,,american ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religions ,,second ,,series--#ahif-ahig ,,religions ,,of ,,primitive ,,peoples ,,by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,sc4,d4 ,professor of ,american ,archology and ,linguistics in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,philadelphia ,,fourth ,,impression ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press ,,copyright1 #ahig ,,by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall1 ,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york ,,announcement4 ,on the #bdth of ,december1 #ahia1 fifteen persons interested in promoting the historical study of religions united in issuing a circular-letter1 inviting a conference in the ,council ,chambers of the ,historical ,society of ,philadelphia1 on the #cjth of the same month1 for the purpose of instituting 8popular courses in the ,history of ,religions1 somewhat after the style of the ,hibbert lectures in ,england1 to be delivered annually by the best scholars of ,europe and this country1 in various cities1 such as ,baltimore1 ,boston1 ,brooklyn1 ,chicago1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and others40 ,there participated in this conference personally or by letter from ,philadelphia1 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,e4 ,t4 ,bartlett1 ,d4,d41 ,rev4 ,george ,dana ,boardman1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,m4,d41 ,sc4,d41 ,horace ,howard ,furness1 ,,ll4,d41 ,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 ,james1 ,ph4,d41 ,prof4 ,morris ,jastrow1 ,jr41 ,ph4,d41 ,provost ,wm4 ,pepper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,hon4 ,mayer ,sulzberger1 ,mrs4 ,cornelius ,stevenson1 and ,talcott ,williams1 ,,ll4,d42 from ,baltimore1 ,prest4 ,d4 ,c4 ,gilman1 ,,ll4,d41 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 and ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt1 ,ph4,d42 from ,boston and ,cambridge1 ,rev4 ,e4 ,e4 ,hale1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,c4 ,r4 ,lanman1 ,ph4,d41 ,prof4 ,d4 ,g4 ,lyon1 ,ph4,d41 and ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,toy1 ,,ll4,d42 from ,brooklyn1 ,rev4 ,edward ,s4 ,braislin1 ,d4,d41 and ,prof4 ,franklin ,w4 ,hooper of the ,brooklyn ,institute2 from ,chicago1 ,prest4 ,w4 ,r4 ,harper1 ,ph4,d41 of the ,university of ,chicago1 and ,rev4 ,prof4 ,emil ,g4 ,hirsch1 ,ph4,d42 from ,new ,york1 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,a4 ,briggs1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,francis ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,rev4 ,g4 ,gottheil1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,r4 ,j4 ,h4 ,gottheil1 ,ph4,d41 ,rev4 ,john ,p4 ,peters1 ,ph4,d41 and ,rev4 ,w4 ,hayes ,ward1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d42 from ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 ,prest4 ,j4 ,g4 ,schurman of ,cornell ,university1 and ,hon4 ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 ,,ll4,d4 ,at this conference ,prof4 ,jastrow submitted a plan for establishing popular lecture courses on the historical study of religions by securing the co-operation of existing institutions and lecture associations1 such as the ,lowell1 ,brooklyn1 and ,peabody ,institutes1 the ,university ,lecture ,association of ,philadelphia1 and some of our colleges and universities4 ,each course1 according to this plan1 was to consist of from six to eight lectures1 and the engagement of lecturers1 choice of subjects1 and so forth were to be in the hands of a committee chosen from the different cities1 and representing the various institutions and associations participating4 ,this general scheme met with the cordial approval of the conference1 which voted the project both a timely and useful one1 and which appointed ,dean ,bartlett1 ,prof4 ,jastrow1 and ,dr4 ,peters a committee to elaborate a plan of organisation and report at an adjourned meeting4 ,that meeting was held at the ,union ,theological ,seminary in ,new ,york ,city1 ,february #f1 #ahib1 and1 as a result1 an association was organised for the purpose of encouraging the study of religions4 ,the terms of association then adopted1 with slight modifications introduced later1 are as follows3 #a4--,the object of this ,association shall be to provide courses of lectures on the history of religions1 to be delivered in various cities4 #b4--,the ,association shall be composed of delegates from institutions agreeing to co-operate1 or from local boards1 organised where such co-operation is not possible4 #c4--,these ,delegates--one from each ,institution or ,local ,board--shall constitute themselves a council under the name of the 8,american ,committee for ,lectures on the ,history of ,religions40 #d4--,the ,council shall elect out of its number a ,president1 a ,secretary1 and a ,treasurer4 #e4--;,all matters of local detail shall be left to the ,institutions or ,local ,boards1 under whose auspices the lectures are to be delivered4 #f4--;,a course of lectures on some religion1 or phase of religion1 from an historical point of view1 or on a subject germane to the study of religions1 shall be delivered annually1 or at such intervals as may be found practicable1 in the different cities represented by this ,association4 #g4--,the ,council 7a7 shall be charged with the selection of the lecturers1 7b7 shall have charge of the funds1 7c7 shall assign the time for the lectures in each city1 and perform such other functions as may be necessary4 #h4--,polemical subjects1 as well as polemics in the treatment of subjects1 shall be positively excluded4 #i4--,the lecturer shall be chosen by the ,council at least ten months before the date fixed for the course of lectures4 #aj4--,the lectures shall be delivered in the various cities between the months of ,october and ,june4 #aa4--,the copyright of the lectures shall be the property of the ,association4 #ab4--,one half of the lecturer's compensation shall be paid at the completion of this entire course1 and the second half upon the publication of the lectures4 #ac4--,the compensation offered to the lecturer shall be fixed in each case by the ,council4 #ad4--,the lecturer is not to deliver elsewhere any of the lectures for which he is engaged by the ,committee1 except with the sanction of the ,committee4 ,the ,committee appointed to carry out this plan as now constituted1 is as follows3 ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,toy1 of ,harvard ,university1 ,chairman4 ,prof4 ,morris ,jastrow1 ,jr41 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,secretary4 ,rev4 ,john ,p4 ,peters1 ,d4 ,d41 of ,new ,york1 ,treasurer4 ,prof4 ,richard ,j4 ,h4 ,gottheil1 of ,columbia ,university4 ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt1 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hooper1 of the ,brooklyn ,institute4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,f4 ,jameson1 of ,brown ,university4 ,prof4 ,f4 ,k4 ,sanders1 of ,yale ,university4 ,president ,j4 ,g4 ,schurman1 of ,cornell ,university4 ,for its first course the ,committee selected as lecturer ,prof4 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,ph4,d4 ,,ll4,d41 of ,london1 ,england1 who delivered a course of lectures in the winter of #ahid-ie on ,the ,history and ,literature of ,buddhism1 at the following places1 with the co-operation of the institutions named3 ,baltimore1 before the ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 ,boston1 at the ,lowell ,institute4 ,brooklyn1 at the ,brooklyn ,institute4 ,ithaca1 before the ,cornell ,university4 ,new ,york1 before the ,columbia ,university4 ,philadelphia1 before the ,university of ,pennsylvania ,lecture ,association4 ,providence1 before the ,brown ,university ,lecture ,association4 ,professor ,davids' lectures were published in #ahif by arrangement with ,messrs4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 the publishers to the ,committee1 as the ,first ,series of ,the ,american ,lectures on the ,history of ,religions4 ,as the second lecturer1 the ,committee chose ,prof4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,sc4,d41 of ,philadelphia2 and as the subject1 8,the ,religions of ,primitive ,peoples40 ,dr4 ,brinton1 who holds the chair of ,american ,archology and ,linguistics in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 is a leading authority on the languages and customs of the ,american ,indians1 and on ,anthropology in general4 ,his studies have led him also into the domain of ,prehistoric ,archology and ,comparative ,mythology4 ,as the product of his investigations in the latter field1 he published as early as #ahfh1 ,the ,myths of ,the ,new ,world1 which at once attracted the attention of scholars1 and has passed through several editions since4 ,in #ahgf he issued an important contribution to the ,science of ,religion1 under the title1 ,the ,religious ,sentiment4 ,in addition to this he has published a large number of works on ,american ,languages on ,anthropology1 and ,archology1 the most notable of which is the series ,library of ,aboriginal ,american ,literature4 ,his papers1 scattered in various scientific periodicals of this country and ,europe1 number several hundred4 ,the lectures delivered by him under the auspices of the ,committee represent the ripe fruit of many years of study1 and will1 we feel assured1 be welcomed as an important contribution to a subject now attracting much attention4 ,the lectures were delivered during the winter of #ahif-ig1 at the following places3 ,boston1 7,lowell ,institute74 ,brooklyn1 7,brooklyn ,institute74 ,ithaca1 7,cornell ,university74 ,new ,haven1 7,yale ,university74 ,new ,york1 7,new ,york ,university74 ,philadelphia1 7,university of ,pennsylvania74 ,providence1 7,brown ,university ,lecture ,association74 ,the object of this ,association is to provide the best opportunities for bringing to the knowledge of the public at large the methods and results of those distinguished specialists who have devoted their lives to the study of the religions of other countries and other ages4 ,it is safe to say that there is no other subject of modern research which concerns all classes so nearly as the study of religions4 ,it is the hope of the ,committee to provide courses at intervals of two years1 or oftener1 if the encouragement which the undertaking receives warrants it1 and the practical difficulties involved in securing competent lecturers do not make it impossible4 ,arrangements have been made for a course of lectures during the winter of #ahig-ih1 by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,old ,testament ,interpretation at ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford1 and ,canon of ,rochester2 whose subject will be ,religious ,thought and ,life among the ,hebrews in ,post-,exilic ,days1 to be followed in #ahih-ii by a complementary course on ,religious ,life and ,thought among the ,hebrews in ,pre-,exilic ,days1 by ,professor ,karl ,budde1 of the ,university of ,strasburg1 ,germany4 ,,john ,p4 ,,peters1 ,c4 ,h4 ,,toy1 ,,morris ,,jastrow1 ,,jr4 ,committee on ,publication4 ,may #aj1 #ahig4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,lecture ,i4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,primitive ,,religions--,,methods ,,and ,,definitions4 ,ethnology ,defined--,the ,scientific ,study of ,religions--,it is not ,theology--,its ,methods3 #a4 ,the ,historic ,method2 #b4 ,the ,comparative ,method2 #c4 ,the ,psychologic ,method--,strange ,coincidences in ,human ,thought--,conspicuous in ,primitive ,religions--8,primitive0 ,peoples ,defined--,the ,savage ,mind--,examples--,means of ,study3 #a4 ,archology2 #b4 ,language3 #c4 ,folk-,lore2 #d4 ,descriptions of ,travellers--,examples3 ,the ,early ,aryans1 ,etruscans1 ,semites1 ,egyptians1 ,american ,tribes1 ,australians1 ,polynesians1 etc4--8,religions0 ,defined--,compared with 8,superstitions0--,no ,one ,belief ,essential to ,religion--,atheistic ,religions--,fundamental ,identity of ,religions--,no ,tribe ,known ,devoid of a ,religion--,how the ,opposite ,opinion ,arose--,earliest ,men probably had ,no ,religion--,no ,signs of ,religion in ,lower ,animals--,power of ,religion in ,primitive ,society--,true ,source of ,religion #a ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,contents ,,of ,,primitive ,,religions4 ,former ,theories of the ,origin of ,religions--,inadequacy of these--,universal ,postulate of ,religions that ,conscious ,volition is the ,source of ,force--,how ,mind was ,assigned to ,nature--,communion between the ,human and the ,divine ,mind--,universality of 8,inspiration0--,inspiration the ,product of the ,sub-,conscious ,mind--,known to ,science as 8,suggestion0--,this ,explained--,examples--,illustrations from ,language--,no ,primitive ,monotheism--,the ,special ,stimuli of the ,religious ,emotions3 #a4 ,dreaming and ,allied ,conditions--,life as a ,dream--#b4 ,the ,apprehension of ,life and ,death and the ,notion of the ,soul--#c4 ,the ,perception of ,light and ,darkness2 ,day and ,night--,the ,sky ,god as the ,high ,god--#d4 ,the ,observation of ,extraordinary ,exhibitions of ,force--,the ,thunder ,god--#e4 ,the ,impression of ,vastness--,dignity of the ,sub-,conscious ,intelligence #da ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,primitive ,,religious ,,expression3 ,,in ,,the ,,word4 ,an ,echo ,myth--,the ,power of ,words--,their ,magical ,potency--,the ,curse--,power ,independent of ,meaning--,the ,name as an ,attribute--,the ,sacred ,names--,the ,ineffable ,name--8,myrionomous0 ,gods--8,theophorous0 ,names--,suggestion and ,repetition as ,stimulants--,i4 ,the ,word to the gods3 ,prayer--,its ,forms1 ,contents1 and ,aims--,,ii4 ,the ,word from the gods3 ,the ,law and the ,prophecy--,the ,ceremonial ,law1 or tabu--,examples--,divination and ,prediction--,,iii4 ,the ,word concerning the gods3 ,the ,myths--,their ,sources chiefly ,psychic--,some from ,language--,examples--,transference--,si milarities--,the ,universal ,mythical ,cycles3 #a4 ,the ,cosmical ,concepts2 #b4 ,the ,sacred ,numbers2 #c4 ,the ,drama of the ,universe2 ,creation and ,deluge ,myths2 #d4 ,the ,earthly ,paradise2 #e4 ,the ,conflict of ,nature2 #f4 ,the ,returning ,saviour2 #g4 ,the ,journey of the ,soul--,conclusion as to these ,identities #hf ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,primitive ,,religious ,,expression3 ,,in ,,the ,,object4 ,visual ,ideas--,fetishism--,not ,object-,worship only--,identical with ,idolatry--,modern ,fetishism--,animism--,not a ,stadium of ,religion--,the ,chief ,groups of ,religious ,objects3 #a4 ,the ,celestial ,bodies--,sun and ,moon ,worship--,astrolatry2 #b4 ,the ,four ,elements--,fire1 ,air 7the ,winds71 ,water1 and the ,earth--,symbolism of ,colours2 #c4 ,stones and ,rocks--,thunderbolts--,memorial ,stones--,divining ,stones2 #d4 ,trees and ,plants--,the ,tree of ,life--,the ,sacred ,pole and the ,cross--,the ,plant-,soul--,the ,tree of ,knowledge2 #e4 ,places and ,sites--,high ,places and ,caves2 #f4 ,the ,lower ,animals--,the ,bird1 the ,serpent1 etc42 #g4 ,man--,anthropism in ,religion--,the ,worship of ,beauty2 #h4 ,life and its ,transmission--,examples--,genesiac ,cults--,the ,fatherhood of ,god--,love as ,religion's ,crown #acj ,,lecture ,v4 ,,primitive ,,religious ,,expression3 ,,in ,,the ,,rite4 ,the ,ritual a ,mimicry of the ,gods--,magical ,rites--,division of ,rites into ,i4 ,communal1 and ,,ii4 ,personal4 ,i4 ,communal ,rites3 #a4 ,the ,assemblage--,the ,liturgy--#b4 ,the ,festal ,function--,joyous ,character of ,primitive ,rites--,commensality--,the 8,ceremonial ,circuit0--,masks and ,dramas--#c4 ,the ,sacrifice--,early and ,later ,forms--#d4 ,the ,communion with ,god--,pagan ,eucharists4 ,,ii4 ,personal ,rites3 #a4 ,relating to ,birth--,vows and ,baptism--#b4 ,relating to ,naming--,the ,personal ,name--#c4 ,relating to ,puberty--,initiation of ,boys and ,girls--#d4 ,relating to ,marriage--,marriage 8by ,capture0 and 8by ,purchase0--#e4 ,relating to ,death--,early ,cannibalism--,sepulchral ,monuments--,funerary ,ceremonies--,modes of ,burial--,customs of ,mourning #agb ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lines ,,of ,,development ,,of ,,primitive ,,religions4 ,pagan ,religions not wholly ,bad--,their ,lines of ,development as ,connected with3 #a4 ,the ,primitive ,social ,bond--,the ,totem1 the ,priesthood1 and the ,law2 #b4 ,the ,family and the ,position of ,woman2 #c4 ,the ,growth of ,jurisprudence--,the ,ordeal1 ,trial by ,battle1 ,oaths1 and the ,right of ,sanctuary--,religion is ,anarchic2 #d4 ,the ,development of ,ethics--,dualism of ,primitive ,ethics--,opposition of ,religion to ,ethics2 #e4 ,the ,advance in ,positive ,knowledge--,religion versus ,science2 #f4 ,the ,fostering of the ,arts--,the ,aim for ,beauty and ,perfection--,colour-,symbolism1 ,sculpture1 ,metre1 ,music1 ,oratory1 ,graphic ,methods--,useful ,arts1 ,architecture2 #g4 ,the ,independent ,life of the ,individual--,his ,freedom and ,happiness--,inner ,stadia of ,progress3 #a4 ,from the ,object to the ,symbol2 #b4 ,from the ,ceremonial ,law to the ,personal ,ideal2 #c4 ,from the ,tribal to the ,national ,conception of ,religion--,conclusion #bad ,,religions ,,of ,,primitive ,,peoples ,,lecture ,i4 ,the ,scientific ,study of ,primitive ,religions--,methods and ,definitions4 ,,contents3--,ethnology ,defined--,the ,scientific ,study of ,religions--,it is not ,theology--,its ,methods3 #a4 ,the ,historic ,method2 #b4 ,the ,comparative ,method2 #c4 ,the ,psychologic ,method--,strange ,coincidences in ,human ,thought--,conspicuous in ,primitive ,religions--8,primitive0 ,peoples ,defined--,the ,savage ,mind--,examples--,means of ,study3 #a4 ,archology2 #b4 ,language2 #c4 ,folk-,lore2 #d4 ,descriptions of ,travellers--,examples3 ,the ,early ,aryans1 ,etruscans1 ,semites1 ,egyptians1 ,american ,tribes1 ,australians1 ,polynesians1 etc4--8,religions0 ,defined--,compared with 8,superstitions0--,no ,one ,belief ,essential to ,religion--,atheistic ,religions--,fundamental ,identity of ,religions--,no ,tribe ,known ,devoid of a ,religion--,how the ,opposite ,opinion ,arose--,earliest ,men probably had ,no ,religion--,no ,signs of ,religion in ,lower ,animals--,power of ,religion in ,primitive ,society--,true ,source of ,religion4 ,the youngest in the sisterhood of the sciences is that which deals with ,man4 ,in its widest scope it is called ,anthropology1 and as such includes both the physical and mental life of the species1 from the beginning until now4 ,that branch of it which especially concerns itself with the development of man as indicated by his advance in civilisation1 is known as ,ethnology4 ,when we analyse the directive forces which have brought about this advance1 and whose study therefore makes up ,ethnology1 they can be reduced to four1 to wit1 ,language1 ,laws1 ,arts1 and ,religion4 ,do not imagine1 however1 that these are separable1 independent forces4 ,on the contrary1 they are inseparable1 constituent elements of an organic unity1 each working through the others1 and on the symmetrical adjustment of all of them to the needs of a community depend its prosperity and growth4 ,no one of them can be omitted or exaggerated without stunting or distorting the national expansion4 ,this lesson1 taught by all ages and confirmed by every example1 warns us to be cautious in giving precedence to one over the others in any general scheme2 but we can profitably separate one from the others1 and study its origins and influence4 ,on this occasion ,i invite your attention to ,religion1 and especially as displayed in its earliest and simplest forms1 in the faiths and rites of primitive peoples4 ,i shall present these to you in accordance with the principles and methods of ,ethnology4 ,there is what has been called the 8science of religion40 ,the expression seems to me a little presumptuous--or1 at least1 premature4 ,we do not yet speak of a 8science of jurisprudence10 although we have better materials for it than for a science of religion4 ,i shall content myself1 therefore1 in calling what ,i have to offer a study of early religions according to scientific methods4 ,i need not remind you that such a method is absolutely without bias or partisanship2 that it looks upon all religions alike as more or less enlightened expressions of mental traits common to all mankind in every known age4#a ,it concedes the exclusive possession of truth to none1 and still less does it aim to set up any other standard than past experience by which to measure the claims of any4 ,it brings no new canons of faith or doctrine1 and lays no other foundation than that which has been laid even from the beginning until now4 ,but just there its immediate utility and practical bearings are manifested4 ,it seeks to lay bare those eternal foundations on which the sacred edifices of religion have ever been and must ever be erected4 ,it aims to accomplish this by clearing away the incidental and adventitious in religions so as to discover what in them is permanent and universal4 ,those sacred ideas and institutions which we find repeated among all the early peoples of the earth1 often developing in after ages along parallel lines1 will form the special objects of our investigation4 ,the departures from these universal forms1 we shall see1 can be traced to local or temporary causes1 they turn on questions of environment1 and serve merely to define the limits of variability of the ubiquitous principles of religion as a psychic phenomenon1 wherever we find it4 ,this is not 8theology40 ,that branch of learning aims to measure the objective reality1 the concrete truth1 of some one or another opinion concerning ,god and divine things2 while the scientific study of religions confines itself exclusively to examining such opinions as phases of human mental activity1 and ascertaining what influence they have exerted on the development of the species or of some branch of it4 ,therefore it is never 8polemic40 ,it neither attacks nor defends the beliefs which it studies4 ,it confines itself to examining their character and influence by the lights of reason and history4 ,the methods which we employ in this process of reduction are three in number3 #a4 ,the ,historic ,method2 #b4 ,the ,comparative ,method2 #c4 ,the ,psychologic ,method4 ,a few words will explain the scope of each of these4 ,the ,historic ,method studies the history of beliefs and the development of worship4 ,it seeks to discover what influences have been exerted on them by environment1 transmission1 heredity1 and conquest1 and to bring into full relief what is peculiar to the tribe or group under consideration1 and what is exotic4 ,for in one sense it is true that every nation and tribe1 even every man1 has his own religion4 ,such ethnic traits merit the closest scrutiny4 ,they are so marked and constant as to modify profoundly the history of even the ripest religions4 ,it is quite true1 as has been observed by an historian of ,christianity1 that 8there is in every people an hereditary disposition to some particular heresy10#b that is1 to altering any religion which they accept in accordance with the special constitution of their own minds4 ,the ,comparative ,method notes the similarities and differences between the religions of different tribes or groups1 and1 gradually extending its field to embrace the whole species1 endeavors1 by excluding what is local or temporal1 to define those forms of religious thought and expression which are common to humanity at large4 ,the ,psychologic ,method takes the results of both the previous methods and aims to explain them by referring the local manifestations to the special mental traits of the tribe or group1 and the universal features to equally universal characteristics of the human mind4 ,the last1 the ,psychologic ,method1 is the crown and completion of the quest2 for every advanced student of religion will subscribe to the declaration of ,professor ,granger1 that 8all mythology and all history of beliefs must finally turn to psychology for their satisfactory elucidation40#c ,in other words1 the laws of human thought can alone explain its own products4 ,and here ,i must mention a startling discovery1 the most startling1 it seems to me1 of recent times4 ,it is that these laws of human thought are frightfully rigid1 are indeed automatic and inflexible4 ,the human mind seems to be a machine2 give it the same materials1 and it will infallibly grind out the same product4 ,so deeply impressed by this is an eminent modern writer that he lays it down as 8a fundamental maxim of ethnology0 that1 8we do not think2 thinking merely goes on within us40#d ,these strange coincidences find their explanation in experimental psychology4 ,this science1 in its modern developments1 establishes the fact that the origin of ideas is due to impressions on the nerves of sense4 ,the five senses give rise to five classes of ideas1 the most numerous of which are those from the sense of sight1 visual ideas1 and those from the sense of hearing1 auditory ideas4 ,the former yield the conceptions of space1 motion1 and lustre 7colour1 brightness1 etc471 the latter that of time4 ,from the sense of touch arise the 8tactual0 impressions1 which yield the ideas of power and might1 through the sensations of resistance and pressure1 pleasure and pain4 ,from these primary ideas 7or perceptions71 drawn directly from impressions1 are derived secondary1 abstract1 and general ideas 7apperceptions7 by comparison and association 7the laws of ,identity1 ,diversity1 and ,similarity74 ,under ordinary conditions of human life there are many more impressions on the senses which are everywhere the same or similar1 than the reverse4 ,hence1 the ideas1 both primary and secondary 7perceptions and apperceptions71 drawn from them are much more likely to resemble than to differ4 ,the consequence of this is that the same laws of growth which develop the physical man everywhere into the traits of the species1 act also on his psychical powers1 and not less absolutely1 to bring their products into conformity4 ,this is true not only of his logical faculties1 but of his lightest fancies and wildest vagaries4 8,man's imagination10 observes ,mr4 ,hartland1 8like every other known power1 works by fixed laws1 the existence and operation of which it is possible to trace2 and it works upon the same material1--the external universe1 the mental and moral constitution of man1 and his social relations40#e ,in reference to my particular subject1 ,professor ,buchmann expressed some years ago what ,i believe to be the correct result of modern research in these words3 8,it is easy to prove that the striking similarity in primitive religious ideas comes not from tradition nor from the relationship or historic connections of early peoples1 but from the identity in the mental construction of the individual man1 wherever he is found40#f ,we can scarcely escape a painful shock to discover that we are bound by such adamantine chains4 ,as the primitive man could not conceive that inflexible mechanical laws control the processes of nature1 so are we slow to acknowledge that others1 not less rigid1 rule our thoughts and fancies4 ,nowhere1 however1 is the truth of it more clearly demonstrated than in primitive religions4 ,without a full appreciation of this fact1 it is impossible to comprehend them2 and for the lack of it1 much that has been written upon them is worthless4 ,the astonishing similarity1 the absolute identities1 which constantly present themselves in myths and cults separated by oceans and continents1 have been construed as evidence of common descent or of distant transmission2 whereas they are the proofs of a fundamental unity of the human mind and of its processes1 8before which10 as a ,german writer says1 8the differences in individual1 national1 or even racial divisions sink into insignificance40#g ,wherever we turn1 in time or in space1 to the earliest and simplest religions of the world1 we find them dealing with nearly the same objective facts in nearly the same subjective fashion1 the differences being due to local and temporal causes4 ,this cardinal and basic truth of the unity of action of man's intelligence1 which is established just as much for the arts1 the laws1 and the institutions of men as for their religions1 enables me to present to you broadly the faiths of primitive peoples as one coherent whole1 the product of a common humanity1 a mirror reflecting the deepest thoughts of the whole species on the mighty questions of religious life and hope1 not the isolated or borrowed opinions of one or another tribe or people4 ,of course1 the recognition of this principle does not diminish the attention to be paid to the ethnic or local developments of culture and to the borrowing or transference of myths and rites4 ,wherever this can be shown to have occurred1 it is an adequate explanation of identities2 but in tribes geographically remote1 the presumption is that such identities are due to the common element of humanity in the species4 ,such similarities are by no means confined to the primitive forms of religion2 but in them they are more obvious1 and their causes are more apparent2 so for that reason1 a study of such primitive forms is peculiarly remunerative to one who would acquaint himself with the elements of religion in general4 ,no one1 in fact1 can pretend to a thorough knowledge of the great historic religions of the world who has not traced their outlines back to the humble faiths of early tribes from which they emerged4 ,he must have recourse to them for like reasons that the biologist1 who would learn the morphology of a mammal1 betakes himself to the study of the cells and fibres of the simplest living organisms2 for in their uncomplicated forms he can discover the basic activities which animate the highest structures4 ,i must define1 however1 more closely what ethnologists mean by 8primitive peoples02 because the word is not used in the sense of 8first0 or 8earliest10 as its derivation would indicate4 ,we know little1 if anything1 about the earliest men1 and their religion would make a short chapter4 8,primitive0 to the ethnologist means the earliest of a given race or tribe of whom he has trusty information4 ,it has reference to a stage of culture1 rather than to time4 ,peoples who are in a savage or barbarous condition1 with slight knowledge of the arts1 lax governments1 and feeble institutions1 are spoken of as 8primitive10 although they may be our contemporaries4 ,they are very far from being the earliest men or resembling them4 ,hundreds of generations have toiled to produce even their low stage of culture up through others1 far inferior1 of which we can form some idea by the aid of language and prehistoric archology4 ,they are therefore not degenerates1 ruins fallen from some former high estate1 some condition of pristine nobility4 ,that is an ancient error1 now1 ,i hope1 exploded and dismissed from sane teaching4 ,even the rudest of savages is a creation of steady1 long-continued advancement from the primeval man4 ,we have the evidence of what he was1 in his implements and weapons preserved in pre-glacial strata and in the mud-floors of the caves he inhabited4 ,these announce to us a law of progressive advancement for all races1 over all the earth1 on the same lines of progress1 toward the same goals of culture1 extremely slow at the outset1 and unequal especially in later ages1 but vindicating the unity of the species and the identity of its hopes and aims everywhere4 ,you will understand1 therefore1 that by 8primitive peoples10 ,i mean savage or barbarous tribes1 wherever they are or have been1 and that ,i claim for them brotherhood with ourselves in all the traits that go to make up oneness of species4 ,a few hundred years ago the ancestors of the ,english-speaking nations were as savage as the savagest1 without temples to their gods1 in perpetual and bloody war1 untamed cannibals2 add a few thousand years to the perspective1 and man over the whole globe was in the same condition4 ,the savage state was the childhood of the race1 and by some the mind of the savage has been likened to that of the child4 ,but the resemblance is merely superficial4 ,it rather resembles that of the uncultivated and ignorant adult among ourselves4 ,the same inaccurate observation and illogical modes of thought characterise both4 ,these depend on certain mental traits1 which it is well to define1 because they explain most of the absurdities of primitive religions4 ,the first is1 that the idea is accepted as true1 without the process of logical reasoning or inductive observation4 ,in other words1 what appears true to the individual is accepted by him as true1 without further question4 ,his dreams seem real to him2 therefore they are real4 ,what the tribe believes1 he believes1 no matter what his senses tell him4 ,when an ,australian ,black is on a journey and fears being overtaken by the night1 he will place a lump of clay in the forks of a tree1 believing that thus he can arrest the motion of the sun and prolong the day4 ,it is not a religious act1 but a piece of natural science current in the tribe1 which no experience will refute in their minds4#h ,just such a notion recurs among the ,mandan ,indians4 ,captain ,clark observed near their villages upright poles fifteen or twenty feet long with bundles of female clothing tied to them4 ,he asked what they signified1 and one of the old men explained thus3 8,if you watch the sun closely1 you will see that he stops for a short time just as he rises1 and again at midday1 and as he sets4 ,the reason is that he rests a few moments to smoke in the lodges of three immortal women1 and we offer them this clothing that they may be induced to say a kind word to him in our behalf4 ,we were told by our ancestors not to forget this40#i ,the fact that the orb does not stop was of no consequence in the face of this tradition4 ,the second trait is the extreme nervous susceptibility of savages4 ,it is much higher than ours1 although the contrary is often taught4 ,their emotions or feelings control their reasoning powers1 and direct their actions4 ,neurotic diseases1 especially of a contagious character1 are very frequent among them1 and they are far more prone than ourselves to yield to impressions upon their sensory organs4 ,the traveller ,castren relates that a sudden blow on the outside of a tent of the ,samoyeds will sometimes throw the occupants into spasms2 and the missionary ,livingstone draws a touching picture of young slaves dying of 8a broken heart10 when they heard the song and music of the villagers and could not join in the revelry4#aj ,these two traits1 therefore1 the acceptance of the idea as subjectively true1 and the subordination of reason to the feelings1 are the main features of the undeveloped mind4 ,they are common in civilised conditions1 but are universal in savagery4 ,the question has often been considered whether the mental powers of the savage are distinctly inferior4 ,this has been answered by taking the children of savages when quite young and bringing them up in civilised surroundings4 ,the verdict is unanimous that they display as much aptitude for the acquisition of knowledge1 and as much respect for the precepts of morality1 as the average ,english or ,german boy or girl2 but with less originality or 8initiative40 ,i have been in close relations to several full-blood ,american ,indians1 who had been removed from an aboriginal environment and instructed in this manner2 and ,i could not perceive that they were either in intellect or sympathies inferior to the usual type of the ,american gentleman4 ,one of them notably had a refined sense of humour1 as well as uncommon acuteness of observation4 ,the assertion1 however1 is frequently advanced that in their savage state they are of the earth earthy1 that their whole time is taken up with the gratification of sensuous desires1 and that they neither think nor care for speculations of a super-sensuous or spiritual character4 ,the investigation of this point is desirable in a study of their religions1 for upon it depends the decision whether we can assign to their myths and rites a meaning deeper than that of deception1 or passion1 or frivolity4 ,to reach a decision1 ,i take the most unfavourable example which can be suggested1--the ,australian ,blacks4 ,considering their number and the extent of their territory1 they were1 when discovered1 the most degraded people on the globe4 ,they had nothing which could be called a government1 and some dialects have no word for chief4 ,none of them could count the fingers on one hand1 for none of the dialects had any words for numerals beyond three or four4 ,mr4 ,hale1 the eminent ethnographer1 who was among them in #ahdc1 says that they evinced 8an almost brutal stupidity10 8downright childishness and imbecility40#aa ,their natural feelings and moral perceptions seem incredibly blunted4 ,i can best illustrate this by narrating an incident which happened at a frontier station1 one of many of the same character4 ,the white family employed a native girl named ,mattie about fifteen years old4 ,she had a baby1 which one day disappeared4 ,on inquiry she stated that her mother had said that she was too young to take care of a baby1 and had therefore cooked and eaten it with some of her cronies4 ,mattie cried in telling this4 ,because her baby had been killed8 ,oh no6 but because her mother had given her none of the tidbits1 but only the bones to pick6#ab ,yet even these seemingly hopeless brutes have an intricate system of kinship and marriage laws1 the most rigid of any known4 ,marriage with sisters or first cousins is not only forbidden1 8,it is not conceived as possible40 ,the prohibitions about food are so absolute that the natives would perish of hunger rather than break them4 ,some of their religious ceremonies entail voluntary mutilations of the most dreadful description4 ,their mythology is extensive1 and ,i shall have frequent occasion to quote it4 ,and so far are they from an obtuse indifference to the future and the past1 an accurate observer who lived among them says3 8,they wonder among themselves and talk at night about these things1 and the past existence of their race1 and how they came here40#ac ,savage tribes are distinctly unlettered4 ,they belong in a stage of culture where the art of writing1 as we understand it1 is unknown4 ,they have no bibles1 no sacred books1 by which to teach their religions4 ,what means have we1 therefore1 to learn their opinions about holy things8 ,the question is one which demands an answer1 the more because ,i shall often refer to the religions of tribes long since extinct1 and whose very names are forgotten4 ,how do we dare to speak with confidence of what they thought about the gods8 ,we can do so1 and it is one of the marvels of modern scientific research1 quite as admirable as its more familiar and practical results4 ,our sources of information regarding primitive peoples may be classed under four titles1 ,archology1 ,language1 ,folk-lore1 and ,ethnographic descriptions4 ,by the first of these1 archology1 we become acquainted with the objective remains of beliefs long since extinguished4 ,the temples1 idols1 and altars of dead gods reveal to us the attributes assigned to them by their votaries and the influences they were believed to exert4 ,we can interpret their symbols1 and from rude carvings re-construct the story of their divine struggles4 ,especially1 from ancient sepulchres and the modes of disposal of the dead which they reveal1 can we discern what hopes vanished nations held of a life to come4 ,in this direction1 we are powerfully aided by that close similarity of mental products in like stages of culture1 to which ,i have referred1 and shall often refer4 ,by comparing a living tribe with one which ten thousand years ago was in a similar condition as shown by its relics1 we can with the highest probability interpret the use and motives of the latter's remains4 ,we are further assisted in such research by the critical analysis of the early forms of language1 which is one of the achievements of modern linguistics4 ,by establishing the identities of names1 we can trace the diffusion of myths1 and by tracing such names to their proper dialect and original meaning1 we can locate geographically and psychologically the origin of given forms of religions4 ,in fact1 the value of linguistics to the study of religions cannot be overestimated4 ,no one is competent to describe the sacred beliefs of a nation1 its myths and adjurations1 unless he has a sufficient knowledge of its tongue to ascertain the true sense of the terms employed in its liturgies4 ,but these so obvious applications are the least that language can furnish4 ,its impress on religions goes much deeper4 ,it was well remarked by the ,chevalier ,bunsen that in primitive conditions the two poles of human life1 around which all else centres1 are language and religion1 and that each conditions the other1 that is1 imparts to it special forms and limits4 ,for instance1 those languages which have grammatic gender almost necessarily divide their deities according to sex#ad2 those in which the passive voice is absent or feebly developed1 will be led to associate with their deities higher conceptions of activity than where the passive is a favourite form3 those which have no substantive verb cannot express ,god as pure being1 but must associate with ,him either position1 action1 or suffering4 ,in the speech of the ,algonquin ,indians1 there is no grammatic distinction of sex2 but there is broad discrimination between objects which are animate and those which are inanimate4 ,when the ,catholic missionaries brought to them the rosary1 the natives at first spoke of it as inanimate2 but as their reverence for it grew1 it was transferred to the animate gender1 and was thus on its way to a personification4#ae ,the third source of information is that which is called folk-lore4 ,its field of research is to collect the relics and survivals of primitive modes of thought and expression1 beliefs1 customs1 and notions1 in the present conditions of culture4 ,it is1 therefore1 especially useful in a study like the present1 the more so on account of the extraordinary permanence and conservative character of religious sentiments and ceremonies4 ,among the peasantry of ,europe1 the paganism of the days of ,julius ,csar flourishes with scarcely abated vigour1 though it may be under new names4 8,the primitive ,aryan10 writes ,professor ,frazer1#af 8is not extinct2 he is with us to-day40 ,and another ,english writer does not go too far when he says3 8,there is not a rite or ceremony yet practised and revered among us that is not the lineal descendant of barbaric thought and usage40#ag ,it is this which gives to folk-lore its extremely instructive character for the student of early religion4 ,the fourth source of information is the description of native religions by travellers4 ,you might expect this to be the most accurate and therefore valuable of all the sources2 but it is just the reverse4 ,omitting the ordinary tourist and globe-trotter1 who is not expected to know anything thoroughly1 and never deceives the expectation1 even painstaking observers1 who have lived long with savage tribes1 sometimes mastering their languages1 are1 for reasons ,i shall presently state1 constantly at fault about the native religions4 ,we must always take their narratives with hesitation1 and weigh them against others by persons of a different nationality and education4 ,indeed1 of all elements of native life1 this of religion is the most liable to be misunderstood by the foreign visitor4 ,bearing in mind these various sources of information1 what tribes1 about which we have sufficient knowledge1 could fairly be considered as examples of primitive conditions8 ,beginning with those remotest in time1 ,i believe we know enough about the early ,aryans to claim it for them4 ,the acute researches of recent scholars1 so admirably summed up in the work of ,professor ,schrader1 have thrown a flood of light on the domestic1 cultural1 and religious condition of the pristine epoch of ,aryan society from the side of language2 while the tireless prosecution of prehistoric archology in ,europe has put us into possession of thousands of objects illustrating the religious arts and usages then in vogue4 ,classical mythology and ritual1 as well as modern folk-lore1 lend further efficient aid toward reconstructing the modes and expressions of their sacred thought4 ,a very ancient people1 possibly of ,aryan blood1 but more likely1 ,i believe1 to have come from ,north ,africa and to be of ,libyan affinities1 were the ,etruscans4 ,they were extremely religious1 and their theological opinions deeply coloured the worship of the ,romans4 ,we know the general outlines of their doctrine of the gods1 and its simplicity and grandeur bespeak our admiration4 ,i shall draw from this venerable 8,etruscan discipline0 from time to time for illustrations4 ,quite as much may be said of the diligence of the explorers and scholars in the field of ,semitic antiquity4 ,we can without room for doubt trace the stream of ,semitic religious thought through the ,hebrew ,bible and the ,assyrian and ,babylonian cuneiform tablets to a possibly non-,semitic source among the ,accadian or ,sumerian population1 which ten thousand years ago had already begun to develop an artistic and agricultural life on the ,babylonian plain4 ,numerous students have restored the outlines and motives of this ancient faith1 whose forms and doctrines bind and shape our lives in ,america to-day4 ,of the possibly still older culture of ,egypt1 so much cannot be said4 ,the original creeds of its religion have been less successfully divined4 ,like its early inscriptions1 they were erased and overlaid so often by the caprice or prejudice of successive dynasties1 and so profoundly modified by foreign influences1 that with our present knowledge they are no longer legible4#ah ,turning to the religions which have preserved their primitive forms to modern times1 the first place should be conceded to those of ,america4 ,up to four hundred years ago1 all of them1 throughout the continent1 had developed from an unknown antiquity untouched by the teachings of ,asian or ,european instructors2 for no really sane scholar nowadays believes either that ,st4 ,thomas preached ,christianity in the ,new ,world in the first century1 or that ,buddhist monks in the seventh or any other century carried their tenets into ,mexico and ,guatemala4 ,many of the ,american tribes1 moreover1 lived in the rudest stages of social life1 ignorant of agriculture1 without fixed abodes1 naked or nearly so1 in constant bloody strife1 destitute even of tribal government4 ,here1 if anywhere1 we should find the religious sentiment1 if it exists at all1 in its simplest elements4 ,on the other hand1 the first ,european explorers found in ,peru1 ,yucatan1 and ,mexico numerous tribes in almost a civilised condition1 builders of huge edifices of carved stones1 cultivating the soil1 and acquainted with a partly phonetic system of writing4 ,their mythology was ample and their ritual elaborate1 so that it could scarcely be called primitive in appearance2 but in all these instances1 myth and ritual were so obviously identical in character with those of the vagrant tribes elsewhere1 that we shall make no mistake in classifying them together4 ,equally isolated and surely as rude as the rudest were the native ,australians1 the wavy-haired1 bearded1 black people who sparsely inhabited that huge island1 two thousand miles wide