,the ,works of ,e4,p4 ,roe ,,volume ,,seventeen ,,success ,,with ,,small ,,fruits ,,illustrated #ahha ,i ,dedicate this ,book ,,to ,,mr4 ,,charles ,,downing ,a ,neighbor1 ,friend1 and ,horticulturist ,,from ,,whom ,i ,,shall ,,esteem ,,it ,a ,,privilege ,,to ,,learn ,,in ,,coming ,,years ,,as ,i ,,have ,,in ,,the ,,past ,,preface ,a book should be judged somewhat in view of what it attempts4 ,one of the chief objects of this little volume is to lure men and women back to their original calling1 that of gardening4 ,i am decidedly under the impression that ,eve helped ,adam1 especially as the sun declined4 ,i am sure that they had small fruits for breakfast1 dinner and supper1 and would not be at all surprised if they ate some between meals4 ,even we poor mortals who have sinned more than once1 and must give our minds to the effort not to appear unnatural in many hideous styles of dress1 can fare as well4 ,the ,adams and ,eves of every generation can have an ,eden if they wish4 ,indeed1 ,i know of many instances in which ,eve creates a beautiful and fruitful garden without any help from ,adam4 ,the theologians show that we have inherited much evil from our first parents1 but1 in the general disposition to have a garden1 can we not recognize a redeeming ancestral trait8 ,i would like to contribute my little share toward increasing this tendency1 believing that as humanity goes back to its first occupation it may also acquire some of the primal gardener's characteristics before he listened to temptation and ceased to be even a gentleman4 ,when he brutally blamed the woman1 it was time he was turned out of ,eden4 ,all the best things of the garden suggest refinement and courtesy4 ,nature might have contented herself with producing seeds only1 but she accompanies the prosaic action with fragrant flowers and delicious fruit4 ,it would be well to remember this in the ordinary courtesies of life4 ,moreover1 since the fruit-garden and farm do not develop in a straightforward1 matter-of-fact way1 why should ,i write about them after the formal and terse fashion of a manual or scientific treatise8 ,the most productive varieties of fruit blossom and have some foliage which may not be very beautiful1 any more than the departures from practical prose in this book are interesting2 but1 as a leafless plant or bush1 laden with fruit1 would appear gaunt and naked1 so1 to the writer1 a book about them without any attempt at foliage and flowers would seem unnatural4 ,the modern chronicler has transformed history into a fascinating story4 ,even science is now taught through the charms of fiction4 ,shall this department of knowledge1 so generally useful1 be left only to technical prose8 ,why should we not have a class of books as practical as the gardens1 fields1 and crops1 concerning which they are written1 and at the same time having much of the light1 shade1 color1 and life of the out-of-door world8 ,i merely claim that ,i have made an attempt in the right direction1 but1 like an unskillful artist1 may have so confused my lights1 shades1 and mixed my colors so badly1 that my pictures resemble a strawberry-bed in which the weeds have the better of the fruit4 ,liberal outlines of this work appeared in ,scribner's ,magazine1 but the larger scope afforded by the book has enabled me to treat many subjects for which there was no space in the magazine1 and also to give my views more fully concerning topics only touched upon in the serial4 ,as the fruits described are being improved1 so in the future other and more skillful horticulturists will develop the literature relating to them into its true proportions4 ,i am greatly indebted to the instruction received at various times from those venerable fathers and authorities on all questions relating to ,eden-like pursuits--,mr4 ,chas4 ,downing of ,newburg1 and ,hon4 ,marshall ,p4 ,wilder of ,boston1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomas1 ,dr4 ,geo4 ,thurber2 to such valuable works as those of ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller1 ,a4 ,j4 ,downing1 ,p4 ,barry1 ,j4 ,m4 ,merrick1 ,jr42 and some ,english authors2 to the live horticultural journals in the ,east1 ,west1 and ,south2 and1 last but not least1 to many plain1 practical fruit-growers who are as well informed and sensible as they are modest in expressing their opinions4 ,,cornwall-,,on-,,the-,,hudson1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,edition ,on page #cae of this volume will be found the following words3 ,to attempt to describe all the strawberries that have been named would be a task almost as interminable as useless4 ,this whole question of varieties presents a different phase every four or five years4 ,therefore ,i treat the subject in my final chapter in order that ,i may give revision1 as often as there shall be occasion for it1 without disturbing the body of the book4 ,a few years since certain varieties were making almost as great a sensation as the ,sharpless4 ,they are now regarded as little better than weeds in most localities4 ,now that my publishers ask me to attempt this work of revision1 ,i find that ,i shrink from it1 for reasons natural and cogent to my mind4 ,possibly the reader may see them in the same light4 ,the principles of cultivation1 treatment of soils1 fertilizing1 etc41 remain much the same2 ,my words relating to these topics were penned when knowledge--the result of many years of practical experience--was fresh in memory4 ,subsequent observation has confirmed the views ,i then held1 and1 what is of far more weight in my estimation1 they have been endorsed by the best and most thoroughly informed horticulturists in the land4 ,i wrote what ,i then thought was true2 ,i now read what has been declared true by highest authorities4 ,i have more confidence in their judgment than in my own1 and1 having been so fortunate as to gain their approval1 ,i fear to meddle with a record which1 in a sense1 has become theirs as well as mine4 ,therefore ,i have decided to leave the body of the book untouched4 ,when ,i read the lists of varieties ,i found many that have become obsolete1 many that were never worthy of a name4 ,should ,i revise these lists1 as ,i fully expected to do1 from time to time8 ,at present ,i have concluded that ,i will not1 for the following reasons3 ,when1 between six and seven years ago1 ,i wrote the descriptions of the various kinds of fruit then in vogue1 ,i naturally and inevitably reflected the small-fruit world as it then existed4 ,the picture may have been imperfect and distorted1 but ,i gave it as ,i saw it4 ,with all its faults ,i would like to keep that picture for future reference4 ,the time may come when none of the varieties then so highly praised and valued will be found in our fields or gardens4 ,for that very reason ,i should like to look back to some fixed and objective point which would enable me to estimate the mutations which had occurred4 ,originators of new varieties are apt to speak too confidently and exultantly of their novelties2 purchasers are prone to expect too much of them4 ,both might obtain useful lessons by turning to a record of equally lauded novelties of other days4 ,therefore ,i would like to leave that sketch of varieties as seen in #ahhj unaltered4 ,to change the figure1 the record may become a landmark1 enabling us to estimate future progress more accurately4 ,should the book still meet with the favor which has been accorded to it in the past1 there can be frequent revisions of the supplemental lists which are now given4 ,although no longer engaged in the business of raising and selling plants1 ,i have not lost my interest in the plants themselves4 ,i hope to obtain much of my recreation in testing the new varieties offered from year to year4 ,in engaging in such pursuits even the most cynical cannot suspect any other purpose than that of observing impartially the behavior of the varieties on trial4 ,i will maintain my grasp on the button-hole of the reader only long enough to state once more a pet theory--one which ,i hope for leisure to test at some future time4 ,far be it from me to decry the disposition to raise new seedling varieties2 by this course substantial progress has been and will be made4 ,but there is another method of advance which may promise even better results4 ,in many of the catalogues of to-day we find many of the fine old varieties spoken of as enfeebled and fallen from their first estate4 ,this is why they decline in popular favor and pass into oblivion4 ,little wonder that these varieties have become enfeebled1 when we remember how ninety-nine hundredths of the plants are propagated4 ,i will briefly apply my theory to one of the oldest kinds still in existence--,wilson's ,albany4 ,if ,i should set out a bed of ,wilson's this spring1 ,i would eventually discover a plant that surpassed the others in vigor and productiveness--one that to a greater degree than the others exhibited the true characteristics of the variety4 ,i should then clear away all the other plants near it and let this one plant propagate itself1 until there were enough runners for another bed4 ,from this a second selection of the best and most characteristic plants would be made and treated in like manner4 ,it appears to me reasonable and in accordance with nature that1 by this careful and continued selection1 an old variety could be brought to a point of excellence far surpassing its pristine condition1 and that the higher and better strain would become fixed and uniform1 unless it was again treated with the neglect which formerly caused the deterioration4 ,by this method of selection and careful propagation the primal vigor shown by the varieties which justly become popular may be but the starting-point on a career of well-doing that can scarcely be limited4 ,is it asked1 ,why is not this done by plant-growers8 ,you1 my dear reader1 may be one of the reasons4 ,you may be ready to expend even a dollar a plant for some untested and possibly valueless novelty1 and yet be unwilling to give a dollar a hundred for the best standard variety in existence4 ,if ,i had ,wilsons propagated as ,i have described1 and asked ten dollars a thousand for them1 nine out of ten would write back that they could buy the variety for two dollars per thousand4 ,so they could2 and they1 could also buy horses at ten dollars each1 and no one could deny that they were horses4 ,one of the chief incentives of nurserymen to send out novelties is that they may have some plants for sale on which they can make a profit4 ,when the people are educated up to the point of paying for quality in plants and trees as they are in respect to livestock1 there will be careful and capable men ready to supply the demand4 ,beginning on page #cdi1 the reader will find supplemental bits of varieties which have appeared to me worthy of mention at the present time4 ,i may have erred in my selection of the newer candidates for favor1 and have given some unwarranted impressions in regard to them4 ,let the reader remember the opinion of a veteran fruit-grower4 ,no true1 accurate knowledge of a variety can be had1 he said1 until it has been at least ten years in general cultivation4 ,i will now take my leave1 in the hope that when ,i have something further to say1 ,i shall not be unwelcome4 ,e4 ,p4 ,r4 ,,cornwall-,,on-,,the-,,hudson1 ,n4 ,y4 ,january #af1ahhf4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,parley ,,ii4 ,,the ,,fruit ,,garden ,,iii4 ,,small ,,fruit ,,farming ,,and ,,its ,,profits ,,iv4 ,,strawberries3 ,,the ,,five ,,species ,,and ,,their ,,history ,v4 ,,ideal ,,strawberries ,,versus ,,those ,,of ,,the ,,field ,,and ,,market ,,vi4 ,,choice ,,of ,,soil ,,and ,,location ,,vii4 ,,preparing ,,and ,,enriching ,,the ,,soil ,,viii4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,soil ,,by ,,drainage ,,ix4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,soils ,,comparatively ,,unfavorable--,,clay1 ,,sand1 ,,etc ,x4 ,,commercial ,,and ,,special ,,fertilizers ,,xi4 ,,obtaining ,,plants ,,and ,,improving ,,our ,,stock ,,xii4 ,,when ,,shall ,,we ,,plant8 ,,xiii4 ,,what ,,shall ,,we ,,plant8 ,,varieties1 ,,their ,,character ,,and ,,adaptation ,,to ,,soils ,,xiv4 ,,setting ,,out ,,plants ,,xv4 ,,cultivation ,,xvi4 ,a ,,southern ,,strawberry ,,farm1 ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,xvii4 ,,forcing ,,strawberries ,,under ,,glass ,,xviii4 ,,originating ,,new ,,varieties--,,hybridization ,,xix4 ,,raspberries--,,species1 ,,history1 ,,propagation1 ,,etc ,,xx4 ,,raspberries--,,pruning--,,staking--,,m ulching--,,winter ,,protection1 ,,etc ,,xxi4 ,,raspberries--,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,foreign ,,and ,,native ,,species ,,xxii4 ,,rubus ,,occidentals--,,black-,,cap ,,and ,,purple-,,cane ,,raspberries ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,raspberries ,,of ,,the ,,future ,,xxiv4 ,,blackberries--,,varieties1 ,,cultivation1 ,,etc4 ,,xxv4 ,,currants--,,choice ,,of ,,soil1 ,,cultivation1 ,,pruning1 ,,etc4 ,,xxvi4 ,,currants1 ,,continued--,,propagation1 ,,varieties ,,xxvii4 ,,gooseberries ,,xxviii4 ,,diseases ,,and ,,insect ,,enemies ,,of ,,small ,,fruits ,,xxix4 ,,picking ,,and ,,marketing ,,xxx4 ,,irrigation ,,xxxi4 ,,suggestive ,,experiences ,,from ,,widely ,,separated ,,localities ,,xxxii4 ,a ,,few ,,rules ,,and ,,maxims ,,xxxiii4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,strawberries ,,xxxiv4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,other ,,small ,,fruits ,,xxxv4 ,,closing ,,words ,,appendix ,,index ,,chapter ,i ,,preliminary ,,parley ,in the ages that were somewhat shadowed1 to say the least1 when ,nature indulged her own wild moods in man and the world he trampled on rather than cultivated1 there was a class who in their dreams and futile efforts became the unconscious prophets of our own time--the ,alchemists4 ,for centuries they believed they could transmute base metals into gold and silver4 ,modern knowledge enables us to work changes more beneficial than the alchemist ever dreamed of2 and it shall be my aim to make one of these secrets as open as the sunlight in the fields and gardens wherein the beautiful mutations occur4 ,to turn iron into gold would be a prosaic1 barren process that might result in trouble to all concerned1 but to transform heavy black earth and insipid rain-water into edible rubies1 with celestial perfume and ambrosial flavor1 is indeed an art that appeals to the entire race1 and enlists that imperious nether organ which has never lost its power over heart or brain4 ,as long1 therefore1 as humanity's mouth waters at the thought of morsels more delicious even than sin under the tongue1 ,i am sure of an audience when ,i discourse of strawberries and their kindred fruits4 ,if apples led to the loss of ,paradise1 the reader will find described hereafter a list of fruits that will enable him to reconstruct a bit of ,eden1 even if the ,fall and all our woe have left him possessed of merely a city yard4 ,but land in the country1 breezy hillsides1 moist1 sheltered valleys1 sunny plains--what opportunities for the divinest form of alchemy are here afforded to hundreds of thousands6 ,many think of the soil only in connection with the sad words of the burial service--,earth to earth1 ashes to ashes4 ,let us1 while we may1 gain more cheerful associations with our kindred dust4 ,for a time it can be earth to strawberry blossoms1 ashes to bright red berries1 and their color will get into our cheeks and their rich subacid juices into our insipid lives1 constituting a mental1 moral1 and physical alterative that will so change us that we shall believe in evolution and imagine ourselves fit for a higher state of existence4 ,one may delve in the earth so long as to lose all dread at the thought of sleeping in it at last2 and the luscious fruits and bright-hued flowers that come out of it1 in a way no one can find out1 may teach our own resurrection more effectually than do the learned theologians4 ,we naturally feel that some good saints in the flesh1 even though they are pillars of the church1 need more than a sea-change before they can become proper citizens of ,jerusalem the ,golden2 but having compared a raspberry bush1 bending gracefully under its delicious burden1 with the insignificant seed from which it grew1 we are ready to believe in all possibilities of good4 ,thus we may gather more than berries from our fruit-gardens4 ,nature hangs thoughts and suggestions on every spray1 and blackberry bushes give many an impressive scratch to teach us that good and evil are very near together in this world1 and that we must be careful1 while seeking the one1 to avoid the other4 ,in every field of life those who seek the fruit too rashly are almost sure to have a thorny experience1 and to learn that prickings are provided for those who have no consciences4 ,he who sees in the world around him only what strikes the eye lives in a poor1 half-furnished house2 he who obtains from his garden only what he can eat gathers but a meagre crop4 ,if ,i find something besides berries on my vines1 ,i shall pick it if so inclined4 ,the scientific treatise1 or precise manual1 may break up the well-rooted friendship of plants1 and compel them to take leave of each other1 after the arbitrary fashion of methodical minds1 but ,i must talk about them very much as nature has taught me1 since1 in respect to out-of-door life1 my education was acquired almost wholly in the old-fashioned way at the venerable dame's school4 ,nay more1 ,i claim that ,i have warrant to gather from my horticultural texts more than can be sent to the dining table or commission merchant4 ,such a matter-of-fact plant as the currant makes some attempt to embroider its humble life with ornament1 and in ,april the bees will prove to you that honey may be gathered even from a gooseberry bush4 ,indeed1 gooseberries are like some ladies that we all know4 ,in their young and blossoming days they are sweet and pink-hued1 and then they grow acid1 pale1 and hard2 but in the ripening experience of later life they become sweet again and tender4 ,before they drop from their places the bees come back for honey1 and find it4 ,in brief1 ,i propose to take the reader on a quiet and extended ramble among the small fruits4 ,it is much the same as if ,i said1 ,let us go a-strawberrying together1 and we talked as we went over hill and through dale in a style somewhat in harmony with our wanderings4 ,very many1 no doubt1 will glance at these introductory words1 and decline to go with me1 correctly feeling that they can find better company4 ,other busy1 practical souls will prefer a more compact1 straightforward treatise1 that is like a lesson in a class-room1 rather than a stroll in the fields1 or a tour among the fruit farms1 and while sorry to lose their company1 ,i have no occasion to find fault4 ,i assure those1 however1 who1 after this preliminary parley1 decide to go further1 that ,i will do my best to make our excursion pleasant1 and to cause as little weariness as is possible1 if we are to return with full baskets4 ,i shall not follow the example of some thrifty people who invite one to go a-berrying1 but lead away from fruitful nooks1 proposing to visit them alone by stealth4 ,all the secrets ,i know shall become open ones4 ,i shall conduct the reader to all the good places1 and name the good things ,i have discovered in half a lifetime of research4 ,i would1 therefore1 modestly hint to the practical reader--to whom time is money1 who has an eye to the fruit only1 and with whom the question of outlay and return is ever uppermost--that he may1 after all1 find it to his advantage to go with us4 ,while we stop to gather a flower1 listen to a brook or bird1 or go out of our way occasionally to get a view1 he can jog on1 meeting us at every point where we mean business4 ,these points shall occur so often that he will not lose as much time as he imagines1 and ,i think he will find my business talks business-like--quite as practical as he desires4 ,to come down to the plainest of plain prose1 ,i am not a theorist on these subjects1 nor do ,i dabble in small fruits as a rich and fanciful amateur1 to whom it is a matter of indifference whether his strawberries cost five cents or a dollar a quart4 ,as a farmer1 milk must be less expensive than champagne4 ,i could not afford a fruit farm at all if it did not more than pay its way1 and in order to win the confidence of the solid men1 who want no gush or side sentiment1 even though nature suggests some warrant for it1 ,i will give a bit of personal experience4 ,five years since1 ,i bought a farm of twenty-three acres that for several years had been rented1 depleted1 and suffered to run wild4 ,thickets of brushwood extended from the fences well into the fields1 and in a notable instance across the entire place4 ,one portion was so stony that it could not be plowed2 another so wet and sour that even grass would not grow upon it2 a third portion was not only swampy1 but liable to be overwhelmed with stones and gravel twice a year by the sudden rising of a mountain stream4 ,there was no fruit on the place except apples and a very few pears and grapes4 ,nearly all of the land1 as ,i found it1 was too impoverished to produce a decent crop of strawberries4 ,the location of the place1 moreover1 made it very expensive--it cost #ai1jjj2 and yet during the third year of occupancy the income from this place approached very nearly to the outlay1 and in #ahgh1 during which my most expensive improvements were made1 in the way of draining1 taking out stones1 etc41 the income paid for these improvements1 for current expenses1 and gave a surplus of over #a1hjj4 ,in #ahgi1 the net income was considerably larger4 ,in order that these statements may not mislead any one1 ,i will add that in my judgment only the combined business of plants and fruit would warrant such expenses as ,i have incurred4 ,my farm is almost in the midst of a village1 and the buildings upon it greatly increased its cost4 ,those who propose to raise and sell fruit only should not burden themselves with high-priced land4 ,farms1 even on the ,hudson1 can be bought at quite moderate prices at a mile or more away from centres1 and yet within easy reach of landings and railroad depots4 ,mr4 ,charles ,downing1 whose opinions on all horticultural questions are so justly valued1 remarked to me that no other fruit was so affected by varying soils and climates as the strawberry4 ,i have come to the conclusion that soil1 locality1 and climate make such vast differences that unless these variations are carefully studied and indicated1 books will mislead more people than they help4 ,a man may write a treatise admirably adapted to his own farm2 but if one living a thousand1 a hundred1 or even one mile away1 followed the same method1 he might almost utterly fail4 ,while certain general and foundation principles apply to the cultivation of each genus of fruit1 important modifications and1 in some instances1 almost radical changes of method must be made in view of the varied conditions in which it is grown4 ,it is even more important to know what varieties are best adapted to different localities and soils4 ,while no experienced and candid authority will speak confidently and precisely on this point1 much very useful information and suggestion may be given by one who1 instead of theorizing1 observes1 questions1 and records facts as they are4 ,the most profitable strawberry of the far ,south will produce scarcely any fruit in the ,north1 although the plant grows well2 and some of our best raspberries cannot even exist in a hot climate or upon very light soils4 ,in the preparation of this book it has been my aim to study these conditions1 that ,i might give advice useful in ,florida and ,canada1 ,new ,york and ,california1 as well as at ,cornwall4 ,i have maintained an extensive correspondence with practical fruit growers in all sections1 and have read with care contributions to the horticultural press from widely separated localities4 ,not content with this1 ,i have visited in person the great fruit-growing centres of ,new ,jersey1 ,norfolk and ,richmond1 ,va42 ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c42 ,augusta and ,savannah1 ,ga12 and several points in ,florida4 ,thus1 from actual observation and full1 free conversation1 ,i have familiarized myself with both the ,northern and ,southern aspects of this industry1 while my correspondence from the far ,west1 ,southwest1 and ,california will1 ,i hope1 enable me to aid the novice in those regions also4 ,i know in advance that my book will contain many and varied faults1 but ,i intend that it shall be an expression of honest opinion4 ,i do not like foxy grapes nor foxy words about them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,fruit ,,garden ,raison d'etre ,small fruits1 to people who live in the country1 are like heaven--objects of universal desire and very general neglect4 ,indeed1 in a land so peculiarly adapted to their cultivation1 it is difficult to account for this neglect if you admit the premise that ,americans are civilized and intellectual4 ,it is the trait of a savage and inferior race to devour with immense gusto a delicious morsel1 and then trust to luck for another4 ,people who would turn away from a dish of ,monarch strawberries1 with their plump pink cheeks powdered with sugar1 or from a plate of melting raspberries and cream1 would be regarded as so eccentric as to suggest an asylum2 but the number of professedly intelligent and moral folk who ignore the simple means of enjoying the ambrosial viands daily1 for weeks together1 is so large as to shake one's confidence in human nature4 ,a well-maintained fruit garden is a comparatively rare adjunct of even stylish and pretentious homes4 ,in ,june1 of all months1 in sultry ,july and ,august1 there arises from innumerable country breakfast tables the pungent odor of a meat into which the devils went but out of which there is no proof they ever came4 ,from the garden under the windows might have been gathered fruits whose aroma would have tempted spirits of the air4 ,the cabbage-patch may be seen afar1 but too often the strawberry-bed even if it exists is hidden by weeds1 and the later small fruits struggle for bare life in some neglected corner4 ,indeed1 an excursion into certain parts of ,hew ,england might suggest that many of its thrifty citizens would not have been content in ,eden until they had put its best land into onions and tobacco4 ,through the superb scenery of ,vermont there flows a river whose name1 one might think1 would secure an unfailing tide from the eyes of the inhabitants4 ,the ,alpine strawberry grows wild in all that region1 but the puritan smacked his lips over another gift of nature and named the romantic stream in its honor4 ,to account for certain tastes or tendencies1 mankind must certainly have fallen a little way1 or1 if ,mr4 ,darwin's view is correct1 and we are on a slight up-grade1 a dreadful hitch and tendency to backslide has been apparent at a certain point ever since the ,hebrews sighed for the leeks and onions of ,egypt4 ,of course1 there is little hope for the rural soul that loathes the light manna of small fruits4 ,we must leave it to evolution for another cycle or two4 ,but1 as already indicated1 we believe that humanity in the main has reached a point where its internal organs highly approve of the delicious group of fruits that strayed out of ,paradise1 and have not yet lost themselves among the thorns and thistles4 ,indeed1 modern skill--the alchemy of our age--has wrought such wonders that ,eden is possible again to all who will take the trouble to form ,eden-like tastes and capacities4 ,the number who are doing this is increasing every year1 ,the large demand for literature relating to out-of-door life1 horticultural journals1 like the fruits of which they treat1 flourishing in regions new and remote1 are proof of this4 ,the business of supplying fruit-trees1 plants1 and even flowers1 is becoming a vast industry4 ,i have been informed that one enterprising firm annually spends thousands in advertising roses only4 ,but while we welcome the evidences that so many are ceasing to be bucolic heathen1 much observation has shown that the need of further enlightenment is large indeed4 ,it is depressing to think of the number of homes about which fruits are conspicuous only by their absence--homes of every class1 from the laborer's cottage and pioneer's cabin to the suburban palace4 ,living without books and pictures is only a little worse than living in the country without fruits and flowers4 ,we must respect to some extent the old ascetics1 who1 in obedience to mistaken ideas of duty1 deprived themselves of the good things ,god provided1 even while we recognize the stupidity of such a course4 ,little children are rarely so lacking in sense as to try to please their father by contemptuously turning away from his best gifts1 or by treating them with indifference4 ,why do millions live in the country1 year after year1 raising weeds and brambles1 or a few coarse vegetables1 when the choicest fruits would grow almost as readily8 ,they can plead no perverted sense of duty4 ,it is a question hard to answer4 ,some1 perhaps1 have the delusion that fine small fruits are as difficult to raise as orchids4 ,they class them with hot-house grapes4 ,others think they need so little attention that they can stick a few plants in hard1 poor ground and leave them to their fate4 ,one might as well try to raise canary-birds and kittens together as strawberries and weeds4 ,there is a large class who believe in small fruits1 and know their value4 ,they enjoy them amazingly at a friend's table1 and even buy some when they are cheap41 ,a little greater outlay and a little intelligent effort would give them an abundant supply from their own grounds4 ,in a vague way they are aware of this1 and reproach themselves for their negligence1 but time passes and there is no change for the better4 ,why8 ,i don't know4 ,there are men who rarely kiss their wives and children4 ,for them the birds sing unheeded and even unheard2 flowers become mere objects1 and sunsets suggest only quitting time4 ,in theory they believe in all these things4 ,what can be said of them save that they simply jog on to-day as they did yesterday1 ever dimly hoping at some time or other to live up to their privileges8 ,but they usually go on from bad to worse1 until1 like their neglected strawberry-beds1 they are turned under4 ,in cities not a hundred miles from my farm there are abodes of wealth with spacious grounds1 where1 in many instances1 scarcely any place is found for small fruits4 ,it is cheaper and easier to buy them1 it is said4 ,this is a sorry proof of civilization4 ,there is no economy in the barbaric splendor of brass buttons and livery1 but merely a little trouble 7,i doubt about money7 is saved on the choicest luxuries of the year4 ,the idea of going out of their rural paradises to buy half-stale fruit6 ,but this class is largely at the mercy of the hired man1 or his more disagreeable development1 the pretentious smatterer1 who1 so far from possessing the knowledge that the ,english1 ,scotch1 or ,german gardeners acquire in their long1 thorough training1 is a compound of ignorance and prejudice4 ,to hide his barrenness of mind he gives his soul to rare plants1 clipped lawns1 but stints the family in all things save his impudence4 ,if he tells his obsequious employers that it is easier and cheaper to buy their fruit than to raise it1 of course there is naught to do but go to the market and pick up what they can2 and yet ,dr4 ,thurber says1 with a vast deal of force1 that the unfortunate people who buy their fruit do not know what a strawberry is4 ,in all truth and soberness it is a marvel and a shame that so many sane people who profess to have passed beyond the habits of the wilderness will not give the attention required by these unexacting fruits4 ,the man who has learned to write his name can learn to raise them successfully4 ,the ladies who know how to keep their homes neat through the labors of their intelligent help1 could also learn to manage a fruit garden even though employing the stupidest oaf that ever blundered through life4 ,the method is this3 ,first learn how yourself1 and then let your laborer thoroughly understand