p>ticul>ly mack]el1 :i* (t5 become s bright z to /rongly illum9ate ! cupbo>d 9 :i* !y lie4 ,! p>ticul> class ( fungi t produce disease 9 man & ! high] animals are g5]ally kn[n z 8pa?og5ic40 ,^! pa?og5ic organisms may ex]t _! p]nici\s p[] 9 sev]al ways4 ,!y may be injuri\s on acc\nt ( _! ab/ract+ n\ri%m5t f ! blood or tissues1 or = ! purely me*anical reason ( _! /opp+ up ! m9ute capill>ies & blood-vessels by _! excessive multiplication4 ,b ! poison\s action ( mo/ ( ! pa?og5ic bact]ia is due to ! *emical products secret$ by ! organisms1 & x is to ! circulation & absorption )9 ! body ( ^! poisons t ! di/urbances ( ! animal sy/em1 :i* *>act]ise disease1 decay1 & dissolution ( e organism1 mu/ be trac$4 ,p>asitic ,diseases ( ,plants4 ,! subject ( fungoid diseases & fungus epidemics are ( worldwide int]e/1 if only because ( ! annual losses to agriculturi/s f p>asitic diseases ( plants1 am\nt+ to millions ( p\nds /]l+4 ,! hi/ory ( :eat-ru/1 & t ( oats & rye1 ea* equally susceptible to ! ravages ( ! same ,rufus1 c be trac$ back to ,g5esis4 ,a description ( x 0 giv5 9 #ahje by ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,he sugge/$ t ! g]ms ent]$ ! /omata1 & he w>n$ f>m]s aga9/ ! use ( ru/$ litt]1 & made important exp]im5ts on ! s[+ ( ru/$ :eat-gra9s4 ,a great discussion on ! b>b]ry "q foll[$1 ,fries p>ticul>ly insi/+ on ! diff]5ce betwe5 cidium b]b]idis & ,pucc9ia gram9is4 ,tulasne confirm$ ! /atem5t made by ,h5sl[ t ! ur$o & pucc9ia /ages belong to ! same fungus1 & are n mix$ species4 ,de ,b>y's inve/igations 9 #ahfj-fd prov$ t ! sporidia ( "s ,ur$9ie 7e4g41 ,coleosporium7 w n infect ! plant :i* be>s ! spores1 & t ! cidia ( c]ta9 o!r =ms are /ages 9 ! life-hi/ory ( species ( ,uromyces & ,pucc9ia4 ,fur!rmore1 ,de ,b>y 9 #ahfd attack$ ! "q ( :eat ru/1 & by means ( num]\s s[+s ( ! tel5tospores on b>b]ry prov$ t !y br+ ab\t ! infection4 ,?is l$ to ! discov]y ( ! ph5om5on ( ,het]cism 7colonisation71 introduc+ a new idea1 & cle>+ up _m difficulties4 ,9 #ahij ! ru/ "q ent]$ on a new phase3 x 0 tak5 up by m5 ( sci5ce all ov] ! _w1 & active inquiries 7 set on foot4 ,! result has be5 ! confirmation ( ,de ,b>y's results1 b ) ! fur!r discov]y t our f\r common c]eals are attack$ by no less ?an t5 diff]5t =ms ( ru/ belong+ to five sep>ate species or 8=m species10 & ) sev]al physiological v>ieties1 capable ( turn+ ! table ^u ! b>b]ry by infect+ x4 ,"s ( ^! are f\nd to be /rictly conf9$ to "o or o!r ( ! f\r common c]eals1 infect+ two or m ( !m1 :ile o!rs c infect v>i\s k9ds ( our common wild grasses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--,pucc9ia1 display+ ur$ospores & tel5tospores4 a4 ,aregma speciosum2 b4 ,x5odo*us p>adoxus2 c4 ,p4 ,amorph2 d4 ,triphmium dub5s2 e4 ,y\ng] spores2 f4 ,p4 lat]ipes2 magnifi$ #dej diamet]s4 ,! fact is1 t :at has usually gone by ! "n ( ,pucc9ia gram9is is an aggregate ( sev]al species1 & t v>ietal =ms ( ?is exi/ s especially adapt$ to ! ho/1 t1 al?\gh no morphical diff]5ces c be detect$ betwe5 !m1 !y _c be transf]r$ f "o c]eal to ano!r1 po9t+ to physiological v>iations ( a k9d met ) among bact]ia & yea/s1 b hi!rto unsuspect$ 9 ^! high] p>asitic fungi4 ,x n[ appe>s we mu/ be prep>$ = simil> specialisation ( v>ietal =ms among ,u/ilag9e z well z among ,ur$9e4 ,moreov]1 x has be5 f\nd t diff]5t sorts ( :eat1 oats1 b>ley1 & rye are susceptible to _! p>ticul> ru/s 9 diff]5t degrees1 at ! bottom ( :i*1 x is sugge/$1 !re mu/ be "s complex physiological causes4 ,de ,b>y gave pro(1 9 #ahhf1 t ,peziza 7,plate ,i41 ,nos4 #a1 #d1 #e1 #f7 succe$s 9 becom+ p>asitic only aft] saprophytic culture to a /rong mycelium1 & t its =m is alt]$ !reby--probably by ! excretion ( a poison4 ,pr(essor ,m>%all ,w>d %[$ t simil> results took place 9 ! case ( ! lily disease4 ,re9h>dt1 9 #ahib1 %[$ t ! apical gr[? ( a peziza is di/urb$ & int]rupt$ if ! culture solution is employ$ conc5trat$2 & ,bsg51 9 #ahic1 %[$ t ,botrytis c9]ea excretes poison at ! tips ( ! hyph1 ?us confirm+ ,pr(essor ,w>d's results ) ! lily disease 9 #ahhh1 & ( lat] ye>s1 t a simil> excretion occurs 9 ru/-fungus4 ,he fur!r f\nd t ! wat] cont5ts ( ! infect$ plant ex]cises an influ5ce1 z 9 ! case ( ,botrytis attack+ *rysan!mums & o!r plants 9 ! autumn1 & t cold increases ! g]m9at+ capacity ( ! spores4 ,pfeiff]1 9 8 "w on 8,*emotaxis10 %[s t bact]ia w congregate 9 ! neighb\rhood ( an algal cell evolv+ oxyg54 ,he also f\nd t _m motile an!rozoids1 zoospores1 bact]ia1 c41 :5 free to move 9 a liquid1 are attract$ t[>ds a po9t :5ce a giv5 *emical sub/ance is diffus+4 ,he 0 conc]n+ himself less ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 or movem5ts ( bact]ia ?an ) a fundam5tal "q ( /imulation to movem5t 9 g5]al4 ,he f\nd ! attractive p[] ( diff]5t *emical sub/ances v>y ) ! organism1 & t v>i\s o!r bodies beside oxyg5 attract bact]ia--peptone1 dextrose1 potassium salts1 c42 t sw>m spores ( ! fungus ,saprolegnia are p[]fully attract$ t[>ds ! muscles ( a fly's leg plac$ 9 ! wat] 9 :i* !y are swimm+ ab\t2 also1 t 9 _m cases :]e ! hyph ( fungi sudd5ly & %>ply b5d out ( _! orig9al c\rse to ent] ! body ( a plant or animal1 ! cause ( ! b5d+ lies 9 a p[]ful *emotropic action1 due to ! attraction ( "s sub/ance escap+ f ! body4 ,pr(essor ,w>d has se5 zoospores ( a ,py?ium sudd5ly d>t out on to ! cut surface ( a bean-/em1 & !re fix !mselves4 ,?is w be bett] und]/ood by ref]r+ to ! c\rse pursu$ by ^! bodies g5]ally4 ,:5 ! spore ( a p>asitic fungus settles on a plant1 x frequ5tly behaves z foll[s3--,! spore g]m9ates & =ms a sl5d] tube ( delicate consi/5cy1 blunt at ! end1 & conta9+ col\rless protoplasm1 z %[n1 highly magnifi$ 9 ,fig4 #bgb1 & 9 ,figs4 #bgc & #bgd mu* less magnifi$4 ,de ,b>y long ago %[$ t su* a tube--! g]m9al-hypha--only gr[s = a %ort "t along ! surface ( ! organ1 & its tip soon b5ds d[n & ent]s ! plant1 ei!r ?r\gh "o ( ! /omata or by bor+ its way directly ?r\gh ! cell-walls4 ,pr(essor ,w>d says ^! ph5om5a sugge/$ to himself t ! end ( ! tube is attract$ 9 "s way1 & by "s =ce :i* br+s its tip out ( ! previ\s direction1 & ,de ,b>y has sugge/$ t ?is attraction is due to "s *emical sub/ance excret$ by ! ho/ plant4 ,x is rem>kable ) :at ease ! tube p5etrates ! cell-walls1 & :i* ,w>d believes to be due to ! solv5t action ( an enzyme1 capable ( dissolv+ cellulose4 8,miyo%i c>ri$ ^! obs]vations a /ep fur!r :51 9 #ahid1 he %[$ t if a leaf is inject$ ) a sub/ance su* z ammonium-*loride1 dextr9e1 or cane-sug> 7all sub/ances capable ( ex]t+ *emotropic attraction on fungus-hyph71 & spores ( a fungus :i* is n p>asitic are !n s[n on x1 ! hyph ( ! fungus p5etrate ! /omata & behave exactly z if ! fungus 7 a true p>asite4 8,s surpris+ a result lets 9 a flood ( light on _m kn[n cases ( fungi1 :i* are1 z a rule1 non-p>asitic1 becom+ s1 9 fact1 only :5 ! ho/ plant is 9 an abnormal condition1 e4g41 ! entry ( species ( ,botrytis into liv+ tissues :5 ! wea!r is cold & damp & ! light dull2 ! entry ( ,mucor into v>i\s fruits1 tomatoes1 apples1 pe>s1 c41 :5 ! hyph meet ) a slight crack or w\nd1 ?r\gh :i* ! juices are expos$4 ,x is exce$+ly probable t ! rapid infection ( potato leaves 9 damp wea!r 9 ,july is traceable n m]ely to ! fav\r+ effect ( ! moi/ure on ! fungus1 b t ! /ate ( sup]-saturation ( ! cell-walls ( ! potato leaf--! tissues ( :i* are n[ unduly fill$ ) wat] & dissolv$ sug>s1 c41 ow+ to ! dull light & dim9i%$ transpiration--is ! prim>y factor :i* det]m9es ! easy victory ( ! p>asite1 &1 z ,pr(essor ,w>d sugge/$ "s "t ago1 t ! suppress$ life ( ,u/ilag9e 9 ! /ems ( grasses is due to ! want ( p>ticul> c>bo-hydrates 9 ! vegetative tissues1 b :i* are pres5t 9 ! gra94 ,a ye> lat] ,miyo%i c>ri$ pro( to demon/ration1 & %[$ t a fungus-hypha is actually s attract$ by sub/ances on ! o!r side ( a membrane1 & t its tip pi]ces ! latt]2 = ! hyph 7 made to gr[ ?r\gh films ( artificial cellulose1 ( collodion1 ( cellulose impregnat$ ) p>aff91 ( p>*m5t pap]1 & ev5 ! *it9\s coat ( an insect1 simply by plac+ ! intact films on gelat9e impregnat$ ) ! attract+ sub/ance1 & lay+ ! spores on ! opposite side ( ! membrane4 8,n[ ?is is obvi\sly a po9t ( ! highe/ importance 9 ! !ory ( p>asitism & p>asitic diseases1 because x sugge/s at once t 9 ! v>y+ conditions ( ! cells1 ! cont5ts ( :i* are sep>at$ only by membran\s walls f ! fungus-hyph1 ^: entrance means ru9 & de/ruction1 !re may be f\nd circum/ances :i* sometimes fav\r & sometimes disfav\r ! entrance ( ! hyph2 & x is1 at lea/1 a rem>kable fact t "s ( ! sub/ances :i* exp]im5ts prove to be highly attractive to su* hyph--e4g41 sug>s1 ! sap ( plums1 phosphates1 nitrates1 c4--are j ! sub/ances f\nd 9 plants2 & ! discov]y t ! action dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! sub/ance z well z on ! k9d ( fungus1 & is affect$ by its conc5tration1 ! temp]ature1 & o!r circum/ances1 only confirms u 9 ?is idea40 ,moreov]1 !re is "o o!r fact :i* x is important to notice1 viz41 t !re are sub/ances :i* repel in/ead ( attract ! hyph4 ,is x n1 !n1 asks ,pr(essor ,w>d1 natural to conclude t ! diff]5ces 9 behavi\r ( diff]5t p>asites t[>ds diff]5t ho/-plants1 & t[>ds ! same ho/-plant "u diff]5t conditions1 probably dep5d on ! *emotropic irritability ( ! hyph t[>ds ! sub/ance =m$ 9 ! cells on ! o!r side ( ! membran\s cell-walls8 ,& :51 z (t5 happ5s1 ! effusion ( sub/ances1 su* z ! cells conta91 to ! ext]ior is facilitat$ by ov]-di/5sion & sup]-saturation1 or by actual w\nds1 we _c be surpris$ at ! consequ5ces :5 a fungus1 hi!rto unable to ent] ! plant1 sudd5ly does s4 ,to ?is proposition my answ] is emphatically 9 ! affirmative1 s9ce 9 my inve/igations into ! 8fungus-foot disease0 78,mycetoma071 #ahga1 ( ,india1 ! entry ( ! fungus 0 9 almo/ e case %[n to be ?r\gh an abrasion ( ! sk9 or a direct op5 w\nd2 ! majority ( ! cases report$ 7 among ! agricultural classes4 ,:51 !n1 z (t5 happ5s1 ! effusion ( sub/ances1 su* z ! cells conta91 to ! ext]ior is facilitat$ by ov]-di/5sion & sup]-saturation1 or by actual w\nds1 we _c be surpris$ at ! consequ5ces :5 a fungus1 hi!rto unable to ent] ! plant1 sudd5ly does s4 ,nev]!less1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! k ga9$ ( p>asites does n satisfactorily acc\nt = epidemic visitations ov] l>ge areas4 ,habitat ( ,fungi & ,m\lds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,fungi & ,m\lds4 ,description ( ,figures4--a4 ,fungi ,spores1 tak5 9 a sick *amb]2 b4 ,asp]gillus glaucus2 c4 ,yea/1 rec5t /ate2 d4 ,exhau/$ yea/1 budd+2 e4 ,p5icillium spores m highly magnifi$2 g4 ,a]obic spores & m\ld mycelium2 h4 ,asp]gillus spore1 gr[n on melon4 ,habitat1 ,specialis$ ,=ms ( ,p>asites4 ,habitat4--,! habitat ( vegetable p>asitic fungi is extremely v>iable4 ,fungi are f\nd ev]y:]e1 liv+ & fl\ri%+ on all ! families ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,!y attack our h\ses1 foods1 clo!s1 ut5sils ( e k9d1 wall pap]s & books1 ! pa/e ( :i*1 to my a/oni%m5t1 af=ds a suffici5t supply ( n\ri%m5t4 ,memb]s ( ! p>asitic tribe ( bact]ia1 by a comb9$ ef=t ( c\ntless myriads1 h giv5 rise to a s5se ( sup]natural ag5cy4 ,bacillus prodigiosus1 describ$ also z ,palmella mirifica & ,zoogalact9a imetropia1 f its attack+ milk & o!r alim5t>y sub/ances1 ! spores ( :i* are (t5 ( a deep r$ col\r1 h be5 f\nd to cov] :ole tracts ( c\ntry 9 a s+le night ) :at is call$ a 8gory dew10 *ang+ 9 daylight to a deep gre5 col\r4 ,?is 0 at "o "t reg>d$ ) sup]/iti\s awe z a miracle1 z x has be5 kn[n to attack bread & ev5 ! sacr$ waf]1 & :i* 9 m$ival ages 0 describ$ z ! 8ble$+-ho/40 ,?is p>asitic plant belongs to anrobic bact]ia1 & is only develop$ 9 ! d>k4 ,! nitrog5 requir$ = nutrition mu/ be d]iv$ f ! air4 ,an algal =m gives rise to ! r$ scum se5 9 ponds & res]voirs 9 ! autumn4 ,! dis*>ge f w\nds is col\r$ blue by ,bact]ium pyocyan9e4 ,!re are _m o!r =ms1 "s ( :i* h an orange col\r1 & ! g5us is recognis$ z 8*romog5ic microbes40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--;,fungi & ,m\lds4 ,description ( ,figures4--d4 ,pucc9ia gram9is on :eat2 c4 ,polycy/is spore ( rye-smut2 f4 ,ald] fungus spores1 ,microsph]ia p5icellula2 g4 ,dactylium roseum1 rose-col\r$ m\ld2 h4 ,v]ticillium di/ans1 :orl$ m\ld f\nd on h]bace\s plants2 i4 ,botrytis1 v9e & lily fungus2 j1 j4 ,p]onospora infe/ans1 potato fungus2 k4 ,p4 gangli=mis1 m\ld ( h]bace\s plants2 l4 ,v>i\s ,p5icillium & o!r spores tak5 9 a bean-field4 ,a cryptogam belong+ to anrobic bact]ia1 describ$ z ,protococcus invalis1 on be+ set aside 9 a bottle1 & a little ra9 wat] add$1 0 se5 to set up spontane\s f]m5tation1 & 9 a v %ort "t exhibit$ rem>kable activity4 ,! col\r ( ! infusion *ang$1 x assum$ a delicate p9k hue 9 direct light1 :i* deep5$ to a r$ 9 reflect$ light4 ,! fluid cont5ts 7 n[ obs]v$ to be di*oric1 & ! spectroscopic appe>ance subsequ5tly pres5t$ 0 "o ( mu* int]e/4 ,! spectrum 0 a well-m>k$ "o1 & might be tak5 to det]m9e ! pres5ce ( a nitrog5\s elem5t or ( glucose4 ,among all ! v>i\s plants kn[n to suff] f ! attacks ( p>asites1 ! v9e has be5 ! greate/ suff]]4 ,! odium1 or ,erysiphe ,tuck]i1 s call$ f ! "n ( ! discov]] by :om x 0 fir/ describ$1 has be5 longe/ kn[n to ! v9e gr[]4 ,?is really belongs to ! gr\p ,ascomycetes1 & appe>s to h be5 br\ght f ,am]ica 9 #ahde1 :5ce x 0 pass$ on to ,france1 :]e x soon ?reat5$ to entirely de/roy ! v9ey>ds4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by ano!r p>asite1 belong+ 9 ?is in/ance to ! animal k+dom1 ,phyllox]a va/atrix4 ,?is odium appe>s on ! grape 9 ! =m ( greyi% filam5ts1 t]m9at+ 9 an enl>g$ head1 :i* conta9s an agglom]ation ( spores1 n free or 9 a *aplet1 z 9 ,asp]gillus 7,fig4 #bgc74 ,^! spores :5 ripe bur/ f ! capsule z f9e du/1 & are diffus$ by ! air 9 all directions1 ?us spread+ ! disease f> & away4 ,ano!r ( ! p>asitic m\lds1 ,p]onospora viticola1 is a k9d ( mildew1 diff]+ f odium4 ,! hyph p5etrate m deeply ?an t ( odium4 ,on ! upp] surface ( ! leaf br[n pat*es appe>2 ^! bran* out & ramify z se5 9 ! potato-fungus1 ,p4 infe/ans 7,fig4 #bgd74 ,! p>asite de/roys ! tissue ( ! leaf1 & x )]s & dies4 ,!re are o!r well-kn[n p>asites1 ! black-rot1 ,phomauvicola1 belong+ to ! ,ascomycetes4 ,?is appe>s 9 e>ly %oots 9 ! =m ( r\nd black spots1 & gradually spreads ov] leaves & "y fruit4 ,?is same rot1 "o ye>1 deva/at$ ! ,am]ican v9ey>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge4--;,fungi1 ,m\lds4 a4 ,clu/]$ ,spores1 ,gonatobotrys simplex2 b4 ,spore ( ,pucc9ia coronata1 ! mildew ( grapes2 c4 ,b>ley smut2 d4 ,pucc9ia al?a2 e4 ,p5icillium glaucum2 m4 ,ixodes f>91 f\nd 9 damag$ fl\r toge!r ) smut4 ,c]eals1 :eats & grasses1 suff] f o!r well-kn[n =ms ( microscopic fungi t]m$ ru/s & smuts1 :i* cov] ! blades or infect ! full e> ( ! fruit4 ,! "n giv5 indicates _! col\r1 & ^! belong1 = ! mo/ "p1 to ! g5us ,ur$o & ! family ( ! ,basidiomycetes4 ,!y h no endog5\s spores b z _m z f\r =ms ( exog5\s4 ,?is is also ! case ) :eat & b>ley1 :]eby !y are di/+ui%$ z ,ur$o or ,pucc9ia gram9is 7see ,figs4 #bgc & #bgd1 & ,plate ,i41 ,nos4 #ai & #bb1 cidium b]b]idis74 ,= a long "t x 0 believ$ t ,ur$o l9e>is & ,pucc9ia gram9is 7 s _m di/9ct species1 b x is n[ kn[n t !re are only ?ree successive phases ( ! developm5tal /ages ( a s+le species--t1 z a matt] ( fact1 pucc9ia pres5ts ! ph5om5on ( alt]nation ( g5]ations1 t is1 t ! complete developm5t ( ! fungus is only effect$ by its transf]5ce f "o plant to ano!r4 ,o!r ur$9es1 ,u/ilago & ,tilletia smuts1 are m apt to affect ! e>s ( :eat1 rye1 & o!r grasses ?an pucc9ia4 ,bread made f :eat affect$ by smut has an acrid & bitt] ta/e1 :ile t made f rye fl\r (t5 produces a s]i\s =m ( disease4 ,! propagation ( ei!r1 !n1 %\ld be /opp$ z quickly z possible by de/roy+ all b>b]ry bu%es gr[+ ne> or )9 ! vic9ity ( corn fields1 & by o!r means4 ,! ergot ( rye is due to di/9ct species ( fungi hav+ endog5\s spores enclos$ 9 a sac or ascus1 h5ce ! "n ( ! family1 ,ascomycetes or ,tub]ace1 :i* are reproduc$ by ! spores conta9$ 9 ^! asci4 ,truffles belong to ?is family4 ,b o!r memb]s ( ! same family h sev]al =ms ( spores1 & ^! aga9 pres5t u ) ! ph5om5on ( alt]nation ( g5]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--;,fungi1 ,m\lds4 p4 ,spores ( ,tilletia c>ies2 q4 ,spores ( ,tilletia c>ies1 :5 g]m9at+1 produce a ftid olive-col\r$ spore 9 c]eal gra9s2 r4 ,tel5tospores ( ,pucc9ia gram9is2 s4 ,cry/opus c&idus1 spores gr[+ 9 *a9s2 t4 ,petronospora infe/ans1 mildew ( turnips1 c42 u4 ,a transv]se section ( ergot ( rye1 %[+ spores 9 masses2 v4 ,claviceps purpur1 associat$ ) ergot$ rye4 ,ergot ( rye is us$ 9 m$ic9e1 b if n us$ ) c>e x w produce a dang]\s disease4 ,?is p>asitic fungi consi/s ( m9ute microscopic masses ( spores1 :i* cov] ! "y fl[] ( ! rye ) a :ite floccul5t mass1 =m]ly t]m$ sphacelium4 ,! mycelium =m$ spreads ov] ! e> ( corn 9 ?ick felt-l masses1 t]m$ scl]otis4 ,! sphacelium *anges its =m 9 ! foll[+ spr+4 ,o!r *anges are br\ght ab\t1 & x seems to pass ?r\gh a cycle ( alt]nations ( g5]ations4 ,bread made f rye s infe/$ is kn[n to produce grave consequ5ces1 soon to become fatal if n detect$ 9 "t4 ,! disease is t]m$ ergotism1 & gangr5e ( ! extremities takes place among p ( ! nor? ( ,france & ,russia1 :o consume bread made f rye fl\r4 ,ergot ( maize w also cause simil> diseases4 ,f[ls & o!r animals f$ ^u ?is c]eal become 9 a %ort "t poison$1 & ! cause ( dea? is n rightly suspect$4 ,!re is ano!r fungus belong+ to ! same gr\p ( ,ascomycetes1 kn[n z ,eurotium rep5s1 :i* appe>s ^u lea!r :5 left 9 a damp place1 & also ^u vegetable or animal sub/ances if badly pres]v$1 & gradually de/roys x4 ,?is m\ld is ( a d>ki% gre5 col\r4 ,! m9ute spores display !mselves z r[s ( beads :5 fully ripe on ! erect mycelium4 ,asp]gillus glaucus repres5ts ! :ite exog5\s spores ( ! sphacelium ( ! ergot ( rye2 & ^? subsequ5tly produc$ 9 ! yell[ balls correspond ) ! asci develop$ 9 scl]otis1 ! endog5\s species4 ,_m ( ! p>asitic species belong+ to ! g5]a ,erysiphe1 ,sphria1 ,sord>ia1 ,p5icillium1 c41 h a simil> mode ( propagation1 & affect a l>ge numb] ( plants4 ,p>asitic ,fungi ( ,m5 & ,animals4 ,9 ! microscopical exam9ations especially giv5 to ! elucidation ( p>asitic diseases ( ! sk91 previ\sly ref]r$ to1 ,i discov]$ m v>ieties ( spores & filam5ts ( c]ta9 cryptogamic plants associat$ ) a l>g] numb] ( specific =ms ( fungi ?an any previ\s obs]v]4 ,i did n1 h[ev]1 feel ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+1 ) ,k*5mei/]1 ,s*nle91 & ,rob91 t ^! fungoid gr[?s 7 ! prim>y cause ( ! diseases ref]r$ to4 ,inde$1 ! =emo/ d]matologi/s ( ! p]iod utt]ly refus$ to ent]ta9 ! specific g]m !ory ( ! ,g]man inve/igators4 ,nev]!less1 ,i cont5d$1 8! univ]sality ( _! di/ribution is 9 itself a fact ( v consid]able importance1 & "o po9t+ to ! belief t !y are scav5g]s ev] ready to fa/5 on decay+ matt]1 &1 on f9d+ a suitable soil1 spread out _! invisible filam5ts 9 e direction 9 s p]si/5t a mann] z to arre/ gr[? & ov]:elm ! plant 9 de/ruction40#ec ,special =ms ( fungi are giv5 9 ,plate ,i41 ,nos4 #aj-ad1 & ^? ( ! ascomycetes 9 ,nos4 #ag-ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--;,heal?y fre% ,yea/1 f a l>ge ,brew]y1 9 an active /age ( =mation1 #djj4 ,odium albicans affects bo? animals & plants4 ,x (t5 attacks ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\?s ( "y *ildr54 ,! spores become elongat$ & conv]t$ into hyph1 & ramify ab\t 9 all directions1 produc+ a tr\blesome =m ( disease4 ,?is p>asitic fungus is bett] kn[n "u ano!r "n1 ,sac*>omyces mycod]ma4 ,odium resemble alg 9 _! mode ( life1 z !y are mo/ly f\nd 9 a liquid m$ia4 ,! /ructure ( all f]m5ts is v simple3 ea* plant is compos$ ( a s+le cell1 ei!r ( a sph]ical1 elliptical1 or cyl9drical =m1 v>y+ 9 size1 & fill$ ) protoplasmic & nucleat$ matt]4 ,?is gr[s1 & is se5 to bud out & divide into two or m p>ts1 all resembl+ ! "m cell4 ,fig4 #bgg repres5ts ! heal?y cells ( yea/1 ,sac*>omyces c]evisi1 fre%ly tak5 f a brew]'s vat1 & 9 an active /age ( gr[?4 ,! mode ( multiplication cont9ues z long z ! plant rema9s 9 a liquid fav\rable to its nutrition4 ,! *anges f "o /age to ano!r are rapid1 z w be notic$ on ref]5ce to ! consecutive =mative processes ! cells are kn[n to pass ?r\gh1 ,fig4 #bgh 7#ahei74 ,if ! developm5t ( ! plant is arre/$ by want ( a sac*>9e or nitrog5\s sub/ance1 & ! liquid dries up1 ! protoplasm conta9$ 9 ! cell contracts1 & ! spores1 or endog5\s reproductive organs1 ( ! plant w rema9 9 a /ate ( re/1 become p]fectly dry1 & yet reta9 life4 ,!y are n easily kill$1 ev5 :5 subject$ to a v high or l[ temp]ature1 !y d n lose ! p[] ( g]m9ation :5 fav\rable conditions pres5t !mselves1 & at once take on a new bir?4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m o!r f]m5ts besides t ( be]-yea/s1 su* z alcoholic & w9e f]m5ts1 ! commone/ ( :i*1 accord+ to ,pa/eur1 is ,sac*>omyces ellipsoideus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--;,developm5t ( ,yea/ ,cells4 #a4 ,:5 fir/ tak52 #b4 ,"o h\r aft] introduc+ a few cells into sweet-wort2 #c4 ,?ree h\rs aft]2 #d4 ,eight h\rs2 #e4 ,=ty-eight h\rs1 :5 ! cells become elongat$4 ,b yea/-fungi & m\ld-fungi1 l bact]ia or fission-fungi1 are micro-organisms1 belong+ to two specific ord]s1 ! ,sac*>omycetes & ! ,hyphomycetes1 :i* are intimately relat$ to ea* o!r1 b q di/9ct f bact]ia4 ,_! g]ms occur widely di/ribut$ 9 air1 soil1 & wat]4 ,_m species are ( hygi5ic1 :ile o!rs are ( pa?ological int]e/ & importance 9 be+ ei!r accid5tally associat$ )1 or ! cause (1 disease processes1 :ile o!rs are f]m5tations ( v ess5tial s]vice 9 v>i\s indu/rial processes4 ,! mak+ ( be]s1 w9es1 & spirits1 z we und]/& !m1 con/itutes b a small "p ( ! prov9ce ( f]m5tation4 ,! life activities ( f]m5ts op5 out a /udy ( va/ importance to mank9d1 & :ile !y h only be5 reg>d$ 9 _! wor/ aspect--t ( a bane--!y are1 nev]!less1 a boon to mank9d4 ,! fir/ cle> view we obta9$ ( ?is 0 t ( ,reess1 :o 9 #ahgj %[$ !re 7 sev]al species or =ms ( ! yea/-fungus4 ,hans5 foll[$ up ?is discov]y 9 #ahhc1 &1 tak+ advantage ( ! /rict me?ods ( culture introduc$ by bact]iologi/s1 f\nd t by cultivat+ yea/ on a solid m$ia f a s+le spore x 0 q possible to obta9 con/ant types ( pure yea/s1 ea* possess+ its own peculi> prop]ties4 ,"o consequ5ce ( ,hans5's lab\rs 0 t x n[ became possible = e brew] to "w ) a yea/ ( uni=m type in/ead ( ) haphaz>d mixtures1 9 :i* s]i\s disease =ms might pr$om9ate & injure ! be]4 ,among o!r ?+s made cle> 0 t a true yea/ may h a mycelial /age ( developm5t4 ,fur!rmore1 !re is ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by ! nucleus ( ! yea/ cell4 ,_m o!r po9ts ( int]e/ arose out ( ^! inve/igations2 "o 01 t _m high] fungi c assume a yea/-l /age ( developm5t if subm]g$ 9 fluids1 z1 = in/ance1 v>i\s species ( ,mucor1 ,u/ilago1 ,exoascus1 & num]\s o!rs4 ,ascomycetes1 & ,basidiomycetes z well1 are kn[n to =m budd+ cells1 & x 0 ?\ght t ! yea/s ( alcoholic f]m5tation are m]ely r$uc$ =ms ( ^! high] fungi1 :i* h become habituat$ to ! budd+ condition--a conclusion support$ by ,hans5's discov]y t a true ,sac*>omyces c develop a feeble1 b a true1 mycelium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--,sac*>omyces & ,m\lds4 #a4 ,section f a tomato1 %[+ spores gr[+ f cuticle2 #b4 ,portion deta*$ to %[ budd+-out process2 #c4 ,lat]al view ( spore sac ) oospores issu+ =?2 #d4 ,apiculat$ f]m5t spores2 #f & #g4 ,mycod]ma c]ivisi 9 diff]5t /ages ( gr[?1 z se5 on w9e bottles2 #h & #i4 ,torul diabetic1 torul & fission spores4 8,?is view has be5 entirely confirm$ by an inquiry into ! mode ( brew+ sak by ! ,japanese1 by ! aid ( ! ,asp]gillus fungus4 ,fur!r rese>*es e/abli%$ ! fact t o!r =ms ( fungi1 e4g41 ^? on ! surface ( fruits1 develop$ endog5\s spores1 :i* cause alcoholic f]m5tation4 ,m rec5tly1 & by fur!r exp]im5tal inquiry1 p>tly by pure cultures ( sep>ate =ms1 & p>tly by well-devis$ cultures on rip5+ fruits /ill atta*$ to ! plant b imprison$ 9 /]ilis$ glass vessels1 x has be5 f\nd t yea/ & m\lds are sep>ate =ms1 n g5etically connect$1 b m]ely associat$ 9 nature1 z are s _m o!r =ms ( yea/s1 bact]ia1 & m\lds4 ,fur!r1 ,hans5 has discov]$ t sev]al yea/s furni% q di/9ct races or v>ieties 9 diff]5t brew]ies 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 s t we _c avoid ! conclusion t _! race *>act]i/ics h be5 impress$ on ! cells by ! cont9u$ action ( ! conditions ( culture to :i* !y h s long be5 expos$--!y are1 9 fact1 dome/icat$ races40 ,! environm5ts ( yea/s are peculi>4 ,sau] f\nd t a giv5 v>iety ( yea/1 ^: activity is normally inhibit$ :5 ! alcohol atta9s a c]ta9 degree ( conc5tration 9 ! liquid1 c be induc$ to g on f]m5t+ until a high] degree is atta9$ by ! addition ( a c]ta9 lactic acid bact]ium4 ,! latt]1 inde$1 appe>s to prep>e ! way = ! yea/4 ,x has be5 %[n1 also1 t damage may be done to be]s & w9es by all[+ plant g]ms to ga9 access ) ! yea/2 !re are1 too1 sev]al =ms ( yea/ t are inimical to ! action ( ! requir$ f]m5tation4 ,o!r rese>*es %[ t associat$ yea/s may f]m5t bett] ?an any s+le yea/1 & su* symbiotic action ( two yea/s ( high f]m5t+ p[] has giv5 bett] results ?an ei!r alone4 ,engli% g+]-be] furni%es a curi\s symbiotic association ( two organisms--a true yea/ & a true bact]ium--s closely unit$ t ! yea/ cells become imprison$ 9 ! gelat9\s me%es ( ! bact]ium2 & x is a curi\s fact t ?is symbiotic union ( yea/ & bact]ium f]m5ts is f> m en]getic ?an ei!r :5 us$ alone1 & ! product is diff]5t1 l>ge quantities ( lactic & c>bonic acids be+ =m$1 & little or no alcohol4 ,_m ye>s ago ,i gave an acc\nt ( simil> curi\s symbiotic results obta9$ by introduc+ into a wort-infusion a small proportion ( ,g]man yea/1 an artificial product compos$ ( honey1 malt1 & a c]ta9 proportion ( spontane\sly-f]m5t$ :eat fl\r4 ,?is1 to my a/oni%m5t1 produc$ t5 p] c5t4 m alcohol ?an any ( its cong5]s1 & did n s soon exhau/ itself z brew]'s yea/4#ed ,9 ! hephir us$ 9 ,europe = f]m5t+ milk1 ano!r symbiotic association ( yea/ & a bact]ium1 x is se5 t 9 ?is process no less ?an f\r di/9ct organisms are conc]n$4 ,i h already in/anc$ ! f]m5tation ( rice to produce sak1 :i* is fir/ act$ ^u by an ,asp]gillus t conv]ts ! />* into sug> & an associat$ yea/1 & ?is is also %[n to be a di/9ct fungus1 symbiotically associat$ 9 ! conv]sion4 8,/>t+1 !n1 f ! fact t ! con/itution ( ! m$ium pr(\ndly affects ! physiological action ( ! fungus1 !re c be no?+ surpris+ 9 ! discov]y t ! fungus is m active 9 a m$ium :i* has be5 fav\rably alt]$ by an associat$ organism1 :e!r ! latt] aids ! fungus by directly alt]+ ! m$ium1 or by ridd+ x ( products ( excretion1 or by add+ gase\s or o!r body4 ,x is n difficult to see1 !n1 t natural selection w aid 9 ! p]petuation ( ! symbiosis1 & 9 cases l t ( ! g+]-be] plant x is extremely difficult to get ! two organisms ap>t1 a difficulty simil> to t 9 ! case ( ! sor$ia ( li*5s40 ,bu*n] discov]$ t by means ( extreme pressure a some?+ c be extract$ f yea/ :i* at once decomposes sug> into alcohol & c>bon-dioxide4 ,?is some?+ is reg>d$ z a k9d ( incomplete protoplasm--a body1 z we h already se51 compos$ ( proteid--& 9 a /ructural condition some:]e betwe5 t ( true soluble enzymes l inv]t9 & a complete liv+ protoplasm4 ,?is rem9ds me ( an old] exp]im5t ( m9e1 ! imm$iate conv]sion ( cane-sug> into grape-sug>4 ,if we take two p>ts ( :ite sug> & rub x up 9 a mort> ) "o "p ( a p]fectly dry solid1 ! ,g]man yea/ be=e spok5 (1 x is imm$iately trans=m$ z if by magic into a fl[+ liquid mass--a syrup4 ,?is process ( =m+ 8inv]t sug>0 c be wat*$ "u ! microscope2 ! lib]ation ( c>bonic acid gas 9 l>ge bubbles is se5 to g on simultane\sly ) ! assimilation ( ! dextrose1 & ! break+ up ( ! cry/als ( sug>2 ! cell at ! same "t increas+ 9 size z well z 9 refractive p[]2 a curi\s /ate ( activity appe>s to be go+ on 9 ! small mass1 :i* is v int]e/+ to wat* ?r\gh\t4 ,h[ev]1 ! enzymes ( ,bu*n] are probably bits (f ! protoplasm1 z x 71 & s ! ess5tials ( ! !ory ( f]m5tation rema91 ! imm$iate ag5t be+ n t ( protoplasm itself1 b ( some?+ made by or brok5 (f f x4 ,enzymes1 or simil> bodies1 are kn[n to be v common 9 plants1 & ! suspicion t fungi d mu* "w ) _! aid is abundantly confirm$4 ,x seems1 inde$1 t !re are a :ole s]ies ( ^! bodies :i* h ! p[] ( c>ry+ ov] oxyg5 to o!r bodies1 & s br++ ab\t oxidations ( a peculi> "*4 ,^! curi\s enzymes 7 fir/ obs]v$ ow+ to /udies on ! *anges :i* w9e & plant juice und]go :5 expos$ to ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! br[n+ ( cut apples is kn[n to be due to ! action ( an oxydase1 t is1 an oxyg5 c>ry+ f]m5t1 & ! same is claim$ = ! deep col\r+ ( c]ta9 lacs obta9$ f ! juice ( plants1 su* z ,anac>diace1 :i* are pale & transp>5t :5 fre% drawn1 b :i* gradually d>k5 9 col\r on exposure to ! air4 ,oxydases h be5 isolat$ f beets1 dahlia1 potato-tub]s1 & sev]al o!r plants4 ,?is fact expla9s a ph5om5on kn[n to botani/s1 & p>tly expla9$ by ,s*nbe9 z f> back z #ahfh1 t if c]ta9 fungi 7e4g41 ,boletus b]idies7 are brok5 or bruis$1 ! yell[ or :ite fle% at once turns blue2 ?is action is n[ trac$ to ! pres5ce 9 ! cell sap ( an oxydase4 ,x is ! dia/atic activity ( ,asp]gillus :i* is utilis$ 9 ! mak+ ( sak f rice1 & 9 ! prep>ation ( soy f ! soja bean 9 ,japan4 ,katz has rec5tly te/$ ! dia/atic activity ( ,asp]gillus1 ( ,p5icillium1 & ( ,bact]ium mega!rium1 9 ! pres5ce ( l>ge & small quantities ( sug>1 & f\nd all are able to produce n only dia/ase1 b also o!r enzymes2 z ! sug> accumulates ! dia/ase =m$ dim9i%es1 :]eas ! accumulation ( o!r c>bo-hydrates produces no su* effect4 ,h>t+'s inve/igation on ! de/ruction ( timb] by fungi d]ives new int]e/ f ! discov]y ( an emulsion-l enzyme 9 _m su* wood-de/roy+ =ms1 :i* splits up glucosides1 amygdal91 & o!r sub/ances into sug>1 & t hyph fe$ on o!r c>bo-hydrates4 ,! fact1 also1 t ,asp]gillus c =m inv]ts ( ! sucrase & maltase types1 z well z emuls91 inulate1 & dia/ase1 accord+ to circum/ances ( nutrition1 w expla9 :y ?is fungus c gr[ on almo/ any organic sub/ance x may happ5 to alight ^u4 ,! secretion ( special enzymes by fungi has a fur!r int]e/ j n[1 = rec5t inve/igations promise to br+ u mu* ne>] to an und]/&+ ( ! ph5om5a ( p>asitism ?an x 0 possible :5 ,i 0 at "w ^u !m "s =ty or fifty ye>s ago4 ,x 0 ,de ,b>y :o impell$ botani/s to ab&on old] me?ods1 & he :o laid ! f\ndation ( mod]n mycology4 ,lat] on he po9t$ out t :5 ! infect+ g]m9al tube ( a fungus ent]s a plant-cell1 two ph5om5a mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 ! p5etration ( ! cell-walls & tissues1 & ! attraction :i* causes ! tips ( ! gr[+ hypha to face & p5etrate ^! ob/acles1 in/ead ( glid+ ov] !m 9 ! l9es ( app>5t lea/ resi/ance4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ^! two factors %[s t 9 ! successful attack ( a p>asitic plant on its victim or ho/ ^! fungi c excrete cellulose-dissolv+ enzymes1 & t !y h ! p[] ( de/roy+ lign9e4 ,zopf has also furni%$ examples ( fungi :i* c consume fats4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o o!r connection 9 :i* ^! obs]vations on enzymes 9 ! plant-cell promise to be ( consid]able importance1 viz41 ! rem>kable action ( c]ta9 rays ( ! sol> light on bact]ia4 ,x has be5 kn[n = "s "t pa/ t if bact]ia 9 a nutri5t liquid are expos$ to sunlight !y quickly die4 ,! fur!r rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,m>%all ,w>d & o!r work]s 9 ! same direction h br\ght out ! fact t x is really ! light rays1 & n high temp]atures1 t x is especially ! blue-violet & ultra-violet rays1 :i* ex]t ! mo/ effective bact]icidal action4 ,?is pro( dep5d$ ^u ! production ( actual photographs 9 bact]ia ( ! spectrum itself4 ,ap>t f ?is1 ! ,pr(essor demon/rat$ t j su* spores z ^? ( an?rax1 at ! same "t pa?og5ic & highly resi/ant to heat1 succumb soone/ to ! action ( ^! cold light-rays1 & t "u conditions :i* preclude _! be+ poison$ by a liquid ba?4 ,x is 9 all probability ! action ( ^! rays ( light ^u ! enzymes1 :i* ab\nd 9 ! bact]ial cells1 t br+ ab\t _! dea?4 ,! sun1 !n1 is se5 to be our mo/ p[]ful scav5g]1 & ?is app>5tly receives confirmation 9 connection ) ,m>t9aud's obs]vations1 t ! yea/s necess>y = w9e-mak+ are defici5t 9 numb]s & p[] on grapes expos$ to int5se light1 & to ?is is due t bett] results are obta9$ 9 c5tral ,france z contra/$ ) ^? 9 ! s\?4 8,:5 we reflect1 !n1 t ! nature ( p>asitic fungi1 ! actual demon/ration ( infection by a fungus spore1 ! transmission ( g]ms by wat] & air1 ! mean+ & significance ( polymorphism1 het]cism1 symbiosis1 _h already be5 r5d]$ cle> 9 ! case ( fungi1 & t x 0 by ^! /udies 9 f]m5tation1 & 9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! fungus ,sac*>omyces1 t ! way 0 prep>$ = ! tiology ( bact]ial diseases 9 animals1 !re %\ld be no d\bt z to ! mutual be>+s ( ^! matt]s40 ,indu/rial uses ( ,fungi & ,sac*>omycetes4 ,!re are _m indu/rial processes :i* are m or less dep5d5t = success on bact]ial f]m5tations4 ,! subject is "y1 b ! results already obta9$ are se5 to be ( imm5se importance f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 & to op5 up vi/as ( practical application already be+ tak5 advantage ( 9 comm]ce1 :ile problems are cont9ually be+ rais$ by ! =e/]1 ! agriculturi/1 ! g>d5]1 ! dairyman1 ! brew]1 dy]1 tann]1 & ) reg>d to v>i\s indu/ries1 :i* w ev5tually conf] great advantages 9 _! economic application4 ,! rem>kable discov]y made by ,alv>ez ( ! bacillus1 :i* conv]ts a /]ilis$ decoction ( ! indigo plant into indigo sug> & indigo :ite1 ! latt] !n oxidis+ to =m ! valuable blue dye1 :]eas ! /]ile decoction itself1 ev5 9 pres5ce ( oxyg51 =ms no indigo1 pla9ly proves h[ ^! m9ute organisms may be turn$ to a good acc\nt4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 important po9ts to be det]m9$ z to ! action ( ! f]m5tation br\ght ab\t by ^! enzymes1 & ! appe>ance ( c]ta9 my/]i\s diseases 9 ! indigo vats4 ,aga91 c]ta9 /ages 9 ! prep>ation ( tea & tobacco leaves are f\nd to dep5d ^u v c>efully regulat$ f]m5tations1 :i* mu/ be /opp$ at ! "r mom5t1 or ! product w be spoilt4 ,reg>d+ ! possible rle ( bact]ia1 ! ,we/ ,indian tobacco has a special bact]ium1 :i* has be5 isolat$ & f\nd to play a v important "p 9 its flav\r4 ,e botani/ kn[s t flax & hemp are ! be/ fibres ( ,l9um & ,cannabis respectively1 sep>at$ by /eep+ 9 wat] until ! middle lamella is de/roy$ & ! fibres isolat$2 b x is n s well kn[n t n e wat] is suitable = ?is 8rett+0 or /eep+ process2 & = a long "t ?is 0 z mu* a my/]y z :y "s wat]s are s mu* bett] ?an o!rs = brew+4 ,q rec5tly ,fribes has succe$$ 9 isolat+ ! bacillus ^u :i* ! dissolution ( ! middle lamella dep5ds4 ,?is inve/igation br\ght out o!r int]e/+ details z to ! reaction produc$ by liv+ micro-organisms1 & :i* c be utilis$ 9 decid+ que/ions ( plant *emi/ry too subtile = te/+ ) ord9>y re-ag5ts4 ,"o o!r important fact connect$ ) ^! rese>*es is t botani/s h n[ disc>d$ ! view t ! middle lamella ( ! plants ref]r$ to is compos$ ( cellulose1 & "k t x consi/s ( pect9 comp\nds4 ,fribes' anrobic bacillus is f\nd to dissolve & de/roy pect9s & pect9ates1 b does n t\* cellulose or gum4 ,x is well kn[n t ! /eep+ ( sk9s 9 wat] 9 prep>ation = tann+ involves bact]ial action1 ow+ to :i* ! hair & epid]mal cov]+s are remov$1 b x also appe>s t 9 ! process ( swell+ ! lim$ sk9s1 ! gases evolv$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! tissues1 & ! evolution ( :i* causes ! swell+ & loos5s ! fibre s t ! tann+ solutions may p5etrate1 are due to a p>ticul> f]m5tation caus$ by a bact]ium1 :i*1 accord+ to "s inve/igators1 is id5tical ) a lactic f]m5t introduc$ by ! p9e b>k1 & :i* is responsible = ! advantage\s acidification ( ! tann+ solutions4 ,hay is made 9 diff]5t ways1 & 9 ^? :]e a 8spontane\s0 heat+ process is resort$ to ! f]m5tation is no d\bt dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( !rmog5ic bact]ia4 ,b probably no o!r subject has atta9$ to s mu* importance z ! bact]iology ( ! dairy3 ! /udy ( ! bact]ia f\nd 9 milk1 butt]1 & *eese 9 _! v>i\s =ms4 ,( milk1 especially1 mu* has be5 writt5 & said z a disease-transmitt+ m$ium1 & ) e good reason1 &1 if ! /atem5t ( a ,cont95tal au?ority may be accept$ t ea* "t we eat a slice ( bread & butt] we dev\r a numb] ( bact]ia equal to ! population ( ,europe1 we h sure gr\nds = seek+ = fur!r in=mation z to :at ^! bact]ia are & :at !y are do+4 ,& simil>ly s ) *eese1 :i* teems ) millions ( ^! m9ute organisms4 8,"s few ye>s ago x 0 f\nd t ! peculi> aroma ( butt] 0 due to a bact]ium4 ,!re are two species ( bact]ia1 "o ( :i* develops an exquisite flav\r & aroma1 b ! butt] keeps badly1 :ile ! o!r develops less aroma1 b ! butt] keeps bett]4 ,9 ,am]ica1 h[ev]1 !y h isolat$ & di/ribut$ pure cultures ( a p>ticul> butt] bacillus :i* develops ! fam\s #8,june' flav\r1 hi!rto only met ) 9 ! butt] made 9 a c]ta9 di/rict dur+ a %ort season ( ! ye>4 ,?is f9e-flav\r$ butt] is n[ con/antly manufactur$ 9 a hundr$ ,am]ican dairies2 & ! manufacture ( pure butt] ) a con/ant flav\r has become a matt] ( c]ta9ty4 8,prop]ly consid]$1 ! manufacture ( *eese is a =m ( #8microscopic g>d5+' ev5 m complex & m horticultural 9 nature ?an ! brew+ ( be]4 ,f ! fir/ mom5t1 :5 ! *eesemak] gu>ds & cools 8 milk1 till 8 /ock is ready he is do+ 8 be/ to keep d[n ! gr[? ( micro-organisms ru%+ ab\t to take possession ( 8 milk4 ,he !re=e coagulates x ) r5net--an enzyme ( animals1 b also1 z we h se51 common 9 plants--& ! curd ?us prep>$ is simply treat$ z a m$ium1 on :i* he gr[s c]ta9 fungi & bact]ia1 ) e ne$$ precaution = fav\r+ _! developm5t1 & protect+ !m aga9/ ! inroads ( o!r pe/s & aga9/ unsuitable temp]ature1 moi/ure1 & access ( light4 ,hav+ succe$$ 9 gr[+ ! "r k9d ( plants on 8 curd1 8 art !n dem&s t he %all /op _! gr[? at ! critical mom5t1 & 8 *eese is ready = m>ket4 8,fur!rmore1 ! p>ticul> flav\r & peculi> od\rs ( *eeses1 z ,camemb]t1 ,/ilton1 & ,roque=t1 h to be obta9$1 & ?is is secur$1 = in/ance1 by cultivat+ a c]ta9 fungus1 ,p5icillium1 on bread1 & purposely add+ x to ,roque=t4 ,?is is f\nd to de/roy ! lactic & o!r acids1 & s enables c]ta9 bact]ia 9 ! *eese to set to "w & fur!r *ange ! m$ium2 :]eas 9 ano!r k9d ( *eese ! object is to prev5t ?is fungus pav+ ! way = ^! bact]ia4 ,ano!r k9d ( bacillus has be5 discov]$ :i* gives a peculi> clov] aroma to c]ta9 *eeses4 8,x is ?\ght t m def9ite results w be obta9$ by ! inve/igation ( ! manufacture ( ! vegetable *eeses ( ,*9a & ,japan1 :i* are made by expos+ ! beans ( ! legum9\s plant1 ,glyc9e--t]m$ soja-beans--to bact]ial f]m5tations 9 w>m cell>s ) or )\t c]ta9 m\ld-fungi4 ,sev]al k9ds ( bean-*eeses are made 9 ?is way1 kn[n by special names4 ,!y all dep5d ^u ! peculi> decompositions ( ! tissues ( ! cotyl$ons ( ! soja-beans1 :i* conta9 #ce to #dj p] c5t4 ( proteids & quantities ( fatty matt]4 ,! s(t5$ beans are fir/ r5d]$ m\ldy1 & ! int]p5etrat+ hyph r5d] ! cont5ts accessible to c]ta9 bact]ia1 :i* peptonise & o!rwise alt] !m4 ,!re is ! fur!r "q ( ! manufacture ( v9eg> by f]m5tation1 ( ! prep>ation ( soy f a br9e extract ( m\ldy & f]m5t$ soja-beans1 ( bread-mak+1 & o!r equally int]e/+ manufactures40 ,results ( ,de ,b>y's ,inve/igations 9 ,p>asitism4 8,:5 ! idea ( p>asitism 0 r5d]$ def9ite by ! fundam5tal di/9ction drawn by ,de ,b>y betwe5 a p>asite & a saprophyte1 x soon became evid5t t "s fur!r di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 obligate facultative p>asites & saprophytes respectively4 ,de ,b>y1 :5 he propos$ ^! t]ms = adoption1 0 cle>ly alive to ! exi/5ce ( transitions :i* we n[ "k to be num]\s & s gradual 9 "* t we c no long] def9e any su* physiological gr\ps4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago p5icillium & mucor w\ld h be5 reg>d$ z saprophytes ( ! mo/ obligate type1 b we n[ "k t "u c]ta9 circum/ances ^! fungi c become p>asites1 & ! bord]l& betwe5 facultative p>asites & saprophytes on ! "o h&1 & betwe5 ! =m] & true p>asites on ! o!r1 c no long] be recognis$40 ,9 #ahff ! g]m ( an idea 0 s[n :i* has tak5 root & ext5d$4 ,de ,b>y po9t$ out t 9 ! case ( li*5s we h ei!r a fungus p>asite on an alg1 or else c]ta9 organisms hi!rto accept$ z alg are m]ely incomplete =ms4 8,9 #ahgi ! same obs]v] def9itely laun*$ ! new hypo!sis ( symbiosis4 ,! ^w itself is due to ,frank1 :o1 9 a valuable pap] on ! biology ( ! ?allus ( c]ta9 li*5s1 v cle>ly set =? ! exi/5ce ( v>i\s /ages ( life 9 common among all ! l[] =ms ( plants4 ,! details ( ^! matt]s are n[ pr9cipally ( hi/orical int]e/4 ,we n[ "k t li*5s are dual organisms1 compos$ ( v>i\s alg1 symbiotic ) ,ascomycetes1 ) ,basidiomycetes1 &1 z ,massee has %[n1 ev5 ) ,ga/romycetes4 ,! soil conta9s also bact]io-li*5s4 ,h5ce arose a new biological idea--t a fungus may be 9 su* nicely-balanc$ relation%ip ) ! ho/ f :i* x d]ives its su/5ance1 t x may be att5d$ ) ne>ly equal advantage to bo?4 8,9 ! humus ( =e/s we f9d ! roots ( bee*es & o!r ,cupulif] 7will[s1 p9es1 & s =?7 clo!d ) a d5se mantle ( hyph1 & swoll5 into fle%like masses ( mycorhiza4 ,9 simil> soils1 & 9 moorl&s1 :i* ab\nd 9 ! sl[ly decompos+ root-fibres & o!r vegetable rema9s s *>act]i/ic ( ^! soils1 ! roots ( or*ids1 hea?s1 g5tians1 c41 are simil>ly provid$ ) fungi1 ! hyph ( :i* p5etrate fur!r into ! tissues1 & ev5 s5d hau/oria into ! liv+ cells1 b )\t injur+ !m4 ,z obs]vations multipli$ x became cle> t ! mycorhiza1 or fungus-root1 0 n to be dismiss$ z a m]e case ( roots affect$ by p>asites1 b t a symbiotic union1 comp>able to t ( ! li*5s1 exi/s1 & we mu/ assume t bo? tree & fungus d]ive b5efit f ! connection4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--;,f9e ,section ?r\gh ,truffle4 a4 ,asci fill$ ) spores2 b4 ,mycelia1 #bej4 8,frank /at$1 z ! result ( 8 exp]im5tal rese>*1 t se$l+ =e/-trees _c be gr[n 9 /]ilis$ soil1 :]e _! roots are prev5t$ f =m+ mycorhiza2 & he conclud$ t ! fungus conveys organic mat]ials to ! roots1 :i* x obta9s by break+ d[n ! leaf-m\ld & decay+ plant rema9s1 toge!r ) wat] & m9]als f ! soil1 & plays ! especial "p ( a nitrog5-cat*+ app>atus4 ,9 return = ?is import s]vice ! root pays a tax to ! fungus by sp>+ x c]ta9 ( its tissue cont5ts4 ,x is a curi\s fact !n t ! mycorhiza is only =m$ :]e humus or vegetable m\ld ab\nds40 ,^! in/ructive inve/igations (f] an intelligible explanation ( ! gr[? ( t well-kn[n subt]ranean fungus1 ! truffle 7,tub] cib>ium71 ! microscopic appe>ances ( a section ( :i* =m$ ! subject ( a pap] ,i contribut$ to 8,! ,popul> ,sci5ce ,review0 "s ye>s ago 7#ahfb74 ,! fungus1 z w be se5 by ! f9e section cut ?r\gh a truffle1 ,fig4 #bhj1 consi/s ( floccul5t filam5ts1 :i* 9 ! fir/ in/ance cov] ! gr\nd at ! fall ( ! leaf 9 autumn1 "u oak or bee* trees1 ! hyph ( :i* p5etrate ! gr\nd1 ?r\gh ! humid soil to ! root-hairs ( ! tree4 ,filam5ts 7mycelia7 are aga9 giv5 (f :i* t]m9ate 9 asci or sacs fill$ ) m9ute spores ( ab\t #a_/bejj? ( an in* 9 size1 :ile ! int]spaces are fill$ up by mycelia1 t become consolidat$ into a firm nut-l body4 ,:at happ5s1 !n1 is ?is3 ,trees & plants ) normal roots & root-hairs1 :5 gr[+ 9 ord9>y soil1 c adapt _! roots to life 9 a soil heavily *>g$ ) humus only by contract+ symbiotic association ) ! fungus & pay+ ! tax dem&$ by ! latt] 9 return = its supplies & s]vices4 ,if ?is adaptation is impossible1 & no o!r suitable v>iation is evolv$1 su* trees _c gr[ 9 su* soils4 ,! physiological relations ( ! root to ! fungus mu/ be diff]5t 9 details 9 ! case ( non-gre51 purely saprophytic1 plants1 ,neottia1 ,monotropa1 c41 & 9 t ( gre5 plants l ,erica1 ,fagus1 & ,p9us4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a well-kn[n fact t ord9>y gre5 plants _c utilize vegetable dbris directly1 & =e/ trees d s 9 appe>ance only1 = ! fungi1 yea/s & bact]ia !re are actively decompos+ ! leaves & o!r rema9s4 ,a class ( pseudo-symbiotic organisms are1 h[ev]1 be+ br\ght into ! =egr\nd1 :]e ! comb9$ action ( two symbionts results 9 ! dea? ( or injury to a ?ird plant1 ea* symbiont alone prov+ h>mless4 ,"s "t ago ,vuillem9 %[$ t a disease 9 olives results f ! invasion ( a bacillus 7,b4 ole71 :i* c1 h[ev]1 only obta9 its way into ! tissues ?r\gh ! passages driv5 by ! hyph ( a fungus 7,*tophoma74 ,! result+ injury is a sort ( burr4 ,?is obs]v] also obs]v$ ! same bacillus & fungus 9 ! cank] burrs ( ! a%4 ,among _m simil> cases well wor? fur!r att5tion are ! invasion ( potato-tub]s by bact]ia1 ^! mak+ _! way d[n ! decay+ hyph ( pione] fungi4 ,pr(essor ,m>%all ,w>d has se5 tomatoes infect$ by simil> means1 & o!r facts %[ t _m bact]ia :i* quick5 ! rott+ ( wood are ?us l$ into ! tissues by fungi4 ,probably no subject 9 ! :ole doma9 ( cryptogamic botany has wid] be>+s on agricultural sci5ce ?an ! /udy ( ! flora & *anges on & 9 manure & soil4 ,nitrify+ bact]ia play a v important "p by provid+ plant life ) a mo/ necess>y food4 ,!y occur 9 ! soil1 & two k9ds h be5 describ$--! "o k9d conv]t+ ammonia into nitr\s acid1 & ! o!r *ang+ nitr\s into nitric acid4 ,we are pr9cipally indebt$ to ,w9ogradsky = our k ( ^! bact]ia2 he furni%es in/ances ( ! be>+ ( bact]iological "w on ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 & expla9s1 n only ! orig9 ( nitre-b$s & deposits1 b also ! way ! ammonia comp\nds fix$ by ! soil 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! root-hairs are nitrifi$1 & s r5d]$ directly available to plant life4 ,! inve/igations ( o!r obs]v]s %[ t ! nitrify+ organism is a mu* m highly-develop$ & complex =m ?an _h be5 suspect$2 t x c be gr[n on v>i\s m$ia1 & t x exhibits consid]able polymorphism--i4e41 x c be made to bran* out & %[ o!r *>act]i/ics ( a true fungus4 8,i h10 writes ,pr(essor ,w>d1 8= "s "t insi/$ on ! fact t riv] wat] conta9s r$uc$ =ms ( bact]ia--i4e41 =ms s alt]$ by exposure to light1 *anges ( temp]ature1 & ! l[ nutritive value ( ! wat]1 t x is only aft] prolong$ culture 9 ri*] food m$ia t _! true nature becomes app>5t40 ,/rutz] & ,h>tleb %[ t ! morphological =m ( ! nitrify+ organism c be pr(\ndly alt]$ by j su* v>iations ( ! conditions describ$ by ,w>d1 & t x occurs z a bran*$ mycelial =m2 z bacilli or bact]ia2 or z cocci ( v>i\s dim5sions1 accord+ to ! conditions4 8,^! obs]vations1 & o!rs made on v>iations 9 =m 7polymorphism7 9 o!r fungi & bact]ia1 op5 out a va/ field = fur!r "w1 & mu/ lead to advancem5t 9 our k ( ^! puzzl+ organisms2 !y also help u to expla9 _m inconsi/5cies 9 ! exi/+ sy/ems ( classification ( ! s-call$ #8species' ( bact]ia z det]m9$ by te/-tube culture40 ,alg4--,! algals h a special *>m = microscopi/s4 ,i am free to confess my int]e/ 9 ^! organisms1 & = sev]al reasons4 ,9 ?is humid climate ( ours !y are accessible dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye>2 !y c be f\nd 9 any damp soil1 9 bog1 moss1 & 9 wat]--inde$1 :]ev] ! conditions = _! exi/5ce seem to be at all fav\rable = developm5t4 ,%\ld ! soil dry up = a "t1 :5 ! ra9 returns alg are se5 to spr+ into life & give =? _! dormant spores1 :i* once m resume ! circle ( =mation & propagation4 ,9 ! e>lie/ /age ( developm5t ! spore or spore cell is s v small :5 9 a desiccat$ /ate1 t any numb] may be c>ri$ ab\t by ! slighte/ brea? ( air & borne away to a great di/ance4 ,to all su* organisms ,i orig9ally gave ! "n ( rozoa2 n[ recognis$ z robic & anrobic organisms 7,fig4 #bha74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bha4--robic ,spores #bjj4 #a4 robic fungi caught ov] a sew]2 #b4 ,fragm5ts ( ,p5icillium spores2 #c4 robic fungi tak5 9 ! "t ( ! *ol]a visitation1 #ahed4 ,) ref]5ce to ! robic bact]ia ,i h only to add t 9 addition to ! simple mode ( tak+ !m on glass slides sme>$ ov] ) glyc]9e1 special =ms ( roscopes are n[ 9 use = ! purpose1 consi/+ ( a small cyl9d] 9 :i* a curr5t ( air is produc$ by an aspirator & diffus$ ?r\gh a glass vessel conta9+ a /]ilis$ fluid4 ,^! are 9 con/ant use 9 all bact]iological laboratories4 ,! results obta9$ are transf]r$ to /]ilis$ flasks or tubes z ^? %[n 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,miquel1 :o has giv5 consid]able att5tion to ! subject ( robic & anrobic bact]ia1 reckons t ! numb] ( spores t f9d _! way into ! human sy/em by respiration1 ev5 %\ld heal? be p]fectly s\nd1 may be e/imat$ at #cjj1jjj a day4 ,"o ( ! mo/ commonly met ) =ms ( micro-organisms is ,lepto?rix buccalis4 ,x *iefly f9ds its nutritive mat]ial 9 ! int]/ices ( ! tee?1 & is compos$ ( %ort rods & tuft$ /ems ( vigor\s gr[?1 to :i* ! "n ( ,bacillus subtilis has be5 giv5 7,fig4 #bhb74 ,among num]\s o!r fungoid bodies discov]$ 9 ! m\?1 ,s>c9 h be5 f\nd4 ,see ,plate ,,ix41 ,no4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--,section ( ! ,muc\s ,membrane ( ! ,m\?1 #cej4 ,%[+3 a4 ,! d5s] connective tissue2 b4 ,teas$ out tissue2 c4 ,muscul> fibre2 d4 ,lepto?rix buccalis1 toge!r ) m9ute =ms ( bact]ia & micrococci2 e4 ,ascomycetes & />* granules4 ,! ,beggiatoa1 a sewage fungus1 f\nd by me 9 ! riv] ,lea wat] ( #ahhd gr[+ 9 great pr(usion1 consi/s *iefly ( mycelial ?reads & a numb] ( globul>1 highly refractive bodies1 & may be reg>d$ z evid5ce ( ! pres5ce 9 ! wat] ( an abnormal am\nt ( sulphates :i* set free a gas1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 ( a dang]\s & (f5sive "*4 ,ano!r curi\s body closely alli$ to ,beggiatoa alba is ,clado?rix2 ?is assumes a :iti% pellicle on ! surface ( putrefy+ liquids4 ,^! saprophytes obta9 n\ri%m5t f organic matt]2 nev]!less !y are n true p>asites 9 ! fir/ /age ( _! exi/5ce1 dur+ :i* !y live freely 9 ! wat] or 9 damp soil2 !y1 h[ev]1 become pa?og5ic p>asites :5 !y p5etrate into ! tissues ( animals1 & necess>ily live at ! exp5se ( _! ho/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fungi1 ,,alg1 ,,li*5s1 ,,etc4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,i4 ,bact]ia1 z ,i h said1 7 = a long "t class$ ) fungi "u ! "n ( ,s*izomycetes4 ,b ! m rec5t rese>*es into _! organisation1 & m especially into _! mode ( reproduction1 %[ t !y r m resemble a gr\p ( alg devoid ( *lorophyll4 ,zopf ass]ts t ! same species ( algals may at "o "t be pres5t$ 9 ! =m ( a plant liv+ freely 9 wat]1 or 9 damp gr\nd1 9 association ) *lorophyllace\s protoplasm1 & at ano!r 9 ! =m ( a bact]ium devoid ( gre5 col\r+ matt]1 & receiv+ n\ri%m5t f organic sub/ances previ\sly elaborat$ by plants or animals1 ?us accommodat+ itself1 accord+ to circum/ances1 to two v diff]5t modes ( exi/5ce4 ,t widely-di/ribut$ s+le-cell plant1 ! ,palmogla macrococca ( ,ktz+1 t spreads itself z a gre5 slime ov] damp /ones1 walls1 & o!r bodies1 af=ds an example4 ,if a small portion be scrap$ (f & plac$ on a slip ( glass1 & exam9$ ) a half or a qu>t]-in* p[]1 x w be se5 to consi/ ( a numb] ( ovoid cells1 hav+ a transp>5t /ructureless envelope1 ne>ly fill$ by granul> matt] ( a gre5i% col\r4 ,at c]ta9 p]iods ?is mass divides into two p>ts1 & ultimately ! cell becomes two4 ,sometimes ! cells are unit$ end to end1 j z we see !m unit$ 9 ! actively-gr[+ yea/ plant2 b 9 ?is case ! gr[? is accel]at$1 app>5tly1 by cold & damp4 ,ano!r plant belong+ to ! same species1 ! ,protococcus pluvialis1 is f\nd 9 e pool ( wat]1 ! spores ( :i* mu/ be always float+ 9 ! air1 s9ce !y appe> aft] e %[] ( ra94 ,protococcus pluvialis is furni%$ ) motile organs--two or m vibratile flagella pass+ ?r\gh p]=ations 9 ! cell-wall--:]eby1 at c]ta9 /ages1 !y move rapidly ab\t4 ,! flagella are di/9ctly se5 on ! application ( ! smalle/ drop ( iod9e4 ,! m rem>kable ( ! sev]al =ms pres5t$ by ! plant is t ( nak$ spores1 t]m$ by ,flot[ ,hmatococcus porphyrocephalus4 ,^! m9ute bodies are usually se5 to consi/ ( gre51 r$1 & col\rless granules 9 equal proportions1 & occupy+ diff]5t portions ( ! cell4 ,!y seem to h "s %>e 9 ! aft] subdivision ( ! cell 7,fig4 #bhc74 ,!re are also /ill-cells1 :i* sub-divide into two1 :ile ! motile cells divide into f\r or eight4 ,x is n q cle> :at becomes ( ! motile zoospores1 ,b1 b z !y h be5 se5 to become ency/$1 !y d\btless h a special function1 or become /ill-cells "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,x appe>s t bo? longitud9al & transv]se division ( ! primordial cell takes place2 & t ! vibratile flagella ( ! p>5t cell reta9 to ! la/ _! function & _! motion aft] ! primordial cell has become deta*$ & trans=m$ into an indep5d5t second>y cell 7,fig4 #bhc1 ,g74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--;,cell ,developm5t4 7,protococcus pluvialis47 ,protococcus pluvialis1 ,ktz+4 ,hmatococcus pluvialis1 ,flot[4 ,*lamidococcus v]satilis1 ,a4 ,braun4 ,*lamidococcus pluvialis1 ,flot[ & ,braun4 ,a4 ,division ( a simple cell into two1 ea* primordial vesicle hav+ develop$ a cellulose envelope2 ,b4 ,zoospores1 hav+ escap$ f a cell2 ,c4 ,division ( an ency/$ cell into segm5ts2 ,d4 ,division ( ano!r cell1 ) vibratile flagella project+ ?r\gh cell-wall2 ,e4 ,an ency/$ flagellate cell2 ,f4 ,division ( an ency/$ nucleat$ cell into f\r p>ts1 ) vibratile filam5ts project+2 ,g4 ,fission ( a "y cell4 ,! mo/ /rik+ ( ! vital ph5om5a pres5t$ by ,protococcus is t ( p]iodicity4 ,c]ta9 =ms--= in/ance1 ency/$ zoospores1 ( a c]ta9 col\r1 appe> 9 a giv5 infusion1 at fir/ exclusively1 !n !y gradually dim9i%1 become m & m r>e1 & f9ally disappe> altoge!r4 ,aft] "s "t _! numb] aga9 increases1 & ?is may be repeat$4 ,?us1 a cell :i* at "o "t pres5t$ only /ill =ms at ano!r conta9$ only motile ones4 ,! same may be said ) respect to segm5tation4 ,if a numb] ( motile cells be transf]r$ f a l>g] vessel into a small] "o1 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs mo/ ( !m w h subsid$ to ! bottom1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ! day obs]v$ to be on ! po9t ( sub-division4 ,on ! foll[+ morn+ division w h become complet$2 on ! next day ! bottom ( ! vessel w be f\nd cov]$ ) a new g5]ation ( self-divid+ cells1 :i*1 aga91 w produce ano!r g5]ation4 ,?is regul>ity1 h[ev]1 is n always obs]v$4 ,! influ5ce ( e *ange 9 ! ext]nal conditions ( life ^u ! plant is v rem>kable4 ,x is only necess>y to p\r wat] f a small] into a l>g] or %all[] vessel to at once induce segm5tation ( cells4 ,! same ph5om5on occurs 9 o!r algals2 ?us ,vau*]ia almo/ always develops zoospores at :atev] "t ( ye> !y may be br\ght f _! natural habitat into a w>m room4 ,light is conducive to ! manife/ation ( vital action 9 ! motile spores2 !y usually collect 9 great numb]s on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & at t "p expos$ to ! /ronge/ light4 ,b 9 ! act ( propagation1 on ! contr>y1 & :5 ab\t to pass into ! /ill condition1 ! motile ,protococcus cell seems to %un light1 & falls to ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,too /rong sunlight1 z :5 conc5trat$ by a l5s1 quickly kills ! "y zoospores4 ,a temp]ature ( undue elevation is injuri\s to ! developm5t ( _! vital activity & ! =mation ( ! zoospores4 ,fro/ de/roys motile1 b n /ill zoospores4#ee ,/ephanosphra pluvialis is a conspicu\s v>iety ( ! fre%-wat] algals1 describ$ by ,cohn4 ,x consi/s ( a cell conta9+ eight primordial cells fill$ ) *lorophyll1 uni=mly arrang$ 7see ,plate ,i41 ,no4 #bd d74 ,! globul> "m-cell rotates1 some:at 9 ! same way z ! volvox1 by vibratile flagella1 two ( :i* are se5 project+ f ea* cell & pi]c+ ! transp>5t out] cell wall4 ,e cell divides fir/ into two1 !n f\r1 & la/ly eight cells1 ea* "o ( :i* aga9 divides into a numb] ( micro-gonidia1 :i* h a motion )9 ! "m-cell1 & ultimately escape f x4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances ea* ( ! eight "y cells is obs]v$ to *ange places 9 ! int]ior ( ! cell2 ev5tually !y escape1 lose _! flagella1 =m a ?ick] membrane z at b1 & = a "t rema9 motionless1 & s9k to ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 :i* !y are conta9$4 ,if ! vessel is p]mitt$ to become ?or\ghly dry1 & !n aga9 has wat] p\r$ into x1 motile cells reappe>2 f :i* circum/ance x is probable t ^! repres5t ! re/+ spores ( ! plant4 ,:5 9 ! condition ( greate/ activity its division into eight is p]fect$ dur+ ! night1 & e>ly 9 ! morn+ light ! "y cells escape & pass ?r\gh simil> *anges4 ,x is calculat$ t 9 eight days1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 #af1ggg1baf families may be =m$ f "o re/+-cell ( ,/ephanosphra4 ,9 c]ta9 ( ! cells1 & at p>ticul> p]iods1 rem>kable amboid bodies 7,plate ,i41 ,no4 #bd c7 make _! appe>ance4 ,!re is a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ,/ephanosphra & ,*lamydococcus1 = :ile 9 ! latt] ! individual portions ( a primordial cell sep>ate entirely f "o ano!r1 ea* develop+ its own envelop+ membrane1 & ultimately escap+ z a unicellul> individual2 9 ! =m]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! eight portions rema9 = a "t liv+ 9 companion%ip4 ,volvoc9e4--,a fre%-wat] unicellul> plant ( s+ul> beauty & int]e/ to ! microscopi/ is ! ,volvox globator 7,plate ,i41 ,no4 #ae74 ,no4 #af repres5ts a portion ( ano!r cell1 ) br[ni% amboid bodies enclos$ 9 ! protoplasmic web4 ,x is common to our fre%-wat] pools1 & atta9s a diamet] ( ab\t #a_/bj? or #a_/cj? ( an in*4 ,its movem5t is peculi>1 a cont9u$ roll onw>ds1 or a rotation l t ( a top2 at o!r times x glides along smoo?ly4 ,:5 exam9$ "u a suffici5tly high p[]1 x is se5 to be a holl[ sph]e1 /udd$ ) gre5 spots1 & trav]s$ by gre5 ?reads connect+ ea* ( ! spots or spores ) ! mat]nal cell4 ,f ea* ( ! spores proce$ two long flagella1 la%+ filam5ts1 :i* keep ! globul> body on ! move4 ,aft] a "t ! sph]e bur/s1 & ! conta9$ sporules issue =? & spe$ily pass ?r\gh a simil> /age ( developm5t4 ,^! int]e/+ cells 7 long tak5 to be animal bodies4 ,ehr5b]g describ$ !m z ,monads1 possess+ a m\?1 /oma*1 & an eye4 ,! sett+ free ( ! "y volvox is ess5tially a process ( cell division1 occurr+ dur+ ! w>m] p]iods ( ! ye>1 &1 z ,pr(essor ,cohn %[s1 is a consid]able advance ^u ! simpl] conjugation ( two small] cells 9 desmids2 x m closely resembles t :i* prevails among ! high] alg & a l>ge numb] ( cryptogams4 ,z autumn advances ! volvox sph]ules usually cease to multiply by ! =mation ( zoosporanges1 & c]ta9 ( _! ord9>y cells beg9 to und]go *anges by :i* !y are conv]t$1 "s into male or sp]m-cells1 o!rs into g]m-cells1 b ! great] numb] appe> to rema9 /]ile4 ,bo? k9ds ( cells at fir/ s ne>ly resemble ea* o!r t x is only :5 ! sp]m cells beg9 to und]go sub-division t !y are se5 to be ab\t ?ree times ! size ( ! /]ile cells4 ,!n ! prim>y cell resolves itself into a clu/] ( peculi> second>y cells1 ea* consi/+ ( an elongat$ body conta9+ an orange-col\r$ endo*rome & a pair ( long flagella1 z se5 9 ! an!rozoids ( ! high] cryptogams4 ,z ! sp]m-cells approa* maturity ! clu/]s may be se5 to move )9 !m2 ! bundles !n sep>ate & %[ an indep5d5t active movem5t :ile /ill )9 ! cavity ( ! prim>y cell1 & f9ally escape ?r\gh a rupture 9 ! cell-wall1 rapidly diffus+ !mselves z !y pass ?r\gh ! cavity4 ,! g]m-cells cont9ue to increase 9 size )\t und]go+ sub-division1 at fir/ %[+ l>ge vacuoles 9 _! protoplasm1 b subsequ5tly becom+ fill$ ) a d>k] col\r$ endo*rome4 ,! =m ( ! cell also *anges f its flask-l %ape to ! globul>1 & at ! same "t seems to acquire a firm] envelope4 ,ov] ?is ! sw>m+ an!rozoids diffuse !mselves & p5etrate ! sub/ance to ! int]ior1 & are !n lo/ to view4 ,! product ( ?is fusion1 ,cohn tells u1 is a reproductive cell1 or 8oospore10 :i* spe$ily becomes envelop$ 9 ano!r membrane ) a ?ick] ext]nal coat1 beset ) conical-po9t$ processes2 & n[ ! *lorophyll ( ! "y cell gives place1 z 9 ,palmogl1 to />* & r$di% or orange-col\r$1 & a m highly refractive1 fluid4 ,z _m z =ty ( su* oospores h be5 c\nt$ 9 a s+le sph]e ( volvox1 :i* !n acquires ! peculi> appe>ance obs]v$ by ,ehr5b]g1 & describ$ by him "u ! "n ( ,volvox /ellatus4 ,! fur!r hi/ory ( ?is wond]ful sph]oid unicellul> plant has be5 trac$ out by ,kir*n]1 :o f\nd t _! g]m9ation comm5ces 9 ! e>ly mon?s ( ! ye>--9 ,febru>y--) ! lib]ation ( ! sph]ical endospore f its envelope & its division into f\r cells4 ,a rem>kable ph5om5on has be5 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,braxton ,hicks--! conv]sion ( an ord9>y volvox cell into a mov+ mass ( protoplasm t be>s a /rik+ resemblance to ! well-kn[n amba4 8,t[>ds ! end ( ! autumn ! endo*rome mass ( ! volvox increases to ne>ly d\ble its ord9>y size1 b in/ead ( und]go+ ! usual sub-division s z to produce a macrogonidium1 x loses its col\r & regul>ity ( =m1 & becomes an irregul> mass ( col\rless protoplasm1 conta9+ a numb] ( br[ni% granules40 ,! f9al *ange & ! ultimate de/9ation ( ^! curi\s amboid bodies h n be5 satisfactorily made out1 b f o!r obs]vations on ! protoplasmic cont5ts ( ! cells ( ! roots ( mosses1 :i* 9 ! c\rse ( two h\rs become *ang$ into ciliat$ bodies1 x is believ$ t ?is is ! mode 9 :i* ^! fragile /ructures are enabl$ to reta9 life & to resi/ all ! ext]nal conditions1 su* z damp1 dryness1 & ! alt]nations ( heat & cold4 ,x w\ld be q impossible to d5y ! great simil>ity !re is betwe5 ! /ructure ( volvox & t ( ! motile cell ( ,protococcus pluvialis4 ,! influ5ce ( reag5ts w sometimes cause ! connect+ processes ( ! "y cells1 z 9 ,protococcus1 to be drawn back into ! c5tral mass1 & ! connect+ ?reads are sometimes se5 z d\ble l9es1 or tubul> prolongations ( ! membrane4 ,at o!r times !y appe> to be connect$ by />-l prolongations to ! p>5t cell 7,plate ,i41 ,no4 #ae71 pres5t+ an almo/ id5tical appe>ance ) ,p$ia/rum p]tusum4 ,ano!r body designat$ by ,ehr5b]g ,sphrosira volvox is an ord9>y volvox 9 a diff]5t /age ( developm5t2 its only features ( dissimil>ity be+ t a l>ge proportion ( ! gre5 cells1 in/ead ( be+ s+le1 are d\ble or quadruple1 & t ! gr\ps ( flagellate cells =m by _! aggregation discoid bodies1 ea* furni%$ ) a s+le flagellum4 ,^! clu/]s sep>ate !mselves f ! p>5t cell1 & swim (f freely "u ! =ms :i* h be5 designat$ ,uvella & ,syncrypta by ,ehr5b]g4 ,mr4 ,h5ry ,c>t]1 ,f4,r4,s41 :o made a c>eful inve/igation ( unicellul> plants1 describ$ ,sphrosira z ! male1 or sp]matic =m ( volvox4 ,among o!r organisms closely alli$ to volvox & includ$ 9 ,volvoc9e1 af=d+ ! microscopi/ _m int]e/+ transitional =ms 9 _! v>i\s modes ( fructification1 are ! ,eudor9a1 /ill-wat] organisms t pass ?r\gh a simil> process ( reproduction z ! volvox4 ,9 ! ,p&or9a morum1 its reproduction is curi\sly int]m$iate betwe5 ! l[] & ! high] types2 z )9 ea* cell is a mulb]ry-l mass1 compos$ ( cells possess+ a def9ite numb] ( sw>m spores1 sixte5 usually1 :i* rupture ! "m cell1 & swim (f furni%$ ) a pair ( flagella4 ,a simil> process takes place 9 "s ( ! ,conf]vace & o!r fre%-wat] alg4 ,! ,palmella1 aga91 consi/ ( 7,plate ,i41 ,no4 #ba7 m9ute organisms ( v simple /ructure1 :i* gr[ ei!r on damp surfaces or 9 fre% wat]4 ,! /onework ( "s ( our *ur*es is (t5 se5 to be cov]$ ) a species ( ,palmella1 t take ! =m ( an indef9ite slimy film4 ,! 8r$ sn[0 ( ,arctic or ,alp9e regions1 consid]$ to be a species ( ,protococcus1 is frequ5tly plac$ among ,palmella4 ,a m *>act]i/ic =m ( ! ,p4 cru5ta is ! ,hmatococcus sangu9is1 ! :ole mass ( :i* is sub-divid$ by p>titions enclos+ a l>g] or small] numb] ( cells1 :i* diffuse _! granul> cont5ts ?r\gh ! gelat9\s mass 9 :i* _! sev]al *anges take place4 ,! album9oid envelope ( ^! masses is se5 to conta9 p>asitic gr[?s1 :i* h giv5 rise to "s discussion1 especially :5 _! filam5ts are obs]v$ to radiate 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! ,oscill>iace con/itute a g5us ( ,conf]vace :i* h always _h v great int]e/ = ! microscopi/ 9 consequ5ce ( _! v rem>kable animal-l movem5ts1 & f :i* !y d]ive _! g5]ic "n4 ,= m ?an a c5tury ^! ,bacill>ia h excit$ ! curiosity ( all obs]v]s )\t any "o hav+ d]iv$ m ?an an approximate idea ( _! rem>kable rhy?mical movem5ts4 ,! fru/ule consi/s ( a numb] ( v f9e %ort ?reads atta*$ toge!r by a gelat9\s %ea?1 9 "o species all ( equal l5g?4 ,_! backw>d & =w>d movem5t is ( a mo/ s+ul> "*2 ! only o!r conf]va 9 :i* ,i h se5 a motion ( a simil> k9d is ! ,s*izonema4 ,9 ?is species ! fru/ules are pack$ toge!r 9 regul> s]ies1 ! front & side views be+ always 9 ! same direction4 ,^! sev]al bodies move along )9 ! filam5t\s %ea? )\t leav+ _! respective places4 ,on c>efully foll[+ ! movem5t1 x is se5 at fir/ mu* ext5d$1 & !n m compress$1 :ile ! fru/ules become m l9e> 9 _! arrangem5t1 & pres5t a clos] resemblance to ,bacill>ia p>adoxa1 augm5t$ by ! circum/ance t ! fru/ules are se5 to move 9 bo? directions4 ,a fru/ule ( ,s*izonema c move indep5d5tly ( ! %ea?1 & s w a deta*$ fru/ule ( bacill>ia4 ,?is peculi> & exceptionally anomal\s ph5om5on z t ( ! movem5ts ( bacill>ia c h>dly be conf9$ to a solit>y species4 ,! movem5ts ( ! fru/ules are mu* accel]at$ by w>m? & light4 ,! long] filam5ts ( o!r m9ute species only slightly exhibit any motion ( ! k9d1 b h peculi> undulat+ motions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--;,conf]vace4 #a4 ,volvox globator2 #b4 ,a section ( volvox1 %[+ ! flagellate m>g9 ( ! cell2 #c4 ,a portion m highly magnifi$1 to %[ ! "y volvoc9a1 ) _! nuclei & ?read-l atta*m5ts2 #d4 ,spirogyra1 ne> :i* are spores 9 diff]5t /ages ( developm5t2 #e4 ,conf]va floccosa2 #f4 ,/igeoclonium prot5sum1 jo9t$ filam5ts & s+le zoospores2 #g4 ,/auroc>pus gracilis1 conjugat+ filam5ts & spores4 ,conf]vace are a g5us ( algals4 ,! species consi/ ( unbran*$ filam5ts compos$ ( cyl9drical or monili=m cells1 ) />* granules4 ,_m are vesicul>1 & all multiply by zoospores g5]at$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! plant at ! exp5se ( ! granul> matt]4 ,!y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 f\nd 9 fre% wat] atta*$ or float+1 "s 9 salt wat]1 & a few 9 bo?1 9 col\r usually gre51 b occasionally olive1 violet1 & r$4 ,! ,conf]vace prop] are (t5 divid$ into f\r families3 #a4 ,hydrodictid2 #b4 ,zygnemid2 #c4 ,conf]vid2 #d4 ,*tophorid4 ,to ! microscopi/ all ! plants ( ?is g5]a are extremely int]e/+ z subjects = ! /udy ( cell multiplication4 ,! process usually takes place 9 ! t]m9al cell1 ! fir/ /ep 9 :i* is ! division ( ! endo*rome1 & !n foll[s a sort ( h\r-glass contraction across ! cavity ( ! p>5t cell1 :]eby x is divid$ into two equal p>ts4 ,?is is bett] se5 9 "s ( ! desmids ?an 9 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 & #f4 ,"s species are *>act]is$ by a diff]5t mode ( reproduction2 ^! possess a numb] ( nuclei1 & multiply by zoospores ( two k9ds1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* h ei!r two or f\r cilia1 :i* g]m9ate directly ! small] are biciliat$2 conjugation has be5 se5 to take place 9 a few in/ances4 ,alli$ to ! ,conf]vace is an int]e/+ plant1 ,sphroplea annul9a1 :i* has receiv$ c>eful att5tion f ,cohn4 ,! oospores ( ?is plant are ! product ( a process p>tak+ ( a sexual nature1 & :5 mature are fill$ ) r$di% fat vesicles :i* divide by segm5tation4 ,! dogoniace also closely resemble ,conf]vace 9 habits ( life1 b diff] 9 "s p>ticul>s1 especially s 9 ! mode ( reproduction 7only a s+le l>ge zoospore be+ set free f ea* cell7 & by ! almo/ complete fission ( ! cell-wall or "o ( ! r+s :i* s]ve z a h+e4 ,! zoospores are ! l>ge/ kn[n among algals1 & ea* is describ$ z hav+ a r$ eye-spot4 ,! ,*tophorace =m an int]e/+ gr\p ( conf]void plants1 & are usually f\nd 9 runn+ /reams1 z !y pref] pure wat]4 ,"o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p is t ! extremities ( ! bran*es are prolong$ into an acute-%ap$ t]m9ation1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,no4 #f4 ,a v pretty object "u ! microscope is ,drap>naldia glom]ata1 belong+ to ?is species4 ,x consi/s ( an axis compos$ ( a r[ ( cells1 & at regul> int]vals :orls ( sl5d] prolongations1 conta9+ *lorophyll or endo*rome ( a deep] gre52 ^! atta9 to an extraord9>y l5g?4 ,! ,batra*osp]m be> a /rong resemblance to frog-spawn1 f :i* !y d]ive _! "n1 & are *iefly a m>9e gr\p ( algals alli$ to ! ,rhodesp]me or r$ seawe$s4 ,! late ,dr4 ,a4 ,hassall fir/ describ$ !m2 !y h s9ce receiv$ m c>eful att5tion f ,m4 ,sirodot4 ,!y are r$di%-gre51 extremely flexible1 & no?+ c surpass ! grace ( _! movem5ts 9 wat]2 b :5 remov$ f _! elem5t !y lose all =m1 & resemble a jelly-l sub/ance )\t a trace ( organisation2 b if all[$ to rema9 quiet !y rega9 _! orig9al %ape4 ,! pres5ce ( ! cell-membrane w be be/ demon/rat$ by break+ up ! filam5ts1 ei!r by mov+ ! ?9 glass cov]1 or by cutt+ ?r\gh a mass ( !m 9 all directions ) a f9e dissect+ knife4 ,on n[ exam9+ ! slide1 9 mo/ in/ances _m deta*$ empty pieces ( ! cell-membrane1 ) its /ri1 w be se51 z well z filam5ts p>tly depriv$ ( protoplasm4 ,on ! application ( iod9e all ^! appe>ances become m di/+ui%able 9 consequ5ce ( ! filam5t turn+ r$ or br[n1 :ile ! empty cells rema9 ei!r unaffect$1 or pres5t a slight yell[i% t9t1 z is frequ5tly ! case ) cellulose :5 old4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--,mesoglia v]micul>is4 ,) reg>d to ! cont5ts ( ! cell1 ! endo*rome is col\r$ 9 ! ,oscillatori1 & is di/+ui%able by circul> b&s or r+s ar\nd ! axis ( ! cyl9drical filam5t4 ,iod9e /a9s !m br[n or r$1 & syrup & dilute sulphuric acid produce a beautiful rose col\r4 ,z to _! mode ( propagation1 no?+ positive is kn[n4 ,if kept = "s "t !y gradually lose _! gre5 col\r2 a portion ( ! mass1 becom+ br[n1 s9ks to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & pres5ts a granul> lay]4 ,mesoglia v]micul>is 7,fig4 #bhe7 consi/s ( /r+s ( cells coh]+ & held toge!r by _! membran\s cov]+4 ,9 ! l[ly organis$ plant ,vau*]ia 7,plate ,i41 ,no4 #bc1 ,v4 sessilis7--s nam$ aft] its discov]] ,vau*]1 a ,g]man botani/--a g5us ( ,siphonace1 we h an example ( true processes ( sexual g5]ation4 ,! bran*+ filam5ts are (t5 se5 to be> at _! sides peculi> globul> bodies or oval protub]ances1 nipple-%ap$ budd+s-out ( ! cell-wall1 fill$ ) a d>k-col\r$ endo*rome & di/ribut$ 9 pairs1 "o ( :i* curves r\nd to meet ! o!r1 :5 conjugation is se5 to take place4 ,ne> ^! bodies o!rs are f\nd ) po9t$ projections1 :i* h be5 describ$ z 8horns10 b ^!1 ,pr+%elm says1 are 8an!rids :i* produce an!rozoids 9 _! int]ior10 :ile ! capsule-l bodies con/itut+ ! oospores become1 :5 f]tilis$1 a new g5]ation1 :i* sw>m out ?r\gh a cavity or ap]ture 9 ! p>5t cell-wall4 ,! fruit ( fre%-wat] & mo/ olive-gre5 algals is enclos$ 9 sph]ical cavities "u ! epid]mis ( ! frond1 t]m$ conceptacles1 & may be ei!r male or female4 ,! zoids are bottle-%ap$ & h flagella2 ! transp>5t vesicle 9 :i* !y are conta9$ is itself enclos$ 9 a second ( simil> =m4 ,9 monci\s & dici\s algals ! female conceptacles are di/+ui%$ f ! male by _! olive col\r4 ,! spores1 :5 develop$1 are borne on a p$icle emanat+ f ! inn] wall ( ! conceptacle4 ,!y rupture ! out] wall at its apex2 at fir/ ! spore appe>s simple1 b soon aft] a s]ies ( *anges takes place1 consi/+ 9 a splitt+ up ( ! endo*rome into six or eight masses ( sph]oidal bodies4 ,a budd+-out occurs 9 a few h\rs' "t1 & ultimately elongates into a cyl9drical ?read4 ,! ,vau*]ia pres5t a d\ble mode ( reproduction1 & _! fronds consi/ ( bran*+ tubes resembl+ 9 _! g5]al "* t ( ! ,bryophyta1 f :i* inde$ !y diff] only 9 respect ( ! arrangem5t ( _! gre5 cont5ts4 ,9 t mo/ rem>kable plant ,saprolegnia f]ox1 :i* is /ructurally s closely alli$ to ,vau*]ia1 ?\gh sep>at$ f !m by ! abs5ce ( gre5 col\r+ matt]1 a correspond+ analogy 9 ! processes ( developm5t takes place4 ,9 ! =mation ( its zoospores1 an int]m$iate /ep is pres5t$ betwe5 t ( ! alg & a class ( plants =mally plac$ among fungi4 ,! ,ulvace4--,! typical =m ( seawe$s is ! ,ulva lactuca1 well kn[n f its fronds ( d>k-gre5 8lav]0 on e coa/ ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,ulv are se5 to diff] b little f ! prec$+ gr\p ( fre%-wat] algals4 ,! specific diff]5ce is t ! cells1 :5 multipli$ by b9>y subdivision1 n only rema9 9 firm connection ) ea* o!r b possess a m regul> arrangem5t4 ,! frond plane ( ! algal is ei!r m simple or lob$1 & is =m$ ( a d\ble lay] ( cells closely pack$ toge!r & produc+ zoospores4 ,! :ole gr\p is *iefly di/+ui%$ f ,porphyra by _! gre5 col\r1 ! latt] be+ roseate or purple4 ,ulv are mo/ly m>9e1 ) "o or two exceptions4 ,"o species 7,u4 !rmalis7 gr[s 9 ! hot spr+s ( ,ga/e91 9 a temp]ature ( ab\t #aag ,fahr4 ,! developm5t ( ,ulv is se5 9 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,! isolat$ cells1 ,a1 resemble 9 "s po9ts ^? ( ! ,protococcus2 ^! give rise to successive subdivisions det]m9+ ! clu/]s se5 at ,b & ,c1 & by _! aggregation to ! conf]void filam5t %[n at ,d4 ,^! filam5ts increase 9 l5g? & bread? by successive additions1 & f9ally take ! =m ( fronds1 or r[s ( cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--,successive ,/ages ( ,developm5t ( ,ulv4 ,a4 ,isolat$ spores2 ,b & ,c4 ,clu/]s ( cells2 ,d4 ,cells 9 ! filam5t\s /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--,sphacel>ia cirrhosa1 ) spores borne at ! sides ( ! bran*lets4 ,! m>9e gre5i%-olive alg pres5t a g5]al appe>ance :i* might at fir/ sight be mi/ak5 = plants ( a high] ord] ( cryptogams4 ,_! fronds h no long] ! =m ( a filam5t1 b assume t ( a membran\s expansion ( cells4 ,! cells 9 :i* zoospores are f\nd h an increas$ quantity ( col\r$ protoplasm accumulat$ t[>ds "o po9t ( ! cell-wall2 :ile ! zoospores are obs]v$ to conv]ge ) _! apices t[>ds ! same po9t4 ,9 "s alg1 :i* seem to be closely relat$ 9 =m & /ructure to ! ,bryophyta1 we notice ?is important diff]5ce1 t ! zoospores are develop$ 9 an organ specially de/9$ = ! purpose1 pres5t+ peculi>ities ( =m & di/+ui%+ x f o!r p>ts ( ! bran*+ tubul> frond4 ,9 ! g5us ,d]besia di/9ct spore cases develop1 a "y bran* ( :i*1 :5 de/9$ to become a spore case1 in/ead ( elongat+ indef9itely1 beg9s1 aft] hav+ arriv$ at a c]ta9 l5g?1 to swell out into an ovoid vesicle1 9 ! cavity ( :i* a consid]able accumulation ( protoplasm takes place4 ,?is is sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! plant1 & becomes an opaque mass1 surr\nd$ by a di/9ct membrane4 ,aft] a "t a division ( ! mass takes place1 & a numb] ( pyri=m zoospores1 ea* ( :i* is furni%$ ) flagella1 are set free4 ,illu/ration3 ,,desmidiace1 ,,diatomace1 ,,alg4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--;,cutl]ia di*otoma4 ,section ( lac9ia ( a frond1 %[+ ! /alk$ eight-*amb]$ oosporanges gr[+ on tufts ) int]calat$ filam5ts4 ,magnifi$ #ej diamet]s4 ,9 ,cutl]ia 7,fig4 #bhh7 we h a special feature ( int]e/ ) two k9ds ( organs1 seem+ly oppos$ to ea* o!r ) reg>d to _! reproductive functions4 ,! sporangia n only diff] f ^? ( o!r species1 b ! frond consi/s ( olive-col\r$ irregul>ly-divid$ flagella1 on ea* side ( :i* tufts 7sori7 consi/+ ( ! reproductive organs1 int]mix$ ) hair-l bodies1 are scatt]$4 ,! zoospores are divid$ by transv]se p>titions into f\r cavities1 ea* ( :i* is aga9 bisect$ by a longitud9al m$ian septum4 ,:5 fir/ ?r[n (f !y are 9 appe>ance s mu* l ! spores ( ,pucc9ia t !y may be mi/ak5 = !m1 al?\gh s v mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( o!r olive-col\r$ alg4 ,floride1 ! r$ alg 7,plate ,,ii471 pres5t _m v>ieties ( /ructure1 al?\gh less appe>s to be kn[n ( _! reproductive processes ?an ( l[] =ms ( cryptogamic plants4 ,^! are1 h[ev]1 ( ?ree k9ds4 ,! fir/1 to :i* ! t]m polyspore has be5 appli$1 is t ( a gelat9\s or membran\s p]ic>p or conceptacle1 9 :i* an indef9ite numb] ( zoospores are conta9$4 ,?is organ may be ei!r at ! summit or base ( a bran*1 or x may be conceal$ 9 or bel[ ! cortical lay] ( ! /em4 ,9 "s cases a numb] ( spore-be>+ filam5ts emanate f a k9d ( membrane at ! base ( a sph]oidal cellul> p]isporangium1 by ! rupture ( :i* ! zoospores =m$ f ! endo*rome ( ! filam5ts make _! escape4 ,o!r *anges h be5 obs]v$2 h[ev]1 !y all agree 9 "o p>ticul>1 namely1 t ! zoospore is develop$ 9 ! int]ior ( a cell1 ! wall ( :i* =ms its p]ispore1 & ! int]nal protoplasmic membrane endo*rome1 ! zoospore itself1 = ! escape ( :i* ! p]ispore op5s out at its apex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--;,dasya kutz+iana1 ) se$ vessel & two r[s ( tetraspores4 ,magnifi$ #ej diamet]s4 ,! second =m is m simple1 & consi/s ( a globul> or ovoid cell1 conta9+ a c5tral granul> mass2 ?is ultimately divides into f\r quadrate-%ap$ spores2 ^!1 on atta9+ maturity1 escape by rupture ( ! cell-wall4 ,ano!r organ1 call$ a tetraspore1 takes its orig9 9 ! cortical lay]4 ,! tetraspores are arrang$ ei!r 9 an isolat$ mann] along ! bran*es1 or 9 numb]s toge!r2 9 "s in/ances ! bran*es t conta9 !m are s modifi$ 9 =m !y look l special organs1 & h be5 call$ /i*idia2 z1 = example1 9 ,dasya 7,fig4 #bhi74 ,( ! ?ird k9d ( reproductive organ a diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s z to ! signification ( _! an!ridia2 al?\gh always produc$ 9 precisely ! same situations z ! tetraspores & polyspores1 !y are agglom]ations ( little col\rless cells1 ei!r unit$ 9 a bun*1 z 9 ,griffi?sia1 or enclos$ 9 a transp>5t cyl9d]1 z 9 ,polysiphonia1 or cov]+ a k9d ( exp&$ disc ( peculi> =m1 z 9 ,laur5cia4 ,accord+ to compet5t obs]v]s1 ! cells conta9 sp]matozoids4 ,ngeli describes ! sp]matozoid z a spiral fibre1 :i*1 z x escapes1 l5g!ns itself 9 ! =m ( a screw4 ,?uret1 on ! contr>y1 says ! cont5ts are granul>1 & (f] no trace ( a spiral filam5t1 b are expell$ f ! cells by a sl[ motion4 ,! an!ridia appe> 9 _! mo/ simple =m 9 ,calli?amnion 7,plate ,,ii41 ,nos4 #cb & #cd71 be+ r$uc$ to a small mass ( cells compos$ by num]\s little bun*es :i* are sessile on ! bifurcations ( ! t]m9al bran*es4 ,! spores are simpl] /ructures ?an ! tetraspores1 & mo/ly occupy a m important position4 ,!y are n scatt]$ ?r\gh ! frond1 b gr\p$ 9 def9ite masses1 & g5]ally enclos$ 9 a special capsule or conceptacle1 :i* may be mi/ak5 = a tetraspore case4 ,! simple/ =m ( ! spore fruit consi/s ( sph]ical masses ( spores atta*$ to ! wall ( ! frond1 or imb$d$ 9 its sub/ance1 )\t a prop] conceptacle2 su* a fruit is call$ a favellidium1 & occurs 9 ,halym5ia2 ! same "n is appli$ to ! fruits ( simil> /ructures n p]fectly imm]s$1 z ^? ( ,gig>t9a1 ,gelidium1 c41 :]e !y =m tub]cul> swell+s on ! lobes4 ,9 "s1 ! tub]cles pres5t a pore at ! summit1 ?r\gh :i* ! spores em]ge =?4 ,9 o!r cases1 z 9 ,c]amium 7,plate ,,ii41 ,nos4 #bg & #cg71 ! spores occupy a m conspicu\s place2 a *>act]i/ic species is ,deless>ia 7,plate ,,ii41 ,no4 #ci71 ! coccidium ei!r occurr+ on lat]al bran*es1 or is sessile on ! face ( ! frond1 :5 x consi/s ( a case fill$ ) angul>-%ap$ spores atta*$ to ! wall ( ! case4 ,! g5]al ext]nal appe>ance ( ! r$ alg is v v>i$1 b x seems to atta9 to its deepe/ col\r+ 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i*1 x is said1 is entirely due to ! peculi>ly vivid r$ seawe$4 ,!y are all exquisite objects = ! microscope1 z may be surmis$ f ! few v>ieties pres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,ii4 ,! ,floride ( ! w>m] seas exhibit mo/ elegantly =m$ fronds1 z w be se5 on ref]5ce to ! 