by two thousand five hundred miles long4 ,isolated by arid stretches of desert1 the struggle for life was incessant1 and there is little wonder that we find them in an incredibly debased condition associated with unending war and cannibalism4 ,for these very reasons1 their religious notions deserve our closest scrutiny4 ,the vast island-world of ,polynesia was peopled by related tribes1 usually of limited cultivation1 but with a rich mythology1 of which we have many strange and beautiful fragments4 ,they are primitive in form and expression1 with singular differences as well as analogies to the beliefs of continental tribes4 ,africa1 with its countless dusky hordes1 offers a less promising field to the student of the earliest phases of religion than we might expect4 ,the conditions of the arts1 and the ruins of foreign-built cities unite with the classic historians to show that in remote ages the influence of distant nations1 from ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,india1 on the typical black population was profound and far-reaching4 ,the white ,hamites of the north crossed the ,sahara and extended their arms far into the ,soudan2 while on the east coast1 the black ,hamites and ,arabic ,ethiopians drove the aborigines far to the ,south4 ,later1 ,arabic influences penetrated into the interior1 dissolving the older faiths or discolouring them4 ,thus1 little of the independent development of religious thought remains in ,africa4 ,its most primitive features are probably best preserved in the extreme ,south1 among the ,hottentots1 ,bushmen1 and ,zulus4 ,on the ,asian continent1 some of the ,sibiric tribes in the north and some of those of ,dravidian descent in the mountains of ,hindoostan preserved to a late day their primitive traits2 while the fading remnants of the ,veddahs in ,ceylon and the black islanders of ,melanesia still continue in the simple faiths of their ancestors4 ,these hints will indicate the chief sources from which ,i shall draw the material to illustrate the rudimentary stages of religious thought and act1 the embryonic period1 as it were1 of those emotions and beliefs which to us1 in riper forms1 are so dear and so holy4 ,here ,i must define what is meant in these lectures by 8religions40 ,most people confine that term to the historic faiths and cults1 calling others 8superstitions0 and 8paganisms40 ,some will not acknowledge that there is any religion whatever except their own2 all other beliefs are heresies1 apostasies1 or heathenisms4 ,even such an intelligent writer as ,sir ,john ,lubbock expressed doubts in one of his works whether he ought to apply the word 8religions0 to the worship tendered their deities by savages4 ,on the other hand1 a ,protestant will freely denounce the practices of the ,roman ,church as 8superstitions10 and will claim that they are degenerations of religion2 while among ,protestants1 the ,quaker looks upon all external rites as equally 8superstitious40 ,no such distinctions can be recognised in ethnology4 ,the principle at the basis of all religions and all superstitions is the same1 as ,i shall show in the next lecture1 and the grossest rites of barbarism deserve the name of 8religion0 just as much as the refined ceremonies of ,christian churches4 ,the aims of the worshipper may be selfish and sensuous1 there may be an entire absence of ethical intention1 his rites may be empty formalities and his creed immoral1 but this will be his religion all the same1 and we should not apply to it any other name4#ai ,there is no one belief or set of beliefs which constitutes a religion4 ,we are apt to suppose that every creed must teach a belief in a god or gods1 in an immortal soul1 and in a divine government of the world4 ,the ,parliament of ,religions1 which lately met at ,chicago1 announced1 in its preliminary call1 these elements as essential to the idea of religion4 ,no mistake could be greater4 ,the religion which to-day counts the largest number of adherents1 ,buddhism1 rejects every one of these items4#bj ,the ,jewish doctrine of the ,old ,testament1 the ,roman religion of the time of ,julius ,csar1 and many others1 have not admitted the existence of a soul1 or the continuance of the individual life after death4#ba ,some believe in souls1 but not in gods2 while a divine government is a thought rarely present in savage minds4 ,they do not1 as a rule1 recognise any such principle as that of good and evil1 or any doctrine of rewards and punishment hereafter for conduct in the present life4 ,there is1 in fact1 not any one item in any creed which is accepted by all religions2 yet a common source1 a common end in view1 and the closest analogy of means to that end1 bind all in one1 representing an indefeasible element of human nature1 the lowest containing the potentiality of the highest1 the highest being but the necessary evolution of the lowest4 ,the same promptings which led the earliest of men to frame their crude ideas about the super-sensuous around them have nourished and developed religions ever since1 and keep them alive to-day4 ,temples may crumble and creeds decay1 but the spirit remains the same4 ,this inherent unity of all religious feeling and expression was long ago perceived by ,st4 ,augustine4 ,in a well-known passage of his ,retractations he makes the striking remark3 8,res ipsa1 qu nunc religio ,christiana nuncupatur1 erat apud antiquos1 nec defuit ab initio generis humani02 8,that which is now called the ,christian religion existed among the ancients1 and in fact was with the human race from the beginning40 ,this is1 essentially1 the maxim of modern ethnology4 ,the religiosity of man is a part of his psychical being4 ,in the nature and laws of the human mind1 in its intellect1 sympathies1 emotions1 and passions1 lie the well-springs of all religions1 modern or ancient1 ,christian or heathen4 ,to these we must refer1 by these we must explain1 whatever errors1 falsehoods1 bigotry1 or cruelty have stained man's creeds and cults3 to them we must credit whatever truth1 beauty1 piety1 and love have hallowed and glorified his long search for the perfect and the eternal4 ,if this opinion of the place of religion in ethnology is correct1 we should not expect to find any considerable number of men1 in the present epoch of the race's development1 devoid of some form of worship and belief4 ,the fact is that there has not been a single tribe1 no matter how rude1 known in history or visited by travellers1 which has been shown to be destitute of religion1 under some form4 ,the contrary of this has been asserted by various modern writers of weight1 for example by ,herbert ,spencer and ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 not from their own observation1 for neither ever saw a savage tribe1 but from the reports of travellers and missionaries4 ,i speak advisedly when ,i say that every assertion to this effect when tested by careful examination has proved erroneous4#bb ,what led to such a mistaken opinion is easily seen4 ,the missionaries would not recognise as religion the beliefs which were so different from and inferior to their own4 ,the god of the heathens was to them no god whatever4 ,when they heard stories of ghosts1 magic1 and charms1 they spurned these as old wives' fables1 and confidently proclaimed that the tribe had no religion4 ,thus it was with those who first worked in ,south ,africa4 ,they returned and proclaimed that atheism was 8endemic0 among the tribes of that region4 ,later observers1 acquainting themselves with the languages of the ,blacks1 found an ample mythology and an extensive ritual of worship4#bc ,another example may be quoted from a recent description of the ,motu tribe of ,new ,guinea4 ,the writer1 a missionary1 denies that they have any religion whatever2 but immediately proceeds to describe their numerous 8superstitious0 rites1 their belief in spirits1 their ceremonial law1 etc46#bd ,another and potent cause of error was the unwillingness of the natives to speak to foreigners of the sacred mysteries4 ,this is not peculiar to them1 but obtains everywhere4 ,in the polite society of our own cities1 it is held to be an infraction of etiquette to question a person about his religious opinions and practices4 ,greater repugnance would be felt were it known that the questioner could have no sympathy with one's opinions1 and would probably hold them up to derision and contempt4 ,even a stronger deterrent motive closes the mouth of most savages giving such information4 ,it is tabu1 prohibited under severe penalties1 to impart it to any stranger1 or even to another tribesman4 ,the tendency to secrecy1 to the esoteric1 belongs to all religions1 and especially to those in which the emotions are predominant1 as is the case with primitive cults4 ,even with a willing narrator1 it is impossible to acquire a true understanding of a religion without a knowledge of the language in which its myths and precepts are couched4 ,ordinary interpreters are worse than useless4 ,captain ,bourke tells us that time and again he was assured by ,mexican interpreters who had lived for years among the ,apaches that this tribe had no religion and no sacred ceremonies4 8,these interpreters10 he adds1 8had no intention to deceive2 they were simply unable to disengage themselves from their own prejudices2 they could not credit the existence of any such thing as religion save and except that taught them at their mother's knees40#be ,if these ,spanish-,mexicans1 who had passed half their lives among the natives1 denied them religion1 what can we expect the ordinary traveller to learn in a few weeks' visit8 ,religion1 therefore1 is and has been1 so far as history informs us1 universal in the human race4 ,can we go farther back in time than history leads us1 and say that it has ever been an element of humanity8 ,the resources at our command to answer this inquiry lie in prehistoric archology and linguistics4 ,beyond historic ages1 and beyond those referred to by vague tradition1 which we may call semi-historic1 lies the epoch of culture called from its chief industry the ,stone ,age1 divided into the more recent or 8neolithic0 period1 and the older or 8palolithic0 period4 ,concerning the former1 there can be no doubt whatever that religion exercised a tremendous influence on men's minds4 ,we have numberless sepulchres of peoples then living1 mighty mounds and massive temples1 such as ,stonehenge and ,karnac2 we have them by the tens of thousands1 over vast areas1 remaining as indubitable proofs that the chief market of the time of those early sons of the soil was to worship the gods and prepare for death4 ,we have their idols1 amulets1 and mystic symbols1 their altars and their talismans1 so as to leave no doubt of their deep devotion4 ,no archologist questions this4 ,when we come to palolithic man1 however1 especially to those ancient tribes who lived in ,western ,europe when the great continental glacier chilled the air of ,southern ,france to an arctic frigidity1 or still earlier1 in that pre-glacial summer when the hippopotamus found a congenial home in the river ,thames1 we are not so sure4 ,among the many thousands of artificially shaped stone and bone objects which have been collected from that horizon1 there is not one which we can positively identify as of religious purport1 as a charm1 amulet1 fetish1 or idol4 ,the rare instances in which the bones of the men of that age have been preserved reveal no positive signs of funerary rites4 ,for these reasons some able archologists1 such as ,professor ,g4 de ,mortillet1 have maintained that man1 as he then was1 had not yet developed his religious faculties4 ,the evidence for this1 is1 indeed1 negative1 and fresh discoveries may refute it1 but the present probability is that in the infancy of the race there was at least no objective expression of religious feeling4#bf ,this appears supported by testimony from another quarter4 ,when we can trace back the sacred words of a language to their original roots1 we find that these roots do not have religious associations1 but refer to concrete and sensuous images4 ,there must have been a time1 therefore1 when those who spoke that original dialect employed these words without any religious meaning attached to them1 and therefore had no religious ideas expressed in their language1 and presumably none defined in their minds4 ,i am not sure1 however1 that this argument is so valid as some writers claim4 ,those early men may have had other religious terms1 now lost2 and the current belief among linguists that all radicals had at first concrete meanings is one ,i seriously doubt4 ,mental processes and feelings are just as real as actions1 and in the aboriginal tongues of ,america are expressed by radicals as distinct and as ancient as any for sensuous perception4 ,there must1 however1 have been a time in the progress of organic forms from some lower to that highest mammal1 ,man1 when he did not have a religious consciousness2 for it is doubtful if even the slightest traces of it can be discerned in the inferior animals4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 indeed1 put in a plea that his favourite dog manifested the same psychical traits which lead savages to believe in gods or spiritual agencies#bg2 and lately ,professor ,pinsero1 of ,palermo1 has argued that the anthropoid apes cultivate a worship of serpents1 even burying them with considerable ceremony1 and placing in their tombs a provision of insects for their consumption in their future life6#bh ,but these scientific speculations have not found general acceptance1 and even ,professor ,pinsero himself1 while conceding religion to the ape1 denies it to prehistoric man of the earlier epochs4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that the development of the religious side of man's nature began at a very early period in his history as a species1 though probably it was extremely vague or practically absent in his first stadia2 and that it is something distinctly human1 and not shared in any definite form by even the best developed of the lower animals4 ,it is the only trait in which he is qualitatively separated from them4 ,they1 too1 communicate knowledge by sounds2 they have governments and arts2 but never do we see anywhere among them the notion of the ,divine4 ,this was the spark of ,promethean fire which has guided man along the darksome and devious ways of his earthly pilgrimage to the supremacy he now enjoys4 ,the ,greek fable tells us of the shepherd lad ,endymion1 who fed his sheep on ,mt4 ,latmus1 and dreamed of no higher ambition1 until in his sleep the goddess ,selene descended from heaven and embraced him4 ,inspired by her divine touch1 he waked to noble aspirations1 and went forth to become monarch of ,elis and father of a line of kings4 ,so the human mind groped for dateless ages amid brutish toils and pleasures1 unconscious of grander aims2 until the thought of ,god1 rising to consciousness within the soul1 whispered to it of endless progress and divine ideals1 in quest of which it has sought and will ever continue seeking1 with tireless endeavour and constantly increasing reward4 ,this question settled1 another arises4 ,the religions thus found everywhere among the rudest tribes1 did they take root and exert a deep influence on the individual and society1 or were they superficially felt1 and of slight moment in practical life8 ,in reference to this ,i can scarcely be too positive4 ,no opinion can be more erroneous than the one sometimes advanced that savages are indifferent to their faiths4 ,on the contrary1 the rule1 with very few exceptions1 is that religion absorbs nearly the whole life of a man under primitive conditions4 ,from birth to death1 but especially during adult years1 his daily actions are governed by ceremonial laws of the severest1 often the most irksome and painful characters4 ,he has no independent action or code of conduct1 and is a very slave to the conditions which such laws create4 ,this is especially visible in the world-wide customs of totemic divisions and the tabu1 or religious prohibitions4 ,these govern his food and drink1 his marriage and social relations1 the disposition of property1 and the choice of his wives4 ,an infraction of them is out of the question4 ,it means exile or death4 ,the notions of tolerance1 freedom of conscience1 higher law1 are non-existent in primitive communities1 except under certain personal conditions which ,i shall mention in a later lecture4 ,as has been tersely said by ,professor ,granger1 8,religion in the ancient world comprised every social function02 and the identity of its rules with those of common life is correctly put by ,professor ,thiele in these words3 8,the idea of a separation between ,church and ,state is utterly foreign to all the religions of antiquity40#bi ,what was true in those ancient days is equally so in this age among savage peoples4 ,let us take as an example the ,dyaks of ,borneo4 ,a recent observer describes them as utter slaves to their 8superstitions10 that is1 to their religion4#cj 8,when they lay out their fields1 gather the harvest1 go hunting or fishing1 contract a marriage1 start on an expedition1 propose a commercial journey1 or anything of importance1 they always consult the gods1 offer sacrifices1 celebrate feasts1 study the omens1 obtain talismans1 and so on1 often thus losing the best opportunity for the business itself40 ,this is equally the case with most savage tribes4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes informed me that it was a severe moral shock to the ,pueblo ,indians to see the white settlers plant corn without any religious ceremony2 and a much greater one to perceive that the corn grew1 flourished1 and bore abundant crops6 ,the result did more to shatter their simple faith than a dozen missionary crusades4 ,to the simple mind of the primitive man1 as to the ,mohammedan to-day1 there is no such thing as an intermediate law1 directing phenomena1 and capable of expression in set terms4 ,to him1 every event of nature and of life is an immediate manifestation of the power of ,god1 eine ,kraftprobe ,gottes4#ca ,religion1 however1 does not begin from any external pressure1 no matter how strong this may be4 ,if it has any vitality1 if it is anything more than the barrenest ceremonial1 it must start within1 from the soul itself4 ,thus it did in primordial ages in all tribes of men4 ,therefore in studying its origin and pursuing its development we must commence with its fonts and springs in the mind of man1 its psychic sources4 ,these understood1 we can proceed to its three chief expressions1 in ,words1 in ,objects1 and in ,rites4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,the ,origin and ,contents of ,primitive ,religions4 ,,contents3--,former ,theories of the ,origin of ,religions--,inadequacy of these--,universal ,postulate of ,religions that ,conscious ,volition is the ,source of ,force--,how ,mind was ,assigned to ,nature--,communion between the ,human and the ,divine ,mind--,universality of 8,inspiration0--,inspiration the ,product of the ,sub-,conscious ,mind--,known to ,science as 8,suggestion0--,this ,explained--,examples--,illustrations from ,language--,no ,primitive ,monotheism--,the ,special ,stimuli of the ,religious ,emotions3 #a4 ,dreaming and ,allied ,conditions--,life as a ,dream--#b4 ,the ,apprehension of ,life and ,death and the ,notion of the ,soul--#c4 ,the ,perception of ,light and ,darkness2 ,day and ,night--,the ,sky ,god as the ,high ,god--#d4 ,the ,observation of ,extraordinary ,exhibitions of ,force--,the ,thunder ,god--#e4 ,the ,impression of ,vastness--,dignity of the ,sub-,conscious ,intelligence4 ,in the last lecture we have seen that all tribes of men1 so far as is known1 have had religions4 ,how this happened1 what general cause brought about so universal a fact1 has puzzled the brains of philosophers and theologians4 ,their explanations have been as various and as conflicting on this as on most other subjects4 ,a goodly number of philosophers1 ancient and modern1 have looked upon religion of any kind as a symptom of a diseased brain4 ,thus ,empedocles1 in the fifth century ,b4,c41 declared it to be a sickness of the mind1 and ,feuerbach1 in the present century1 has characterised it as the most pernicious malady of humanity4 ,regarding all forms of religions as delusions1 detrimental therefore to sound reason and the pursuit of truth1 they believed the human intellect could freely employ its powers only when liberated from such shackles4 ,another ancient theory still survives1 that which has its name from ,euhemerus1 a ,sicilian writer of the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,he claimed that religions arose from the respect and reverence paid to kings and heroes during their lives1 continued by custom after their deaths4 ,under the modern name of 8ancestor worship0 this has been maintained by ,herbert ,spencer and others as the primitive source of all worship4 ,yet another philosophical opinion has been that religions were due to the craft of rulers and priests1 who1 by the aid of superstitious fear1 sought to keep their subjects and votaries in subjection4 ,these tricksters invented the terrors of another world to secure their own power and places in this one4 ,this opinion was a favourite about the time of the ,french ,revolution and is mirrored in the poems of ,shelley1 who announced it as one of his missions1 8to unveil the religious frauds by which nations have been deluded into submission40#cb ,the prevailing theory of the great world-religions1 ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 has been substantially that of ,empedocles4 ,they have regarded all the religions of the world as cunning fabrications of the ,devil and his imps1 snares spread for human souls2 always with one exception however3 each excepts itself4 ,this is the view so grandly expressed in ,milton's ,paradise ,lost and quite common yet in civilised lands4 ,on the other hand1 a strong school of ,christian writers1 led early in this century by ,joseph de ,maistre and ,chateaubriand and represented in our tongue by ,archdeacon ,trench1 have asserted that all faiths1 even the most savage1 are fragments and reminiscences1 distorted and broken indeed1 of a primitive revelation vouchsafed by the ,almighty to the human race everywhere at the beginning4 ,these have occupied themselves in pointing out the analogies of savage and pagan creeds and rites with those of ,christianity1 in proof of their theory4 ,not remote from them are the teachers of the doctrine of the 8inner light10 that 8light which lighteth every man who cometh into the world10 disclosing unto him the existence of ,god and the fact of his soul4 ,they teach1 with ,wordsworth1 that 8,trailing clouds of glory do we come ,from ,god who is our home20 and that it is by perversion or wilful blindness that any man avers ignorance of these primal truths4 ,the philosophic aspect of this theory has been presented by the master minds of ,kant1 ,hegel1 and ,schelling4 ,kant identified the idea of ,god with the ,ideal of ,reason1 the perfect ,intelligence1 toward which all minds1 even the humblest1 must necessarily strive4 ,hegel1 in a fine passage of his ,philosophy of ,religion1 urges the study of pagan and primitive religions with a view to define their real significance and to discover the grains of truth which ever lie within them1 the reason and the goodness which give them life4 ,the modern ,german ethnographers1 such as ,peschel1 ,ratzel1 and ,schurtz1#cc have not ventured to follow these earlier thinkers of their nation1 but have contented themselves with tracing the origin of religion to one characteristic of the human intellect1 to wit1 the notion of ,cause4 ,the relation of cause and effect1 they claim1 is so ingrained in the thinking mind that it inevitably leads all men to assume causes1 such as spiritual agencies1 when others are not visible4 ,this popular view seems weak2 for not only is the relation of cause to effect a mere assumption1 and1 indeed1 rejected by exact science2 but it dodges the very question at issue1 which is to explain why spiritual agencies are imagined as causes of material effects4 ,similar objections lie to deriving primitive religions from a vague 8perception of the ,infinite10 or a sensus numinis1 some deus in nobis1 8warning us10 as ,virgil says1 8by his quick motion40 ,these are unclear1 unsatisfying expressions1 offering no rational explanation1 and full of equivocations4 ,a favourite theory in all times is that religions arose from the emotion of fear4 ,it was taught by the ,latin poet ,petronius in a famous line1 where he says 8,fear first made the gods02 and it has been strenuously advocated by many modern philosophers and ethnologists4 ,now if this emotion is alone sufficient to evoke religious feeling1 why1 ,i ask1 is that feeling absent in the craven and timid lower animals8 ,why is it so feeble in many a coward8 ,why has it been so strong in many a hero8 ,moreover1 the spirit of many early religions is the reverse of that of fear4 ,they are1 as ,dr4 ,robertson ,smith correctly said1 8predominantly joyous40 ,these are proofs enough that this ancient and popular notion rests on a misconception of facts4 ,the 8fear of ,god0 enters1 indeed1 into every religion2 but religion itself did not arise from it4 ,we must already have a notion of ,god1 before we can fear ,him4 ,if we are going to apply the scientific method to the study of religions we must offer an explanation for their existence which is intelligible1 which is verifiable1 and which holds good for all of them1 primitive or developed1 those of the remotest ages and those of to-day4 ,only thus can the ethnologist treat them as one element of the history of ,humanity1 a property of the species4 ,this has not been done1 so far as ,i know1 up to the present time4 ,in fact1 much of the teaching of modern anthropology has been calculated to deter it4 ,the outspoken advocacy of atheism and materialism by the ,french ,school has led its disciples to consider the effort unprofitable2#cd and the acceptance of the doctrine of 8,animism0 as a sufficient explanation of early cults has led to the neglect1 in ,english-speaking lands1 of their profounder analysis4 ,such a writer1 for instance1 as ,andrew ,lang does not hesitate to teach that1 8,the origin of a belief in ,god is beyond the ken of history and speculation40#ce ,the real explanation of the origin of religion is simple and universal4 ,let any man ask himself on what his own religious belief is founded1 and the answer1 if true1 will hold good for every member of the race1 past and present4 ,it makes no difference whether we analyse the superstitions of the rudest savages1 or the lofty utterances of ,john the ,evangelist1 or of ,spinoza the 8god-intoxicated philosopher02 we shall find one and the same postulate to the faith of all4 ,this universal postulate1 the psychic origin of all religious thought1 is the recognition1 or1 if you please1 the assumption1 that conscious volition is the ultimate source of all ,force4 ,it is the belief that behind the sensuous1 phenomenal world1 distinct from it1 giving it form1 existence1 and activity1 lies the ultimate1 invisible1 immeasurable power of ,mind1 of conscious ,will1 of ,intelligence1 analogous in some way to our own2 and1--mark this essential corollary1--that man is in communication with it4 ,what the highest religions thus assume was likewise the foundation of the earliest and most primitive cults4 ,the one universal trait amid their endless forms of expression was the unalterable faith in ,mind1 in the super-sensuous1 as the ultimate source of all force1 all life1 all being4 ,science and ,christianity teach the same1 but with this difference3 the progress of observation has taught us the existence of certain uniform sequences which we call 8laws of nature10 based solely on ,mind1 but representing its processes of realisation4 ,the savage knew not these4 ,he imagined every motion in nature was the immediate exhibition of ,will1 his own will in his own motions1 some seen or unseen will in other motions4 ,the seen were of another being like himself2 the unseen were to that extent unknown1 and these were his gods4 ,i repeat1 wherever we find the divine1 the spiritual agency1 set forth in myth or symbol1 creed or rite1 we find it characterised by two traits3 it is of the nature of the human mind1 that is1 super-sensuous2 and it is the ultimate source of power4 ,it will be my aim to show the expressions of these universal postulates of the religious sentiment in the rudest faiths of the world4 ,you may ask1 by what process of thinking did primitive man assign mind to nature4 ,the process is extremely simple1 and is illustrated by the action of any child4 ,let one be accidentally hurt by an empty rocking-chair in motion2 at once1 it is angry at the chair1 and is gratified to see it whipped6 ,the child-mind assigns to the object the will and the sensations of which it is conscious in itself4 ,this is the simplest explanation it can imagine for action4 ,precisely so is it with the savage man4 ,wherever he perceives motion1 independent of a living being1 he assumes the presence of a conscious agent1 not visible to his senses4 ,as ,professor ,sayce remarks of the early ,chaldeans3 8,to them the spiritual1 the ,zi1 was that which manifested life1 and the test of the manifestation of life was movement40#cf ,this is universally true of primitive faiths4 ,but this was not enough4 ,to most if not all primitive men1 movement was not the only manifestation of life4 ,to them1 the immovable1 the rock1 the mountain1 any inanimate object1 was likewise a conscious spiritual agency1 a thinking being4 ,this1 too1 has its explanation in one of the simplest1 most elementary traits of mind1 the sense of ,personality4 ,to the undeveloped reason1 the ,other is ever conceived as ,another1 a ,self1 and is clothed with the attributes of the ,self1 of the thinking ,ego4 ,this is always the case in the tales of children and the myths of savage tribes4#cg ,these are the earliest concepts of the religious faculty2 but they would have been powerless to seize upon the emotions and to develop the great religions of the world1 had they not been supported by that which is the corner-stone of every creed on earth1 the corollary ,i mentioned1 to wit1 the direct communion between the human and the divine mind1 between the ,man and ,god4 ,this is the one trait shared by the highest as well as the lowest1 it is the one proof of authenticity which each proclaims for itself4 ,i shall tell you of religions so crude as to have no temples or altars1 no rites or prayers2 but ,i can tell you of none that does not teach the belief of the intercommunion of the spiritual powers and man4 ,every religion is a ,revelation--in the opinion of its votaries4 ,those which are called the 8book-religions0 depend mainly upon the record of a revelation1 while in all primitive faiths inspiration is actual and constant4 ,the human soul1 regarded in its origin as an emanation of the ,divine1 is in its nature omniscient when in moments of ecstasy it frees itself from its material envelope4#ch ,when an ,australian native is asked if he has ever seen the great ,creator1 ,baiame1 he will reply3 8,no1 not seen him1 but ,i have felt or inwardly perceived him40#ci ,a ,basuto chief replied to the question whether his people knew of ,god before the missionaries came3 8,we did not know ,him1 but we dreamed of ,him40 ,all shamanism is based on a direct relation to divinity4 ,the shaman is an inspired prophet and healer1 and believes as firmly in his inspiration as do his credulous adherents4 ,from shamanism was developed in ,india the practice known as ,yoga1 characterised by ecstatic seizures1 periods of cerebral exaltation1 and alleged divine powers4#dj ,to the same origin we must attribute the similar phenomena of 8speaking with tongues10 and religious mania4 ,i am not speaking of deceptions or illusions4 ,when ,i say that all religions depend for their origin and continuance directly upon inspiration1 ,i state an historic fact4 ,it may be known under other names1 of credit or discredit1 as mysticism1 ecstasy1 rhapsody1 demoniac possession1 the divine afflatus1 the gnosis1 or in its latest christening1 8cosmic consciousness40#da ,all are but expressions of a belief that knowledge arises1 words are uttered1 or actions performed1 not through conscious ideation and reflective purpose1 but through the promptings of a power above or beyond the individual mind4#db ,prophets and shamans1 evangelists and ,indian medicine-men1 all claim1 and all claim with honesty1 to be moved by the god within1 the deus in nobis1 and to speak the words of the ,lord4 ,the intensity of purpose1 and the suppression of the reason which everywhere and at all times this sense of inspiration brings with it1 cannot be overestimated in their influence on the history of the race4 ,to them are due all fanaticism1 religious bigotry1 and illiberality4 ,he who has walked with ,god1 who has felt the pressure of the divine hand1 who has been rewarded with the 8beatific vision10 to him all lesser ties are weak1 all knowledge vain4 ,he will say3 8,it is better to know ,god and be ignorant of all else1 than to know all else and be ignorant of ,god40 ,no reasoning can convince him of error1 for his logic acknowledges not the laws of human thought2 no appeal will soften his judgments1 for he utters not the decision of a man1 but the unalterable edict of the ,god4 ,unless we can offer a rational explanation for this universal trait1 all religions become inexplicable4 ,fortunately the investigations of modern psychology enable us to present such an explanation4 ,it teaches us by innumerable examples that by far the majority of the impressions on our senses leave no trace in conscious recollection1 although they are stored in the records of the brain2 that what seems lost to memory1 still lingers in its recesses2 and that mental action is constantly going on and reaching results1 wholly without our knowledge4 ,the psychologist calls this process by the terms 8unconscious cerebration10 or 8psychic automatism40 ,it is the function of the 8sub-limital consciousness10 or1 for short1 the 8sub-consciousness40 ,not only is it common1 it is constant1 and the results of this unperceived labour of our minds is often far more valuable than those of our intelligent efforts4 ,the most complex mechanical inventions1 the most impressive art-work of the world1 even the most difficult mathematical solutions1 have been attained through this unknowing mechanism of mind4 ,they seemed real inspirations1 but we may be sure that the mind through long conscious effort had been storing the material and laying the foundation for the perfect edifice which sprang so magically into existence4 ,the psychologist has gone farther4 ,not resting content with the detection of this automatic mental machinery1 he has studied how it is set a-going1 and is prepared to show that in all its forms it can be produced at will under favourable conditions4 ,like an ancient necromancer1 he can inspire and bewitch1 he can exorcise demons and cast out devils4 ,his power is not occult1 for it belongs to science1 and science has no secrets4 ,it is known as 8suggestion10 and in it lies the sociologic power of all religions and superstitions whatever1 primitive or present4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that ,i devote a few words to its explanation4 ,suggestion in its simplest form is the indirect evocation of an idea in the mind as the starting-point of a process of thought and feeling4 ,the idea may be impressed by a repetition of the stimulus1 by association with allied ideas1 or by sensory contacts4 ,it may be evoked by deliberate effort of our own1 which is called 8auto-suggestion02 or the impression may be derived from or directed to a number of individuals1 which is termed 8collective suggestion40 ,powerful means of suggestion are the monotonous repetitions of certain words2 the fixation of the sight on a single object2 the concentration of the mind on one thought2 the reduction of the ordinary nutrition2 association with persons already under its influence2 continuance of the same motions2 prolonged hearing the same note or rhythmic chord2 silence1 darkness1 and solitude4 ,these may be variously combined and brought to bear upon the mind in such a manner as entirely to alter its ordinary habits1 and seemingly to evoke another personality4 ,the rationale by which this is reached is through developing the automatic and unconscious action of the mind into a conscious display of its powers4 ,this may be repulsive or admirable1 above or below the normal capacities2 but is always correlated to the individual1 and connected with his experiences4 ,this is the explanation of nearly all the religious experiences of primitive peoples1 as it is of what is known as 8theopathy0 everywhere1 and of the modern forms of theosophy1 mesmerism1 and hypnotism4#dc ,all religious teachings and associations1 in the lowest as well as the highest faiths1 aim to cultivate these mystical feelings by increasing the intensity of the suggestions which give rise to them1 and diminishing the force of other suggestions which may interfere4 ,even in civilised communities it is extraordinary with what facility suggestive sense-delusions can be produced in waking persons4 ,at least ninety out of every hundred individuals can be persuaded thus to deceive themselves4 ,the extreme contagiousness of such delusions1 common enough in civilised conditions1 is greatly increased in the savage state4 ,in their lives the phenomena of auto-suggestion are strikingly frequent4 ,among the ,african ,zulus any adult can cast himself or herself into the hypnotic state1 and by this obtain what they consider second sight1--8the power to see where lost objects are1 and how absent friends are occupied40 ,when asked to explain this state of mind1 they can only say that it is one 8in which a man is awake1 but sees things which he would not see1 if he were not in this state0#dd2 which reminds us of the remarkable doctrine of the ,sanscrit ,upanishads--8,there is no limit to the knowing of the ,self that knows40#de ,among many ,australian tribes1 among the ,kamschatkans1 and among the ,yahgans of ,tierra del ,fuego1 as well as many other peoples1 the mysterious power of the shamans or medicine men is shared by all adults in a greater or less degree4#df ,these are at the bottom of the scale4 ,one degree higher1 and we find the priesthood a separate class1 usually of both sexes1 but chosen by natural selection from those members of the community who by temperament or cultivation possess in the highest degree this tendency to mystical power4 ,this is generally indicated by the clearness and character of the dreams and visions which appear at the time he or she enters adult life4 ,these are considered to be direct inspirations from the spirit world1 either from the souls of the dead1 or the powers other than those which control the destiny of man4 ,these inspired seers represent the priesthood of every primitive religion4 ,they cultivate and preserve it1 and in them the missionaries of higher faiths have ever found their most resolute foes and successful opponents4 ,the reason is1 as ,i have said1 that the shaman has himself been face to face with ,god1 has heard ,his voice1 and felt ,his presence4 ,his faith therefore is real1 and cannot be shaken by any argument4 ,he may indeed1 and he generally does1 assist his public performances with some trickery1 some thaumaturgy2 but that this is merely superadded for effect is proved by the general custom that when one such adept is ill or in straits he will solicit the aid of another4#dg ,among his associates he is looked upon as set apart from other men by the divinity which chooses him for its agent1 or dwells within him4 ,in the ,polynesian islands this is forcibly expressed in the terms applied to the native priests1 pia atua1 8god boxes10 receptacles of divinity2 and amama1 8open mouths10 for through them the god speaks1 not their own selves4#dh ,the presence of divinity is recognised and felt only in unusual mental states1 in moments of ecstasy or trance1 in periods of rapture1 intoxication1 or frenzy4 ,hence in all early and many late religions abnormal and pathological mental seizures are regarded as cases of inspiration1 or else of demoniac possession4 ,in the ,quichua language of ,peru the word huaca is their most general term for the divine1 but huaca runa1 8divine man10 means one who is crazy#di2 and in ,greek1 the word mania was used for both madness and prophetic inspiration4 ,we thus see that in this mental state we find the psychic development of the primitive idea of the divine1 the notion of ,god4 ,it is not1 as has sometimes been claimed1 the sudden result of a single feeling2 it is a complex conception1 from a multitude of obscurely felt impressions and emotions4 ,it is neither an intuition nor an induction2 it is neither an inference from observation1 nor the conclusion of a logical process4 ,a study of its aspect in savage life shows that it arises from the perception of the latent activity of the sub-consciousness1 from the strange sense of activity1 will1 and power which1 under favourable conditions of concentration 7suggestion71 it imparts to the more or less conscious ,self4 ,this influence is at first vague1 impersonal1 undefined1 but is gradually differentiated and personified4 ,furthermore1 it is constantly strengthened and sustained by the agency of that cultivated suggestion ,i have described1 which is intended to bring the individual into contact with unknown activities4 ,thus the idea of the superhuman is developed from the unconscious human powers of ,mind4 ,conclusive evidence of this is offered by language4 ,from the abundant material at hand let us choose three examples1 widely separated1 one from the ,dakotan stock of ,north ,american ,indians1 one from the ancient ,peruvians1 and one from the ,south ,sea ,islanders4 ,the hidden and mysterious power of the universe is expressed in the ,dakotan dialects by the word wakan4 ,this term expresses infinite will2 it is1 as ,miss ,fletcher tells us1 8the deification of that peculiar quality or power of which man is conscious within himself as directing his own acts or willing a course to bring about certain results40 ,from the word wacin1 will1 are derived the terms for what we call 8telepathy10 a belief in which is nigh universal in primitive cults2 for intelligence or mentality2 and for the sacred dance4#ej ,while the meaning of wakan in ,dakota is well defined1 its derivation is uncertain4 ,it is singular that precisely the same word with the same meaning reappears in the ,quichua and ,aymara languages of the interior of ,peru4 ,it is there applied to everything which is extraordinary or immense1 out of the course of nature1 and especially to everything sacred or divine4 ,it was not a deity1 but expressed the deific power believed to be present in men1 animals1 or things4#ea ,the identity of the two words is probably no mere coincidence1 nor is the one borrowed from the other4 ,in ,quichua wakan expresses the sound characteristic of any animal1 as allco wakan1 the dog howls1 huallpa wakan the cock crows1 and this in turn is derived from the interjection of surprise or astonishment or admiration1 hua4 ,it was that which was employed in the sacred invocations4 ,strange as it may seem1 the ,english word 8,god0 is traced by ,aryan scholars through the ,gothic guth to the ,sanscrit verb hua to call upon1 to invoke 7past participle1 hutha71 the same primitive interjection in verbal form2 and the holy name of the ,hebrews1 ,yahve1 is now believed to be that of the ,chaldean god of the earth1 waters1 and fertility1 in whose name ,e1 ,ya1 or ,yah1 we recognize a cognate interjection or refrain1 the same which1 shouted in the orgiastic rites1 gave the name1 ,bacchus or ,iachus4#eb ,turning to the island world of the ,pacific we find through its countless groups of sunny isles the impersonal ,divine expressed by one general term1 mana4 ,the natives believed in the agency of departed souls and also of spirits of independent origin 7vui72 but the supernatural power through which both acted on nature or events was this mana4 ,if a man prospered in his affairs and gained influence in the tribe1 it was not by his own efforts1 but because he had mana2 precisely as pious persons among ourselves attribute their prosperity and that of their worthy neighbors to the favour of the ,lord4 ,the original meaning of mana appears to be 8that which is within one10 and1 later1 the intelligence on mind1 whence power or might1 as the expressions of ,will applied to the concept of universal life and motion4#ec ,these words1 ,i repeat1 do not convey any idea of personality4 ,they are not evidences of a primitive monotheism1 as has often been claimed4 ,they1 and all like them1 are vague1 indefinite terms for the supernatural1 that which was inexplicable by the limited knowledge of the most ignorant of our species4#ed ,the media of suggestion act primarily through the emotions1 and in the religious suggestion those emotions especially are concerned which give rise to thoughts concerning the super-sensuous and the manifestation of power4 ,but none of these emotions in itself1 neither fear1 hope1 awe1 wonder1 nor any other1 has the power to evoke the notion of the supernatural4 ,it arises from those deeper intellectual traits which are peculiarly human4 ,yet it is true that such emotions are potent stimuli to those forms of suggestion which lead up to the religious feelings2 they are part of them1 and what arouses and incites those1 develops and strengthens these2 and they thus have their place as suggestive accessories4 ,to the savage1 all nature testifies to the presence of the mysterious power which is behind its forms and motions4 ,he sees the ,divine everywhere4 ,but from this multitude of impressions which excited him to religious thought we may separate a limited number as beyond others potent and universal4 ,these are special stimuli to the religious emotions4 ,they are five in number3 #a4 ,dreaming and allied conditions4 #b4 ,the apprehension of ,life and ,death1 from which arises the notion of the ,soul4 #c4 ,the perception of ,light and ,darkness4 #d4 ,the observation of ,extraordinary ,exhibitions of ,force4 #e4 ,the impression of ,vastness4 #a4 ,a line of ,lucretius asserts that 8the dreams of men peopled the heaven with gods40 ,we have a right to reply that if dreams alone give us the gods1 why are they absent from the lives of dogs1 who are vivid dreamers8 ,certain it is1 however1 that among all savage tribes dreams are regarded as a part of the experience of life4 ,to primitive man1 they are real3 he sees and hears in them as he does in his waking hours2 he does not distinguish between the subjective creation of his brain cells and objective existence4 ,in what they differ from daily life1 they are divine4 ,they reveal the future and summon the absent4 ,the ,kamschatkans1 we are told1 gather together every morning to narrate their dreams and to guess at their interpretation4 ,of the ,eskimos it is stated that their daily lives 8are to a great extent guided by their dreams40 ,the ,bororo of ,brazil take a dream so literally that a whole village will decamp and seek a distant site1 if one dreams of the approach of an enemy4#ee ,the physiological character of dreams easily explains the superstitious attention they