that he gets no wages unless he does as he is told4 ,in the complicated details of a plant farm there is much that needs constant supervision1 but the work of an ordinary fruit garden is1 in the main1 straightforward and simple4 ,the expenditure of a little time1 money1 and1 above all things1 of seasonable labor1 is so abundantly repaid that one would think that bare self-interest would solve invariably the simple problem of supply4 ,as mere articles of food1 these fruits are exceedingly valuable4 ,they are capable of sustaining severe and continued labor4 ,for months together we might become almost independent of butcher and doctor if we made our places produce all that nature permits4 ,purple grapes will hide unsightly buildings2 currants1 raspberries1 and blackberries will grow along the fences and in the corners that are left to burdocks and brambles4 ,i have known invalids to improve from the first day that berries were brought to the table1 and thousands would exchange their sallow complexions1 sick headaches1 and general ennui for a breezy interest in life and its abounding pleasures1 if they would only take nature's palpable hint1 and enjoy the seasonable food she provides4 ,belles can find better cosmetics in the fruit garden than on their toilet tables1 and she who paints her cheeks with the pure1 healthful blood that is made from nature's choicest gifts1 and the exercise of gathering them1 can give her lover a kiss that will make him wish for another4 ,the famous ,dr4 ,hosack1 of ,new ,york ,city1 who attended ,alexander ,hamilton after he received his fatal wound from ,burr1 was an enthusiast on the subject of fruits4 ,it was his custom to terminate his spring course of lectures with a strawberry festival4 ,i must let the class see1 he said1 that we are practical as well as theoretical4 ,linnaeus cured his gout and protracted his life by eating strawberries4 ,they are a dear article1 a friend remarked1 to gratify the appetites of so many4 ,yes1 indeed1 replied the doctor1 but from our present mode of culture they will become cheap4 ,it is hard to realize how scarce this fruit was sixty or seventy years ago1 but the prediction of the sagacious physician has been verified even beyond his imagination4 ,strawberries are raised almost as abundantly as potatoes1 and for a month or more can be eaten as a cheap and wholesome food by all classes1 even the poorest4 ,by a proper selection of varieties we1 in our home1 feast upon them six weeks together1 and so might the majority of those whose happy lot is cast in the country4 ,the small area of a city yard planted with a few choice kinds will often yield surprising returns under sensible culture4 ,if we cultivate these beautiful and delicious fruits we always have the power of giving pleasure to others1 and he's a churl and she a pale reflection of ,xantippe who does not covet this power4 ,the faces of our guests brighten as they snuff from afar the delicate aroma4 ,our vines can furnish gifts that our friends will ever welcome2 and by means of their products we can pay homage to genius that will be far more grateful than commonplace compliments4 ,i have seen a letter from the ,hon4 ,wm4 ,c4 ,bryant1 which is a rich return for the few strawberries that were sent to him1 and the thought that they gave him pleasure gives the donor far more4 ,they are a gift that one can bestow and another take without involving any compromise on either side1 since they belong to the same category as smiles1 kind words1 and the universal freemasonry of friendship4 ,faces grow radiant over a basket of fruit or flowers that would darken with anger at other gifts4 ,if1 in the circle of our acquaintance1 there are those shut up to the weariness and heavy atmosphere of a sick-room1 in no way can we send a ray of sunlight athwart their pallid faces more effectually than by placing a basket of fragrant fruit on the table beside them4 ,even though the physician may render it forbidden fruit1 their eyes will feast upon it1 and the aroma will teach them that the world is not passing on1 unheeding and uncaring whether they live or die4 ,the ,fruit and ,flower ,mission of ,new ,york is engaged in a beautiful and most useful charity4 ,into tenement-houses and the hot close wards of city hospitals1 true sisters of mercy of the one ,catholic church of love and kindness carry the fragrant emblems of an ,eden that was lost1 but may be regained even by those who have wandered farthest from its beauty and purity4 ,men and women1 with faces seemingly hardened and grown rigid under the impress of vice1 that but too correctly reveal the coarse and brutal nature within1 often become wistful and tender over some simple flower or luscious fruit that recalls earlier and happier days4 ,these are gifts which offend no prejudices1 and inevitably suggest that which is good1 sweet1 wholesome and pure4 ,for a moment1 at least1 and perhaps forever1 they may lead stained and debased creatures to turn their faces heavenward4 ,there are little suffering children also in the hospitals2 there are exiles from country homes and country life in the city who have been swept down not by evil but the dark tides of disaster1 poverty1 and disease1 and to such it is a privilege as well as a pleasure to send gifts that will tend to revive hope and courage4 ,that we may often avail ourselves of these gracious opportunities of giving the equivalent of a cup of cold water1 we should plant fruits and flowers in abundance4 ,one of the sad features of our time is the tendency of young people to leave their country homes4 ,and too often one does not need to look far for the reason4 ,life at the farm-house sinks into deep ruts1 and becomes weary plodding4 ,there are too many one-ideaed farmers and farms4 ,it is corn1 potatoes1 wheat1 butter1 or milk4 ,the staple production absorbs all thought and everything else is neglected4 ,nature demands that young people should have variety1 and furnishes it in abundance4 ,the stolid farmer too often ignores nature and the cravings of youth1 and insists on the heavy monotonous work of his specialty1 early and late1 the year around1 and then wonders why in his declining years there are no strong young hands to lighten his toil4 ,the boy who might have lived a sturdy1 healthful1 independent life among his native hills is a bleached and sallow youth measuring ribbons and calicoes behind a city counter4 ,the girl who might have been the mistress of a tree-shadowed country house disappears under much darker shadows in town4 ,but for their early home life1 so meagre and devoid of interest1 they might have breathed pure air all their days4 ,not the least among the means of making a home attractive would be a well-maintained fruit garden4 ,the heart and the stomach have been found nearer together by the metaphysicians than the physiologists1 and if the house-mother1 as the ,germans say1 beamed often at her children over a great dish of berries flanked by a pitcher of unskimmed milk1 not only good blood and good feeling would be developed1 but something that the poets call early ties4 ,there is one form of gambling or speculation that1 within proper limits1 is entirely innocent and healthful--the raising of new seedling fruits and the testing of new varieties4 ,in these pursuits the elements of chance1 skill1 and judgment enter so evenly that they are an unfailing source of pleasurable excitement4 ,the catalogues of plant1 tree1 and seed dealers abound in novelties4 ,the majority of them cannot endure the test of being grown by the side of our well-known standard kinds1 but now and then an exceedingly valuable variety1 remarkable for certain qualities or peculiarly adapted to special localities and uses1 is developed4 ,there is not only an unfailing pleasure in making these discoveries1 but often a large profit4 ,if1 three or four years ago1 a country boy had bought a dozen ,sharpless strawberry plants1 and propagated from them1 he might now obtain several hundred dollars from their increased numbers4 ,time only can show whether this novelty will become a standard variety1 but at present the plants are in great demand4 ,the young people of a country home may become deeply interested in originating new seedlings4 ,a thousand strawberry seeds will produce a thousand new kinds1 and1 although the prospects are that none of them will equal those now in favor1 something very fine and superior may be obtained4 ,be this as it may1 if these simple natural interests prevent boys and girls from being drawn into the maelstrom of city life until character is formed1 each plant will have a value beyond silver or gold4 ,one of the supreme rewards of human endeavor is a true home1 and surely it is as stupid as it is wrong to neglect some of the simplest and yet most effectual means of securing this crown of earthly life4 ,a home is the product of many and varied causes1 but ,i have yet to see the man who will deny that delicious small fruits for eight months of the year1 and the richer pleasure even of cultivating and gathering them1 may become one of the chief contributions to this result4 ,i use the words eight months advisedly1 for even now1 ,january #bi1 we are enjoying grapes that were buried in the ground last ,october4 ,i suppose my children are very material and unlike the good little people who do not live long1 but they place a white mark against the days on which we unearth a jar of grapes4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,small ,,fruit ,,farming ,,and ,,its ,,profits ,a farm without a fruit garden may justly be regarded as proof of a low state of civilization in the farmer4 ,no country home should be without such simple means of health and happiness4 ,for obvious reasons1 however1 there is not1 and never can be1 the same room for fruit raising as there is for grain1 grass1 and stock farming4 ,nevertheless1 the opportunities to engage with profit in this industry on a large scale are increasing every year4 ,from being a luxury of a few1 the small fruits have become an article of daily food to the million4 ,even the country village must have its supply1 and the number of crates that are shipped from ,new ,york city to neighboring towns is astonishingly large4 ,as an illustration of the rapidly enlarging demand for these fruits1 let us consider the experience of one ,western city1 ,cincinnati4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,corbly1 who is there regarded as one of the best informed on these subjects1 has gathered the following statistics3 ,in #ahce it was regarded as a most wonderful thing that #ajj bushels of strawberries could be disposed of on the ,cincinnati market in one day1 and was commented on as a great event4 ,a close estimate shows that during the summer of #ahgi eighty to eighty-five thousand bushels of strawberries were sold in ,cincinnati4 ,of course1 a large part of these berries were shipped away1 but it is estimated that nearly one half were consumed here4 ,about the year #ahch the cultivation of black raspberries was commenced in this county by ,james ,gallagher and ,f4 ,a4 ,mc,cormick of ,salem1 ,anderson township4 ,the first year1 ,gallagher's largest shipment in one day was six bushels1 and ,mc,cormick's four4 ,when they were placed on the market1 ,mc,cormick sold out at #f #a_/d cents per quart1 and ,gallagher held off till ,mc,cormick had sold out1 when he put his on sale and obtained #h #a_/h cents per quart1 and the demand was fully supplied4 ,it is estimated that the crop for the year #ahgi1 handled in ,cincinnati1 amounted to from seventy-five thousand to eighty thousand bushels--the crop being a fairly good one--selling at an average of about two dollars per bushel4 ,it has been stated in ,the ,country ,gentleman that about #e1jjj1jjj worth of small fruits were sold in ,michigan in one year2 and the same authority estimates that #be1jjj1jjj worth are consumed annually in ,new ,york city4 ,in the future it would seem that this demand would increase even more rapidly2 for in every fruit-growing region immense canning establishments are coming into existence1 to which the markets of the world are open4 ,therefore1 in addition to the thousands already embarked in this industry1 still larger numbers will engage in it during the next few years4 ,those who now for the first time are turning their attention toward this occupation may be divided mainly into two classes4 ,the first consists of established farmers1 who1 finding markets within their reach1 extend their patches of raspberries1 currants1 or strawberries to such a degree that they have a surplus to sell4 ,to the extent that such sales are remunerative1 they increase the area of fruits1 until in many instances they become virtually fruit farmers4 ,more often a few acres are devoted to horticulture1 and the rest of the farm is carried on in the old way4 ,the second class is made up chiefly of those who are unfamiliar with the soil and its culture--mechanics1 professional men1 who hope to regain health by coming back to nature1 and citizens whose ill-success or instincts suggest country life and labors4 ,from both these classes1 and especially from the latter1 ,i receive very many letters1 containing all kinds of questions4 ,the chief burden on most minds1 however1 is summed up in the words1 ,do small fruits pay8 ,to meet the needs of these two classes is one of the great aims of this work2 and it is my most earnest wish not to mislead by high-colored pictures4 ,small fruits pay many people well2 and unless location1 soil1 or climate is hopelessly against one1 the degree of profit will depend chiefly upon his skill1 judgment and industry4 ,the raising of small fruits is like other callings1 in which some are getting rich1 more earning a fair livelihood1 and not a few failing4 ,it is a business in which there is an abundance of sharp1 keen competition2 and ignorance1 poor judgment1 and shiftless1 idle ways will be as fatal as in the workshop1 store1 or office4 ,innumerable failures result from inexperience4 ,i will give one extreme example1 which may serve to illustrate1 the sanguine mental condition of many who read of large returns in fruit culture4 ,a young man who had inherited a few hundred dollars wrote me that he could hire a piece of land for a certain amount1 and he wished to invest the balance--every cent--in plants1 thus leaving himself no capital with which to continue operations1 but expecting that a speedy crop would lift him at once into a prosperous career4 ,i wrote that under the circumstances ,i could not supply him--that it would be about the same as robbery to do so2 and advised him to spend several years with a practical and successful fruit grower and learn the business4 ,most people enter upon this calling in the form of a wedge2 but only too many commence at the blunt end1 investing largely at once in everything1 and therefore their business soon tapers down to nothing4 ,the wise begin at the point of the wedge and develop their calling naturally1 healthfully--learning1 by experience and careful observation1 how to grow fruits profitably1 and which kinds pay the best4 ,there ought also to be considerable capital to start with1 and an absence of the crushing burden of interest money4 ,no fruits yield any returns before the second or third year2 and there are often ,unfavorable seasons and glutted markets4 ,nature's prizes are won by patient1 persistent industry1 and not by ,wall ,street sleight of hand4 ,location is very important4 ,a fancy store1 however well-furnished1 would be a ruinous investment at a country crossroad4 ,the fruit farm must be situated where there is quick and cheap access to good markets1 and often the very best market may be found at a neighboring village1 summer resort1 or canning establishment4 ,enterprise and industry1 however1 seem to surmount all obstacles4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,knox shipped his famous #gjj strawberries 7afterward known to be the ,jucunda1 a foreign variety7 from ,pittsburgh to ,new ,york1 securing large returns2 and1 take the country over1 the most successful fruit farms seem to be located where live men live and work4 ,still1 if one were about to purchase1 sound judgment would suggest a very careful choice of locality with speedy access to good markets4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomas1 editor of ,the ,country ,gentleman1 in a paper upon the ,outlook of ,fruit ,culture1 read before the ,western ,n4 ,y4 ,horticultural ,society1 laid down three essentials to success3 #a4 ,locality--a region found by experience to be adapted to fruit growing4 #b4 ,wise selection of varieties of each kind4 #c4 ,care and culture of these varieties4 ,he certainly is excellent authority4 ,these obvious considerations1 and the facts that have been instanced1 make it clear that brains must unite with labor and capital4 ,above all1 however1 there must be trained1 practical skill4 ,those succeed who learn how2 and to add a little deftness to unskilled hands is the object of every succeeding page4 ,at the same time1 ,i frankly admit that nothing can take the place of experience4 ,i once asked an eminent physician if a careful reading of the best medical text-books and thorough knowledge of the materia medica could take the place of daily study of actual disease and fit a man for practice1 and he emphatically answered1 ,no6 ,it is equally true that an intelligent man can familiarize himself with every horticultural writer from the classic age to our own and yet be outstripped in success by an ignorant ,irish laborer who has learned the little he knows in the school of experience4 ,the probabilities are1 however1 that the laborer will remain such all his days1 while the thoughtful1 reading man1 who is too sensible to be carried away by theories1 and who supplements his science with experience1 may enrich not only himself but the world4 ,still1 there is no doubt that the chances of success are largely in favor of the class ,i first named1--the farmers who turn their attention in part or wholly toward fruit growing4 ,they are accustomed to hard out-of-door work and the general principles of agriculture4 ,the first is always essential to success2 and a good farmer can soon become equally skillful in the care of fruits if he gives his mind to their culture4 ,the heavy1 stupid1 prejudiced plodder who thinks a thing is right solely because his grandfather did it1 is a bucolic monster that is receding so fast into remote wilds before the horticultural press that he scarcely need be taken into account4 ,therefore1 the citizen or professional man inclined to engage in fruit farming should remember that he must compete with the hardy1 intelligent sons of the soil1 who in most instances are crowning their practical experience with careful reading4 ,i do not say this to discourage any one1 but only to secure a thoughtful and adequate consideration of the subject before the small accumulations of years are embarked in what may be a very doubtful venture4 ,many have been misled to heavy loss by enthusiastic works on horticulture2 ,i wish my little book to lead only to success4 ,if white-handed1 hollow-chested professional men anxious to acquire money1 muscle1 and health by fruit raising1--if citizens disgusted with pavements and crowds are willing to take counsel of common-sense and learn the business practically and thoroughly1 why should they not succeed8 ,but let no one imagine that horticulture is the final resort of ignorance1 indolence1 or incapacity1 physical or mental4 ,impostors palm themselves off on the world daily2 a credulous public takes poisonous nostrums by the ton and butt2 but ,nature recognizes error every time1 and quietly thwarts those who try to wrong her1 either wilfully or blunderingly4 ,mr4 ,peter ,henderson1 who has been engaged practically in vegetable gardening for over a quarter of a century1 states1 as a result of his experience1 that capital1 at the rate of #cjj per acre1 is required in starting a truck farm1 and that the great majority fail who make the attempt with less means4 ,in my opinion1 the fruit farmer would require capital in like proportion2 for1 while many of the small fruits can be grown with less preparation of soil and outlay in manure1 the returns come more slowly1 since1 with the exception of strawberries1 none of them yield a full crop until the third or fourth year4 ,i advise most urgently against the incurring of heavy debts4 ,better begin with three acres than thirty1 or three hundred1 from which a large sum of interest money must be obtained before a penny can be used for other purposes4 ,anything can be raised from a farm easier than a mortgage4 ,success depends very largely1 also1 on the character of the soil4 ,if it is so high and dry as to suffer severely from drought two years out of three1 it cannot be made to pay except by irrigation2 if so low as to be wet1 rather than moist1 the prospects are but little better4 ,those who are permanently settled must do their best with such land as they have1 and in a later chapter ,i shall suggest how differing soils should be managed4 ,to those who can still choose their location1 ,i would recommend a deep mellow loam1 with a rather compact subsoil1--moist1 but capable of thorough drainage4 ,diversity of soil and exposure offer peculiar advantages also4 ,some fruits thrive best in a stiff clay1 others in sandy upland4 ,early varieties ripen earlier on a sunny slope1 while a late kind is rendered later on a northern hillside1 or in the partial shade of a grove4 ,in treating each fruit and variety1 ,i shall try to indicate the soils and exposures to which they are best adapted4 ,profits4--,the reader will naturally wish for some definite statements of the profits of fruit farming2 but ,i almost hesitate to comply with this desire4 ,a gentleman wrote to me that he sold from an acre of ,cuthbert raspberries #hjj worth of fruit4 ,in view of this fact1 not a few will sit down and begin to figure1--,if one acre yielded #hjj1 ten acres would produce #h1jjj2 twenty acres #af1jjj1 etc4 ,multitudes have been led into trouble by this kind of reasoning4 ,the capacity of an engine with a given motor power can be measured1 and certain and unvarying results predicted2 but who can measure the resources of an acre through varying seasons and under differing culture1 or foretell the price of the crops8 ,in estimating future profits1 we can only approximate2 and the following records are given merely to show what results have been secured1 and therefore may be obtained again1 and even surpassed4 ,the ,country ,gentleman gives a well-authenticated instance of a fruit grower who received more than #b1jjj from three acres of strawberries4 ,in contrast1 however1 it could be shown that many fields have not paid expenses4 ,i once had such an experience4 ,the market was glutted1 and the variety yielded berries so small and poor that they did not average five cents per quart4 ,occasionally we hear of immense shipments from the ,south being thrown into the dock4 ,mr4 ,william ,parry1 a veteran fruit grower in ,new ,jersey1 states the truth ,i wish to convey very clearly1 and gives a fair mean between these two extremes3 ,,yield ,,and ,,profit ,there are so many circumstances connected with strawberry growing1 such as varieties1 soil1 climate1 location1 markets1 and the skill and management of the grower1 that the results of a few cases cannot be relied on for general rules4 ,we have grown over two hundred bushels per acre here1 and realized upward of six hundred dollars per acre for the crop2 but that is much above the general average4 ,having kept a careful record1 for fourteen years past1 of the yield per acre and price per quart at which our strawberries have been sold1 we find the average to be about #b1ejj quarts per acre1 and the price eleven cents per quart in market1 giving the following results3 ,commissions1 #aj per cent #bg4ej ,picking #b1ejj quarts1 at #b;c4 per quart #ej4jj ,manure #ag4ej ,use of baskets #aj4jj ,cultivation1 etc #be4jj ,net profits per acre #ade4jj ,gross proceeds1 #b1ejj quarts at #aa;e #bge4jj ,in the year #ahgf the same gentleman had ten acres of ,brandywine raspberries that yielded about eighty-two bushels to the acre1 giving a clear profit of #bhj1 or of #b1hjj for the entire area4 ,this crop1 so far from being the average1 was awarded a premium as the most profitable that year in the section4 ,j4 ,r4 ,gaston ,sons1 of ,normal1 ,ill41 have given the following record of a plantation of ,snyder blackberries3 ,we commenced to pick a field of seven acres ,july #abth1 and finished picking ,august #bb4 ,the total amount gathered was #dc1ege quarts1 equal to #a1cfa bushels and #bb quarts4 ,the average price was eight cents per quart1 making the gross proceeds equal to #c1dhf4 ,we paid for picking #dce4ge4 ,the cost of trimming and cultivating was about #djj2 cost of boxes1 crates1 and marketing was #a1cjg4be1 leaving a net profit of #a1cdc4 ,a gentleman in ,ulster ,co41 ,n4,y41 stated that #bjj bushes of the ,cherry currant yielded him in one season #a1jjj lbs4 of fruit1 which was sold at an average of eight cents per pound4 ,his gross receipts were #hj from one-fourteenth of an acre1 and at the same ratio an acre would have yielded #a1abj4 ,is this an average yield8 ,so far from it1 there are many acres of currants and gooseberries that do not pay expenses4 ,thus it can be seen that the scale ranges from marvellous prizes down to blanks and heavy losses2 but the drawing is not a game of chance1 but usually the result of skill and industry1 or their reverse4 ,i might have given many examples of large1 and even enormously large1 profits obtained under exceptional circumstances2 but they tend to mislead4 ,i write for those whose hearts prompt them to co-work with nature1 and who are most happy when doing her bidding in the breezy fields and gardens1 content with fair rewards1 instead of being consumed by the gambler's greed for unearned gold4 ,at the same time1 ,i am decidedly in favor of high culture1 and the most generous enriching of the soil2 convinced that fruit growers and farmers in general would make far more money if they spent upon one acre what they usually expend on three4 ,in a later chapter will be found an instance of an expenditure of #cej per acre on strawberry land1 and the net profits obtained were proportionately large4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,strawberries3 ,,the ,,five ,,species ,,and ,,their ,,history ,the conscientious ,diedrich ,knickerbocker1 that venerated historian from whom all good citizens of ,new ,york obtain the first impressions of their ancestry1 felt that he had no right to chronicle the vicissitudes of ,manhattan ,island until he had first accounted for the universe of which it is a part4 ,equally with the important bit of land named1 the strawberry belongs to the existing cosmos1 and might be traced back to old chaos4 ,i hasten to re-assure the dismayed reader4 ,i shall not presume to follow one who could illumine his page with genius1 and whose extensive learning enabled him to account for the universe not merely in one but in half a dozen ways4 ,it is the tendency of the present age to ask what is1 not what has been or shall be4 ,and yet1 on the part of some1 as they deliberately enjoy a saucer of strawberries and cream1--it is a pleasure that we prolong for obvious reasons1--a languid curiosity may arise as to the origin and history of so delicious a fruit4 ,i suppose ,mr4 ,darwin would say1 it was evolved4 ,but some specimens between our lips suggest that a ,geneva watch could put itself together quite as readily4 ,at the same time1 it must be said that our rude forefathers did not eat ,monarch or ,charles ,downing strawberries4 ,in few fruits1 probably1 have there been such vast changes or improvements as in this4 ,therefore1 ,i shall answer briefly and as well as ,i can1 in view of the meagre data and conflicting opinions of the authorities1 the curiosity1 that ,i have imagined on some faces4 ,those who care only for the strawberry of to-day can easily skip a few pages4 ,if there were as much doubt about a crop of this fruit as concerning the origin of its name1 the outlook would be dismal1 indeed4 ,in old ,saxon1 the word was streawberige or streowberrie2 and was so named1 says one authority1 from the straw-like stems of the plant1 or from the berries lying strewn upon the ground4 ,another authority tells us3 ,it is an old ,english practice 7let us hope a modern one also7 to lay straw between the rows to preserve the fruit from rotting on the wet ground1 from which the name has been supposed to be derived2 although more probably it is from the wandering habit of the plant1 straw being a corruption of the ,anglo-,saxon strae1 from which we have the ,english verb stray4 ,again tradition asserts that in the olden times children strung the berries on straws for sale1 and hence the name4 ,several other causes have been suggested1 but ,i forbear4 ,i have never known1 however1 a person to decline the fruit on the ground of this obscurity and doubt4 7,controversialists and sceptics please take note47 ,that the strawberry should belong to the rose family1 and that its botanical name should be fragaria1 from the ,latin fragro1 to smell sweetly1 will seem both natural and appropriate4 ,while for his knowledge of the plant ,i refer the reader to every hillside and field 7would that ,i might say1 to every garden671 there is a peculiarity in the production of the fruit which should not pass unnoted4 ,strictly speaking1 the small seeds scattered over the surface of the berry are the fruit1 and it is to perfect these seeds that the plants blossom1 the stamens scatter1 and the pistils receive the pollen on the convex receptacle1 which1 as the seeds ripen1 greatly enlarges1 and becomes the pulpy and delicious mass that is popularly regarded as the fruit4 ,so far from being the fruit1 it is only the much altered end of the stem that sustains the fruit or seeds2 and so it becomes a beautiful illustration of a kindly1 genuine courtesy1 which renders an ordinary service with so much grace and graciousness that we dwell on the manner with far more pleasure than on the service itself4 ,the innumerable varieties of strawberries that are now in existence appear1 either in their character or origin1 to belong to five great and quite distinct species4 ,the first1 and for a long time the only one of which we have any record1 is the ,fragaria vesca1 or the ,alpine strawberry4 ,it is one of the most widely spread fruits of the world1 for it grows1 and for centuries has grown1 wild throughout ,northern and ,central ,europe and ,asia1 following the mountains far to the south2 and on this continent1 from time immemorial1 the ,indian children have gathered it1 from the ,northern ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,in ,england this species exhibits some variation from the ,alpine type1 and was called by our ancestors the ,wood strawberry4 ,the chief difference between the two is in the form of the fruit1 the ,wood varieties being round and the ,alpine conical4 ,they are also subdivided into white and red1 annual and monthly varieties1 and those that produce no runners1 which are known to-day as ,bush ,alpines4 ,illustration3 ,,seeds ,,and ,,pulp ,,of ,,the ,,strawberry ,the ,alpine1 as we find it growing wild1 was the strawberry of the ancients4 ,it is to it that the suggestive lines of ,virgil refer3-- ,ye boys that gather flowers and strawberries1 ,lo1 hid within the grass an adder lies4 ,there is no proof1 ,i believe1 that the strawberry was cultivated during any of the earlier civilizations4 ,some who wrote most explicitly concerning the fruit culture of their time do not mention it2 and ,virgil1 ,ovid1 and ,pliny name it but casually1 and with no reference to its cultivation4 ,it may appear a little strange that the luxurious ,romans1 who fed on nightingales' tongues1 peacocks' brains1 and scoured earth and air for delicacies1 should have given but little attention to this fruit4 ,possibly they early learned the fact that this species is essentially a wildling1 and like the trailing arbutus1 thrives best in its natural haunts4 ,the best that grew could be gathered from mountain-slopes and in the crevices of rocks4 ,moreover1 those old revellers