8,phycologia ,au/ralica0 ( ! late ,dr4 ,william ,h>vey1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,! ,*>ace may be plac$ among ! highe/ ( ! algals1 if only = ! complexity ( _! reproductive organs1 :i* c]ta9ly (f] a contra/ 9 _! simplicity ( /ructure4 ,*>a vulg>is1 /onewort1 is a simple fre%-wat] plant1 pref]r+ /ill fre%wat] ponds or sl[-mov+ riv]s runn+ ov] a *alky soil4 ,x ?us d]ives ! calc>e\s matt] f\nd 9 ! axis ( ! plant1 toge!r ) a small portion ( silica4 ,its filam5ts 7or bran*es1 z "s botani/s pref] to call !m7 are giv5 (f 9 :orls4 ,! ,*>ace are a small family ( acrog5s1 consi/+ ( only two or ?ree at mo/4 ,!y are monci\s & dici\s1 ! two k9ds ( fruit be+ (t5 plac$ close toge!r4 ,!y may easily be gr[n 9 a tall glass j> = obs]vation4 ,all t is necess>y is to put ! j> occasionally "u ! h\se tap & let ! wat] run sl[ly ov] ! top = a %ort "t1 ?us r5ew+ ! cont5ts )\t di/urb+ ! plant4 ,! h>d wat] suppli$ to ,london suits *>a bett] ?an s(t] wat]4 ,bo? *>a & nitella are objects ( great int]e/ to microscopi/s1 s9ce 9 ! =m] ! important fact ( vegetable circulation 0 fir/ obs]v$4 ,a portion ( ! plant ( ! natural size is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bij1 ,no4 #a4 ,*>ace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bij4--;,diagrammatic sket* ( ,*>a4 #a4 ,a /em ( ,*>a vulg>is1 natural size2 #b4 ,magnifi$ view 7arr[s indicat+ ! c\rse tak5 by ! *lorophyll72 #c4 ,a limb1 ) buds protrud+2 #d4 ,portion ( a leaf ( ,vallisn]ia spiralis1 %[+ cyclosis ( *lorophyll granules4 ,ea* plant is compos$ ( an assemblage ( long tubi=m cells plac$ end to end1 ) fix$ int]vals1 ar\nd :i* ! bran*lets are dispos$ ) great regul>ity4 ,9 nitella ! /em & bran*es are compos$ ( simple cells1 :i* sometimes atta9 to sev]al in*es 9 l5g?4 ,ea* node1 or zone1 f :i* ! bran*es spr+1 consi/s ( a s+le plate1 or lay]1 ( small cells1 :i* are a cont9uation ( ! cortical lay] ( ! int]node 7,fig4 #bij1 ,no4 #c7 z an outgr[?4 ,ea* cell is p>tially fill$ ) *lorophyll granules1 & x is ^! t are se5 "u ! microscope tak+ ! c\rse %[n by ! arr[s 7,fig4 #bij1 ,no4 #b74 ,! rate ( movem5t ( ! granules is accel]at$ by mod]ate w>m? & ret>d$ by cold4 ,x is 9 view+ ! circulation 9 wat] plants t ! w>m /age ( ! microscope is br\ght into use4 ,borne along ) ! protoplasmic /ream are a numb] ( solid p>ticles consi/+ ( />* granules & o!r matt]s4 ,! me?od ( view+ ! circulation is by cutt+ sections (f a portion ( ! plant ) a v %>p knife1 & arrang+ !m 9 a gr[+ cell ) a few drops ( wat]1 & cov]+ ov] ) a ?9 cov]-glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,! ,fructification ( ,*>a fragilis4 ,a4 ,portion ( filam5t conta9+ 8an!roids02 ,b4 ,a gr\p ( an!ridial filam5ts1 compos$ ( a s]ies ( cells1 )9 ea* ( :i* an!rozoids are =m$2 ,c4 ,! escape ( mature an!rozoids1 ) :ip-l prolongations1 ab\t to swim (f2 ,d4 ,an!rid support$ on flask-%ap$ p$icle2 ,e4 ,nucule enl>g+1 & se5 to conta9 oospores2 ,f4 ,spores & elat]s ( ,equisetum2 ,g4 ,spores surr\nd$ by elat]s ( ,equisetum4 ,! reproductive process ( ,*>a is effect$ by two sets ( bodies1 bo? ( :i* are plac$ at ! base ( ! bran*es 7,fig4 #bia1 ,e & ,d7 ei!r on ! same or diff]5t plants1 "o set kn[n z globules or an!rids1 & ! o!r z nucules1 conta9+ ! oospores or ar*egones4 ,^! are (t5 ( a bright r$ col\r1 & h cov]+ plates1 or %ields 7,b & ,e71 curi\sly m>k$1 & ! c5tral portion is compos$ ( a numb] ( filam5ts roll$ up 7z 9 ,e7 or free 7z se5 at ,b71 project+ out f ! c5tre ( ! sph]e4 ,! an!rid is support$ on a %ort flask-%ap$ p$icle1 :i* projects into ! int]ior4 ,at ! apex ( ea* ( ! eight manubria is a r\ndi% hyal9e cell1 t]m$ a capitulum1 & at its apex aga9 six small] or second>y capitula4 ,! long :ip-%ap$ filam5ts are divid$ by transv]se septa into a hundr$ or m comp>tm5ts1 e "o ( :i* is fill$ ) an an!rozoid 7z at ,a71 consi/+ ( a spiral ?read ( protoplasm pack$ into two or ?ree coils2 ^! escape & become free 7z se5 at ,c71 ea* hav+ two long f9e flagella4 ,! "y an!rozoid swims (f ) a la%+ action1 & ! :ole field appe>s = a "t fill$ ) life4 ,!y swim ab\t freely1 b _! motion gradually ceases1 & soon !y arrive at a /ate ( inaction4 ,nitella appe>s to h a some:at diff]5t mode ( fructification to t ( its cong5]4 ,x puts =? a long filam5t\s bran* f "o ( its jo9ts1 :i*1 on rea*+ ! surface ( ! wat]1 t]m9ates 9 a :iti% fruit-l clu/]4 ,x is ev5 a m delicate & less robu/ algal ?an *>a1 & e c>e %\ld be tak5 to imitate ! /ill wat] 9 :i* x gr[s4 ,x delights 9 %ady woods & 9 calc>e\s op5 pools4 ,simil> c>e is requisite ) reg>d to ,vallisn]ia2 & a m equal temp]ature is bett] suit$ to ! gr[? ( ?is aquatic plant4 ,x %\ld be plant$ 9 ! middle ( ! j> or aqu>ium1 ab\t two in*es deep 9 m\ld1 closely press$ d[n1 !n g5tly fill ! j> ) wat]4 ,:5 ! wat] requires *ang+1 a small portion only %\ld be run (f at a "t4 ,x appe>s to ?rive 9 proportion to ! frequ5cy ( *ang+ ! wat]1 & tak+ c>e t ! wat] add$ r increases ! temp]ature ?an l[]s x4 ,! natural habitat ( ! ,frog-bit1 ano!r wat]-plant ( mu* int]e/1 is f\nd on ! surface ( ponds & dit*es2 9 ! autumn its se$s fall1 & become buri$ 9 ! mud at ! bottom dur+ ! w9t]2 9 ! spr+ ^! plants rise to ! surface1 produce fl[]s1 & gr[ ?r\gh\t ! summ]4 ,*>a may be f\nd 9 _m places ar\nd ,london1 & 9 ! upp] rea*es ( ! ,?ames4 ,ana*>is als9a/rum4--,?is rem>kable plant is s unlike any o!r wat]-plant t x may be at once recognis$ by its leaves gr[+ 9 ?rees r\nd a sl5d] /em4 ,x is also kn[n z 8,wat]?yme10 f a resemblance x be>s to t plant4 ,! col\r ( ! plant is deep gre52 ! leaves are ne>ly half an in* long1 by an eigh? wide1 egg-%ap$ at ! po9t1 ) s]rat$ edges4 ,its p[]s ( increase are prodigi\s1 z e fragm5t is capable ( becom+ an indep5d5t plant1 produc+ roots & /ems1 & ext5d+ itself indef9itely 9 e direction4 ,! specific gravity ( x is s ne>ly t ( wat]1 t x is m dispos$ to s9k ?an float4 ,a small bran* ( ! plant is repres5t$1 ) a hydra atta*$ to x1 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,! special cells 9 :i* ! circulation is mo/ readily se5 are ! elongat$ cells ar\nd ! m>g9 ( ! leaf & ^? ( ! midrib4 ,on exam9+ ! leaf ) pol>is$ light1 ! cells are obs]v$ to conta9 a l>ge proportion ( silica1 & pres5t a v int]e/+ appe>ance4 ,a bright b& ( light encircles ! leaf1 & trav]ses its c5tre4 ,9 fact1 ! leaf is set1 z x 71 9 a framework ( silica4 ,by boil+ ! leaf = a %ort "t 9 equal p>ts ( nitric acid & wat]1 a portion ( ! vegetable tissue is de/roy$1 & ! silica r5d]$ m di/9ct1 )\t *ang+ ! =m ( ! leaf4 ,x is necess>y to make a ?9 section or /rip f ! leaf ( ,vallisn]ia = ! purpose ( exhibit+ ! circulation 9 ! cells1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bij1 ,no4 #d4 ,among ! cell granules1 a few ( a m transp>5t "* ?an ! re/1 are se5 to h a nucleolus )94 ,! ph5om5on ( cell cyclosis occurs 9 o!r plants beside ^? gr[+ 9 wat]4 ,! leaf ( ! common planta9 or dock1 ,plantago1 furni%es a good example1 ! movem5t be+ se5 bo? 9 ! cells ( ! plant & hairs ( ! cuticle torn f ! midrib4 ,cell-division4--,9 ord] to /udy ! process ( cell-division ! hairs on ! /am5s ( ,tradescantia %\ld be tak54 ,remove "o f a bud on a w>m day & let a drop ( a "o p] c5t4 sug> solution fall ^u x1 & cov] x ) a ?9 glass cov]4 ,place x = a %ort "t 9 a moi/-*amb] 7,fig4 #bef71 & !n exam9e x ) a magnify+ p[] ( #ejj diamet]s4 ,! nucleus ( ! cell w be se51 ne> its t]m9al position1 to gradually elongate 9 ! direction ( ! long] axis ( ! cell & become m granul>1 :ile ! protoplasm moves t[>ds ! extreme end2 ! nucleus at ! same "t w pres5t a /riat$ appe>ance1 ) ! fibrilla arrang$ p>allel to ! long] axis ( ! nucleus1 & at l5g? approa* ea* o!r at ! poles4 ,a nucle> sp9dle w n[ be produc$1 & ! fibres ruptur$ 9 ! equatorial plane1 s t two nuclei w be f\nd 9 place ( ! "o4 ,! be/ prep>ations ( nuclei are obta9$ by mak+ ?9 longitud9al sections ( actively-gr[+ plants 7"y rootlets ( ,p9us1 = example71 & /a9+ !m ) hmatoxyl9 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,desmidiace & ,diatomace4 ,! two gr\ps ( ,desmidiace & ,diatomace diff] s little 9 _! g5]al *>act]s t !y may be spok5 ( z memb]s or repres5tative families ( microscopic & unicellul> alg alike 9 _! rem>kable beauty & bilat]al symmetry1 & ( su* peculi> int]e/ z to call = special notice4 ,desmids diff] f diatoms *iefly 9 col\r1 9 lack+ a non-silici\s skeleton1 & 9 _! g5]ative process1 :i* = ! mo/ "p consi/s 9 ! conjugation ( two simil> cells4 ,diatoms1 on ! o!r h&1 h d5se silici\s skeletons & a g5]al abs5ce ( gre5 col\r+ matt]4 ,ralfs1 9 8 sy/ematic monograph1 enum]ates tw5ty g5]a ( desmids4 ,! limit+ membrane is alike firm & flexible1 s9ce x exhibits "s ela/icity & resi/ance to pressure1 & is n readily decomposable4 ,traces ( silica are f\nd 9 only a few ( ! desmids1 :ile ! fru/ule ( ! diatom is *iefly compos$ ( ?is sub/ance2 bo? h an ext]nal membran\s cov]+1 s transp>5t & homog5e\s 9 /ructure z to be 9 dang] ( be+ entirely ov]look$1 unless "s /a9+ mat]ial is us$1 toge!r ) a high-p[] objective possess+ consid]able p5etration4 ,9 "s species1 h[ev]1 ! muc\s cov]+ is m cle>ly def9$1 z 9 ,/aura/rum & ,didymoprium ,grevelli4 ,op5+s occur 9 ! out] membrane ( o!r species1 z ! ,clo/]ium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,desmidiace4 ,_m species ( desmids h a p[] ( motion1 ! cause ( :i* mu/ be due ei!r to cilia or a flagellate organ4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is d5i$ by "s obs]v]s1 :o reg>d _! movem5ts z due to an exudation ( ! mucilag9\s cont5ts ( ! cell1 to exosmose1 or diffusion1 nei!r ( :i* hypo!ses w at all help u to und]/& ! glid+ movem5ts ( ! ,oscill>i or ! %>p j]ky movem5t ( ! ,s*izonema4 ,! movem5ts ( desmids are especially ex]t$ :5 9 ! act ( divid+1 & by sunlight1 t[>ds :i* !y are always obs]v$ to move4 ,! =ce ) :i* "s diatoms move ab\t is v great1 & ?is c only be satisfactorily expla9$ by admitt+ a specialis$ organ4 ,! appe>ance ( ! ,desmidiace 7,plate ,x47 is mu* modifi$ by _! em95ces1 depressions1 & processes1 z well z t ( ! surface1 ! m>g9 ( ! fronds1 & ! dep? & wid? ( ! c5tral con/riction4 ,! surfaces may be dott$ ov] irregul>ly1 ! dots !mselves be+ elevat$ or depress$ po9ts 9 _! /ructural "*4 ,! m>g9s ( "s h a d5tate appe>ance1 z 9 ,cosm>ium4 ,9 ! elongat$ =ms1 su* z ,p5ium1 ! puncta are dispos$ 9 l9es p>allel to ! l5g?4 ,9 sev]al ^! l9es are ei!r elevations or furr[s1 x is n always easy to say :i*2 !y are peculi>1 h[ev]1 to ! elongat$ =ms ( ,clo/]ium4 ,:5 ! l9es are f9e !y produce a /riation ( ! surface1 b 9 ord] to discov] ?is ! fronds %\ld be view$ :5 empty & by a fairly good p[]4 ,! modification ( surface 9 sev]al g5]a seems to be due1 n to m]e simple app5dages1 b to expansion ( ! limit+ membrance into ?ick5$ processes1 & :i* may t]m9ate 9 sp9es1 z 9 ,xan?idium & ,/aura/rum 7,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #h-ai & #bb74 ,a g5]al di/ribution ov] ! surface is *>act]i/ic ( ! =m]1 b 9 ,eua/rum ! surfaces are v irregul>1 & !re=e describ$ z 8swell+s or inflations40 ,micra/]ias has its m>g9 deeply incis$ into lobes1 :i* 9 "s h a radiat+ arrangem5t2 :5 ! lobes on ! m>g9 are small !y con/itute cr5ations or d5tations4 ,! fronds ( ,eua/rum b9atum are bicr5ate on ! sides1 z are ^? ( ,desmidium & ,hyalo!ca & o!r species4 ,ano!r v>iety ( m>g9 exi/s1 kn[n z undulat+ or wavy1 :ile ! g5]al concavity or convexity ( ! m>g9s furni% o!r specific *>act]i/ics4 ,p$ia/re 7,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #bd-bi74--,! memb]s ( ?is family =m]ly includ$ ! ,micra/]ias & ,ar?rodesmius ( ,ehr5b]g4 ,f _! arrangem5t ( cells 9 det]m9ate numb]s & def9ite =ms1 x has be5 ?\ght by "s obs]v]s t !y %\ld be remov$ f ! desmids to a special or sub-family4 ,! po9ts ( diff]5ce consi/ 9 ! firmness ( ! out] cov]+1 9 ! frequ5t int]ruptions on ! m>g9 ( ! cells1 & 9 ! protrusion ( 8horns10 or r a not* m or less deep4 ,x is true t ! cells are n made up ( two symmetrical halves1 & t !y are 9 aggregation1 :i* is n 7except 9 ! ,sc5$esmus1 a g5us t di/9ctly connects ?is gr\p ) desmids7 9 l9e> s]ies1 b 9 ! =m ( discoidal fronds4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 divide into #h1 #af1 or #cb gonidia1 & ^! move ab\t = "s "t be=e ! =mation ( a new frond4 ,x 0 ,ngeli :o fir/ in/itut$ a sub-g5us ( ,p$ia/rum1 "u ! designation ( ,anomop$ium1 ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( :i* is ! abs5ce ( bilob$ p]iph]al cells4 ,9 ,cla/rum ! cells are hexangul>1 ! c5tral ones v regul>ly s2 9 ,sora/rum !y are w$ge-%ap$1 or triangul>1 ) r\nd$-(f angles4 ,view$ lat]ally ! cells appe> oblong4 ,! cells ( ,p$ia/rum are consid]ably compress$1 s t :5 aggregat$ !y =m a flatt5$ tubul> /ructure2 9 figure !y are polygonal1 frequ5tly hexagonal1 a %ape ow+1 9 all probability1 to mutual lat]al pressure dur+ gr[?4 ,!re is a p]vad+ uni=mity 9 ! cont5ts ( ! cells ( ! diff]5t g5]a1 :i* consi/ ( protoplasmic endo*rome4 ,at fir/ ! col\r is pale gre51 b x becomes deep] ) full maturity1 :ile ! decay+ cells are se5 to *ange to a deep r$di%-yell[ or br[n4 ,! protoplasm is also cle> & homog5e\s1 b 9 "t granules appe>1 enl>ge1 & multiply 9 numb]2 moreov]1 ea* cell pres5ts a s+le bright gre5 vesicle1 ar\nd :i* are collect$ cle> circul> spaces or globules1 recall+ ^? ( ,clo/]ium1 & v>y+ 9 numb] f two to six or m1 _! position n be+ regulat$ by ! p>tition wall z 9 ,palmell1 b by ! c5tre ( ! entire frond4 ,oil globules are also conta9$ 9 ! cells2 _! pres5ce is indicat$ by ! addition ( a drop ( t9cture ( iod9e4 ,on "o occasion ,ngeli saw 9 ,p$ia/rum boryanum ! endo*rome dispos$ 9 a radiat+ mann]1 an arrangem5t :i* (t5 obta9s 9 algals & 9 o!r vegetable cells ) a c5tral nucleus4 ,! cells ( ,p$ia/re are always unit$ toge!r 9 comp\nd fronds1 z repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #bd & #bi4ef ,! diff]5ces po9t$ out 9 no way con/itute a claim to remove ,p$ia/re f among ,desmidiace1 c]ta9ly n to rank z a di/9ct species4 ,reproduction ( ,desmidiace4--,a true reproductive act is pres5t$ by ! conjugation or c\pl+ ( two fronds1 & by ! result+ developm5t ( a sporangium & subsequ5t int]*ange ( ! cont5ts ( ! two cells4 ,at ano!r "t self-division is frequ5tly se5 to take place 9 all respects z 9 ! cells ( o!r alg4 ,! proce$+ is v>i$ 9 "s ess5tial p>ticul>s by ! =m ( ! fronds & by o!r circum/ances2 z 9 fission ( ,eua/rum1 = in/ance 7se5 9 ,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 & #ab71 :5 ! n>r[ connect+ b&s betwe5 ! two segm5ts ( ! fronds are rapidly pu%$ aside by gr[? & f9ally divide4 ,two modes ( conjugation ( fronds are repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #be & #cc1 9 ,clo/]ium & ,p5ium4 ,! act ( conjugation admits ( v>iations 9 "*1 z %[n 9 ,/aura/rum & ,micro/]ias2 ! cont5ts ( bo? fronds are dis*>g$ into a delicate int]m$iate sac2 ?is gradually ?ick5s & produces sp9es 7,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #h & #ai74 ,9 ,didymoprium ! sep>ate jo9ts unite by a n>r[ process pu%$ out f ea* o!r1 (t5 ( consid]able l5g?1 ?r\gh :i* ! endo*rome ( "o cell is transf]r$ to ! o!r1 & ?us a sporangium is produc$ )9 "o ( two cells1 j z 9 ! conjugat 7,no4 #e74 ,9 ,p5ium ,j5n]]i ! conjugation takes a v>i$ =m2 ! fronds d n op5 & gape at ! suture1 b c\ple by small b di/9ct cyl9drical tubes 7,no4 #bg74 ,among ^? enum]at$1 ! compress$ & deeply con/rict$ cells ( ,eua/rum (f] ! m fav\rable opportunities = /udy+ ! mann] ( _! division2 = al?\gh ! frond is really a s+le cell1 9 all its /ages x appe>s l two1 ! segm5ts be+ always di/9ct1 f ! e>lie/ /age4 ,! segm5ts1 h[ev]1 are sep>at$ by a connect+ l9k1 :i* is subsequ5tly conv]t$ into two some:at r\nd hyal9e bodies4 ,^! bodies gradually increase & acquire col\r1 & z !y gr[ ! orig9al segm5ts are fur!r divid$1 & at l5g? become disconnect$1 ea* tak+ a new segm5t to supply ! place ( t f :i* x is sep>at$4 ,x is curi\s to trace ! progressive developm5t ( ! new] portions1 :i* at fir/ are devoid ( all col\r2 b z !y become l>g] a fa9t gre5 t9t is obs]v$1 :i* gradually d>k5s1 & !n assumes a granul> appe>ance4 ,soon ! new segm5ts atta9 _! normal size1 :ile ! cov]+ 9 "s species %[s ! pres5ce ( puncta4 ,9 ,xan?idium1 ,plate ,x41 ,nos4 #i1 #aj1 & ,/aura/rum1 ,nos4 #ae-ah1 ! sp9es & processes make _! appe>ance la/1 beg9n+ z m]e tub]cles1 & !n l5g!n+ until !y atta9 _! p]fect =m & size1 arm$ ) set2 b complete sep>ation frequ5tly occurs be=e gr[? is fully complet$4 ,?is s+ul> process is repeat$ aga9 & aga91 s t ! old] segm5ts are unit$ successively1 z x 71 ) _m g5]ations4 ,:5 ! cells approa* maturity1 molecul> movem5ts may be at times notic$ 9 _! cont5ts1 precisely simil> to :at ,ag>dh & o!rs aptly t]m 8sw>m+40 ,mey5 describes ?is granul> matt] z />*4#eg ,clo/]ium1 e>ly 9 ! spr+1 :5 fre%ly secur$ & expos$ to light1 pres5ts a wond]ful appe>ance1 ^! bodies be+ kept cont9ually 9 motion at bo? ends ( ! fru/ule by ! cili>y action )9 ! cell1 & ! :ole frond is se5 brilliantly glitt]+ ) active cilia4 ,:5 a gleam ( /rong] light is all[$ = a mom5t to fall on ! frond1 ! rapid undulations ( ! cilia produce a s]ies ( mo/ delicate prismatic ,newton's r+s4 ,! action & di/ribution ( ! cilia1 toge!r ) ! cyclosis ( ! granul> bodies 9 ! frond1 are bett] se5 by ! aid ( ,w5ham's p>abola or a good cond5s] ) a c5tral /op4 ,"o ( ! wide angul> objectives %[s ! circulation ar\nd ! m>g9al portions ( ! :ole frond4 ,! /ream is se5 to be runn+ up ! m ext]nal portion1 int]nal to :i* is ano!r /ream foll[+ a contr>y direction2 ?is action1 conf9$ to ! space betwe5 ! mass ( endo*rome & ! out] portion ( ! cell-wall1 is se5 to pass above or ar\nd ! space 9 :i* cyclosis ( ! spores is tak+ place4 ,dur+ ! summ] ( #ahed1 ! late ,rev4 ,"l ,sidney ,godolph9 ,osborne & myself became mu* int]e/$ 9 ! rem>kable family ( ,clo/]ia4 ,fig4 #bib is a highly magnifi$ view ( ,clo/]ium lunula :i* ,i drew by ! aid ( ! cam]a-lucida at ! "t4 ,!re c\ld be no d\bt ab\t ! cili>y action )9 ! frond3 x 0 9 e way simil> to t ( ! bran*i ( ! muscle1 ! same wavy motion1 :i* gradually became sl[] z ! dea? ( ! desmid drew ne>4 ,?is 0 br\ght ab\t e>li] :5 ! cell 0 n kept suppli$ ) fre% wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bib4--;,clo/]ium lunula4 ,9 diagram ,a1 l9e b po9ts to a clu/] ( ovoid bodies2 ^! are se5 at int]vals ?r\gh\t ! endo*rome )9 ! inve/+ membrane4 ,^! bodies are atta*$ to ! membrane by small p$icles1 & are occasionally se5 9 motion ab\t ! spot1 f :i* !y ev5tually break away1 & are c>ri$ (f1 by ! circulat+ fluid1 to ! *amb]s at ! extremities ( ! frond2 !re !y jo9 a cr[d ( simil> bodies1 9 con/ant motion )9 ! *amb]s1 :5 ! specim5 is q fre%4 ,t ! action ( ^! free granules or spores is 8,br[nian10 z surmis$ by "s writ]s1 is 9 my op9ion entirely fallaci\s4 ,x is d\btless 9 a measure due to ! curr5t br\ght ab\t by ! cili>y motion ( ! m fluid cont5ts ( ! cell4 ,! circulation1 :5 made out ov] ! c5tre ( ! frond1 = in/ance at a1 is 9 appe>ance ( a :olly diff]5t nature f t se5 at ! edges4 ,9 ! latt] ! matt] circulat$ is t ( granules1 pass+ ea* o!r 9 di/9ct l9es1 b 9 opposite directions2 9 ! circulation z se5 at a1 ! /reams are broad1 tortu\s1 ( f> great] body1 & pass+ ) mu* less rapidity4 ,to see ! c5tre circulation1 use a ,gillett's illum9ator & a #a_/h? or a #a_/aj? imm]sion2 "w ! f9e adju/m5t s z to br+ ! c5tre ( ! frond into focus1 !n almo/ lose x by rais+ ! objective2 aft] ?is1 ) great c>e1 "w ! mill$ head until ! d>k] body ( ! endo*rome is cle>ly br\ght out4 ,at ,b is an enl>g$ sket* ( "o extremity ( ! frond4 ,! arr[s )9 ! *amb] po9t+ to b d5ote ! direction ( a /rong curr5t ( fluid1 :i* c be occasionally foll[$ ?r\gh\t4 ,x is act$ ^u by cilia at ! edges ( ! *amb]1 ! great] impetus appe>+ to come f ! c5tre ( ! endo*rome4 ,! fluid is "h act+ 9 positive jets1 t is1 ) an almo/ art]ial action2 & accord+ to ! /r5g? ) :i* x is propell$ at ! "t1 ! loose float+ bodies are s5t to a great] or less di/ance f ! end ( ! fru/ule2 ! fluid is ?us impell$ f a c5tre1 & kept 9 activity by ! lat]al cilia1 t create a rapid curr5t & give a turn+ motion to ! free bodies4 ,! l9e--a1 9 ?is diagram1 d5otes ! outl9e ( ! membrane :i* encloses ! endo*rome2 on bo? sides cilia c be se54 ,! circulation ext]ior to x passes & repasses 9 opposite directions1 9 ?ree or f\r di/9ct c\rses2 ^!1 :5 !y arrive at--c1 seem to enc\nt] a /ream mak+ its way t[>ds an ap]ture at ! apex ( ! *amb]2 !n !y appe> to be driv5 back aga9 by a /rong] =ce4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 d occasionally ent] ! *amb]1 b v r>ely w "o ( ! bodies escape into ! out] curr5t1 & %\ld x d s1 is c>ri$ ab\t until x becomes adh]5t to ! side wall ( ! frond4 ,) reg>d to ! propagation ( ! ,c4 lunula1 ,i h nev] se5 any?+ l conjugation2 b ,i h repeat$ly se5 self-division 7%[n at ,d a a74 ,?is act is *iefly ! "w ( "o half ( ! frond4 ,hav+ wat*$ = "s "t1 "o half is se5 to rema9 passive1 :ile ! o!r has a lat]al motion f side to side1 z if mov+ on an axis at ! po9t ( juncture2 ! motion increases1 is m active1 until at la/ ) a j]k "o segm5t sep>ates itself f ! o!r1 z se5 at ,e4 ,x w be notic$ t ea* end ( ! segm5t is p]fectly clos$ be=e sep>ation f9ally takes place2 !re is1 h[ev]1 only "o p]fect *amb]1 t belong+ to ! extremity ( ! orig9al entire frond4 ,! circulation cont9ues = "s "t previ\s to & aft] subdivision1 9 bo? fronds1 & by almo/ imp]ceptible degrees increases 9 volume4 ,f ! end ( ! endo*rome symptoms ( elongation ( ! frond take place1 ! semi-lun> =m gradually *anges1 elongates1 & is m def9$1 until x takes ! =m & outl9e ( ! fully-=m$ fru/ule at ! extremity4 ,! obtuse end--b ( ! o!r portion ( frond is at ! same "t elongat+ & contract+1 & 9 a few h\rs f ! division ( ! "o segm5t f ! o!r ! appe>ance ( ea* half is t ( a ne>ly p]fect fru/ule1 ! *amb] at ! new end is complete1 ! globul> circulation ext]ior to x becomes affect$ by ! circulation f )9 ! said *amb]1 &1 %ortly aft]w>ds1 "s ( ! free bodies desc5d1 & become expos$ to ! curr5t already go+ on 9 ! *amb]4 ,e is a diagram ( "o end ( a ,c4 didymotocum1 9 :i* ! same process 0 well m>k$1 & complet$ :ile x 0 "u obs]vation4 ,x w appe> to mo/ obs]v]s t if ! cont9uation ( ! widely-spread family ( ,desmidiace 0 :olly dep5d5t ^u conjugation & subdivision ( _! fru/ules1 a process requir+ sev]al h\rs = its completion1 ! :ole species mu/ h long ago disappe>$4 ,x may be presum$ !n t "s o!r mode ( reproduction mu/ prevail4 ,9 ! fre%-wat] alg ! two m g5]al me?ods ( multiplication are cle>ly gov]n$ by ! conditions ( ! seasons2 ! re/+-spores secur+ cont9uity ( life dur+ ! w9t]1 ! sw>m-spores spread+ ! plant pr(usely dur+ ! w>m] portion ( ! ye>1 :5 rapid gr[? is possible4 ,i !re=e reg>d ! actively sw>m+ bodies se5 9 cont9u\s motion at ! two extreme portions ( ! fru/ule ( ,clo/]ium lunula z be+ ei!r oospores or zoospores1 by means ( :i* reproduction takes place4 ,diatomace1 commonly call$ brittleworts1 ,plate ,,xi41 are *iefly compos$ ( two symmetrical valves1 n>r[ & w&-l1 navicul>1 m9iature boat-%ap$1 h5ce _! "n ,navicula 7little %ip74 ,hi!rto !y h excit$ ! deepe/ int]e/ among microscopi/s because ( _! wond]fully m9ute /ructure1 & ! difficulty involv$ 9 det]m9+ _! exact nature & =mation4 ,ea* individual diatom has a silici\s skeleton1 spok5 ( z a fru/ule1 frond1 or cell1 hav+ a rectangul> or prismatic =m1 :i* mo/ly obta9s 9 ! :ole family1 ! angles ( ! junction ( ! two unit$ valves be+1 z a rule1 acute1 & enclos+ a yell[i%-br[n endo*rome4 ,deeply-not*$ fru/ules1 l ^? ( ! ,desmidiace1 d n occur1 & ! production ( sp9es & tub]cles s common 9 t family is r>e 9 ! ,diatomace4 ,great v>iety ( outl9e prevails1 s mu* s t no rule 9 ?is respect c be =mulat$4 ,! fru/ules1 h[ev]1 are usually compos$ ( two equal & simil> halves1 b exceptions to ?is are f\nd 9 ! ,act9om!1 ,cocconcid1 & "o or two o!r families4 ,! extremities ( "s species1 e4g41 ,nitz%ia & ,pleurosigma1 are extremely elongat$1 =m+ long1 fili=m1 tubul> processes2 9 ,biddulphia & ,rizosel5ia1 %ort tubul> processes f _! m>g9s4 ,great v>iety ( outl9e may prevail 9 a g5us1 s consid]able inde$ t no accurate def9ition c be giv51 ! *>act]i/ics %ad+ (f ?r\gh sev]al species until ! simil>ity to an assum$ typical =m is mu* dim9i%$1 :i* may aga9 be modifi$ by accid5tal circum/ances t surr\nd ! developm5t ( ! silici\s fru/ule4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! figure is greatly modifi$ or entirely *ang$ by ! position ( ! valves1 :e!r se5 9 "o position or ano!r1 z already expla9$ 9 connection ) 8,errors ( ,int]pretation40 ,aga91 9 ! g5]a ,navicula1 ,p9nul>ia 7,plate ,,ii41 ,nos4 #cc1 #ch1 & #dj71 & o!rs1 ! fru/ules are 9 "o aspect boat-%ap$1 b 9 ! o!r ei!r oblong ) truncat$ ends1 or prismatic4 ,9 ! g5us ,tric]atium 7,plate ,,xi41 ,no4 #aj71 ! diff]5ce ( figure is v rem>kable z ! front or side view is exam9$4 ,! sudd5 *ange 9 appe>ance pres5t$ to ! eye z ! fru/ule is se5 to roll ov] is r peculi>4 ,z a rule1 !re=e1 we mu/ exam9e all specim5s 9 e aspect1 to accompli% :i* v %all[ cells %\ld be select$1 say ( #a_/ajj? ( an in* deep1 & cov]$ ) glass #a_/bej? ( an in* ?ick4 ,a good p5etrat+ objective %\ld be us$1 & c>eful illum9ation obta9$4 ,! ,diatomace are p]haps m widely di/ribut$ ?an any o!r class ( infusorial life2 !y are f\nd 9 fre%1 salt1 & bracki% wat]2 _m gr[ atta*$ to o!r bodies by a /alk 7,plate ,,ii41 ,no4 #cc1 ,licmophora & ,a*nan?idium72 :ile o!rs1 z ,pleurosigma1 ,no4 #dj1 swim ab\t freely4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,diatomace1 ,,rec5t ,,& ,,fossil4 ,!re are a consid]able numb] ( ,diatomace :i*1 :5 9 ! "y /ate1 are enclos$ 9 a muco-gelat9\s %ea?2 :ile o!rs are atta*$ by /ipes or /alk to alg4 ,x w\ld be va91 9 a limit$ space1 to attempt a description ( ?is num]\s & ext5sive family4 ,ngeli & o!r obs]v]s describe a 8mucilag9\s pellicle on ! inn] lay] ( ! valves10 :ile1 z ,m5gh9e obs]ves1 8an organic membrane ought to exi/ bo? inside & outside1 = ! silica c\ld n become solid except by cry/alliz+ or deposit+ itself on "s pre-exi/+ sub/ance40 ,! surface ( ! fru/ules is g5]ally v beautifully sculptur$1 & ! m>k+s assume ! appe>ance ( dots 7puncta71 /ripes 7/ri71 ribs 7co/71 p9nules 7p9n71 ( furr[s & f9e l9es2 longitud9al1 transv]se1 & radiat+ b&s2 canals or canaliculi2 & ( cells or areol2 :il/ all pres5t /rik+ v>ieties & modifications 9 _! =m1 "*1 & degree ( developm5t4 ,aga91 ! f9e l9es or /ri ( _m fru/ules are resolvable into r[s ( m9ute dots or p]=ations1 z occur 9 ,pleurosigma angulatum1 del9eat$ 9 ! accompany+ microphotograph 7,fig4 #bid71 tak5 = ! au?or purposely to %[ ! m>k+s on ?is especially select$ te/ diatom4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bic4 #a4 ,pleurosigma att5uatum2 #b4 ,pleurosigma angulatum2 #c4 ,pleurosigma ,sp5c]ii4 ,magnifi$ #dej diamet]s4 ,! nature ( ! m>k+s on ! diatom valves is "o ( consid]able int]e/1 & attempts h be5 made to produce !m artificially1 b )\t success4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bid4--,pleurosigma angulatum1 magnifi$ #dejj diamet]s4 7,f a microphotograph tak5 by ,zeiss ) ! #b mm4 apro*romatic objective1 #acj num]ical ap]ture1 & projection eye-piece1 ,no4 #d47 ,pr(essor ,max ,s*ultze devot$ a great am\nt ( "t to ! inve/igation ( ! subject1 & has record$ 9 a volum9\s pap]#eh ! results ( 8 obs]vations4 ,he says1 8,mo/ ( ! species ( ! ,diatomace are *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce on _! out] surface ( c]ta9 diff]5ces ( relief1 ref]able ei!r to elevations or to depressions dispos$ 9 r[s4 ,! op9ions ( microscopi/s ) respect to ! nature ( ^! m>k+s are /ill some:at divid$4 ,:il/ 9 ! l>g] =ms1 & ^? di/+ui%$ by _! co>s] dots1 ! appe>ance is manife/ly due to ! exi/5ce ( ?9n] spots 9 ! valve1 we _c s easily expla9 ! cause ( ! /riation or punctation 9 ,pleurosigma angulatum & simil> f9ely-m>k$ =ms40 ,dr4 ,r4 ,zeiss "s "t ago furni%$ me ) a microphotograph ( a fru/ule magnifi$ #dejj diamet]s t seem$ to confirm ,mr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,smi?'s view ( ! /ructure ( ^! valves4 ,dr4 ,van ,heurck has also made a /udy ( ?is diatom1 & concludes t ! valves consi/ ( two membranes ( ?9 films1 & ( an int]m$iate lay]1 ! out] be+ pi]c$ ) op5+s4 ,! out] membrane is1 he believes1 8s delicate t x is easily de/roy$ by acid or by friction1 & ! sev]al processes employ$ 9 clean+ & prep>+ x = microscopical exam9ation4 ,:5 ! op5+s or ap]tures ( ! int]nal portion are arrang$ 9 alt]nate r[s !y assume ! hexagonal =m2 :5 9 /raight r[s1 ! op5+s are se5 to be squ>e or oblong40 ,a description h>dly 9 accord ) ,fig4 #bid4 ,movem5ts ( ,diatoms4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,smi?1 9 8 8,synopsis ( ,diatoms10 ref]s to _! movem5ts 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 8,i am con/ra9$ to believe t ! movem5ts obs]v$ 9 ! ,diatomace are due to =ces op]at+ )9 ! fru/ule1 & are probably connect$ ) ! endosmotic & exosmotic action ( ! cells4 ,! fluids :i* are conc]n$ 9 ^! actions mu/ ent]1 & be emitt$ ?r\gh ! m9ute =am9a at ! extremities ( ! silici\s valves40 ,s*ultze's rese>*es1 :i* 7 made at a lat] date1 c>ri$ ?is debatable "q some:at fur!r4 ,he is ( op9ion 8t a s>code 7protoplasmic7 sub/ance envelops ! ext]nal surface ( ! diatoms1 & its movem5ts are due to ?is ag5t exclusively40 ,8 inve/igations 7 ma9ly conf9$ to ,p4 angulatum1 & to ! l>g] ,p4 att5uatum 7,fig4 #bic1 #a & #b71 z ! transv]se m>k+s on ! fru/ule d n imp$e to s great an ext5t ! obs]vation ( :at is go+ on )94 ,! liv+ specim5 ( ,p4 angulatum "u ! microscope usually has its broad side turn$ to view1 ) "o long curv$ 8raphe0 upp]mo/1 & ! o!r 9 contact ) ! glass cov] 7,fig4 #bic74 ,)9 ! fru/ule ! yell[ col\r+ matt]1 8endo*rome10 fills ! cavity m or less completely4 ,9 ! broad] "p ( ! fru/ule ^! b&s ( endo*rome describe "o or two complicat$ w9d+s4 ,x is only possible 9 ^? specim5s 9 :i* ! b&s are n>r[ to prop]ly trace _! fold+s1 & det]m9e _! numb]4 ,! next objects :i* /rike ! eye on exam9+ a fre%ly-ga!r$ ,pleurosigma are num]\s highly refractive oil-globules4 ,^! are n1 h[ev]1 all 9 ! same place1 & "o globule appe>s ne>] ! obs]v] ?an ! o!r2 _! relative position is be/ se5 :5 a view ( ! n>r[ side ( ! fru/ule c be obta9$1 s t "o raphe is to ! left & ! o!r to ! "r4 ,! blue-black col\r :i* is assum$ by ^! globules aft] treat+ ) acid demon/rates _! oleag9\s nature4 ,! middle ( ! cavity ( ! fru/ule is occupi$1 9 ! l>g] navicula1 by two l>ge oil-globules 7se5 9 ! diagrammatic ,fig4 #bie71 & by a col\rless f9ely granul> mass1 ^: position 9 ! body is n s cle>ly se5 9 ! flat view z 9 ! side view4 ,besides ! c5tral mass1 ! conical cavities at ei!r end ( ! fru/ule are se5 to enclose granul> sub/ance1 & two l9e> ext5sions f ea* ( ?ree masses are develop$1 closely und]ly+ ! raph4 ,9 ! side view1 !re=e1 !y appe> atta*$ to ! "r & left edges ( ! int]ior ( ! fru/ule4 ,?is col\rless granul> sub/ance c>ries 9 its c5tre1 ne> ! middle "p ( ! diatom1 an imp]fectly develop$ nucleus :i* is n v easy to see1 b may be demon/rat$ by ! application ( an acid4 ,! col\rless sub/ance is protoplasm1 & encloses num]\s small refractive p>ticles2 ?is1 on add+ a drop ( a "o p] c5t4 solution ( osmic acid1 is col\r$ blue-black1 & proves to be fat4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly difficult to det]m9e ! exact limitations ( ! protoplasm1 on acc\nt ( ! highly refractive "* ( ! silici\s skeleton1 & ! ob/ruction to ! light pres5t$ by ! endo*rome4 ,at a %ort di/ance ! protoplasm reappe>s1 contract$ into a consid]able mass1 )9 ! t]m9al ends ( ! fru/ule4 ,s*ultze obs]v$ 9 ?is "p ( ! protoplasm a rapid molecul> movem5t1 8cyclosis10 su* z occurs 9 ,clo/]ium1 & also a curr5t ( ! granules ( ! protoplasm along ! raphe4 8,pleurosigma angulatum #8crawls1' z d all diatoms possess+ a raphe1 along ?is l9e ( suture4 ,to crawl along1 x mu/ h a fix$ support40 8,!re is obvi\sly10 adds ,s*ultze1 8b "o explanation2 x is cle> t !re mu/ be a b& ( protoplasm ly+ along ! raphe1 :i* causes ! p>ticles ( col\r+ matt] to adh]e1 & gives rise to a glid+ movem5t4 ,= !re is b "o ph5om5on :i* c be comp>$ ) ! glid+ motion ( =eign bodies on ! ,diatomace1 & t is1 ! cl++ to & ca/+ (f ( p>ticles by ! pseudopodia ( ! rhizopod1 z obs]v$1 = in/ance1 on plac+ a liv+ ,gromia or ,miliol9a 9 /ill wat] ) f9ely-p[d]$ c>m9e4 ,! nature ( ! adhesion & ( ! motion is 9 bo? cases ! same4 ,& s9ce1 ) diatoms z unicellul> organisms1 protoplasm =ms a l>ge "p ( ! cell 79 _m cases two di/9ctly mov+ protoplasms71 ?is implies t ! ext]nal movem5ts are ref]able to ! movem5ts ( ! protoplasm40 ,x is q evid5t to ^? :o h /udi$ ! movem5ts ( diatoms t !y are surr\nd$ by a s>code /ructure ( a m pellucid "* ?an t ( ,amba4 ,six ye>s be=e ,s*ultze's obs]vations 7 publi%$1 ,i wrote 9 a ?ird edition ( my book1 page #cjg1 8,! act ( progression fav\rs ! notion ( contractile t5tacul> filam5ts--pseudopodia--z ! organs ( locomotion & preh5sion40 ,s9ce my =m] obs]vations on ! movem5ts ( diatoms1 ,i h giv5 mu* att5tion to two =ms1 ,p4 angulatum & ,p9nul>ia4 ,! p[]s us$ 7 ,h>tnack's ,no4 #h1 & ,gunlack's #a_/af-;in* imm]sion2 ,gillett's cond5s] illum9ation1 ) lamp flame edge turn$ to mirror & bull's-eye l5s2 a p]=at$ slide ) a squ>e ( ?9 glass #jjf cem5t$ to x1 & a cov]-glass ( #jje4 ,s f> z ,i c\ld satisfy myself1 no t]m9al space1 z 9 ! ,clo/]ia1 c\ld be se51 o!rwise ! c\rse ( ! gemmules is z freely trac$ z 9 t =m4 ,!y are m m9ute ?an ! ,clo/]ium lunula granules1 m /eadily or sl[ly se5 to pass up & d[n "o half ! fru/ule t[>ds ! extremity1 "o half ( ! curr5t seem+ to turn r\nd ^u its axis & desc5d+ t[>ds ! o!r4 ,! granules 7 ?ickly scatt]$ at ! apex1 b gradually became few]1 & ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5t tap]$ away t[>ds ! c5tral nodule1 :i* became m fill$ up or clos$ 94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bie4--,outl9e sket*es ( ,p9nul>i1 %[+ vesicles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bif4--;,gomphonema con/rictum4 7,f a microphotograph47 ,?is beautiful sight 0 n conf9$ to "o fru/ule1 b 0 exhibit$ 9 all t 7 9 a heal?y condition4 ,i exam9$ sev]al1 & wat*$ !m = a long "t4 ,! ph5om5on describ$ dep5ds mu* ^u ! heal?y condition ( ! fru/ule at ! "t2 z ! movem5ts ( ! diatoms became sluggi%1 ! circulation gradually slack5s & !n ceases altoge!r4 ,i also saw a some:at simil> action 9 ! m active specim5s ( ,p4 hippocampus & ,navicula cuspidata1 b ! co>s] m>k+s & ?ickness ( ! wall ( ^! diatoms seem$ to place great] difficulties 9 ! way ( obs]vation ?an ! f9] valves ( ! ,p4 angulatum4 ,"o ?+ ,i believe is c]ta91 t ! circulation describ$ is precisely simil> to t se5 9 ! ,clo/]ia1 or1 on a mu* l>g] scale1 9 ,*>a & ! leaf ( ! ,ana*>is1 be>+ 9 m9d also t 9 ! ,clo/]ium ! cell is divid$ by a transv]se suture1 & 9 ,p4 angulatum by a longitud9al "o 7,plate ,,ii41 ,nos4 #ch-dj74 ,ab\t ! same "t "s v lively specim5s ( ! ,p9nul>i 7 s5t to me1 & ! movem5ts ( ^! fru/ules 7 m closely obs]v$4 ,"o or two ( ! m active w\ld attack a body relatively l>g] ?an itself1 x w\ld also =ce its way into a mass ( granul> matt]1 & !n rec$e f x ) a j]ky motion4 ,9 m ?an "o in/ance a cell ( ,palmogla 0 seiz$ & c>ri$ away by ! ,p9nul>ia1 ! =m] at ! "t be+ actively engag$ 9 ! process ( cell division4 ,o!r diatoms pres5t among my specim5s 7 also 9 an active condition1 & ! circulation ( granul> matt] 9 all 0 di/9ctly visible4 ,9 ! ,p9nul>i two l>ge col\rless vesicles 7 se5 on ei!r side ( ! m$ian nodule1 ea* hav+ a c5tral nucleus1 z repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ sket*1 made :ile "u obs]vation 9 two positions4 ,! c5tral portion ( ea* fru/ule 0 closely pack$ ) a ri* yell[i%-br[n col\r$ endo*rome1 int]sp]s$ ) a few fat globules4 ,! ph5om5on ( cyclosis 0 n se5 9 any ( ^! diatoms1 b ,i h satisfi$ myself1 by /a9+1 ( ! pres5ce ( a delicately f9e ext]nal protoplasmic cov]+ 9 _m diatoms4 ,t _! movem5ts resemble ! glid+ movem5ts exhibit$ by ! ,amba c sc>cely be d\bt$4 ,num]\s =ms ( ,diatomace are f\nd gr[+ on or atta*$ to wat]-plants or pieces ( deta*$ /alks1 :i*1 al?\gh g5]ally simple1 are sometimes comp\nd1 divid+ & subdivid+ 9 a beautiful ram\s mann]4 ,p9nul>i1 ,nitzs*ia1 c41 are se5 adh]5t by "o extremity1 ab\t :i* !y turn or b5d !mselves z on a h+e4 ,by ! process ( cell-division1 gr\ps ( ,syn$r become atta*$ by a po9t1 9 a fan-l =m4 ,! fan-l collection ( fru/ules is said to be flabellate1 or radiate4 ,9 ,licmophora1 ,a*nan!s & o!r species 7,plate ,,ii41 ,nos4 #bi-cc7 ! d\ble condition ( union ( fru/ules & ( atta*m5t by a p$icle are illu/rat$4 ,:5 a /ipe bran*es x does s normally 9 a di*otom\s mann]1 ea* new individual be+ produc$ by a second>y p$icle4 ,?is regul> di*otomy is se5 9 sev]al g5]a3 ,cocconema & ,gomphonema1 ! latt] m p]fectly 9 ,fig4 #bif1 f a microphotograph1 9 :i* a bran*+1 or r longitud9al1 rupture ( ! p$icle takes place at int]vals1 & ! entire organism pres5ts a m or less complete flabella1 or fan-l clu/]1 on ! summit ( ! bran*es1 & imp]fect or s+le fru/ules irregul>ly scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! p$icle4 ,i/hmia en]vis 7,fig4 #big74--,! unicellul> fru/ule ( ?is species is extremely difficult to def9e1 ow+ to ! l>ge areolations ( ! valves2 x has a rem>kable int]nal /ructure4 ,! olive-br[n cell cont5ts are f\nd collect$1 = ! mo/ "p1 into a c5tral mass1 f :i* radiat+1 bran*$1 granul> ?reads ext5d to & unite ) ! p]iph]y4 ,:5 view$ by a magnify+ p[] ( #fjj or #gjj diamet]s1 ^! prolongations are se5 to be compos$ ( aggregations ( ovate or sp9dle-%ap$ corpuscles1 held toge!r by protoplasmic matt]4 ,^! bodies are sometimes quiesc5t1 b m (t5 travel sl[ly to & fro f ! c5tral mass4 ,! g5]al aspect "u ^! conditions s ne>ly corresponds to ! *>act]i/ic circulation 9 ! fru/ules ( unicellul> plants & ( c]ta9 rhizopoda1 t x is difficult to realise t ! object :5 "u exam9ation is an elegant m>9e diatom4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #big4--;,i/hmia en]vis4 ,microphotograph4 ,!re is a l>ge section ( diatoms 9 :i* ! fru/ules are diffus$ ?r\gh\t a muco-gelat9\s envelope 9 a def9ite mann]4 ,hi/ologically ?is is homolog\s ) ! p$icles & connect+ nodules ?r[n out dur+ ! act ( self-division1 & 9 "s species 7,cocconeis1 ,fragill>ia1 c47 x (t5 p]si/s aft] t act is complete4 ,diatomace1 ,rec5t & ,fossil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bih4--;,fossil ,diatoms f ,spr+field 7,b>badoes74 #a1 ,a*nan?idium2 #b1 ,diatoma vulg>e1 side view & front view2 #c1 ,biddulphia2 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,amphitetias ant$iluviana1 front view1 ) globul> & oval =ms2 ,gomphonema elongatum & capitatum4 ,fossilis$ ,diatomace4--,dr4 ,gregory 0 ( op9ion t a l>ge numb] ( diatoms sep>at$ into species are only transition =ms1 & m ext5d$ obs]vations h prov$ t =m & outl9e are n always to be tru/$ 9 ?is matt]4 ,species-mak+ is a mod]n inv5tion1 & c h>dly apply to ! inde/ructible fossilis$ =ms ( ! fru/ules ( ,diatomace1 ) _! beautiful sculptur+s & geometrical con/ructions1 :i* h n be5 mat]ially *ang$ s9ce !y 7 fir/ deposit$4 ,/>tl+ & almo/ incr$ible z ! ass]tion may appe> to "s1 x is none ! less a fact e/abli%$ beyond all "q1 t "s ( ! mo/ gigantic m\nta9-ranges1 z ! mighty ,&es1 t[]+ into space #be1bej feet above ! level ( ! sea1 _! base occupy+ va/ areas ( l&2 z also massive lime/one rocks2 ! s& t cov]s b\ndless des]ts2 & ! soil ( _m wide-ext5d$ pla9s1 are ea* & all pr9cipally compos$ ( ,diatomace4 ,&1 z ,dr4 ,buckl& once obs]v$3 8,! rema9s ( su* m9ute animals h add$ mu* m to ! mass ( mat]ials :i* compose ! ext]ior cru/ ( ! globe ?an ! bones ( elephants1 hippopotami1 & :ales40 ,9 #ahda ! late ,mr4 ,sollitt1 ( ,hull1 discov]$ ! beautiful longitud9al & transv]se /ri 7m>k+s7 on ! ,pleurosigma hippocampus4 ,a curv$ graceful l9e runs d[n ! %ell1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is an exp&$ oval op5+4 ,ne> to ! c5tral op5+ ! dots elongate crossways1 pres5t+ ! appe>ance ( small %ort b&s4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( ?is t[n _m int]e/+ v>ieties ( ,diatomace h be5 f\nd1 ! beauty ( ! v>i$ =ms ( :i* are con/antly "u inve/igation2 at ! same "t "s ( !m are highly useful1 z =m+ t class ( te/ objects :i* are bett] calculat$ ?an _m o!rs = det]m9+ ! excell5ce & p[]s ( c]ta9 objectives4 ,mr4 ,sollitt c>efully measur$ ! m>k+s on "s ( ! fru/ules & f\nd !y rang$ betwe5 ! #a_/cjjjj? & #a_/acjjjj? ( an in*2 ! ,pleurosigma /rigilis hav+ ! /ronge/ m>k+s1 & ! ,pleurosigma acus ! f9e/4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,sollitt n only fir/ propos$ _! use1 b he also furni%$ ! measurem5ts ( ! l9es ( ! sev]al memb]s ( ?is family1 z foll[s3-- ,amphipleura pellucida1 or ,acus1 #acj1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 sigmoidea1 #gj1jjj 9 ! in*4 ,navicula rhomboides1 #aaa1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 ,pleurosigma fasciola1 f9e %ell1 #hf1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 /rong %ell1 #fd1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 /rigosum1 #gb1jjj 9 ! in*1 diagonal l9es4 angulatum1 #ea1jjj 9 ! in*1 diagonal l9es4 quadratum1 #ej1jjj 9 ! in*1 diagonal l9es4 ,sp5c]ii1 #ej1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 att5uatum1 #db1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 ,balticum1 #dj1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 =mosum1 #cb1jjj 9 ! in*1 diagonal l9es4 /rigilis1 #cj1jjj 9 ! in*1 cross l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,micro-,,photograph ,,( ,,te/ ,,diatoms4 ,li*5ace4 ,! li*5s are a family ( autonom\s plants1 an int]m$i>y gr\p ( algals or cellul> cryptogams1 draw+ _! n\ri%m5t f ! air ?r\gh _! :ole surface m$ium1 & propagat+ by spores usually enclos$ 9 asci1 & always hav+ gre5 gonidia 9 _! ?allus4 ,_! gonidia1 bright col\r$ globul> cells1 =m lay]s "u ! cortical cov]+ ( ! ?allus1 & g5]ally develop 9 ! =m ( incru/ations1 :i* cov] /ones1 wood1 & ! b>k ( trees1 or p5etrate into ! lamell ( ! epid]mis ( woody plants4 ,! gonidia ( li*5s p>take ( bo? ! "* ( vegetative & reproductive cells4 ,! ?allus 9 ! fructicose gr\p atta*es itself by a n>r[ base1 gr[+ 9 ! =m ( a m9iature %rub4 ,ano!r gr\p is met ) 9 a slimy condition--! gelat9\s li*5s4 ,^! species1 = ! mo/ "p1 furni%$ dyes be=e ! discov]y ( ! coal-t> dyes4 ,9 _m ( ! ,palmella cru5ta1 commonly f\nd gr[+ on ! walls & ro(s ( h\ses1 a col\rless acid liquid is f\nd1 :i*1 on be+ treat$ ) alkali1 produces a bright yell[ col\r2 & ano!r1 ,av]nia vulp9a1 furni%es a br[n dye2 ! ,rocella fuci=mis & ,r4 t9ctoria yield ! purple dye sub/ance kn[n z or*il1 or ar*il1 f :i* ! useful blue pap] ( ! *emi/ = te/+ acidity is manufactur$4 ,usnic acid1 comb9$ ) gre5 & yell[ res9s1 seems to be m or less a con/itu5t ( _m li*5s4 ,a v]tical section ( ,palmella /ellata is giv5 9 ,plate ,i41 ,no4 #bf1 9 :i* ! emission ( ! ripe spores ( ! li*5s is se5 to be n unlike t :i* takes place 9 "s ( ! fungi1 ,peziz1 ,sphri1 c4 ,if a portion ( ! ?allus be moi/5$ & plac$ 9 a common phial1 ) ! apo!ca turn$ t[>d "o side1 9 a few h\rs ! opposite surface ( ! glass w be f\nd cov]$ ) pat*es ( spores1 easily p]ceptible by _! col\r2 or if plac$ on a moi/5$ surface1 & "o ( ! usual glass slips laid ov] x1 ! latt] w be cov]$ 9 a %ort "t4 ,z to ! p[]s ( dissem9ation ( ^! l[ly organis$ plants1 an obs]vation l$ to ! conclusion t ! gonidia ( li*5s h great] p[]s 9 ?is direction ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,x is f\nd t by plac+ a clean %eet ( glass 9 ! op5 air dur+ a fall ( sn[1 & receiv+ ! melt+ wat] 9 a tube or bottle1 quantities ( :at has be5 look$ ^u z a 8unicellul> plant0 c be tak51 ! cells ( :i* may be kept 9 a dormant condition = a long "t dur+ cold wea!r1 b ^u ! return ( spr+ w>m? & moi/ure !y beg9 to increase1 by a process ( subdivision1 into two1 f\r or eight portions2 ^! soon assume a r\nd$ =m1 & bur/ ! p>5t cell-wall op52 ^! second>y cells !n beg9 to divide & subdivide aga91 & ! process may g on )\t mu* v>iation = a long "t4 ,! ph5om5a describ$ may be wat*$ by tak+ a portion ( ! b>k ( a tree on :i* ,*lorococcus has be5 deposit$1 & plac+ x "u a glass to keep x 9 a mod]ately moi/ atmosph]e2 ! only diff]5ce be+ a *ange 9 col\r1 caus$ by ! gr[? ( ! fibres1 z may be se5 on microscopical exam9ation4 8,& ?is10 says ,dr4 ,hicks1 :o fir/ obs]v$ ?is ph5om5on 9 plant life1 8is an in/ructive po9t1 because x w be f\nd t ! col\r v>ies notably accord+ to ! li*5 preval5t 9 its neighb\rhood40#ei ,he believes !re c be no d\bt t :at has be5 call$ ,*lorococcus is no?+ m ?an ! gonidia ( a li*52 & t "u suitable conditions1 *iefly dr\ght & w>m?1 ! gonidium (t5 ?r[s out f its ext]nal envelope a small fibre1 :i*1 adh]+ & bran*+1 =ms a 8soridium40 8,! soridia rema9 dormant = a v long "t1 & d n develop into ?alli unless 9 a fav\rable situation1 9 "s cases x may be = ye>s4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ! soridium conta9s all ! elem5ts ( a ?allus 9 m9iature2 9 fact1 a ?allus does frequ5tly arise f "o alone1 & ! fibres ( neighb\r+ soridia int]lace2 ?us a ?allus is matur$ v rapidly4 ,?is is "o ( ! causes ( ! v>iation ( appe>ance s common 9 _m species ( li*5s1 m readily se5 t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! p>5t ?allus4 ,:5 ! gonidia rema9 atta*$ to ! p>5t ?allus1 ! circum/ances are1 ( c\rse1 m fav\rable1 & !y develop into second>y ?alli1 atta*$ m or less to ! old] "o1 :i*1 9 _m in/ances1 decays b5ea? !m4 ,?is process be+ cont9u$ ye> aft] ye> gives an app>5t ?ickness & spongy appe>ance to ! li*51 & is ! pr9cipal cause ( ! v>i\s modifications 9 ! ext]nal aspect ( ! li*5s :i* caus$ !m =m]ly to be misund]/ood & wrongly classifi$40#fj ,! erratic li*5s are f\nd among ! g5us ,palmella1 "s ( :i* gr[ among b\ld]s ( ! prim>y & metamorphic =mations1 curl$ up into a ball1 & only fix$ to _! matrix by a sl5d] ?read4 ,! globul> ,lecanora escul5ta w at times sudd5ly cov] l>ge tracts ( c\ntry 9 ,p]sia & ,t>t>y1 :]e x is eat5 by ! cattle4 ,dur+ a sc>city ( food a %[] ( ^! li*5s1 ,mr4 ,b]keley tells u1 fell at ,erz]\m1 & sav$ ! cattle f />vation4#fa ,ano!r gr\p ( ! ,palmella1 or ,peltig]i1 s nam$ f ! t>get-l discs on _! surface1 spread _! foliace\s fronds ov] ! gr\nd1 & z ! fruit is m>g9al1 x gives ! ?allus a digitate appe>ance4 ,^! are (t5 spott$ ov] by a little r$ fungus4 ,! ,lecid9ei conta9s num]\s species ( ! mo/ v>i$ habits1 & always cru/ace\s1 & s closely adh]5t to ! h>d rocks & /ones on :i* !y gr[1 t at l5g? !y dis9tegrate !m4 ,f ?is l[ species a high] =m arises1 ) erect bran*+ /ems1 & clo!d ) foliace\s1 brightly-col\r$ scales4 ,! ,coccoc>pei is ma9ly di/+ui%$ by hav+ orbicul> discs entirely depriv$ ( ! cortical envelope call$ an excipulum4 ,! discs spr+ at once f ! m$ull>y /ratum1 & conta9 asci & sporidia simil> to ^? ( ! m9ute fungi ,sphri4 ,"s ( ! li*5s are !mselves p>asitic1 & beg9 exi/5ce "u ! ?ick sk9 ( ! leaves ( tropical plants1 & spread encru/+ ?allus ov] _! surface1 ! excipulum & p]i!cia be+ black2 b 9 mo/ cases ^! are beautifully sculptur$1 & are int]e/+ objects = ! microscope4 ,inde$1 ! sph]e-be>+ li*5s1 ) upright /ems be>+ globul> fruit at ! extremity ( _! bran*es1 are at fir/ indicat$ by a swell+1 b 9 "t ! out] lay] bur/s & exposes sporidia1 :i* are beautiful objects "u ! microscope on acc\nt ( _! sph]ical =m & m or less deep blue t9t4 ,humble & l[ly z li*5s may appe> to be1 !y h be5 divid$ into fifty-eight or m g5]a & #b1ejj species4 ,! bro!rs ,tulasne1 ,de ,b>y1 ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,b]keley1 & o!rs1 devot$ great att5tion to ! peculi>ities ( _! /ructure & natural hi/ory4 ,hepatic4--,an int]m$i>y gr\p ( mu* int]e/ to ! microscopi/ are ! ,hepatic 7liv]worts74 ,^! are f\nd gr[+ on damp rocks 9 ! neighb\rhood ( spr+s & dripp+ banks4 ,! scale-moss1 ! ,m>*antia polymorphia 7,fig4 #bii71 may be tak5 z typical ( ?is little gr\p1 ) its gemmip>\s conceptacles & lob$ receptacles1 be>+ ar*egones on transp>5t glass-l fruit /alks1 c>ry+ on _! summits ei!r r\nd %ield-l discs or radiat+ bodies ) a /rik+ resemblance to a :eel )\t its tyre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bii4--,m>*antia polymorphia4 ,! liv]worts are closely alli$ to ! mosses1 & z mu* difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ 9 divid+ ! two1 ,hook] plac$ ! :ole "u "o g5us1 ! ,jung]mannia4 ,m rec5tly1 h[ev]1 !y h be5 divid$ into ^? ) a /em & leaves conflu5t 9 a frond1 ,m>*antia2 ^? ) /em & leaves di/9ct1 ,jung]mannia2 & ^? ) a solit>y capsule1 fili=m1 bivalv$1 /alk$1 ) a free c5tral plac5tation1 ,an?ocotace4 ,"s botani/s h fur!r divid$ !m1 b !y are all ext5sively propagat$ by gemm4 ,! fronds c>ry ! male organs1 or an!rids1 & ! disc1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 be>s ! female organs1 or ar*egones1 & aft] a "t gives place to ! sporanges1 or spore cases4 ,x is ^! bodies :i* are ( s mu* int]e/ to microscopi/s2 if ! plant is br\ght into a w>m room1 !y sudd5ly bur/ op5 ) "s viol5ce ! mom5t a drop ( wat] is appli$ to !m1 & ! sporanges are disp]s$ 9 a small cl\d ( br[ni% du/4 ,if ?is du/ is exam9$ "u a m$ium p[]1 x is se5 to consi/ ( a numb] ( *a9-l bodies1 some:at l ! spr+ ( a small wat*2 & if ! process ( bur/+ be closely wat*$1 ^! m9ute spr+s w be f\nd twi/+ & curl+ ab\t 9 e direction4 ,! /ructure ( ! frond itself w be se5 to be int]e/+ :5 cut 9 ! v]tical direction & plac$ "u ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--;,gemmip>\s conceptacle ( ,m>*antia polymorphia1 exp&+ & ris+ f ! surface ( a frond4 ,9 ! int]ior are se5 gopidial gemm already deta*$ by ! splitt+ ( ! epid]m4 ,! gemm ( ,m>*antia polymorphia are produc$ 9 elegant membran\s cups1 ) a too!d m>g9 gr[+ on ! upp] surface ( ! frond1 especially 9 v damp c\rty>ds betwe5 ! /ones1 or ne> runn+ wat]1 :]e its lob$ fronds are f\nd cov]+ ext5sive tracts ( moi/ soil4 ,at ! p]iod ( fructification ! fronds s5d up /alks1 :i* c>ry at _! summit r\nd %ield-l radiat+ discs1 :i* be> ^u _! surface a numb] ( little op5 basket-%ap$ 8conceptacles40 ,^! aga9 exp& into s+ul>ly graceful cups 7z 9 ,fig4 #cjj71 & are f\nd 9 all /ages ( developm5t4 ,:5 mature1 ! basket conta9s a numb] ( little gre5 r\nd or oblong discs1 ea* compos$ ( two or m lay]s ( cells2 ! wall itself be+ surm\nt$ by a gli/5+ fr+e ( tee?1 ^: edges are !mselves regul>ly fr+$ ) m9ute outgr[?s4 ,! cup seems to be =m$ by a developm5t ( ! sup]ior epid]mis1 :i* is rais$ up1 & f9ally bur/s & spreads out1 lay+ b>e ! se$s4 ,! ar*egones ( ,m>*antia are v curi\s bodies1 :ile ! elat] & spores are ev5 /ill m s4 ,^! are elongat$ cells1 ea* conta9+ a d\ble spiral fibre coil$ up 9 ! int]ior4 ,x is ! ela/icity ( ?is :i* te>s ap>t ! cell-membrane1 & s5ds =? ! spores ) a j]k1 & ?us assi/s 9 _! disp]sion4 ,m>*antia is ! type ( ! malloid ,hepatic4 ,musci1 ,bryophyta4 ,mosses are a beautiful class ( non-vascul> cryptogams4 ,l9nu call$ !m s]vi1 s]vants or workm51 z !y seem to lab\r to produce vegetation 9 places :]e soil is n already =m$4 ,! ,bryophyta =m ?ree natural divisions3 ! ,bry91 or true mosses2 ! ,sphagnace1 or peat-mosses2 & ! ,hepatic1 or liv]worts4 ,! two fir/ are commonly unit$4 ,9 ^! ! sexual organs consi/ ( an!ridia & ar*egonia1 b !y are ( simpl] /ructure ?an w be f\nd 9 f]ns2 & ! fir/ g5]ation f ! spore is asexual4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cja4--,screw-moss4 ,! common or wall screw-moss 7,fig4 #cja7 gr[s almo/ ev]y:]e1 & if exam9$ closely1 is se5 to h spr++ f its base num]\s v sl5d] /ems1 ea* t]m9at+ 9 a d>k br[n case1 :i* encloses an!roids4 ,if a pat* ( ! moss is ga!r$ :5 9 ?is /ate1 & ! gre5 "p ( ! base is put into wat]1 ! ?reads ( ! fr+e w uncoil & dis5tangle !mselves 9 a mo/ curi\s & beautiful mann]2 f ?is circum/ance ! plant takes its popul> "n ( screw-moss4 ,! leaf usually consi/s ( ei!r a s+le or a d\ble lay] ( cells1 hav+ flatt5$ sides1 by :i* !y adh]e "o to ano!r4 ,! leaf-cells 7,fig4 #cjb7 ( ! ,sphagnum or bog-moss exhibit a curi\s dep>ture f ! ord9>y type2 !y are l>ge1 polygonal1 & elongat$1 & conta9 spiral fibres loosely coil$ 9 _! int]ior4 ,! "y leaf does n diff] f ! old]2 bo? are evolv$ by a gradual process ( diff]5tiation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--,section ( leaf ( ,sphagnum moss1 %[+ l>ge cells ( spiral fibres & connect+ ap]tures4 ,mosses1 l liv]worts1 possess bo? an!ridia & pi/illida1 :i* are engag$ 9 ! process ( fructification4 ,! f]tiliz$ cell becomes gradually develop$ into a conical body elevat$ ^u a foot/alk1 ! walls ( ! flask-%ap$ body c>ry+ ! high] "p upw>ds z a calyptra or hood ^u its summit1 :ile ! l[] "p rema9s to =m a k9d ( coll> r\nd ! base4 ,^! spore-capsules are clos$ on _! summit by op]cula or lids1 & _! m\?s :5 laid op5 are surr\nd$ by a beautiful too!d fr+e1 t]m$ ! p]i/ome4 ,?is fr+e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cjc1 9 ! c5tre ( a capsule ( ,fun>ia1 ) its p]i/ome 9 situ4 ,! fr+es ( tee? are v>i\sly con/ruct$1 & are ( great s]vice 9 discrim9at+ ! g5]a4 ,9 ,neck]a antipyretica ! p]i/ome is d\ble1 ! inn] be+ compos$ ( tee? unit$ by cross b>s1 =m+ a v pretty trellis4 ,! se$ spores are conta9$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! capsule1 :]e !y are clu/]$ r\nd ! c5tral pill>1 t]m$ ! columella2 & at ! "t ( maturity1 ! int]ior ( ! capsule is almo/ entirely occupi$ by spores4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--,m\? ( ,capsule ( ,fun>ia1 %[+ ,p]i/ome4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--;,hair-moss 9 ,fruit4 ,! undulat+ hair-moss1 ,polytri*um undulatum 7,fig4 #cjd71 is f\nd on moi/1 %ady banks ( pools & rivulets4 ,! se$-vessel has a curi\s %aggy cap2 b 9 its con/ruction x is v simil> to t ( ! screw-moss1 except t ! fr+e ar\nd its op5+ is n twi/$4 ,! reproductive organs ( mosses are ( two k9ds2 ! capsule conta9+ m9ute spores1 ar*egonia1 & ! an!ridia1 or male effloresc5ce4 ,! capsule1 !ca1 or sporangium1 is lat]al or t]m9al1 sessile1 or on a fruit /alk 7seta7 ( v>i\s %apes1 indehisc5t1 or bur/+ by f\r valves at ! sides1 or m commonly by a decidu\s cup1 op]culum4 ,:5 ?is falls ! m\? ( ! capsule becomes expos$4 ,! rim is cr[n$ ) too?-l or cilia-l app5dages 9 sets ( f\r or multiples ( t numb]--p]i/ome4 ,^! are (t5 brightly col\r$ & hydroscopic4 ,by simply brea?+ ^u !m !y sudd5ly fly op51 & are end[$ ) motion1 t is1 if !y conta9 spores4 ,! spores on g]m9ation produce a gre5 conf]void-l mass ( ?reads1 f :i* ! "y plant arises4 ,! ,sphagnace1 or 8bog mosses10 h be5 sep>at$ f true mosses f ! m>k$ diff]5ces !y pres5t4 ,! /em is m widely diff]5tiat$1 & ?r\gh\t its /ructure a rapid passage ( fluid takes place4 ,x has ! p[] ( absorb+ moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 s t if a plant be plac$ dry 9 a glass ( wat] ) its rosette ( leaves hang+ ov] ! edge1 x acts l a syphon1 & ! wat] w drop f x until ! glass is empti$4 ,z may be suppos$1 ! leaf is compos$ ( l>ge op5 cells1 & x absorbs m wat] ?an ! root4 ,! an!rids or male organs ( ,sphagnace resemble ^? ( liv]worts1 r ?an ^? ( mosses1 bo? 9 =m & arrangem5t2 !y are gr\p$ 9 8catk9s0 at ! tips ( ! lat]al bran*es1 ea* ( ! imbricat$ p]igonal leaves enclos+ a s+le globose an!rid on a sl5d] foot-/alk1 & surr\nd$ by long bran*$ p>aphyses ( cobweb-l t5uity4 ,! female organs1 or ar*egones1 d n diff] mat]ially 9 /ructure f ^? ( mosses2 !y are gr\p$ toge!r 9 a %ea? ( deep gre5 leaves at ! end ( ! %ort] lat]al bran*lets at ! side ( ! rosette or t]m9al cr[n ( leaves4 ,! sporange is v uni=m 9 all ! species1 & ! spores are 9 gr\ps ( f\rs1 z 9 mosses1 ar\nd a hemisph]ical columella4 ,^! plants gr[ s rapidly t !y soon cov] a pool ) ?9 matt$ bundles ( bran*es1 & z !y decay !y fall to ! bottom1 & become ! f\ndation ( ! future bog or peat moss4 ,felices4--,( all ! spore-be>+ families ! f]ns are ! m univ]sally kn[n4 ,!y con/itute an exce$+ly num]\s g5]a & species1 & v>y f l[ h]bace\s plants ( an in* 9 height to t ( tree f]ns1 :i* atta9 a height ( fifty or m feet1 t]m9at+ 9 a graceful coronet ( fronds or leaves4 ,( :atev] size a f]n may be1 its spores are1 = ! mo/ "p1 microscopic1 produc$ )9 ! sporangium by cell division1 & are !re=e free & v>i\sly %ap$4 ,! true mode ( developm5t ( f]ns f _! spores 0 t furni%$ by ,ngeli1 :o ann\nc$ ! exi/5ce ( an!ridia4 ,on ! spore />t+ into life x s5ds out f ! cell-wall ( its out] coat a :ite tubul> projection1 or root fibre 7,fig4 #cje1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c71 :i* passes ?r\gh ! cell-wall ( its out] coat4 ,?is attracts suffici5t moi/ure to bur/ op5 ! out]1 & !n x beg9s to increase by ! subdivision ( its cells1 until ! prim>y gre5 pro?allus ,d is =m$4 ,?is falls to ! gr\nd1 &1 be+ furni%$ on its "u side ) ?read-l fibres1 fixes itself to ! e>?1 & ?us is develop$ ! rhizome1 or root ( ! future plant4 ,9 ea* ( ! an!ridia1 :i* are num]\s1 a cell is =m$1 *iefly fill$ ) album9\s matt] & free spores1 ea* hav+ atta*$ a flat ribbon-l filam5t1 or /]matoid1 curl$ 9 a spiral mann]4 ,^! are ultimately set free by ! rupture ( ! cell-wall1 & comm5ce revolv+ rapidly by ! ag5cy ( ! :ip-l app5dage at ! l>g] end4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cje4--;,developm5t ( ! ,globul> ,an!ridium & ,sp]matoids ( ,pt]is s]rulata4 ,a4 ,spores2 ,b1 ,c4 ,e>ly /ages ( developm5t2 ,d4 ,pro?allus ) radial fibres2 a1 a & a1 b are /]matoids2 & h1 h4 ,enclos$ an!ridia4 ,! sporangia1 or spore-cases1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 globul> 9 =m1 & are ne>ly or q surr\nd$ by a /rong ela/ic r+1 :i* 9 "s cases is cont9u$ to =m a /alk4 ,:5 ! spores are ripe1 ?is r+1 by its ela/ic =ce1 te>s op5 ! sporangia & gives exit to a quantity ( microscopic filam5ts1 curl$ 9 corkscrew-l fa%ion 7,figs4 #cje & #cjg74 ,! r+ assumes v>i\s =ms2 9 "o gr\p x passes v]tically up ! back ( ! sporangium1 & is cont9u$ to a po9t t]m$ ! /omata1 :]e ! horizontal bur/+ takes place4 ,?is =m is se5 9 ,fig4 #cjf1 a1 b4 ,9 o!r gr\ps x is v]tical1 z 9 c1 c2 9 o!rs transv]se1 z 9 d2 or apical1 z at e2 & 9 a few in/ances x is obsolete1 z 9 f4 ,^! are ! true f]ns1 & _! sy/ematic arrangem5t is *iefly f\nd$ on ! peculi>ity ( ! sori & sporangia1 *>act]s :i* become q intelligible by ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--,sporangia ( ,polypodiace\s ,f]ns4 a1 b4 ,polypodiace2 c4 ,cyan!9e2 d4 ,glei*59e2 e4 ,s*ize9e2 f4 ,osmund9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--,spores ( ,dep>ia prolif]a4 ,! beautiful r+$ sporangium ( ! f]n 7,fig4 #cjg7 :5 ruptur$ gives exit to ! du/-l spores2 ^!1 exam9$ "u a mod]ate p[]1 are se5 to be sub-globose & pyramidal1 ! out] coat or exospore be+ a col\r$ hyal9e cell ) nuclei simil> to ! spores ( mosses1 b 9 :i* *lorophyll soon beg9s to =m1 & f ?is little gre5 embryonic gr[? ! organs ( reproduction are =m$4 ,9 all f]ns ! pi/illidia or ar*egonia are analog\s to ! ovules or nasc5t se$s ( fl[]+ plants1 & conta91 l !m1 a g]m9al vesicle1 :i* becomes f]tiliz$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! spiral filam5ts1 & !n gradually develops into an embryo plant possess+ a t]m9al bud4 ,?is bud beg9s at once to unfold & pu% out leaves ) a circ9ate v]nation1 ( a v simple =m at fir/1 & gr[+ up b5ea? ! pro?allium1 com+ out at ! not*2 s+le fibr\s roots are at ! same "t s5t d[n into ! e>?1 ! delicate exp&$ pro?allium )]s away1 & ! f\ndation ( ! p]fect f]n plant is laid4 ,:5 a f]n acquires a consid]able /em1 z 9 a tree f]n1 x consi/s ( cellul> tissue & an ext]nal cortical portion =m+ fibro-vascul> bundles1 scal>i=m ducts1 & woody fibre4 ,fig4 #cjh1 b1 %[s an oblique section ( ! foot/alk ( a f]n leaf ) its bundle ( scal>i=m ducts4 ,^! obs]vations on f]ns h acquir$ increas$ int]e/ f subsequ5t inve/igations made on ! alli$ ,cryptogams1 & on ! processes occurr+ 9 ! impregnation ( ! ,conif]s4 ,n only h lat] rese>*es furni%$ a satisfactory int]pretation ( ! ar*egonia & an!ridia ( ! mosses & liv]worts1 b !y h made kn[n & co-ord9at$ ! exi/5ce ( analog\s ph5om5a 9 ! ,equisetace1 ,lycopodiace1 & ,rhizoc>pe1 & prove1 moreov]1 t ! bodies describ$ by ,dr4 ,br[n 9 ! ,conif]s "u ! "n ( 8corpuscles0 are analog\s to ! ar*egonia ( ! ,cryptogams2 s t a l9k is h]eby =m$ betwe5 ^! gr\ps & ! high] fl[]+ plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--;a4 ,v]tical section ( ,f]n-root1 %[+ spiral tissue & cells fill$ ) granul> bodies2 b4 ,section ( ,foot/alk4 ,equisetace4--,! developm5t ( ,horse-tails 7,fig4 #cji71 ! "n by :i* !y are commonly kn[n1 corresponds 9 "s respects ) t ( f]ns4 ,!y comprise a little gr\p1 & ! :ole ( _! /ructure is compos$ 9 an extraord9>y degree by silex1 s t ev5 :5 ! organic portion has be5 de/roy$ by prolong$ mac]ation 9 /rong acid1 a consi/5t skeleton /ill rema9s4 ,x is ?is fl9ty mat]ial t con/itutes _! *ief int]e/ = microscopi/s4 ,a portion ( _! silici\s p>ticles is di/ribut$ 9 two l9es1 arrang$ p>allel to ! axis ( ! plant1 o!rs are gr\p$ into oval =ms1 & connect$ by a *a9 z 9 a necklace4 ,! =m & arrangem5t ( ! cry/als are bett] se5 "u pol>is$ light4 ,plate ,,viii41 ,no4 #agj1 a portion ( ! epid]mis1 =ms an extremely beautiful object4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] po9t$ out t ea* silici\s p>ticle has a regul> axis ( d\ble refraction4 ,:at is usually said to be ! fructification ( ! ,equisetace =ms a cone or spike-l extremity to ! top ( ! /em 7,fig4 #cji71 ! :ole resembl+ a s]ies ( spike-l bran*es 7! real /em be+ a horizontal rhizome71 & a clu/] ( %ield-l discs1 ea* ( :i* c>ries a circle ( sporanges t op5 by longitud9al slits to set free ! spores :i* are atta*$ to x 9 two pairs ( ela/ic filam5ts 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #bia1 ,f1 ,g71 elat]s2 ^! are at fir/ coil$ up ar\nd ! spore 9 ! mann] repres5t$ at ,g1 b on _! lib]ation !y ext5d !mselves z %[n at ,f4 ,! slighte/ moi/ure w close !m up aga91 & _! purpose hav+ be5 s]v$ 9 ! di/ribution ( ! spores1 !y are no long] requir$4 ,if a numb] ( spores be spread out on a glass-slip "u ! microscope &1 :ile wat*+1 a by/&] brea!s ^u !m1 !y imm$iately respond1 are set 9 motion1 pres5t+ a curi\s appe>ance1 b z soon z ! hydroscopic effect has pass$ (f !y return to _! previ\s condition4 ,^! spores c be m\nt$ 9 a cell ) a movable cov]1 & made to exhibit ! same effect ov] & ov] aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cji4--;,equisetum giganticum4 a4 ,fragm5t ( /em %[+ mode ( bran*+ out2 b4 ,cone or spike ( fructification2 c4 ,scale deta*$ f cone2 d4 ,spore ) ela/ic filam5ts2 e4 ,v]tical section ( /em2 f4 ,transv]se section %[+ hexagonal cells4 ,! vascul> tissue ( ! ,equisetace 7,fig4 #cji1 e1 f7 %[s !m to be ( a high] grade ?an ! f]ns4 ,m rec5tly discov]$ ,horse-tails1 ( ,brazil1 gr[ to a gigantic size1 b ev5 ^! are comp>atively small :5 comp>$ ) ! ,calamites1 & o!r fossil ,equisetace ( ! coal measures & new r$ s&/one4 ,!y all require a calc>e\s fl9ty soil = gr[?4 ,a spr+ wat]-c\rse mak+ its way to ! sea1 z 9 ! ,*9es ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 is v fav\rable1 ! au?or hav+ ga!r$ !m m ?an once 9 ,bramble ,*9e4 ,ne>ly alli$ to f]ns is a little gr\p ( small aquatic plants1 ! ,rhizoc>pe 7pepp]worts71 :i* ei!r float on ! wat] or creep along %all[ bottoms4 ,^! are *iefly curi\s f hav+ two k9ds ( spores produc$ f sep>ate sporanges2 small] & l>g] 8microspores0 und]go+ progressive sub-division )\t ! =mation ( a di/9ct pro?allium2 ea* cell giv+ orig9 to an an!rozoid1 a g5]ative process said to belong exclusively to fl[]+ plants1 correspond+ inde$ to ! poll5 gra9s ( high] plants4 ,/ructure ( ,phan]ogami or ,fl[]+ ,plants4 ,! two great divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom are kn[n z ,cryptogamia & ,phan]ogamia4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t !re is any abrupt break betwe5 ! two1 z w appe> f ! context4 ,al?\gh x is cu/om>y to speak ( ! fl[]+ plants z a high] grade ( life1 yet !re is an int]m$i>y class ( ,phan]ogami 9 :i* ! conspicu\s p>ts ( ! g5]ative sy/em p>take ( a condition closely resembl+ ^? ( ! high] ,cryptogami1 obs]v$ 9 ,gymnosp]ms1 ,conif]1 & ,cycad4 ,s x may be said ! di/9ctive "* ( ! =m] is t ( reproduction by se$s r ?an fl[]s4 ,! progress ( botanical sci5ce dur+ ! latt] half ( ! ,victorian reign has be5 q z rem>kable z t ( hi/ology2 :ile ! comp>ative physiology & morphology ( plants h p]haps advanc$ ev5 m rapidly because ! gr\nd 0 new]4 ,! consequ5ce is t ! specialisation ( botanical sci5ce has be5 br\ght ab\t con-curr5tly ) a m compreh5sive nom5clature4 ,! *ief cause 9 ?is in/ance ( mod]n specialisation is utility4 8,if we look at ! great gr\ps ( plants f a broad po9t ( view1 x w be se5 t ! fungi & ! phan]ogams occupy public att5tion on o!r gr\nds ?an d ! alg1 mosses & f]ns4 ,alg are especially a physiologi/'s gr\p1 employ$ 9 que/ions on nutrition1 reproduction1 & cell division & gr[?4 ,! ,bryophyta & ,pt]idophyta1 are1 on ! o!r h&1 ! doma9 ( ! morphologi/ conc]n$ ) su* que/ions z ! alt]nations ( g5]ations & ! evolution ( ! high] plants4 8,fungi & phan]ogams1 :ile equally or ev5 m employ$ by speciali/s 9 morphology & physiology1 appeal widely to g5]al int]e/1 & evid5tly s on ! gr\nd ( utility4 ,)\t say+ t ?is enhances ! importance ( ei!r gr\p1 x c]ta9ly attracts sci5tific att5tion to !m4 ,h[ev]1 ! hi/ology ( ! m9ute cell1 9 addition to its importance f an academical po9t ( view1 has a special int]e/ = ! microscopi/40 ,x w\ld be impossible to f9d any?+ m rem>kable 9 hi/ology ?an ! detail$ agreem5t 9 ! /ructure & behavi\r ( ! nucleus 9 ! high] plants & ! high] animals1 an agreem5t :i* is conspicu\sly manife/ 9 ^? special divisions :i* take place dur+ ! maturation ( ! sexual cells4 ,s ) reg>d to ! "q ( 8alt]nation ( g5]ations40 ,we h kn[n s9ce ! important discov]ies ( ,h(mei/] t ! developm5t ( a l>ge "p ( ! vegetable k+dom involves a regul> alt]nation ( two di/9ct g5]ations1 ! "o :i* is sexual be+ con/antly succe$$1 s f> z ! normal cycle is conc]n$1 by ! o!r :i* is asexual4 ,?is alt]nation is mo/ m>k$ 9 ! mosses & f]ns4 ,9 ! ,bryophyta ! ord9>y moss or liv]wort plant is ! sexual g5]ation ( ! ovum1 :i*1 :5 f]tilis$1 gives rise to ! moss-fruit1 & repres5ts ! asexual /age4 ,! latt] is once m se5 to =m spores f :i* ! sexual plant is aga9 develop$4 ,9 ! ,pt]idophyta ! alt]nation is equally regul>1 b ! relative developm5t ( ! two g5]ations is totally diff]5t1 ! sexual =m be+ ! insignificant pro?allus1 :ile ! :ole f]n-plant1 z we ord9>ily "k x1 is ! asexual g5]ation4 ,! ?allus ( "s ( ! l[] ,bryophyta is q comp>able ) ! pro?allus ( a f]n1 s z reg>ds ! sexual g5]ation !re is no difficulty 9 see+ ! relation ( ! two classes2 b :5 we come to ! asexual g5]ation or sporophyte ! case is totally diff]5t4 ,!re is no appreciable resemblance betwe5 ! fruit ( any ( ! ,bryophyta & ! plant ( any vascul> ,cryptogam4 8,x is n[ kn[n t 9 ! high] plants a rem>kable num]ical *ange takes place 9 ! con/itu5ts ( ! nucleus ( ! cell %ortly be=e f]tilisation4 ,9 angiosp]m\s plants a r$uction ( ! *romosomes occurs %ortly be=e diff]5tiation ( ! sexual cells4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ! lily1 f]tilisation is n ! simple fusion ( nucle> bodies4 ,^! sph]es are se5 to fuse 9 pairs1 & !n by position to det]m9e ! plane ( fir/ cleavage ( ! ovum2 agree+1 9 fact1 closely ) :at is obs]v$ to take place 9 ! animal k+dom40 ,9 ! high] grades ( plants x w be evid5t t ! sev]al tissues t compose _! bodies are n f\nd 9 ! root1 /em1 & leaf )\t def9ite ord] & purpose1 b t !y are gr\p$ into sy/ems = ! p]=mance ( diff]5t k9ds ( "w4 ,9 all fl[]+ plants at lea/ ?ree diff]5t sy/ems may be cle>ly di/+ui%$4 ,^! are ! epid]mal or b\nd>y tissue sy/em1 ! fundam5tal or gr\nd tissue sy/em1 & ! fibro-vascul> or conduct+ sy/em4 ,all ?ree sy/ems ( tissue orig9ate f m]i/em cells1 locat$ at ! gr[+ po9t ( ! /em & root4 ,al?\gh ^! sy/ems *>act]ise ! high] types ( plants1 ! elem5t>y tissues 7repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,xiii4 & 9 o!r figures7 ent] alike into ! sev]al compon5t p>ts ( ne>ly all plants4 ,! /em1 ! bran*1 & ! root1 are alike con/itut$ ( an out] coat+ :i* af=ds a me*anical support1 & once =m$ takes no fur!r %>e 9 ! economy ( ! plant1 except+ t ( assi/+ to convey fluid f ! roots to ! bran*es & leaves1 an action m ( a capill>y nature ?an vital4 ,! n\ri%m5t ( ! plant is br\ght ab\t by o!r mat]ial /ructures1 z ! pi?1 ! cortex1 ! cambium1 & s =?1 all ( :i* greatly assi/ 9 ! =mative process4 ,! woody portion ( ! plants is especially conc]n$ 9 furni%+ support to ! s(t] pulpy textures1 :ile ! tissues ( leaves & fl[]s are *iefly compos$ ( cells compactly held toge!r by protoplasmic or album9oid matt]4 ,wat]1 ( c\rse1 ent]s l>gely into ! con/itu5ts ( all plants4 ,b5ea? ! epid]mis is ano!r lay] ( importance1 ! p>5*ymat\s1 :i* becomes m or less solid ) ! gr[? ( ! pi? & cellul> wall4 ,9 ! pulpy sub/ance ( "s leaves ! epid]mis pres5ts a ?9 lam9a ( palisade-tissue1 ! bulk ( ! mesophyll consi/+ ( spongy p>5*yma or scl]5*ymat\s fibres 7se5 9 ,fig4 #caj71 :i* also s]ve to %[ ! disposition ( ! sev]al lay]s ab\t to be br\ght "u notice4 ,developm5t ( ! ,tissue ,sy/ems4--,9 ! gr[+ plant ! embryonic cells soon become diff]5tiat$ into ?ree prim>y m]i/em lay]s1 kn[n z d]matog51 p]iblem1 & phloem1 f :i* are develop$ respectively ! prim>y cortex1 epid]mis1 & ! /ele or vascul> cyl9d]4 ,! d]matog5 =ms ! out]mo/ lay] ( cells at ! gr[+ po9t1 & :5 pres5t always develops into true epid]mal tissue4 ,9 /ems ! d]matog5 is always s+le-lay]$1 :ile 9 roots x consi/s ( sev]al lay]s & develops a _m-lay]$ epid]mis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caj4--,section ( ,leaf ( ,pip]4 c4 ,cortex2 ep4 ,epid]mis2 pal4 ,palisade-tissue2 scl f4 ,scl]5*ymat\s fibres ( p]icycle2 o4 ,oil gl&4 ,! p]iblem occurs imm$iately b5ea? ! d]matog51 =m+ a holl[ cyl9d] ( tissue1 :i* surr\nds ! phloem4 ,f ! p]iblem is develop$ ! fundam5tal tissue ( ! prim>y cortex4 ,:5 no d]matog5 is pres5t 9 ! gr[+-po9t 7/ems ( vascul> cryptogams7 ! ext]nal lay] ( ! p]iblem develops cells :i* p]=m epid]mal functions4 ,! phloem occupies ! c5tre ( ! gr[+-po9t1 & consi/s ( a solid mass ( some:at elongat$ cells4 ,f ! phloem are develop$ ! fibro-vascul> & fundam5tal tissues ( ! vascul>-cyl9d] or /ele4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,elem5t>y ,,plant ,,tissues4 ,epid]mal or ,b\nd>y ,tissue ,sy/em4--,?is sy/em con/itutes ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! plant1 & is commonly call$ ! epid]mis4 ,x includes1 besides ! ord9>y epid]mal cells1 ! gu>d-cells ( ! /omata & wat] pores1 ! plant hairs or tri*omes1 & ! epid]mal or ext]nal gl&s4 ,! epid]mal tissues are *iefly protective 9 function1 s]v+ to prev5t excessive evaporation f ! int]ior tissues ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caa4 a4 ,epid]mis1 reticulat$ ducts1 & conjunctive palisade cells2 b4 ,v]tical section ( ald] root1 woody lay]1 & b\nd>y ducts4 ,9 /ems ! ext]nal lay] ( cells1 :atev] its orig91 is kn[n z ! epid]mis1 :ile 9 roots x is call$ ! epiblema4 ,! epid]mis usually consi/s ( a s+le lay] ( cells1 b 9 "s cases x is two or ?ree-lay]$1 z 9 ! leaves ( figs & begonias4 ,9 l& plants ! epid]mis is usually /rongly cut9is$1 :ile 9 subm]g$ plants x is nev] cut9is$4 ,! epid]mis ( l& plants is also (t5 waxy1 ! wax occurr+ on ! surface z m9ute gra9s1 rods or flakes1 con/itut+ ! s-call$ bloom ( leaves & fruits1 & giv+ to !m _! glauc\s appe>ance4 ,*lorophyll bodies are usually abs5t f ! ord9>y epid]mal cells ( l& plants1 :ile !y commonly occur 9 ! epid]mal cells ( aquatic plants4 ,ord9>y epid]mal cells are usually ?9-wall$ & transp>5t1 & conta9 a nucleus & col\rless wat]y protoplasm1 b are de/itute ( bo? *lorophyll-bodies & />*-gra9s4 ,! ext]nal lay]s ( ! out] walls con/itute ! cuticle ( ! plant1 :ile ! int]nal lay]s & ! radial & inn] walls are compos$ ( cellulose4 ,! cells ( ! epid]mis are always v compactly arrang$1 hav+ _! walls s closely adh]5t t ! int]cellul> spaces are entirely oblit]at$ except at ! /omata & wat]-pores4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab4 #a4 ,v]tical section ( leaf ( ,iris g]manica2 a1 a4 ,elongat$ cells ( ! epid]m2 b4 ,/omata cut ?r\gh longitud9ally2 c1 c4 ,gre5 cells ( ! p>5*yma2 d1 d4 ,col\rless tissue ( ! int]ior ( ! leaf4 #b4 ,portion ( leaf torn f its surface2 a4 ,elongat$ cells ( ! cuticle2 b4 ,cells ( ! /omata2 c4 ,cells ( ! p>5*yma2 d4 ,limit+ wall ( ! epid]mic cell2 e4 ,lacun or op5+s 9 ! p>5*yma correspond+ to ! /omata4 ,!re are exceptions to ?is rule1 z1 = example1 9 ,c9*ona calisaya1 :i* %[s no trace ( epid]mis1 ?is be+ replac$ by a corky lay] ( tubul> cells4 ,:]e ?is occurs 9 a plant to any ext5t1 ! :ole ( ! out] tissues are displac$1 & ! b>k consi/s exclusively ( phloem tissues4 ,?is1 al?\gh ( con/ant occurr5ce 9 ,c4 calisaya1 is n s common 9 o!r species1 z ,c4 succirubia1 ! middle /ructure ( :i* consi/s ( p>5*yma 9 :i* appe> m or less num]\s isolat$ /ore-cells1 & :5 ^! are abs5t !re is a =mation ( rhytidoma & displacem5t ( ! tissues conta9+ ! /ore-cells & ducts4 ,! *lorophyll ( ,c4 succirubia is v m>k$1 & its spectrum pres5ts sev5 di/9ct absorption b&s4 ,! epid]mal sy/em ( plants 9 g5]al includes o!r tissues ?an ^? already nam$1 z ! gu>d-cells ( ! /omata1 ! wat]-pores1 plant-hairs or tri*omes1 & ! ext]nal or epid]mal gl&s1 all ( :i* are b modifications ( ord9>y epid]mal tissue4 ,! ,/omata or ,brea?+ ,pores are ap]tures 9 ! epid]mal :i* lie ov] l>ge int]cellul> spaces 7,fig #cab1 #b1 b74 ,^! are usually bord]$ by two modifi$ epid]mal cells1 call$ gu>d-cells4 ,/omata are =m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,a "y epid]mal cell divides into two equal portions by ! =mation ( a septum across its middle1 ea* half develop+ into a gu>d-cell2 ! septum n[ splits l5g?wise & sep>ates ! gu>d-cells1 leav+ an ap]ture or /oma betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! high] plants ! gu>d-cells ( ! /omata are cresc5t-%ap$ & occur 9 pairs1 ! concave sides ( ! cells fac+ ea* o!r ) ! ap]ture betwe51 :ile 9 mosses ! /omata possesses b a s+le annul> gu>d-cell :i* surr\nds ! ap]ture4 ,! gu>d-cells ( /omata usually conta9 *lorophyll-bodies 9 addition to ! ord9>y protoplasm4 ,!y h ! p[] ( increas+ or dim9i%+ ! size ( ! ap]ture "u ! influ5ce ( light & moi/ure1 ?us regulat+ ! am\nt ( evaporation f ! int]nal tissues ( ! plant4 ,wat] ,pores or ,wat] ,/omata are ap]tures 9 ! epid]mis1 simil> 9 /ructure to ord9>y /omata1 b diff] f !m bo? 9 function & di/ribution4 ,wat]-pores excrete wat] 9 ! =m ( drops1 & h _! gu>d-cells fix$ & immovable4 ,!y always occur at ! ends ( vasal bundles1 & are f\nd on ! m>g9 & at ! apex ( leaves4 ,plant ,hairs or ,tri*omes are modifi$ epid]mal cells prolong$ ext]nally1 & may be ei!r unicellul> or multicellul>4 ,ea* hair consi/s ( a basal portion1 or foot1 :i* is emb$d$ among ! ord9>y epid]mal cells1 & an apical portion or body1 :i* is prolong$ ext]nally4 ,ord9>y epid]mal hairs are usually ?9-wall$1 ! inn] lay]s ( ! wall be+ compos$ ( cellulose1 :ile ! out] lay] is m or less /rongly cut9is$4 ,! walls may become h>d5$ by deposits ( lime-salts or silica4 ,sometimes ! cells become gl&ul> & secrete oily1 res9\s1 or irritat+ matt]s1 z 9 /++-nettle hairs 7,plate ,,xiii41 ,no4 #ai71 :5 !y are kn[n z gl&ul> hairs4 ,! developm5t ( res9-passages may be obs]v$ 9 transv]se sections ( ! /em ( ! ivy 7,h$]a helix7 cut f a "y succul5t /em1 & m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e4 ,! res9 is se5 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! cortex & pi?1 & 9 ! s(t ba/ :i* lies outside ! cambium 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t1 />t+ f a gr\p ( f\r cells )\t int]cellul> spaces4 ,root hairs spr+ f ! epiblema & are nev] cut9is$1 b are frequ5tly m or less mucilag9\s4 ,! root-hairs are ! pr9cipal absorb+ organs ( ! plant1 & are conf9$ to ! y\ng] roots1 occurr+ j above _! tips4 ,root-hairs are nev] pres5t 9 aquatic plants1 & are abs5t f ! roots ( c]ta9 ( ! ,conif]4 ,x is a curi\s fact ) reg>d to bell-hea!r gr[+ 9 high] latitudes1 t ! plants possess a peculi> root /ructure z a protection aga9/ dr\ghts4 ,9 mo/ ( !m ! su/5tation ( life dep5ds ^u ! =mation ( a numb] ( long ?9 filam5ts on _! roots resembl+ root-hairs1 :i* p5etrate ! root1 =m+ nodul> masses )9 x4 ,^! filam5ts belong to a fungus entirely p>asitic to ! root1 & yet diff]5t f a common p>asite1 inasmu* z ! plant 9 ?is way obta9s s mu* ( its n\ri%m5t1 & :5 ! fungus is n pres5t1 or is remov$1 ! plant c no long] live on a peaty soil4 ,! leaf-blade ( ! co>se moorl& grass ,n>dus is likewise end[$ ) a s+ul> prop]ty--t ( roll+ up cyl9drically & spread+ out aga9 to adapt itself to ! dry & wet wea!r ( ! moorl&s ( ,scotl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cac4 a4 ,section ( ! te/a ( ,g\rd ,se$1 %[+ communicat+ cells fill$ ) col\r+ matt]2 b4 ,section ( /em ( ,clematis1 ?ree pores sep>at$ & m highly magnifi$2 c4 ,transv]se section ( same1 %[+ m$ull>y rays4 ,fundam5tal or ,gr\nd ,tissue ,sy/em4--,?is sy/em con/itutes ! gr\ndwork ( plants1 & is ! sy/em ?r\gh :i* ! vasal bundles are di/ribut$4 ,! fundam5tal tissues are compos$ l>gely1 ?