have received in all ages and nations4 ,the absence of external impressions during sleep favours the rise of unconscious mental action into consciousness4 ,in them memory is often more active than while waking2 our personality seems doubled1 because it has no longer the will to react against the throngs of varied impressions which arise4 ,the emotions in sleep are excitable1 and both fear and joy are often more intense than when awake4 ,add to this that many persons1 especially those of nervous temperament1 are subject to peculiarly vivid illusions during the moments between waking and sleeping1 which seem to belong as much to the former as to the latter conditions1#ef and we have reasons enough for the part they play in primitive religions4 ,there are reasons for believing that the dreams of ruder races are more vivid than our own1 more like pictures and realities4#eg ,they certainly do not draw the line so sharply between the sights and sounds of sleeping and waking as we do4 ,with wide-open eyes they see spectres and apparitions1 such as are not unknown1 but are ever growing scarcer1 in civilised lands4 ,these waking visions are assiduously cultivated1 and become1 as ,i have already said1 the chief bond between man and divinity4#eh ,not only by fasting1 solitude1 and intense expectation centred on the expected revelation1 is it brought into reality1 but in nearly every savage tribe we find a knowledge of narcotic plants which were employed to induce strange and vivid hallucinations or dreams4 ,the negroes of the ,niger had their 8fetish water10 the ,creek ,indians of ,florida their 8black drink10 for this purpose4 ,in many parts of the ,united ,states the natives smoked stramonium1 the ,mexican tribes swallowed the peyotl and the snake-plant1 the tribes of ,california and the ,samoyeds of ,siberia had found a poisonous toadstool2--all to bring about communion with the ,divine and to induce ecstatic visions4#ei ,whatever the means employed1 their aim was everywhere the same1 and was directed primarily and essentially towards the excitation of the religious emotions1 towards securing a revelation of the will of the gods4 ,thus it came that the whole of life1 waking and sleeping1 assumed a dreamy1 unreal character4 ,the traveller ,spix says of the forest tribes of ,brazil that they never seem fully awake2 and a ,pawnee war song begins by an appeal to the gods to decide if this life itself is aught but a dream4#fj ,the ancient ,mexicans had developed the doctrine that this life is a dream and that death is the awakening1 the passing into a living condition4 ,they spoke of dying as the appearance of the dawn1 and the approach of light4 ,this is closely akin to that doctrine of my1 or the unreality of the duality of the subject and object1 which 8is the very life of the primitive ,east ,indian philosophy40#fa ,the influence which such a view must have exerted on the religious thought of a nation is manifest4 #b4 ,the question has been discussed by some philosophers whether the idea of ,life is anterior in the human mind to that of ,death4 ,had they studied the beliefs of primitive peoples1 their doubts would have disappeared4 ,the savage knows not death as a natural occurrence4 ,his language has no word meaning 8to die10 but only 8to be killed40 ,disease is an unseen shaft1 or the work of a malignant sorcerer4 ,to him1 all things live and live forever4 ,each bird1 each bush1 each rock has its own vital principle4 ,by reason of the consciousness of his own living ,self1 he imputes life to all around him1 but in a higher degree and of some rarer quality to those existences which he holds as his deities4 ,his god is supremely a living god1 the source of ,life1 its creator1 preserver1 and sustainer4 ,if we seek the recondite meaning hidden behind the two words which throughout ,polynesia expressed in its most general sense the concept of the ,divine1 io1 and atua1 we discover that it is in both 8the central cause or essentiality of ,life40#fb ,so among the ,indians of ,michoacan the epithet of the chief goddess of their cult was1 8,the ,sustainer of ,life02 the highest divinity of the ,aztecs was ,tonacatecutli1 8,god of ,our ,life02 and in the ,muskoghean tribes ,his name was 8,the ,master of ,life40 ,so full1 ,i say1 was the mind of primitive man with the vision of universal and immortal life1 that to him there was no such thing as death4 ,the fact1 indeed1 remained4 ,the tree was shrivelled by the lightning1 the brute fell by the arrow1 man himself gasped his last breath and lay an inert mass4 ,the loved child1 the warrior hero1 passed out of sight to the unseen beyond4 ,but not forever6 ,no6 ,they hovered around the familiar spot1 they visited the living in dreams1 their voices were heard in the rustling leaves and the falling waters4 ,not only men1 but all things lived again4 ,in the mythology of the ,vitians there is a heaven even for cocoanuts6 ,to the ,kamschatkans the smallest flies have souls which are immortal4#fc ,this is the doctrine of souls1 the source of those innumerable beliefs and rites which are centred around the sepulchre1 so solemn1 so profoundly significant1 that many writers have maintained that 8religion began1 when the living thought seriously of the dead02 that 8all religions have crystallised around the tomb02 and that in the propitiation of departed souls1 in the worship of the spirits of ancestors1 and in the preparation in this life for another beyond the grave1 the whole aim and essence of religion are embraced4#fd ,i have already said that this is a hasty assertion1 for there are religions which recognise a soul scarcely or at all2 but they are not of a primitive character4#fe ,in the latter1 some such belief is universally shown either by the treatment of the corpse1 or the modes of mourning for the dead1 or by myths concerning the life and actions of the departed4 ,it is generally held that the soul is multiple1 two1 three1 or four being assigned to a person4 ,one or more of these may perish with the body1 or shortly afterwards2 but one at least survives indefinitely1 and concerns itself with the doings of those it has left behind in life4 ,its powers for good and evil are increased by its translation to another sphere of existence2 and to secure its assistance1 or at least its neutrality1 is the aim of that cult of the departed souls and of the spirits of ancestors which is so widely defined in primitive conditions4 ,they are not identical1 and we find in many tribes much attention paid to conciliating the souls of the dead where ancestor worship is unknown4 ,in fact1 the former is the older and more general observance4 ,the aim is to get rid of the soul1 to put it to rest or send it on its journey to a better land1 otherwise it will annoy the survivors4#ff ,in many primitive tribes1 therefore1 there is little fear of death4 ,the soul leaves the body in sleep to wander over the earth1 and the only difference of death is that it does not return in time4 ,more than this1 the soul of the living can visit the realms of the dead4 ,the ,comanches knew of men who had spent two days looking at the white tents of the encampment of souls far west under the setting sun2 and the ,zui mothers who had lost their little darlings are reconciled by being cast into a deep sleep1 during which they go and see them in the mystic world beyond4 ,so also believe the ,australians and numberless other tribes4#fg ,we need not look for any definiteness of statement as to what the soul is4 ,in many tribes the word for it is akin to that for breath1 as in our own expression1 8the breath of life40 ,frequently it is identified with the shadow1 as among the ,zulus of ,africa1 and the ,eskimos1 ,algonquins1 and ,quiches of ,america4 ,others1 as the ,mincopies 7,andaman ,islands71 think they see it in the reflection of the body in still water or a mirror4 ,the ,australians assert that it is a mist1 fog1 or smoke1 etc4 ,these ideas are1 of course1 material4 ,they impute to the soul similar wants to that of the corporeal man4 ,it desires a dwelling1 needs food1 takes visible forms1 and the like2 but also it is endowed with faculties transcending those it possessed in the flesh1 and these may be directed to the benefit or the injury of the survivors4 ,therefore its wants should be gratified1 and its temper conciliated by offerings and appropriate funeral rites4#fh #c4 ,i turn now to a perception of the primitive man1 a contrast of impressions on his senses1 more potent1 ,i believe1 than even the immeasurable one of ,life and ,death4 ,it is ,light and ,darkness4 ,this universal1 ever recurring change in nature controlled all his actions1 and reacted as a powerful stimulus on his religious emotions4 ,i could almost be willing to subscribe to the expression of a ,german writer that 8the adoration of ,light was the foundation of all religion40#fi ,the rude litanies of paganism all over the world seem to join in the solemn chant of the ,evangelist--8,god is ,light1 and in ,him is no darkness at all40 ,we may begin with the ,australian ,blacks1 who averred the supreme divinity lives in keladi1 eternal brightness1 up above the sky4 ,his name is ,baiame1 meaning 8the maker0 or 8the cutter out10 as one cuts out patterns from a skin4 ,he sees and knows all things4#gj ,through most of ,polynesia1 the chief deity was ,ka-ne1 which means sunlight1 the opposite of darkness1 and is allied to the verb kanea1 to see4 ,another name for ,ka-ne is ,tangaloa1 the lord of light4 ,the colour red is sacred to him1 he was portrayed with long blond hair1 and children who had light hair or were albinos were deemed his progeny4 ,when the fair-skinned ,europeans first landed on the islands they were called the 8children of ,tangaloa40#ga ,sometimes the myths represent ,tangaloa as the son of ,vatea 7,avatea1 ,wakea71 8noon0 or 8noon-day40 ,he was father of gods and man1 half man1 half fish1 to typify land and water1 and it was said of him that his right eye was the sun1 his left the moon4 ,so far removed was he that no worship was ever paid him1 and no representation made of him4#gb ,if we turn to the extremely savage inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands1 a remnant of the ancient1 almost pygmy1 black race of ,southern ,asia1 we find that their supreme being is ,puluga1 the creator of all things1 who was never born and will never die4 ,he is invisible1 but of the nature of light2 he lives in the sky1 and placed there the sun and moon4 ,he is omniscient1 but only while it is day1 when he can see4#gc ,as the red rays of the morning and evening light caused in ,polynesia all things red to be sacred to ,tangaloa1 so among the ,hottentots of ,south ,africa their supreme being was named ,tsuni ,goab1 the red light of the ,dawn1 who in mythology stood in opposition to ,gaunah1 the ,dark ,sky4#gd ,this worship of light has several constant associations in religious thought which find expression in the myth and cult4 ,in nature1 light is a potent stimulus of organic growth1 and this fact1 obscurely apprehended by the primitive mind1 led to the equivalence of ,light and ,life4 ,light as the vital principle recurs in most mythologies4 ,as we obtain light artificially from fire1 whose general warmth also is akin to that of the living as contrasted to the dead body1 the soul or living element was allied to flame4 ,in ancient ,german mythology the soul was called a torch or taper 7,j4 ,grimm71 and in the beliefs of the ,polynesians and ,american ,indians the ghosts of the dead usually appear as luminous masses4#ge ,all will remember the words of ,othello-- 8,put out the light1 and then1--put out the light60 ,a second association of light was with the sky1 in day the home of the bright sun1 at night where glitter a thousand points of brilliancy4 ,in most mythologies the sky is supposed to be a solid1 shining arch or dome which covers the earth like a roof4 ,upon it1 out of sight to mortal eyes1 live the gods4 ,it constitutes the 8,hill of ,heaven10 the celestial mountain upon which are the homes of the divine beings4 ,so it is oft likened to some known terrestrial elevation1 as in ,greek mythology1 ,mt4 ,olympus1 and in that of ,india1 ,mt4 ,meru4 ,such sacred hills are mentioned by most of the ,american tribes4#gf ,in ,polynesian myth it was 8the blue mountain1 the land of the divine water10 a fluid of such vital virtue that were even a dead man sprinkled with it he would come to life4 ,on the island of ,mangaia a certain hill was pointed out which in old times propped up the sky4#gg ,the ,tehuelches of ,patagonia relate that the ,creator first moulded men and all animals on the 8,hill of ,god0 and then set them loose to people the earth4 ,the natives of ,southern ,borneo assign to their supreme divinity ,atala a home in the highest heaven1 on the shore of the 8celestial lake1 moved by the ,moon and surrounding the ,sun40 ,homi1 the high heaven1 is the deity of the ,hottentots1 who pours the rains1 blows the wind1 and sends heat and cold on earth4#gh ,thus it is that everywhere the ,sky ,god is also the ,high ,god4 ,this blending of the ideas of life and light with the sky led to another and obvious association which has left its mark on every religion1 primitive or developed4 ,the sky is1 in direction1 above us4 ,the god of the sky is therefore the god on high4 ,he is the one who dwells above1 our lord in the heaven4 ,this he is in all mythologies4 ,among the ,indians of the plains he is 7or1 ,it is7 8the great medicine above10 and in the sign language1 to indicate this1 when the sign is made for 8medicine0 7mystery7 the finger is pointed to the zenith4#gi ,the ,puluga of the ,andamanese 8lives in the sky40 ,tangaloa is addressed as 8,he above in the heavens02 the ,finnish ,ukko is also called 8,the ,navel of the ,sky10 and so on4#hj ,examples are innumerable4 ,but what need of collecting them8 ,do we not ourselves constantly use the adjective the ,supreme ,being1 for ,god1 which means simply the highest being8 ,and did not the founder of our religion forbid his followers to swear by the sky1 giving as the reason that it was the throne of ,god1 who sitteth upon it8#ha ,this idea runs through the whole of his teachings4 ,in the ,gospel of ,matthew the same term1 1 or1 as a descriptive term of divinity1 is applied not less than eighty-eight times2 and in the first clause of the ,lord's ,prayer1 it is to 8,our ,father in the ,skies10 that the invocation is addressed4 ,strange that this very word 1 in ,sanscrit ,uaruna1 is that which1 in the primitive religion of the ,aryan peoples1 was applied to the most exalted of their gods1 to him 8whose realm is above us10 8the very strong10 8the shining one10 8the king of sky and earth10 8creator of all1 the earth-enveloping sky40#hb ,what more striking evidence do we wish of the indissoluble unity of religious thought1 no matter what its stage of development1 in all centuries and all races8 ,in the ,polynesian mythology1 ,tangaloa1 the bright daylight1 has as his brother1 ,rongo1 the god of darkness and night4 ,tangaloa is fair-haired and light in hue1 ,rongo is black in hair and skin4 ,tangaloa is beneficent1 the dispenser of good1 and inventor of the arts of peace2 ,rongo is the fomenter of strife1 the god of war and author of bloodshed4 ,in accordance with these1 all the gods were classed in two orders1 8dwellers in day10 and 8dwellers in night40#hc ,the contrast which is here presented prevails throughout early cults4 ,the night1 when man1 deprived of light and sight1 becomes the prey of stealthy beasts1 was everywhere considered the time when the unseen powers of destruction are let loose and the malevolent agencies of the spirit-world run riot4 ,this is one of the most primitive of religious beliefs and is discovered in the rudest tribes4 ,the ,yahgans of ,tierra del ,fuego say that the invisible spirits go about at night2 the ,australian tribes everywhere manifested a deep dread of the darkness1 not like the unconscious shuddering of a child on entering a dark room1 but because they believed spirits walked in the gloom seeking whom they could devour4 ,it is then1 said they1 that ,cuchi 7,kootche7 goes forth1 either in the form of a snake or some nocturnal bird4 ,he it is who causes sickness among men4 ,the thunder is the growl of his anger1 the whirlwinds his breath1 and the aurora australis the fitful light of his camp fire4#hd ,associated with the gloom of night1 was the darkness of the storm1 which in many mythologies is contrasted with the sunshine in some divine struggle4 ,endless are the tales and rites which bear upon this contest in early religions4 ,indeed1 according to some1 they are the chief staple of all mythologies4#he #d4 ,i have already mentioned that the idea of ,power is one of the first to be connected with deity4 ,the god is one who can do more than man4 ,especially any sudden and striking display of force1 either in the material or immaterial world1 stimulates the religious sense4 ,the historian ,buckle claimed that the inhabitants of countries subject to earthquakes are peculiarly superstitious4 ,in myths and names1 the hurricane of the tropics1 the storm-winds of higher latitudes1 indeed all sudden and tremendous outbreaks of natural violence1 are regarded as exhibitions of divine ,power4 ,notably is this the case with the thunder storm4 ,that manifestation of tremendous power has excited the religious feelings of all races4 ,moreover1 the highly charged electrical atmosphere exerts a special influence on the nervous system1 predisposing it to emotional outbreaks4 ,the roll and reverberation of the thunder1 the zigzag flash and destructive blow of the lightning and the roar of the tempest1 combine to present the phenomenon as a manifest display of supernatural power4 ,hence in innumerable tribes the thunder god was identified with1 or was the peer of1 the highest in the ,pantheon4#hf ,the same is true of potent and coercive mental traits4 ,their possessors are regarded as partaking of the deific being to a greater extent than others1 or even actually divine4 ,it is not merely that they excite the emotion of fear4 ,that is a shallow interpretation of the psychic process4 ,underlying it is the deeper suggestion of energy1 of action1 of the spiritual mastery of material existence4 ,this is as real1 though not so clear1 in the mind of the savage as in that of the philosopher4 ,this is also seen in the names and titles applied to the concept of ,divinity by all nations4 ,they speak of ,god 8,all-mighty10 the 8,omnipotent ,ruler02 and ever the attribute of indefinite power belongs to the great gods4 ,in early religions the manifestations of power are personified as single deities4 ,we thus find in native ,american myths the figures of ,huracan1 the hurricane2 ,huemac1 the ,strong ,hand1 god of earthquakes1 and numberless thunder1 lightning1 and storm gods4 #e4 ,it has been remarked by a ,german historian that the richest development of early poetry has been found among tribes dwelling by the ocean or among mountains2 and another writer has claimed that the most rapid development of religions has taken place where the broad expanses of deserts or seas have stimulated the mind to contemplation of spacial magnitude on earth and in the sky4#hg ,the languages of primitive peoples bear traces of this4 ,in the ,aztec tongue any wide level prairie is called teotlalli1 godland2 and the ocean1 teoatl1 godwater2 among the ,peruvians the term huaca1 holy1 is synonymous with 8vast0 or 8immense40 ,with the ,polynesians taula1 the ocean space1 is the home of the gods and where the souls go at death4 ,the traveller ,castren once stood on the shore of the ,arctic ,ocean with a ,samoyed4 ,turning to the native1 he asked1 8where is ,num80 7their chief god74 8,there10 instantly replied the ,samoyed1 waving his hand toward where 8loomed the dark broad sea40#hh ,in many cults this idea is attempted expression by assigning to deities hugeness of size4 ,the colossal stone images of ,easter ,island1 the huge statues of the ,maoris1 are endeavours to present it to the senses4 ,in more developed faiths the same tendency prevails4 ,the ,buddhists rival each other in constructing enormous statues of ,sakya ,muni2 in the ,sanscrit ,upanishads1 ,aditi1 who represents the endless visible expanse1 is termed 8mother and father of all gods and men1 the substance of whatever has been or shall be born0#hi2 and according to some ,mahommedan writers1 ,god is so great that it is #gb1jjj days' journey between his eyes6 99 99 99 99 99 ,such are some of the potent stimuli which stir the depths of man's psychical nature1 awakening in him the belief in unknown powers far beyond his ability to measure or to cope with4 ,not from any conscious act of intelligence1 not from any process of voluntary reasoning1 is that belief born1 but from the unknown1 the unplumbed abyss of the sub-conscious mind4 ,let not this be considered as something degrading to the religious conceptions themselves4 ,though all are drawn from out the human spirit itself1 and are nowise the direct revelations their believers think them1 yet who dare measure the height and the depth of the sub-conscious intelligence8 ,it draws its knowledge from sources which elude scientific research1 from the strange powers which we perceive in insects and other lower animals1 almost1 but not wholly1 obliterated in the human line of organic descent2 and from others1 now merely nascent or embryonic1 new senses1 destined in some far off on to endow our posterity with faculties as wondrous to us as would be sight to the sightless4 ,more than this3 the teachings of the severest science tell us that ,matter is1 in its last analysis1 ,motion1 and that motion is nought else than ,mind#ij2 and who dare deny that in their unconscious functions our minds may catch some overtones1 as it were1 from the harmonies of the ,universal ,intelligence thus demonstrated by inductive research1 and vibrate in unison therewith8 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,primitive ,religious ,expression3 in the ,word4 ,,contents3--,an ,echo ,myth--,the ,power of ,words--,their ,magical ,potency--,the ,curse--,power ,independent of ,meaning--,the ,name as an ,attribute--,the ,sacred ,names--,the ,ineffable ,name--8,myrionomous0 ,gods--8,theophorous0 ,names--,suggestion and ,repetition as ,stimulants--,i4 ,the ,word to the gods3 ,prayer--,its ,forms1 ,contents1 and ,aims--,,ii4 ,the ,word from the gods3 ,the ,law and the ,prophecy--,the ,ceremonial ,law1 or tabu--,examples--,divination and ,prediction--,,iii4 ,the ,word concerning the gods3 ,the ,myths--,their ,sources chiefly ,psychic--,some from ,language--,examples--,transference--,si milarities--,the ,universal ,mythical ,cycles3 #a4 ,the ,cosmical ,concepts2 #b4 ,the ,sacred ,numbers2 #c4 ,the ,drama of the ,universe2 ,creation and ,deluge ,myths2 #d4 ,the ,earthly ,paradise2 #e4 ,the ,conflict of ,nature2 #f4 ,the ,returning ,saviour2 #g4 ,the ,journey of the ,soul--,conclusion as to these ,identities4 ,there is a pleasant myth told by the inhabitants of the island of ,mangaia in the ,south ,pacific4 ,when the ,creator of all things had ordered the solid land to rise from the primeval waters1 he walked abroad to survey his work4 8,it is good10 said he aloud to himself4 8,good10 answered an echo from a neighbouring hill4 8,what60 exclaimed the ,creator4 8,is some one here already8 ,am not ,i first80 8,i first10 answered the echo4 ,therefore the ,mangaians assert that earliest of all existences is the bodiless ,voice4#ia ,it is their way of saying1 8,in the beginning was the ,word40 ,not only may we call it the first1 it is also the mightiest of the unseen agencies which mould man and his destinies4 8,power over men10 remarks ,count ,tolsto in one of his essays1 8lies not in material force1 but in thought and its clear expression40 ,disraeli1 that subtlest of diplomats1 once said1 8,we govern men with--words40 ,no idea can be clearly conveyed to another unless there is a word to express it4 ,inward thought and outward utterance are the correlated conditions of intelligent advancement4 ,the spoken word evokes in the mind of the hearer the picture1 the emotion1 the reasoning1 which is occupying our own4 ,a thousand minds are brought instantly to bear on the same thought by the words in the mouth of one4 ,i cannot place too high the instant and magical effect of the word4 ,not only does it convey a new thought to the mind1 but it is itself the begetter of thought4 ,it is a seed sown1 which grows and branches1 bearing flower and fruit1 beauteous and everlasting1 or noxious and destructive4 ,through the faculty of speech1 social life becomes possible2 on it depends the sweet interchange of souls2 by it we are led to think in unison2 through it we share the meditations of the philosopher1 and the inspired visions of the poet and the prophet4 ,if there is any way in which the spirits of the sky and air1 the hosts of the ,divine1 can touch and teach our souls1 it must be chiefly through the spoken word4 ,every religion of the world bears witness to this4 ,there is no other element in them in which all join with like unanimity4 ,from the rudest to the ripest they echo the verse of the evangelist philosopher when he wrote3 8,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god40 ,the highest teachings of them all are expressed in the formula3 8,and the word of the ,lord came saying--0 ,we may go back to the earliest forms of the ancient ,egyptian religion1 and we find the doctrine that the man who had learned and could pronounce the divine words revealed through the god ,thoth 7,thought1 ,mind71 by their utterance would be elevated to the god1 and be blended with him1 as one and inseparable4 8,the primary idea concerning the ritual formulas was assimilation to ,god1 brought about by the power of the words themselves40#ib ,probably in all primitive faiths the word is regarded as a magical power in itself4 ,in ,egypt it was believed that by words the most powerful of the gods could be made obedient to the will of man4 ,by them1 as exorcisms or incantations everywhere1 demons could be loosed or bound1 and spirits summoned from the vasty deep4 ,the stock in trade of the ,indian medicine-man is principally his store of exorcisms1 and among the ,goras of ,north-,western ,india any one can become a priest who will learn the formulas which compel the demons4#ic ,our word 8charm0 comes from the ,latin carmen1 the sacred rhythmic formula1 such as ,virgil averred could by its occult power drag the moon from the sky4 8,carmina vel clo possunt deducere lunam40 ,there were such songs scarcely less potent among the ,australian ,blacks1 which could summon the rain in dry seasons or cause it to cease in floods4#id ,no demon1 however malevolent1 can resist1 in their belief1 the power of the right word4 ,the natives of ,new ,south ,wales say that an evil spirit in the shape of a dwarf with monstrous head roams the woods at night and devours those whom he meets4 ,but if the man utters the word 8,boonbolong10 the dwarf passes on his way and does not harm him4#ie ,when ,jesus was in ,capernaum1 and at his command an unclean spirit had gone out of a man possessed1 the multitude said one to the other1-- 1 8,what is this ,word1 by the authority and might of which this man casts out devils80 7,luke iv41 #cf47 ,they believed he used some cabalistic formula of exorcism which constrained the demons to obey his will4 ,nowhere did the ,word display its terrible effect more fearfully than in the curse or imprecation4 ,in ancient ,assyria1 writes ,professor ,sayce1 8,the power of the mamit1 or curse1 was such that the gods themselves could not transgress it40#if ,not only did it unloose the demons of destruction1 but it constrained the gods against their will1 changing them from protectors to enemies4#ig ,amid savage tribes1 in undoubted and repeated instances1 the curse kills as certainly as a knife4 ,among the western ,indians of our country1 when a medicine-man 8gathers his medicine10 that is1 rises to the full height of inspired volition1 and utters a withering curse on his antagonist1 commanding him to die1 the latter knows all hope is lost4 ,sometimes he drops dead on the spot1 or at best lingers through a few days of misery4#ih ,the ,australians believe that the curse of a potent magician will kill at the distance of a hundred miles4#ii ,not only is the word thus mighty in the unseen world1 but it is itself the very efflux and medium of the divine power itself4 ,thus in the drama of creation recorded in the first chapter of ,genesis we read3 8,and ,god said1 #8,light1 be1' and light was02 and in the corresponding myth of the ,quiche ,indians of ,central ,america1 the maker of the world calls forth1 ,uleu6 ,earth6 and at the word the solid land grew forth4#ajj ,sir ,george ,grey relates a story that in ,new ,zealand there was a huge1 carved wooden head1 which could speak1 and by the dreadful might of its words slew all who approached it4 ,but when by superior magic its voice was reduced to a whisper1 its power was gone and it was destroyed4#aja ,it is to be noted that the magical influence of the word is independent of its meaning4 ,it is distinctly not the idea1 image1 or truth which it conveys to which is ascribed its efficacy4 ,on the contrary1 the most potent of all words are those which have no meaning at all or of which the sense has been lost4 ,this is constantly seen in the formulas of savage tribes4 ,they preserve archaisms of language no longer understood by those who utter them1 and in other instances they are obviously made up of syllables strung together without regard to intelligibility4 ,the same fact is abundantly shown in the cabalistic jargon of classical and medival diviners1 and in the charms drawn from contemporary folk-lore4 ,indeed1 the famous cabalist1 ,pico de ,mirandola1 asserts that a word without meaning has most influence over the demons4 ,not only one or a few words may be thus unintelligible1 but long communications may be in articulate sounds conveying no thought whatever4 ,this is the 8gift of tongues10 the power to speak in unknown languages4 ,it is common in savage life4 ,many of the important chants at the sacred ceremonies are mere iterations of meaningless syllables4 ,the idea would seem to be that what men cannot understand1 the gods do2 or else1 that it is the god expressing himself through human organs but in a speech unknown to human ears4 ,bishop ,galloway says that the charm songs of the ,zulus are often quite unintelligible to themselves#ajb2 and this is one of many examples4 ,of all words1 the most sacred is the ,name4 ,in primitive thought1 the personal name of an individual is not merely an attribute1 it is an integral part of his ,self1 his ,ego4 ,the ,eskimos say that a man consists of three parts1 his body1 his soul1 and his name1 and of these the last mentioned alone achieves immortality4 ,this seems very advanced4 ,most of our ambitious men appear to think more of rendering their names than their souls worthy of immortality4 ,very generally1 the name was associated with the personal guardian spirit1 derived from it or indicating it1 and hence received a ceremonial sanctity4#ajc ,as being a part of oneself1 injury or contumely heaped upon a name reacted upon the individual who bore it1 and even life could be destroyed in this manner4 ,for this reason1 throughout ,america the natives rarely disclosed their real appellations1 but were designated by nicknames4 ,in ,australia some tribes were so cautious that the young men on entering adult life renounced the names by which they had been known and assumed no other2 while a woman preserved indeed her appellation1 but no one except her husband was entitled to pronounce it4#ajd ,the ,dyaks take the prudent precaution1 after an attack of illness1 to change their names2 so that the demon who sent the sickness may not recognise them1 and continue his malevolent pursuit4#aje ,in ,polynesia1 where the name was not thus concealed1 it could be applied1 according to the ceremonial law1 only to the person1 although it was generally a common noun4 ,hence arose the curious custom called tepi4 ,all words which formed part of the name of the chieftain1 and all syllables of other words which had a similar sound were dropped from the language and others substituted for them during his lifetime4 ,thus1 forty or fifty of the most common terms of the language would drop out of use at once1 and as many more be materially changed in sound1 to the great annoyance of missionaries and visitors4#ajf ,the ,kamschatkans were so particular that they would not name the bear or wolf1 for these animals understood the language of men1 and would be offended at such familiarity6#ajg ,even if it does not hear1 the power for good or evil which a being has1 can1 in primitive opinion1 be communicated through its name4 ,for that reason the priest known as the flamen dialis among the ,romans would not only avoid touching a dog or bear1 but he would not pronounce their names1 lest he should be contaminated6 ,and to this day a ,mohammedan1 if he pronounces the word for 8hog10 will spit1 that his mouth may not be defiled by the name of the unclean beast4 ,even more universal was the avoidance of the names of the dead4 ,this prevailed throughout ,africa1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 ,polynesia1 and ,america4 ,the reason was1 that the name was held to be a part of the spirit of the departed1 and to pronounce it would disturb the rest of the grave1 and probably indeed bring the perturbed spirit to the circle of auditors4#ajh ,if such was the case with the names of men and beasts1 how sacred must be the names of the gods6 ,this is an extraordinary feature1 common to the rudest superstitions of savage and the most developed faiths of civilised lands1 and it has for its basis the conception of the name as a real attribute1 a part of the ,self4 8,in all the religions of ancient ,asia10 writes ,lenormant1 8the mysterious ,name was considered a real and divine being1 who had a personal existence and exclusive power over both nature and the world of spirits40#aji ,in the name dwelt the essential power of the deity4 ,an ,egyptian magical formula1 placed in the mouth of a god1 reads3 8,i am the elect of millions of years4 ,were my name spoken on the bank of a river1 it would be consumed2 ,were it uttered on earth1 fire would burst from the ground40#aaj ,the knowledge of this name by another enabled him to exert a power over the god himself4 ,that by naming a demon1 he can be forced to appear1 was a cardinal principle of ancient magic4 8,the list of divine names possessed by the ,roman pontiffs in their indigitamenta was their most efficacious magical instrument1 laying at their mercy all the forces of the spirit world40#aaa ,for this reason1 the gods of ancient ,egypt sedulously concealed their names1 and we cannot doubt that it was the fear of some such subjection of their deity through the malicious use of his name1 which led the early ,jews to conceal it so well that it is now lost4 ,it was the same with the ,semitic ,arabians4 ,instead of the true divine name1 they substituted ,allah1 the ,mighty ,one1 so that now the original is conjectural or unknown4 ,this extends to the rudest tribes4 ,the ,african traveller ,holub says that the actual name of the god of the ,marutse and allied tribes along the ,zambesi river is ,njambe2 but to avoid revealing this1 they employ the term ,molemo1 8,he above40 ,among the south-eastern ,australian tribes their leading deity is ,turramulun 7the ,one-legged71 who lives in the sky4 ,his name is never revealed to women1 nor to youths before their initiation to manhood4#aab ,the ,choctaw ,indians regarded the name of their highest divinity as self-existing1 essential1 and unspeakable4 ,therefore1 when it was necessary to refer to him1 they adopted a circumlocution1 for1 says their historian1 8according to their fixed standard of speech1 had they made any nearer approach to the beloved ,name1 it would have been reckoned a profanation40#aac ,how completely this notion has survived among ourselves is shown by the second clause of that prayer on which we have all been brought up1 8,hallowed be ,thy ,name40 ,but how few who repeat it reflect that the name referred to1 whatever it was1 is now through long concealment totally lost6 ,thus we see that the doctrine of 8the ineffable ,name0 is the common property of savage and cultured faiths4 ,from the misuse of the name to compel the obedience of the god1 or to injure his dignity and worth1 came the idea of profanity1 sternly forbidden by the early ,jewish law1--8,take not the name of the ,lord in vain0--and by many other faiths of a primitive aspect4 ,quite consistently with this idea of real existence in names1 the god who had many names had just as many powers or faculties4 ,for that reason1 the prominent gods of ancient ,egypt1 especially ,isis1 were called upon by so numerous epithets that the ,greeks spoke of them as 8myrionomous10 ten-thousand-named4 ,in later ,babylonian times all the names of the fifty great gods were ascribed to a1 by which process they were themselves absorbed into his being4 8,when they lost their names1 they lost their personality as well40#aad ,to the ,mohammedan the 8,one hundred names of ,god0 repeated in the ,koran express the multitude of ,his powers4 ,the same tendency is visible in the native religions of ,america4 ,the ,mexicans applied many names to the same divinity1 and in the ,popol ,vuh1 the sacred book of the ,quiches1 the chief deity is called by a variety of titles1 some sounding strange to us1 as 8the opossum-hunter10 the 8green snake10 the 8calebash10 all of symbolic sense4#aae ,in the ,south ,seas1 the name of a god1 adopted by a chief1 identified him in the opinion of the people with the god and secured for him the reverence and adoration ascribed to his divine namesake4#aaf ,this idea is that which in many early and later faiths led to what are called the 8theophorous0 or god-bearing names1 where the individual is called by the proper name of a saint or god4 ,they were especially frequent in early ,semitic religions1 and are customary among ,catholics to-day4#aag ,we find their origin in the custom1 very general among the ,american ,indians1 for the person to take the name of the spirit who appears to him during the vigils and fasts which attend the ceremonies of initiation to manhood4 ,by assuming the name of the divinity1 the two natures or essences are believed to be united4 ,this was precisely also the opinion of the early ,christians1 as we see in the expression of ,st4 ,ephrem1 a ,syrian saint of the fourth century3 8,merciful was the ,lord in that ,he clad on our ,names4 ,his ,names make us great2 our ,names make ,him small40#aah ,if we seek the explanation of this strange power attributed to words and names1 often apart from their signification1 we shall find it in their extreme activity as agents of mental suggestion4 ,they are intense psychic stimulants1 stirring the soul to its depths4 ,the ,word is by odds the most effective of all agencies to bring about altered and abnormal mental conditions either in the individual or in the mass4 ,through it1 judiciously applied1 the profoundest hypnotic trance1 or the wildest1 maniacal nervous seizures can be produced at will4#aai ,the repetition of a word greatly heightens its suggestive influence and promotes the exclusion from the mind of all other concepts and associations than its own4 ,in many languages1 a word repeated is equivalent to the superlative degree1 and in every tongue the repetition has a similar effect1 as in the phrase3 8,holy1 holy1 holy1 ,lord ,god of ,sabaoth40 ,no words in this relation are more efficient than names4 ,consider what our own lives would be if we had to change our names every year1 how it would seem to obliterate our personality1 how it would dissipate all dreams of posthumous glory and renown4 ,our consciousness of ,self would suffer diminution1 and the keenest interest of our lives would be lost4 ,our name is really and truly a part of ourselves1 and he who would rob us of it would leave us poor indeed4 ,why is every point of view carved with the names of obscure tourists1 why does it give us pleasure to note our names among the hundreds at some grand function1 but that we think it more desirable to live 8as naked nominations1 without desert or noble deeds10 as ,sir ,thomas ,browne said1 than to pass away and leave not that little which the ,roman poet considered the least1--nominis umbra1 8the shadow of a name40 ,for the practical purposes of life the name confers or creates the personality4 ,this fact exerted a profound influence in the earliest development of religion4 ,the vague sense of spiritual power first became centred in the idea of an individual1 of a personal god1 when it received a name4 ,the primitive words of barbaric tongues used to signifying the divine have not the connotation of individuality4 ,wakan1 mahopa1 manito1 teotl1 huaca1 ku1 are such words from ,american languages1 not one of which conveys the concept of personality4 ,that concept was first gained when some single expression of spiritual power was differentiated and named4#abj ,the essential religious element in the ,word is its power to bring man into relation to the gods4 ,this is possible in three directions1--we may address them2 they may address us2 or we may talk about them4 ,these furnish the three forms of sacred expression in speech3 #a4 ,the word to the gods1--,prayer2 #b4 ,the word from the gods1--,revelation2 and #c4 ,the word about the gods1--the ,myth4 ,we will consider each of these4 ,i4 ,,the ,,word ,,to ,,the ,,gods4--#a4 ,the ,word to the gods is ,prayer4 ,it is a very prominent and nigh universal element in primitive religions4 ,the injunction 8,pray always0 is nowhere else so nearly carried out4 ,captain ,clark1 an officer of our army with the widest experience of ,indian life1 writes3 8,it seems a startling assertion1 but it is1 ,i think1 true1 that there are no people who pray more than ,indians4 ,both superstition and custom keep always in their minds the necessity for placating the anger of the invisible and omnipotent power1 and for supplicating the active exercise of his faculties in their behalf40#aba ,in fact1 ,prayer may be said to be the life of the faith of savage tribes1 and it is so recognised by themselves4 ,according to the legends of the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 when they first migrated to that island from ,hawaii1 they did not bring with them their ancestral gods1 but took care to carry along the potent prayers which the gods cannot but hear and grant4#abb ,some writers have claimed that certain tribes have been found without any notion of an appeal to unseen agencies1 and have quoted as instances the ,yahgans of ,tierra del ,fuego1 and the ,mincopies of the ,andaman ,islands4 ,but closer examination proves that the priests of the ,yahgans call upon a mysterious being1 ,aiapakal1#abc and other invisible existences1 and the ,mincopies are acknowledged to have prayers at the present time4 ,the earliest hymns and prayers do not1 as a rule1 contain definite requests1 but are general appeals to the god to be present1 to partake of the feast which is spread1 or to join the dance and to continue his good offices toward those who call upon him4 ,such are the hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 and those of ancient ,mexico1 which ,i have collected and published4#abd ,they are like the evocatio deorum of the ,romans4 ,the three forms of 8the ,word to the gods10 or ,prayer1 are those of thanksgiving1 by praise or laudation2 of petition for assistance or protection2 and of penitence or contrition for neglect of duty4 ,all these are common in the most primitive faiths4 ,in all of them you will find the deity appealed to as great1 mighty1 a lord1 a king1 terror-inspiring1 loving his followers1 and by hundreds of such epithets of amplification and flattery4 ,he is addressed endearingly as father or grandfather2 not at all implying a physical relationship1 as some modern writers have erroneously stated2 but with reference to the loving care he is supposed to extend to his worshippers4 ,as we might expect1 most of the petitions in primitive prayers are for material benefits4 ,the burden of most of them is well expressed by one in the ,rig ,veda3 8,o ,god1 prosper us in getting and in keeping60 ,they ask for increase of goods1 abundant food1 success in war1 and fine weather4 ,yet among the rudest there are signs of an appreciation of something higher4 ,a prayer of the ,khonds1 a ,dravidian tribe of ,northern ,india1 reads3 8,o ,lord1 we know not what is good for us4 ,thou knowest what it is4 ,for it we pray40 ,it is strange to find among the ,navahoes1 a rude hunting tribe of our western territories1 an intense longing for the beautiful4 ,one of their prayers runs3 8,o ,lord on high1 whose youth is immortal1 ruler above1 ,i have made you the offering1 preserve my body and members1 preserve it in beauty1 make all things beautiful1 let all be completed in beauty40#abe ,at other times the prayer is for moral control1 as in this of a ,sioux ,indian3 8,o my grandfather1 the ,earth1 ,i ask that thou givest me a long life and strength of body4 ,when ,i go to war1 let me capture many horses and kill many enemies4 ,but in peace1 let not anger enter my heart40#abf ,penitential prayers are uttered when one has broken the ceremonial law or tabu2 and in general1 when misfortune and defeat seem to indicate that the gods are irritated at some insult offered them1 though the worshipper may not be clear what it is4 8,o merciful ,lord10 says an ,aztec prayer1 8let this chastisement with which thou hast visited us give us freedom from evil and follies40#abg ,in many prayers we find formulas preserved which are no longer understood2 and very frequently the power of the prayer is believed to be increased by repeating it a number of times4 ,the prayer choruses of nearly all savage tribes offer endless examples of this4 ,the notion of increased force by repetition1 a notion founded on the augmented suggestive power of the ,word through its iteration1 to which ,i have already referred1 is so common that it was especially noted and condemned by ,jesus as of no spiritual value4 ,this form of prayer1 indeed1 degenerated into a mere magical formula1 as we see was the case with the apostolic benediction of the ,christian church during the middle ages1 which became a charm in use by necromancers and sorcerers4 ,in its sublimest essence1 however1 prayer has been recognised as something far beyond any form of suppliancy4 ,it is1 as an orthodox authority says1 8the habitual state of a being who constantly lives in relation to ,god1 and cultivates a constant exchange with ,him40#abh ,so understood1 it is even more than inspiration2 it is a communion of spiritual life1 a dwelling in ,god4 ,this is the precise mental condition of many of the mystics and devotees of primitive religions4 ,they are with the god1 the god with and in them4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,word ,,from ,,the ,,gods4--,if the mere name of the god was thus mighty and thus venerated1 how much more the words he himself uttered6 ,the 8,word of ,god10 as understood by the worshippers1 is the kernel and core of every faith on earth4 ,every religion is1 to its votaries1 a revelation4 ,none is so material1 none so primitive1 as to claim any other foundation than the expressed will of divinity4 ,none is so devoid of ritual as to