became too wicked and sensual to relish ,alpine strawberries4 ,its congener1 the ,wood strawberry1 was the burden of one of the ,london street cries four hundred years ago2 and to-day the same cry1 in some language or other1 echoes around the northern hemisphere as one of the inevitable and welcome sounds of spring and early summer4 ,but few1 perhaps1 associate this lovely little fruit1 that is almost as delicate and shy as the anemone1 with tragedy2 and yet its chief poetical associations are among the darkest and saddest that can be imagined4 ,shakespeare's mention of the strawberry in the play of ,richard ,,iii4 was an unconscious but remarkable illustration of the second line already quoted from ,virgil3-- ,lo1 hid within the grass an adder lies4 ,the bit of history which is the occasion of this allusion is given in the quaint old ,english of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 who thus describes the entrance to the ,council of the terrible ,protector1 from whom nothing good or sacred could be protected4 ,he came fyrste about ,,ix of the clocke1 saluting them curtesly1 and excusing himself that he had been from them so long1 saieing merily that he had been a slepe that day4 ,and after a little talking with them he said unto the bishop of ,elye1 my lord1 ,you have very good strawberries at your gardayne in ,holberne1 ,i require you let us have a messe of them4 ,he who has raised fine fruit will know how eagerly the flattered bishop obeyed4 ,according to the poet1 the dissembler also leaves the apartment1 with his unscrupulous ally1 ,buckingham4 ,where is my lord protector8 ,i have sent ,for these strawberries1 said the ,bishop of ,ely1 re-entering4 ,lord ,hastings looks around with an air of general congratulation1 and remarks3-- ,his grace looks cheerfully and smooth this morning2 ,there's some conceit or other likes him well4 ,the serpent is hidden1 but very near4 ,a moment later1 ,gloster enters1 black as night1 hisses his monstrous charge1 and before noon of that same day poor ,hastings is a headless corpse4 ,far more sad and pitiful are the scenes recalled by the words of the fiendish ,iago1--type for all time of those who transmute love into jealousy3-- ,tell me but this-- ,have you not sometimes seen a handkerchief1 ,spotted with strawberries1 in your wife's hand8 ,i gave her such a one2 'twas my first gift4 was the answer of a man whom the world will never forgive1 in spite of his immeasurable remorse4 ,from the poet ,spenser we learn that to go a-strawberrying was one of the earliest pastimes of the ,english people4 ,in the ,faerie ,queen we find these lines3-- ,one day1 as they all three together went ,to the green wood to gather strawberries1 ,there chaunst to them a dangerous accident4 ,very old1 too is the following nursery rhyme1 which1 nevertheless1 suggests the true habitat of the ,f4 vesca species3-- ,the man of the wilderness asked me ,how many strawberries grew in the sea2 ,i answered him1 as ,i thought good1 ',as many red herrings as grew in the wood4' ,the ambrosial combination of strawberries and cream was first named by ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,old ,thomas ,tusser1 of the #afth century1 in his work1 ,five ,hundred ,points of ,good ,husbandry united to as many of ,good ,housewifery1 turns the strawberry question over to his wife1 and doubtless it was in better hands than his1 if his methods of culture were as rude as his poetry3-- ,wife1 into the garden1 and set me a plot ,with strawberry roots1 of the best to be got2 ,such1 growing abroad1 among thorns in the wood1 ,well chosen and picked prove excellent good4 ,who ,dr4 ,boteler was1 or what he did1 is unknown1 but he made a sententious remark which led ,izaak ,walton to give him immortality in his work1 ,the ,compleat ,angler4 ,indeed1 my good schollar1 the serene ,izaak writes1 we may say of angling as ,dr4 ,boteler said of strawberries1 ',doubtless ,god could have made a better berry1 but doubtless ,god never did2' and so if ,i might be judge1 ,god never did make a more calm1 quiet1 innocent recreation than angling4 ,if this was true of the wild ,wood strawberry1 how much more so of many of our aromatic rubies of to-day4 ,john ,parkinson1 the apothecary-gardener of ,london1 whose quaint work was published in #afbi1 is not so enthusiastic4 ,he says of the wild strawberry3 ,it may be eaten or chewed in the mouth without any manner of offense2 it is no great bearer1 but those it doth beare are set at the toppes of the stalks1 close together1 pleasant to behold1 and fit for a gentlewoman to wear on her arme1 c41 as a raritie instead of a flower4 ,in ,england1 the strawberry leaf is part of the insignia of high rank1 since it appears in the coronets of a duke1 marquis1 and earl4 ,he aspires to the strawberry leaves is a well-known phrase abroad1 and the idea occurs several times in the novels of ,disraeli1 the present ,british ,premier4 ,thackeray1 in his ,book of ,snobs1 writes3 ,the strawberry leaves on her chariot panels are engraved on her ladyship's heart4 ,after all1 perhaps it is not strange that the ,alpine species should be allied to some dark memories1 for it was the only kind known when the age was darkened by passion and crime4 ,the one other allusion to the strawberry in ,shakespeare is peculiarly appropriate to the species under consideration4 ,in the play of ,henry ,v41 an earlier ,bishop of ,ely says3-- ,the strawberry grows underneath the nettle1 ,and wholesome berries thrive and ripen best ,neighbored by fruit of baser quality4 ,and this1 probably1 is still true1 for the ,alpine and ,wood strawberries tend to reproduce themselves with such unvarying exactness that cultivation makes but little difference4 ,all these allusions apply to the ,f4 vesca or ,alpine species1 and little advance was made in strawberry culture in ,europe until after the introduction of other species more capable of variation and improvement4 ,still1 attempts were made from time to time4 ,as the ,alpine differed somewhat from the ,wood strawberry1 they were brought to ,england about #bjj years later than the tragedy of ,lord ,hastings' death1 which has been referred to4 ,in connection with the ,white and ,red ,wood and ,alpine strawberries1 we find in #afbc the name of the ,hautbois or ,haarbeer strawberry1 the ,fragaria elatior of the botanists4 ,this second species1 a native of ,germany1 resembles the ,alpine in some respects1 but is a larger and stockier plant4 ,like the ,fragaria vesca1 its fruit-stalks are erect and longer than the leaves1 but the latter are larger than the foliage of the ,alpine1 and are covered with short hairs1 both on the upper and under surface1 which give them a rough appearance4 ,as far as ,i can learn1 this species still further resembles the ,alpines in possessing little capability of improvement and variation4 ,even at this late day the various named kinds are said to differ from each other but slightly4 ,there is a very marked contrast1 however1 between the fruit of the ,hautbois and ,alpine species1 for the former has a peculiar musky flavor which has never found much favor in this country4 ,it is1 therefore1 a comparatively rare fruit in our gardens1 nor do we find much said of it in the past4 ,there is scarcely any record of progress until after the introduction of the two great ,american species4 ,it is true that in #affj a fruit grower at ,montreuil1 ,france1 is said to have produced a new variety from the seed of the ,wood strawberry1 which was called the ,cappron1 and afterward the ,fressant4 ,it was named as a distinct variety one hundred years later1 but it may be doubted whether it differed greatly from its parent4 ,be this as it may1 it is said to be the first improved variety of which there is any record4 ,early in the #agth century1 intercourse with this continent led to the introduction of the most valuable species in existence1 the ,virginian strawberry 7,fragaria ,virginiana71 which grows wild from the ,arctic regions to ,florida1 and westward to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it is first named in the catalogue of ,jean ,robin1 botanist to ,louis ,,xiii41 in #afbd4 ,during the first century of its career in ,england1 it was not appreciated1 but as its wonderful capacity for variation and improvement--in which it formed so marked a contrast to the ,wood strawberry--was discovered1 it began to receive the attention it deserved4 ,english gardeners learned the fact1 of which we are making so much to-day1 that by simply sowing its seeds1 new and possibly better varieties could be produced4 ,from that time and forward1 the tendency has increased to originate1 name and send out innumerable seedlings1 the majority of which soon pass into oblivion1 while a few survive and become popular1 usually in proportion to their merit4 ,the ,fragaria ,virginiana1 therefore1 the common wild strawberry that is found in all parts of ,north ,america east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 is the parent of nine-tenths of the varieties grown in our gardens2 and its improved descendants furnish nearly all of the strawberries of our markets4 ,as we have seen1 the ,fragaria vesca1 or the ,alpine species of ,europe1 is substantially the same to-day as it was a thousand years ago4 ,but the capacity of the ,virginian strawberry for change and improvement is shown by those great landmarks in the ,american culture of this fruit1--the production of ,hovey's ,seedling by ,c4 ,m4 ,hovey1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 forty-five years since2 of the ,wilson's ,albany ,seedling1 originated by ,john ,wilson1 of ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 about twenty-five years ago1 and1 in our own time1 of the superb varieties1 ,monarch of the ,west1 ,seth ,boyden1 ,charles ,downing1 and ,sharpless4 ,as in the ,alpine species there are two distinct strains1--the ,alpine of the ,continent1 and the ,wood strawberry of ,england1--so in the wild ,virginian species there are two branches of the family1--the ,eastern and the ,western4 ,the differences are so marked that some writers have asserted that there are two species2 but we have the authority of ,professor ,gray for saying that the ,western1 or ,fragaria ,illincensis1 is perhaps a distinct species1 and he classifies it as only a very marked variety4 ,there are but two more species of the strawberry genus4 ,of the first of these1 the ,fragaria ,indica1 or ,indian strawberry1 there is little to say4 ,it is a native of ,northern ,india1 and differs so much from the other species that it was formerly named as a distinct genus4 ,it has yellow flowers1 and is a showy house-plant1 especially for window-baskets1 but the fruit is dry and tasteless4 ,it is said by ,professor ,gray to have escaped cultivation and become wild in some localities of this country4 ,fragaria ,chilensis is the last great species or subdivision that we now have to consider4 ,like the ,f4 ,virginiana1 it is a native of the ,american continent1 and yet we have learned to associate it almost wholly with ,europe4 ,it grows wild on the ,pacific slope1 from ,oregon to ,chili1 creeping higher and higher up the mountains as its habitat approaches the equator4 ,it is a large1 robust species1 with very firm1 thick leaflets1 soft and silky on the under side4 ,the flowers are larger than in the other species2 the fruit1 also1 in its native condition1 averages much larger1 stands erect instead of hanging1 ripens late1 is rose-colored1 firm and sweet in flesh1 and does not require as much heat to develop its saccharine constituents2 but it lacks the peculiar sprightliness and aroma of the ,virginia strawberry4 ,it has become1 however1 the favorite stock of the ,european gardeners1 and seems better adapted to transatlantic climate and soil than to ours4 ,the first mention of the ,fragaria ,chilensis1 or ,south ,american strawberry1 says ,mr4 ,fuller1 is by ,m4 ,frezier1 who1 in #agaf1 in his journey to the ,south ,sea1 found it at the foot of the ,cordillera mountains near ,quito1 and carried it home to ,marseilles1 ,france4 ,at that time it was called the ,chili strawberry1 and the ,spaniards said that they brought it from ,mexico4 ,from ,mr4 ,w4 ,collett ,sandars1 an ,english antiquarian1 ,i learned that seven plants were shipped from ,chili and were kept alive during the voyage by water which ,m4 ,frezier saved from his allowance1 much limited owing to a shortness of supply4 ,he gave two of the plants to ,m4 de ,jessieu1 who cultivated them with fair success in the royal gardens4 ,in #agbg1 the ,chili strawberry was introduced to ,england1 but not being understood it did not win much favor4 ,mr4 ,fuller further states3 ,we do not learn from any of the old ,french works that new varieties were raised from the ,chili strawberry for at least fifty years after its introduction4 ,duchesne1 in #agff1 says that ,miller considered its cultivation abandoned in ,england on account of its sterility4 ,the importations from other portions of ,south ,america appeared to have met with better success2 and1 early in the present century1 new varieties of the ,f4 ,chilensis1 as well as of the ,virginiana1 became quite abundant in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,if we may judge from the characteristics of the varieties imported to this country of late years1 the ,south ,american species has taken the lead decidedly abroad1 and has become the parent stock from which foreign culturists1 in the main1 are seeking to develop the ideal strawberry4 ,but in all its transformations1 and after all the attempts to infuse into it the sturdier life of the ,virginian strawberry1 it still remembers its birthplace1 and falters and often dies in the severe cold of our winters1 or1 what is still worse1 the heat and drought of our summers4 ,as a species1 it requires the high and careful culture that they are able and willing to give it in ,europe4 ,the majority of imported varieties have failed in the ,united ,states1 but a few have become justly popular in regions where they can be grown4 ,the ,triomphe de ,gand may be given as an example1 and were ,i restricted to one variety ,i should take this4 ,the ,jucunda1 also1 is one of the most superb berries in existence2 and can be grown with great profit in many localities4 ,thus the two great species which to-day are furnishing ninety-nine hundredths of the strawberries of commerce and of the garden1 both in this country and abroad1 came from ,america1 the ,fragaria ,chilensis reaching our ,eastern ,states by the way of ,europe1 and in the form of the improved and cultivated varieties that have won a name abroad4 ,we are crossing the importations with our own native stock4 ,president ,wilder's superb seedling1 which has received his name1 is an example of this blending process4 ,this berry is a child of the ,la ,constante and ,hovey's ,seedling1 and1 therefore1 in this one beautiful and most delicious variety we have united the characteristics of the two chief strawberry species of the world1 the ,f4 ,virginiana and ,f4 ,chilensis4 ,it will be seen that the great law of race extends even to strawberry plants4 ,as in the most refined and cultivated peoples there is a strain of the old native stock1 which ever remains1 a source of weakness or strength1 and will surely show itself in certain emergencies1 so the superb new varieties of strawberries1 the latest products of horticultural skill1 speedily indicate in the rough-and-tumble of ordinary culture whether they have derived their life from the hardy ,f4 ,virginiana or the tender and fastidious ,f4 ,chilensis4 ,the ,monarch of the ,west and the ,jucunda are the patricians of the garden1 and on the heavy portions of my land at ,cornwall ,i can scarcely say to which ,i give the preference4 ,but the ,monarch is ,anglo-,saxon and the ,jucunda is of a ,latin race2 or to drop metaphor1 the former comes of a species that can adapt itself to conditions extremely varied1 and even very unfavorable1 and the latter cannot4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ideal ,,steawberries ,,versus ,,those ,,of ,,the ,,field ,,and ,,market ,there are certain strong1 coarse-feeding vegetables1 like corn and potatoes1 that can be grown on the half-subdued and comparatively poor soil of the field2 but no gardener would think of planting the finer and more delicate sorts in such situations4 ,there are but few who do not know that they can raise cauliflowers and egg-plants only on deep1 rich land4 ,the parallel holds good with this fruit4 ,there are strawberries that will grow almost anywhere1 and under any circumstances1 and there is another class that demands the best ground and culture4 ,but from the soil of a good garden1 with a little pains1 we can obtain the finest fruit in existence2 and there is no occasion to plant those kinds which are grown for market solely because they are productive1 and hard enough to endure carriage for a long distance4 ,the only transportation to be considered is from the garden to the table1 and therefore we can make table qualities our chief concern4 ,if our soil is light and sandy1 we can raise successfully one class of choice1 high-flavored varieties2 if heavy1 another class4 ,many worry over a forlorn1 weedy bed of some inferior variety that scarcely gives a week's supply1 when1 with no more trouble than is required to obtain a crop of celery1 large1 delicious berries might be enjoyed daily1 for six weeks together1 from twenty different kinds4 ,the strawberry of commerce is a much more difficult problem4 ,the present unsatisfactory condition of affairs was admirably expressed in the following editorial in the ,evening ,post of ,june #ab1 #ahgf1 from the pen of the late ,william ,cullen ,bryant3-- ,,strawberries ,in general1 an improvement has been observed of late in the quality of fruit4 ,we have more and finer varieties of apple2 the pear is much better in general than it was ten years since2 of the grape there are many new and excellent varieties which the market knew nothing of a few years ago1 and there are some excellent varieties of the raspberry lately introduced4 ,but the strawberry has decidedly deteriorated1 and the result is owing to the general culture of ,wilson's ,albany for the market4 ,wilson's ,albany is a sour1 crude berry1 which is not fully ripe when it is perfectly red1 and even when perfectly ripe is still too acid4 ,when it first makes its appearance in the market1 it has an exceedingly harsh flavor and very little of the agreeable aroma which distinguishes the finer kinds of the berry4 ,if not eaten very sparingly1 it disagrees with the stomach1 and you wake with a colic the next morning4 ,before ,wilson's strawberry came into vogue there were many other kinds which were sweeter and of a more agreeable flavor4 ,but the ,wilson is a hard berry1 which bears transportation well2 it is exceedingly prolific and altogether hardy1--qualities which give it great favor with the cultivator1 but for which the consumer suffers4 ,the proper way of dealing in strawberries is to fix the prices according to the quality of the sort4 ,this is the way they do in the markets of ,paris4 ,a poor sort1 although the berry may be large1 is sold cheap2 the more delicate kinds--the sweet1 juicy1 and high-flavored--are disposed of at a higher price4 ,here the ,wilson should be sold the cheapest of all1 while such as the ,jucunda and the ,president ,wilder should bear a price corresponding to their excellence4 ,we hope1 for our part1 that the ,wilsons will1 as soon as their place can be supplied by a better berry1 be banished from the market4 ,it can surely be no difficult thing to obtain a sort by crossing1 which shall bear transportation equally well1 and shall not deceive the purchaser with the appearance of ripeness4 ,the reader will perceive that ,mr4 ,bryant has portrayed both the evil and the remedy4 ,the public justly complains of the strawberry of commerce1 but it has not followed the suggestion in the editorial and demanded a better article1 even though it must be furnished at a higher price4 ,in spite1 however1 of all that is said and written annually against the ,wilson1 it still maintains its supremacy as the market berry4 ,those who reside near the city and can make1 to some extent1 special arrangements with enlightened customers1 find other varieties more profitable1 even though the yield from them is less and some are lost from lack of keeping qualities4 ,but those who send from a considerable distance1 and must take their chances in the general market1 persist in raising the sour1 crude berry1 which is red before it is ripe1 and hard enough to stand the rough usage which it is almost certain to receive from the hands through which it passes4 ,i do not expect to see the day when the ,wilson1 or some berry like it1 is not the staple supply of the market2 although ,i hope and think it will be improved upon4 ,but let it be understood generally that they are ,wilsons1--the cheap vin ordinaire of strawberries4 ,cities will ever be flooded with varieties that anybody can grow under almost any kind of culture2 and no doubt it is better that there should be an abundance of such fruit rather than none at all4 ,but a delicately organized man1 like ,mr4 ,bryant1 cannot eat them2 and those who have enjoyed the genuine strawberries of the garden will not4 ,the number of people1 however1 with the digestion of an ostrich1 is enormous1 and in multitudes of homes ,wilsons1 even when half-ripe1 musty1 and stale1 are devoured with unalloyed delight1 under the illusion that they are strawberries4 ,if genuine strawberries are wanted1 the purchaser must demand them1 pay for them1 and refuse sour1 crude berries4 ,the remedy is solely in the hands of the consumers4 ,if people would pay no more for ,seckel than for ,choke pears1 ,choke pears would be the only ones in market1 for they can be furnished with the least cost and trouble4 ,it is the lack of discrimination that leaves our markets so bare of fine-flavored fruit4 ,what the grower and the grocer are seeking is a hard berry1 which1 if not sold speedily1 will keep over4 ,let citizens clearly recognize the truth1--that there are superb1 delicious berries1 like the ,triomphe1 ,monarch1 ,charles ,downing1 ,boyden1 and many others1 and insist on being supplied with them1 just as they insist on good butter and good meats1 and the problem is solved4 ,the demand will create the supply2 the fruit merchant will write to his country correspondents3 ,you must send fine-flavored berries4 ,my trade will not take any others1 and ,i can return you more money for half the quantity of fruit if it is good4 ,the most stolid of growers would soon take such a hint4 ,moreover1 let the patrons of high-priced hotels and restaurants indignantly order away sour1 crude berries1 as they would any other inferior viand1 and caterers would then cease to palm off ,wilsons for first-class strawberries4 ,if these suggestions were carried out generally1 the character of the ,new ,york strawberry market would speedily be changed4 ,it is my impression that1 within a few years1 only those who are able to raise large1 fine-flavored fruit will secure very profitable returns4 ,moreover1 we are in a transition state in respect to varieties1 and there are scores of new kinds just coming before the public1 of which wonderful things are claimed4 ,i shall test nearly a hundred of these during the coming season1 but am satisfied in advance that nine-tenths of them will be discarded within a brief period4 ,indeed1 ,i doubt whether the ideal strawberry1 that shall concentrate every excellence within its one juicy sphere1 ever will be discovered or originated4 ,we shall always have to make a choice1 as we do in friends1 for their several good qualities and their power to please our individual tastes4 ,there is1 however1 one perfect strawberry in existence1--the strawberry of memory1--the little wildlings that we gathered perhaps1 with those over whom the wild strawberry is now growing4 ,we will admit no fault in it1 and although we may no longer seek for this favorite fruit of our childhood1 with the finest specimens of the garden before us we sigh for those berries that grew on some far-off hillside in years still farther away4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,choice ,,of ,,soil ,,and ,,location ,the choice that ,tobias ,hobson imposed on his patrons when he compelled them to take the horse nearest to the stable-door or none at all1 is one that1 in principle1 we often have to make in selecting our strawberry-ground4 ,we must use such as we have1 or raise no berries4 ,and yet it has been said that with no other fruit do soil and locality make so great differences4 ,while ,i am inclined to think that this is truer of the raspberry1 it is also thoroughly established that location and the native qualities of the soil are among the first and chief considerations in working out the problem of success with strawberries4 ,especially should such forethought be given in selecting a soil suited to the varieties we wish to raise4 ,d4 ,thurber1 editor ,american ,agriculturist1 states this truth emphatically4 ,in ,august1 #ahge1 he wrote3 ,all talk about strawberries must be with reference to particular soils4 ,as an illustration of this1 there were exhibited in our office windows several successive lots of the ,monarch of the ,west1 which were immense as to size and wonderful as to productiveness4 ,this same ,monarch behaved in so unkingly a manner on our grounds 7very light and sandy in their nature7 that he would have been deposed had we not seen these berries1 for it was quite inferior to either ,charles ,downing1 ,seth ,boyden1 or ,kentucky4 ,it is a generally admitted fact that the very best soil1 and the one adapted to the largest number of varieties1 is a deep sandy loam1 moist1 but not wet in its natural state4 ,all the kinds with which ,i am acquainted will do well on such land if it is properly deepened and enriched4 ,therefore1 we should select such ground if we have it on our places1 and those proposing to buy land with a view to this industry would do well to secure from the start one of the best conditions of success4 ,it is of vital importance that our strawberry fields be near good shipping facilities1 and that there be sufficient population in the immediate vicinity to furnish pickers in abundance4 ,it will be far better to pay a much higher price for land--even inferior land--near a village and a railroad depot1 than to attempt to grow these perishable fruits in regions too remote4 ,a water communication with market is1 of course1 preferable to any other4 ,having considered the question of harvesting and shipping to market1 then obtain the moist1 loamy land described above1 if possible4 ,such ground will make just as generous and satisfactory returns in the home garden1 and by developing its best capabilities the amateur can attain results that will delight his heart and amaze his neighbors4 ,shall the fact that we have no such soil1 and cannot obtain it1 discourage us8 ,not at all6 ,there are choice varieties that will grow in the extremes of sand or clay4 ,more effort will be required1 but skill and information can still secure success2 and advantages of location1 climate1 and nearness to good markets may more than counterbalance natural deficiencies in the land4 ,besides1 there is almost as solid a satisfaction in transforming a bit of the wilderness into a garden as in reforming and educating a crude or evil specimen of humanity4 ,therefore if one finds himself in an unfavorable climate1 and shut up to the choice of land the reverse of a deep1 moist1 sandy loam1 let him pit his brain and muscle against all obstacles4 ,if the question were asked1 ,is there anything that comes from the garden better liked than a dish of strawberries8 in nine instances out of ten the answer would be1 ,nothing1 even though sour ,wilsons were grown2 and yet1 too often the bed is in a neglected corner and half shaded by trees1 while strong-growing vegetables occupy the moist1 open spaces4 ,it is hardly rational to put the favorite of the garden where1 at best1 a partial failure is certain4 ,let it be well understood that strawberries cannot be made to do well on ground exhausted by the roots and covered by the shade of trees4 ,on many farms and even in some gardens there are several varieties of soil4 ,within the area of an acre ,i have a sandy loam1 a gravelly hillside1 low1 black1 alluvial land1 and a very stiff1 cold1 wet clay4 ,such diversity does not often occur within so limited a space1 but on multitudes of places corresponding differences exist4 ,in such instances1 conditions suited to every variety can be found1 and reading and experience will teach the cultivator to locate his several kinds just where they will give the best results4 ,moreover1 by placing early kinds on warm1 sunny slopes1 and giving late varieties moist1 heavy land1 and cool1 northern exposures1 the season of this delicious fruit can be prolonged greatly4 ,the advantage of a long-continued supply for the family is obvious1 but it is often even more important to those whose income is dependent on this industry4 ,it frequently occurs that the market is glutted with berries for a brief time in the height of the season4 ,if the crop matures in the main at such a time1 the one chance of the year passes1 leaving but a small margin of profit2 whereas1 if the grower had prolonged his season1 by a careful selection of soils as well as of varieties1 he might sell a large portion of his fruit when it was scarce and high4 ,climate is also a very important consideration1 and enters largely into the problem of success from ,maine to ,southern ,california4 ,each region has its advantages and disadvantages1 and these should be estimated before the purchaser takes the final steps which commit him to a locality and methods of culture which may not prove to his taste4 ,in the far ,north1 sheltered situations and light1 warm land should be chosen for the main crop2 but in our latitude1 and southward1 it should always be our aim to avoid that hardness and dryness of soil that cut short the crops and hopes of so many cultivators4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,preparing ,,and ,,enriching ,,the ,,soil ,having from choice or necessity decided on the ground on which our future strawberries are to grow1 the next step is to prepare the soil4 ,the first and most natural question will be3 ,what is the chief need of this plant8 ,many prepare their ground in a vague1 indefinite way4 ,let us prepare for strawberries4 ,whether it grows ,north or ,south1 ,east or ,west1 the strawberry plant is the same1 and has certain constitutional traits and requirements1 which should be thoroughly fixed in our minds4 ,modifications of treatment made necessary by various soils and climates are then not only easily learned but also easily understood4 ,when asked1 on one occasion1 what was the chief requirement in successful strawberry culture1 ,hon4 ,marshall ,p4 ,wilder replied substantially in the following piquant manner3-- ,in the first place1 the strawberry's chief need is a great deal of water4 ,in the second place1 it needs more water4 ,in the third place1 ,i think ,i would give it a great deal more water4 ,the more extended and full my experience becomes1 the less exaggeration ,i find in his words4 ,the following strong confirmation of ,president ,wilder's opinion may be found in ,thompson's ,gardener's ,assistant1 a standard ,english work3-- ,ground that is apt to get very dry from the effects of only ten days' or a fortnight's drought is not suitable1 on account of the enormous quantity of water that will be necessary2 and if once the plants begin to flag for want of moisture1 the crop is all but lost4 ,a soil that is naturally somewhat moist1 but not too wet1 answers well2 and where the land has admitted of irrigation1 we have seen heavy crops produced every year4 ,if this be true in ,england1 with its humid climate1 how much more emphatically should we state the importance of this requirement in our land of long droughts and scorching suns4 ,moisture1 then1 is the strawberry's first and chief need4 ,without it1 the best fertilizers become injurious rather than helpful4 ,therefore1 in the preparation of the soil and its subsequent