\gh n :olly1 ( p>5*yma1 & are *iefly conc]n$ 9 ! metabolic "w ( plant life4 ,gr\nd tissue includes1 besides ord9>y p>5*yma1 coll5*yma1 sel]5*ymat\s p>5*yma1 fibr\s tissue1 cork1 laticif]\s & gl&ul> tissues4 ,to ! fundam5tal sy/em also belongs ! *lorophyll cells ( leaves1 ! ?9-wall$ cells ( ! pi? & m$ull>y rays1 ! cells ( ! cortex ( /ems & roots1 & mo/ ( ! s(t cellul> tissues 9 all plants4 ,! l[] plants consi/ almo/ entirely ( fundam5tal tissue4 ,9 ! h]bace\s =ms ( ! high] plants ! gr\nd tissues l>gely pr$om9ate1 :ile 9 woody plants !y are pres5t 9 mu* small] proportion1 ! vascul> tissues be+ ! mo/ abundant4 ,9 aquatic plants g5]ally1 ! fundam5tal tissues con/itute ! pr9cipal sy/em4 ,! hypod]ma occurs imm$iately b5ea? ! epid]mis1 & consi/s ( sev]al lay]s ( cells4 ,a coll5*ymat\s hypod]ma is f\nd 9 ! /ems & petioles ( mo/ h]bace\s dicotyls1 & frequ5tly occurs next ! mid-rib ( leaves1 :]e x =ms a /r5g!n+ tissue4 ,a scl]5*ymat\s hypod]ma occurs ei!r z a cont9u\s lay] b5ea? ! epid]mis1 z 9 ! /ems ( "s f]ns1 ,pt]is aquil9a1 & 9 leaves ( ! p9e2 or x may =m num]\s isolat$ /r&s b5ea? ! epid]mis1 z 9 ! /ems ( horsetails & 9 c]ta9 ,umbellif]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad4 a4 ,tang5tial section ( ,taxus baccata 7,yew71 %[+ ! woody fibre2 b4 ,v]tical section ( same1 spiral fibres1 & ducts2 c4 ,v]tical section ( ,elm1 %[+ ducts & dott$ cells4 ,! endod]mis is ! inn]mo/ lay] ( ! extra-/el> fundam5tal tissues1 & always abuts on ! /ele or /eles4 ,9 monocotyls x m>ks ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! cortex & ! c5tral cyl9d]1 & x is sometimes spok5 ( z ! nucleus %ea?4 ,9 /ems ! endod]mal cells are usually ?9-wall$ & unlignifi$1 hav+ a sub]\s ?ick5+ b& ext5d+ r\nd ! upp]1 l[] & lat]al surfaces1 :i* 9 cross-section appe>s z a black dot on ! radial wall 7,fig4 #cad1 c47 ,accord+ to its position 9 ! /ele1 ! conjunctive tissue is divid$ into ?ree pr9cipal portions1 viz41 t portion :i* inve/s ! vasal bundles1 ! p]icycle2 t portion :i* lies betwe5 ! bundles ( ! /ele1 ! int]fascicul> conjunctive tissue2 & t :i* occupies ! c5tre ( ! /ele1 ! m$ull>y conjunctive tissue4 ,! p]icycle1 =m]ly call$ ! p]icambium1 is ! out]mo/ lay] ( ! conjunctive tissue ( ! /ele4 ,! bundle-%ea? ( ! "y /em is m easily recognis$ ?an 9 ! old] /em4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a cont9u\s lay] ( cells1 ^: radial walls h a *>act]i/ic d>k spot on ea* radial wall4 ,! bundle-%ea? lies imm$iately outside ! vascul> bundles1 curv+ slightly t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! /em 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! bundles4 ,x is m prom95t 9 ! /em :5 v "y1 z ! cells are !n fill$ ) />* granules4 ,?is lay] ( cells w be readily se5 9 sections treat$ ) iod9e4 ,9 dicotyls & gymnosp]ms ! m$ull>y rays consi/ ess5tially ( int]fascicul> gr\nd tissue4 ,! m$ull>y conjunctive tissue occupies ! c5tre ( ! /ele1 con/itut+ ! s-call$ pi?1 & usually consi/s ( p>5*ymat\s cells1 b may conta91 9 addition1 ei!r /one cells1 scl]5*yma fibres1 laticif]\s or gl&ul> tissues4 ,! ,fibro-vascul> or ,conduct+ ,tissue ,sy/em4--,?is sy/em con/itutes ! fibr\s framework ( ! plant1 & is ! sy/em by means ( :i* fluids are conduct$ f "o "p ( ! plant to ano!r4 ,its function is p>tly to give /r5g? & support1 b pr9cipally to conduct ! crude & elaborat$ juices to & f ! leaves4 ,x is f\nd only 9 ! high] plants1 con/itut+ ! t\gh & /r+y tissues 9 /ems & roots1 & ! sy/em ( ve9s 9 leaves4 ,! fibro-vascul> sy/em consi/s ess5tially ( vascul> tissue 7ducts1 tra*eids1 & sieve-tubes71 & =ms long /r&s--! fibro-vascul> bundles--:i* ext5d v]tically ?r\gh ! fundam5tal tissues ( ! plant4 ,! t]m 8fibro-vascul>10 z appli$ to ! conduct+ sy/em1 is n /rictly correct1 s9ce fibres d n always accompany ! vascul> elem5ts1 h5ce ?is sy/em is (t5 spok5 ( z ! vascul> sy/em1 & ! bundles z vascul>1 or m briefly z vasal bundles4 ,t ! arrangem5t1 & c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles 9 dicotyl$\s /ems are connect$ ) ^? ( ! leaves is an obvi\s fact4 ,x may be se5 9 sections ( ,helian?us1 b is m m>k$ly %[n 9 plants ) regul>ly decussate leaves1 z ,c]a/ium1 ,clematis1 c4 ,/ill1 ! arrangem5t ( ! bundles may diff] radically f t ( ! leaves1 & is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 indep5d5t ( !m4 ,?is w be notic$ 9 sections ( ,ib]is am>a1 :]e ! bundles d n run longitud9ally1 b 9 tang5tial spirals4 ,^!1 z ,ngeli po9t$ out1 h no direct relation ) ! leaves2 & he recomm5ds a s]ies ( types = inve/igation1 9 :i* x w be se5 h[ closely ! arrangem5t ( ! bundles is connect$ ) ! arrangem5t ( ! leaves1 & ! numb] ( bundles ent]+ ! /em f ea* leaf3 ,ib]is am>a1 leaves alt]nate1 leaf-trace ) "o bundle2 ,lup9us1 leaves alt]nate1 leaf-trace ) ?ree bundles2 ,c]a/ium1 leaves opposite1 leaf-trace ) "o bundle2 ,clematis1 leaves opposite1 leaf-trace ) ?ree bundles2 ,/a*ys1 leaves opposite1 leaf-trace ) two bundles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cae4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( ! /em ( ,c$>1 %[+ xylem or wood2 #b4 ,section ( /em ( ,conif]1 ! phloem & zones ( annual gr[?2 #c4 ,section ( an ,ivory ,nut1 cells1 & radiat+ pores2 #d4 ,section ( ! out] or ligne\s portion ( same1 ) radiat+ cells4 ,! connection ( ! leaf & /em w be be/ se5 by cutt+ longitud9al sections ?r\gh a "y node ( ,helian?us1 s z to include ! m$ian plane ( ! leaf1 or ( bo? leaves if opposite to ea* o!r1 z !y (t5 are2 /eep !m 9 dilute pota% = tw5ty-f\r h\rs & m\nt 9 glyc]9e4 ,a m$ium p[] w s]ve = _! exam9ation4 ,! c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles w appe> d>k ?r\gh ! m transp>5t p>5*yma4 ,! cont9uity ( ! tissues ( ! /em & petiole if foll[$ w be se5 to h no def9ite b\nd>y betwe5 ! two p>ts2 ! bundles f ! petiole pass into ! /em1 & no bundle ( ! upp] int]node lies 9 ! same v]tical plane z t :i* ent]s f ! petiole betwe5 two successive bundles ( ! vascul> r+4 ,e complete vasal bundle consi/s ( xylem or wood & phloem or ba/4 ,! =m] consi/s ess5tially ( tra*]y tissue 7ducts & tra*eids71 & may conta9 9 addition bo? wood fibres & wood p>5*yma4 ,! phloem or ba/ consi/s ess5tially ( sieve tissue1 & usually conta9s "s ord9>y p>5*yma4 ,9 angiosp]ms companion-cells always accompany ! sieve-tubes 9 ! phloem1 :ile 9 gymnosp]ms !y are abs5t4 ,accord+ to ! relative positions ( ! xylem & phloem elem5ts1 !re are two pr9cipal k9ds ( conjo9t bundles--! collat]al & ! conc5tric4 ,( ^! aga9 !re are ?ree v>ieties1 b ! exp]im5ts ) leaves br+ out p>allel facts2 t 9 ord9>y /ems ! /a9+ ( ! wood by an asc5d+ col\r$ liquid is due1 n to ! passage ( ! col\r$ liquid up ! sub/ance ( ! wood1 b to ! p]meability ( its ducts & su* ( its pitt$ cells z are unit$ into regul> canals2 & ! facts %[+ ?is at ! same "t indicate ) tol]able cle>ness ! process by :i* wood is =m$1 = :at 9 ^! cases is se5 to take place ) dye may be fairly presum$ to take place ) sap4 ,tak+ x1 !n1 z a fact t ! vessels & ducts are ! *annels ?r\gh :i* ! sap is di/ribut$1 ! v>y+ p]meability ( _! walls1 & consequ5t =mation ( wood1 is due to ! exposure ( ! plant to int]mitt5t me*anical /ra9s1 actual or pot5tial1 or bo?1 9 ?is way4 ,if a trunk1 a b\gh1 %oot1 or a petiole is b5t by a gu/ ( w9d1 ! sub/ance ( its convex side is subject to longitud9al t5sion1 ! sub/ance ( its concave side be+ at ! same "t compress$4 ,?is is ! prim>y me*anical effect4 ,! second>y is :5 ! tissues ( ! convex side are /ret*$1 & also produce lat]al compression4 ,9 %ort1 ! =mation ( wood is dep5d5t ^u transv]se /ra9s1 su* z are produc$ 9 ! a]ial p>ts ( upright plants by ! action ( ! w9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caf4--,t]m9ation ( ,vascul> ,sy/em4 #a4--;,absorb5t organ f ! leaf ( ,euphorbia n]iifolia4 ,! clu/] ( fibr\s cells =m+ "o ( ! t]m9ations ( ! vascul> sy/em is "h emb$d$ 9 a solid p>5*yma4 #b4--;,a /ructure ( analog\s k9d f ! leaf ( ,ficus ela/ica4 ,"h ! exp&$ t]m9ations ( ! vessels are emb$d$ 9 ! network p>5*yma1 ! cells ( :i* unite to =m envelopes = !m4 #c4--;,end view ( an absorb5t organ f ! root ( a turnip4 ,x is tak5 f ! out]mo/ lay] ( vessels4 ,its funnel-%ap$ int]ior is drawn z x pres5ts itself :5 look$ at f ! outside ( ?is lay]1 its n>r[ end be+ direct$ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! turnip4 #d4--,%[s on a l>g] scale "o ( ^! absorb5ts f ! leaf ( ,panax ,lessonii4 ,9 ?is figure is cle>ly se5 ! way 9 :i* ! cells ( ! network p>5*yma unite into a closely-fitt+ case = ! spiral cells4 #e4--;,a less-develop$ absorb5t1 %[+ its approximate connection ) a duct4 ,9 _! simple/ =ms ^! /ructures consi/ ( only two f5e/rat$ cells1 ) _! ends b5t r\nd s z to meet4 ,su* types occur 9 ! c5tral mass ( ! turnip1 :]e ! vascul> sy/em is relatively imp]fect4 ,besides ! comp>atively regul> =ms ( ^! absorb5ts1 !re are =ms compos$ ( amorph\s masses ( f5e/rat$ cells4 ,x %\ld be add$ t bo? ! regul> & irregul> k9ds are v v>iable 9 _! numb]s3 9 "s turnips !y are abundant1 & 9 o!rs sc>cely to be f\nd4 ,possibly _! pres5ce dep5ds on ! age ( ! turnip4 #f4--,repres5ts a mu* m massive absorb5t f ! same leaf1 ! surr\nd+ tissues be+ omitt$4 #g4--,simil>ly repres5ts1 )\t its %ea?1 an absorb5t f ! leaf ( ,clusia flava4 #h4--;,a longitud9al section ?r\gh ! axis ( ano!r su* organ1 %[+ its annuli ( reticulat$ cells :5 cut ?r\gh4 ,! cellul> tissue :i* fills ! int]ior is suppos$ to be remov$4 ,9 conc5tric bundles "o ( ! elem5ts1 ei!r ! xylem or ! phloem1 occupies ! c5tre1 & is m or less surr\nd$ by ! o!r1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #caj4 ,m]i/em tissue is nev] pres5t1 h5ce conc5tric bundles are always clos$4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 occur 9 ! /ems ( mo/ f]ns1 & are always surr\nd$ by a p]icycle & endod]mis1 & %\ld be reg>d$ z /eles4 ,conc5tric bundles ) a c5tral phloem occur 9 ! rhizomes ( "s monocotyles1 z ,calamus1 ,iris1 ,convall>ia1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cag4--,v]tical section ( ,sug>-cane ,/em %[+ p>a*yma & cry/all9e cells1 #bjj diamet]s4 ,! ,/ele1 or ,vascul> ,cyl9d]1 is develop$ f ! phloem ( ! gr[+ plant1 & consi/s ( "o or m vasal bundles imb$d$ 9 fundam5tal tissue1 ! :ole be+ enclos$ by a p]icycle & an endod]m4 ,! typical /ele includes all ! tissues evolv$ by ! endod]mis1 :i*1 h[ev]1 =ms no "p ( ! vascul> cyl9d] itself1 b m]ely surr\nds x4 ,! p]icycle is always ! out]mo/ lay] ( ! tissues ( ! /ele1 :ile ! endod]mis is ! inn]mo/ lay] ( ! extra-/el> tissues4 ,! arboreus type ( /em c be be/ foll[$ by mak+ sections ( a twig ( ! elm 7,ulmus campe/ris71 :i* w be f\nd to be cyl9drical hirsute1 gre5 or br[n accord+ to age1 ! latt] col\r be+ due to ! =mation ( cork4 ,small br[n excresc5ces are scatt]$ ov] its surface2 ^! are t]m$ l5ticels4 ,! cork w be se5 to lie imm$iately bel[ ! epid]mis1 & to consi/ ( cubical cells1 ) little or no cell cont5ts2 !y are arrang$ 9 radial r[s1 )\t int]cellul> spaces4 ,! walls ( ^! cork cells w /a9 yell[i%-br[n ) ,s*ultze's solution4 ,treat a ?9 section ) sulphuric acid & ! walls w swell out & gradually lose _! %>pness ( outl9e1 ) ! exception ( ! cuticul>is$ out] wall ( ! epid]mis & ! cork4 ,?is mat]ial is occasionally f\nd develop$ 9 ! twigs ( ! elm1 s t x c be sep>at$ z ?ick radial plates ( tissue4 8,by comp>+ sections ( twigs cut ( v>i\s ages1 ! foll[+ in=mation may be glean$3 ,t cork cambium1 or phellog51 appe>s z a lay] ( cortical cells bel[ ! epid]mis1 & t ^! divide p>allel to ! surface ( ! /em4 ,! result ( successive divisions 9 ?is direction is ! =mation ( second>y tissue1 :i* develops ext]nally z cork1 int]nally z phellod]m4 ,! true cork cambium consi/s ( only a s+le cell 9 ea* radial r[1 f :i*1 by successive division1 all ^! second>y tissues are d]iv$--i4e41 cambium ( vascul> bundles4 ,z /ems gr[ old]1 lay]s ( cork appe> successively fur!r & fur!r f ! ext]nal surface2 n only ! cortex1 b also ! out] portions ( ! phloem are ?us cut (f f physiological connection ) ! inn] tissue4 ,! t]m b>k is appli$ to tissues ?us cut (f1 toge!r ) ! cork :i* =ms ! physiological b\nd>y4 ,! /em ( ,vitis af=ds a good example ( su* successive lay]s ( cork40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cah4 #a4 ,laticif]\s ,tissue2 #b4 ,v]tical section ( a ,leaf ( ! ,india-rubb] ,tree1 ) a c5tral gl&2 #c4 ,v]tical ca/ ( spiral tubes ( ,opuntia4 ,= ! /udy ( sieve-tubes take ! vegetable m>r[1 9 :i* !y are ( extraord9>y size4 ,cut transv]se sections ( ! /em & /a9 ) eos91 & m\nt !m 9 glyc]9e4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t w be se5 to diff] f t ( mo/ o!r h]bace\s plants4 ,bel[ ! epid]mis a ?ick wall$ b& ( scl]5*yma ) lignifi$ walls w be se5 di/9ct f ! vascul> bundles1 :i* readily take a /a94 ,! vascul> bundles are sep>ate & di/9ct1 & ! /ructure ( ! bundle is abnormal1 !re be+ 9 ea* a sep>ate c5tral mass ( xylem1 ) ! phloem masses ly+1 ! "o c5tral1 ! o!r 9 ! p]iph]al side4 ,betwe5 ! xylem & ! phloem masses is ! cambium lay]4 ,! /ructure be+ ! same 9 bo? w s]ve = ! /udy ( ! punctate sieve-plates2 ^! are readily /a9$ ) eos91 z %[n 9 ,sa*'s text-book4 ,laticif]\s ,tissues 7,fig4 #cah74--;,9 cutt+ sections ( latex c>e mu/ be tak5 to at once transf] !m to alcohol s z to prev5t ! fl[ ( ! latex f ! cells1 o!rwise ! laticif]\s vessels w be mu* less easily trac$4 ,! bett] me?od is to plunge ! root ( ! d&elion 7,leontodon t>axacum71 aft] clean+1 into alcohol1 & !re let x rema9 until x has become h>d5$2 !n cut ?9 tang5tial sections f ! phloem1 & longitud9al sections ?r\gh ! cambium1 & m\nt !m 9 pota% & glyc]9e4 ,! laticif]\s vessels appe> circul> 9 ! transv]se sections ) br[n cont5ts2 ^! are di/ribut$ 9 gr\ps r\nd ! c5tral xylem4 ,obs]ve 9 su* sections ! pres5ce ( sph]e cry/als ( inul94 ,^! are =m$ q irrespective ( ! cell-walls4 ,laticif]\s cells are readily se5 9 ! cortex ( ,euphorbia spl5d5s1 cut j outside ! vascul> r+4 ,long tubes w be se5 to run ?r\gh ! cortical p>5*yma1 ) ?ick cellulose walls & granul> cont5ts4 ,^! are ! laticif]\s cells1 ! bran*+ ( :i* di/+ui%es !m f ! prec$+ /ructure4 ,includ$ 9 ! granul> cont5ts are />* gra9s ( a peculi> dumb-bell =m4 ,leaf or ,petiole4--,! g5]al morphology ( leaf tissue is ess5tially ! same z t ( ! /em f :i* x proce$s4 ,9 ! typical mono/otic /em ( ,phan]ogam ea* leaf receives a portion ( ! /ele or c5tral cyl9d] ( ! /em4 ,su* portion is t]m$ a m]i/ele1 & may be ei!r entire or split up into a numb] ( s*izo/eles4 ,! microscopical /ructure ( leaves %\ld be /udi$ 9 ! :ole organ1 & by ! aid ( isolat+ elem5ts4 ,! :ole or portion ( a leaf %\ld be soak$ 9 *loral hydrate solution2 ?is w r5d] x transp>5t1 :]eby ! int]nal /ructure c be /udi$ z a :ole4 ,sections %\ld be prep>$ f fre% leaves1 or dri$ ones s(t5$ by soak+ 9 wat]4 ,cut !m transv]sely1 bo? 9 ! direction ( ! mid-rib & at "r angles to x4 ,?is is be/ effect$ by plac+ ! mat]ial betwe5 two pieces ( eld] pi? or fre% c>rot4 ,sections ( ! :ole are made & transf]r$ to a di% ( wat]4 ,leaf sections are easily made = exam9ation by mac]at+ ! leaves 9 solution ( cau/ic pota% v>y+ 9 /r5g? f "o to five p] c5t4 ,! epid]mis on bo? sides may be deta*$1 & ! elem5ts ( ! mesophyll & vascul> bundles isolat$ = sep>ate exam9ation4 ,potassium p]manganate proves to be a useful reag5t4 ,a weak solution causes ! protoplasmic /ructures to swell up1 ?us assi/+ 9 ! obs]vation ( ! /ructure ( ! *romatophores4 ,?is solution may also be employ$ z a mac]at+ fluid4 ,beautiful prep>ations are obta9$ 9 ?is way ( ! sieve-tubes ( ,vitis4 ,special /ructural peculi>ities are to be obs]v$ 9 ! leaves ( v>i\s plants 9 :i* ! epid]mis consi/s ( m ?an a s+le lay] ( cells 7e4g41 ! leaves ( ,ficus1 ,pep]ace1 ,begoniace1 c471 cy/ole?s 9 ! cells ( ! epid]mis ( ,urtica2 gl&ul> /ructure 9 ,ruta1 ,psorales2 ! coriace\s leaves ( ! ,*]ry ,laurel1 & ! cyl9drical leaves ( ,/onecrop 7,s$um acre74 ,reproductive ,organs4--,! developm5t ( ! rudim5ts ( fl[]s is ( an extremely int]e/+ nature1 & ! complete fl[] %\ld be c>efully /udi$4 ,m$ian sections are be/ suit$ = ! purpose4 ,9 ! l>ge majority ( plants ! calyx is develop$ fir/1 !n ! corolla1 & next ! /am5s4 ,prep>ations %\ld be made f mat]ials h>d5$ 9 alcohol1 or fir/ fix$ ) a /rong solution ( picric acid & !n h>d5$ 9 alcohol4 ,poll5-gra9s4--,microspores are f\nd ly+ free 9 sections made ( ! reproductive organs2 ^! may be transf]r$ to a glyc]9e fluid & exam9$ "u a high p[]4 ,!y are mo/ly sph]ical1 ) granul> protoplasmic cont5ts1 9 :i* ) mu* difficulty two nuclei c be made out4 ,m\nt & exam9e1 z types ( ! v>i\s =ms ( granules1 ! poll5 ( ,helian?us1 ,al?a1 ,cucurbita1 no!ra1 ,or*is1 ,mimosa1 ,tulipa1 c4 ,m\nt any ( ^! poll5-gra9s 9 a weak solution ( cane-sug> 7ab\t five p] c5t471 exam9e ) a high p[]1 & note ! configuration ( _! walls ) a m$ium p[] "u pol>is$ light4 ,if transv]se sections be made f v "y buds1 ! developm5t ( ! an!r & ! poll5 may be trac$4 ,! mat]ial %\ld be pres]v$ 9 /rong alcohol1 & ! sections treat$ ) equal p>ts ( alcohol & glyc]9e1 & expos$ 9 a wat*-glass t ! alcohol may evaporate4 ,by ?is me?od sections may be prep>$ = illu/rat+ ! =mation ( ! tapetum1 special "m-cells1 & division ( ! nucleus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cai4--,poll5 ,gra9s4 ,a4 ,poll5-gra9 ( ,clove-p9k2 ,b4 ,poppy2 ,c4 ,passion-fl[] 7,passiflora crulea72 ,d4 ,coba sc&5s4 ,/>* ,granules4--,"o ( ! mo/ univ]sally di/ribut$ mat]ials f\nd 9 plants is />* compos$ ( two sub/ances1 granulose1 :i* con/itutes by f> ! l>ge/ "p1 & a skeleton ( f>9ose4 ,x is only ! =m] ( ^! t /a9s blue ) iod9e solutions2 ! latt] p>tially assumes a br[ni% col\r4 ,! /ructure ( />* granules is n ( equal d5sity ?r\gh\t2 ! hilum or nucle> portion is mo/ conspicu\s1 ar\nd :i* ! re/ ( ! mat]ial is deposit$ 9 lay]s1 indicative ( /ratification4 ,! sev]al lay]s next to ! hilum are less d5se ?an ^? f>!/ f x4 ,! position ( ! hilum det]m9es ! =m ( ! gra91 a few be+ r\nd$1 o!rs oval or elongat$4 ,! gra9 also conta9s diff]5t proportions ( wat]2 ?is conveys ! appe>ance ( conc5tric l9es or curves ab\t ! nucleus4 ,! latt] is m conspicu\s 9 ! potato />*es1 z se5 9 ,plate ,,xiii41 ,nos4 #f-ae4 ,/>* gra9s1 9 ne>ly all cases1 are =m$ by ! ag5cy ( proteid bodies1 ei!r *loropla/s or amylopla/s1 & "u ! action ( sunlight are gradually brok5 up & employ$ 9 ! process ( gr[?4 ,!re are "s plants1 h[ev]1 notably ! ,composite1 9 :i* ano!r c>bohydrate1 inul91 takes ! place ( />* f ! fir/1 & is us$ z a res]ve food mat]ial4 ,= ?is reason we look 9 va9 = />* 9 ! cells ( ,inula1 ,t>axacum1 c4 ,f ! :ole gr\p ( fungi />* is abs5t2 ?is seems to expla9 ! fact t *lorophyll1 or col\r+ matt]1 is r>ely met ) 9 ! fungi1 h5ce _! inability to utilize1 l gre5 plants1 c>bon-dioxide z food4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbj4--,swoll5 ,potato ,/>*1 aft] ! application ( potassium hydrate4 7,magnifi$ #baj diamet]s47 ,! tissues :i* mo/ commonly conta9 />*1 or :i* conta9 x 9 l>ge/ quantity1 are ^? ( ! p>5*ymat\s s]ies1 ?\gh x sometimes occurs 9 ! latex ( laticif]\s tissues1 & ev5 9 ducts & tra*eids4 ,9 ! /ems ( ,dicotyl$ons x occurs *iefly 9 ! p>5*yma ( ! middle & inn] b>k1 9 ! m$ull>y ray cells1 & 9 ! cells ( ! pi?4 ,9 ! roots ( ^! plants x has a simil> di/ribution1 be+ = ! mo/ "p conf9$ to ! middle or inn] b>k & ! m$ull>y rays1 pi? n be+ pres5t 9 ^! organs4 ,9 succul5t /ems & roots1 ( c\rse1 x also commonly occurs 9 ! xylem tissues ( ! fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,a /udy ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( />*es is important1 s9ce ?is mat]ial is v l>gely us$ z an adult]ant4 ,o!r ?an microscopical means ( detect+ frauds are practically useless2 assay+ is t$i\s & exp5sive1 :ile ! microscope is always available & at h&4 ,! limits ( v>iation %\ld be /udi$ 9 />*es f ! same species ( plants2 ! v>iations are n v wide1 b 9 mo/ cases *>act]i/ic1 s t ! discrim9ation is at all times an easy task4 ,! reag5ts requir$ are simply iod9e & dilute potassium hydrate1 aid$ by pol>is$ light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cba4 a a a4 ,granules & cells ( cocoa2 b b b4 ,arr[root1 ,t\s-les-mois2 c c c4 ,tapioca />*4 7,magnifi$ #cjj diamet]s47 ,! />* gra9s ( ! potato are ! be/ to /udy 9 ! fir/ in/ance on acc\nt ( _! l>ge size 7,fig4 #cbj74 ,9 arr[root />* 7,fig4 #cba7 ! /ratification is almo/ z di/9ct z 9 t ( ! potato2 ! gra9s mu* resemble ea* o!r4 ,al?\gh some:at small]1 ! gra9s ( arr[root are m uni=m 9 size4 ,! />*es are mu* us$ z an adult]ant ( drugs & v>i\s articles sold z cocoas4 ,:eat-/>* 7,fig4 #cbb7 consi/s ( circul> flatt5$ gra9s v>y+ mu* 9 size1 ! c5tral nucleus & /ratification ( :i* are v difficult to di/+ui%4 ,9 ! small] />*es ! hilum becomes m indi/9ct1 & )\t /ratification1 z 9 rice-/>*1 ! latt] be+ angul> 9 %ape4 ,! hilum 9 o!r legum9\s plants =ms a longitud9al cleft2 :ite rye-/>* exhibits di/9ct cracks4 ,comp\nd gra9s are occasionally met )1 z 9 ! oat4 ,9 ,plate ,,xiii4 w be f\nd small gr\ps ( />*es tak5 "u ! same m$ium p[] = ! sake ( comp>ison4 ,9 ! microscopical exam9ation ( />*es fir/ use a #b_/c-;in* or a #a_/b-;in* & !n a #a_/f-;in* objective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 a4 ,husks ( ,:eat-/>*1 swoll5 by reag5ts & heat2 b4 ,a portion ( cellulose2 c4 ,rice-/>*1 magnifi$ #dbj diamet]s4 ,! bran ( ! husk ( :eat :5 brok5 by gr9d+ is se5 to be compos$ ( two coats ( hexagonal cells1 ! out] ( :i* is deta*$ by ! roa/+ process4 ,! hexagonal cell lay] is1 h[ev]1 s little alt]$ z to be p]fectly di/+ui%able "u ! microscope4 ,?us ev5 a small admixture ( roa/$ corn ) c(fee or *icory c be detect$ )\t mu* difficulty4 ,z to :e!r />* granules %\ld be reg>d$ z cry/all9e or colloid bodies1 a diff]5ce ( op9ion /ill prevails4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 reasons = believ+ t ! pol>isation effects produc$ by />* gra9s are n due to cry/all9e /ructure b to /ress or /ra91 ( ! same nature z ! pol>isation ( glass :5 x is subject to /ra94 ,! pol>is+ ph5om5a are precisely su* z w\ld be induc$ 9 any transp>5t solid compos$ ( lay]s1 ! inn] ( :i* be+ kept 9 a /ate ( /ress by ! compression ex]t$ by ! out] lay]s4 ,moreov]1 :5 by use ( a swell+ reag5t1 su* z cau/ic pota% solution1 ! out] wall ( ! />* is made to exp& by ! imbibition ( wat]1 ! pol>isation effects imm$iately disappe>4 ,7 ! solid p>ticles ( cry/al ?us =c$ ap>t by wat] ea* p>ticle w\ld /ill exhibit pol>isation ph5om5a4 ,want ( space w n p]mit me to fur!r enl>ge ^u o!r micro-*emical sub/ances t ent] into ! composition ( plants2 z1 = example1 ! oil secret+ gl&s4 ,^! :5 pres5t take ! place ( />*4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o product among ! cell cont5ts ( plants ( "s int]e/ to ! microscopi/--^? extremely f9e cry/als kn[n z raphides1 compos$ ( calcium-phosphate & oxalate4 ,mr4 ,gulliv] insi/$ ^u ! value ( raphides z *>act]i/ic ( sev]al families ( plants4 ,s*leid5 /ates t 8ne$le-=m$ cry/als1 9 bundles ( f tw5ty to ?irty 9 a cell1 are pres5t 9 almo/ all plants10 & t s really practical is ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( raphides1 t by /udy+ !m he has be5 able to pick out pots ( se$l+ ,onagrace1 :i* _h be5 accid5tally mix$ ) pots ( o!r se$l+s ( ! same age1 & at t p]iod ( gr[? :5 no o!r botanical "* w\ld h be5 s readily suffici5t4 ,if we exam9e a portion ( ! lay]s ( an onion 7,plate ,,xiv41 ,no4 #c71 or a ?9 section ( ! /em or root ( ! g>d5 rhub>b 7,no4 #d71 we %all f9d _m cells 9 :i* ei!r bundles ( ne$le-%ap$ cry/als or masses ( a /ellate =m occur1 n /rictly raphides4 ,raphides 7 fir/ notic$ by ,malpighi 9 ,opuntia1 & subsequ5tly describ$ by ,jur9e & ,raspail4 ,accord+ to ! latt] obs]v]1 ! ne$le-%ap$ or acicul> are compos$ ( phosphate1 & ! /ellate ( oxalate ( lime4 ,!re are o!rs hav+ lime z a basis1 9 comb9ation ) t>t>ic1 malic1 & citric acids1 all ( :i* are de/roy$ by acetic acid2 o!rs are soluble 9 _m ( ! fluids employ$ 9 m\nt+4 ,^! cry/als v>y 9 size f ! #a_/dj? ( an in*1 :ile o!rs are z small z ! #a_/ajjj?4 ,!y occur 9 all p>ts ( ! plant2 9 ! /em1 b>k1 leaf1 petals1 fruit1 root1 & ev5 9 ! poll51 & occasionally 9 ! int]ior ( cells4 ,9 c]ta9 species ( aloe1 z ,aloe v]rucosa1 we are able to disc]n small silky filam5ts2 ^! are bundles ( ! acicul> =m ( raphides1 & probably1 z 9 sponges1 act z a skeleton support to ! int]nal s(t pulpy mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,/ellate ,,& ,,cry/all9e ,,tissue ,,( ,,plants4 ,9 portions ( ! cuticle ( ! m$ic9al squill 7,scilla m>itima7 l>ge cells are f\nd full ( ne$le-%ap$ cry/als4 ,^! cells1 h[ev]1 d n lie 9 ! same plane z ! small] cells ( ! cuticle4 ,9 ! cuticle ( an onion e cell is occupi$ ei!r by an octah$ral or a prismatic cry/al ( calcium oxalate4 ,9 "s specim5s ! octah$ral =m pr$om9ates2 9 o!rs1 ev5 f ! same plant1 ! cry/als are prismatic & arrang$ 9 a /ellate =m1 z 9 t ( ! grass 7,ph>us cri/atus74 7,plate ,,xiv41 ,no4 #f47 ,raphides ( peculi> figure are f\nd 9 ! b>k ( c]ta9 trees4 ,9 ! hickory 7,c>ya alba7 may be obs]v$ masses ( flatt5$ prisms hav+ bo? extremities po9t$4 ,9 v]tical sections f ! /em ( ,elagnus angu/ifolia1 num]\s raphides ( l>ge size are emb$d$ 9 ! pi?1 & also f\nd 9 ! b>k ( ! apple-tree1 & 9 elm se$s1 e cell conta9+ two or m m9ute cry/als4 ,9 ! ,gram9ace1 especially ! canes2 9 ! ,equisetum hyemale1 or ,dut* ru%2 9 ! husk ( rice1 :eat1 & o!r gra9s1 silica 9 "s =m or o!r is abundant4 ,"s h beautifully-arrang$ masses ( silica ) raphides4 ,! leaves ( ,deutzia scabia1 ,no4 #g1 are rem>kable = _! /ellate hairs1 develop$ f ! cuticle ( bo? _! upp] & "u surfaces2 =m+ mo/ int]e/+ & attractive objects exam9$ "u pol>is$ light4 7,plate ,,viii41 ,no4 #agc47 ,silica is f\nd 9 ! /ructure ( ,rubiace bo? 9 ! /em & leaves1 &1 if pres5t 9 suffici5t ?ickness1 depol>ises light4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! gl&ul> hairs on ! m>g9s ( ! leaves4 ,"o ( ! ord] ,composit1 a plant popul>ly kn[n z ! 8sneezewort0 7,ar*ill pt>mica71 has a l>ge am\nt ( silica 9 ! hairs f\nd ab\t ! s]ratures ( its leaves4 ,all plants are provid$ ) hairs2 "s few ) hairs ( a def5sive "*4 ,^? 9 ! ,urtica dioica1 commonly call$ ! ,/++-nettle1 are gl&ul> hairs1 develop$ f ! cuticle1 & conta9 an irritat+ fluid2 9 o!r hairs a circulation is visible3 exam9$ "u a p[] ( #ajj diamet]s1 !y pres5t ! appe>ance se5 at ,plate ,,xiii41 ,no4 #ai4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,a4 ,cotton2 ,b4 ,fibres ( ,flax2 ,c4 ,filam5ts ( ,silk2 ,d4 ,wool ( ,%eep4 ,! fibr\s tissue ( plants is ( great value 9 _m manufactures4 ,x supplies mat]ial = our l95s1 cordage1 pap]1 & o!r indu/ries4 ,?is tissue is rem>kable = t\ghness ( fibre1 & exhibits an approa* to inde/ructibility1 9 ! use x is put to 9 connection ) ! electric light4 ,x is ( importance1 !n1 to be able to di/+ui% x f o!r fibres ) :i* x is (t5 mix$ 9 v>i\s manufactures4 ,"h ! use ( ! microscope is f\nd ( consid]able importance4 ,9 flax & hemp1 9 :i* ! fibres are ( great l5g?1 !re are traces ( transv]se m>k+s at %ort int]vals4 ,9 ! r\gh condition 9 :i* flax is import$ into ?is c\ntry1 ! fibres h be5 sep>at$1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 by a process t]m$ hackl+1 & fur!r subject$ to hackl+1 mac]ation1 & blea*+1 be=e x c be r$uc$ to ! :ite silky condition requir$ by ! sp9n] & weav]1 & f9ally assumes ! appe>ance ( /ructureless tubes1 ,fig4 #cbc ,b4 ,*9a-grass1 ,new ,zeal& flax1 & "s o!r plants produce a simil> mat]ial1 b are n s /rong1 9 consequ5ce ( ! out] membrane conta9+ m lign9e4 ,x is important to ! manufactur] t he %\ld be able to det]m9e ! true "* ( "s ( ! textures employ$ 9 articles ( clo?+2 ?is he may d by ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,9 l95 we f9d ea* compon5t ?read made up ( ! longitud9al1 unm>k$ fibres ( flax2 b if cotton has be5 mix$1 we recognise a flatt5$1 m or less r\nd$ b&1 z 9 ,fig4 #cbc ,a1 hav+ a v /rik+ resemblance to hair1 :i*1 9 reality1 x is2 s9ce1 9 ! condition ( elongat$ cells1 x l9es ! inn] surface ( ! pod4 ,^!1 aga91 %\ld he contra/$ ) ! filam5ts ( silk1 ,fig4 #cbc ,c1 & also ( wool1 ,fig4 #cbc ,d4 ,! latt] may be at once recognis$ by ! zigzag transv]se m>k+s on its fibres4 ,! surface ( wool is cov]$ ) furr[$ & twi/$ f9e cross l9es1 ( :i* !re are f #b1jjj to #d1jjj 9 an in*4 ,on ?is /ructure dep5ds its felt+ prop]ty1 9 judg+ ( fleeces1 att5tion %\ld be paid to ! f95ess & ela/icity ( ! fibre--! furr[$ & scaly surface1 z %[n by ! microscope1 ! quantity ( fibre 9 a giv5 surface1 ! purity ( ! fleece1 ^u :i* dep5d ! success ( ! sc\r+ & subsequ5t op]ations4 ,9 ! mummy-clo?s ( ! ,egyptians flax only 0 us$1 :]eas ! ,p]uvians us$ cotton alone4 ,by ! _m improvem5ts introduc$ into manufactur+ processes1 flax has be5 r$uc$ to ! f95ess & texture ( silk1 & ev5 made to resemble o!r mat]ials4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbd4 #a4 ,woody ,fibre f ! root ( ! ,eld]1 exhibit+ small pores2 #b4 ,woody fibre ( fossil wood1 %[+ l>ge pores2 #c4 ,woody fibre ( fossil wood1 bord]$ ) pores & spiral fibres2 #d4 ,fossil wood f coal4 ,fossil ,plants4--,x is well kn[n t ! primordial =e/s furni% a numb] ( families ( plants famili> to ! mod]n algologi/4 ,! cord-l plant1 ,*orda filium1 kn[n z 8dead m5's ropes10 f its prov+ fatal at times to ! too adv5tur\s swimm] :o gets entangl$ 9 its ?ick wrea?s1 _h a ,l[] ,silurian repres5tative1 kn[n to palontologi/s z ,palo*orda1 or anci5t *orda1 :i* exi/$1 app>5tly1 9 two species1--a l>g] & a small]4 ,! /ill bett] kn[n ,*ondrus crispus1 ! ,iri% moss1 or ,c>rage5 moss1 has likewise its app>5t1 ?\gh m di/ant repres5tative1 9 *ondritis1 a ,l[] ,silurian algal1 ( :i* !re seems to exi/ at lea/ ?ree species4 ,! fucoids1 or kelpwe$s1 appe> to h also _! repres5tatives 9 su* plants z ,fucoides gracilis1 ( ! ,l[] ,silurians ( ! ,malv]ns2 9 %ort1 ! ,?allog5s ( ! fir/ ages ( vegetable life seem to h resembl$ 9 ! gr\p1 & 9 at lea/ _! m prom95t features1 ! alg ( ! exi/+ "t4 ,& ) ! fir/ indications ( l& we pass f ! ?allog5s to ! acrog5s--f ! seawe$s to ! f]n-allies4 ,! ,lycopodiace1 or club-mosses1 be> 9 ! axils ( _! leaves m9ute circul> cases1 :i* =m ! receptacles ( _! spore-l se$s4 ,& :5 high 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian sy/em1 & j :5 prep>+ to quit x = ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 we detect our e>lie/ t]re/rial organisms1 we f9d t !y are compos$ exclusively ( ^? little spore-receptacles4 ,! exi/+ plants :5ce we d]ive our analogies 9 deal+ ) ! vegetation ( ?is e>ly p]iod contribute b little1 if at all1 to ! support ( animal life4 ,! f]ns & _! allies rema9 unt\*$ by ! graz+ animals4 ,our native club-mosses1 ?\gh once us$ 9 m$ic9e1 are positively delet]i\s2 horsetails 7,equisetace71 ?\gh h>mless1 s ab\nd 9 silex1 :i* wrap !m r\nd ) a cuticle ( /one1 t !y are r>ely cropp$ by cattle2 :ile ! ?ickets ( f]n :i* cov] our hill & dell1 & seem s tempt+ly ri* & gre5 9 _! season1 sc>ce support ! exi/5ce ( a s+le creature1 & rema9 unt\*$1 9 /em & leaf1 f _! fir/ appe>ance 9 spr+ until !y droop & )] "u ! fro/s ( e>ly w9t]4 ,! flora ( ! coal measures 0 ! ri*e/ & mo/ luxuriant1 9 at lea/ individual productions1 ) :i* ! fossil botani/ has =m$ an acqua9tance4 ,nev] be=e or s9ce did our planet be> s rank a vegetation z t ( :i* ! num]\s coal seams & inflammable %ales ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod =m b a portion ( ! rema9s--! portion sp>$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 by dissipation & decay1 & 9 ! second by d5ud+ ag5cies4 ,nev]!less almo/ all our coal--! /or$-up fuel ( a _w--is n1 z x is (t5 said to be1 ! product ( de/roy$ =e/s ( conif]s & flora ( ! pr(use vegetation ( ! e>lie/ p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( our globe4 ,lat] inve/igations %[ t our coal measures are ! compress$ accumulations ( peat-bogs :i*1 lay] by lay]1 h sunk5 d[n "u ! sup]impos$ weight ( ! next4 ,! v]tical /ems ( conif]\s trees became imb$d$ by a natural process ( decay1 & 7 subsequ5tly ov]:elm$ 9 ! erect position 9 :i* !y are f\nd4 ,! true grasses sc>cely appe> 9 ! fossil /ate at all4 ,= ! fir/ "t1 amid ! rema9s ( a flora t seems to h _h b few fl[]s--! ,oolitic ages--d we detect1 9 a few brok5 fragm5ts ( ! w+s ( butt]flies1 decid$ traces ( ! fl[]-suck+ insects4 ,n1 h[ev]1 until we ent] into ! great ,t]ti>y division d ^! become num]\s4 ,! fir/ bee makes its appe>ance 9 ! amb] ( ! ,eoc5e1 lock$ up h]metically 9 its gem-l tomb--an embalm$ corpse 9 a cry/al c(f9--along ) fragm5ts ( fl[]-be>+ h]bs & trees4 ,h] tomb rema9s to te/ify to ! gradual fitt+ up ( our e>? z a place ( habitation = creatures de/9$ to seek delight = ! m9d & eye1 z c]ta9ly z = ! prop] s5ses1 & 9 especial m>ks ! introduction ( ! /ately =e/ trees1 & ! arrival ( ! *>m+ly beautiful fl[]s t n[ deck ! e>?4#fb ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,sub-k+dom ,protozoa4 ,! consid]ation ( ! :ole special gr\p ( organisms =m+ ! subject matt] ( ?is *apt]1 "u ! head+ ( ,protozoa1 7 =m]ly includ$ among ,infusoria1 :i* also embrac$ e k9d ( microscopical aquatic body1 :e!r belong+ to ! vegetable or animal s]ies4 ,a m critical survey ( ! organisation & aff9ities ( ,infusoria & ! memb]s :i* con/itut$ ! gr\p l$ to a re-arrangem5t1 :i* has be5 v g5]ally accept$ z =m+ a sub-k+dom1 ,protozoa4 ,?is may be def9$ z embrac+ all ^? =ms ( life1 ref]able to ! l[e/ grade ( ! animal k+dom1 ^: memb]s = ! mo/ "p are repres5t$ by organisms possess+ a s+le cell or aggregation ( cells 7& also includ$ "u ! g5]al t]m ( unicellul> organisms7 ! :ole ( :i* are engag$ 9 fe$+1 mov+1 respir+1 & reproduc+ by segm5tation or fission mu* 9 ! same way z t ( ! unicellul> plants describ$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,foll[+ out ?is sub-division ( ! entire s]ies ( ,protozoa1 ! sev]al gr\ps range !mselves into f\r readily di/+ui%able sections4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! mo/ l[ly organis$ & mo/ abundant h no oral orifice 9 ! lit]al mean+ ( ! ^w1 food be+ int]cept$ at any po9t ( ! surface ( ! body4 ,?is mo/ simple elem5t>y type ( /ructure ( ! ,protozoa is repres5t$ 9 ! ,amba & ,act9ophrys1 ! v>i\s repres5tatives ( ! ,=am9if]a1 & c]ta9 ,flagellata1 z ,spumella & ,an?rophysa4 ,next 9 ! asc5d+ scale is a gr\p ( ,protozoa1 9 :i*1 ?\gh diff]5tiation has n proce$$ s f> z to arrive at ! con/itution ( a di/9ct oral ap]ture1 ! inception ( food sub/ance is limit$ to a discoidal area occupy+ ! ant]ior extremity ( ! body & is associat$ ) ! special food-arre/+ app>atus4 ,to ?is section ( ! ,protozoa are relegat$ ! m9ut] flagellate1 8coll>-be>+0 animals1 & also ! entire gr\p ( sponges or ,porif]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,greg>9ida1 ,,polycy/9a1 ,,=am9if]a1 ,,rotif]a1 ,,etc4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,9 ! ?ird section ! highe/ degree ( organisation is arriv$ at4 ,"h is repres5t$ a s+le1 simple1 (t5 highly-diff]5tiat$ oral ap]ture or true m\?4 ,associat$ ) ?is section are f\nd ! majority ( ^? organisms t collectively con/itute ! class ,infusoria 9 ! prop] acceptation ( ! t]m1 & x embraces ! majority ( ! ,ciliata1 ! ,cilio-flagellata1 z ,eugl5a1 ,*ilomonas1 c41 9 :i* ! pres5ce ( a di/9ct & circumscrib$ oral ap]ture is cle>ly se54 ,) ! f\r? & rema9+ section ( ,protozoa1 ! oral or inceptive app>atus exhibits a highly *>act]i/ic /ructural modification4 ,?is is n re/rict$ to a def9ite area1 nor is x associat$ ) ! entire surface ( ! body1 b x consi/s ( a numb] ( flexible1 retractile1 t5tacle-l organs radiat+ f div]se & def9ite regions ( ! p]iph]y1 ea* ( :i* subs]ves z a tubul> suck+-m\?1 or = ! purpose ( grasp+ food4 ,^! may be lit]ally describ$ z _m-m\!d1 & h be5 appropriately designat$ ,poly/omata4 ,! true zoological position ( ! ,spongida or ,porif]a is n f9ally settl$1 ! memb]s ( ?is important section hav+ be5 =m]ly reg>d$ z a subord9ate gr\p ( ! ,rhizopoda or an indep5d5t class ( ! ,protozoa2 consequ5tly a t5d5cy has be5 %[n to assign to !m a position m ne>ly approximat+ to t ( ! ,cl5t]ata1 or zoophytes & corals1 or place !m among ! m highly organis$ tissue-con/ruct$ animals1 ! ,metazoa1 ^! be+ *>act]is$ by gr\ps ( cells set ap>t to p]=m c]ta9 functions = ! :ole animal4 ,a division ( lab\r is se5 to be m>k$ 9 ^! l[] animals z ! organism becomes m specialis$1 & ! numb] ( functions a cell p]=ms becomes m & m limit$ z ! body becomes m complex4 ,x has be5 f\nd conv5i5t to adopt ! foll[+ def9ition ( ! ,infusoria z "o m g5]ally acceptable4 ,! ,protozoa 9 _! adult condition are furni%$ ) preh5sile or locomotive organs1 t take ! =m ( cilia1 flagella1 or ( adhesive or suctorial t5tacula1 b n ( simple pseudopodia2 _! zooids are ess5tially unicellul>1 free swimm+ or s$5t>y2 !y are ei!r nak$1 loricate1 or inhabit a simple1 mucilag9\s matrix2 s+le or unit$ 9 aggregations1 9 :i* ! individual units are di/9ctly recognisable2 n unit$ & =m+ a s+le gelat9\s plasmodium1 z 9 ,mycetozoa1 nor imm]s$ )9 & l9+ ! int]ior cavities ( a complex protoplasmic & mo/ly spiculif]\s skeleton1 z 9 ! ,spongida1 _! food sub/ances be+ int]cept$ by a s+le di/9ct oral ap]ture1 or by sev]al ap]tures ?r\gh a limit$ t]m9al region or ?r\gh ! entire area ( ! g5]al surface ( ! body4 ,!y increase by simple longitud9al or transv]se fission1 by ext]nal or int]nal gemmation or division1 prec$$ mo/ly by a quiesc5t or ency/$ /ate1 into a great] or less numb] ( sporul> bodies4 ,sexual elem5ts1 z repres5t$ by true ova or sp]matozoa1 are entirely abs5t1 b two or m zooids frequ5tly coalesce z an antec$5t process to ! ph5om5a ( op5 =mation4#fc ,! infusorial body 9 its simple/ type ( developm5t1 z 9 ,amba1 exhibits a /ructural composition sub/antially correspond+ ) t ( ! l[e/ organis$ tissue cell4 ,!re is no di/9ct b\nd+ membrane1 or cell-wall1 & x is ?r\gh\t1 & ap>t f ! nucleus or endop>t1 "o cont9u\s mass ( granul> matt]1 b o!rwise homog5e\s & undiff]5tiat$ protoplasm4 ,pr(essor ,greef1 :o has made a /udy ( ! ,amba1 describes motor fibrils 9 ! exoplasm :i* are active & l>ge 9 ,a4 t]ricola4 ,^! are readily se5 by /a9+ ) osmic acid1 &1 aft] wa%+ ?is out ) wat]1 imm]s+ 9 a weak alcoholic solution4 ,9 ,amba s prep>$ & exam9$ ) a high p[]1 ! :ole body w be se5 to be surr\nd$ by a di/9ct d\ble integum5t>y lay]4 ,highly refractive bodies may also be se5 9 ! int]ior1 connect$ toge!r by extremely f9e filam5ts4 ,pr(essor ,greef concludes t "h we h to d ) muscul> fibrill1 :i* trav]se ! contractile out] zone 9 a radial direction & !re t]m9ate = ! "t be+4 ,by a simil> me?od1 axial filam5ts c be demon/rat$ 9 ,heliozoa2 ^!1 x is believ$1 are ! true motors ( _! pseudopodia1 & also ! axial /ructures ( ! ,ac9eta1 a m>9e animal relat$ to ciliate infusoria4 ,9 ! ,amba1 at "o "t well kn[n z ! ,proteus animalcule1 ,fig4 #cbe1 ! m>vell\s body creeps onw>d 9 a fl[+ mann]1 occasionally & languidly emitt+ a s+le pseudopod fir/ on "o side1 !n on ! o!r4 ,m commonly x puts on a d5droid or palmate =m2 !n aga9 x assumes m or less grotesque %apes 9 :i* almo/ any conceivable image may be imag9$4 ,! body1 z w be se5 9 ?is highly-magnifi$ figure1 is full ( granules 7) ! exception ( a ?9 cle> out] hyal9e zone71 & ne> ! c5tre is a globul> or discoid body kn[n z ! nucleus1 compos$ ( slightly d5s] mat]ial ?an t :i* surr\nds x4 ,! division ( ! body into two is prec$$ by a division ( ?is nucleus4 ,ne> ! latt] is a cle> sph]ical space--! contractile vacuole--:i* gradually exp&s1 & !n r sudd5ly collapses & reappe>s at ! same spot1 ! sy/ole & dia/ole be+ sl[ & cont9u\s4 ,! contractile vacuole conta9s a cle> liquid :i* is expell$ on ! collapse ( ! vacuole4 ,?is organ probably s]ves ! d\ble function ( respiration & excretion4 ,! ,amba is omnivor\s1 *iefly a veget>ian1 &1 !re=e1 f\nd on ! ooze ( ponds or on ! "u surface ( ! leaves ( aquatic plants1 especially among ,conf]v4 ,x c be readily produc$ by plac+ a few fibres ( fre% meat 9 an infusion ( hay4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbe4--;,amba1 ,proteus animalcule2 magnifi$ #fjj diamet]s4--7,w>ne74 ,! ,greg>9 consi/ ( a rem>kable gr\p ( organisms1 b ^!1 al?\gh unicellul>1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 conf9$ to ! inte/9al tract ( worms & ( ! high] animals1 & w !re=e be describ$ among int]nal p>asites4 ,?o fungus-animals1 ,mycetozoa1 h already be5 ref]r$ to 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,! be/ kn[n species1 h[ev]1 is f\nd 9 tan y>ds 9 ! =m ( creep+ masses ( nak$ protoplasm1 t]m$ ,plasmodia4 ,cakes ( protoplasm become segregat$ f ! ma9 mass1 & break up into ,amba-l spores1 :i* unite aga9 to =m ,plasmodia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbf4--,rhizopoda lobosa4 ,a4 ,difflugia protei=mis2 ,b4 ,difflugia oblonga2 ,c1 ,d4 ,arcella acum9ata & d5tata ,! ,rhizopoda1 or root-foot$ class ( animals1 are among ! mo/ int]e/+ simple organisms ) :i* ! microscope has made u acqua9t$4 ,9 ! liv+ /ate !y h ! p[] ( protrud+ pseudopodia f ! body1 by :i* !y creep ab\t1 or cl+ to plants :5 9 se>* ( food4 ,?is gr\p1 9 fact1 includes ,amba1 ,=am9if]a1 ,sun-animalcules1 & ,radiol>ians4 ,9 ! fir/ ! pseudopodia are simple & lobose2 9 ! second !y are sl5d]1 conflu5t & reticulate2 :ile 9 ! two la/ !y are simple1 radiat+ & some:at /iff1 & p>take ( a calc>e\s =mation4 ,( ! ,lobosa1 we may take a well-kn[n repres5tative ( ! gr\p1 ! ,protomyxa1 f\nd at ! bottom ( fre%-wat] pools1 especially ^? ne> bog-moss1 :]e its m9ute orange-col\r$ p>ticles ( jelly-l sub/ance are se5 creep+ ov] /ones or %ells4 ,if quietly wat*$ ! pseudopodia1 "s ( :i* are broad & o!rs sl5d]1 become quiesc5t sph]es1 :i* break up into num]\s portions1 ea* ( :i* becomes a new animal4 ,?is gr\p is divid$ into ! %ell-less 7,nuda7 & %ell-=m$ 7,te/acea74 ,! br[n1 horny cov]+ is (t5 f9ely facet$1 & is ei!r %ap$ l a dome1 semi-circul>1 or flat z a box1 ?r\gh :i* !y protrude _! few or _m pseudopodia 7se5 9 ,fig4 #cbf74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,gromia4 ,9 ! ,difflugia ! lorica or %ell is /r5g!n$ by ! addition ( silici\s p>ticles2 9 ,euglypta x is sac-%ap$1 ) a jagg$ free m>g91 ! surface be+ cov]$ by ov]lapp+ scales2 :ile ,arcella are capable ( secret+ vesicles ( air 9 _! int]ior1 :]eby !y are enabl$ to rise to ! surface4 ,on "s p>ts ( our coa/1 if ! sea s& be c>efully look$ ov] ) a pocket l5s1 !re w (t5 be f\nd m9ute gra9s ( a porcela9 oval k9d1 belong+ to ! ,miliol9a1 segm5t$ or /rung toge!r n q 9 ! same plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbg4--,section ( ,rotalia4 a1a1 ,radiat+ int]ceptal canals2 b1 ,int]nal bifurcations2 c1 ,transv]se bran*2 d1 ,tubul> wall ( *amb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbh4--,rosal9a v>ians or ,discorb9a globul>ia1 ) pseudopodia protrud+4 ,! ,=am9if]a are rhizopods1 ^: simple protoplasmic bodies s5d =?1 ?r\gh p]=ations 9 ! membrane or out] cov]+ ( calcium c>bonate & silica1 bran*+ rays ( pseudopodia4 ,! ord] is divid$ into two gr\ps1 ! ,imp]=ata & ! ,p]=ata2 9 ! =m] ! %ell or h>d] /ructure possesses only "o or m ap]tures1 :]eas 9 ! latt]1 9 addition to ! ma9 op5+1 ! %ell has its walls p]=at$ ?r\gh\t1 :i* admits ( m9ute pseudopodia or f9e ?reads be+ protrud$ 7,fig4 #cbh74 7,see also ,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #ge-he47 ,! va/ majority ( ,p]=ata =m _! %ells1 or r skeletons1 ( calcium c>bonate & silica1 :i* r5d]s !m almo/ inde/ructible4 ,consequ5tly ! =m is pres]v$ ?r\gh ages1 & !y pres5t objects ( ! greate/ int]e/ to ! microscopi/4 ,a curi\s & int]e/+ feature ( ! ,=am9if]a--(t5 an elem5t ( difficulty to ! /ud5t--is ! t5d5cy ( modifications ( types compris+ ! l>g] gr\ps to run into p>allel isomorph\s s]ies4 ,?us1 if ! entire class be r\ghly divid$1 z x sometimes has be51 into ?ree ord]s1 compris+ respectively ! =ms *>act]is$ by porcellane\s1 ar5ace\s1 & hyal9e 8te/s10 ! same g5]al con=mation & arrangem5t ( *amb]s w be f\nd 9 ea* ( ! ?ree s]ies4 ,! mo/ rem>kable example1 ev5 among ! small] gr\ps1 is ! ,rotaliid1 ( :i* ?ree or f\r g5]a may be arrang$ 9 p>allel l9es1 & 9 m or less closely isomorph\s s]ies4 ,9 ! report app5d$ to ! 8,*all5g]0 s*eme ( classification _m examples are enum]at$4 ,9 ,ar5acea we h a small family ( ,=am9if]a1 ! ext]nal surfaces ( :i* pres5t a ridge & furr[ arrangem5t1 & ! incru/ations are entirely ( a s&y nature held toge!r by a cem5t secret$ by ! animal4 7,plate ,,xv41 ,no4 #a1 ,a/rorhiza limicola47 ,gromia4--,among ! m rem>kable ( ! ,p]=ata gr\p ! ,gromia h a =emo/ place4 ,!y are v m9ute globul> or oval-%ap$ bodies1 ab\t "o-tw5ty-f\r? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 f\nd 9 fre%1 bracki%1 & salt wat]4 ,! =ms br\ght up 9 ,dr4 ,walli*'s deep sea s\nd+s ( #ahfj 7 tak5 atta*$ to pieces ( corall9es1 or f\nd loose among ,globig]9a ooze4 ,at fir/ !re appe>s to be no?+ peculi> ab\t ^! t9y specks ( matt] resembl+ ! ova ( a zoophyte1 b pres5tly1 at ! small] end1 a v f9e ?read is protrud$1 & !n ano!r1 divid+ into f9] bran*es1 &1 ultimately1 a complete network ( filam5ts ext5ds on all sides1 & become atta*$ to ! side ( ! glass j> t conta9s !m4 ,n[1 on employ+ magnify+ p[]1 e ?read exhibits a circulatory motion1 an up & d[n /ream or cyclosis ( granules susp5d$ 9 a fluid mass4 ,x is by means ( ^! pseudopodia1 z ! ?reads are t]m$1 t ! ,gromia moves its body along & cl+s to ! glass4 ,we may surmise1 !n1 t ^! pseudopodia are ei!r gelat9\s1 glut9\s1 or t]m9ate 9 suck]-l processes4 ,increase 9 ! 8te/10 integum5t1 is br\ght ab\t1 z 9 ,difflugia1 by ! secretion ( calc>e\s matt] or by cem5t+ f9e silici\s p>ticles to ! out] wall1 z ! protoplasm is se5 to fl[ ov] ! te/1 s t :5 x comes 9 contact ) a diatom x is !reby drawn t[>ds ! oral op5+ & sl[ly dige/$4 ,"s consid]able "t elaps$ betwe5 ! discov]y ( ,gromia by ,mr4 ,w4 ,ar*]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & ! demon/ration ( a nucleus & contractile vesicle by ,dr4 ,walli*4 ,x 0 ?\ght t 9 ! :ole ( ! ,monozoa ! nucleus 0 abs5t1 b x is n[ kn[n t ?is important body is emb$d$ 9 ! protoplasmic sub/ance1 & ! reproduction ( ^! curi\s animals is !reby secur$4 ,among ! bett] kn[n species ( ,gromia is ,g4 ,duj>d9ii1 *iefly di/+ui%able by ! d>k] col\r ( ! 8te/10 by ! great] quantity ( silica t ent]s into ! =mation ( its pseudopodia1 & by ! =mation ( isogam\s zoospores1 two ( :i* are se5 9 conjugation 9 ,plate ,,xv41 ,no4 #b4 ,an excess ( protoplasm mu/ also be secret$ to admit ( s l>ge a protrusion outside ! te/a4 ,g4 ,lieb]khnia 7( ,clap>de & ,la*man71 ,no4 #e1 diff]s 9 =mation4 ,its %ape is pyri=m1 & ! op5+ :5ce ! pseudopodia /reams out is situat$ 9 a lat]al depression ab\t midway 9 ! te/a1 c1 o4 ,h5ce a trunk bran* is se5 to issue =?1 & f ?is a ramification ( ?reads1 psdp1 ext5ds to a consid]able di/ance 9 all directions4 ,! ,micro-gromia ( ,h]twig1 ,no4 #d1 is ! m9ute/ =m ( ! g5us yet discov]$1 & diff]s f ^? already describ$ 9 ! mode ( reproduction4 ,! individual takes ! %ape ( a wat] bottle ) a %ort neck1 :5ce issue =? a limit$ numb] ( v sl5d] ?reads4 ,! te/ is q transp>5t1 & x 0 9 ?is species t ! nucleus & contractile vesicle1 :i* lie emb$d$ ne> ! m\?1 7 fir/ cle>ly made out4 ,! zoospores ( ,micro-gromia h a curi\s habit ( unit+ ) _! neighb\rs to =m a colony1 ,no4 #d4 ,_! colonisation is app>5tly int5d$ to facilitate multiplication4 ,reproduction is c>ri$ on some:at aft] ! mann] ( ,volvox4 ,! globul> bodies =m$ s9k to ! bottom ( ! glass vessel1 & !re rema9 = a "t 9 a quiesc5t /ate4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a day or two ! mass assumes a motive appe>ance1 increases 9 bulk1 becomes m ovoid 9 %ape1 & ultimately ! nucleus %[s ! fir/ sign ( division4 ,v]tical segm5tation takes place1 z at ,a1 into two equal p>ts2 ea* half is se5 to possess its fair %>e ( ! nucleus & contractile vesicle4 ,x !n turns 9 ! horizontal direction1 & n[ !re appe>s to be an upp] & a l[] division1 ! upp]mo/ hav+ a neck-l atta*m5t1 & ?is is mak+ its way to ! n>r[ oral op5+ 9 ! p>5t te/a1 z at ,b4 ,"h x is se5 press+ =w>d1 & at ,c ! neck is protrud+ "s di/ance1 & ! second half assumes a bottle %ape2 at ,d ! great] "p ( ! animal is ne>ly set free1 & aft] a %ort re/ x fully laun*es =?4 ,x f9ally pulls itself toge!r1 z at ,e1 & ei!r develops a pair ( flagella & swims (f1 or assumes ! =m ( an ,act9ophrys4 ,9 ei!r case1 & 9 a v %ort space ( "t1 ! sep>at$ "y animal is q ready to re-unite1 z at ,f1 & assi/ 9 =m+ a new colony ( ! species4 ,! ,polymorph9a belong to a l[ g5us ( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,!y consi/ ( a numb] ( =ms & exhibit a r ext5sive s]ies ( v>iations1 al?\gh consi/+ ( a few simple types1 & %[+ transitions betwe5 =ms :i* at fir/ seem to be di/9ct4 ,! majority ( species keep to ! sea bottom2 "s few are pelagic1 & occur 9 abundance on ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,among ! latt] are ! ,globig]9a3 its %ell is ab\t "o-=tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & usually compos$ ( sev5 globul> *amb]s arrang$ spirally 9 su* a mann] t all are visible f above1 ea* *amb] op5+ by a cresc5tic-%ap$ orifice into a depression 9 ! middle ( ! next4 ,p]fect specim5s bri/le ) long sl5d] sp9es1 ! pores af=d+ passage to pseudopodia1 :i* /ream out along ! sp9es4 ,! m c>efully-conduct$ deep-sea inve/igations h br\ght to light ! fact t ! floor ( ! ocean1 at great dep?s1 & ov] a va/ area1 is =m$ ( ^! :ite or p9ki% col\r$ bodies1 all conta9+ on an av]age ab\t #fj p] c5t4 ( calcium c>bonate4 ,x is a "q :e!r ! ,globig]9id :i* make up ! bulk ( ! ooze actually live at ! bottom z well z ! surface ( ! sea4 ,?is "q has giv5 rise to mu* discussion4 ,dr4 ,murray came to ! conclusion t pelagic species d n live ne> ! ocean floor4 ,?is op9ion is p>tly bas$ on ! fact t ! area ( ! ,globig]9a ooze co9cides ) ! area ( surface ( temp]ature at :i* ^! bodies are f\nd to exi/4 ,:5 ! surface wat] is too cold = !m1 !y are n to be f\nd1 nei!r are !y f\nd bel[4 ,major ,s4 ,r4 ,j4 ,ow51 :ile dr$g+ ! surface ( mid-ocean--! ,indian1 & ! w>m] portion ( ! ,atlantic--f\nd atta*$ to 8 nets a numb] ( ^! int]e/+ bodies1 & :i* always made _! appe>ance j ab\t sunset4 ,9 ,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #dc-eb1 a numb] ( ^! int]e/+ & v>i\sly-=m$ bodies are giv51 & an attempt is also made to %[ ! ri*ly-t9t$ col\r appe>ances pres5t$ by ! s>code or protoplasm ( ! ,globig]9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbi4--;,globig]9a & o!r bodies tak5 9 deep sea s\nd+s 7,atlantic74 8,_m ( ! =ms10 writes ,major ,ow51#fd 8h hi!rto be5 claim$ by ! geologi/1 b ,i h f\nd !m enjoy+ life 9 ?is _! true home1 ! silici\s %ells fill$ ) col\r$ s>code1 & sometimes ?is s>code 9 a /ate ( di/5sion some:at simil> to t f\nd project+ f ! ,=am9if]a1 b n 9 su* sl5d] ?reads4 ,!re are no objects 9 nature m brilliant 9 _! col\r+ or m exquisitely delicate 9 _! =ms & /ructure4 ,"s are ( b "o col\r1 crimson1 yell[1 or blue2 sometimes two col\rs are f\nd on ! same individual1 b always sep>ate1 & r>ely if ev] mix$ to =m gre5 or purple4 ,9 a globul> species1 ^: %ell is made up ( ! mo/ delicate fretwork1 ! brilliant col\rs ( ! s>code %9e ?r\gh ! little p]=ations v prettily4 ,9 specim5s ( ! triangul> & squ>e =ms 7,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #dc1 #dd1 #de & #df71 ! respective t9ts ( yell[ & crimson are vivid & delicately %ad$2 9 "o ! p9k l9es are conc5tric2 :ile ano!r is ( a /ellate =m1 ! po9ts & uncol\r$ p>ts be+ bright cle> cry/al1 :ile a beautiful crimson r+ surr\nds ! c5tral portion4 ,a globul> =m resembles a specim5 ( ! ,*9ese ball-cutt+--"o sph]e )9 ano!r2 ?is1 h[ev]1 appe>s to belong to a di/9ct species4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccj4--;,globig]9a & o!r bodies tak5 9 deep sea s\nd+s1 #ahef 7,atlantic74 8,! %ells ( "s ( ! globul> =ms ( ^! ,polycy/9a1 ^: conjugation ,i believe ,i h witness$1 are compos$ ( a f9e fretwork1 ) "o or m l>ge circul> holes2 & ,i suspect ! junction to take place by ! union ( two su* ap]tures4 ,t ! figures ( ^! %ells become elongat$1 lose _! globul> =m aft] dea?1 & pres5t a di/urb$ surface is se5 9 "s ( ! figures repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #hb-he40 ,^? )\t int]nal *amb]s h be5 describ$ z ,orbul9a univ]sa1 ,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #gh1 :ile ,nos4 #ge & #gf1 al?\gh memb]s ( ! same family1 h be5 sep>at$1 b all %\ld c]ta9ly be unit$ "u ,globig]9a4 8,! m9ute silici\s %ells ( ,polycy/9a pres5t wond]ful beauty & v>iety ( =m2 all are m or less p]=at$1 & (t5 prolong$ into sp9es or o!r projections1 ?r\gh :i* ! s>code body ext5ds itself into pseudopodial prolongations resembl+ ^? ( ,act9ophrys4 ,:5 se5 disport+ !mselves 9 all _! liv+ spl5d\r1 _! brilliancy ( col\r+ r5d]s !m objects ( unusual attraction4 ,x w appe> t !y wi% to avoid ! light1 z !y are r>ely f\nd on ! surface ( ! sea 9 ! daytime2 x is aft] sunset & dur+ ! twilight t !y make _! appe>ance40 ,_m =ms ( ,globig]9a & ,=am9if]a are repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #cbi & #ccj4 ,^! v>i$ & beautiful =ms 7 dr$g$ up ) s\nd+s made 9 #ahef = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! dep? ( ! ,atlantic1 prior to ! lay+ d[n ( ! electric telegraph wire f ,engl& to ,am]ica1 & tak5 at a dep? ( #b1jgj fa?oms4 ,heliozoa4--,act9ophrys-,sol1 8sun-animalcules10 belong to ?is gr\p2 mo/ ( !m inhabit fre% wat] 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #ff74 ,! *ief *>act]i/ic1 & ! "o to :i* !y owe _! "n1 is ! possession ( long1 sl5d]1 some:at /iff pseudopodia2 ^! radiate f all p>ts ( ! body4 ,! liv+ animal usually conta9s gre5-col\r$ p>ticles )9 a m9ute transluc5t sph]ical globule ( ab\t #a_/bej? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,x is1 !re=e1 v>i\sly designat$ ! gre5 sun-animalcule1 ,acan?ocy/is1 or ,act9ophrys-,sol4 ,x is commonly f\nd among/ ! we$s 9 cle> pools ( wat]1 :]e desmids ab\nd4 ,! pseudopodia appe> to be /iff2 !y are1 h[ev]1 q flexible1 & ! body conta9s m ?an "o cle> vesicle ) a nucleus2 reproduction is secur$ by ! simple division comm5c+ 9 ! nucleus4 ,! little animal c move ov] a h>d surface by ! alt]nate relaxation & /iff5+ ( its pseudopodia2 :5 "o ( ^! t\*es a small organism1 x is believ$ to p>alyse x1 !n envelop1 & delib]ately dige/ x4 ,9 ano!r species1 ! lattice-animalcule 7,ca?rul9a71 ! pseudopodia or silici\s ?reads are arrang$ tang5tially4 ,x gr[s on a long flexible /alk1 atta*$ to an aquatic plant1 ! total l5g? ( :i* is ab\t #a_/bjj? an in*4 ,! globul> body is p]=at$ 9 all directions1 ?r\gh :i* ! f9e /iff pseudopodia are ?ru/ out2 x is (t5 kn[n to =m colonies4 ,9 ?is ord] may well be plac$ ! ,radiol>ia2 !y are1 h[ev]1 usually sep>at$4 ,b ,radiol>ians1 :e!r se5 alive or 9 _! skeleton =m1 are surpass+ly beautiful4 ,by ! fav\r ( ,messrs4 ,w>ne1 ,i am enabl$ to app5d a frontispiece plate to ?is volume tak5 f _! 8,royal ,natural ,hi/ory40 ,^! bodies are all m>9e1 & live 9 zones ( sev]al ?\s& fa?oms1 & l _! cong5]s1 ! ,globig]9a1 !y avoid a /rong light1 & only appe> aft] sunset4 ,_! bodies are suppos$ to emit a phosphoresc5t gl[1 b m is kn[n ( _! silici\s skeletons ?an ( _! liv+ =ms2 yet x is n ?is feature t sep>ates !m f o!r ord]s ( rhizopods1 b ! possession ( a membran\s c5tral capsule enclos+ ! nucleus4 ,! body sub/ance outside ?is capsule is highly vacuolat$ 9 "s species1 especially 9 surface =ms4 ,a few are )\t a skeleton1 & ^! consi/ ( oval masses ( protoplasm1 ) sl5d] pseudopodia4 ,9 a few species ! skeleton is =m$ ( a glassy horny sub/ance1 t]m$ acan?91 arrang$ 9 ! =m ( radiat+ sp9es4 ,radiol>ians secrete a silici\s skeleton1 :i* assumes a v>iety ( =ms1 z trellis-"w1 boxes jo9$ by radiat+ sp9es1 helmets1 baskets1 bee-hives1 discs1 r+s1 & num]\s o!r =ms4 ,haeckel has describ$ upw>ds ( f\r ?\s& species1 & possibly z _m m c\ld be add$ to ?is numb]4 ,radiol>ia are divid$ into two gr\ps4 ,9 ! "o !re is ei!r no skeleton or "o ( silex2 9 ! o!r ! skeleton is =m$ ( radiat+ sp9es ( a horny nature4 ,^! are aga9 subdivid$ accord+ to ! *>act]s ( ! c5tral capsule4 ,9 ^? =ms ) a silici\s skeleton ! geometrical patt]n con=ms m or less to ! %ape ( ! c5tral capsule1 be+ ei!r sph]ical or conical4 ,! c5tral capsule is reg>d$ z be+ homolog\s ) ! calc>e\s %ell ( ,globig]9a4 ,reproduction takes place by simple division into two1 or by ! body break+ up into spores1 ea* provid$ ) a flagellum1 or two spores may fuse toge!r1 & ! result w be an adult ,radiol>ian4 ,c]ta9 yell[ corpuscles pres5t 9 ! out] "p ( _! body-surface *ange into unicellul> p>asitic algals2 ^! c be sep>at$ & cultivat$ indep5d5tly ( _! ho/4 ,! ,radiol>ians live float+ at all dep?s f #a1jjj to #b1ejj fa?oms1 & are di/ribut$ ov] areas 9 ! c5tral ,pacific & ! s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! ooze =m+ ! ocean b$ be+ made up ( _! skeletons to an ext5t ( #hj p] c5t4 ( ! deposit2 h5ce x has become kn[n z ,radiol>ian ooze4 ,! *alky-look+ ,b>badoes e>?1 a ,t]ti>y =mation1 is compos$ almo/ entirely ( _! skeletons4 ,some:at simil> deposits exi/ 9 ! ,nicob> ,isl&s1 9 ,greece1 & 9 ,sicily4 ,x w h be5 notic$ t by f> ! great] numb] ( ,=am9if]a are ( m>9e orig91 & ^! occur 9 su* widespread pr(usion t ! f9e/ calc>e\s p>ticles :i* con/itute ! sea%ore 9 "s places consi/ almo/ :olly ( _! microscopic rema9s4 ,at =m] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory !y appe> to h exi/$ ev5 9 great] pr(usion ?an at ! pres5t "t4 ,?is is evid5c$ by _! rema9s =m+ ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( our l>ge/ geological =mations4 ,moreov]1 dur+ ! ,canadian ,geological ,survey l>ge masses ( :at appe>$ to be a fossil organism 7 discov]$ 9 rocks situat$ ne> ! base ( ! ,laur5tian s]ies ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,sir ,william ,dawson1 ( ,montreal1 ref]r$ ^! rema9s to an animal ( ! =am9if]al type2 & specim5s 7 s5t by ,sir ,w4 ,logan to ! late ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 reque/+ him to subject !m to a c>eful exam9ation4 ,z f> back z #aheh ,sir ,w4 ,logan _h suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( organic rema9s 9 specim5s f ! ,gr& ,calumet lime/one1 on ! ,ottawa ,riv]1 b a casual exam9ation ( ! specim5s 0 insuffici5t to det]m9e ! po9t4 ,simil> =ms be+ se5 by ,sir ,w4 ,logan 9 blocks f ! ,gr5ville b$ ( ! ,laur5tian lime/one 7 9 _! turn tri$1 & ultimately reveal$ _! true /ructure to ,sir ,william ,dawson & ,dr4 ,/]ry ,hunt1 :o nam$ ! /ructure ,eozoon ,canad5se4 ,! masses ( :i* ^! fossils consi/ are compos$ ( lay]s ( s]p5t9e alt]nat+ ) calc sp>4 ,x 0 f\nd by ^! obs]v]s t ! calc>e\s lay]s repres5t$ ! orig9al %ell1 & ! silici\s lay]s ! s(t] p>ts ( ! once liv+ ,=am9if]a4 ,! results 7 arriv$ at ?r\gh comp>ison ( ! appe>ance pres5t$ by ! ,eozoon ) ! microscopic /ructure :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] _h previ\sly %[n to *>act]ise c]ta9 memb]s ( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,! ,eozoon n only exce$$ o!r kn[n ,=am9if]a 9 size to an ext5t t might h easily l$ obs]v]s a/ray1 b1 f its app>5tly v irregul> mode ( gr[? & g5]al ext]nal =m1 no help 0 d]iv$ 9 its id5tification1 & x 0 only by microscopical exam9ation ( its m9ute /ructure t its true "* 0 asc]ta9$4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] wrote3--8,! m9ute /ructure ( ,eozoon may be det]m9$ by ! microscopic exam9ation ei!r ( ?9 transp>5t sections1 or ( portions :i* h be5 subject$ to ! action ( dilute acids1 s z to remove ! calc>e\s portion1 leav+ only ! int]nal ca/s1 or models1 9 silex1 ( ! *amb]s & o!r cavities orig9ally occupi$ by ! sub/ance ( "o animal40 ,subsequ5tly he f\nd portions ( m9ute /ructure s p]fect t he 0 able to say t 8delicate pseudopodial ?reads 7 orig9ally put =? ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! %ell wall ( less ?an #a_/ajjjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]0 7,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #fd1 #fe74 ,9 a pap] read at ! meet+ ( ! ,geological ,society he /at$ t he _h s9ce detect$ ,eozoon 9 a specim5 ( ophicalcite f ,bohemia1 9 a specim5 ( gneiss f ne> ,moldau1 & 9 specim5s ( s]p5t9e lime/one s5t to ,sir ,c4 ,lyell by ,dr4 ,gmbel1 ( ,bav>ia4 ,^! also 7 f\nd to be p>ts ( ! great =mation ( ! 8fundam5tal0 gneiss1 consid]$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison z ! equival5t ( ! ,laur5tian rocks ( ,canada4#fe ,if ! rema9s ( ,=am9if]a be dissolv$ 9 dilute hydro*loric acid1 an organic basis is left1 aft] ! removal ( ! calc>e\s matt]1 accurately reta9+ ! =m ( ! %ell ) all its op5+s & pores4 ,! e>?y con/itu5t is ma9ly calcium c>bonate2 b !re is also a small am\nt ( phosphate ( lime 9 ! %ells ( _m ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cca4 #a4 ,sep>at$ prisms f out] lay] ( ,p9na %ell2 #b4 ,skeletons ( ,=am9if]a f lime/one2 #c4 ,rec5t %ell ( ,poly/omella crispa2 exam9$ "u d>k-gr\nd illum9ation4 ,infusoria4 ,we are n[ br\ght face to face ) animals :i* possess consid]able v>iation ( /ructure1 ,infusorial animalcules1 z !y are t]m$4 ,x 0 ,ehr5b]g :o attribut$ to !m a highly complex organisation1 b lat] obs]vations negativ$ ^! views & %[$ !m to be animals =m$ ( "o or m cells1 or colonies ( s-call$ individuals4 ,x is true t ?is cell or unit$ protoplasm may %[ a wond]ful am\nt ( diff]5tiation1 :at ) its nucleus & vacuole1 m\? & gullet1 its v>i\sly-arrang$ cilia or flagella1 its contractile fibres1 its sep>ation into an out] d5s] & a m fluid inn] protoplasm1 & its horny cup & /alks4 ,9 ^! few l9es we h a cond5s$ summ>y ( ! special qualities ( m9ute =ms ( life t af=d mu* int]e/+ "w = ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccb4--;,ac9eta1 magnifi$ #fjj diamet]s 7,w>ne74 ,among ^? widespread1 & 9 "s respects het]og5e\s1 =ms ( life associat$ "u ! compreh5sive title ( ,infusoria1 we enc\nt] types t n only diff] v widely f "o ano!r1 b :i* occupy a diff]5t rank or position1 s to speak1 ) reg>d to ! relation !y be> to ea* o!r1 & also to ! outly+ repres5tatives ( ! s]ies--diff]5ces t p]meate ?r\gh\t ! ranks ( ?is ext5sive gr\p4 ,fur!rmore1 a consid]able numb] ( ,infusorial animalcules =e%ad[ or typify1 9 a correspond+ degree1 ! sep>ate or associat$ cell elem5ts out ( :i* high] tissue /ructures--metazoic organisms--are built up4 ,we may take ! well-kn[n example ,eugl5a viridis 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #fg71 or ,p>amecium 7,no4 #gd71 & _! allies2 ^! w\ld appe> to be ! prototypes ( ,turbell>ia4 ,ano!r m l[ly organis$ gr\p ( ! ,ciliata exhibits a di/9ct & highly-int]e/+ aff9ity to ! ,opal9id4 ,!re are _m o!r species 7,ac9eta1 ,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #fh1 = in/ance71 :i* at fir/ sight w\ld seem to /& by !mselves & pres5t no m>k$ agreem5t ) any metazoic type4 ,inde$1 ! function ( ^! & o!r polypites consi/s simply 9 seiz+ food & convey+ x ?r\gh p]=ations at ! extremity ( ea* sep>ate t5taculum to its int]ior4 ,9 ,ac9eta c]ta9 ( ! t5tacles only are suctorial1 & ^!1 be+ ! inn] ones1 fulfil ! +e/ive function1 :ile ! p]iph]al s]ies are preh5sile4 ,?is /alk$ club-%ap$ body 7,fig4 #ccb71 :i* fixes itself to seawe$s or ,bryozoa1 is se5 to h a nucleus1 & also cle> vesicles 9 ! body-sub/ance2 its embryos are ciliat$4 ,x is an object ( consid]able int]e/ ev5 among curi\s m>9e animalcules2 "o or two species inhabit fre% wat]4 ,! spiral-m\!d ,spiro/omum are among ! l>ge/ ( ! class1 & 9 sunlight are visible to ! nak$ eye z sl5d] gold5 ?reads ( ab\t #a_/aj? ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,! m\? slit1 ext5d+ half ! l5g? ( ! body1 is bord]$ on "o side by cilia4 ,! body is cyl9drical & ! surface cov]$ ) r[s ( cilia4 ,its multiplication takes place by transv]se fission ?r\gh ! middle4 ,flagellate ,infusoria4--,! *>act]i/ic ( ?is gr\p1 z its "n implies1 is ! possession ( "o or m flagella or :ip-l app5dages1 at ! base ( :i* is an op5+ 9 ! d5s] surface lay] ( protoplasm1 & 9 ! int]ior a nucleus & "o or m contractile vacuoles1 & n infrequ5tly a brilliant r$ spot ( pigm5t kn[n to microscopi/s z ! eye-spot4 ,! ,monads1 :i* con/itute ! simple/ memb]s ( ! gr\p1 are commonly f\nd 9 fre%-wat] pools & vegetable infusions4 ,! typical =m consi/s simply ( a sph]ical or oval cell provid$ ) a flagellum4 ,! ,volvox 0 =m]ly plac$ 9 ?is gr\p1 b z x conta9s *lorophyll x is prop]ly claim$ by ! botani/4 ,! coll>$ gr\p possesses cup-l coll>s1 & ^! frequ5tly secrete horny receptacles or cups1 & =m elegant tree-l colonies4 ,! mail-coat$ gr\p are ( v v>i$ =m1 ! body be+ (t5 prolong$ into sp9y processes4 ,!y h two long flagella :i* fit into grooves purposely provid$4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ & rem>kable are ! phosphoresc5t animalcules 7,noctiluca71 ^: beautiful blui%-gre5 lum9osity on ! surface ( ! sea has attract$ att5tion f v e>ly p]iods4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 n until ! fir/ half ( ! pres5t c5tury t ! lum9osity 0 discov]$ to be due to ! pres5ce ( multitudes ( ^! m9ute jelly-l sph]es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccc4--,noctiluca mili>is2 magnifi$ #aej diamet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccd4--,pyrocy/is2 magnifi$ #aej diamet]s4 ,! body ( ! ,noctiluca 7,fig4 #ccc7 is a ne>ly globul>-%ap$ cy/1 enclos$ 9 a t\gh membran\s wall1 f a groov$ op5+ 9 :i* a /riat$ muscul> flagellum or proboscis is project$ =?1 & x is by means ( ?is ! animal swims away ev5 9 r\gh seas4 ,a f9e :ip-l flagellum is also locat$ 9 ! same groove4 ,at ! apex ( ! funnel !re is a mass ( protoplasm :i* ext5ds itself z a widely-me%$1 highly-vacuolat$ network to ! inn] wall ( ! cy/1 :5ce x is believ$ ! phosphoresc5t light emanates4 ,x multiplies by self-division1 fir/ becom+ ency/$ aft] )draw+ its flagellum1 & !n break+ up into num]\s ciliat$ helmet-%ap$ sw>m spores4 ,frequ5tly two organisms fuse into "o & !n divide into spores4 ,noctiluca ma9ly conf9es itself to ! %all[] seas1 b !re are relat$ =ms met ) 9 ! w>m] op5 seas2 ^! belong to ! g5us ,pyrocy/is 7,fig4 #ccd74 ,9 "o v>iety ! body is p]fectly sph]ical & )\t ! big flagellum or proboscis4 ,pr(essor ,buts*li1 h[ev]1 reg>ds ?is species z an ency/$ or re/+ phase ( ! common] & bett]-kn[n =m4 ,! late ,mr4 ,philip ,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s41 0 ! fir/ microscopi/ to describe ! ,noctiluca4 ,aft] c>eful obs]vation1 he wrote 9 8 8,naturali/'s ,rambles0 z foll[s3--8,i _h an opportunity ( becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! m9ute animals to :i* a great portion ( ! lum9\sness ( ! sea is attribut$4 ,"o ( my l>ge glass vases ( sea-wat] ,i _h obs]v$ to become sudd5ly at night1 :5 tapp$ ) ! f+]1 /udd$ ) m9ute b brilliant sp>ks at v>i\s po9ts on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,i set ! j> 9 ! w9d[1 & 0 n long 9 discov]+1 )\t ! aid ( a l5s1 a goodly numb] ( ! t9y jelly-l globules ( ,noctiluca mili>is swimm+ ab\t 9 v>i\s directions4 ,!y swam ) an ev5 glid+ motion1 mu* resembl+ t ( ! ,volvox globator ( our fre%-wat] pools4 ,!y congregat$ 9 little gr\ps1 & a %ake ( ! vessel s5t !m d>t+ d[n f ! surface4 ,x 0 n easy to keep !m 9 view :5 se51 ow+ r to _! extreme delicacy & col\rless transp>5cy ?an to _! m9ut5ess4 ,!y 71 9 fact1 di/9ctly appreciable by ! nak$ eye1 measur+ f #a_/ej? to #a_/cj? ( an in* 9 diamet]40 ,among ! num]\s fre%-wat] memb]s ( ! flagellate infusoria1 !re is "o :i* especially calls = notice1 ,codosiga1 discov]$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,h4 ,j4 ,cl>k4 ,?is m9ute body be>s a delicate funnel-%ap$ protoplasmic expansion or coll>1 common to ! sev]al memb]s ( ?is organic s]ies4 ,! flagellum is plac$ at ! base ( ! oral op5+1 & )9 ! circumscrib$ area ( ! coll>1 :i* is ( su* extreme t5uity t its true =m & nature c only be det]m9$ by a v c>eful adju/m5t ( ! a*romatic cond5s] & accessory app>atus employ$1 toge!r ) a wide-angl$ objective4 ,x is se5 to great] advantage by supply+ ! animal ) v f9e p>ticles ( col\r+ matt]4 ,9 ?is way x is f\nd t ! infundibuli=m cup consi/s ( protoplasm1 ?r\gh :i* ! flagellum is protrud$ & )drawn into ! g5]al sub/ance ( ! ,monad's body 7,fig4 #cce74 ,z _m z tw5ty or m zooids are atta*$ to ! extremity ( a sl5d] foot/alk4 ,! l5g? ( ! body1 exclusive ( ! coll>1 is #a_/bejj? to ! #a_/abjj? ( an in*4 ,! habitat ( ^! bodies is fre% wat]4 ,mr4 ,saville ,k5t 9 #ahfi discov]$ "s ( ^! int]e/+ infusoria 9 ! ,london ,docks4 8,! m exact significance ( ! special organ1 ! coll>1 is manife/ by ! circulatory curr5ts or cyclosis induc$1 & !re c be no room = d\bt t ?is /ructure f9ds its precise homologue 9 ! pseudopodia ( ! =am9if]\s gr\p ( ! ,rhizopoda1 9 :i* a simil> circulation or cyclosis ( ! con/itu5t s>code is exhibit$4 ,! :ole ( ?is highly-int]e/+ flagellate ord]1 a comp>atively small "o z yet1 are rem>kable = _! pale glauc\s gre5 or floresc5t hue1 su* col\r assi/+ mat]ially 9 _! recognition1 ev5 :5 ! magnify+ p[] employ$ is insuffici5t = ! detection ( ! v *>act]i/ic coll> ) its enclos$ flagellum40#ff ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cce4--;,codosiga umbellata2 a few colonies ( ,zooids div]g+ f ! p>5t foot-/alk ) flagella ext5d$1 magnifi$ #fej diamet]s4 ,ciliata4--,types ( ,ciliata obta9$ f hay infusions are v num]\s4 ,ehr5b]g's animalcules 7 ma9ly ( a l>ge size1 & ( ^? belong+ to ! high] ord] ( ! ,ciliata1 p]ta9+ to su* g5]a z ,p>amecium1 ,colpoda1 ,cyclidium1 ,oxytri*a1 & ,vorticella4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 repres5t b an insignificant m9ority ( ! ho/s ( flagellate =ms :i* ab\nd 9 our humid climate1 & 9 hay infusions 9 p>ticul>4 ,9 su* infusions1 wat*$ f day to day & produc$ f hay obta9$ f diff]5t localities1 ! numb] ( types develop$ 9 regul> sequ5ce is f\nd to be p]fectly m>vell\s1 comm5c+ ) ! ,monas prop]1 ,amphimonas & ,het]omita2 :ile ,bact]ia1 9 _! motile & quiesc5t =ms1 are inv>iably pres5t & furni% an abundant supply ( mat]ial = ! microscope4#fg ,vorticellid con/itute "o ( ! mo/ num]\s families ( ! ciliate infusoria4 ,all its memb]s are at once recognis$ by _! normal /ation>y condition1 & by ! /ructure ( _! oral sy/em4 ,9 b few ( ! g5]a is !re any m>k$ div]g5ce f ?is =mula1 & :5 any exi/s x is made manife/ by an increase 9 developm5t ( "s "o ( its elem5ts at ! exp5se ( ano!r4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! g5us ,spiro*ona1 ! ext]nal edge ( ! encircl+ bord] or p]i/ome is suppress$1 :ile ! inn] portion is abnormally develop$ into a transp>5t & highly elevat$ spiral membrane4 ,! bell-animalcules usually possess /alks1 & are ei!r solit>y or =m bran*+ colonies4 ,coni*ilus vorticella 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #hj7 is a well-kn[n memb] ( ! colony /ock1 all ! zooids ( :i* are unit$ on a sl5d] bran*+ p$icle1 :i* consi/s ( a c5tral contractile cord enclos$ )9 a tubul> hyal9e %ea?4 ,!re are _m o!r %rub-l colonies all v>i\sly modifi$ 9 =m & "*4 ,! ,epi/ylis op]cul>ia1 or nodd+-bell animalcule1 is an int]e/+ memb] ( a num]\s ho/ ( solit>y %ort-/alk$ =ms 7,fig4 #ccg74 ,:5 ! animal is di/urb$1 ! heads drop d[n t[>ds ! /alk4 ,?is animalcule has be5 f\nd to =m a colony2 & ano!r1 ,c>*esium1 ^: t9y bran*$ tree-l colonies resemble little :ite globul> masses ( m\lds1 are se5 at once to drop d[n t[>ds ! base ( ! colony ) a j]ky movem5t if ! cell be t\*$4 ,by a process ( ency/+1 all ! ,vorticell & _m ( ! m highly-organis$ ciliata h ! means ( :at may be t]m$ self-pres]vation4 ,%\ld ! wat] dry up 9 :i* !y h be5 liv+1 ! little animal encases itself 9 mud at ! bottom ( ! pool4 ,%\ld ?is be bak$ by ! sun n ! lea/ injury arises1 = at ?is /age x crumbles into du/1 & is c>ri$ by ! w9d to long di/ances1 b ! fir/ %[] ( ra9 calls x back to active life1 & soon aft] x is se5 to issue =? z a free swimm+ bud4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccf4--,vorticella micro/oma4 ,?uricola valvata 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #gb7 possesses a h+e-l process :i* closes up l a door :5 ! animal contracts itself into its case4 ,?is v effectually protects x f assault4 ,bo? portions ( ! valve are capable ( ext5sion4 ,ano!r gr\p ( ciliate infusoria also possess a limit$ numb] ( cilia1 b ^!1 al?\gh re/rict$ to ! "u surface ( _! bodies1 h an unre/rict$ range ( motion4 ,! gr\p are all free swimm]s1 belong+ to ! g5us ,oxytri*a4 ,!y possess two sep>ate alim5t>y orifices1 nei!r ( :i* are situat$ at ! extremities or encas$ by a d5se integum5t4 ,_! locomotive organs consi/ ei!r ( set1 vibratile cilia1 or non-vibratile /yles or unc9i1 v>i\sly situat$1 & all s]v+ to make ^! infusorial animals v active 7,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #gc & #gg74 ,a typical species is ! mussel-animalcule 7,/ylony*ia1 ,fig4 #cch71 common 9 all infusions & pools ( wat]4 ,its body is oval & flatt5$1 & ab\t #a_/ajj? ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,at "o end a funnel-%ap$ depression or m\?1 ) a ciliat$ m>g91 leads to ! inn] "p ( ! body1 9 :i* are two oval bodies1 a nucleus & a contractile vacuole1 :i* is se5 to contract rhy?mically4 ,! creature c also /alk along by means ( its cilia or set1 & set up curr5ts to ! m\?4 ,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 & #gd1 are types ( ^! int]e/+ bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccg4--,nodd+-bell animalcule 7,epi/yles op]culata7 #bej 7,w>ne74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cch4--,mussel-animalcule 7,/ylony*ia mytilus7 "u surface4 a4 ,m\?2 b4 ,contractile vacuole2 c4 ,nucleus4 7,magnifi$ #aej diamet]s47 ,dr4 ,balb9i believes a true sexual g5]ation occurs among ^! organisms1 b1 ) ! exception ( ! ,p>amecium1 ?is has n be5 se5 to take place2 ev5 ,grub]'s m rec5t inve/igations appe> to be inconclusive on ?is po9t4 ,conjugation1 h[ev]1 x is said takes place among "s atta*$ =ms1 z 9 ! ,/5tors4 ,^! h be5 se5 to put =? a bud f ! body base1 & soon aft] become free swimm+ bodies4 ,! trumpet-animalcule 7,/5tor71 a conspicu\s memb] ( ! ciliata1 is comp>atively l>ge1 be+ ab\t ! #a_/be? ( an in* 9 l5g? :5 ext5d$ to ! full size4 ,x is usually f\nd atta*$ to ! "u sides ( duckwe$1 & is cont9ually *ang+ its =m f t ( a small knob :5 contract$1 to ! trumpet %ape se5 9 ,fig4 #cci1 ,no4 #f1 :5 fully ext5d$1 & f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,! long cilia project$ f ! upp] "p =m a spiral )9 ! m>g9 ( ! op5 m\? lead+ to ! dige/ive sac4 ,a contractile vacuole lies to ! "r ( ! oral op5+4 ,new individuals are produc$ by ! process ( budd+1 & 9 ! =m ( ciliat$ embryos f ! nucleus4 ,/5tors are commonly met ) 9 fre% wat]1 & are usually ( a brilliant gre5 col\r4 ,^! little bodies w be> cutt+ up3 if only a fragm5t ( ! nucleus be includ$ 9 ! section1 ! injury is soon repair$4 ,rotif]a1 or ,:eel-animalcules 7,fig4 #cci74--;,9 ?is gr\p we h a high] type ( animal1 ) a m complex organisation ?an ^? previ\sly notic$4 ,! great majority inhabit fre% wat]1 & are readily develop$ 9 hay infusions1 9 bog-moss1 9 h\se-top gutt]s1 ev]y:]e if look$ = aft] a %[] ( ra94 ,! rotat+ organs f :i* ^! fasc9at+ animalcula d]ive _! "n consi/ ( two disc-l bodies ^: m>g9s are fr+$ ) r[s ( cilia1 :i* create curr5ts t[>d ! oral ap]ture1 & :i* h giv5 rise to ! optical delusion ( rotat+ :eels4 ,! disposition ( ! cilia is s arrang$ z to br+ food to ! rotif] & conduct x to ! ma/ax or dige/+ app>atus--a muscul> bulb mov$ by a s]ies ( muscles--! ga/ric gl&s & /oma*4 ,! great transp>5cy ( ! :ole /ructure p]mits ( ! animal economy be+ easily /udi$4 ,! body is cov]$ ) a horny envelope ( two lay]s1 & is divid$ into segm5tal divisions1 :i* slide into ea* o!r telescopic fa%ion4 ,consequ5tly1 z ! wat] dries up1 ! animal is = a long "t r5d]$ inde/ructible & capable ( resi/+ v>y+ temp]atures & ! action ( cau/ic reag5ts4 ,rotif]s are ovip>\s1 & _! eggs are conspicu\s & ( ?ree k9ds4 ,! common s(t-%ell$ eggs produce females1 ! small] & m sph]ical produce males4 ,! ephippial1 or summ] eggs1 are (t5 beset ) sp9es or bosses2 ^! h only a membran\s cov]+1 & are hat*$ soon aft] !y are laid1 or be=e leav+ ! ova sac4 ,! male rotif] is b a ?ird ( ! l5g? ( ! female1 (t5 )\t cilia1 & appe>s to h no alim5t>y tract2 inde$1 ! only int]nal organ is a l>ge sp]m sac4 ,rotif]s h be5 divid$ by ,dr4 ,hudson & ! late ,mr4 ,gosse 9 _! *>m+ "w on ^! v int]e/+ 8,:eel-animalcules0 into f\r ord]s1 accord+ to _! p[]s ( locomotion1 z foll[s3--7#a7 ,rhizota1 ! root$2 7#b7 ,bdelloida1 ! lee*-l1 t swim & creep l a lee*2 7#c7 ,ploma1 ! sea-wor?y1 t only swim ) _! cili>y wrea?2 7#d7 ,scirtopoda1 ! skipp]s1 t swim ) _! cilia & skip ) ar?ropod\s limbs4 ,^!1 aga91 are subdivid$ into families4 ,) su* h>dy creatures z ,philod9a1 ,ad9eta1 ,bra*ionus1 c41 creatures to :om extremes ( cold1 heat1 & dr\ght are ! ord9>y conditions ( life1 no?+ c be easi] to keep go+ ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,r\sselet1 :o has s ?or\ghly succe$$ 9 m\nt+ ,rotif]s ) _! cilia fully ext5d$1 rec5tly exhibit$ at "o ( ! ev5+ meet+s ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 ,london1 no less ?an f\r hundr$ specim5s 9 a natural & p]fect condition1 ! n]v\s sy/em be+ se5 m cle>ly f its successful /a9+ ?r\gh\t ! body ?an 9 ! liv+ rotif]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cci4 #a4 ,rotif] vulg>is ) its cilia2 b4 rotat+2 c4 horn2 d4 sophagus2 f4 out] case2 g4 ova1 foot protrud+ ?r\gh out] case4 #b4 ,same 9 ! contract$ /ate & at re/1 %[+ ! segm5tation ( ! body & developm5t ( "y4 #c4 ,pit*]-%ap$ ,bra*ionus1 furni%$ ) two horny projections2 a4 ma/ax2 b4 %ell2 c4 cilia1 rotat+ disc2 d4 foot4 #d4 ,bak]'s ,bra*ionus1 ) six horny set2 ^! are retract$ :5 ! cilia are 9 action2 ! lett]s relate to ! same int]nal organs z 9 ! =m]2 ! ova sac se5 fill$ ) eggs4 #e & #f4 ,b4 ovalis1 clos$1 & ) cilia display$4 ,!re is also a family ( ,rotatoria ) a s+le rotatory organ1 dispos$ ar\nd ! m>g9 ( ! case4 ,?is comprises at pres5t a v small gr\p4 ,! ci/es is a memb] ( ! family 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #fi74 ,a s+le cili>y wrea? leads to ! alim5t>y canal1 & a ph>yngeal bulb or ma/ax comprises ! app>atus ( nutrition4 ,! visual organs are r$1 z 9 o!r rotif]s1 & ! ov>ium conta9s sev]al ova1 %[n 9 ,no4 #fi4 ,! envelope is a gelat9\s transp>5t %ea?1 into :i* ! animalcule c )draw itself1 its atta*m5t to ! bottom be+ by ! end ( ! foot-l tail4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ among ?is g5us are ! ,floscul>ians4 ,^! creatures may und\bt$ly be describ$ z among ! mo/ beautiful & int]e/+ ( infusorial animals4 ,! ,/ephanoc]os1 8cr[n$ animalcule10 z x is t]m$1 is ab\t #a_/cf? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & enclos$ 9 a transp>5t cyl9drical flexible case1 beyond :i* x protrudes five long arms 9 a graceful mann]4 ,^!1 t\*+ at _! po9ts1 give a =m f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,^! arms are furni%$ ) sev]al r[s ( %ort cilia1 :i* seize ! food br\ght )9 _! grasp until x c be swall[$4 ,9 addition to ! rotatory organs1 !y h %ort flexible processes1 or cornu1 atta*$ to ! outside ( "o or m ( _! lobes4 ,! wat] vascul> sy/em consi/s ( two canals aris+ f a small pyri=m contractile vesicle1 situat$ bel[ ! /oma*4 ,! ova1 aft] leav+ ! ova sac1 rema9 quiesc5t until _! cilia are develop$4 ,floscul>ians1 l ,melic]tans1 h a c]ta9 aff9ity 9 =m ) ,vorticellians & ,/5tors1 & also ) ,campanul>i1 among polypes4 ,_! cilia are less regul> :5 9 action ?an 9 o!r ,rotatoria4 ,:5 !y retreat into _! transp>5t cells !y appe> to fold !mselves up4 ,_! int]nal /ructure c be se5 ?r\gh ! ext]nal case1 & ova are obs]v$ enclos$ 9 an ova sac2 :5 ?r[n (f !y rema9 quiesc5t until ! =mation ( _! cilia4 ,! :ole family furni% int]e/+ objects = microscopic inve/igation4 ,melic]ta r+5s 78bead$ ,melic]ta074--,( all ! ,melic]ta1 or 8horny floscul>ia10 ?is is ! mo/ beautiful4 ,its cry/all9e body is enclos$ 9 a pellucid cov]+1 wid] at ! top ?an ! bottom1 ( a d>k yell[ or r$di%-br[n col\r1 :i* gradually becomes encru/$ by zones ( a v>iety ( %apes1 cem5t$ toge!r ) a peculi> secretion t h>d5s 9 wat]4 ,x d]ives its "n f ^! pellets1 :i* h ! appe>ance ( r[s ( beads4 ,mr4 ,gosse furni%$ an excell5t acc\nt ( ! ar*itectural in/9cts ( ,melic]ta r+5s3 8,an animalcule s m9ute z to be ) difficulty appreciable by ! nak$ eye1 inhabit+ a tube compos$ ( pellets1 :i* x =ms & lays "o by "o4 ,x is a mason :o n only builds up 8 mansion brick by brick1 b makes 8 bricks z he goes on1 f sub/ances :i* he collects ar\nd him1 %ap+ !m 9 a m\ld :i* he c>ries on 8 body4 8,! pellets compos+ ! case are v regul>ly plac$ 9 position2 9 a f9e specim51 ab\t ! #a_/cj? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 :5 fully exp&$1 z _m z fifte5 longitud9al r[s ( pellets 7 c\nt$1 :i* gave ab\t ?irty-two r[s 9 all4 ,z x exposes itself m & m1 sudd5ly two l>ge r\nd$ discs are exp&$1 ar\nd :i*1 at ! same in/ant1 a wrea? ( cilia is se5 p]=m+ surpris+ motions4 8,on mix+ c>m9e ) ! wat]1 ! c\rse ( ! cili>y curr5t is readily trac$1 & =ms a f9e spectacle4 ,! p>ticles are hurl$ r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! disc1 until !y pass (f 9 front ?r\gh ! great s9us1 betwe5 ! l>g] petals4 ,if ! pigm5t be abundant1 ! cl\dy torr5t = ! mo/ "p ru%es (f1 & prev5ts our see+ :at takes place2 b if ! atoms be few1 we see !m swiftly glide along ! facial surface1 foll[+ ! irregul>ities ( outl9e ) beautiful precision1 da% r\nd ! project+ *9 l a fleet ( boats d\bl+ a bold headl&1 & lodge !mselves1 "o aft] ano!r1 9 ! little cup-l receptacle b5ea?4 ,mr4 ,gosse1 believ+ t ! pellets ( ! case might be prep>$ 9 ! cup-l receptacle1 wat*$ ! animal1 & pres5tly _h ! satisfaction ( see+ x b5d its head =w>d1 z anticipat$1 & aft] a second or two raise x aga92 ! little cup hav+ 9 ! meantime lo/ its cont5ts4 ,x imm$iately began to fill aga92 & :5 x 0 full1 & ! cont5ts 7 consolidat$ by rotation1 aid$ probably by ! admixture ( a saliv>y secretion1 x 0 aga9 b5t d[n to ! m>g9 ( ! case1 & empti$ ( its pellet4 ,?is process he saw repeat$ _m times 9 succession1 until a goodly array ( d>k-r$ pellets 7 laid ^u ! yell[i%-br[n ones1 b v irregul>ly4 ,aft] a c]ta9 numb] 7 deposit$ 9 "o "p1 ! animal w\ld sudd5ly turn itself r\nd 9 its case1 & deposit "s 9 ano!r "p4 ,x took f two-&-a-half to ?ree-&-a-half m9utes to make & deposit a pellet40 ,melic]ta may be f\nd 9 cle> pools1 mill-ponds1 & o!r places ?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( wat] g5tly fl[s4 ,if a portion ( wat]-we$ be br\ght home & plac$ 9 a small glass zoophyte-tr\gh1 & c>efully exam9$ ) a magnify+ p[] ( ab\t fifty diamet]s1 a few delicate-look+ projections ( a r$di%-br[n col\r w probably be se5 adh]+ to ! plant2 ^! are ! tubul> cases ( ,melic]ta1 :i*1 aft] a %ort p]iod ( re/1 w be se5 to be animals ( #a_/ab? ( an in* or m 9 l5g?4 ,porif]a4 ,spongiad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdj4--,spongia panicea4 ,bread-crumb ,sponge1 %[+ curr5ts ent]+ surface a1 & leav+ by oscules b4 ,sponges4--,! t]m ,porif]a1 or 8canal-be>+ zoophytes10 0 appli$ by ! late ,dr4 ,grant to designate ! rem>kable class ( organisms kn[n z sponges1 met ) 9 e sea1 & numb]+ ab\t two ?\s& species1 v>y+ 9 size f a p9's head to masses sev]al feet 9 height2 & weigh+ f a few gra9s to ov] a hundr$ p\nds4 ,sponges assume an endless v>iety ( %apes1 z cups1 vases1 sph]es1 tubes1 baskets1 bran*$-l trees1 b (t5 z %apeless masses4 ,:5 liv+ !y are all col\rs & all consi/5ces1 s(t & gelat9\s1 fle%y1 lea!ry or /ony4 ,a full] k ( sponges 0 ga9$ 9 #ahbe1 :5 ,dr4 ,rob]t ,grant exam9$ a fragm5t ( liv+ sponge "u ! microscope4 ,on br++ x to ! side ( ! glass cell 9 :i* he _h pres]v$ x1 he beheld ?is liv+ f\nta9 p\r+ =? a torr5t ( liquid matt] 9 rapid succession1 & he 0 at once conv9c$ t a curr5t fl[$ out ( ! l>g] orifices4 ,he introduc$ a small portion ( f9e *alk1 & saw p>ticles driv5 into ! int]ior1 & pass out aga9 by diff]5t ways4 ,to det]m9e ! cause ( ! curr5ts1 x 0 necess>y to make a clos] exam9ation ( ! anatomy ( ! sponge4 ,= ?is purpose he cut or peel$ (f ?9 sections1 & saw t ! :ole sub/ance 0 divid$ into flagellat$ *amb]s1 enclos+ sph]ical & o!r bodies1 & p]=at$ by pores4 ,ea* *amb] prov$ to be ab\t #a_/ejj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 gr\ps ( !m op5+ by a wid] orifice into a common space1 or canaliculus1 & jo9+ o!rs to =m canals t]m9at+ 9 l>g] oscul> canals4 ,! walls ?r\gh\t are l9$ ) flat cells1 b 9 ! flagellat$ *amb]s ! liv+ cells are m or less cyl9drical1 & ea* is provid$ at ! free end ) a :ip-l app5dage1 or flagellum4 ,fur!rmore ! upp] m>g9 0 se5 to be exp&$ into a ?9 hyal9e coll>1 s t ! :ip appe>$ to h its orig9 9 ! c5tre ( a bas9 or funnel4 ,! curr5ts ( wat] trav]s+ ! body ( ! sponge are kept up by ! movem5ts ( ! flagella ( ! coll>-cells4 ,^! beat ! wat] 9 ! flagellat$ *amb]s into ! rootlets ( ! canals lead+ to ! oscules4 ,to replace ?is1 wat] fl[s into ! flagellat$ *amb]s f ! rootlets ( ! canals pass+ d[n f ! gr\ps ( pores 9 ! sk94 ,! curr5ts ent]+ ! sponge br+ 9 oxyg5at$ sea-wat] & m9ute food p>ticles1 su* z diatoms & infusorial organisms2 ! curr5ts f ! oscules conta9 an excess ( c>bonic acid ( wa/e products1 result+ f vital activity & indige/ible rema9s4 ,! cells l9+ ! canals effect ! ex*ange ( gases1 & take up food p>ticles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cda4--;,a section ( a flagellate *amb] ( a ,fre%-wat] ,sponge1 %[+ coll>-cells 7,vosma]74 ,pr(essor ,grant's c>eful & in/ructive rese>*es 7 begun on ! small] k9d ( ,briti% sponges hang+ d[n f rocks 7,spongia coalita71 & on :i* he gaz$ = 8tw5ty-five m9utes1 until oblig$ to )draw 8 eyes f fatigue40 ,?is sponge fixes itself by a root2 & ! curr5ts ent] ?r\gh ! /em & body1 & leave pr9cipally by oscules plac$ on ! bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdb4--;,an ,ascon ,sponge4 ,a4 ,magnifi$ #bj diamet]s2 ,b4 #hj diamet]s2 ,c4 ,transv]se section2 ,d4 ,coll>-cells1 #gjj diamet]s4 ,! embryo1 an extremely m9ute oval cy/1 is furni%$ ) a flagellum = swimm+2 9 ! ?ird x assumes an amboid =m 7,w>ne47 ,at pres5t too little is kn[n z to ! physiology ( dige/ion 9 sponges to p]mit ( a def9ite /atem5t on ! subject4 ,9 specim5s f$ ^u c>m9e ! coll>-cells h be5 f\nd load$ ) granules2 9 o!rs1 aga91 ! flat cells l9+ ! subd]mal cavities h be5 f\nd gorg$ ) col\r granules4 ,f ,b[]bank's monograph on ! ,briti% ,spongiad 7#ahfd & #ahgd7 no?+ ( importance c be ga9$ on ! subject2 9 fact1 x relates almo/ entirely to ! /ructure & organisation ( sponges 9 _! dri$ or pres]v$ condition1 & !re=e is only ( value = purposes ( specific id5tification4 ,"o ( ! simple/ ( liv+ sponges1 ! microscopic /ructure ( :i* x is possible to trace1 ,ascetta primordialis1 is f\nd on seawe$s 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,9 its simple unbran*$ condition x =ms a m9ute :ite sac ab\t "o tw5ty-fif? ( an in* 9 height1 op5+ above by a wide r\nd oscule & n>r[+ bel[ to a /alk 7,fig4 #cdb74 ,! walls are v ?9 & p]=at$ by pores1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] passes into ! int]ior4 ,! walls ( ! sac are compos$ ( two lay]s1 an inn] l9+ ( coll>-cells1 & an out] lay] consi/+ ( a gelat9\s matrix conta9+ amboid bodies & transp>5t ?ree-ray$ spicules4 ,^! s]ve to support ! walls & z a frame-"w = ! pores1 z 9 all ! sponges4 ,by elim9at+ ! spicul> skeleton1 & by suppos+ ! tube to be m globul>1 ! 8olyn?us =m0 w be obta9$1 :i* has be5 reg>d$ z ! hypo!tical ance/or ( all sponges4 ,a canal sy/em arises :5 ! walls gr[ ?ick or =m folds1 or give (f p\*es or tubes4 ,f ^! *annels arise incipi5t 9-curr5t canals1 betwe5 ! inside or lum5 ( ! folds & t =m+ ! out-curr5t canal sy/em4 ,!re is a common ciliat$ ,sycon f\nd on seawe$ r\nd ! ,briti% coa/2 x has ! appe>ance ( a :ite sac ab\t an in* 9 height1 ) a cr[n ( glassy spicules ar\nd ! orifice4 ,! v]tical cavity ( ! sac is surr\nd$ by a wall ( closely-pack$ horizontal tubes1 op5+ at _! inn] ends into ! c5tral cavity1 b ext]nally end+ bl9dly4 ,! c5tral cavity ( ! sac is surr\nd$ or l9$ ) flat-cells1 & ! radial tubes ) coll>-cells1 & ! walls ( ! tubes are p]=at$4 ,"h ! spaces betwe5 & outside ! d5sely-pack$ tubes are ! 9-curr5t canals4 ,9 an equally common ,briti% sponge1 ,grantia1 :i* =ms small flat :ite bags1 a rudim5t>y cortex cov]s ! out] ends ( ! tubes4 ,9 ,grantiopois1 ! cortex becomes q ?ick2 z ! radial tubes 9 ?is species become m bran*$ & ! mesod]m ?ick]1 s ! passages or 9-curr5t canals become m complicat$4 ,common silici\s1 sponges develop 9 a diff]5t mann] f ! calc>e\s ones1 namely1 f a holl[ conical sac op5 at ! top & ) a flat base2 ! sph]ical flagellat$ *amb]s at a v e>ly /age =m+ a mammillat$ lay] 9 ! walls4 ,plak9a1 "o ( ! simple/ silici\s sponges1 encru/s /ones ) a fle%y cru/1 consi/+ ( a sac ) a flat base atta*$ to ! /one 9 suck]-l fa%ion1 & ) ! re/ ( ! walls =m+ simple folds4 ,! spaces betwe5 & outside ! folds =m ! 9-curr5t1 & ^? 9 ! lum5 ( ! folds ! out-curr5t1 *annels4 ,ea* ( ! flagellat$ *amb]s 9 ! walls ( ! folds communicates ) ! 9-curr5t spaces ?r\gh sev]al pores1 & op5s into ! out-curr5t spaces by "o l>ge pore1 ! curr5ts ( wat] pass+ out by ! c5tral oscule4 ,"h we h a g5]al idea ( ! =mation ( all ! common] =ms ( sponges4 ,9 ! m delicate species1 z t ( ,v5us' fl[]basket1 ! cells are =m$ by a trellis "w ( l>ge spicules ( silica4 ,gr\ps ( cells congregate 9 ! gr\nd sub/ance & secrete a network ( cyl9drical fibres & spicules1 :i*1 al?\gh !y rema9 to a c]ta9 ext5t sep>ate1 are always beautifully adapt$ = purposes ( support4 ,9 addition to ! support ^! af=d1 ! skeleton spicules af=d a means ( def5ce aga9/ ! attacks ( small animals4#fh ,a fairly good idea w be ga9$ ( ! int]nal /ructure ( sponges f ! section made ( a ,geodia ,b>retti1 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdc4--;,geodia ,b>retti 7,b[]bank74 ,a tang5tial section ( geodia sponge exhibit+ ! radial d isposition ( ! fasciculi ( ! skeleton1 & a portion ( ! mesod]m ( ! sponge1 magnifi$ #ej diamet]s2 a4 int]m>g9al cavities2 b4 a basal int]m>g9al cavity2 c4 ova imb$d$ 9 ! d]mal cru/ ( ! sponge2 d4 l>ge pat5tot]nate spicula1 ! heads ( :i* =m areas = ! valvul> bases ( ! int]m>g9al cavities2 e4 recurvo-t]nate def5sive & aggressive spicula )9 ! summits ( ! int]cellul> spaces ( ! sponge2 f4 portion ( ! int]/itial membrane ( sponge1 cr[d$ ) m9ute /ellate spicula2 g4 portions ( ! second>y sy/em ( ext]nal def5sive spicula4 ,reproduction4--,z reg>ds ! modes ( reproduction1 bo? male & female cells are f\nd 9 ! mesod]m4 ,! male cells g5]ally give rise by division ( ! nucleus to masses ( sp]matozoa1 ea* ( :i* possesses a conical head & a long vibratile filam5t4 ,! ova appe> z l>ge r\nd cells1 & :5 conglom]at$ 9 masses1 resemble ^? ( ,micro-gromia1 :i*1 aft] f]tilisation1 und]go segm5tation or division1 fir/ into two cells1 & aga9 divid+ & sub-divid+1 until a clu/] or mass ( cells results 7z se5 9 ,fig4 #cdc74 ,! out] lay] ( ! egg-%ap$ embryo becomes m cyl9drical 9 %ape1 & is n[ provid$ ) cilia1 & soon appe>s z an indep5d5t m9ute oval body4 ,if a bread-crumb sponge be cut op5 9 ! autumn1 ! embryos w be se5 z bright yell[ spots )9 ! body-sub/ance4 ,by keep+ specim5s 9 a vessel ( wat]1 ! embryos w be se5 to escape f ! oscules1 & swim freely ab\t ) ! broad end =w>ds4 ,aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs ( indep5d5t exi/5ce1 ! embryo rema9s /ation>y1 & fixes itself by its broad end1 :i* becomes flatt5$ out4 ,by a rem>kable trans=mation1 ! l>g] granul> cells ( ! int]ior bur/ out & gr[ ov] ! out] flagellate lay] ( cells1 & ! latt] become ! coll>-cells ( ! adult sponge4 ,a m9ute sponge ) "o oscule results f ! developm5t ( ! f]tilis$ ovum4 ,an ext5sive cru/ ) num]\s oscules may be reg>d$ ei!r z a colony 9 :i* ea* oscule repres5ts an individual1 or simply z "o individual 9 :i* ! gr[? ( ! body necessitates ! =mation ( new *annels = ! conveyance ( food mat]ials4 ,! embryos ( "s ( ! fre%-wat] sponges 7,spongillid7 liv+ 9 ponds1 canals1 lakes & riv]s all ov] ! _w1 z soon z !y become f]tilis$ und]go segm5tation1 & =m oval ciliat$ bodies1 9 appe>ance some:at resembl+ ! ga/rula ( ,monox5ia1 "o ( ! simple/ k9ds ( corals4 ,fre%-wat] sponges are gre5 9 col\r1 due to ! granul> bodies :i* cr[d ! cells ne> ! surface ( ! sponge2 t ?is col\r is n due to ! =mation ( *lorophyll is se5 on keep+ !m 9 a %ady place1 :5 !y become pale grey or yell[i%-br[n1 & if kept q 9 ! d>k !y entirely lose all col\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,skeletons ,,& ,,spicula ,,( ,,sponges4 ,a few sponges possess no skeleton :atev]1 except+ ! gelat9\s gr\nd sub/ance2 9 "s specim5s ! skeleton is ma9ly or entirely compos$ ( =eign p>ticles ( s& or ! rema9s ( ,=am9if]a4 ,o!rs are compos$ ( calcium c>bonate1 & =m ! class ,calc>ea1 ! spicules ( :i* are :ite1 & opaque 9 mass2 b on plac+ portions 9 hydro*loric acid1 ! skeleton is dissolv$ away ) eff]vesc5ce1 & ! spicules are left beh9d transp>5t & glassy4 ,a great v>iety is se5 9 ! diff]5t species1 z w be ga!r$ f ! few typical =ms %[n 9 ,plate ,,xvi41 & :i* ev5 9 _! fossilis$ /ate rema9 unalt]$1 ! silica :i* ent]s s l>gely into _! composition be+ inde/ructible1 ! calc>e\s matt] alone becom+ sep>at$ 9 exposure to ! action ( air1 or by boil+ 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,! only p]ceptible diff]5ce notic$ is an increase 9 transp>5cy1 & ?is1 on m\nt+ !m 9 ,canada balsam1 adds to _! beauty :5 exam9$ by pol>is$ light4 ,hyalonema1 ! 8glass-rope0 sponge ( ,japan1 consi/s ( a bundle ( f #bjj to #cjj ?reads ( transp>5t silica1 gli/5+ ) a sat9y lu/re l ! mo/ brilliant spun glass2 ea* ?read is ab\t eighte5 in*es long1 9 ! middle ! ?ickness ( a knitt+-ne$le1 & gradually tap]+ t[>ds ei!r end to a f9e po9t2 ! :ole bundle coil$ l a /r& ( rope into a l5g!n$ spiral1 ! ?reads ( ! middle & l[] portions rema9+ compactly coil$ by a p]man5t twi/ ( ! individual ?reads2 ! upp] portions ( ! coil fray$ out1 s t ! glassy ?reads /& sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,! spicules on ! outside ( ! coil /ret* its entire l5g?1 ea* tak+ ab\t two & a half turns ( ! spiral4 ,"o ( ^! long ne$les is ab\t "o-?ird ( a l9e 9 diamet] 9 ! c5tre1 gradually tap]+ t[>ds ei!r end4 ,! spirally-twi/$ portion ( ! ne$le occupies r m ?an ! middle half ( its entire l5g?4 ,9 ! l[] portion ( ! coil1 :i* is emb$d$ 9 ! sponge1 ! spicule becomes /raight1 & tap]s d[n to an extreme t5uity1 ultimately becom+ s f9e t x is sc>cely possible to trace x to its t]m9ation4 ,)9 ! mesod]m1 & 9 oscule1 0 notic$ a deep br[ni%-orange col\r$ %runk5 membrane2 ?is 0 trac$ to a p>asitic polyp4 ,s9ce ?is 0 fir/ obs]v$ on an e>ly specim5 ( ! ,japanese glass-sponge1 ! same p>asite has always be5 f\nd gr[+ on & 9 all ^! curi\s sponges4 ,! surface ( ! /alk above ! portion emb$d$ 9 ! mud is se5 to be cov]$ ) a w>ty cru/ ( p>asitic polyps4 ,all ! specim5s ( ,hyalonema 9 ! ,european museums 9 #ahfj _h _! /alks ov]gr[n ) ,paly?oa1 :ile _m _h _! bodies also cov]$ ) ano!r p>asite1 & :i*1 =tunately = ! sponge1 did n =m a s&y cru/4 ,! polyps1 hav+ no skeleton1 dry up entirely1 & leave beh9d no trace except ! /a9 fir/ ref]r$ to4 ,unlike a p>asite1 h[ev]1 ! polyps d n fe$ ^u ! juices & s(t p>ts ( ! sponge1 nor inde$ d !y %>e its food1 b simply settle ^u ! sponge & fe$ ^u any food t may *ance to come )9 _! rea*4 ,! dr$g+s ( ! ,*all5g] br\ght to ! surface _m entirely new =ms ( glass-sponges & f great dep?s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ beautiful1 kn[n z ,c>p5t]'s glass-sponge 7,ph]onema71 is compos$ ( conc5tric lam9 ( silica deposit$ ar\nd a f9e c5tral axial canal4 ,^! =m a gauze-l network ?r\gh\t1 b ) no regul>ity ( /ructure4 ,clion4--,n ! lea/ wond]ful circum/ance connect$ ) ! hi/ory ( sponges is ! p[] possess$ by c]ta9 species ( bor+ into sub/ances1 ! h>dness ( :i* might be consid]$ z a suffici5t protection aga9/ su* app>5tly contemptible foes4 ,%ells 7bo? liv+ & dead71 coral1 & ev5 solid rocks are attack$ by ^! humble de/roy]s1 gradually brok5 up1 &1 no d\bt1 f9ally r$uc$ to su* a /ate z to r5d] sub/ances :i* w\ld o!rwise rema9 dead & useless 9 ! economy ( nature available = ! supply ( ! necessities ( o!r liv+ creatures4 ,^! bor+ sponges con/itute ! g5us ,cliona ( ,dr4 ,grant4 ,!y are bran*$ 9 =m1 or consi/ ( lobes unit$ by delicate /ems1 & aft] hav+ buri$ !mselves 9 %ells or o!r calc>e\s objects1 pres]ve _! communication ) ! wat] by means ( p]=ations 9 ! out] wall ( ! %ell4 ,! me*anism by :i* a creature ( s l[ a type ( organisation contrives to produce effects s rem>kable is /ill d\btful1 f ! great difficulties :i* lie 9 ! way ( com+ to any satisfactory conclusions ^u ! habits ( an animal t works s completely 9 ! d>k z ! ,cliona celata4 ,mr4 ,hancock1 9 8 valuable memoir ^u ! bor+ sponges1 attributes _! excavat+ p[] to ! pres5ce ( ! multitude ( m9ute silici\s cry/all9e p>ticles adh]+ to ! surface ( ! sponge2 ^! he supposes are set 9 motion by cili>y action4 ,9 :atev] way ?is action may be produc$1 h[ev]1 !re c be no d\bt t ^! sponges are con/antly & sil5tly effect+ ! dis9tegration ( subm>9e calc>e\s bodies--! %elly cov]+s1 x may be1 ( animals f> high] 9 organisation1 & 9 _m in/ances !y prove !mselves =midable enemies ev5 to liv+ molluscs1 by bor+ completely ?r\gh ! %ell4 ,9 ?is case ! animal ^: domicile x s unc]emoni\sly invades has no alt]native b to raise a wall ( new %elly matt] betwe5 himself & 8 unwelcome gue/1 & 9 ?is mann] g5]ally succe$s 9 b>r+ him out4 ,f a close exam9ation ( ! /ructural & developm5tal *>act]s ( ! ,spongide1 x mu/ be conc$$ t !y belong r to ! flagellata ,protozoa ?an to any o!r ord]4 ,?is 0 ! view held by ! late ,pr(essor ,cl>k1 & ,mr4 ,saville ,k5t q concurs 9 x4#fi ,summ+ up ! entire evid5ce adduc$1 sc>cely a %ad[ ( d\bt is admissible conc]n+ ! intimate relation%ip t subsi/s betwe5 ! ,*oano-flagellata & o!r flagellate ,protozoa & t ( sponges4 ,! prim>y & ess5tial elem5t ( ! app>5tly complex sponge /ock is ! assemblage ( coll>$ flagellate zooids t inhabit its int]/itial cavities "u v>i\s plans ( di/ribution4 ,individually ^! coll>$ zooids correspond /ructurally & functionally 9 e detail ) ! coll>$ units ( su* g5]a z ,codosiga1 ,salp+ca1 & ,proto-spongia4 ,! coll> 9 ei!r case pres5ts ! same /ructure & functions1 exhibits ! same circulatory curr5ts or cyclosis1 & acts 9 ! same way = ! capture ( food4 ,! body conta9s an id5tical c5trally locat$ sph]oidal nucleus or endopla/1 & a correspond+ s]ies ( rhy?mically pulsat+ contractile vesicles4 ,! developm5tal reproductive ph5om5a are also /rictly p>allel4 ,bo? orig9ate z simple ,amba or simple flagellate ,monads1 exhibit+ no trace 9 _! e>lie/ /age ( ! subsequ5tly acquir$ *>act]i/ic coll>4 ,bo? aga9 aft] a "t )draw _! coll> & flagellum1 & assume ! amboid /ate2 !n1 coalesc+1 ent] ^u a quiesc5t or ency/$ condition1 & break up into a numb] ( sporul> bodies1 & ?us provide = ! fur!r exi/5ce & di/ribution ( ! species4 ,! :ole process aga9 is mu* ak9 to t :i* obta9s 9 ! protophytic type1 ,volvox globator1 :i* lib]ates f its int]ior free swimm+ gemmules t take ! =m ( sph]ical aggregation ( biflagellate daught]-cells4 ,9 _! isolat$ /ate1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sw>m gemmules ( ! sponge /ock are directly comp>able ) ! free swimm+ subsph]oidal colony /ock ( ! flagellate infusoria ,synura1 ,syncrypta1 & ,urogl5a1 or ) ! atta*$ subsph]oidal clu/]s ( ,codosiga & ,an?ophysa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,e*9od]mata1 ,,hydrozoa1 ,,polyzoa1 ,,helm9?oida4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,zoophytes1 ,cl5t]ata1 ,m$us1 ,corals1 ,hydrozoa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdd4--;,gorgonia ,nobilis4 ,a /udy ( ! e>lie/ gr[? ( ! ,cl5t]ata has %[n t _! int]nal cavities are no?+ m ?an regul> radiate out-gr[?s ( ! int]nal /ructures4 ,! result ( ?is developm5t is a condition :i* does n occur aga9 9 ! :ole ( ! animal k+dom4 ,!re is a sy/em ( cavities all 9 op5 communication "o ) ano!r1 no clos$ blood vascul> sy/em1 & no specialis$ respiratory app>atus4 ,aga91 all ! animals t con/itute ?is l>ge gr\p are radiate 9 /ructure1 t is1 :5 view$ f above !y are typically />-%ap$1 & if cut across1 e horizontal section %[s a symmetrical arrangem5t ( ! sev]al p>ts ar\nd a c5tre4 ,!re are o!r radiate animals1 z ! ,e*9od]ms1 b :ile 9 ^! five is ! fundam5tal numb] ( rays1 9 ! ,cl5t]ata ! rays are a multiple ( f\r1 six & upw>ds4 ,! skeleton or framework ( ea* diff]s1 & :5 ! ,cl5t]ata =m calc>e\s /ructures1 ^! are q diff]5t f ! te/s ( ! sea-ur*9s2 & 9 all cases ! ant]ior portion ( ! body is cr[n$ ) "o or m circles ( t5tacles1 :i* rema9 p]fectly flexible & fl[]-l4 ,! mo/ highly-develop$ ( ! free =ms are ! sea-anemones & ! jelly-fi%4 ,^! h no h>d or calc>e\s skeleton :atev]1 b )al !y are1 9 ! op9ion ( naturali/s & microscopi/s1 ! mo/ beautiful objects among ,zoophytes4 ,9 spite ( _! v>iety ( =ms1 ! ,cl5t]ata seem to be z incapable ( high] developm5t z d ! ,e*9od]ms1 & !y h fail$ to make headway 9 fre% wat]1 b x is n improbable t "s ( ! simple/ =ms ( ! :ole gr\p may h giv5 rise to high] animal =ms1 :ile ! sea anemones1 corals1 c41 be+ ^? desc5dants ( ! primitive simple =m1 h reta9$ ! orig9al type ( organization almo/ un*ang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cde4--;,hydra viridis1 adh]+ to a /alk ( ,ana*>is als9a/rum4 ,! type ( ! gr\p is ! ,hydra1 a fre%-wat] polyp1 commonly f\nd atta*$ to ! leaves & /ems ( _m aquatic plants1 or float+ pieces ( /ick4 ,two species are well kn[n to microscopi/s1 ! ,h4 viridis1 or gre5 polyp1 & ! ,h4 vulg>is1 some:at d>k] 9 col\r1 probably dep5d5t ^u ! nature ( its food4 ,! ?ird1 less common species1 ! ,h4 fasca1 is di/+ui%$ f bo? by ! l5g? ( its t5tacles1 :i*1 :5 fully ext5d$1 greatly exce$ ^? ( ei!r ( ! be=e-m5tion$4 ,! fre%-wat] gr\p measures f "o-eigh? to ! "o-?ird ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & =m simple /ocks ( "o1 two or m bran*es4 ,!y almo/ exactly resemble 9 =m ! polyps ( ! ,hydract9ia1 :i* are provid$ ) a circle ( t5tacles4 ,:5 plac$ 9 a vessel ( wat] & left undi/urb$ !y (t5 atta* !mselves to ! side1 :]e !y may be exam9$ ) a mod]ate p[] at leisure4 ,!y are !n se5 to spread out _! t5tacles l f9e ?reads1 & seize ^u any small creature t may come 9 _! way1 & by ! same means convey x to a m\? capable ( great ext5sion4 ,all ,hydra possess /++-cells1 by means ( :i* !y p>alyse _! prey4 ,_m ,hydra atta9 to a l>ge size1 & %oot out long poison\s filam5ts2 !y also possess small] k9ds ( smoo? cells1 :i* appe> to be employ$ = an entirely diff]5t purpose1 b = :at is n positively kn[n4 ,hydra usually multiply by means ( buds1 an out-gr[? f ! body1 & ^! rema9 atta*$ to ! "m /alk = "s "t1 (t5 long en\gh to give rise to "o or two small] buds4 ,s+le eggs are also develop$ 9 ! ectod]m b5ea? capsules1 or w>t-l prom95ces4 ,! adult animal c be cut to pieces1 & f ea* piece a new individual w be develop$4 ,?is me?od ( reproduction 0 fir/ tri$ by ! naturali/ ,trembley 9 #agci1 ^: exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction excit$ ! greate/ int]e/ among ! naturali/s ( ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,hydra fusca 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t is giv5 9 outl9e 9 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdf4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,hydra 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t2 #d4 ,gr\p ( ,/5tor polymorphus1 _m-%ap$ ,/5tor2 #e4 ,engl5a2 #f4 ,monads4 ,9 ! polyps belong+ to ?is family ! body-/ructure = ! mo/ "p consi/s ( a homog5e\s aggregation ( vesicul> granules1 held toge!r by an int]cellul> s>code1 & capable ( great ext5sion & contraction1 s t ^! animals c assume a v>iety ( =ms & ext5d _! body & t5tacles until ! latt] become almo/ invisible4 ,x 0 ! resemblance 9 ?is respect to ! fabl$ ,hydra t orig9at$ ! "n4 ,its organ ( preh5sion is t]m$ ! ha/a2 ?is consi/s ( a sac or op5+ at ! t]m9al end ( ! t5tacle1 )9 :i* is se5 a sauc]-%ap$ vesicle1 support+ a m9ute ovate body1 :i* c>ries a %>p calc>e\s piece t]m$ a sagitta or arr[4 ,al?\gh ! fre%-wat] ,hydra may be reg>d$ z typical ( ?is gr\p ( animals1 m>9e fauna furni% a f> m ext5sive gr\p 9 ! corals1 jelly-fi%1 & sea-anemones4 ,a small] gr\p1 ! ,ct5ophora1 al?\gh memb]s ( ?is sub-k+dom1 h n yet f\nd _! true position2 nev]!less !y are int]e/+ glassy1 transp>5t creatures1 ei!r %ap$ l apples1 melons1 or ,phrygian caps1 or else =m+ b&s ( "s consid]able l5g?2 all are wond]fully transp>5t1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! ,b]o4 ,^! inhabit ! op5 sea1 & are only se5 in%ore :5 driv5 9 by curr5ts or /rong w9ds4 ,_! position 9 ! wat] is usually m or less v]tical1 ! m\? be+ turn$ d[nw>ds4 ,! portion f :i* ?is gr\p d]ives its "n is ! ribs1 :i* are symmetrically arrang$1 & consi/ ( r[s ( %ort transv]se combs1 ea* =m+ r[s ( cilia1 :i*1 z !y wave to & fro1 con/itute a swimm+ or r[+ plate1 _! activity 9 ! wat] dep5d+ ^u ! w ( ! animal4 ,!y are also provid$ ) an oral umbrella1 & captur+ filam5ts or t5tacles ) hair-l bran*es4 ,^! t5tacles1 atta*$ to ! sides ( ! animal1 are capable ( erection or )drawal into pockets4 ,great v>iety is se5 9 ^! accessory organs ( locomotion2 = in/ance1 ! ,cydippid 7,plate ,,xvii47 h only arms1 b ^! are rem>kable = _! l5g?1 & s]ve = ! purpose ( captur+ food z well z = /e]+4 ,! mo/ int]e/+1 if n ! mo/ beautiful ( ! ,ct5ophora1 are ! ,b]oid2 x is ?is family t be> a resemblance to ! ,phrygian cap 7,plate ,,xvii41 e74 ,! m\? is wide1 b x appe>s to h no captur+ t5tacles1 & yet _! habits are c>nivor\s2 !y w ev5 dev\r _! own relations4 ,_m ( ! g5us are phosphoresc5t1 & 9 place ( /++-cells h small sph]ical knobs beset ) /icky globules1 9 :i* _! food becomes entangl$1 & ^! are app>5tly 9 con/ant use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,,zoophytes1 ,,a/]oids1 ,,nudibran*is1 ,,acaleps1 ,,e*9oids1 ,,ct5ophora1 ,,tunicata1 ,,& ,,cru/aceans4 ,! ,/++ ,s]ies1 ,cnid>ia1 comprise sea-anemones1 corals1 jelly-fi% among m>9e animals1 & ,hydra among ! fre%-wat] ,cl5t]ata2 & d]ive _! "n f a rem>kably curi\s feature1 ! s-call$ /++ capsules4 ,^! are n only (f5sive1 b also def5sive weapons ) all ! animals belong+ to ?is gr\p2 ! possession ( :i* has conv]t$ ! bell-l jelly-fi% into a simple ,cnid>ian4 ,! pr9cipal *ange is 9 ! gelat9\s lay] betwe5 ! out] wall & ! inn] dige/+ lay] ( ! ectod]m4 ,b )\t ent]+ fur!r into _! /ructure & relations1 ! /++-cells & batt]ies claim especial att5tion4 ,^! cells v>y consid]ably 9 size )\t _! *>act]i/ics be+ ess5tially *ang$4 ,! protoplasm ( ! cell is modifi$ into a tol]ably firm sub/ance1 enclos+ an oval or cyl9drical vesicle4 ,closely associat$ ) ?is is a po9t$ process1 /&+ up f> above ! level ( ! out] cov]+1 kn[n z ! cnidocil4 ,)9 ! vesicle is f\nd1 ei!r spirally roll$ up or 9 an irregul> tangle1 a long filam5t or holl[ tube1 a prolongation ( ! vesicle1 b turn$ outside 94 ,?is tube is m ?an tw5ty times z long z ! cell1 is po9t$ at ! tip1 & beset ) two r[s ( f9e spirally-arrang$ b>b$ hooks4 ,:5 ! cnidocil is t\*$ or irritat$1 ?is filam5t is viol5tly %ot out1 be+ !n turn$ inside-out1 l ! f+]s ( a glove4 ,s long z ! ?read rema9s roll$ up )9 ! vesicle ! b>b$ hooks rema9 9 _! tube1 b :5 %ot out1 !y *ange to ! outside4 ,! roll$-up filam5t appe>s to be fill$ ) "s poison\s mat]ial1 :i* is eject$ :5 ! tube is %ot out1 & :]e ! po9t /rikes a w\nd is inflict$1 s t unless ! prey is /rong] ?an ! attack] x _c escape4 ,! great] ! /ruggle1 ! l>g] ! numb] ( capsules dis*>g$ 9 ord] to kill4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdg4--,! ,/++ ,capsules ( ,cnid>ia4 #a & #b4 ,retract$ filam5ts2 #c4 ,p>tly protrud$2 #d4 ,fully protrud$4 ,magnifi$ #fjj4 7,w>ne47 ,polypom$us4--,among ! high] developm5t ( ! /++ gr\p is ! jelly-fi%4 ,! ,siphonophora1 z repres5t$ by ! ,portuguese man-(-w>1 are 9 _! turn ! highe/ developm5t ( swimm+-bells1 & exhibit _m modifications & comb9ations ( individuals4 ,! t5tacles ( ! ,physalia1 ! be/ kn[n1 are /iff ) batt]ies ( /++-capsules1 ! /+ ( :i* is m l ! %ock ( ! electric curr5t4 ,! ,*all5g] s\nd+s br\ght to light "s rem>kably int]e/+ =ms1 & ^! h furni%$ mu* "w = ! microscope1 z all _! l>val =ms are extremely curi\s4 ,among ! ,hydrom$us !re are _m diff]5t life hi/ories4 ,take ! jelly-fi%1 ! eggs ( :i* h giv5 up =m+ /ocks1 & are hat*$ out at once z ,m$us4 ,!re are o!rs1 ! eggs ( :i* =m /ocks2 o!rs1 aga91 9 :i* ! sexual individuals d n swim away z jelly-fi%4 ,! la/ 7 at "o "t describ$ "u a new "n1 because ( "o or two curi\s =ms be+ tak5 creep+ on ! gr\nd4 ,?is creep+ ,m$usa 7,clavatella prolif]a7 has six arms1 ! tips ( :i* are provid$ ) true suck]s1 & on ^! x walks z on /ilts1 :ile f ea* arm a %ort /alk arises1 ! swoll5 end ( :i* is beset ) /++ capsules4 ,x has an ext5sile m\?-tube1 & fe$s ^u small cru/aceans f\nd on seawe$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdh4--,plumul>ia primata4 ,doris tub]culata se5 cl++ to a fucus4 ,among ! =ms t swim away z jelly-fi% a v curi\s example is pres5t$ 9 ,corymorpha mutans4 ,^! swim ab\t = a "t1 & !n firmly atta* !mselves by num]\s ?read-l app5dages1 =c$ into ! s&1 & :]e ! "y prep>e = _! next metamorphosis4 ,z an example ( ! /ocks ( ^? repres5tatives :i* d n swim away z jelly-fi%1 take ! beautifully-fea!r$1 plant-l creatures f\nd erect along ! sea%ore1 ! ,s]tul>ia 7,fig4 #ceh1 ,no4 #ab7 & ,plumul>ia4 ,plumul>ia primata1 ,fig4 #cdh4 ,o!r memb]s ( ^! gr\ps w be f\nd 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #ie-ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdi4--;,gr\p ( female /ock ( ,hydract9ia e*9ata4 a1 a4 ,nutritive individuals2 b1 b4 ,female individuals & gr\ps ( eggs4 ,highly magnifi$4--7,w>ne47 ,9 addition to ! nutritive individuals1 !re are ! egg-be>+2 ^! d n become free-swimm+ individuals4 ,"o small family is nei!r bran*$ nor fea!r$--! ,hydract9ia e*9ata1 f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,sea & on ! ,norwegian coa/s1 :]e x atta*es itself to ! %ells ( ga/ropods1 select+ ^? inhabit$ by h]mit crabs4 ,! "p ( ! /ock common to all ! individuals is ! sk9-l portion :i* adh]es to ! surface ( ! %ell4 ,9 "s sp9y processes are produc$1 & ! nutritive canals runn+ d[n ! /ems ( ! polyps are cont9u$ into ! membrane belong+ to ! /ock1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #cdi4 ,! nutritive individuals are di/+ui%$ by long t5tacles1 m\?s1 & dige/ive canals4 ,! females h no m\?s1 & are suppli$ ) food ?r\gh ! sy/em ( canals runn+ to !m f ! nutritive males4 ,^! reproductive memb]s are furni%$ ) /++ ?reads in/ead ( t5tacles = ! protection ( _! ova4 ,! ciliat$ l>v1 9 a v %ort "t1 swim (f to f\nd new colonies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cej4--,m$us1 ,jelly-fi%4 ,! free-swimm+ jelly-fi% 7,fig4 #cej1 & ,plate ,,xvii41 c & d7 belong to ! ord] ,scyphom$us4 ,^! are *>act]is$ by _! delicate col\r+1 & f ! arrangem5t ( _! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* c only be made out by /a9+4 ,"s new & curi\s =ms 7 dr$g$ f a dep? ( m ?an #f1jjj feet (f ! coa/ ( ,new ,zeal&1 v>y+ 9 size f an in* to tw5ty in*es2 _m hav+ f f\r to eight or t5 eyes arrang$ along ! m>g94 ,an?ozoa4--,f ! free-swimm+ we turn to a gr\p ( p]man5tly fix$ polyp =ms1 ! sea-anemones & corals4 ,! developm5t ( ,monox5ia comm5ces ) ! egg1 repeat$ly divid+ into _m p>ts 7,fig4 #cea1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e71 by a process common to ! animal k+dom1 t]m$ egg-segm5tation1 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance proce$+ f an app>5tly holl[ sph]e1 ,a1 enclos+ a s+le lay] ( cells1 ,g4 ,ea* cell s5ds out a long cilia1 or :ip-l process1 ,f1 by means ( :i* ! l>va turns ab\t & swims 9 ! body fluid ( ! p>5t polyp4 ,"o half ( ! sph]e n[ becomes enfold$ into ! o!r half1 ,h1 & =ms :at is t]m$ a ga/rula1 ,i1 ,k4 ,! ga/rula /age ( ,monox5ia is ( ! simple/ k9d1 ! l>va =m+ a sac1 ) walls consi/+ ( two lay]s1 an out]1 or ectod]m1 & an inn]1 or endod]m4 ,! transition f ! flat di% %ape1 ,h1 to ! sac ) a n>r[ m\? is at once cle>1 & ! k t all ! ,cl5t]ates proce$ f simil> l>v1 & t all ! complications ( _! v>i\s sy/ems are develop$ f a simple ga/rula1 ?r[s mu* light on _! anatomy4 ,dur+ ^! transitions ! endod]m1 ^: cells multiply1 cont9ues z an un9t]rupt$ l9+ to ! /oma* & its app5dages1 :ile ! ectod]m yields ! cuticul> elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cea4--,/ages 9 developm5t ( ,monox5ia ,d>w9ii1 #fjj4--7,w>ne47 ,a ?ird int]m$iate gelat9\s lay]1 ! mesogla1 arises betwe5 ! two lay]s 9 :i* muscles & connective int]/itial tissue appe>4 ,9 ! mesogla ( "o species ( coral calcification takes place2 ?is int]nal calcification has b a small %>e 9 ! "w ( ! great rock-mak+ corals1 _! mo/ important calcification be+ ext]nal4 ,9 ,monox5ia1 al?\gh ! transition f ! ga/rula l>va to ! adult animal has n be5 se51 !re c be no d\bt z to h[ ?is is c>ri$ out1 ! trans=mations hav+ be5 wat*$ ?r\gh\t 9 o!r species4 ,! l>va atta*es itself ) ! end opposite ! m\?1 ! cilia disappe>1 & aft] ! m\?-tube has be5 =m$ by ! fold+ 9 ( ! ant]ior end along ! longitud9al axis ( ! body1 & has ?us become m>k$ (f f ! /oma*1 eight holl[ t5tacles rise r\nd ! m\? z outgr[?s ( ! body cavity1 or z direct cont9uations ( ! /oma*4 ,l all o!r corals1 ,monox5ia p]iodically multiply by means ( eggs1 :i* are =m$ ei!r 9 ! walls ( ! radiat+ p>titions or septa1 or along ! free edges4 ,^! are eject$ ?r\gh ! oral op5+4 ,z a rule1 ! polyps are ei!r male or female2 b 9 /ock-=m+ species individuals ( ! two sexes are (t5 mix$4 ,monox5ia may be tak5 z ! simple/ type ( ! regul>ly radiate polyps2 9 all ! diff]5t organs be+ repeat$ 9 regul> r+s r\nd a c5tral axis2 ! m\? also is circul>4 ,f ?is int]e/+ acc\nt1 drawn by ,haeckel1 ( a simple polyp1 x w be at once se5 :at k9d ( radiate animal x is t builds up ! coral reefs4 8,no g>d5 on e>? c mat* ! g>d5s ( ! sea t circle ! nor!rn "p ( ,au/ralia4 ,z ! tide ebbs 9 azure sunset1 coral-reefs pe] out symmetrically arrang$ 9 b$s & int]sect$ by em]ald pa?ways c\rs+ ?r\gh corals ( all hues & t9ts fa?oms deep 9 ! *annels40 ,9 a gr[+ polyp-/ock ! individuals usually rema9 9 organic connection2 t is to say1 ea* fir/ provides = itself & !n %>es its sup]fluity ) o!rs1 sometimes by means ( a cont9u\s reticulat$ sy/em ( canals p]=at+ ! calc>e\s sub/ance :i* (t5 sep>ates ! memb]s ( "o /ock f ano!r4 ,! :ole colony may ?us be physiologically "o creature ) _m m\?s4 ,!re are o!rs t rema9 s+le1 z ! inv]t$ pyramidal-look+ bodies1 ,fungid1 commonly call$ 8,sea-mu%rooms10 f\nd 9 great v>iety4 ,! col\r ( ! polypidom is :ite1 ( a flatt5$ r\nd %ape1 made up ( ?9 plates or scales1 imb$d$ 9 a transluc5t jelly-l sub/ance1 & )9 is conceal$ a polyp2 ! foot/alk1 by means ( :i* ! animal is atta*$ to ! rock1 is ( a calc>e\s nature 7,fig4 #ceb1 ,no4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceb4--,sea-,anemones4 #a4 ,act9ia rubra1 t5tacles display$ & retract$2 #b4 ,heticictis bellis2 #c4 ,h4 bellis1 se5 f above4 ,hexact9ia 7six-ray$ polyps7 are n limit$ to six rays1 z ! "n giv5 !m may seem to imply2 !y are1 9 fact1 v num]\s 9 "s ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ gorge\s ( ! sea-anemones4 ,all are di/+ui%$ by _! solit>y mann] ( life1 _! size1 & _! vivid & v>i$ly beautiful col\r+4 ,! endod]m is firm1 & :5 ! animal )draws its t5tacles & %uts its body sub/ance 91 !re is "s difficulty 9 p5etrat+ to ! int]ior4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 secrete a calc>e\s skeleton inside or out1 z d ! true coral polyps4 ,among ! ,hexact9ia ! sea-anemone 7,fig4 #ceb7 takes ! fir/ place4 ,^! beautifully col\r$ creatures are1 = ! mo/ "p1 f\nd atta*$ to ! spot select$ by ! l>v2 a few species bore into ! s& ) ! po/]ior "p ( ! body1 or build a %ea?1 :i* !y inhabit4 ,!y are voraci\s fe$]s1 & dev\r l>ge pieces ( fle%1 & ev5 mussel & oy/]s1 suck+ !m 9 by means ( _! long grasp+ t5tacles4 ,well-f$ anemones *ange _! sk9 frequ5tly1 dur+ :i* process !y rema9 closely retract$2 ! %$ sk9 =ms a loose girdle ar\nd ! base4 ,act9ia bellis n infrequ5tly atta* !mselves to ! %ells ( crabs & :elks1 & are ?us c>ri$ to pa/ures new4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cec4--,l>v ( ,sea-,anemones1 ,act9ia effta1 highly magnifi$4 ,on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* anemones are kept 9 captivity1 _! mode ( reproduction c be closely obs]v$4 ,) b few exceptions !y develop f eggs1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few weeks are hat*$ into ciliat$ infusorial l>v1 pres5t+ mo/ curi\s & exquisite repres5tations ( jugs & j>s1 ) cov] lids 7z se5 9 ,fig4 #cec1 ,act9ia effta74 ,^! ev9ce ! h&iwork ( a ma/] h& 9 ! c]amic art4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 ( s transluc5t a nature z to p]mit ( ! int]nal /ructure be+ se5 to consi/ ( n]ves & vessels1 & :i* are r5d]$ m app>5t by /a9+4 ,^! settle d[n 9 a week or t5 days1 & !n %$ _! cilia1 ! fir/ t5tacle appe>+ dur+ ! process ( atta*m5t4 ,9 "s species ! "y ,act9i are se5 to pass ?r\gh _! :ole developm5t )9 ! body cavity ( ! p>5t4 ,mo/ anemones are provid$ ) sev]al circles ( m or less cyl9drical t5tacles1 & !re are a few specially beautiful species :i*1 besides t5tacles ( ! usual =m1 h1 ei!r )9 or )\t ! ord9>y circle ( t5tacles1 lob$ or leaf-l tactile & seiz+ organs4 ,^! belong to ! family ( ! beautiful ,crambactis ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,bel[ ^! grasp+ t5tacles comes a circle ( ?ick] arms unlike ! =m]1 be+ sp9dle %ap$4 ,all ! t5tacles ( ! sea-anemones are holl[ ) a f9e ap]ture at ! tip1 ?r\gh :i*1 on clos+ rapidly1 x is se5 to expel a jet ( wat]4 ,true ,corals4--,x w h be5 notic$ 9 ! =ego+ rem>ks t 9 ! s(t body-division ( ! ,hexact9ia !re are bo? s+le individuals & colonies jo9$ toge!r to =m /ocks4 ,! same div]sity 9 ?is respect w be f\nd among corals prop]1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! skeleton-=m+ polyps1 by comb9+1 build up sub/antial /ructures 9 ! mo/ secure & advantage\s positions4 ,n[ x s happ5s t all ! corals f\nd ab\t our coa/s are g5]ally small & solit>y dwell]s1 "o ( ! be/ kn[n ( :i* is ! sc>let crisp coral1 ,flabellum1 & is *>act]is$ by ! slit-l =m ( ! m\?4 ,view$ sideways x resembles a small fan fa/5$ along ! edges1 & j inside a r[ ( fully develop$ t5tacles is se5 protrud+4 ,an int]e/+ =m ( budd+ occurs 9 ^! corals3 ! buds fall (f1 & 9 ?is budd+ condition ! coral might pass1 & inde$ has be5 describ$ z a diff]5t species ( ,flabellum4 ,! col\r ( ! coral is a beautifully transp>5t r$4 ,rem>kable z ! solit>y corals are1 !y are surpass$ bo? 9 numb] & 9 =m by ^? :i* =m comp\nd /ocks1 t is to say1 9 :i* ! buds d n fall (f1 b g on build+ up coral isl&s & b>ri] reefs 9 ! w>m] seas4 ,"s v few typical =ms only are giv5 9 ! gr\p accompany+1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,a diff]5t k9d ( /ock is develop$ 9 a numb] ( =ms1 "s produc+ _m buds1 z 9 ! ,madrepores1 9 :i* select$ polyps spr+ up above ! re/1 _! sides also becom+ cov]$ ) small buds1 ea* "o ( :i* is a liv+1 fe$+1 coral animal surr\nd$ by a cr[n ( t5tacles4 ,^! ,madrepores play a v important "p 9 ! build+ up ( coral reefs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ced4 ,developm5tal /ages ( ,l>v1 ,a/roides calycul>is1 #dj4 ,ano!r massive coral1 ! ,a/roides calycul>is1 has a diff]5t mode ( gr[?1 ! tubes n be+ fus$ toge!r4 ,:5 se5 /&+ out ^! yell[i%-r$ polyps h be5 mi/ak5 = small anemones4 ,! l>v ( ?is coral leave ! egg :ile /ill 9 ! l>ge *amb]$ body cavity ( ! p>5t1 :]e !y swim ab\t = a "t1 till !y escape ?r\gh ! m\?4 ,!y are worm-l 9 =m1 & swim by means ( cilia1 :i* are ?ick] at ! =emo/ end4 ,! m\? fir/ appe>s aft] leav+ ! p>5t1 b z !y soon become exhau/$ by ! ef=t !y assume a contract$ =m1 & atta* !mselves1 z d anemones1 by press+ ! ?ick] end ( ! body aga9/ a rock1 ! :ole contract+ into a ?ick r\nd disc1 :ile longitud9al furr[s become visible at ! upp] "p :]e ! m\? s9ks 94 ,at ! end ( ^! furr[s twelve t5tacles appe>4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration %[s ! v>i\s /ages ?r\gh :i* ! l>v pass 9 rapid succession 7,fig4 #ced72 at ! same "t x has already comm5c$ to secrete its calc>e\s skeleton4 ,?is is n =m$ z a connect$ :ole b f a numb] ( sep>ate c5tres ( secretion =m$ betwe5 ! polyp & ! sub/ance to :i* x has atta*$ itself1 & :i* become gradually fus$ into a p]fect skeleton4 ,a section ( ! polyp at ?is /age =ms an int]e/+ microscopical object4 ,! s-call$ eight-ray$ corals consi/ ( ! "o g5us ,tubipora1 ! memb]s ( :i* are few 9 numb] & n v>i$ 9 =m 7,fig4 #ceh1 ,no4 #aj74 ,9 ! /ructure1 h[ev]1 ( skeletons !y are unique among extant corals4 ,ea* individual secretes a smoo?-wall$ tube )\t calcification ( ! v]tical septa4 ,^! tubes1 l ! pipes ( an organ1 /& almo/ p>allel1 & are unit$ to =m a /ock by means ( transv]se plat=ms4 ,! =mation ( buds does n appe> to take place 9 ?is family4 ,ano!r ( ! eight-ray$ corals is ,gorgoniid4 ,^! are p]man5tly fix$ to ! spot on :i* !y are f\nd1 & =m a bu%-l gr[?1 giv+ no idea ( ! liv+ coral1 z x rises 9 graceful bran*+ colonies1 9 deep wat]1 & repres5ts a portion ( ,gorgonia nobilis ) polyps exp&$ 7,figs4 #cdd & #ceh1 ,no4 #i74 ,o!r corals pres5t num]\s o!r dep>tures f ! types we h be5 consid]+1 b s f> modifi$ 9 =m z t ( ! ,sea-p51 ,v]etillum 7,fig4 #cee71 ! /ock "p ( :i* is surr\nd$ by polyps cont9u$ d[n a portion ( ! cyl9drical /alk4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ! species is ,p5natula phosphorea ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cee4 #a4 ,p5natula phosphorea2 #b4 ,synapta *irodata2 #c4 ,an*or-%ap$ spiculum & plate f ! ectod]m ( same4 ,p5natulid4--,?is family d]ives its "n f p5na1 a quill4 ,_! spicula also resemble a p5hold] 9 appe>ance1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ceh1 ,no4 #c4 ,! polyps are )\t col\r1 provid$ ) eight r long retractile t5tacula1 beautifully ciliat$ on ! inn] aspect ) two s]ies ( %ort processes1 & /r5g!n$ by ^! cry/all9e spicula1 a r[ be+ c>ri$ up ! /alk1 toge!r ) a s]ies ( ciliat$ processes4 ,! m\?1 occupy+ ! c5tre ( ! t5tacula1 is some:at angul>4 ,! ova lie betwe5 ! membran\s "p ( ! p9n2 ^! are globul>1 ( a yell[i% col\r1 & by pressure c be made to pass ?r\gh ! m\?4 ,dr4 ,grant wrote3--8,a m s+ul> & beautiful spectacle c\ld sc>cely be conceiv$ ?an t ( a deep purple ,p5natula phosphorea1 ) all its delicate transp>5t polyps exp&$ & emitt+ _! usual brilliant phosphoresc5t light1 sail+ ?r\gh ! /ill & d>k abyss1 by ! regul> & syn*ron\s pulsations ( ! m9ute fr+$ arms ( ! polyps40 ,! spicula are se5 to be a cont9u\s s]ies ( cones fitt+ into ea* o!r4 ,bryozoa1 ,moss-animals4 ,! exact position 9 :i* ! ,bryozoa1 or moss-animals1 %\ld be plac$ 9 ! animal k+dom has n be5 f9ally det]m9$4 ,!y 7 at "o "t associat$ ) corals2 !n ) sponges2 b1 on fur!r acqua9tance1 x became evid5t t !y did n belong to ei!r4 ,naturali/s also claim$ !m z ,rotif]s & ,ciliata1 b ?is claim met ) no bett] reception4 ,s9ce !y appe> to h no settl$ classification1 !re c be no objection to l9k+ !m once m to corals1 z !y app>5tly resemble ^! animals by always liv+ 9 colonies1 ! individual memb]s ( :i* are jo9$ 9 a numb] ( diff]5t ways to =m /ocks1 ! individuals !mselves1 h[ev]1 be+ v mu* small] ?an ^? ( corals prop]4 ,! advantage is t ! /ructure ( ! ,bryozoans c be m readily /udi$1 z _m ( !m live 9 transp>5t *amb]s or cells1 ! walls ( :i*1 al?\gh some:at firmly agglut9at$ toge!r1 are flexible en\gh to fold up1 z ! animals in/antly )draw _! bodies & close up ! top on ! slighte/ al>m 7,fig4 #cef74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cef4--,paludicella1 t5tacles exp&$ & cell clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceg4--,sea-moss1 ,flu/ra1 ! body hav+ be5 )drawn f its cell4 ,! g5]al /ructure ( ! ,bryozoan individual1 figur$ atta*$ by its foot/alk to a /em ( wood1 consi/s ( a m\? at ! ant]ior "p ( ! body op5+ into a muscul> ph>ynx 9 ! alim5t>y canal1 toge!r occupy+ a consid]able am\nt ( space4 ,! t]m9al portion turns ^u itself t[>ds ! oral op5+1 its *ief atta*m5t be+ a %ort /r& ( tissue t]m$ ! funiculus 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #ceh1 ,no4 #aa74 ,9 all adults two masses ( cells are f\nd atta*$ to ! wall ( ! *amb]2 ! upp] yields ! eggs1 )9 ! l[] ! male elem5ts are develop$4 ,moss-animals are h]maphrodite1 f]tilisation be+ effect$ by ! two elem5ts m+l+ toge!r 9 ! body fluid4 ,^! are ! ess5tial po9ts 9 ! /ructure ( ! :ole sev5te5 hundr$ species4 ,among ! l>g] colonies a numb] ( fre%-wat] g5]a are f\nd atta*$ to ! roots & bran*es ( aquatic plants1 mo/ ( :i*1 h[ev]1 are inconspicu\s4 ,! beauty ( ^! m9ute bodies c only be se5 "u ! microscope4 ,_m consi/ ( delicate bran*+ gr[?s1 ! ,sea-mats 7,flu/ra71 = in/ance2 o!rs aga9 appe> z attractive lace corals1 betwe5 ! op5 me%es ( :i* multitudes ( m9ute ap]tures cr[n$ ) t5tacles are display$4 ,! sev]al individuals ( ! g5us ,lepralia are arrang$ 9 r[s1 & fur!r di/+ui%$ by ! animals be+ develop$ only on "o side ( ! /ock4 ,! m>vell\s v>iety ( =ms pres5t$ by ^! small animals is 9 a measure det]m9$ by ! p>ticul> mann] ( _! budd+s4 ,! great] numb] ( fre%-wat] moss-animals belong to ! ord] ,phylactolmata1 s call$ because ! m\? is provid$ ) a tongue-%ap$ lid4 ,! cr[n ( t5tacles is furni%$ ) r[s ( cilia1 & is horse%oe-%ap$1 ! :ole be+ surr\nd$ at its base by an integum5t =m+ a k9d ( cup1 :i* is ei!r s(t or horny4 ,^? belong+ to ! w&]+ types 7,cri/atella1 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #ie-ih7 =m flatt5$ elliptical colonies1 "s ( :i* creep or move ab\t on a k9d ( foot4 ,a n]v\s sy/em p]vades ! mass ( polyps1 :ile 9 ea* sep>ate polyp a n]ve ganglion is se5 to be situat$ betwe5 ! sophagus & ! po/]ior "p ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! colony n]ve sy/em regulates ! movem5ts ( ! /ock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceh4--,typical =ms ( ,corals4 #a4 ,fungia ag>ici=mis2 #b4 ,alcyonium1 ,cydonium ,mull]i2 #c4 ,cydonium1 polyps protrud+ & t5tacles exp&$1 o!rs clos$2 #d4 ,a /ock view$ f above2 #e4 ,madrepore abrotanoide2 #f4 ,madrepore1 slightly magnifi$1 %[+ oral op5+2 #g4 ,corallid2 #h4 ,coral1 polyps protrud+ f cells2 #i4 ,gorgonia nobilis1 ) polyps exp&$2 #aj4 ,tubipora musica2 #aa4 ,tubes ( same1 ) polyps exp&$1 "o cut longitud9ally to %[ int]nal /ructure2 #ab4 ,s]tul>ia1 polyps protrud$1 & )drawn into _! polypidoms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cei4 #a4 ,coryne /auridia2 #b4 ,a t5tacle deta*$ & magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s4 ,!re are _m beautifully =m$ fre%wat] polyps des]v+ ( m ?an a pass+ notice1 z ! sl5d] ,coryne 7,coryne /auridia71 f\nd adh]+ to ! foot/alk ( a ,rhodym5ia 7,fig4 #cei71 ab\t :i* x creeps 9 ! =m ( a :ite ?read4 ,on plac+ bo? "u ! microscope1 ! ?read-l body ( ! little animal appe>s cyl9drical & tubul>1 p]fectly transp>5t1 & p]meat$ by a c5tral core1 app>5tly cellul> 9 texture1 holl[1 & )9 :i* a r sl[ circulation ( globules is p]ceiv$4 ,! p>5t ,coryne s5ds (f num]\s bran*es1 ! t]m9al head ( :i* is oblong1 cyl9drical1 & at ! extreme end !re are arrang$ f\r t5tacles1 long & sl5d]1 ea* be+ furni%$ ) a nodul> head4 ,a magnifi$ view ( "o deta*$ is %[n erect 7,fig4 #cei1 ,no4 #b74 ,?is polyp is mu* infe/$ by p>asites1 vorticella gr[+ on x 9 imm5se numb]s1 =m+ aggregat$ clu/]s "h & !re1 individuals ( ! p>asitic colony adh]+ to ea* o!r1 & project+ outw>ds 9 e direction4 ,alcyonella1 ano!r fre%-wat] polyp1 is f\nd 9 ! autumn ( ! ye> 9 all ! ,london ,docks adh]+ to pieces ( float+ timb]4 ,a4 /agnorum p>takes ( ! "* ( a sponge r ?an t ( a polyp4 ,x is usually f\nd 9 gelat9\s colonies1 & :5 /ood aside = a %ort "t ^! put =? a numb] ( ciliat$ t5tacles 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #cfj1 magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s74 ,! ova conta9$ )9 ! sac1 & view$ by transmitt$ light1 appe> z opaque sph]es surr\nd$ by a ?9 transp>5t m>g92 ^! increase 9 ?ickness z ! ova is develop$1 & su* ( ! ova z lie 9 contact seem to unite & =m a /atobla/4 ,a rapid curr5t 9 ! wat] ar\nd ea* animal1 draw+ ) x loose p>ticles & float+ animalcules1 is se5 mov+ ) "s velocity z 9 o!r ciliat$ bodies2 & a zone ( v m9ute vibrat+ cilia surr\nds ! transp>5t m>g9 ( ea* t5tacle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfj4--;,alcyonella fluviatella4 ,dr4 ,p]cival ,wright discov]$ on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,irel& a new g5us ( ,alcyonid1 :i* he nam$ aft] ! well-kn[n naturali/ ,h>te1 ,h>tea elegans 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #hf74 ,?is polyp is solit>y1 ! body cyl9drical1 & fix$ by its base to ! rock2 x has eight ciliat$ t5tacles1 :i* are knobb$ at _! base & mo/ freely display$4 ,x is a v beautiful polyzoon ( a cle> :ite col\r1 & :5 fully exp&$ /&s ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* high4 ,lophopus cry/all9us 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ih7 displays beautiful plumes ( t5tacles arrang$ 9 a d\ble horse%oe-%ap$ s]ies4 ,:5 fir/ obs]v$ ^! polyps resemble 9 _m respects masses ( ! wat] snail ova1 = :i* !y are (t5 mi/ak54 ,on plac+ ^! jelly-l masses into a glass tr\gh ) "s ( ! cle> wat] tak5 f ! /ream 9 :i* !y are f\nd1 delicate tubes are se5 to cauti\sly protrude1 & ! beautiful fr+es ( cilia are quickly br\ght into play4 ,! organisation ( ,l4 cry/all9us is simple1 al?\gh x is provid$ ) organs ( dige/ion1 circulation1 respiration1 & g5]ation4 ,! n]v\s#gj & muscul> sy/ems are well develop$4 ,?is polyp increases bo? by budd+ & by ova1 bo? ( :i* conditions are %[n 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ih4 ,! ova are enclos$ 9 ! transp>5t case ( ! p>5t4 ,9 ,lophopus & "s o!r fre%-wat] g5]a1 ,cri/atella1 ,plumatella1 & ,alcyonella1 ! neural m>g9 ( ! ,lophopore is ext5d$ into two triangul> arms1 giv+ x ! appe>ance ( a deep cresc5t4 ,ano!r family pres5ts a contra/3 !re is no lid to ! m\?1 & ! t5tacles are arrang$ 9 a circle on a disc4 ,an important rise 9 organisation is f\nd 9 ! ,gymnolmata1 especially 9 ! lip-m\!d =ms2 ! individuals belong+ to ?is ord] v>y 9 /ructure & fulfil diff]5t physiological functions4 ,!re are /ructures kn[n z zocia1 /olons1 avicul>ia1 vibracula1 & ovicells1 "s ( :i* are m]ely modifi$ individuals4 ,! zocia are ! normal individuals ( ! colony1 fully develop$ = mo/ ( ! functions ( life2 ! /olons h a mu* humbl] function1 b are indisp5sable--!y are ! root-l outgr[?s ( ! /ock1 & s]ve = atta*+ ! colony to =eign objects4 ,! mo/ rem>kable are ^? kn[n z avicul>ia1 s call$ because !y resemble ! head ( a bird4 ,?is process acts z a pair ( =ceps1 ! l>ge upp] blade ( :i* is v l ! skull & upp] jaw ( a bird1 & ! small] l[] blade 7l ! l[] jaw7 con/antly op5s & %uts by means ( a complicat$ arrangem5t ( muscles 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #cfa74 ,^! avicul>ia are movably atta*$ by %ort muscles to ! neck1 & are f\nd ne> ! entrance to a zocium4 ,!y turn f side to side1 snapp+ 9 all directions1 cat*+ at e p>ticle ( food t may come ne>2 at l5g? ! morsel is drawn into ! m\? by ! cilia on ! t5tacles4 ,f ?is v peculi> /ructure ! ,*ilo/omata 7 orig9ally nam$ bird's-head corall9es1 !n specifically %eph]d's-purse corall9es1 ,notamia burs>ia4 ,equally int]e/+1 aga91 are ! vibracula1 long ?read-l /ructures1 atta*$ by %ort foot/alks4 ,^! keep up a con/ant :ip-l motion1 ! object ( :i* is n q cle>4 ,! ovicells1 or egg receptacles1 are f\nd at ! l[] ends ( ! zocia 9 ! =m ( %ields1 helmets1 or vesicles4 ,9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #ie & #if1 a front & edge view ( ! /atobla/ is %[n highly magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 #a4 ,notamia burs>ia1 %eph]d's-purse ,bryozoa2 #b4 ,polyp magnifi$ & )drawn into its cell2 #c4 ,portion ( a colony ( ,hydroid polyps4 ,ano!r sub-ord] consi/s ( ! ,cyclo/omata1 or r\nd-m\!d ,bryozoans1 ( :i* ! ,tubulipora is ! typical =m4 ,! /ocks are cup-%ap$ incru/ations1 ! individuals radiat+ outw>ds1 z 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ib4 ,tubul>ia dumorti]ii is a v int]e/+ =m1 ! g]m9al bodies1 /atobla/s1 be+ =m$ z cell masses on ! /r&1 or funiculus1 :i* also ma9ta9s ! /oma* 9 its place4 ,!y are r\nd or oval 9 %ape1 & br[n or yell[ 9 col\r1 & consi/ ( two valves fitt$ "o ^u ! o!r l wat* glasses1 z %[n 9 ,no4 #if4 ,a numb] ( o!r /atobla/s are %[n1 ,nos4 #ig1 #ih1 & #ii4 ,! edge runn+ r\nd ,no4 #ie is se5 to h b>b$ tips2 ! r+ itself conta9s small air *amb]s1 & is t]m$ ! swimm+ belt4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a p]fect hydro/atic app>atus1 giv+ support to ! w9t] buds or /atobla/s on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! b>b$ hooks app>5tly act z an*ors1 & by _! means !y cat* on at po9ts suitable = _! developm5t dur+ ! com+ spr+4 ,z soon z ! "t comes1 ! two halves split ap>t & ! g]m9al mass em]ges =?4 ,out ( ^! w9t] buds & /atobla/s asexually produc$ individuals arise1 :i* reproduce !mselves sexually1 _! desc5dants aga9 yield+ w9t] g]ms4 ,9 %ort1 an alt]nation ( g5]ations is a cont9ually recurr+ process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfb4--,l+ula pyramidata4 ,bra*iopoda4--,"h aga9 we h to d ) an enigmatical class ( arm-foot$ animals1 ( :i* ! ,lamp-%ells may be reg>d$ z typical4 ,^! h rema9$ unalt]$ f ! e>lie/ geological epo*s4 ,bra*iopods are divid$ into two ord]s3 ^? hav+ %ells )\t h+es1 & ^? ) %ells h+$ toge!r4 ,on ! :ole !y possess less int]e/ = ! microscopi/s ?an _m o!r animals1 except 9 _! e>lie/ developm5tal /ages ( exi/5ce4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! h+e-class gr\p1 liv+ *iefly ne> ! %ores ( ! w>m] seas1 is ! ,l+ulid4 ,! valves are almo/ exactly simil>1 b are n h+$ toge!r1 & h no processes = ! support ( ! ?ick fle%y spiral arms ( ! animals4 ,9 ,l4 pyramidata1 f\nd ar\nd ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s 7,fig4 #cfb71 ! /alk is n9e times long] ?an ! body4 ,! animal does n atta* itself by ?is1 b moves ab\t l a worm1 mak+ tubes out ( s&1 into :i* x c )draw itself & disappe>4 ,! cilia at ! mantle edge =m a f9e sieve1 ?us prev5t+ =eign p>ticles f ent]+ ! gills4 ,its int]nal /ructure possesses po9ts ( int]e/1 & ! p>asitic gr[?s cov]+ ! c>tilag9\s /ructure1 miscall$ a %ell1 are curi\s1 & excite ! att5tion ( ! naturali/4 ,ano!r bivalve s unlike a cru/acean1 among :i* x has be5 plac$1 ,i may v5ture to describe among ,lamp-%ells4 ,i ref] to ! b>nacle 7,lepas7 g5]ally met ) cov]+ ! bottoms ( %ips4 ,^!1 z 9 ! =m] g5us1 are m int]e/+ to ! microscopi/ 9 ! e>ly /age ( exi/5ce1 & also = ! curi\s p>asites kn[n to infe/ !m4 ,! b>nacle protrudes ?r\gh its two valves six pairs ( sl5d]1 bri/ly1 two-bran*$ filam5t\s limbs1 :i* keep up a con/ant sweep+ motion1 & :]eby x secures its supply ( food 7,fig4 #cfc74 ,:5 fir/ hat*$ ! "y are 9 ! ,nauplius /age1 be+ furni%$ ) a m$ian eye & ?ree pairs ( flagellat$ app5dages4 ,aft] enjoy+ a free life ! l>va m\lts & passes into a second /age1 9 :i* ) its two eyes & compress$ c>apace 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #cfd7 x s ne>ly resembles a ,daphnia4 ,be=e ^! ?oracic app5dages entirely disappe> !y fir/ *ange places1 & !n ea* is se5 to be provid$ ) a suck]2 by ?is means ! l>va fixes itself to its p]man5t re/+-place1 :ile a cem5t gl& p\rs out a secretion t glues x firmly to ! po9t ( atta*m5t *os54 ,^! ,cirrip$es are n true p>asites1 inasmu* z !y d n extract n\ri%m5t f ! body to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 #a4 ,spat ( oy/]1 "s ciliat$2 #b4 ,b>nacles atta*$ by foot/alks4 ,"o species1 ! ,proteolepas1 is 9 ! adult /age a maggot-l1 limbless1 %ell-less animal f\nd liv+ )9 ! mantle *amb] ( o!r memb]s ( ! same ord]1 :ile ! root-head$ ,cirrip$es 7,peltoga/] curvatus1 z ,fig4 #cfd1 ,no4 #a7 live p>asitically ^u high] cru/aceans4 ,e*9od]mata4--,?is sub-k+dom includes ! />-fi%es1 /one-lilies1 sea-ur*9s1 fea!r-/>s1 & sea-cucumb]s1 "s ( :i* h be5 already allud$ to1 & are s well kn[n t !y ne$ no l5g?y description1 :ile ( ! fossil sea-ur*9s ( our *alk =mations1 ! ,p5tremites & ,cr9oids1 ^: silici\s rema9s are s abundant & s famili> to naturali/s & geologi/s1 b little rema9s to be said4 ,!y are *iefly int]e/+ to ! microscopi/ f _! calc>e\s & silici\s app5dages1 kn[n z spicula4 ,9 ! sea-ur*91 brittle-/>1 or fea!r-/>1 ! out] body surface consi/s almo/ :olly ( a deposit ( calcium c>bonate1 comb9$ 9 ! =m ( little plates built up into a rigid 8te/10 :]eas 9 ! />-fi% x usually =ms a k9d ( scaffold+1 betwe5 ! lay]s ( :i* !re /ret*es a firm lea!ry sk94 ,among ! sea-cucumb]s1 ! liv+ specim5s ( :i* pres5t extraord9>y v>iations bo? 9 =m & "*1 ! deposit consi/s *iefly ( small spicules :i* grate :5 ! sk9 is cut ) a knife4 ,if a ?9 section ( ! sk9 is exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ! spicules are se5 to be pr(usely di/ribut$ 9 ! middle lay]4 ,! same deposit takes place 9 ! /alk$ column ( a cr9oid & 9 sea-ur*9s 7,e*9od]mata71 :i* has t5d$ to pres]ve !m 9 ! fossilis$ /ate4 ,fig4 #cfe is select$ z exhibit+ to p]fection ! ,m$usa-head$ ,p5tacr9oid4 ,?is e*9od]m diff]s 9 two *>act]s3 fir/1 its microscopic /ructure is t ( a me%work deposit$ 9 ! spaces ( a network ( s(t tissue2 secondly1 t ea* elem5t1 :e!r a spicule or a plate1 is1 despite its trellis$ /ructure1 deposit$ ar\nd regul> l9es ( cry/allisation 7%[n 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #hi & #ij74 ,ow+ to ^! *>act]i/ics ! m9ute/ portion ( an e*9od]m skeleton is readily recognis$1 ev5 :5 fossilis$1 "u ! microscope4 ,ev5 ! species ( ! sea-cucumb] c be det]m9$ by ! %ape ( _! spicules4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfd4--,p>asitic ,b>nacles4 #a4 ,peltoga/] curvatus2 #b4 ,nauplius l>va ( ,p>!nopea2 #bjj4 ,ano!r noticeable feature 9 ! radiate /ructure is t 9 _m cases x gives to ! animal a />-%ape1 to :i* ! names ( />-fi% & brittle-/> are giv5 7see ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ia1 & ,plate ,,xvii41 f & n74 ,! ord9>y five-ray$ />-fi% is f\nd ev]y:]e ar\nd ! ,engli% coa/s4 ,?is con/ant arrangem5t ( organs holds good 9 ! majority ( ! e*9od]ms2 x c be detect$ 9 ! ,holo?urians1 :]e1 beside ! fea!ry t5tacles ( ! head1 r[s ( %ort] suck]-l processes w be f\nd1 :i* 9 "s in/ances ext5d ! :ole l5g? ( ! body1 ! fix$ numb] ( r[s be+ also five 9 _! int]nal organs4 ,h5ce ^! animals 7 =m]ly gr\p$ "u ,radiata4 ,b if a sea-cucumb] or sea-ur*9 be dissect$1 a m>k$ di/9ction w be f\nd betwe5 !m1 9 "o portion ( ! organism 9 p>ticul>3 ! inte/9e is %ut (f f ! re/ ( ! body-cavity1 (t5 coil+ r\nd inside4 ,exam9e a />-fi% or sea-ur*9 on ! "u-surface ( ! rays1 &1 pass+ 9 five b&s f top to bottom1 a numb] ( small cyl9drical processes are se5 g5tly wav+ ab\t2 ^! lie 9 two r[s ) a cle> space betwe5 !m1 & are t]m$ 9 consequ5ce ambulacrum4 ,!y end 9 suck]-l discs1 :i* enable ! animal to atta* itself1 or pull itself aga9/ /rong curr5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfe4--,m$usa-head$ ,p5tacr9oid4 a4 ,cr[n & "p ( /em2 b4 ,upp] surface ( body1 ! arms brok5 away1 %[+ ! food grooves pass+ to ! c5tral m\?4--7,w>ne47 ,j "o o!r special feature %\ld be notic$3 radial canals pass along "u ! ambulacra1 & jo9 a r+-canal ar\nd ! m\?1 well suppli$ by n]ve cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cff4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( a bran* ( ,myriapore2 #b1 & ! o!rs ,section ( ! /em ( ,virgul>ia mirabilis2 #c1 ,spiculum f ! out] surface ( ,sea-p52 #d1 ,spicula f ,isis hippuris2 #e1 f ,gorgonia elongata2 #f1 f ,alcyonium2 #g1 & f ,gorgonia umbraculum2 #h1 ,calc>e\s rema9s ( a ,cr9oid4 ,cr9oids 7/one-lilies71 on ! o!r h&1 are =m$ ( a s]ies ( flat r+s1 pi]c$ ?r\gh by a n>r[ canal4 ,! ossicles1 z !y are t]m$1 are jo9$ by ligam5ts pass+ ?r\gh _! solid sub/ance & end[$ ) muscul> p[]2 ! c5tral "p s]ves = ! passage ( blood-vessels1 & is surr\nd$ by a %ea? ( n]v\s tissue t controls ! movem5ts ( ! /em1 ! latt] be+ encru/$ by a numb] ( f9e rootlets4 ,! /ems possess a limit$ p[] ( b5d+4 ,9 ! words ( ,pr(essor ,agassiz1 8,! /em itself passes sl[ly f a rigid v]tical attitude to a curv$ or ev5 a droop+ position2 ! cirri move m rapidly ?an ! arms1 & ! animal uses !m z hooks to cat* hold ( objects1 & on acc\nt ( _! %>p extremities !y are well adapt$ to reta9 _! hold ( prey40 ,! rosy-fea!r />-fi% is (t5 f\nd cl++ to a tube ( ! ,sabella worm2 ! food ( cr9oids consi/s ( =am9if]a1 diatoms1 & ! l>v ( cru/aceans4 ,!re are s _m curi\s features 9 connection ) ! ,e*9od]mata t my read]s may ) advantage consult 8,! ,*all5g] ,reports0 & ,w>ne's 8,natural ,hi/ory0 on o!r po9ts ( int]e/4 ,holo?uroidea 7sea-cucumb]s7 are elongat$ slug-l creatures1 ! sk9 be+ 9 /ructure simil> to t ( ! slug1 ) a comp>atively small am\nt ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,usually ?is occurs 9 small spicules1 :i* assume v def9ite %apes1 z ! an*ors ( ,synapta 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #hg1 & 9 ,fig4 #cee74 ,!re are also r+s ( calc>e\s plates ar\nd ! gullet1 five ( :i* h ! same relation to ! radial wat]-vessels z ! auricles r\nd ! jaws ( a sea-ur*91 & :i* likewise s]ve = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,^! plates are se5 9 ,plate ,,viii41 ,nos4 #aga & #agb1 z !y appe> col\r$ by sel5ite films "u pol>is$ light4 ,ar\nd ! m\? 9 ,cucum>ia is a fr+e ( bran*$ t5tacles connect$ ) ! wat]-vascul> r+2 ^! appe> to be us$ z a net to int]cept float+ organisms4 ,correlat$ ) ! />-fi%es is a small family bas$ on ! "* ( _! p9c]-l organs1 call$ p$icell>i1 on ! surface ( ! te/ 7%[n 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #ic & #id1 magnifi$ #be74 ,movable sp9es cov] ! surface ( ^! e*9od]ms1 v>y+ 9 size f m9ute bri/le-l /ructures to long rods4 ,! p$icell>i are1 x is believ$1 d]iv$ f ! small] sp9es1 & two ( !m are unit$ at ! base by muscles1 slightly curv$1 & made to approa* ea* o!r at _! extremities4 ,!re is a gradual modification ( ?is type ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies4 ,_m uses h be5 assign$ to !m1 z ! hold+ ( food1 z !y h be5 se5 to hold to ! fronds ( seawe$ & keep !m /eady until ! sp9es & tube feet c be br\ght into action4 ,! inn] surface ( ! p$icell>i are kn[n to be ! mo/ s5sitive1 & ! blades close on ! m9ute/ object t\*+ ! inn] surface4 ,beside ^! peculi> bodies ! surface ( ! sk9 has small tubul> processes1 & tubul> feet ) suck]s at ! end4 ,at ! extremity ( ea* arm is a s+le tube-foot ) an impair$ t5tacle1 & above ?is aga9 is a small eye col\r$ by r$ pigm5t4 ,pass+ by _m o!r po9ts ( int]e/ 9 ! ,e*9oid1 ! sp9es are se5 to be atta*$ to ! te/ or %ell by a ball & socket jo9t & well-arrang$ muscles1 :]eby ! sp9es c be mov$ 9 any direction4 ,! tub]cles1 h[ev]1 d n cov] ! :ole te/1 b are dispos$ *iefly 9 five broad zones ext5d+ f "o pole to ano!r4 ,:5 a transv]se section ( a sp9e is exam9$ by a m$ium p[] x is se5 to be made up ( a s]ies ( conc5tric & radiat+ lay]s 7%[n 9 ,plate ,,xviii41 ,nos4 #a & #b71 ! c5tre be+ occupi$ by reticulat$ /ructure & /ructureless spots arrang$ at equal di/ances2 ^! may be t]m$ ribs or pill>s4 ,pass+ t[>ds ! m>g9 are o!r r[s convey+ ! impression ( a beautiful ind5t$ reticulat$ tissue4 ,_m ( ! sp9es pres5t no /ructure1 :ile o!rs exhibit a s]ies ( conc5tric r+s ( successive gr[?1 :i* /rongly rem9d "o ( ! m$ull>y rays ( plants4 ,:5 a v]tical section ( a sp9e is submitt$ to exam9ation1 x is se5 to be compos$ ( cones plac$ "o above ! o!r1 ! out] m>g9 ( ea* cone be+ =m$ by ! s]ies ( pill>s4 ,9 c]ta9 species ( ,e*9us ! numb] ( cones is v consid]able1 :ile 9 o!rs !re are seldom m ?an "o or two to be f\nd2 f ^!1 transv]se sections may :5 made %[ no conc5tric r+s1 only ! ext]nal r[ ( pill>s4 ,! skeleton ( e*9od]ms conta9s b a small am\nt ( organic matt]1 z w be se5 on dissolv+ out ! calc>e\s portion 9 dilute nitric or hydro*loric acids4 ,! residuum /ructure w appe> to be me%es or areol1 b\nd$ by a sub/ance hav+ a fibr\s appe>ance1 int]m+l$ ) granul\s matt]2 9 fact1 x be>s a close resemblance to ! areol> tissue ( high] animals1 & ! te/ may be consid]$ z =m$1 n by ! consolidation ( ! cells ( ! ectod]m1 z 9 ! mollusc1 b by ! calcification ( ! fibro-areol> tissue ( ! endod]m4 ,?is calcification ( a simple fibr\s tissue by ! deposit ( a m9]al sub/ance1 n 9 ! me%es ( areol b 9 intimate union ) ! organic basis1 is a condition ( mu* int]e/ to ! physiologi/2 x pres5ts an example ( a process :i* seems to h an important %>e 9 ! =mation & gr[? ( bone1 namely1 9 ! progressive calcification ( ! fibr\s tissue ( ! p]io/eum membrane cov]+ ( ! bone4 ,! developm5t ( ! sea-ur*9 f ! f]tilis$ egg fir/ divides & !n sub-divides1 & 9 a %ort "t ! embryo issues =? ) a small tuft ( cilia1 by means ( :i* x swims (f freely4 ,! l>v1 9 its full developm5t1 measures ab\t "o millimetre 9 diamet]1 & is a curi\s & rem>kable creature4 ,! sub-k+dom ,mollusca comprises "s fifty ?\s& species1 & fre% =ms are be+ con/antly discov]$1 ! numb] ( ! aquatic g5]a be+ m ?an d\ble t ( ! t]re/rial species1 = x matt]s n to :at dep? ( ocean ! dr$ge is let d[n1 "s new =m is c]ta9 to be ga!r$4 ,! ,*all5g] exp$ition has enri*$ our k ( ! deep-sea fauna to an enorm\s ext5t2 s mu* s1 t fifty volumes h already be5 publi%$ descriptive ( animals br\ght to ! surface4 ,nev]!less1 we are told t ! great coa/ l9es ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa1 ,asia1 & p>ts ( ,au/ralia h be5 b imp]fectly explor$ = small] k9ds ( ,mollusca4 ,molluscs are s(t-bodi$1 cold-blood$ animals1 )\t any int]nal skeleton1 b ?is is comp5sat$ = by ! ext]nal h>d5$ %ell1 :i* at once s]ves ! purpose ( bones1 & is a means ( def5ce4 ,^! bodies are n divid$ into segm5ts l ^? ( worms & insects1 b are envelop$ 9 a muscul> cov]+ or sk91 t]m$ ! mantle1 ! special function ( :i* 9 mo/ species is ! =mation & secretion ( ! %ell4 ,! foot1 :i* s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( locomotion & burr[+ 9 ! s& or rock1 is an organ p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( mo/ molluscs4 ,!re are _m dep>tures f ?is rule1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! gr\p ,*itonid1 :]e ! %ell takes ! =m ( a s]ies ( eight adjac5t plates2 & 9 ano!r1 ! ,pholadid1 !re are "o or m accessory pieces 9 addition to ! two pr9cipal valves4 ,"s are bivalv$1 o!rs univalv$1 & conceal$ b5ea? ! sk94 ,all %ells are ma9ly compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime1 ) a small admixture ( animal matt]4 ,_! microscopic exam9ation reveals a great div]sity ( /ructure1 z we %all pres5tly see1 & !y are accord+ly t]m$ porcellane\s1 nacre\s1 glassy1 horny1 & fibr\s4 ,mo/ molluscs h ! p[] ( repair+ injuries to _! %ells2 _m exhibit an out] coat ( animal matt]1 t]m$ ! p]i/racum1 ! special function ( :i* is to pres]ve ! %ell f atmosph]ic & *emical action ( ! c>bonic acid 9 ! wat] 9 :i* !y dwell4 ,! %ells ( ga/ropods are enl>g$ ) ! gr[? ( ! mollusc by ! addition ( fre% lay]s to ! m>g94 ,9 "s species ! p]iodic =mation ( sp9es occurs2 a typical case w be f\nd among ,muricid4 ,! v>i$ col\rs ( %ells are due to gl&s situat$ on ! m>g9 ( ! mantle1 & b5ea? ! p]i/racum2 occasionally ! inn] lay] ( porcellane\s %ells is ( a diff]5t col\r to ! out]1 z1 = example1 9 ! helmet-%ells 7,cassis71 mu* us$ by c>v]s ( %ell cameos4 ,light & w>m?1 z 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 are ! great factors 9 ! production ( brilliant col\rs4 ,9 cold climates l& snails bury !mselves 9 w9t] "t 9 ! gr\nd or b5ea? decay+ vegetable matt]1 & 9 hot seasons !y close up ! ap]ture ( ! %ells ) a tempor>y lid1 call$ an epiphragm4 ,^! exhibit great t5acity ( life1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,egyptian des]t-snail1 ,helix des]torum4 ,! reproductive sy/em is 9 all cases effect$ by means ( eggs4 ,! ova are usually enclos$ 9 capsules1 & deposit$ 9 masses1 & ! numb] ( eggs conta9$ 9 ! squid & ! :elk h be5 /at$ to be ?irty or =ty ?\s&4 ,! ova ( molluscs may be gradually develop$ into ! adult1 or !re may be a free-swimm+ ciliat$ l>val /age1 or a special l>val =m1 z 9 ! fre%-wat] mussel4 ,mo/ are provid$ ) a m or less di/9ct head2 bo? cephalopods & ga/ropods are furni%$ ) eyes4 ,9 l& snails ^! are f\nd plac$ on project+ /alks4 ,9 mo/ cases ! utility ( molluscs f> outweighs ! injury occasion$ by a few species1 z1 = in/ance1 ! ,t]$o1 & ! burr[+ habits ( ! ,pholas & ,saxicava1 compact m>ble hav+ be5 f\nd bor$ ?r\gh by !m4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,rob]tson wrote me 9 #ahff3--8;,hav+1 :ile resid+ "h 7,brighton71 opportunities ( /udy+ ! ,pholas dactylus1 ,i h endeav\r$ dur+ ! la/ six mon?s to discov] h[ ?is mollusc makes its hole or crypt 9 ! *alk--by a *emical solv5t8 by absorption8 by cili>y curr5ts8 or by rotatory motions8 ,my obs]vations1 dissections1 & exp]im5ts set at re/ controv]sy on ?is po9t4 ,betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty ( ^! creatures h be5 at "w 9 lumps ( *alk 9 sea wat] 9 a f+] glass & a pan1 at my w9d[ = ! la/ ?ree mon?s4 ,! ,pholas dactylus makes its hole by grat+ ! *alk ) its rasp-l valves1 lick+ x up :5 pulv]is$ ) its foot1 =c+ x up ?r\gh its pr9cipal or bran*ial siphon1 & squirt+ x out 9 oblong nodules4 ,! crypt protects ! ,pholas f ,conf]ve1 (t5 f\nd gr[+ p>asitically n only outside ! %ell b ev5 )9 ! lips ( ! valves1 ?us prev5t+ ! action ( ! siphons4 ,9 ! foot !re is a spr+1 or /yle1 :i* :5 remov$ is f\nd to possess great ela/icity1 & ?is seems to be ! ma9spr+ ( ! motion ( ! ,pholas40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfg4--;,hexabran*us4 ,i mu/ pass by _m gr\ps & ord]s to m ab]rant types1 repres5t$ by ! nak$-gill$ ord]s1 ,opi/hobran*iata & ,nudibran*iata4 ,^! ga/ropods con/itute a l>ge sub-ord] ( extremely beautiful molluscs1 rem>kable 9 %ape1 & (t5 brilliant 9 col\r4 ,! di/+ui%+ "* ( ^! typical =ms consi/s 9 ! peculi> nature & situation ( _! brea?+ organs1 :i* are expos$ on ! back ( ! animal or ar\nd ! ant]ior "p1 & are n protect$ by ! mantle4 ,b ! situation is v>i$1 & ! gills are sometimes plac$ on ea* side ( ! body1 respiration be+ effect$ by ! ciliat$ surface ( ! :ole4 ,= ^! & o!r reasons !y h be5 plac$ 9 f\r gr\ps4 ,nudibran*s are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & are mo/ abundant 9 dep?s :]e ! *oice/ seawe$s & corall9es ab\nd4 ,_! fecundity is v great1 z _m z sixty ?\s& eggs be+ deposit$ by a s+le female at "o "t4 ,!y are eat5 z a luxury :]e !y mo/ ab\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfh4--,longitud9al section ( ,pleurobran*us aurantiacus1 %[+ circulation & gills or bran*i4--7,w>ne47 ,9 ! ,opi/hobran*s ! bran*$ ve9s z well z ! auricle are plac$ beh9d ! v5tricle ( ! he>t4 ,!y diff] f ,nudibran*s inasmu* z !y are usually furni%$ ) a pair ( t5tacles & labial palpi1 or an expansion ( ! sk9 l ! veil ( ! l>val =m4 ,to cle>ly und]/& ! "* ( ! int]nal organisation ( ^! curi\s animals1 ! longitud9al section giv5 9 ,fig4 #cfh mu/ be consult$3 p is ! foot2 a ! m\?1 cov]$ above ) ! veil-l expansion1 ov] :i* are ! t5tacles1 c2 ! bran*ial ve9s1 v1 c>ry ! blood to ! gills1 f :i* x fl[s into ! he>t at h4 ,?is disposition is ! opposite ( t :i* *>act]ises ! ,prosobran*us4 ,ano!r anatomical peculi>ity1 :i* may "h be ref]r$ to1 is ! direct communication ( ! sy/em ( blood vessels ) ! surr\nd+ m$ium2 a *>act]i/ic common to mo/ o!r molluscs1 & on :i* dep5ds ! *angeable ext]nal appe>ance ( ! animal4 ,9 ! illu/ration ( ,pleurobran*us "h giv51 g indicates ! op5+ ( ! duct :i* conveys wat] direct to ! blood1 & ?r\gh :i* ! blood vessels p]meate ! back & foot4 ,l ! holes 9 ! sponges1 x c be fill$ or empti$ at ! w ( ! animal4 ,al?\gh ?is1 9 ! ma91 is ! pr9ciple ( ! circulation 9 mo/ ( ?is ord]1 "o bran* possesses no special brea?+ organs1 respiration be+ c>ri$ on ?r\gh\t ! nak$ sk9 ( ! body4 ,) reg>d to ! ,nudibran*iata1 ! gr\p hav+ ! mo/ symmetrical =m is ! ext5sive family ,doridid1 *>act]is$ by diff]5ces 9 ! bran*i1 ! relative proportion ( ! mantle to ! foot1 & v>iations 9 ! radula & jaws4 ,! g5]al aspect ( ! g5us ,doris1 al?\gh drawn on a small scale1 is repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,xvii41 ,fig4 b4 ,! :ole sub-ord] ( ,nudibran*s has become m g5]ally kn[n & admir$ s9ce ! publication ( ,ald] & ,hancock's monograph ) its _m attractive col\r$ illu/rations4 ,^! ga/ropods c be kept alive = "s "t 9 a small aqu>ium if ! precaution is obs]v$ ( (t5 *ang+ ! wat] & add+ a little fre% seawe$4 ,num]\s curi\s microscopic =ms ( life may be f\nd adh]+ to !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfi4--;,aplysia dipilans4 ,tunicata4--,! mo/ rem>kable gr\p ( animals belong+ to ?is sub-ord] are ! ,ascidians4 ,!y d]ive _! "n f ! te/ or tunic1 a membran\s consi/5ce1 9 :i* !y dwell1 & :i* (t5 includes calc>e\s spicules4 ,! te/ has two orifices1 )9 :i* is ! mantle4 ,few microscopic spectacles are m int]e/+ ?an ! circulation along ?is network ( musl9-l fabric1 & t ( ! cili>y movem5t by :i* ! fluid is kept mov+4 ,9 ! transp>5t species1 z ,clavel9a & ,p]ophora1 ! cili>y movem5t is se5 to great] advantage4 ,! animals are f\nd adh]+ to ! broad fronds ( fuci ne> l[ wat]-m>k4 ,!y ?rive 9 tanks1 & multiply bo? by fission & budd+4 ,two species are figur$ 9 ,plate ,,xvii41 ,figs4 i & k1 ! zooids ( :i* 7 f\nd arrang$ 9 clu/]s1 z repres5t$4 ,aplysiid 7sea-h>es71 s call$ on acc\nt ( a slight resemblance to a cr\*+ h>e4 ,! body =m is elongat$ ) a p>tially develop$ neck & head1 oral & dorsal t5tacles1 & furni%$ b5ea? ! mantle ) a %elly plate to protect ! bran*i4 ,! m\? is provid$ ) horny jaws1 & ! gizz>d is arm$ ) sp9es1 to prep>e ! food = dige/ion4 ,! side lobes are ?9 & l>ge1 & are ei!r fold$ ov] ! back or us$ 9 swimm+4 ,fig4 #cfi is a r$uc$ draw+ ( ,a4 dipilans4 ,! ,pect9ibran*s are kn[n z violet sea-snails1 ,ian?9id & ,scal>iid4 ,! radula consi/s ( num]\s r[s ( po9t$ tee? arrang$ 9 cross s]ies1 =m+ an angle 9 ! middle4 ,!re is no c5tral or ra*idian too?1 & !y h ?9 tro*i=m %ells adapt$ = a pelagic life4 ,!y are mo/ly ( a violet col\r1 f :i* !y d]ive _! "n1 ! col\r be+ m vivid on ! und]side1 :i* is turn$ up t[>ds ! light :5 ! animal is swimm+ ne> ! surface ( ! sea 7,fig4 #cgj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgj4--;,ian?9ia1 ,violet ,sea-snail4--7,w>ne47 ,! bubble b1 drawn some:at too l>ge1 is ab\t to be jo9$ to ! ant]ior end ( ! float2 c4 ,%ell2 l4 ,float2 p4 ,foot2 t4 ,head4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ feature 9 connection ) ^! oceanic snails is ! curi\s float :i* !y con/ruct to support _! egg-capsules4 ,x is a gelat9\s raft1 9 fact1 enclos+ air-bubbles1 :i* is atta*$ to ! foot1 ! egg capsules be+ susp5d$ f its "u-surface4 ,!y are unable to s9k s long z !y are 9 connection ) _! floats1 & are !re=e (t5 ca/ on %ore dur+ /orms1 & furni% an endless s]ies ( microscopic specim5s4 ,! violet snails fe$ on v>i\s k9ds ( jelly-fi%1 & occur 9 %oals4 ,pond ,snails4--,! ?ree families1 ,limnid1 ,physid1 & ,*il9id1 =m a special gr\p ( ! pulm9ate1 sessile-ey$ fre%-wat] snails4 ,! l>g] family ( ^! belongs to ! g5us ,limna1 hav+ a compress$ & triangul> head ) two t5tacles & eyes plac$ at _! inn] base4 ,!y are prolific & greg>i\s1 & _! ova are enclos$ 9 transp>5t gelat9\s capsules1 deposit$ 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 & firmly glu$ to subm]g$ /ems & leaves ( aquatic plants4 ,l4 /agnalis is common 9 all ponds1 m>%es & sl[-runn+ riv]s ( ,great ,brita94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cga4--,ova & "y ( ,limnu /agnalis4 ,"o ( ! species1 ,l4 trancatula1 is ! ho/ ( ! liv]-fluke s fatal to %eep4 ,! fluke p>asite passes "o /age ( its exi/5ce 9 ! inte/9e ( ! pond snail4 ,ea* ova-sac ( ,limna conta9s f fifty to sixty ova 7repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cga1 at a74 ,if exam9$ ) a l[ p[] soon aft] ! eggs are deposit$1 !y appe> to consi/ simply ( a pellucid protoplasmic sub/ance4 ,9 ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs a v m9ute yell[i% spot1 ! nucleus1 is discov]$ ne> ! cell-wall4 ,9 ano!r tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! nucleus ref]r$ to is se5 to h assum$ a some:at deep] col\r & to conta9 )9 x a m9ute spot--a nucleolus4 ,on ! f\r? day ! nucleus has *ang$ its position1 & is enl>g$ to d\ble ! size2 a slightly magnifi$ view is se5 at b4 ,on a clos] exam9ation a tranv]se fissure is se52 ?is on ! eigh? day divides ! small mass z at c1 & ! out] wall is ?ick5$4 ,! embryo becomes deta*$ f ! side ( ! cell1 & moves ) a rotatory motion ar\nd ! int]ior2 ! direction ( ?is motion is f ! "r to ! left1 & is always increas$ :5 sunlight falls ^u x4 ,! increase is gradual up to ! eighte5? day1 :5 ! *anges are m di/9ctly visible1 & ! ova cr[d d[n to ! m\? ( ! ova-sac1 z at d4 ,by employ+ a high] magnify+ p[] a m9ute black spec1 ! future eye 7e7 & t5tacles ( ! snail1 is q visible4 ,^u closely obs]v+ x1 a fr+e ( cilia is notic$ 9 motion ne> ! edge ( ! %ell4 ,x is n[ app>5t t ! rotatory motion fir/ obs]v$ mu/ h be5 9 a great measure due to ?is2 & ! curr5t kept up 9 ! fluid cont5ts ( ! cell by ! cili>y fr+es4 ,= days aft] ! "y animal has escap$ f ! egg1 ?is cili>y motion is c>ri$ on1 n alone by ! fr+e surr\nd+ ! m\?1 b by cilia entirely surr\nd+ ! t5tacles !mselves1 :i* :ips up a supply ( n\ri%m5t1 & at ! same "t a]ation ( ! blood is effect$4 ,f ! tw5ty-six? to ! tw5ty-eigh? day x appe>s actively engag$ ne> ! side ( ! egg1 us+ =ce to break ?r\gh ! cell-wall1 :i* at l5g? x succe$s 9 accompli%+2 leav+ its %ell 9 ! ova-sac1 & imm$iately atta*+ itself to ! side ( ! glass its cili>y action recomm5ces1 & x appe>s to h advanc$ a /age1 z at f4 ,x is /ill "s mon?s be=e ! embryo gr[s to ! p]fect =m1 ,fig4 #cgb2 ! animal is "h %[n ) its suck]-l foot adh]+ closely to ! glass ( ! aqu>ium4 ,a s+le snail w deposit f two to ?ree ( ^! ova-sacs a week1 produc+1 9 ! c\rse ( six weeks or two mon?s1 f #ijj to #a1jjj "y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgb4--,limnu /agnalis 7natural size74 ,! %ell itself is deposit$ 9 m9ute cells1 :i* take up a circul> position ar\nd ! axis2 on its "u-surface a hyal9e membrane is secret$4 ,! integum5t exp&s1 & at v>i\s po9ts an int]nal col\r+-matt] or pigm5t is deposit$4 ,! increase ( ! animal goes on until ! exp&$ foot is =m$1 ! out] edge ( :i* is r\nd$ (f & turn$ ov] by cond5s$ tissue 9 ! =m ( a twi/$ wire2 ?is encloses a network ( small vessels fill$ ) a fluid 9 con/ant & rapid motion4 ,! c\rse ( ! blood or fluid1 z x passes f ! he>t1 may be trac$ ?r\gh ! l>g] bran*es to ! respiratory organs1 consi/+ ( bran*ial-fr+es plac$ ne> ! m\?2 ! blood may also be se5 return+ ?r\gh o!r vessels4 ,! he>t1 a /rong muscul> app>atus1 is pe>-%ap$1 & enclos$ )9 a p]ic>dium or extremely ?9 & pellucid envelop+ membrane4 ,! he>t is se5 to be furni%$ ) muscul> b&s ( consid]able /r5g?1 ! action ( :i* appe>s l ! alt]nate to-&-fro motion occasion$ by draw+ out a b& ( indi>ubb]1 & :i*1 al?\gh s m9ute1 are cle>ly analog\s to ! muscul> fibres ( ! mammal he>t2 x beats or contracts at ! rate ( ab\t sixty times a m9ute1 & is plac$ r f> back 9 ! body1 t[>ds ! axis ( ! %ell4 ,! n]v\s sy/em is made up ( ganglia1 or n]v\s c5tres1 & di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! v>i\s portions ( ! body4 ,! s+ul> arrangem5t ( ! eye _c be omitt$2 x appe>s at an e>ly /age ( life to be )9 ! t5tacle1 & consequ5tly capable ( be+ retract$ into x4 ,9 ! adult animal ! eye is situat$ at ! base ( ! t5tacle2 & al?