lack some means of ascertaining this will4 ,the word from the gods is clothed under two forms1 the ,law and the ,prophets1--in other terms1 ,precept and ,prediction4 ,in every religion1 from the most primitive to the highest1 we find these two modes of divine utterance4 ,in the earliest phases of religion1 the law is essentially prohibitory4 ,it is in the form of the negative1 8,thou shalt not----40 ,ethnologists have adopted for this a word from ,polynesian dialects1 tabu1 or tapu1 akin to tapa1 to name1#abi that which was solemnly named or announced being sacred1 and hence forbidden to the profanum vulgus4 ,the tabu extends its veto into every department of primitive life4 ,it forbids the use of certain articles of food or raiment2 it hallows the sacred areas2 it lays restrictions on marriage1 and thus originates what is known as the totemic bond2 it denounces various actions1 often the most trivial and innocent1 and thus lays the foundation for the ceremonial law4 ,the penalty for the infraction of the tabu includes all that flows from the anger of the gods1 reaching to death itself4 ,a few examples1 from the very rudest religions1 will serve to illustrate this4 ,the ,kamschatkans in the beginning of the last century were very low in the scale of humanity and curiously pessimistic4 ,they had a hero-god1 ,kutka1 their mythic progenitor1 of whom they told many strange and disgusting stories4 ,they cursed him oftener than they blessed him1 and refused to believe that anything good could come from the gods4 ,but to escape the ill-will of these malevolent beings they practised various ceremonies and refrained from sundry actions calculated to displease those capricious spirits4 ,thus1 one must not cook fish and flesh in the same pot1 or he would be punished with sores2 he must not step in the tracks of a bear1 or he would be visited with a skin disease2 he must not scrape the snow from his shoes with a knife1 or there would be violent storms2 and so on1 through a long law of prohibitions4#acj ,the ,mincopies of the ,andaman ,islands have no forms of worship1 they have no invocations to the gods1 their language1 indeed1 has no original word for 8prayer40 ,they believe firmly1 however1 in the existence of numerous spirits1 not the souls of the deceased1 but self-created and undying1 who will injure them if they commit certain transgressions1 such as to cook turtle or fish by burning a particular kind of wood2 to roast a pig instead of boiling it1 and so on4#aca ,the ,yahgans of ,tierra del ,fuego have been often1 though erroneously1 quoted as a tribe devoid of religion4 ,their ceremonial law was rigid4 ,the hairs that fell from the head must be burned1 or the individual would fall ill2 the name of the dead must not be mentioned1 or the ghost would return and plague them2 the young ducklings must not be killed1 or bad weather would follow4#acb ,the tabu in ,polynesia1 whence it derives its name1 was carried to an incredible degree of stringency4 ,the dread of its violation was so vivid1 that in itself it was often the cause of the death of the offender4#acc ,the second form of the 8,word from ,god0 was when it was uttered as a prophecy1 a prediction of the future4 ,in this form it appears throughout the world under the innumerable aspects of divination1 as oracles1 prophetic utterances1 forecasts of time to come1 second-sight1 clairvoyance1 and the like4 ,the essence of every religious rite may be said to be divinatory1 inasmuch as its final aim is either to learn or to modify the ,will of ,god1 and thus to influence the future of the individual or society by extra-natural agencies4 ,there is nothing in this derogatory to religion as an element of mind4 ,the constant effort of the reason is to banish the idea of chance from the universe2 and he who regards the ,will of ,god as a law of the universe does exclude chance from its events just in proportion as he learns that ,will and acts in conformity to it4 ,prediction in primitive religions is by two widely different methods1 ,divination and ,prophecy4 ,the diviner1 relying on his own sense and reasoning powers1 foretells the future by observation of certain trains of events which he believes reveal the intentions of the gods2 the prophet is one inspired by the divine mind itself to speak its own words and to convey directly the thoughts and wishes of deity4 ,this distinction is visible in early religions4 ,any one can learn the 8signs0 and 8omens0 which will be auspicious or inauspicious for his undertakings2 though1 of course1 to read their full significance one must have made special studies in the art of augury4 ,to become an inspired prophet requires a much more serious preparation1 and some form of communion direct with the gods must be established4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,word ,,concerning ,,the ,,gods4 ,a brilliant ,french writer 7,e4 ,scherer7 has said3 8,it was the ,word that made the gods10 8,le mot1 c'est l'artisan des idoles40 ,he but expressed in a pointed apothegm what the profound ,german mythologist ,kuhn stated in more formal terms when he wrote3 8,the foundation of mythology is to be looked for in the domain of language40 ,what1 indeed1 does the term 8myth0 itself mean8 ,it is merely the ,greek for 8a word10 something spoken1 and in this general sense it is used by ,homer4 ,later1 its connotation became restricted to what was spoken concerning the gods1 the narratives of their doings1 the descriptions of their abodes and attributes4 ,men began to frame such tales the moment they consciously recognised the existence of such unseen agencies4 ,they were founded on visions1 dreams1 and those vague mental states which1 as ,i have shown1 fill up so large a part of savage life4 ,they were not intentional fictions1 by any means1 for the criteria between the real and unreal fade away in those psychic conditions1 and the faintest hold on actuality is enough to guarantee an indefinitely complex fancy4 ,it was a strange error by one of the most earnest students of primitive religions1 the ,reverend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 when he advocated his theory that the myth was derived from the ritual1 not the ritual from the myth4#acd ,had he studied the actual religious condition of the rudest tribes1 he would have found them with scarcely any ritual but a most abundant mythology2 and he would have discovered that where the myth was taken from the ritual1 it is when the latter has lost its original meaning1 and some other is devised to explain it4 ,as examples of such notions1 ,i may take the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa4 ,they enjoy the general reputation of being the lowest of the human race4 ,they have no temples1 no altars1 no ritual2 yet the missionary ,bleek collected among them thousands of tales concerning their gods in their relations to men and animals4#ace ,the ,andamanese are alleged to have no forms of worship whatever2 but they have many myths about the mighty ,puluga1 self-created and immortal1 about the origin of fire1 and the transactions of the invisible spirits4 ,it would be easy to give many other examples1 but it is enough to refute such an opinion by referring to the vast body of myths in all religious peoples which have no reference to ritual whatever4 ,the sources of mythology are psychic4 ,they are not to be traced to the external world1 whether ritual or natural4 ,myths are not figurative explanations of natural phenomena1 they are not vague memories of ancestors and departed heroes1 they are not philosophic speculations or poetic fancies4 ,they are distinctly religious in origin1 and1 when genuine1 are the fruit of that insight into the divine1 that 8beatific vision10 on which ,i have laid such emphasis as the real and only foundation of all religions whatsoever4 ,they receive their form and expression through spoken language1 and are1 therefore1 intimately associated with1 often dependent upon its sounds1 and laws4 ,in how many ways this may influence them ,i may briefly mention4 ,primitive language is predominantly concrete4 ,the connotations of its terms are mainly objective4 ,by this necessity arose the materialisation of the spiritual thought4 ,it had to be expressed under external imagery4 ,primitive languages are usually intensely individualising and specific4 ,there is scarcely a native tongue in ,america in which one could say 8hand02 one must always add a pronoun indicating whose hand is meant1 8my1 thy1 his10 hand4 ,the generic distinctions in such tongues are often far reaching and real1 not purely formal1 as with us4 ,a word in the masculine or feminine gender is understood to mean that the object to which it refers is positively male or female4 ,many other distinctions are thus conveyed1 as what is animate and inanimate1 noble or vulgar1 etc4 ,the result of these distinctions in such languages as the ,aryan and ,semitic was that the gods perforce were arranged sexually as male and female1 and this persists to-day even in our ,english tongue4 ,many myths arose directly from words1 through casual similarities between them which were attributed to some divine cause4 ,this is the theory so well known by the advocacy of ,professor ,max ,mller1 who is charged1 unfairly ,i believe1 with having called mythology a 8disease of language40 ,he1 ,professor ,kuhn1 and others lay great and just stress on the influence of 8paronomy10 that is1 similarity in the sound of words1 as the starting-point of myths4 ,they have adduced endless examples from the classical tongues1 but ,i shall content myself with two from wholly primitive sources4 ,i have just referred to the ,andamanese as at the bottom of religious growth1 but with an abundant mythology4 ,in their tongue it happens that the word garub means 8night0 and also a species of caterpillar4 ,it is probably a mere coincidence of sound4 ,but they saw in it much more4 ,night to them is a depressing period1 and it would not have been created by the supreme ,puluga without just cause4 ,evidently the double meaning of the word garub indicated this4 ,and as the wise men proceed on that universally sound opinion that when there is a row there is a woman in it1 they perceive that some woman must have wantonly killed a garub1 a caterpillar1 in order that ,puluga should have sent garub1 the night1 as a punishment4 ,and this is the sum of a long mythical story4#acf ,another example is from a far distant area1 from among the ,carrier ,indians of ,british ,america4 ,the arctic fox which they hunt has a sharp yelp which sounds khaih4 ,their word for 8light0 is yekkhaih4 ,evidently the fox was the animal who first called for the light and1 by the magical power of the word1 obtained it4 ,through what difficulties he accomplished this is told in a long and curious myth obtained from them by ,father ,morice4#acg ,in the development of myths it was1 indeed1 often the case that those concerning one deity could be told of another--singularly incongruous as it often was1--or that the divine attributes primarily assigned to a deity and drawn from its character could be transferred to a human type1 as when those of a flower were placed on the god4#ach ,it is equally an error to suppose that myths were at first mere stories and received their religious character later4 ,the true myth has a religious aim from the outset1 and is not the product of an idle fancy4 ,those who have taught otherwise have been misled by a superficial acquaintance with the psychology of savage tribes4 ,mythology comes from religion1 not religion from mythology4 ,the savage understands perfectly the difference between a sacred and a secular story1 between a narrative of the doings of the gods handed down from his ancestors1 and the creation of the idle fancy brought forth to amuse a circle of listeners4 ,i have already referred to the strange similarity in the myths of savage nations far asunder in space and kinship4 ,the explanation of this is not to be found in borrowing or in recollections from a common1 remote unity2 but in the laws of the human mind4 ,the same myths are found all over the world1 with the same symbolism and imagery1 woven into cycles dealing with the same great questions of human thought4 ,this is because they arise from identical psychic sources1 and find expression under obligatory forms1 depending on the relations of man to his environment1 and on the unity of mental process throughout the race4 ,it is not possible for me at the present time to enter far into the vast temple of mythology4 ,i must content myself with selecting a few of the most prominent mythical cycles1 aiming by these to show how they form the ground-plan and substructure of the whole edifice of mythical narrative4 ,i will select seven which are the most prominent1 those relating to3 #a4 the ,cosmical ,concepts2 #b4 the ,sacred ,numbers2 #c4 the ,drama of the ,universe2 #d4 the ,earthly ,paradise2 #e4 the ,conflict of ,nature2 #f4 the ,returning ,saviour2 and #g4 the ,journey of the ,soul4 #a4 ,the ,cosmical ,concepts4--,wherever man is placed on the earth1 he is guided in his movements by space and direction4 ,these are among the earliest notions he derives from the impressions on his senses4 ,his anatomical conformation1 the anterior and posterior planes of his body and his right and left sides1 lead him to a fourfold division of space1 as before him and behind him1 to one side or the other4 ,he conceives the earth1 therefore1 as a plain with four quarters1 the chief directions as four1 to wit1 the cardinal points1 and the winds as four principal currents from these points4 ,the sky is to him a solid covering1 supported at each of its four corners by a tree1 a pillar1 or a giant1 and is itself divided into four courts or regions like the earth4 ,these were his cosmical concepts1 his primal ideas of the universe1 and they entered deeply into his life1 his acts1 and his beliefs4 ,he founded his social organisation on them1 he pitched his tents or built his cities on their model1 he oriented his edifices to simulate them1 and framed his myths to explain and perpetuate them4 ,we find these concepts practically universal4 ,the symbolic figures which represent them are scratched in the soil at the ,bora1 or initiation ceremonies of the ,australians2 they are etched into the pots and jars we dig up in the mounds of the ,mississippi valley2 they are painted in strange figures on the manuscripts of the ,mayas and ,mexicans2 they reappear in the mysterious symbols of the svastika and the ,chinese ,ta-,ki2 they underlie the foundation stones of ,egyptian pyramids1 and recur in the lowest strata of ,babylonian ziggarats4#aci #b4 ,the ,sacred ,numbers4--,the cosmical concepts were closely connected with the sacred numbers4 ,wherever we turn in myth and rite1 in symbolism or sacred art1 we find certain numbers which have a hallowed priority in religious thought4 ,these numbers are pre-eminently the three and the four1 and those derived from them4 ,they are distinctly antithetic in character1 arising from contrasting psychical sources1 which ,i will briefly explain4 ,the number four derives its sacredness in mythology from the cosmical concepts just mentioned4 ,it was1 therefore1 connected with the objective and phenomenal world1 and had a material and concrete origin and applications4 ,the number three1 on the other hand1 was surrounded with the halo of sanctity from the operations of the mind itself4 ,these1 the processes of thinking1 are carried on by a triple or rather triune action of the intelligence1 which logicians express in the three fundamental 8laws of thought10 and in the trilogy of the syllogism4 ,these ever-present laws of thinking impress themselves on the mind and mental acts whether they are recognised or not1 and all the more absolutely in that involuntary action in which1 as 8sub-limital consciousness0 or 8psychic automatism10 ,i have revealed to you the true source of the conception of the ,divine4#adj ,how natural1 then1 that we should find in so many primitive faiths the belief in the triplicate nature of divinity1 should find myths1 idols1 rites1 so devised as to reflect and inculcate this6 ,such is the case1 and it is easy to quote examples1 whether we turn to the ,indians of ,america or the ,indians of ,hindostan1 whether we touch on the triads of ancient ,egypt or those of the ,druids1 whether we recall the three ,norns of ,teutonic myth or the three ,fates of the ,hellenes4 ,as a writer1 who has made the subject his special branch1 observes3 8,it is impossible to study any single system of worship throughout the world1 without being struck with the peculiar persistence of the triple number in regard to ,divinity40#ada ,the exception to this would naturally be where the concept of the number itself was too feeble to impress itself upon the myth4 ,there are tribes who cannot count four1 whose languages have no word for any number beyond two1 and yet who are by no means deficient either in mythologies or practical arts4#adb ,among these1 we should look in vain for the sacredness of numbers4 #c4 ,the ,drama of the ,universe4--,i have already quoted the saying of the wise men of ancient ,india1 8,there is no limit to the knowing of the ,self that knows40 ,he who through meditation and prayer has become one with ,god1 knows what ,god knows4 ,thus it is that in the rudest tribes we find the story of the beginning of things clearly told as coming from the inspired knowledge of the seers4 ,this story has many points of similarity1 wherever we find it1 not owing1 ,i hasten again to say1 to any unity of origin in place1 but due to the higher unity of the mind of man1 and the necessary results of its activity4 ,look in what continent we please1 we shall find the myth of a ,creation or of a primeval construction1 of a ,deluge or a destruction1 and of an expected ,restoration4 ,we shall find that man has ever looked on this present world as a passing scene in the shifting panorama of time1 to be ended by some cataclysm and to be followed by some period of millennial glory4 ,whenever we have a fairly complete body of the mythology of a primitive stock1 we discover the same scenario of the vast drama of the universe1 varying abundantly in detail and local colour1 but true to the grandiose lines of its composition4 ,it is instructive to analyse its various elements and trace them to their psychic sources4 ,let us begin with the modes of action of the creative power itself4 ,this mysterious power is known to man under three forms4 ,the simplest is that of the moulder or manufacturer1 as the potter makes his pots1 the shoemaker his shoes4 ,this is the conception which underlies many myths of the ,creator1 as is shown by the names he bears4 ,thus the ,australians called him ,baiame1 8the cutter-out10 as one cuts out a sandal from a skin1 or a figure from bark4 ,the ,maya ,indians used the term ,patol1 from the verb pat1 to mould1 as a potter his clay1 ,bitol1 which has the same meaning1 and ,tzacol1 the builder1 as of a house4#adc ,with the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 the ,creator is ,tupa1 the forger1 as one forges a spear-blade#add2 and so on4 ,the second form is that of creation in the sense of generation1 and this is a constant simile in the myths1 with reference to the process both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,the ,creator is often referred to as the ,father1 the parent1 more or less literally1 of all that is4 ,he has many such titles in the myths of ,america and ,polynesia4 ,in bi-sexual myths he is associated with some universal mother as the genetrix4 ,the third form is more recondite and loftier4 ,in an earlier lecture ,i have emphasised how man is conscious within himself of the ,will as an ultimate source of power4 ,this he clearly recognised in his primitive conditions1 and to its exertion repeatedly in his myths did he attribute the origin of things4 ,they were self-evolved in the thought of the primal ,being1 or1 as the native ,american expression is1 they were 8created by thought40 ,we find this in the rudest tribes of ,north ,america2 and among the sedentary ,zuis of ,new ,mexico1 it is said of their demiurge ,awonawilona that at the beginning 8he conceived within himself and thought outward in space10 in order to bring nature into existence4 ,we see the connection in the ,vitian dialect of ,polynesian1 in which mania is 8to think02 mana1 a miracle1 and the power to perform one4 ,according to the myths of ,hawaii1 it was 8by an act of the will0 that their triple-natured ,creator 8broke up the night0 7,po71 and from its fragments evoked into being the world of light and life4#ade ,whatever the mode of creation1 it was felt that it did not tell the whole story4 ,the conceptions of time and space are in their essence limitless1 and any creation must have been within them4 ,thus in ,polynesian myth1 ,po represents not a dateless chaos but the debris of some former state of things2 and in ,algonquin legend the primeval ocean had engulfed some older world4#adf ,this psychic molimen1 ceaselessly acting1 led in more developed mythologies to some defined fancies of these earlier periods of cosmic existence and thus to the myths of the ,ages of the ,world or the ,epochs of ,nature4 ,these are clearly outlined among the ,mexicans1 ,mayas1 ,peruvians1 and other tribes of the ,new ,world and among many on the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,the ,aztecs count them as four1 each followed by a formidable catastrophe1 nearly or quite destroying all that lived4 ,the last of these destructions was generally blended with the notion of the emergence of the solid land from the primeval waters2 and this is the origin of the ,deluge ,myth1 the story of the ,universal ,flood1 which we find in so many primitive peoples4 ,it has excited especial attention1 and by writers has been explained as the remembrance of some local overflow1 or the recollection of the ,hebrew tradition4 ,its real origin1 purely psychic and derived from the myth of the ,epochs of ,nature1 ,i explained thirty years ago in discussing its prevalence among ,american tribes4#adg #d4 ,the ,earthly ,paradise4--,associated with this cycle is the myth of the terrestrial ,paradise1 watered by its four rivers1 and enclosing the tree of life1--the happy abode of early man4 ,the four rivers are the celestial streams from the four corners of the earth1 watering the tree as the emblem of life4 ,thus we find it among the ,american ,indians1 the ,sioux and the ,aztecs1 the ,mayas1 the ,polynesians1 the ancient ,aryans and ,semites1 etc4#adh ,its origin is purely psychic1 and though we can easily understand how the writer of the ,book of ,genesis sought to identify these mythical streams with some known to him1 it is strangely out of date for scholars of to-day to follow his footsteps in that vain quest4#adi #e4 ,the ,conflict of ,nature4--,another great cycle of psychic myths arose from the conflict of nature as apprehended by the primitive mind4 ,everywhere it seems to be raging around us4 ,the hourly struggle of light with darkness2 of day with night2 of sunshine with storm2 of summer with winter2 of youth with age1 of health with disease2 of life with death2 of all that makes toward good with all that makes toward evil--this endless battle of two principles underlies all movement and is forever stirring the soul to throw itself into the fray4 ,in a thousand forms this eternal combat was portrayed in myths1 all pregnant with one meaning1 bodying it forth in varied symbol and expression4 ,the world-wide stories of the conflict of the first two brothers1 of men with gods1 of giants with heroes1 of the deities among themselves1 arose from this perception of the unceasing interaction of natural forces1 imagined as a war between conscious existences4 #f4 ,the ,returning ,saviour4--,out of this imagined turmoil and slaughter grew the wonderful mythical cycles concerning the ,deliverer and ,saviour4 ,he would come from afar1 out of the morning light or the distant sky1 or he would be born of a virgin and the son of a god4 ,he would lead his people to happiness and power1 crushing by his might the enemies who afflicted them1 whether on earth or among the envious gods4 ,blond-bearded and light-haired1 even among ,polynesians and ,americans1 we cannot err in seeing in this majestic figure the personified idea of ,light1 transferred from the plane of physical phenomena into that of psychical anticipation4#aej #g4 ,the ,journey of the ,soul4--,lastly1 ,i mention the cycle which describes the journey of the soul after death4 ,the extraordinary similarity which ,i and others have pointed out between the opinions on this subject among ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 ancient ,celts1 and ,north ,american ,indians1#aea is not to be explained by any theory of inter-communication1 nor 8by chance10 as some have argued1 but by fixed psychic laws1 working over the same material under similar conditions4 ,the soul passes toward the west1 crosses a sea or river to the abode of the departed1 and meets everywhere nearly the same obstacles1 to be overcome by proper preparations and mortuary ceremonies4 ,i need not rehearse the details4 ,they can be compared elsewhere4 ,but their substantial identity confirms in an emphatic manner the thesis ,i am advocating1 that in these universal mythical cycles we are dealing not with fragments of some one set of fancies borrowed from a common source1 but with independent creations of the human intellect1 framed under laws common to it everywhere1 and which tend always to produce fruits generically everywhere the same4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,primitive ,religious ,expression3 ,in the ,object4 ,,contents3--,visual ,ideas--,fetishism--,not ,object-,worship only--,identical with ,idolatry--,modern ,fetishism--,animism--,not a ,stadium of ,religion--,the ,chief ,groups of ,religious ,objects3 #a4 ,the ,celestial ,bodies--,sun and ,moon ,worship--,astrolatry2 #b4 ,the ,four ,elements--,fire1 ,air 7the ,winds71 ,water1 and the ,earth--,symbolism of ,colours2 #c4 ,stones and ,rocks--,thunderbolts--,memorial ,stones--,divining ,stones2 #d4 ,trees and ,plants--,the ,tree of ,life--,the ,sacred ,pole and the ,cross--,the ,plant-,soul--,the ,tree of ,knowledge2 #e4 ,places and ,sites--,high ,places and ,caves2 #f4 ,the ,lower ,animals--,the ,bird1 the ,serpent1 etc42 #g4 ,man--,anthropism in ,religion--,the ,worship of ,beauty2 #h4 ,life and its ,transmission--,examples--,genesiac ,cults--,the ,fatherhood of ,god--,love as ,religion's ,crown4 ,if we analyse the concepts which occupy our minds1 we shall find that most of them are derived from the sense of sight2 they are what psychologists call 8visual ideas40 ,to these alone we owe the notions of space1 size1 form1 colour1 brightness1 and motion4 ,by filling the brain with such images1 sight becomes a mental stimulus of the highest order1 and as we find it exerting its influence in other directions1 so in the development of the religious sense it has always held a conspicuous place4 ,it has led to the objective expression of that sense under visible forms1 in images1 pictures1 sacred structures1 symbolic colours and shapes1 and natural substances4 ,this expression1 universal in primitive conditions1 is called fetishism1 polytheism1 and idolatry1 the worship of stocks and stones4 ,but ,i wish to impress upon you that nowhere in the world did man ever worship a stock or a stone1 as such4 ,every fetish1 be it a rag-baby or a pebble from the road-side1 is adored1 not as itself1 but as possessing some mysterious1 transcendental power1 by which it can influence the future4 ,in some obscure way it is the medium or agent of that supernatural ,will1 the recognition of which is at the basis of every religion4 ,the relation of the fetish to the spiritual power behind it1 though everywhere recognised1 was not easy to define4 ,the ,melanesians believe that the souls of the dead act through bones2 while the independent spirits 7vui7 choose stones as their mediums2 and they say that these objects are1 as it were1 limbs or members of these incorporeal powers4#aeb ,that the fetish itself is something else than the mere object1 and is certainly not identified with it 7as writers have often asserted71 is evident from the words and actions of fetish worshippers4 ,a ,south ,african negro offered food to a tree in the presence of an ,european traveller4 ,the latter observed that a tree cannot eat4 8,oh10 replied the negro1 8tree not fetish4 ,fetish spirit2 not seen2 live in tree40#aec ,if a fetish does not bring good luck1 it is thrown away1 burned1 or broken1 as having lost its virtue1 ceased to be the abode of power4 ,one of efficacy1 on the other hand1 will bring a good price1 and such are often sold and bought4 ,among the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea the fetishes are small wooden dolls dressed in coloured rags4 ,they are believed to be the media through which the ancestral spirits operate4 ,but if a man has bad luck1 he will beat1 or break1 or cast away1 as of no account1 such an impotent object4#aed ,these and scores of other examples which could be adduced disprove the assertion that man1 even in his lowest phases of religious life1 ever worshipped an object as an object4 ,even then1 his intellectual insight penetrated to the recognition of something higher than phenomena in the world about him4 ,as has been well said by a ,german writer1 what is really worshipped in the object anywhere is not itself but 8a transcendental x10 within and beyond it4#aee ,it has been abundantly shown that amid the tribes of the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 to whose gods the term fetish1 feitio1 was first applied by the ,portuguese1 the recognition and worship of tribal and national divinities and even of a ,supreme ,being1 ruler and creator of the world1 are clearly displayed4#aef ,the house of cards therefore1 erected by ,auguste ,comte1 to represent the religious progress of the race1 the first floor of which was fetishism1 the second polytheism1 and the third monotheism1 falls helplessly to the ground4 ,there is no real distinction between fetishism and idolatry1 unless we choose to say that the latter refers to the worship of objects artificially shaped2 but many fetishes are so likewise4 ,nor can we say1 with ,professor ,rialle1 that fetishism confounds the unseen agent with the thing itself1 while the idolatry of developed polytheism regards the agent as something exterior to the object1 an independent existence4#aeg ,for not only does fetishism recognise the power of the supernatural outside of all objects1 but the idols of polytheism are unquestionably just as holy1 just as much limbs of the gods1 as the dolls of the ,melanesians4 ,we cannot even take fetishism as a special form of the cult or external worship2 for it goes hand in hand with every phase of objective religion4 ,it is quite as prevalent now1 in proportion to the general strength of the religious sentiment1 as it ever was1 and is visible in the sacredness which all sects of the highest religions attach to certain objects and places4 ,when the ,christian touches the bone of a saint that he may be healed of an infirmity1 or when he speaks of his church edifice as 8the house of ,god10 or when he packs in his trunk a ,bible 8for luck's sake10 he is as much a fetish worshipper as the negro caboceer who collects around him a thousand pieces of rubbish because he thinks they have brought him good fortune4#aeh ,modern folk-lore is full of fetishism1 and it is a development of the religious sentiment which flourishes in all times and climes4 ,amulets1 charms1 lucky stones1 everything that we now call by the familiar term of mascot1 partakes of the nature of a fetish4 ,through some fancied potency1 not to be found among its physical qualities1 it is believed to bring us good fortune4 ,nor is it a distinctive character of fetish worship1 as has been maintained by some1 that in it compulsion or constraint is endeavoured to be exercised on the gods to force them to be favourable and exert their power in aid of the supplicant4 ,the earliest prayers are not of this character1 as ,i showed in my last lecture2 and1 on the other hand1 the notion of constraining the gods extended widely in higher religions and1 indeed1 probably in a metaphysical sense1 was taught by the founder of ,christianity himself1 as in the parable of the unjust judge4 ,as there is nothing deeper than an external distinction between fetishism and idolatry1 so there is no special form of religious thought which expresses itself as what has been called by ,dr4 ,tylor1 8animism10 the belief that inanimate objects are animated and possess souls or spirits4 ,this opinion1 which in one guise or another1 is common to all religions and many philosophies1 is merely a secondary phenomenon of the religious sentiment1 and not a trait characteristic of primitive faiths4 ,the idea of the ,world-,soul1 manifesting itself individually in every form of matter from the star to the clod1 is as truly the belief of the ,sioux ,indian or the ,fijian cannibal1 as it was of ,spinoza or ,giordano ,bruno4#aei ,this vague and universal divine potency extends through all nature1 organic and inorganic1 expressing itself in personality wherever separateness1 oneness1 is visible4 ,not merely did animals and trees share in the ,world-soul1 but every object whatever4 ,with the ,american ,indians1 the commonest sticks and stones1 even the household vessel fashioned out of clay1 or the hollowed stone on which the maize was pounded1 had its spiritual essence1 which might speak1 act1 and require to be venerated4#afj ,the ,vitian ,islanders held that each cocoanut had its own spirit1 and occasionally many cocoanuts assembled for a jollification1 at which times the joyous cracking of their sides kept the natives awake6#afa ,but no error would be greater than to confound this with a veneration of such objects in themselves4 ,to the mind of the savage1 whatever displayed movement1 emitted sound or odour1 or by its defined limits and form indicated unity1 was to him a manifestation in personality of that impersonal1 spiritual ,power of which he felt himself but one of the expressions4 ,all other expressions shared his powers1 and did not1 in essence1 differ from him4 ,the brute1 the plant1 the stone1 the wandering orbs of night1 the howling wind1 the crackling fire1 the towering hill1 all were his fellow-creatures1 inspired by the same life as himself1 drawing it from the same universal font of life4 ,it is not without reason1 therefore1 that the undeveloped religious longings ask for something concrete to represent divinity4 ,through its visible and audible traits the power of the ,unseen ,ruler is brought sharply to the consciousness4 ,we sympathise even with the poor ,oraons of ,bengal1 who1 seeing nothing nobler to embody the divine1 place a ploughshare on their altar as the object of adoration4#afb ,although in the limitless field of his religious insight everything in nature was to him a manifestation of divinity1 primitive man everywhere indicated a preference for certain objects and groups of objects1 evidently led to single them out on account of the strength or frequency of the appeals they make to his senses of sight and hearing4 ,with the utmost brevity ,i will enumerate the most important of these groups1 and endeavour at the same time to point out why they were everywhere selected to convey conceptions of the nature and attributes of ,god4 #a4 ,the ,celestial ,bodies4--,the first group that ,i shall mention is that of the ,celestial ,bodies1 the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars4 ,the traits which connected them with the ideas of the divine are almost too obvious to require mention4 ,they are bringers of light and warmth1 they define the momentous change of day and night1 their motions usher in the seasons and mark the progress of time4 ,they are remote1 aloft1 inscrutable1 dwellers in a realm which man may distantly perceive but never enter4 ,so much has been written of solar myths and star worship that every reader is aware of their practical universality among early nations4 ,it is probable that the division of our week into seven days arose either from the dedication of one to each of the seven greatest luminaries or to a division of the moon's apparent course into four parts4 ,judicial astrology1 which is not yet wholly dead1 always maintained that the nativities were decided by the position of the stars4 ,all such survivals carry us back to primitive religions in which the astral bodies were prominent figures in the cult4 ,many writers have maintained that the ,american ,indians from north to south were always and mainly sun-worshippers4 ,though this is too hasty a statement1 everyone will acknowledge that the sun is ever a conspicuous figure in their myths and rites4 ,so it is among the ,polynesians and ,africans1 and so we find it in the early forms of ,aryan1 ,semitic1 and ,egyptian belief4 ,it is at first sight strange that in many mythologies the moon plays a more important rle than the sun4 ,but if we reflect that the night is the time when spirits walk abroad2 when sounds strike the ear with mysterious notes2 when nocturnal birds and beasts stir the senses with strange cries2 when1 on the other hand1 the cooling zephyrs and soft moonlight bring sweet ease1 and the gentle dews refresh the parched leaves2 then we can understand why1 both in modern folk-lore#afc and in primitive myths1 the moon and the stars are often far more conspicuous than the flaming sun4 ,the night1 in fact1 draws the veil from the spiritual world2 as has been said so beautifully by ,shelley3 8,as if yet around her he lingering were1 ,though the veil of daylight concealed him from her40 ,a few examples will illustrate this3 ,the ,dieyeris of ,australia believe that man and all other beings were created by the moon4 ,in many ,american languages the moon is regarded as male and the sun is referred to as 8his companion40 ,the ,ipurinas1 a ,brazilian tribe1 address the orb as 8,our ,father10 and imagine him a little old man who was their ancestor and still watches over their prosperity4 ,in like manner the eastern ,eskimos say that their ancestors came from the moon to the earth4 ,with the rude tribes of southern ,borneo it is stated that the veneration of the moon forms the chief basis of their worship and myths4#afd ,i can but refer to the lesser luminaries of the night4 ,the stars have at all times been associated with religious meditations4 ,the various constellations are familiar to most primitive peoples and are personified under living forms4 ,widely in ,south ,america and ,polynesia the ,pleiades enjoyed an especial homage1 as marking the advent of the seasons and as connected with the production of vegetable life4 ,in ,peru they were styled the gods of rains2 and the natives of the ,gulf of ,california venerated them to that degree that even to look at them heedlessly was deemed calamitous2 while some ,australians held that it was from them that fire first descended to the world4#afe ,in such remote districts as ,australia and ,greenland the ,milky-way was regarded as the path by which the souls ascended to their homes in the sky4 ,in the one land the ,aurora ,australis1 in the other the ,aurora ,borealis1 was looked upon as the dance of the gods across the star-lit vault4 ,indeed1 the study of the stellar bodies and the definition of their periodical appearance date directly to the veneration they excited in religious minds4 #b4 ,the ,four ,elements4--,the simple theory that the world is composed of four elements1 fire1 water1 air1 and earth1 is one which presents itself so naturally to primitive thought that traces of it can be seen in most mythologies which have passed beyond the rudimentary forms4 ,each of these elements has its own group of religious associations1 and they present themselves with that uniformity which we find so universal in religious expression1 to be explained1 as ,i have so often said1 by the identity everywhere of the psychic sources of religion4 ,perhaps the earliest of all the elements to receive this adoration was fire4 ,with its discovery man first entered into human social life4 ,everywhere and in all peoples it has been in a manner sacred4 ,with the ,kafirs every religious ceremony must be performed in front of a fire4#aff ,in the ,rig ,veda the crackling of the blazing twigs is regarded as the speech of the gods1 just as it is to-day in ,borneo4 ,the institutions of the sacred fire and the perpetual fire recur in every continent1 and we have but to enter a church of the ,roman communion on the morning of ,holy ,saturday to witness the impressive ceremonies with which the creation of the 8new fire0 is to this day celebrated in our midst4 ,the custom of passing an infant 8through the fire0 was as much practised by the ,aztecs in ,mexico as by the ,moloch worshippers of ,syria4#afg ,the ,peruvians held that divine inspiration was to be obtained by sacrifices to the god of fire2 and those of ,guatemala adored it as their greatest and oldest deity4#afh ,in all these and in a hundred other examples which ,i might cite1 the main thought is that in fire and its products--warmth1 heat1 light1 flame--lies the essential principle of life2 and the worship of ,life was the central1 positive conception in primitive ceremonies4 ,the air to early man is recognised in motion as the winds2 and these1 in his myths and rites1 occupy a conspicuous position4 ,conceived as four1 blowing more or less directly from the four corners of the earth-plane1 they are the rain-bringers1 the gods of the seasons and the year1 controlling the products of the harvest and hence the happiness and life of man4 ,the outlines of the story are the same whether we listen to the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 who tell us of ,tawhiri-matea1 god of the winds1 who divided his progeny into four broods and sent one to each quarter of the compass2 to the ,eskimos1 who narrate just the same of ,sillam ,innua1 owner of the winds1 and his four sons2 or to a score of like myths which ,i could quote from ,american storyland4#afi ,the house of the winds1 where they are imagined to be stored1 a mythical notion which ,professor ,schwartz has shown to be so wide-spread in the ,old ,world1 recurs with scarcely less frequency in the ,new ,world4#agj ,water1 as moisture1 the dew1 the fertilising showers1 the green bordered streams and lakes1 was ever connected with vegetable life and its symbols4 ,in most cosmogonies the land rose from the bosom of some primal sea2 in most primitive geographies the solid earth is surrounded by the mighty ocean-stream which stretches out to the uttermost space4 8,all of us10 said the ,aztecs1 8are children of water40 ,hence the spring1 the stream1 the lake1 was ever regarded as a beneficent being1 who should rightly call for the adoration of the true in soul4 ,tlaloc1 god of rains1 and the many-named gods of the heavenly vase in which the rains were stored on high1 were conspicuous figures in the ,american pantheon4#aga ,virgil speaks of 8,oceanus1 pater rerum02 and in the ,finnish epic1 the ,kalewala1 it reads3 8,three infants came forth from the same womb2 water the oldest1 fire the youngest1 and iron between them40#agb ,water also entered into numberless rites of purification1 of penitence1 and sanctification4#agc ,baptism by sprinkling or immersion belongs to the most ancient sacred rites2 and the use of the fluid in divination1 lustration1 and libation was world-wide4 ,the most venerable god of ,chaldean mythology was a1 lord of the earth and 8the waters under the earth40 ,he was the deity in whose gift were the harvest1 the germination of seeds1 the fertility of the soil4 ,extending the idea to embrace all life1 the ,aztecs worshipped the earth as ,tonantzin1 ,our ,beloved ,mother1 and the ,peruvians as ,mama ,cocha1 ,mother ,earth4 ,from her womb1 said they1 do all that live proceed1 and to her silent breast will all again return4 ,far below her opaque surface is the realm which the sun lights at night1 the abode of happy souls1 said the ,aztecs1 ruled by the clement ,quetzalcoatl1 who there abides until the time fixed for his return to men4 ,from beneath the earth1 repeat a hundred mythologies1 did the first of men emerge seeking the light above but losing the joy below4 ,so that in such distant points as ,kamtschatka and the ,andaman ,islands we meet the same prophetic myth that at the end of the world the present earth will be turned upside down1 and its then inhabitants will rejoice in the perennial warmth and light of the happier under-world4#agd ,intimately associated with the worship of the four elements1 and also with the myths of the cosmical concepts1 we trace through primitive religions the sacredness and symbolism of colours4 ,everywhere1 in all cults1 they are connected with certain trains of religious thoughts1 certain expressions of religious emotions1 though by no means always the same4 ,but ,i can only refer1 in passing1 to this extended subject1 which has not yet received the psychologic analysis which its importance demands4#age #c4 ,stones and ,rocks4--,when we turn from these universal elements1 which we can readily conceive portrayed with some commensurate greatness the idea of the supernatural1 to such a gross and material object as a stone1 a common stone or rock1 it is at first difficult to understand its wide-spread acceptance as a symbol of the divine4 ,but if we reflect on its hardness and durability1 on its colour and lustre1 and on the strange shapes in which it is found1 we can see why it was so chosen4 ,in the early ,semitic records we often read of ,beth-el1 the ,house of ,god4 ,this was usually nothing but an amorphous stone1 which the god was supposed to inhabit4 ,the holy ,kaaba of ,mahometanism is no doubt such an one1 a rough1 black piece of rock4 ,the sacred image of ,diana of the ,ephesians was nothing more1 and the ,latin father ,arnobius tells us that the image of earth1 the ,great ,mother1 brought to ,rome from ,phrygia with sumptuous pomp1 was merely 8a small black stone1 rough and unhewn40#agf ,to this instance1 where the stone represents the ,earth as the common mother1 we find many exact parallels in savage faiths4 ,in the ,tahitian myths1 ,papa1 ,rock1 was the name of the wife of the first man1 mother of the race of men1 and under this form she was adored4#agg ,the ,zulus considered certain stones as sacred1 because from one such1 which split in two1 their ancestors emerged4 ,their neighbours1 the ,basutos1 entertain the same notion of a spheroidal granite boulder in their country1 and their worship of it consists in dancing around it and spitting at it4 ,the ,indians of ,colombia asserted that all men were once stones1 and all will again become such4#agh ,those of ,guatemala were wont to place a small polished stone in the mouth of the dying to receive the soul1 and thus supply it with a permanent abode4 ,the most common of mascots is a 8lucky stone10 and this goes back to the time when such was the favourite material for household fetishes4 ,to this day the ,canaras of ,india believe that the ,bhutas1 or familiar spirits1 inhabit rough stones1 and in ,melanesia similar stones are held to be the abode of the vui or demonic intelligences4#agi ,another source of the sacredness of stones was their identification as 8thunderbolts40 ,certain ones were believed to be the missiles hurled from the sky by the ,thunder ,god in the lightning flash2 though the ,peruvians had the prettier belief that1 as the product of the heavenly fire1 they must retain its ardency1 and therefore used them as love charms4#ahj ,flint1 which when struck with a bit of pyrites emits a spark1 and meteoric stones were especially recognised by these marks as of celestial origin4 ,such a flint stone1 say the legends of the ,nahuas1 in the beginning of the world fell from heaven to earth2 as it broke to pieces each fragment rose to life as a demi-god4 ,all men1 added the ,mexicans1 came originally from such stones4#aha ,yet another origin of god-stones was the custom of erecting them as monuments of the dead4 ,we can see this in its simplicity in ,southern ,polynesia4 ,when a chief dies1 a coral slab about three feet long is placed erect over his grave--a tombstone1 in other words4 ,this is decked with flowers and garlands1 food is offered it1 and invocations pronounced before it1 precisely as to a divinity4 ,this is because the spirit of the departed chief is believed to dwell within it4#ahb ,it was equally sacred when the stone was a mere cenotaph erected in memory of a departed chief or saint4 ,such are found in all lands and in all cults4 ,they are the menhirs of the ,celts1 and the grave-stones of the ,koders of ,india1 often painted in strong colours4#ahc ,certain stones1 especially those we call 8precious10 the gems1 have physical traits of transparency1 lustre1 and colour1 which have ever made them prized1 and led to the belief that they exercise peculiar powers on the mind4 ,throughout ,asia and ,america the varieties of jade or nephrite1 a greenish1 semi-translucent mineral1 has had a wide-spread reputation for sacred meaning and magical potency4 ,the chalchiuhite of the ,mexicans1 small green stones1 believed to control the weather and representative of the goddess of the waters and the rains1 were of this material4 ,by attentively gazing into the transparency of a quartz crystal1 the ,maya shaman of ,yucatan still believes that he will see in its depths1 unfolded by the god whose dwelling it is1 the picture of the future and the decrees of fate4 #d4 ,trees and ,plants4--,primitive man was arboreal4 ,a hollow tree was his home1 its branches his place of refuge1 its fruit his sustenance4 ,naturally the tree became associated with his earliest religious thoughts4 ,it represented his protecting deity4 ,he would not willingly injure it4 ,when the ,mandans cut a pole for their tents1 they swath it in bandages so that its pain may be allayed4 ,the ,hidatsas would not cut down a large cottonwood tree1 because it guarded their tribe4 ,the ,algonquins decked an old oak with offerings suspended to its branches1 for the same reason4#ahd ,trees from their dripping foliage1 and because their shade was associated with the grey of a cloudy day1 were believed to make the rains and thus to refresh the fields and fertilise the seeds of the vegetable world4 ,the step was easily taken to extend this to all germs1 animal as well as vegetable4 ,thus the tree came to symbolise the source of ,life1 and to represent both the clouds and rains and the fatherhood of men and brutes4 ,it could cause flocks to multiply and the barren womb to conceive4#ahe ,among the ,mexicans1 the tree was invoked as ,tota1 8,our ,father10 and was spoken of as god of the waters and the green foliage4 ,some particular species was chosen as the totem of various ,american gentes1 and in the earliest legends of ,greece and ,persia sundry famous families traced their descent from a tree4 ,these ideas led to the mythical association of the tree with the origin of life1 and with various objective expressions of this in the cult4 ,in most ,american stories where we hear of the first of men emerging from the under-world1 it is by climbing a tree4 ,this tree also supports the sky1 and is so represented in the native books of the ,mayas and ,nahuas4#ahf ,the ,yurucares of ,bolivia relate that their god ,tiri1 when he would people the earth with men1 cleft a tree1 and from the opening came forth the various tribes of the world4#ahg ,when the tree was not worshipped as itself1 but under a symbolic form1 this was usually as the sacred pole or the cross4 ,the sacred pole was found widely among the ,american ,indians4 ,it was planted in the centre of their villages1 or1 if the tribe was nomadic1 it was carried about in an ark or wrapping and set up in a tent by itself in their encampment4 ,it typified the communal life of the tribe and represented the 8mystery tree10 which was intimately associated in their legendary origin4#ahh ,in early art the cross as a sacred design is often derived from the conventional figure of a tree1 and symbolises the force of life1 the four winds1 the rain1 and the waters4 ,this is notably the case in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 where we have abundant testimony that this is the origin and meaning of the cross-symbol so frequent on their monuments4 ,the sacred tree is a conspicuous figure in the earliest bas-reliefs of the ,chaldeans4 ,it is often represented in a cruciform shape1 and frequently a winged seraph is holding up to it a pine cone1 the fruit of the sacred cedar1 either as an emblem of fertility1 or1 more likely1 as an aspergillum1 with which to bedew it from the holy water1 which is carried in a bucket in the other hand4#ahi ,that a tree is a 8thing of life0 it is hard for us even yet to doubt1 and we can scarcely avoid being attracted by ,fechner's pleasing theories of a 8plant-soul40#aij ,the sound of the wind in the leaves1 rising from the softest of mystic whispers to the roaring of the wild blast1 seems to proceed from some mind or spirit4 ,the ,australians say that these are the voices of the ghosts of the dead1 communing one with another1 or warning the living of what is to come4 ,they and other tribes also believe that it is through understanding this mysterious language that the 8doctors10 or shamans1 communicate with the world of spirits and derive their supernatural knowledge4#aia ,hence we can easily see arose the myth of 8the tree of knowledge10 which we find in the earliest ,semitic annals and monuments4 ,it belonged to the same species as the oracular oak of ,zeus at ,dodona1 and the laurel of ,apollo at ,delphi1 from the whispers of whose leaves the sibyls interpreted the sayings of the gods4 ,not only was a tree the earliest house of man1 it was also his first temple4 ,that very word 8temple0 bears witness to the fact1 for it is from the ,greek 1 a sacred grove set apart as a place of worship4 ,the aspiring lines of ,gothic cathedrals simulate the trunks of slender and majestic trees carrying the eye and the soul aloft1 and by their overreaching limbs shutting out the glare of day1 thus leading the mind to holy meditation4 ,tacitus describes the ,germans as building no temples1 but worshipping their mysterious divinity1 secretum illud1 in the gloom of the forest4 #e4 ,places and ,sites4--,early man stays close to the soil4 ,it is proved1 by the distribution of the oldest stone implements1 that primitive tribes were not generally migratory1 and had little intercourse with their neighbours4 ,hence the more closely did they study their immediate surroundings2 and a spot which was marked by some peculiar feature was soon associated with their all-permeating religious notions1 and was deemed sacred4 ,these features can usually be easily recognised4 ,a spring1 well1 or fountain1 where from dry earth1 or out of the rock1 pours forth the crystal fluid on which depends the life of man and brute and plant1 was everywhere a holy spot4 ,the brook which flowed from it1 chattering its endless tale among the pebbles1 was scarcely less so4 ,it was directly said and oft repeated by the ,greeks that the manteia1 the holy inspiration1 was imparted at the fountain of ,parnassus or at the ,pierian spring4 ,the ,moxos of ,bolivia claim descent from the stream on which their villages are situated1 a more than figurative expression of their dependence on it for food and drink4#aib ,the sacred character of 8high places10 such as hills1 mountains1 or elevated plateaux1 is intimately connected with the universal belief in 8the ,father in ,heaven10 the sky as the home and the throne of the greatest divinities4 ,i have already referred to the terrestrial 8,hills of ,heaven10 located1 as a rule1 within the tribal area4#aic ,a high hill or mountain1 regarded by itself as a personality1 would justly be looked upon as of extraordinary might1 and invoked as a potent aid in the undertakings of life4 ,in the invocations of the ,quiches of ,central ,america1 who live in the midst of lofty peaks1 over one hundred of them are named and implored for aid4 ,the 8,heart of the ,hills0 is the title which the ancient ,mexicans applied to one of their greatest gods4 ,a third and important trait which gave them sacredness is the strength of the echo which is returned from their narrow gorges or precipitous sides4 ,mountain worship is very generally oracular in character4 ,classical and familiar examples of this are the ,pythoness and the ,roman ,sibyl4 ,mountain caves are natural temples1 and as the cave1 like the hollow tree1 is a ready-built house for the wandering savage1 so it is also marvellously adapted to his ends as a shrine4 ,throughout ,mexico and ,central ,america we find the caves chosen as the temples of the mightiest deities and the depositories of the holiest relics4#aid ,the sacredness of some spots arose from their adaptation to certain rites1 religious or magical4 ,thus1 for the haruspices to practise their specialty in divination1 they must choose a spot where they could watch the flight of birds4 ,the sacrifices to the god of heaven should be under the open sky1 and the ,mayas of ,yucatan believed that when the sun was in the zenith and the sacred fire was kindled beneath it1 the ineffable ,deity descended in the form of a bright plumaged ara and partook of the offering4 ,places of this kind were of course laid under tabu1 and thus reserved for their sacred uses only4 ,sometimes they were enclosed1 but often the community was sufficiently informed about them to make this unnecessary4 ,the fame of these sacred places and the powers of the gods who dwelt within them extended widely even in very primitive conditions4 ,this gave rise to the custom of pilgrimages1 quite as familiar to the ,american ,indians before ,columbus as to the ,europeans of the ,middle ,ages4 ,there were famous holy places on the island of ,cozumel and in ,colombia and ,peru1 to which pious palmers wended their way over many hundred miles of weary journeying4 ,the local divinity naturally drew his colouring and his main attributes from the spot itself1 and those in turn gave a similar local physiognomy to his rites and functions4 ,we have thus a kind of geographical character impressed on early religions1 which their later developments retained long after they had been severed from their first meanings and had drifted to other climes and alien races4 #f4 ,the ,lower ,animals4--,the primitive mind did not recognise any deep distinction between the lower animals and man4 ,the savage knew that the beast was his superior in many points1 in craft and strength1 in fleetness and intuition1 and he regarded it with respect4 ,to him1 the brute had a soul not inferior to his own1 and a language which the wise among men might on occasion learn4 ,the strange powers and mysterious faculties they often possess were to him inexplicable by any other doctrine than that they were divine2 therefore1 with wide unanimity1 he placed certain species of animals nearer to ,god than is man himself1 or even identified them with the manifestations of the ,highest4 ,none was in this respect a greater favourite than the bird4 ,its soaring flight1 its strange or sweet notes1 the marked hues of its plumage1 combined to render it a fit emblem of power and beauty4 ,the ,dyaks of ,borneo trace their descent to ,singalang ,burong1 the god of birds2 and birds as the ancestors of the totemic family are extremely common among the ,american ,indians4 ,the ,eskimos say that they have the faculty of soul or life beyond all other creatures1 and in most primitive tribes they have been regarded as the messengers of the divine and the special purveyors of the vital principle4 ,according to the myths of the ,polynesians1 the gods in the old times used to speak to man through the carols of the feathered songsters2 and everywhere1 to be able to understand the language of birds was equivalent to being able to converse with the gods4 ,the chief god of the ,murray ,river ,australians was ,nourali4 ,he was immortal1 self-created1 and the creator of all4 ,the form under which they conceived him was that of a bird1 a crow or eagle4 ,among nearly all the tribes of the ,north-west ,coast and the adjacent interior of ,british ,america1 the creation of the world is attributed to a raven1 ,yetl1 who is personated in the dark thunder-cloud4 ,south of them1 in the wide-spread ,algonquin stock1 this 8thunder-bird0 is a conspicuous figure in art and myth2 and we could pursue our way quite to the extreme south of the continent1 and everywhere among the aboriginal tribes we should discover similar sacred associations connected with the birds4 ,they are universal in religions1 and those which we meet in ,christian art1 the eagle1 the dove1 etc41 carry with them significations allied to those they bear in earlier and primitive symbolism4#aie ,closely connected with these ideas was the reverence of the egg as the symbol of the origin of life4 ,plutarch tells us that in the ,bacchic mysteries the egg represented matter in its germinal condition1 that is1 the potentiality of life2 and this meaning we have retained with the symbol in our customs relating to ,easter eggs on the morning of the ,resurrection4 ,the derivation from the observation of the bird brooding on its nest is obvious1 and no wonder therefore that the symbol with allied myths and rites extends through all religions4 ,in the creation legend of the ,yaros1 a ,dravida tribe of ,northern ,india1 the goddess ,nustoo1 who created the world1 came into life from a self-evolved egg1 and dwelt on the petals of a water-lily until she had formed and moulded the land for her abode4 ,the ,dyaks of ,borneo relate that after the ,supreme ,being had created the world1 the god ,ranying descended to the new earth and formed there seven eggs1 which contained the germs of man and woman1 all animals and plants4#aif ,this example1 of the bird1 which ,i have given in some detail1 will illustrate the cult of an animal form4 ,it by no means stands alone in its universality4 ,perhaps even more striking is the so-called 8serpent-worship10 which has occupied the attention of so many writers4 ,the adoration of the serpent-symbol is wonderfully wide-spread4 ,scarcely a native tribe can be named in regions where this animal is known1 which does not pay it some sort of reverence4 ,some writers have traced the sentiment back to the anthropoid progenitor of man1 supposed to dwell in tropical forests abounding in venomous snakes4 ,but into this extensive question ,i cannot enter4 ,the symbolic value of most animal deities can be traced to some peculiar trait of the species4 ,thus the lizard1 very prominent in the religions of ,polynesia1 ,australia1 and ,south ,africa1 derived its significance from the nocturnal habits of some species and the diurnal habits of others4#aig ,in ,america1 the frog was the symbol of water1 over a vast area2 and that it has precisely the same meaning in ,australia1 will cause no astonishment when we recall its amphibious nature4 ,the fish1 as the emblem of life1 familiar in ,christian symbolism1 dates back to earliest ,chaldean times1 when ,oannes1 a form of the god a1 appeared as half fish and half man1 and is a parallel of the fish-god who sows the seed of man in the flood myths of both the ,brahmans and the ,mexicans4 ,it is but another expression of the recognition of water as the source or condition of life4 ,the totemic animals1 or 8eponymous ancestors10 of the clans or gentes among the ,american ,indians1 are not to be taken literally4 ,they were not understood as animals of the sort we see to-day1 but as mythical1 ancient beings1 of supernatural attributes1 who clothed themselves in those forms for their own purposes4 #g4 ,man4--,that when the brute was at times invested with the aureole of the ,divine1 man himself should at times partake of its glory1 need be expected4 ,but here let an important distinction be drawn4 ,never as man was he clothed in the attributes of ,deity1 but just in so far as he was deemed to be more than man4 ,the ,latin saying1 deus homini deus1 never was true anywhere in its literal sense4 ,anthropism never existed in any religion4 ,man or the likeness of man was never worshipped by reason of any human attribute1 but solely for those believed to be more than human1 superhuman4 ,the tribes of ,polynesia did adore their chieftains2 the ancient ,egyptians and many another people did pay their rulers divine honour1 and rank them among the gods2 but always because they considered them partakers of the divine nature1 sharers in that which is ever beyond mere humanity4#aih ,this profound distinction between the human and the humanised divine was sought to be expressed by most tribes by fashioning the images of the gods in vaguely human shapes1 but with non-human elements4 ,diana with her hundred breasts1 ,brahma with his dozens of arms1 ,janus with his double face1 and scores of other instances will at once rise in the memory4 ,enormous size1 impossible features1 accessories such as wings1 tails1 multiple heads and limbs1 indicate not1 as some would have it1 a depraved artistic taste1 but the effort of the pious carver to express in his work the non-human and superhuman character of the being he sets before the adoring eyes of the votaries4 ,it was only in a few gifted and glorious natures1 notably the ancient ,greeks1 that the true distinction rose to full consciousness in the artistic soul--that in their corporeal forms the gods differ from men in their superior and matchless beauty1 in their perfect symmetry and noble proportions4 ,they recognised that there is something in beauty itself1 which1 in its highest expression1 partakes truly and really of the divine1 and leads man to the contemplation of laws beyond those of nature or of life1 laws which are the expression of the deep harmonies of the universe4 ,this was the triumph of anthropomorphism4 ,pursuing the merely objective1 the merely animal1 it was led by the unseen hand which guides man to his destiny into the path which conducted far beyond what the senses can teach1 into the realm of the ideal and the eternal1 to 8the measures and the forms1 ,which the abstract intelligence supplies1 ,whose kingdom is where ,time and ,space are not40 ,such are some of the numberless objects with which primitive man associated his idea of the ,divine4 ,the nature of this association must not be misunderstood4 ,i repeat what ,i have already said1 that it was not an identification of the spiritual with the material4 ,the object was hallowed1 not from anything in itself1 but as the medium of invisible power4 #h4 ,life and its ,transmission4--,what ,professor ,otfried ,mller has so well said of the oldest forms of the ,greek and ,etruscan religions holds true in all primitive faiths3 8,to them1 divinity seemed a world of ,life1 blossoming forth from an impenetrable depth into definite forms and individual expressions40#aii ,all gods and holy objects were merely vehicles through which ,life and ,power poured into the world from the inexhaustible and impersonal source of both4 ,i will illustrate this first from the very ancient religion of the ,etruscans and then point out sufficient analogies in modern savage tribes4 ,that venerable people1 whose massive cities built before ,rome was founded still survive1 held that there was a single source of all existence1 animate and inanimate4 ,its immediate agents were the mysterious 8veiled gods10 whose number was unknown and whose names were never uttered4 ,they were the channels of the divine ,will1 through which it passed to the twelve highest known gods1 called the ,consentes or ,companions1 and these transmitted it through those innumerable spirits1 whom the ,latins called ,genii1 to its realisation in objective existence4 ,the word genius means a producer or begetter2 but not in any literal sense1 for not only every man and animate being had such a genius1 but also every plant1 every city1 every place1 every inanimate object1 had one also4 ,clearly1 therefore1 the word refers to an act of the creative power in the abstract or spiritual sense4 ,the genii were the proximate causes of existence1 but they were themselves 8emanations from the great gods10 and these in turn were merely the channels of the inexhaustible source of all life beyond4 ,this was the doctrine of the ,etruscans and also of the ,greeks4 ,i may compare it with the belief of one of the most brutish of barbarian hordes1 the ,itelmen of ,kamtschatka4 ,beyond all visible things1 say they1 is the ultimate ,power1 ,dusdachtschish1 invisible1 remote4 ,no worship and no offerings are tendered him other than that certain pillars are erected and decked with flowers and garlands in his honour4 ,their ,jupiter is ,kutka4 ,it was said of him that he had married all creatures and was the common father of all4 ,it was he who made land and water in their present forms and invented all arts4 ,to him the visible world owed its existence1 though not its origin4 ,many discreditable stories were told of him1 and he is as much cursed for the evils of life as praised for its advantages4 ,it is he who finds souls for all existences1 and preserves their spirits when the body decays4 ,we must not be blinded to the true significance of such myths by the often material1 coarse1 and vulgar images under which they are presented4 ,indeed1 if they are properly comprehended1 we may explain and redeem from obloquy much in the heathen legends which ,arnobius#bjj and other fathers of the ,church denounced with bitter and vehement imprecation4 ,we should consider whether they are not nave symbols1 chosen1 with a crude innocence of evil1 to convey objectively the idea of the eternally renewed life of nature4 ,this reflection will explain to us the true significance of those objects from ancient and savage cults which are preserved in the locked rooms of museums1 in their secret drawers and curtained cases4 ,they are too apt to be construed as proofs of impurity and degradation4 ,such an interpretation would be sadly at variance with the fact4 ,there were1 indeed1 and often1 licentious rites1 deliberate indecencies1 practised under the cloak of religion by unscrupulous rulers and debased priests4 ,these were alienations and prostitutions of religion4 ,in the genuine and primitive faiths1 the symbols of the reproduction and transmission of life were frequent and public1 and were not associated with thoughts or acts of debauchery4 ,they were visible emblems of that ,spirit of ,life which1 beyond all else1 was the unifying instinct of religious expression4 ,this instinct led man everywhere to call upon ,god as ,father1 as parent of whatever is1 8,pan-genitor10 as he is styled in the ,orphic hymns4 ,in every race1 in all ages1 have men's prayers ascended to 8,our ,father who art in heaven40 ,were we to listen to the rude ,australian1 we should hear him invoking ,papang1 8,father02 or ,mamin-gata1 or ,mungan-naur1 8,our ,father10 in his various dialects4 ,among the ,aztecs of ,mexico1 it would be ,to-ta1 8,our ,father02 with the ,american tribes of the north1 8grand-father10 or 8great father02 in the ,brahmnas of ,india1 ,pita1 8,father02 with the ,greeks and ,romans1 ,dios ,pater1 8the heavenly ,father02 and with the northern ,vikings1 ,odin ,all-father4#bja ,but a vital distinction has been claimed to exist between such terms and that fatherhood of ,god which we have been taught to acknowledge4 8,in heathen religions10 asserts an eminent writer1 8the fatherhood of the gods is physical fatherhood only02 and this is repeated by many ,christian theologians and commentators4#bjb ,it is easy to refute this assertion4 ,it would not have been made but for religious partisanship4 ,ethnologists are well aware that the word for 8,father0 in primitive life is much more frequently a term of respect1 applied to elders1 than necessarily denotive of kinship4 ,the father1 ,pita1 of the ,brahmnas is at once the ,creator1 ,preserver1 and ,destroyer of all things1 and far remote from physical parentage#bjc2 neither in ,american nor ,australian myths is 8the ,father above0 identified as the ancestor of the gens2 among the ,zulus1 the best instructed missionaries report that ,unkululu1 the 8,father0 of their creeds1 was not meant literally so1 but only as 8the means of helping the race into being0#bjd2 and this is the general sense of the term in every instance which ,i have analysed4 ,as some sort of a crude effort to express this comprehensibly1 we find that frequently in primitive myths and art the god1 regarded as the creator1 is shown or spoken of as 8androgynous10--that is1 of both sexes at once4 ,he is addressed as 8father-mother10 or 8mother-father10--bi-sexual rather than non-sexual in nature4#bje ,such expressions are of constant occurrence1 and some of the most objectionable portions of the ritual and of idolatrous art arose from the effort to translate this mystical characteristic into objective forms4 ,yet it remains true that the sexual antithesis1 that which mythologists call the worship of 8the reciprocal principles of nature10 is interwoven with the fibre of nearly all religions1 primitive or developed4 ,under one form or another1 it is the impulse which ever appeals most potently to the human heart4 ,the sentiment which attracts the one sex to the other1 the passion of ,love1 exceeds all others in the power it exerts on the individual life4 ,this it is1 which in some of its forms1 rude or refined1 is at the root of half the expressions of the religious sentiment4 ,we may trace it from crude and coarse beginnings in the genesiac cults of primitive peoples1 through ever nobler and more delicate expressions1 up through the celibate sacrifices of both sexes1 spouses of ,god1#bjf until in its complete expansion it reaches the perfect agape1 where the union of the human with the divine in the life eternal1 here on earth1 or beyond1 one and the same1 is believed to have been reached4#bjg ,this1 the loftiest of all the religious mystical ideals is but the result of a gradual evolution from those low beginnings which ,i have mentioned as perceptible in most primitive religions4 ,it is the ripened manifestation of that profound psychical truth1 so incomparably expressed in the lines of the philosopher-poet1 ,coleridge3 8,all thoughts1 all passions1 all delights1 ,whatever stirs this mortal frame1 ,all are but ministers of ,love1 ,and feed his sacred flame40 ,,lecture ,v4 ,primitive ,religious ,expression3 ,in the ,rite4 ,,contents3--,the ,ritual a ,mimicry of the ,gods--,magical ,rites--,division of ,rites into ,i4 ,communal1 and ,,ii4 ,personal4 ,i4 ,communal ,rites3 #a4 ,the ,assemblage--,the ,liturgy--#b4 ,the ,festal ,function--,joyous ,character of ,primitive ,rites--,commensality--,the 8,ceremonial ,circuit0--,masks and ,dramas--#c4 ,the ,sacrifice--,early and ,later ,forms--#d4 ,the ,communion with ,god--,pagan ,eucharists4 ,,ii4 ,personal ,rites3 #a4 ,relating to ,birth--,vows and ,baptism--#b4 ,relating to ,naming--,the ,personal ,name--#c4 ,relating to ,puberty--,initiation of ,boys and ,girls--#d4 ,relating to ,marriage--,marriage 8by ,capture0 and 8by ,purchase0--#e4 ,relating to ,death--,early ,cannibalism--,sepulchral ,monuments--,funerary ,ceremonies--,modes of ,burial--,customs of ,mourning4 ,we have seen how the religious sentiment finds expression in the ,word and in the ,object4 ,it remains to consider it as revealed in the ,act4 ,this is known as the ,rite or the ,ritual4 ,it is a combination of forms and ceremonies collectively known as ,worship4 ,so important is it that one eminent ,german authority has declared the ritual to be 8the source of all religions0#bjh2 and ,dr4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 also a profound student of the subject1 has maintained that 8in the study of ancient religions we must begin1 not with the myth1 but with the ritual02 because1 he adds1 8in almost every case the myth was derived from the ritual1 and not the ritual from the myth40#bji ,if ,i do not follow these authorities1 it is because my own studies have led me to a different opinion from theirs4 ,i believe that every rite is originally based on a myth4 ,in later days the myth was often obscured or lost1 and another coined to explain the rite2 and this second growth is what has misled the authors ,i have quoted4 ,the evidence which has convinced me is1 that in truly primitive condition the rite is constantly a mimicry of the supposed doings of the god2 or it is a means of summoning him according to accepted statements2 or it is a method of communing with the ,divine1 plainly drawn from the facts of suggestion and sub-conscious mentality4 ,occasionally it is a magical procedure to constrain the deities2 but this is rare in primitive conditions4#baj ,the mimicry or imitative origin of rites is well illustrated in that in use for 8rain-making10 one of the commonest of all4 ,in periods of drought1 8,the ,indian rain-maker mounts to the roof of his hut1 and rattling vigorously a dry gourd containing pebbles to represent the thunder1 scatters water through a reed on the ground beneath1 as he imagines up above in the clouds do the spirits of the storm40#baa ,the ,australian rite is analogous4 ,the women of the tribe erect a hut of leaves and branches1 in which are placed some stones4 ,the men enter1 and while some scatter bird's down in the air1 others scarify their arms and let the blood drop upon the stones4 ,these are then placed high up in trees1 and the hut demolished4 ,the symbolism is1 that the hut represents the firmament2 the down1 the light cirrus clouds which precede the storm2 the stones1 the heavy rain-clouds2 the dropping blood1 the fertilising rain4#bab ,this is again an imitation of their myth of the making of rain by the celestial powers4 ,very many rites are of this character4 ,others again are of the nature of an invitation to the divinity1 based on beliefs and narratives of his supposed actions or customs4 ,the ,mayas of ,yucatan1 for instance1 had a deity doubtless of solar character1 who bore the name1 8,the ,eye of the ,day40 ,the myth stated that his form was that of a bird of brilliant plumage1 and that he was nearest the earth at high noon about the summer solstice4 ,at that time1 therefore1 they constructed an altar in an open spot1 built upon it a fire and placed the sacred offerings4 ,the people then witnessed the gorgeous parrot1 the sacred ara1 descend through the air to take the offerings1 who was none other than the god himself1 responding to the invitation4#bac ,the magical class of rites was common in the ,orient4 ,to this day in ,china it is believed that if a military camp be laid out in a particular form1 and under the proper auspicious conditions1 not only is it impregnable by foes1 but neither gods nor demons can prevail against it4 ,many later rituals are thus magical1 or have magical elements in them by the aid of which the celebrant claims to control the powers divine4 ,the ,mexican ,nagualist1 or priest1 for instance1 after he has performed his magical rites and spoken the words of power1 does not hesitate to shout3 8,lo6 ,i myself am here6 ,i am most furious6 ,i make the loudest noise6 ,i respect no one6 ,even sticks and stones tremble before me6 ,what god or mighty demon dares face me80#bad ,here1 through the power of the rite1 the celebrant has become as one of the gods themselves4 ,these examples further serve to illustrate a fundamental distinction in rites themselves4 ,it has been well expressed by a ,german writer1 ,dr4 ,freihold1 who has said that their tendencies point toward one of two aims1 either to bring down the god to men1 to have 8,god with us02 or1 to elevate the man to ,god1 to clothe him with supernatural powers4 ,the one culminates in the epiphany1 the other in the apotheosis4 ,the writer quoted believes that this special culmination of one or the other of these tendencies is largely a matter of race1 that it is an ethnic trait1 and explains much otherwise obscure in the historical development of religions4#bae ,without entering into this interesting but too extensive inquiry1 ,i will remark that these two tendencies run closely parallel to the division of rites which ,i shall adopt1 a division based on a comparison of the large numbers which ,i have classified in the study of primitive religions4 ,this division is also twofold4 ,it embraces1 first1 all those rites which are primarily intended for the benefit of the community2 and1 second1 all those primarily intended for the benefit of the individual4 ,the former ,i shall call communal1 the latter1 personal rites4 ,it is the more necessary that ,i shall insist on this distinction because it has been overlooked and even denied by some eminent scholars4 ,dr4 ,robertson ,smith1 for example1 with whom ,i have been before compelled to disagree1 refused to recognise personal worship in primitive conditions4 ,he wrote thus3 8,it was the community and not the individual who was sure of the help of its deity40 ,the individual1 he adds1 was obliged to have recourse to merely magical measures for his own protection4#baf ,this statement is contradicted by nearly every primitive religion known to me2 and it can be explained only by the concentration of the writer's mind on a faith so peculiar as that of the ancient ,hebrews4#bag ,i4 ,,the ,,communal ,,rites1 those for the benefit of the community1 be it large or small1 may be classed under four forms3 #a1 the assemblage2 #b1 the festal function2 #c1 the sacrifice2 and #d1 the communion with the ,divine4 #a4 ,the ,assemblage4--,of these the assemblage should first be considered1 as it is the necessary condition of all communal worship4 ,the ecclesia1 the meeting1 the gathering together1 the congregation1 has a far higher importance than for the mere purpose of unity in an outward function4 ,it is the means by which that most potent agent in religious life1 collective suggestion1 is brought to bear upon the mind4 ,it has been instinctively recognised by every religion1 and especially by mystical teachers1 as an indispensable element in the dissemination of doctrine4 ,strange1 indeed1 is the influence on the individual of 8the crowd10 when it is animated by deep feeling1 by positive belief1 by intense activity6 ,it is difficult even for the calmest mind not to be thrilled with the contagious impulses of an assemblage tossed on the waves of wild religious emotion4 ,its vertiginous passion whirls those who yield to it out of themselves1 beyond their senses1 into some lofty1 hyper-sensuous state1 where reason totters and reality fades4 ,we have but to watch an active 8revival10 or the hysterical outbursts of an old-fashioned 8camp-meeting10 to be convinced of this4 ,these effects are hastened and strengthened by the ,liturgy1 the responsive songs and chants1 the music1 the dancing hand in hand1 the touch of flesh1 and the intoxication of breath with breath1--all that the theologians class as the anaphora1 the going back and forth of mind and mind1 through the varied forms of sensuous expression4#bah ,all this is perfectly familiar to primitive religions4 ,among the rude tribes of our ,western plains1 the ,dakotas and ,chipeways for instance1 thousands will gather at the annual festivals to unite in common worship and ceremonies4 ,the first missionaries to ,mexico report it a common sight to see six or seven thousand natives moving as one man in the swaying figures of the sacred dances2 and it were easy to multiply examples4 ,everywhere was the religious value of worship in common recognised4 #b4 ,the ,festal ,function4--,i have already referred to the fact that although the fear of demons and ghosts prevailed generally in early faiths1 their prevailing character was by no means always gloomy4 ,in early conditions the public religious ceremonies have an atmosphere of joyousness about them4 ,they are thanksgivings and merrymakings1 such as still exist among us in pale survivals in our harvest homes1 ,christmas festivities1 and ,easter-tide amusements4 ,in ancient ,greek and ,roman rites this is still more visible4 8,worship the gods with a joyous heart10 prescribes ,cicero2 and true to the precept1 the ,romans included among their acts of worship such cheering adjuncts as theatrical performances1 horse races1 games1 and dancing girls4 ,no sign of mourning was permitted1 no word of lamentation was allowed1 and a serene mood1 a joyous countenance and bright garments were enjoined1 that the gaiety of the occasion might not suffer diminution4#bai ,there was nothing in this peculiar to the ,romans4 ,the same is well known to be true of the ,greeks2 ,jacob ,grimm is our authority that the religious rites of the ancient ,germans were as a rule cheerful1 and those which were most cheerful were 8the earliest and the commonest02 while ,robertson ,smith testifies to the effect that the early ,semitic ceremonies were likewise gay and festal1 passing at times into a truly orgiastic character4#bbj ,probably most of us will feel some surprise when this trait of early and heathen religions is pressed upon our attention4 ,we have been accustomed to hear of their dark and cruel mysteries1 their immolations and holocausts1 their cries of anguish and blood-stained altars1 until we have imagined that light-hearted gaiety was even farther from their teachings than it is from our own faith1 whose cardinal principle is the holiness of suffering and self-abnegation4 ,nothing could be wider from the truth4 ,probably the first of all public rites of worship was one of joyousness1 to wit1 the invitation to the god to be present and partake of the repast4 ,to spread a meal and ask the deity to share it1 that which is called commensality1 belongs to the most archaic of ceremonies4 ,captain ,clark tells us of the ,western ,indians that 8feasts form an essential part of every ceremony40 ,there is a certain solemnity observed about them1 even when not strictly religious in character4 ,the first mouthful is offered to the gods1 and 8something in the manner of a grace0 is usual when the person begins and finishes his meal4#bba ,it was but a step from this to purely religious banquets1 festal commemorations for thanksgiving1 in acknowledgment of benefits received4 ,they were derived from the older practice of asking the god to share the common meal1 not1 as some have argued1 from the later custom of offering food before the idols4 ,such solemn banquets occur where idols are unknown1 or form a minor element in religious expression4 ,sacrificial banquets assume a different phase1 to which ,i shall presently refer4 ,next in antiquity to the commensality of ,god with man1 was the sacred procession1 that which is known as the 8ceremonial circuit40 ,jacob ,grimm informs us that the ancient ,germans were accustomed at certain seasons to carry the images of the gods1 ,holda1 ,bertha1 and others1 or the sacred symbols1 the plough1 the ship1 etc41 around the borders or marches of the tribal territory1 over which they were held to exercise especial protection4 ,thus they bestowed the active beneficence of their personal presence on these confines4 ,this divine progress was accompanied with shouts and songs and joyous acclamations4#bbb ,to this day in central ,france1 when the seed is sown in the spring and the husbandman has trusted his labour and his grain to the uncertain season1 the image of ,our ,lady of ,mercy is solemnly carried through the prepared fields1 with song and prayer1 that her blessing may rest upon them1 and the grain return a hundred-fold4 ,far away from ,france and ,germany1 up in the chilly valleys of the ,peruvian ,andes1 when the natives used to fear1 for their crops1 killing frost or withering drought1 the sacred huaca1 the divine guardian of the village1 was brought forth and carried in solemn procession around the fields1 and its intercession beseeched in moving cries and with abundant gifts4#bbc ,numberless other examples of this universal rite might be mentioned1 a rite the shadow of which still falls among us in the processional and recessional of high ,protestant churches4 ,among primitive peoples and in the folk-lore of modern nations1 it develops into the forms which are known as 8the sinistral and dextral circuits10 depending on whether the procession is from right to left or the reverse1 connected doubtless with the motion of the celestial bodies1 and with the reverse of that motion1 each appropriate to certain forms of worship4 ,throughout the ,american tribes this is always a point of the greatest importance1 and constantly appears1 not merely in their religious exercises1 but in their social customs1 their arts1 and their habits of life4#bbd ,i mentioned that the old ,romans used to consider theatrical entertainments a proper part of a religious ceremony4 ,they were not alone in that4 ,in fact1 the opinion was so universal that students of literary origins are agreed that the beginning of the drama1 both comedy and tragedy1 was in sacred scenic representations of the supposed doings of the gods4 ,we may recognise the earliest form of the drama in the masked actors of the ,american ,indian medicine dances4 ,they usually take the part of some lower animal1 comic or serious1 the face concealed either with a part of its hide1 or with a wooden mask1 on which is painted some semblance or symbol of the animal4 ,the language of the actor is appropriate to his rle1 and often involves curious modifications of the customary tongue1 to suit the creature he represents4#bbe ,long before the discovery of ,america by ,columbus the native tribes of ,mexico1 ,guatemala1 and ,peru had developed from this source a dramatic literature1 which1 like that of the early ,greek classic period1 had thrown off its first1 purely religious garb1 and had developed into an independent art1 devoted equally to ,melpomene and ,thalia1 the tragic and the comic muses4 ,these latter1 of which a few specimens survive1 were exotic plants compared to the indigenous growth of the ,american sacred dramas4 ,so essential1 indeed had these become to the native notions of worship of any sort1 that the ,christian missionaries were fain to compromise the situation1 and permit them to remain1 merely changing the names of the heathen gods to those of ,christian saints1 and modifying where necessary the wording of the older text and its heathen scenario4 ,the extreme of these festal rejoicings is seen in the orgiastic ceremonies so widely prevalent in early cults1 the ,bacchanalia1 the ,saturnalia1 the 8,witches' ,sabbath0 of the ,middle ,ages1 and the like4 ,they are nowise peculiar to primitive religions1 although in them they hold a more conspicuous place4 ,within a year1 the 8angel-dancers0 of ,hoboken1 ,new ,jersey1 have reproduced them in their true original colours1 and they are always ready to crop out under the influence of the proper stimuli to the religious emotions4 ,in their earliest forms1 they are far from deserving the odium which attached to them later4 ,the ,bacchantes of ,greece were1 at first1 not a rout of dissolute women1 but an inspired train of devout virgins and chaste matrons4 ,no man was permitted in the ranks under pain of death4 ,this was true also in ,rome1 in the ,orient1 and in many tribes of ,america4 ,it was a later and an evil innovation which sanctioned the unrestrained mingling of the sexes in these wild processions of intoxicated fanatics4 ,their intoxication was1 however1 with the divine spirit1 not the purple grape-juice4 ,they were1 as the ,greeks said1 8theoleptic10 possessed or infuriated with the maddening joy of the gods1 drunk with the celestial ambrosia4 ,to our cold observation1 they were in hysterical mania1 with minds disordered by religious excitement1 worked up to a high contagious pitch through collective suggestion1 following crazily the disordered fancies of their sub-conscious selves1 mistaking them for the inspiration of divine emanations4 #c4 ,the ,sacrifice4--,in the custom of offering to the divine visitant a portion of the food and drink1 we discover the origin of sacrifice4 ,the word has acquired sad associations1 seen in our common expression 8to make a sacrifice10 which signifies some painful self-surrender4 ,this was foreign to its original meaning4 ,the sacrifice at first was a free-will offering1 a pleasing and grateful recognition of the kindness of the deity4 ,the first-fruits1 the young kid1 the earliest ear of corn to mature1 were offered to the beneficent being who had sent them for the good of man4 ,it was the willing acknowledgment we pay to a kind friend4 ,the earliest species of sacrifice is in the nature of a thank-offering4 ,they were of the class which has been termed 8honorific10 and were little more than 8meals offered to the deity40#bbf ,i may illustrate it from a custom of the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea4 ,they believe1 being ancestral worshippers1 that the good things of life are mainly owing to the continuing solicitude of their departed progenitors4 ,therefore1 to testify their gratitude1 once in several years they dig up the skulls of those deceased relations1 paint them with chalk1 decorate them with feathers and flowers1 and placing them on a scaffold1 offer to them food and trinkets4#bbg ,there is nothing of fear in this rite1 and nothing fearful1 for it is made the occasion of a merry festival4 ,soon1 however1 in the development of the cult it was perceived that loss and affliction abounded and increased2 the gods grew careless of their votaries1 or angry with them4 ,they must be pacified and propitiated4 ,hence arose the second form of sacrifices1 those which are called 8conciliatory0 or 8piacular40#bbh ,they were atoning in significance1 mystic in their symbolism1 expiatory in their aims4 ,the gods were displeased at what man had done or had left undone1 and they must be reconciled by humility and self-abnegation4 ,in this the primitive worshipper acted towards his deity just as he would toward an earthly superior whose displeasure he had incurred4 ,there was no new sentiment or line of action introduced4 ,the rite of sacrifice in any of its phases offers nothing apart from the general motives of mankind4 ,the most common reason for early sacrifice was to expiate breaches of the ceremonial law4 ,whether this occurred intentionally or not of purpose1 it was deemed requisite to make amends by some painful act1 to pacify the demonic power behind the law4 ,naturally1 the greater the self-denial displayed in the offering1 the higher its merit and the more efficacious its character4 ,the ancient ,germans laid it down that in time of famine beasts should first be slain and offered to the gods4 ,did these bring no relief1 then men must be slaughtered2 and if still there was no aid from on high1 then the chieftain of the tribe himself must mount the altar#bbi2 for the nobler and dearer the victim1 the more pleased were the gods6 ,the same doctrine prevailed practically through most