cultivation1 there should be a constant effort to secure and maintain moisture1 and the failure to do this is the chief cause of meagre crops4 ,and yet1 very probably1 the first step absolutely necessary to accomplish this will be a thorough system of underdrainage4 ,i have spent hundreds of dollars in such labors1 and it was as truly my object to enable the ground to endure drought as to escape undue wetness4 ,let it be understood that it is moist and not wet land that the strawberry requires4 ,if water stands or stagnates upon or a little below the surface1 the soil becomes sour1 heavy1 lifeless2 and if clay is present1 it will bake like pottery in dry weather1 and suggest the ,slough of ,despond in wet4 ,disappointment1 failure1 and miasma are the certain products of such unregenerate regions1 but1 as is often the case with repressed and troublesome people1 the evil traits of such soil result from a lack of balance1 and a perversion of what is good4 ,the underdrain restores the proper equilibrium2 the brush-hook and axe cut away the rank unwholesome growth which thrives best in abnormal conditions4 ,sun1 air1 and purifying frosts mellow and sweeten the damp1 heavy malarious ground1 as the plowshare lifts it out of its low estate4 ,a swamp1 or any approach to one1 is like a ,new ,york tenement-house district1 and requires analogous treatment4 ,if1 however1 we have mellow upland with natural drainage1 let us first put that in order that we may have a remunerative crop as soon as possible4 ,in suggesting1 therefore1 the best methods of preparing and enriching the ground1 ,i will begin by considering soils that are already in the most favorable conditions1 and that require the least labor and outlay4 ,man received his most essential agricultural instruction in the opening chapter of ,genesis1 wherein he is commanded to subdue the earth4 ,even the mellow western prairie is at first a wild1 untamed thing1 that must be subdued4 ,this is often a simple process1 and in our gardens and the greater part of many farms has already been practically accomplished4 ,where the deep1 moist loam1 just described1 exists1 the fortunate owner has only to turn it up to the sun and give it a year of ordinary cultivation1 taking from it1 in the process1 some profitable hoed crop that will effectually kill the grass1 and his land is ready for strawberries4 ,if his ground is in condition to give a good crop of corn1 it will also give a fair crop of berries4 ,if the garden is so far subdued as to yield kitchen vegetables1 the strawberry may be planted at once1 with the prospect of excellent returns1 unless proper culture is neglected4 ,should the reader be content with mediocrity1 there is scarcely anything to be said where the conditions are so favorable4 ,but suppose one is not content with mediocrity4 ,then this highly favored soil is but the vantage-ground from which skill enters on a course of thorough preparation and high culture4 ,a man may plow1 harrow1 and set with strawberries the land that was planted the previous year in corn1 and probably secure a remunerative return1 with little more trouble or cost than was expended on the corn4 ,or1 he may select half the area that was in corn1 plow it deeply in ,october1 and if he detects traces of the white grub1 cross-plow it again just as the ground is beginning to freeze4 ,early in the spring he can cover the surface with some fertilizer--there is nothing better than a rotted compost of muck and barn-yard manure--at the proportion of forty or fifty tons to the acre4 ,plow and cross-plow again1 and in each instance let the first team be followed by a subsoil or lifting plow1 which stirs and loosens the substratum without bringing it to the surface4 ,the half of the field prepared in such a thorough manner will probably yield three times the amount of fruit that could be gathered from the whole area under ordinary treatment2 and if the right varieties are grown1 and a good market is within reach1 the money received will be in a higher ratio4 ,the principle of generous and thorough preparation may be carried still further in the garden1 and its soil1 already rich and mellow1 may be covered to the depth of several inches with well-rotted compost or any form of barn-yard manure that is not too coarse and full of heat1 and this may be incorporated with the earth by trenching to the depth of two feet4 ,of this be certain1 the strawberry roots will go as deeply as the soil is prepared and enriched for them1 and the result in abundant and enormous fruit will be commensurate4 ,english gardeners advise trenching even to the depth of three feet1 where the ground permits it4 ,few soils can be found so deep and rich by nature that they cannot be improved by art2 and the question for each to decide is1 how far the returns will compensate for extra preparation4 ,very often land for strawberries receives but little more preparation than for wheat1 and such methods must pay or they would not be continued4 ,many who follow these methods declare that they are the most profitable in the long run4 ,i doubt it4 ,if our market is one in which strawberries are sold simply as such1 without much regard to flavor or size1 there is not the same inducement to produce fine fruit4 ,but even when quantity is the chief object1 deeply prepared and enriched land retains that essential moisture of which we have spoken1 and enables the plant not only to form1 but also to develop and mature1 a great deal of fruit4 ,in the majority of markets1 however1 each year1 size and beauty count for more1 and these qualities can be secured1 even from a favorable soil1 only after thorough preparation and enriching4 ,i find that every writer of experience on this subject1 both ,american and ,european1 insists vigorously on the value of such careful pulverization and deepening of the soil4 ,having thus considered the most favorable land in the best condition possible1 under ordinary cultivation1 ,i shall now treat of that less suitable1 until we finally reach a soil too sterile and hopelessly bad to repay cultivation4 ,i will speak first of this same deep1 moist loam1 in its unsubdued condition2 that is1 in stiff sod1 trees1 or brush-wood4 ,of course1 the latter must be removed1 and1 as a rule1 the crops on new land--which has been undisturbed by the plow for a number of years and1 perhaps1 never robbed of its original fertility--will amply repay for the extra labor of clearing4 ,especially will this be the case if the brush and rubbish are burned evenly over the surface4 ,the finest of wild strawberries are found where trees have been felled and the brush burned2 and the successful fruit grower is the one who makes the best use of such hints from nature4 ,the field would look better and the cultivation be easier if all the stumps could be removed before planting1 but this might involve too great preliminary expense1 and ,i always counsel against debt except in the direst necessity4 ,a little brush burned on each stump will effectually check new growth1 and1 in two or three years1 these unsightly objects will be so rotten that they can be pried out1 and easily turned into ashes1 one of the best of fertilizers4 ,in the meantime1 the native strength of the land will cause a growth which will compensate for the partial lack of deep and thorough cultivation which the stumps and roots prevent4 ,those who have travelled ,west and ,south have seen fine crops of corn growing among the half-burned stumps1 and strawberries will do as well4 ,but where trees or brush have grown very thickly1 the roots and stumps must be eradicated4 ,the thick growth on the sandy land of ,florida is grubbed out at the cost of about #cj per acre1 and ,i know of a gentleman who pays at the rate of #be per acre in the vicinity of ,norfolk1 ,va4 ,i doubt whether it can be done for less elsewhere4 ,in some regions they employ a stump extractor1 a rude but strong machine1 worked by blocks and pulleys1 with oxen as motor power4 ,from the ,farmer's ,advocate of ,london1 ,ont41 ,i learn that an expert with one of these machines1 aided by five men and two yoke of oxen1 was in the habit of clearing fifty acres annually4 ,i have cleaned hedge-rows and stony spots on my place in the following thorough manner3 ,a man commences with pick and shovel on one side of the land and turns it steadily and completely over by hand to the depth of fourteen to eighteen inches1 throwing on the surface behind him all the roots1 stumps and stones1 and stopping occasionally to blast when the rocks are too large to be pried out4 ,this1 of course1 is expensive1 and cannot be largely indulged in2 but1 when accomplished1 the work is done for all time1 and ,i have obtained at once by this method some splendid soil1 in which the plow sinks to the beam4 ,a drought must be severe1 indeed1 that can injure such land4 ,there is a great difference in men in the performance of this work4 ,i have one who1 within a reasonable time1 would trench a farm4 ,indeed1 in his power to obey the primal command to subdue the earth1 my man1 ,abraham1 is a hero--although1 ,i imagine1 he scarcely knows what the word means and would as soon think of himself as a hippopotamus4 ,his fortunes would often seem as dark as himself to those who take thought for the morrow2 and that is saying much1 for ,abraham is colored as far as man can be4 ,i doubt whether his foresight often reaches further than bedtime1 and to that hour he comes with an honest right to rest4 ,he is a family man1 and has six or seven children1 under eight years of age1 whom he shelters in a wretched little house that appears tired of standing up4 ,but to and from this abode ,abraham passes daily1 with a face as serene as a ,may morning4 ,in that weary old hovel ,i am satisfied that he and his swarming little brood have found what no architect can build--a home4 ,thither he carries his diurnal dollar1 when he can get it1 and on it they all manage to live and grow fat4 ,he loses time occasionally1 it is true1 through illness1 but no such trifling misfortune can induce him1 seemingly1 to take a long1 anxious look into the future4 ,only once--it was last winter--have ,i seen him dismayed by the frowning fates4 ,the doctor thought his wife would die1 and they had nothing to eat in the house4 ,when ,abraham appeared before me at that time1 his countenance was fallen1 as the quaint1 strong language of ,scripture expresses it4 ,he made no complaints1 however1 and indulged in no ,byronic allusions to destiny4 ,indeed1 he said very little1 but merely drooped and cowered1 as if the wolf at the door and the shadow of death within it were rather more than he could face at one and the same time4 ,it soon became evident1 however1 that his wife would pull through1 as he said1 and then the wolf didn't trouble him a mite4 ,he installed himself as cook1 nurse1 and house man-of-all-work1 finding also abundant leisure to smoke his pipe with infinite content4 ,one morning he was seen baking buckwheat cakes for the children2 each one in turn received an allowance on a tin plate1 and squatted here and there on the floor to devour it2 and1 from the master of ceremonies down1 there was not an indication that all was not just as it should be4 ,a few days later ,i met him coming back to his work with his pipe in the corner of his mouth1 and the old confident twinkle in his eye as he said1 ,mornin'1 ,bossie4 ,now1 ,abraham carries his peculiar characteristics into grubbing4 ,if ,i should set him at a hundred-acre field full of stumps and stones1 and tell him to clear it to the depth of two feet1 he would begin without any apparent misgiving1 and with no more thought for the magnitude of his task than he has for the tangled and stubborn mysteries of life in general1 or the dubious question of what shall be on the morrow in his own experience4 ,he would see only the little strip that he proposed to clear up that day1 and would go to work in a way all his own4 ,although not talkative to other people1 he is very social with himself1 and1 in the early days of our acquaintance1 ,i was constantly misled into the belief that somebody was with him1 and that he was a man of words rather than work4 ,as soon1 however1 as ,i reached a point from which ,i could see him1 there he would be1 alone1 bending to his task with the steady persistence that makes his labor so effective2 but1 at the same time1 until he saw me he would continue discussing with equal vigor whatever subject might be uppermost in his mind4 ,i suppose he scarcely ever takes out a stone or root without apostrophizing1 adjuring1 and berating it in tones and vernacular so queer that one might imagine he hoped to remove the refractory object by magic rather than by muscle4 ,when the sun is setting1 however1 and ,abraham has complacently advised himself1 ,better quit1 for de day's done gone1 and de ole woman is arter me1 afeared ,i've kivered myself up a-grubbin'1 one thing is always evident--a great many stones and roots are unkivered1 and ,abraham has earned anew his right to the title of champion grubber4 ,but1 as most men handle the pick and shovel1 the fruit grower must be chary in his attempts to subdue the earth with those old-time implements4 ,it is too much like making war with the ancient ,roman short sword in an age of rifled guns4 ,i agree with that practical horticulturist1 ,peter ,henderson1 that there are no implements equal to the plow and subsoiler1 and1 in our broad and half-occupied country1 we should be rather shy of land where these cannot be used4 ,the cultivator whose deep moist loam is covered by sod only1 instead of rocks1 brush1 and trees1 may feel like congratulating himself on the easy task before him2 and1 indeed1 where the sod is light1 strawberries1 and especially the larger small fruits1 are often planted on it at once with fair success4 ,i do not recommend the practice2 for1 unless the subsequent culture is very thorough and frequent1 the grass roots will continue to grow and may become so intertwined with those of the strawberry that they cannot be separated4 ,corn is probably the best hoed crop to precede the strawberry4 ,potatoes too closely resemble this fruit in their demand for potash1 and exhaust the soil of one of the most needed elements4 ,a dressing of wood ashes1 however1 will make good the loss4 ,buckwheat is one of the most effective means of subduing and cleaning land1 and two crops can be plowed under in a single summer4 ,last spring ,i had some very stiff marsh sod turned over and sown with buckwheat1 which1 in our hurry1 was not plowed under until considerable of the seed ripened and fell4 ,a second crop from this came up at once1 and was plowed under when coming into blossom1 as the first should have been4 ,the straw1 in its succulent state1 decayed in a few days1 and by autumn my rough marsh sod was light1 rich1 and mellow as a garden1 ready for anything4 ,if it should happen that the land designed for strawberries was in clover1 it would make an admirable fertilizer if turned under while still green1 and ,i think its use for this purpose would pay better than cutting it for hay1 even though there is no better4 ,indeed1 were ,i about to put any sod land1 that was not very stiff and unsubdued1 into small fruits1 ,i would wait till whatever herbage covered the ground was just coming into flower1 and then turn it under4 ,the earlier growth that precedes the formation of seed does not tax the soil much1 but draws its substance largely from the atmosphere1 and when returned to the earth while full of juices1 is valuable4 ,in our latitude this can usually be done by the middle of ,june1 and if on this sod buckwheat is sown at once1 it will hasten the decay1 loosen and lighten the soil in its growth1 and in a few weeks be ready itself to increase the fertility of the field by being plowed under4 ,in regions where farmyard manure and other fertilizers are scarce and high1 this plowing under of green crops is one of the most effective ways both of enriching and preparing the land2 and if the reader has no severer labors to perform than this1 he may well congratulate himself4 ,but let him not be premature in his self-felicitation1 for he may find in his sod ground1 especially if it be old meadow land1 an obstacle worse than stumps and stones--the ,lachnosterna fusca4 ,this portentous name may well inspire dread1 for the thing itself can realize one's worst fears4 ,the deep1 moist loam which we are considering is the favorite haunt of this hateful little monster1 and he who does not find it lying in wait when turning up land that has been long in sod1 may deem himself lucky4 ,the reader need not draw a sigh of relief when ,i tell him that ,i mean merely the white grub1 the larva of the ,may-beetle or ,june-bug1 that so disturbs our slumbers in early summer by its sonorous hum and aimless bumping against the wall4 ,this white grub1 which the farmers often call the potato worm1 is1 in this region1 the strawberry's most formidable foe1 and1 by devouring the roots1 will often destroy acres of plants4 ,if the plow turns up these ugly customers in large numbers1 the only recourse is to cultivate the land with some other crop until they turn into beetles and fly away4 ,this enemy will receive fuller attention in a later chapter4 ,it is said that this pest rarely lays its eggs in plowed land1 preferring sod ground1 where its larvae will be protected from the birds1 and will find plenty of grass roots on which to feed4 ,nature sees to it that white grubs are taken care of1 but our ,monarch strawberries need our best skill and help in their unequal fight2 and if ,lachnos and tribe should turn out in force1 ,alexander himself would be vanquished4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,soil ,,by ,,drainage ,excessive moisture will often prevent the immediate cultivation of our ideal strawberry land4 ,its absence is fatal1 its excess equally so4 ,let me suggest some of the evil effects4 ,every one is aware that climate--that is the average temperature of the atmosphere throughout the year--has a most important influence on vegetation4 ,but a great many1 ,i imagine1 do not realize that there is an underground climate also1 and that it is scarcely less important that this should be adapted to the roots than that the air should be tempered to the foliage4 ,water-logged land is cold4 ,the sun can bake1 but not warm it to any extent4 ,careful ,english experiments have proved that well-drained land is from #aj to #bj degrees warmer than wet soils2 and ,mr4 ,parkes has shown1 in his ,essay on the ,philosophy of ,drainage1 that in draining the ',red ,moss' the thermometer in the drained land rose in ,june to #ff degrees at seven inches below the surface1 while in the neighboring water-logged land it would never rise above #dg degrees--an enormous gain4 ,in his prize essay on drainage1 ,dr4 ,madden confirms the above1 and explains further1 as follows3 ,an excess of water injures the soil by diminishing its temperature in summer and increasing it in winter--a transformation of nature most hurtful to perennials1 because the vigor of a plant in spring depends greatly on the lowness of temperature to which it has been subjected during the winter 7within certain limits1 of course71 as the difference of temperature between winter and spring is the exciting cause of the ascent of the sap4 ,in other words1 too much water in the soil may cause no marked difference between the underground climate of winter and spring4 ,dr4 ,madden shows1 moreover1 that excess of water keeps out the air essential not only in promoting chemical changes in the soil itself and required by the plants1 but also the air which is directly needed by the roots4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy and others have proved that oxygen and carbonic acid are absorbed by the roots as well as by the foliage1 and these gases can be brought to them by the air only4 ,again1 drainage alters the currents which occur in wet soil4 ,in undrained land1 evaporation is constantly bringing up to the roots the sour1 exhausted water of the subsoil1 which is an injury rather than a benefit4 ,on the other hand1 the rain just fallen passes freely through a drained soil1 carrying directly to the roots fresh air and stimulating gases4 ,wet land also produces conditions which disable the foliage of plants from absorbing carbonic acid1 thus greatly decreasing its atmospheric supply of food4 ,other reasons might be given1 but the reader who is not satisfied had better set out an acre of strawberries on water-logged land4 ,his empty pocket will out-argue all the books4 ,the construction of drains may be essential1 for three causes3 #ast4 ,land that is dry enough naturally may lie so as to collect and hold surface water1 which1 accumulating with every rain and snow storm1 at last renders the soil sour and unproductive4 #bnd4 ,comparatively level land1 and even steep hillsides1 may be so full of springs as to render drains at short intervals necessary4 #crd4 ,streams1 flowing perhaps from distant sources1 may find their natural channel across our grounds4 ,if these channels are obstructed or inadequate1 we find our land falling into the ways of an old soaker4 ,it should here be stated1 however1 that if we could cause streams to overflow our land in a shallow1 sluggish current1 so that a sediment would be left on the surface after a speedy subsidence1 the result would be in miniature like the overflow of the ,nile in ,egypt1 most beneficial1 that is1 if means for thorough subsequent drainage was provided4 ,if there is an abundance of stone on one's place suitable for the construction of drains1 it can often be used to advantage1 as ,i shall show2 but for all ordinary purposes of drainage1 round tile with collars are now recommended by the best authorities4 ,it is said that they are cheaper than stone1 even where the latter is right at hand2 and the claim is reasonable1 since1 instead of the wide ditch required by stone1 a narrow cut will suffice for tile2 thus a great saving is at once effected in the cost of digging4 ,tile also can be laid rapidly1 and are not liable to become obstructed if properly protected at points of discharge by gratings1 so that vermin cannot enter4 ,they should not be laid near willow1 elm1 and other trees of like character1 or else the fibrous roots will penetrate and fill the channel4 ,if one has a large problem of drainage to solve1 he should carefully read a work like ,geo4 ,e4 ,waring's ,drainage for ,profit and for ,health2 and if the slope or fall of some fields is very slight1 say scarcely one foot in a hundred1 the services of an engineer should be employed and accurate grades obtained4 ,by a well-planned system1 the cost of draining a place can be greatly reduced1 and the water made very useful4 ,on my place at ,cornwall ,i found three acres of wet land1 each in turn illustrating one of the causes which make drainage necessary4 ,i used stone1 because1 in some instances1 no other material would have answered1 in others partly because ,i was a novice in the science of drainage1 and partly because ,i had the stones on my place1 and did not know what else to do with them4 ,i certainly could not cart them on my neighbors' ground without having a surplus of hot as well as cold water1 so ,i concluded to bury them in the old-fashioned box-drains4 ,indeed1 ,i found rather peculiar and difficult problems of drainage1 and the history of their solution may contain useful hints to the reader4 ,in front of my house there is a low1 level plot of land1 containing about three acres4 ,upon this the surface water ran from all sides1 and there was no outlet4 ,the soil was1 in consequence1 sour1 and in certain spots only a wiry marsh grass would grow4 ,and yet it required1 but a glance to see that a drain1 which could carry off this surface water immediately1 would render it the best land on the place4 ,i tried1 in vain1 the experiment of digging a deep1 wide ditch across the entire tract1 in hopes of finding a porous subsoil4 ,then ,i excavated great1 deep holes1 but came to a blue clay that held water like rubber4 ,the porous subsoil1 in which ,i knew the region abounded1 and which makes ,cornwall exceptionally free from all miasmatic troubles1 eluded our spades like hidden treasures4 ,i eventually found that ,i must obtain permission of a neighbor to carry a drain across another farm to the mountain stream that empties into the ,hudson at ,cornwall ,landing4 ,the covered drain through the adjoining place was deep and expensive1 but the ditch across my land 7marked ,a on the map7 is a small one1 walled with stone on either side4 ,it answers my purpose1 however1 giving me as good strawberry land as ,i could wish4 ,on both sides of this open ditch1 and at right angles with it1 ,i had the ground plowed into beds #acj feet long by #ba wide4 ,the shallow depressions between these beds slope gently toward the ditch1 and thus1 after every storm1 the surface water1 which formerly often1 covered the entire area1 is at once carried away4 ,i think my simple1 shallow1 open drain is better than tile in this instance4 ,illustration3 ,map showing experiments in the drainage of a strawberry farm ,as may be seen from the map1 my farm is peculiar in outline1 and resembles an extended city lot1 being #b1eej feet long1 and only #daj wide4 ,the house1 as shown by the engraving1 stands on quite an elevation1 in the rear of which the land descends into another swale or basin4 ,the drainage of this presented a still more difficult problem4 ,not only did the surface water run into it1 but in moist seasons the ground was full of springs4 ,the serious feature of the case was that there seemed to be no available outlet in any direction4 ,unlike the mellow1 sandy loam in front of the house1 the swale in the rear was of the stiffest kind of clay--just the soil to retain and be spoiled by water4 ,during the first year of our residence here this region was sometimes a pond1 sometimes a quagmire1 while again1 under the summer sun1 it baked into earthenware4 ,it was a doubtful question whether this stubborn acre could be subdued1 and yet its heavy clay gave me just the diversity of soil ,i needed4 ,throughout the high gravelly knoll on which the house stands1 the natural drainage is perfect1 and a sagacious neighbor suggested that if ,i cut a ditch across the clayey swale into the gravel of the knoll1 the water would find a natural outlet and disappear4 ,the ditch was dug eight feet wide and five feet deep1 for ,i decided to utilize the surface of the drain as a road-bed4 ,passing out of the clay and hard-pan1 we came into the gravel1 and it seemed porous enough to carry off a fair-sized stream4 ,i concluded that my difficult problem had found a cheap and easy solution1 and to make assurance doubly sure1 ,i directed the men to dig a deep pit and fill it with stones4 ,when they had gone about nine feet below the surface1 ,i happened to be standing on the brink of the excavation1 watching the work4 ,a laborer struck his pick into the gravel1 when a stream gushed out which in its sudden abundance suggested that which flowed in the wilderness at the stroke of ,moss's rod4 ,the problem was now complicated anew4 ,so far from finding an outlet1 ,i had dug a well which the men could scarcely bail out fast enough to permit of its being stoned up4 ,my neighbors remarked that my wide ditch reminded them of the ,erie canal1 and my wife was in terror lest the children should be drowned in it4 ,now something had to be done1 and ,i called in the services of ,mr4 ,caldwell1 city surveyor of ,newburgh1 and to his map ,i refer the reader for a clearer understanding of my tasks4 ,between the upper and lower swales1 the ridge on which the house stands slopes to its greatest depression along its western boundary1 and ,i was shown that if ,i would cut deep enough1 the open drain in the lower swale could receive and carry off the water from the upper basin4 ,this appeared ,tobe the only resource1 but with my limited means it was like a ship-canal across the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,the old device of emptying my drains into a hole that practically had no bottom1 suggested itself to me4 ,it would be so much easier and cheaper that ,i resolved once more to try it1 though with hopes naturally dampened by my last moist experience4 ,i directed that the hole 7marked ,b on the map7 should be oblong1 and in the direct line of the ditch1 so that if it failed of its purpose it could become a part of the drain4 ,down we went into as perfect sand and gravel as ,i ever saw1 and the deeper we dug the dryer it became4 ,this time1 in wounding old ,mother ,earth1 we did not cut a vein1 and there seemed a fair prospect of our creating a new one1 for into this receptacle ,i decided to turn my largest drain and all the water that the stubborn acre persisted in keeping4 ,i therefore had a box-drain constructed along the western boundary of the place 7marked ,c7 until it reached the lowest spot in the upper swale4 ,this drain was simply and rapidly constructed1 in the following manner3 a ditch was first dug sufficiently deep and wide1 and with1 a fall that carried off the water rapidly4 ,in the bottom of this ditch the men built two roughly faced walls1 one foot high and eight inches apart4 ,comparatively long1 flat stones1 that would reach from wall to wall1 were easily found1 and thus we had a covered water-course1 eight by twelve inches1 forming the common box-drain that will usually last a lifetime4 ,the openings over the channel were carefully chinked in with small stones and all covered with inverted sods1 shavings1 leaves1 or anything that prevented the loose soil from sifting or washing down into the water-course4 ,at the upper end of the box-drain just described1 a second and smaller receptacle was dug 7marked ,d71 and from this was constructed another box-drain 7,e71 six inches square1 across the low ground to the end of the canal in which we had found the well 7,f74 ,this would not only drain a portion of the land but would also empty the big ditch 7,g71 and prevent the water of the well from rising above a certain point4 ,this kind of stone-work can be done rapidly2 two men in two short winter days built thirteen rods with a water-course six inches in the clear4 ,to the upper and further end of the canal 7,g71 ,i constructed another and cheaper style of drain4 ,in the bottom of this ditch 7,h71 two stones were placed on their ends or edges and leaned together so as to form a kind of arch1 and then other stones were thrown over and around them until they reached a point eighteen inches from the surface4 ,over these stones1 as over the box-drains also1 was placed a covering of any coarse litter to keep the earth from washing down2 and then the construction of one or two short side-drains1 the refilling the ditches and levelling the ground completed my task4 ,it will be remembered that this entire system of drainage ended in the excavation 7,b7 already described4 ,the question was now whether such a theory of drainage would hold water4 ,if it would1 the hole ,i had dug must not1 and ,i waited to see4 ,it promised well4 ,quite a steady stream poured into it and disappeared4 ,by and by there came a heavy ,march storm4 ,when ,i went out in the morning1 everything was afloat4 ,the big canal and the well at its lower end were full to overflowing4 ,the stubborn acre was a quagmire1 and alas6 the excavation which ,i had hoped would save so much trouble and expense was also full4 ,i plodded back under my umbrella with a brow as lowering as the sky4 ,there seemed nothing for it but to cut a ,dutch gap that would make a like chasm in my bank account4 ,by noon it cleared off1 and ,i went down to take a melancholy survey of the huge amount of work that now seemed necessary1 when1 to my great joy1 the oblong cut1 in which so many hopes had seemingly been swamped1 was entirely empty4 ,from the box-drain a large stream poured into it and went down--to ,china1 for all that ,i knew4 ,i went in haste to the big canal and found it empty1 and the well lowered to the mouth of the drain4 ,the stubborn acre was now under my thumb1 and ,i have kept it there ever since4 ,during the past summer1 ,i had upon its wettest and stiffest portion two beds of ,jucunda strawberries that yielded at the