\gh x c be protrud$ at pleasure = a %ort di/ance1 x seems to dep5d mu* ^u ! t5tacle = protection z a cov]lid--x inv>iably draws d[n ! t5tacle ov] ! eye :5 t organ ne$s protection4 ,! eye itself is pyri=m1 some:at resembl+ ! r\nd figure ( ! human eye-ball1 ) its optic-n]ve atta*$4 ,9 col\r x is v d>k1 hav+ a c5tral pupill>y-op5+ = ! admission ( light4 ,! t5tacle1 :i* is cyl9drical 9 ! "y animal1 becomes flat & triangul> 9 %ape 9 ! adult4 ,! t5tacles s]ve 9 "s respect to di/+ui% species4 ,9 ,limna !y are1 z ,i h said1 compress$ & triangul>1 ) ! eyes at _! inn] base4 ,9 ,physa !y are cyl9drical & sl5d] & )\t lat]al mantle lobes4 ,! developm5t ( ! l+ual membrane is delay$2 consequ5tly1 ! "y animal does n e>ly take to a vegetable su/5ance3 9 place ( tee? x has two r[s ( cilia1 z be=e /at$1 :i* drop (f :5 ! tee? are fully =m$4 ,! l+ual b& be>+ ! tee?1 or ! 8tongue10 z x is t]m$1 consi/s ( sev]al r[s ( cutt+ sp9es1 po9t$ ) silica4 ,x is a fact ( "s int]e/1 physiologically1 to "k t if ! "y animal is kept 9 fre% wat] alone1 )\t vegetable matt] ( any k9d1 x reta9s its cilia1 & arre/ ( developm5t foll[s1 & x m sl[ly acquires ga/ric tee?1 & atta9s to p]fection 9 =m or size4 ,if1 at ! same "t1 x is conf9$ )9 a n>r[ cell or space1 x gr[s only to su* a size z w enable x to move ab\t freely2 ?us x is made to adapt itself to ! necessities ( a re/rict$ /ate ( exi/5ce4 ,"s "y animals 9 a n>r[ glass-cell1 at ! end ( six mon?s1 7 alive & well2 ! cilia 7 se5 to be reta9$ ar\nd ! t5tacles 9 con/ant activity1 :il/ o!r animals ( ! same brood & age1 plac$ 9 a situation fav\rable to gr[?1 atta9$ _! full size1 & produc$ "y1 :i* grew 9 ?ree weeks to ! size ( _! eld] relations4#ga ,my exp]im5tal inve/igations 7 fur!r ext5d$ to ! developm5t ( ! l+ual membrane1 or tee?1 ( ,ga/ropoda1 z well z ! jaw & radula4 ,9 ,limna1 ! tee? :5 fully develop$ resemble ^? ( ,helix2 t is to say1 9 ! fully gr[n animal are f\nd sev]al r[s or b&s ( simil> tee?1 ) simple obtuse cusps & a mu* suppress$ c5tral too?4 ,9 ! "y snail a high p[] ( ! microscope is requir$ to make !m out4 ,! d5tal b&1 h[ev]1 9 mo/ ,mollusca is dispos$ 9 longitud9al s]ies1 b v>ies a good deal 9 ?is respect1 z w be se5 on ref]5ce to my sev]al pap]s1 ) illu/rations ( upw>ds ( a hundr$ diff]5t species1 publi%$ 9 8,l9nan ,transactions0 ( #ahff1 & 9 ! 8,microscopical ,society's ,transactions0 ( #ahfh4 ,by way ( example ,i may say1 9 ! ,pulmonata ! l+ual b& usually consi/s ( a s+le m$ian r[1 ! lat]als on ea* side be+ broad & simil>4 ,b 9 _m o!r gr\ps ! tee? are arrang$ 9 ?ree1 five1 or sev5 dissimil> s]ies4 ,tak+ ,n]ita z a type1 ! broad tee? on ea* side ( ! m$ian are t]m$ lat]als2 & ! num]\s small tee? on ! outside ( ! b&1 kn[n z ! pleur1 are t]m$ unc9i4 ,s9ce ! inve/igations ( ,lovn into ! l+ual d5tition ( ! ,mollusca1 v>i\s obs]v]s h /udi$ ! subject1 ) great advantage to our k ( ! aff9ities ( ^! animals4 ,t ^! inve/igations h prov$ ( value is %[n by ! light :i* has be5 %$ on ! true position ( _m species4 ,:5 once we h asc]ta9$ ! homology ( a g5us1 ^: relations 7 o!rwise some:at d\btful1 x is surpris+ h[ o!r *>act]i/ics1 ev5 ( ! %ell1 probably misund]/ood be=e1 concur to be> out ! aff9ities indicat$ by ! l+ual b&4 ,^! too?-be>+ membranes1 arm$ ) %>p cutt+ po9ts1 admirably adapt$ = ! division ( ! food on :i* !y fe$1 are mo/ ( !m beautiful objects = ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgc4 #a4 ,palate ( ,bucc9um undatum1 common ,:elk1 se5 "u pol>is$ light2 #b4 ,palate ( ,doris tub]culata1 ,sea-slug4 ,! two ends ( ea* longitud9al r[ ( tee? are connect$ ) muscles atta*$ to ! upp] & l[] surfaces ( c>tilag9\s cu%ions2 ! alt]nate contractions & ext5sions ( ! muscles cause ! b&s ( tee? to "w backw>ds & =w>ds1 aft] ! fa%ion ( a *a9-saw1 or r ( a rasp1 ^u any sub/ance to :i* x is appli$1 & ! result+ we> & te> ( ! ant]ior tee? are made good by a developm5t ( new tee? 9 ! secret+ sac 9 :i* ! h9d] end ( ! b& is lodg$4 ,besides ! *a9-saw-l motion ( ! b& ! l+ual membrane has a k9d ( lick+ or scrap+ action z a :ole4 ,) ! con/ant gr[? ( ! b& new tee? are develop$1 :5 ! tee? on ! extreme portion ( ! b& diff] mu* 9 size & =m f ^? 9 ! m$ian l9e4 ,z ,i h %[n 9 ! pap]s already ref]r$ to1 t z ea* r[ is a repetition ( ! fir/1 ! arrangem5t ( tee? admits ( easy repres5tation by a num]ical =mula1 9 :i*1 :5 ! unc9i are v num]\s1 !y are indicat$ by ! sign 7inf9ity71 & ! o!rs by ! prop] figure4 ,?us1 #e #a #e 1 :i*1 9 ! g5us ,tro*us1 signifies t ea* r[ consi/s ( "o m$ian1 flank$ on bo? sides by five lat]al tee?1 & ^! aga9 by a l>ge numb] ( unc9i4 ,:5 only ?ree areas are f\nd1 ! out] ones mu/ be consid]$ ! pleur1 inasmu* z !re is frequ5tly a manife/ division 9 ! membrane betwe5 !m & ! lat]al areas4 ,mo/ ( ! ,cephalopod molluscs are provid$ ) well-develop$ tee?1 & !y are1 z we "k1 c>nivor\s4 ,! tee? ( ! cuttle-fi%1 ,sepia (fic9alis 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aaa71 resemble ^? ( ! ,pt]opoda1 & h ! same =mula1 #c #a #c4 ,sepia are also furni%$ ) a retractile proboscis1 & a preh5sile sp9y coll>1 app>5tly = ! purpose ( seiz+ & hold+ prey :ile ! tee? are te>+ x to pieces4 ,9 ! squid ,loligo 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aac7 ! m$ian tee? are broad at ! base1 approa* ! tricuspid =m ) a prolong$ acute c5tral cusp1 :ile ! unc9i are mu* prolong$ & slightly curv$4 ,! l+ual b& increases 9 bread? t[>ds ! base1 sometimes to twice t ( ! ant]ior portion4 ,?is b&1 m\nt$ dry1 =ms an attractive object = black-gr\nd illum9ation4 ,9 ano!r family1 t ( ! rock-limpet1 ,patella radiata1 ! l+ual b& 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aaf7 well s]ves to di/+ui% x f ! bett]-kn[n common limpet4 ,x is furni%$ ) a rem>kable long ribbon1 /udd$ by num]\s r[s ( /rong d>k-br[n tricuspid tee?4 ,! l+ual membrane :5 n 9 use lies fold$ up 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 ,! tee? ( ,acma are some:at diff]5tly arrang$ 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aag72 _! =mula is #c #a #c4 ,te/acella maugei1 belong+ to ,pulmonif]a1 is slug-l 9 appe>ance1 & subt]ranean 9 its habits1 *iefly fe$+ on e>?-worms4 ,dur+ w9t] & 9 dry wea!r x =ms a k9d ( cocoon1 & ?us completely encloses itself 9 an opaque :ite mantle2 9 ?is way x protects itself f fro/ & cold4 ,its l+ual membrane is l>ge1 & cov]$ ) ab\t fifty r[s ( div]g5t tee?1 gradually dim9i%+ 9 size t[>ds ! m$ian r[2 ea* too? is b>b$ & po9t$1 broad] t[>ds ! base1 & ) an articulat+ nipple set 9 ! basem5t membrane4 ,a few r[s are repres5t$ slightly magnifi$ 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aba74 ,_! =mula is #j #j #a #j #j4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tongues1 ,,etc41 ,,( ,,ga/]opods4 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,w4 ,f4 ,maples1 ad4 nat4 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,v4 ,! boat-%ell1 ,cymba olla1 belong+ to ! ,velut9id1 =mula #j #a #j1 or #a #a #a4 ,! l+ual b& 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aah7 is n>r[ & ribbon-l 9 its appe>ance1 ) num]\s trid5t-%ap$ tee? set on a /rong muscul> membrane4 ,! end ( ! b& & its connection ) ! muscles at ! extremity ( ! c>tilag9\s cu%ion is %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! bluei% appe>ance is produc$ by a sel5ite film & pol>is$ light4 ,9 ,scap&] ligni>ius ! b& 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aai7 is also n>r[1 b ! tee? are bold & ( extraord9>y size2 _! =mula is #a #j #a4 ,?is mollusc is said to be eyeless4 ,pleurobran*us plumula belongs to ! same family2 its tee? are simple1 recurv$1 & convex1 & arrang$ 9 num]\s div]g5t r[s1 ! m$ians ( :i* are l>ge/4 ,! m&ible 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #abb7 pres5ts an exce$+ly pretty tesselat$ appe>ance1 & ! num]\s div]g5t r[s ( tee? are tricuspid4 ,! velvety-%ell1 ,velut9a lvigata1 =mula #c #a #c4 ,! tee? 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #ajh7 are small & f9e2 m$ians recurv$1 ) a s]ies ( delicate d5ticulations on ei!r side ( ! c5tral cusp1 :i* is mu* prolong$3 #a/ lat]als1 d5ticulate1 ) out] cusp prolong$2 #bnd & #crd lat]als1 simple curv$ or hook$-%ap$4 ,! m&ible 7,no4 #aji71 divid$ 9 ! c5tre1 =ms two plates ( div]g5t d5ticulations4 ,! e>-%ell1 ,haliotis tub]culatus1 is a well-kn[n beautiful %ell1 mu* us$ = ornam5tal purposes4 ,! l+ual b& 7,plate ,v41 ,no4 #aad71 is well develop$4 ,! m$ians are flatt5$-out1 recurv$ obtuse tee?2 #a/ lat]als1 trapezoidal or beam-l2 unc9i num]\s1 ab\t sixty1 d5ticulate1 ! few fir/ pairs prolong$ into /rong po9t$ cusps4 ,! top-%ell1 ,turbo m>moratus4 ,aft] ! out] lay] ( %ell is remov$1 x pres5ts a delicate pe>ly appe>ance4 ,its l+ual b& 7,no4 #abc7 closely resembles ,tro*us2 x is long & n>r[1 ! m$ian tee? are broade/1 ) five recurv$ lat]als1 & num]\s r[s ( unc9i1 sl5d] & hook$4 ,a s+le r[ only is repres5t$ 9 ! plate4 ,cyclotus translucidus1 a family ( op]culate l&-%ells1 belongs to ! ,cyclo/omatid4 ,! tee? %[n 9 ,no4 #aaj1 =mula #c #a #c1 are arrang$ 9 slightly div]g5t r[s on a n>r[ b&2 !y are m or less subquadrate1 recurv$1 ) _! c5tral cusps prolong$4 ,ci/ula cat5ata1 "o ( ! family ,cyclophorid2 its b& 7,no4 #aae7 =mula1 #b #a #b4 ,its tee? resemble ^? ( ,littor9a4 ,! l+ual b& ( ,cyclo/omatid po9ts out a ne> alliance to ! ,tro*id2 b ?is "q c only be det]m9$ by an exam9ation ( sev]al species1 :5 x may1 p]haps1 be decid$ to give !m rank z a sub-ord]4 ,!y are num]\s en\gh2 ! ,we/ ,indian isl&s alone furni% #bjj species4 ,! l5g? ( ! l+ual b&1 & numb] ( r[s ( tee? borne on x1 v>y greatly 9 diff]5t species4 ,b x is among ! ,pulmonif]a we meet ) ! mo/ a/oni%+ in/ances ( l>ge numb]s ( tee?4 ,limax maximus possesses #bf1hjj1 di/ribut$ ?r\gh #ahj r[s ( #afj ea*1 ! individual tee? measur+ only "o #aj1jjj? ( an in*4 ,helix pomatia has #ba1jjj1 & its comp>atively dw>f$ cong5]1 ,h4 absoluta1 no less ?an #ae1jjj4 ,/ructure ( ! ,%ell ( ,mollusca4--,9 my op5+ sket* ( ! sub-ord] ,mollusca an idea may h be5 ga!r$ ( ! g5]al "* ( ! %ell cov]+ ( ^! animals4 ,! simple/ =m ( %ell occurs 9 ! rudim5t>y oval plate ( ! common slug1 ,limax rufus4 ,x is emb$d$ 9 ! %ield situat$ at ! back1 ne> ! head ( ! animal4 ,9 ! ,*itons1 a small b s+ul> gr\p ( molluscs alli$ to ! univalve limpets1 we h an ovoid %ell1 made up ( eight segm5ts1 or movable plates1 :i* give !m a resemblance to enorm\s woodlice4 ,^! h be5 reg>d$ z =m+ a transition s]ies--a l9k betwe5 "o division & ! o!r4 ,! %ell 9 by f> ! great] portion ( all ! molluscs is develop$ f cells t 9 process ( gr[? h become h>d5$ by ! deposition ( calc>e\s matt] 9 ! int]ior4 ,?is e>?y matt] consi/s pr9cipally ( calcium c>bonate deposit$ 9 a cry/all9e /ate2 & 9 c]ta9 %ells1 z 9 t ( ! oy/] 7,plate ,,xviii41 ,fig4 #h71 f ! animal cell n hav+ suffici5tly controll$ ! mode ( deposition ( ! e>? p>ticles1 !y h assum$ ! =m ( p]fect rhomboidal cry/als4#gb ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,,sections ,,( ,,%ell-,,/ructure4 ,! %ell ( ! w+-%ells1 ,p9na +5s 7,plate ,,xviii41 ,no4 #g71 is compos$ ( hexagonal cells1 fill$ ) p>tially transluc5t calc>e\s matt]1 ! out] lay] ( :i* c be split up into prism-l columns4 ,figs4 #c & #f are horizontal sections ( ! ,haliotis spl5d5s1 ) /ellate pigm5t 9 a portion ( ! section1 & wavy l9es1 z 9 ! d5t9e ( ! human too?1 & ( ,t]ebratulata rubicuna1 %[+ radiat+ p]=ations4 ,nos4 #d & #e1 sections ( ! %ell ( a crab1 %[ pigm5t granules b5ea? ! articul> lay] & ! g5]al hexagonal /ructure ( ! next lay]4 ,"s diff]5ce ( op9ion has be5 express$ ) reg>d to ! =mation ( pe>ls1 b x is n[ g5]ally und]/ood to be a diseas$ condition4 ,pe>ls are matur$ on a nucleus1 consi/+ ( ! same matt] z t f :i* ! new lay]s ( %ell proce$ at ! edge ( ! mussel or oy/]4 ,! f9e/ k9ds are =m$ 9 ! body ( ! animal1 or orig9ate 9 ! pe>ly-look+ "p ( ! %ell4 ,x is f ! size1 r\ndness1 & brilliancy ( pe>ls t _! value is e/imat$4 ,! microscope discloses a diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure ( pe>ls3 ^? hav+ a prismatic cellul> /ructure h a br[n horny nucleus1 surr\nd$ by small imp]fectly-=m$ prismatic cells2 !re is also a r+ ( horny matt]1 foll[$ by o!r prisms1 & s on1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cgd2 & all transv]se sections ( pe>ls f oy/]s %[ ! same successive r+s ( gr[? or deposit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 #a4 ,a transv]se section ( a ,pe>l f ,oy/]1 %[+ its prismatic /ructure #b4 ,a transv]se section ( ano!r ,pe>l1 %[+ its c5tral cellul> /ructure1 ) outside r+s ( true pe>ly matt]4 7,magnifi$ #ej diamet]s47 ,9 a segm5t ( a transv]se section ( a small purple pe>l f a species ( ,mytilus 7,fig4 #cge71 all trace ( prismatic /ructure has disappe>$1 & only a s]ies ( f9e curv$ or radiat+ l9es is se54 ,?is pe>l consi/s ( a beautiful purple-col\r$ s]ies ( regul> lam91 _m ( :i* h a s]ies ( conc5tric zones1 & are ( a yell[ t9t4 ,! mo/ beautiful sections = microscopic exam9ation are obta9$ f ,scot* pe>ls4 ,prep>ation ( ! ,tee? & ,%ell ( ,mollusca = ,microscopical ,exam9ation4--,! me?od ( prep>+ l+ual membranes ( ,mollusca is z foll[s3 ,"u a dissect+ microscope1 & ) a l>ge bull's eye l5s1 cut op5 & expose to view ! floor ( ! m\?2 p9 back ! cut edges ?r\gh\t its l5g?1 & "w out ! d5tal b& ) knife & =ceps4 ,! b& be+ deta*$1 place x 9 a wat*-glass1 & boil 9 cau/ic pota% solution = a few m9utes4 ,hav+ by ?is process fre$ ! tongue f its integum5ts1 remove x1 wa% x well1 & place x = a %ort "t 9 a dilute acid solution1 ei!r acetic or hydro*loric4 ,wa% x well & float x ^u a slide2 ) a f9e sable bru% op5 x out flat1 & remove :atev] dirt or fibre may be adh]+ to x4 ,la/ly1 place x 9 weak _s & wat]1 & !re let x rema9 = a few days be=e m\nt+ 9 =mal94 ,canada balsam r5d]s !m r too pellucid1 & ! f9] tee? are !reby lo/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cge4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( a small ,pe>l f a ,mytilus2 #b4 ,horizontal section magnifi$ #bdj diamet]s to %[ prismatic /ructure & transv]se /ri4 ,! prep>ation ( %ell /ructure mu/ be proce$$ ) ) "s am\nt ( c>e & caution1 or ! delicate reticulat$ network membrane w be de/roy$4 ,if any acid solv5t be us$ to remove ! calc>e\s /ructure x %\ld be mu* dilut$1 s t ! action may proce$ sl[ly r ?an ha/ily4 ,9 ! "y h]mit-crab1 = example1 :]e ! calc>e\s & membran\s portions ( ! %ell are cont9u\s1 & ! calcium c>bonate 9 a relatively small proportion1 a /rong acid solution w\ld entirely de/roy ! specim54 ,9 ! case ( nacre\s %ells ! process ( cutt+ & gr9d+ mu/ also be proce$$ ) ) "s am\nt ( caution4 ,! op]ation %\ld be exam9$ z ! process proce$s1 & "u pol>is$ light4 ,sections ( %ell /ructure are usually m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,"u ! head+ ,te*nique mu* useful in=mation on ?is & k9dr$ subjects w be f\nd 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 ,annulosa1 ,worms1 & ,entozoa4 ,! ,annulosa ( ,huxley embraces ! l[e/ grade ( articulat$ animals1 mo/ ( :i* are n[ gr\p$ ) ,metazoa1 :ile "s writ]s place !m 9 a sub-k+dom ,v]mes4 ,x appe>s to me !n only possible to describe ?is het]og5e\s gr\p ( worm-l animals among ^? :i* resemble ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 negative features1 b n possess+ any ( ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ^? previ\sly describ$4 ,!re are num]\s species among ,entozoa1 e "o ( :i* is ( ! highe/ int]e/ to mank9d 9 g5]al1 & to animal life z a :ole4 ,to ^! ,i %all devote "s att5tion1 f ! wide-spread importance atta*$ to !m4 ,!y are *>act]is$ by hav+ a s(t absorb5t body ) little or no col\r1 9 consequ5ce ( be+ exclud$ f light1 liv+ )9 ! bodies ( animals & absorb+ _! vital juices1 !reby inflict+ a l>ge am\nt ( injury & dea? ^u ! :ole v]tebrate k+dom4 ,!y be> 9 ?is respect a close analogy to p>asitic ,fungi 9 ! nature ( _! de/ructive action ^u plant life1 :i* ,i h fully discuss$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,! relations :i* obta9 betwe5 p>asites & _! ho/s are 9 all respects condition$ by _! natural hi/ory2 & )\t a detail$ k ( ! organisation1 ! developm5t1 & ! mode ( life ( ! diff]5t species1 x is impossible to det]m9e ! nature & ext5t ( ! pa?ological conditions to :i* !y give rise1 & at ! same "t f9d means ( protection aga9/ gue/s 9 e way s unwelcome4 ,! nutritive sy/em ( ! entozoa mu/ be reg>d$ z 9 ! l[e/ /ate ( developm5t1 yet !re are "s among !m ( a high] grade1 z w be se5 z we proce$4 ,all are rem>kable alike = _! va/ productiv5ess & = _! peculi> metamorphoses4 ,= example1 ! great] numb] ( ! ,tnia beg9 _! lives z sexless1 ency/$ l>v1 & on ent]+ _! f9al abode1 segm5ts are successively add$1 until ! worm has f9ally rea*$ ! adult /age4 ,aga91 ! tapeworm ( ! cat has its orig9 9 ! ency/$ l>v f\nd 9 ! liv]s ( ! m\se & rat4 ,ano!r species ( entozoa inhabit ! /oma* ( ! /ickle-back1 & only atta9 _! p]fect =m 9 ! /oma*s ( aquatic birds t fe$ exclusively on fi%4 ,ano!r infe/s ! mantle ( pond-snails1 & ?r\gh _! ag5cy1 ! embryos pass into ! /oma* ( %eep4 ,an almo/ endless numb] ( simil> trans=mations take place 9 o!r g5]a4 ,! simple/ =m among int]nal p>asites is ! ,greg>91 =m]ly gr\p$ among ,protozoa4 ,!y consi/ ( a simple limit+ membrane1 ) a mass ( granul> matt] enclos$ & surr\nd+ a nucleus 7,plate ,,iii41 ,no4 #ec74 ,^! p>asites pass ?r\gh a cry/oid /age 9 ! body ( "o ( ! l[] animals1 usually ! e>?worm1 ,lumbricus agricola4 ,9 ! m mature organism an envelope1 diff]5tiat$ f ! protoplasm )91 c be made out 7,no4 #ed72 ?is af=ds an indication ( great] diff]5tiation 9 ! subjac5t lay] ( protoplasm4 ,an ant]ior portion is 9 _m cases sep>at$ by a con/riction f ! cyl9drical or b&-l body 7,no4 #ef74 ,greg>9 multiply :5 ency/$1 & divide into a multitude ( m9ute pseudo-navicula1 s nam$ f _! resemblance 9 %ape to a well-kn[n =m ( ,diatomace4 ,:5 a "y pseudo-navicule escapes x behaves some:at l an amba1 & if p]*ance x is swall[$ by an appropriate ho/1 x develops at once into ! high] /age4 ,! v>i\s =ms are repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,iii41 ,nos4 #ec--fa4 ,mies*]1 9 #ahdc1 describ$ su*like bodies1 tak5 f ! muscles ( a m\se4 ,a good acc\nt ( specim5s obta9$ f ! muscles ( a pig 0 publi%$ by ! late ,mr4 ,ra9ey 9 ! 8,philosophical ,transactions10 #aheg4 ,he reg>d$ !m z ce/oid entozoa4 ,!y h be5 describ$ "u a v>iety ( names1 z worm-nodules1 egg-sacs1 eggs ( ! fluke1 "y measles1 c4 ,m4 ,lieb]khn c>efully trac$ ! pseudo-navicul aft] leav+ ! p]ivisc]al cavity ( ! e>?-worm2 he f\nd l>ge numb]s ( small corpuscles1 exhibit+ amba-l movem5ts1 z well z pseudo-navicul1 conta9+ granules1 =m$ 9 an ency/$ ,greg>94 ,he imag9es t ^! latt] bodies bur/1 & t _! conta9$ granules develop into ! ambi=m bodies :i* subsequ5tly become ,greg>94 ,pr(essor ,ray ,lanke/] made a c>eful exam9ation ( m ?an a hundr$ worms = ! purpose ( /udy+ ^! que/ions1 b he succe$$ 9 arriv+ at no o!r conclusion ?an t c]ta9 =ms may be ! by-products ( ency/$ ,greg>94 ,! ,g4 lumbricus is "o ( ^? =ms :i* are unilocul>4 ,! vesicle is n always v di/9ct1 & is sometimes altoge!r abs5t2 occasionally x conta9s no granules1 sometimes sev]al1 "o ( :i* is g5]ally nucleat$4 ,9 o!r ( ^! cy/s a numb] ( nucleat$ cells may be se5 develop+ f ! enclos$ ,greg>9a1 :i* gradually become fus$ toge!r & brok5 up1 until ! entire mass is conv]t$ into nucleat$ bodies1 (t5 se5 9 diff]5t /ages ( developm5t1 assum+ ! =m ( a d\ble cone1 z t pres5t$ by c]ta9 species ( ,diatomace4 ,at l5g? ! cy/ conta9s no?+ b pseudo-navicul1 sometimes enclos+ granules2 ^! gradually disappe>1 & f9ally ! cy/ bur/s4 ,ency/ation seems to take place mu* m r>ely among ! bilocul> =ms ( ,greg>9 ?an 9 ! unilocul> species f\nd 9 ! e>?worm & o!r ,annelids4#gc ,dr4 ,j4 ,leidy publi%$ 9 ! 8,transactions ( ! ,philadelphia ,society10 #ahec1 ! results ( 8 exam9ations ( sev]al new species ( ,greg>94 ,he describ$ a d\ble membrane 8)9 ! p>ietal tunic ( ! po/]ior sac1 ?is be+ transp>5t1 col\rless1 & m>k$ by a mo/ beautiful set ( exce$+ly regul> p>allel longitud9al l9es40 ,pr(essor ,r4 ,leuck>t is ! late/ writ] on ! p>asites ( animals1 & to him we are indebt$ = a m sy/ematic acc\nt ( ! :ole gr\p1 & _! life-hi/ory1 ?an to any previ\s inve/igator4 ,i c only attempt to give a m]e outl9e ( ! developm5tal /ages ( a few typical =ms ( p>asites1 comm5c+ ) ! cy/ic tapeworm1 ,tnia4 ,^! worms are ribbon-l 9 appe>ance1 & are divid$ ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( _! l5g? into segm5ts1 & _! usual habitation is ! inte/9al cavity ( v]tebrate animals4 ,! ant]ior extremity ( a tnoid worm is usually call$ ! head1 & be>s ! organ by :i* ! animal atta*es itself to ! muc\s membrane ( ! creature :i* x infe/s4 ,^! organs are ei!r suck]s1 or hooks1 or bo? conjo9$4 ,9 ,tnia1 f\r suck]s are comb9$ ) a circlet ( hooks1 dispos$ ar\nd a m$ian t]m9al prom95ce4 ,! embryo passes ?r\gh c]ta9 /ages ( developm5t--viz41 f\r =ms or *anges3 b ! embryo itself is v peculi>1 consi/+ ( an oval non-ciliat$ mass1 provid$ ) six hooks1 ?ree ^u ea* side ( ! middle l9e4 ,tnia are f\nd enclos$ 9 v>i\s situations besides t ( ! alim5t>y canal3 ! eye1 ! bra91 ! muscul> tissues1 ! liv]1 c41 ( animals4 ,! foll[+ cy/ic worms are usually includ$ 9 ?is g5]a1 ,cy/ic]cus ,an?ocephalus1 ,cnurus1 & ,t4 ,e*9ococcus4 ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ajj1 %[s an adult specim5 ( ! latt] ) ro/ellum suck]s1 & ?ree successive segm5ts1 ! la/ ( :i* is ! ova sac4 ,! wat]-vascul> sy/em is repres5t$ col\r$ by c>m9e4 ,?is p>asite infe/s ! human body z frequ5tly z _m o!r species4 ,my accurately-drawn figure is copi$ f ,cobbold's 8,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,entozoa40 ,cy/ic]cus fasciol>is is develop$ )9 ! liv] ( :ite mice2 ,cy/ic]cus cellulos 9 ! muscles ( ! pig2 h5ce we h ! diseas$ /ate ( pork famili>ly kn[n z 8measly pork40 ,%\ld a lamb become infe/$ ) ,tnia ! f9al trans=mation w be diff]5t2 )9 a =tnight symptoms ( a disease kn[n z 8/agg]s0 manife/ !mselves1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few weeks ! ,cnurus c]ebralis w be develop$ )9 ! bra94 ,von ,siebold po9t$ out ! be>+ ( ?is fact ^u ! important practical problem ( ! prev5tion ( 8/agg]s40 ,o!rs belong+ to ! same class ( p>asites are q z rem>kable 9 _! pref]5ce = ! alim5t>y canal ( fi%es4 ,! ,e*9orhyn*us is develop$ 9 ! inte/9al canal ( ! fl\nd]1 ,trinophorus nodulus 9 ! liv] ( ! salmon4 ,?us1 by c>eful & repeat$ obs]vation ) ! microscope1 a close connection is f\nd to exi/ betwe5 ! cy/ic & ce/oid entozoa4 ,! ,e*9ococcus 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #aja7 infe/s ! human liv]4 ,^! p>asites are always f\nd 9 cy/s1 & 9 clos$ cavities 9 ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,!y are unit$ 9 f\rs by a v %ort /alk or p$icle1 common to ! :ole4 ,by an increase ( magnification ! cont5ts ( a cy/ pres5t ! sev]al /ructures repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,e*9orhyn*us1 or sp9y-head$ ?readworms1 con/itute a gr\p ( entozoa :i* und]go a metamorphosis h>dly1 p]haps1 less rem>kable ?an t kn[n to take place 9 o!r ,nematode worms4 ,leuck>t in/itut$1 9 #ahfa1 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) ! ova ( ,e*9orhyn*us proteus f\nd p>asitic ^u ! ,gamm>us pulex4 ,! ova ( ,e4 proteus resemble 9 =m & /ructure ^? ( alli$ species4 ,!y are ( a fusi=m %ape1 surr\nd$ ) two membranes1 an ext]nal ( a m album9\s nature1 & an int]nal *it9\s "o4 ,:5 ! eggs rea* ! inte/9e ! out] ( ^! membranes is abs5t1 be+ 9 fact dige/$1 :ile ! inn] rema9s intact until ruptur$ by ! embryo4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgf4--;,cy/ic ,disease ( ,liv] 7,human74 a4 ,cy/ ) ,e*9ococcus enclos$2 b4 deta*$ hooklets f ! head ( ,e*9ococcus1 magnifi$ #bej diamet]s2 c4 cry/als f\nd 9 cy/1 *iefly *ole/]9e2 d4 cyl9drical epi!lium1 "s enclos$ 9 /ructureless vesicles2 e4 ,puro-mucul5t granules1 fat & blood corpuscles4 ,! typical ,?readworm belong+ to ! ord] ,nematoidea infe/ ! inte/9es ( *ildr51 & are a s\rce ( mu* suff]+4 ,! egg is elliptical1 & conta9s a mass ( granul> protoplasm1 ! ext]nal wall ( :i* soon becomes m>k$ out into a lay] ( cells4 ,! m\? ( ! worm appe>s z a depression at ! end ( ! blunt head4 ,:5 ! muscul> sy/em & alim5t>y canal are develop$ ! embryo hat*es out1 "s few ( :i* are free liv+ =ms2 mo/ ( !m lead a p>asitic life4 ,_! reproduction is enorm\s1 repres5t+ ?\s&s ( eggs & embryos4 ,( ! non-p>asitic species ( ?read-worm1 ! common v9eg> eel1 ,anguillula1#gd af=ds an example4 ,?is is f\nd 9 pollut$ wat]1 bog-moss1 & moi/ e>?1 z well z 9 v9eg>2 also 9 ! alim5t>y canal ( ! pond-snail1 ! frog1 fi%1 c4 ,ano!r species is met ) 9 ! e>s ( :eat affect$ ) a blight t]m$ ! 8cockle02 ano!r1 ! ,a4 glut9is1 9 s\r pa/e4 ,if gra9s ( ! affect$ :eat are soak$ 9 wat] = an h\r or two be=e !y are cut op51 ! s call$ 8eels0 w be f\nd4 ,! pa/e-eel makes its appe>ance spontane\sly j z ! pa/y mass is turn+ s\r2 ! means ( secur+ a supply = microscopical exam9ation consi/s 9 all[+ a portion ( ! pa/e 9 :i* !y %[ !mselves to dry up1 & lay+ x by = /ock2 if at any "t a portion ( ?is is introduc$ into a little fre%-made pa/e1 & ! :ole kept w>m & moi/ = a few h\rs1 x w be f\nd to sw>m ) ^! wriggl+ little worms4 ,a small portion ( pa/e spread ov] ! face ( a ,codd+ton l5s is a ready way ( view+ !m4 ,tri*9a spiralis4--,"o ( ! smalle/ & mo/ dang]\s ( all human int]nal p>asites is ,t4 spiralis1 s9ce x f9ds its way into ! muscles ?r\gh\t ! human body4 ,! "y animal pres5ts ! =m ( a spirally-coil$ worm 9 ! int]ior ( a m9ute oval-%ap$ cy/ 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ajd71 a m]e speck sc>cely visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,9 ! muscul> /ructure x resembles a small millet se$1 some:at calc>e\s 9 composition4 ,! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ,tri*9a 9 ! human muscle is briefly t 9 a few h\rs aft] ! +e/ion ( infect$ pork1 ,tri*9a1 dis5gag$ f ! muscle1 w be f\nd 9 ! /oma*3 h5ce !y pass into ! small inte/9e1 :]e !y are fur!r develop$4 ,cont9u+ _! migrations1 !y p5etrate f> into ! int]ior ( ! primitive muscul> fasciculi1 :]e !y w be f\nd1 9 ab\t ?ree days aft] +e/ion1 9 consid]able numb]s1 & s f> develop$ t ! "y entozoa h almo/ atta9$ a size equal to t ( ! full-gr[n ,tri*9a 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #aje74 ,!y quickly advance into ! int]ior ( ! muscul> fasciculi1 :]e !y live & multiply 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 :ile ! surr\nd+ /ructures z well z ! muscul> tissue und]go a process ( hi/olysis4 ,! de/ructive nature ( ! p>asite is v great4 ,! numb] ( prog5y produc$ by "o female may am\nt to sev]al ?\s&s1 & z soon z !y leave ! egg !y ei!r p5etrate ?r\gh ! blood-vessels1 or are c>ri$ on by ! circulation1 & ultimately become lodg$ 9 ! muscles situat$ 9 ! mo/ di/ant p>ts ( ! body4 ,"h1 z already expla9$1 !y become ency/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgg4--,monads 9 ,rat's ,blood1 /a9$ ) me?yl violet1 %[+ membrane "u diff]5t aspects2 blood-corpuscles1 "s cr5at$ & o!rs ) /a9$ discs 7 #a1bjj74--7;,crook%ank47 ,pr(essor ,vir*[ draws ! foll[+ conclusions3--8#a4 ,! +e/ion ( pig's fle%1 fre% or badly dress$1 conta9+ ,tri*91 is att5d$ ) ! greate/ dang]1 & may prove ! proximate cause ( dea?4 #b4 ,! ,tri*9 ma9ta9 _! liv+ prop]ties 9 decompos$ fle%2 !y resi/ imm]sion 9 wat] = weeks toge!r1 & :5 ency/$ may1 )\t injury to _! vitality1 be plung$ 9 a suffici5tly dilute solution ( *romic acid = at lea/ t5 days4 #c4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y p]i% & are depriv$ ( all noxi\s influ5ce 9 ham :i* has be5 well smok$1 kept a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 & !n well boil$ be=e x is consum$40 ,a m m9ute ,fil>ian worm has be5 detect$ 9 ! human blood-vessels1 kn[n z ,fil>ia sangu9is hom9is4 ,?is worm c>ries on its "w ( de/ruction ?r\gh\t ! night2 dur+ ! day x rema9s p]fectly passive4 ,x increases rapidly1 & produces swell+s ( ! gl&ul> /ructures ( ! body1 some:at aft] ! nature ( ^? *>act]i/ic ( ! ,bombay plague1 ) a slight diff]5ce1 t aft] dea? ! swell+s are se5 to be due to ! va/ accumulations ( ! ,fil>ia sangu9is block+ ! blood-vessels4 ,! accompany+ ,fig4 #cgg %[s a simil> infiltration ( monads 9 ! blood ( rats dy+ ( plague 9 ,bombay4 ,trematode ,worms4--,9 ! ord] ,trematoda1 to :i* ! fluke belongs1 ! body is unsegm5t$1 & to ! nak$ eye smoo? ?r\gh\t1 ) a blood circulatory sy/em1 & two suctorial discs at ! h9d] end4 ,!re is a di/9ct dige/ive canal1 usually =k$1 furni%$ ) only "o ap]ture1 ! m\?4 ,! excretory organs op5 out z 9 tape worms1 & ! male & female organs co-exi/ 9 ! same individual4 ,! ,fluke 7%[n 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ajc7 is cone-%ap$1 & is ! ,amphi/ome conicum ( ,rudolphi4 ,?is p>asite is common 9 ox51 %eep1 & de]1 & x has also be5 f\nd 9 ! ,dorcas antelope4 ,x inv>iably takes up its abode 9 ! fir/ /oma*1 or rum51 atta*+ itself to ! papillat$ folds ( ! muc\s membrane4 ,9 ! full-gr[n1 adult /age1 x r>ely exce$s half an in* 9 l5g?4 ,x is c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable 9 =m & organisation ( any ( ! int]nal p>asites4 ,! l>g] fluke 7,fasciola hepatica7 (t5 atta9s to an in* or m 9 size4 ,x is n only ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 all v>ieties ( graz+ cattle1 b has likewise be5 f\nd 9 ! horse1 ! ass1 & also 9 ! h>e & rabbit & o!r animals4 ,its occurr5ce 9 man has be5 record$ by m ?an "o obs]v]4 ,! oral suck] =m+ ! m\? leads to a %ort sophagus1 :i* v soon divides into two prim>y /oma*al or inte/9al trunks1 ! latt] 9 _! turn s5d+ (f bran*es2 ! :ole toge!r =m+ t attractive d5dritic sy/em ( vessels s (t5 comp>$ to plant-v5ation4 ,?is rem>kably-=m$ dige/ive app>atus is repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,iv41 ,nos4 #ajf & #ajg1 ,fasciola gigantea ( ,cobbold1 & %\ld be contra/$ ) ! some:at simil>ly racemose "* ( ! wat]-vascul> sy/em4 ,let x be expressly not$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! dige/ive sy/em ! majority ( ! tubes bran* out 9 a direction obliquely d[nw>ds1 :]eas ^? ( ! vascul> sy/em slope obliquely upw>ds4 ,a fur!r comp>ison ( ! disposition ( ^! two sy/ems ( /ructure1 ) ! same sy/ems figur$ & describ$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,amphi/oma1 w at once s]ve to demon/rate ! important diff]5ces :i* subsi/ betwe5 ! sev]al memb]s ( ! two g5]a1 if we turn to ! consid]ation ( ! habits ( ,fasciola hepatica1 :i*1 9 s f> z !y relate to excitation ( ! liv] disease 9 %eep1 acquire ! highe/ practical importance4 ,intellig5t cattle-bre$]s1 agriculturi/s1 & vet]9>ians h all along obs]v$ t ! rot1 z ?is disease is commonly call$1 is p>ticul>ly preval5t aft] long-cont9u$ wet wea!r1 & m especially s if !re h be5 a succession ( wet seasons2 & f ?is circum/ance !y h v naturally inf]r$ t ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e1 c\pl$ ) a moi/ condition ( ! soil1 =ms ! sole cause ( ! malady4 ,co-ord9at+ ) ^! facts1 x has likewise be5 notic$ t ! flocks graz+ 9 l[ pa/ures & m>%y di/ricts are mu* m liable to ! invasion ( ?is endemic disease ?an are ^? pa/ur+ on high] & dri] gr\nds2 a notewor?y exception occurr+ 9 ! case ( ^? flocks fe$+ 9 ! salt-wat] m>%es on our ea/]n %ores4 ,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ajf1 ,fasciola gigantea3 ! ant]ior surface is expos$ to display oral & v5tral suck]s1 & ! d5dri=m dige/ive app>atus inject$ ) ultra-m>9e2 ,no4 #ajg %[s ! dorsal aspect ( ! specim5 & ! multiramose "* ( ! wat]-vascul> sy/em1 ! vessels be+ inject$ ) v]milion4 ,9 _! l>val condition ! ,amphi/oma live 9 or ^u ! body ( ! pond-snail4 ,?is we inf] f ! circum/ance t ! l>v1 or c]c>i1 ( a closely-alli$ species1 ! ,amphi/oma subclavatum1 are kn[n to infe/ ! alim5t>y canal ( frogs & newts1 & h also be5 f\nd on ! body ( ! ,planorbis by myself4 ,! c]c>i l>v are tak51 x is believ$1 by ! %eep & ! cattle :ile dr9k+4 ,! e>lie/ embryotic /age 9 :i* ,i h f\nd ! embryo fluke is repres5t$ at ,fig4 #cgh1 ,no4 #a4 ,9 ! ye> #ahed1 :il/ obs]v+ ! habits ( ,limna & o!r wat]-snails1 ,i br\ght home specim5s f ! ornam5tal wat] 9 ! ,botanic ,g>d5s2 ^u ^! 7 discov]$ ?\s&s ( m9ute ?read-l worms1 subsequ5tly met ) on o!r embryos1 & at fir/ tak5 to be simple infusorial animals1 b ^u plac+ !m 9 a glass vessel ^! m9ute bodies 7 obs]v$ to deta* !mselves & comm5ce a free-swimm+ exi/5ce4 ,a fr+e ( cilia 0 se5 to surr\nd ! flask-%ap$ body 7,no4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgh4--;,=ms ( ,c]c>ia2 /ages 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,fluke4 #a4 ,an infusorial embryo2 #b4 a ,trematode embryo hav+ q rec5tly escap$ f ! egg2 #c4 embryo c]c>ia2 #d4 fully-=m$ c]c>ia1 %[+ alim5t>y canal & suck]-l head2 #e4 ency/$ =m ( same2 #f4 ,c]c>ia furcata1 ) ! n]v\s sy/em & =k$ tail display$2 #g4 9 ! act ( break+ up2 #h4 tail portion half an h\r aft] division2 #i4 p>asitic worm ( ano!r species ( ,trematoda4 7,magnifi$ f #aj to #be diamet]s47 ,! /udy ( ^! embryos ?r[s a flood ( light ^u ! obscure hi/ory ( ,c]c>i4 ,aft] a %ort p]iod ( w&]+1 _! embryos fa/5 ^u ! wat]-snail1 & compel x to act z a wet-nurse1 & prep>e x = a fur!r & high] /age ( life4 ,! e>lie/ condition 9 :i* ,i h discov]$ !m conceal$ ab\t ! body ( ! wat]-snail is %[n at ,no4 #b2 9 appe>ance1 a simple elongat$ sac fill$ ) ova or g]ms1 & :i* 9 a %ort "t develop into ! caudate worms already spok5 (2 _! tails gradually atta9+ to ! l5g? ( ! mature embryos1 ,nos4 #c & #d1 ! latt] be+ a full-gr[n ,c]c>ia ephem]a4 ,dies+ describ$ no less ?an twelve species ( ,c]c>i1 "s ( ! mo/ curi\s ( :i* live on ! puddle-snail1 9 colonies ( ?\s&s4 ,all ?r[ (f _! tails at ! mom5t ( *ang+ into a fluke4 ,on plac+ "s ,c]c>ia furcata 7,nos4 #f & #g7 "u ! microscope1 !y 7 se5 to plunge ab\t 9 frantic attempts to escape f conf9em5t4 ,sudd5ly ,i saw !m %$ _! tails & _! bodies divide into two p>ts1 ea* half swimm+ ab\t z vigor\sly z be=e1 q indiff]5t z to ! sev]ance1 & app>5tly dy+ f exhau/ion4 ,^? repres5t$ 9 ,nos4 #f & #g h a highly-organis$ n]v\s sy/em1 =m+ a cont9u\s circuit ?r\gh\t ! body & tail4 ,! m\? is furni%$ ) a suck] & hooklets1 :i* c be project$ out "s di/ance1 :ile a dige/ive app>atus & v5tral op5+ or suck] c be diff]5tiat$4 ,! tail is bifurcat$ & articulat$ ) ! body by a sort ( ball-&-socket jo9t1 & :5 brok5 (f1 ! convexity ( "o "p is se5 to accurately fit into ! concavity ( ! o!r2 x la%es ab\t ?is app5dage ) consid]able dext]ity1 r>ely atta*+ itself to any ( ! small aquatic plants4#ge ,!re is yet ano!r ,fil>ian worm1 a pe/ to ! p\ltry-y>d1 ! ,gape-worm1 ,scl]o/oma syngamus4 ,?is p>asite is widely di/ribut$1 & is inve/$ ) special int]e/1 s9ce x produces disease1 & kills annually ?\s&s ( "y *ick5s1 pheasants1 p>tridges1 & _m ( ! l>g] k9ds ( wild birds4 ,! worms f9d _! way into ! w9dpipe or tra*e1 ?r\gh ! dr9k+ wat]1 :ile 9 ! embryotic or c]c>ian /age ( exi/5ce1 & _! increase is s rapid1 ! birds quickly die ( suffocation4 ,! female gape-worm (t5 atta9s to a consid]able size1 & :5 full gr[n resembles ! well-kn[n mud-worm ( ! ,?ames 7,gordius aquaticus74 ,%e measures full six-eigh?s ( an in* 9 l5g?1 :ile ! male only measures "o-eigh?4 ,s insignificantly small is he t ! female c>ries him ab\t tuck$ into a side pocket4 ,! ova sac occupies a consid]able portion ( ! int]nal body space1 & is always f\nd load$ ) eggs 9 all /ages ( developm5t1 numb]+ "s five hundr$ or a ?\s&4 ,9 %ape ^! are ovoid4 ,on cutt+ op5 ! w9dpipe ( *ick5 & p>tridges1 ,i h f\nd _! tra*e lit]ally sw>m+ ) ! gape-worm4#gf ,a rem>kable =m ( ! ,trematode worm is ,bilh>zia hmatobra ( ,cobbold1 ,di/omia hmatobium ( o!r au?ors 7,plate ,,iv41 ,no4 #ajb74 ,?is g5us ( fluke1 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,bilh>z 9 ! human portal sy/em ( blood vessels1 gives rise to a v s]i\s /ate ( disease among ! ,egyptians4 ,s common is ! occurr5ce ( ?is worm1 t ?is physician express$ 8 belief t half ! gr[n-up population ( ,egypt suff] f x4 ,gries+] conjectures t ! "y ( ! p>asite exi/ 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,nile1 & 9 ! fi% :i* ab\nd4 ,dr4 ,cobbold ?9ks 8x m probable t ! l>v1 9 ! =m ( c]c>i1 r$i1 & sporocy/s1 w be f\nd 9 c]ta9 ga/]opod mollusca prop] to ! locality40 ,! anatomy ( ?is fluke is fully describ$ by ,k*5mei/] 9 8 book on p>asites1 by ,leuck>t1#gg & by ,cobbold4 ,! eggs & embryos ( ,bilh>zia are peculi> 9 possess+ ! p[] ( alt]+ _! =ms 9 bo? /ages ( life2 & x is m ?an probable t ! embryo =m has be5 mi/ak5 = "s extraord9>y =m ( ciliat$ infusorial animal1 its movem5ts be+ quick & lively4 ,we _c fail to notice ! curi\s =m ( ! male animal1 &1 unlike ! ,fil>ian previ\sly describ$1 x is he :o c>ries ! female ab\t & fe$s h]4 ,! :ip-l app5dage se5 9 ! figure is a portion ( ! body ( ! female4 ,! disease produc$ by ?is p>asite is said to be m virul5t 9 ! summ] mon?s1 probably ow+ to ! great] abundance ( c]c>ian l>v at ?is p]iod ( ! ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgi4--,! d\ble p>asitic worm 7,diploz\m p>adoxum74 ,!re are also d\ble p>asitic worms1 :i* may be describ$ z a sub-ord] ( ,trematoda1 diff]+ v mu* f ^? previ\sly describ$4 ,^! live on ! gills ( sev]al species ( fre%-wat] fi%1 ! gudgeon & m9n[1 = in/ance4 ,among !m is a mo/ rem>kable creature well des]v+ ! "n ( ,diploz\m p>adoxum :i* has be5 be/[$ ^u x4 ,x consi/s ( two complete mature simil> halves1 ea* possess+ e attribute ( a p]fect animal 7a74 ,ea* ( ! po9t$ front ends has a m\? ap]ture1 & close to x two small suck+ discs2 :ile ea* individual has a sep>ate inte/9e1 consi/+ ( a m$ium tube & innum]able side-bran*es4 ,at ! h9d] end ( ! body are two suck]s sunk 9 a depression1 & protect$ by f\r h>d buckle-%ap$ organs4 ,! eggs are elongat$1 & provid$ at "o end ) a f9e ?read-l app5dage 7b74 ,9 ?is egg ! "y 7c7--:i* at ! "t ( hat*+ is only ab\t "o-hundr$? ( an in*--takes ab\t a =tnight to develop4 ,x is cov]$ ) cilia1 has two eyes & two suck]s2 aft] quitt+ ! egg1 ! l>v are v lively & re/less 9 _! movem5ts1 glid+ ab\t & !n swimm+ (f ) rapidity4 ,if unable to f9d ! fi% into :i* !y are de/9$ to live1 !y gr[ feeble & p]i%1 b if successful !y gr[ into ! ,diporpa 7d71 :i* is flatt5$ & lancet-%ap$1 & be>s a small suck+ disc on ! "u surface & a conical excresc5ce on ! back4 ,aft] liv+ 9 ?is /ate = "s weeks1 & ga9+ n\ri%m5t by suck+ ! blood f ! fi%'s gills1 ! worms beg9 to jo9 toge!r 9 pairs1 "o specim5 seiz+ ! conical excresc5ce ( ano!r by its v5trical suck]2 !n1 by a truly acrobatic feat1 ! second twi/s itself to ! dorsal excresc5ce ( ! fir/1 & 9 ?is /ate an insep>able fusion takes place betwe5 ! suck]s & ! excresc5ces involv$ 9 ! adhesion4#gh ,9 ! gr\p ,v]mes1 ! m highly-organis$ ,annelida mu/ be includ$4 ,^!1 = ! mo/ "p1 live ei!r 9 fre% or salt wat]4 ,! ,annelids are v>i\s1 :ile ! ,plan>ia1 a g5us ( ,turbell>ia1 are v common 9 pools1 & resemble m9ute lee*es2 _! motion is cont9u\s & glid+1 & !y are always f\nd crawl+ ov] ! surfaces ( aquatic plants & animals1 bo? 9 fre% & salt wat]4 ,! body has ! flatt5$ sole-l %ape ( ! ,trematode entozoa 7,fig4 #cgh1 ,no4 #i71 ! m\? is surr\nd$ by a circul> suck]2 ?is is appli$ to ! surface ( ! plant f :i* ! animal draws its n\ri%m5t2 x is also furni%$ ) a r long proboscis1 :i* is probably employ$ = a simil> purpose4 ,plan>i multiply by eggs1 & by spontane\s fissuration 9 a transv]se direction1 ea* segm5t becom+ a p]fect animal4 ,pr(essor ,agassiz believes t ! infusorial animals1 ,p>amcium & ,kolpoda1 are simply plan>ian l>v4 ,hirud9id1 ! lee* tribe1 are usually believ$ to =m a l9k betwe5 ! ,annelida on ! "o h&1 & ! ,trematoda on ! o!r2 _! aff9ities place !m clos] ) ! latt] ?an ! =m]4 ,al?\gh depriv$ ( ! *>act]i/ic set ( ! ,annelida1 & exhibit+ no sectional divisions1 !y are provid$ ) a suck]-l m\? possess$ by ,trematoda1 b !y pres5t no resemblance to !m 9 _! reproductive organs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em & 9 _! vascul> sy/em1 ! ,hirud9id resemble ,annelida4 ,! head 9 mo/ ( ! ,annelida is di/9ctly m>k$1 & furni%$ ) eyes1 t5tacles1 m\?1 & tee?1 & 9 "s in/ances ) auditory vesicles1 conta9+ otoli!s4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a s]ies ( ganglia runn+ along ! v5tral portion ( ! animal1 & communicat+ ) a c5tral mass ( bra94 ,hirud9a m$ic9alis puts =? a claim = special att5tion on ! gr\nd ( s]vices r5d]$ to mank9d4 ,! :ole ( ! family live by suck+ ! blood ( o!r animals2 & = ?is purpose ! m\? ( ! lee* is furni%$ ) a numb] ( /rong horny tee?1 by :i* !y cut ?r\gh ! sk94 ,9 ! common lee* ?ree r[s ( tee? exi/1 arrang$ 9 a triangul>1 or r triradiate =m1 a /ructure t acc\nts = ! peculi> appe>ance ( lee* bites4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ "p ( ! anatomy ( ! lee* to microscopi/s is c]ta9ly ! /ructure ( ! m\? 7,fig4 #chj74 ,?is is a muscul> dilatable orifice1 )9 :i* ?ree beautiful little semi-circul> saws are situat$1 arrang$ s t _! edges meet 9 ! c5tre4 ,x is by means ( ^! saws t ! lee* makes ! incisions :5ce blood is to be procur$1 an op]ation :i* is p]=m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,no soon] is ! suck] firmly fix$ to ! sk91 ?an ! m\? becomes slightly ev]t$1 & ! edges ( ! saws are ?us made to press ^u ! t5se sk91 a saw+ movem5t be+ at ! same "t giv5 to ea*1 :]eby x is made gradually to pi]ce ! surface1 & cut its way to ! capill>y blood-vessels b5ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chj4--,m\? ( ,lee*4 ,9 ,cleps9id ! body is ( a lee*-l =m1 b v mu* n>r[$ 9 front1 & ! m\? is furni%$ ) a preh5sile proboscis4 ,^! animals live 9 fre% wat]1 :]e !y may (t5 be se5 creep+ ov] aquatic plants4 ,_! prey is ! pond-snail4 ,tubicola4--,! worms belong+ to ?is s]ies ( bran*if]\s ,annelida are all m>9e1 & di/+ui%$ by _! inv>iable habit ( =m+ a tube or case1 )9 :i* ! s(t p>ts ( ! animal c be entirely retract$4 ,?is tube is usually atta*$ to /ones or o!r subm>9e bodies4 ,ext]nally x is compos$ ( v>i\s =eign mat]ials1 s&1 cry/all9e bodies1 & ! dbris ( %ells2 int]nally x is l9$ ) a smoo? coat+ ( s>code1 sometimes ( a h>d] consi/5cy4 ,! ,tubicola g5]ally live 9 societies1 w9d+ _! tubes into a mass :i* (t5 atta9s a consid]able size2 only a few are solit>y 9 _! habits4 ,!y reta9 _! position 9 _! cases by means ( tufts ( bri/les & sp9es2 ! latt]1 9 ! tubicul> ,annelids1 are usually hook$1 s t by apply+ !m to ! walls ( ! case1 ! animal is enabl$ to oppose a consid]able resi/ance to any ef=t made to )draw x4 ,9 ! be/ kn[n family ( ! ord] 7,sabellia71 ! bran*i are plac$ 9 ! head1 & =m a circle ( plumes1 or a tuft ( bran*$ organs4 ,! ,s]pulid =m irregul>ly twi/$ calc>e\s tubes1 & (t5 gr[ toge!r 9 l>ge masses1 :5 !y secure !mselves to %ells & simil> objects2 o!r species1 ,t]ebellid1 :i* build _! cases ( s& & /ones1 appe> to pref] a life ( solitude4 ,! be/ kn[n =m is ,t]ebella littoralis4#gi ,! curi\s little spiral %ells se5 ^u ! fronds ( seawe$s are =m$ by an animal belong+ to ! ,spirorbis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cha4--,s]pula ) ext5d$ t5tacles & body protrud+ f calc>e\s case4 ,if ! animals be plac$ 9 a vessel ( sea-wat] a v pleas+ spectacle w soon be witness$4 ,! top "p ( ! tube is se5 to op51 & ! creature cauti\sly protrudes a fr+e ( t5tacles2 ^! gradually spread out two beautiful fan-l r[s ( t5tacles1 surr\nd$ by cilia ( a ri* purple or r$ col\r4 ,^! s]ve ! d\ble purpose ( brea?+ & fe$+ organs4 ,:5 )drawn f its calc>e\s case1 ! s(t body is se5 to be con/ruct$ ( a s]ies ( r+s1 ) a t]m9al preh5sile foot by :i* x atta*es itself4 ,_m ,annelids are )\t tubes or cells ( any k9d1 simply bury+ _! bodies 9 ! s& ne> tidal m>k4 ,! ,ar5icola1 lob-worm1 is a well-kn[n specim5 ( ! class2 its body is s transp>5t t ! circulat+ fluids c be di/9ctly se5 "u a mod]ate magnify+ p[]4 ,two k9ds ( fluids fl[ ?r\gh ! vessels1 "o ne>ly col\rless1 ! o!r r$2 ! vessels ?r\gh :i* ! latt] circulate are describ$ z blood-vessels4 ,n v mu* int]e/ atta*es to ! developm5tal /age ( ! ,annelida4 ,!y issue =? f ova1 & ! embryo s closely resemble ciliat$ polypes1 t compet5t obs]v]s h mi/ak5 !m = animals belong+ to a l[] class2 a few h\rs' c>eful wat*+ is suffici5t to dispel a belief ( ! k9d1 :5 ! embryonic1 globul>1 or %apeless mass is se5 to assume a =m ( segm5tation1 & soon ! v>i\s int]nal organs become m & m develop$1 eye spots appe>1 & ! "y animal arrives at ! adult /age ( its exi/5ce4 ,cru/acea4 ,! cru/aceans comprise a l>ge assemblage ( ,ar?ropods1 pres5t+ great div]sity ( /ructure4 ,"s ( ! p>asitic species h become s simplifi$ 9 organisation t !y appe> to pres5t no relation%ip ) ! high] memb]s ( ! class1 yet x is c]ta9 t all ! species1 :e!r t]re/rial or aquatic1 belong to ! same /ock1 & may h _h orig9 9 ! same fundam5tal plan ( /ructure4 ,ess5tially1 ! body consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( segm5ts1 to ea* ( :i* is atta*$ a pair ( two-bran*$ app5dages2 ! ext]nal bran* is t]m$ ! exopodite & ! int]nal ! endopodite4 ,five segm5ts at ! front end ( ! body unite to =m a head1 ! app5dages ( ! fir/ two be+ situat$ 9 front ( ! m\?1 & p]=m+ ! (fice ( feel]s or ant5n1 :ile ^? ( ! rema9+ ?ree segm5ts are trans=m$ into jaws1 ! fir/ pair ( jaws be+ ! m&ibles & ! foll[+ two pairs ! maxill4 ,! re/ ( ! app5dages are v>i\sly modifi$ & to "s are atta*$ respiratory organs 9 ! =m ( gills4 ,cru/aceans are broadly divid$ f ,c5tip$es1 ,millip$es1 ,insects1 c41 by ! pres5ce ( two pairs in/ead ( "o pair ( ant5n1 & by ! possession ( bran*ial & n tubul> 7tra*eal7 respiratory organs4 ,ara*nida & "s o!r species are aga9 widely sep>at$4 ,! majority ( ! "y on leav+ ! egg are q unlike ! p>5t1 & only acquires _! def9ite =m aft] und]go+ a s]ies ( *anges4 ,! e>lie/ /age1 :i* has be5 call$ ! ,nauplius1 already ref]r$ to 9 connection ) ! b>nacle1 is a m9ute body %[+ no trace ( segm5tation1 & provid$ ) a s+le eye1 & ?ree pairs ( swimm+ app5dages1 :i* become ! two pairs ( ant5n & ! m&ibles ( ! adult4 ,?is /age is by no means ( inv>iable occurr5ce1 b is *iefly *>act]i/ic ( ! l[e/ memb]s1 ! ,entomo/raca1 & is r>e 9 ! high]1 ,malaco/raca4 ,! typical cru/aceans are %rimps1 crayfi%1 c41 s famili>ly describ$ by ,huxley4 ,! zoa /age ( ! crab1 a m9ute transp>5t creature1 :i* und]goes sev]al *anges1 swims ab\t flapp+ its long jo9t$ abdom51 l "s ( ! ,entomo/raca1 & ! %rimp 9 p>ticul>4 ,! l>va ( crayfi%1 ! s-call$ glass-crab1 is v peculi> & int]e/+4 ,! sessile-ey$ s]ies1 9 :i* ! comp\nd eyes are nev] m\nt$ on a movable /alk1 & to :i* ! ,isopoda belong1 exhibits great div]sity ( /ructure z well z ( habits & habitat4 ,"s live 9 fre% wat]1 mo/ are m>9e1 :ile o!rs live on l& & take to a p>asitic life4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chb4--,male ,gna?ia1 enl>g$4 ,?is g5us conta9s ,gna?ia1 9 :i* ! male & female are s dissimil>1 t !y are frequ5tly ref]r$ to z memb]s ( two families4 ,9 ! adult male ! m&ibles are p[]ful & prom95t1 & ! head is l>ge1 squ>$1 & z wide z ! ?orax4 ,9 ! female1 on ! contr>y1 ! head is curi\sly small & triangul>1 )\t visible m&ibles1 & ! ?orax is mu* dilat$4 ,! creatures are ab\t "o-six? ( an in* long1 & ( a greyi% col\r1 & ! de/ruction !y br+ ab\t is due to _! habit ( bor+ into timb] bel[ wat] m>k4 ,fig4 #chb repres5ts an enl>g$ view ( ! male ,gna?ia4 ,^! cru/aceans are veget>ians1 & fe$ on wood4 ,o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p1 kn[n z fi% lice1 are mu* l>g] 9 size1 & *iefly infe/ ! cetacea1 & be> 9 addition two l>ge eyes4 ,by means ( _! p[]ful =e feet ! ,cymo?ord atta* !mselves to bo? m>9e & fre%-wat] fi%1 %[+ a pref]5ce = ! inside ( ! m\? ( _! ho/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chc4--a4 ,cypris2 #b4 ,cyclops2 #c4 ,bran*ipus grubei4 ,! b>-foot$ gr\p ,copepoda are free liv+1 & ! ?orax be>s f\r or five swimm+ feet2 ! abdom5 is )\t app5dages4 ,! be/ kn[n fre%-wat] =m is ,cyclops1 ! /ructure ( :i* s]ves z a type ( ! ord]4 ,! body is1 z is well kn[n to microscopi/s1 broad 9 front & tap]+ beh9d1 be+ ?us1 :5 view$ swimm+1 pe>-%ap$ 9 outl9e4 ,! dorsal elem5ts ( ! head are fus$ to =m a c>apace1 :i* be>s a s+le eye1 f :i* circum/ance x d]ives its "n4 ,! eggs are c>ri$ by ! female 9 a c\ple ( ova-sacs atta*$ to ! la/ segm5t ( ! ?orax1 & s prolific are ^! creatures t a female w produce ov] f\r ?\s& million "y4 ,! "y :5 hat*$ is an oval ,nauplius1 :i* aft] two or ?ree m\lts acquires ! adult /ate4 ,9 ! family ( ! ,apodid we h an equally well-kn[n cru/acean1 ! ,bran*ipus4 ,9 ! ,bran*ipodid ! body is also elongat$1 b !re are no app5dages to ! abdom51 :i* consi/s ( n9e segm5ts1 :ile !re are elev5 pairs ( ?oracic app5dages4 ,! head %ield is n develop$ backw>ds1 & ! l>ge sep>at$ eyes are support$ on di/9ct /alks4 ,9 ! male ! second ant5n are conv]t$ into clasp]s4 ,^! cru/aceans swim upside d[n 7,fig4 #chc74 ,cladoc]a 7,daphniad ( ,dr4 ,baird74--,! wat]-flea 7,daphnia pulex7 may be tak5 z ! be/ kn[n example ( ! ord]4 ,! body ( ?is little active animal is n>r[$ 9 front1 & at ! po/]ior end1 :]e ! c>apace is deeply not*$1 is ! tip ( ! abdom5 be>+ ! pair ( rigid b>b$ set f :i* ! g5us takes its "n4 ,at ! front ( ! head is a l>ge comp\nd eye & two pairs ( bran*$ plum$ app5dages1 ant5n4 ,! fir/ pair ( ^! are small & simple4 ,! jaws consi/ ( ! m&ibles & ! fir/ pair ( maxill1 ! second pair ( maxill be+ obsolete 9 ! adult4 ,! ?orax comprises five segm5ts1 ea* be>+ a pair ( leaf-l swimm+ limbs4 ,! abdom5 consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts1 & is de/itute ( limbs4 ,! males are usually small] ?an ! females1 & mu* r>]1 be+ r>ely met ) be=e ! end ( summ]4 ,eggs are laid bo? 9 summ] & w9t]1 & are pass$ into a brood-p\*1 sep>at+ ! upp] surface ( ! ?orax f ! backw>d ext5sion ( ! c>apace4 ,"h ! summ] eggs hat*1 b ! w9t] set are enclos$ 9 a k9d ( capsule develop$ f ! c>apace4 ,?is capsule1 t]m$ ! ephippium1 is ca/ (f ) ! next m\lt ( ! "m's integum5t 7a process necess>y = ! gradual gr[? ( ! cru/acean71 & fall+ to ! bottom ( ! wat]1 gives exit to ! embryos1 :i* hat* 9 its int]ior1 & ! "y born f ^! 8ephippial0 eggs produce "y1 :i* 9 _! turn become mo!rs4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 ! w9t] eggs are enclos$ 9 capsules ( m ?an usual h>dness to enable !m to )/& any degree ( cold t might o!rwise prove fatal to ! p>5t4 ,dr4 ,baird f\nd1 on exam9+ ponds t _h be5 aga9 fill$ up by ra9 aft] rema9+ two mon?s dry1 num]\s specim5s ( ,daphnia & ,cyclops quadricornis 9 all /ages ( gr[?4#hj ,we le>n also f 8 inve/igations t ! ,daphnia h _m enemies4 8,! l>va ( ! ,core?ra plumicornis1 kn[n to microscopical obs]v]s z ! skeleton l>va1 is exce$+ly rapaci\s ( ,daphnia4 ,prit*>d says !y are ! *oice food ( a species ( ,nais2 & ,dr4 ,p>nell /ates t ! ,lo*lev5 tr\t owes its sup]ior sweetness & ri*ness ( flav\r to its food1 :i* consi/s ( small %ell-fi% & ,entomo/raca40 ,^! cru/aceans ab\nd 9 fre% & salt wat]4 ,artemi are =m$ exclusively 9 salt wat]1 9 salt m>%es1 & 9 wat] highly *>g$ ) salt4 ,myriads ( ^! ,entomo/raca are f\nd 9 ! salt]ns at ,lym+ton1 9 ! op5 tanks or res]voirs :]e ! br9e is deposit$ previ\s to boil+4 ,a p9t ( ! fluid conta9s ab\t a qu>t] ( a p\nd ( salt1 & ?is conc5trat$ solution de/roys mo/ o!r m>9e animals4 ,dur+ ! f9e days 9 summ] ,artemi may be obs]v$ 9 imm5se numb]s ne> ! surface ( ! wat]1 &1 z !y are frequ5tly ( a lively r$ col\r1 ! wat] appe>s t+$ ) ! same hue4 ,! movem5ts ( ?is little animal are peculi>4 ,x swims ab\t on its back1 & by means ( its tail1 its feet be+ at ! same "t 9 con/ant motion4 ,!y are bo? ovip>\s & ovovivip>\s1 accord+ to ! season ( ! ye>4 ,at c]ta9 p]iods !y only lay eggs1 :ile dur+ ! hot summ] mon?s !y produce _! "y alive4 ,9 ab\t fifte5 days ! eggs are expell$ 9 numb]s v>y+ f #ej to #aej4 ,z is ! case ) _m ( ! ,entomo/raca1 ! "y pres5t a v diff]5t appe>ance f ! adult animals2 & !y are s exactly l ! "y ( ,*irocephalus1 t ) difficulty are !y di/+ui%able "o f ! o!r4 ,! ova ( o!r species are furni%$ ) ?ick capsules1 & imb$d$ 9 a d>k opaque sub/ance1 pres5t+ a m9utely cellul> appe>ance1 & occupy+ ! int]space betwe5 ! body ( ! animal & ! back ( ! %ell2 ?is is call$ ! ephippium4 ,! %ell is (t5 beautifully transp>5t1 sometimes spott$ ) pigm5t2 x consi/s ( a sub/ance kn[n z *it9e1 impregnat$ ) a v>iable am\nt ( calcium c>bonate1 :i* produces a copi\s eff]vesc5ce on ! addition ( a small quantity ( a /rong acid to ! wat] 9 :i* ! %ell is imm]s$4 ,:5 boil$1 ,artemi turn r$ z _! cong5]s1 lob/]s4 ,_! %ells may be said to consi/ ( two valves unit$ at ! back1 resembl+ ! bivalve %ell ( a mussel1 or simply fold$ at ! back to appe> l a bivalve1 b are really n s2 or !y may consi/ ( a numb] ( r+s or segm5ts4 ,! body ( ,cypris pres5ts a reticulat$ appe>ance1 some:at resembl+ cell /ructure4 ,entomo/raca %\ld be n>cotis$ & prep>$ = exam9ation "u ! microscope z direct$ by ,mr4 ,r\sselet at pages #cde1 #cdf4 ,,insects' ,,eggs1 ,,etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,ar?ropoda--,insecta4 ,di/9ctive ,*>act]s ( ,insects4--,! t]m ,insect1 al?\gh orig9ally & accord+ to ! mean+ ( ! ^w correctly employ$ 9 a wide s5se to embrace all ^? articulate creatures 9 :i* ! body is ext]nally divid$ into a numb] ( segm5ts1 includ+1 ( c\rse1 flies1 butt]flies1 beetles1 bugs1 spid]s1 scorpions1 crabs1 %rimps1 c41 is n[ by common cons5t us$ 9 a mu* m re/rict$ s5se to apply only to su* ( ^! animals z h six walk+ legs4 ,insects belong to a class ( ,ar?ropoda1 & are di/+ui%$ by hav+ ! head1 *e/1 & abdom5 di/9ctly m>k$ out & sep>able2 by hav+ n m ?an ?ree pairs ( legs 9 ! adult /ate2 by hav+ ! legs borne by ! ?oracic segm5ts only2 by hav+ usually two pairs ( w+s2 by ! possession ( tra*e1 or air-tubes1 z respiratory organs2 & by be+ provid$ ) a s+le pair ( ant5n1 or feel]s4 ,! insect class is "o exhibit+ uni=mity ( type & /ructure4 ,extreme v>iations are no d\bt se5 )9 c]ta9 limits1 b ^! v>iations are %>ply m>k$ (f f ! gr\ps we h be5 previ\sly consid]+4 ,! exam9ation ( insects may be pursu$ accord+ to a def9$ ord]1 & x w be f\nd t no class ( animals w af=d ! microscopi/ a m wond]ful field ( obs]vation & a great] v>iety ( int]e/+ objects ?an t ( ! insect tribes4 ,9 ! insect1 z 9 ! cru/acean1 ! h>d p>ts ( ! body =m an out] & protect+ cov]+1 & also s]ve = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,! cas+1 h[ev]1 9 insects is purely ( a *it9\s1 or horny nature1 & has 9 its composition only a trace ( calcium c>bonate4 ,ea* somite1 or jo9t ( ! body1 is usually compos$ ( six pieces2 ! upp]1 or dorsal half ( ea* segm5t is nam$ ! t]gum1 ! l[] half ! /]num1 ! side pieces pleura1 ! /]num be+ fur!r sub-divid$ into epim]al & espi/]nal pieces4 ,! body z a :ole consi/s ( "s tw5ty segm5ts1 ( :i* five or six =m ! head1 ! ?orax ( ?ree jo9ts1 :ile ! abdom5 may numb] f n9e to elev54 ,! head segm5ts are unit$ to =m app>5tly a s+le mass1 & ! app5dages ( ?is region are modifi$ = s5sory purposes1 & also s]ve z cutt+ & ma/icatory organs4 ,! app5dages ( ! head1 exam9$ 9 ord]1 w be f\nd to consi/ ( eyes1 ant5n1 or feel]s1 & organs ( ! m\?4 ,! ant5n ( insects r>ely exce$ two 9 numb]1 b ^! pres5t great v>iations 9 =m & size4 ,9 _! simple/ =m !y exi/ z /raight jo9t$ filam5ts1 b 9 _m insects !y are =k$1 9 o!rs club-%ap$1 :ile 9 o!rs !y mimic =ms ( vegetation1 & = ! mo/ "p are extremely int]e/+ objects = ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chd4--,v]tical section ( cornea ( ,eye ( ,fly4 ,! pr9cipal use ( ^! ant5n is t ( organs ( t\*1 b x is q probable t !y may subs]ve o!r functions1 z ( ta/e or ev5 he>+4 ,! eyes ( insects consi/ ( ei!r a pair ( ocelli1 or ( a great numb]1 :5 !y are t]m$ comp\nd eyes1 =m$ ( an aggregation ( ext]nal hexagonal facets & l5ses1 & n]ve filam5ts1 all ( :i* h a di/9ct connection ) ! mass ( ganglia recognis$ z ! bra91 z w be se5 9 ,fig4 #chd1 a section ( ! eye ( a fly4 ,! numb] ( facets v>ies v greatly 9 ^! comp\nd eyes2 ants1 = example1 h fifty facets1 flies two ?\s& or m1 & butt]flies z _m4 ,dr4 ,hooke c\nt$ sev5 ?\s&1 & ,leuw5hoeck z _m z twelve ?\s& 9 ! eye ( a dragon fly4 ,! eyes ( "s insects are support$ on %ort /alks or p$icles1 b ^! are nev] movable1 z1 = example1 9 ,/alk-ey$ cru/aceans4 ,! organs ( ! m\? 9 insects pres5t a /rik+ homology or simil>ity 9 _! fundam5tal /ructure4 ,two *ief types ( m\? are f\nd4 ,! bit+ or ma/icatory1 z 9 beetles1 includes a labium or upp] lip1 a pair ( m&ibles or l[] jaws1 a pair ( less] jaws or maxill1 :i* be> "o or two pairs ( palpi1 & a l[] lip or labium1 also ) palpi4 ,?is latt] & primitive condition ( ! labium is se5 9 ,or?ropt]\s insects & "s ,neuropt]a4 ,o!r /ructures occurr+ 9 ^? ( ! m\? are ! ligula1 ?is be+ sometimes divid$1 z 9 bees1 into ?ree lobes1 ( :i* ! two out] are ! p>agloss & ! middle process ! l+ua or tongue4 ,!re is a second =m ( m\?1 t]m$ ! suctorial4 ,?is is se5 9 ,lepidopt]a 7butt]flies71 & is adapt$ = extract+ ! poll5 & juices ( fl[]s1 & 9 :i* ! palpi are greatly develop$1 & =m two hairy pads or cu%ions1 betwe5 :i* ! proboscis is coil$ up :5 at re/4 ,?us we f9d 9 ! ,lepidopt]a ! same fundam5tal condition ( m\? z 9 "s ,coleopt]a4 ,9 ,hym5opt]a 7wasps & bees71 a v>iety ( m\? is f\nd :i* pres5ts a comb9ation ( ! ma/icatory ) ! suctorial types4 ,! labium & m&ibles exi/ z 9 ! beetle1 ! maxill be+ develop$ to =m long %ea?s protect+ ! labium1 :i* n[ takes ! =m ( a tongue4 ,9 ,hemipt]a 7bugs & _! allies71 ! m&ibles & maxill exi/ z %>p lancets1 :ile ! labium =ms a protective %ea?4 ,9 ! ,dipt]a 7flies1 gnats1 c471 ! labium und]goes a great developm5t1 & =ms a v prom95t tongue1 ! o!r p>ts ( ! m\? be+ develop$ simply z %ea?s to ! labium4 ,see ,figs4 #chi & #cij4 ,! ?orax or *e/ ( insects consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts1 nam$ f be=e backw>ds3 ! pro?orax1 meso?orax1 & meta?orax4 ,! fir/ be>s ! ant]ior pair ( legs2 ! meso?orax1 ! second pair ( legs & ! fir/ pair ( w+s2 & ! meta?orax1 ! ?ird pair ( legs & second pair ( w+s4 ,! la/ jo9ts ( ! leg con/itute ! t>sus or foot-claws4 ,! n]vures ( ! w+s are 9 reality holl[ tubes1 & are ext5sions ( ! spiracles1 or respiratory ap]tures4 ,! muscles ( insects lie conceal$ b5ea? ! integum5t2 !y are n ga!r$ into di/9ct bundles z 9 ! high] animals1 al?\gh !y exhibit 9 _m cases a /riat$ or /rip$ /ructure4 ,?is is well se5 9 "s ( ! beetle tribe1 ! wat]-beetle 9 p>ticul>4 ,9 c]ta9 l>v ! muscles are exce$+ly complicat$4 ,lyonnet f\nd 9 ! l>va ( ! goat-mo?1 two hundr$ & tw5ty-eight muscles 9 ! head alone1 & 9 ! :ole body no less ?an ?ree ?\s& n9e hundr$ & n9ety-?ree4 ,! muscul> p[] ( insects is1 relatively to ! size ( ! body1 v great4 ,! flea1 = in/ance1 leaps two hundr$ times its own height4 ,!re are beetles weigh+ a few grammes t w escape f a pressure ( f tw5ty to ?irty ounces4 ,pr(essor ,s*f] inf]s t ! /ructure ( ! w+-muscles ( insects furni%es ! key to ! compreh5sion ( ! m intricate muscul> /ructure ( v]tebrates4 ,! s>code elem5t1 h[ev]1 is n made up ( a bundle ( rods1 b ( a cont9u\s s>c\s elem5t1 readily made out by /a9+ ) hmatoxyl94 ,?is sub/ance is !n se5 to be pi]c$ by m9ute tubul> canals1 & ! longitud9al /riation ( muscle is due to ?is canalisation4 ,! :ole is connect$ & enclos$ by a membrane ( extreme delicacy4 ,! dige/ive sy/em ( insects v>ies ) _! habits & food4 ,9 ,/ylops1 bee-p>asites1 & 9 "y bees liv+ on fluids1 ! inte/9e ends 9 a bl9d sac4 ,!re are ?ree coats ( /ructure ?r\gh\t ! dige/ive sy/em4 ,! sophagus or gullet is provid$ ) a crop 9 flies1 bees1 & butt]flies2 a true analogue ( ! gizz>d 9 birds4 ,!re is 9 "s respects a curi\s lik5ess betwe5 ! con=mation ( ! dige/ive organs ( birds & t ( insects4 ,no true liv]1 b saliv>y gl&s 9 ! m\? h be5 made out2 ! he>t lies dorsally1 & consi/s ( a pulsat+ sac divid$ into comp>tm5ts1 & ! fluid fl[s ?r\gh x t[>ds ! head1 :5ce x circulates freely to o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,ea* tra*ea is an ela/ic tube =m$ ( two delicate membranes1 betwe5 :i* ! spiral filam5t is coil$ up1 & is ( suffici5t d5sity to prev5t ! collapse ( ! tube by ! movem5ts ( ! body4 ,^! tra*e are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! muscul> tissue & ! :ole ( ! body4 ,?us ! insect1 l ! bird1 may be said to brea! 9 e "p ( ! body1 & is 9 ?is way r5d]$ light & buoyant = flight4 ,! air is admitt$ to ! tra*e by ap]tures t]m$ spiracles1 :i* ! insect c close at w1 & ^! are di/ribut$ to ! numb] ( elev5 on ea* side ( ! body4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a *a9 ( ganglia or n]ve-knots1 :i* unite t[>ds ! head to =m a s+le cord1 z se5 9 ! section made ?r\gh ! spid] 7,fig4 #dji74 ,! reproduction ( all insects takes place by ova1 & !y are dice\s--t is1 h two di/9ct sexes4 ,9 "s few in/ances1 z t ( ,aphides1 or plant-lice1 we h ! peculi> ph5om5on ( p>!nog5esis1 ! process ( reproduction be+ p]=m$ by imp]fect w+less females4 ,^! br+ =? liv+ "y ones1 :i* beg9 to fe$ ! mom5t !y are born1 & con/itute a vivip>\s brood2 9 o!r cases females lay eggs1 & ! process proce$s 9 ! ord9>y way1 & ne>ly all ! ye> r\nd4 ,! =m] is provid$ ) a lancet-l beak = pi]c+ & suck+ ! juices ( ! leaf1 & a pair ( curi\s honey-tubes4 ,insects g5]ally und]go a trans=mation or metamorphosis 9 pass+ f ! egg to ! adult /age4 ,:ile )9 ! egg ! body may be se5 to become segm5t$1 & 9 ! c\rse ( "t--9 su* insects z flies1 bees1 beetles1 & butt]flies--issue =? f ! egg z l>v1 or cat]pill>s4 ,?is worm-l creature makes = itself an inve/+ case or cocoon1 9 :i* x passes into ! pupa /age ( its exi/5ce4 ,)9 ! pupa case a wond]ful trans=mation takes place2 ! l>val body be+ lit]ally brok5 d[n by ! process ( hi/olysis1 :ile its elem5ts are rebuilt & trans=m$ into t ( ! imago1 or p]fect insect4 ,9 gras%opp]s1 crickets1 dragon-flies1 bugs1 c41 ! metamorphosis is incomplete 7hemimetabolic74 ,"s few l[] insect =ms 7lice1 spr+-tails1 c47 und]go no *ange ( ! k9d1 & 9 no way diff] f ! adult except 9 size4 ,^! are t]m$ ametabolic insects4 ,o!rs aga91 z ! cock*af] & gold beetle1 pass ?ree ye>s 9 ! l>val /age4 ,developm5t 9 all cases is arre/$ or ret>d$ by cold4 ,reaumur kept a butt]fly pupa = two ye>s 9 an ice-h\se1 & x exhibit$ no t5d5cy t[>ds a *ange until remov$ to a w>m temp]ature4 ,f ! %ort natural hi/ory ( insect life ,i h endeav\r$ to sket* out1 x w h be5 surmis$ t insects (f] a wide field ( rese>*1 & an almo/ endless numb] ( objects ( int]e/ = ! microscope4 ,! v>iety ( mat]ial is great1 & ! /ructure & adaptation ( means to an end is ( ! mo/ fasc9at+ k9d4 ,mo/ cab9ets ab\nd 9 prep>ations ga!r$ toge!r ) "s c>e & m\nt$ ) all ! skill at ! comm& ( ! collector1 af=d+1 z a rule1 z endless an am\nt ( pleasure to ! tyro z to ! m practis$ entomologi/4 ,x may be surmis$1 !n1 t to ent] fully into a description ( ! sev]al p>ts ( insect /ructure w\ld require a volume#ha ( v l>ge bulk1 & occupy mon?s & ye>s4 ,i w1 !re=e1 take "s po9ts ( int]e/ 9 ! /ructural *>act]i/ics ( insects1 & take !m 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y h already be5 br\ght to notice4 ,! head1 eyes1 & o!r app5dages ( ^! insects we are m or less acqua9t$ )4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #che4--;,a tang5tial or side section ( ,eye ( ,fly1 ) palp or pads protrud$4 ,we w take = exam9ation a typical memb] ( ,muscid1 a family embrac+ a l>ge & v>i$ assortm5t ( species1 among :i* ! h\se-fly & ! bl[-fly are ! be/ kn[n =ms4 ,musca dome/ica ne$s no description4 ,an int]e/+ "p ( ! h\se-fly to ! microscopi/ is ! wond]ful compon5t p>ts ( ! head4 ,on exam9ation we f9d a c\ple ( protub]ances1 m or less prom95t1 & situat$ symmetrically "o on ea* side4 ,_! outl9e at ! base is = ! mo/ "p oval1 elliptical1 circul>1 or truncat$2 :ile _! curv$ surfaces are sph]ical1 sph]oidal1 or pyri=m4 ,^! horny1 r\nd1 & nak$ p>ts are ! corne ( ! comp\nd eye ( ! fly1 & !y are appropriately s t]m$1 f ! analogy !y be> to ! l>g] transp>5t tunics 9 ! high] classes ( animals4 ,!y diff]1 h[ev]1 f ! latt]1 z :5 view$ by ! microscope !y display a l>ge numb] ( hexagonal facets1 :i* con/itute ! m$ium = ! admission ( light to sev]al hundr$ simple eyes4 ,"u an ord9>y l5s1 & by reflect$ light1 ! entire surface ( "o cornea pres5ts a beautiful reticulation1 l v f9e wire gauze1 ) m9ute papilla1 or at lea/ a slight elevation1 9 ! c5tre ( ea* me%4 ,^! are resolv$1 h[ev]1 by ! aid ( a comp\nd microscope1 & ) a p[] ( f #hj to #ajj diamet]s1 into an almo/ incr$ible numb] 7:5 comp>$ ) ! space !y occupy7 ( m9ute1 regul>1 geometrical hexagons1 well def9$1 & capable ( be+ comput$ ) tol]able ease1 _! exce$+ m9ut5ess be+ tak5 into consid]ation4 ,fig4 #chf repres5ts a v]tical section ( ! eye1 %[+ ! hexagonal facet$ arrangem5t ( cyl9drical tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chf4--,section ( ,eye ( ,fly4 l4 ,l5ses2 co4 ,cones2 pl4 ,pigm5t lay]1 consi/+ ( r+s r\nd ! rods2 r4r4 ,rods2 a4v#a4 ,air vessels betwe5 ! rods2 m#a4 ,membrane on :i* ! rods & air vessels re/2 a4v#b4 ,%ort] l5g?s ( air vessels :i* =m a lay] above ! fir/ n]ve junction2 n4j#a4 ,fir/ n]ve junction2 m#b4 ,membrane on :i* x /&s2 ,a4 ,v41 ,a4 ,v4 ,l>ge air vessel surr\nd+ ! eye2 n4j#b4 ,second n]ve junction2 a4v#c4 ,air vessels2 op4 n4 ,optic n]ve2 b4n4 ,bra9 sub/ance4 7,magnifi$ #afj47 ,9 ?is section x appe>s to be que/ionable :e!r ! normal %ape ( ! l5ses is n r\nd1 assum+ ! hexagonal %ape dur+ ! process ( gr[? 9 consequ5ce ( _! agglom]ation4 ,! corneal surface c be peel$ (f1 & if c>efully flatt5$ out & m\nt$ x w be se5 t ea* l5s is n a simple l5s1 b a d\ble-convex comp\nd "o1 compos$ ( two plano-convex l5ses ( diff]5t d5sities or refract+ p[] jo9$ toge!r4 ,exp]im5ts made on ! eyes ( insects1 & also ( cru/ace1 %[ t 9 ! insect a real & rev]s$ image ( ext]nal bodies is =m$ 9 ea* ommatidium2 x co9cides ) ! int]nal face ( ! cry/all9e cone 9 imm$iate contact ) ! ret9a4 ,al?\gh small1 ! ret9al image is di/9ct & subt5ds an angle ( ne>ly =ty-five4 ,9 ! same way 9 ! cru/acean1 ! cry/all9e l5s =ms on ! ret9ula a rev]s$ image1 b ! refractive m$ia h a long] focus1 & ! ret9al membrane is n connect$ ) ! l5s1 ! int]val be+ fill$ up by a sub/ance analog\s to ! vitre\s ( v]tebrates4 ,9 bo? cases x w\ld appe> t light does n act directly on ! rods2 ^! latt] c only receive impressions ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y ret9al cells4 ,! ret9al images ( ar?ropods1 z might h be5 surmis$1 are mu* less p]fect ?an ^? ( ! high] ord]s2 on ! o!r h&1 _! eyes seem to be bett] adapt$ = see+ objects 9 relief & ! movem5ts ( bodies4 ,! %yness ( butt]flies & mo?s is c]ta9ly an inh]it$ in/9ct z a protection aga9/ dang] f _! _m enemies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chg4 ,a4 ,v]tical section ( ,eye ( ,melolon?a vulgans1 ,cock*af]2 ,b4 ,a few facets m highly magnifi$1 %[+ facets & pigm5t lay]4 ,9 ! accompany+ ,fig4 #chg1 ,a is a v]tical section ( ! eye ( ,melolon?a vulgans1 ! fan-l arrangem5t ( ! facets1 toge!r ) ! transp>5t pyramidal ga!r+ ( ! ret9al rods proce$+ t[>ds ! bra92 ,b is a few ( ! corneal tubes m highly magnifi$1 ! d>k] portion repres5t+ ! pigm5t lay] ( ! corneal tubes4 ,9 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #acc1 ! "u surface ( ! head & m\? ( ! 8,tsetse0 fly1 ,gloss9a morsitans1 is %[n4 ,! proboscis ( ?is fly is long & prom95t1 & ! ant5n are peculi>1 inasmu* z ! ?ird segm5t is long1 & produc$ almo/ z f> z ! flagellum1 :i* is furni%$ ) b>b$ hairs along its out] surface only4 ,al?\gh ?is fly b>ely equals ! bl[-fly 9 size1 x is "o ( ! greate/ pe/s to ! dome/ic cattle ( ,equatorial ,africa4 ,! palpi1 al?\gh aris+ f two roots1 are se5 jo9$ toge!r :5 ! fly is at re/1 b :5 9 ! act ( pi]c+ or suck+ !y divide & ! %ea? is ?r[n directly upw>ds4 ,! palpi are furni%$ on _! convex sides ) long & %>ply-po9t$ d>k-br[n set or hairs1 :ile ! inn] concave sides1 :i* are br\ght into contact ) ! proboscis1 are p]fectly smoo? & fle%y4 ,?ree circul> op5+s seem to indicate ! tubul> nature ( :at 9 ! h\se-fly is a fle%y1 exp&$1 & highly-develop$ muscul> proboscis 7se5 9 ,fig4 #chh1 ,musca dome/ica74 ,! proboscis 7labium7 =ms ! *ief "p ( ! organ1 dilates into wond]ful muscul> lips1 & enables ! insect to employ ! tongue z a preh5sile organ4 ,! lips are cov]$ ) r[s ( m9ute set1 direct$ a little backw>ds & arrang$ r closely toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chh4--,proboscis ( ,h\se-fly1 ,musca dome/ica4 7,! small circle indicates ! object ab\t ! natural size47 ,!re are v _m r[s ( ^! m9ute hairs on ea* ( ! lips1 & f be+ arrang$ 9 a simil> direction are employ$ by ! insect 9 scrap+ or te>+ delicate surfaces4 ,^! hairs are te/s = ! be/ ( high p[]s4 ,x is by means ( ^! t x teases human be+s 9 ! heat ( summ]1 :5 x alights on ! h& or face1 to sip ! p]spiration z x exudes f ! sk94 ,! fluid asc5ds ! proboscis1 p>tly by a suck+ action1 assi/$ by ! muscles ( ! lips !mselves1 :i* are ( a spiral =m1 arrang$ ar\nd a highly ela/ic1 t5d9\s1 & ligam5t\s /ructure1 ) o!r retractile additions = rapidity & facility ( motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chi4--,spiral /ructure ( ,tongue ( ,h\se-fly1 f a micro-photograph made ) a ,zeiss #af mm4 & apo*romatic projection eye-piece #aej4 ,! beautiful =m ( ! spiral /ructure ( ! tongue %\ld be view$ "u a high magnify+ p[]1 :5 x w be se5 t no cont9u+ spiral /ructure really exi/s2 ea* r+1 app>5tly deta*$1 does n ext5d q r\nd2 _! action is t ( suck+ tubes4 ,fluids are evid5tly drawn up ?r\gh ! entire fissure caus$ by ! op5+ betwe5 ! ends ( ! :ole s]ies ( r+s4 ,x may well be pron\nc$ a m>vell\s /ructure4 ,! m\nt+ ( ! tongue mu/ be done ) a consid]able am\nt ( c>e to %[ ?is /ructure1 imp]fectly repres5t$ 9 my woodcut4 ,^! insects are ( "s s]vice 9 ! economy ( nature1 by _! consumption ( decay+ animal matt]1 f\nd ab\t 9 quantities ord9>ily imp]ceptible to mo/ p1 & t w\ld n be remov$ by ord9>y means dur+ hot wea!r4 ,x 0 ass]t$ by ,l9nu t ?ree flies w\ld consume a dead horse z quickly z a lion4 ,?is 01 ( c\rse1 said ) ref]5ce to ! (fspr+ ( su* ?ree flies2 & x is q possible ! ass]tion may be correct1 s9ce ! "y beg9 to eat z soon z hat*$1 & a female bl[-fly w produce tw5ty ?\s& liv+ l>v 7"o ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #ada74 ,9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ea* w h increas$ 9 weight two hundr$ times1 9 five days x atta9s to its full size1 & *anges into ! pupa1 & !n to ! p]fect insect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tongue ,,( ,,drone-,,fly4 ,fig4 #cij4--,tongue1 ,proboscis1 & pi]c+ app>atus ( ,drone-fly 7,eri/alis t5ax74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cia4--,"u-surface ( a ,wasp's ,tongue1 ,feel]s1 c4 7,se5 )9 ! circle is ! tongue ab\t life-size47 ,9 ! drone-fly 7,eri/alis t5ax71 ! m\? organs are l>g] ?an 9 ! h\se-fly1 & diff] 9 _m respects4 ,! tongue is split up = a c]ta9 di/ance1 & !n aga9 unit$1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cij4 ,! labium1 m&ibles1 & maxill are conv]t$ into well-develop$ lancet-%ap$ organs2 ^! bo? pi]ce ! sk9 ( animals1 & =m tubes by :i* _! blood may be suck$ up4 ,next to ! maxill>y palpi a c\ple ( lancets are se5 to project out2 ^! aga9 are associat$ ) two o!r in/rum5ts1 "o resembl+ 9 appe>ance a two-edg$ sword1 & a peculi> "o ) p9c]s or cutt+ tee? at ! extremity4 ,x is v peculi>1 & resembles an in/rum5t us$ 9 surg]y = enl>g+ ! w\nd1 & 9 ?is case to increase ! fl[ ( blood4 ,?is rem>kable comp\nd pi]c+ app>atus ( ! drone-fly is ( exquisite f9i%1 & mu/ /rike ! obs]v] ) amazem5t1 :ile x greatly transc5ds ! "w ( human me*anism4 ,! fle%y tongue itself projects "s di/ance f ! app>atus describ$1 & is furni%$ ) set or hairs1 %ort] & few] 9 numb] ?an ^? ( ! h\se-fly1 & :ile its spiral /ructure is n s fully develop$1 its retractor1 muscles1 & ligam5ts are ev5 m s4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ! m\? organs mu/ be look$ = 9 o!r memb]s ( ! insect tribe1 :5 x w be se5 _m assume a m or less modifi$ =m ( /ructure1 t1 = example1 9 ,hym5opt]a 7! bee & wasp71 9 :i* insects ! m\? & tongue are divid$ into lobes :i* are us$ to extract ! nect>y 7z ,l9nu t]m$ x7 f ! plants on :i* !y fe$4 ,! tongue 9 mo/ species is capable ( ext5sion & contraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cib4 #a4 ,/+ ( ,wasp 7,vespa vulg>is71 ) its muscul> atta*m5ts & palpi = cleans+ ! app>atus2 #b4 ,/+ ( ,bee4 ,9 ,fig4 #cia ! "u-surface ( ! wasp's tongue is %[n1 toge!r ) its two pairs ( ant5n1 & pair ( bru%es on ei!r side1 = bru%+ (f ! ga!r$ poll5 & honey f ! broad tongue4 ,x is amply provid$ ) muscul> /ructure4 ,! ant5n1 or feel]s1 are z curi\s 9 =m z !y are delicate 9 /ructure4 ,^? ( ! male diff] f ^? ( ! female4 ,bo? ! bee & ! wasp are arm$ ) an exce$+ly v5om\s /+1 z is well kn[n4 ,?is /ructure takes ! =m ( a well-adapt$ me*anical contrivance1 & is a weapon ( (f5ce z well z ( def5ce4 ,! /+ consi/s ( two b>b$ ne$le-po9ts1 ( a suffici5t l5g? to pi]ce ! fle% to "s dep?4 ,f ! peculi> arrangem5t ( _! s]rat$ edges _! imm$iate )drawal _c take place1 & x is ?is circum/ance1 ) ! drop ( poison inject$ into ! op5 w\nd1 t r5d]s _! /+ ( ! mo/ pa9ful & irritat+ k9d4 ,! gl& conta9+ ! poison is conta9$ 9 a m9ute sac situat$ at ! root ( ! pi]c+ app>atus4 ,9 ,fig4 #cib is %[n ! /+ ( ! wasp & ! bee4 ,v _m insects are provid$ ) in/rum5ts = bor+ into ! b>k or solid wood itself4 ,! female ,cynip bores into ! oak-apple = ! purpose ( deposit+ h] egg4 ,! l>va1 :5 full gr[n1 eats its way out ( ! nut1 & drops to ! gr\nd1 :]e x atta9s ! =m ( ! p]fect fly 7,fig4 #cic74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cic4--;,female ,gall-fly & ,l>va4 ,!re are numb]s ( species liv+ exclusively ^u ! leaves ( plants1 to :i* !y d mu* damage by ! excresc5ces or galls !y =m4 ,ea* tree seems to be infe/$ by its own species ( gall-mite1 ! s-call$ nail-gall ( ! lime be+ caus$ by a species nam$ ,phytoptus tibi4 ,^! galls take ! =m ( a po9t$ column1 /&+ erect on ! upp] side ( ! leaf4 ,galls ( mu* ! same /ructure occur 9 ! sycamore1 maple1 elm1 & v>i\s fruit trees4 ,! gnat 7,culex pipi5s7 is furni%$ ) a /+ curi\sly con/ruct$ 7,fig4 #cid71 & enclos$ 9 a p]fectly clo!d %ea? cov]$ ?r\gh\t by scales or fea!rs4 ,?is is fold$ up :5 n 9 use4 ,! m\? is provid$ ) a complete set ( lancets = pi]c+ ! fle%2 aft] hav+ inflict$ a sev]e w\nd1 x injects an acid poison ?r\gh ! proboscis4 ,! scales ( ! gnat v>y 9 /ructure accord+ly z ^! are f\nd on ! w+1 ! body1 or ! proboscis4 ,a magnifi$ w+ is %[n at ,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #cid1 & a magnifi$ scale f ! proboscis at ,no4 #c4 ,9 ,fig4 #dje1 ,nos4 #c & #e1 m highly magnifi$ w+ & body scales are giv54 ,! proboscis is protect$ on ei!r side by ant5n & feel]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cid4 #a4 ,head ( ,culex pipi5s1 female ,gnat1 deta*$ f body2 #b4 ,w+1 %[+ n]vature & fr+$ edges2 #c4 ,scale f ,proboscis2 #d4 ,proboscis & ,lancets4 ,! reticulat$ m>k+s on ea* side ( ! head %[ ! proportionate space occupi$ by ! eyes4 ,! giant-tail$ wasp1 ,sirax gigas1 is furni%$ ) an ev5 m curi\s me*anical bor+ app>atus 7,fig4 #cie7 ?an its cong5]s4 ,?is is a bor+ ovipositor1 skilfully contriv$ = pi]c+ ! b>k ( trees1 9 :i* ! insect deposits h] eggs1 & :]e ! l>va1 :5 hat*$1 w f9d an ample supply ( food to c>ry x ?r\gh ?is /age ( exi/5ce4 ,! bor+ tube1 x w be se51 is a p]fect muscul> /ructure 7c1 c1 a1 & x72 9 %ort1 x is an endless =m ( drill1 well kn[n to ! me*anic1 su* z is employ$ 9 f9e "w = drill+ holes4 ,! females are ( "s size1 & may be surpris$ & tak5 9 ! act ( bor+ ?r\gh ! b>k ( ! p9e tree1 = :i* !y h a pref]5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cie4--;,bor+ app>atus ( ,giant-tail$ ,wasp 7,sirex gigas71 #cej4 ,!re is also a species ( ! broad-bodi$ saw-fly1 ,lyda campe/ris4 ,^! bore ! ,scot* fir1 & deposit _! eggs4 ,! l>v f ^! eggs1 :5 hat*$ out1 fe$ ^u ! p9e-ne$les1 fir/ sp9n+ a f9e web to conceal _! "w ( depr$ation4 ,a bett] kn[n saw-fly1 ,abraxas grossul>iata1 plays havoc among our gooseb]ry trees4 ,! female is provid$ ) a curi\s me*anical app>atus z an ovipositor1 ) :i* %e cuts into ! ?ick] "u-leaf ( ! plant4 ,?is p5etrat+ & cutt+ tool consi/s ( a d\ble-saw 7,fig4 #cif7 ( elaborate con/ruction1 :i* :5 n 9 use is kept conceal$ 9 a long n>r[ case situat$ b5ea? ! abdom54 ,x is fur!r protect$ by two horny plates4 ,! saws pass out ?r\gh a deep groove s arrang$ t ! saws "w side by side backw>ds & =w>ds1 )\t a possibility ( runn+ out ( ! groove4 ,:5 ! cut is made1 ! f\r are drawn toge!r & =m a c5tral canal1 ?r\gh :i* an egg is =c$ into ! leaf4 ,! cutt+ edges ( ! saws are provid$ ) ab\t eighte5 or tw5ty tee?2 ^! h %>p po9ts ( extreme delicacy1 & toge!r make a s]rat$ edge ( ! exact =m giv5 to ! f9e/ & be/-made surgical saws ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! summ]-"t ! proce$+s ( ! female insect may be witness$1 & ! me?od ( us+ ?is curi\s in/rum5t se51 by ! aid ( a h& magnifi]4 ,^! insects are n easily al>m$ :5 busy at "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cif4--,saws ( ! ,gooseb]ry-fly 7,abraxas grossul>iata74 ,be=e br++ my rem>ks on proboscides ( insects to a conclusion1 att5tion mu/ be giv5 to t ( ! honey bee 7,apis mellifica71 & its curi\s accessories4 ,! m\? ( bees exhibits a comb9ation ( ! suctorial & ! ma/icatory =m ( oral app>atus4 ,?us ! labial1 or upp] lip1 & ! m&ibles1 or l>ge pair ( jaws1 are well develop$1 :ile ! maxill1 or less] pair1 are elongat$ to =m a tubul> organ1 ?r\gh :i*1 toge!r ) ! tongue1 ! fl[] juices1 8honey-dew10 may be suck$ up4 ,! labium1 l[] lip1 is also r prolong$1 & ! palpi1 or organs ( t\*1 ) :i* x is end[$ =m a useful protective app>atus4 ,! m&ibles are employ$ by bees 9 ! con/ruction ( _! abodes1 :ile ! suctorial portion ( ! m\? is devot$ to ! reception ( n\ri%m5t & to preh5sion4 ,! /+ ( ! bee1 already notic$1 is 9 fact an ovipositor1 ! female alone be+ provid$ ) ?is weapon z an egg-deposit+ organ1 al?