primitive religions1 and was carried to a like extent4 ,painful mutilations of oneself1 the lopping of a finger1 scarification1 driving thorns through the tongue or the flesh elsewhere1 burning with hot coals1 scourging1 and supporting crushing weights3 these are but a few of the many terrible sufferings which the individual inflicted on himself4 ,thus steeled to pain in his own person1 he knew no limit to its infliction on others4 ,the tortures of captives or of slaves dedicated to the gods1 common in ,american religions1 formed part of the religious value of the ceremony4 ,not merely captives and slaves1 but those of his own household and blood1 his nearest and his dearest1 must the true worshipper be prepared to surrender1 were it his first-born son or the wife of his bosom4 ,it was not heartlessness or cruelty which prompted him1 but obedience to that law of the supernatural1 which ever claims for itself supremacy over all laws and all passions of the natural man4 ,traces of human sacrifice are discovered in the early history of even the noblest religions1 and the rite extended so widely that scarce a cult can be named in which it did not exist4 ,what rendered them the more general was the underlying belief that1 let the sacrifice be sufficiently exalted1 the gods could not resist it4 ,they were constrained by its magical power1 and whatever was desired could be extorted from them1 with or without their volition4 ,so to this day teach the ,hindu priests1 and so believed the ancient ,romans and various primitive nations4 #d4 ,the ,communion with ,god4--,the idea of atonement in the piacular sacrifice is in reality that of being one with the god1 that of entering into union or communion with him4 ,this1 indeed1 lies largely at the base of all the forms of ritualistic worship4 ,its purpose1 more or less clearly avowed1 is to bring into spiritual unison the worshipper and the worshipped4 ,a few examples from ,american rites will illustrate this4 ,the natives of ,nicaragua at the time of maize gathering were accustomed to sacrifice a man to the gods of the harvest4 ,around the altar were strewn grains of corn4 ,over these the worshippers stood and with flint knives let blood from the most sensitive parts of their bodies1 the drops falling on the grains4 ,these were then eaten as holy food1 part of the sacrifice4#bcj ,something very similar obtained in ,peru4 ,at the time of the vernal equinox1 all strangers were bidden to leave the sacred city of ,cuzco1 where the ,inca resided4 ,a human victim was immolated1 and the spotless 8,virgins of the ,sun0 were deputed to mingle his blood with meal and bake it into small cakes4 ,these were distributed among the people and eaten1 and one was sent to every holy shrine and temple in the kingdom4#bca ,precisely such a rite prevailed among the ancient ,germans4 ,at the harvest supper the spirit of the corn1 represented latterly under the form of an animal but in earlier days as a child1 was slain and eaten by those who had aided in the harvest4 ,it was the literal and corporeal union of man and the god4#bcb ,still clearer was the similar ceremony of the ,aztecs4 ,a youth was chosen and named for the god4 ,for months his every wish was gratified4 ,then he was slain on the altar and his fresh blood was mixed with dough which was divided among the worshippers and eaten4 ,thus they became partakers of the ,divine ,nature4#bcc ,the fearful similarity of this ceremony both in its form and in its intention to that of the ,christian ,eucharist could not escape the notice of the ,spanish missionaries4 ,they attributed it to the malicious suggestions of the ,devil1 thus parodying in cruel and debased traits the sacred mysteries of the ,church4 ,but the psychologist sees in them all the same inherent tendency1 the same yearning of the feeble human soul to reach out towards and make itself a part of the ,divine ,mind4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,personal ,,rites1 those for the benefit of the individual1 will next occupy us4 ,i have already observed that while the tribe or gens in primitive conditions worships in common one or several divinities1 most of the religious acts of the individual are directed toward a deity whom he may claim as his own special guardian and friend4 ,this is his tutelary god1 his personal 1 his 8mystagogue10 who will not merely look after the welfare of his human ward1 but introduce him into the higher and occult knowledge and power4 ,this personal deity reveals himself at birth1 or may await some later year or incident of life to manifest his name and nature4 ,he may be the spirit of some ancestor or great chieftain or mighty shaman2 or he may belong to those deities who never assume mortal habiliments4 ,the teachers of early faiths differed on these points2 but nearly all agreed that to each person some such guardian angel or genius was assigned4 ,from these spirits the personal names were frequently received1 and1 lest these should be misused1 they were usually kept secret4 ,these beliefs are too wide-spread to require support from examples4 ,probably every ,american tribe shared them4 ,they are familiar in classic ,greece and ,rome4 ,the ,finns and the ancient ,celtic peoples possessed them in marked forms2 and they survive in the tutelary ,saints of the ,roman ,church4 ,principally to these the adults paid their devotions and offered their vows for what concerned their personal welfare2 and many of the rites which ,i am about to describe1 derive their meaning from their connection with this belief4 ,i shall classify them as relating3 #a1 to birth2 #b1 to naming2 #c1 to puberty2 #d1 to marriage2 and #e1 to death and the disposal of the corpse4 #a4 ,rites ,relating to ,birth4--,although the immediate act of childbirth may not cause the savage mother severe suffering1 the appearance of a new human being in the world is not considered of light importance4 ,in her description of the ,pueblo ,indians of ,new ,mexico1 ,mrs4 ,stevenson remarks that some 8of their most sacred and exclusive rites are connected with childbirth10 and her full and accurate account of them reveals in a strong light how solemn the event was considered4#bcd ,in many tribes the child was considered bound to its father by some mysterious tie closer than connected it with its mother4 ,among the ,northern ,indians1 the father will not bridle a horse or perform sundry other acts for a fixed period after the birth of his child1 for if he did it would die6#bce ,in the rites of ,mexico and ,south ,america1 this refraining from certain labours passed into the strange custom of the couvade4 ,this was1 that upon the birth of the child1 the father took to his bed and remained there for a number of days4 ,did he neglect this1 it was believed that the child would die or have bad luck4 ,for the same reason he had to be extremely careful of his own health and guarded in his actions during his wife's pregnancy1 or otherwise the unborn babe would suffer4#bcf ,not less strange are the wide-spread rites and opinions connected with the umbilical cord4 ,as it united the unborn infant to the life of the mother1 it was generally held to retain that power in a mystical sense4 ,among the ,american ,indians1 it was a frequent custom to carry it to a distance and bury it1 and it became the duty of the individual1 in his later life1 to visit alone from time to time that spot1 and perform certain ceremonies4#bcg ,thus the religious life of a person began with his birth4 ,not infrequently at that time his tutelary divinity was ascertained by the priests and assigned him1 as among the ,mayas1 and the ,africans of the ,congo ,river4 ,with the latter1 it was also customary to lay upon the new-born babe a series of 8vows10 or resolutions touching his conduct in life4 ,these were impressed on the mother1 who adopted it as a sacred duty to bring up her child in obedience to them4 ,a similar habit prevailed in the ,andaman ,islands and elsewhere4#bch ,with these vows was often associated the rite of baptism1 by sprinkling or by immersion in water4 ,even among the rude ,yahgans of ,tierra del ,fuego we find that the child1 when born1 was promptly dipped in water1 not for sanitary but for religious reasons4 ,the ancient inhabitants of ,teneriffe considered it necessary to have a child formally asperged by a priestess before acknowledging it as a member of the family1#bci and some such rite was prevalent in many tribes4 ,it was in one sense an initiation1 as it was with the neophytes of the mysteries of ,mithras1 who1 according to ,tertullian1 were baptised upon entering the novitiate4 ,in another1 it would seem to have been a purification from inherited sin1 in which sense it was practised by the ,nahuas of ,mexico and the ,quichuas of ,peru4 ,with the ,mayas of ,yucatan1 it was in common usage and was known by the significant name1 8the second birth40#bdj #b4 ,relating to the ,name4--,the ,name1 as we have already seen1 was looked upon as a part of the person1 one of his forms or modes of life4 ,very generally1 its selection was a matter of religious moment1 and accompanied with solemn ceremonies4 ,a person might have many names1 but there was one which was taken from or referred to his or her tutelary spirit1 and this was holy and not to be lightly used4 ,among the ,nahuas this was generally announced by the priest on the seventh day after birth1 but as it would be profane to speak it constantly1 another was employed for ordinary conversation4 ,the ,algonquin children1 says one who lived among them long1 are taught by their mothers not to divulge their real names1 lest by so doing they should offend the personal god who has taken them under his protection4#bda ,when a babe1 among the ,seminoles of ,florida1 was about a fortnight old1 the mother took it in her arms and walked three times around the public square of the village1 calling aloud the name given it2 but this name was not that by which it was later known2 and 8they were always averse to telling it40#bdb ,with some tribes1 as the ,choctaws1 the idea of profanity existed only if the person himself spoke his name2 so that1 8it is impossible to get it from him unless he has an acquaintance present1 whom he will request to tell it for him40#bdc ,analogous customs abound in early religions and many of them survive in modern folk-lore4#bdd ,in some instances the ,american ,indian would exchange his name for that of a friend1 or extend to him his name2 a rare and high sign of amity1 as it signified that the receiver was thus placed under the guardianship of the same tutelar deity4 ,this custom extended widely throughout the island world of the ,pacific and among many primitive peoples4 ,it has often been noted1 but its peculiarly religious meaning has generally been misunderstood4 ,that certain names are auspicious and others inauspicious is a belief that belongs everywhere to mankind in the primitive stage of thought4 ,but it is curious to note that while generally the auspicious names are those of sweet sound and favourable sense1 in ,tonkin1 ,siam1 and some other regions ugly and unpleasant names are preferred1 because these will frighten away the evil spirits4#bde #c4 ,rites ,relating to ,puberty4--,on the momentous crisis in the personal life when the boy enters into manhood and the girl becomes a woman1 in nearly all primitive tribes a solemn rite is prescribed1 the object of which is to prepare the child for the duties of the wider life1 which it is about to begin4 ,no better example for such a ceremony could be selected than that which prevails among the southern tribes of ,australia4 ,it is their principal public act of worship4 ,the name by which it is known is the ,bora1#bdf a word derived from the belt or girdle which the men wear1 and which is at that time conferred on the youth4 ,its celebration involves extensive preparations and occupies a number of days4 ,the youths are submitted to severe tests and sometimes to dreadful mutilations4 ,they are taught the holy names and sacred traditions2 and when they have satisfied their elders of their endurance and fidelity1 they are admitted to the manhood of the tribe4 ,the ,bora is a distinctly religious ceremony4 ,it is said to have been instituted by their chief god ,turamulun himself1 and remains under his spiritual charge4 ,its rites 8involve the idea of a dedication to supernatural powers10 and the figure of the god1 moulded in high relief on the earth in the costume and attitude of the sacred dance1 is intended to represent his personal presence4 ,the aim is the education of the individual to fill his place properly in the tribal life2 and one of the most intelligent of ,english observers expresses his conviction that 8every rule of conduct under which the novice is placed is directly intended to some end beneficent to the community or believed to be40 ,throughout most of ,america1 a similar initiation was required of the youth before he was entitled to the privileges of manhood4 ,it was frequently accompanied by the most painful tests of his courage and endurance4 ,his naked back was lacerated with rods1 his strength was tried by prolonged hunger1 thongs were inserted into his flesh and torn out by the bystanders4 ,more frequently the boy was sent alone into the woods1 and there1 exposed to inclement weather1 cold1 hunger and thirst1 self-torture and meditation1 awaited the divine revelation which entitled him to call himself a man6 8,could it be possible10 exclaims an intelligent traveller1 8to hear anything stranger1 more wonderful1 than these stories of unheard-of castigations and torments to which boys of thirteen or fourteen subject themselves1 merely for the sake of an idea1 a dream1 the fulfilment of a religious duty8 ,more surprising is it that not merely some extraordinary youth is capable of this1 but that every young ,indian1 without exception1 displays such heroism40#bdg ,the same rule applied to the girl4 ,as it became evident that the period had arrived in her life-history when she was capable of the sacred duties of motherhood1 she either retired into the forest1 there to commune alone with her guardian spirit1 or1 as among the ,sioux ,indians1 the fact was made known to the village1 and a solemn feast announced by her parents4 ,at this1 some venerable priest addressed the guests1 8calling attention to the sacred and mysterious manner in which nature had announced the fact that she was ready to embrace the duties of matrimony60#bdh ,in these ceremonies1 which may be said to belong to primitive religions in all times1 we recognise again the one idea which more than any other permeated all their myths and rites1--the idea of ,life4 ,it was because the boy and girl1 passing to riper years1 indicated the acquisition of the power to perpetuate and transmit ,life1 that at this age it was held necessary for them to mark the epoch by rites of the most sacred import4 #d4 ,rites ,relating to ,marriage4--,if the notion of life was thus the inspiration of the rites of puberty1 still more potently did it control those relating to marriage4 ,much has been written by special students concerning the forms of primitive marriage1 and much of what has been written is theory only1 not supported by actual and intimate knowledge of facts4 ,the assertion is common in works of the kind that the earliest form of marriage was no marriage at all1--mere promiscuity1--and that1 later1 a modified form of the same1 known as 8communal0 marriage1 prevailed4 ,not a single example of either of these has been known in history or in ethnology1 and it is a gratuitous hypothesis only that either ever prevailed in a permanent community4 ,what we first discern is the family1 generally centred around the mother1 and tracing descent through the maternal ancestors only4 ,this is the 8matriarchal0 as distinguished from the 8patriarchal0 system1 the latter being that in which the father is the centre and head of the family1 and the genealogy is traced in his line4 ,both these forms1 however1 have existed1 so far as we know1 in wholly primitive conditions4 ,the selection of one or the other was a matter of local accident or incident4 ,the primitive family1 held together by one or other of these ties of blood-relationship1 was a close corporation4 ,it might adopt outsiders1 but after admission they were considered of the same blood and lineage4 ,its property was in common1 its laws were laid on all1 its very gods were its own4 ,especially1 the rules relating to marriage were prescribed with rigid formality4 ,the general practice was that the youth must seek his bride from another recognised family 7gens or totem7 of the tribe4 ,to choose her from his own immediate family was a crime of such deep dye that even an ,australian savage 8could not consider such a thing possible02 although1 in later conditions1 this artificial barrier was often weakened4#bdi ,in matriarchal systems1 the husband usually went to live with the gens of the wife1 but did not become a member of it4 ,he was looked upon as a stranger and an interloper4 ,among some ,australian and ,american tribes1 he never spoke directly to his wife's mother1 or even looked at her4 ,his children did not acknowledge him as a blood-relation1 and when he grew old and useless1 he had to look to his own family1 not to his own offspring1 for his maintenance4 ,the origin of these strange usages was strictly religious4 ,they have been analysed as they existed in many nations by one of the ablest of ,german ethnologists1 and their source has been shown to be that the gods of the one gens never willingly accept the introduction of a stranger into the household except by the regular formulas of adoption1 which would prevent marriage2 hence1 the husband is1 and ever remains1 a foreigner and an interloper in the matriarchal household4 ,his wife's god is not his god1 nor are her people his people4#bej ,the actual ceremony of marriage itself often indicates this4 ,much has been said by writers on ethnology of 8marriage by capture10 and it is often asserted to be that most usual among primitive peoples1 and to continue in survivals in higher conditions of culture4 ,there is1 indeed1 very frequently a ceremony which presents the appearance of violently seizing and carrying away by main force the bride-elect4 ,but it is not to be understood as the reminiscence of a time when the man went forth and snatched a girl from some neighbouring tribe to become his slave and his wife4 ,i doubt if in the true totemic marriage1 considered as distinct from concubinage1 any such method was practised4 ,it is not so to-day1 even among the ,australian ,blacks4 ,if they steal a woman1 they first inquire as to her kinship1 and if she belongs to a class into which her captor cannot marry1 according to the laws of his clan1 he sets her free4#bea ,the so-called 8marriage by capture0 was either a recognised tribute to maidenly coyness1 by which her real or feigned resistance was to be overcome in a manner creditable to herself1--a sentiment constantly witnessed in the lower animals as well as in modern life2 or it was a method of conciliating her household gods1 the deities of the gens1 by giving the appearance of constraint and succumbing to force on the part of the girl4 ,some of the northern tribes of ,america carried these notions to the extent of a pretended concealment of the marriage long after it had been performed4 ,the husband was obliged to enter the home of his wife by night and secretly4 ,to approach it in daytime or to be seen in her company would have been a grave impropriety4#beb ,the second primitive form of marriage is by purchase4 ,this also is far less usual than many writers have assumed4 ,there is indeed1 very commonly1 as in civilised society1 an exchange of goods along with or previous to the marital ceremony4 ,but with us it is not regarded as a purchase and sale when an ,american girl's father gives his daughter and a million to a foreign nobleman in exchange for the title conferred on the bride4 ,it may in reality be a mere commercial transaction1 but in theory it is not so4 ,just as little is the 8marriage by purchase0 among most of the aboriginal tribes1 where we find it in vogue4 ,the exchange of goods is often a form of compensation to the household gods for the privilege of remaining a member of the clan1 or for the permission to enter its ranks as an authorised resident4 ,of course1 women were bought and sold as any other commodity2 they were part of the booty of victors1 and were dispensed as gifts1 or kept for enjoyment4 ,but when we confine ourselves to the examination of the strictly totemic marriage we find even among the wildest tribes that it was generally founded in mutual liking1 that it was contracted under the sanction of the recognised family laws1 and that its ritual was that of a religious ceremony4#bec ,the poor ,bushmen1 even1 believe that the laws relating to marriage are of divine origin1 enacted by the sacred ant-eater1 and that their infraction will be severely punished4#bed ,the gifts which accompanied the rite were in the nature of offerings4 ,ceremonies of lustration and purification1 in which the sacred elements1 fire and water1 took a prominent part1 were general1 and the relationship established was in its essence one of religious significance1 and not one of mere secular import4 #e4 ,relating to ,death4--,an attractive writer1 ,professor ,frank ,granger1 remarks in a recent volume3 8,the first attitude of primitive man to his dead seems to have been one of almost unmixed terror40#bee ,would that we could give primitive man so much credit6 ,but we cannot4 ,the evidence is mountain-high that in the earliest and rudest period of human history the corpse inspired so little terror that it was nearly always eaten by the surviving friends6#bef ,we can look back clearly through the corridors of time to that stage of development when death and the dead inspired no more terror or aversion in man than they do to-day among the carnivorous brutes4 ,throughout the whole of the palolithic period of culture we discover extremely faint traces of any mode of sepulture1 any respect for the dead4 ,the oldest cemeteries or funeral monuments of any sort date from the neolithic period4 ,then the full meaning of ,death seems to have broken suddenly on man1 and his whole life became little more than a meditatio mortis1 a preparation for the world beyond the tomb4 ,what ,professor ,granger says of the ancient ,romans applies to very many primitive tribes3 8,in the belief of the ,romans1 the right to live was not estimated more highly than the right to receive proper burial40#beg ,the funeral or mortuary ceremonies1 which are often so elaborate1 and so punctiliously performed in savage tribes1 have a twofold purpose4 ,they are equally for the benefit of the individual and for that of the community4 ,if they are neglected or inadequately conducted1 the restless spirit of the departed cannot reach the realm of joyous peace1 and therefore he returns to lurk about his former home and to plague the survivors for their carelessness4 ,it was therefore to lay the ghost1 to avoid the anger of the disembodied spirit1 that the living instituted and performed the burial ceremonies2 while it became to the interest of the individual to provide for it that those rites should be carried out which would conduct his own soul to the abode of the blessed4 ,these were as various as were the myths of the after-world and the fancies as to the number and destiny of the personal souls4 ,most common of them all was some sort of funeral feast4 ,the disagreeable suggestion is close1 that this was a survival of the habit of eating the corpse itself4 ,up to a very recent date that habit prevailed among the ,bolivian ,indians2 and so desirable an end was it esteemed that the traveller ,d',orbigny tells of an old man he met there whose only regret at embracing ,christianity was that his body would be eaten by worms instead of by his relations6 ,the later theory1 however1 was that then the soul itself was supplied with food4 ,it partook spiritually of the viands and thus1 well fortified for its long journey1 departed in good humour with those it left behind4 ,the same notion led to the world-wide custom of providing it with many articles by placing them in the tomb or burning them on the funeral pyre4 ,this extended not only to weapons1 utensils1 ornaments1 and clothing1 but not infrequently to companions4 ,on the coast of ,peru the wives of a man were burned alive with his dead body1 and among the ,natchez they were knocked on the head and interred under the same mounds4#beh ,i have seen the mummy of a woman from the ,cliff ,dwellers of ,arizona1 holding in her arms the body of her babe which had been strangled with a cord1 still tightly stretched around its little neck4 ,plainly the sympathetic survivors had reflected how lonely the poor mother would be in the next world without her babe1 and had determined that its soul should accompany hers4 ,elsewhere1 slaves or companions in arms were slain or slew themselves that they might accompany some famous chieftain to his long home4 ,in these funeral rites the disposal of the corpse depended upon ethnic traits1 ancestral usage1 or the instructions of the priests4 ,perhaps the earliest was simple exposure4 ,the body was left in the forest for the beasts and birds to consume1 as among the ,caddo ,indians and others2 or it was sunk in the waters that the fish should perform the same office2 the usual object being to obtain the bones with the least trouble4 ,the oldest of all burials yet discovered1 those in the caves in the south of ,france1 were of this character1 simple 8seposition0 as it is called4 ,the body was merely laid in a posture of repose on the cave floor1 with the weapons and ornaments it had used during life4#bei ,next in point of time doubtless came inhumation1 the interment of the body in the ground or covering it1 laid on the surface1 with stones and earth1--the burial mound4 ,homeric ,greeks1 ,american ,indians1 and tribes of all continents practised this method in different ages1 and the barrows or tumuli thus erected remain in thousands to this day to attest the religious earnestness of those early peoples4 ,the vast monuments which at times they constructed for their dead1 the pyramids1 dolmens1 and teocalli1 have never since been equalled in magnitude or cubical contents4 ,another and significant funeral rite of high antiquity is that of cremation or incineration4 ,it was symbolic in character1 the body being given to the flames in order that the spirit1 by their purifying agency1 should promptly be set free and united with the gods4 ,this method also prevailed extensively among the ,american race1 and was quite in consonance with their opinions of the after-life4 8,it is the one passion of his superstition10 writes ,mr4 ,powers of the ,californian ,indian1 8to think of the soul of his departed friend as set free1 and purified by the flames2 not bound to the mouldering body1 but borne up on the soft clouds of the smoke toward the beautiful sun40#bfj ,other peoples entertained the opinion that the body as it is1 in all its parts1 must be preserved in order that it might be again habitable for the soul1 when this ethereal essence should return to earth from its celestial wanderings4 ,therefore1 with utmost care they sought for means to preserve the fleshly tenement4 ,in ,virginia1 in some parts of ,south ,america1 on the ,madeira ,islands1 the aboriginal population dried the corpse over a slow fire into a condition that resisted decay2 while elsewhere1 the nitrous soil of caves offered a natural means of embalming4 ,the ,alaskan and ,peruvian mummies1 like those of ancient ,egypt1 were artificially prepared and swathed in numerous cerecloths4 ,in all1 the same faith in the literal resurrection of the flesh was the prevailing motive4 ,more generally1 the belief was held that the soul remained attached in some way to the bones4 ,these were carefully cleaned and either preserved in the house1 or stored in ossuaries4 ,frequently they were kept as amulets or mascots1 in the notion that the friendly spirit which animated the living person would continue to hover around his skeleton or skull1 and exert its amicable power4 ,the ,peruvians held that the bones of their deceased priests were oracular1 speaking good counsel1 and the missionaries were obliged to break them into small fragments to dispel this superstition#bfa2 though they themselves continued to hold it heretical to doubt the efficacy of the bones of the saints6 ,a tribe on the ,orinoco was wont to beat the bones of their dead into powder and mix it with their cassava bread1 holding that thus their friends and parents lived again in the bodies of the eaters6 ,after cremation1 the ashes were left upon the altar1 and the whole covered with earth2 or they were preserved in urns with the fragments of the bones2 or1 as with a tribe of the ,amazon1 they were cast upon the waters of the great river and floated down to the limitless ocean4 ,thus closed the last scene in the existence of the primitive man4 ,from birth to death he had been surrounded and governed by the ceremonies of his religion2 and on his passage out of this life1 he confidently looked to another in which he should find a compensation and a consolation for the woes of his present condition4 ,following these funerary functions came the customs of mourning4 ,they were often excessively protracted and severe1 involving self-mutilation1 as the lopping of a finger or an ear1 scarification1 flagellation1 fasting1 and cutting the hair4 ,these were shared by the friends and relatives of the deceased1 and at the death of some famous chief 8the whole tribe will prostrate themselves to their woe40 ,the psychic explanation of these demonstrations is not wholly clear4 ,by some they have been interpreted as a commutation for cannibalism1 and by others as an excuse for not accompanying the corpse into the other world4 ,one writer says3 8,barbarism1 abandoned to sorrow1 finds physical suffering a relief from mental agony40#bfb ,on the other hand1 a recent student of the subject claims that in these rites we perceive 8the oldest evidence of active conscience in the human race2 the individual laid hands on himself in order to restore the moral equilibrium40#bfc ,need we go farther than to see in them merely exaggerated forms of the same emotional outbursts which lead nervous temperaments everywhere to wring the hands and tear the hair in moments of violent grief8 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,the ,lines of ,development of ,primitive ,religions4 ,,contents3--,pagan ,religions not wholly ,bad--,their ,lines of ,development as ,connected with3 #a4 ,the ,primitive ,social ,bond--,the ,totem1 the ,priesthood1 and the ,law2 #b4 ,the ,family and the ,position of ,woman2 #c4 ,the ,growth of ,jurisprudence--,the ,ordeal1 ,trial by ,battle1 ,oaths1 and the ,right of ,sanctuary--,religion is ,anarchic2 #d4 ,the ,development of ,ethics--,dualism of ,primitive ,ethics--,opposition of ,religion to ,ethics2 #e4 ,the ,advance in ,positive ,knowledge--,religion versus ,science2 #f4 ,the ,fostering of the ,arts--,the ,aim for ,beauty and ,perfection--,colour-,symbolism1 ,sculpture1 ,metre1 ,music1 ,oratory1 ,graphic ,methods--,useful ,arts1 ,architecture2 #g4 ,the ,independent ,life of the ,individual--,his ,freedom and ,happiness--,inner ,stadia of ,progress3 #a4 ,from the ,object to the ,symbol2 #b4 ,from the ,ceremonial ,law to the ,personal ,ideal2 #c4 ,from the ,tribal to the ,national ,conception of ,religion--,conclusion4 ,it has always been1 and is now1 the prevailing belief in ,christendom that pagan or heathen religions cannot exert and never have exerted any good influence on their votaries4 ,this opinion has also been defended by some modern and eminent authorities in the science of ethnology1 as1 for example1 the late ,professor ,waitz4#bfd ,it is a favourite teaching in missionary societies and in works of travellers who are keen observers of the shortcomings of others' faiths4 ,i have never been able to share such a view4 ,the lowest religions seem to have in them the elements which exist in the ripest and the noblest2 and these elements work for good wherever they exist4 ,however rude the form of belief in agencies above those of the material world1 in a higher law than that confessedly of solely human enactment1 and in a standard of duty prescribed by something loftier than immediate advantage1--such a belief must prompt the individual1 anywhere1 to a salutary self-discipline which will steadily raise him above his merely animal instincts1 and imbue him with nobler conceptions of the aims of life4 ,when he feels himself under the protection of some unseen1 but ever near1 beneficent power1 his emotions of gratitude and love will be stimulated2 and when he recognises in the ceremonial law a divine prescription for his own welfare and that of his tribe1 he will cheerfully submit to the rigours of its discipline4 ,the various lines of development which were thus marked out and pursued through the influence of early religious thought1 and which reacted to develop it1 deserve to be pointed out in detail1 since they have so generally been overlooked or misunderstood4 ,for convenience of presentation they may be examined under seven headings1 as they were connected with3 #a4 ,the primitive social bond2 #b4 ,the family and the position of woman2 #c4 ,the growth of jurisprudence2 #d4 ,the development of ethics2 #e4 ,the advance in positive knowledge2 #f4 ,the fostering of the arts2 and #g4 ,the independent life of the individual4 ,these are the main elements of ethnology2 and as they progressed to higher forms and finer specialisations1 partly through the influence of religion1 they in turn reflected back to it their brighter lustre1 and the symmetrical growth of a richer culture was thus secured4 #a4 ,the first to be named should be the construction of the primitive society4 ,this was essentially religious4 ,i have already emphasised how completely the savage is bound up in his faith1 how it enters into nigh every act and thought of his daily life4 ,this may be illustrated by its part in four very early and widely existing forms of social ties--the totem1 the sacred society1 the priesthood1 and the ceremonial law4 ,the totemic bond ,i have previously explained4 ,it existed in many ,american and ,australian tribes and relics of it can be discerned in the early peoples of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,its constitution was avowedly religious4 ,the supposed or 8eponymous0 ancestor of the totem was a mythical existence1 a sort of deity4 ,he was known only through a revelation1 either in visions1 or1 through the assertions of the elders of the clan1 in which latter case the myth was the origin of the relationship4 ,theoretically1 all members of the totem were kinfolk1 8of one blood10 and the numerous rites connected with the letting of blood were generally to symbolise this teaching4#bfe ,in various tribes1 as among the ,sioux and in ,polynesia1 the totem did not prevail4 ,its place was taken by societies1 sacred in character1 the members of which were bound closely together by some supernatural tie4 ,as our ,indians say1 all the members 8had the same medicine40 ,the relation these societies bear to the tribe is not dissimilar to that elsewhere held by totems4 ,in nearly all primitive peoples the priesthood exerts a powerful influence in preserving the unity of the tribe1 in presenting an immovable opposition to external control4 ,this is well known to the ,christian missionaries and bitterly resented by them4 ,these shamans and 8medicine-men0 are the most persistent opponents of civilisation and ,christianity2 but it must be remembered that the same conservatism on their part has for centuries been the chief preventive of tribal dissolution and decay4 ,while we regret that they should resist what is good1 we must recognise the value of their services to their people in the past4#bff ,the ceremonial law belongs1 as ,i have elsewhere said1 to the primary forms of religion4 ,it is in full force1 as among the ,mincopies and ,yahgans1 where it is difficult to perceive any other form of religious expression4 ,it is deemed by all to be divine in origin1 imparted in dreams or visions by supernatural visitors1 transcending therefore all human enactments4 ,it defines the proper conduct of the individual1 and prescribes what is allowed and what is forbidden to him4 ,obedience to it is constantly inculcated under the threat of the severest penalties4 ,these are the main forces which moulded the earliest human societies known to us1 and may be said to have first created society itself4 ,they are all distinctly religious1 and their consideration obliges us to acknowledge the correctness of the statement of a distinguished ,italian1 ,professor ,tito ,vignoli1--8,there is no society1 however rude and primitive1 in which all the relations1 both of the individual and of the society itself1 are not visibly based on superstitions and mythical beliefs40#bfg #b4 ,earlier1 perhaps1 than any definite social organisation was the family bond which united together those of one kinship4 ,this rested upon marriage1 the religious character of which in even the rudest tribes ,i dwelt upon in the last lecture4 ,i then explained the matriarchal system prevalent in so many savage peoples4 ,necessarily1 this exalted the position of woman1 by conferring upon her the titular position of head of the house1 and often the actual ownership of the family property4 ,it is a general truth in sociology that we may gauge the tendencies of a given society towards progressive growth by the position it assigns to woman1 by the amount of freedom it gives her1 and by the respect it pays to her peculiar faculties4 ,religions which1 like ,mohammedanism1 reduce her to a very subordinate place in life1 wholly secondary to that of the male1 have worked detrimentally to the advancement of the peoples who have adopted them4 ,in some savage tribes1 the woman is a mere chattel or slave1 denied actual participation in religious rites4 ,but that is by no means the case with all4 ,among the ,hottentots1 for example1--who were1 when first discovered1 a people of respectable culture1--a man can take no higher oath than to swear by his eldest sister2 and such is the respect inculcated through his religion1 that he never speaks to her unless she addresses him first4#bfh ,the more delicate nervous organisation of women adapts them peculiarly to the perception of those sub-conscious states which are the psychic sources of inspiration and revelation4 ,very widely1 therefore1 in primitive religions they occupied the position of seeresses and priestesses1 and were reverenced in accordance therewith4 ,among the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 in former days1 all the recognised priestly class were women4 ,their bodies were supposed to be the chosen residence of the ,sangsangs1 beautiful beings1 friendly to men4 ,these inspired women1 called ,bilians or ,borich1 were subject to theoleptic fits1 in which they gave advice1 foretold the future1 recited rhythmic songs1 etc4 ,they were under no restraint of conduct1 as what they did1 it was held1 was the prompting of the god4 ,so firm was their influence that1 when1 in modern days1 the men also became priests1 they were obliged to wear the garb of women4#bfi ,the ,siamese also entertain this opinion4 ,their gods speak through the mouth of some chosen woman4 ,when she feels the visit of the spirit to be near1 she arrays herself in a handsome red silk garment1 and as the deity enters her1 she discourses of the other world1 tells where lost objects are to be found1 and the like4 ,the assembled company worship her1 or rather the god in her4 ,on recovering from her theopneustic trance1 she professes entire unconsciousness of what has taken place4#bgj ,the ,american ,indians very generally concede to their women an exalted rank in their religious mysteries4 ,the ,algonquins had quite as famous 8medicine-women0 as medicine-men1 and the same was true generally4 ,mr4 ,cushing tells me that there is only one person among the ,zuis who is a member of all the sacred societies and thus knows the secrets of all1 and that person is a woman4 ,when ,votan1 the legendary hero of the ,tzentals of ,chiapas1 left them for his long journey1 he placed his sacred apparatus and his magical scrolls in a cave under the charge of a high priestess1 who was to appoint her successor of the same sex until his return4 ,the secret was faithfully kept and the successors appointed for more than a hundred and fifty years after their conversion to ,christianity2 until1 in #afib1 on the occasion of the visit of the ,bishop to the hamlet where the priestess lived1 she disclosed the story1 and the holy relics were burned4#bga ,twenty years later1 as if to avenge this1 the ,tzentals revolted in a body1 their leader being an inspired prophetess of their tribe1 a girl of twenty1 fired with enthusiasm to drive the ,spaniards from the land and restore the worship of the ancient gods4#bgb ,it is quite usual to find in early religions many rites1 such as dances and sacrifices1 which women alone carry out1 and to which it is tabu for any man to be admitted4 ,this naturally arises in those cults where the deities are divided sexually into male and female4 ,such in their origin were the ,bacchanals of ancient ,greece1 participated in at first by women and girls only1 celebrated in devotion to the productive powers of nature1 which were held to belong more especially to the female sex4#bgc ,the 8wise women0 of many primitive faiths formed a close caste by themselves1 no male being admitted1 in imitation of their mythological prototypes in the heavens4 ,the 8witches0 of the ,middle ,ages were lineal successors of the ,teutonic priestesses1 who took as their model the 8swan-maidens0 or 8wish-women0 of ,odin4#bgd ,another form of early institutions was that of the societies of virgins1 such as that which from primitive ,italic times kept alive the holy fire of ,vesta1 goddess of the hearth and home4 ,extensive associations of a similar nature were found by the ,european explorers in ,mexico1 ,yucatan1 ,peru1 and elsewhere4 ,a curious teaching of several wide-spread cults was that women alone were endowed with immortality4 ,such was the opinion of the natives of the ,marquesas ,islands1 and in ,samoa the myth related that the god ,supa 7paralysis7 ordained in the council of creation that the life of a man should be like a torch1 which1 when blown out1 cannot be again lighted by blowing2 but that a woman's soul should live always4#bge ,no one can doubt that in thus assigning a high and often the highest place in the religious mysteries to woman1 many primitive religions surrounded her with a sacredness which was constantly recognised1 and thus aided in the improvement of her social relations4 ,the value of virtue and purity was increased1 mere animal desires were subjected to religious restraint1 and the relations of sex came increasingly to be regarded as instituted by divine wisdom for special purposes4 #c4 ,although the specifications of the ceremonial law were often capricious and absurd1 and sometimes positively hurtful1 yet it developed the habit of obedience and the respect for authority4 ,in this manner it potently aided the evolution of jurisprudence--that is1 of those rules of conduct which grow out of the habit of men living together and which are necessary to preserve amicable relations4 ,these had their origin in other than religious considerations1 but when once consciously recognised as beneficial1 the religion of the tribe generally adopted them1 claimed their creation1 and threw around them the garb of its own protective power4 ,religion then actively aided in the fulfilment of purely social duties1 as these were understood by the tribe4 ,in primitive conditions1 all laws are ,god's laws4 ,as we would say1 there is no separation of the civil and criminal from the canon law4 ,to the ,mohammedan1 the ,koran is the source of all jurisprudence4 ,this is a survival from early thought4 ,from this it followed that the punishment of crime and the decisions between litigants were1 properly1 judgments of ,god4 ,this universal opinion is reflected in a number of traits in jurisprudence1 some of which are still in vogue in civilised lands4 ,the most noteworthy are the ordeal1 trial by battle1 oaths1 and the privilege of sanctuary4 ,ordeals were universal4 ,they all rested on the belief that the gods would rescue the innocent man from danger4 ,he might be required to hold red-hot iron in his hands2 he might be plunged long under water2 swallow poison2 or in any other way expose himself to pain or death2 if he were unjustly accused1 the invisible powers would protect him4#bgf ,the trial by battle involved the same opinion4 8,if the ,lord is on my side1 why should ,i fear80 is the confident belief at the basis of every such test of skill and strength4#bgg ,these forms of decision have disappeared1 but the oath remains as vigorous as ever in our law courts4 ,it is1 however1 as has been pointed out by the able ethnologist and lawyer1 ,dr4 ,post1 originally and in spirit nothing else than an ordeal4 ,the false witness1 the perjurer1 is believed to expose himself to the wrath of ,god and to suffer the consequences in this or another life4#bgh ,the rite of sanctuary was distinctly religious4 ,the criminal among the ,hebrews1 who could escape to the temple and cling to the horns of the altar1 must not be seized by the officers of justice4 ,the ,cherokee ,indians1 like the ,israelites1 had 8cities of refuge10 which they called 8white towns40 ,with the ,acagchemem1 a ,californian tribe1 the temples were so purifying that the evil-doer1 were he guilty even of murder1 who could reach them before he was caught1 was cleansed of his sin and absolved ever after from any punishment for it4#bgi ,in these vital relations we see how religion entered deeply into civil life1 and became a guide and director of its most essential procedures4 ,its development grew with its responsibilities and with the intimacy it cultivated with practical affairs4 ,the codes of statutes instituted by ancient legislators1 usually personified under some one famous name1 as ,moses1 ,manu1 ,menes1 or the like1 obtained general adoption through the belief that they emanated directly from divinity1 and were part of the ceremonial law4 ,under favour of this disguise1 they worked for the good of those who followed them1 and gained a credence which would not have been conceded to them1 had it been thought that they were of human manufacture4 ,toward merely human law the religious sentiment is in its nature and derivation in frequent opposition4 ,it claims a nobler lineage and a higher title4 ,in theory1 the ,church must always be above the ,state1 as ,god is superior to man4 ,religion1 when vital and active1 is ever revolutionary and anarchic4 ,it ever aims at substituting divine for human ordinances4 ,this has been from earliest times its constant tendency4 ,it has been a potent dissolvent of states and governments and of such older religious expressions as have become humanised by usage and formality4 ,in this manner it has been the most powerful of all levers in stimulating the human mind to active enterprise and the use of all its faculties4 ,man owes less to his conscious than to his sub-conscious intelligence1 and of this religion has been the chief interpreter4 #d4 ,the severest blows have been dealt at primitive or pagan religions on account of the inferiority of their ethics4 ,it has often been asserted that they do not cultivate the moral faculties and benevolent emotions1 but stifle and pervert them4 ,they are1 therefore1 considered to be distinctly evil in tendency4 ,this important criticism cannot be disposed of by a mere denial4 ,there is no doubt that the ethics of barbarism is not that of a high civilisation4 ,but if we understand the necessary conditions of tribal life in the unending conflicts of the savage state1 we can see that the highest moral code would find no place there4 ,all tribal religions preach a dualism of ethics1 one for the members of the tribe1 who are bound together by ties of kinship and by union to preserve existence2 and the other1 for the rest of the world4 ,to the former are due aid1 kindness1 justice1 truth and fair dealing2 to the latter1 enmity1 hatred1 injury1 falsehood1 and deceit4 ,the latter is just as much a duty as the former1 and is just as positively enjoined by both religion and tribal law4#bhj ,the state of barbarism is one of perpetual war1 in which each petty tribe is striving to conquer1 rob1 and destroy its neighbours4 ,the ,patagonians and ,australians wander about their sterile lands in small bands1 naked and shelterless1 owning nothing but the barest necessities4 ,but whenever two of these bands approach each other1 it is the signal for a murderous struggle1 in order to obtain possession of the wretched rags and trumperies of the opponent4 ,for this reason1 the development of ethics must be studied on inclusive lines1 as to what extent they were cultivated between members of the same social unit1 the totem or the tribe4 ,the duty of kindness to others extended to a very limited distance1 but1 within that area1 may have been1 and generally was1 punctually observed4 ,the devotion of members of the same gens to each other1 even to the sacrifice of life1 has been often noted among savages4 ,the duties involved by this connection were frequently onerous and dangerous1 as in the common custom of blood revenge1 where a man1 at the imminent peril and often at the loss of his own life1 felt constrained to slay the murderer of a fellow-clansman4 ,the character of the early gods was1 as a rule1 non-ethical4 ,they were generally neither wholly good nor wholly bad4 ,they were more or less friendly toward men1 but rarely constantly either beneficent or malignant4 ,they were too human for that4#bha ,hence the religions which were founded upon such conceptions were not in their prescriptions of conduct chiefly ethical1 but rather ceremonial4 ,moral conduct was of less importance than the performance of the rites1 the recitation of the formulas1 and the respect for the tabu4#bhb ,i may go farther1 and say that in all religions1 in the essence of religion itself1 there lies concealed a certain contempt for the merely ethical1 as compared with the mystical1 in life4 ,that which is wholly religious in thought and emotion is conscious of another1 and1 it claims1 a loftier origin than that which is moral only1 based as the latter is1 on solely social considerations4 ,i have heard from the pulpits of our own land very gloomy predictions of the fate of the 8merely moral man40#bhc #e4 ,that which we call 8modern progress0 is due to the increase of positive knowledge1 the enlargement of the domain of objective truth4 ,to this1 religion in its early stages made important contributions4 ,the motions of the celestial bodies were studied at first for ceremonial reasons only4 ,they fixed the sacred year and the periods for festivals and sacrifices4 ,out of this grew astronomy1 the civil calendar1 and other departments of infantile science4 ,the rudiments of mathematics were discovered and developed chiefly by the priestly class1 and at first for hieratic purposes2 and the same is true of the elements of botanical and zological knowledge4 ,the practice of medicine owes some of its most useful resources to the observations of the 8medicine-men0 or shamans of savage tribes4 ,while this much and more may justly be stated concerning the contributions of ,religion to ,science1 there can be no question of the irreconcilable conflict between the two4 ,they arise in totally different tracts of the human mind1 ,science from the conscious1 ,religion from the sub- or unconscious intelligence4 ,therefore1 there is no common measure between them4 ,science proclaims that man is born to know1 not to believe1 and that truth1 to be such1 must be verifiable4 ,religion proclaims that faith is superior to knowledge1 and that the truth which is intuitive is and must be higher than that which depends on observation4 ,science acknowledges that it can reach no certain conclusions2 its final decisions are always followed by a mark of interrogation4 ,religion despises such hesitancy1 and proceeds in perfect confidence of possessing the central and eternal verity4 ,science looks upon the ultimate knowable laws of the universe as mechanical1 religion as spiritual or demonologic4 ,these differences have always existed1 and have1 in the main1 resulted in placing religions at all times in antagonism to universal ethics1 to general rules of conduct1 and to objective knowledge4 ,everywhere1 the religious portion of the community have entertained a secret or open contempt for 8worldly learning02 everywhere they have proclaimed that the knowledge of ,god is superior to the knowledge of his works2 and that obedience to his law is of more import than the love of humanity4 ,we may turn to the ,american ,indians1 the tribes of ,siberia or the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 and we shall find that the ordinary 8doctor0 who cured by a knowledge of herbs1 of nursing1 and of simple mechanical means1 was far less esteemed than the shaman who depended not on special knowledge but on the possession of mysterious powers which gave him control over demons#bhd2 or we may take that ,protestant sect of the ,reformation1 who opposed anyone learning the alphabet1 lest he should waste his time on vain human knowledge#bhe2 or a thousand other examples2 and the contrast is always the same4 ,the conclusion1 therefore1 is that early religion did assist the development of the race along these lines1 but only incidentally and1 as it were1 unwittingly2 while it was1 at heart1 unfriendly to them4 #f4 ,it is otherwise when we turn to ,art1 especially esthetic ,art4 ,its aim is the realisation1 the expression in the object1 of the idea of the ,beautiful4 ,this idea does not belong to the conscious intelligence4 ,it cannot be expressed in the formulas of positive knowledge4 ,the esthetic1 like the religious1 emotions1 send their roots far down into the opaque structure of the sub-conscious intelligence1 and hence the two are natural associates4 ,what ,professor ,bain says of ,art may be extended to ,religion3 8,nature is not its standard1 nor is objective truth its chief end40#bhf ,it has been seriously questioned whether the idea of the beautiful existed among primitive peoples1 apart from a desire for mere gaudy colouring or striking display4 ,no one would doubt its universal presence could he but free his judgment from his own canons of the beautiful1 and accept those which prevail in the savage tribe he is studying4 ,darwin1 in his work on the ,descent of ,man1 collected evidence from the rudest hordes of all continents to prove that all were passionate admirers of beauty1 as measured by their own criteria2 and he reached also the important conclusion that their completest expression of it was to be found in their religious art4 8,in every nation10 he says1 8sufficiently advanced to have made effigies of their gods1 or of their deified rulers1 the sculptors no doubt have endeavoured to express their highest idea of beauty40#bhg ,we should also remember that the same great teacher says3 8,it is certainly not true that there is in the human mind any universal standard of beauty20 and this is so1 both of the human form and of those expressions of the beautiful which appeal to the ear and the touch4 ,the music and the metre of one race generally displease another2 and there is no one norm by which the superiority of either can be absolutely ascertained4 ,in their own way1 however1 ,art and ,religion have this in common1 that they make a study of ,perfection1 and aim to embody it in actuality2 whereas ,science or positive knowledge confines itself to reality1 which is ever imperfect4 ,perfection is1 however1 an unconditioned mode of existence1 not measurable by our senses1 and hence outside the domain of inductive research4 ,the tendency of organic forms and cosmic motions is always toward it1 but they always fall short of it4#bhh ,we are aware of it only through the longings of our sub-conscious minds1 not through the laws of our reasoning intelligence4 ,yet so intense is our conviction1 not only that it is true1 but that final truth lies in it alone1 that it has ever been and will ever be the highest and strongest motive of human action4 ,beginning with those arts which are avowedly the expression of beauty in line1 colour1 or form1 it is easy to show how they were fostered by the religious sense4 ,the inscribed shells and tablets from the mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley present complex and symmetrical drawings1 clearly intended for some mythical being or supernatural personage4 ,among the ,salishan ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 when a girl reaches maturity she must go alone to the hills and undergo a long period of retirement4 ,at its close1 she records her experiences by drawing a number of rude figures in red paint on a boulder1 indicating the rites she has performed and the visions she has had4#bhi ,such rock-writing1 or petroglyphs1 nearly always of religious import1 are found in every continent1 and offer the beginnings of the art of drawing4 ,it is possible that the oldest known examples1 scratched with a flint on the bones of reindeers dug up in the caves of southern ,france1 may represent the totems or deified heroes of the clan4 ,certain it is that a class of symbolic figures1 which recur the world over1 often dating from remote ages1 such as the crescent1 the cross1 the svastika1 the triskeles1 the circle1 and the square1 were of religious intention1 and conveyed mystic knowledge or supernatural protection in the opinion of those who drew them4 ,the early cultivation of painting in religious art arose chiefly from the symbolism of colours1 to which ,i previously made a passing allusion4 ,its origin was in the effect which certain hues have upon the mind1 either specifically or from association4 ,colour-symbolism1 indeed1 forms a prominent feature in nearly every primitive religion4 ,the import of the different colours varies1 but not to the degree which excludes some general tendencies4 ,the white and the blue are usually of cheerful and peaceful signification1 the black and the red are ominous of strife and darkness4 ,in many tribes the yellow bore the deepest religious meaning4 ,the ,mayas of ,yucatan assigned it to the dawn and the east2 and when the ,aztecs gathered around the dying bed of one they loved1 and raised their voices in the paean which was to waft the soul to its higher life beyond the grave1 they sang3 8,already does the dawn appear1 the light advances4 ,already do the birds of yellow plumage tune their songs to greet thee40 ,these symbolic colours are those with which the early temples were tinted and the rude images of the gods stained4 ,they were rarely harmonious1 but they were effective1 and appealed to the people for whom they were intended4 ,their preparation and their technical employment were improved1 and1 as the art advanced1 it reacted on the religion1 directing its conceptions of divinity into higher walks and toward nobler ideals4 ,art in line and colour is of vast antiquity1 probably preceding that in shape or form1 carving or sculpture4 ,but this1 too1 we find was fairly understood by the cave-dwellers of ,france and ,switzerland at a time when the great glacier still covered a good part of the ,european continent1 and there is scarcely a savage tribe to-day that does not make some rude attempts at carving the images of its deities4 ,a natural object which has a chance resemblance to a man or beast is chosen as a fetish1 and the worshipper by chipping or rubbing increases slightly the likeness4 ,this is the infancy of the sculptor's art1 and it is usually for a religious purpose that it is exercised4 ,soon it is developed1 and in stone1 or bone1 or wood1 in baked clay1 or rags1 or leaves1 we find thousands of effigies in use to represent the tutelary deities and the other denizens of the supernatural world4 ,so prominent was the early progress of religious art in this direction that it gave the name to early religion itself4 ,it was distinctly 8idolatry10 or 8image worship10 the objective expression overwhelming the inward sentiment4 ,its excess in this direction led to reactions and protests as long ago as the dawn of history4 8,thou shalt not make to thyself any graven image1 nor the likeness of anything10 was a command taken so literally that it has swept away ever since in some of the ,semitic peoples all interest in plastic or pictorial art1 whether sacred or secular4 ,it was believed that the contemplation of a divinity not represented by any visible object would maintain and develop a higher conception than if portrayed under tangible form1 no matter how beautiful or how symbolic4 ,this opinion would not and did not exclude the cultivation of the beautiful under non-sensuous forms1 such as appeal to the ear rather than to the eye4 ,i refer to metre and music1 to oratory and literary composition4 ,from some cause which it might be difficult to explain satisfactorily the natural expression of religious emotion in language is universally metrical4 ,the rites of every barbarous tribe are conducted in or accompanied by rude chants or songs1 which both stimulate the religious feelings and give appropriate vent to them4 ,many of these chants are mere repetitions of phrases1 or refrains1 destitute of meaning1 but they answer the purpose1 and are the germs from which1 in appropriate surroundings1 have been developed the great poems of the race1 the inspirations of its immortal bards4 ,hundreds of examples of these primitive religious chants have been collected of recent years1 when1 for the first time1 their ethnologic importance has been understood4 ,they present a striking similarity1 whether from the ,polynesian ,islands1 the desert-dwellers of ,australia1 or the ,navahoes and ,sioux of our own reservations4 ,many of them are scarcely more than inarticulate cries1 but even these have a certain likeness1 containing the same class of vowels1 and often leading1 through this physiological correlation of sound to emotion1 to similar words in the religious language of far-distant peoples4 ,everywhere we find these metrical outbursts controlled by the sense of rhythmical repetition2 and it was to accentuate this that instruments of music were first invented4 ,their rudest forms may be seen in the two flat sticks which the ,australians use to beat time for their singing in their corroborees1 or festal ceremonies2 or in the hollow log1 pounded by a club1 which some ,central ,american tribes still employ4 ,all the native ,american musical instruments appear to have been first invented for aiding the ritual2 and tradition assigns with probability the same origin for most of those in the ,old ,world4 ,uniform rhythmic motion is a powerful means of intensifying collective suggestion2 and its action is the more potent the more we yield our minds to the control of their unconscious activities1--the realm in which the religious sentiment is supreme4 ,in the initiation ceremonies of the ,australians--called the ,bora--the youth are obliged to listen to long speeches from the old men1 containing instructions in conduct and the ancestral religious beliefs4 ,such customs as this1--and in one or another form they are universal in primitive religions--led to the development of the art of ,oratory4 ,it was cultivated assiduously in primitive conditions4 ,we have several volumes largely filled with the prolix addresses of the ,aztec priests and priestesses on various solemn occasions1 as birth1 entering adult life1 marriage1 etc4#bij ,to learn these long formulas by heart was one of the duties1 and not an easy one1 of the neophytes4 ,in most tribes they are couched in forms apart from those of daily use1 the words being unusual1 with full vowels and sonorous terminations4 ,some of these peculiarities survive in the 8pulpit eloquence0 of our own day1 testifying to the influence of religious thought on the development of the modes of dignified expression4 ,it was in this connection and under this inspiration that man invented the greatest boon which humanity has ever enjoyed1--a system of writing1 a means of recording and preserving facts and ideas4 ,our present alphabet is traced lineally back to the sacred picture-writing of ancient ,egypt2 and the less efficient method employed by the natives of ,mexico and ,central ,america originated in devices to preserve the liturgic songs and religious formulas4 ,for generations1 in both areas1 its chief cultivation and extension lay with the priestly class3 although its final application to the uses of daily life was due to merchants rather than to scholars4 ,this discovery made possible such a treasure as a literature2 and that we find its beginnings and oldest memorials chiefly of religious contents is ample testimony to this incalculable debt we owe to the religious sentiment4 ,the papyri of ,egypt1 the codices of ,central ,america1 the ,sanscrit ,rig ,veda1 and the ,persian ,vendidad testify to the diligence with which the ancient worshippers sought to preserve the sacred chants and formulas4 ,we discern the same anxiety among rude savages to pass down in their integrity the liturgies of their worship2 and in the 8meday sticks0 of the ,chipeways and the curiously incised wooden tablets of ,easter ,island1 we have the beginnings of written literature1--always the purpose being religious in character4 ,it is unnecessary to dwell in detail upon the fostering influence of early religion on the useful arts4 ,in their numerous applications to the ritual and the objective expression of the religious sentiment1 they were constantly stimulated by it and by the reward it was ever prepared to offer1 both in this world and that to come4 ,but one art of utility was so pre-eminently religious in its source that it merits especial comment1 that is1 building or architecture4 ,nearly all the great monuments of the ancient world1 most of the important structures of primitive tribes everywhere1 have in them something religious in aim1 or are avowedly so4 ,we know little or nothing of the builders of the mysterious 8megalithic monuments10 the dolmens and cromlechs which to the number of thousands rise on the soil of ,france and ,england2 but their arrangement and character leave no doubt that they were for some religious purpose4 ,so the mighty piles which excite our astonishment in the valley of the ,nile or the ,euphrates1 or on the highlands of ,mexico1 or in the tropical forests of ,yucatan1 reveal the same inspiration4 ,in his altars and temples1 in his shrines and funerary monuments1 his fanes and cathedrals1 man has at all times expended his efforts and his means with a prodigality lavished on no other edifices4 ,the orders of architecture arose from his desire to erect dwellings worthy of the god who should inhabit them4 ,no beauty of line1 no majesty of proportion1 no abundance of decoration1 was too great to secure this purpose4 ,such surroundings in time imparted dignity and permanence to the cult1 and embellished the religious sentiment through noble artistic associations4 #g4 ,let us now turn from these considerations of a general nature to the more pointed one1 whether primitive religions exerted an improving influence on the independent life of the individual2 for that is the test to which all institutions should finally be brought4 ,the savage is not the type of a free man1 although in popular estimation he is generally so considered4 ,he is1 in fact1 tyrannically fettered by traditional laws and tribal customs4 ,he is merged in his clan or gens1 against whose rules1 often most painful and arbitrary1 he dares take no step4 ,as an individual1 he cannot escape from their invisible chains4#bia ,his only avenue to permitted freedom is through the higher law of his personal religion4 ,if he pleads that his own tutelary spirit has ordered him to an act contrary to custom1 or that his own magical powers enable him to defy established usage1 his disregard of it will be condoned4 ,in savage life1 the inspired and the insane are always ranked in the same category as above the law4 ,among the ,kamschatkans1 if a man declares that his personal divinity has in a dream commanded him to unite with some woman of the tribe1 it is her duty to obey1 no matter what her position or relationship4#bib ,although at times this freedom was doubtless abused1 it secured for the individual a degree of personal liberty which he could have attained in no other manner4 ,by recognising a law for the single conscience above that of either ancestral usage or popular religion1 it paved the way to the development of the individual1 free from all restraints other than his clear judgment would lay upon himself4 ,he who possessed the hidden knowledge1 the esoteric gnosis1 was by that knowledge released from bondage to his fellow-men4 ,as the poet ,chapman so well says3 8,there is no danger to a man who knows ,what life and death is2 there's not any law ,exceeds his knowledge3 neither is it lawful ,that he should stoop to any other law40 ,this sense of superiority to all surroundings is disclosed everywhere in mystic religions4 ,a ,hindu prophetess was a few years ago imprisoned by the ,english civic judge for violation of the local laws and disturbing the peace4 ,her only statement in defence was3 8,years ago1 when a girl1 ,i met in the jungle1 face to face1 the god ,siva4 ,he entered into my bosom4 ,he abides in me now4 ,my blessing is his blessing2 my curse his curse40#bic ,the ,malay1 when he 8runs amuck10 regards himself exonerated from all restraint1 moral or social2 and that custom and belief are not confined to his race4#bid ,it was held among the ancients that those who are 8born of ,god10 that is1 inspired by the divine afflatus1 are not only above human law1 but 8are not subject even to the decrees of ,fate40#bie ,the ceremonial law1 so powerful in primitive condition1 must have exerted a beneficial influence on the training of the individual4 ,its severe restrictions1 its minute and ceaseless regulations of his life1 taught him self-control and self-sacrifice4 ,his first duty was not to himself but to the other members of his clan or totem4 ,obedience and systematic restraint were useful lessons inculcated on him from earliest childhood4 ,the ,congo ,negro1 the ,andaman ,islander1 the ,american ,indian1 for whom his sponsors had taken vows at his birth1 grew up to consider the fulfilment of these the chief end of his life4 ,their violation would entail disaster and disgrace not merely on himself but on his people4 ,his religious education1 therefore1 cultivated in him some of the finest qualities of perfected manhood1--self-abnegation and altruism2 for1 as ,professor ,granger well says1 8,the primitive idea of holiness implies as its chief element1 relation to the communal life40#bif ,if1 therefore1 with some writers1 we must concede that in primitive conditions the individual was ever conceived with reference to the gens or community1 on the other hand1 we must recognise the potency of the religious element occasionally to separate him from others as one of 8the elect02 to train him in self-realisation and self-government2 and to cherish in his mind the germs of a free personality4#big ,more difficult is the decision of the question whether primitive religions increased the happiness of the individual4 ,i have mentioned more than once the generally joyous character of many of them1 as seen in their rituals4 ,but it would be a grave error not to dwell also upon the dread of evil spirits which is so conspicuous a part of most1 and which keeps their votaries in a state of perpetual anxiety4 ,nor can the self-sacrifice ,i have referred to increase the cheerfulness of life1 associated as it often is with painful mutilations1 with prolonged fasting1 and exposure to cold and heat4 ,the cruelty of the ceremonies is often shocking1 the edicts of the religious code merciless4 ,to compensate this1 8the fearful looking forward to the wrath to come10 the fertile source of mental misery in advanced faiths1 scarcely exists in those of primitive conditions4 ,death itself is thus deprived of its greatest terror1 and the indifference with which it is met by most savages is matter of common note among travellers4 ,nor does there exist in primitive conditions that fertile source of human misery1 religious bigotry or intolerance1 with its fatal train of persecutions1 torture1 and suspicion4 ,the bloodiest sacrifices of heathendom have never entailed such personal unhappiness as the gloomy fanaticism of some forms of ,christianity4 ,all these several lines of development are1 it will be noted1 external to religion itself4 ,they modify it1 and are modified by it4 ,but there are other changes1 wrought within the religious sense itself1 which we must now consider4 ,religions1 like all other institutions1 are subject to growth and decay1 evolution and retrogression1 development and death4 ,the vast majority of primitive faiths have disappeared totally1 leaving no trace behind except the nameless images of their gods1 or not even these4 ,they were obliterated by conquest1 or merged and lost in other forms of belief1 or degenerated and petrified until they died a natural death4 ,others grew and extended1 vitalised by new thoughts1 appropriate to the new environment1 or were carried far and wide by victorious rulers or enthusiastic votaries4 ,it is generally true1 as ,professor ,toy has observed1 that1 in early conditions1 the life of a religion depends on the life of the tribe or state which has adopted it1 and that 8the larger the community1 the more persistent and vigorous its religion will be40#bih ,but the secret of success lay within rather than without2 the particular faith must pass through certain internal transformations in order to fit it for the wider field opened to it4 ,the chief of these stadia of progress may be described as a transference of religious thought3 #a4 ,from the object to the symbol2 #b4 ,from the ceremonial law to the personal ideal2 and #c4 ,from the tribal to the national conception of religion4 #a4 ,the rudest phases of religion connect the ideas of the ,divine with particular external objects1 a tree1 a rock1 a special place1 around which grow up a series of local myths and usages4 ,such ideas1 to develop1 must break away from these connections with concrete and localised relations4 ,they must become generalised1 and the symbol be substituted for the object4 ,instead of a particular tree1 for instance1 the sign of the tree1 the cross or the pole 7asherim71 will be adopted4 ,this represents not the original object but the personified activity1 the spirit or god which was supposed earlier to inhabit the given object or spot4 ,thus the mind is freed from its bondage to a purely material1 geographically single1 perception1 and the first step is taken toward universal or world-ideas of divinity4 ,in metaphysical terms1 it is a passage from the concrete to the abstract1 from the particular to the general1 from the real to the ideal2 a line of progress which must necessarily be followed by man's intelligence in order to develop his especially human attributes4 #b4 ,the second important step was that which substituted for the bare and cold prescriptions of the ceremonial law the ideal of personal perfection4 ,the beginnings of this are visible even in the lowest faiths1 as we see in their veneration of those who1 they considered1 had fulfilled most completely their notions of duty4 ,such persons were held to have descended from the gods1 or were inspired by them4 ,it is true these early ideals are of little more than physical strength and mental cunning2 but their attributes gradually expanded to include corporeal beauty1 intellectual power1 and ethical grandeur4 ,we thus arrive1 still in primitive conditions1 to such personal ideals as ,quetzalcoatl among the ,aztecs1 of whom it was said in their legends that he was of majestic presence1 chaste in life1 averse to war1 wise and generous in actions1 and delighting in the cultivation of the arts of peace2 or as we see among the ,peruvians1 in their culture hero ,tonapa1 of whose teachings a ,catholic writer of the sixteenth century says3 8,so closely did they resemble the precepts of ,jesus1 that nothing was lacking in them but ,his name and that of ,his ,father40#bii ,when these ideals were not distinctly men1 but were partially or wholly divine1 nevertheless the contemplation of an existence whose chief aim was to do good to those who complied with his instructions1 to protect those who fled to him1 and to grant the petitions of those who prayed to him1 was both a comforting and ennobling conception4 #c4 ,professor ,thiele in his work on the ancient ,egyptian religion makes the wise observation3 8,the revolution brought about by religious universalism is the greatest and most complete which the history of the world can show40#cjj ,it is true that no primitive religion aimed at universalism or even deemed it desirable or possible4 ,the gods of the gens or tribe belonged to that community1 were its own exclusively1 and stood in antagonism to all other gods4 ,there was no notion of proselytising or missionary work1 no desire to extend the worship of the tribal god beyond the limits of the tribe4 ,this exclusiveness was broken down by the inter-communication of tribes1 their confederations and conquests1 which forced the religious conceptions to take broader views4 ,the priests and philosophers began to recognise in the deities of other nations types of their own1 as we see in ,greek and ,roman writers4 ,this gradually led to the comprehensive speculations of the world-religions1 in which all men are considered to stand equally before ,god1 and all entitled to the same share of ,his grace4 ,the early stages of these transitions are easily recognised in primitive faiths4 ,the adoption of foreign gods appears early4 ,when a tribe met with frequent reverses1 it began to distrust the power of its own deities1 and apply to those of its conquerors for aid4 ,the custom of exogamy introduced divinities of other gentes4 ,personal and communal wants led to pilgrimages to the famous oracles and fanes of distant religions1 and the votaries in returning brought with them the memory and the cult of alien gods4 ,in many such ways the barriers of the tribal faith were gradually broken down4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we may expect to find faint traits or none of the purely abstract stage of religion in the cults of savage tribes4 ,yet they are not absolutely lacking4 ,this abstract stage is when the ,idea1 no longer merged in the ,ideal1 stands by itself as the recognised guide of conscious effort4 ,the conception of infinity or perfection is not then conceived in relation to a being or personality4 ,it will still act as the loftiest motive of action1 the deepest source of spiritual joy4 ,thus understood and recognised1 it will not be a cold product of the reason1 but the warm and potent efflux of the heart1 of the impulses1 and the emotions4 ,in him who rises to this height1 the sympathy for and the active love of the good and the true will be all the stronger1 because he will see that man must hope only from man1 from diligent self-perfecting2 but may thus hope confidently from the best there is in man4 ,toward this end1 though unseen and unacknowledged1 were all religions of primitive peoples unconsciously directing and impelling the human mind4 ,long has been the path1 many the false routes followed1 far away is still the goal2 but ever firmer in faith1 and clearer in purpose1 man will in due time and fit season be established in this1 the last and innermost mystery of his religious nature4 ,,footnotes #a 8,religion10 observes ,professor ,toy1 8must be treated as a product of human thought1 as a branch of ,sociology1 subject to all the laws that control general human progress40--,judaism and ,christianity1 p4 #a4 #b ,rev4 ,john ,m4 ,neale1 ,history of the ,holy ,eastern ,church1 vol4 i41 p4 #cg4 #c ,granger1 ,the ,worship of the ,romans1 p4 vii4 #d ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,grundriss der ethnologischen ,jurisprudenz1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #d4 #e ,the ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 p4 #b4 #f ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 ,bd4 xi41 s4 #abd4 #g ,j4 ,j4 ,honegger1 ,allgemeine ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #ccb4 8,similar conceptions10 observes ,professor ,bastian1 8repeat themselves1 under fixed laws1 in localities wide apart1 in ages far remote40--,grundzge der ,ethnologie1 p4 #gc4 #h ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #ej4 #i ,w4 ,p4 ,clark1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #bda4 #aj ,this subject is fully discussed by ,flgel1 ,zeit4 fr4 ,vlkerpsychologie1 ,bd4 xi42 by ,prof4 ,james ,sully in his ,studies of ,childhood2 and by ,dr4 ,friedmann1 ,centralblatt fr ,anthropologie1 ,bd4 i4 ,the last mentioned argues that the mind of the savage has more points of resemblance to the insane than to the child mind4 ,the higher emotional susceptibility of savages can be illustrated by abundant examples4 #aa ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #ajh4 #ab ,the case was not exceptional4 ,among several tribes it was an established custom for a mother to kill and eat her first child1 as it was believed to strengthen her for later births4 ,see examples in ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 ,bd4 xiv41 pp4 #dfj1 sq4 #ac ,palmer in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 xiii41 pp4 #bid1 #cii4 #ad ,professor ,sayce believes that the ,sumerian of ancient ,babylonia was genderless2 and that the local gods were first endowed with sex on being adopted by the ,semites4--,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #agf4 #ae ,cuoq1 ,lexique ,algonquine1 p4 #ba1 note4 #af ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,preface4 #ag ,ed4 ,clodd1 ,myths and ,dreams1 p4 #afh4 #ah ,besides the general works on ,egyptian religion1 ,i may note ,r4 ,pietschmann1 8,aegypt4 ,fetischdienst und ,gtterglaube10 in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 x41 s4 #aec1 sq4 ,he points out that there was no unity in the ancient cults of ,egypt1 as the gods were those of the nomes only4 ,the worship of ,osiris did not prevail generally till after the sixth dynasty 7p4 #afe74 #ai ,some have explained superstition as 8degenerate religion02 others as 8religious error02 others 7,pfleiderer7 as 8a pathological condition of normal belief02 but all such definitions depend on the view-point4 ,as ,roskoff remarks3 8,the man who is plunged in superstition is sure to hold it for the only true faith1 and is contented with it so long as he is not troubled with doubts40--,das ,religionswesen der ,naturvlker1 p4 #ag4 #bj ,see ,t4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,indian ,buddhism1 p4 #bi 7,hibbert ,lectures71 and in the first volume of the present series of lectures4 #ba ,death was to the ,roman the somnum eternale4 ,prof4 ,sayce remarks of the ancient ,chaldeans that they had no definite belief in an after life4--,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ceh4 #bb ,the question has been carefully examined by ,g4 ,roskoff in his work ,das ,religionswesen der ,rohesten ,naturvlker 7,leipzig1 #ahhj74 ,he conclusively refutes the assertions that tribes have been encountered without religion4 #bc ,calloway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulus1 p4 #aac4 #bd ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 vii41 p4 #dib4 #be ,medicine ,men of the ,apache1 pp4 #dii1 #ejj4 #bf ,the question is carefully discussed by ,hoernes1 ,urgeschichte des ,menschen1 p4 #ic1 sq41 who disputes ,mortillet's opinion4 ,the latter is given in his ,prhistorique ,antiquit de l',homme1 p4 #fjc1 sq4 #bg ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #ie4 #bh ,quoted in ,l',anthropologie1 vol4 viii41 p4 #ccd4 #bi ,granger1 ,religion of the ,romans1 p4 #ba2 ,thiele1 ,hist4 of the ,egyptian ,religion1 ,introd4 #cj ,dr4 ,schwaner1 in ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 ii41 ,app4 p4 clxii4 #ca ,h4 ,grimme1 ,mohammed1 p4 #ch4 #cb ,in his ,preface to ,the ,revolt of ,islam4 #cc ,o4 ,peschel1 ,vlkerkunde1 s4 #bee2 ,f4 ,ratzel1 ,ethnographie1 ,bd4 i2--,schurtz1 ,catechismus der ,vlkerkunde1 s4 #hh4 #cd ,the eminent anthropologist ,broca denied that religiosity is a distinctive trait of humanity4 ,see further in ,hovelacque et ,herv1 ,prcis d',anthropologie1 pp4 #fcd-fcf4 #ce ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 vol4 i41 chap4 xi4 #cf ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cbh4 ,darwin has a parallel passage1 ,descent of ,man1 p4 #ie4 #cg 8,everything1 animate or inanimate1 which has an independent being1 or can be individualised1 possesses a spirit1 or1 more properly1 a shade 7idahi1 a shadow1 or reflection740 ,washington ,matthews1 ,ethnog4 of the ,hidatsa1 p4 #dh4 ,this expresses the general ,weltanschauung of the savage mind4 ,let it be remembered that it is also characteristic of the poetic1 or personifying representation of nature1 and thus belongs to the highest artistic expressions of the human mind as well as to its feeblest utterances4 #ch ,this was the universal opinion of classical antiquity4 ,see ,payne ,knight1 ,ancient ,art1 p4 #de4 ,it was also the orthodox theory of the early ,church concerning the redeemed soul4 ,it 8will know all things as ,god doth4 ,whatsoever is in ,heaven and whatsoever is in earth1 everything will he see with that veritable knowledge which nothing escapeth40--,select ,works of ,st4 ,ephrem the ,syrian1 translated by ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,morris1 p4 #cec4 #ci ,ridley1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bfi4 #dj ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,gough gives reasons for the opinion that the yogin1 who practises the yoga1 is a lineal follower of the ancient local shaman4--,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 p4 #bba4 #da ,this curious recent development of most ancient experience is described by ,dr4 ,m4 ,bucke in the work1 ,in ,re ,walt ,whitman4 #db ,the phenomena of 8demoniac possession0 are so remarkable1 and so frequent in lower conditions of culture that they have been defended as the actual influence of evil spirits by intelligent modern observers 7see the work of ,rev4 ,dr4 ,nevins1 ,demoniac ,possession in ,china1 etc474 ,bishop ,calloway says most of the negro converts in ,natal have such attacks after embracing ,christianity 7,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,society1 vol4 i41 p4 #aga74 ,brough ,smith describes such attacks among the ,australians4 ,strong men are suddenly seized with violent convulsions4 ,they dance wildly1 scream at the top of their voices1 foam at the mouth1 and continue until utterly exhausted4 ,they are homicidal when in this condition1 and their companions fear to approach them 7,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 vol4 i41 p4 #dff74 #dc ,the most complete study of this subject in connection with the development of religions is the work of ,dr4 ,otto ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus in der ,vlkerpsychologie 7,leipzig1 #ahid74 #dd ,bishop ,calloway1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 i41 p4 #agg2 and in his ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #bcb4 ,the ,bushmen explain it as 8a kind of beating of the flesh10 which tells them the future1 and where lost things may be found4 ,they add3 8,those who are stupid do not understand this teaching40--,bleek1 ,bushman ,folk-lore1 p4 #ag4 #de ,a4 ,e4 ,gough1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 p4 #bdc4 #df ,klemm1 ,allgemeine ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #ccg2 ,a4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #dh4 #dg ,curr notes this among the ,australians1 ubi supra1 vol4 i41 p4 #dh2 and it is general among ,american ,indians4 #dh ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce4 #di ,middendorf1 ,keshua ,wrterbuch1 s4 v4 #ej ,proceedings of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ahif4 ,sect4 ,h4 #ea ,on the meaning of huaca see von ,tschudi1 ,beitrge zur ,kennt4 des alten ,peru1 p4 #aef2 ,bertonio1 ,vocab4 de la ,lengua ,aymara1 s4 v4 #eb ,the probable identity of ,heb4 ,iah with ,chald4 ,iah is acknowledged by ,pinches1 ,sayce1 and other eminent ,assyriologists 7see an article by the former1 in the ,proc4 of the ,victorian ,institute for #ahie74 ,that the ,greek ,iachus is from the ,chaldeo-,syrian 7as his myth claims1 referring to him as 8,the ,assyrian stranger10 etc41 ,l4 ,dyer ,the ,gods in ,greece1 p4 #afe7 was maintained by ,herodotus1 ,macrobius1 and ,plutarch1 among the ancients1 and by various modern authors4 ,it can be shown1 however1 that ,yah as a name of ,god was derived from a sacred interjection or cry of the same phonetic value1 which recurs repeatedly in the cults of ,america1 ,polynesia1 and ,australia4 ,this is also true of hua or wa1 the radical of the ,english 8,god40 ,they are both what have been called 8universal0 radicals4 #ec ,codrington in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 x41 p4 #bgi2 ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 iii41 pp4 #bbe-g4 ,in some dialects mana has the special meanings1 omen2 the thunder2 the breath2 the belly 7i4e41 the interior71 etc4 ,hale gives the definition 8power0 as common to all dialects 7,polynesian ,lexicon1 s4 v474 ,fornander notes the similarity to ,sanscrit1 mana1 manu1 mind1 thought4 #ed ,i have dwelt on the absence of monotheism among the ,american tribes in ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #ge4 ,dr4 ,washington ,matthews1 a most competent1 authority1 expresses the universally correct view1 when1 speaking of ,mahopa1 the divine conception of the ,hidatsa ,indians1 he says3 8,it refers to an influence or power above all things1 but not attaching to it any ideas of personality40--,ethnography of the ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #dh4 #ee ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #cch2 ,l4 ,m4 ,turner1 ,the ,hudson ,bay ,eskimos1 p4 #bgb2 von den ,steinen1 ,die ,naturvlker ,zentral-,brasiliens1 p4 #cdj4 ,among the ,australians1 both men and women become 8doctors0 or shamans by dreaming4--,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol41 ii41 p4 #gd4 #ef ,these are called 8hypnogogic hallucinations40 ,they have been studied by ,maury1 ,annales ,medico-psychologiques1 tome xi41 p4 #beb1 sq4 #eg ,this point is discussed by ,professor ,granger1 ,worship of the ,romans1 pp4 #bh1 sq4 #eh ,bishop ,calloway describes the regimen adopted to become inspired among the ,zulus1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41 vol4 i41 p4 #age4 ,among the ,dyaks of ,borneo the ceremony is called nampok1 and its conditions are3 #a4 ,to be alone2 #b4 ,to pass the night on a mountain top2 #c4 ,to offer a sacrifice and call for the god4 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 p4 #ahe4 #ei ,i have treated this question at some length in my ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #cad1 and ,nagualism1 p4 #g1 sq4 #fj ,i have given a translation of it in ,essays of an ,americanist1 p4 #bic4 #fa ,a4 ,e4 ,gough1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 p4 #bcg4 ,the ,mexican adjurations referred to are given by ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 lib4 x41 cap4 #bi4 #fb ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bh1 #cd4 ,the concrete meaning of both words is pith1 kernel1 core1 centre1 etc4 #fc ,hale1 ,ethnography of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #ee2 ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #cae2 after ,stoll4 ,the ,algonkian myth relates that the hero-god ,nanabojou could converse with the spirits of all things1 with trees1 flowers1 butterflies1 the thunder1 etc4 7,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #aac74 #fd ,elyse ,reclus1 ,le ,primitif d',australie1 p4 #bcb4 #fe ,the ,greeks had but vague notions of an after life1 and ,professor ,schrader remarks3 8,the cult of the dead has no place in the ,homeric world40 ,prehist4 ,antiqs4 of the ,aryan ,peoples1 p4 #dbd4 ,the 8indigetes dii0 of the ,romans were rather heroes than divinities1 though ,arnobius1 ,adv4 ,gentes1 lib4 i41 cap4 #fd1 asserts that they were worshipped4 #ff ,the most satisfactory recent study on the worship of ancestors and of the dead1 is that by ,dr4 ,s4 ,r4 ,steinmetz in his ,ethnologische ,studien zur ersten ,entwicklung der ,strafe1 ,bd4 i41 ss4 #ada-bhg 7,leiden1 #ahid74 #fg ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 pp4 #aba1 #afe1 #aii1 #bjg1 etc42 ,howitt in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 xiii41 p4 #ahf4 ,if one wakes a sleeper suddenly1 he may die1 as his vagrant soul may not get back in time4 ,von den ,steinen1 ,naturvlker ,zentral-,brasiliens1 p4 #eaj4 ,in all these primitive views the real soul is regarded as merely a tenant of the body 7not a function or the result of functions71 as it is to-day in the popular religions of civilised lands4 #fh ,the fear of ghosts in civilised countries is the survival of a wide-spread1 ancient belief in the malevolence of souls4 ,i have found no instance of this more striking than among the ,finns4 ,they believed that the souls of the dead lie in wait for the living1 in order to kill and eat them1 especially their hearts and lungs1 so that the slain could not live again4 ,the ghosts did not spare their nearest relatives1 and the story is told of an old man1 who warned his beloved young wife not to follow his corpse to the grave1 or his ghost would eat her4 ,she disobeyed1 and saved herself only by pronouncing the name of ,god4 ,cong4 ,internat4 d',archologie de ,moscou1 ,tom4 ii41 p4 #caf4 ,in about one third of known savage tribes1 the ghosts are considered kind and friendly to the survivors4 ,see ,steinmetz's analysis in his ,entwicklung der ,strafe1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #adb1 sq4 #fi ,friedrich ,freihold1 ,die ,lebensgeschichte der ,menschheit1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #ce4 #gj ,baiame is from the verb bhai4 ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 viii41 p4 #bdb4 ,the 8,nurali0 of the ,murray ,river tribes is also an embodiment of light4 ,b4 ,b4 ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 vol4 i41 p4 #dbc4 #ga ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs1 p4 #ac2 ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 iii41 p4 #aec4 #gb ,gill1 ubi supra1 pp4 #c1 #ag1 #dd4 #gc ,e4 ,w4 ,man1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 xii41 p4 #aff4 #gd ,th4 ,hahn1 ,tsuni ,goam1 pp4 #abd1 #abf4 #ge ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #ahf2 ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 vol4 x41 p4 #bhe4 #gf ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #ig1 #afe1 etc4 #gg ,fornander1 ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #gh2 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs1 p4 #ah4 #gh ,musters1 ,among the ,patagonians1 ch4 v42 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 ii41 ,app41 p4 clxx42 ,hahn1 ,tsuni ,goam1 p4 #cg4 #gi ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #ahi4 #hj ,castren observes3 8,es hat innerhalb der weitgestreckten ,grnzen ,asiens kaum ein einziges ,volk gegeben1 welches nicht den ,himmel verehrt htte40--,finnische ,mythologie1 p4 #ad4 ,he might as well have said1 8the habitable globe0 instead of ,asia only4 #ha ,matthew1 v41 #cd4 #hb ,hopkins1 ,religions of ,india1 pp4 #fb1 seq4 #hc ,gill1 ubi supra1 pp4 #aj-ad2 ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology1 ch4 i4 #hd ,b4 ,brough ,smith1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 vol4 i41 p4 #deg4 #he ,notably by ,prof4 ,f4 ,l4 ,w4 ,schwartz in his numerous works1 and in his contributions to the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 etc4 #hf ,the ,hebrew name ,jahve 7,jehovah7 is derived by some from the verb 8to thunder40 ,in the ,vedas1 ,parjanja1 the ,thunderer1 is a conspicuous figure4 ,mumpal1 the ,thunder1 say the ,australians1 created all things4 7,reise der ,fregatte ,novara1 ,anthrop4 ,theil1 s4 ix47 ,among the ,bechuanas1 8,when it thunders1 every one trembles1 and each asks the other1 #8,is there anyone among us who has devoured the wealth of others8'0 7,calloway1 ,relig4 ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #aag74 ,any number of other examples could be added4 #hg ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #fd2 ,honegger1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #ccb4 #hh ,castren1 ,finnische ,mythologie1 p4 #ag4 #hi ,gough1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 p4 #ag4 #ij ,i refer especially to the results of the physical investigations of ,helmholtz1 and to their logical application to mental science1 by ,george ,j4 ,romanes1 in his ,mind and ,motion2 to the position of ,prof4 ,paulsen in his ,introduction to ,philosophy2 and to such lines of thought as are presented in ,professor ,dolbear's ,matter1 ,ether1 and ,motion4 #ia ,related in ,gill's ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific4 ,m4 van ,ende1 in his ,histoire ,naturelle de la ,croyance1 p4 #hc1 sq41 has some suggestive remarks on sound as regarded by primitive nations as a mark of life4 ,hence1 their myths of brooks1 trees1 etc41 as conscious beings4 #ib ,a ,lenormant1 ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #if4 #ic ,e4 ,f4 ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #fj4 8,nothing more colors ,hindu life10 writes ,mr4 ,walhouse1 8than the belief in the efficacy of mantras--forms of prayer or powerful words1 by which all the relations of life may be influenced1 and even the gods may be bound40--,jour4 ,anthrop1 ,inst41 vol4 xiv41 p4 #ahi4 #id ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #dh4 #ie ,report of ,com4 of ,n4 ,south ,wales to the ,columbian ,exposition1 p4 #g4 #if ,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cji4 #ig ,lenormant1 ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #fc4 #ih ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #cah4 #ii ,the appropriate rite thus to destroy an enemy is described by ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 ii41 p4 #faj4 #ajj ,popol ,vuh1 le ,livre ,sacr des ,quiches1 p4 #aj4 #aja ,polynesian ,mythology1 p4 #bhd4 #ajb ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #dac4 #ajc ,the expression in the ,algonkin tongue for a person of the same name is nind owiawina1 8,he is another myself0 7,cuoq1 ,lexique ,algonquine1 p4 #aac74 #ajd ,curr1 ubi supra1 p4 #bdf4 #aje ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 p4 #bhh4 #ajf ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bhh4 #ajg ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 p4 #cbi4 #ajh ,this subject has been discussed by ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 pp4 #afe-ahd1 and other writers4 ,on the 8name soul0 among the ,american ,indians ,i have collected material in ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bgg1 sq4 ,most ,american and ,australian tribes would not name the dead4 ,on the other hand1 in the robust religion of the ancient ,germans1 the names of the loved departed and of great chiefs were shouted out at the banquets1 and a horn drained to their minni1 affectionate memory4 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 vol4 i41 p4 #ei4 #aji ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #ajd4 #aaj ,the original is in the ,turin papyrus4 #aaa ,granger1 ,worship of the ,romans1 p4 #bgg4 #aab ,howitt1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 xiii41 p4 #aib4 #aac ,james ,adair1 ,hist4 of the ,north ,am4 ,indians1 p4 #ed4 #aad ,prof4 ,sayce in ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cje4 #aae ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 lib4 i41 passim2 ,popol ,vuh1 cap4 i42 ,stoll1 ,ethnographie der ,rep4 ,guatemala1 p4 #aah4 #aaf ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #f4 #aag ,comp4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #da4 #aah ,select ,works of ,st4 ,ephrem1 p4 #abb4 7,trans4 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,morris47 ,the name of ,jesus was regarded by the early church as magical in itself4 ,arnobius says of him1 8whose ,name1 when heard1 puts to flight evil spirits1 imposes silence on soothsayers1 prevents men from consulting the augurs1 and frustrates the efforts of magicians40--,adversus ,gentes1 lib4 i41 cap4 #df4 #aai ,see ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus1 p4 #ad1 seq4 #abj ,the ptara of the ,borneans is at times used as a personal name of the chief divine being1 at others in the vague sense of 8duty0 or 8supernatural40 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 #agi4 ,analogous instances have already been mentioned4 #aba ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #cji4 #abb ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology1 p4 #afd4 #abc ,hyades et ,deniker1 ,mission ,scientifique au ,cap ,horn1 p4 #cgf4 ,earlier voyagers write3 8,they certainly have ideas of a spiritual existence40--,narrative of the ,voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 vol4 ii41 p4 #agi4 #abd ,ancient ,nahuatl ,poetry 7,philadelphia1 #ahij72 ,rig ,veda ,americanus 7,philadelphia1 #ahij74 #abe ,dr4 ,w4 ,matthews1 ,the ,mountain ,chant of the ,navahoes1 p4 #dfe4 #abf ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #cji4 #abg ,sahagun1 ,hist4 de ,nueva ,espaa1 lib4 vi4 ,other examples are given by this writer4 #abh ,encyclopdie des ,sciences ,religieuses1 s4 v4 ,prire4 #abi ,other forms are tapui1 to make sacred2 tabui1 to keep from2 tabuaki1 to bless4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 there is a synonomy between 8sacred0 or 8holy0 and 8accursed10 because it is accursed to defile that which is holy4 ,another1 and less probable1 derivation is given by ,frazer1 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 s4 v4 8,taboo40 ,he is perfectly right1 however1 in saying that the original form of the tabu is due1 not to its civil1 but to its religious element4 #acj ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #cfh1 sq41 after ,steller1 who visited ,kamschatka about #agdj4 #aca ,man1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,society1 vol4 xii41 pp4 #aei1 #agc4 #acb ,authorities above quoted1 and ,darwin1 ,descent of ,man1 p4 #ie4 #acc ,for abundant examples of the tabu in various nations see ,frazer's article in the ,encyc4 ,britannica above referred to4 #acd ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #ah4 #ace ,filling in manuscript1 he says1 seventy-seven quarto volumes1 and far from exhausting the supply6 ,bushman ,folk-lore1 p4 #f4 7,london1 #ahge47 #acf ,man1 ubi supra1 p4 #agb4 #acg ,morice1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,canada1 #ahib1 p4 #abe4 #ach ,this branch of the subject has been fully discussed by ,keary1 ,outlines of ,prim4 ,belief1 ,preface and chapter i42 and ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 passim4 #aci ,see ,myths of the ,new ,world1 chap4 iii42 also1 an article on symbolism in ancient ,american art1 by ,prof4 ,putnam and ,mr4 ,willoughby in ,proc4 ,am4 ,ass4 ,adv4 ,science1 vol4 xliv41 p4 #cjb4 #adj ,i have presented this subject with greater detail in an article 8,on the ,origin of ,sacred ,numbers0 in the ,american ,anthropologist1 ,april1 #ahid4 ,the contrast of symbolism of the three and the four is familiar to students4 ,such a popular text-book as ,keil's ,manual of ,biblical ,archology states that four was the predominating number in the temples1 altars1 and rites of the ancient world1 it being1 8according to an idea common to all antiquity1 the symbol of the cosmos02 while the three was 8the mark of the ,divine ,being in ,his various manifestations0 7pp4 #abg1 #abh74 #ada ,westcott1 ,symbolism of ,numbers1 p4 #g4 ,i have given several examples of triple or triune deities in ,america in ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #hd1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,from other fields ,i may note the triad ,kane1 ,ku1 and ,lono of ,hawaii 7,fornander1 ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #fa72 that on the ,marquesas objectively represented by three sticks tied together 7,dr4 ,tautain1 in ,l',anthropologie1 tom4 vii41 p4 #edd72 the triad of ,tangaloa1 ,creator1 ,maui1 ,sustainer1 and ,tiki1 ,revealer1 elsewhere in ,polynesia 7,hale1 ,ethnog4 and ,philol41 p4 #bd74 #adb ,numerous examples are collected in ,l4 ,l4 ,conant1 ,the ,number ,concept1 chap4 ii4 #adc ,in the ,quiche and ,tzental dialects4 #add ,from the verb tumpa1 to forge4 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 p4 #afe4 #ade ,the ,tinn of ,british ,america have the word ,nayweri1 he who creates by thought 7,petitot1 ,les ,den ,dindjie1 p4 #fc72 the ,algonquian ,kitch ,manito created the world 8by an act of his will0 7,schoolcraft1 ,oneta1 p4 #cdb74 ,for the ,zuians1 see ,cushing1 ,zui ,creation ,myths1 p4 #cgi2 for the ,polynesians1 ,hale1 ,ethnography of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #cii1 and ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #fb4 ,there is no distinction between these opinions and that of the ,christian church1 so beautifully expressed by ,st4 ,ephrem the ,syrian3 8,at the nod of ,his will1 noiseless and gentle1 out of nothing ,he created all40 7,select ,works1 ,translated by ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,morris1 p4 #ahe47 #adf ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #fg2 ,rel4 de la ,nouv4 ,france1 #afcd1 p4 #ac4 #adg ,in ,myths of the ,new ,world1 ch4 vii4 7first ed41 #ahfh74 ,numerous writers1 ,klee1 ,andree1 ,lucas1 etc41 have treated the deluge myth with fulness4 ,it is found even among the ,mincopies of the ,andaman ,islands 7,man1 u4 s47 and is quite common throughout ,polynesia 7,fornander1 u4 s41 vol4 i41 pp4 #hh1 sq474 ,various ,australian tribes record it in detail1 ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 vol4 i41 p4 #dcj4 #adh ,fornander 7u4 s41 vol4 i41 p4 #gi1 sq47 discusses it in ,polynesia4 ,their 8tree of life0 was a sacred 8tabooed0 bread-fruit tree4 ,for ,america1 see ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #ajc-ajf4 #adi ,for this reason the works of ,delitsch1 ,haupt1 etc41 on the question1 ,wo lag das ,paradies81 are much less to the point than if their writers had studied the comparative mythology of the subject4 #aej ,this mythical cycle1 as it arose among the native tribes of ,america1 was made by me the special subject of a volume1 ,american ,hero-,myths 7pp4 #bea1 ,philadelphia1 #ahhb74 #aea ,see my ,essays of an ,americanist1 pp4 #ace-adg2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hcb2 ,schrader and ,jevons1 ,prehistoric ,antiquities of the ,aryan ,peoples1 p4 #dbd4 #aeb ,codrington in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41 vol4 x41 p4 #bhe4 #aec ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,bd4 ii41 p4 #ahh4 #aed ,von ,hasselt1 in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 viii41 p4 #aif4 #aee ,j4 ,g4 ,pfleiderer1 ,die ,genesis des ,mythus der ,indogermanischen ,vlker1 p4 #dh4 #aef ,references in ,pietschmann1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 x41 p4 #aei1 who points out that fetishism should be1 as a term1 confined to the cult and not applied to the content of a religion4 #aeg ,rialle1 ,la ,mythologie ,compare1 ch4 i4 #aeh ,prof4 ,granger remarks that 8the influence of the fetish is interpreted as a kind of life of which the fetish is the seat40--,worship of the ,romans1 p4 #bja4 ,bastian defines it as 8an incorporation of a subjective emotional state10 and his disciple ,achelis recognises that it is not a stadium of religious development4 ,see his ,moderne ,vlkerkunde1 p4 #cff4 #aei ,the insufficiency of animism as a theory of primitive religions has been previously urged by ,van ,ende1 ,histoire ,naturelle de la ,croyance1 p4 #ba4 ,like fetishism and shamanism1 animism should be regarded1 not as a form or stadium of religion1 but1 to use ,castren's excellent expression1 8nur ein ,moment in der ,gtterlehre40 ,finnische ,mythologie1 ,einleitung4 #afj ,dorsey1 ,siouan ,cults1 p4 #dcc2 the ,popol ,vuh1 passim4 #afa ,hale1 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expd41 p4 #ee4 #afb ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #beh4 #afc ,see remarks of ,w4 ,w4 ,newell in his introduction to ,fanny ,d4 ,bergen1 ,current ,superstitions 7,mems4 ,amer4 ,folk-lore ,society1 vol4 iv474 #afd ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #caf2 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 ii41 ,app41 p4 cxcviii42 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #aed2 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 ii41 p4 #dh4 ,the moon was sacred to ,tina1 the chief god of the ,etruscans4 ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker1 ,bd4 ii41 p4 #dc4 ,n dd1 better known as ,dido1 has been identified with the moon as the leading deity of the ,carthaginians and ,phnicians4 ,otto ,meltzer1 ,geschichte der ,karthager1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #abh4 ,danu1 the goddess who presided over the ,irish pantheon1 the tuatha de ,danann1 was the moon 7from daon1 to rise74 #afe ,montesinos1 ,ancien ,perou1 p4 #ag2 ,venegas1 ,hist of ,california1 p4 #ajg2 ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 vol4 i41 p4 #dei4 #aff ,brincker in ,globus1 ,bd4 lxviii41 p4 #ig4 #afg ,martin de ,leon1 ,camino del ,cielo1 fol4 #aja4 #afh ,montesinos1 ,ancien ,perou1 pp4 #ad-af2 ,ximenes1 ,origen de los ,indios de ,guatemala1 p4 #aeg4 #afi ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology1 p4 #e2 ,egede1 ,nachrichten von ,grnland1 s4 #acg4 #agj ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 ix4 ,the ,eskimo called it ,sillam ,eipane1 winds-house4 ,egede1 u4 s4 #aga ,the urn or vase was1 in classical antiquity1 the emblem of the fecundating waters 7,guigniaut1 ,religions de l',antiquit1 tom4 i41 p4 #eji74 ,vases full of water were interred with the dead in ,peru to symbolise the life beyond4 ,meyen1 ,die ,ureinwohner von ,peru1 p4 #bi4 #agb ,kalewala1 ,runa iv4 #agc ,probably for this reason the ceremonial law of the ,bushmen1 especially that relating to puberty and marriage1 enjoins 8to avoid the wrath of the ,water40 ,bleek1 ,bushman ,folk-lore1 p4 #ah4 #agd ,compare ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #cae 7after ,steller71 with ,man1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41 vol4 xii41 p4 #afc4 #age ,the specific effect of certain colours on the sub-consciousness1 and thus on the religious emotions1 is practically recognised in sacred art2 but so far as ,i know this has not been made a subject of study by the experimental psychologist4 ,allowance must always be made for association of ideas2 as when the ,mozambique negroes paint the images of their bad spirits white1 on account of their hatred of ,europeans6 #agf ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,gentes1 lib4 vii41 cap4 #di4 #agg ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 u4 s42 ,hale1 ,ethnog4 and ,philol41 p4 #be4 #agh ,calloway1 ,relig4 ,system of the ,amazulus1 p4 #cd2 ,hahn1 ,tsuni ,goam1 p4 #ia2 ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios1 lib4 iv41 cap4 #bf4 #agi ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vols4 v41 p4 #dab1 x41 p4 #bhj4 #ahj ,they were called huacanqui4 ,montesinos1 ,mems4 ,hist4 sur l'ancien ,perou1 p4 #afa4 #aha ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios1 lib4 iv41 cap4 #bf2 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4 vi41 cap4 #da4 #ahb ,hale1 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,explor4 ,exped41 p4 #ig4 #ahc ,hopkins1 ,religions of ,india1 p4 #ig4 #ahd ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #bda2 ,matthews1 ,ethnog4 of the ,hidatsa1 p4 #dh1 etc4 #ahe ,see ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 passim4 #ahf ,see1 for illustrative examples1 my ,primer of ,mayan ,hieroglyphics1 p4 #di1 etc42 and comp4 ,keary1 ,outlines of ,primitive ,belief1 p4 #fc1 sq4 #ahg ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,l',homme ,amricain1 tome ii41 p4 #cfe4 #ahh ,dorsey1 ,siouan ,cults1 pp4 #cij1 #dee2 ,alice ,c4 ,fletcher in ,proc4 ,amer4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,science1 #ahie and #ahif2 ,brinton1 ,myths of ,new ,world1 pp4 #aah1 #aai1 and ,nagualism1 pp4 #db1 #dg1 #dh4 #ahi ,as suggested by ,e4 ,bonavia1 ,flora of the ,assyrian ,monuments 7#ahid74 ,this is a more likely interpretation than that of ,dr4 ,tylor1 that the conical object is the inflorescence of the male date palm2 as it is in some bas-reliefs shown presented toward a city gate1 a person1 etc4 #aij ,fechner1 ,nana1 oder das ,seelenleben der ,pflanze4 #aia ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 ii41 p4 #aii2 ,palmer in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 xiii41 p4 #bib4 #aib ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,l',homme ,amricain1 tom4 i41 p4 #bdj4 #aic ,a careful discussion of 8,hhencultus10 by ,baron von ,andrian1 may be found in the ,bericht der ,deutschen ,anthrop4 ,gesellschaft1 ,august1 #ahhi4 ,he believes the earliest form to have been that of the individualised height2 later1 that of its cosmic relations4 #aid ,on the ,mexican cave-god1 ,oztoteotl1 see my ,nagualism1 pp4 #ch-da4 #aie ,walcott1 ,sacred ,archology1 pp4 #bcc1 #bcf1 etc4 #aif ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ei2 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 ii41 ,app41 p4 clxx4 #aig ,m4 d',estrey1 in ,l',anthropologie1 tom4 iii41 pp4 #gab1 sq41 has made an interesting study of the lizard symbol in ,polynesia1 to which much could be added from other fields of primitive life4 #aih ,as ,keary well says3 8,the essence of primitive belief lies not in any likeness to humanity1 but in differences from it40 ,outlines of ,prim4 ,belief1 p4 #bf4 ,the ,neo-,platonic doctrine of 8emanation0 led to the belief that a man might become so filled with the divine essence as to become divine himself4 ,this was the claim of ,simon the ,magician1 who 8became confessedly a god to his silly followers10 says ,hippolytus in his ,refutation of all ,heresies1 bk4 vi41 cap4 #ac4 #aii ,die ,etrusker1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #aaa4 #bjj ,speaking of ,jupiter1 this fiery preacher exclaims3 8,nor is there any kind of baseness in which you do not associate his name with passionate lusts40--,adversus ,gentes1 lib4 v41 cap4 #bb4 #bja ,howitt1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 xiii41 pp4 #aib1 #aid2 vol4 xiv41 p4 #cac4 #bjb ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #da2 ,herzog und ,plitt1 ,real-,encyclopdie fr ,prot4 ,theologie1 s4 v4 ,gebet1 etc4 #bjc ,hopkins1 ,religions of ,india1 p4 #dab4 #bjd ,calloway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 p4 #cd4 #bje ,as examples1 ,i may name ,unkululu1 among the ,zulus 7,calloway1 ,relig4 ,system of the ,amazulu1 pp4 #dj1 #dc72 ,singbonga1 of the ,munga-,kohls 7,jellinghaus1 in ,zeit4 fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 iii41 p4 #ccj72 the ,hunahpu of the ,quiches 7,popol ,vuh1 p4 #a72 the ,ahsonnuth of the ,navahoes 7#hth ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol41 p4 #bge72 etc4 ,i have discussed the psychic origin of androgynous deities in ,the ,religious ,sentiment1 pp4 #ff1 sqq4 ,it was also strong in the early ,christian ,church1 ,origen and others of the fathers teaching that the ,holy ,ghost was the feminine principle in ,god 7,c4 ,j4 ,wood1 ,survivals in ,christianity1 p4 #fc74 #bjf ,these were frequent in quite primitive faiths4 ,some of the priests of ancient ,mexico1 for example1 wholly extirpated the genitalia4--,davila ,padilla1 ,hist4 de la ,prov4 de ,mexico1 lib4 ii41 cap4 #hh4 ,comp4 ,charlevoix1 ,journal ,historique1 p4 #cej4 #bjg ,i have pointed out that in various ,american dialects1 as the ,chipeway and ,cree1 the ,maya1 ,quichua1 etc41 there are words of native origin1 which were used to convey the notion of the love of the gods in pure and high senses4 ,see the article on 8,the ,conception of ,love in ,american ,languages10 in ,essays of an ,americanist1 pp4 #daf1 #dba1 #dbh1 etc4 #bjh ,otto ,gruppe1 quoted by ,schrader4 #bji ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #ah4 #baj ,the idea of mimicry survived long1 and indeed still exists1 in what is called 8sympathetic magic02 when1 for instance1 to produce blindness in an enemy1 an image is made of him and its eyes transfixed with thorns4 ,compare ,lenormant1 ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #ab4 #baa ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #ag4 #bab ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 #bac ,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 lib4 iv41 cap4 viii4 #bad ,brinton1 ,nagualism1 p4 #ec4 #bae ,freihold1 ,die ,lebensgeschichte der ,menschheit1 p4 #acd4 ,his expressions are3 #a4 ,das ,menschenwerden des ,gttlichen2 and1 #b4 ,die ,vergtterung des ,menschen4 #baf ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #bfc4 ,this statement will also be considered in the sixth lecture of this series4 #bag ,indeed1 among the ,patagonian ,indians1 according to a competent observer1 there are no fixed religious ceremonies whatever1 except those of a personal character1 referring to births1 marriages1 deaths etc4--,george ,c4 ,musters1 ,among the ,patagonians1 chap4 v4 #bah ,the anaphora1 remarks the ,rev4 ,john ,m4 ,neale1 in his ,history of the ,holy ,eastern ,church1 vol4 ii41 chap1 i41 has always been 8by far the most important part0 of the ,christian liturgies4 ,it recurs in nearly all primitive worship4 #bai ,granger1 ,worship of the ,romans1 pp4 #bgb1 #cjc1 etc4 #bbj ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 vol4 i41 p4 #db2 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #bfj2 ,payne ,knight1 ,ancient ,art1 p4 #ej4 #bba ,indian ,sign ,language1 pp4 #afg-gj4 #bbb ,teutonic ,mythology1 vol4 i41 p4 #db4 #bbc ,von ,tschudi1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss des ,alten ,peru1 p4 #aef4 #bbd ,see ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #aab1 sq4 #bbe ,see ,richard ,andree's remarks on 8die ,masken im ,kultus10 in his ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 ,neue ,folge1 p4 #aji1 sq4 #bbf ,jacob ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 vol4 i41 p4 #dh1 sq4 #bbg ,a4 ,b4 ,meyer1 in ,globus1 ,bd4 lxvii41 p4 #ccd4 #bbh ,the terms 8honorific0 and 8piacular0 were1 ,i believe1 first suggested by ,dr4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,they are very appropriate4 #bbi ,holtzmann1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #bcb4 #bcj ,oviedo1 ,historia de las ,indias1 lib4 x41 cap4 xi4 #bca ,balboa1 ,histoire du ,perou1 pp4 #abe-g4 #bcb ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ca4 #bcc ,sahagun1 ,historia de la ,nueva ,espaa1 lib4 i4 #bcd ,mrs4 ,m4 ,c4 ,stevenson1 in ,an4 ,rep4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 vol4 xi41 p4 #acb4 #bce ,dorsey1 ,siouan ,cults1 p4 #eaa4 #bcf ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,l',homme ,amricain1 tom4 i41 p4 #bcg4 #bcg ,examples in my ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america1 p4 #ah4 ,it was a favourite amulet among the ,crees 7,mackenzie1 ,hist4 of the ,fur ,trade1 p4 #hf74 #bch ,achelis1 ,moderne ,vlkerkunde1 p4 #cgj2 ,man1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 xii41 p4 #agb4 #bci ,charlevoix1 ,hist4 de la ,nouvelle ,france1 ch4 vi4 ,sprinkling the new-born child as a religious ceremony prevailed in ,new ,zealand and throughout ,polynesia4 7,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 vol4 i41 p4 #bcf47 #bdj ,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 lib4 iv41 cap4 vi4 ,the same belief prevailed in some ,african tribes2 see ,achelis1 ,moderne ,vlkerkunde1 p4 #cic4 #bda ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,oneta1 pp4 #cca1 #def4 #bdb ,notices of ,east ,florida by a ,recent ,traveller1 p4 #gi4 #bdc ,gregg1 ,commerce of the ,prairies1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bga4 #bdd ,examples in ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland's ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 p4 #cji4 #bde ,r4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 p4 #agg4 #bdf ,the ,bora has been often described1 by no one better than ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 vii41 p4 #bdb1 sq41 and vol4 xiv41 p4 #cjf1 sq4 #bdg ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,kitchi ,gami1 p4 #bbh4 #bdh ,captain ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #bed4 ,d',orbigny describes the bloody ordeals through which girls in ,south ,american tribes were obliged to pass4 ,l',homme ,amricain1 tom4 i41 pp4 #aic1 #bcg4 #bdi ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race vol4 i41 pp4 #de-ej2 ,palmer1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 xiii41 p4 #cja4 #bej ,see ,post1 in ,globus1 ,b4 lxvii41 s4 #bgd4 #bea ,palmer1 ubi supra1 p4 #cja4 #beb ,lafitau1 ,murs des ,sauvages ,amricains1 lib4 ii41 ch4 vi4 #bec ,musters asserts this positively of the ,tehuelche and other tribes 7,among the ,patagonians1 chap4 v472 ,captain ,clark1 whose long experience among our ,western tribes constituted him an authority of the first rank1 takes pains to correct the notion that among the natives wives are bought1 although they are by white men 7,indian ,sign ,language1 pp4 #bde-f74 ,it would be easy to multiply references to the same effect4 #bed ,bleek1 ,bushman ,folk-lore1 p4 #ac4 #bee ,worship of the ,romans1 p4 #fg4 #bef ,this has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt by ,dr4 ,s4 ,k4 ,steinmetz in a remarkable study of 8,endo-cannibalismus10 in the ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 #ahif4 #beg ,granger1 ubi supra1 p4 #cg4 ,the word 8burial0 in ethnology is used to denote all modes of disposal of the corpse4 ,this is etymologically correct4 ,see ,yarrow1 ,mortuary ,customs of the ,north ,american ,indians1 p4 #e4 #beh ,navarrete1 ,viages1 tom4 iii41 p4 #dja2 ,dumont1 ,mems4 ,hist4 sur la ,louisiane1 tom4 i41 p4 #agh2 ,gumilla1 ,hist4 del ,orinoco1 p4 #bja4 ,coral says1 the widows esteemed it a privilege to be buried with the corpse and disputed among themselves for the honour1 ,voiages1 tom4 ii41 pp4 #ic1 #id4 ,the ,taenzas had the same customs as the ,natchez1 ,tonty1 ,mmoire1 in ,french1 ,hist4 ,colls4 of ,louisiana1 p4 #fa4 #bei ,arthur ,j4 ,evans1 in ,proc4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,science1 #ahif1 ,sect4 ,h4 #bfj ,stephen ,powers1 ,indians of ,california1 pp4 #aha1 #bjg4 ,the ,tasmanians and ,fuegians1 probably the lowest of known tribes1 burned their dead4 ,hyades et ,deniker1 ,mission ,scientifique1 p4 #cgi2 ,fenton1 ,history of ,tasmania1 p4 #ie4 ,some tribes gave as a reason for burning their dead that otherwise bears and wolves would eat the corpse1 and the soul would be obliged to take on their forms4--,pres4 ,message and ,ac4 ,docs41 #ahea1 pt4 iii41 p4 #ejf4 #bfa ,alonso de la ,pea ,montenegro1 ,itinerario para ,parrocos de ,indios1 p4 #ahe 7,madrid1 #agga74 #bfb ,clark1 ,indian ,sign ,language1 p4 #bfc4 #bfc ,k4 ,t4 ,preuss1 in the ,bastian ,festschrift4 #bfd ,anthropologie des ,naturvlker1 ,bd4 i41 p4 #dei4 #bfe ,the application of the blood1 observes ,professor ,granger1 8bound together in some way those who were present at the rite0 7,worship of the ,romans1 p4 #baj74 ,this subject is fully discussed by ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,trumbull in his works1 ,the ,blood ,covenant1 and ,the ,threshold ,covenant4 #bff ,castren1 in the ,introduction to his ,finnische ,mythologie1 has some excellent remarks on the beneficial effects of shamanism4 ,it is an effort to free the human mind from the shackles of blind natural forces2 it recognises the dependence of the subjective on an objective will1 etc4 #bfg ,myth and ,science1 p4 #da4 #bfh ,hahn1 ,tsuni ,goam1 p4 #ba4 #bfi ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bei1 #bga1 #bhb2 vol4 ii41 ,app41 p4 clxxv4 #bgj ,walthouse1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 vol4 v41 p4 #dae4 #bga ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,constituciones ,diocesanas de ,chiapas1 fol4 #i4 #bgb ,the locally famous ,maria ,candelaria4 ,at the head of fifteen thousand warriors1 she defied the ,spanish army for nearly a year1 and1 though defeated1 was never captured4 ,her story is scantily recorded by ,vicente ,pineda1 in his ,historia de las ,sublevaciones ,indigenas en el ,estado de ,chiapas1 pp4 #ch-gj4 #bgc ,otfried ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker1 ,bd4 ii41 ss4 #gg1 #gh4 #bgd ,compare ,keary1 ,outlines of ,primitive ,belief1 p4 #fj2 and ,maury1 ,la ,magie et ,astrologie1 p4 #chf1 sq4 #bge ,geo4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #i2 ,dr4 ,tautain1 in ,l',anthropologie1 tome vii41 p4 #edh4 #bgf ,on the ordeal1 see ,post1 ,ethnologisches ,jurisprudenz1 ,bd4 ii41 ss4 #dei1 sq41 #dgi2 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #dfa4 ,the assertion by some writers that the ordeal was not known to the ,american ,indians is incorrect4 ,for example1 ,captain ,clark recounts those to test the virtue of women who have been accused4 ,indian ,sign ,language1 pp4 #de1 #bjh4 #bgg ,see ,s4 ,k4 ,steinmetz on 8,der ,zweikampf als ,ordal0 in his ,ethnologische ,studien zur ersten ,entwicklung der ,strafe1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #gf1 sq4 #bgh ,post1 ubi supra1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #dgh4 #bgi ,adair1 ,hist4 of the ,n4 ,american ,indians1 p4 #aeh2 ,boscana1 ,acc4 of the ,indians of ,california1 p4 #bfb4 #bhj ,this is presented admirably and at length by ,m4 ,kulischer in an article 8,der ,dualismus der ,ethik bei den primitiven ,vlkern10 in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 xvii41 pp4 #bje1 sqq4 ,he also sees clearly enough that the same principle1 masked and denied though it be1 reigns to-day4 ,the 8categorical imperative0 of ,kant1 is as far from realisation as is 8the golden rule40 #bha ,there were1 of course1 some hobgoblins always ready to eat up or injure man2 but not for any moral or ethical reason4 8,they afflict men1 not out of anger or to punish sin1 but because it is their nature to do so10 as ,dalton says of the devils of the ,oraons4 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bef4 #bhb ,this explains what ,dr4 ,robertson ,smith1 in his ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #adj1 says is so difficult to grasp1--that the primitive idea of holiness is apart from personal character1 and even shameful wretches could lay claim to it4 ,entirely parallel instances are found in the history of ,christian heresies1 as the ,anomians and ,anabaptists1 who were so holy that they could commit no sin1 and hence allowed themselves the wildest licence4 #bhc ,it is in this sense that ,wilhelm von ,humboldt wrote3 8,wahre ,tugend ist unvertrglich mit auf ,autoritt geglaubter ,religion40 7,gesammelte ,werke1 ,bd4 vii41 p4 #gb47 ,this is a cardinal principle in studying the history of ethics4 #bhd ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak1 vol4 i41 p4 #bga2 ,hoffman1 ,secret ,societies of the ,ojibway1 passim4 #bhe ,they were called the ,abecedarians1 because they distrusted even the ,,abc4 ,some learned scholars actually threw away their books and joined them4 #bhf ,bain1 ,the ,senses and the ,intellect1 p4 #fjg4 #bhg ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #eha4 #bhh ,as ,wilhelm von ,humboldt remarked3 8,das ,streben der ,natur ist auf etwas ,unbeschrnktes gerichtet40 ,the meaning of this profound observation is ably discussed by ,steinthal1 ,die sprachphilosophischen ,werke ,w4 von ,humboldt's1 p4 #agh4 #bhi ,bull4 ,amer4 ,museum ,nat4 ,history1 vol4 viii41 p4 #bbg4 #bij ,they were preserved in the original tongue by the first missionaries1 ,sahagun1 ,olmos1 ,bautista1 etc41 and have1 in part1 been published4 #bia ,this is further set forth in ,rostock1 ,das ,religionswesen der rohesten ,naturvlker1 p4 #ade1 sq42 and ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 vol4 i41 pp4 #ea-ed4 #bib ,klemm1 ,culturgeschichte1 ,bd4 ii41 s4 #cji4 #bic ,walthouse1 in ,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41 vol4 xiv41 p4 #ahi4 #bid ,the amok of the ,malays1 the mali-mali of the ,tagalese1 etc41 is a maniacal religious psychosis in which the subject will rush violently through a street1 killing or wounding any one he meets4 ,see ,dr4 ,rasch's discussion of it in ,centralblatt fr ,anthropologie1 vol4 i41 p4 #ed1 who considers it a 8suggestive influence40 ,similar examples are common among ,american ,indians4 #bie ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,gentes1 bk4 ii41 cap4 #fb4 #bif ,worship of the ,romans1 p4 #baa4 ,this was1 of course1 but one side of it1 though usually the most important4 #big ,professor ,lazarus observes3 8,in der ,religion zeigt sich der ganze ,mensch0 7,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 ,bd4 i41 s4 #dg74 ,that is1 that the individual in no other condition of mind realises and reveals his full personality so completely as in that which is created by the religious sentiment4 #bih ,judaism and ,christianity1 pp4 #e-g4 #bii ,the literature relating to these august characters in ,american legendary literature is presented in my ,american ,hero-,myths1 passim2 also1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg4 #cjj ,ancient ,egyptian ,religion1 ,introduction4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index ,,of ,,authorities4 ,achelis1 ,th41 #acd1 #aid1 #aie ,adair1 ,j41 #ih1 #bbf ,andree1 ,r41 #if1 #abf1 #ahd1 #aig ,andrian1 von1 #aee ,arnobius1 #ga1 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,nicaraguans1 customs of1 #aij ,njambe1 god of the ,marutse1 #ig ,norns of ,teutonic mythology1 #aba ,num1 god of the ,samoyeds1 #hc ,numbers1 the sacred1 #aai ,nurali1 an ,australian deity1 #gd1 #aei ,oannes1 a ,chaldean god1 #afa ,oaths are ordeals1 #bbf ,one-legged god1 the1 #ih ,oraons1 cult of the1 #acg1 #bcj ,ordeals in religions1 #bbe ,origin of religion1 theories about1 #da sq4 ,osiris1 worship of1 #bd ,oztoteotl1 a ,mexican god1 #aef ,palolithic man1 #cd ,papa1 ,rock1 a god of the ,tahitians1 #adg ,papuans1 customs of1 #ahf ,paradise1 the earthly1 #abf ,parjanja1 deity in the ,vedas1 #ha ,parliament of ,religions1 the1 #bh ,patagonians1 #agg ,patol1 a deity of the ,mayas1 #abc ,pawnee war song1 #fg ,perfection the aim of ,religion1 #bce ,personality1 the ,sense of1 #di ,personal rites1 #aia ,peru1 culture of1 #bd ,peruvians1 myths and rites of1 #ada1 #adb1 #adh1 #aij1 #bea ,ptara1 sacred name in ,borneo1 #ajb ,peyotl1 an intoxicant1 #fg ,pilgrimages in primitive religions1 #aeg1 #bec ,pita1 ,father1 the ,brahmanic1 #afh ,places1 worship of1 #aed ,plant-soul1 the1 #aec ,pleiades1 worship of the1 #adj ,po in ,polynesian ,myths1 #abe ,pole1 the sacred1 #aeb1 #bej ,polynesians1 the1 #be1 #eh1 #ei1 #aba1 #abd1 #abg1 #adj1 #adi1 #aeh1 #aie ,prayer in primitive faiths1 #ajc sq4 8,primitive0 peoples defined1 #aa ,prophecy explained1 #aaj ,psychic automatism1 #ed ,psychologic ,method1 the1 #f ,psychology1 experimental1 #g ,puberty1 rites relating to1 #aig ,pueblo ,indians1 the1 #ci ,puluga1 god of the ,mincopies1 #ge1 #gh1 #aac1 #aaf ,quetzalcoatl1 a hero-god1 #ade1 #bea ,quiche ,indians1 the1 #gb1 #aee1 #afi ,rain-making1 rites of1 #agd ,reciprocal principle1 worship of1 #afi ,revelation1 universality of1 #ej ,ritual in ,religion1 #agb sq4 ,rongo1 a ,polynesian deity1 #gi ,sacrifice as a rite1 #ahf sq4 ,samoyeds1 beliefs of1 #ad1 #fg1 #hc ,sanctuary1 rite of1 #bbf ,sangsangs of ,borneo1 #bbj ,saviour1 myths of the1 #abh ,science and religion1 #bca 8,science of religion0 premature1 #c ,selene1 the goddess1 #cg ,seminoles1 customs of1 #aif ,semites1 primitive1 #bc ,seposition of dead1 #bji ,serpent-worship1 #afj ,sex in deities1 #bj ,shamanism1 origin of1 #ea1 #eg2 nature of1 #acf1 #bah ,shamans1 their occult powers1 #fe1 #bcb ,sibiric tribes1 the1 #bf ,sioux ,indians1 prayer of1 #ajf ,sky1 the notions concerning1 #gf ,sky-god1 the1 #gh ,song in religion1 #bci ,soul1 journey of the1 #abh ,souls1 the doctrine of1 #bh1 #gj sq42 beliefs concerning1 #gf ,star-worship1 #adj ,stone ,age1 the1 #cc ,stonehenge1 monuments of1 #cc ,stones1 worship of1 #adf 8,sub-limital consciousness10 the1 #ed 8,suggestion0 explained1 #ed sq4 ,sumerians1 gods of1 #bj1 #bc ,sun-worship1 #ach sq4 ,supa1 a ,samoan god1 #bbc ,superstition1 a form of religion1 #bg ,svastika1 the1 #aai1 #bcf ,swan-maidens1 the1 #bbc ,tabu1 the1 #cb1 #ch1 #ajh1 #aef1 #bbb1 #bcj ,tahitians1 myths of the1 #adg ,tangaloa1 a ,polynesian deity1 #gd1 #ge1 #gh1 #ii ,tehuelches1 myth of1 #gg ,tepi1 the custom of1 #id ,teutonic rites1 #ahb1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bbc ,theoleptic worshippers1 #ahe ,theology1 its aim1 #d 8,theopathy0 explained1 #ef ,theophorous names1 #ajj ,thought1 creation by1 #abd ,three as sacred number1 #abj ,thunder in mythology1 #hj1 #ha ,tina1 an ,etruscan god1 #adj ,tinn1 an ,american tribe1 #abe ,tonantzin1 an ,aztec deity1 #ade ,tongues1 the gift of1 #ic ,tota1 a ,mexican deity1 #aea1 #afg ,totemic animals1 the1 #afa2 bond1 the1 #baf ,tree of knowledge1 the1 #aec ,trees1 worship of1 #aej sq4 ,trinities of heathen religions1 #aba ,tsuni ,goab1 a deity of the ,hottentots1 #ge ,tupa1 a deity of the ,dyaks1 #abc ,turramulun1 an ,australian god1 #ih ,tutelary personal deities1 #aib ,tzentals1 customs of1 #bba1 #bbb ,ukko1 deity of ,finns1 #gh ,umbilical cord1 rites respecting1 #aid ,unconscious cerebration1 #ed ,unity of human intelligence1 #i ,unkululu1 deity of the ,zulus1 #afh ,upanishads1 teachings of the1 #eg1 #hc ,varuna1 ,sanscrit deity1 #gi ,vase1 symbolism of the1 #add ,vatea1 a ,polynesian deity1 #ge ,veddahs1 the1 #bf 8,veiled gods0 of ,etruscans1 #afe ,vesta1 the goddess1 #bbc ,virgins of the ,sun1 #aij ,visual ideas1 #acj ,votan1 hero-god of the ,tzentals1 #bba ,vows taken at birth1 #aic ,wakan1 in ,dakota1 #fj1 #fa2 in ,quichua1 #fa ,waking visions1 #ff ,water1 worship of1 #add ,will as the source of ,force1 #dg sq4 ,winds1 worship of the1 #adc ,witches' ,sabbath1 the1 #ahe ,woman1 her position in ,religion1 #bai ,word1 the1 in religion1 #hh sq4 ,world-soul1 belief in a1 #acf ,writing1 religious origin of1 #bda ,yah1 a sacred interjection1 #fb ,yahgans1 the1 #eg1 #hj1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #aie ,yahve1 derivations of1 #fb1 #ha ,yetl1 a sacred bird1 #aei ,yoga philosophy1 the1 #ea ,yucatan1 culture of1 #bd1 #aej ,yurucares1 tribe of1 #aea ,zi1 ,chaldean term for spirits1 #di ,zulus1 the1 their beliefs1 #bf1 #ef1 #fg1 #adg1 #afh ,zui ,indians1 the1 #gb1 #abd1 #abe1 #bba ,a ,selection from the ,catalogue of ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,illustration ,complete ,catalogue sent on application ,,american ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religions ,i4 ,rhys-,davids--,buddhism3 ,its ,history and ,literature4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,rhys-,,davids1 ,,ll4,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,pali and ,buddhist ,literature at ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,crown octavo4 ,net1 #a4ej4 8444,an admirable handbook of ,buddhism1 written from a point of view at once scholarly and unprejudiced40--,st4 ,paul ,pioneer ,press4 ,,ii4 ,brinton--,religions of ,primitive ,peoples4 ,by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,sc4,d41 ,professor of ,archology and ,linguistics in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,crown octavo4 ,net1 #a4ej4 8444,no book has yet appeared which brings the religious thought of all races and times within closer range of the modern reader2 and to the reader who revels in tracing the psychic history of man1 no book can be more welcome40--,boston ,transcript4 ,,iii4 ,cheyne--,jewish ,religious ,life after the ,exile4 ,by ,rev4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,cheyne1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 ,oriel ,professor of ,interpretation of ,holy ,scripture in the ,university of ,oxford1 and formerly ,fellow of ,balliol ,college2 ,canon of ,rochester4 ,crown octavo4 ,net1 #a4ej4 8,few men are as well qualified as ,canon ,cheyne to discuss the ,jewish literature and life of the period covered by this course1 and the treatment of the subject before us in this handsome volume is all that could be desired4444 ,the whole book is exceedingly interesting and instructive40--,universalist ,leader4 ,,iv4 ,budde--,religion of ,israel to the ,exile4 ,by ,,karl ,,budde1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,theology in the ,university of ,strassburg4 ,crown octavo4 ,net1 #a4ej4 8,the chief merit of ,professor ,budde's book is its condensation4 ,he gives a distinct view of the subject1 undistracted by details4 ,while the book will take its deserved place in the estimation of scholars it is also a book for the general reader40--,the ,outlook4 ,v4 ,steindorff--,the ,religion of the ,ancient ,egyptians4 ,by ,g4 ,,steindorff1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,egyptology at the ,university of ,leipzig4 ,crown octavo4 ,net1 #a4ej4 8,presents in compact form and interesting style the latest information1 and should find a place in every library of comparative religions40--,the ,congregationalist4 ,,vi4 ,knox--,the ,development of ,religion in ,japan4 ,by ,,george ,,william ,,knox1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of the ,history and ,philosophy of ,religion in ,union ,theological ,seminary1 and ,sometime ,professor of ,philosophy and ,ethics at the ,imperial ,university1 ,tokyo4 ,crown octavo1 net1 #a4ej 8,a notable addition to this excellent series40--,the ,churchman4 8,the author is peculiarly qualified for appreciative treatment of his subject40--,the ,outlook4 ,,vii4 ,bloomfield--,the ,religion of the ,veda4 ,the ,ancient ,religion of ,veda 7from ,rig-,veda to ,upanishads74 ,by ,,maurice ,,bloomfield1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,sanscrit and ,comparative ,philology in the ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 ,crown octavo4 #a4ej net4 ,by mail1 #a4fe 8,it presents interestingly1 and brings out as markedly as possible the development of the religious thought of the ,veda in distinction from myth and ceremony40--,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,,viii4 ,cumont--,astrology and ,religion among ,the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,by ,,franz ,,cumont1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,conservator of the 8,muse du ,cinquantenaire10 ,brussels4 ,m4 ,cumont shows the influence which ,oriental star-worship exercised on the beliefs of the ,greco-,roman world and how it led to a transformation of the old paganism and prepared the coming of ,christianity4 ,,ix4 ,jastrow--,aspects of ,religious ,belief and ,practice in ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,by ,,morris ,,jastrow1 ,,jr41 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,with #ed ,illustrations and a ,map and ,chronological ,lists of the ,rulers of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,crown octavo4 #b4be net4 ,by mail1 #b4de ,professor ,jastrow has during many years made a special study of the religion of the ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 and has contributed many authoritative volumes and papers embodying the results of his researches4 ,international ,handbooks to the ,new ,testament ,edited by ,orello ,cone1 ,d4,d4 ,four volumes4 ,octavo4 ,each1 net1 #b4jj ,by mail1 #b4ae ,i4--,the ,synoptic ,gospels1 together with a ,chapter on the ,text-,criticism of the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,george ,lovell ,gary1 ,a4,m41 ,l4,h4,d41 ,president of the ,meadville ,theological ,school4 8,we need hardly say that we find ourselves differing very seriously and very often from the editor of this volume1 but we gladly recognize the thoughtfulness and intelligence with which he has worked4 ,the student may learn much from this volume40--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,,ii4--,the ,epistles of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,corinthians1 ,thessalonians1 ,galatians1 ,romans1 and ,philippians4 ,by ,james ,drummond1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d41 ,principal of ,manchester ,college1 ,oxford4 8,if the promise given by this volume is fulfilled1 the series will prove of the highest value4 ,it is attractive for the general reader1 while it is of special value to advanced students40--,the ,outlook4 ,,iii4--,the ,epistles to the ,hebrews1 ,colossians1 ,ephesians1 and ,philemon1 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles1 ,the ,epistles of ,james1 ,peter1 and ,jude1 together with a ,sketch of the ,history of the ,canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,orello ,cone1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,biblical ,theology in the ,canton ,theological ,school4 8,it is interesting to note the meaning often hitherto unexplained4 ,the author succeeds because his explanations are reasonable and plausible4 ,he is not bound to any rule of dogma or sect1 but takes a broad and understanding view of his subject40--,church ,review4 ,,iv4--,the ,johannine ,literature and the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,by ,henry ,p4 ,forbes1 ,a4,m41 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,biblical ,literature in the ,canton ,theological ,school4 8,dr4 ,forbes has laid the ministry under perpetual obligation to him4 ,not only does he keep up to the high standard of the three preceding volumes of the set1 but he fully sustains the purpose indicated by the editor-in-chief4 ,the full set is one that every student of the ,bible will make large use of40--,the ,universalist ,leader4 ,send for complete descriptive circular ,new ,york--,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons--,london