rate of one hundred and ninety bushels to the acre4 ,the ,jucunda strawberry is especially adapted to heavy land requiring drainage1 and ,i think an enterprising man in the vicinity of ,new ,york might so unite them as to make a fortune4 ,the hole was filled with stones and now forms a part of my garden1 and the canal answers for a road-bed as at first intended4 ,in the fortuitous well ,i have placed a force-pump1 around which are grown and watered my potted plants4 ,the theory of carrying drains into gravel does hold water1 and sometimes holes can be dug at a slight expense1 that practically have no bottom4 ,i have no doubt that in this instance tile would have been better and cheaper than the small stone drains that ,i have described4 ,in the rear of my place there was a third drainage problem very different from either of the other two4 ,my farm runs back to the rise of the mountain1 whose edge it skirts for some distance4 ,it thus receives at times much surface water4 ,at the foot of the mountain-slope1 there are about three acres of low alluvial soil1 that was formerly covered with a coarse1 useless herbage of the swamp4 ,between the meadow and the slope of the mountain1 the town built a boulevard 7marked ,,ii on the map71 practically cribbing an acre or two of land4 ,ahab1 who needed ,naboth's vineyard for public purposes1 is the spiritual father of all town boards4 ,at the extreme end of the farm1 and just beyond the alluvial ground1 was the channel of a brook 7marked ,j74 ,its stony bed1 through which trickled a rill1 had a very innocent aspect on the ,october day when we looked the farm over and decided upon its purchase4 ,the rill ran a little way on my grounds1 then crept under the fence and skirted my western boundary for several hundred yards4 ,on reaching a rise of land1 it re-entered my place and ran obliquely across it4 ,it thus enclosed three sides of the low1 bushy meadow ,i have named4 ,its lower channel across the place had been stoned up with the evident purpose of keeping it within limits2 but the three or four feet of space between the walls had become obstructed by roots1 bushes1 vines and debris in general4 ,with the exception of the stony bed where it entered the farm1 most of its course was obscured by overhanging bushes and the sere1 rank herbage of autumn4 ,in a vague way ,i felt that eventually something would have to be done to direct this little child of the mountain into proper ways1 and to subdue the spirit of the wilderness that it diffused on every side4 ,i had its lower channel across the place 7,k ,k7 cleared out1 thinking that this might answer for the present2 and the gurgle of the little streamlet along the bottom of the ditch seemed a low laugh at the idea of its ever filling the three square feet of space above it4 ,deceitful little brook6 ,its innocent babble contained no suggestion of its hoarse roar on a ,march day1 the following spring1 as it tore its way along1 scooping the stones and gravel from its upper bed and scattering them far and wide over the alluvial meadow4 ,instead of a tiny rill1 ,i found that ,i would have to cope at times with a mountain torrent4 ,at first1 the task was too heavy1 and the fitful-tempered brook1 and the swamp-like region it encompassed1 were left for years to their old wild instincts4 ,at last the increasing demands of my business made it necessary to have more arable land1 and ,i saw that1 if ,i could keep it from being overwhelmed with water and gravel1 the alluvial meadow was just the place for strawberries4 ,i commenced at the lowest point where it finally leaves my grounds1 and dug a canal 7,k ,k71 twelve feet wide by four or five deep1 across my place1 stoning up its walls on either side4 ,an immense amount of earth and gravel was thrown on the lower side so as to form a high1 strong embankment in addition to the channel4 ,then1 where it entered the farm above the meadow1 ,i had a wide1 deep ditch excavated1 throwing all the debris between it and the land ,i wished to shield4 ,throughout the low meadow1 two covered box-drains 7,l and ,m7 were constructed so that the plow could pass over them4 ,on the side of the meadow next to the boulevard and mountain1 ,i had an open drain 7,n ,n7 dug and filled with stones even with the ground4 ,it was designed to catch and carry off the surface water1 merely1 from the long extent of mountain-slope that it skirted4 ,the system of ditches to protect and drain the partial swamp1 and also to manage the deceitful brook1 was now finished1 and ,i waited for the results4 ,during much of the summer there was not a drop of water in the wide canal1 save where a living spring trickled into it4 ,the ordinary fall rains could scarcely more than cover the broad1 pebbly bottom1 and the unsophisticated laughed and said that ,i reminded them of a general who trained a forty-pound gun on a belligerent mouse4 ,i remembered what ,i had seen1 and bided my time4 ,but ,i did not have to wait till ,march4 ,one ,november day it began to rain1 and it kept on4 ,all the following night there was a steady rush and roar of falling water4 ,it was no ordinary pattering1 but a gusty outpouring from the windows of heaven4 ,the two swales in the front and rear of the house became great muddy ponds1 tawny as the yellow ,tiber1 and through intervals of the storm came the sullen roar of the little brook that had been purring like a kitten all summer4 ,toward night1 ,mature grew breathless and exhausted2 there were sobbing gusts of wind and sudden gushes of rain1 that grew less and less frequent4 ,it was evident she would become quiet in the night and quite serene after her long1 tempestuous mood4 ,as the sun was setting ,i ventured out with much misgiving4 ,the deepening roar as ,i went down the lane increased my fears1 but ,i was fairly appalled by the wild torrent that cut off all approach to the bridge4 ,the water had not only filled the wide canal1 but also1 at a point a little above the bridge1 had broken over and washed away the high embankment4 ,i skirted along the tide until ,i reached the part of the bank that still remained intact1 and there beneath my feet rushed a flood that would have instantly swept away horse and rider4 ,indeed1 quite a large tree had been torn up by its roots1 and carried down until it caught in the bridge1 which would also have gone had not the embankment above given way4 ,the lower part of the meadow was also under water4 ,it had been plowed1 and therefore would wash readily4 ,would any soil be left8 ,a few moments of calm reflection1 however1 removed my fears4 ,the treacherous brook had not beguiled me during the summer into inadequate provision for this unprecedented outbreak4 ,i saw that my deep1 wide cut had kept the flood wholly from the upper part of the meadow1 which contained a very valuable bed of high-priced strawberry plants1 and that the slowly moving tide which covered the lower part was little more than backwater and overflow4 ,the wide ditches were carrying off swiftly and harmlessly the great volume that1 had not such channels been provided1 would have made my rich alluvial meadow little else than a stony1 gravelly waste4 ,and the embankment had given way at a point too low down to permit much damage4 ,the two swales in the front and rear of the house appeared like mill-ponds4 ,in the former instance1 the water had backed up from the mountain stream into which my drain emptied1 and1 therefore1 it could not pass off2 and in the latter instance ,i could scarcely expect my little underground channel to dispose at once of the torrents that for forty hours had poured from the skies4 ,i must give it at least a night in which to catch up4 ,and a busy night it put in1 for by morning it had conveyed to depths unknown the wide1 discolored pond1 that otherwise would have smothered the plants it covered4 ,as soon1 also1 as the mountain stream fell below the mouth of the lower drain1 it emptied at once the water resting on the lower swale4 ,throughout the day came successive tales of havoc and disaster1 of dams scooped out1 bridges swept away1 roads washed into stony gulches1 and fields and gardens overwhelmed with debris4 ,the ,idlewild brook1 that the poet ,willis made so famous1 seemed almost demoniac in its power and fury4 ,not content with washing away dams1 roads1 and bridges1 it swept a heavy wall across a field as if the stones were pebbles4 ,my three diverse systems of drainage had thus practically stood the severest test1 perhaps1 that will ever be put upon them1 and my grounds had not been damaged to any extent worth naming4 ,the cost had been considerable1 but the injury caused by that one storm would have amounted to a larger sum had there been no other channels for the water than those provided by nature4 ,my readers will find1 in many instances1 that they have land which must be or may be drained4 ,if it can be done sufficiently1 the very ideal strawberry soil may be secured--moist and deep1 but not wet4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,soils ,,comparatively ,,unfavorable--,,clay1 ,,sand1 ,,etc4 ,we have now reached a point at which we must consider land which in its essential character is unfavorable to strawberries1 and yet which may be the best to be had4 ,the difficulties here are not merely accidental or remediable1 such as lack of depth or fertility1 the presence of stones or stumps1 undue wetness of soil1 etc4 ,any or all of these obstacles may be found1 but in addition there are evils inseparable from the soil1 and which cannot be wholly eradicated4 ,the best we can hope in such a case is to make up by art what is lacking in nature4 ,this divergence from the deep1 moist sandy loam1 the ideal strawberry land1 is usually toward a stiff1 cold1 stubborn clay1 or toward a droughty1 leachy sand that retains neither fertility nor moisture4 ,of course1 these opposite soils require in most respects different treatment4 ,we will consider first the less objectionable1 that is1 the heavy clay4 ,to call clay more favorable for strawberries than sandy land may seem like heresy to many1 for it is a popular impression that light soils are the best4 ,experience and observation have1 however1 convinced me of the contrary4 ,with the clay you have a stable foundation4 ,your progress may be slow1 but it can be made sure4 ,the character of a sandy foundation was taught centuries ago4 ,moreover1 all the fine foreign-blooded varieties1 as well as our best native ones1 grow far better on heavy land1 and a soil largely mixed with clay gives a wider range in the choice of varieties4 ,if ,i had my choice between a farm of cold1 stiff clay or light1 leachy land1 ,i would unhesitatingly take the former1 and ,i would overcome its native unfitness by the following methods3 ,if at all inclined to be wet1 as would be natural from its tenacious texture1 ,i should first underdrain it thoroughly with tile4 ,then1 if ,i found a fair amount of vegetable matter1 ,i would give it a dressing of air-slaked lime1 and plow it deeply late in the fall1 leaving it unharrowed so as to expose as much of the soil as possible to the action of frost4 ,early in the spring1 as soon as the ground was dry enough to work and all danger of frost was over1 ,i would harrow in buckwheat and plow it under as it came into blossom2 then sow a second crop and plow that under also4 ,it is the characteristic of buckwheat to lighten and clean land1 and the reader perceives that it should be our constant aim to impart lightness and life to the heavy soil4 ,lime1 in addition to its fertilizing effects1 acts chemically on the ground1 producing the desired effect4 ,it may be objected that lime is not good for strawberries4 ,that is true if crude lime is applied directly to the plants1 as we would ashes or bone-dust2 but when it is mixed with the soil for months1 it is so neutralized as to be helpful1 and in the meantime its action on the soil itself is of great value4 ,it must be used for strawberries1 however1 in more limited quantities than for many other crops1 or else more time must be given for it to become incorporated with the soil4 ,the coarse green straw of the buckwheat is useful by its mechanical division of the heavy land1 while at the same time its decomposition fills the soil with ammonia and other gases vitally necessary to the plant4 ,a clay soil retains these gases with little waste4 ,it is thus capable of being enriched to almost any extent1 and can be made a storehouse of wealth4 ,where it can be procured1 there is no better fertilizer for clay land than the product of the horse-stable1 which1 as a rule1 can be plowed under in its raw1 unfermented state1 its heat and action in decay producing the best results4 ,of course1 judgment and moderation must be employed4 ,the roots of a young1 growing plant cannot feed in a mass of fermenting manure1 no matter what the soil may be4 ,the point ,i wish to make is that cold1 heavy land is greatly benefited by having these heating1 gas-producing processes take place beneath its surface4 ,after they are over1 the tall1 rank foliage and enormous fruit of the ,jucunda strawberry 7a variety that can scarcely grow at all in sand7 will show the capabilities of clay4 ,heavy land is the favorite home of the grasses1 and is usually covered with a thick1 tenacious sod4 ,this1 of course1 must be thoroughly subdued before strawberries are planted1 or else you will have a hay-field in spite of all you can do4 ,the decay of this mass of roots1 however1 furnishes just the food required1 and a crop of buckwheat greatly hastens decomposition1 and adds its own bulk and fertility when plowed under4 ,i think it will scarcely ever pay to plant strawberries directly on the sod of heavy land4 ,while buckwheat is a good green crop to plow under1 if the cultivator can wait for the more slowly maturing red-top clover1 he will find it far better1 both to enrich and to lighten up his heavy soil2 for it is justly regarded as the best means of imparting the mellowness and friability in which the roots of strawberries as well as all other plants luxuriate4 ,there are1 no doubt1 soils fit for bricks and piping only1 but in most instances1 by a judicious use of the means suggested1 they can be made to produce heavy and long-continued crops of the largest fruit4 ,these same principles apply to the small garden-plot as well as to the acre4 ,instead of carting off weeds1 old pea vines1 etc41 dig them under evenly over the entire space1 when possible4 ,enrich with warm1 light fertilizers1 and if a good heavy coat of hot strawy manure is trenched in the heaviest1 stickiest clay1 in ,october or ,november1 strawberries or anything else can be planted the following spring4 ,the gardener1 who thus expends a little thought and farsighted labor will at last secure results that will surpass his most sanguine hopes1 and that1 too1 from land that would otherwise be as hard as ,pharaoh's heart4 ,before passing from this soil to that of an opposite character1 let me add a few words of caution4 ,clay land should never be stirred when either very wet or very dry1 or else a lumpy condition results that injures it for years4 ,it should be plowed or dug only when it crumbles4 ,when the soil is sticky1 or turns up in great hard lumps1 let it alone4 ,the more haste the worst speed4 ,again1 the practice of fall plowing1 so very beneficial in latitudes where frosts are severe and long continued1 is just the reverse in the far ,south4 ,there our snow is rain1 and the upturned furrows are washed down into a smooth1 sticky mass by the winter storms4 ,on steep hillsides1 much of the soil would ooze away with every rain1 or slide downhill en masse4 ,in the ,south1 therefore1 unless a clay soil is to be planted at once1 it must not be disturbed in the fall1 and it is well if it can be protected by stubble or litter1 which shields it from the direct contact of the rain and from the sun's rays4 ,but cow-peas1 or any other rank-growing green crop adapted to the locality1 is as useful to ,southern clay as to ,northern1 and ,southern fields might be enriched rapidly1 since their long season permits of plowing under several growths4 ,lime and potash in their various forms1 in connection with green crops1 would give permanent fertility to every heavy acre of ,southern land4 ,in my judgment1 however1 barnyard manure is not surpassed in value by any other in any latitude4 ,if one owned clay land from which he could not secure good crops after the preparation that has been suggested1 he had better either turn it into a brick-yard or emigrate4 ,sandy ,ground4--,suppose that1 in contrast1 our soil is a light sand4 ,in this case the question of cultivation is greatly simplified1 but the problem of obtaining a heavy crop is correspondingly difficult4 ,the plow and the cultivator run readily enough1 and much less labor is required to keep the weeds in subjection1 but as a rule1 light land yields little fruit2 and yet under favorable circumstances ,i have seen magnificent crops of certain varieties growing on sand4 ,if sufficient moisture and fertility can be maintained1 many of our best varieties will thrive and produce abundantly2 but to do this is the very pith of our difficulty4 ,too often a sandy soil will not retain moisture and manure4 ,such light land is generally very deficient in vegetable matter2 and therefore1 whenever it is possible1 ,i would turn under green crops4 ,if the soil could be made sufficiently fertile to produce a heavy crop of clover1 and this were plowed under in ,june1 and then buckwheat harrowed in and its rank growth turned under in ,august1 strawberries could be planted as soon as the heat of decay was over1 with excellent prospects of fine crops for the three succeeding years4 ,did ,i propose to keep the land in strawberries1 ,i would then give it another year of clover and buckwheat1 adding bone-dust1 potash1 and a very little lime in some form4 ,the green crop1 when decayed1 is lighter than clay1 and renders its tenacious texture more friable and porous2 it also benefits the sandy soil by supplying the absent humus1 or vegetable mould1 which is essential to all plant life4 ,this mould is also cool and humid in its nature1 and aids in retaining moisture4 ,with the exception of the constant effort to place green vegetable matter under the surface1 my treatment of sandy ground would be the reverse of that described for clay4 ,before using the product of the horse-stable1 ,i would compost it with at least an equal bulk of leaves1 muck1 sods1 or even plain earth if nothing better could be found4 ,a compost of stable manure with clay would be most excellent4 ,if possible1 ,i would not use any manure on light ground until all fermentation was over1 and then ,i would rather harrow than plow it in4 ,this will leave it near the surface1 and the rains will leach it down to the roots--and below them1 also--only too soon4 ,fertility cannot be stored up in sand as in clay1 and it should be our aim to give our strawberries the food they need in a form that permits of its immediate use4 ,therefore1 in preparing such land1 ,i would advise deep plowing while it is moist1 if possible1 soon after a rain2 then the harrowing in of a liberal top-dressing of rotted compost1 or of muck sweetened by the action of frost and the fermentation of manure1 or1 best of all1 the product of the cow-stable4 ,decayed leaves1 sods1 and wood-ashes also make excellent fertilizers4 ,in the garden1 light soils can be given a much more stable and productive character by covering them with clay to the depth of one or two inches every fall1 and then plowing it in4 ,the winter's frost and rains mix the two diverse soils1 to their mutual benefit4 ,carting sand on clay is rarely remunerative2 the reverse is decidedly so1 and top-dressings of clay on light land are often more beneficial than equal amounts of manure4 ,as practically employed1 ,i regard quick1 stimulating manures1 like aguno1 very injurious to light soils4 ,i believe them to be the curse of the ,south4 ,they are used to make a crop1 as it is termed2 and they do make it for a few years1 but to the utter impoverishment of the land4 ,the soil becomes as exhausted as a man would be should he seek to labor under the support of stimulants only4 ,in both instances1 an abundance of food is needed4 ,a quinine pill is not a dinner1 and a dusting of guano or phosphate cannot enrich the land4 ,and yet1 by the aid of these stimulating commercial fertilizers1 the poorest and thinnest soil can be made to produce fine strawberries1 if sufficient moisture can be maintained4 ,just as a physician can rally an exhausted man to a condition in which he can take and be strengthened by food1 so land1 too poor and light to sprout a pea1 can be stimulated into producing a meagre green crop of some kind1 which1 plowed under1 will enable the land to produce a second and heavier burden4 ,this1 in turn1 placed in the soil1 will begin to give a suggestion of fertility4 ,thus1 poor or exhausted soils can be made1 by several years of skilful management1 to convalesce slowly into strength4 ,whether such patient outlay of time and labor will pay on a continent abounding in land naturally productive is a very dubious question4 ,coarse1 gravelly soils are usually even worse4 ,if we must grow our strawberries on them1 give the same general treatment that ,i have just suggested4 ,on some peat soils the strawberry thrives abundantly2 on others it burns and dwindles4 ,under such conditions ,i should experiment with bone-dust1 ashes1 etc41 until ,i found just what was lacking4 ,no written directions can take the place of common-sense1 judgment1 and1 above all1 experience4 ,soils vary like individual character4 ,i have yet to learn of a system of rules that will teach us how to deal with every man we meet4 ,it is ever wise1 however1 to deal justly and liberally4 ,he that expects much from his land must give it much4 ,i have dwelt at length on the preparation and enrichment of the land1 since it is the cornerstone of all subsequent success4 ,let me close by emphasizing again the principle which was made prominent at first4 ,though we give our strawberry plants everything else they need1 our crop of fruit will yet be good or bad in the proportion that we are able to maintain abundant moisture during the blossoming and fruiting season4 ,if provision can be made for irrigation1 it may increase the yield tenfold4 ,,chapter ,x ,,commercial ,,and ,,special ,,fertilizers ,in preparing and enriching the soil1 and especially in subsequent cultivation1 concentrated fertilizers are very useful and often essential4 ,in dealing with this subject1 however1 ,i think we tread upon uncertain ground4 ,there is a great deal of apparent accuracy of figures and analyses1 carried carefully into decimals1 but a wonderful deal of vagueness1 uncertainty1 and contradiction in the experiences and minds of cultivators4 ,it is well known that many commercial fertilizers are scandalously adulterated1 and those who have suffered from frauds are hostile to the entire class4 ,in their strong prejudice1 they will neither discriminate nor investigate4 ,there are others who associate everything having a chemical sound with book farming1 and therefore dismiss the whole subject with a sniff of contempt4 ,this clique of horticulturists is rapidly diminishing1 however1 for the fruit grower who does not read is like the lawyer who tries to practice with barely a knowledge of the few laws revealed by a limited experience4 ,in contrast1 there are others who read and theorize too exclusively1 and are inclined to assert that concentrated fertilizers supersede all others4 ,they scout the muck swamp1 the compost heap1 and even the barnyard1 as old-fashioned1 cumbrous methods of bringing to the soil1 in tons of useless matter1 the essentials which they can deliver in a few sacks or barrels4 ,on paper1 they are scientific and accurate4 ,the crop you wish to raise has constituents in certain proportions4 ,supply these1 they say1 and you have the chemical compound1 or crop4 ,a field or garden1 however1 is not a sheet of blank paper1 but a combination at which nature has been at work1 and left full of obscurities4 ,the results which the agricultural chemist predicted so confidently do not always follow1 as they ought4 ,nature is often very indifferent to learned authorities4 ,there is yet another class--a large one1 too--who regard these fertilizers as they do the drugs of an apothecary4 ,they occasionally give their land a dose of them as they take medicine themselves1 when indisposed or imagining themselves so4 ,in either case there is almost entire ignorance of the nature of the compound or of definite reasons for its usefulness4 ,both the man and the field were run down1 and some one said that this1 that1 or the other thing was good4 ,therefore it was tried4 ,such haphazard action is certainly not the surest method of securing health or fertility4 ,in no other department of horticulture is there more room for common-sense1 accurate knowledge1 skill1 and good management1 than in the use of all kinds of fertilizers1 and1 in my judgment1 close and continued observation is worth volumes of theory4 ,the proper enrichment of the soil is the very cornerstone of success1 and more fail at this point than at any other4 ,while ,i do not believe that accurate and complete directions for the treatment of every soil can be written1 it is undoubtedly true that certain correct principles can be laid down1 and information1 suggestion1 and records of experience given which will be very useful4 ,with such data to start with1 the intelligent cultivator can work out the problem of success in the peculiar conditions of his own farm or garden4 ,it must be true that land designed for strawberries requires those constituents which are shown to compose the plant and fruit1 and that the presence of each one in the soil should be in proportion to the demand for it4 ,it is also equally plain that the supply of these essential elements should be kept up in continued cultivation4 ,therefore1 the question naturally arises1 what are strawberry plants and fruit made of8 ,modern wine1 we know1 can be made without any grape juice whatever1 but as ,nature compounds strawberries in the open sunlight1 instead of in back rooms and cellars1 she insists on all the proper ingredients before she will form the required combination4 ,the ,country ,gentleman gives a very interesting letter from ,prof4 ,s4 ,w4 ,johnson1 of the ,connecticut ,experiment ,station1 containing the following careful analysis made by ,j4 ,isidore ,pierre1 a ,french writer4 ,pierre1 says the professor1 gives a statement of the composition1 exclusive of water1 of the total yield per hectare of fruit1 taken up to ,june #cj1 and of leaves1 stems and runners1 taken up to the middle of ,august4 ,these results1 calculated in pounds per acre1 are the following 7the plants contained #fb4c per cent of water and fruit #ij per cent73 ,composition of the water-free strawberry crop 7except roots71 at the middle of ,august1 in pounds per acre1 according to ,pierre3 ,plants ,fruits ,totals ,organic matter1 exclusive of nitrogen #dbfh4d #ajec4e #ecba4i ,nitrogen #hh4e #af4j #ajd4e ,silica1 iron and manganese oxides #dc4c #a4e_/c4h #dh4f ,phosphoric acid #ce4c #e4d #dj4g ,lime #ajb4g #g4i #aaj4f ,magnesia #af4a 4#g #af4h ,potash #hi4a #ai4g #ajh4h ,soda #f4d 4#i #g4c ,other matters #abj4i #h4h #abi4g ,dry substance #dggj4g #aaah4b #ehhh4i ,these are the constituents that1 to start with1 must be in the soil1 and which must be kept there4 ,this array of what to many are but obscure chemicals need not cause misgivings1 since in most instances nature has stored them in the virgin soil in abundant proportions4 ,even in well-worn1 long cultivated fields1 some of them may exist in sufficient quantity4 ,therefore1 buying a special fertilizer is often like carrying coals to ,newcastle4 ,useless expenditure may be incurred1 also1 by supplying some1 but not all1 of the essential ingredients4 ,a farmer applied six hundred pounds of superphosphate to a plat of corn-land1 and three hundred pounds to an adjacent plat wherein the conditions were the same4 ,the yield of the first plat was scarcely in excess of that of the second1 and in neither case was there a sufficient increase to repay for the fertilizer4 ,it does not follow that the man used an adulterated and worthless article4 ,analysis shows that corn needs nitrogen and potash in large proportions2 and if these had been employed with the superphosphate1 the result probably would have been very different4 ,superphosphate contains nitrogen1 but not in sufficient degree4 ,these considerations bring us to the sound conclusion that in enriching our land it would be wise to use complete fertilizers as far as possible2 that is1 manures containing all1 or nearly all1 the essential ingredients of the strawberry plant and fruit4 ,if we could always know just what elements are lacking in our soils1 we could merely supply these2 but frequent analyses are expensive1 and often misleading1 at best4 ,the safest plan is always to keep within reach of the plants the food we know they require1 and the roots1 with unerring instinct1 will attend to the proportions4 ,hence the value of barnyard manure in the estimation of plain common-sense4 ,a sensible writer has clearly shown that from twenty-three cows and five horses1 if proper absorbents are used1 #e4hg worth of nitrogen1 potash1 and phosphoric acid can be obtained every twenty-four hours1 estimating these vitally important elements of plant-food at their wholesale valuation4 ,in addition1 there are the other constituents of the yard manure which1 if not so valuable1 are still very useful4 ,to permit the waste of any fertilizer that can be saved or made upon our places1 and then buy the same thing with the chance of being cheated1 is thus shown to be wretched economy4 ,commercial fertilizers can never supersede the compost heap1 into which should go everything which will enable us to place in the soil organic matter and the other elements that were given in the analysis2 and if all the sewage and waste of the dwelling and the products of the stable1 stys and poultry-house were well composted with muck1 sod1 leaves1 or even common earth1 and used liberally1 magnificent and continued crops of strawberries could be raised from nearly all soils4 ,in many instances1 however1 home-made composts are wholly inadequate to supply the need1 and stable manures are too costly or not to be obtained4 ,the fruit grower should then go to those manufacturers of fertilizers who have the best reputation1 and who give the best guarantees against deception4 ,there are perfectly honest dealers1 and it is by far the cheapest in the end to pay them their price for a genuine article4 ,if such concentrated agents are used in connection with a green crop like clover1 land can be made1 and kept productive continuously4 ,in the use of commercial fertilizers1 there should be a constant and intelligent effort to keep up a supply of all the essential ingredients4 ,wood-ashes is a specific for strawberries4 ,i have never found any one thing so good1 and yet it is substantially but one thing1 potash1 and ,i should remember that the plant also requires nitrogen1 which guano1 or some form of animal manure1 would furnish2 lime1 which is best applied to the strawberry in the form of bone meal1 etc4 ,the essential phosphoric acid is furnished in bone meal1 the superphosphates1 and also in wood-ashes4 ,by referring to an analysis of the ash of red clover1 it will be found to contain nearly everything that the strawberry requires4 ,the man who reads1 observes1 and experiments carefully1 will find that he can accomplish much with lime and salt4 ,if one has land full of vegetable or organic matter1 an application of lime will render this matter fit for plant food1 and the lime itself1 in the course of a year or less1 will be rendered harmless in the process4 ,it also sweetens and lightens heavy1 sour land1 and thus1 in time renders it better adapted to the strawberry2 but lime should not be applied directly1 in any considerable quantity1 to strawberry plants1 nor should it be used on very light soils deficient in vegetable matter4 ,the judicious use of salt in small quantities will1 ,i think1 prove very beneficial1 especially