\gh bett] kn[n z an aculeus or /+2 b x =ms no "p ( ! oral app>atus 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cig74 ,! proboscis itself w be se5 to be curi\sly divid$2 ! divisions are elegant & regul>1 beset ) num]\s set or hairs4 ,! two horny outside lancets are spe>-%ap$ & p>tially set ) %ort hairs2 at ! base ( ea* is a h+e articulation2 ?is p]mits ( consid]able motion 9 sev]al directions1 & is mu* us$ by ! busy insect = =c+ op5 ! m int]nal p>ts ( fl[]s1 ?us facilitat+ ! introduction ( ! proboscis4 ,! two %ort] feel]s are closely connect$ ) ! proboscis1 & t]m9ate 9 ?ree-jo9t$ articulations4 ,! /ructure ( ! proboscis is s arrang$ t x c be enl>g$ at ! base1 & ?us made to conta9 a great] quantity ( ! collect$ honey-dew2 at ! same "t x is 9 ?is cavity ! nect> appe>s to be conv]t$ into pure honey4 ,! proboscis tap]s (f to a little nipple-l extremity1 & at its base is se5 two %ort] & /rong] m&ibles1 f betwe5 :i* is protrud$ a long & n>r[ lance-l tongue1 ! :ole be+ mo/ curi\sly connect$ by a s]ies ( /rong muscles & ligam5ts4 ,! basal or fir/ jo9t ( ! h9d leg 9 ! neut] or work+ bee is develop$ into an enl>g$ =m ( pocket1 us$ by ! insect = convey+ ! poll5 ( fl[]s & ! propolis to ! hive4 ,inde$1 bo? ! tibia & ! fir/ jo9t ( ! t>sus are broad5$ out into plates1 b ! two sides ( ! plates are diff]5tly furni%$4 ,on "o side is a ?ick coat+ ( hairs1 ^? on ! t>sus tak+ ! =m ( a bru%1 evid5tly us$ = bru%+ out ! poll51 z ^! special developm5ts are n f\nd on ! h9d legs ( ! drones or ( ! que54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cig4 #a4 ,honey bee's tongue2 #b4 ,leg ( work] bee4 7,! small circles %[ ! objects ab\t ! natural size47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cih4 #a4 ,foot & leg ( ,ophion2 #b4 ,foot & leg ( ,fle%-fly2 #c4 ,foot & leg ( ,drone-fly1 ) pad or suck] app5dage4 ,! wax us$ 9 ! =mation ( cells is a secretion t exudes ?r\gh c]ta9 portions ( ! body ( ! bee1 s9ce x is f\nd 9 little p\*es situat$ on ! "u "p ( ! body1 b x is n br\ght home ready = use4 ,! walls ( ! cells are /r5g!n$ :5 complet$ by a k9d ( v>ni%1 already ref]r$ to z ! propolis1 collect$ f ! buds ( popl> & lime trees1 & ?is is spread ov] ! walls ( ! cell by t wond]ful pair ( broad spatul1 repres5t$ 9 ! draw+4 ,_m int]e/+ v>iations w be f\nd 9 ! legs & feet ( flies1 z well z 9 ^? ( o!r ord]s ( insects 7,lepidopt]a74 ,"o or two typical =ms are repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,vi41 & 9 ,fig4 #cih4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cii4--,suck] on ! leg ( ,wat]-beetle4 7,! dot 9 ! circle repres5ts ! object natural size47 ,! t>sus1 or foot ( ! fly 7,fig4 #cih71 consi/s ( a deeply bifid1 membran\s /ructure1 pulvillus2 ant]ior to its atta*m5t to ! fif? t>sal jo9t1 or ! upp] surface1 are seat$ two claws1 or 8t>sal ungues02 ^! are freely movable 9 e direction4 ,^! ungues diff] greatly 9 _! outl9e1 size1 & relative developm5t to ! t>si1 & to ! bodies ( ! insects possess+ !m1 & 9 _! cov]+2 mo/ are nak$ ov] _! entire surface1 hav+ h[ev] a hexagonal network at _! bases1 :i* indicates a rudim5t>y condition ( m9ute scale-l hairs1 su* z are common on "s "p ( ! integum5t ( all insects4 ,flexor & ext5sor muscles are atta*$ to bo? ungues & flaps2 ! flaps are ei!r corrugat$ or arrang$ on ! ridge & furr[ plan1 9 o!r cases !y are p]fectly smoo? on _! free surface1 :ile o!rs are cov]$ ) m9ute scale-l hairs4 ,! ?ickness ( ! divid$ membrane on ! bl[-fly does n exce$ ! #a_/bjjj? ( an in* at ! m>g92 !y some:at increase 9 ?ickness t[>ds ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,project+ f ! flap are organs :i* h be5 t]m$ 8hairs10 8hair-l app5dages10 8trumpet-%ap$ hairs40 ,^! are d\btless ! imm$iate ag5ts 9 hold+ on to a smoo? surface1 z t ( glass1 & are t]m$ 8t55t-hairs10 9 allusion to _! (fice4 ,! "u surface ( left =efoot ( ,musca vomitoria is %[n ) t55t-hairs 7,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #adj72 a & b are m magnifi$ hairs1 a f bel[1 b f ! side4 ,no4 #adb is ! left =efoot ( ,am>a communis1 %[+ ! "u surface & =m ( t55t app5dages1 "o ( :i* is se5 m magnifi$ at a2 ,no4 #adc1 "u surface ( left =efoot1 ,ephydra rip>ia4 ,?is fly is met ) 9 imm5se numb]s on ! surface wat] 9 salt m>%es4 ,x does n possess ! p[] ( climb+ glass2 ?is is expla9$ by ! /ructure ( ! t55t-hairs2 ! c5tral tactile organ is also v peculi>1 ! :ole act+ z a float1 "o to ea* foot1 to enable ! fly to re/ on ! surface ( ! wat]2 a is "o ( ! ext]nal hairs1 ,no4 #ace1 "u surface ( left =efoot ( ,cassida viridis 7tortoise-beetle71 %[+ ! bifurcate t55t app5dages1 "o ( :i* is giv5 at a m magnifi$4 ,^!1 9 gr\nd beetles1 are met ) only 9 males1 & are us$ = sexual purposes4 ,! delicacy ( ! /ructure ( ^! hairs 9 ! fly & ! ela/ic membran\s expansion ( ! foot are m>vell\s4 ,:5 ! fly is climb+1 a m9ute quantity ( "s glut9\s fluid is exud$1 s t ! tubul> nature ( ! t55t-hairs h>dly admits ( a d\bt4 8,at ! root ( ! pulvillus1 or its "u surface1 is a process1 :i* 9 "s in/ances is %ort & ?ick1 9 o!rs long & curv$1 & tap]+ to its extremity 7,scatophaga71 setose 7,empis71 plumose 7,hippoboscid71 or1 9 "o rem>kable example 7,ephydra71 closely resembl+ 9 its appe>ance ! v rudim5t>y pulvillus ) :i* x is associat$4 ,j at ! base ( ! fif? t>sal jo9t1 on its "u surface1 !re is pres5t1 9 ,eri/alis1 a pair ( %ort1 v slightly curv$ hairs1 :i* po9t almo/ directly d[nw>ds40#hb ,t55t-hairs are usually pres5t 9 "s modification or o!r4 ,x is really difficult to "n a beetle :i* has n "s =m ( !m2 ! only "o ,i yet "k t seems to me really to possess no?+ ( ! k9d is a species ( ,helops1 liv+ on s&y hea?s4 ,i suppose ! d5se cu%ion ( hairs on ! t>si to be = ! protection1 simply1 ( ! jo9ts to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,i h detect$ !m on ! t>sal jo9ts ( species ( ,ephydra1 & on ! fir/ basal t>sal jo9t ( ! drone ( ! hive-bee4 ,a v rudim5t>y =m ( t55t-hairs is pres5t on ! "u surface ( "s ( ! tree-bugs 7,p5tatomid71 :i* h 9 addition a l>ge1 deeply-cleft organ at ! extremity ( ! t>sus2 ?is appe>s to be a true suck]4 ,:5 walk+ on a r\gh surface1 ! foot repres5ts t ( a ,coleopt]\s insect )\t any t55t app5dages4 ,! ungues are always atta*$ to ! la/ jo9t ( an insect's t>sus4 ,!y are n atta*$ to ! fif? t>sal jo9t ( a ,dipt]\s insect1 nei!r are !y atta*$ to ! fif? t>sal jo9t ( a ,hym5opt]\s insect1 b to ! t]m9al suck]1 :i* aga91 9 ?is great ord]1 is a six? t>sal jo9t1 membran\s1 flexible1 ela/ic 9 ! highe/ degree1 retractile to almo/ its fulle/ ext5t )9 ! fif? t>sal jo9t--a jo9t modifi$ to an extraord9>y degree = special purposes4 ,9 plantula ( ,lucanus1 ) its pair ( m9ute claws1 ! ungues are hairs modifi$ = special purposes2 & !y h ! /ructure ( true hairs4 ,! su/5tacula ( ,epeira1 ! analog\s /ructures on ! entire "u surface ( ! la/ t>sal jo9ts 9 ,pholcus1 ! condition ( ! p>ts 9 ! h9d limbs ( ,notonecta1 9 bo? its mature & e>li] conditions1 z well z 9 ,s>coptes1 ,psoroptes1 & "s o!r ,ac>i1 all may be cit$ 9 pro( ( ?is fact4 ,! v>i\s ord]s ( insects h1 = ! mo/ "p1 ea* _! own type ( foot4 ,?us !re is ! ,coleopt]\s type1 ! ,hym5opt]\s type1 ! ,dipt]\s type1 ! ,homopt]\s type1 c42 ea* s v di/9ctive1 t 9 critical in/ances !y w sometimes s]ve at once to %[ to :i* ord] an insect %\ld be ref]r$4 ,?us1 among/ all ! ,dipt]a1 ,i h z yet met ) b "o subdivision :i* pres5ts an exception to ! /ructure describ$4 ,?is exception is furni%$ by ! ,tipulid1 :i* h ! ,hym5opt]\s foot4 ,) h>dly an exception1 !n1 ,i believe ! =m ( foot describ$ w be f\nd univ]sal among ! ,dipt]a4 ,x may be desirable to add a few words on ! be/ plan ( conduct+ obs]vations on ! feet ( insects4 ,_! action %\ld be /udi$ by plac+ ! insect "u ! influ5ce ( *lor(orm4 ,x is ( advantage to c>efully pres]ve ! p>ts exam9$1 & = ?is purpose ,deane's m$ium or glyc]9e jelly suits v well2 "s ( ! m delicate prep>ations1 h[ev]1 c only be kept un*ang$ 9 a solution ( *loride ( z9c4 ,! plan ( soak+ 9 cau/ic pota%1 cru%+1 wa%+1 putt+ into spirits ( w9e & !n into turp5t9e1 & la/ly into ,canada balsam1 is p]fectly useless1 except+ 9 r>e in/ances :]e po9ts connect$ ) ! /ructure ( ! integum5t h to be made out4 ,( c\rse1 ! p>ts %\ld be view$ f above1 f bel[1 & 9 pr(ile1 9 ord] to ga9 exact ideas ( _! relations4 ,! b9ocul> microscope dim9i%es ! difficulties :i* =m]ly _h to be enc\nt]$1 z by its aid _m p>ts may be cle>ly view$ )\t prep>ation ( any k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djj4 #a4 ,ant5na ( ! ,silkworm-mo?2 #b4 ,tongue ( ,butt]fly2 #c4 ,a portion ( tongue highly magnifi$1 %[+ its muscul> fibre2 #d4 ,tra*e ( silkworm2 #e4 ,foot ( silkworm4 7,! small circles enclose ea* object some:at ne> ! natural size47 ,mo?s & butt]flies supply ! microscopi/ ) "s ( ! mo/ beautiful objects = exam9ation4 ,:at c be m wond]ful 9 its adaptation ?an ! ant5na ( ! mo? 7repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #djj1 ,no4 #a71 ) a ?91 f+]-l extremity almo/ supply+ ! insect ) a p]fect & useful h&1 mov$ ?r\gh\t its ext5t by a muscul> app>atus ( ! mo/ exquisite con/ruction4 ,! tongue ( butt]fly 7,no4 #b7 is evid5tly made = ! purpose ( dipp+ into ! int]ior ( fl[]s & extract+ ! juices2 ?is act is assi/$ by a s]ies ( f9e muscles4 ,an enl>g$ view ( a portion is giv5 at ,no4 #c2 see ,plate ,,vi41 ,nos4 #acb & #acc1 ant5n ( ,vap\r ,mo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dja4--;,brea?+ ap]ture or spiracle ( silkworm4 7,9 ! circle x is %[n ab\t ! natural size47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djb4--,magnifi$ portions ( ! tra*ea ( ! ,hydrophilus1 %[+ spiral tubes4 ,! inconceivably delicate /ructure ( ! maxill or tongues 7= !re are two7 ( ! butt]fly1 roll$ up l ! trunk ( an elephant1 & capable1 l x1 ( e v>iety ( movem5t1 has be5 c>efully exam9$ & describ$ by ,mr4 ,newport4 8,ea* maxilla is convex on its out] surface1 b concave on its inn]2 s t :5 ! two are unit$ !y =m a tube1 hau/ellium1 by _! union1 ?r\gh :i* fluids may be drawn into ! m\?4 ,! inn] or concave surface1 :i* =ms ! tube1 is l9$ ) a v smoo? membrane1 & ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! organ2 :ile t ( ea* maxilla is holl[ 9 its int]ior1 app>5tly =m+ a tube #89 itself1' b ?is is n s2 ! mi/ake has aris5 f ! exi/5ce ( l>ge tra*e1 or brea?+ tubes1 9 ! int]ior ( ! proboscis4 ,9 "s species ! extremity ( ! hau/ellium is /udd$ ext]nally ) a numb] ( m9ute papill1 or fr+es--z 9 ,vanessa atalanta--9 :i* !y become small elongat$ b>rel-%ap$ bodies1 t]m9at$ by small] papill at _! extremities4 ,on alight+ on a fl[]1 ! insect makes a p[]ful expiratory ef=t1 by :i* ! air is expell$ f ! int]ior air-tubes1 & f ^? ) :i* !y are connect$ 9 ! head & body2 & at ! mom5t ( apply+ its proboscis to ! food1 x makes an inspiratory ef=t1 by :i* ! c5tral canal 9 ! proboscis is dilat$1 & ! food asc5ds x at ! same in/ant to supply ! vacuum produc$2 & ?us x passes into ! m\? & /oma*1 ! con/ant asc5t ( ! fluid be+ assi/$ by ! action ( ! muscles ( ! proboscis1 :i* cont9ues dur+ ! :ole "t t ! insect is fe$+4 ,by ?is comb9$ ag5cy ( ! acts ( respiration & ! muscles ( ! proboscis we are also enabl$ to und]/& ! mann] 9 :i* ! humm+-bird sphynx extracts 9 an in/ant ! honey f a fl[] :ile hov]+ ov] x1 )\t alight+2 & :i* x c]ta9ly w\ld be unable to d 7 ! asc5t ( ! fluid entirely dep5d5t ^u ! action ( ! muscles ( ! organ40 ,! tra*al or respiratory sy/em ( insects v>ies1 or r is f\nd to exi/ 9 modifi$ =ms to suit _! v>i$ conditions ( life4 ,:ile 9 ! l>val /age ! brea?+ ap]tures are se5 to recur at int]vals on ea* side ( ! abdom5 7z t ( ! silkworm1 ,fig4 #dja71 ?us ensur+ a cont9u\s supply ( air to ! circulat+ fluids ?r\gh\t ! :ole body4 ,^! spiracles are usually n9e or t5 9 numb]1 & consi/ ( a membran\s r+ ( an oval =m4 ,! air-tubes are exquisitely compos$ ( two ?9 membranes1 betwe5 :i* a delicate ela/ic ?read or spiral fibre is int]pos$1 =m+ a cyl9drical op5+ & keep+ ! tube 9 a di/5d$ condition1 ?us me*anically pres]v+ ! sides f collapse or pressure 9 _! passage ?r\gh ! air1 :i* o!rwise might occasion suffocation4 ,fig4 #djb repres5ts ! d\ble spiral arrangem5t ( a portion ( a tra*ea ( ,hydrophilus1 :i* ensures bo? ela/icity & /r5g?4 ,!re are o!r po9ts ( int]e/ conf9$ to ! wat]-beetle tribe1 among ! m /rik+ ( :i* is ! =eleg ( ! ,dytiscus m>g9alis4 ,"h ! fir/ ?ree jo9ts ( ! t>sus are exp&$ into a broad surface1 & fr+$ ?r\gh\t ) curv$ hairs4 ,f ! surface ( ^! spr+ a numb] ( %ort hairs1 ) cup-l discs at _! extremities1 "o ( :i* is se5 highly magnifi$ 9 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #adb4 ,^! are s cup-l 9 =m t !y h be5 hi!rto describ$ z 8suck]s10 b x is believ$ !y are simply a special app>atus = ! developm5t ( ! hairs se5 on ! leg & foot ( ! beetle4 ,ano!r curi\s example occurs 9 ! ,gyr9us1 or :irligig-beetle4 ,! front pair ( legs are ( ! ord9>y k9d1 b ! "u pair are furni%$ ) exp&+ paddles4 ,! tro*ant]1 femur1 & tibia1 are flat plates ( a triangul> %ape1 po9t$ at _! out] angles1 f :i* ! apex spr+s4 ,b ! t>sus is jo9t$ on ! inn] angle ( ! fur!rmo/ end ( ! tibia1 & ea* ( its f\r jo9ts exp&s into a flat paddle blade4 ,9 ! accompany+ ,fig4 #djc "o paddle is se5 exp&$1 ! o!r clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djc4 #a4 ,leg ( ,gyr9us1 ,:irligig1 paddle %[n exp&$4 #b4 ,paddle clos$ up4 ,^! paddles are adapt$ ) mu* precision to ensure ! mo/ effectual application ( ! propell+ p[]2 z ! beetle /rikes out 9 ! act ( swimm+1 ! membran\s expansion describ$ enables x to move ab\t ) great rapidity2 ^u ! legs be+ drawn back t[>ds ! body1 ! membrane closes up1 & ?us (f]s no resi/ance to ! wat]4 ,! eyes are n ! lea/ curi\s "p ( ! m]ry little beetle3 ! upp] section is fitt$ = see+ 9 ! air1 & is adapt$ to ! upp] or sup]ior "p ( ! head2 ! l[] portion1 = see+ "u ! wat]1 be+ plac$ at a l[] angle1 a ?9 division only sep>at+ ! two4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djd4--,scales f ,butt]flies' & ,mo?s' w+s1 magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s4 #a4 ,scale ( ,morpho m5elaus2 #b4 ,l>ge scale ( ,polyommatus argiolus1 azure blue2 #c4 ,hipp>*ia janira argiolus2 #d4 ,pontia brassica2 #e4 ,podura plumbea2 #f4 ,small scale ( azure blue4 ,w+s ( ,insects4--,^! exhibit v>iety ( =m & /ructure1 z well z ( beauty ( col\r+4 ,at an e>ly p]iod ! ord]s ( insects 7 ma9ly f\nd$ ^u ^! int]e/+ app5dages4 ,! ,or?opt]a 7 ! /raight w+s2 ! ,neuropt]a ! n]v$2 ! ,tri*opt]a ! hairy w+s2 ! ,coleopt]a ! cas$ or %ea!d w+s2 ! ,dipt]a ! two w+s2 ! ,hym5opt]a ! m>ri$ w+s2 & ! ,lepidopt]a ! scal$ w+s4 ,a numb] ( w+s are small & membran\s1 & may be m\nt$ dry = exam9ation "u ! microscope4 ,o!rs are bett] se5 m\nt$ 9 b5zol-balsam4 ,! elytra1 iridesc5t w+ cases ( ! diamond1 & o!r beetles1 z well z ! w+s ( ! m highly col\r$ butt]flies1 make pretty objects m\nt$ dry = opaque illum9ation by ! ,lieb]khn or reflector4 ,! ?ick] horny cases ( o!r memb]s ( ! beetle tribe require long soak+1 z describ$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,! w+s ( mo?s & butt]flies are cov]$ ) scales or fea!rs1 c>efully ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 z tiles are made to cov] ! tops ( h\ses4 ,! iridesc5t v>iety ( col\r+ on insects' w+s arises f ! peculi> wavy arrangem5t ( ! scales4 ,figs4 #djd & #dje are magnifi$ repres5tations ( a few ( !m4 ,no4 #a1 a scale ( ! ,morpho m5elaus1 tak5 f ! side ( ! w+1 is ( a pale-blue col\r2 x measures ab\t #a_/abj? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & exhibits a s]ies ( longitud9al /ri or l9es1 betwe5 :i* are dispos$ cross-l9es or o!r /ri1 giv+ x v mu* an appe>ance ( brick-"w 7bett] se5 9 ,fig4 #dje1 ,no4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dje4--,portions ( ,scales1 magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s4 #a4 ,portion ( scale ( ,morpho m5elaus2 #b4 ,portion ( l>ge scale ( ,podura plumbea2 #c4 ,scale f ! w+ ( ,gnat1 its two lay]s be+ repres5t$2 #d4 ,portion ( a l>ge scale ( ,lepisma ,sac*>9a2 #e4 ,body scale ( ,gnat1 magnifi$ #fej diamet]s4 ,polyommatus argiolus1 azure-blue 7,fig4 #djd1 ,nos4 #b & #f71 are l>ge & small scales tak5 f ! "u-side ( ! w+ ( ?is beautiful blue butt]fly2 ! small scale is cov]$ ) a s]ies ( spots1 & exhibits bo? longitud9al & transv]se /ri1 ^! %\ld be cle>ly def9$1 & ! spots sep>at$ by a qu>t]-in* object-glass4 ,no4 #c1 ,hipp>*ia janira1 is a scale f ! mead[-br[n butt]fly3 on ?is br[n spots1 hav+ an irregul> %ape ) longitud9al /ri1 are se54 ,no4 #d1 ,pontia brassica1 cabbage butt]fly1 0 at "o "t tak5 to be an excell5t crit]ion ( ! p5etration & def9ition ( an object glass4 ,x is se5 to h a free extremity or bru%-l app5dage4 ,) a fairly good p[]1 ! longitud9al m>k+s appe> l r[s ( small beads4 ,*evali] select$ = 8 te/ object ! scale ( ! ,pontia brassica4 ,mohl & ,s*a*t extoll$ ,hipp>*ia janira z a good te/ ( p5etration 9 an objective ( mod]ate angul> ap]ture4 ,amici's te/ object is ,navicula rhomboides1 ! display ( ! l9es =m+ ! te/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djf4--,podura villosa1 male & female1 highly magnifi$4 ,! ,t9ea ve/ianella1 clo!s-mo?1 is furni%$ ) unique scales4 ,small & de/ructive z ?is mo? is1 x suff]s mu* f a p>asitic mite1 & f :i* x is unable to free itself4 ,! ,podura scale 7,fig4 #dje71 ) its delicate transp>5t membrane & curi\sly ins]t$ 8notes ( admiration10 z !y 7 call$1 0 long believ$ to be an excell5t te/ object = ! highe/ p[]s ( ! microscope1 b ,i believe x is no long] reg>d$ 9 t light3 inde$1 mo/ insect scales h decl9$ 9 ! value & e/imation ( ! skill$ microscopi/4 ,?is is 9 "p due to ! improvem5ts made 9 ! objective4 ,! high-angl$ glasses h cle>$ up obscure po9ts 9 ! /ructural *>act]s ( ! m9ut] =ms ( life1 & ! scales ( insects are no long] f\nd to be difficult te/ objects = ! mod]n objective ( a ,zeiss or a ,p[ell to resolve4 ,nev]!less1 ! scale ( ! ,podura belong+ to ! ord] ,?ysanura1 a curi\s little insect commonly kn[n by ! "n ( spr+tail1 usually f\nd liv+ 9 mo/ obscure places1 & too small to attract att5tion1 is n likely to be entirely ?ru/ aside4 ,! spr+tails 7,collembola7 are furni%$ on ! "u-side ( ! fir/ abdom9al segm5t ) a curi\s tube or suck]1 f ! orifice ( :i* gl&ul> process a secret$ viscid matt] is protrud$2 !y are rem>kable also f ! fact t 9 mo/ ( !m no trace ( a tra*eal sy/em has yet be5 discov]$4 ,! eyes :5 pres5t are 9 ! =m ( simple or gr\p$ ocelli1 ! ant5n numb] six jo9ts1 & ! abdom5 has b six segm5ts1 (t5 only ?ree4 ,! =k$ tail is a curi\s process turn$ =w>d & atta*$ to "o ( ! t5d] segm5ts & held 9 position "u ! body2 :5 releas$ x spr+s back & b\nds up to a v consid]able height4 ,fig4 #djf repres5ts ,podura villosa4 ,!re are sev]al species1 "o ( :i* 7,p4 aquatica7 is f\nd float+ 9 pat*es on pools ( wat] on bright summ] days4 ,lepisma sac*>9a belongs to ! same g5us z ,podura4 ,?is m9ute spr+tail d]ives its "n f hav+ be5 discov]$ 9 old sug>-casks4 ,x has a sp9dle-%ap$ body cov]$ ) silv]y scales1 long us$ z te/ objects4 ,! sides ( ! abdom5 are furni%$ ) a s]ies ( app5dages ) long bri/le-l set1 or hairs1 at _! extremities4 ,! head is conceal$ "u a pro?orax1 ! ant5n are long1 & ! maxill>y palpi are ei!r five or sev5-jo9t$1 & v conspicu\s1 to enable !m to cut ! dry wood on :i* !y pr9cipally fe$4 ,! scales mu/ be m\nt$ "u ?9 cov]-glasses2 oblique illum9ation %[s up "s portions to advantage1 :ile c5tral light f an a*romatic cond5s] & a wide-angl$ objective r5d]s _! m>k+s m di/9ct4 ,portion ( a scale m highly magnifi$ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dje4 ,eggs ( ,insects 7,plate ,,vi41 ,nos4 #abd-aci74--;,9 =m1 col\r1 & v>iety ( design1 ! eggs ( insects are m surpris+ly v>i$ ?an ^? ( ! fea!r$ tribes2 b z f extreme smallness !y escape obs]vation1 an acqua9tance ) _! /ructure is n s famili> z x might be4 ,al?\gh ! eggs ( ! bird tribe diff] mu* 9 _! ext]nal *>act]i/ics1 !y closely resemble ea* o!r :ile yet a "p ( ! ov>ian ova1 & prior to _! deta*m5t f ! ov>y4 ,at "o p]iod ( _! =mation all eggs consi/ ( ?ree simil> p>ts3--#a/4 ,! int]nal nucleat$ cell1 or g]m9al vesicle1 ) its macula2 #bnd4 ,! vitellus1 or yolk-sub/ance2 & #crd4 ,! vesicul> envelope1 or vitell9e membrane4 ,! g]m9al vesicle is ! fir/ produc$1 !n ! yolk sub/ance1 :i* gradually envelops x1 & ! vitell9e membrane1 ! late/ =m$1 incloses ! :ole4 ,! *emical con/itu5ts ( ! egg are ! same 9 all cases1 album51 fatty matt]s1 & a proportion ( a sub/ance precipitable by wat]4 ,! production ( ! *orion1 or %ell membrane1 does n take place till ! ovum has atta9$ ne>ly its full size1 & x !n appe>s to proce$1 9 "p at lea/1 f ! consolidation ov] ! :ole surface ( "o or m lay]s ( an album9\s fluid secret$ f ! wall ( ! oviduct4 ,! embryo cell is s directly connect$ ) ! g]m9al vesicle t at a c]ta9 p]iod x disappe>s altoge!r1 & is absorb$ into ! g]m9al yolk1 or r becomes ! nucleus ( ! embryo1 :5 a great] degree ( compactness is obs]v$ 9 ! yolk1 & all t rema9s ( ! g]m9al vesicle is "o or m highly refract+ fat globules & album9oid bodies4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! p]iod ( incubation1 ! head ( ! "y cat]pill> is said to lie t[>ds ! dot or op5+ 9 ! lid1 t]m$ ! micropyle1#hc f its resemblance to a small gate1 or op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! l>va em]ges =? z a butt]fly4 ,! g]m9al vesicle is comp>atively l>ge & well-m>k$ :ile ! egg is yet 9 ! ova-sac4 ,by prep>+ sections aft] ,dr4 ,halifax's me?od1#hd we f9d t ! g]m9al vesicle 9 ! bee's egg is n situat$ imm$iately ne> or ev5 bel[ ! s-call$ micropyle1 b r m to ! side ( ! egg2 j 9 ! position :i* ! head ( ! embryo is subsequ5tly f\nd to occupy at maturity4 ,! egg membrane1 or envelope1 ( all ! ,lepidopt]a is compos$ ( ?ree sep>ate & di/9ct lay]s3 an ext]nal slightly rais$ coat1 t\gh & h>d 9 its "*1 a middle "o ( unit$ cells1 & a f9e transp>5t vitell9e l9+ membrane1 p]fectly smoo? & homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 imp>t+ solidity1 & giv+ a f9e iridesc5t hue to ! surface4 ,! g]m9al vesicle is ( a proportionately l>ge size = ! egg1 & its macula is at fir/ s+le1 !n multiple4 ,9 ! egg ( ! silkworm ! out] membrane is compris$ ( an inn] reticulat$ membrane ( non-nucleat$ cells1 9 ! out] lay] ! cells are arrang$ 9 an irregul> circul> =m1 also non-nucleat$1 ) m9ute int]/itial set or hairs project+ outw>d4 ,! out] surface ( ! egg-%ell ( ,coccus ,p]sic is cov]$ by m9ute r+s1 ( :i* ! ends some:at ov]lap4 ,^! r+s are ?\ght to be id5tical 9 _! "* ) ! :iti% sub/ance :i* exudes ?r\gh pores on ! "u-side ( ! body2 x is m ?an probable t a succession ( lay]s ( r+s fully acc\nts = ! beautiful prismatic hues !y pres5t view$ z opaque objects "u ! microscope1 & illum9at$ by ,lieb]khn or side-cond5s]4 ,?is :ite sub/ance1 x %\ld be obs]v$1 =ms a "p ( ! intimate /ructure ( ! egg-%ell1 & is 9 n[ise affect$ by me?ylat$ _s or dilute acids4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock#he /ates t 9 ! gre5i% eggs ( ,phryganea1 8! col\r is due to ! yolk-globules !mselves4 ,9 ,coccus1 h[ev]1 ?is is n s2 ! yolk-globules are slightly yell[1 & ! gre5 hue ( ! egg is ow+ to ! gre5 granules1 :i* are m9ute oil globules4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! egg arrives at maturity1 & ! upp] *amb] has be5 remov$ by absorption1 ^! gre5 granules w be f\nd to be replac$ by d>k-gre5 globules1 regul> 9 size1 & ab\t #a_/hjjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & :i* appe> to be 9 no way ! same 9 ! yolk ( ,phryganea eggs40 ,ano!r curi\s fact has be5 notic$1 :i* p>tially be>s on ! "q ( col\r3 ! production ( p>asite bodies )9 ! eggs ( "s insects4 ,9 ! ,coccus1 = in/ance1 p>asitic cells ( a gre5 col\r occur1 8%ap$ l a /r+ ( sausages1 9 l5g? ab\t ! #a_/bjjj? ( an in* by ab\t ! #a_/gjjj? 9 bread?40 ,! eggs ( mo?s & butt]flies pres5t _m v>y+ t9ts ( col\r2 9 speak+ ( ?is quality ,i d n re/rict ! t]m solely to ^? prismatic *anges to :i* allusion has be5 made1 & :i* are liable to con/ant mutations accord+ to ! accid5t ( ! rays ( light ?r[n ^u !m2 b ,i m p>ticul>ly ref] to ! sev]al natural transitions ( col\r1 ! prevail+ t9ts ( :i* are yell[1 :ite1 grey1 & a light-br[n4 ,9 "s eggs ! yell[1 :ite1 & grey are delicately bl5d$1 &1 :5 view$ ) a magnify+ p[] ( ab\t fifty diamet]s1 & by ! aid ( ! side-reflector 7p>abolic-reflector71 exhibit _m beautiful comb9ations4 ,! m delicate opalesc5t1 or r iridesc5t1 t9ts appe> on ! eggs ( insects1 :ile ^? ( ! fea!r$ tribes furni% no l example4 ,! egg ( ! mottl$ umb] mo?1 ,erannis defoli>ia 7,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #acg71 is 9 e way v beautiful4 ,x is 9 %ape ovoid1 ) regul> hexagonal reticulations1 ea* corn] be+ /udd$ ) a knob or button2 ! space )9 ! hexagon is f9ely punctat$1 & ! play ( col\rs is exquisitely delicate4 ,9 ?is egg no micropyle c be se54 ,! egg ( ! ?orn mo?1 ,ennomos eros>ia 7,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #ach71 is ( an elongat$ brick-look+ =m1 "o end ( :i* is slightly tap]$ (f1 :ile ! o!r1 9 :i* ! lid is plac$1 is flatt5$ & surr\nd$ by a beautifully :ite-bead$ bord]1 hav+ = its c5tre a slightly rais$ reticulat$ micropyle4 ,! empty egg-%ell gives a f9e opalesc5t play ( col\rs1 :ile t conta9+ ! "y worm is ( a br[ni%-yell[4 ,! egg ( ! /raw-belle mo?1 ,aspillates gilv>ia 7,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #aci71 is delicately t9t$1 some:at long & n>r[1 ) sides slightly flatt5$ or r\nd$ (f1 & irregul>ly s]rat$4 ,! top is convex1 & ! base a little ind5t$1 9 :i* are se5 ! lid & micropyle4 ,! "y worm1 h[ev]1 usually makes its way ?r\gh ! upp] convex side3 ! ind5tation repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ %[s ! place ( exit4 ,an example ( ^? eggs possess+ a good deal ( natural col\r is pres5t$ 9 t ( ! common puss-mo?1 ,c]ura v9ula1 a l>ge sph]oidal-%ap$ egg1 hav+1 "u ! microscope1 ! appe>ance ( a f9e ripe orange2 ! micropyle exactly corresponds to ! depression left 9 ?is fruit on ! removal ( ! /alk4 ,! surface is f9ely reticulat$1 & ! natural col\r a deep orange4 ,! egg ( ! mottl$ ru/ic mo?1 ,c>ad9a morpheus 7,no4 #abd71 is subconical1 & equally divid$ ?r\gh\t by a s]ies ( ribs1 :i* t]m9ate 9 a well-m>k$ geometrically-=m$ lid4 ,! egg ( ! tortoise-%ell butt]fly1 ,vanessa urtic 7,no4 #abe71 is ovoid & divid$ into segm5ts1 ! ribs turn+ 9 t[>ds ! micropyle4 ,! common footman1 ,li?osia campanula 7,no4 #abf71 produces a p]fectly globul> egg cov]$ ) f9e reticulations ( a delicate buff col\r4 ,! egg ( ! %>k mo?1 ,cucullia umbratica 7,no4 #abg71 is subconical 9 =m1 ) ribs & cross-b>s pass+ up f a flatt5$ base to ! summit1 & turn+ ov] to =m ! lid4 ,no4 #acf is ! egg ( blue argus butt]fly1 ,polyommatus argus4 ,t ( ! small em]ald mo?1 ,jodis ,v]n>ia 7,no4 #acd71 is an egg ( s+ul> =m & beauty--an oval1 flatt5$ on bo? sides1 ( silv]y iridesc5ce1 & cov]$ ?r\gh\t ) m9ute reticulations & dots4 ,x is p>ticul>ly transluc5t1 s mu* s t ! yell[-br[n worm is readily se5 curl$ up )94 ,! lid or micropyle is n detect$ until ! l>va eats its way out ( ! %ell4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! s]ies ( eggs 9 ,plate ,,vii4 are some:at ov]-col\r$1 & consequ5tly lose mu* ( _! natural transp>5cy4 ,! eggs ( flies & p>asites also pres5t mu* v>iety 9 =m1 col\r1 & con/ruction4 ,_m ( _! eggs are provid$ ) a v]itable lid1 :i* op5s up ) a h+e-l articulation4 ,?is lid is se5 9 ! egg ( bot-fly1 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #add1 f :i* ! l>va is j escap+2 ,no4 #adf1 egg ( ,scatophaga2 ,no4 #adg1 egg ( p>asite ( magpie4#hf ,/ill m rem>kable 9 ! delicate & beautiful =ms are "s ( ! p>asities :i* infe/ birds 9 p>ticul>3 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #ade1 ! egg ( p>asite ( pheasant2 ,no4 #adg1 t ( ! magpie1 :ile t ( ! peacock is curi\sly int]e/+4 ,9 ,fig4 #djg ! l>v ( ! horn-bill are se5 j ab\t to em]ge f _! eggs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djg4--,l>v ( ! ,hornbill em]g+ f eggs4 ,! l>v ( mo/ ,hym5opt]a are footless grubs1 furni%$ ) a s(t head1 & exhibit+ b little1 if any1 advance ^u ^? ( ,dipt]a 7,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #ada74 ,9 ! saw-fly1 h[ev]1 ! l>va1 in/ead ( be+ z above describ$1 a m]e footless maggot1 pres5ts ! close/ resemblance to ! cat]pill> ( ! ,lepidopt]a2 x is provid$ ) a di/9ct head1 ) six ?oracic legs1 & 9 mo/ cases f twelve to sixte5 pro-legs are app5d$ to ! abdom9al segm5ts4 ,"o o!r conspicu\s object repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #abh1 is ! maple ,aphis1 also kn[n z ! leaf-insect1 av]ag+ 9 size ab\t ! "o-fiftie? ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,al?\gh recognis$ & describ$ "u ! "n ( ! leaf-insect1 no?+ 0 kn[n ( its orig9 & hi/ory1 ) ! exception ( :at ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,?ornton publi%$ 9 #aheb1 & to :om we owe its re-discov]y on ! leaves ( ! maple4 ,subsequ5tly x attract$ ! att5tion ( ! ,dut* naturali/1 ,van d] ,hoev51 :o reg>d$ x z ! l>val =m ( a species ( ,aphis1 & nam$ x ,p]iphyllus4 ,x has m rec5tly engag$ ! att5tion ( ,dr4 ,balbiani & ,m4 ,siguoret1 ^: unit$ inve/igations w be f\nd 9 8,comptes ,r5dus10 #ahfg4 ,^! obs]v]s assign$ x def9itely to ,aphis4 ,a br[n species is also met ) dur+ a great "p ( ! ye> fe$+ ^u ! "y %oots ( ! maple4 ,! female produces two k9ds ( "y1 z d all ! g5us ,aphis1 "o normal ! o!r abnormal2 ! fir/ are alone capable ( reproduc+ _! species1 :ile ! latt] reta9 _! orig9al =m1 :i* is n *ang$ ?r\gh\t _! exi/5ce4 ,!y increase s sl[ly 9 size t x may appe> d\btful :e!r !y eat1 ! m\? be+ rudim5t>y2 !y und]go no *ange2 d n acquire w+s1 & _! ant5n always reta9 ! five jo9ts peculi> to all "y ,aphides be=e ! fir/ m\lt4 ,nei!r are !y all ( ! same col\r1 "s be+ ( a bright gre51 z repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,vi41 :ile o!rs are ( a d>k]1 or br[ni%-gre5 col\r4 ,! br[n-gre5 embryos diff] f ! adult female only 9 ^? *>act]s analog\s to all o!r species1 & ?is *iefly ) reg>d to ! m9ute hairs1 :i* are long & simple4 ,9 ! gre5 embryos1 9 ! place ( set1 ! body is surr\nd$ by transp>5t lamell1 oblong 9 %ape4 ,^! scales n only cov] ! body1 b also ! ant]ior portion ( ! head1 ! fir/ jo9t ( ! ant5n1 & ! out] edge ( ! tibi ( ! fir/ pair ( legs4 ,! dorsal surface 9 ^! insects is cov]$ ) a mosaic ( hexagonal plates1 v closely resembl+ ! plates ( ! c>apace ( ! tortoise4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> my arti/ has fall5 into a slight error4 ,ano!r peculi>ity is t ! body is mu* flatt5$ out1 & looks s mu* l a scale on ! surface ( ! leaf t x requires consid]able practice1 z well z quickness ( sight1 to detect ! "y maple ,aphis4 ,"o ( ! lamell is se5 highly magnifi$ at c1 & a t55t-hair at b4 ,! ant5n1 tap]+ (f t[>ds ! apex1 are s]rate on bo? edges1 & t]m9ate 9 a f9e lancet 7%[n at a71 ) :i* x p5etrates ! leaf ( ! plant4 ,b5ea? ! ins]tions ( ! ant5n is a complex =m ( suck+ m\?1 & on ei!r side ( ! head are two brilliant sc>let-col\r$ eyes4 ,aphides1 z is well kn[n1 live ^u ! juices ( plants1 :i* !y suck1 & :5 !y occur 9 great numb]s cause consid]able damage to ! g>d5] & f>m]4 ,_m plants are liable to be attack$ by sw>ms ( ^! insects1 :5 _! leaves curl up1 !y gr[ sickly1 & _! produce is ei!r greatly r$uc$ or utt]ly ru9$4 ,"o /rik+ in/ance is pres5t$ 9 ! deva/ation caus$ by ! hop-fly 7,aphis humuli74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djh4--;,aphrophora spum>ia1 ,cuckoo-spit4 a4 ,! fro?y sub/ance2 b4 ,! pupa4 ,! ,aphrophora bifasciata1 common frog-hopp]1 is a well-kn[n g>d5 pe/4 ,! ant5n ( ?is insect are plac$ betwe5 ! eyes1 & ! scutellum is n cov]$2 ! eyes1 nev] m ?an two 9 numb]1 are occasionally want+4 ,^! pe/s are furni%$ ) long h9d legs1 t enable !m to p]=m mo/ extraord9>y leap+ feats4 ,! be/-kn[n ,briti% species is ! cuckoo-spit1 fro?-fly 7,fig4 #djh74 ,! names cuckoo-spit & fro?-fly bo? allude to ! peculi> habit ( ! insect1 :ile 9 ! l>va /ate1 ( envelop+ itself 9 a k9d ( fro?y secretion1 some:at resembl+ saliva4 ,ara*nid4--,9 ?is class ( insects1 spid]s1 scorpions1 & mites are includ$1 all ( :i* belong to a sub-class ( ,ar?ropoda1 & are appropriately plac$ betwe5 ! ,cru/acea on ! "o h& & ! ,insecta on ! o!r4 ,! highe/ ,cru/aceans h t5 feet1 ! ,ara*nid eight1 & insects six4 ,! ,ara*nid are w+less1 h no ant5n1 & brea! by means ( tra*eal tubes1 or pulmon>y sacs1 ^! p]=m+ ! function ( lungs4 ,z a rule !y h sev]al simple eyes1 h no prop] metamorphosis1 & !y are ess5tially pr$ace\s1 ! females be+ l>g] ?an ! males4 ,mo/ ( ! ,ara*nid live on insects1 & may !re=e be reg>d$ 9 ! light ( a fri5d to ! flori/ & g>d5]4 ,! ,epeira diadema is ! be/ kn[n memb] ( ! species2 9 summ] spid]s ab\nd on e %rub1 & sp9 out _! wond]ful webs f bran* to bran*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dji4--;,a l5g?ways section ?r\gh ! body ( female ,epeira diadema4 ,explanation ( ref]5ce4--ey4 ,eyes2 p4g4 ,poison gl&2 ht4 ,he>t2 94 ,inte/9e1 alim5t>y canal2 l4 ,liv]2 r4 ,rectum or cloaca2 dt4 & sp4 ,dis*>ge tubes ( sp9n]ets2 o4 ,slit1 or air op5+2 ov4 ,ovipositor2 ph4 ,ph>ynx2 br4 ,bra92 ?r4 ,?roat1 or gullet1 fill$ ) eggs2 un4 l4 ,"u lip2 m4 ,m\?2 f4 ,fang1 or claw2 j4 ,jaw4 ,! gills1 or brea?+ app>atus are situat$ at ! air op5+1 o2 & ! silk gl&s are above ?is4 7,magnifi$ #bj diamet]s47 ,! body1 se5 9 my illu/ration1 ,fig4 #dji1 9 section1 consi/s ( two p>ts2 ! =emo/ is ! cephalo?orax1 or head1 ^u :i* is m\nt$ f\r pairs ( eyes 7two ( :i* are se5 9 section71 :ile to ! ?orax is atta*$ eight jo9t$ well-develop$ legs t]m9at+ 9 feet1 ) claws adapt$ = climb+ & hold+ on4 ,! o!r half consi/s1 ( ! abdom51 toge!r ) sp9n]ets & gl&s1 :i* secrete ! fluid out ( :i* ! web is spun1 & ?is1 al?\gh x h>d5s to "s ext5t on exposure to ! air1 reta9s its viscid nature = ! purpose ( entangl+ its prey4 ,! sp9n]ets are ! mo/ int]e/+ feature 9 ! anatomy ( ! ,epeira 7,figs4 #daj & #daa74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daj4 #a4 ,sp9n]ets ( ,spid]2 #b4 ,extreme end ( "o ( ! upp] pair ( sp9n]ets2 #c4 ,end ( "u pair ( sp9n]ets2 #d4 ,foot ( ,spid]2 #e4 ,side view ( eye2 #f4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! f\r pairs ( eyes4 ,five k9ds ( sp9n+ gl&s are f\nd 9 spid]s4 ,! gl&ul ac9i=mes are ^? :i* consi/ ( a prop] tunica & an epi!lium2 ^! exhibit 9 all p>ts ! same reaction to /a9+ ag5ts4 ,! gl&ul pyri=mes consi/ ( a tunica prop] & an epi!lium1 :i* 9 _! l[] p>ts 7or ^? ne> ! eff]5t ducts7 /a9 m deeply ?an ! upp]4 ,! gl&ul ampullace & gl&ul tubuli=mes h simil> cov]+s1 ! latt] t]m9at+ 9 a l>ge spool4 ,! gl&ul aggregat h a wide & bran*$ lum51 ! eff]5t duct ( :i* is provid$ ) cells & an accessory piece1 :i* draws out to a tip4 ,all ! gl&s h secret+ portions1 :i* s]ve z collect+ cavities = ! sp9n+ mat]ial4 ,! spools are two-jo9t$ basal & "o-jo9t$ accessory pieces4 ,9 addition to ! five gl&s enum]at$1 !re are also lobate & cribelleum gl&s2 ^! are v>i\sly di/ribut$1 & ex]cise diff]5t functions1 "o set prep>+ ! s-call$ moi/ filam5ts f ! moi/ droplets1 ano!r sp9s ! egg-cocoon1 z ne>ly all spid]s envelop _! eggs 9 a cov]+ ( silk5 ?reads & /ore !m up 9 "s %elt]$ place await+ ! w>m wea!r ( spr+ to hat* !m out4 ,! bag t holds ! eggs is n "o ( ! lea/ curi\s ef=ts ( skill & c>e4 ,! "m uses h] body z a gauge to measure h] "w1 precisely z a bird uses h] body to gauge ! size & =m ( its ne/4 ,! spid] fir/ spreads a ?9 coat+ ( silk z a f\ndation1 tak+ c>e to h ?is circul> by turn+ its body r\nd dur+ ! process4 ,9 ! same mann] x sp9s a rais$ bord] r\nd ?is till x takes ! =m ( a cup2 x is at ?is /age ( ! "w ! female beg9s to lay h] eggs 9 ! cup1 & n cont5t to fill x up to ! brim1 %e also piles up a heap z high z ! cup is deep4 ,"h1 !n1 is a cup full ( eggs1 ! "u half cov]$ & protect$ by ! silk5 sides ( ! cup1 b ! upp] /ill expos$ to ! air & ! cold4 ,%e n[ sets to "w to cov] ?is2 ! process is simil> to ! prec$+--t is1 %e weaves a ?ick web ( silk all r\nd ! top1 & in/ead ( a cup-%ap$ ne/1 l ^? ( ! bird tribe1 ! :ole p>takes ( ! =m ( a ball mu* l>g] ?an ! body ( ! spid]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daa4--,sp9n]ets ( ,spid] greatly enl>g$4 ,! eight legs & feet ( ! spid] 7"o only is repres5t$ ,fig4 #daj1 ,no4 #d7 are curi\sly con/ruct$4 ,ea* foot1 :5 magnifi$1 is se5 to be arm$ ) /rong horny claws1 ) s]rations on _! "u-surface4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! spid] is enabl$ to regulate ! issue ( its web f ! sp9n]ets4 ,9 addition1 a rem>kable comb-l claw is provid$ = ! purpose ( sep>at+ c]ta9 ?reads :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! delicate web1 s t ev]y?+ is arrang$ & plann$ 9 ! mo/ geometrical ord]1 :ile ! m\? or jaws ) _! two movable poison-fangs conv]t ! ,ara*nid into =midable & dang]\s foes4 ,! mat]nal indu/ry & in/9cts ( spid]s1 ! balloon+ habits ( o!rs1 ! cave dwell]s1 ) _! limit$ vision1 comb9$ ) an increas$ delicacy ( t\* & he>+1 _! disguise ( feign$ dea? :5 a /rong enemy approa*es1 are all ( ! mo/ int]e/+ "*4 ,"o ( ! m rem>kable1 ! ,argyroneta aquatica 7div+ spid]71 weaves itself a curi\s little bell-%ap$ globule1 :i* x takes ) x to ! bottom ( ! wat]1 :i!r x retires to dev\r its prey4 ,not)/&+ its aquatic habits1 ?is1 l ! re/ ( its species1 is fitt$ only = a]ial respiration2 x !re=e c>ries d[n1 entangl$ among/ ! hairs ( its body1 a small bubble ( air4 ,?is contrivance pres5ts u ) ! e>lie/ =m ( div+-bell4 ,mites & ,ticks con/itute a gr\p :i* = div]sity ( /ructure1 numb] ( species & individuals1 & m9ut5ess ( size1 has no equal4 ,! typical g5us ( ! family--,ixodid--be+ :olly p>asitic 9 _! habits1 are s modifi$ 9 organisation1 s m>k$ by deg5]ation1 t "s au?ors h propos$ to remove !m into a class by !mselves4 ,"o lead+ "* di/+ui%es ! :ole3 ! abdom5 r>ely pres5ts a trace ( segm5tation1 b is conflu5t ) ! cephalo?orax1 ! fusion betwe5 ! two be+ s complete t1 z 9 ! h>ve/ spid]s belong+ to ,palpatores1 ! ant]ior /]nal plates ( ! abdom5 are ?ru/ f> =w>d betwe5 ! cox ( ! cephalo?oracic limbs4 ,z 9 ,ara*nid1 h[ev]1 ! m\? is adapt$ = suck+1 b ! jaws are (t5 p>tially unit$1 & =m1 ) a plate t]m$ ! epi/ome & ! labium1 a beak4 ,! m&ibles are ei!r p9c]-l1 or simply po9t$ at ! tip1 =m+ pi]c+ organs2 ! palpi h _! basal segm5ts1 or maxill1 unit$1 :i* =m a conspicu\s plate1 or hypo/omes1 con/itut+ ! floor ( ! m\?4 ,^! organs are (t5 se5 to be sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! cephalo?orax by a membran\s jo9t1 & con/itute a k9d ( head1 ! capitulum4 ,9 mo/ cases no trace ( special respiratory organs c be f\nd4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( value 9 sep>at+ ticks f h>ve/-spid]s is t 9 ! =m] ! "y und]go a metamorphosis 9 ! c\rse ( gr[?1 be+ hat*$ z six-foot$ l>v1 & acquir+ lat] 9 life a f\r? pair ( legs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dab4 ,a4 ,atax sp9ipes1 wat] mite se5 f bel[2 ,b4 ,wat] ,scorpion infe/$ by ,atax4 ,! ,ac>i include a numb] ( families1 all di/+ui%$ by ! position ( ! respiratory /igmata & ! =m ( ! m&ibles & palpi4 ,9 ! velvety mites 7,trombidiid71 ! integum5t is s(t & cov]$ ) v>i\sly-col\r$ f9e hairs1 & ! legs are adapt$ = walk+1 runn+ or swimm+4 ,! latt] live 9 fre%-wat] ponds1 creep+ ov] ! leaves ( aquatic plants4 ,! fre%-wat] mites 7,atax sp9ipes1 ,fig4 #dab7 swim ab\t freely by means ( vigor\s /rokes ( _! legs1 :i* act z o>s4 ,9 ! adult ! body is m or less sph]ical1 & usually ( a bright r$ or gre5i% col\r4 ,! males ( "o species h a curi\s blunt tail-l prolongation f ! h9d] end ( ! abdom54 ,! eggs are laid 9 ! spr+ on ! /ems ( wat] plants1 & ! six-foot$ l>v :5 hat*$ atta* !mselves to wat]-bugs 7,nepa7 or wat]-beetles 7,dytiscus7 by means ( a l>ge suck] develop$ on ! front ( ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dac4--;,ixodes ric9us or ,%eep-tick 7"u surface74 ,! small circle encloses "o life-size4 ,( all ! ,ac>i1 ! be/ kn[n & mo/ tr\blesome are ^? belong+ to ! family ,ixodid2 ^! infe/ ! :ole animal creation4 ,!y are furni%$ ) a long cyl9drical beak1 arm$ ) recurv$ hooks1 =m$ ( ! two m&ibles above & ! long sl5d] labium bel[4 ,!y h no eyes1 nor app>5tly any d]maploptic s5se1 b !re are v>i\s seem+ly s5sitive set di/ribut$ ov] ! body & on ! app5dages4 ,! :ole ( ! mites w be f\nd suitable objects = ! /udy ( developm5t1 z ! process is sl[ & _! eggs d n require mu* c>e4 ,! segm5tation ( ! eggs diff]s2 "s ( ! cells are di/+ui%$ by _! l>ge nuclei1 :i* /a9 feebly by c>m9e4 ,dur+ ! cleavage ( ! egg no division ( ! s-call$ yolk has be5 obs]v$1 b lat] on ?is breaks up into sev]al m9ute pieces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #dad4--,m\? organs ( ,%eep-tick4 c4 ,capitulum2 d1 e1 f1 g4 ,segm5ts ( palpi2 h4 ,labial process2 i4 ,sp9y beak =m$ ( fus$ m&ibles4--7,w>ne47 ,! accompany+ ,fig4 #dac %[s ! "u surface ( ! body & ! m\? p>ts ( ! common ,engli% dog & %eep tick1 ,ixodes ric9us1 ) its six =midable legs4 ,! upp] surface is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dae2 ! head 7capitulum7 & m\? organs 9 ,fig4 #dad1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 toge!r ) ! f\r segm5ts ( ! palpi2 h ! labial process arm$ ) hooks =m+ ! l[] side ( ! beak1 & i indicat+ ! tips ( ! two m&ibles =m+ ! upp] side1 & project+ beyond ! apex ( ! labium4 ,by means ( ?is beak1 :i* is ?ru/ to its base into ! integum5t1 ! tick adh]es firmly to its ho/1 & 9 deta*+ !m c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! head is n left beh9d buri$ 9 ! sk94 ,?is tick is f\nd 9 all /ages ( gr[?2 ! females1 gorg+ !mselves ) blood1 swell up to ! size ( a pea1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #dac1 b ! male1 =m]ly reg>d$ z a di/9ct species1 is ( a mu* small] size4 ,9 di/ribution ^! pe/s are almo/ cosmopolitan1 & 9 tropical c\ntries !y gr[ to mu* great] dim5sions1 ! females sometimes atta9+ ! size ( a l>ge gooseb]ry4 ,! family ( true mites is t ( ! ,s>coptid2 ^! are ei!r free or p>asitic4 ,!y h no brea?+ organs2 ! palpi are basally fus$ to ! ro/rum1 ! m&ibles are p9c]-l1 & ! t>si are (t5 furni%$ at _! tips ) a suck]4 ,! mo/ famili> is ! *eese mite1 ,tyroglyphus1 :i* fe$s ^u decay+ matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dae4 #a4 ,female ,%eep-tick2 #b4 ,rat-tick2 #c4 ,head ( ,cat-flea2 #d4 ,l>va ( ,flea4 7,! life size is giv5 9 circles47 ,! well-kn[n *eese mite atta9s to a size pla9ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 b :5 fir/ hat*$ out f ! egg 7%[n 9 its sev]al /ages ( developm5t 9 ,fig4 #dag71 requires a mod]ate am\nt ( magnification4 ,its gr[?1 h[ev]1 is rapid & ! "y beg9 to fe$ z soon z !y leave ! egg4 ,! body is p>tially cov]$ ov] by set1 or hairs1 & ! feet t]m9ate 9 hooklets1 z se5 9 ! full-gr[n ac>us4 ,! m&ibles are cutt+1 b z a rule !y pref] s(t & p>tially-decay$ k9ds ( food4 ,x also fe$s ^u damag$ fl\r1 sug>1 & o!r dome/ic articles4 ,! ,d]me/es l>d>ius1 "o ( ! m9ute beetle tribe 7,fig4 #dah71 commits ev5 great] depr$ations among insect & o!r collections dur+ ! l>val /age ( its exi/5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daf4 ,tyroglyphus4 #a4 ,p$iculus vulg>is #ej diamet]s2 #b4 ,ac>us de/ructor "u surface2 #c4 ,s>coptes scabici1 ,it*-insect1 magnifi$ #cej diamet]s2 #d4 ,demodex folliculorum f ! human sk9 9 v>i\s /ages ( gr[?1 f ! egg upw>ds1 magnifi$ #djj diamet]s4 7,! small circles enclose ! objects ( ! natural size47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dag4--,! ,*eese ,mite1 ,ac>us dome/icus1 se5 9 its sev]al /ages ( developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dah4--;,d]me/es l>d>ius3 l>va1 pupa1 & imago4 7,natural size47 ,birds suff] mu* f mites liv+ p>asitically ^u !m belong+ to ,s>coptid2 ^! likewise infe/ mank9d1 & give rise to a disease kn[n z ! it* 7,fig4 #daf1 ,no4 #c74 ,?is malady & ! irritation accompany+ x are caus$ by ! mite excavat+ tunnels "u ! sk94 ,9 ^! ! eggs are laid & hat*$1 & ! "y !n />t burr[+ on _! own acc\nt2 _! burr[s are trac$ z :iti% l9es on ! surface ( ! sk94 ,fig4 #daf1 ,no4 #d1 ,demodex folliculorum1 is ano!r rem>kable p>asite f\nd b5ea? ! sk92 ?is is usually obta9$ f a spot :]e ! sebace\s follicles or fat gl&s are abundant1 su* z ! =ehead1 ! side ( ! nose1 & ! angles betwe5 ! nose & lip4 ,if ! "p :]e a little black spot or a pu/ule is se5 be squeez$ r h>d1 ! oily matt] !re accumulat$ w be =c$ out 9 a globul> =m4 ,?is m9ute mite is less ?an "o-fiftie? ( an in* 9 l5g?2 if x be laid on a glass slide1 & a small quantity ( glyc]9e add$ to cause ! sep>ation ( ! h>d] portions1 ! p>asite 9 all probability w float out1 &1 by means ( a f9e-po9t$ p5cil or bru%1 c be transf]r$ to a clean slide & m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,an alli$ species is f\nd 9 ! sk9 ( dogs suff]+ f mange4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dai4 #a4 ,p>asite ( ,turkey2 #b4 ,ac>us ( common ,f[l1 "u surface2 #c4 ,p>asite ( ,pheasant4 7,! small circles enclose ea* ab\t life size47 ,! ,/ylopid are rem>kable p>asites1 liv+ ^u ! bodies ( wasps1 bees1 & bugs1 & pres5t a type ( /ructure q di/9ct f beetles or ! ticks describ$4 ,! male 7,x5os peckii1 ,fig4 #dbj7 is a w+$ insect ) co>sely facet$ eyes1 l>ge fan-%ap$ w+s1 extremely small inconspicu\s elytra1 ! two fir/ ?oracic r+s %ort1 :ile ! meta?orax is elongat$ & cov]s ! base ( ! abdom51 & ! h9d legs are plac$ a long way beh9d ! middle pair4 ,! female1 on ! o!r h&1 is a grub-l creature1 )\t legs1 w+s1 or eyes2 %e nev] leaves ! body ( h] ho/1 & f h] eggs active little l>v develop & get c>ri$ into ! ne/s ( bees & wasps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbj4--,x5os peckii4 #a4 ,male2 #b4 ,female4 ,mites are v num]\s1 diff] 9 =m1 & are int]e/+ objects "u ! microscope4 ,! body ( ! common flea 7,fig4 #dba7 is divid$ into di/9ct segm5ts1 ^? ab\t ! ?orax be+ sep>at$4 ,al?\gh apt]\s1 ! flea has ! rudim5ts ( f\r w+s 9 ! =m ( horny plates on bo? sides ( ! ?oracic segm5ts4 ,its m\? consi/s ( a pair ( sword-%ap$ m&ibles1 f9ely s]rat$2 ^!1 ) a %>p1 p5etrat+1 ne$le-l organ1 con/itute ! =midable weapons ) :i* x pi]ces ?r\gh ! sk94 ,! neck is di/9ctly sep>at$1 & ! body cov]$ ) scales1 ! edges ( :i* are beset ) %ort set2 f ! head project a %ort pair ( ant5n1 bel[ :i* are a proboscis & a lance-%ap$ cutt+ app>atus4 ,on ea* side ( ! head a l>ge comp\nd eye is plac$2 x has six _m-jo9t$ p[]ful legs1 t]m9at+ 9 two-hook$ claws2 a pair ( long h9d legs are kept fold$ up :5 ! insect is at re/1 :i*1 9 ! act ( jump+1 x sudd5ly /raight5s out ) great muscul> =ce4 ,! female flea 7,fig4 #dba7 lays a great numb] ( eggs1 /ick+ !m toge!r ) a glut9\s secretion2 ! flea infe/+ ! dog or cat glues its eggs to ! roots ( ! hairs4 ,9 ab\t f\r days ! eggs are hat*$ out1 & a small :ite l>va or grub is se5 crawl+ ab\t1 & fe$+ mo/ actively4 ,plate ,,vi41 ,no4 #ada1 is a magnifi$ view ( "o cov]$ ) %ort hairs4 ,aft] n9e or t5 days ! l>va assumes ! pupa =m2 ?is x reta9s f\r days1 & 9 n9e days m x becomes a p]fect flea4 ,! head ( ! flea f\nd 9 ! cat 7,fig4 #dae1 ,no4 #c7 some:at diff]s 9 =m f t ( ! species infe/+ ! human be+2 its jaws are furni%$ ) m =midable-look+ m&ibles1 & f betwe5 ! fir/ & second jo9ts beh9d ! head %ort /rong sp9es project4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dba4 #a4 ,female ,flea2 #b4 ,male ,flea4 7,! small circles enclose fleas ( ab\t life size47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbb4 #a4 ,p>asite ( ,eagle2 #b4 ,p>asite ( ,vulture2 #c4 ,p>asite ( ,pigeon1 ,s>coptes palumb9us4 7,! circles enclose ea* ab\t life size47 ,two small & obscure gr\ps ( ! mites & ticks h be5 associat$ ) ! latt]1 b = no bett] reason ?an t _! aff9ities are unkn[n4 ,! fir/ ( ^! are ! ,t>digrada1 or be> animalcules1 :i* comprise microscopical animals liv+ 9 damp1 s&y1 & mossy places2 ! body is long & oval 9 %ape1 & possesses f\r pairs ( bud-l unjo9t$ app5dages1 ea* tipp$ ) claws3 ! la/ pair ( legs project f ! h9d] "p ( ! body4 ,! m\? is mu* subdu$1 & only a trace ( jaws is f\nd z a pair ( /ylets2 !re appe> to be no organs ( respiration or circulation1 &1 unlike :at obta9s 9 all true ,ara*nida1 ! sexes are unit$ 9 ea* individual4 ,^! curi\s infusorial creatures h be5 f\nd by myself 9 an infusion ( c[ manure4 ,injuri\s ,insects4--,9 describ+ "s ( ! m int]e/+ po9ts 9 connection ) insect life1 ,i h only q incid5tally ref]r$ to ! de/ructive habits ( ! l>g] numb] ( insects & ! ravages annually inflict$1 *iefly by ! small] p>asitical tribes1 ^u our cultivat$ crops ( all k9ds4 ,"h we h a wide field ( rese>* op5 to ! microscopi/1 ^: inve/igations mu/ be c>ri$ out sy/ematically1 day by day1 & = :i* a mod]ate p[] w effectually s]ve 8 purpose4 ,!re are "s t5 or twelve species ( injuri\s insects t attack ! hop plant4 ,by way ( example1 ,i w select "o ( ! lea/ kn[n among !m1 ! hop-flea1 or beetle 7,haltica conc9na74 ,?is is suffici5tly m9ute to require ! aid ( ! microscope1 & v closely resembles ! turnip-flea prop]1 ,h4 nemorum4 ,"u ! microscope ! =m] w be se5 to diff] consid]ably4 ,its col\r is brassy1 :]eas ! col\r ( its cong5] is dusky or black1 & its w+-cases are /rip$4 ,!y bo? h wond]ful p[]s ( jump+4 ,h4 conc9na has a curi\s too!d =mation ( ! tibia1 ) a set ( sp9es1 :ile ! tibia ( ! turnip-flea is )\t any curve4 ,x pres5ts o!r po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! hop-flea is1 9 fact1 a w+$ beetle1 & passes ! w9t] 9 ! p]fect /ate "u clods1 tufts ( grass1 or we$s outside ! hop-plantation1 & "h x lays its eggs4 ,9 ! e>ly spr+ ! l>v are hat*$ out z a little :ite maggot1 :i* imm$iately makes its way to ! hop-plant & burr[s into ! "y leaves & fe$s ^u its tissues4 ,"h we h an insect tak5 at r&om f among ?\s&s ( o!rs ( ! mo/ de/ructive k9ds :i* annually de/roy crops ( enorm\s value to ! nation4 ,illu/ration3 ,tuff5 ,we/1 del4 ,edmund ,evans4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,v]tebrata4 ,! mo/ complicat$ condition 9 :i* matt] exi/s is :]e1 "u ! influ5ce ( life1 x =ms bodies ) a /ructure ( tubes & cavities 9 :i* fluids are incessantly 9 motion1 & produc+ cont9u\s *anges4 ,^! h be5 rightly designat$ 8organis$ bodies10 because ( ! v>i\s organs !y conta94 ,! two pr9cipal classes into :i* organis$ bodies h be5 divid$ are recognis$ z vegetable & animal4 ,x 0 ,bi*at :o taught t our animal life is d\ble1 :ile our organic life is s+le4 ,9 organic life1 to /op is to die2 & ! life we h 9 common ) vegetables nev] sleeps1 & if ! circulation ( ! fluids )9 ! animal body ceases = a few seconds1 x ceases = ev]4 ,9 ! v]tebrate body1 h[ev]1 ! comb9ation ( organs atta9s to ! highe/ developm5t1 9 /rik+ contra/ ) t ( ! class we h previ\sly consid]$1 ! ,inv]tebrata1 ! animal k+dom be+ divid$ into ,v]tebrates & ,inv]tebrates4 ,! ,v]tebrata are di/+ui%$ f all o!r animals by ! circum/ance t a transv]se & a v]tical section ( ! body exhibits two cavities completely sep>at$ f "o ano!r by a p>tition4 ,a /ill m *>act]i/ic feature sep>ates ! "o f ! o!r2 x is ! specialisation ( ! *ief n]v\s c5tres1 & _! peculi> relation to ! o!r sy/ems ( ! body4 ,! dorsal cavity ( ! body conta9s ! c]ebro-sp9al n]v\s sy/em1 ! v5tral1 ! alim5t>y canal1 ! he>t1 & usually a d\ble *a9 ( ganglia2 ^! pass "u ! "n ( ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,x is v probable t ?is sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em repres5ts1 :olly or p>tially1 ! pr9cipal n]v\s sy/em ( ! ,annulosa & ,mollusca4 ,9 any case1 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! c]ebro-sp9al n]v\s sy/em--i4e41 ! bra9 & ! sp9al cord--w\ld appe> to be unrepres5t$ among inv]tebrate animals4 ,likewise1 9 ! p>tition betwe5 ! c]ebro-sp9al & visc]al tubes1 c]ta9 /ructures :i* are n repres5t$ 9 ,inv]tebrates are conta9$4 ,dur+ ! embryonic condition ( all ,v]tebrates1 ! c5tre ( ! p>tition is occupi$ by an elongat$ cellul> cyl9drical mass1 ! noto*ord1 or *orda dorsalis4 ,?is /ructure p]si/s ?r\gh\t ! life 9 "s ,v]tebrata1 b 9 mo/ x is m or less completely replac$ by a jo9t$1 p>tly fibr\s1 c>tilag9\s1 & bony v]tical column4 ,all v]tebrate animals h a complete vascul> sy/em4 ,9 ! ?orax & abdom51 9 place ( a s+le p]ivisc]al cavity1 9 communication ) ! vascul> sy/em1 & s]v+ z a blood-s9us1 !re are "o or m s]\s sacs4 ,^! inve/ ! pr9cipal visc]a1 & may or may n communicate ) ! ext]ior1 recall+ 9 ! latt] case ! atrial cavities ( ! ,mollusca4 ,9 all ,v]tebrata1 except ,amphioxus1 !re is a s+le valvul> he>t1 & all possess a hepatic portal sy/em1 ! blood ( ! alim5t>y canal nev] be+ :olly return$ directly to ! he>t by ! ord9>y ve9s1 b be+ m or less completely collect$ into a trunk 7! portal ve971 :i* ramifies ?r\gh & supplies ! liv]4 ,) ref]5ce to "o o!r po9t ( importance1 ! developm5t ( ! ova ( ,v]tebrates1 ^! h ! same prim>y composition z ^? ( o!r animals1 consi/+ ( a g]m9al vesicle conta9+ "o or m g]m9al nuclei1 & includ$ )9 a vitellus4 ,b z ?is =ms a "p ( g5]al anatomy1 & z my object is simply ! inve/igation ( ! fundam5tal & microscopical /ructure ( animal organisms1 ,i %all n fur!r pursue ! morphological "p ( ! subject1 especially z s _m excell5t text-books are )9 rea* ( ! /ud5t :o desires to fully acqua9t himself ) precise in=mation4 ,not)/&+1 !n1 ! app>5t div]sity 9 ! /ructure ( ! v]tebrate & ! inv]tebrate & ! v>i\s tissues ( :i* animals & vegetables are con/itut$1 microscopical rese>* has satisfactorily demon/rat$ t all textures h _! orig9 9 cells2 9 fact1 :5 ! =mative process is complete1 ! animal cell is se5 to consi/ ( ! same p>ts & almo/ ! same *emical con/itu5ts z ! typical cell ( ! plant--namely1 a def9ite cell-wall enclos+ cell cont5ts1 ( :i* ! nature may be div]se1 b ! cell nucleus is precisely ! same & is ! actual seat & orig9 ( all =mative activity4 ,! cell & nucleus gr[ by assimilation or int]susception1 t is1 by infl[+ ( nutrition among all p>ts1 ! new replac+ ! old1 yet ma9ta9+ its orig9al /ructure & composition4 ,t :i* 0 once ?\ght special to animals is n[ f\nd to be common to bo? plants & animals3 !y are f\nd to be alike fundam5tally 9 int]nal /ructure1 & 9 ! dis*>ge ( ! my/]i\s processes ( reproduction & ( nutrition1 al?\gh ! latt] =ms a conv5i5t l9e ( sep>ation4 ,life 9 plants goes on indef9itely2 cutt+s may be tak5 )\t injury to _! vig\r & duration ( life4 ,! same may be said ( "s ( ! l[] =ms ( inv]tebrate life2 = example1 ! hydra1 ! anemone1 & "s o!r well-kn[n animals1 may be cut up1 divid$ into sev]al p>ts1 ea* "o ( :i* w =m a new animal1 provid$ a nucleus be includ$ 9 ! section4 ,nev]!less1 ! organisation ( ! amba & ! hydra is z complete = its purpose z t ( man = 81 & ! evid5ce ( cont9uity =bids ! draw+ ( h>d & fa/ l9es1 z 0 =m]ly done betwe5 ! two k+doms1 ! animal & vegetable4 ,! am\nt ( simil>ity or agreem5t 9 ! organisation ( animals is v>i\s4 ,animals inde$ diff] f ea* o!r 9 slight po9ts only1 = ! discov]y ( :i* ! microscope mu/ be br\ght into requisition4 ,liv+ matt] 9 its e>lie/ /age & simple/ =m appe>s to ! nak$ eye z a homog5e\s /ructure1 b :5 plac$ "u ! highe/ p[]s ( ! microscope1 x is se5 n to be s4 ,b p]haps ! mo/ m>k$ feature ( ! age has be5 ! increas+ att5tion giv5 to ! /udy ( ! l[] =ms ( life1 us+ _! simpl] /ructures & m diffuse ph5om5a to elucidate ! m g5]al prop]ties ( liv+ matt]4 ,to und]/& life we mu/ und]/& protoplasm4 ,( ?is !re c be no d\bt1 z we h se5 9 a previ\s *apt] t a :ole family1 ! ,mon]a1 consi/s ( ?is simple liv+1 microscopic1 jelly-l sub/ance1 :i* has n ev5 begun to be diff]5tiat$1 z 9 ! amba1 :i* has z yet no special organs1 & e speck becomes a m\? or a /oma*1 & :i* c be turn$ inside out & %oot out tongues ( jelly to move & feel )4 8,reproduction is ! faculty mo/ *>act]i/ic ( life1 & %>ply di/+ui%es ! organic f ! inorganic40 ,x is1 !n1 ! corpuscles ( protoplasm1 call$ cells 7cellul71 :i* h s mu* int]e/ = ! physiologi/1 & ^!1 l ! cytods1 may =m indep5d5t organisms1 :i* are !n t]m$ unicellul>4 ,aga91 cells =m o!r cells1 & a multicellul> organism results1 & goes on increas+ 9 geometrical progression4 ,9 ! ,v]tebrata ! cell reta9s its *>act]i/ic sph]oidal %ape1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #dbc1 & und]goes division by virtue ( its liv+ protoplasmic mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbc4 #a4 ,newly =m$ cell /ructure2 #b4 ,division ( ! nucleus2 #c4 ,x *anges its situation 9 ! cell2 #d4 ,subdivides & breaks up2 #e4 ,cell-walls increase 9 ?ickness2 #f4 ,bran* out into /ellate cells2 #g4 ,two cells coalesce2 #h & #i4 ,become multicellul>4 ,epi!lial ,cells4--,all free surfaces ( ! human body1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 are to a v consid]able ext5t cov]$ by epi!lium cells4 ,^! cells are ev]y:]e ! same1 b ) modifications 9 %ape & arrangem5t4 ,epi!lial cells are nucleat$ & always jo9$ by _! surfaces or edges1 )\t1 on ! ext]nal surfaces1 ! int]v5tion ( connective tissue4 ,!re are f\r ess5tial v>ieties3--#a4 ,tesselat$2 #b4 ,column>2 #c4 ,sph]oidal2 #d4 ,ciliat$2 9 all ( :i* ! nucleus rema9s rem>kably uni=m 9 its *>act]s1 is ei!r r\nd or oval1 & flatt5$ out1 measur+ #a_/fjjj? to #a_/djjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,!y are insoluble 9 acetic acid1 col\rless1 or slightly t9t$ by ! /ructure ) :i* !y are 9 contact1 & usually conta9 "o or m nucleoli ) a few m9ute irregul> granules1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dbd4 ,! simple/ & mo/ commonly di/ribut$ v>iety is ! tesselat$1 kn[n also z ! scaly1 squam\s1 pavem5t1 & flatt5$ epi!lium1 always arrang$ 9 s+le lay]s1 l9+ s]\s cavities1 _m p>ts ( ! muc\s membrane1 & ! int]ior ( ducts & blood vessels4 ,^u ! ext]nal surface ( ! body x occurs 9 sup]impos$ lay]s1 =m+ ! 8/ratifi$ epid]mis40 ,to obta9 specim5s ( lamell> epi!lium x is only necess>y to collect a little saliva1 or pass a glass slide ov] ! l9+ membrane ( ! *eek1 cov] x ) a ?9 cov] glass1 & exam9e x ) a #a_/d-;in* objective4 ,pavem5t epi!lium is ! elem5t>y /ructure ( hair1 nails1 & horn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,,animal ,,tissues4 ,column> epi!lium exi/s ^u ! muc\s membrane ( ! /oma*1 on ! villi ( ! inte/9es1 & 9 ! sev]al canals4 ,x occupies ei!r a v]tical or horizontal position1 & may be deta*$ 9 r[s1 z %[n 9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #b1 a section tak5 f ! inte/9e ( a rabbit4 ,?is v>iety1 :5 m highly magnifi$1 z 9 ,fig4 #dbd1 is se5 to consi/ ( club-%ap$ nucleat$ cells1 ! ?ick] end be+ turn$ t[>ds ! surface4 ,! protoplasm ( ! cell is granul>1 & ! pres5ce ( m9ute vacuoles & fatty globules occupy a great "p ( ! space4 ,! nucleus is n[ se5 to conta9 a f9e network4 ,at times ! out] end ( ! cell is di/5d$1 z 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,?is =m ( column> epi!lium 7kn[n z ! 8goblet0 cell7 pres5ts a close & rem>kable resemblance to ! cilio-flagellate 8coll>$0 infusorial monad 9 its ext5d$ 8w9e-glass0 =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbd4 ,no4 #a4 ,pavem5t epi!lium1 tak5 f an int]nal membrane2 #b4 ,column> epi!lium1 f ! inte/9e ( a rabbit1 %[+ c5tral fat globules1 & at /r a f9e ciliat$ bord]2 #c4 ,a s-call$ 8goblet0-cell4 ,sph]oidal epi!lium is conf9$ to ! clos$ cavities ( ! body1 & 9 ! int]nal /ructure ( ! ducts ( secret+ gl&s4 ,! cells are1 = ! mo/ "p1 circul>1 al?\gh "s are flatt5$ out at ! sides 9 :i* !y are 9 contact ) ea* o!r 7,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #a;a74 ,specim5s ( ?is =m may be tak5 f ! int]nal surface ( "o ( ! l[] animals ) a scalpel4 ,! collect$ matt] mu/ be plac$ 9 a drop ( di/ill$ wat] & exam9$ ) a high p[]4 ,ciliat$ epi!lium is *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( ^? f9e hair-l filam5ts 7cilia7 atta*$ to ! free surface ( ! cell4 ,dur+ life1 & = "s "t aft] dea?1 ! cilia are se5 to reta9 _! con/ant wav+ motion4 ,! cilia all move 9 "o direction & rhy?mically1 ?us giv+ rise to ! appe>ance ( a succession ( undulations4 ,ciliat$ epi!lium is f\nd l9+ ! muc\s membrane ( ! air passages & nasal ducts1 & :]ev] x is necess>y to urge on a secretion by me*anical means1 ciliat$ epi!lium exi/s4 ,specim5s = exam9ation are easily obta9$ f ! oy/]1 & ) c>e w %[ ! *>act]i/ic motion4 ,a portion ( a gill sep>at$ f ! mollusc w live on = a consid]able "t if kept 9 a little ( its natural secretion4 ,! p>ameci1 rotif]a1 & all ! ciliata1 are furni%$ ) cilia z a means ( locomotion & obta9+ su/5ance4 ,by snipp+ (f a small piece f ! gills ( ! mussel1 always accessible to ! microscopi/1 & cov]+ x ov] ) ?9 glass to prev5t evaporation ( ! animal juices1 its cilia w cont9ue to "w = h\rs4 ,lymph & ,blood1 ,fig4 #dbe ,b1 a a4--,!re are o!r cells 9 ! animal body :i* possess a c]ta9 am\nt ( resemblance to ^? conf9$ to ! m sup]ficial /ructures--i4e41 ! lymph1 *yle1 & blood4 ,^! fluids pres5t 9 "o respect a physical uni=mity ( composition1 & a resemblance 9 ! size ( _! *>act]i/ic corpuscles4 ,*yle conta9s besides ! corpuscles ( lymph1 a quantity ( m9ute granules :i* imp>ts a :ite col\r to ! fluid4 ,int]mix$ are oil globules1 free nuclei1 & sometimes a few r$ blood discs4 ,*yle may be _h = microscopic exam9ation by squeez+ a little juice f ! lymphatic gl& ( a %eep j slaught]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbe4--;,human ,blood ,corpuscles & ,cry/als4 ,a4 a a4 ,r$ blood corpuscles ly+ flat on ! w>m /age2 b b4 9 pr(ile2 c c4 arrang$ 9 r\leaux2 d4 cr5at$2 e4 r5d]$ sph]ical by wat]2 ,i4 leucocytes & :ite amboid corpuscles2 ,b4 ,blood discs ( f[l1 r$ & :ite1 o!rs se5 9 convexity & ) a nucleus4 ,blood ,cry/als4--,c4 ,hmat9 f human blood2 ,d4 ,hmatoid92 ,e4 ,hm92 ,f4 ,tetrah$ral2 ,g4 ,p5tagonal2 ,h4 ,octah$ral cry/als f blood ( m\se4 ,blood ,corpuscles or cells v>y consid]ably 9 mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 & fi%es4 ,fig4 #ajb 7page #adc7 is a microphotograph ( a drop ( blood magnifi$ #c1ejj times2 & ,fig4 #dbe1 ,a1 %[s bo? r$ & :ite discs drawn to scale1 magnifi$ #a1bjj diamet]s4 ,! r$ corpuscles ( human blood are di/+ui%$ by _! cle>ly def9$ outl9es & d>k c5tres4 ,ea* disc is biconcave 9 =m1 & h5ce ! :ole surface _c be focuss$ at ! same "t4 ,:5 ! circumf]5ce is well illum9at$ ! c5tre is d>k1 b by br++ ! objective ne>] to ! object1 ! concavity ( ! disc is br\ght into focus4 ,x g5]ally happ5s t blood corpuscles1 on be+ fir/ drawn1 run toge!r1 & pres5t ! appe>ance ( rolls ( co9s2 or !y may be scatt]$ ab\t ov] ! field4 ,!re is a consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! =m ( ! discs2 !y are circul> 9 all mammals1 except ! camel1 drom$>y1 & llama1 ^! be+ oval4 ,9 pr(ile blood corpuscles are biconcave1 _! inve/+ membrane is homog5e\s & ela/ic1 & w readily move along ! smalle/ capill>y vessels4 ,!re is no trace ( a nucleus 9 ! blood-discs ( ! adult ,mammalia1 :ile 9 size !y be> no proportion to ! bulk ( ! animal 9 ^: blood-vessels !y circulate4 ,! corpuscles ( ,mammalia 9 g5]al are l ^? ( man 9 =m & size1 be+ ei!r a little l>g] or small]4 ,! mo/ m>k$ exception is ! blood ( ! musk-de]1 9 :i* ! corpuscles are ( extreme smallness1 ab\t ! #a_/abjjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! elephant !y are l>ge1 ab\t #a_/bgjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,! goat1 among common animals1 has v small corpuscles1 b !y are1 )al1 twice z l>ge z ^? ( ! musk-de]4 ,9 ! ,m5obran*us lat]alis !y are ( a mu* l>g] size ?an 9 any animal1 be+ ! #a_/cej? ( an in*2 9 ! proteus1 ! #a_/djj? ( an in* 9 ! longe/ diamet]2 9 ! salam&]1 or wat]-newt1 #a_/fjj?2 9 ! frog1 #a_/ijj?2 liz>ds1 #a_/adjj?2 9 birds1 #a_/agjj?2 & 9 man1 #a_/cbjj? ( an in*4 ,( fi%es1 ! c>tilag9\s h ! l>ge/ corpuscles2 9 gold-fi%1 !y are ab\t ! #a_/agjj? ( an in* 9 _! longe/ diamet]4 ,! l>ge size ( ! blood discs 9 reptiles1 especially 9 ! ,batra*ia1 has be5 ( great s]vice to physiologi/s by enabl+ !m to asc]ta9 _m p>ticul>s reg>d+ /ructure :i* c\ld n h be5 o!rwise det]m9$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,! value ( ! spectroscope 9 ! *emical exam9ation ( ! blood has be5 already ref]r$ to4 ,see page #beb4 ,:ite corpuscles or leucocytes 7,fig4 #dbe1 ,i7 diff] mat]ially f ! r$4 ,!y are l>ge1 sph]oidal1 f9ely granul> masses ( ab\t #a_/bhjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,9 a cubic millimtre ( human blood !re are ab\t #aj1jjj :ite corpuscles4 ,!y h a l[] specific gravity ?an ! r$1 h no cell-wall1 & _! sub/ance ma9ly consi/s ( protoplasm4 ,! int]nal granul> appe>ance is n[ believ$ to be due to a f9e int]cellul> network hav+ small dots at ! int]sections ( ! web4 ,9 ! me%es ( ! net a hyal9e sub/ance is int]sp]s$4 ,!y possess "o or m nuclei2 ^! are se5 on ! application ( a few drops ( acetic acid4 ,:5 exam9$ 9 a p]fectly fre% /ate1 especially if ! glass slide be plac$ on ! w>m /age ( ! microscope1 !y exhibit a spontane\s *ange ( %ape1 amba-l1 su* movem5ts be+ accord+ly t]m$ amboid4 ,! movem5ts ref]r$ to consi/ 9 ! protrusion ( processes ( protoplasm :i* are retract$ & o!r processes protrud$ z repres5t$ 7,fig4 #dbe1 ,i74 ,bo? 9 human blood & 9 newts !re are col\rless corpuscles :i* conta9 co>s] granules ?an o!rs2 ^! are call$ granul> corpuscles4 ,"s are %[n ne> ! amboid bodies4 ,! :ite corpuscles are readily f\nd 9 v>i\s tissues ( ! body1 z 9 ! lymphatic gl&s4 ,9 inflammatory diseases ^! leucocytes pass ?r\gh ! walls ( ! capill>ies into ! tissues1 & =m morbid products1 pus-cells4 ,sections ( blood discs are made by dipp+ a f9e ne$le 9 a drop ( blood z x exudes f a prick ( ! f+] & draw+ ?9 l9es across ! glass slip1 all[+ "t to dry1 & !n cutt+ ! l9es across 9 all directions ) a razor4 ,! loos5$ portions %\ld be remov$ ) a camel's-hair bru%4 ,9 birds1 ! blood discs are oval 9 %ape & possess a nucleus1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #dbe ,b1 9 ! blood ( ! f[l2 ?is is r5d]$ m app>5t on add+ a drop ( acetic acid4 ,! blood ( fi%es is also oval & nucleat$1 r m po9t$ ?an t ( birds4 ,9 reptiles g5]ally ! r$ blood discs are l>ge1 oval1 nucleat$ bodies1 ! :ite corpuscles /ill pres]v+ _! inv>iable circul> =m & granul> appe>ance4 ,9 ! salam&] & proteus ! discs atta9 to _! greate/ size4 ,9 ! =m] !y measure #a_/gjj? ( an in*1 & 9 ! latt] #a_/djj?4 ,blood ,cry/als4--,9 addition to ! elem5ts describ$1 ! blood conta9s v>i\s cry/all9e =ms1 repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dbe1 ,c to ,h4 ,9 connection ) ! micro-spectroscope 7p4 #bec71 ! spectra ( c]ta9 blood cry/als are giv52 al?\gh v>y+ 9 diff]5t animals1 suffici5t uni=mity prevails z to r5d] !m *>act]i/ic4 ,! cry/als are =m$ :5 a little blood is mix$ ) wat] on ! slide1 all[+ a %ort "t = cry/allisation4 ,ne> ! edge ( ! cov]-glass1 :]e cry/als beg9 to =m1 !y are m di/9ct1 b a high p[] is requir$ = _! exam9ation4 ,9 human blood ! cry/als are prismatic2 9 t ( ! gu9ea-pig1 tetrah$ral2 9 ! blood ( ! m\se1 octah$ral4 ,o!r =ms may be obta9$ by ! aid ( *emical reag5ts4 ,9 human blood !re are at lea/ ?ree di/9ct =ms ( cry/als3 ,hmat9 is =m$ 9 normal blood1 is made visible on ! addition ( a little wat] to blood1 or by agitation ) e!r1 s z to dissolve ! cell-wall ( ! blood corpuscles1 & all[ ! cont5ts to escape4 ,a drop ( blood w furni% cry/als l>ge en\gh to be se5 ) a mod]ate p[]4 ,hmatoid9 cry/als are abnormal products1 f\nd 9 connection ) c]ta9 diseas$ conditions4 ,^! cry/als are se5 z repres5t$ at ,d4 ,hm9 cry/als mu/ be reg>d$ z artificial *emical products1 ! result ( treat+ blood ) glacial acetic acid2 ! acicul> cry/als at ,e1 r$di%-br[n 9 col\r1 are artificially produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbf4 #a4 ,:ite fibr\s or non-ela/ic tissue2 #b4 ,yell[ fibr\s ela/ic tissue4 ,basem5t ,membrane--,connective ,tissue ,sy/em4--,connective or areol> tissue is pres5t almo/ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! human body1 & s]ves to connect ! v>i\s organs ) "o ano!r1 z well z to b9d toge!r ! sev]al p>ts4 ,! muscles are surr\nd$ by a connective tissue %ea?2 ?is p5etrates into _! sub/ance1 & b9ds toge!r fasciculi & fibres4 ,! same tissue is pres5t 9 ! sk9 & ! muc\s membranes2 x also =ms a %ea? = ! art]ies1 ve9s1 & n]ves4 ,x is pl5tifully suppli$ by blood-vessels1 & n]ves pass ?r\gh its sub/ance4 ,microscopically1 f\r diff]5t elem5ts c be cle>ly made out3--#a4 ,connective tissue cells or corpuscles2 #b4 ,:ite fibr\s tissue2 #c4 ,yell[ fibr\s tissue2 #d4 ,gr\nd sub/ance4 ,on exam9+ ! connective tissue cells ( "y animals1 v>i\s cells w be se5 ) f9e granul> cont5ts1 toge!r ) nuclei1 ly+ 9 spaces 9 ! gr\nd sub/ance1 "s bran*$1 o!rs flatt5$ or r\nd$4 ,ev5 tissues suppos$ to be homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 are on /a9+ se5 to h connective tissue cells1 su* z ^? repres5t$ 9 a section ( ! cornea ( ! eye 7see p4 #ca74 ,9 ?is case ! connective tissue cells are t]m$ corneal corpuscles2 ! bran*$ cells1 x w be notic$1 are unit$ by bran*es4 ,! cells 9 ! fibr\s tissue ( t5dons are squ>e or oblong1 & =m cont9u\s r[s4 ,:ite fibr\s tissue is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! animal body1 b 9 a v>iety ( =ms2 x is f\nd 9 ! sk9 & o!r membranes1 & 9 all p>ts :]e /r5g? & flexibility are necess>y4 ,! /ructure ( :ite & yell[ fibr\s tissues is %[n 9 ,figs4 #dbf & #dbg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbg4 #a4 ,:ite fibr\s tissue l9+ ! int]ior ( ! egg %ell1 ) ! calcium c>bonate remov$ by imm]sion 9 hydro*loric acid2 #b4 ,:ite fibr\s tissue1 f ! scl]otic coat ( ! eye4 ,:ite fibr\s tissue pres5ts silv]-lu/re bundles1 runn+ = ! mo/ "p 9 p>allel directions ?r\gh & ov] ! muscles & t5dons4 ,= exam9ation "u ! microscope1 obta9 a fragm5t ( fre% meat cut 9 ! longitud9al direction2 place x 9 wat]1 & tease x out ) ne$les z direct$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,! smalle/ fragm5t w suffice = exam9ation "u a qu>t] or "o-six? in* objective4 ,^! filam5ts are exce$+ly m9ute1 measur+ #a_/cjjj? to #a_/bejj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & d n int]lace ?r\gh ! bundles1 al?\gh !y int]sect ea* o!r occasionally4 ,transv]se sections may be made by dry+ a piece ( t5don until x becomes suffici5tly firm to cut ) a razor or microtome1 & m\nt$ z a p]man5t specim54 ,f ! cut ends ( ! fibres small d>k po9ts w be se51 especially 9 ! d5s] /ructure ( ! t5dons2 ^! are t]m$ 8connective tissue corpuscles40 ,yell[ ela/ic fibr\s tissue is rem>kable 9 contradi/9ction to ! :ite = its ela/icity & capability ( ext5sion4 ,x is f\nd on ! coats ( blood-vessels1 betwe5 ! v]tebral ar*es1 & 9 quadrup$s x =ms a /rong ela/ic b&1 ext5d+ f ! occiput1 ?r\gh\t ! sp9es ( ! v]tebra1 & enabl+ ! animal to support ! head 9 ! p5d5t position1 )\t muscul> ex]tion4 ,^! fibres c only be sep>at$ f ea* o!r ) difficulty1 & _! ela/icity is %[n by a t5d5cy to curl up4 ,^! yell[ fibres are some:at co>s] ?an ! :ite1 & !y rema9 unaffect$ by acetic acid ( ! ord9>y /r5g?4 ,ela/ic tissue is a con/itu5t ( ! sk91 muc\s1 & s]\s membranes1 & ( ! areol> or cellul> tissue4 ,9 ord] to microscopically exam9e ?is /ructure1 take a small portion ( ! /rong ligam5t ( ! neck ( ! ox1 place x z be=e 9 wat]1 & tease x out ) ne$les2 place a fragm5t on a glass slip1 cov] ) a ?9 cov]-glass1 & submit x to a high magnify+ p[]4 ,transv]se sections made z direct$ 9 ! case ( :ite tissue w be se5 to be hexagonal 9 =m4 ,adipose ,tissue4--,fat is f\nd 9 _m situations 9 ! animal body1 & on exam9ation is se5 to consi/ entirely ( vesicles1 di/ribut$ ?r\gh a delicate membrane ( connective tissue1 %[n 9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,nos4 #d & #e4 ,on pressure1 ! circul> or oval =m ( ! cells becomes polyh$ral2 occasionally ! fatty acids 9 ! int]ior ( ! vesicles cry/allise1 & give rise to a />-l appe>ance4 ,= ! exam9ation ( adipose tissue1 take a portion ( ! mes5t]y ( any small animal--a m\se1 or rat4 ,reti=m ,tissue4--,ad5oid1 or reti=m tissue1 consi/s ( a delicate network ( connective tissue corpuscles1 jo9+ _! bran*es toge!r4 ,?is =ms ! /roma or framework ( lymphoid tissue4 ,x is f\nd 9 connection ) all ! lymphatic gl&s1 sple51 c4 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #c1 a b1 %[s small sections ( a lymphatic1 toge!r ) capill>y vessels4 ,muscul> ,fibre4--,!re are two v>ieties ( muscul> fibre 9 ! body--i4e41 /riat$1 & non-/riat$4 ,! /riat$ is =m$ 9 muscles atta*$ to bony /ructures1 z ^? ( ! arm & leg1 & 9 "s ( ! s(t /ructures1 z ! tongue1 palate1 sophagus1 9 %ort1 all muscles "u ! control ( ! w4 ,/rip$ muscle is ( a dull r$ col\r & m>k$ ) peculi> longitud9al furr[s on its surface4 ,volunt>y muscle consi/s (3--#a1 a connective tissue %ea?2 #b1 fasciculi2 #c1 fibres & s>colemma2 #d1 discs1 fibrilla & s>c\s elem5ts4 ,^! are %[n 9 connection ) o!r tissues 9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,nos4 #aa & #ab1 & also 9 ,fig4 #dbh 7#a1 #b1 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbh4 #a4 ,muscul> fibre brok5 across1 ! fragm5ts connect$ by ! connective tissue membrane #ajj2 #b4 ,fibre brok5 up into irregul> di/9ct b&s3 a few blood corpuscles di/ribut$ ab\t #bjj2 #c4 ,a fasciculus ( muscul> fibre f leg ( pig #fjj4 ,9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,fig4 #aa1 ! muscul> fibre tak5 f ! tongue ( a lamb %[s ! cont9uity ( ! upp] portion ) ! connective tissue membrane4 ,9 ,fig4 #ab1 a bran*+-out bundle ( muscul> fibre1 tak5 f ! upp] lip ( ! rat1 is se5 to end 9 /ellate connective cells4 ,! delicate homog5e\s %ea? t b9ds ! fibres toge!r is t]m$ s>colemma4 ,?is is readily se5 9 prep>$ muscle ( ! frog & wat]-beetle1 less pla9ly 9 man4 ,ea* muscle is provid$ ) a %ea? ( connective tissue2 ?is surr\nds x1 b9ds ! fasciculi toge!r1 & supports ! blood-vessels2 x is call$ ! p]imysium1 & s5ds f9e prolongations 9 betwe5 ! fibres1 t]m$ endomysium4 ,! int]vals se5 on high amplification betwe5 ! d>k /ri are call$ ,kruse's membrane4 ,on break+ up ! /riat$ /ructure x is resolvable into fibrill & fur!rmore into discs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbi4 #a4 ,v]tical section ( epid]mis2 #b4 ,pigm5t cells f a l[] lay] ( cutis4 ,among mammalia ! pig furni%es ! be/ examples ( muscle fibrill2 among insects ! wat]-beetle & ! ?orax ( ! h\sefly4 ,a p[] ( #fjj or #hjj diamet]s is requir$ to sep>ate ! fibrill4 ,blood-vessels are well suppli$ ) /riat$ muscle1 b none ( _! m9ut] bran*es p5etrate ! s>colemma4 ,! involunt>y or non-/riat$ v>iety ( muscul> fibre exi/s 9 all p>ts ( ! body :]e movem5ts occur indep5d5tly ( ! w1 also 9 ! cili>y muscle & ! iris ( ! eye1 z well z 9 ! middle coats ( ! art]ies4 ,non-/riat$ fibres are pale 9 col\r1 prismatic 9 %ape1 & easily flatt5$ by pressure4 ,9 size1 !y v>y f #a_/gjjj? to #a_/cejj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & are m>k$ at %ort int]vals by oblong corpuscles4 ,! ,integum5t or ,sk9 consi/s ( epid]mis or cuticle1 d]mis1 corium or cutis v]a1 sweat-gl&s1 nails1 hairs1 sebace\s gl&s1 & num]\s n]ves & vessels4 ,! epid]mis =ms a protective cov]+ ov] ! :ole surface ( ! body1 & is m\ld$ on to ! surface ( ! corium b5ea?1 cov]+ ! ridges1 depressions & papill4 ,x is made up ( ?ree pr9cipal lay]s3 ! horny lay] or /ratium corneum1 ! mo/ sup]ficial1 ?is consi/s ( lay]s ( flatt5$ cells1 :i* are )\t a nucleus2 ! /ratum lucidum1 compos$ ( lay]s ( nucleat$ cells1 m or less indi/9ct 9 section2 ! rete mucosum or malpighian lay]2 is compos$ 9 its upp] "p ( lay]s ( 8prickle cells0 & its inf]ior ( a s+le /ratum ( column> cells4 ,pigm5t is pr9cipally f\nd 9 ! l[e/ lay]1 ,fig4 #dbi4 ,! gradations ( col\r 9 ! sk9 are due to ! granul> cont5ts ( ! pigm5t cells4 ,?is is se5 on /eep+ sections cut f ! sk9 ( a negro 9 *lor9e2 ! col\r is dis*>g$4 ,9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #ac1 ! pigm5t cells ( ! *oroid coat ( eye are %[n4 ,"h ! pigm5t is d>k] 9 col\r1 & its function is ! absorption ( light & ! prev5tion ( di/urb+ effects occasion$ by circles ( disp]sion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcj4--,v]tical section ( sk9 & subcutane\s tissues1 %[+ ! sweat-gl&s & fat-globules1 ducts pass+ upw>ds to ! epid]mis or ext]nal cuticle4 ,magnifi$ #bej diamet]s4 ,! ,d]mis1 or true sk91 consi/s ( an int]lac+ network ( connective tissue1 yell[ ela/ic tissue corpuscles1 vessels1 & n]ves4 ,!re are also small muscul> fibres 9 connection ) ! hair follicles1 & b5ea? ! subcutane\s tissues conta9 an abundant supply ( fat adipose tissue4 ,num]\s ridges are se5 on ! surface1 especially on ! palm ( ! h& & sole ( ! foot1 caus$ by r[s ( little elevations ( ! cutis v]a1 t]m$ papill4 ,^! are m or less conical1 & conta9 a capill>y loop1 n]ve1 & t\* corpuscle1 :i* s]ve to increase ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! "p1 lodg+ a t\* corpuscle 9 a fav\rable position = receiv+ s5sations ( t\*1 ,fig4 #dcj4 ,sweat gl&s are situat$ 9 ! subcutane\s tissue1 & consi/ ( f9e tubes1 :i* =m ! duct 7se5 9 ! section1 ,fig4 #dcj72 ^! are cont9u\s ) a bl9d extremity1 coil$ up into a ball "o-sixtie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & surr\nd$ by a plexus ( capill>ies to =m ! gl& 7,fig4 #dca1 ,no4 #b74 ,betwe5 ! lay] ( column> cells & ! limit+ membrane is a lay] ( non-/riat$ muscle1 & b5ea? ! rite mucosum !re are sev]al lay]s ( polyh$ral cells1 & an ext]nal & int]nal limit+ membrane2 ! epi!lium ( ! duct is at its m\? cont9u\s ) ! epi!lium ( ! epid]mis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dca4 #a4 ,blood vessels ( papill suppli$ to cutis2 #b4 ,p]p5dicul> section ?r\gh ! scalp1 ) two hair-sacs2 a4 epid]mis2 b4 cutis2 c4 muscles ( ! hair follicles4 ,nails consi/ ( a root & body1 ! lunul> ( :i* is ! :iti% portion ( ! body ne> ! root1 :]e ! sk9 b5ea? is less vascul> ?an any o!r portion ( ! f+]4 ,! nail closely resembles ! epid]mis1 & consi/s ( h>d & ?9 lay]s ( cells on ! surface1 & r\nd1 moi/ cells b5ea?4 ,po/]iorly ! nail fits into a groove :i* lodges its root4 ,! "p to :i* ! nail is atta*$ is kn[n z ! nail-b$4 ,! /ratifi$ appe>ance produc$ by ! coalesc5ce ( ! cells1 & _! ly+ ov] ea* o!r1 is %[n 9 ,plate ,,vii41 ,no4 #adi1 ! toe ( ! m\se2 :ile ! special arrangem5t ( tissue is bett] se5 "u pol>is$ light 7,plate ,,viii41 ,no4 #agd74 ,hairs consi/ ( a %aft & root4 ,! %aft is cyl9drical1 & cov]$ ) a lay] ( imbricat$ scales1 arrang$ ) _! edges upw>ds4 ,! sub/ance ( ! hair consi/s ( fibres1 or elongat$ fusi=m cells1 9 :i* nuclei are se54 ,!re are pres5t 9 "s hairs 7,fig4 #dcb7 small air spaces or lacun4 ,9 ! co>s] hair ( ! body !re is a pi? 7m$ulla71 occupi$ by small angul> cells & fat granules4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcb4 #a4 ,s+le ,hair-root & ,%aft2 #b4 ,v]tical section1 %[+ fibr\s "* ( ! hair toge!r ) col\r+ matt]1 ext]nal edges s]rat$2 #c4 ,transv]se section ( human hair1 m$ull>y sub/ance1 & c5tral pi?4 ,! root ( ! hair is se5 to dilate t x may fit m firmly into ! sk9 hair-follicle4 ,! latt] consi/s ( two coats1 an out] & an inn]1 cont9u\s ) ! epid]mis1 & ?is is call$ ! root %ea?4 ,! out] portion consi/s ( ?ree lay]s1 =m$ ( connective tissue1 blood-vessels1 & n]ves4 ,! inn]1 or epid]mic1 coat comes away :5 ! hair is pull$ out1 & h5ce is call$ ! root %ea?4 ,?is aga9 is made up ( two lay]s1 ! out] ( :i* corresponds ) ! horny lay]1 & is compos$ ( flatt5$ cells4 ,! bulb\s root ( ! hair is connect$ ) ! papilla4 ,9 ! cat ! tactile nasal hairs are v l>ge4 ,small bundles ( involunt>y muscul> fibres connect ! corium ) ! root1 s t 9 contract+ !y elevate or exp& ! hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcc4 #a4 ,jo9t$ hairs ( ,indian bat2 #b4 ,hair ( fly+-fox1 %[+ imbricat$ scales2 #c4 ,hair ( m\se1 %[+ pigm5t lay]s2 #d4 ,hair ( a small beetle 7,d]me/es74 #bej4 ,! hair ( ! l[] animals pres5ts a div]sity ( /ructure1 especially on ! out] surface1 & ) ref]5ce to ! arrangem5t ( ! scales4 ,! hair ( ! ,indian bat1 = in/ance1 consi/s ( a %aft inve/$ ) erectile scales1 plac$ at regul> int]vals2 ^! /& out f ! %aft1 z 9 ,fig4 #dcc1 ,no4 #a4 ,?is =m ( scale v>ies consid]ably 9 ! diff]5t species ( ^! animals1 & a portion ( hair ne> ! root is ne>ly dive/$ ( scales4 ,_m ( ! scales are n unlike ^? ( c]ta9 ( ! insect tribe1 se5 9 t ( ,d]me/es1 ,no4 #c1 :ile ! hair ( ! m\se has a s]ies ( transv]se imbricat$ scales arrang$ z tiles on a h\se1 due to accumulat$ pigm5t4 ,hairs tak5 f v>i\s animals =m int]e/+ objects ( /udy = ! microscope1 z already notic$4 ,o!r hairs are %[n 9 ,fig4 #dcd4 ,no4 #a is a transv]se section ( a hair f ! ant-eat]2 ! c5tral "p consi/s ( air-cells1 ! out] ( a granul> pi?4 ,no4 #b is a transv]se section ( hair ( pecc>y1 ) a div]sifi$ arrangem5t ( ! cortical envelope1 s5d+ outw>d a set ( radial prolongations & air-cells2 ?is k9d ( /ructure is also f\nd 9 ! quills ( ! porcup9e4 ,no4 #c is a transv]se section ( a hair ( ! elephant1 :i* %[s a comb9ation ( a numb] ( tubes unit$ toge!r1 some:at resembl+ ! arrangem5t ( ! ho(-horn ( "s ( ! rum9ants1 & ! d5s] horny gr[? on ! sn\t ( ! rh9oc]os1 ,no4 #d4 ,! curi\s modification ( ^! horny /ructures is se5 9 ! horns ( o!r animals1 & :i* may be lik5$ to a bundle ( hairs4 ,on mak+ a transv]se section1 z 9 ,fig4 #dcd1 & submitt+ x to pol>is$ light1 on rotat+ ! analys]1 ! d>k c5tral spot %[n is replac$ by a bright "o ) a play ( col\rs due to ! int]f]5ce ( light 7,plate ,,viii41 ,no4 #agh74 ,! scales ( fi% are also ( int]e/ 7,fig4 #dce74 ,^! h be5 %[n to af=d an un]r+ guide 9 ! classification ( fi%es & 9 ! exam9ation ( _! fossil rema9s4 ,z a class ( objects = ! microscope1 !y are f\nd to be bo? curi\s & beautiful4 ,plate ,,viii41 ,no4 #agf1 is a scale ( ! grayl+1 se5 "u pol>is$ light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcd4 #a4 ,hair ( ant-eat]2 #b4 ,hair ( pecc>y2 #c4 ,hair ( elephant2 #d4 ,horn ( ,rh9oc]os4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dce4--;,fi% ,scale 7,sole74 ,( ! h>d] outgr[?s ( ! d]mal /ructures1 ! tee? af=d ! *ief example among animals4 ,! r\gh anatomy ( ! too? 9 mank9d consi/s ( a cr[n1 t projects f ! gum2 a root1 or fangs1 fix$ 9 a socket ( ! jawbone1 & a %ort int]m$i>y neck4 ,ea* too? is suppli$ ) an art]y & n]ve1 & has a c5tral cavity fill$ ) a s(t1 vascul>1 s5sitive sub/ance1 ! pulp4 ,on mak+ a v]tical section ( a too?1 we recognise ! sev]al /ructures 9 ! ord] (1 pulp1 cru/a1 petrosa1 d5t9e1 & enamel4 ,a section ?r\gh a human mol> too? 7%[n 9 ,fig4 #dcf7 w convey "s idea ( ! arrangem5t ( ! d5s] /ructures ref]r$ to above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcf4--,sections ( ,human ,mol> ,too? 7magnifi$ #ej diamet]s74 #a4 ,v]tical section2 #b4 ,horizontal section4 ,bl&9 0 ! fir/ to demon/rate t tee? are develop$ 9 ! muc\s membrane1 simil> to t ( hair & nails4 ,tee? are =m$ 9 grooves ( ! muc\s membrane1 & subsequ5tly conv]t$ into clos$ sacs by a process ( involution1 & _! f9al adhesion to ! jaw is a lat] process4 ,x is v g5]ally conc$$ t tee? belong to ! muco-d]moid1 & n to ! p]io/eal1 s]ies ( tissues2 t1 in/ead ( /&+ 9 close relation to ! endo-skeleton1 !y are "p ( ! d]mal or exo-skeleton2 _! true analogues be+ ! hair1 & "s o!r epid]mic app5dages4 ,huxley prov$ t1 al?