on light upland4 ,it tends to prevent injury from drought1 and to clear the land of the larvae of insects4 ,i am inclined to think that much can be accomplished with this agent1 and hope to make some careful experiments with it4 ,but it should be used very cautiously1 or it will check or destroy growth4 ,i have received a letter from ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hale1 of ,south ,glastonbury1 ,conn41 that is such a clear and interesting record of experience on this subject that ,i am led to give it almost entire3 ,we have always used ,peruvian guano1 fish scrap1 and ground bone to some extent1 but until the past five years have depended mainly upon stable manure brought from ,new ,york city on boats1 using about fifteen cords per acre yearly1 and always with satisfactory results1 the only objection being the expense4 ,the price ranged from #h to #ab per cord1 or on an average of #aej per acre2 and in trying to reduce this expense we commenced testing different fertilizers1 planting1 in #ahgd1 one acre of strawberries manured with two tons of fish scrap1 at #bj per ton1 and one hundred bushels of unleached wood-ashes1 at #cj cents per bushel2 making a total cost of #gj4 ,the result was a strong1 rapid growth of plants early in the summer1 but in ,september and ,october they began to show signs of not having plant food enough1 and then we saw our mistake in using fish in place of bone1 or some other slow-acting fertilizer that the plants could not have taken up so greedily early in the summer1 but would have had to feed on slowly all through the season4 ,the fruit crop the following year1 as might have been expected1 was not a success1 being only about half a crop4 ,in #ahge1 we planted another acre1 using one ton of ground bone and one hundred bushels of wood-ashes1 at a total cost of #gc2 the result was a fine1 even growth of plants all through the season1 and a perfect crop of fruit the following year1 fully equal to that on adjoining acres that had been manured with stable manure at a cost of #aej per acre1 to say nothing of the carting of such a great bulk of manure4 ,in the spring of #ahgf1 being so well pleased with the appearance of our one acre manured with bone and ashes1 we planned to fertilize all of our fruits in the same way4 ,then the question arose1 where were we to get the ashes8 ,we could buy enough for an acre or two1 but not enough for our whole farm4 ,what were we to do8 ,potash we must have1 as that is the leading element of plant food required by small fruits of all kinds4 ,we found we must look to the ,german potash salts for what we wanted1 and we therefore bought several tons of ,high ,grade 7#hj per cent7 muriate of potash at #dj per ton1 using #a1jjj pounds per acre1 and one ton of bone at #ce1 making a total cost of only #ee per acre4 ,the plants did not grow quite as well early in the season as those on the fields where ashes were used1 but later in the season they made a very fine growth1 and at fruiting time1 in #ahgg1 we harvested a full and abundant crop of strawberries and raspberries4 ,since that time we have used nothing but ground bone and muriate of potash to manure all of our berry fields with1 and continue to get fully as satisfactory results as in former years1 when we depended upon stable manure at more than double the cost per acre4 ,some parties who have been looking into the matter suggest that possibly our satisfactory results are owing not so much to the fertilizers as to the liberal supply of stable manure used in former years4 ,yet the past season we picked #adc bushels of ,charles ,downings per acre1 from a field manured with bone and potash1 so poor and worn-out that two years before it would only produce six bushels of rye per acre4 ,that land had no stable manure on it1 and if it was not the bone and potash that furnished food for the berries1 we would like to know what it was4 ,the one mistake we have made is1 ,i think1 in not using six or eight hundred pounds of fish scrap or guano1 and only #a1ejj pounds of bone4 ,the fish or guano1 being such quick-acting fertilizers1 would give the plants a much better start early in the season than would be the case if only the bone and potash were used4 ,we shall try it the coming spring4 ,in applying the potash great care should be taken to have it thoroughly incorporated with the soil1 it being only about #ee per cent actual potash2 the balance1 being largely composed of salt1 would1 of course1 kill the roots of young plants if brought directly in contact with them4 ,in fields where we have used the potash1 we have been troubled with white grubs only to a very limited extent1 while portions of the same field where stable manure had been used were badly infested with them1 and while ,i do not think salt will drive them ail out of the soil1 ,i do believe it will do so to some extent4 ,besides the fertilizers ,i have named1 we have in the past six years experimented in a small way with many others4 ,among them ,stockbridge's strawberry manure and ,mapes' fruit and vine manures1 but have never had as good returns for the money invested as from the bone and potash2 and yet1 while they have proved of such great value to us1 ,i would not advise you or any one to give up stable manure for them if you can get it at the same cost per acre1 but if you cannot1 then ,i say try bone dust and potash in a small way1 until you learn just what your soil wants1 and then supply it1 whether it be #ejj1 #a1jjj1 or #b1jjj pounds per acre4 ,mr4 ,hale adds3 ,the most of our soil is a sandy loam4 ,we have some heavy loam and a few acres of clay gravel1 and we have always had good results from the use of bone and potash on all of these soils4 ,we have never used lime on our berry fields at the time of planting1 and yet1 as you know1 all of our ,new ,england soils are deficient in lime4 ,we use some indirectly1 as we grow clover to plow under1 and usually give at that time a good dressing of lime4 ,as we try to have a new clover field every year1 we get all around the farm in six or eight years1 and we therefore get a dressing of lime all around once in that time1 and have never been able to see any ill effects from it4 ,in fact1 we believe it a positive benefit in helping to keep down sorrel1 if nothing more4 ,there would be very few worn-out farms1 or poverty-stricken farmers1 if all followed the example of the ,hale brothers4 ,the value of potash and bone meal is thus clearly shown1 but the latter does not contain nitrogen in sufficient quantity4 ,i think ,mr4 ,hale is correct in the opinion that he can secure better results by using at the same time some nitrogenous manure1 like fish scrap1 guano1 etc4 ,if he had heavy1 cold1 clay land to deal with1 it is possible that he might find the stable manure the cheapest and best in the long run1 even at its increased cost4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,ferris1 of ,poughkeepsie1 writes to me that he has found great advantage in the use of the ,mapes ,stockbridge special fertilizers4 ,my experience1 he says1 is only as to strawberries1 and on them ,i would say that the result of applying equal values of manure--stable and commercial--as to cost1 would be from ten to twenty-five per cent in favor of the commercial1 as a stimulant to apply in the spring1 or1 in small quantities1 to plants first starting4 ,this does not apply to the first preparation of the ground4 ,in this direction ,i propose to experiment4 ,i have heretofore applied fertilizers early in spring by hand1 distributing it along the rows4 ,records of varying experiences1 and the discussion of commercial fertilizers1 might be continued indefinitely1 but enough has been said1 ,i think1 to suggest to each cultivator unacquainted with the subject in what directions he should seek success4 ,if ,i were asked what is the one special manure in which the strawberry especially delights1 ,i should answer unhesitatingly1 the well decayed and composted production of the cow-stable1 and if the reader had seen ,mr4 ,durand's beds of the ,great ,american variety in bearing1 after being enriched with this material1 he would be well satisfied to use it when it could be obtained4 ,the vines of even this fastidious berry1 that falters and fails in most soils1 averaged one foot in height1 and were loaded with enormous fruit4 ,the subject may be summed up by an extract from a letter of ,mr4 ,alexander ,hyde to the ,new ,york ,times3 ,nitrates1 phosphates1 and ammonia are good fertilizers1 and just the chemicals which most lands need1 but plants require a good bed as well as good food4 ,the physical condition of the soil1 as well as the chemical1 must receive attention2 and we know of nothing superior to a well-made compost for furnishing both the chemical and physical conditions necessary for the development of our crops4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,obtaining ,,plants ,,and ,,improving ,,our ,,stock ,having prepared and enriched our ground1 we are ready for the plants4 ,they can often be obtained from a good neighbor whose beds we have watched across the fence1 and whose varieties we have sampled to our satisfaction4 ,but the most liberal neighbors may not be able to furnish all we need1 or the kinds we wish4 ,moreover1 in private gardens1 names and varieties are usually in a sad tangle4 ,we must go to the nurseryman4 ,at this point1 perhaps1 a brief appeal to the reader's common-sense may save much subsequent loss and disappointment4 ,in most of our purchases1 we see the article before we take it1 and can estimate its value4 ,just the reverse is usually true of plants4 ,we know--or believe--that certain varieties are valuable1 and we order them from a distance1 paying in advance4 ,when received1 the most experienced cannot be sure that the plants are true to the names they bear4 ,we must plant them in our carefully prepared land1 expend upon them money1 labor1 and1 above all1 months and years of our brief lives1 only to learn1 perhaps1 that the varieties are not what we ordered1 and that we have wasted everything on a worthless kind4 ,the importance of starting right1 therefore1 can scarcely be overestimated4 ,it is always best to buy of men who1 in the main1 grow their own stock1 and therefore know about it1 and who have established a reputation for integrity and accuracy4 ,the itinerant agent flits from ,maine to ,california1 and too often the marvellous portraits of fruits that he exhibits do not even resemble the varieties whose names they bear4 ,it is best to buy of those who have a local habitation and a name1 and then1 if anything is wrong1 one knows where to look for redress4 ,even if one wishes to be accurate1 it is difficult to know that one's stock is absolutely pure and true to name4 ,the evil of mixed plants is more often perpetuated in the following innocent manner than by any intentional deception3 ,for instance1 one buys from a trustworthy source1 as he supposes1 a thousand ,monarch strawberry plants1 and sets them out in the spring4 ,all blossoms should be picked off the first year1 and1 therefore1 there can be no fruit as a test of purity that season4 ,but by fall there are many thousands of young plants4 ,the grower naturally says3 ,i bought these for the ,monarch1 therefore they are ,monarchs1 and he sells many plants as such4 ,when coming into fruit the second summer1 he finds1 however1 that not one in twenty is a ,monarch plant4 ,as an honest man1 he now digs them under in disgust2 but the mischief has already been done1 and scattered throughout the country are thousands of mixed plants which multiply with the vigor of evil4 ,nurserymen should never take varieties for granted1 no matter where obtained4 ,i endeavor so to train my eye that ,i can detect the distinguishing marks even in the foliage and blossoms1 and if anything looks suspicious ,i root it out4 ,the foliage of the ,monarch of the ,west is so distinct that if one learns to know it he can tell whether his plants are mixed at a glance4 ,if possible1 the nurseryman should start with plants that he knows to be genuine1 and propagate from them4 ,then1 by constant and personal vigilance1 he can maintain a stock that will not be productive chiefly of profanity when coming into fruit4 ,this scrutiny of propagating beds is a department that ,i shall never delegate to any one else4 ,it is not thrift to save in the first cost of plants1 if thereby the risk of obtaining poor1 mixed varieties is increased4 ,i do not care to save five dollars to-day and lose fifty by the operation within a year4 ,a gentleman wrote to me1 ,i have been outrageously cheated in buying plants4 ,on the same page he asked me to furnish stock at rates as absurdly low as those of the man who cheated him4 ,if one insists on having an article at far less than the cost of production1 it is not strange that he finds some who will cheat him outrageously4 ,i find it by far the cheapest in the long run to go to the most trustworthy sources1 and pay the grower a price which enables him to give me just what ,i want4 ,when plants are both fine and genuine they can still be spoiled1 or1 at least1 injured in transit from the ground where they grew4 ,dig so as to save all the roots1 shake these clean of earth1 straighten them out1 and tie the plants into bundles of fifty4 ,pack in boxes1 with the roots down in moss and the tops exposed to the air4 ,do not press them in too tightly or make them too wet1 or else the plants become heated --a process which speedily robs them of all vitality4 ,in cool seasons1 and when the distance is not too great1 plants can be shipped in barrels thickly perforated with holes4 ,the tops should be toward the sides and the roots in the centre1 down through which there should be a circulation of air4 ,in every case1 envelop the roots in damp moss or leaves--damp1 but not wet4 ,plants can be sent by mail at the rate of one cent per ounce1 and those obtained in this way rarely fail in doing well4 ,this fact should be carefully kept in mind by those residing long distances from express offices1 or the points from which they wish to order their plants4 ,packages weighing four pounds and less can be sent by mail and received with our letters1 and by a little inquiry and calculation it may be found the cheapest and most convenient way of obtaining them4 ,i find no difficulty in mailing all the small fruit plants to every part of the continent4 ,the greater part of the counting and packing of plants should be done in a cellar1 or some place of low1 even temperature1 in order to prevent the little fibrous roots1 on which the future growth so greatly depends1 from becoming shrivelled4 ,the best part of the roots are extremely sensitive to sunlight or frost1 and1 worse than all1 to a cold1 dry wind4 ,therefore1 have the plants gathered up as fast as they are dug and carried to a damp1 cool room1 where the temperature varies but little4 ,from such a place they can be packed and shipped with the leisure that insures careful work4 ,after having obtained good1 genuine plants to start with1 we can greatly improve our stock by a system of careful selection4 ,this is a truth of great importance1 but so obvious that we need not dwell long upon it4 ,let me illustrate what ,i mean by the course ,i propose to enter upon during the coming season4 ,in our beds of each variety there will be a few plants that1 for some reason1 will surpass all the others in vigor1 productiveness1 and especially in the manifestation of the peculiar and distinguishing traits of the variety4 ,i shall carefully mark such plants1 remove all others from their vicinity1 and propagate from them4 ,thus1 in the course of two or three years1 ,i shall renew my entire stock of standard varieties from the very best and most characteristic specimens of each kind4 ,from this improved stock the best types should be chosen again and again2 and by this course ,i am satisfied that a surprising degree of excellence can be attained4 ,it is on the same principle of careful breeding from blooded and perfect animals4 ,from very many localities come the complaint that ,wilsons and other fine old varieties are running out4 ,how can it be otherwise1 in view of the treatment they receive and the careless way in which they are propagated8 ,even when unmixed1 they are usually the enfeebled children of degenerate parents4 ,there is no variety in the country more badly mixed than the ,wilson2 and the trouble often arises from wild strawberries creeping in among them from the edges of the field4 ,the spurious plants are taken up with the others1 and the mixture is scattered up and down the land4 ,the same is true with other varieties that have long been in cultivation4 ,indeed1 ,i have found mixtures in new varieties obtained directly from the originators4 ,therefore the need that the plant grower should give personal and unceasing vigilance to the stock from which he propagates1 and that those who take a pride in improving their stock should often scan their beds narrowly4 ,moreover1 if a bed stands several years in the same place1 new seedlings may spring up1 and thus create a mixture4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,when ,,shall ,,we ,,plant8 ,nature has endowed the strawberry-plant with the power of taking root and growing readily at almost any season when young plants can be obtained4 ,my best success1 however1 has been in ,november and early spring4 ,the latter part of ,may and the month of ,june is the only time at which ,i have not planted with satisfactory results4 ,in ,northern latitudes1 early spring is preferable1 for at this season the ground is moist1 showers are abundant1 and the impulse of growth is strong4 ,the weather is cool1 also1 and therefore the plants rarely heat or dry out during transportation4 ,in the ,south1 autumn is by far the best time to plant4 ,when the young plants are grown on the same place1 they may be transferred to the fruiting beds and fields any time between ,july and the middle of ,november4 ,the earlier they are set out1 if they can be kept growing during the remainder of the hot season1 the larger will be the yield the following spring4 ,as a rule1 plants1 unless grown in pots1 can not be shipped from the ,north or ,south until cold weather4 ,the forwarding to the latitude of ,richmond begins in ,september1 and to points further south in ,october and ,november2 from ,florida to ,louisiana ,i hear of almost unvarying success4 ,of late years the practice of growing plants in pots and sending them out as the florists do flowers has become very prevalent4 ,these potted plants can be set out in ,july1 ,august and ,september1 and the ball of earth clinging to their roots prevents wilting1 and1 unless they are neglected1 insures their living4 ,pot-grown plants are readily obtained by sinking two and a half or three inch pots up to their rims in the propagating-beds1 and filling them with rich earth mingled with old1 thoroughly rotted compost1 leaf mould1 decayed sods1 etc41 but never with fresh1 unfermented manure4 ,i have found the admixture of a little fine bone meal with the soil to be strong aid to vigorous growth4 ,the young runners are then so guided and held down by a small stone or lump of earth that they will take root in the pots1 indeed1 quite large plants1 if still attached to thrifty runners1 may be taken up1 their roots shortened to one-quarter of an inch1 and these inserted in the little pots1 which will be speedily filled with a new growth of roots4 ,it is very important that abundant and continuous moisture should be maintained4 ,a hot wind or a scorching sun will dry out within a few hours the small amount of earth the pots contain1 and the plants thus receive a check from which they may never recover4 ,the amateur should watch them closely1 and the plant grower should employ a man with the clear understanding that he would lose his position if he permitted moisture to fail even for half a day4 ,in about two weeks1 with good management1 the plants will fill the pots with roots1 which so interlace as to hold the ball of earth compactly together during transportation4 ,this ball of earth with the roots1 separates readily from the pot1 and the plant1 thus sustained1 could be shipped around the world if kept from drying out and the foliage protected from the effects of alternate heat and cold4 ,the agricultural editor of the ,new ,york ,weekly ,times writes me that the potted plants are worth their increased cost1 if for no other reason1 because they are so easily planted in hot weather4 ,the chief advantage of summer planting lies in the fact that we obtain a good crop the following season1 while plants set out in spring should not be permitted to bear at all the same year4 ,if we discover in ,may or ,june that our supply is insufficient1 or that some new varieties offer us paradisiacal flavors1 we can set out the plants in the summer or autumn of the same year1 and within eight or ten months gather the fruits of our labors4 ,if the season is somewhat showery1 or if one is willing to take the trouble to water and shade the young plants1 ordinary layers--that is1 plants that have grown naturally in the open ground--will answer almost as well as those that have been rooted in pots4 ,the fact that they do not cost half as much is also in their favor4 ,the disposition to plant in summer or autumn is steadily increasing1 and the following reasons are good and substantial ones for the practice4 ,in our gardens and fields there are many crops that mature in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september4 ,the cultivation of these crops has probably left the ground mellow1 and in good condition for strawberries4 ,instead of leaving this land idle1 or a place for weeds to grow and seed1 it can be deeply forked or plowed1 and enriched1 as has been explained4 ,even in ,july1 potted plants may be bought1 and unless the ground is full of the larvae of the ,june beetle1 or the plants are treated with utter neglect1 not one in a hundred will fail4 ,say the plants cost us two and a half cents each by the time they are planted1 instead of one half to one cent as in the spring1 is there not a prospect of an equal or larger profit8 ,a potted plant set out in summer or early autumn1 and allowed to make no runners1 will yield at least a pint of fruit2 and usually these first berries are very large and fine1 bringing the best prices4 ,suppose1 however1 we are able to obtain but ten cents a quart1 you still have a margin of two and one-half cents on each plant4 ,adding two cents to the cost of each plant to cover the expense of cultivation1 winter protection1 spring mulching1 picking1 etc41 there still remains a profit of half a cent on each plant4 ,supposing we have an acre containing #ad1ebj plants1 our estimate gives a profit of #gb4fj for the first year4 ,if we clear but a quarter of a cent on each plant1 we have a profit of #cf4cj4 ,the prospects are1 however1 that if we plant early in the summer1 on rich ground1 and give good cultivation1 our plants will yield more than a pint each1 and the fruit sell for more than ten cents a quart4 ,this estimate applies to the common market varieties raised with only ordinary skill and success4 ,suppose1 in contrast1 one plants the large1 showy1 high-flavored varieties1 and is able to obtain from fifteen to thirty cents per quart4 ,the expenses in this case are no greater1 while the profits are very largely increased4 ,illustration3 ,a ,potted ,plant ,good potted plants can be bought for about #b4ej per #ajj1 or #bj per #b1jjj4 ,i do not think that they can be properly grown and sold at much lower rates and afford a living profit4 ,freight and express charges are a heavy item of expense1 since the earth encasing the roots renders the packages very heavy1 and but comparatively few plants can be shipped in one box4 ,but1 allowing for all expenses1 ,i think it is evident that people can obtain a fair profit from potted plants within eight or ten months from the time of planting4 ,moreover1 autumn-set plants start with double vigor in early spring1 and make a fine growth before the hot1 dry weather checks them2 and the crop from them the second year will be the very best that they are capable of producing4 ,two paying crops are thus obtained within two years1 and the cost of cultivation the first year is slight1 for the plants are set after the great impulse of annual weed growth is past4 ,with spring-set plants you get but one crop in two years4 ,the first year yields nothing unless plants are sold1 and yet the cultivation must be unceasing through ,may1 ,june and ,july1 when ,nature seems to give no little thought to the problem of how many weeds can be grown to the square inch4 ,if one wishes early plants1 he certainly should practice autumn planting1 for a plant set even in ,november will begin to make runners nearly a month earlier than one set in spring4 ,thus far we have looked at the subject from a business standpoint4 ,those who wish plants for the home supply certainly should not hesitate to furnish their gardens as early in the summer as possible4 ,to wait two years of our short lives for strawberries because the plants are a little cheaper in the spring is a phase of economy that suggests the moon4 ,such self-denial in a good cause would be heroic4 ,if people will use a little forethought1 they can practice summer and autumn planting with double success1 independently of the plant grower4 ,we have shown that there is no mystery in raising potted plants4 ,moreover1 in the hottest summers there are showery1 cloudy days when ordinary layer plants can be set with perfect safety4 ,if the field or garden bed is near where the layer plants are growing1 the latter can be taken up with earth clinging to their roots1 and thus have all the advantages of potted plants4 ,even under the ,southern sun1 hundreds of acres are1 in this manner1 set annually in the vicinity of ,charleston4 ,as the autumn grows cool and moist1 layer plants can be obtained from a distance and set out profitably in large quantities4 ,the chief danger in late planting results from the tendency of the plants to be thrown out of the ground by the action of the frost1 and a few varieties do not seem sufficiently hardy to endure severe cold4 ,i obviate this difficulty by simply hoeing upon the plants two inches of earth1 just before the ground freezes in ,november or ,december4 ,this winter covering of soil enables me to plant with entire success at any time in the fall--even late in ,november--instead of spring1 when there is a rush of work4 ,the earth is raked off the plants in ,march or ,april1 as soon as severe freezing weather is over2 otherwise they would decay4 ,do not first put manure on the plants and then cover with earth--cover with earth only4 ,thus it will be seen that each period has its advantages1 which will vary with different seasons4 ,if drought and heat come in early ,may1 spring-set plants may suffer badly4 ,again1 periods in summer and autumn may be so hot and dry that even potted plants can only be kept alive by repeated waterings4 ,my practice is to divide my plantings about equally between summer1 fall1 and spring4 ,i thus take no chances of failure4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,what ,,shall ,,we ,,plant8--,,varieties1 ,,their ,,character ,,and ,,adaptation ,,to ,,soils ,i have in my library an admirable little treatise written by the late ,r4 ,g4 ,pardee1 and printed twenty-five years ago4 ,while the greater part of what he says1 relating to the requirements of the plant and its culture1 is substantially correct1 his somewhat extended list of varieties is almost wholly obsolete4 ,with the exception of ,hovey's ,seedling1 scarcely one can be found in a modern catalogue4 ,even carefully prepared lists1 made at a much later date1 contain the names of but few kinds now seen in the garden or market4 ,i have before me the catalogue of ,prince ,co41 published in #ahfe1 and out of their list of #afi varieties but three are now in general cultivation1 and the great majority are utterly unknown4 ,thus it would seem that a catalogue soon becomes historical1 and that the kinds most heralded to-day may exist only in name but a few hence4 ,the reasons can readily be given4 ,the convex heart of every strawberry blossom will be found to consist of pistils1 and usually of stamens ranged around them4 ,when both stamens and pistils are found in the same blossom1 as is the case with most varieties1 it is called a perfect flower1 or staminate4 ,in rare instances1 strawberry flowers are found which possess stamens without pistils1 and these are called male blossoms2 far more often varieties exist producing pistils only1 and they are named pistillate kinds4 ,either of the last two if left alone would be barren2 the male flowers are always so1 but the pistillate or female flowers1 if fertilized with pollen from perfect-flowered plants1 produce fruit4 ,this fertilizing is effected by the agency of the wind1 or by insects seeking honey4 ,the ovule in the ovarium to which the stigma leads represents1 at maturity1 a seed--the actual fruit of the strawberry--and within each seed ,nature1 by a subtile process of her own1 wraps up some of the qualities of the plant that produced the seed1 and some of the qualities also of the plant from which came the pollen that impregnated the ovule4 ,this seed1 planted1 produces an entirely new variety1 which1 as a rule1 exhibits characteristics of both its parents1 and traits1 also1 of its grandparents and remote ancestors4 ,the law of heredity is the same as in cattle or the human race4 ,thus it may be seen that millions of new varieties can be very easily obtained4 ,a single plant-grower often raises many thousands to which he never gives a name1 by reason of the fact--noted elsewhere than in the fruit garden--that most of these new strawberries in no respect surpass or even equal their parents4 ,the great majority1 after fruiting--which they do when two years old--are thrown away4 ,a new variety which is not so good as the old ones from which it came should not be imposed upon the public4 ,but they often are1 sometimes deliberately1 but far more often for other reasons2 as1 for instance1 through the enthusiasm of the possessor4 ,it is his seedling2 therefore it is wonderful4 ,he pets it and gives it extra care1 to which even very interior varieties generously respond4 ,in the same old catalogue to which ,i have referred ,prince ,co4 announce3 ,we now offer a few of our superior new seedlings1 with descriptions1 and there is not an acid or inferior one among them4 ,there is not one of them that is not superior to all the seedlings recently introduced4 ,not one of these thirty-five superior seedlings1 to my knowledge1 is now in cultivation4 ,they have disappeared in less than fifteen years2 and yet ,i have no doubt that on the grounds of ,prince ,co4 they gave remarkable promise4 ,again1 a fruit grower sends out second and third-rate kinds from defective knowledge4 ,he has not judiciously compared his petted seedlings with the superb varieties already in existence4 ,it is soon discovered by general trial that the vaunted new-comers are not so good as the old2 and so they also cease to be cultivated1 leaving only a name4 ,the editor of the ,rural ,new ,yorker has adopted a course which would be very useful indeed to the public1 if it could be carried out in the various fruit-growing centres of the country4 ,he obtains a few plants of every new variety offered for sale1 and tests them side by side1 under precisely the same conditions1 reporting the results in his paper4 ,such records of experience are worth any amount of theory1 or the half-truths of those who are acquainted with but few vanities4 ,i tested fifty kinds last year in one specimen-bed4 ,the plants were treated precisely alike1 and permitted to mature all their fruit1 ,i being well content to let eight or ten bushels go to waste in order to see just what each variety could do4 ,from such trial-beds the comparative merits of each kind can be seen at a glance4 ,highly praised new-comers1 which are said to supersede everything1 must show what they are and can do beside the old standard varieties that won their laurels years ago4 ,i thus learn that but few can endure the test1 and occasionally ,i find