\gh tee? are develop$ 9 two ways1 !y are m]e v>ieties ( ! usual mode 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,9 ! fir/1 :i* is typifi$ by ! mack]el & ! frog1 ! pulp is nev] free1 b f ! fir/ is inclos$ )9 ! capsule1 seem+ to s9k d[n z fa/ z x gr[s4 ,9 ! o!r1 ! pulp projects freely at "o p]iod above ! surface ( ! muc\s membrane1 becom+ subsequ5tly includ$ )9 a capsule =m$ by ! involution ( ! latt]2 ?is occurs 9 ! human subject4 ,! skate (f]s a sort ( int]m$iate /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcg4 #a4 ,section ( a cusp ( ! po/]ior mol> ( a *ild4 ,! inn] outl9e repres5ts x be=e ! addition ( acetic acid--! out] aft]w>ds1 :5 ,nasmy?'s membrane g is se5 rais$ up 9 folds2 f4 ! enamel organ2 c4 ! d5t9e2 ! c5tral portion be+ fill$ ) pulp4 #b4 ,edge ( ! pulp ( a mol> cusp1 %[+ ! fir/ rudim5t ( ! d5t9e1 comm5c+ 9 a p]fectly transp>5t lay] betwe5 ! nuclei ( ! pulp & ! membrana pre=mativa4 #c4 ,nasmy?'s membrane deta*$ f ! subjac5t enamel by acetic acid4 #d4 ,/ellate-cells ( ! enamel organ4 #e4 ,too? ( frog1 act$ on by dilute hydro*loric acid1 s z to dissolve out ! enamel & free ,nasmy?'s membrane4 ,! /ructure ( ! d5t9e e is r5d]$ indi/9ct4 ,at ! base1 ,nasmy?'s membrane is cont9u$ ov] ! bony sub/ance at z1 9 :i* ! nuclei ( ! lacun are visible4 7,aft] ,huxley47 #f4 ,decalcifi$ too?-/ructure2 a4 ! d5t9e2 b4 enamel organ2 c4 enamel2 d4 ,nasmy?'s membrane4 ,! enamel =ms a cont9u\s lay]1 & inve/s ! cr[n ( ! too?2 x is ?icke/ ^u ! ma/icat+ surface1 & decreases t[>ds ! neck1 :]e x usually t]m9ates4 ,! ext]nal surface ( ! enamel appe>s smoo?1 b is always m>k$ by delicate elevations & transv]se ridges1 & cov]$ by a f9e membrane 7,nasmy?'s membrane71 conta9+ calc>e\s matt]4 ,?is membrane is sep>able aft] be+ subject$ to hydro*loric acid2 x !n appe>s l a network ( areol> tissue1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #dch1 ,no4 #f2 ,huxley's 8calcifi$ membrana10 :i* comm5ce at ! pulp cavity1 & pass up to ! enamel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dch4--,too? ,/ructure4 #a4 ,longitud9al section ( sup]ior can9e too?1 exhibit+ g5]al arrangem5t1 & cont\r m>k+s1 slightly magnifi$2 #b & #c4 ,portions f same1 highly magnifi$1 %[+ ! relative position ( bone-cells1 cem5tum at #b1 d5t9e fibres1 & comm5cem5t ( enamel at #c2 #d4 ,d5t9e fibres decalcifi$2 #e4 ,nasmy?'s membrane sep>at$ & ! calc>e\s matt] dissolv$ out ) dilute acid2 #f4 ,cells ( ! pulp ly+ betwe5 x & ! ivory2 #g4 ,a transv]se section ( enamel1 %[+ ! %ea?s ( fibres1 cont5ts remov$1 & magnifi$ #cjj diamet]s4 ,cz]mak discov]$ t ! curi\s appe>ances ( globul> conglom]ate =mations 9 ! sub/ance ( d5t9e dep5d on its mode ( calcification & ! pres5ce ( e>?y mat]ial2 & he attribut$ ! cont\r l9es to ! same cause4 ,cont\r m>k+s v>y 9 int5sity & numb]2 !y are mo/ abundant 9 ! root1 & mo/ m>k$ 9 ! cr[n4 ,v]tical sections exhibit !m ! be/2 z ,fig4 #ddj1 ,no4 #a4 ,9 prep>+ a specim51 fir/ make ! section accurately1 !n decalcify x by subm]sion 9 dilute hydro*loric acid2 dry x & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam2 place ! specim5 9 ! hot *amb] = "s "t to soak 9 ! fluid res9 be=e x cools4 ,! :ite opacity at ! extremity ( ! cont\r m>k+s gives ! appe>ance ( r+s to ! too?-fang4 8,! too?-sub/ance appe>s10 says ,cz]mak1 8on its inn] surface1 n z a symmetrical :ole1 b consi/+ ( balls ( v>i\s diamet]1 :i* are fus$ toge!r into a mass ) "o ano!r 9 diff]5t degrees1 & 9 :i* ! d5t9e tubes 9 contact ) ! g]m cavity t]m9ate4 ,by reflect$ light1 d>k-gr\nd illum9ation1 "o p]ceives ?is /alactite-l condition ( ! inn] surface ( ! too?-sub/ance v di/9ctly1 by means ( ! v>i$ illum9ation ( ! globul> elevations1 & by ! %ad[s :i* !y ca/40 ,to see ?is /ructure to advantage ! prep>ation %\ld be made f a too? root1 ! gr[? ( :i* is n complete4 ,) su* prep>ations1 ! gr\nd-sub/ance ( ! la/ =m$ lay] ( ! too?-sub/ance is se5 to be1 at lea/ p>tly1 9 ! =m ( globul> masses1 fus$ toge!r ) ^? ( ! p5ultimate lay]s4 ,! cem5tum is ! cortical lay] ( osse\s tissue1 =m+ an out] coat+ to ! fangs1 :i* x sometimes cem5ts toge!r4 ,its int]nal surface is intimately unit$ ) ! d5t9e1 & 9 _m tee? x w\ld appe> z if ! e>lie/ det]m9$ arrangem5t ( ! fibres ( ! d5t9e />t$ f ! canaliculi1 z !y radiate f ! lacun 9 ! cem5t4 ,! int]-lacun> lay] is (t5 /riat$1 & exhibits a lam9at$ /ructure3 sometimes x appe>s z if ,hav]sian canals 7 runn+ 9 a p]p5dicul> direction to ! pulp cavity4 ,! canaliculi frequ5tly run out into num]\s bran*es1 connect+ "o ) ano!r1 & ana/omis+ ) ! ends ( ! d5t9e fibres4 ,! ?ick lay]s ( cem5t :i* occur 9 old tee? %[ imm5se quantities ( aggregat$ lacun ( an irregul> & elongat$ =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dci4--,transv]se section ( ,too? ( ,pri/is1 %[+ orifices ( m$ull>y canals1 ) sy/ems ( radiat+ fibres 7tubuli7 analog\s to ! ,hav]sian canals 9 true bone4 ,compact ,tissues1 ,c>tilage & ,bone4--,c>tilage is a blui% or yell[i%-:ite1 semi-transp>5t1 ela/ic sub/ance1 )\t vessels or n]ves1 & surr\nd$ by a membrane1 t]m$ p]icondrium1 ( a d5se fibr\s nature4 ,t k9d1 h[ev]1 kn[n z articul> c>tilage1 receives a lay] ( epi!lium f ! synovial membrane1 b ?is is conf9$ to m>g9al portions1 9 consequ5ce ( ! c5tral we> :i* occurs z soon z ! p>ts are subject$ to friction1 dur+ ! movem5t ( ! limbs4 ,c>tilage cov]s ! ends ( all bones 9 apposition to =m jo9ts1 & ?us less5s ! effects ( concussion4 ,besides ! ord9>y k9d ( c>tilage1 tempor>y & p]man5t1 !re are two modifications ( ! tissue1 conf9$ to c]ta9 portions ( ! body3 cellul> c>tilage1 compos$ ( cells ly+ close toge!r1 9 a me% =m$ ( f9e fibres2 & fibro-c>tilage1 cells di/ribut$ 9 a matrix ( fibr\s tissue4 ,exam9$ ) a l[ p[]1 c>tilage appe>s to be homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 /udd$ ov] ) num]\s r\nd1 oval1 oblong1 semilun>1 & irregul>-%ap$ corpuscles1 z se5 9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #h1 a v]tical section ( animal c>tilage1 arrang$ 9 columns1 & cond5s$ at ! l[] surface previ\s to its conv]sion into bone4 ,! great] opacity ( ?is portion is ow+ to ! increase ( osse\s fibres1 & ! multiplication ( oil globules1 & ! int]cellul> spaces becom+ fill$ ) vessels4 ,no4 #i %[s a small transv]se section ( ! same1 ) a fur!r *ange ( ! c>tilage cells at a into bone cells1 & at b ) ! *>act]i/ic canaliculi & lacun4 ,no4 #g fur!r %[s a section ( ! l>ge t5don fix$ to ! back ( ! heel ( ! foot1 ne> ! juncture ( ! t5do-,ar*illis ) ! c>tilage4 ,= ! exam9ation ( ^! sev]al *anges a high p[] is necess>y1 & = ! purpose pieces tak5 f ! ox may be easily obta9$ f ! but*]1 & f9e sections cut ) a razor p>allel to ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddj4 #a4 ,c>tilage f a m\se's e> closely resembl+ vegetable tissue #bjj2 #b4 ,c>tilage f rabbit's e>1 ) nucleat$ cells emb$d$ 9 matrix2 #c4 ,c>tilage f ! end ( a human rib #cjj4 ,! bett] specim5s = microscopical exam9ation are ^? tak5 f v "y animals1 9 :om ! ossific process is /ill incomplete4 ,9 ord] to exam9e cellul> c>tilage1 ! e> ( ! m\se %\ld be tak5 & j dri$ suffici5tly to enable f9e sections to be cut by ! microtome transv]sely 7,fig4 #ddj74 ,c>tilage =ms ! entire skeleton ( a c]ta9 numb] ( fi%es1 z ! skate1 lamprey1 ray1 %>k1 c41 ! cells ( :i* are emb$d$ 9 a matrix ( granul> matt]1 :i* has be5 prop]ly t]m$ int]cellul>4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to ossification ( c>tilage 9 fi%es is t ( ! cuttle-fi%2 9 ?is /ellate cells are freely di/ribut$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dda1 ,no4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dda4 #a4 ,c>tilage f ! head ( ! skate1 cells fill$ ) nuclei2 #b4 ,c>tilage f frog1 oblong cells ) nuclei2 #c4 ,c>tilage f cuttle-fi%1 ) /ellate cells1 #bjj4 ,:ite fibro-c>tilage occurs betwe5 ! bodies ( ! v]tebr z a connect+ m$ium4 ,9 ?is k9d ! cells are m widely di/ribut$1 specim5s ( :i* may be tak5 f ! c5tral portion ( an int]>ticul> disc ( any animal4 ,! oval or circul> corpuscles w be se5 surr\nd$ by an abundance ( fibr\s tissue4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! deg5]ation ( ! textures ) :i* we h be5 deal+ may be ( s]vice to ! /ud5t1 z he may1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exam9ation1 meet ) an abnormal condition altoge!r diff]5t to ^? describ$4 ,! process ( deg5]ation is usually a sl[ "o1 except 9 ! case ( fatty infiltration1 an example ( :i* is furni%$ by ! fatty deg5]ation ( ! liv] 9 ,/rasburg geese4 ,muscul> tissue is v prone to fatty deg5]ation1 & fatty he>t is (t5 met )4 ,calc>e\s deg5]ation ( ! muscles1 ligam5ts1 & c>tilages1 z well z morbid deposits1 are n at all uncommon 9 ^! /ructures4 ,9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #i1 a small section is giv5 ( an en*ondroma1 & 9 :i* ! r\nd or ovoid cells ( ! c>tilage are se5 deg5]at$ & conv]t$ into granul> masses ( a calc>e\s nature4 ,fig4 #ddb is a some:at m highly magnifi$ section ( a calc>e\s or morbid gr[?1 tak5 f a human subject 9 :i* a morbid gr[? 0 se5 to be gradually de/roy+ ! bone & c>tilage cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddb4--;,c>tilage tak5 f a diseas$ f+]1 9 :i* bo? c>tilage & bone 7 9 a /ate ( deg5]ation4 ,bone4--,bone is a h>d unyield+ /ructure1 & :i* 9 ! v]tebrata =ms ! skeleton ( ! adult4 ,x is ! framework = ! support ( ! s(t tissues ( ! body1 & =ms v>i\s cavities = ! reception ( important organs1 z ! bra91 sp9al cord1 eyes1 he>t & lungs1 & acts z lev]s = ! action ( ! muscles & jo9ts4 ,! p>tial ela/icity ( bone is se5 9 ! ribs1 & ! reb\nd :5 ! skull is dropp$ on ! gr\nd4 ,bone consi/s ( e>?y & animal matt]s intimately comb9$2 ! removal ( ei!r1 h[ev]1 does n de/roy ! =m ( ! bone1 if ! process ( sep>ation be c>efully conduct$4 ,! e>?y con/itu5ts may all be dissolv$ out by hydro*loric acid1 b ! =m ( ! bone is pres]v$ 9 its m9ute p>ticul>1 & 9 ?is /ate sections may be cut = microscopical exam9ation4 ,if all[$ to become dry x %rivels1 & assumes ! d5sity ( horn4 ,! int]ior ( a bone is ( a spongy or cancellat$ /ructure1 p>ticul>ly at ! ends4 ,! out] portion ( ! bone is m d5se ?an ! int]nal "p4 ,! /udy ( bone %\ld comm5ce ) sections ( ! s(t5$ /ructure4 ,directions = mak+ sections ( bone are giv5 9 ! *apt] on ,practical ,microscopy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xx ,,v]tebrata1 ,,bone ,,/ructure4 ,! intimate /ructure ( bone w be /udi$ 9 connection ) ,plate ,,xx4 ,two s]ies ( lamell may be demon/rat$ 9 bone aft] mac]ation 9 acid1 a l>g] sy/em surr\nd+ ! m$ull>y canal1 & a small] surr\nd+ ! ,hav]sian canals1 bo? ( :i* are se5 9 ,nos4 #a & #b4 ,9 mac]at+ bones1 ! lamell ( ! lay] conc5tric sy/em may be peel$ (f 9 lay]s2 ^! are se5 to be pi]c$ ) f9e ap]tures1 caus$ by ! canaliculi4 ,9 "s p>ts l>g] ap]tures are se5 ?r\gh :i* bundles ( fibres pass1 p9n+1 z x 71 ! sev]al lay]s toge!r2 ^! are ! p]=at+ fibres4 ,! out]mo/ ( ! lay]s1 be+ ne> ! p]io/eum1 ! membrane cov]+ ! bone1 are t]m$ p]io/eal lay]s2 ! inn]mo/1 be+ close to ! canal1 are call$ m$ull>y lay]s4 ,no4 #a is a transv]se section ( a flat bone1 ! clavicle1 & x %[s ! ,hav]sian canals1 v>y+ 9 size f #a_/bjjj? to #a_/bjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 ! l>ge/ be+ ne> ! m$ull>y canal4 ,9 %ape !y are r\nd1 oval1 or oblong1 accord+ to ! l9e ( section4 ,ea* canal is surr\nd$ by r+s1 none ( :i* are complete1 & runn+ "o into ! o!r at v>i\s p>ts4 ,"u a high] p[]1 ^? irregul> %ap$ bodies t]m$ lacun1 ) f9e radiat+ fibres1 are se5 to be small] canals1 canaliculi4 ,by means ( ?is complete & intricate di/ribution ( ! canals ( ! ,hav]sian sy/em1 ! nutritive fluids pass into ! mo/ compact p>ts ( ! osse\s tissue4 ,longitud9al sections ( ! long bones %[ ^! canals z cont9u\s bran*+-out cells4 ,9 _m ( ! l[] animals ! bony /ructure diff]s f ^? ( man1 z w be se5 9 ,plate ,,xx4 ,no4 #c %[s a transv]se section ( ! femur1 or leg-bone ( an o/ri*1 magnifi$ n9ety-five times1 9 :i* ! ,hav]sian canals are mu* small] & m num]\s1 & _m ( !m run 9 ! transv]se direction4 ,no4 #d1 aga91 is a transv]se section ( ! hum]us1 or =e-arm bone ( a turtle 7,*elonia mydas74 ,?is exhibits traces ( ,hav]sian canals1 ) a slight t5d5cy to a conc5tric arrangem5t ( bone-cells ar\nd !m1 ! bone-cells be+ l>ge & num]\s1 & occur1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 p>allel r[s4 ,9 ,no4 #e1 a horizontal section ( ! l[] jaw-bone ( a cong]-eel exhibits a s+le plane ( bone-cells arrang$ 9 p>allel l9es4 ,!re are no ,hav]sian canals pres5t1 & :5 ?is specim5 is contra/$ ) t ( ,no4 #d1 x w be notic$ t ! canaliculi giv5 (f f ea* ( ! bone-cells ( ?is fi% are v few 9 numb] 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! reptile4 ,no4 #f is a section ( a portion ( ! cranium ( a sir5 7,sir5 lac]t9a71 rem>kable = ! l>ge size ( ! bone-cells1 & ( ! canaliculi1 :i* are l>g] 9 ?is animal ?an 9 any o!r yet exam9$2 & z 9 ! prec$+ specim51 no ,hav]sian canals are pres5t4 ,no4 #g is a section ( bone tak5 f ! ext]ior ( ! %aft ( ! hum]us ( a ,pt]odactyle2 ?is exhibits ! elongat$ bone-cells *>act]i/ic ( ! ord] ,reptilia4 ,no4 #h is a horizontal section ( a scale1 or flatt5$ sp9e1 f ! sk9 ( a ,trygon1 or /+ ray2 ?is exhibits l>ge ,hav]sian canals1 ) num]\s wavy p>allel tubes1 l ^? ( d5t9e1 communicat+ ) !m4 ,?is specim5 %[s1 besides wavy tubes1 num]\s bone-cells1 ^: canaliculi communicate ) ! tubes1 z 9 d5t9e4 ,! foll[+ po9ts may be not$ ) reg>d to ! sev]al sections ( bone describ$4 ,t ( ! bird1 = in/ance1 contra/$ ) t ( ! mammal1 exhibits ! foll[+ peculi>ities3 ! ,hav]sian canals are m abundant1 mu* small]1 & (t5 run 9 a direction at "r angles to t ( ! %aft1 by :i* means ! conc5tric lam9at$ arrangem5t is 9 "s cases lo/2 ! direction ( ! canals foll[s ! curve ( ! bone2 ! bone-cells are mu* small] & m num]\s2 :ile ! numb] ( canaliculi s5t (f f ! cells is less ?an 9 ^? ( mammals4 ,no4 #c is ! av]age l5g? ( a bone-cell ( ! o/ri*1 #a_/bjjj? ( an in*1 9 bread? #a_/fjjj?4 ,9 ! ,reptilia1 ! bones may be ei!r holl[1 cancellat$1 or solid2 & _! specific gravity is less ?an t ( birds or mammals4 ,! %ort bones ( mo/ ( ! *elonian reptiles are solid1 & ! long bones are ei!r holl[ or cancellat$2 ! ribs ( ! s]p5t-tribe are holl[1 ! m$ull>y cavity p]=m+ ! (fice ( a ,hav]sian canal2 ! bone-cells are accord+ly arrang$ 9 conc5tric circles ar\nd _! canals4 ,! v]tebr ( ^! animals are solid2 & ! bone1 l t ( c]ta9 birds1 is rem>kable = d5sity & :it5ess4 ,:5 a transv]se section is tak5 f "o ( ! long bones1 & contra/$ ) t ( a mammal or bird1 ! diff]5ce w be notic$2 !re are v few1 if any1 ,hav]sian canals1 & ^! are l>ge2 & at "o view1 9 ! section1 ,no4 #g1 ! canals & bone-cells are arrang$ bo? v]tically & longitud9ally4 ,! bone-cells are rem>kable = ! great size to :i* !y atta92 9 ! turtle !y are #a_/cge? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 ! canaliculi are extremely num]\s1 & are ( a size proportionate to t ( ! bone-cell4 ,9 fi%es a great] v>iation occurs 9 ! m9ute /ructure ( ! skeleton ?an 9 ei!r ( ! ?ree prec$+ classes4 ,a r>e /ructure is t ( ! sword ( ! sword-fi% 7,i/iophorus74 ,9 ?is1 ,hav]sian canals & a conc5tric lam9at$ arrangem5t ( ! bone are f\nd1 b no bone-cells4 ,! ,hav]sian canals1 :5 !y are pres5t1 are ( l>ge size1 & v num]\s1 & !n ! bone-cells are1 g5]ally speak+1 ei!r abs5t or b few 9 numb]1 _! place be+ occupi$ by tubes or canaliculi1 :i* are (t5 ( a v l>ge size4 ,! bone-cells are rem>kable = _! graduate figure1 & ! canaliculi d]iv$ f !m are comp>atively few 9 numb]4 ,9 a ?9 section ( ! scale ( an osse\s fi%1 ! cells lie ne>ly all 9 "o plane1 & ! ana/omoses ( ! canaliculi are m di/9ctly se52 9 ! h>d scales ( _m1 z ! ,lepido/eus & ,calic?ys1 & 9 sp9es ( ! ,silurid1 ! bone-cells are well diff]5tiat$4 ,9 ! true bony scales compris+ ! exo-skeleton ( c>tilag9\s fi%es ! bone-cells are se5 9 great numb]s4 ,n[1 if we proce$ at once to ! application ( ! facts :i* h be5 laid d[n1 & make a fragm5t ( bone ( an ext9ct animal ! subject ( inve/igation1 x w be f\nd t ! bone-cells 9 ,mammalia are tol]ably uni=m 9 size2 & if we take #a_/bjjj? ( an in* z a /&>d1 ! bone-cells ( birds fall bel[ t /&>d2 b ! bone-cells ( reptiles are mu* above ei!r ( ! two prec$+1 :ile ^? ( fi%es are ess5tially diff]5t1 bo? 9 size & %ape1 & are n likely to be mi/ak5 = "o or ! o!r2 s t ! det]m9ation ( a m9ute yet *>act]i/ic fragm5t ( fi%es' bone is a task easily p]=m$4 ,if ! portion ( bone does n exhibit bone-cells1 b pres5ts ei!r "o or o!r ( ! *>act]s indicat$1 ! task ( discrim9ation is equally easy4 ,we h n[ ! mammal1 ! bird1 & ! reptile to deal )4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! v great size ( ! cells & _! canaliculi 9 ! reptile1 a portion ( bone ( "o ( ^! animals c readily be di/+ui%$ f t ( a bird1 or a mammal4 ,! only difficulty lies betwe5 ^! two la/2 b1 not)/&+ t on a cursory glance ! bone ( a bird appe>s v l t ( a mammal1 !re are c]ta9 po9ts 9 _! m9ute /ructure 9 :i* !y diff]2 & "o is ! diff]5ce 9 size ( ! bone-cells4 ,to det]m9e accurately1 !re=e1 betwe5 ! two1 we mu/1 if ! section be a transv]se "o1 also note ! comp>ative sizes ( ! ,hav]sian canals1 & ! tortuosity ( _! c\rse2 = ! diamet] ( ! canal be>s a c]ta9 proportion to ! size ( ! bone-cells1 & aft] close exam9ation ! eye w readily detect diff]5ces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddc4 #a4 ,a portion ( ! web ( frog's foot1 spread out & slightly magnifi$ to %[ di/ribution ( blood-vessels2 #b4 ,is a portion magnifi$ #bej diamet]s to %[ ! ovoid =m ( ! blood discs 9 a vessel1 b5ea? :i* hexagonal nucleat$ epi!lium cells appe>4 ,art]ies & ,ve9s4--,! circulation ( ! animal frame is ma9ta9$ by art]ies1 ve9s1 & capill>ies4 ,! art]ies are ela/ic & contractile tubes2 ^! convey ! blood f ! he>t to ! capill>ies4 ,! l>g] art]ies are exce$+ly ela/ic1 b feebly contractile on acc\nt ( ! muscul> tissue 9 _! walls4 ,! ve9s ramify ?r\gh\t ! body1 are m num]\s ?an ! art]ies1 & ( great] capacity4 ,!y usually accompany ! art]ies & correspond to !m 9 /ructure1 ! l>g] ve9s possess+ semi-lun> valves2 ^! project into _! int]iors1 & ?us prev5t ! regurgitation ( ! blood4 ,!y h f\r coats1 consi/+ ( areol> tissue1 yell[ fibres comb9$ ) muscul> fibres1 & :ite fibr\s tissue1 two lay]s ( yell[ fibres arrang$ longitud9ally1 & a s+le lay] ( epi!lial cells4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 ! art]ies & ve9s !re are exce$+ly f9e tubes1 t]m$ capill>ies1 9 :i* ! art]ies t]m9ate1 & f :i* ! ve9s arise4 ,^! are compos$ ( a f9e homog5e\s membrane1 ) "h & !re a nucleus4 ,! capill>y circulation ( ! blood is readily se5 9 ! tail ( ! newt & ! foot ( ! frog1 ,fig4 #ddc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddd4--;,a network ( capill>ies4 ,a network ( capill>ies convey+ blood to ! lungs1 & ramify+ ?r\gh\t ! /ructure1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ddd1 & 9 ,plate ,,xix41 ,no4 #f1 ! t]m9ation ( a capill>y ( a blood-vessel 9 ! fat-cells ( ! human body4 ,plate ,,vii4 illu/rates ! di/ribution ( ! art]ies & ve9s to v>i\s p>ts ( ! animal body4 ,?is col\r$ plate1 h[ev]1 is design$ to %[ ! value ( inject$ prep>ations 9 ! del9eation ( animal /ructures4 ,by ?us artificially re/or+ ! blood & di/5d+ ! tissues1 a mu* bett] idea is obta9$ ( ! relative condition ( p>ts1 ! appe>ance pres5t$ by ! erectile papill1 c4 ,9 ! section ( foot ( m\se 7,no4 #adi71 ! bone is se5 surr\nd$ by its vascul> supply1 art]ial & v5\s2 9 ,no4 #aej1 ! papill ( ! tongue are di/5d$ & se5 erect2 9 ,no4 #aeb1 a v]tical section ( ! fungi-=m papill on ! tongue ( cat1 ) capill>y loops pass+ into !m1 is demon/rat$2 9 ,no4 #aea1 ! v]tical section ( bra9 ( a rat1 ! vascul> supply is %[n2 ,no4 #aec1 ! malpighian tufts 7circul> bodies7 & art]ies ramify+ ab\t ! /ructure2 9 ,no4 #aed1 ! v]tical section ?r\gh ! inte/9e ( ! rat1 %[s villi 7art]ies & ve9s7 surm\nt$ by epi!lium1 & support$ on a lay] ( ! muc\s membrane2 9 ,no4 #aee1 ! vascul> supply s5t to ! roots ( ! :isk] ( ! nose ( ! m\se2 9 ,no4 #aeg1 a tang5tial section cut ?r\gh ! sev]al textures1 ! scl]otic coat & ret9a ( ! eye ( a cat is cle>ly made out al?\gh n highly magnifi$2 aga91 9 ,no4 #aef1 ! beautiful vascul> arrangem5t ( ! int]nal gill ( ! tadpole c\ld sc>cely be s /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9 any o!r way2 :ile 9 ! c5tral1 ,no4 #aeh1 ! vascul> sy/em ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! body ( a fully develop$ tadpole1 ) ! way 9 :i* ! blood is c>ri$ f ! remote/ "p ( ! tail to ! he>t1 & s5t to ! gills1 ! bra91 c41 x is q unnecess>y to enl>ge ^u4 ,^! are se5 "u a l[ p[]1 b = ! purpose ( /udy+ ! basem5t membrane1 toge!r ) ! intimate association & t]m9ation ( ! n]ves accompany+ ! art]ies & ve9s1 x is absolutely necess>y to resort to a /a9+ process1 & cutt+ f9e sections ) ! microtome4 ,small portions ( a n]ve may be cut (f ) f9e scissors1 teas$ out ) ne$les1 & a drop ( acetic acid add$ to r5d] ! %ea? m transp>5t2 9 a few seconds ! connective tissue corpuscles w be br\ght into view4 ,= ! microscopical exam9ation ( n]ve-fibrill take a small section f ! leg ( a frog1 & tease x out 9 blood s]um or :ite ( egg4 ,9 size ! fibrill v>y1 ev5 9 ! same n]ve1 f ! #a_/abjjj? to ! #a_/aejj? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dde4 ,to %[ ! circulation ( ! blood 9 ! frog's foot1 & )\t caus+ ! animal pa9 or mu* inconv5i5ce1 x is bett] to enclose x 9 a black silk bag1 & draw out ! foot z %[n at a a a1 ,fig4 #dde4 ,! bag provid$ %\ld be f ?ree to f\r in*es 9 l5g?1 & two & a half in*es broad1 %[n at b b1 hav+ a piece ( tape1 c c1 sewn to ea* side1 ab\t midway betwe5 ! m\? & ! bottom1 & ! m\? itself capable ( be+ clos$ by a draw+-9 /r+1 d d4 ,into ?is bag ! frog is plac$1 & only ! leg :i* is ab\t to be exam9$ kept outside2 ! /r+ d d mu/ !n be drawn suffici5tly tight ar\nd ! small "p ( ! leg to prev5t ! foot f be+ pull$ into ! bag1 b n to /op ! circulation2 ?ree %ort pieces ( ?read1 f f f1 are n[ pass$ ar\nd ! ?ree pr9cipal toes2 & ! bag ) ! frog mu/ be fa/5$ to ! plate a a by means ( ! tapes c c4 ,:5 ?is is accompli%$1 ! ?reads f f f are pass$ ei!r ?r\gh "s ( ! holes 9 ! edge ( ! plate1 ?ree ( :i* are %[n at g g g1 9 ord] to keep ! web op52 or1 :at answ]s bett]1 9 a s]ies ( pegs ( ! %ape repres5t$ by h1 ea* hav+ a slit1 i1 ext5d+ m ?an halfway d[n x2 ! ?reads are w\nd r\nd ^! two or ?ree times1 & !n ! end is secur$ by putt+ x into ! slit i4 ,! plate is n[ ready to be adapt$ to ! /age ( ! microscope3 ! squ>e op5+ ov] :i* ! foot is secur$ mu/ be br\ght ov] ! ap]ture 9 ! /age ?r\gh :i* ! light passes f ! mirror4 ,! tadpole circulation is readily se5 by plac+ ! creature on its back1 :5 we imm$iately obs]ve ! beat+ he>t1 a bulb\s-look+ cavity1 =m$ ( delicate1 transp>5t tissue1 ?r\gh :i* ! blood alt]nately ent]s by "o orifice & leaves by a m di/ant exit4 ,! he>t1 x w be notic$1 is enclos$ )9 its p]ic>dium1 ?is be+ ! m delicate "p ( ! creature's organisation4 ,! b9ocul> microscope %\ld be us$ = view+ ! circulation4 ,pass+ along ! c\rse ( ! great blood-vessels to ! "r & left ( ! he>t1 ! eye is arre/$ by a l>ge oval body1 ( a m complicat$ /ructure4 ,?is is ! inn] gill1 =m$ ( delicate1 transp>5t tissue1 trav]s$ by art]ies1 & a network ( blood-vessels4 ,x is almo/ unnecess>y to say ! tadpole has a respiratory & circulatory sy/em resembl+ ^? ( fi%es4 ,9 ne>ly all fi% ! he>t has b two cavities1 an auricle & v5tricle2 ! blood is return$ by ! ve9s to ! auricle1 passes into ! v5tricle1 & is !n transmitt$ to ! gills1 :]e1 be+ expos$ to ! air conta9$ 9 ! wat]1 x becomes depriv$ ( c>bonic acid1 a]at$1 & r5d]$ fit to brea!4 ,9 ! reptile we f9d a modification ( plan4 ,! he>t has ?ree cavities1 two auricles & "o v5tricle2 by ?is contrivance !re is a p]petual mixture 9 ! he>t ( ! impure c>boniz$ blood :i* has already circulat$ ?r\gh ! body1 & fl[s into ! v5tricle f ! "r auricle1 ) ! pur] a]at$ blood return$ f ! lungs1 :i* fl[s at ! same in/ant into ! v5tricle f ! left auricle4 ,= ! purpose ( subsequ5t obs]vations ! tadpole %\ld be select$ at a p]iod 9 :i* ! sk9 is p]fectly transp>5t1 o!rwise ! appe>ances already describ$ ( ! =m & situation ( ! he>t1 & ! ?ree great art]ial trunks 7proce$+ "r & left71 w n be cle>ly made out4 ,! anatomical arrangem5t ( ! vessels w be se5 to be closely connect$ ) ! correspond+ gill1 ! upp] "o 7! cephalic7 runn+ along ! upp] edge ( ! gill1 giv+ (f1 9 its c\rse1 a bran* :i* asc5ds to ! m\?1 ) its accompany+ ve92 ?is is t]m$ ! labial art]y & ve94 ,! cephalic art]y cont9ues its c\rse ar\nd ! gill1 until x sudd5ly curves upw>ds & backw>ds1 & rea*es ! upp] surface ( ! head1 :5 x dips d[n betwe5 ! eye & ! bra94 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ?is c be made out 9 ! av]age tadpole1 ! ob/acle to :i* is ! l>ge coil ( inte/9es1 usually di/5d$ ) d>k-col\r$ food4 ,?is mu/ fir/ be r$uc$ by mak+ y\r tadpole live on pla9 wat] = "s days4 ,plate ,,vii41 ,no4 #aeh1 af=ds a view ( ! vessels obta9$ "u ! influ5ce ( l[ diet1 & :]eby we are enabl$ to trace ! c\rse ( ! ?ree l>ge art]ies4 ,! ?ird trunk1 trav]s+ ! lung1 is se5 to em]ge f ! l[] edge & desc5d into ! abdom5 to =m ! great abdom9al aorta4 ,a small half-/>v$ tadpole %[s ! he>t beat+ & ! blood circulat+1 b ! latt] is q col\rless1 n a s+le r$ globule visible any:]e4 ,! he>t is a col\rless globe1 ! gills two transp>5t ovals1 & ! inte/9es a col\rless1 transp>5t coil4 ,?r\gh ! empty coil ! art]y is se5 on ei!r side leav+ ! gills1 & conv]g+ t[>ds ! sp9e1 & unit+ to =m ! abdom9al aorta1 ! l>ge c5tral vessel col\r$ r$ 9 ! figure4 ,aft] ! aorta has suppli$ ! abdom9al visc]a1 a prolongation1 or caudal art]y is se5 desc5d+ to ! tail1 ! all-important organ ( locomotion 9 ! tadpole4 ,?is art]y1 ent]+ ! root ( ! tail1 is imb$d$ deeply 9 ! fle%1 :5ce x em]ges1 & !n cont9ues its c\rse1 closely accompani$ by ! ve91 to )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! extremity1 :]e1 be+ r$uc$ to a /ate ( extreme f95ess1 x t]m9ates 9 a capill>y loop1 compos$ ( ! end ( ! art]y & ! beg9n+ ( ! ve94 ,! art]y1 9 its c\rse1 gives (f bran*es cont9ually to supply ! neighb\r+ tissue4 ,! blood-curr5t 9 ! tail is (t5 se51 ev5 9 ! ma9 art]y or ve91 to be sluggi%4 ,?is occurs indep5d5tly ( ! he>t1 :i* w cont9ue to beat z usual2 x happ5s1 because ! circulation 9 ! tail dep5ds v mu* on ! motion ( ! organ4 ,:5 ?is is susp5d$ 7z 9 ! conf9$ tadpole "u ! microscope71 ! blood moves sluggi%ly1 or /ops1 till ! tail rega9s its fre$om & motion1 :5 ! activity ( ! curr5t is re/or$4 ,hav+ trac$ ! art]ial sy/em :i* conveys ! blood f ! he>t to ! extremities1 we w n[ note its return by ! ve9s back aga9 to ! he>t4 ,! caudal ve9 runs ne> ! art]y dur+ ! great] "p ( its c\rse1 ) its /ream ( blood t[>ds ! he>t4 ,?is /ream is swoll5 by p]petual tribut>ies f num]\s vessels4 ,z ! ve9 approa*es ! root ( ! tail x is incl9$ t[>ds ! art]y1 & div]ges f x at ! po9t ( ent]+ ! abdom54 ,"h x approa*es ! kidneys & s5ds (f bran*es1 :ile ! ma9 trunk cont9ues its c\rse onw>d2 &1 pass+ upw>ds beh9d a coil ( inte/9e1 x approa*es ! liv]1 & runs 9 a curv$ c\rse along ! m>g9 ( t organ4 ,! blood is n[ se5 to ent] ! v5a cava by sev]al *annels1 t conv]ge t[>ds ! great ve9 z x passes 9 close proximity to ! organ4 ,beyond ! liv] ! v5a cava cont9ues its c\rse upw>ds & inw>ds to its t]m9ation 9 ! s9us v5osus or rudim5t>y auricle ( ! he>t4 ,?is t]m9ation is ! junction ( n less ?an six di/9ct v5\s trunks1 incessantly p\r+ _! blood into ! he>t4 ,! circulation 9 ! fr+$ lips =ms a mo/ complicat$ network ( vessels1 out ( :i* proce$s a ve9 correspond+ to ! art]y already trac$4 ,?is desc5ds 9 a direct c\rse till x jo9s ! pr9cipal ve9 ( ! head1 :i* corresponds to ! jugul> 9 ! mammalia4 ,?us x w be se5 ! blood is driv5 by ! he>t into ea* inn] gill ?r\gh ?ree l>ge blood-vessels1 :i* arise directly f ! truncus art]iosus1 & may be call$ ! aff]5t vessels ( ! gill4 ,9 ,plate ,,vii41 ,no4 #aef1 an enl>g$ view ( a gill is %[n4 ,on clos] exam9ation 8ea* int]nal gill or entire bran*ial organ is se5 to consi/ ( c>tilag9\s ar*es1 ) a piece ( additional framework ( a triangul> =m1 /ret*+ beyond ! ar*es1 compos$ ( semi-transp>5t1 gelat9\s-look+ mat]ial4 ,^! =m ! framework ( ! organ & support ^u _! upp] surface ! ?ree r[s ( cre/s ) _! vascul> network1 & ! ma9 art]ial & v5\s trunks ly+ p>allel to & betwe5 !m4 ,! ?ree sy/emic art]ies aris+1 "r & left1 f ! truncus art]iosus1 ent] ea* gill on its c>diac side1 & !n foll[ ! c\rse ( ! cre/s1 ly+ 9 close proximity to !m4 ,! upp] ( ^! bran*ial art]ies runs alone on ! outside ( ! upp] cre/1 & ano!r bran* leav+ ! trunk & pass+ into ! network ( ! cre/1 :5ce a return+ vessel may be trac$ c>ry+ back ! blood across ! bran*ial art]y1 & to a vessel ly+ close to & tak+ ! same c\rse z ! art]y itself4 ,c>ry+ ! eye along ! latt] vessel we f9d1 at a %ort di/ance f ! fir/ ( ^! cre/ bran*es1 a second1 leav+ ! ma9 trunk & ent]+ ! cre/1 :5 a correspond+ return+ vessel conveys ! blood across ! art]ial trunk into ! vessel ly+ beside x1 z 9 ! =m] in/ance4 ,a numb] ( ^! bran*es may be trac$ f "o cre/ to ! o!r4 ,b x is n[ se5 t ! trunk f :i* ^! art]ial bran*es spr+ dim9i%es 9 size z x proce$s 9 its c\rse 7l ! gill art]y 9 fi%es71 :ile ! vessel runn+ p>allel to x & receiv+ ! /ream z x returns f ! cre/ enl>ges to "s ext5t4 ,?us1 ! art]y or aff]5t vessel :i* br+s ! blood to ! gill is l>ge at its entrance1 b gradually dim9i%es & dw9dles to a po9t at ! opposite end ( ! cre/2 :ile ! v5\s or eff]5t vessel1 beg9n+ z a m]e radical1 gradually enl>ges1 & ?us becomes ! trunk t conveys ! blood out ( ! gill to its ultimate de/9ation4 ,?is vessel is ! upp] bran*ial ve9 s long z x rema9s 9 contact ) ! gill2 subsequ5tly x *anges its "n on leav+ ! gill & z x passes upw>ds = di/ribution to ! head1 :5 x is designat$ ! cephalic art]y4 ,! middle bran*ial art]y & ve9 proce$ 9 l mann] 9 connection ) ! middle cre/1 & ! l[] art]y & ve9 9 connection ) ! l[] cre/4 ,! middle & l[] v5\s trunks1 hav+ rea*$ ! extremity ( ! cre/s1 curve d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 & leave ! gill4 ,! =m] trunk1 conv]g+ t[>ds ! sp9e1 meets its fell[1 & ) x =ms ! v5tral aorta4 ,! latt] gives orig9 to ! pulmon>y art]y1 & supplies also ! integum5ts ( ! neck4 ,curi\s & int]e/+ is ! f9al /age ( ! metamorphosis1 :5 ! wan+ tadpole & incipi5t frog coexi/1 & are actually se5 toge!r 9 ! same subject4 ,! dw9dl+ gills & ! %r9k+ tail--! la/ remnants ( ! tadpole =m--are yet se51 9 company ) ! col\r$1 spott$ sk91 ! newly =m$ & sl5d] legs1 ! flat head1 ! wide & too?less m\?1 & ! cr\*+ attitude ( ! all b p]fect reptile40#hg ,to obs]ve ! circulation & h[ x is c>ri$ on dur+ life 9 ! gills1 ! out] cov]+ mu/ be c>efully rais$1 or ev5 /ripp$ (f4 ,?is w be bett] accompli%$ by putt+ ! tadpole "u ! influ5ce ( coca9e or *lor(orm--a drop ( ! fluid is suffici5t = ! purpose4 ,! metamorphosis 9 ! embryo ( ! frog is by no means exceptional4 ,! ascidian beg9s life 9 ! =m ( a tadpole1 ) a muscul> tail2 subsequ5tly x fixes itself by its head to a rock1 & its tail disappe>s4 ,! *anges ! tadpole ( ! frog passes ?r\gh are 9 e respect1 except 9 "o or two m9or details1 simil> to ^? ( adult amphibia :i* pass _! :ole lives 9 wat]4 ,! newly-hat*$ flat-fi% is symmetrical1 an eye be+ plac$ on ea* side ( its head1 ) ! adults ( o!r fi%es4 ,! ftal :ale has well-develop$ h9d limbs1 & :i*1 aft] pass+ into a condition almo/ p]fect 9 proportion to ! re/ ( ! body1 gradually dw9dle away aga9 to ! m]e/ rudim5t>y /ructures4 ,9 all ^!1 & a numb] ( simil> cases1 x is se5 t ! e>li] condition ( exi/+ animals repres5ts1 & is 9 agreem5t ) t ( its adult ance/or ( a remote p]iod 9 ! pa/4 ,collect$ facts be>+ ^u ?is "q h be5 made ! gr\ndwork ( a !ory ( h]$it>y prop]ties 9 ! g]m1 & a disposition to g ?r\gh ! same phases ( life z ! p>5t4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,m9]al & ,geological ,k+doms4 ,! /ructure ( rocks & ! =mation ( cry/als w be f\nd to furni% an endless supply ( in/ructive mat]ial = ! microscope4 ,9 sci5ces ( pure obs]vation1 z ^? ( m9]alogy & geology1 ! facts to be obs]v$ are ( sev]al diff]5t k9ds1 & :]e s _m obs]v]s are at "w all ov] ! _w1 con/ant progress w necess>ily be made1 z well z cont9u$ correction requir$ f *ange & improvem5t 9 ! me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,x w\ld be impossible to give ev5 a slight sket* ( :at has be5 done 9 ! two dep>tm5ts ( nature ref]r$ to dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,m9]alogical & geological rese>* h d]iv$ v great advantage f hav+ be5 assign$ to pr(essional tea*+4 ,b1 z ,pr(essor ,bonney rem9ds u1 ! progress made 9 geological "w 9 p>ticul>1 has be5 directly due to ! revelations ( ! microscope4 ,x call$ =? an in/rum5t ( special con/ruction = ! purpose1 ! petrological microscope 7,fig4 #gi71 well equipp$ ) ,nicol's prisms1 & num]\s o!r appliances dem&$ = ! important inve/igations4 8,^u ! hi/ory ( ! two ma9 gr\ps ( rocks ! microscope has ?r[n mu* light4 ,= ! igne\s rocks x has simplifi$ _! classification & det]m9$ _! mutual relations2 :ile = ! rudim5t>y gr\p1 x has %[n ! true nature ( _! con/itu5ts1 & po9t$ out ! s\rces f :i* !y 7 d]iv$4 ,b x is 9 help+ to elucidate ! problem ( ! metamorphic rocks1 ( :i* mu* less 0 kn[n1 t ! microscope has be5 ( ! mo/ s]vice4 ,x has likewise greatly assi/$ 9 ! attempt to det]m9e ! hi/ory & mutual relation ( ^! rocks4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important results )9 ! la/ few ye>s has be5 ! demon/ration t )\t exception ^! cry/all9 s*i/s are v old1 all probably old] ?an ! fir/ rocks 9 :i* traces ( life h be5 f\nd4 ,! conclusion arriv$ at1 is t 8! environm5t necess>y = *ang+ an ord9>y s$im5t into a cry/all9e s*i/ exi/$ g5]ally only 9 ! e>lie/ ages1 & b v r>ely & locally1 if ev]1 s9ce palozoic "t began40 ,! cry/all9e s*i/s !n are ! relics /ill pres]v$ to u ( ! e>ly days ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :5 ! temp]ature ne> ! surface 0 /ill high4 ,s9ce t "t ! zone = m>k$ m9]alogical *anges has be5 cont9ually s9k+1 until at ! pres5t day x has rea*$ a dep? practically unatta9able4 8,! subt]ranean laboratory /ill exi/s1 b ! way to x 0 virtually clos$ at a comp>atively e>ly p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory40 ,great] progress has be5 made s9ce ! microscope 0 press$ into ! s]vice ( geology1 & inspires ! hope t we %all yet le>n some?+ m ( ! e>lie/ ages1 :5 ! my/]y ( life began4 8,x may be reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable results ( geological sci5ce1 t an acqua9tance ) organic =ms is at lea/ z necess>y = a geologi/ z a k ( m9]als1 & t a correct k ( organic rema9s 7portions ( fossil plants & animals7 %\ld prove a m c]ta9 & un]r+ guide 9 unravell+ ! /ructure ( complicat$ di/ricts ( c\ntries1 ?an ! mo/ wide & g5]al acqua9tance ) inorganic sub/ances4 ,! cause ( ?is1 h[ev]1 is obvi\s1 z ! m9]al sub/ances produc$ at any "o p]iod ( a va/ succession ( ages1 d n appe> to h _h any ess5tial diff]5ce f ^? =m$ "u l circum/ances at ano!r4 ,! animals & plants1 h[ev]1 liv+ at "o p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory 7 widely diff]5t f ^? liv+ at o!r p]iods4 ,!re has be5 a cont9u\s succession ( diff]5t races ( liv+ be+s on ! e>? foll[+ ea* o!r 9 a c]ta9 regul> & asc]ta9able ord]1 & :5 t ord] has be5 det]m9$1 x is equally c]ta9 t we c at once assign to its prop] p]iod ( production1 & !re=e to its prop] place 9 ! s]ies ( rocks1 any portion ( e>?y matt] we may meet ) conta9+ any "o1 or ev5 any recognisable fragm5t ( "o1 ( ^! once liv+ be+s40 ,! me?od ( prep>+ sections ( m9]als & rocks = microscopic exam9ation w be f\nd at pp4 #bda1 #cjg-cji4 ,! sections1 x is almo/ ne$less to say1 mu/ be prep>$ ?9 en\gh to p]mit ! use ( transmitt$ light1 z well z = t ( pol>is$ light3 t is to say1 !y %\ld range f ab\t #a_/ajj? to #a_/ajjj? ( an in*4 ,almo/ any lapid>y w cut sections ( any *oice specim54#hh ,! =mation ( cry/als1 & ! me?od ( prep>+ !m = exam9ation1 has also be5 fully expla9$ 9 ! *apt] on pol>is$ light1 pp4 #bai et seq41 & illu/rat$ on ,plate ,,viii4 ,x is well kn[n 9 micro-*emi/ry t 8almo/ e sub/ance1 simple or comp\nd1 capable ( exi/+ 9 ! solid /ate1 assumes1 "u fav\rable conditions1 a di/9ct geometrical figure1 usually b\nd$ by plane surfaces & hav+ angles ( con/ant value4 ,mu* useful in=mation may be ga9$ ^u micro-cry/allography1 z well z on almo/ ev]y?+ hav+ any relation to ! te*nique ( ! microscope1 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 ,to ! ,june numb] 7#ahih7 ,mr4 ,t4 ,*>t]s ,:ite contributes an article on cry/als1 & rem9ds u t ! pres5ce ( mu* or little moi/ure w modify & alt] =ms1 z mu* & z (t5 z v>y+ degrees ( temp]ature4 ,at ! same "t he (f]s a few useful sugge/ions = ! purpose ( secur+ bett] results1 = :i* purpose he employs hippuric acid1 hydroqu99e1 & picric acid alone or 9 comb9ation ) hippuric acid1 & an aque\s solution ( bi*romate ( potassium1 cry/allis$ 9 a tol]ably ?ick emulsion ( gum arabic4 ,?is is ! only aque\s solution2 ! o!r solv5ts h be5 me?ylat$ _s1 acetone1 & absolute alcohol1 tak+ ^! ?ree solv5ts z types ( ! greate/ volatility1 because 9 mak+ c]ta9 cry/als x is necess>y t ! solv5t %\ld evaporate quickly1 o!rwise ! cry/als w assume _! orig9al =ms4 ,x is fur!r desirable to make saturat$1 or ev5 sup]-saturat$ solutions ( ! ?ree *emicals nam$1 z ! col\rs produc$ "u pol>is$ light are ( a deep] & ri*] "* ?an !y are if made f weak] solutions4 ,( ! ?ree *emicals nam$ he pref]s hippuric acid1 = reasons /at$1 t x is ! mo/ manageable1 & all[s ( m "t be+ tak5 9 modify+ ! =mation ( ! cry/als4 ,x is also advisable to slightly w>m ! glass slide be=e ! drop ( fluid is appli$4 ,on ! :ole1 picric acid appe>s to furni% a great] v>iety ( cry/als :5 us$ 9 comb9ation ) bi*romate ( potassium & a solution ( gum arabic4 ,,app5dices ,,& ,,tables ,,useful ,,to ,,! ,,microscopi/4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,illum9ation ,,arrangem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,microscope4 ,a d\bt has ( late be5 express$ among practical microscopi/s z to ! value ( ! illum9ation arrangem5ts ( ! lamp & ! microscope1 s z to secure ! m p]fect def9ition ( ! flagellate organ ( ! monas & o!r m9ute =ms ( infusorial life4 ,we h be5 told t bett] results w be obta9$ by turn+ ! mirror aside1 & s dispos+ ! microscope & lamp 9 ! horizontal position1 t ! c5tral rays ( light f ! mirror-edge ( ! lamp-flame %all pass ?r\gh ! optical axis ( ! a*romatic cond5s]1 ! focus ( :i* mu/ be accurately br\ght ^u ! field ( view by means ( ! sub/age c5tr+ screws & rack-"w1 & 9 su* a mann]1 t by employ+ a #a-;in* objective1 a %>ply-def9$ image ( ! lamp-flame1 edge-on1 is project$ on to ! c5tre ( ! field 9 association ) ! specim5 "u exam9ation4 ,if ! #a-;in* objective be n[ replac$ by a #a-ab? or #a-af? in* imm]sion & once aga9 focuss$ into place1 & a slight re-adju/m5t ( ! c5tr+ made1 x w be f\nd t ! field is brilliantly illum9at$1 & ! mo/ m9ute portions ( infusorial life are well def9$1 & ) a %>pness o!rwise unatta9able4 ,at ! same "t ! graduat+ or iris diaphragm mu/ be br\ght into use4 ,dr4 ,clif=d ,m]c]1 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,am]ican ,microscopical ,society1 :o has q rec5tly re9ve/igat$ ! "q ( illum9ation1 utt]ly condemns ! n>r[ cone1 z well z t ( oblique light 9 all su* inve/igations1 & consid]s ! #c-d?s axil cone z ! mo/ suitable me?od = microscopical illum9ation1 & he bases 8 resolv+ limit accord+ly4 ,"s important exp]im5ts are br\ght =w>d by ,dr4 ,m]c]1 :i* at ! same "t demon/rate ! correctness ( ,"l ,rayleigh's limit ( resolution 7ref]r$ to 9 a previ\s *apt]1 p4 #dd71 = circul> ap]tures z contra/$ ) t calculat$ by ! late ,sir ,george ,airy4 ,) reg>d to ! ,abb ,!ory1 ,dr4 ,m]c] says3 8,resolution 9 ! ,abb ,!ory may be said to increase by b\nds4 ,s long z ! c5tral image ( ! s\rce ( light alone is to be se5 at ! back ( ! objective1 resolution is n pres5t4 ,! ap]ture may be increas$ )\t *ange 9 ! contraction ( ! diffraction patt]n1 & 9 accompany+ resolution1 s long z ! c5tral image alone is to be se5 at ! back ( ! objective2 b ! mom5t ! increase 9 ap]ture is suffici5t to uncov] or admit "o flank+ spectrum image1 resolution is pres5t4 ,) great] increase 9 ap]ture1 no improvem5t 9 ! picture z to ! contraction ( ! diffraction patt]n is to be se5 until ano!r spectrum image is uncov]$ or admitt$4 ,dr4 ,m]c] gives 8 reasons = consid]+ t ! advantage\s r$uction 9 a cone ( light betwe5 an object & ! objective %\ld n exce$1 9 ! case ( fir/-class objectives1 "o-f\r? to "o-?ird 7nev] m ?an "o-half7 ( ! diamet] ( ! cone4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) full cone illum9ation1 resolution increases cont9u\sly1 & n by jumps or by p]iodic accessions4 ,) reg>d to ! use ( oblique light1 he says 8 ,photos #b1 #c1 & #dhi are a pictorial w>n+ = a second "t aga9/ ! use ( oblique illum9ation 9 ord9>y "w u a means ( increas+1 or ( attempt+ to exhau/ ! resolv+ p[] ( ! microscope4 ,at ! same "t x becomes evid5t t e sub/age %\ld be provid$ ) a means by :i* its cond5s] may be accurately c5tr$1 & t e /ud5t us+ ! microscope %\ld be famili> ) a me?od ( c5tr+ 8 sub/age cond5s]4 ,dr4 ,m]c] summ>ises ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts ?us3-- #a4 8,diffraction rays on leav+ an object may be consid]$ 9 ! same category ) o!r rays *ang$ 9 direction by an object4 #b4 8,! diffraction ph5om5a se5 9 a project$ image are ess5tially ! effect ( *anges 9 light above ! objective1 due to a function ( ap]ture1 & n to *anges bel[ ! objective1 due to diffraction ( light 9 ! plane ( ! object4 #c4 8,diffraction 9 ! plane ( ! object does1 "u "s circum/ances1 furni% light to c]ta9 p>ts ( an ap]ture f :i* prim>y rays are abs5t1 & ?is enables ap]ture to m fully det]m9e ! "* ( ! project$ image1 result+ 9 a m ne>ly tru?ful image1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 9 false appe>ances4 ,?is is ! gi/ ( ! ,abb ph5om5a ( microscopic vision4 #d4 8,b su* ph5om5a are n peculi> to microscopic vision1 not)/&+ ,pr(essor ,abb's claim to ! contr>y4 #e4 8,) any positive l5s simil> & m brilliant results may be got by utilis+ correspond+ p5cils ( prim>y rays1 in/ead ( isolat$ p5cils ( diffract$ rays4 #f4 8,/ill m tru/wor?y results may be got by us+ prim>y rays 9 place ( ! isolat$ p5cils ( prim>y rays4 #g4 8,an advantage peculi> to us+ n>r[ cone illum9ation ) an objective ( wide ap]ture 7! only illum9ation admissible 9 ! ,abb !ory71 consi/s 9 giv+1 "u suitable conditions1 approximately ! acme ( resolv+ p[] simultane\sly 9 ea* sev]al diamet]s4 ,?us a circul> ap]ture is approximately squ>$ or made rectangul> z to resolv+ p[] 9 sev]al ( its diamet]s simultane\sly4 #h4 8,special att5tion is call$ to ! fact t ! ,abb !ory deals ) complex objects2 = only su* objects are subject to resolution4 ,s+le p>ticles & uni=m areas are outside its doma94 ,^! latt]1 h[ev]1 are microscopic objects1 & all objects are ess5tially diff]5t %ap$ aggregations ( po9ts4 ,an isolat$ po9t-l p>ticle1 no matt] :at its m9ut5ess1 may be se5 if x pres5t suffici5t contra/ ) ! surr\nd+ microscopic field4 ,! size ( ! disc image is no less ?an a limit det]m9$ f9ally by ap]ture4 ,t limit 9 size v>y+ inv]sely ) ap]ture1 det]m9es ! limit ( resolv+ p[]4 ,?is is ! gi/ ( ! !ory ( microscopic vision :i* h>monises ) our exp]im5tal /udy ( ap]ture40 ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,micro-,,photography4 ,ow+ 9 "s measure to ! m complete k ( ! subject ga9$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ye>s1 & ! extreme value ( micro-photography 9 ! del9eation ( bact]ia1 & p]haps 9 a measure to ! adv5t ( ! p]fect$ dry-plate process1 photography is be+ rapidly press$ =w>d 9 conjunction ) ! microscope4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> #ahih no less ?an six1 m or less1 new =ms ( micro-photographic app>atus h appe>$2 two are simple1 "o = daylight1 "o = lamp1 "o = electric1 & "o = lime-light illum9ation4 ,pass+ ov] ! simpl] =ms1 = a notice ( :i* ,i am unable to f9d room1 !re is "o piece ( new app>atus1 t ( ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,/r+]1 :i* is n only new1 b is 9 e way adapt$ to ! "w ( micro-photography4 ,x is 9 fact a well-arrang$ cam]a1 fitt$ ) a p[]ful cond5s+ arrangem5t1 ea* portion ( :i* is capable ( be+ indep5d5tly c5tr$ & controll$4 ,inde$1 ! specially int]e/+ feature ( ! app>atus is ! control ( ! gas & ! beautiful & uni=mally illum9at+ disc ( zircon1 ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddf4--,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,/r+]'s ,improv$ ,micro-photography ,app>atus4 ,b4 ,oxyhydrog5 jet ) zirconium cyl9d]1 cov]$ by ! c[l ,a :5 work+4 ,c4 ,d\blet p>allelis+ cond5s]1 ) c5t]+ screws4 ,d4 ,iris diaphragm4 ,e4 ,hold] = tr\gh & light-filt]+ m$ia4 ,f4 ,plano-convex l5s1 #d-a_/d;ins4 diamet]1 ) c5t]+ screws ,g ,h4 ,plano-concave l5s1 ) iris diaphragm ,t4 ,k4 ,connect+ pulleys betwe5 focuss+ rod ( cam]a & f9e adju/m5t ( ,microscope4 ,l4 ,triangul> frame 9 :i* ,microscope feet are plac$4 ,m4 ,flap %utt]4 ,n4 ,door ?r\gh :i* image is obs]v$ on c>d scre51 etc4 ,o4 ,solid block ( mahogany on :i* cam]a body is fix$ & support$4 ,p4 ,d>k slide4 ,?is effici5t photo-micrographic app>atus 7,fig4 #ddf7 is made by ,messrs4 ,w4 ,watson ,sons1 "u ! in/ructions ( ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,/r+]4 ,! illum9at+ cond5s+ sy/em is m\nt$ on a squ>e brass b>1 ! illum9ant be+ oxyg5-hydrog5 light burn+ on zirconium4 ,imm$iately 9 front ( ?is is a cond5s]1 c1 f\r & a half in*es diamet]1 ) an iris diaphragm1 ,d1 imm$iately 9 front ( x4 ,! hold]1 ,e1 c>ries ! light filt]+ m$ia ?r\gh :i* ! beam passes & ent]s ! cond5s]1 ,f4 ,x !n goes ?r\gh a tank ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! cone1 ,f to ,h1 & em]ges a practically p>allel beam ( great int5sity ?r\gh a plano-concave l5s1 h1 ( su* a diamet] z to exactly fill ! back l5s ( ! sub/age cond5s]4 ,!re is an iris diaphragm1 ,t1 = cutt+ (f /ray light4 ,! :ole ( ! app>atus is fitt$ ) c5tr+ screws & clamps1 & aft] hav+ be5 once adju/$ x is ready = use at any mom5t )\t prep>ation4 ,by means ( ?is app>atus1 in/antane\s pictures c be tak5 ( liv+ rotif]s1 s brilliant is ! illum9ation1 :ile photographs ( su* f9e objects z ! flagella ( bact]ia _c be secur$ ) ! same am\nt ( c]ta9ty by any o!r microphotographic app>atus ) :i* ,i h made myself acqua9t$4 ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,=mul ,,& ,,me?ods3--,,cem5t+1 ,,cle>+1 ,,h>d5+ ,,& ,,m\nt+4#ij ,,cle>+ ,,ag5ts4 ,! object ( employ+ a cle>+ ag5t is to replace ! alcohol 9 ! dehydrat$ section by a liquid :i* has a refractive index ab\t ! same z ! balsam into :i* x is to be plac$1 & :i* w readily mix ) x4 ,,oil ,,( ,,b]gamot w cle> quickly f #ij p] c5t4 ( alcohol4 ,clove oil cle>s m rapidly1 b x dissolves out anil9e col\rs to a consid]able ext5t4 ,xylol is )\t action on anil9e col\rs4 ,?is /r5g? ( alcohol is *os5 because ( its be+ t ( ! me?ylat$ _s sold 9 ,london1 & :i* is mu* us$ 9 wa%+ & dehydrat+ on acc\nt ( its *eapness4 ,,oil ,,( ,,c$> ,,wood1 al?\gh an ess5tial oil1 resembles xylol1 b evaporates sl[ly4 ,x has v little solv5t action on ! anil9e col\rs4 ,x cle>s rapidly f absolute alcohol1 b n well f #ij p] c5t4 ,sections c be left 9 x = sev]al days4 ,x is a conv5i5t m$ium 9 :i* to exam9e tissues be=e m\nt+ !m p]man5tly4 ,x cle>s celloid9 )\t dissolv+ x2 & z a connect+ fluid betwe5 ! object & objective no?+ bett] has be5 discov]$4 ,o!r cle>+ ag5ts h be5 tri$1 b z !y dissolve out ! anil9e col\rs1 are no long] us$4 ,,cem5ts4 ,,grove',s ,,ma/ic ,,& ,,bismu?4--,dissolve gum ma/ic 9 *lor(orm1 & ?ick5 ) nitrate ( bismu?4 ,! solution ( ma/ic %\ld be ne>ly saturat$4 ,,grove',s ,,oxide ,,( ,,z9c1 ,,damm>1 ,,& ,,dry+ ,,oil4--,rub up well-gr\nd oxide ( z9c1 #b ozs41 ) dry+ oil1 to ! consi/5ce ( ?ick pa9t4 ,!n add an equal quantity ( gum damm>1 previ\sly dissolv$ 9 b5zol9e1 & ( ! ?ickness ( syrup4 ,/ra9 ?r\gh close-me%$ musl94 ,keep 9 well-cork$ bottle1 &1 if necess>y1 ?9 ) b5zol9e4 ,,is+lass ,,cem5t4--,heat ! is+lass 9 a cov]$ vessel on ! wat]-ba? ) a little glacial acetic acid1 until x is ?or\ghly s(t5$ & =ms a /iff mass1 !n gradually add m acid until x produces a ?ick solution :i* is ( uni=m consi/5ce1 & j fluid :ile hot4 ,!n run into wide-m\? bottles & close ) good corks4 ,,kitton',s ,,cem5t ( :ite lead & r$ lead 9 p[d]1 & li?>ge p[d] 9 equal p>ts4 ,gr9d toge!r ) a little turp5t9e1 until ?or\ghly incorporat$1 & mix ) gold size4 ,! mixture %\ld be ?9 en\gh to use ) a bru%2 9 us+1 "o coat %\ld be all[$ to dry be=e apply+ ano!r4 ,no m cem5t %\ld be mix$ ) ! gold size ?an is requir$ = imm$iate use1 z x sets quickly1 & becomes unworkable4 ,,kr,,nig',s ,,cem5t4--,gradually add ord9>y res91 #g to #i p>ts1 to melt$ beeswax1 #b p>ts1 !n /eam & cool4 ,,%ellac ,,cem5t4--,dissolve %ellac 9 an equal weight ( me?ylat$ _s1 !n p\r (f ! cle> portion & add a few drops ( balsam & ca/or oil4 ,,m>9e ,,glue4--,dissolve indi>ubb] 9 m9]al naph?a1 & add twice ! quantity ( p[d]$ %ellac2 or make *lor(orm ! solv5t1 & use ma/ic in/ead ( %ellac4 ,= ca/+ batt]y trays1 use a composition ( #d p>ts res9 & #a ( gutta p]*a1 ) a little boil$ oil4 ,,seli] 7,clean+ ,glass ,slides74--,new slides or cov]-glasses mu/ be plac$ = a few h\rs 9 a mixture ( #a "p ( potassium bi*romate1 #a ( sulphuric acid1 & #be ( wat]4 ,subsequ5tly wa% ) wat] & wipe dry ) a l95 rag1 aft] dra9+ (f ! excess ( moi/ure4 ,cov]s t h be5 us$ %\ld be previ\sly imm]s$ = a few days 9 a mixture ( equal p>ts ( alcohol & hydro*loric acid4 ,scrape old slides free ( m\nt+ m$ium be=e imm]s+ !m 9 ! bi*romate solution4 ,,els*+',s ,,celloid9 ,,solution4--,all[ ! celloid9 %av+s to swell up = #bd h\rs 9 ! necess>y quantity ( absolute alcohol1 !n add ! prop] am\nt ( e!r4 ,,ko*',s ,,copal4--,/a9 small pieces ( mat]ial 9 bulk1 & dehydrate ) alcohol1 !n imm]se 9 a ?9 solution ( copal 9 *lor(orm4 ,evaporate ) a g5tle heat until ! solution is s f> conc5trat$ z to draw out into ?reads t are brittle on cool+4 ,!n remove ! objects & leave on a tile = a few days to dry4 ,sections may !n be cut by means ( a f9e saw4 ,if objects are imb$d$ un/a9$1 remove copal f sections by soak+ 9 *lor(orm1 decalcify if necess>y1 & /a94 ,,eul5/e9',s ,,cem5t4--,mix equal p>ts ( ,brunswick black & gold size ) a v little ,canada balsam4 ,,decalcify+ ,,& ,,blea*+4 ,9 ! case ( bony /ructures1 or tissues s impregnat$ ) calcium salts1 ! mat]ial %\ld be decalcifi$ by an acid capable ( dissolv+ out ! m9]al matt]4 ,hydro*loric acid ) alcohol is 9 m g5]al use4 ,! old] ! bone ! /rong] w be ! acid requir$1 nitric ) alcohol & *romic acid4 ,picric acid is pref]r$ = ftal bone4 ,,&e]1 ,j4 ,j41 f9ds an aque\s solution ( phlorogluc9 acts z a p[]ful decalcify+ ag5t on ! bones ( animals1 b is )\t action on ! mo/ delicate organic tissue4 ,if treatm5t ) hydro*loric acid be employ$ z well1 ! residual 8osse90 w be )\t a trace ( ei!r calcium phosphate or c>bonate4 ,,ebn]',s ,,fluids4--7#a7 ,mix #ajj ,c4c4 ( cold saturat$ aque\s solution ( sodium *loride1 #ajj ,c4c4 ( wat]1 & #d ,c4c4 ( hydro*loric acid4 ,prep>ations are plac$ 9 ! fluid1 & #a to #b ,c4c4 ( hydro*loric acid add$ daily until !y are s(t4 7#b7 ,mix #be p>ts ( hydro*loric acid 7sp4 gr4 #aaf7 ) #ejj ( alcohol 7#ij p] c5t471 #ajj ( wat]1 & #be ( sodium *loride4 ,,fol',s ,,liquid4--,mix #gj volumes ( #a p] c5t4 *romic acid1 #c ( nitric acid1 & #bjj ( wat]4 ,,may]',s ,,desilification ,,process4--,place ! objects 9 alcohol conta9$ 9 a glass vessel coat$ int]nally ) p>aff91 !n add hydr(luoric acid drop by drop until desilification is complete1 avoid+ ! fumes mean:ile4 ,,m>%',s ,,*lor9e ,,me?od4--,*lor9e is g5]at$ 9 a small bottle by treat+ cry/als ( potassium *lorate ) /rong ,h,cl41 & ! gas is l$ ?r\gh a piece ( glass tub+1 b5t twice at "r angles1 to ! bottom ( a bottle conta9+ ! sections imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,,ranvi]',s ,,fluid4--,use #ej p] c5t4 hydro*loric acid ) ! addition ( sodium *loride to c\nt]act its swell+ action4 ,,squire',s ,,fluid4--7#a7 ,mix #ie p>ts ( glyc]9e ) #e p>ts ( hydro*loric acid2 us$ = s(t5+ tee?4 7#b7 ,use a #d p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( ars5ic acid at a temp]ature ( #cj to #dj ,c4 ,aft] s(t5+ tissues 9 ?is solution1 keep !m 9 alcohol4 ,,waldey]4--,to a #ja p] c5t4 solution ( palladium *loride1 add "o-t5? its volume ( hydro*loric acid4 ,,h>d5+1 ,,freez+1 ,,& ,,emb$d+4 ,,altmann 7,fix+ ,solution74--,a mixture ( equal p>ts ( #e p] c5t4 potassium bi*romate solution & #b p] c5t4 osmic acid4 ,,alcohol4--,/r5g?s ( alcoholic solutions1 z giv5 by ,squire1 w be f\nd ( practical value4 ,absolute alcohol 7sp4 gr4 ,o#gig7 conta9+ ab\t #ih p] c5t4 ( e?ylic alcohol is tak5 z ! basis 9 mo/ in/ances4 ,alcohol ( #ij p] c5t4 7sp4 gr4 #jhbc7 is prep>$ by mix+ #ad volumes ( absolute alcohol & #a volume ( di/ill$ wat]2 #hd p] c5t4 alcohol 7sp4 gr4 #jhch7 is rectifi$ _s ,b4,p42 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol 7sp4 gr4 #jhgb7 may be obta9$ by add+ #a volume ( di/ill$ wat] to #c volumes ( absolute alcohol1 #f volumes ( rectifi$ _s1 or #d volumes ( me?ylat$ _s2 #ej p] c5t4 alcohol 7sp4 gr4 #jiah7 is prep>$ by add+ #d volumes ( di/ill$ wat] to #e volumes ( absolute alcohol1 #c volumes ( wat] to #e volumes ( rectifi$ _s1 or #ce volumes ( wat] to #e volumes ( me?ylat$ _s4 ,absolute alcohol1 #ge ,c4c41 mix$ ) acetic acid1 #be ,c4c41 s]ves z an excell5t fix+ ag5t = nuclei4 ,imm]se tissues 9 x = #f to #ab h\rs1 !n transf] to #ij p] c5t4 alcohol until h>d5$1 aft]w>ds pres]v+ 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol till want$4 ,,betz',s ,,h>d5+ ,,fluid4--,a mixture ( equal p>ts ( sulphuric e!r & alcohol4 ,?is is us$ = h>d5+ ! bra9 ( insects prior to cutt+ sections4 ,,cole',s ,,freez+ ,,process4--,dissolve pick$ gum acacia1 #d ozs41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #f ozs41 & to ea* #e p>ts ( ! result+ mucilage add #c p>ts ( syrup made by dissolv+ loaf sug>1 #a lb41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #a p9t4 ,to ea* ounce ( ! m$ium add #e gra9s ( pure c>bolic acid1 & soak ! tissues 9 x prior to freez+4 ,= tissues liable to come to pieces1 mix #d p>ts ( syrup ) #e ( mucilage4 ,,flemm+',s ,,fix+ ,,solution4--,osmic acid 7#a p] c5t4 solution71 #hj ,c4c42 *romic acid 7#aj p] c5t4 solution71 #ae ,c4c42 glacial acetic acid1 #aj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #ie ,c4c4 ,,fol',s ,,fix+--,osmic acid 7#a p] c5t4 solution71 #d ,c4c42 *romic acid 7#aj p] c5t4 solution71 #e ,c4c42 glacial acetic acid1 #aj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #aha ,c4c4 ,,fis*]',s ,,imb$d+ ,,mass4--,dissolve #ae p>ts ( transp>5t soap 9 #age p>ts ( #if p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,,kle9',s ,,h>d5+4--,mix #a ,c4c4 ( #aj p] c5t4 *romic acid solution ) #fj ,c4c4 ( wat]1 & add #cj ,c4c4 ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,m,,ll]',s ,,fluid ,,=mula1 see page #bhh4--,?is solution is sometimes mix$ ) "o-?ird its volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 its h>d5+ action be+ !n mu* m rapid4 ,,rabl',s ,,h>d5+ ,,fluid4--,*romic acid solution 7#aj p] c5t471 #g ,c4c42 wat]1 #bjj ,c4c42 =mic acid 7sp4 gr4 #ab71 #e drops4 ,,rollett',s ,,freez+ ,,process4--,small portions ( tissue plac$ on ! /age ( microtome1 aft] imm]sion 9 ! :ite ( an egg1 !n froz5 & cut ) a v cold knife4 ,,ryd] 7,d\ble ,emb$d+74--,aft] ! celloid9 ba?1 soak objects 9 *lor(orm1 !n remove into a mixture ( *lor(orm & p>aff91 heat$ to n m ?an #dj ,c41 & f9ally into a ba? ( pure p>aff94 ,,/rick] 7,imb$d+ ,mass74--,prep>e ! objects 9 alcohol & imb$ 9 a conc5trat$ solution 9 gum arabic 9 a pap] case1 !n ?r[ ! :ole into alcohol & cut aft] #b or #c days4 ,,webb 7,dextr9 ,freez+74--,a ?ick solution ( dextr9 7#a3dj7 9 aque\s solution ( c>bolic acid is us$ = imb$d+1 & subsequ5tly froz54 ,,m\nt+ ,,m$ia4 ,sections are usually m\nt$ 9 balsam1 damm>1 glyc]9e1 c41 b x is n a necessity t ! cov]-glass %\ld be fix$ or cem5t$ d[n4 ,"s cem5ts 7ca\t*\c by pref]5ce7 %\ld be employ$ :5 glyc]9e or aque\s 7,f>rant's7 m$ia are us$4 ,,alleg]',s ,,gelat9e ,,process4--,add a few drops ( =mal9 to ea* gramme ( #je to #a p] c5t4 gelat9e solution4 ,aft] m\nt+ ! section 9 ?is1 apply heat to ! slide until ! p>aff9 is s(t5$1 & all[ ! sup]flu\s gelat9e to dra9 f ! edge ( ! slide4 ,,ap,,?y',s ,,m\nt+ ,,m$ium4--,pick$ gum arabic1 #ej ,gm42 cane-sug>1 #ej ,gm42 di/ill$ wat]1 #ej ,gm42 dissolve ov] a w>m ba? & add #jje ,gm4 ( ?ymol4 ,?is m$ium sets v h>d1 & comb9$ ) a pap] cell x may be us$ = r++ glyc]9e m\nts4 ,,cole',s ,,sl[ ,,or ,,exposure ,,me?od ,,( ,,m\nt+4--,dissolve dri$ ,canada balsam1 #c ozs41 9 b5zole1 #c fl4 ozs41 & filt]4 ,apply a clean cov]-glass to a slide t has be5 moi/5$ by brea?+ on x1 & place a few drops ( ! balsam solution on ! cov]-glass4 ,!n remove a section f turp5t9e1 & put x into ! balsam4 ,put aside = #ab h\rs to all[ ! b5zole to evaporate1 & hav+ w>m$ a slide & add$ a drop ( fre% balsam solution to t on ! cov]-glass1 br+ ! fluid balsam 9 contact ) ! w>m$ slide4 ,press ! cov] d[n c>efully to avoid ! inclusion ( air bubbles1 & :5 ! excess ( balsam is squeez$ out1 put ! slide aside to cool1 aft] :i* x may be clean$ ) a camel-hair bru% or s(t rag moi/5$ ) me?ylat$ _s4 ,,f>rant',s ,,solution4--,take ( gum arabic #e p>ts2 wat] #e p>ts2 :5 ! gum is fairly dissolv$ add #aj p>ts ( a #e p] c5t4 solution ( c>bolic acid4 ,,flemm+',s ,,glyc]9e ,,pres]vative4--,mix equal p>ts ( alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat]4 ,lee recomm5ds ! addition ( #je to #jge p] c5t4 ( acetic acid4 ,,lee',s ,,turp5t9e ,,colophonium ,,m\nt+ ,,m$ium4--,?is is highly recomm5d$ = g5]al "w1 & is prep>$ by add+ small pieces ( colophonium to rectifi$ oil ( turp5t9e1 heat+ 9 a /ove1 & :5 ! solution is suffici5tly ?ick filt]+ twice 9 ! /ove4 ,,seaman 7,glyc]9e ,jelly74--,dissolve is+lass 9 wat] s z to make a jelly t rema9s /iff at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! room1 & add "o-t5? "p ( glyc]9e1 toge!r ) a little solution ( borax1 c>bolic acid1 or camphor wat]4 ,filt] ?r\gh musl9 :il/ w>m & add a little alcohol4 ,,seil] 7,alcohol ,balsam74--,heat ,canada balsam until x becomes brittle :5 cold1 !n dissolve 9 w>m absolute alcohol & filt] ?r\gh absorb5t cotton-wool4 ,?is is *iefly useful z a m\nt+ m$ium = objects /a9$ ) c>m9e4 ,,squire 7,f>rant's ,m$ium74--,dissolve 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] #a ,gm4 ( ars5i\s acid & #acj ,gm4 ( gum arabic1 !n add #ajj ,c4c4 ( glyc]9e4 ,filt] ?r\gh f9e ,sw$i% filt] pap] ^u :i* has be5 deposit$ a ?9 lay] ( talc4 ,,squire 7,glyc]9e & ,gum74--,dissolve #acj ,gm4 ( gum arabic 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( *lor(orm wat] 7#a 9 #bjj71 !n add #ajj ,c4c4 ( glyc]9e & filt]4 ,,squire 7,glyc]9e ,jelly74--,soak #ajj ,gm4 ( ,fr5* gelat9e 9 *lor(orm wat]1 dra9 :5 s(t1 & dissolve ) heat 9 #gej ,gm4 ( glyc]9e4 ,add #djj ,gm4 ( *lor(orm wat]1 ) :i* has be5 incorporat$ ab\t #ej ,gm4 ( fre% egg album51 mix ?or\ghly1 & heat to boil+ po9t = ab\t #e m9utes4 ,make up ! total weight to #aeej ,gm4 ) *lor(orm wat] & filt] 9 a w>m *amb]4 ,,squire 7,canada ,balsam74--,dry ! balsam ov] a wat] ba? until brittle :5 cool$1 !n to ea* #bjj ,gm4 add #ajj ,c4c4 ( b5zole or r less xylol4 ,,squire 7,damm> ,solution74--7#a7 ,dissolve #ajj ,gm4 ( damm> 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( b5zole4 7#b7 ,dissolve #ajj ,gm4 ( damm> 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( turp5t9e oil1 & add #ej ,gm4 ( ma/ic dissolv$ 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( *lor(orm4 ,,squire 7,potassium ,acetate ,solution74--,dissolve #bej ,gm4 ( potassium acetate 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( wat]1 by ! aid ( g5tle heat1 & filt]4 ,?is is us$ z a m\nt+ m$ium4 ,,squire 7,treatm5t ( ,sections74--,imb$ tissues to be cut 9 p>aff9 melt+ betwe5 #de & #ej ,c41 accord+ to ! temp]ature ( ! room & ! nature ( ! mat]ial4 ,aft]w>ds pres]ve ! sections1 prior to /a9+ & m\nt+1 9 #ej p] c5t4 alcohol1 or 9 a mixture ( equal volumes ( glyc]9e & ?ymol wat] 7#a 9 #aejj74 ,sections may be conv5i5tly wa%$ 9 alcohol1 dehydrat$1 & cle>$1 9 small wide-m\!d bottles4 ,,topp+',s ,,solution4--,mix #a "p ( absolute alcohol ) #e p>ts ( wat]1 or #d p>ts ( wat] & #a "p ( alum9ium acetate4 ,add an equal volume ( glyc]9e be=e use4 ,,/a9s ,,& ,,/a9+ ,,me?ods4 ,,ap,,?y',s ,h,,matoxyl9 ,,/a94--,aft] /a9+ 9 #a p] c5t4 solution ( hmatoxyl9 9 #gj or #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 wa% out 9 #a p] c5t4 solution ( potassium bi*romate 9 alcohol ( ! same /r5g?4 ,! bi*romate solution %\ld be fre%ly made by mix+ #a "p ( a #e p] c5t4 aque\s solution ) ab\t #d p>ts ( #hj to #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,,alf][ 7,silv] ,/a9+74--,an acid solution ( silv] picrate1 lactate1 acetate1 or citrate1 is prep>$ by add+ to #hjj ,c4c4 ( ! solution #aj to #ae drops ( a conc5trat$ solution ( ! acid ( ! salt tak54 ,,be!',s ,,/a9 ,,= ,,*it94--,place s]ies ( m\nt$ sections on slides 9 a fre%ly prep>$ #aj p] c5t4 solution ( anil9e hydro*loride1 conta9+ #a drop ( hydro*loric acid = ea* #aj ,c4c41 = #c or #d m9utes1 !n r9se 9 wat]1 & put ! slide ) sections d[nw>ds 9 a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( potassium bi*romate4 ,! process may be repeat$ if ! /a9 is n suffici5tly int5se1 b ! sections mu/ be well r9s$ ) wat] aft] ea* imm]sion4 ,,beale',s ,,ammonia ,,c>m9e4--,c>m9e1 #aj grs42 /rong solution ( ammonia1 #cj m9s42 di/ill$ wat]1 #b ozs42 alcohol1 #je oz42 glyc]9e1 #b ozs4 ,dissolve ! c>m9e 9 ! ammonia by ! aid ( heat1 boil = a few seconds1 & let ! solution cool4 ,!n all[ ! excess ( ammonia to evaporate1 add ! o!r +r$i5ts1 & filt]4 ,if any c>m9e %\ld deposit on keep+ add "o or two drops ( ammonia solution to r$issolve x4 ,,b5da',s ,,copp] ,h,,matoxyl94--,h>d5 ! mat]ial ) *romic acid or ,flemm+'s solution & leave sections = #bd h\rs 9 a #e p] c5t4 solution ( neutral copp] acetate at a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj ,c41 wa% out well ) di/ill$ wat]1 & /a9 to a d>k grey or blacki% t9t 9 a saturat$ aque\s hmatoxyl9 solution4 ,decol\rise ! sections 9 #jb p] c5t4 hydro*loric acid until light yell[1 put back into ! copp] solution until !y turn blui%-grey1 !n wa%1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,bism>ck ,,br[n4--,vesuv9e #je ,gm41 rectifi$ _s #b1 & di/ill$ wat] #hj ,c4c42 or a conc5trat$ alcoholic solution may be kept ready = dilution4 ,,bo*m]',s ,h,,matoxyl94--,dissolve 7a7 cry/allis$ hmatoxyl91 #a ,gm41 9 absolute alcohol1 #aj ,c4c41 & 7b7 alum ammonia1 #aj ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #bjj ,c4c4 ,mix ! two solutions1 & all[ to rip5 = "s days be=e use4 ,filt] aft] /&+ a week4 ,wa% out ) aque\s solution ( alum 7#je p] c5t47 or ) acids4 ,,calb]la',s ,,indul9 ,,/a94--,dilute a conc5trat$ aque\s solution ) #f volumes ( wat] & /a9 sections = #e to #bj m9utes4 ,aft]w>ds wa% 9 wat] or alcohol1 & exam9e 9 glyc]9e or clove oil4 ,,calb]la',s ,,mac]at+ ,,mixture 7= n]ve & muscle ( embryos74--,dissolve potassium *loride1 #jd ,gm41 sodium *loride1 #jc ,gm41 sodium phosphate1 #jb ,gm41 & calcium *loride1 #jb ,gm41 9 wat]1 #ajj ,gm41 saturat$ ) c>bon dioxide j be=e us+4 ,mix "o volume ( ?is solution ) half a volume ( ,mll]'s solution & "o volume ( wat]4 ,! ,mll]'s solution may be replac$ by a #be p] c5t4 solution ( ammonium *romate4 ,tissues mac]at$ 9 ?is mixture are isolat$ by teas+ & %ak+1 & m\nt specim5s 9 conc5trat$ potassium acetate solution4 ,,canoy',s ,,salt ,,solution4--,add a trace ( osmic acid to a #jge p] c5t4 solution ( sodium *loride 9 wat]4 ,,*5z9sky',s ,,me?yl5e ,,blue ,,& ,,eos9e4--,mix saturat$ aque\s solution ( me?yl5e blue1 #dj p>ts1 ) #je p] c5t4 solution ( eos9e 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 #bj p>ts1 & di/ill$ wat] or glyc]9e1 #dj p>ts4 ,,cohnheim',s ,,gold ,,me?od4--,place pieces ( tissue 9 #je p] c5t4 gold *loride solution until q yell[1 !n expose to light 9 wat] acidulat$ ) acetic acid until ! gold is ?or\ghly r$uc$4 ,m\nt specim5s 9 acidulat$ glyc]9e4 ,,crook%ank',s ,,me?od ,,( ,,/a9+ ,,flagella4--,cov]-glass prep>ations are /a9$ ) a drop ( conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet1 !n r9s$ 9 wat]1 all[$ to dry1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,,czok]',s ,,alum ,,co*9eal4--,dissolve alum #a ,gm4 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #ajj ,c4c41 add p[d]$ co*9eal1 #a ,gm41 & boil2 evaporate d[n to half ( its orig9al bulk1 filt]1 & add #a_/b ,c4c4 ( liquid c>bolic acid4 ,,delafield',s ,h,,matoxyl94--,dissolve hmatoxyl91 #d ,gm41 9 absolute alcohol1 #be ,c4c41 & add ! solution to #djj ,c4c4 ( a saturat$ aque\s solution ( ammonia alum4 ,expose ! mixture to light & air = #c or #d days1 !n filt] & add glyc]9e1 #ajj ,c4c41 & me?ylic alcohol1 #ajj ,c4c4 ,aga9 expose ! solution to light until x becomes d>k-col\r$1 !n filt] & pres]ve 9 a /opp]$ bottle4 ,,ehrli*',s ,,acid ,h,,matoxyl94--,dissolve hmatoxyl91 #b ,gm41 9 absolute alcohol1 #ajj ,c4c41 & add glyc]9e1 #ajj ,c4c41 di/ill$ wat]1 #ajj ,c4c41 ammonia alum1 #b ,gm41 glacial acetic acid1 #aj ,c4c4 ,expose to daylight = at lea/ a mon? be=e use1 remov+ ! /opp] at int]vals4 ,,ehrli*',s ,h,,matoxyl9 7,,ammoniat$74--,dissolve ammonium c>bonate1 #jd ,gm41 & hmatoxyl91 #b ,gm41 9 pro( _s1 #dj ,c4c41 & expose to ! air 9 a %all[ di% = #bd h\rs4 ,!n make up ! volume to #dj ,c4c4 ) pro( _s 7w>m+ if necess>y to re-dissolve any sep>ate cry/als71 & add ammonia alum1 #b ,gm41 dissolv$ 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c41 toge!r ) glyc]9e1 #ajj ,c4c41 rectifi$ _s1 #hj ,c4c41 & glacial acetic acid1 #aj ,c4c4 ,,ehrli*-,,biondi ,,mixture 7or ,ehrli*-,biondi-,heid5heim mixture74--,dissolve 7a7 me?yl gre51 #je ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #ajj ,c4c42 7b7 acid fu*s9e1 #je ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #dj ,c4c42 7c7 orange1 #b ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #bjj ,c4c4 ,mix ! ?ree solutions & filt] be=e use4 ,/a9 sections = #ab h\rs1 !n wa%1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt4 ,,ehrli*-,,weig]t-,,ko*',s ,,g5tian-,,violet-,,anil9e-,,wat]4--,ani l9e wat]1 #ajj ,c4c41 conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet1 #aa ,c4c42 absolute alcohol1 #aj ,c4c4 ,,ev]>d1 ,,demoor1 ,,& ,,mass>t',s ,h,,matoxyl9-,,eos9e4--,dissolve alum1 #bj ,gm41 9 wat]1 #bjj ,gm41 by ! aid ( heat1 !n filt]1 & aft] #bd h\rs add a solution ( hmatoxyl91 #a ,gm41 9 alcohol1 #aj ,gm4 ,let ! solution /& = #h days1 aga9 filt]1 & mix ) an equal volume ( ! foll[+ solution3--,eos9e1 #a ,gm41 alcohol1 #be ,gm41 wat]1 #ge ,gm41 glyc]9e1 #ej ,gm4 ,,flemm+',s ,,g5tian ,,violet ,,me?od4--,use a conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( ,g5tian ,violet dilut$ ) ab\t "o half its bulk ( wat]4 ,diff]5tiate ! /a9$ objects 9 alcohol acidulat$ ) ab\t #je p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid1 foll[$ by pure alcohol & clove oil4 ,,flemm+',s ,,orange ,,me?od4--,/a9 = days or weeks 9 /rong alcoholic safran9e solution dilut$ ) half its bulk ( anil9e wat] 7saturat$72 !n r9se 9 di/ill$ wat]1 diff]5tiate 9 absolute alcohol conta9+ #ja p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid1 /a9 = #a to #c h\rs 9 /rong aque\s g5tian violet solution1 aga9 wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & f9ally treat ) conc5trat$ aque\s solution ( ,orange4 ,aft] a few m9utes transf] sections to absolute alcohol1 !n cle> 9 clove or b]gamot oil1 & m\nt 9 damm> or balsam4 ,,fol',s ,,f]ric ,,*loride ,,fix+ ,,& ,,/a9+ ,,process4--,prep>ations are treat$ ) t9cture ( f]ric *loride dilut$ ) #e to #aj times its bulk ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 & !n transf] = #bd h\rs to alcohol conta9+ a trace ( gallic acid4 ,,frey',s ,,fu*s9e ,,solution4--,a solution ( #jja ,gm4 ( cry/allis$ fu*s9e1 #bj to #be drops absolute alcohol1 & #ae ,c4c4 ( wat]4 ,,fri$la5d]',s ,,/a9+ ,,me?ods4--,cov]-glass prep>ations are treat$ = #c m9utes ) a #a p] c5t4 solution ( acetic acid1 & all[$ to dry aft] removal ( excess ( liquid by filt] pap]4 ,next place !m 9 g5tian violet anil9e wat] 7anil9e wat]1 #ajj ,c4c41 conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet1 #aa ,c4c42 absolute alcohol1 #aj ,c4c47 = half a m9ute1 wa% 9 wat]1 m\nt & dry 9 balsam4 ,sections are kept = #bd h\rs 9 a w>m place1 9 ! foll[+ solution3--,conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet1 #ej ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #ajj ,c4c42 glacial acetic acid1 #aj ,c4c4 ,!n treat = #a or #b m9utes ) #ja p] c5t4 acetic acid1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,gaffky',s ,,/a9+ ,,me?ods4--,sections ( mat]ial h>d5$ 9 alcohol are left = #bj to #bd h\rs 9 a deep blue opaque solution1 fre%ly made by add+ saturat$ alcoholic solution ( me?yl5e blue to di/ill$ wat]4 ,!n wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]1 dehydrate 9 absolute alcohol1 cle> 9 turp5t9e oil1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,giacomi',s ,,/a9+ ,,me?od4--,/a9 cov]-glass prep>ations = a few m9utes 9 a hot solution ( fu*s9e1 !n place 9 wat] conta9+ a few drops ( f]ric *loride solution1 & aft]w>ds decol\rise 9 /rong f]ric *loride solution4 ,if any precipitate be =m$ ) ! iron solution1 complete ! decol\risation 9 alcohol4 ,c\nt]/a9 ) vesuv9e4 ,,gibbes' ,,d\ble ,,/a9+ ,,me?od4--,well mix mag5ta1 #b ,gm41 & me?yl5e blue1 #a ,gm41 !n add sl[ly anil9e oil1 #c ,c4c41 dissolve 9 rectifi$ _s1 #ae ,c4c4 ,subsequ5tly add #ae ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] & keep ! /a9 9 a /opp]$ bottle4 ,cov]-glass prep>ations are plac$ = #d m9utes 9 ! slightly heat$ /a9 & sections left = "s h\rs 9 ! /a9 at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,aft]w>ds1 wa% 9 me?ylat$ _s until no m col\r comes away1 !n dehydrate1 cle> 9 c$> oil1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,gibbes' ,,mag5ta ,,/a94--,mix mag5ta1 #b ,gm42 anil9e oil1 #c ,gm42 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c42 & di/ill$ wat]1 #bj ,c4c4 ,,golgi',s ,,sublimat$ ,,me?od4--,small cubes ( tissue are h>d5$ = #ae to #cj days 9 ,mll]'s fluid1 :i* %\ld be frequ5tly *ang$4 ,!n transf] = #h to #aj days to #jbe to #a p] c5t4 aque\s m]curic *loride solution1 :i* mu/ be *ang$1 z x becomes col\r$4 ,if desir$1 treat subsequ5tly ) weak sodium sulphide solution to d>k5 ! /a9 & make x %>p]4 ,aft] cutt+ sections f mat]ial ?us prep>$ !y mu/ be well wa%$ ) wat]4 ,,gram',s ,,/a9 ,,= ,,bact]ia4--,?is is prep>$ by %ak+ #ae drops ( anil9e oil ) #ae ,gm4 ( wat]1 filt]+ ! solution & add+ to ! filtrate #d to #e drops ( saturat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet4 ,or %ake #cc ,c4c4 ( anil9e ) #ajj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] &1 aft] filt]+1 add #aa ,c4c4 ( conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet & #aj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol4 ,aft] prep>ations h be5 /a9$ = #a to #c m9utes 9 "o ( ! above !y are quickly r9s$ 9 absolute alcohol & !n plac$ 9 ,gram's solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iod9e 7iod9e1 #a ,gm42 potassium iod9e1 #b ,gm42 wat]1 #cjj ,c4c471 until !y h acquir$ a br[n col\r4 ,?is takes ab\t #a to #c m9utes1 & !y are next wa%$ 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol until !y become pale yell[1 !n dehydrat$1 cle>$1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,c\nt]/a9 ) eos9e or vesuv9e if desir$4 ,,gram',s ,,solution4--,iod9e1 #a ,gm42 potassium iod9e1 #b ,gm42 di/ill$ wat]1 #cjj ,gm4 ,,gr5a*]',s ,,alum ,,c>m9e4--,dissolve #e ,gm4 ( ammonium alum 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]1 add #a ,gm4 ( c>m9e1 & boil = #bj m9utes1 filt] :5 cool1 & add di/ill$ wat] to make up to #ajj ,c4c4 ,,gr5a*]',s ,,alcoholic ,,borax ,,c>m9e4--,dissolve #d ,gm4 ( borax 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]1 !n add #c ,gm4 ( c>m9e1 & heat g5tly4 ,f9ally1 add #ajj ,c4c4 ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 filt] ! solution1 if necess>y1 be=e use4 ,pieces ( tissues are /a9$ 9 ?is = #a to #c days1 & !n transf]r$ to #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 conta9+ #je to #a p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid4 ,,heid5ha9',s ,h,,matoxyl9 ,,me?od4--,dissolve 7a7 hmatoxyl91 #a ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #cjj ,c4c42 7b7 potassium *romate1 #a ,gm41 9 di/ill$ wat]1 #bjj ,c4c4 ,small pieces ( tissue h>d5$ 9 alcohol or picric acid are plac$ 9 7a7 = #ab to #bd h\rs1 & !n transf]r$ = a simil> l5g? ( "t to 7b74 ,wa% ?or\ghly 9 wat]1 dehydrate 9 alcohol1 & imb$ 9 p>aff94 ,,h5le',s ,,/a9 7= n]v\s tissue74--,sections are left 9 palladium *loride solution 7#a3cjj to #a3fjj7 till !y are ( a /raw col\r1 !n r9s$ 9 wat] & /a9$ ) /rong ammonia c>m9e4 ,,h5neguy',s ,,alum ,,c>m9e4--,excess ( c>m9e is boil$ 9 saturat$ solution ( pota% alum1 & #aj p] c5t4 ( glacial acetic acid add$ on cool+4 ,all[ to settle = "s days1 & !n filt]4 ,,h5neguy',s ,,p]manganate ,,me?od4--,treat sections = #e m9utes ) #a p] c5t4 potassium p]manganate solution1 !n wa% 9 wat] & /a9 ) safran9e1 rub91 g5tian violet1 vesuv9e1 pref]5ce be+ giv5 to a safran9e solution prep>$ ) anil9e wat]4 ,,h]mann',s ,,plat9o-,,aceto-,,osmic ,,mixture4--,mix #ae p>ts ( #a p] c5t4 plat9ic *loride solution1 #a "p ( glacial acetic acid1 & #b or #d p>ts ( #b p] c5t4 osmic acid4 ,,h]twig',s ,,mac]at+ ,,fluid4--,mix equal p>ts ( #jje p] c5t4 osmic acid1 & #jb p] c5t4 acetic acid4 ,m$us are treat$ ) ?is mixture = #b or #c m9utes1 !n wa%$ 9 #ja p] c5t4 acetic acid until free f osmic acid4 ,leave !m = #bd h\rs 9 ! dilute acetic acid1 !n wa% 9 wat]1 /a9 ) ,beale's c>m9e1 & m\nt 9 glyc]9e4 ,= ,act9i use #jjd p] c5t4 osmic acid & make bo? solutions ) sea wat]4 ,wa% out ) #jb p] c5t4 acetic acid1 & /a9 ) picro-c>m9e4 ,,hess]t',s ,,me?od ,,= ,,/a9+ ,,flagella4--,fix ! film by treat+ cov]-glass prep>ations ) a saturat$ alcoholic solution ( m]curic *loride1 wa%1 & /a9 = #cj or #dj m9utes 9 a hot #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( saturat$ alcoholic solution ( fu*s9e4 ,,h(fmann',s ,,blue ,,/a94--,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( ,h(fmann's blue 9 #bj ,c4c4 ( rectifi$ _s & #hj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]1 !n add #je ,c4c4 ( glacial acetic acid4 ,z a nucle> /a9 imm]se sections = #aj m9utes or m1 r9se 9 wat]1 wa% 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,to /a9 sieve areas1 less "t is requir$1 #e to #aj m9utes1 r9se 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & m\nt 9 glyc]9e2 or dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,hoy]',s ,,%ellac ,,injection ,,mass4--,dissolve %ellac 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol to ! consi/5cy ( a ?9 syrup1 & /ra9 ?r\gh musl9 ( m$ium ?ickness4 ,col\r ) anil9e col\rs 9 alcoholic solution1 or by means ( v]milion or o!r pigm5t susp5d$ 9 alcohol4 ,,hoy]',s ,,silv] ,,nitrate ,,gelat9e ,,mass4--,mix a conc5trat$ solution ( gelat9e ) an equal volume ( a #d p] c5t4 silv] nitrate solution & w>m1 !n add a v small quantity ( aque\s pyrogallic acid solution to r$uce ! silv] salt1 & add *loral & glyc]9e z 9 ! c>m9e gelat9e mass4 ,,hoy]',s ,,silv] ,,/a94--,add ammonia to a solution ( silv] nitrate ( kn[n /r5g?1 until ! precipitate =m$ j re-dissolves1 !n dilute ! solution until x conta9s #jge to #jej p] c5t4 ( ! salt4 ,,kais]',s ,,bism>ck ,,br[n ,,/a94 ,sections are /a9$ = #dh h\rs1 at a temp]ature ( #fj ,c41 9 a saturat$ solution ( ,bism>ck br[n 9 #fj p] c5t4 alcohol1 & wa%$ out 9 #fj p] c5t4 alcohol conta9+ #b p] c5t4 ( ,h4,c4,l41 or #c p] c5t4 ( acetic acid4 ,,kais]',s ,,n]ve ,,/a94--,?is is a modification ( ,weig]t's process4 ,! mat]ial is h>d5$ 9 ,mll]'s solution = #b or #c days1 !n cut into slices #b to #d ,mm4 ?ick1 & treat$ ) ! solution = #e or #f days m4 ,subsequ5tly imm]se 9 ,m>*i's solution = #h days1 !n wa%1 pass ?r\gh alcohol1 & imb$ 9 celloid94 ,sections are mordant$ = #e m9utes 9 ! foll[+ mixture3--,solutions ( f]ric *loride1 #a "p2 di/ill$ wat]1 #a "p2 rectifi$ _s1 #h p>ts4 ,next wa% 9 ,weig]t's hmatoxyl91 & w>m 9 a fre% quantity ( ! same = a few m9utes1 wa% ) wat]1 diff]5tiate 9 ,pal's solution1 & neutralise ! oxalic acid by wa%+ 9 wat] conta9+ a little ammonia4 ,,kais]',s ,,/a9 ,,= ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord4--,sections are /a9$ = a few h\rs 9 solution ( nph?ylam9e br[n1 #a "p1 9 wat]1 #bjj p>ts1 & alcohol1 #ajj p>ts4 ,aft]w>ds wa% ) alcohol & cle> ) origanum oil4 ,,kall9',s ,,neurological ,,me?od4--,dissolve hydroqu9one1 #e ,gm41 sodium sulphite1 #dj ,gm41 & potassium c>bonate1 #ge ,gm41 9 #be ,gm4 ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,at ! "t ( us+1 dilute ?is solution ) "o-?ird to "o-half its bulk ( absolute alcohol2 imm]se sections ( silv]$ mat]ial = sev]al m9utes until r$uction is complete4 ,!n place !m 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol = #aj to #ae m9utes1 & subsequ5tly leave 9 aque\s solution ( sodium hyposulphite 7#a3e7 = #bd h\rs or m4 ,f9ally dehydrate & m\nt4 ,c>m9e may be us$ z an aft]/a94 ,,kle95b]g',s ,,solution 7,improv$ ,=mula74--,hmatoxyl91 #b-a_/b ,gm42 cry/allis$ calcium *loride1 #bj ,gm4 9 #aj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]2 alum1 #c ,gm4 9 #af ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]2 rectifi$ _s1 #bdj ,c4c4 ,dissolve ! calcium *loride & alum 9 _! respective quantities ( wat] by ! aid ( heat2 mix ! solutions & imm$iately dilute ) rectifi$ _s2 aft] an h\r filt] & add ! hmatoxyl94 ,?is makes a good work+ solution :i* keeps well4 ,( c\rse x conta9s ! alum9a 9 solution1 n z alum b alum9ium *loride4 ,if 9 special cases ! col\r is consid]$ too /rong1 ! dilution 7:5 /a9+ 9 bulk7 mu/ be made ) "s ( ! solution to :i* hmatoxyl9 has n be5 add$4 ,,ko*',s ,,me?od ,,= ,,/a9+ ,,flagella4--,imm]se cov]-glass prep>ations 9 a #a p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( hmatoxyl91 !n transf] to a #e p] c5t4 solution ( *romic acid or to ,mll]'s fluid2 dry & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,ko*-,,ehrli*1 ,,bacilli4--,place sections1 or cov]-glass prep>ations1 = at lea/ #ab h\rs 9 g5tian violet1 or fu*s9e anil9e wat] 7anil9e wat]1 #ajj ,c4c42 conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet1 or fu*s9e1 #aa ,c4c42 absolute alcohol1 #aj ,c4c471 !n imm]se 9 a mixture ( pure nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #adb71 #aj ,c4c41 & di/ill$ wat]1 #cj ,c4c41 = "s seconds4 ,r9se 9 #fj p] c5t4 alcohol = a few m9utes1 & !n c\nt]/a9 ) vesuv9e 7vesuv9e1 #je ,gm42 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c47 aft] g5tian violet2 or me?yl5e blue 7me?yl5e blue1 #jbe ,gm42 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c47 aft] fu*s9e4 ,f9ally r9se 9 wat]1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,accord+ to ,squire1 :o po9ts out t nitric acid is apt to injure delicate sections1 ,watson ,*eyne recomm5ds t sections %\ld be transf]r$ f fu*s9e anil9e wat] to di/ill$ wat]1 !n r9s$ 9 alcohol1 & plac$ 9 ! foll[+ contra/ /a9 = #a or #b h\rs3--,saturat$ alcoholic solution ( me?yl5e blue1 #bj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #ajj ,c4c42 =mic acid 7sp4 gr4 #ab71 #a ,c4c4 ,k,,hne',s ,,c>bolic ,,me?yl5e ,,blue4--,rub up #ae ,gm4 ( me?yl5e blue ) #aj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol1 & add #ajj ,c4c4 ( a #e p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( c>bolic acid4 ,k,,hne',s ,,me?yl ,,violet ,,solution4--,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( me?yl violet 9 #ij ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] & #ajj ,c4c4 ( alcohol4 ,k,,hne',s ,,anil9e ,,oil ,,solutions4--,rub up z mu* me?yl5e blue1 me?yl gre51 or safran9e z w g ^u ! po9t ( a knife1 ) #aj ,c4c4 ( anil9e1 & all[ to settle4 ,k,,hne',s ,,c>bolic ,,fu*s9e ,,or ,,black ,,br[n4--,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( fu*s9e or black br[n 9 #aj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol1 & add #ajj ,c4c4 ( a #e p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( c>bolic acid4 ,k,,hne',s ,,modification ,,( ,,gram',s ,,me?od4--,/a9 nuclei ) c>m9e1 !n treat sections = #e m9utes 9 me?yl violet solution1 dilut$ "o-six? ) a #a p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( ammonium c>bonate1 or 9 a solution ( ,victoria blue1 #jbe ,gm41 9 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c41 & di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c4 ,next r9se ?or\ghly 9 wat] & transf] to ,gra9's solution = #b to #c m9utes2 aga9 r9se 9 wat] & extract excess ( /a9 ) solution ( yell[ fluoresc9e1 #a ,gm41 9 absolute alcohol1 #ej ,c4c4 ,f9ally1 pass ?r\gh pure alcohol1 anil9e1 t]eb5e1 & xylol1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,l,,ffl]',s ,,solution4--,conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( me?yl5e blue1 #cj ,c4c42 solution ( 7cau/ic pota%7 potassium hydrate 7#a3aj1jjj71 #ajj ,c4c4 ,mix & filt] %ortly be=e use4 ,sections are /a9$ = a few m9utes 7tub]cle sections = "s h\rs71 & excess ( /a9 c be remov$ by imm]sion = a few seconds 9 #je p] c5t4 acetic acid4 ,dehydrate 9 absolute alcohol1 cle> 9 c$> oil1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,lffl] f\nd t mo/ bact]ia /a9$ bett] 9 ?is solution ?an 9 ! weak] solutions us$ by ,ko* = turb]cle bacillus4 ,,lavd[sky',s ,,bilb]ry ,,juice ,,/a94--,well wa% ! fre% b]ries ( ,vacc9ium myrtillus1 !n express ! juice & mix ) twice its bulk ( di/ill$ wat]1 mix$ ) a little #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,heat = a %ort "t & filt] :il/ w>m4 ,dilute ! /a9 ) #b or #c volumes ( di/ill$ wat] be=e use4 ,,lee',s ,,=maldehyde ,,solutions4--7#a7 ,mix #a "p ( #dj p] c5t4 =maldehyde solution ) two p>ts ( #a p] c5t4 *romic acid solution1 & add #d p] c5t4 ( acetic acid4 7#b7 ,mix #a "p ( #dj p] c5t4 =maldehyde solution ) #d p>ts ( #a p] c5t4 plat9ic *loride solution1 & add #b p] c5t4 ( acetic acid4 ,,lee',s ,,osmic ,,acid ,,& ,,pyrogallol ,,/a94--,fix ! tissues 9 ,h]mann's mixture or ,flemm+'s mixture = half an h\r1 !n place 9 a weak solution ( pyrogallol1 :i* may be prep>$ ) alcohol 9 "s cases4 ,safran9e may be us$ z a second /a94 ,,m>t9otti',s ,,picro-,,nigros9e ,,/a94--,pa?ological objects are /a9$ = #b or #c h\rs or days1 9 a saturat$ solution ( nigros9e 9 saturat$ alcoholic picric acid solution4 ,!n wa% out 9 a mixture ( #a "p ( =mic acid ) #b p>ts ( alcohol until ! grey matt] appe>s cle>ly diff]5tiat$ f ! :ite to ! nak$ eye4 ,,may]',s ,,alum9ium ,,*loride ,,c>m9e4--,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( c>m9ic acid & #c ,gm4 ( alum9ium *loride 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( wat]4 ,,may]',s ,,b]l9 ,,blue ,,injection4--,add a solution ( #aj ,c4c4 ( t9cture ( f]ric *loride 9 #ejj ,c4c4 ( wat]1 to a solution ( #bj ,gm4 ( potassium f]rocyanide 9 #ejj ,c4c4 ( wat]1 all[ to /& = #ab h\rs1 decant1 wa% ! deposit = #a or #b days ) di/ill$ wat] until ! wa%+s come ?r\gh d>k blue1 !n dissolve ! blue 9 ab\t a litre ( wat]4 ,,may]',s ,,c>malum4--,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( c>m9ic acid & #aj ,gm4 ( alum 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]2 decant1 or filt]1 & add a few cry/als ( ?ymol1 #ja p] c5t4 ( salicylic acid1 or #je p] c5t4 ( sodium salicylate4 ,a weak] solution conta9s #c to #e times z mu* alum & #e times z mu* wat]4 ,,m]bel',s ,,c>m9e ,,& ,,indigo ,,fluids 7give a blue & r$ /a91 & are v selective74--,to prep>e ! r$ fluid1 take--,c>m9e1 #b dr42 borax1 #b dr42 di/ill$ wat]1 #d ozs4 ,= ! blue fluid1 take--,indigo c>m9e1 #b dr42 borax1 #b dr42 di/ill$ wat]1 #d ozs4 ,mix ea* 9 a mort>1 & all[ x to /&1 !n p\r (f ! sup]natant fluid4 ,if ! sections h be5 h>d5$ 9 *romic acid1 picric acid1 or a bi*romate1 !y mu/ be wa%$ 9 wat] till no t+e appe>s4 ,place !m 9 alcohol = fifte5 or tw5ty m9utes1 !n 9 ! two fluids mix$ 9 equal proportions1 aft] :i* wa% !m 9 a saturat$ aque\s solution ( oxalic acid1 :]e !y %\ld rema9 a r %ort] "t ?an 9 ! /a9+ fluids4 ,:5 suffici5tly blea*$1 wa% !m 9 wat]1 to get rid ( ! acid1 !n pass !m ?r\gh _s & oil ( cloves1 & m\nt 9 balsam or damm>4 ,,mitrophan[',s ,,gold ,,process ,,= ,,prickle-,,cells ,,& ,,int]cellul> ,,canals4--,wa% ! tail ( an axolotl l>va ) di/ill$ wat]1 place = an h\r 9 a wat*-glassful ( #jbe p] c5t4 solution ( gold *loride1 conta9+ #a drop ( hydro*loric acid2 wa%1 & r$uce 9 a mixture ( #a "p ( =mic acid ) #f p>ts ( wat]4 ,,mitrophan[',s ,,mac]ation ,,me?od ,,= ,,epi!lium4--,fix ! embryo = #ae m9utes 9 #c p] c5t4 nitric acid2 !n place = an h\r 9 a mixture ( alcohol1 #a volume1 & wat] #b volumes1 & f9ally treat ) /rong] alcohol = #bd h\rs to sep>ate ! epid]mis4 ,m,,ll]',s ,,b]l9 ,,blue ,,= ,,injections4--,precipitate a conc5trat$ solution ( ,b]l9 blue by means ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! precipitate is v f9ely divid$1 :il/ ! fluid is p]fectly neutral & mu* easi] to prep>e ?an t ( ,beale4 ,,neils5',s ,,solution ,,( ,,me?yl ,,violet4--,dissolve fu*s9e1 #a "p1 9 alcohol1 #aj p>ts1 & add a #e p] c5t4 wat]y solution ( c>bolic acid1 #ajj p>ts4 ,,neiss]',s ,,d\ble-,,/a9+ ,,= ,,spore-,,be>+ ,,bacilli4--,cov]-glass prep>ations are imm]s$ = #bj m9utes 9 fu*s9e anil9e wat] 7conc5trat$ alcoholic solution ( fu*s9e1 #aa ,c4c42 absolute alcohol1 #aj ,c4c42 anil9e wat]1 #ajj ,c4c42 !n heat to #hj or #ij ,c42 next r9se 9 wat]1 alcohol1 or weak acid1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! bacilli1 c\nt]/a9 ) aque\s solution ( me?yl5e blue1 r9se 9 wat]1 dry & m\nt 9 balsam74 ,! spores are /a9$ r$ & ! re/ ( ! bacilli blue4 ,,nissl',s ,,fu*s9e ,,/a9 ,,= ,,n]ve ,,cells4--7#a7 ,fre% mat]ial 9 pieces measur+ #a ,c4c4 are h>d5$ 9 a 8*romic solution 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol0 = #b days1 !n transf]r$ to absolute alcohol = #e days1 & aft]w>ds cut4 ,/a9 ! sections s+ly 9 a saturat$ solution ( fu*s9e1 w>m+ 9 a deep wat*-glass until vap\rs beg9 to be giv5 (f4 ,next plunge ! section into absolute alcohol = #a or #b m9utes1 !n place x on a slide1 flood ) clove oil1 & :5 no m col\r is giv5 (f1 dra9 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,ohlma*]',s ,,=maldehyde ,,/a9+4--,=mal9 9 a #b to #d p] c5t4 solution is us$ z a mordant = t> col\rs4 ,! tissues may be mordant$ sep>ately by treatm5t = #a m9ute or long]1 or ! =mal9 may be add$ to ! /a94 ,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( fu*s9e 9 #aj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol1 & add to #ajj ,c4c4 ( #d p] c5t4 =mal9 solution4 ,or1 add saturat$ alcoholic solution ( g5tian violet or me?yl violet #e ,b4 to ! =mal9 solution1 9 ! proportion ( #a3aj4 ,9 ! case ( me?yl5e blue1 dissolve #a ,g4m4 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( ! =mal9 solution4 ,sections /a9 9 half a m9ute1 & are said to resi/ alcohol mu* m ?an if =mal9 7 n us$4 ,,oppitz',s ,,silv] ,,/a9+4--,r$uction is v rapidly effect$ by plac+ ! prep>ations = #b or #c m9utes 9 a #jbe to #je p] c5t4 solution ( *loride ( t94 ,,pal',s ,h,,matoxyl9 ,,/a94--,dissolve #jge ,gm4 ( hmatoxyl9 9 #ij ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] & #aj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol4 ,j be=e use add saturat$ solution ( li?ium c>bonate 9 ! proportion ( #c drops to ea* #aj ,c4c4 ( hmatoxyl9 solution4 7,see ,weig]t47 ,,pal',s ,h,,matoxyl9 ,,me?od4--,proce$ at fir/ z 9 ,weig]t's process = n]ve fibre1 omitt+ ! copp] ba?1 & /a9 9 ,pal's hmatoxyl9 solution 7see above7 = #e or #f h\rs4 ,!n wa% ! sections 9 di/ill$ wat] 7conta9+ a trace ( li?ium c>bonate if ! sections are n deep blue71 next treat = #ae to #cj seconds ) a #jbe p] c5t4 potassium p]manganate solution1 r9se 9 wat]1 & decol\rise 9 ,pal's blea*+ solution4 7,if black spots appe> replace 9 ! p]manganate solution1 aga9 blea*1 & wa% = #ae m9utes 9 wat]47 ,! grey sub/ance ( ! sections is decol\ris$ 9 a few sections2 ! sections %\ld !n be well wa%$ out1 & may be d\ble-/a9$ ) picro-c>m9e or acetic acid c>m9e 7see ,s*neid]71 ,magdala r$1 or eos9e4 ,! nuclei may be /a9$ ) alum c>m9e4 ,f9ally dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt4 ,,pal-,,exn]',s ,,osmic ,,acid ,,me?od4--,sp9al cord or bra9 9 #jbe in* cubes is imm]s$ 9 #je p] c5t4 osmic acid solution = #b days1 ! solution be+ *ang$ ea* day2 !n wa% 9 wat]1 transf] to absolute alcohol1 & imb$ 9 celloid9 or p>aff94 ,place sections z cut 9 glyc]9e1 !n wa% 9 wat]1 treat ) potassium p]manganate & ,pal's solution1 z 9 ,pal's hmatoxyl9 me?od1 c\nt]-/a9 ) c>m9e1 dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,plant',s ,,me?od ,,( ,,/a9+ ,,act9omycosis4--,sections are plac$ = #aj m9utes 9 ,gibbes' mag5ta solution or c>bolic fu*s9e1 at #de ,c42 next !y are r9s$ 9 wat] & plac$ 9 saturat$ aque\s solution ( picric acid1 mix$ ) an equal volume ( absolute alcohol1 = #e or #aj m9utes2 !y are !n wa%$ once m1 pass$ ?r\gh #ej p] c5t4 alcohol into absolute alcohol1 cle>$ 9 c$> oil1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,,ranvi]',s ,,lemon ,,juice ,,me?od4--,soak pieces ( fre% tissue 9 fre% lemon juice until transp>5t 7#e to #aj m9utes71 !n rapidly wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]1 treat = #aj to #fj m9utes ) #a p] c5t4 gold *loride solution1 aga9 wa% & expose to light 9 a bottle conta9+ #ej ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] & #b drops ( acetic acid4 ,r$uction is complete 9 #bd to #dh h\rs4 ,if x is n desir$ to reta9 ! sup]ficial epi!lium1 r$uction may be m completely effect$ 9 ! d>k1 by treatm5t ) =mic acid 7sp4 gr4 #ab71 dilut$ ) #c times its volume ( wat]4 ,! lemon juice 9 ! above process may be replac$ by an aque\s solution ( citric acid 7#dj gra9s 9 ea* ounce74 ,,ranvi]',s ,,picro-,,c>m9e4--,c>m9e1 #a "p2 di/ill$ wat]1 #aj p>ts2 solution ( ammonia1 #c p>ts2 mix & add ( a cold saturat$ solution ( picric acid #bjj p>ts4 ,,r5aut',s ,h,,matoxylic ,,eos9e4--,mix #cj ,c4c4 ( conc5trat$ aque\s solution ( eos9e1 #dj ,c4c4 ( saturat$ alcoholic solution ( hmatoxyl9 7:i* has be5 kept = "s "t & precipitat$71 & #acj ,c4c4 ( saturat$ solution ( pota% alum 9 glyc]9e 7sp4 gr4 #abf74 ,/& = #e or #f weeks 9 a p>tially cov]$ vessel1 protect$ f du/1 until ! alcohol is evaporat$1 & !n filt]4 ,! filtrate c be dilut$ ) glyc]9e if desir$4 ,m\nt objects 9 ?is fluid dilut$ ) #a or #b volumes ( glyc]9e1 or1 /a9 sep>ately = "s days or weeks & m\nt 9 balsam1 aft] wa%+ 9 alcohol *>g$ ) a suffici5t quantity ( eos9e4 ,,ranvi] ,,& ,,vignal',s ,,osmium ,,mixture4--,fix tissues 9 a fre%ly-prep>$ mixture ( equal volumes ( #a p] c5t4 osmic acid & #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 !n wa% out 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 next ) wat]1 & /a9 = #dh h\rs ) picro-c>m9e or hmatoxyl94 ,?is me?od has be5 appli$ to ! hi/ology ( insects4 ,,r5aut',s ,,glyc]9e ,h,,matoxyl94--,to a saturat$ solution ( pota% alum 9 glyc]9e1 add a saturat$ solution ( homatoxyl9 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol drop by drop1 s z to =m a deeply col\r$ solution4 ,expose to daylight = a week1 & !n filt]4 ,?is solution1 l ,r5aut's hmatoxylic cos9e1 may be us$ = m\nt+ un/a9$ sections1 :i* aft] "s "t absorb ! col\r f ! liquid & become /a9$4 ,,safran9e4--,safran9e1 #je ,gm42 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c4 ,,s*,,f]',s ,,acid ,,logwood ,,solution is especially useful = c]ta9 /ructures1 z t5don1 cells1 c4 ,x is ?us prep>$3--,a #a p] c5t4 solution ( acetic acid is col\r$ by ! addition ( #ac ( its volume ( logwood solution4 ,,s*,,f]',s ,,anil9e ,,dyes1 :e!r 9 aque\s or alcoholic solutions1 give good results1 & are prep>$ z foll[s3--,roseanil9 or mag5ta 7#a gr4 to #a oz4 ( alcohol71 r$2 acetate ( mauve9 7#d gr41 alcohol #a oz41 acid nitric #b drops71 blue2 anil9e black 7#b gr41 wat] #a oz471 grey-black2 ,ni*olson's soluble blue 7#a-f gr41 alcohol #a oz41 & nitric #b m471 blue4 ,^! /a9s %\ld be us$ weak2 & aft] sections are /a9$ !y %\ld be pass$ ?r\gh alcohol & oil ( cloves z rapidly z possible2 o!rwise ! col\r w dissolve out be=e !y c be m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,,s*ultze 7,/a9+ ,bacilli74--,/a9 sections & cov]-glass prep>ations = "s h\rs 9 aque\s me?yl5e blue solution1 diff]5tiate 9 #je p] c5t4 acetic acid1 dehydrate 9 alcohol1 cle> 9 c$> oil1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,sclavo',s ,,/a9 ,,= ,,flagella4--,leave ! prep>ations = #a m9ute 9 a solution ( #a ,gm4 ( tann9 9 #ajj ,c4c4 ( #ej p] c5t4 alcohol2 wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]2 transf] = #a m9ute to #ej p] c5t4 phospho-molybdic acid2 aga9 wa%1 & /a9 = #c to #e m9utes 9 a hot saturat$ solution ( fu*s9e 9 anil9e wat]4 ,!n wa% 9 wat]1 dry on filt] pap]1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,squire',s ,,picro-,,c>m9e4--7#a7 ,dissolve #a ,gm4 ( c>m9e ) a g5tle heat 9 #c ,c4c4 ( /rong solution ( ammonia1 & #e ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]1 !n add #bjj ,c4c4 ( saturat$ aque\s solution ( picric acid1 heat to boil+1 & filt]4 7#b7 ,dissolve #aj ,gm4 ( c>m9e 9 a solution ( #a ,gm4 ( cau/ic soda 9 #ajjj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]2 boil1 filt] & make up to #ajjj ,c4c4 ) wat]4 ,mix ! solution ) an equal quantity ( wat]1 & add #a p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( picric acid s long z ! turbidity produc$ disappe>s on agitation4 ,,squire',s ,,blue+ ,,( ,,sections4--,aft] /a9+ ) hmatoxyl91 treat = a few seconds ) a solution ( sodium bic>bonate 7#a3ajjj7 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,,val5t9e 7,fu*s9e74--,e!r %ak5 ) a solution conta9+ fu*s9e is col\r$ violet aft] add+ f]r\s iodide1 b n be=e4 ,,victoria ,,blue4--,victoria blue1 #jbe ,gm42 rectifi$ _s1 #bj ,c4c42 di/ill$ wat]1 #hj ,c4c4 ,,w$l',s ,,orseille ,,or ,,or*ella ,,/a94--,mix #e ,c4c4 ( acetic acid1 #bj ,c4c4 ( absolute alcohol1 & #dj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]2 !n add suffici5t ar*il1 f :i* excess ( ammonia has be5 driv5 (f1 to =m a d>k r$di% fluid4 ,,weig]t',s ,h,,matoxyl94--,dissolve #a "p ( hmatoxyl9 9 #aj p>ts ( absolute alcohol2 !n add #ij p>ts ( di/ill$ wat] & #a "p ( aque\s solution 7#a3gj7 ( li?ium c>bonate4 ,,weig]t 7,gram's ,me?od74--,9 ?is modification anil9e is sub/itut$ = alcohol1 9 ord] to avoid prolong$ wa%+ ) ! latt]1 & ! process is conduct$ on a slide4 ,! section is plac$ on a slide1 /a9$ ) a few drops ( g5tian violet anil9e wat]1 prep>$ z 9 ,gram's me?od1 ! excess ( fluid remov$1 & a few drops ( ,gram's solution appli$4 ,subsequ5tly remove ! liquid by g5tly blott+ x (f1 !n wa% ! section by all[+ anil9e to fl[' backw>ds & =w>ds ov] x1 & :5 col\r ceases to come away1 repeat ! op]ation ) xylol = ab\t #a m9ute1 !n m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,weig]t 7,/a9+ 9 ,act9omycosis74--,imm]se sections = #a h\r 9 ,w$l's ,orseille /a91 !n quickly r9se ) alcohol & c\nt]/a9 ) g5tian violet4 ,if x be desir$ to /a9 ! mycelium also1 aft]w>ds submit ! sections to ,weig]t's modification ( ,gram's me?od4 ,see page #cce4 ,,weig]t 7,/a9+ ,bra9 ,tissue74--,pieces ( bra9 & sp9al cord are h>d5$ 9 bi*romate solution1 foll[$ by alcohol1 !n imb$d$ 9 celloid9 or gum4 ,if imb$d$ 9 celloid91 ! pieces are subsequ5tly tak5 f ! _s 9 :i* !y are imm]s$1 & plac$ = "o or two days 9 saturat$ aque\s solution ( copp] acetate1 dilut$ ) an equal bulk ( wat]1 ! mixture be+ kept at ab\t #dj ,c4 ,aft]w>ds transf] ! pieces to #hj p] c5t4 alcohol until requir$ = cutt+4 ,or1 ! sections c be cut fir/1 & !n treat$ ) copp] acetate4 ,to /a9 ! sections1 aft] be+ well wa%$ 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 !y are transf]r$ to ,weig]t's hmatoxyl9 & left f a few h\rs to two days1 accord+ to ! diff]5tiation requir$4 ,:5 opaque & ( a deep blue-black col\r1 !y %\ld be well wa%$ = two or ?ree days 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,next decol\rise = #je to #b h\rs 9 a solution ( #b ,gm4 ( borax & #be ,gm4 ( potassium f]rocyanide 9 #bjj ,c4c4 ( wat]4 ,z soon z ! grey & :ite sub/ances are %>ply def9$1 aga9 wa% ! sections 9 wat] = half an h\r1 !n dehydrate1 cle>1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,woodhead',s ,,me?od ,,( ,,/a9+ ,,tub]cle ,,bacilli4--,take a small quantity ( sputum ri* 9 bacilli1 & spread x out by pressure betwe5 two cov]-glasses1 s t a fairly ?9 film rema9s on ea*4 ,!n c>efully slip "o ov] ! o!r until !y come ap>t4 ,?or\ghly dry ! cov]s1 & pass !m rapidly ?ree times ?r\gh ! flame ( a _s lamp1 c>e be+ tak5 n to scor* ! film1 !n float !m face d[nw>ds on ! /a9+ solution1 :i* has be5 previ\sly prep>$ & filt]$ into a wat*-glass4 ,! /a9 %\ld consi/ ( saturat$ alcoholic solution ( basic fu*s9e1 #a "p2 absolute alcohol or rectifi$ _s1 #aj p>ts2 c>bolic acid solution 7#e p] c5t471 #aj p>ts4 ,leave ! prep>ations 9 ! wat*-glass = #ab to #bd h\rs1 unless "t is an object4 ,9 ! latt] case heat ! fluid g5tly until vap\r is giv5 (f1 !n drop ! films on ! surface1 & leave !m = #c to #e m9utes only4 ,next transf] ! cov]s to an aque\s solution ( sulphuric acid 7#be p] c5t471 & :5 decol\risation is complete1 z evid5c$ by ! p9k col\ration n return+ :5 ! specim5s are plung$ into a b[l ( tap-wat] conta9+ a s+le drop ( ammonia solution1 ?or\ghly r9se 9 ! slightly alkal9e wat] & c\nt]-/a9 9 an aque\s solution ( me?yl5e blue4 ,f9ally1 wa% 9 wat]1 c>efully dry & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam4 ,! bacilli %\ld /& out z bright r$ rods on a blue backgr\nd ( cells4 ,,ziehl-,,neels5 7,/a9+ ,bacilli74--,sections are remov$ f weak _s into ,neels5's c>bolic fu*s9e & left = #aj or #ae m9utes2 next decol\rise 9 sulphuric acid 7sp4 gr4 #ahd7 or nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #adb7 dilut$ ) #c volumes ( wat]1 r9se 9 #fj p] c5t4 alcohol1 & wa% 9 a l>ge volume ( wat] to remove ! acid4 ,tub]cle & leprosy bacilli are ! only micro-organisms t c reta9 ! /a9 aft] treatm5t ) acid4 ,if ! pres5ce ( traces ( nitr\s acid 9 ! nitric acid be suspect$1 ,squire recomm5ds ! use ( saturat$ aque\s solution ( sulphanilic acid mix$ ) "o-?ird its bulk ( nitric acid4 ,! sulphanilic acid de/roys any free nitr\s acid1 :i* w\ld o!rwise ex]cise a blea*+ action on ! fu*s9e-/a9$ bacilli4 ,! sections may be c\nt]/a9$ ) a solution ( #je ,gm4 ( me?yl gre5 7or #jbe ,gm4 ( me?yl5e blue7 9 #bj ,c4c4 ( rectifi$ _s & #hj ,c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,f9ally dehydrate 9 absolute alcohol1 cle> 9 c$> oil1 & m\nt 9 balsam4 ,,app5dix ,d4 ,,! ,,metric ,,sy/em ,,( ,,weights ,,& ,,measures4 ,! initial unit ( ! ,metric ,sy/em is ! ,metre or unit ( l5g?1 :i* repres5ts "o t5 million? "p ( ! e>?'s quadrant1 or "o =ty-million? "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? ar\nd ! poles4 ,! multiples & sub-divisions ( ?is & all ! o!r units are obta9$ by ! use ( decimals1 & = ?is reason ! sy/em is also kn[n z ! decimal sy/em4 ,! multiples are designat$ by ! ,greek prefixes1 deca #aj2 hecto #ajj2 kilo #ajjj2 myria #aj1jjj4 ,= ! sub-divisions ,lat9 prefixes are employ$1 z foll[s3 deci #a_/aj2 c5ti #a_/ajj2 milli #a_/ajjj4 ,?us = measures ( l5g? we h ! foll[+ expressions1 %[+ ! abbreviations commonly employ$1 & ! equival5ts 9 ! ord9>y ,engli% /&>ds ( measurem5t-- #a ,myriametre1 ,mm4 #aj1jjj4j ,m4 #f4bacg miles4 #a ,kilometre1 ,km4 #a1jjj4j ,m4 #j4fbac mile4 #a ,hectometre1 ,hm4 #ajj4j ,m4 #aji4cfb y>ds4 #a ,decametre1 ,dm4 #aj4j ,m4 #cb4hjhf feet4 #a ,metre1 ,m4 #a4j ,m4 #ci4cgjd in*es4 #a ,decimetre1 dm4 #j4a ,m4 #c4icgj #a ,c5timetre1 cm4 #j4ja ,m4 #j4cicg #a ,millimetre1 mm4 #j4jja ,m4 #j4jcic ,f ! unit ( l9e> measure ( metre is d]iv$ ! unit ( ! measure ( capacity or ,,litre4 ,?is repres5ts ! cube ( "o-t5? "p ( a metre1 or a cubic decimetre1 & its multiples & sub-divisions ) _! correspond+ equival5ts 9 ,imp]ial fluid measure are z foll[s3-- #a ,myrialitre1 ,ml4 #aj1jjj4j ,l4 #bbjj4iffg imp]ial gallons4#ia #a ,kilolitre1 ,kl4 #a1jjj4j #bbj4jiff #a ,hectolitre ,hl4 #ajj4j #bb4jjif #a ,decalitre1 ,dl4 #aj4j #b4bjji #a ,litre1 ,l4 #a4j #ce4baed fluid ounces imp]ial4 #a ,decilitre1 dl4 #j4a #c4ebae #a ,c5tilitre1 cl4 #j4ja #j4ceba #a ,millilitre1 ml4 #j4jja #j4jceb or #a ,cubic ,c5timetre1 ccm4 #j4jja ,l4 #j4jceb ,! unit ( weight 9 ! metric sy/em is ! ,,gramme4 ,?is is also d]iv$ f ! metre1 & repres5ts ! weight ( "o cubic c5timetre1 ( wat]1 or ! quantity ( di/ill$ wat]1 at its maximum d5sity1 #d ,c4 7#cib ,f471 :i* w\ld fill ! cube ( "o-hundr$? "p ( a metre4 ,! relative value ( ! gramme1 toge!r ) its multiples & sub-divisions1 z comp>$ ) ! ,engli% /&>ds ( weight1 may be se5 f ! foll[+ table3-- #a ,myriagramme1 ,mg4 #aj1jjj4j ,gm4 #bb4jdfa p\nds4 #a ,kilogramme1 ,kg4 #a1jjj4j #b4bjdf #a ,hectogramme1 ,hg4 #ajj4j #c4ebgc ounces avoir4 #a ,decagramme1 ,dg4 #aj4j #aed4cbce gra9s4 #a ,gramme1 ,gm4 #a4j #ae4dcbc #a ,decigramme1 dg4 #j4a #a4edcb #a ,c5tigramme1 cg4 #j4ja #j4aedc #a ,milligramme1 mg4 #j4jja #j4jaed ,! expression micro-millimetre is us$ = microscopic measurem5ts1 & d5otes ! ?\s&? "p ( a millimetre4 ,( ! measures ( capacity1 ! t]ms mo/ commonly employ$ are ! litre & ! cubic c5timetre4 ,?us a decalitre may also be express$ z #aj litres1 a c5tilitre z #aj cubic c5timetres1 etc4 ,( ! metric weights ! gramme & its fractional p>ts1 ) _! respective prefixes1 are mu* us$ 9 analytical "w4 ,! kilogramme is l>gely employ$ 9 comm]cial transactions1 & is commonly abbreviat$ kilo4 ,z a comp>ison ( ! values ( "s ( ! m frequ5tly employ$ expressions ( ! metric & ,engli% sy/ems1 ! foll[+ may be f\nd conv5i5t = ref]5ce3-- #a mm4 7millimetre7 #a_/be ( an in*4 #a cm4 7c5timetre7 #b_/e ( an in*4 #a in* #be millimetres or #b-a_/b c5timetres4 #a mg4 7milligramme7 #j4jaedc gra9 7or approx4 #a_/fd gra974 #a gm4 7gramme7 #ae4dcbd gra9s4 #a ,kg4 78,kilo0 or kilogramme7 #b lbs4 #c-a_/d ozs4 av4 #a p\nd avoir4 #dec1eib grammes4 #a ounce avoir4 #bh1cej grammes4 #a gra9 #j4jfdgi gramme or #fd4gi milligrammes4 #a cc4 7cubic c5timetre7 #af4i m9ims ,imp]ial measure4 #a ,l4 7litre7 #ce4ba fluid ounces ,imp]ial measure1 or #cc4hae fluid ounces ,w9e measure4 #a fluid ounce ,imp]ial measure #bh4cej grammes4 #a p9t ,imp]ial measure #efg4j grammes4 #a gallon ,imp]ial measure #d4ecf litres1 or #aj lbs4 avoir4 ( pure wat] at #fb ,f4 & "u an atmosph]ic pressure ( #cj in*es ( m]cury4 ,x may be well to be> 9 m9d t on ! ,cont95t liquids are always weigh$1 n measur$4 ,,app5dix ,e4 ,,comp>ison ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,c5tigrade ,,& ,,fahr5heit ,,!rmomet]s4 ,f4 ,c4 #bab #ajj #bjj #ic4c #aej #fe4f #aab #dd4d #aaj #dc4c #ajh #db4b #ajf #da4a #aje #dj4e #ajd #dj #ajc #ci4d #ajb #ch4i #aja #ch4c #ajj #cg4h #ii #cg4b #ih #cf4g #if #ce4f #id #cd4d #ib #cc4c #ij #cb4b #hh #ca4a #hf #cj #hd #bh4i #hb #bg4h #hj #bf4g #gh #be4f #gf #bd4d #gd #bc4c #gb #bb4b #gj #ba4a #fh #bj #ff #ah4i #fd #ag4h #fb #af4g #fj #ae4f #eh #ad4d #ef #ac4c #ed #ab4b #eb #aa4a #cb #j #be -#c4i ,illu/ration3 ,dr4 ,culpep]'s ,microscope #agch4 ,,index4 ,abb on microscopical vision1 #cg ,abb's ap]tomet]1 #ei ---- cond5s]1 #agf ---- /]eoscopic eye-pieces1 #fd ---- te/-plate1 #afd ,ab]ration1 *romatic1 #be ---- ( ! eye1 *romatic1 #cc ---- sph]ical1 #bc ,abraxas grossul>iata1 #eih ,absolute alcohol z a h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhg ,ac>as dome/icus1 #fbe ,accessories ( ! microscope1 #aig ,a*romatic cond5s]1 ,beck's1 #ahj ---- ---- ,gillett's1 #agc ---- ---- me?od ( us+1 #aij ---- ---- ,p[ell's1 #agh ---- ---- ,ross's1 #agf ---- ---- ,smi? ,beck's1 #agc ---- ---- ,watson's1 #agg ,a*romatic objective1 !1 #aeb ,ac9eta1 #die ,act9i1 #ebg ,act9ophrys-sol1 #dhi ,adams's book on ! microscope1 #h ,adipose tissue1 #fdd dogoniace1 #dji ,a]obic spores1 #cii ,ag>-ag>1 to prep>e nutri5t1 #ccj ,air bubbles1 #cdh ,alcyonella1 #ecd ,alg1 #cii ---- m$ia = pres]v+1 #cdc ---- r$1 #dac ,alv>ez's discov]y ( bacillus1 #cib ,amici prism1 !1 #aij ,amba1 #dhj ,amphibian *anges1 #ffi ,amphi/oma1 #egj ,amyot f9d]1 !1 #bje ,ana*>is als9a/rum1 #dai ,anemones1 sea1 #ebf ,angle ( vision1 #gb ,anguillula1 #efg ,animal /ructures1 /a9+1 #bib ,annulosa1 #efb ,ant5n ( insects1 #ehd ,ant5na ( silkworm mo?1 #fje ,an?rax bacillus1 #cfi ,an?rozoa1 #ebc ,ap]tomet]1 ,abb's1 #ei ,ap]ture1 def9ition (1 #de ---- measurem5t (1 #eg ---- num]ical1 #eg ---- table1 #eh ,aphides1 #ehg ,aphrophora bifasciata1 #fah ,apis mellifica1 #eih ,aplysiid1 #edi ---- dipilans1 #edi ,app>atus = m\nt+1 #ceb ,app5dices1 #fgc ,ara*nid1 #fah ,aragonite1 #bcb ,arcella1 #dhc ,ar5icola1 #egg ,argyroneta aquatica1 #fba ,artemi1 #eha ,art]ies1 #fbb ,art]y-ne$le1 #cjc ,ar?ropoda1 #ehc ,ar?rospores1 #cff ,ascidian1 #ffi ,a/roides calyculc>is1 #ebi ,bab's me?od ( /a9+ bact]ia1 #ccd ,bacillus1 an?rax1 #cfi ---- ( plague1 #cgb ---- ---- 9 rat's blood1 #cgb ---- spl5ic fev]1 #cfi ---- typhoid1 #cgj ,bact]ia1 #cag ---- a]obic1 #cii ---- classification (1 #cgc ---- ,cohn on multiplication (1 #cfg ---- cultivation (1 #cbg ---- ---- 9 tubes1 #cca ---- ---- on plates1 #cca ---- faculties (1 #cgc ---- 9 butt]1 #cic ---- 9 *eese1 #cic ---- 9 milk1 #cic ---- 9 sections ( tissue1 #ccg ---- invasion ( potato-tub]s by1 #cih ---- microscopical exam9ation (1 #ccc ---- phosphoresc5t1 #cgc ---- reproduction (1 #cfe ---- size (1 #cfe ---- /a9+1 #ccd ---- ,w9ogradsky's inve/igations (1 #cih ,bact]ial action 9 tann+ sk9s1 #cic ---- f]m5tations1 #cia ,bact]iological inve/igations1 app>atus =1 #cah ---- ---- m\nt+ m$ia1 #cbj ---- ---- reag5ts us$1 #cbj ---- microscope1 !1 #ace ,bact]iology ( ! dairy1 #cic ,bak]'s advanc$ /ud5t's microscope1 #abc ---- collect+ /ick1 #cej ---- hi/ological microscope1 #abe ---- micro-photographic app>atus1 #bag ---- microscope lamp1 #aia ---- microscopes1 #abj ---- ,nelson cond5s]1 #ahd ---- ---- model microscope1 #abj ---- objectives1 #afh ---- /ud5t's cond5s]1 #ahd ,baird1 ,dr41 on daphnia1 #eha ,b>nacle1 #eci ,b>tley's w>m-/age1 #bha ,batra*osp]m1 #dji ,beck's b9ocul> dissect+ microscope1 #aja ---- ---- ,national microscope1 #ii ---- complete microscope lamp1 #bjb ---- compressor1 #bge ---- disc-hold]1 #aih ---- l>ge ,cont95tal model microscope1 #ih ---- microscopes1 #ie ---- objectives1 #afg ---- pa?ological microscope1 #ie ---- ,/> microscope1 #aja ,beggiatoa1 #djj ,b5jam9 ,m>t9's microscope1 #e ,b]oid1 #eai ,biaxial cry/als1 #bbh ,bilh>zia hmatobra1 #egc ,b9ocul> microscope1 advantage (1 #fi ---- ---- ,c>p5t] on1 #fi ---- ---- ,na*et's1 #fb ---- ---- ,pillis*]'s1 #abh ---- ---- ,riddell's1 #fb ---- ---- ,/eph5son's erect+1 #ga ---- ---- ,w5ham's1 #fe ---- vision1 #fj ,bism>ck-br[n = /a9+ protoplasm1 #cjf ,bivalves1 #ech ,blea*+ process1 #cae ,blood z a te/1 #bfc ---- circulation (1 9 frog's foot1 #ffe ---- ---- ---- tadpole1 #ffe ---- corpuscles1 #fch ---- ---- d\ble /a9+1 #bie ---- ---- size (1 #fdj ---- cry/als1 #fda ---- spectrum1 #beb ,bombay plague1 #cga ,bone1 #feh ---- ( fi%1 #ffa ---- ( reptilia1 #ffj ---- /ructure (1 #fei ,borax1 #bca ,bor+ sponges1 #eac ,bott]ill's live-tr\gh1 #bgf ,bra*iopoda1 #ech ,bran*ipodid1 #ehj ,brew/]'s microscope1 #aa ,brittleworts1 #dbg ,br[n+-,hugg9s micro-spectroscope1 #bde ,br[n+'s pocket l5s1 #gf ,bryophyta1 #ddd ,bryozoa1 #eca ,bu*n]'s exp]im5ts on yea/1 #chi ,bull's-eye cond5s+-l5s1 #aii ,butt]1 bact]ia 91 #cic ,butt]fly's tongue1 #fje ---- w+s1 #faj ,calc-sp>1 #bca ,cambridge rock+ microtome1 #bij ,cam]a lucida1 !1 #bjg ---- ---- ! ,abb1 #bjh ---- ---- ! ,wolla/on1 #bjg ---- ,swift's horizontal1 #bac ,canada balsam1 #bic ,c>bonate ( lead1 #bcb ,c>m9e z a nucle> /a91 #cab ,c>tilage1 #fee ,ca!>t's freez+ microtome1 #bia ,c$> oil1 use (1 #aga ,cell1 def9ition (1 #ceh ,cell-mak+ turn-table1 ,walmsley's #cdj ,cells1 epi!lial1 #fcf ---- = liv+ objects1 #bgf ---- = m\nt+1 #cdj ---- live1 #bgg ,cellulose1 #ceg ---- /a9+1 #cad ,cem5ts1 #cdg ---- li/ (1 #fgf ,c5tip$es1 #egh ,c]c>i1 #ega ,c]eal p>asites1 #cha ,*tophorace1 #dji ,*>a1 fructification (1 #dag ---- m\nt+1 #cdg ---- vulg>is1 #dae ,*>ace1 #dae ,*eese1 bact]ia 91 #cic ---- mite1 #fbe ,*il9id1 #eea ,*itonid1 #ede ,*loride ( gold z /a91 #big ---- ( palladium z /a91 #bih ,*romatic ab]ration1 #be ---- ---- ( ! eye1 #cc ,*romic acid z h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhh ,ciliata1 #dih ,circulation ( ! blood1 #ffe ,ci/ula cat5ata1 #eeh ,cladoc]a1 #ehj ,clavatella prolif]a1 #eba ,cle>+ ag5ts1 li/ (1 #fgf ,cleps9id1 #egf ,clion1 #eac ,clo/]ium1 #dbd ---- lunula1 #dbe ,cnid>ia1 #eai ,cock*af]'s eye1 #eij ,codd+ton l5s1 !1 #gf ,codosiga1 #dig ,cl5t]ata1 #eae ,cohn on multiplication ( bact]ia1 #cfg ,cole's direction = section cutt+1 #bhe ---- section-cutt+ microtome1 #bhi ,collect+ /ick1 ,bak]'s1 #cej ,collection ( objects1 #cdi ,comp\nd microscope1 #gh ,compressor1 ,beck's1 #bge ,compressorium1 #bgd ---- ,ross's1 #bge ---- ,r\sselet's1 #bge ,concave l5ses1 #bc ---- surfaces1 #ag ,cond5s]1 ,abb's1 #agf ---- ,bak]'s ,nelson1 #ahd ---- ---- /ud5t's1 #ahd ---- ,beck's a*romatic1 #ahj ---- ,gillett's a*romatic1 #agc ---- me?od ( us+1 #aij ---- ,p[ell's a*romatic1 #agh ---- ,ross's a*romatic1 #agf ---- ,smi? ,beck's a*romatic1 #agc ---- ---- sub/age1 #aic ,cond5s]1 ,swift's1 #ahc ---- ,watson's a*romatic1 #agg ---- ---- p>a*romatic1 #ahb ---- ,web/]-,coll9s1 #ahf ---- ,w5ham's imm]sion1 #ahi ---- ---- p>abolic1 #ahf ,conf]vace1 #djh ,conjugate foci1 #ag ---- real & virtual1 #ba ,cont95tal microscopes1 #acj ,contra/ /a9s1 #cac ,convex l5s1 #ah ,copepoda1 #ehj ,corals1 #eae1 #ebe ---- true1 #ebh ---- typical =ms (1 #ecc ,correction coll>1 ,li/]'s1 #aee ,coryne /auridia1 #ecd ,cotton fibres1 #dgd ,cov] glass gauge1 ,zeiss's1 #afe ,cr9oids1 #edb ,critical angle1 #ad ,crook%ank's incubator1 #cbd ---- me?od ( /a9+ bact]ia1 #cce ,cru/ace1 #egh ,cry/als1 =mation & pol>isation (1 #bci ,ct5ophora1 #eah ,cuckoo-spit1 #fah ,culex pipi5s1 #eif ,cultivation ( bact]ia1 #cbg ---- ( micro-organisms1 #cbg ,cutl]ia di*otoma1 #dac ,cutt+ sections ( h>d woods1 #caf ,cuttle-fi%1 #eef ,cyclops1 #ehj ,cyclosis1 ph5om5on (1 #cei ,cyclo/omata1 #ecg ,cyclotus translucidus1 #eeh ,cydippid1 #eah ,cymba olla1 #eeg ,cymo?ord1 #ehj ,dairy1 bact]iology (1 #cic ,daphnia1 enemies (1 #eha ---- ephippial eggs (1 #ehj ,daphnia pulex1 #ehj ,de ,b>y's inve/igations 9 p>asitism1 #cie ,decalcify+ & blea*+ ag5ts1 li/ (1 #fgg ,decalcify+ solution z h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhh ,demodex folliculorum1 #fbg ,d5tal /ructure1 #feb ,d]me/es l>d>ius1 #fbg ,d]mis1 ! human1 #fdg ,desmidiace1 #dbj ---- reproduction (1 #dbc ,diamond microscope1 ,prit*>d's1 #i ,diaphragm1 !1 #aid ---- ! iris1 #agf ,diatomace1 #dbj1 #dbg ---- fossilis$1 #dcg ---- ,max ,s*ultze's rese>*es1 #dcj ---- :]e f\nd1 #dbh ,diatoms1 m\nt+ m$ium1 #cdc ---- movem5ts (1 #dca ,didymoprium grevelli1 #dbj ,difflugia1 #dhb ,dige/ive sy/em ( insects1 #ehg ,dipp+-tubes1 #bgi ,disc-hold]1 ,beck's1 #aih ,dissect+-knives1 #bhd ,dog-tick1 #fbd ,d\ble convex l5s1 #ai ,drap>naldia glom]ata1 #dji ,draw-tube1 ,swift's1 #aaf ---- ,watson's1 #ajd ,drone fly1 #eid ,dytiscus m>g9alis1 #fjg ,e*9ococcus1 #efe ,e*9od]mata1 #eci ,eggs ( insects1 #fab ,elem5t>y optics1 #ab ,emb$d+ fluids1 li/ (1 #fgh ---- 9 p>aff9 wax1 #bhe ,entomological specim5s1 m\nt+1 #cda ,entozoa1 #efb ,eos9 /a91 #cae ,eozoon1 #dib ,epeira diadema1 #fai ,epid]mis ( plants1 #dee ,epi!lial cells1 #fcf ,epi!lium1 m\nt+1 #bie ,equisetace1 #ddi ,ergot ( rye1 #chb ,eri/alis t5ax1 #eid ,erysiphe ,tuck]i1 #chj ,eudor9a1 #djf ,euglypta1 #dhb ,eurotium rep5s1 #chc ,exposure table = photo-micrography1 #bac ,eye1 *romatic ab]ration ( !1 #cc ---- ( cock*af]1 #eij ---- ( fly1 #ehh ---- ( :irligig beetle1 #fjh ---- ! human1 #cj ,eye-piece1 ,abb's /]eoscopic1 #fd ---- comp5sat+1 #adg ---- ---- ,zeiss's1 #adg ---- ,huygh5ian1 #aci ---- ,jackson's micromet]1 #adc ---- ,ramsd51 #adb ---- ---- micromet]1 #ade ---- ,ross's1 #fh ---- ,w5ham's d\ble1 #fc ---- ,zeiss's1 #adg ,eye-pieces1 #aci ---- a*romatic1 #adi ---- magnify+ p[]s (1 #afi ---- projections1 #aej ---- to clean1 #bei ,eyes ( insects1 #ehd ,favellidium1 #dae ,feet ( insects1 obs]vation (1 #fjd ,felices1 #ddf ,f]m5tation exp]im5ts1 #cfa ,f]m5tations1 bact]ial1 #cia ,f]ns1 #ddf ---- developm5t (1 #ddf ,fibro-c>tilage1 #feg ,fibr\s tissue1 #fdb ---- ---- m\nt+1 #bif ,fil>ia sangu9is hom9is1 #efh ,f9d]1 !1 #bjd ---- ! ,amyot1 #bje ---- ! ,maltwood1 #bjd ---- ! ,ok$51 #bje ---- ,pantacsek's1 #bje ,fission =mation1 #cfe ,fix+ solutions1 li/ (1 #fgh ,flabellum1 #ebh ,flagella1 /a9+ (1 #ccf ,flagellate infusoria1 #die ,flatness ( field1 #bfb ,flax1 fibres (1 #dgd ,flea1 #fbi ,floride1 #dac ,fl[]+ plants1 #dea ,fluke1 !1 #efi ,flu/ra1 #ecb ,fly1 eye (1 #ehh ---- foot (1 #fjb ,focal l5g? ( l5ses1 #bb ,focus1 me?od ( f9d+1 #bga ,foot ( fly1 #fjb ,=am9if]a1 #dhc ,=ceps1 #bhc ---- = m\nt+1 #bid ---- /age1 #aih ,=mation & pol>isation ( cry/als1 #bci ,fossil plants1 #dge ,fossilis$ diatomace1 #dch ,freez+ ag5ts1 li/ (1 #fgh ---- microtome1 ,ca?c>t's1 #bia ---- ---- directions = us+1 #bia ,frog-bit1 #dah ---- plate1 #bgg ,fro?-fly1 #fah ,fungi1 indu/rial uses (1 #cia ,fungoid diseases1 #cgd ,fungus on plants1 #cgf ---- root1 b5efit to trees f1 #cif ---- sewage1 #djj ---- :]e f\nd1 #cgi ,gall-fly1 #eif ,gapeworm1 #egb ,gelat9e1 to prep>e nutri5t1 #cbh ,g]man yea/1 #chh ,gillett's a*romatic cond5s]1 #agc ,globig]9a1 #dhf ,glyc]9e ag>-ag>1 #ccj ---- jelly1 to make1 #big ,gnat1 #eif ,gna?ia1 #egi ,goniomet]1 ,dr4 ,leeson's1 #aej ,gorgoniid1 #ecj ,gosse on noctiluca1 #dif ,gram's me?od ( /a9+ bact]ia1 #cce1 #cch ,grant's rese>*es on sponges1 #ejg ,greg>91 #dhb1 #efc ,gromia1 #dhd ,grove's recomm5dations = m\nt+1 #bii ,gyr9us1 eye (1 #fjh ---- leg (1 #fjh ,hmatoxyl9 /a91 #cab ,hairs1 /ructure (1 #fdh ,haliotis spl5d5s1 #eei ---- tub]culatus1 #eeg ,hans5's inve/igations ( yea/1 #chg ,h>d /ructures1 m\nt+1 #cjg ---- woods1 cutt+ sections (1 #caf ,h>d5+ ag5ts1 li/ (1 #fgg ---- ---- absolute alcohol1 #bhg ---- ---- *romic acid z1 #bhh ---- ---- decalcify+ solution z1 #bhh ---- ---- me?ylat$ _s z1 #bhh ---- ---- ,mull]'s fluid z1 #bhh ---- ---- potassium bi*romate1 #bhh ,h>d5+ reag5ts1 #bhg ---- tissue1 #bhc ,h>tea elegans1 #ece ,heliozoa1 #dhi ,helix absoluta1 #eeh ---- pomatia1 #eeh ,hepatic1 #ddb ,hexact9ia1 #ebf ,hirud9a m$ic9alis1 #egf ,hirud9id1 #ege ,8's me?od ( /a9+ bact]ia1 #ccd ,holl&'s simple microscope1 #ge ,holman's life slide1 #bgg ---- moi/ *amb]1 #bgg ---- syphon slide1 #bgh ,holo?urioidea1 #edc ,honey bee1 #eih ,horse-tails1 #ddi ,h\se fly1 eye (1 #ehh ---- proboscis (1 #eia ---- tongue (1 #eib ,human eye1 !1 #cj ---- hair z a te/1 #bfi ,huygh5ian eye-piece1 #aci ,hydra1 #eaf ---- fasca1 #eaf ---- /++1 #eai ---- viridis1 #eaf ,hydract9ia e*9ata1 #ebc ,hydroid polyps1 colony (1 #ecg ,hydrozoa1 #eae ,ian?9id1 #eej ,icel& sp>1 #bba ,illum9ation arrangem5ts ( ! microscope1 #fgc ---- ,m]c] on1 #fgc ,incubation1 app>atus =1 #cbb ---- te/ =1 #bfc ,incubator1 ,crook%ank's1 #cbd ,incubators1 #cbd ,indigo plant1 #cib ,infusoria1 #dic ,infusorial life1 #cdi ,inject+1 directions =1 #cjd ---- insects1 #cjf ---- l[] animals1 #cje ---- mollusca1 #cje ---- small animal bodies1 #cjb ---- ---- ---- ---- syr+e =1 #cjb ---- ) diff]5t col\rs1 #cjd ,injections1 to prep>e1 #cjc ---- ---- subjects =1 #cjc ,injuri\s insects1 #fcb ,insects1 #egh1 #ehc ---- ant5n (1 #ehd ---- dige/ive sy/ems1 #ehf ---- di/9ctive "* (1 #ehc ---- eggs (1 #fab ---- eyes (1 #ehd ---- inject+1 #cjf ---- injuri\s1 #fcb ---- m\?s (1 #ehd ---- muscles (1 #ehe ---- reproduction (1 #ehg ---- respiratory sy/em (1 #fjg ---- ?orax (1 #ehe ---- w+s (1 #fji ,int]pretation1 errors (1 #bfc ,iris diaphragm1 #agf ,i/hmia en]vis1 #dcf ,ixodid1 #fbb ,ixodes ric9us1 #fbd ,jackson's micromet] eye-piece1 #adc ,jelly-fi%1 #eai1 #ebc ,jung]mannia1 #ddb ,ko*'s me?od ( /a9+ flagella1 #ccf ,lamp1 ,bak]'s microscope1 #aia ---- ,beck's complete microscope1 #bjb ---- %ells1 #eci ---- ! microscope1 #bja ---- ,watson's microscope1 #bjc ,l>d1 emb$d+ 91 #bhe ,l>v ( sea-anemones1 #ebi ,la! = cutt+ sections ( tee?1 #cjh ,laticif]\s tissues1 #dff ,leaf tissue1 #dff ,leeson's goniomet]1 #aej ,leeuw5hoek's microscope1 #d ,leitz's dissect+ microscope1 #acb ---- microscopes1 #acb ,l5s1 bull's-eye cond5s+1 #aii ---- ,/e9heil's aplanatic1 #gg ---- ! ,codd+ton1 #gf ,l5ses1 concave1 #bc ---- convex1 #ah ---- d\ble convex1 #ai ---- focal l5g? (1 #bb ---- =ms (1 #ah ---- m5iscus =m (1 #bd ---- optical c5tre (1 #bj ---- plano-convex1 #ai ,lepas1 #eci ,lepisma sac*>9a1 #fab ---- scales (1 z te/1 #bfd ,lepto?rix buccalis1 #djj ,li*5ace1 #dci ,li*5s1 #dci ---- erratic1 #dda ,lieb]khn's microscope1 #d ,lieb]khn1 !1 #aih ,light1 pol>isation (1 #bai ,limax maximus1 #eeh ---- rufus1 #eeh ,limnan1 tee? (1 #eed ,limnid1 #eea ,limnu /agnalis1 #eea ,l+ula pyramidata1 #ech ,l+ulid1 #ech ,li/ ( salts1 #bdj ,li/]'s correction coll>1 #aee ---- flasks1 #cbb ---- microscope1 #ha ---- object glass1 #aed ,live-cages1 #bgd ,live-cells1 #bgg ,live-tr\gh1 ,bott]ill's1 #bgf ,liv]worts1 #ddb ,lobosa1 #dhb ,lffl]'s me?od ( /a9+ flagella1 #ccf ,logwood1 /a9+ by1 #bic ,lophopus cry/all9us1 #ece ,lyda campe/ris1 #eih ,lymph corpuscles1 #fch ,maddox gr[+ /age1 !1 #bhj ,magnify+ p[]s ( eye-pieces & objectives1 #afi ,maltwood f9d]1 !1 #bjd ,maple aphis1 #fag ,mapp+ spectra1 #bec ,m>*antia polymorphia1 #ddb ,m>t9's microscope1 #e ,m>zoni's objective1 #aeb ,mayall's illum9ator1 #ahd ---- me*anical /age1 #abd ,m$us1 #eae1 #eba ---- a colony ( budd+1 #ecg ,melic]ta r+5s1 #eje ,melolon?a vulgans1 eye (1 #eij ,m5iscus =m ( l5s1 #bd ,m]c] on illum9ation1 #fgc ,mesogla1 #ebe ,mesoglia v]micul>is1 #daj ,me?ylat$ _s z h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhh ,metric sy/em ( weights & measures1 #fhg ,micromet]1 ,ramsd5's1 #ade1 #bjf ---- ! /age1 #bjf ,micromet]s1 #bje ,micro-organisms1 #cgc ---- cultivation (1 #cbg ,micro-photography1 #baj1 #fgd ---- ,bak]'s app>atus =1 #bag ---- exposure table1 #bac ---- ,pr+le's app>atus1 #bag ---- rules =1 #bad ---- ,/r+]-,watson's app>atus =1 #fgd ---- ,swift's app>atus =1 #bac ,microscope1 accessories ( !1 #aig ---- ,bak]'s advanc$ /ud5t's1 #abc ---- ---- hi/ological1 #abe ---- ---- ,nelson model1 #abj ---- ,beck's b9ocul> dissect+1 #aja ---- ---- ---- ,national1 #ii ---- ---- l>ge ,cont95tal model1 #ih ---- ---- pa?ological1 #ie ---- ---- ,/>1 #aja ---- b9ocul>1 ,pillis*]'s1 #abh ---- ---- ,w5ham's1 #fe ---- ,c>p5t] on b9ocul>1 #fi ---- comp\nd1 #gh ---- e>ly hi/ory (1 #a ---- ,holl&'s simple1 #ge ---- ,hooke's wat]1 #b ---- illum9ation arrangem5ts ( !1 #fgc ---- inv5tion (1 #b ---- lamp1 !1 #bja ---- ---- ,bak]'s1 #aia ---- ---- ,beck's1 #bjb ---- ---- ,watson's1 #bjc ---- ,leitz's dissect+1 #acb ---- ,leeuw5hoek's1 #d ---- ,lieb]khn's1 #d ---- ,li/]'s1 #ha ---- manipulation & mode ( us+ !1 #beh ---- ,m>t9's1 #e ---- ,na*et's1 #acc ---- ---- b9ocul>1 #fb ---- ,pillis*]'s b9ocul>1 #abh ---- ---- ,int]national1 #abf ---- ,pillis*]'s 8,kosmos10 #abh ---- ,p[ell ,leal&'s1 #he ---- ---- /ud5t's1 #hh ---- ,prit*>d's diamond1 #i ---- ,riddell's b9ocul>1 #fb ---- ,ross's 8,eclipse10 #hi ---- ---- ,new ,indu/rial1 #ij ---- ,ross-,jackson1 #hb ---- ,ross-,jackson-,z5tmay]1 #hc ---- ,ross-,z5tmay]1 #ia ---- ,r\sselet's tank1 #abf ---- simple1 #cj1 #gb1 #gg ---- simple pocket1 #gc ---- ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s1 #aa ---- ,/eph5son's erect+ b9ocul>1 #ga ---- ,swift's advanc$ /ud5t's1 #aah ---- ---- bact]iological1 #aaf ---- ---- f\r-legg$1 #aad ---- ---- hi/ological /ud5t's1 #aaf ---- ! bact]iological1 #ace ---- ,watson's bact]iological1 #ajh ---- ---- ,ed9burgh /ud5t's1 #ajb ---- ---- hi/ological1 #ajg ---- ---- petrological1 #aaa ---- ---- portable1 #aaj ---- ---- ,van ,heurck's1 #ajh ---- ,w5ham's b9ocul>1 #fe ---- ---- radial1 #ij ---- ,wolla/on's simple1 #gd ---- ,zeiss's1 #acj ,microscopes1 ,bak]'s1 #abj ---- ,beck's1 #ie ---- ,cont95tal1 #acj ---- ,leitz's1 #acb ---- ,pillis*]'s1 #abf ---- ,ross's1 #hh ---- ,swift's1 #aac ---- ,watson's1 #ajb ,microscopic =ms ( life1 #cec ---- vision1 pr9ciples (1 #de ---- ---- !ory (1 #cg ,micro-spectroscope1 !1 #bdc ,micro-spectroscopic eye-piece1 ! ,sorby-,br[n+1 #bdg ---- me?od ( us+1 #bej ---- ! ,br[n+-,hugg9s1 #bde ,microtome1 ,cambridge rock+1 #bij ---- ,ca?c>t's freez+1 #bia ---- ,cole's section-cutt+1 #bhi ---- me?od ( us+1 #bhi ,milk1 bact]ia 91 #cic ,millip$es1 #egh ,m9]al & geological k+doms1 #fgj ,mirror1 manipulation (1 #bfj ---- !1 #aie ,mite1 *eese1 #fbe ,mites & ticks1 #fbb ,moi/ /age1 #bhj ,molecul> rotation1 #bch ,mollusca1 #ede ---- inject+1 #cje ---- %ell (1 #eeh ,monads 9 rat's blood1 #cgb ,monox5ia1 #ebc ,moss-animals1 #eca ,mosses1 #ddc ,m\lds1 #chj1 #cha ,m\nt+ app>atus1 #ceb ---- cells =1 #cdj ---- *>a1 #cdg ---- entomological specim5s1 #cda ---- epi!lium1 #bie ---- fibr\s tissue1 #bif ---- =ceps1 #bid ---- h>d /ructures1 #cjg ---- m$ia1 li/ (1 #fgh ---- n]ve tissue1 #bif ---- non-/riat$ muscle1 #bif ---- objects1 mat]ials requir$1 #cci ---- rock sections1 #cji ---- spr+ clip =1 #bif1 #cdb ---- tee? sections1 #cjh ---- vegetable tissues1 #caj ,m\se1 hair (1 #fej ,m\?1 lepto?rix1 #djj ,m\?s ( insects1 #ehd ,mll]'s fluid1 a h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhh ,musca dome/ica1 #ehh ,musci1 #ddc ,muscid1 #ehh ,muscles ( insects1 #ehe ,muscul> fibre1 #fdd ---- ---- m\nt+1 #bif ,mycetoma1 #cgh ,mycetozoa1 #dhb ,mycorhiza1 #cif ,na*et's b9ocul> microscope1 #fb ,nails1 /ructure (1 #fdh ,navicula1 #dbg ,neck]a antiphyretica1 #dde ,ne$les = teas+ out sections1 #bhf ,nematoid worms1 #eef ,n]ve tissue1 m\nt+1 #bif ,nicol prism1 #bbj ,nitella1 #dah ,nitrate ( silv] z /a91 #big1 #bih ,noctiluca1 #dif ,non-/riat$ muscle1 m\nt+1 #bif ,nose-pieces1 #bjc ,nucle> /a9s1 #caa ---- ---- c>m9e1 #cab ---- ---- hmatoxyl91 #cab ,nudibran*iata1 #edg ,nutri5t ag>-ag>1 to prep>e1 #ccj ---- gelat9e1 to prep>e1 #cbh ---- jelly1 to inoculate ) bact]ia1 #cca ,object glass1 ,li/]'s1 #aed ---- to clean1 #bfj ,objective1 a*romatic1 #aeb ---- *ang]s1 #bjc ---- ,p[ell ,leal&'s oil imm]sion1 #aff ,objectives1 ,bak]'s1 #afh ---- ,beck's1 #afg ---- ,engli% & ,g]man1 #aei ---- high p[]1 #aga ---- magnify+ p[]s (1 #afi ---- ,pillis*]'s1 #afi ---- ,ross's1 #aff ---- ,swift's1 #afh ---- ,watson's1 #afg ,objects1 collection (1 #cdi ,oblique illum9ation1 #ahf ,oidium albicans1 #chd ,ok$5 f9d]1 !1 #bje ,onion1 raphides (1 #dgb ,opi/hobran*iata1 #edh ,optical c5tre ( l5ses1 #bj ,optics1 elem5t>y1 #ab ,oscill>iace1 #djg ,osmic acid z /a91 #bih ,palates ( ga/rapods1 #eef ,palmellace1 #djg ,palmogla macrococca1 #dja ,p&or9a morum1 #djf ,p>abolic reflector1 #ahh ,p>aff9 wax1 emb$d+ 91 #bhe ,p>asites1 c]eal1 #cha ---- sponge1 #eab ---- v9e1 #chj ,p>asitic diseases ( plants1 #cgb ---- fungi ( m5 & animals1 #chc ,p>asitism1 ,de ,b>y's inve/igations 91 #cie ,patella radiata1 #eef ,pe>ls1 /ructure (1 #eei ,pect9ibran*s1 #eej ,p$ia/re1 #dbb ,p$icellan1 #edc ,peltoga/] curvatus1 #eci ,p5etration 9 objective1 #bfa ,p5natulid1 #ecj ,p5tacr9oids1 #edj ,pepp]worts1 #dea ,p]onospora viticola1 #cha ,petiole1 #dff ,phan]ogami1 #dea ,phan]ogams1 /ructure (1 #dec ,phloem ( plants1 #ded ,pholadid1 #ede ,phomauvicola1 #cha ,photo-micrography1 #baj ---- app>atus =1 #bac ---- ,bak]'s app>atus =1 #bag ---- exposure table1 #bac ---- rules =1 #bad ---- ,swift's app>atus =1 #bac ,phylactolmata1 #ecc ,phyllox]a va/atrix1 #cha ,physalia1 #eba ,physid1 #eea ,picro-c>m9e z /a91 #bii ,pigm5t cells1 #ddf ,pillis*]'s b9ocul> microscope1 #abh ---- ,int]national microscope1 #abf ---- 8,kosmos0 microscope1 #abh ---- objectives1 #afi ,p9na +5s1 #eei ,p9nul>i1 #dcd ,pipette1 #cai ---- ,pa/eur's bulb1 #cbb ,plague1 bacillus (1 #cgj ---- ! ,bombay1 #cga ,plan>i1 #ege ,plano-convex l5s1 #ai ,plants1 epid]mis (1 #dee ---- fibro-vascul> sy/em (1 #dfj ---- fl[]+1 #dea ---- fossil1 #dge ---- gr\nd tissue1 sy/em (1 #deh ---- hairs1 #deg1 #dgc ---- p>asitic diseases (1 #cgd ---- raphides 91 #dgb ---- reproductive organs (1 #dfg ---- spores ( p>asitic fungus on1 #cgf ---- /ructure (1 #dec ---- tissue sy/ems (1 #ded ---- vascul> sy/em (1 #dfd ,plasmodia1 #dhb ,pleurobran*us aurantiacus1 #edh ---- plumula1 #eeg ,pleurosigma angulatum1 #dbi ---- z a te/1 #bfg ---- att5uatum1 #dbi ,plumul>ia1 #eba ,pocket l5s1 ,br[n+'s1 #gf ---- ,codd+ton's1 #gf ,podura-scale te/1 #bfh ---- villosa1 #faa ,pol>isation app>atus1 #bbc ---- ( light1 #bai ---- prism1 #bbj ---- ---- me?od ( employ+1 #bbd ---- rotation ( plane (1 #bca ,pol>is$ cry/al ( qu9id9e1 #bce ,pol>is+ app>atus1 ,watson's1 #bbd ,poll5 gra9s1 #dfg ---- ---- me?od ( m\nt+1 #dfg ,polycy/9a1 #dhi ,polymorph9a1 #dhf ,polypom$us1 #eai ,polytri*um undulatum1 #dde ,polyzoa collect+1 #cej ,pond-snails1 #eea ,porif]a1 #ejf ,portable microscope1 ,watson's1 #aaj ,potassium bi*romate z h>d5+ reag5t1 #bhh ---- nitrate1 cry/al (1 #bcb ,p[ell ,leal&'s microscope1 #he ---- oil imm]sion objective1 #aff ---- /ud5t's microscope1 #hh ---- =mula = objective1 #aff ,prep>+ tissue1 #bhc ,primordial cell1 #ceg ,pr9cipal focus1 #ah ,pr+le's micro-photography app>atus1 #bag ,prism1 #ae ---- ,nicol's1 #bbj ,prit*>d's diamond microscope1 #i ,proboscis ( h\se fly1 #eia ,proteolepas1 #eci ,protococcus invalis1 #chj ---- pluvialis1 #dja ,protoplasm1 #cef ---- /a9+ liv+1 #cjf ,protozoa1 #dgh ,pucc9ia gram9is1 #cge ,pyrocy/is1 #dif ,qu>tz1 #bca ,quekett on ,m>t9's microscope1 #f ,qu9id9e1 cry/als (1 #bce ,radiol>ia1 #dij ,ramsd5 eye-piece1 #adb ---- micromet] eye-piece1 #ade ,raphides 9 plants1 #dgb ,rayleigh's !ory ( =mation ( optical images1 #dd ,reflection1 #af ,reflector1 ,sorby's1 #aii ,refraction1 #ac ---- ?r\gh prism1 #ae ,reproductive organs ( plants1 #dfg ,resolv+ p[]1 #bfb ,reti=m tissue1 #fdd ,rezn]'s me*anical f+]1 #cdc ,rhizoc>pe1 #dea ,rhizopoda1 #dhb ,riddell's b9ocul> microscope1 #fb ,ro*elle salt1 #bcb ,rock limpet1 #eef ---- sections1 m\nt+1 #cji ,ross's a*romatic cond5s]1 #agf ---- compressorium1 #bge ---- ,eclipse microscope1 #hi ---- eye-pieces1 #fh ---- microscopes1 #hh ---- object glass1 #aed ---- objectives1 #aff ,ross-,hepwor? arc lamp1 #bah ,ross-,jackson microscope1 #hb ,ross-,jackson-,z5tmay] microscope1 #hc ,ross-,z5tmay] microscope1 #ia ,rotatoria1 m\nt+1 #cde ,rotif]a1 #ejb ,r\sselet's compressorium1 #bge ---- me?od ( m\nt+ rotatoria1 #cde ---- tank microscope1 #abf ,rye1 ergot (1 #chb ,sac*>omyces c]evisi1 #chd ---- ellipsoideus1 #che ---- mycod]ma1 #chd ,sac*>omycetes1 indu/rial uses (1 #cia ,salts1 li/ (1 #bdj ,saprolegnia f]ox1 #daa ,s>code1 #ceg ,saw-fly1 #eih ,scal>iid1 #eej ,scales ( butt]fly's w+s1 #faj ,scap&] ligni>ius1 #eeg ,s*f]'s w>m-/age1 #bhb ,scyphom$us1 #ebc ,sea-anemone1 l>v (1 #ebi ,sea-anemones1 #ebf ,sea-cucumb]1 #edj1 #edc ,sea-h>es1 #edi ,sea-mats1 #ecb ,sea-ur*91 #edj ,sea-we$s1 #dji ,section cutt+1 #bhc ---- ---- ,cole's directions =1 #bhe ,section-cutt+ microtome1 ,cole's1 #bhi ---- lift]s1 #cai ---- scissors1 #bhc ,sections ( h>d wood1 cutt+1 #caf ,sel5ite1 #bbe ,sepia (fic9alis1 #eef ,s]tul>ia1 #eba ,%adbolt's turn-table1 #bie ,%eep-tick1 #fbd ,%ell1 /ructure (1 #eeh ---- =mation 9 limna1 #eeb ,sieve-tubes1 #dfe ,silk filam5ts1 #dgd ,silk-worm1 #fje ,silk-worms1 disease (1 #cfc ,silv]-side reflector1 #aih ,simple microscopes1 #cj1 #gb1 #gg ,siphonophora1 #eba ,sirax gigas1 #eig ,sk91 #fdf ,smi? ,beck's a*romatic cond5s]1 #agc ,sn[ cry/als1 #bcg ,sorby-,br[n+ micro-spectroscopic eye-piece1 #bdg ,sorby's reflector1 #aii ,spectroscope1 cells = use )1 #bea ---- !1 #bdd ,spectrum ( *romule1 #bee ,sphroplea annul9a1 #dji ,sphrosira volvex1 #djf ,sphagnace1 #ddf ,sph]ical ab]ration1 #bc ,spid]s1 #fai ,spirilla1 #cfh ,spiro-bact]ia1 #cfh ,spl5ic fev] bacillus1 #cfi ,sponges1 #ejf ---- bor+1 #eac ---- ,geodia ,b>retti1 #eaj ---- ,grant's rese>*es on1 #ejg ---- hyalonema1 #eab ---- p>asite on1 #eab ---- reproduction (1 #eaj ,spongia coalita1 #ejg ,spongiad1 #ejf ,spore ( p>asitic fungus on plants1 #egf ,spores1 #cff ,spores1 a]obic1 #cii ---- endog5\s1 #cff ---- /a9+ (1 #ccf ,spr+ clip = m\nt+1 #bif1 #cdb ,/age1 ,b>tley's w>m1 #bha ---- =ceps1 #aih ---- ,maddox gr[+1 #bhj ---- ,mayall's me*anical1 #abd ---- moi/ & w>m1 #bhj ---- ,s*f]'s1 #bhb ---- ,/rick]'s1 #bhb ---- ,watson's semi-me*anical1 #ajg ,/a91 eos91 #cae ,/a9+ animal /ructures1 #bib ---- bact]ia1 #ccd1 #cch ---- by logwood1 #bic ---- cellulose1 #cad ---- d\ble1 #bic ---- d\ble & treble1 #cjj ---- liv+ protoplasm1 #cjf ---- ( flagella1 #ccf ---- ( spores1 #ccf ---- tissue1 #bhc ,/a9s & /a9+ me?ods1 li/ (1 #fgi ,/a9s1 *loride ( gold1 #big ---- *loride ( palladium1 #bih ---- contra/1 #cac ---- d\ble & treble1 #cjj ---- nitrate ( silv]1 #big1 #bih ---- osmic acid1 #bih ---- picro-c>m9e1 #bii ---- s+le1 #bih ,/>*1 #bch ---- granules1 #dfi ---- ---- ( arr[root1 #dgj ---- ---- ( potato1 #dgj ---- ---- ( :eat1 #dgj ,/>-fi%1 #edj ,/e9heil's aplanatic l5s1 #gg ,/5tors1 #eja ,/ephanoc]os1 #ejd ,/ephanosphra pluvialis1 #djc ,/eph5son's erect+ b9ocul> microscope1 #ga ,/]eoscope1 !1 #fj ,/]eoscopic b9ocul> vision1 #fj ,/]ilis$ in/rum5ts1 #cba ,/]ilis]s1 #cbd ---- ,he>son's1 #cbe ---- /eam1 #cbe ---- ---- ,dr4 ,ko*'s1 #cbe ,/+ ( bee1 #eif ---- ( wasp1 #eif ,/ock-bottle1 #bgi ,/omata ( iris1 #def ---- wat] pores1 #deg ,/one-lilies1 #edb ,/onewort1 #dae ,/rick]'s w>m /age1 #bhb ,/r+]'s app>atus = micro-photography1 #fgd ,/ylony*ia mytilus1 #ejj ,/ylopid1 #fbh ,sub/age cond5s]1 #aic ,subt]ranean fungi1 #cig ,sun-animalcules1 #dhi ,swift's advanc$ /ud5t's microscope1 #aah ---- bact]iological microscope1 #aaf ---- draw-tube1 #aaf ---- f\r-legg$ microscope1 #aad ---- hi/ological /ud5t's microscope1 #aaf ---- horizontal cam]a1 #bac ---- illum9at+ app>atus1 #ahc ---- microscopes1 #aac -- objectives1 #afh ,tables1 ap]ture1 #eh ,tnia1 #efd ,tann+ sk9s1 #cic ,t>digrada1 #fca ,teas+ out sections1 ne$les =1 #bhf ---- ---- ---- "u cond5s$ light1 #bhg ,tee?1 #feb ---- la! = cutt+ sections (1 #cjh ---- me?od ( cutt+ sections (1 #cjh ---- m\nt+1 #cjh ,t55t-hairs1 #fjc ,t]ebella littoralis1 #egg ,t]ebratulata rubicuna1 #eei ,te/acella maugei1 #eef ,te/ = illum9ation1 #bfc ,te/ object1 blood z a1 #bfc ,te/ object1 human hair z1 #bfi ---- ---- lepisma z1 #bfd ---- ---- pleurosigma1 #bfg ---- ---- podura-scale1 #bfh ,te/-plate1 ,abb's1 #afd ,?readworm1 #eff ,?orax ( insects1 #ehe ,?uricola valvata1 #ejj ,tick1 dog1 #fbd ---- %eep1 #fbd ,ticks1 #fbb ,tissue1 adipose1 #fdd ---- bact]ia 9 sections (1 #ccg ---- fibr\s1 #fdb ---- h>d5+1 #bhc ---- prep>+1 #bhc ---- reti=m1 #fdd ---- /a9+1 #bhc ---- sy/ems ( plants1 #ded ,tongue ( butt]fly1 #fje ---- ( h\se fly1 #eib ---- ( wasp1 #eie ,too? sub/ance1 #fed ,topaz1 #bca ,t\rmal9e1 #bbe ,trematode worms1 #efi ,tri*9a spiralis1 #efg ,tri*omes ( plants1 #deg ,tr\ghs1 #bgd ,truffle1 #cig ,tub] cib>ium1 #cig ,tubicola1 #egf ,tubipora1 #ecj ,tubul>ia dumorti]ii1 #ecg ,tunicata1 #edi ,turbo m>moratus1 #eeg ,turn-table1 ,%adbolt's1 #bie ,typhoid bacillus1 #cgj ,ulvace1 !1 #daa ,ulva lactuca1 #daa ---- !rmalis1 #daa ,ur9>y salts1 #bcf ,vallisn]ia1 #dah ,v>ley's live-box1 #bgd ,v>ni%es1 #cci ,vascul> sy/em ( plants1 #dfd ,vau*]ia1 #daj ,vegetable tissues1 /a9+ & m\nt+1 #caj ,ve9s1 #ffb ,velut9a lvigata1 #eeg ,v]tebrata1 #fcc ,v9e p>asites1 #chj ,violet sea-snail1 #eej ,visual angle1 #gb ---- judgm5t1 #cg ,volvoc9e1 #djd ,vorticellid1 #dii ,walmsley's turn-table1 #cdj ,w>m *amb]1 ,pfeiff]'s1 #cbc ---- /age1 #bhj ---- ---- ,b>tley's1 #bha ---- ---- ,s*f]'s1 #bhb ---- ---- ,/rick]'s1 #bhb ,wasp1 /+ (1 #eif ---- tongue (1 #eie ,wat] ?yme1 #dai ,watson's a*romatic cond5s]1 #agg ---- bact]iological ,van ,heurck's microscope1 #ajh ---- ,ed9burgh /ud5t's microscope1 #ajb ---- hi/ological microscope1 #ajg ---- me*anical draw-tube1 #ajd ---- microscope lamp1 #bjc ---- microscopes1 #ajb ---- p>a*romatic cond5s]1 #ahb ---- petrological microscope1 #aaa ---- portable microscope1 #aaj ---- semi-me*anical /age1 #ajg ,web/]-,coll9s cond5s]1 #ahf ,weights & measures1 metric sy/em (1 #fhg ,w5ham's b9ocul> microscope1 #fe ---- d\ble eye-piece1 #ahi ---- imm]sion cond5s]1 #ahi ---- p>abolic cond5s]1 #ahf ---- ---- reflector1 #ahg ---- radial microscope1 #ij ,:eat ru/1 #cgd ---- />*1 #dgj ,:eel animalcules1 #ejb ,:irligig-beetle1 eyes (1 #fjh ---- ---- leg (1 #fjh ,w+s ( butt]fly1 #faj ---- ( insects1 #fji ---- ( mo?1 #faj ,w9ogradsky's inve/igations ( bact]ia1 #cih ,wolla/on's simple microscope1 #gd ,wood1 =mation (1 #dfb ,wool1 #dgd ,worms1 #efb ,wort-gelat9e1 #ccj ,xylem ( plants1 #dfb ,yea/ cells1 #chd ---- ,g]man1 #chh ---- ,hans5's inve/igations (1 #chg ,zeiss's comp5sat+ eye-piece1 #adg ---- cov]-glass gauge1 #afe ---- microscope1 #acj ,z5tmay]'s ,holman syphon slide1 #bgh ,zoophytes1 #eae ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,,ld41 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,london ,,& ,,tonbridge4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,page xxiii1 8l4 ,cory/es cossivelaunus0 *ang$ to read 8l4 ,cory/es cassivelaunus04 ,page xxv ,,errata incorporat$ into project4 ,page xix1 8,acmea virg9ea1 "p ( palate--#aah40 *ang$ to read 8,acma virg9ea1 "p ( palate--#aah40 ,page #ba1 89 ,fig4 #ac1 if ,s1 ,s are a pair ( conjugate foci10 *ang$ to read 89 ,fig4 #ab1 if ,s1 ,s are a pair ( conjugate foci104 ,s & ,s are 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,page #hi 8,bact]iological & ,hi/ol gical0 *ang$ to read 8,bact]iological & ,hi/ological04 ,page #eih1 8,apis nillifica0 *ang$ to read 8,apis mellifica01 also entry 9 index4 ,page #ffc1 8! papill ( ! tongue is di/5d$ & se5 erect0 *ang$ to read 8! papill ( ! tongue are di/5d$ & se5 erect04 ,obvi\s pr9t] errors correct$ sil5tly4 ,inconsi/5t spell+ & hyph5ation are z 9 ! orig9al4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,my e>lie/ acqua9tance ) ! ,microscope occurr$ 9 ! ?irties1 :5 ,i =tunately became possess$ ( a ,culpep]-,sc>let in/rum5t1 figur$ 9 ! title-page4 #b ,at ! "t ?is 0 writt51 sc>cely a book ( ! k9d _h be5 publi%$ at a price )9 ! rea* ( ! /ud5t4 #c ,= full] in=mation1 see ! ,cantor ,lectures on ! ,microscope1 by ! late ,john ,mayall1 ,f4,r4,m4,s41 8,society ( ,arts ,j\rnal10 #ahhe4 #d 8,a ,practical ,treatise on ! ,use ( ! ,microscope40 ,london1 #ahee4 #e ,= fur!r in=mation1 ,i mu/ ref] my read]s to ,p>k9son's 8,treatise on ,optics20 ,h]s*el's 8,famili> ,lectures on ,light20 8,cyclopdia ,britannica20 ,ev]ett's translation ( ,des*anel's 8,physics20 & ,ngeli & ,s*w5d5]'s 8,!ory & ,practice ( ! ,microscope10 translat$ by ,frank ,crisp1 ,,ll4,d4 #f ,! cornea ( ! eye is n s entirely ! simple transp>5t /ructure z x at fir/ sight may appe> to be4 ,x is compos$ ( sev]al lay]s1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is ! n]ve lay]1 consi/+ ( innum]able ganglionic /ellate plexus ( cells held toge!r by a network1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #ba1 a small section /a9$ by *loride ( gold1 & magnifi$ #cjj diamet]s4 ,b5ea? ! nucleat$ n]ve cells is a second lay] ( /ellate cells1 v>y+ a little 9 _! =m4 ,^! n]ve & /ellate cells s]ve ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ ! cornea 9 heal?1 & mu/ play a significant "p 9 ! dioptric sy/em4 #g ,! /&>d condition ( p]fect vision is t]m$ emmetropia4 #h ,l&olt2 8,! ,accommodation & ,refraction ( ! ,eye10 #ahhf4 #i #jja ( a millimetre4 ,?is measurem5t is n[ univ]sally employ$ 9 microscopy4 #aj ,diffraction effects may be obs]v$ )\t a microscope1 inde$1 ! m /rik+ are se5 9 connection ) telescopic vision4 ,a beautiful s]ies ( ph5om5a 9 illu/ration ( ! diffraction ( light may be produc$ z foll[s3 ,draw on a l>ge %eet ( pap] a s]ies ( geometrical figures1 arrang$ at equal di/ances 9 a circle4 ,a collodion photographic picture ( ^! be+ tak51 a s]ies ( small transp>5t ap]tures 9 ! else:]e opaque film w result4 ,?is film is !n m\nt$1 s t x may be 9 turn br\ght be=e ! c5tre ( a small h& telescope1 previ\sly adju/$ to view an image ( ! sun4 ,9 ?is way we h an app>atus ( ! mo/ compact =m1 & by means ( :i* a s]ies ( fifty or m ph5om5a may be br\ght into view 9 a few m9utes4 ,^! pictures be+ v small 7occupy+ on an av]age area "o-t5? ( an in* 9 diamet]71 inaccuracies ( surface & sub/ance ( ! glass may be neglect$4 ,a film ( ,canada balsam ) :i* ! glass is cem5t$ ov] ! picture produces no di/urbance4 ,!re is a manife/ advantage 9 ! figures be+ small1 z ! size ( ! image is 9 inv]se proportion to ! size ( ! ap]ture4 #aa ,c>p5t]1 8,! ,microscope10 p4 #fe1 #ahia4 #ab 8,phil4 ,mag410 viii41 p4 #afg 7#ahif74 #ac ,pr(essor ,/okes wrote me 9 ! foll[+ flatt]+ t]ms3--8,:at y h submitt$ to me on ! subject ( ap]tures is s s\nd1 cle>1 & succ9ct1 t ,i h no?+ to add to x4 ,! me?od adapt$ z y h expla9$ respect+ ! imm]sion sy/em1 ,i consid] to be p]fectly satisfactory40 ,subsequ5tly1 & at my reque/1 ,sir ,george ,/okes contribut$ a valuable pap] on ! subject to ! 8,transactions ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahgf1 on 8,! ,!oretical ,limit ( ,ap]ture40 #ad 8,on ! ,e/imation ( ,ap]ture 9 ! ,microscope10 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 s]ies ii4 vol4 i42 8,notes on ,ap]ture1 ,microscopic ,vision1 & ! ,value ( ,wide-angl$ ,imm]sion ,objectives10 #ahha4 #ae ,num]ical ap]ture is g5]ally us$ 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x 0 introduc$ 9 #ahgc by ,pr(essor ,abbe1 on ! basis ( 8 !oretical inve/igations4 ,num]ical ap]ture repres5ts ! ratio betwe5 ! radius ( ! effective ap]ture 7p7 ( ! sy/em on ! side :]e ! image is =m$--m accurately ! radius ( ! em]g+ p5cils measur$ 9 ! upp] focal plane ( ! objective--& ! equival5t focal l5g? 7f7 ( ! latt]1 i4e41 ,num]ical ap]ture p_/f4 ,?is ratio is equal to ! product ( ! s9e ( half ! angle ( ap]ture u ( ! incid5t p5cils & ! refractive index n ( ! m$ium1 situat$ 9 front ( ! objective4 ,) dry l5ses n has !re=e ! value #a2 ) imm]sion l5ses x is equal to ! refractive index ( ! p>ticul> imm]sion fluid3 ,num]ical ap]ture n ,s9 u4 ,! num]ical ap]ture ( a l5s det]m9es all its ess5tial qualities2 ! brightness ( ! image increases ) a giv5 magnification &1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 z ! squ>e ( ! ap]ture2 ! resolv+ & def9+ p[]s are directly relat$ to x1 ! focal dep? ( diff]5tiation ( dep?s v>ies inv]sely z ! ap]ture1 & s =?4 7,abbe1 8,! ,e/imation ( ,ap]ture10 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahha1 p4 #chi47 #af 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society40 #ag 8,j\rnal ,roy4 ,micros4 ,soc410 p4 #ai1 #ahgh1 & p4 #bj1 #ahhj4 #ah 8,! ,magnify+ ,p[] ( ,%ort ,spaces0 has be5 ably elucidat$ by ,john ,gorham1 ,esq41 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 8,j\rnal ( ,microscopical ,society10 ,octob]1 #ahed4 #ai ,! late ,mr4 ,codd+ton1 ( ,cambridge1 :o _h a high op9ion ( ! value ( ?is l5s1 _h "o ( ^! groov$ sph]es execut$ by ,mr4 ,c>ey1 :o gave x ! "n ( ! ,codd+ton ,l5s1 suppos+ t x 0 inv5t$ by ! p]son :o employ$ him1 :]eas ,mr4 ,codd+ton nev] laid claim to x1 & ! circum/ance ( 8 hav+ "o made 0 n kn[n until n9e ye>s aft] x 0 describ$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/] 9 ! 8,ed9burgh ,j\rnal40 #bj 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 #ahij10 p4 #dbj4 #ba 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 #ahhj10 p4 #ajej4 #bb ,apo-*romatic1 f ! ,greek1 signify+ fre$om f col\r4 #bc ,pr(4 ,abbe 8,on ,/eph5son's ,sy/em ( ,homog5e\s ,imm]sion = ,microscope ,objectives10 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 ,,ii4 7#ahgi71 p4 #bef1 & on 8,! ,ess5ce ( ,homog5e\s ,imm]sion10 ,ibid41 ,i4 7#ahha71 p4 #aca4 #bd ,rei*]t1 9 8 catalogue1 does n cle>ly indicate :at ! initial p[]s ( 8 eye-pieces are4 #be ,messrs4 ,ross h two s]ies ( eye-pieces1 bo? ,huygh5ian4 ,"o s]ies is = use ) ! ,engli% #aj-;in* tube-body1 & is di/+ui%$ by ,roman lett]s1 & ! o!r by num]als1 & made z is usual on ! ,cont95t1 & = use ) ! %ort] tube-body #f-a_/b-;in*4 ,! initial p[]s giv5 9 ! table are = ! #aj-;in* tube1 & = ! %ort] mu/ be read z foll[s3-- #a #b #c #d ) #f-a_/b-;in* tube4 #d #f #h #ab #bf ,?is c5tr+-glass consi/s ( a tubul> cap ) a m9ute ap]ture1 conta9+ two plano-convex l5ses1 s adju/$ t ! image ( ! ap]ture 9 ! object-glass & ! images ( ! ap]ture ( ! l5ses & ! diaphragms conta9$ 9 ! tube :i* holds ! illum9at+ comb9ation1 may be all 9 focus at ! same "t1 s t by ! same adju/m5t !y may be br\ght suffici5tly ne> to recognise _! c5tricity4 #bg ,summ>y ( ! value ( p>abolic illum9ation & imm]sion illum9ators1 by ! late ,mr4 ,j4 ,mayall1 w be f\nd on p4 #bg1 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society0 7#ahgi74 #bh ,messrs4 ,bak] & ,swift h con/ruct$ lamps ) removal & fix$ a*romatic bull's-eye l5ses 9 gymbal1 & *angeable t9t$ glass scre5s4 ,ei!r ( ^! w add to ! usefulness ( ! lamp 9 bact]iological rese>* "w4 ,bak]'s is con/ruct$ on ! ,h]s*el d\blet =mula1 & %\ld !re=e be free f ab]ration4 ,x is m\nt$ on a heavy brass tripod foot1 has v]tical & horizontal movem5ts by rack & p9ion1 brass res]voir1 ) screw op5+ = fill+1 metal *imney to take #c #a-a_/b-;in* glass slip1 removable frame = c>ry+ t9t$ glass scre5s1 c4 #bi 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 p4 #cfe1 #ahif4 #cj ,dr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,pi]soll1 8,am]ican ,annual ( ,photography10 #ahij4 #ca 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahib1 p4 #fhd4 #cb 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 p4 #egh1 #ahig4 #cc ,h]apa?'s te/-fluid is a mixture ( ?ree dra*ms ( pure acetic acid1 "o dra*m ( alcohol1 & ?ree drops ( sulphuric acid4 #cd 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopic ,society10 #ahfg4 #ce ,born 9 #aghg1 at ,/raub+1 a small t[n 9 ,bav>ia4 #cf ,dr4 ,?udicum's 8,t5? ,report ( ! ,m$ical ,(fic] ( ! ,privy ,c\ncil1 #ahfg40 ,mr4 ,sorby 8,on ,"s ,improvem5ts 9 ! ,spectrum ,me?od ( ,detect+ ,blood40 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahga4 #cg 8,on ! ,r$uction & ,oxidation ( ! ,col\r+-matt] ( ! ,blood0 78,proc4 ( ! ,royal ,soc40 vol4 xiii4 p4 #cee74 ,! oxidis+ solution is made z foll[s3--,to a solution ( proto-sulphate ( iron1 en\gh t>t>ic acid is add$ to prev5t precipitation by alkalies4 ,a small quantity ( ?is solution1 made slightly alkal9e by ammonia or c>bonate ( soda1 is to be add$ to ! weak solution ( blood 9 wat]4 #ch 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahfi4 #ci ,pr(essor ,sylvanus ,?ompson1 8,on ! ,measurem5t ( ,l5ses10 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #ahib1 p4 #aji4 #dj 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society10 #bnd ,s]ies1 ,vol4 iv41 p4 #edb4 #da ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,smi?1 8,on ! ,/ructure ( ! ,valve ( ,pleurosigma ,pellucida10 8,quekett ,club ,trans40 #db 8,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,microscopical ,sci5ce10 ,new ,s]ies1 ,vol4 viii41 #ahgh4 #dc ,x is q possible also = ! /ud5t to make 8 own microscope /&4 ,mr4 ,field 9 ! 8,engli% ,me*anic10 pp4 #aga et seq41 #ahig1 furni%es num]\s work+ draw+s = ! con/ruction ( a high-class /&1 toge!r ) patt]ns = ! metal "w4 #dd 8,mod]n ,microscopy10 by ,m>t9 ,j4 ,cole4 #de ,) reg>d to ! use ( absolute alcohol1 ?is re-ag5t requires to be us$ ) caution2 all m9ute details are lo/1 & x causes irregul> %r9k+ ( ! f9] tissues1 :ile fibr\s tissue is br\ght into undue prom95ce at ! exp5se ( ! cellul> elem5ts4 ,consequ5tly 9 c]ta9 biological laboratories ! me?od ( h>d5+ 9 alcohol has be5 ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( o!r re-ag5ts4 #df 8,j\rnal ( ,anatomy & ,physiology10 ,,xx4 #ahha1 p4 #cdi4 #dg 8,j\rnal ( ! ,quekett ,club10 ,july1 #ahic1 & ,m>*1 #ahie4 #dh ,mr4 ,john ,hood1 #ej1 ,dallfield ,walk1 ,dundee1 (f]s a weekly supply ( infusorial life = a small annual subscription1 or a s+le tube by po/ at ! trifl+ co/ ( "o %ill+4 #di ,pr(essor ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,f4,r4,s41 8,address to ! ,botanical ,section ( ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahig40 #ej 8,briti% ,m$ical ,j\rnal10 ,m>* #bf1 #ahei2 8,m$ical ,times & ,gazette0 & 8,popul> ,sci5ce ,review10 #ahfb4 #ea 8,p>asitic ,diseases10 8,j\rn4 ( ! ,royal ,micros4 ,soc4 ( ,lond410 #ahei-fj4 #eb ,!re are sev]al o!r k9ds ( bact]ia infe/+ milk1 "s ( :i* are motile1 o!rs non-motile1 produc+ acidity & col\r+ matt]1 z ,b4 prodigiosus1 r$-milk2 ,b4 synxan?us1 yell[ milk2 ,b4 lactis a]og5s1 :i* are pa?og5ic2 ,b4 lactis albus1 :i* coagulate milk2 & ano!r =m1 :i* is productive ( slimy or ropy-milk4 #ec 8,p>asitic ,diseases ( ! ,sk910 #ahei-gc1 p4 #cj4 ,bailli]e1 ,t9dal1 & ,cox4 #ed 8,organic ,g]m ,!ory ( ,disease10 8,m$ical ,times & ,gazette10 p4 #fhe1 #ahgj4 #ee ,f4 ,cohn on ! 8,natural ,hi/ory ( ,protococcus pluvialis40 #ef ,prit*>d's 8,infusoria10 p4 #bd1 ,plate ,i41 #d? edition4 #eg ,9 ord] to detect ! pres5ce ( />*-gra9s 9 plants1 ! tissue mu/ be kept 9 alcohol expos$ to light1 until ! :ole ( ! *lorophyll is dissolv$ out2 x mu/ !n be treat$ = sev]al h\rs 9 a /rong solution ( pota%4 ,aft] neutralisation ) acetic acid1 ! tissue may be treat$ ) iod9e1 :i* col\rs x blue1 or ) corall9e solution1 :i* col\rs x p9k4 #eh ,v]h&l4 d4 ,natur4 ,hi/4 ,jahr4 xx4 p4 #a4 8,micros4 ,j\r4 ,sci5ce10 vol4 iii41 p4 #abj4 #ei ,= in/ance1 :]e ! yell[ ,palmella is f\nd ! ,*lorococcus w assume a yell[ t+e 9 its soridial /age4 ,view$ by transmitt$ light ! sori are se5 z opaque balls1 ) an irregul> outl9e4 #fj 8,contributions to ! ,k ( ! ,developm5t ( ! ,gonidia ( ,li*5s40 ,by ,j4 ,braxton ,hicks1 ,m4,d41 8,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,microscopical ,sci5ce10 vol4 viii41 #hfj1 p4 #bci4 #fa ,b]keley's 8,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany10 #aheg4 #fb ,= m detail$ in=mation on ! /ructure & classification ( unicellul> plants1 & cryptogams1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,ralfs' 8,briti% ,desmidace02 ,smi?'s 8,briti% ,diatomace02 ,goebel's 8,outl9es ( ,classification & ,special ,morphology02 ,b]keley's 8,cryptogamic ,botany02 ,de ,b>y's 8,comp>ative ,anatomy ( ! ,phan]agams & ,f]ns02 ,pr(essor ,m>%all ,w>d's 8,sa*'s ,physiology ( ,plants10 & num]\s memoirs on ,fungi2 & ,b[] & ,sidney ,v9e's 8,c\rse ( ,practical ,in/ruction 9 ,botany10 a mo/ in/ructive book on ! hi/ology ( plants4 #fc 8,a ,manual ( ! ,infusoria10 by ,w4 ,saville ,k5t1 ,f4,l4,s41 c41 #ahhj4 #fd 8,j\rnal ( ! ,l9n4 ,society10 vol4 viii41 p4 #bjb2 vol4 ix41 p4 #adg1 #ahfe & #ahff4 #fe ,among ! m important works on ,=am9if]a = consultation w be f\nd ,d',orbigny's 8,=am9if]es ,fossiles du ,bass9 ,t]tiaire de ,vi5ne0 7,autri*e72 ,s*ultze1 8,ueb] d5 ,organismus d] ,poly?alami510 #ahed2 ,c>p5t] & ,williamson's 8,rese>*es on ! ,=am9if]a10 8,phil4 ,trans4 #ahef20 ,p>k] & ,rup]t-,jones 9 ! 8,annals ( ,natural ,hi/ory40 ,specim5s ( ,=am9if]a may be obta9$ by %ak+ dri$ sponges2 b if requir$ alive !y mu/ be dr$g$ =1 or pick$ (f ! fronds ( liv+ seawe$s1 ov] ! surface ( :i* !y are1 by ! aid ( a l5s1 se5 to move4 #ff ,w4 ,saville ,k5t1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,op4 ,cit41 p4 #cce4 #fg ,difficulties =m]ly associat$ ) ! microscopic exam9ation ( flagellate =ms ( infusorial life h be5 ov]come by improvem5ts 9 ! objectives1 by ! k ga9$ ( ! monad gr\ps1 & by ! exhau/ive rese>*es ( ,drs4 ,drysdale & ,dall+]1 ^: jo9t inve/igations 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 #ahgc-ge4 ,by employ+ ! highe/ & mo/ p]fectly con/ruct$ p[]s ( ! microscope1 & devot+ an enorm\s am\nt ( "t & att5tion to unravell+ my/]ies s long associat$ ) ! production ( ! l[ly organis$ flagellate organisms1 monads1 & pati5tly wat*+ h\r by h\r1 ! life-hi/ory ( num]\s species ( ^! m9ute infusorial animalcules 7 obta9$4 ,n only 0 x discov]$ t ^! organisms increas$ indef9itely by fission1 b t "u c]ta9 conditions two or m individuals 7 unit$ into ency/m5ts1 & ^: cont5ts broke up into a great] or less numb] ( spore-l bodies1 7 spe$ily develop$ into ! p>5t type4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( ^! m9ute bodies1 x has be5 f\nd t talc-films1 t is1 talc split into extremely f9e lam91 (f] ! be/ k9d ( cov]1 9 fact1 sup]s$e ord9>y glass cov]s1 & possess an advantage1 t ( b5d+ readily1 ?us p]mitt+ ! objective to be br\ght close d[n ^u ! object4 #fh ,r4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,w>ne1 ,op4 ,cit41 pp4 #ecb-c4 #fi ,saville ,k5t1 op4 cit41 p4 #aia4 #gj ,fritz ,mll] fir/ demon/rat$ a n]v\s sy/em 9 ! ,polyzoa3--8,! n]v\s sy/em ( ea* bran* consi/+ (--#a/1 a consid]able siz$ ganglion situat$ at its orig92 #bnd1 ( a n]v\s trunk runn+ ! entire l5g? ( ! bran*1 at ! upp] "p ( :i* x subdivides into bran*es1 go+ to ! ganglia ( ! int]nodes aris+ at ?is "p2 & #crd1 ( a ri* n]v\s plexus re/+ on ! trunk1 & connect+ ! ganglia j m5tion$1 z well z ! basal ganglia ( ! individual polypides40 ,= fur!r acc\nt1 see pap] 9 ! 8,micros4 ,j\rn410 vol4 i41 ,new ,s]ies1 p4 #ccj4 #ga ,i h v5tur$ to devote "s consid]able space to ! developm5t ( ! pond-snail1 & = an obvi\s reason1 t ( mak+ x p]fectly cle> to my read]s t my microscopical inve/igations ( ,limna1 made 9 #ahec1 7 publi%$ 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,microscopical ,society10 ,june1 #ahed1 & republi%$ 9 ext5so 9 ! sev]al editions ( ?is book1 dat+ f ! la/ m5tion$ p]iod4 ,nev]!less1 ! fr+e ( cilia 01 x appe>s1 r$iscov]$ 9 #ahgd1 j tw5ty ye>s aft] my pap] 0 publi%$4 ,x is almo/ unnecess>y to add t ,c>p5t] gravely errs 9 8 /atem5t 8t ! exi/5ce ( ! fr+e ( cilia 9 ! embryo snail _h be5 ov]look$ until #ahgd40 #gb ,mr4 ,george ,ra9ey _m ye>s ago made u acqua9t$ ) ! fact t c]ta9 ( ! appe>ances pres5t$ by ! %ell or o!r h>d /ructures ( animals1 & :i* _h hi!rto be5 ref]r$ to z cell-developm5t1 are really gov]n$ by ! physical laws :i* gov]n ! aggregation ( c]ta9 cry/all9e salts :5 expos$ to ! action ( vegetable & animal sub/ances 9 a /ate ( solution4 ,mr4 ,ra9ey furni%$ a process = obta9+ artificially a cry/all9e sub/ance :i* %all s closely resemble %ell /ructure t x c b>ely be di/+ui%$ f x4 ,! *emical sub/ances to be us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! artificial %ell1 or calculi1 are a soluble comp\nd ( lime & c>bonate ( pota% or soda1 dissolv$ 9 sep>ate portions ( wat]1 & mix$ ) "s viscid vegetable or animal sub/ance1 z gum or album51 & mix+ ! sev]al solutions toge!r4 ,! me*anical conditions requir$ are t su* a quantity ( ea* ( ! viscid mat]ials 9 ea* solution %all be ( ab\t ! same d5sity z t ( ! nasc5t c>bonate ( lime1 & at p]fect re/4 ,?is /ate ( re/ w require f two to ?ree weeks or long]4 ,mr4 ,ra9ey %[s ! analogy or id5tity ( 8 artificially =m$ cry/als ) ^? f\nd 9 natural products bo? 9 animals & vegetables1 *iefly conf9+ himself to ! /ructure & =mation ( %ells & bone1 pigm5tal & o!r cells1 & ! /ructure & developm5t ( ! cry/all9e l5ses1 :i* he cont5ds are all =m$ ^u precisely ! same physical pr9ciples z ! artificial cry/als4 #gc ,e4 ,ray ,lanke/]1 8,on ! ,greg>9 f\nd 9 ! common ,e>?worm40--8,micros4 ,trans40 vol4 iii4 p4 #hc4 #gd ,= ! fulle/ in=mation ( m>9e1 l&1 & fre%-wat] species1 consult ,dr4 ,ba/ian's 8,monograph on ! ,anguillulid02 8,l94 ,soc4 ,trans40 vol4 xxv4 p4 #ge2 ! 8,anguillula ,aceti10 by ! au?or1 9 ! 8,popul> ,sci5ce ,review10 ,janu>y1 #ahfc4 #ge 8,c]c>ia p>asitic on ,limna10 8,j\r4 ,royal ,micros4 ,soc40 #ahgj4 #gf ,see my pap] 8,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( a ,nematode ,worm10 8,j\rn4 ( ,microscopy & ,natural ,hi/ory10 ,octob]1 #ahhh4 #gg 8,! ,p>asites ( ,man & ! ,diseases :i* proce$ f !m10 by ,pr(essor ,rudolf ,leuck>t1 #ahhf4 #gh ,r4 ,j4 ,pocock1 8,on ,worms0 7,w>ne1 ,op4 cit471 p4 #dfe4 #gi ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! =mation ( ! tubes ( ,s]pula is giv5 by ,mr4 ,watson1 8,j\r4 ,micros4 ,soc410 vol4 #ahij1 p4 #fhe4 #hj ,dr4 ,baird1 8,natural ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,entomo/raca10 pr9t$ = ! ,ray ,society1 #ahej4 #ha ,see ,mr4 ,b4 ,t4 ,l[ne's exhau/ive treatise on 8,! ,anatomy & ,physiology ( ! ,bl[-fly10 a volume ( #gej pages & #eb plates1 #ahia4 #hb ,tuff5 ,we/1 8,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc410 vol4 xxiii41 p4 #cic4 #hc ,! t]m micropyle 7a little gate7 has h]et(ore only be5 us$ 9 its relation ) ! vegetable k+dom3 x is us$ to d5ote ! op5+ or =am5 t[>ds :i* ! radicle is always po9t$4 #hd ,dr4 ,halifax adopts ! me?od ( kill+ ! insect ) *lor(orm2 he !n imm]ses x 9 a ba? ( hot wax1 9 :i* x is all[$ to rema9 until ! wax becomes cold & h>d2 ) a %>p knife sections are easily made 9 ! requir$ direction )\t 9 ! lea/ di/urb+ any ( ! m fragile p>ts1 or int]nal organs ( ! specim54 #he 8,phil4 ,trans410 #ahei1 p4 #cda4 #hf ,see my pap] on 8,! ,eggs ( ,insects10 9 8,! ,intellectual ,obs]v]10 ,oct4 #ahfg1 9 :i* o!r v>ieties ( eggs are giv54 #hg ,w4 ,u4 ,:itney1 8,transactions ( ! ,microscopical ,society0 = #ahfa & #ahfg4 #hh ,mr4 ,f4 ,g4 ,cuttell1 #eb1 ,new ,compton ,/reet1 ,soho1 cuts & prep>es excell5t sections4 #hi ,publi%$ ) 8 pap] 9 detail1 8,ap]ture z a ,factor 9 ,microscopic ,vision10 8,j\rnal ( ,royal ,micros4 ,soc410 ,june1 #ahjh1 pp4 #ccd et seq4 #ij 8,squire's ,me?ods & ,=mul20 8,mod]n ,microscopy10 ,cross & ,m4 ,f4 ,cole2 8,! ,microscopi/s' ,vade ,mecum10 ,a4 ,b4 ,lee2 8,bact]iology40 ,pr(essor ,dr4 ,e4 ,crook%ank1 ,messrs4 ,baird & ,tattock1 ,cross ,/reet1 ,hatton ,g>d51 supply all ,sci5tific ,app>atus = ,bact]iological ,"w4 #ia ,! imp]ial gallon conta9s #bgg4bgchd cubic in*es1 & ! imp]ial p9t #bj fluid ounces1 :]eas ! w9e gallon has #bca cubic in*es & ! p9t #af fluid ounces4 ,9 w9e measure #a litre #cc4hae fluid ounces4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,page xxiii1 8l4 ,cory/es cossivelaunus0 *ang$ to read 8l4 ,cory/es cassivelaunus04 ,page xxv ,,errata incorporat$ into project4 ,page xix1 8,acmea virg9ea1 "p ( palate--#aah40 *ang$ to read 8,acma virg9ea1 "p ( palate--#aah40 ,page #ba1 89 ,fig4 #ac1 if ,s1 ,s are a pair ( conjugate foci10 *ang$ to read 89 ,fig4 #ab1 if ,s1 ,s are a pair ( conjugate foci104 ,s & ,s are 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,page #hi 8,bact]iological & ,hi/ol gical0 *ang$ to read 8,bact]iological & ,hi/ological04 ,page #eih1 8,apis nillifica0 *ang$ to read 8,apis mellifica01 also entry 9 index4 ,page #ffc1 8! papill ( ! tongue is di/5d$ & se5 erect0 *ang$ to read 8! papill ( ! tongue are di/5d$ & se5 erect04 ,obvi\s pr9t] errors correct$ sil5tly4 ,inconsi/5t spell+ & hyph5ation are z 9 ! orig9al4