an old kind sent out with a new name4 ,when visiting fruit farms in ,new ,jersey last summer1 ,i was urged to visit a small place on which was growing a wonderful new berry4 ,the moment ,i saw the fruit and foliage1 ,i recognized the ,col4 ,cheney1 forced into unusual luxuriance by very favorable conditions4 ,other experienced growers1 whose attention ,i called to the distinguishing marks of this variety1 agreed with me at once2 but the proprietor1 who probably had never seen the ,cheney before and did not know where the plants came from1 thought it was a remarkable new variety1 and as such it might have been honestly sent out4 ,trial-beds at once detect the old kinds with new names1 and thus may save the public from a vast deal of imposition4 ,such beds would also be of very great service in suggesting the varieties that can be grown with profit in certain localities4 ,while the behavior of different kinds differs greatly in varying soils and latitudes1 there is no such arbitrary mystery in the matter as many imagine4 ,i am satisfied that the sorts which did best in my trial-bed give the best promise of success wherever the soil and climate are similar4 ,in contrast1 let a trial-bed be made on a light soil in ,delaware or ,virginia1 and #ajj varieties be planted4 ,many that are justly favorites in our locality would there shrivel and burn1 proving valueless2 but those that did thrive and produce well1 exhibiting a power to endure a ,southern sun1 and to flourish in sand1 should be the choice for all that region4 ,to the far ,south and ,north1 and in the extremes of the ,east and ,west1 trial-beds would give still varying results2 but such results would apply to the soils and climate of the region if proper culture were given4 ,a horse can be mismanaged on a ,kentucky stock-farm1 and there are those who would have ill luck with strawberries in the ,garden of ,eden--they are so skilful and persist in doing the wrong thing4 ,it would well remunerate large planters to maintain trial-beds of all the small fruits1 and their neighbors could afford to pay well for the privilege of visiting them and learning the kinds adapted to their locality4 ,i think it may be laid down as a general truth1 that those kinds which do well on a light soil in one locality tend to do well on such soils in all localities4 ,the same principle applies to those requiring heavy land4 ,there will be exceptions1 and but few of those containing foreign blood will thrive in the far ,south4 ,in the brief limits of this chapter ,i shall merely offer suggestions and the results of some experience1 premising that ,i give but one man's opinion1 and that all have a right to differ from me4 ,at the close of this volume may be found more accurate descriptions of the varieties that ,i have thought worth naming4 ,among the innumerable candidates for favor1 here and there one will establish itself by persistent well-doing as a standard sort4 ,we then learn that some of these strawberry princes1 like the ,jucunda1 ,triomphe de ,gand1 and ,president ,wilder1 flourish only in certain soils and latitudes1 while others1 like the ,charles ,downing1 ,monarch of the ,west1 and ,wilson1 adapt themselves to almost every condition and locality4 ,varieties of this class are superseded very slowly2 but it would seem1 with the exception of ,wilson's ,albany1 that the standards of one generation have not been the favorites of the next4 ,the demand of our age is for large fruit ,the demand has created a supply1 and the old standard varieties have given way to a new class1 of which the ,monarch and ,seth ,boyden are types4 ,the latest of these new mammoth berries is the ,sharpless1 originated by ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,sharpless1 of ,catawissa1 ,pa42 which shows the progress made since horticulturists began to develop the wild ,f4 ,virginiana by crossing varieties and by cultivation4 ,the most accurate and extended list of varieties with which ,i am acquainted is to be found in ,downing's ,encyclopedia of ,fruits and ,fruit ,trees of ,america4 ,it contains the names1 with their synonymes1 and the descriptions of over #bej kinds1 and to this ,i refer the reader4 ,the important question to most minds is not how many varieties exist1 but what kinds will give the best returns4 ,if one possesses the deep1 rich1 moist loam that has been described1 almost any good variety will yield a fair return1 and the best can be made to give surprising results4 ,for table use and general cultivation1 ,north and ,south1 ,east and ,west1 ,i would recommend the ,charles ,downing1 ,monarch of the ,west1 ,seth ,boyden1 ,kentucky ,seedling1 ,duchess1 and ,golden ,defiance4 ,these varieties are all first-rate in quality1 and they have shown a wonderful adaptation to varied soils and climates4 ,they have been before the public a number of years1 and have persistently proved their excellence4 ,therefore1 they are worthy of a place in every garden4 ,with these valuable varieties for our chief supply1 we can try a score of other desirable kinds1 retaining such as prove to be adapted to our taste and soil4 ,if our land is heavy1 we can add to the above1 in ,northern latitudes1 ,triomphe de ,gand1 ,jucunda1 ,president ,wilder1 ,forest ,rose1 ,president ,lincoln1 ,sharpless1 ,pioneer1 and ,springdale4 ,if the soil is light1 containing a large proportion of sand and gravel1 the ,charles ,downing1 ,kentucky ,seedling1 ,monarch of the ,west1 ,duchess1 ,cumberland ,triumph1 ,miner's ,prolific1 ,golden ,defiance1 and ,sharpless will be almost certain to yield a fine supply of large and delicious berries1 both ,north and ,south4 ,let me here observe that varieties that do well on light soils also thrive equally well and often better on heavy land4 ,but the converse is not true4 ,the ,jucunda1 for instance1 can scarcely be made to exist on light land4 ,in the ,south1 it should be the constant aim to find varieties whose foliage can endure the hot sun4 ,i think that the ,sharpless1 which is now producing a great sensation as well as mammoth berries1 will do well in most ,southern localities4 ,it maintained throughout the entire summer the greenest and most vigorous foliage ,i ever saw4 ,miner's ,prolific1 ,golden ,defiance1 ,early ,hudson1 and ,cumberland ,triumph also appear to me peculiarly adapted to ,southern cultivation4 ,as we go north1 the difficulties of choice are not so great4 ,coolness and moisture agree with the strawberry plant4 ,there the question of hardiness is to be first considered4 ,in regions1 however1 where the snow falls early and covers the ground all winter1 the strawberry is not so exposed as with us1 for our gardens are often bare in zero weather4 ,usually1 it is not the temperature of the air that injures a dormant strawberry plant1 but alternations of freezing and thawing4 ,the deep and unmelting snows often enable the horticulturist to raise successfully in ,canada tender fruits that would winter-kill much further south4 ,if abundant protection is therefore provided1 either by nature or by art1 the people of the ,north can take their choice from among the best4 ,in the high latitudes1 early kinds will be in request1 since the season of growth is brief4 ,the best early berries are ,duchess1 ,bidwell1 ,pioneer1 ,early ,hudson1 ,black ,defiance1 ,duncan1 ,durand's ,beauty1 and1 earliest of all1 ,crystal ,city4 ,the last-named ripened first on my place in the summer of #ahgi1 and although the fruit is of medium size1 and rather soft1 ,i fear1 the plant is so vigorous and easily grown that ,i think it is worth general trial ,north and ,south4 ,i am informed that it promises to take the lead in ,missouri4 ,,market ,,strawberries ,thus far ,i have named those kinds whose fine flavor and beauty entitle them to a place in the home garden4 ,but with a large class1 market qualities are more worthy of consideration2 and this phase of the question introduces us to some exceedingly popular varieties not yet mentioned4 ,the four great requirements of a market strawberry are productiveness1 size1 a good1 bright color1 and--that it may endure long carriage and rough handling--firmness4 ,because of the indifference of the consumer1 as explained in an earlier chapter1 that which should be the chief consideration--flavor--is scarcely taken into account4 ,in the present unenlightened condition of the public1 one of the oldest strawberries on the list--,wilson's ,seedling--is more largely planted than all other kinds together4 ,it is so enormously productive1 it succeeds so well throughout the entire country1 and is such an early berry1 that1 with the addition of its fine carrying qualities1 it promises to be the great market berry for the next generation also4 ,but this variety is not at all adapted to thin1 poor land1 and is very impatient of drought4 ,in such conditions1 the berries dwindle rapidly in size1 and even dry up on the vines4 ,where abundant fertility and moisture can be maintained1 the yield of a field of ,wilsons is simply marvellous4 ,on a dry hillside close by1 the crop from the same variety may not pay for picking4 ,plantations of ,wilsons should be renewed every two years1 since the plant speedily exhausts itself1 producing smaller berries with each successive season4 ,the ,wilson is perhaps the best berry for preserving1 since it is hard and its acid is rich and not watery4 ,a rival of the ,wilson has appeared within the last few years--the ,crescent ,seedling1 also an early berry1 originated by ,mr4 ,parmelee1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,at first1 it received unbounded praise2 now1 it gets too much censure4 ,it is a very distinct and remarkable variety1 and1 like the ,wilson1 ,i think1 will fill an important place in strawberry culture4 ,its average size does not much exceed that of the ,wilson2 its flavor1 when fully ripe1 is about equal in the estimation of those who do not like acid fruit4 ,in productiveness1 on many soils1 it will far exceed any variety with which ,i am acquainted4 ,it is just this capacity for growing on thin1 poor soils--anywhere and under any circumstances--that gives to it its chief value4 ,in hardiness and vitality it is almost equal to the ,canada thistle4 ,the young plants are small1 and the foliage is slender and delicate2 but they have the power to live and multiply beyond that of any other variety ,i have seen4 ,it thrives under the suns of ,georgia and ,florida1 and cares naught for the cold of ,canada2 it practically extends the domain of the strawberry over the continent1 and renders the laziest man in the land1 who has no strawberries1 without excuse4 ,one of my beds yielded at the rate of #cdf bushels to the acre1 and the bright1 handsome scarlet of the berries caused them to sell for as much in the open market as varieties of far better flavor4 ,it is too soft for long carriage by rail4 ,those to whom flavor and large size are the chief considerations will not plant it1 but those who have a near and not very fastidious market1 that simply demands quantity and fine appearance1 will grow it both largely and profitably4 ,the stamens of the ,crescent are so imperfectly developed that every tenth row in the field should be ,wilsons1 or some other early and perfect-flowered variety4 ,in the ,champion1 we have a late market berry that is steadily growing in favor4 ,on rich1 moist land it is almost as productive as the ,crescent4 ,the fruit averages much larger than the ,wilson1 while its rich crimson color makes it very attractive in the baskets4 ,the berries1 like the two kinds already named1 turn red before they are ripe1 and in this immature condition their flavor is very poor1 but when fully ripe they are excellent4 ,the transformation is almost as great as in a persimmon4 ,under generous culture1 the ,champion yields superb berries1 that bring the best prices4 ,it also does better than most kinds under neglect and drought4 ,it is too soft for long carriage1 and its blossoms are pistillate4 ,within a few years1 a new variety named ,windsor ,chief has been disseminated1 and the enormous yield of #ag1jjj quarts per acre has been claimed for it4 ,it is said to be a seedling of the ,champion fertilized with the ,charles ,downing variety4 ,if there has been no mistake in this history of its origin1 it is a remarkable instance of the reproduction of the traits of one parent only1 for in no respect have ,i been able thus far to see wherein it differs from the ,champion4 ,the ,captain ,jack is another late variety1 which is enormously productive of medium-sized berries4 ,it is a great favorite in ,missouri and some other regions4 ,the berries carry well to market1 but their flavor is second-rate4 ,the good size1 firmness1 and lateness of the ,glendale--a variety recently introduced--will probably secure for it a future as a market berry4 ,in the ,south1 ,neunan's ,prolific1 or the ,charleston ,berry1 as it is usually called1 is already the chief variety for shipping4 ,it is an aromatic berry1 and very attractive as it appears in our markets in ,march and ,april1 but it is even harder and sourer than an unripe ,wilson4 ,when fully matured on the vine it is grateful to those who like an acid berry4 ,scarcely any other kind is planted around ,charleston and ,savannah4 ,these six varieties1 or others like them1 will supply the first great need of all large markets--quantity4 ,with the exception of the last1 which is not productive in the ,north1 and requires good treatment even in the ,south1 they yield largely under rough field culture4 ,the fruit can be sold very cheaply and yet give a fair profit4 ,only a limited number of fancy berries can be sold at fancy prices1 but thousands of bushels can be disposed of at eight and ten cents per quart4 ,still1 ,i would advise any one who is supplying the market1 thoroughly to prepare and enrich an acre or more of moist but well drained land1 and plant some of the large1 showy berries1 like the ,sharpless1 ,monarch1 and ,seth ,boyden4 ,if he has heavy1 rich soil1 let him also try the ,jucunda1 ,president ,lincoln1 and1 especially1 the ,triomphe de ,gand4 ,these varieties always have a ready sale1 even when the market is glutted with common fruit1 and they often command very high prices4 ,when the soil suits them1 they frequently yield crops that are not so far below the ,wilson in quantity4 ,fifty bushels of large1 handsome berries may bring as much1 or more1 than one hundred bushels of small fruit1 while the labor and expense of shipping and picking are reduced one-half4 ,i suppose that ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand1 of ,irvington1 ,n4 ,j41 obtains more money from one acre of his highly cultivated strawberries than do many growers from ten acres4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,jerolaman1 of ,hilton1 ,n4 ,j41 has given me some accurate statistics that well illustrate my meaning4 ,my yield1 he writes1 in #ahgg1 from one acre1 planted chiefly with the ,seth ,boyden1 was #cbg bushels #ae #a_/b quarts1 which were sold for #a1chf4ba4 ,a strict account was kept4 ,since that time ,i have been experimenting with ,mr4 ,durand's large berries1 and have not done so well4 ,in #ahgh1 ,i obtained #a1aha from one acre1 one-half planted with the ,seth ,boyden and the other with the ,great ,american4 ,the year of #ahgi was my poorest4 ,nearly all my plants were ,great ,american and ,beauty1 and the yield was #aba bushels1 selling for #gbh4 ,the average cost per acre1 for growing1 picking1 marketing1 and manure1 is #cej4 ,i am not satisfied but that ,i shall have to return to the old ,seth ,boyden in order to keep taking the first ,state premiums1 as ,i have done for the past three years4 ,this record of experience shows what can be done with the choice varieties if an appreciative market is within reach1 and one will give the high culture they demand4 ,last summer a neighbor of mine obtained eighteen cents per quart for his ,monarch strawberries1 when ,wilsons brought but ten cents4 ,at the same time1 these superb rarities often do not pay at all under poor field culture and in matted rows4 ,we may also note1 in passing1 how slowly fine old standard kinds1 like the ,boyden1 are superseded by new varieties4 ,i should not be at all surprised if the ,charles ,downing became one of the most popular market strawberries of the future4 ,it is already taking the lead in many localities ,it is moderately firm--sufficiently so1 with a little extra care1 to reach most markets in good condition4 ,it is more easily raised than the ,wilson1 and on thin1 dry land is more productive4 ,a bed will last1 if kept clean1 four or five years instead of two1 and yield better the fifth year than the first4 ,although the fruit is but of medium size1 it is so fine in flavor that it has only to be known to create a steady demand4 ,the ,kentucky ,seedling is another berry of the same class1 and has the same general characteristics--with this exception1 that it is a very late berry1 ,in flavor1 it is melting and delicious4 ,it does well on almost any soil1 even a light and sandy one1 and is usually very productive4 ,the best white strawberry ,i have ever seen is ,lennig's ,white4 ,when exposed to the sun1 it has a decided pink flush on one side4 ,it is beautiful and delicious1 and so aromatic that a single berry will perfume a large apartment4 ,the fruit is exceedingly delicate1 but the plant is a shy bearer4 ,in the ,white and ,bed ,alpines1 especially the ever-bearing varieties1 and in the ,hautbois class1 we have very distinct strawberries that are well worthy of a place in the garden4 ,from a commercial point of view1 they have no value4 ,this may settle the question with some1 but not a few of us like to plant many things that are never to go to market4 ,in conclusion1 if ,i were asked what is the most beautiful and delicious strawberry in existence1 ,i should name the ,president ,wilder4 ,perfect in flavor1 form and beauty1 it seems to unite in one exquisite compound the best qualities of the two great strawberry species of the world1 the ,f4 ,virginiana and the ,f4 ,chilensis4 ,the only fault that ,i have ever discovered is that1 in many localities1 it is not productive4 ,no more do diamonds lie around like cobblestones4 ,it is1 however1 fairly productive under good culture and on most soils1 and yet it is possible that not one in a hundred of the habitues of ,delmonico's has ever tasted it4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,setting ,,out ,,plants ,we may secure good plants of the best varieties1 but if we do not set them out properly the chances are against our success1 unless the weather is very favorable4 ,so much depends on a right start in life1 even in a strawberry bed4 ,there are no abstruse difficulties in properly imbedding a plant4 ,one would think that if a workman gave five minutes' thought and observation to the subject1 he would know exactly how to do it4 ,if one used his head as well as his hands1 it would be perfectly obvious that a plant held 7as in ,figure e7 with its roots spread out so that the fresh1 moist earth could come in contact with each fibre1 would stand a far better chance than one set out by any of the other methods illustrated4 ,and yet1 in spite of all ,i can do or say1 ,i have never been able to prevent very many of my plants from being set 7as in ,figure a7 too deeply1 so that the crown and tender leaves were covered and smothered with earth2 or 7as in ,figure b7 not deeply enough1 thus leaving the roots exposed4 ,many others bury the roots in a long1 tangled bunch1 as in ,figure c4 ,if one would observe how a plant starts on its new career1 he would see that the roots we put in the ground are little more than a base of operations4 ,all along their length1 and at their ends1 little white rootlets start1 if the conditions are favorable1 almost immediately4 ,if the roots are huddled together1 so that only a few outside ones are in contact with the life-giving soil1 the conditions are of course most unfavorable4 ,again1 many planters are guilty of the folly illustrated in ,figure d4 ,they hastily scoop out a shallow hole1 in which the roots1 which should be down in the cool depths of the soil1 curve like a half-circle toward or to the very surface4 ,in the most favorable weather of early spring a plant is almost certain to grow1 no matter how greatly abused2 but even then it does far better if treated properly1 while at other seasons nature cannot be stupidly ignored4 ,it is almost as easy to set out a plant correctly as otherwise4 ,illustration3 ,,wrong ,,methods ,,op ,,planting ,let the excavation be made deep enough to put the roots1 spread out like a fan1 down their whole length into the soil4 ,hold the plant with the left hand1 as in ,figure e4 ,first1 half fill the hole with fine rich earth with the right hand1 and press it firmly against the roots2 next1 fill it evenly1 and then1 with the thumb and finger of both hands1 put your whole weight on the soil on each side of the plant--as close to it as possible--and press until the crown or point from which the leaves start is just even with the surface4 ,if you can pull the plant up again by its leaves1 it is not firm enough in the ground4 ,if a man uses brain and eye1 he can learn to work very rapidly4 ,by one dexterous movement he scoops the excavation with a trowel4 ,by a second movement1 he makes the earth firm against the lower half of the roots4 ,by a third movement1 he fills the excavation and settles the plant into its final position4 ,one workman will often plant twice as many as another1 and not work any harder4 ,negro women at ,norfolk1 ,virginia1 paid at fifty cents per day1 will often set two or three thousand4 ,many ,northern laborers1 who ask more than twice that sum1 will not set half as many plants4 ,i have been told of one man1 however1 who could set #a1jjj per hour4 ,i should examine his work carefully1 however1 in the fear that it was not well done4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,proper ,,method ,if the ground is so flat that water lies upon it in wet seasons1 then throw it up into beds with a plow1 thus giving the plants a broad1 level surface on which to grow2 for ,i think the best success will generally be obtained with level culture1 or as near an approach to it as possible4 ,always make it a point to plant in moist1 freshly stirred earth4 ,never let the roots come in contact with dry1 lumpy soil4 ,never plant when the ground is wet and sticky1 unless it be at the beginning of a rainstorm which bids fair to continue for some time4 ,if sun or wind strikes land which has been recently stirred while it is too wet1 the hardness of mortar results4 ,in spring it is best to shorten in the roots one-third4 ,this promotes a rapid growth of new rootlets1 and therefore of the plants4 ,in the summer and fall the young plants are not so well furnished with roots1 and usually it is best to leave them uncut4 ,illustration3 ,,root ,,pruning ,it often happens that during long transportation the roots become sour1 black1 and even a little mouldy4 ,in this case1 wash them in clean water from which the chill has been taken4 ,trim carefully1 taking off the blackened1 shrivelled ends4 ,sprinkle a couple of tablespoonfuls of fine bone meal immediately about the plant after setting1 and then water it4 ,if the weather is warm1 soak the ground and keep it moist until there is rain4 ,never let a plant falter or go back from lack of moisture4 ,how often should one water8 ,often enough to keep the ground moist all the time1 night and day4 ,there is nothing mechanical in taking care of a young plant any more than in the care of a baby4 ,simply give it what it needs until it is able to take care of itself4 ,the plant may require a little watching and attention for a few days in warm weather4 ,if an opportune storm comes1 the question of growth is settled favorably at once2 but if a dry spell ensues1 be vigilant4 ,at nine o'clock ,a4,m41 even well-watered plants may begin to wilt1 showing that they require shade1 which may be supplied by inverted flower-pots1 old berry-baskets1 shingles or boards4 ,a handful of weeds1 grass1 or even of dry earth1 thrown on the crown of the plant in the morning1 and removed by five ,p4,m41 is preferable to nothing4 ,anything is better than stolidly sticking a plant in the ground and leaving it alone just long enough to die4 ,many1 on the other hand1 kill their plants with kindness4 ,they dose the young things with guano1 unfermented manure1 and burn them up4 ,coolness1 moisture1 and shade are the conditions for a new start in life4 ,as has been explained already1 pot-grown plants1 with a ball of earth clinging to their roots1 can be set out during the hot months with great ease1 and with little danger of loss4 ,at the same time1 let me distinctly say that such plants require fair treatment4 ,the ground should be firmed around them just as strongly1 and they should be so well watched as to guard against the slightest wilting from heat and drought4 ,in ordinary field culture1 let the rows be three feet apart1 and let the plants stand one foot from each other in a row4 ,at this distance1 #ad1ebj are required for an acre4 ,when land is scarce1 the rows can be two and a half feet from each other4 ,in garden culture1 where the plow and cultivator will not be used1 there should be two feet between the rows1 and the plants should be one foot apart as before4 ,with this rule in mind1 any one can readily tell how many plants he will need for a given area4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,cultivation ,the field for experiment in cultivation with different fertilizers1 soils1 climates1 and varieties is indeed a wide one1 and yet for practical purposes the question is simple enough4 ,there are three well-known systems of cultivation1 each of which has its advantages and disadvantages4 ,the first is termed the matted bed system4 ,under this plan the ground between the rows is cultivated and kept clean during the spring and early summer4 ,as soon1 however1 as the new runners begin to push out vigorously1 cultivation ceases1 or else1 with the more thorough1 the cultivator is narrowed down till it stirs scarcely more than a foot of surface1 care being taken to go up one row and down another1 so as always to draw the runners one way4 ,this prevents them from being tangled up and broken off4 ,by winter1 the entire ground is covered with plants1 which are protected as will be explained further on4 ,in the spring the coarsest of the covering is raked off1 and between the rows is dug a space about a foot or eighteen inches wide1 which serves as a path for the pickers4 ,this path is often cheaply and quickly made by throwing two light furrows together with a corn plow4 ,under this system1 the first crop is usually the best1 and in strong lands adapted to grasses the beds often become so foul that it does not pay to leave them to bear a second year4 ,if so1 they are plowed under as soon as the fruit has been gathered4 ,more often two crops are taken1 and then the land is put in some other crop for a year or two before being planted with strawberries again4 ,this rude1 inexpensive system is perhaps more followed than any other4 ,it is best adapted to light soils and cheap lands4 ,where an abundance of cool fertilizers has been used1 or the ground has been generously prepared with green crops1 plowed under1 the yield is often large and profitable4 ,but as often it is quite the reverse1 especially if the season proves dry and hot4 ,usually1 plants sodded together cannot mature fine fruit1 especially after they have exhausted half their vitality in running4 ,in clayey loams1 the surface in the matted rows becomes as hard as a brick4 ,light showers make little impression on it1 and the fruit often dries upon the vines4 ,remembering that the strawberry's chief need is moisture1 it will be seen that it can scarcely be maintained in a hard-matted sod4 ,under this system the fruit is small at best1 and it all matures together4 ,if adopted in the garden1 the family has but a few days of berries instead of a few weeks4 ,the marketman may find his whole crop ripening at a time of over-supply1 and his small berries may scarcely pay for picking4 ,to many of this class the cheapness of the system will so commend itself that they will continue to practice it until some enterprising neighbor teaches them better1 by his larger cash returns4 ,in the garden1 however1 it is the most expensive method4 ,when the plants are sodded together1 the hoe and fork cannot be used4 ,the whole space must be weeded by hand1 and there are some pests whose roots interlace horizontally above and below the ground1 and which cannot be eradicated from the matted rows4 ,too often1 therefore1 even in the neatest garden1 the strawberry bed is the place where vegetable evil triumphs4 ,there are modifications of this system that are seen to better advantage on paper than in the field or garden4 ,the one most often described in print--,i have never seen it working successfully--may be termed the renewal system4 ,instead of plowing the matted beds under1 after the first or second crop1 the paths between the beds are enriched and spaded or plowed4 ,the old plants are allowed to fill these former paths with new plants2 which process being completed1 the old matted beds are turned under1 and the new plants that have taken the places of the paths bear the fruit of the coming year4 ,but suppose the old beds have within them sorrel1 white clover1 wire-grass1 and a dozen other perennial enemies1 what practical man does not know that these pests will fill the vacant spaces faster than can the strawberry plants8 ,there is no chance for cultivation by hoe or horse power4 ,only frequent and laborious weedings by hand can prevent the evil1 and this but partially1 for1 as has been said1 the roots of many weeds are out of reach unless there is room for the fork1 hoe1 or cultivator to go beneath them4 ,in direct contrast with the above is the hill system4 ,this1 in brief1 may be suggested by saying that the strawberry plants are set out three feet--more or less--apart1 and treated like hills of corn1 with the exception that the ground is kept level1 or should be4 ,they are often so arranged that the cultivator can pass between them each way1 thus obviating nearly all necessity for hand work4 ,when carried out to such an extent1 ,i consider this plan more objectionable than the former1 especially at the ,north4 ,in the first place1 when the plants are so distant from each other1 much of the ground is left unoccupied and unproductive4 ,in the second place1 the fruit grower is at the mercy of the strawberry's worst enemy1 the ,lachnosterna1 or white grub4 ,few fields in our region are wholly free from them and a few of the voracious pests would leave the ground bare1 for they devour the roots all summer long4 ,in the third place1 where so much of the ground is unoccupied1 the labor of mulching1 so that the soil can be kept moist and the fruit clean1 is very great4 ,in small garden-plots1 when the plants can be set only two feet apart each way1 the results of this system are often most admirable4 ,the entire spaces between them can be kept mellow and loose1 and therefore moist4 ,there is room to dig out and eradicate the roots of the worst weeds4 ,by frequently raking the ground over1 the annual weeds do not get a chance to start4 ,in the rich soil the plants make great1 bushy crowns that nearly touch each other1 and as they begin to blossom1 the whole space between them can be mulched with straw1 grass1 etc4 ,the runners can easily be cut away when the plants are thus isolated4 ,where there are not many white grubs in the soil1 the hill system is well adapted to meet garden culture1 and the result1 in a prolonged season of large1 beautiful fruit1 will be most satisfactory4 ,moreover1 the berries1 being exposed on all sides to the sun1 will be of the best flavor4 ,in the ,south1 the hill system is the only one that can be adopted to advantage4 ,there the plants are set in the summer and autumn1 and the crop is taken from them the following spring4 ,therefore each plant must be kept from running1 and be stimulated to do its best within a given space of time4 ,in the ,south1 however1 the plants are set but one foot apart in the rows1 and thus little space is lost4 ,i am satisfied that the method best adapted to our ,eastern and ,western conditions is what is termed the narrow row system1 believing that it will give the greatest amount of fine fruit with the least degree of trouble and expense4 ,the plants are set one foot from each other in line1 and not allowed to make runners4 ,in good soil1 they will touch each other after one year's growth1 and make a continuous bushy row4 ,the spaces between the rows may be two and a half to three feet4 ,through these spaces the cultivator can be run as often as you please1 and the ground can be thus kept clean1 mellow1 and moist4 ,the soil can be worked--not deeply1 of course--within an inch or two of the plants1 and thus but little space is left for hand-weeding4 ,i have found this latter task best accomplished by a simple tool made of a fork-tine1 with a section of the top left attached thus3 ,t4 ,old broken forks can thus be utilized4 ,this tool can be thrust deeply between the plants without disturbing many roots1 and the most stubborn weed can be pried out4 ,under this system1 the ground is occupied to the fullest extent that is profitable4 ,the berries are exposed to light and air on either side1 and mulch can be applied with the least degree of trouble4 ,the feeding-ground for the roots can be kept mellow by horse-power2 if irrigation is adopted1 the spaces between the rows form the natural channels for the water4 ,chief of all1 it is the most successful way of fighting the white grub4 ,these enemies are not found scattered evenly through the soil1 but abound in patches4 ,here they can be dug out if not too numerous1 and the plants allowed to run and fill up the gaps4 ,to all intents and purposes1 the narrow row system is hill culture with the evils of the latter subtracted4 ,even where it is not carried out accurately1 and many plants take root in the rows1 most of them will become large1 strong1 and productive under the hasty culture which destroys the greater number of the side-runners4 ,illustration3 ,,narrow ,,row ,,and ,,hill ,,systems ,where this system is fairly tried1 the improvement in the quality1 size1 and1 therefore1 measuring bulk of the crop1 is astonishing4 ,this is especially true of some varieties1 like the ,duchess1 which1 even in a matted bed1 tends to stool out into great bushy plants4 ,doctor ,thurber1 editor of the ,american ,agriculturist1 unhesitatingly pronounced it the most productive and best early variety in my specimen-bed1 containing fifty different kinds4 ,if given a chance to develop its stooling-out qualities1 it is able to compete even with the ,crescent and ,wilson in productiveness4 ,at the same time its fruit becomes large1 and as regular in shape as if turned with a lathe4 ,many who have never tried this system would be surprised to find what a change for the better it makes in the old popular kinds1 like the ,charles ,downing1 ,kentucky1 and ,wilson4 ,the ,golden ,defiance also1 which is so vigorous in the matted beds that weeds stand but little chance before it1 almost doubles in size and productiveness if restricted to a narrow row4 ,the following remarks will have reference to this system1 as ,i consider it the best4 ,we will start with plants that have just been set out4 ,if fruit is our aim1 we should remember that the first and strongest impulse of each plant will be to propagate itself2 but to the degree that it does so it lessens its own vitality and power to produce berries the following season4 ,therefore every runner that a plant makes means so much less and so much smaller fruit from that plant4 ,remove the runners as they appear1 and the life of the plant goes to make vigorous foliage and a correspondingly large fruit bud4 ,the sap is stored up as a miller collects and keeps for future use1 the water of a stream4 ,moreover1 a plant thus curbed abounds in vitality and does not throw down its burden of prematurely ripe fruit after a few hot days4 ,it works evenly and continuously1 as strength only can1 and leisurely perfects the last berry on the vines4 ,you will often find blossoms and ripe fruit on the same plant--something rarely seen where the plants are crowded and the soil dry4 ,i have had rows of ,tromphe de ,gand in bearing for seven weeks4 ,with these facts before us1 the culture of strawberries is simple enough4 ,a few days after planting1 as soon as it is evident that they will live1 stir the surface just about them not more than half an inch deep4 ,insist on this2 for most workmen will half hoe them out of the ground4 ,a fine-tooth rake is one of the best tools for stirring the surface merely4 ,after the plants become well rooted1 keep the ground mellow and clean as you would between any other hoed crop1 using horse-power as far as possible1 since it is the cheapest and most effective4 ,if the plants have been set out in spring1 take oft the fruit buds as soon as they appear4 ,unless the plants are very strong and are set out very early1 fruiting the same year means feebleness and often death4 ,if berries are wanted within a year1 the plants must be set in summer or autumn4 ,then they can be permitted to bear all they will the following season4 ,a child with a pair of shears or a knife1 not too dull1 can easily keep a large garden-plot free from runners1 unless there are long periods of neglect4 ,half an hour's work once a week1 in the cool of the evening1 will be sufficient4 ,a boy paid at the rate of twenty-five cents a day can keep acres clipped if he tries4 ,if the ground were poor1 or one were desirous of large fruit1 it would be well to give a liberal autumn top-dressing of fine compost or any well-rotted fertilizer not containing crude lime4 ,bone-dust and wood-ashes are excellent4 ,scatter this along the rows1 and hoe it in the last time they are cultivated in the fall4 ,with the exception of guano and other quick-acting stimulants1 ,i believe in fall top-dressing4 ,the melting snows and ,march rains carry the fertilizing properties down to the roots1 which begin growing and feeding very early in the spring4 ,if compost or barnyard manure is used1 it aids in protecting the plants during the winter1 warms and mellows the soil1 and starts them into a prompt1 vigorous growth1 thus enabling them to store up sufficient vitality in the cool growing season to produce large fruit in abundance4 ,if top-dressings are applied in the spring1 and a dry period follows1 they scarcely reach the roots in time to aid in forming the fruit buds4 ,the crop of the following year1 however1 will be increased4 ,of course1 it is far better to top-dress the rows in spring than not at all4 ,i only wish to suggest that usually the best results are obtained by doing this work in the fall2 and this would be true especially of heavy soils4 ,when the ground begins to freeze1 protect the plants for the winter by covering the rows lightly with straw1 leaves1 or--better than all--with light1 strawy horse-manure1 that has been piled up to heat and turned over once or twice1 so that in its violent fermentation all grass seeds have been killed4 ,do not cover so heavily as to smother the plants1 nor so lightly that the wind and rains will dissipate the mulch4 ,your aim is not to keep the plants from freezing1 but from freezing and thawing with every alternation of our variable winters and springs4 ,on ordinarily dry land two or three inches of light material is sufficient4 ,moreover1 the thawing out of the fruit beds or crown1 under the direct rays of the sun1 injures them1 ,i think4 ,most of the damage is done in ,february and ,march4 ,the good gardener watches his plants1 adds to the covering where it has been washed away or is insufficient1 and drains off puddles1 which are soon fatal to all the plants beneath them4 ,wet ground1 moreover1 heaves ten times as badly as that which is dry4 ,if one neglects to do these things1 he may find half of the plants thrown out of the ground1 after a day or two of alternate freezing and thawing4 ,good drainage alone1 with three or four inches of covering of light material1 can prevent this1 although some varieties1 like the ,golden ,defiance1 seem to resist the heaving action of frost remarkably4 ,never cover with hot1 heavy manure1 nor too deeply with leaves1 as the rains beat these down too flatly4 ,let the winter mulch not only coyer the row1 but reach a foot on either side4 ,just before very cold weather begins--from the middle of ,november to ,december #ast1 in our latitude--we may1 if we choose1 cover our beds so deeply with leaves1 or litter of some kind1 as to keep out the frost completely4 ,we thus may be able to dig plants on mild winter days and early spring1 in case we have orders from the far ,south4 ,this heavy covering should be lightened sufficiently early in the spring to prevent smothering4 ,plants well protected have a fine green appearance early in spring1 and1 even if no better1 will give much better satisfaction than those whose leaves are sere and black from frost4 ,as the weather begins to grow warm in ,march1 push aside the covering a little from the crown of the plants1 so as to let in air4 ,if early fruit is desired1 the mulch can be raked aside and the ground worked between the rows1 as soon as danger of severe frost is over4 ,if late fruit is wanted1 let in air to the crown of the plants1 but leave the mulch on the ground1 which is thus shielded from the sun1 warm showers1 and the south wind1 for two or three weeks4 ,i have now reached a point at which ,i differ from most horticultural writers4 ,as a rule1 it is advised that there be no spring cultivation of bearing plants4 ,it has been said that merely pushing the winter mulch aside sufficiently to let the new growth come through is all that is needed4 ,i admit that the results are often satisfactory under this method1 especially if there has been deep1 thorough culture in the fall1 and if the mulch between and around the plants is very abundant4 ,at the same time1 ,i have so often seen unsatisfactory results that ,i take a decided stand in favor of spring cultivation if done properly and sufficiently early4 ,i think my reasons will commend themselves to practical men4 ,even where the soil has been left mellow by fall cultivation1 the beating rains and the weight of melting snows pack the earth4 ,all loamy land settles and tends to grow hard after the frost leaves it4 ,while the mulch checks this tendency1 it cannot wholly prevent it4 ,as a matter of fact1 the spaces between the rows are seldom thoroughly loosened late in the fall4 ,the mulch too often is scattered over a comparatively hard surface1 which1 by the following ,june has become so solid as to suffer disastrously from drought in the blossoming and bearing season4 ,i have seen well-mulched fields with their plants faltering and wilting1 unable to mature the crop because the ground had become so hard that an ordinary shower could make but little impression4 ,moreover1 even if kept moist by the mulch1 land long shielded from sun and air tends to become sour1 heavy1 and devoid of that life which gives vitality and vigor to the plant4 ,the winter mulch need not be laboriously raked from the garden-bed or field1 and then carted back again4 ,begin on one side of a plantation and rake toward the other1 until three or four rows and the spaces between them are bare2 then fork the spaces1 or run the cultivator--often the subsoil plow--deeply through them1 and then immediately1 before the moist1 newly made surface dries1 rake the winter mulch back into its place as a summer mulch4 ,then take another strip and treat it in like manner1 until the generous impulse of spring air and sunshine has been given to the soil of the entire plantation4 ,this spring cultivation should be done early--as soon as possible after the ground is dry enough to work4 ,the roots of a plant or tree should never be seriously disturbed in the blossoming or bearing period2 and yet ,i would rather stir the surface1 even when my beds were in full bloom1 than leave it hard1 baked1 and dry2 for1 heed this truth well--unless a plant1 from the time it blossoms until the fruit matures1 has an abundance of moisture1 it will fail in almost the exact proportion that moisture fails4 ,a liberal summer mulch under and around the plants not only keeps the fruit clean1 but renders a watering much more lasting1 by shielding the soil from the sun4 ,never sprinkle the plants a little in dry weather4 ,if you water at all1 soak the ground and keep it moist all the time till the crop matures4 ,insufficient watering will injure and perhaps destroy the best of beds4 ,but this subject and that of irrigation will be treated in a later chapter4 ,when prize berries are sought1 enormous fruit can be obtained by the use of liquid manure1 but it should be applied with skill and judgment1 or else its very strength may dwarf the plants4 ,in this case1 also1 all the little green berries1 save the three or four lowest ones1 may be picked from the fruit truss1 and the force of the plant will be expended in maturing a few mammoth specimens4 ,never seek to stimulate with plaster or lime1 directly4 ,other plants' meat is the strawberry's poison in respect to the immediate action of these two agents4 ,horse manure composted with muck1 vegetable mould1 wood-ashes1 bone meal1 and1 best of all1 the product of the cow-stable1 if thoroughly decayed and incorporated with the soil1 will probably give the largest strawberries that can be grown1 if steady moisture1 but not wetness1 is maintained4 ,many advise the mowing off of the old foliage after the fruit has been gathered4 ,i doubt the wisdom of this practice4 ,the crowns of the plants and the surface of the bed are laid open to the midsummer sun4 ,the foliage is needed to sustain or develop the roots4 ,in the case of a few petted and valuable plants1 it might be well to take off some of the old dying leaves1 but it seems reasonable to think that the wholesale destruction of healthful foliage must be a severe blow to the vitality of the plants4 ,still1 the beds should not be left to weeds and drought4 ,neglect would be ungracious1 indeed1 just after receiving such delicious gifts4 ,i would advise that the coarsest of the mulch be raked off and stored for winter covering1 and then the remainder forked very lightly or cultivated into the soil1 as a fertilizer immediately after a soaking rain1 but not when the ground is dry4 ,do not disturb the roots of a plant during a dry period4 ,many advise a liberal manuring after the fruit is gathered4 ,this is the ,english method1 and is all right in their humid climate1 but dangerous in our land of hot suns and long droughts4 ,dark-colored fertilizers absorb and intensify the heat4 ,a sprinkling of bone dust can be used to advantage as a summer stimulant1 and stronger manures1 containing a larger per cent of nitrogen1 can be applied just before the late fall rains4 ,a plant just after bearing needs rest4 ,after fruiting1 the foliage of some of our best kinds turns red and seemingly burns and shrivels away4 ,this is not necessarily a disease1 but merely the decay of old leaves which have fulfilled their mission4 ,from the crown a new and vigorous growth will eventually take their place4 ,when one is engaged in the nursery business1 the young plants form a crop far more valuable than the fruit4 ,therefore1 every effort is made to increase the number of runners rather than to destroy them4 ,stimulating manures1 which promote a growth of vines rather than of fruit1 are the most useful4 ,the process of rooting is often greatly hastened by layering2 that is1 by pressing the incipient plant forming on the runner into the soil1 and by laying on it a pebble or lump of earth to keep it in its place4 ,when a bed is closely covered with young plants that have not taken root1 a top-dressing of fine compost will greatly hasten their development4 ,moisture is even more essential to the nurseryman than to the fruit grower1 and he needs it especially during the hot months of ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 for it is then that the new crop of plants is growing4 ,therefore1 his need of damp but well-drained ground2 and if the means of irrigation are within his reach1 he may accomplish wonders1 and can take two or three crops of plants from the same area in one season4 ,while the growing of strawberry plants may be very profitable1 it must be expensive1 since large areas must be laboriously weeded by hand several times in the season4 ,instead of keeping the spaces between the rows clear1 for the use of horse-power1 it is our aim to have them covered as soon as possible with runners and young plants4 ,the ,golden ,defiance1 ,crescent ,seedling and a few others will keep pace with most weeds1 and even master them2 but nearly all varieties require much help in the unequal fight1 or our beds become melancholy examples of the survival of the unfittest4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,a ,,southern ,,strawberry ,,farm1 ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,south ,having treated of the planting of strawberries1 their cultivation1 and kindred topics1 in that great northern belt1 of which a line drawn through ,new ,york city may be regarded as the centre1 ,i shall now suggest characteristics in the culture of this fruit in southern latitudes4 ,we need not refer to the oldest inhabitant1 since the middle-aged remember when even the large cities of the ,north were supplied from the fields in the suburbs1 and the strawberry season in town was identical with that of the surrounding country4 ,but a marvellous change has taken place1 and berries from southern climes appear in our markets soon after midwinter4 ,this early supply is becoming one of the chief industries of the ,south ,atlantic coast1 and every year increases its magnitude4 ,at one time1 southern ,new ,jersey furnished the first berries1 but ,maryland1 ,delaware1 and ,virginia soon began to compete4 ,norfolk early took the lead in this trade1 and even before the war was building up a fine business4 ,that event cut off our ,southern supply1 and for a few years ,june and strawberries again came together4 ,but after the welcome peace1 many ,southern fields grew red once more1 but not with blood1 and thronged1 but chiefly by women and children4 ,soil1 climate1 and superb water communications speedily restored to ,norfolk the vantage which she will probably maintain2 but fleet steamers are giving more southern ports a chance4 ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 is second only in importance4 ,in the spring of '#gi1 every week four steamers were loaded for ,new ,york1 and strawberries formed no insignificant proportion of the freight4 ,indeed1 the supply from ,charleston was so large that the price in ,april scarcely repaid the cost of some shipments4 ,the proprietor of a commission house1 largely engaged in the ,southern fruit trade1 told me he thought that about one third as many strawberries came from ,charleston as from ,norfolk4 ,from careful inquiries made on the ground1 ,i am led to believe--if it has not already attained this position--that ,norfolk is rapidly becoming the largest strawberry centre in the world1 though ,charleston is unquestionably destined to become its chief rival in the ,south4 ,the latter city1 however1 has not been able to monopolize the far ,southern trade1 and never have ,i seen a finer field of strawberries than was shown me in the suburbs of ,savannah4 ,it consisted of a square of four acres1 set with ,neunan's ,prolific1 the celebrated ,charleston berry4 ,and now ,florida1 with its unrivalled oranges1 is beginning to furnish tons of strawberries1 that begin ripening in our midwinter2 and1 with its quick1 sandy soil and sunny skies1 threatens to render the growing of this fruit under glass unprofitable4 ,i saw last winter1 at ,mandarin1 quite an extensive strawberry farm1 under the care of ,messrs4 ,bowen ,brothers1 and was shown their skilful appliances for shipping the fruit4 ,at ,jacksonville1 also1 ,captain ,william ,james is succeeding finely in the culture of some of our ,northern varieties1 the ,seth ,boyden taking the lead4 ,i think ,i can better present the characteristics of strawberry culture in the ,south by aiming to give a graphic picture of the scenes and life on a single farm than is possible by general statements of what ,i have witnessed here and there4 ,i have therefore selected for description a plantation at ,norfolk1 since this city is the centre of the largest trade1 and nearly midway in the ,atlantic strawberry belt1 ,i am also led to make this choice because here is to be found1 ,i believe1 the largest strawberry farm in the world1 and its varied labors illustrate most of the ,southern aspects of the question4 ,the reader may imagine himself joining our little party on a lovely afternoon about the middle of ,may4 ,we took one of the fine1 stanch steamers of the ,old ,dominion line at three ,p4,m41 and soon were enjoying1 with a pleasure that never palls1 the sail from the city to the sea4 ,our artistic leader1 whose eye and taste were to illumine and cast a glamour over my otherwise matter-of-fact text1 was all aglow with the varied beauties of the scene1 and he faced the prospect beyond the ,hook with no more misgivings than if it were a painted ocean4 ,but there are occasions when the most heroic courage is of no avail4 ,only in the peace and beauty that crowned the closing hours of the day as we steamed past ,fortress ,monroe and up the ,elizabeth river1 did the prosaic fade out of the hours just past1 and now before us was the sunny ,south and strawberries and cream4 ,in the night there was a steady downfall of rain1 but sunshine came with the morning1 and we found that the spring we had left at the ,north was summer here1 and saw that the season was moving forward with quickened and elastic tread4 ,before the day grew warm we started from our hotel at ,norfolk for the strawberry plantation1 rattling and bouncing past comfortable and substantial homes1 over a pavement that surpassed even the ups and downs of fortune4 ,here and there1 surrounded by a high brick wall1 would be seen a fine old mansion1 embowered in a wealth of shrubbery and foliage that gave1 even in the midst of the city1 a suburban seclusion4 ,the honeysuckle and roses are at home in ,norfolk1 and their exquisite perfume floated to us across the high garden fences4 ,thank ,heaven6 some of the best things in the world cannot be walled in4 ,st4 ,paul's ,church and quaint old burying-ground1 shadowed by trees1 festooned with vines1 and gemmed with flowers1 seemed so beautiful1 as we passed1 that we thought its influence on the secular material life of the people must be almost as good through the busy week as on the ,sabbath4 ,the houses soon grew scattering1 and the wide1 level1 open country stretched away before us1 its monotony broken here and there by groves of pine4 ,the shell road ceased and our wheels now passed through many deep puddles1 which in ,virginia seem sacred1 since they are preserved year after year in exactly the same places4 ,a more varied class of vehicles than we met from time to time would scarcely be seen on any other road in the country4 ,there were stylish city carriages and buggies1 grocer and express wagons1 great lumbering market trucks laden with barrels of early cabbages1 spring wagons1 drawn by mules1 piled up with crates from many a strawberry field in the interior1 and so1 on the descending scale1 till we reach the two-wheeled1 primitive carts drawn by cows--all converging toward some ,northern steamer1 whose capacious maw was ready to receive the produce of the country4 ,we had not proceeded very far before we saw in the distance a pretty cottage1 sheltered by a group of tall1 primeval pines1 and on the right of it a large barn-like building1 with a dwelling1 office1 smithy1 sheds1 etc41 grouped about it4 ,a previous visit enabled me to point out the cottage as the home of the proprietor1 and to explain that the seeming barn was a strawberry crate manufactory4 ,as was the case on large plantations in the olden time1 almost everything required in the business is made on the place1 and nearly every mechanical trade has a representative in ,mr4 ,young's employ4 ,as we drove up under the pines1 the proprietor of the farm welcomed us with a cordial hospitality1 which he may have acquired in part from his residence in the ,south4 ,on the porch stood a slender lady1 whose girlish grace and delicate beauty at once captivated the artists of our party4 ,there was the farm we had come to see1 stretching away before us in hundreds of green1 level acres4 ,as we drove to a distant field in which the pickers were then engaged1 we could see the ripening berries with one side blushing toward the sun4 ,passing a screen of pines1 we came out into a field containing thirteen acres of ,wilson strawberries1 and then more fully began to realize the magnitude of the business4 ,scattered over the wide area1 in what seemed inextricable confusion to our uninitiated eyes1 were hundreds of men1 women1 and children of all ages and shades of color1 and from the field at large came a softened din of voices1 above the monotony of which arose here and there snatches of song1 laughter mellowed by distance1 and occasionally the loud1 sharp orders of the overseers1 who stalked hither and thither1 wherever their little brief authority was most in requisition4 ,we soon noted that the confusion was more apparent than real1 and that each picker was given a row over which he--or1 more often1 she--bent with busy fingers until it was finished4 ,at central points crates were piled up1 and men known as buyers received the round quart baskets from the trays of the pickers1 while wide platform carts1 drawn by mules1 were bringing empty crates and carrying away those that had been filled4 ,along the road that skirted the field1 and against a pretty background of half-grown pines1 motley forms and groups were moving to and fro1 some seeking the buyers with full trays1 others returning to their stations in the field with a new supply of empty baskets4 ,some of the pickers were drifting away to other fields1 a few seeking work late in the day2 more1 bargaining with the itinerant venders of pies1 made to last all summer if not sold1 gingerbread1 pones1 and other nondescript edibles1 at which an ostrich would hesitate in well-grounded fear of indigestion1 but for which sable and semi-sable pickers exchange their berry tickets and pennies as eagerly as we buy ,vienna rolls4 ,two or three barouches and buggies that had brought visitors were mingled with the mule-carts2 and grouped together for a moment might be seen elegantly attired ladies from ,new ,york1 slender mulatto girls1 clad in a single tattered1 gown which scantily covered their bare ankles and feet1 and stout1 shiny negro women1 their waists tied with a string to prevent their flowing drapery from impeding their work4 ,flitting to and fro were numberless colored children1 bare-headed1 bare-legged1 and often1 with not a little of their sleek bodies gleaming through the innumerable rents of their garments1 their eyes glittering like black beads1 and their white teeth showing on the slightest provocation to mirth4 ,indeed1 the majority of the young men and women were chattering and laughing much of the time1 and only those well in the shadow of age worked on in a stolid1 plodding manner4 ,mingled indiscriminately with the colored people were not a few white women and children1 and occasionally a white man4 ,as a rule1 these were better dressed1 the white girls wearing sun-bonnets of portentous size1 whose cavernous depths would make a search for beauty on the part of our artist a rather close and embarrassing scrutiny4 ,the colored women as often wore a man's hat as any other1 and occasionally enlivened the field with a red bandana4 ,over all the stooping1 moving1 oddly apparelled forms1 a ,june-like sun was shining with summer warmth4 ,beyond the field a branch of ,tanner's ,creek shimmered in the light1 tall pines sighed in the breeze on the right1 and from the copse-wood at their feet quails were calling1 their mellow whistle blending with the notes of a wild ,methodist air4 ,in the distance rose the spires of ,norfolk1 completing a picture whose interest and charm ,i have but faintly suggested4 ,several of the overseers are negroes1 and we were hardly on the ground before one of these men1 in the performance of his duty1 shouted in a stentorian voice3 ,heah1 you6 ,git up dar1 you long man1 off'n yer knees4 ,what yo' mashin' down a half-acre o' berries fer8 ,mr4 ,sheppard was quick to see a good subject1 and almost in a flash he had the man posed and motionless in his attitude of authority1 and under his rapid strokes ,jackson won fame and eminence1 going to his work a little later the hero of the field4 ,the overseer's task is a difficult one1 for the pickers least given to prayer are oftenest on their knees1 crushing the strawberries1 and whether they are long or short1 much fruit is destroyed4 ,north and ,south1 the effort to keep those we employ off the berries must be constant1 especially as a long1 hot day is waning4 ,indeed1 one can scarcely blame them for lopping down1 for it would be inquisitorial torture to most of us to stoop upon our feet through a summer day4 ,picking strawberries1 as a steady business1 is wofully prosaic4 ,while the sun had been shining so brightly there had been an occasional heavy jar and rumble of thunder1 and now the western sky was black4 ,gradually the pickers had disappeared from the ,wilson field1 and we at last followed them1 warned by an occasional drop of rain to seek the vicinity of the house4 ,having reached the grassy slope beneath the pines in the rear of the dwelling1 we turned to note the pretty scene4 ,a branch of ,tanner's ,creek came up almost to our feet1 and on either side of it stretched away long rows of strawberries as far as the eye could reach4 ,toward these the throng of pickers now drifted1 seeking fresh fields and pastures new4 ,the motley crowd was streaming down on either side of the creek1 while across a little causeway came a counter current1 the majority of them having trays full of berries4 ,the buyers1 like the traders with the nomad ,indians1 open traffic anywhere1 and at the shortest notice4 ,a mule-cart was stopped1 a few empty crates taken off and placed under the pines at our feet1 and soon the grass was covered with full quart baskets1 for which the pickers received tickets and then passed on1 or1 as was often the case1 threw themselves down in the shade4 ,the itinerant venders came flocking in like so many buzzards4 ,there was at once chaffering and chaffing1 eating and drinking4 ,all were merry4 ,looking on the groups before us1 one would imagine that the sky was serene4 ,and yet1 frowning upon this scene of careless security1 this improvident disregard of a swiftly coming emergency1 was one of the blackest of clouds4 ,every moment the thunder was jarring and rolling nearer1 and yet this jolly people1 who take no thought1 heeded not the warning4 ,even the buyers and packers seemed infected with a like spirit1 and were leisurely packing in crates the baskets of berries scattered on the grass1 when suddenly ,mr4 ,young1 with his fleet1 black horse1 came flying down upon us4 ,standing up in his buggy1 he gave a dozen rapid orders1 like an officer on the field in a critical moment4 ,the women1 who had been lounging with their hands on their hips1 shuffled off with their trays2 half-burned pipes are hastily emptied2 gingerbread and like delicacies are stuffed into capacious mouths1 since hands must be employed at once4 ,packers1 mules1 everybody1 everything1 are put upon the double-quick to prepare for the shower4 ,it is too late1 however1 for down come the huge drops as they can fall only in the ,south4 ,the landscape grows obscure1 the forms of the pickers in the distance become dim and misty1 and when at last it lightens up a little1 they have disappeared from the fields4 ,there they go1 streaming and dripping toward the barns and sheds1 looking as bedraggled as a flock of black ,spanish fowls4 ,such of the mule-drivers as have been caught1 now that they are in for it1 drive leisurely by with the heavy crates that they should have gathered up more promptly4 ,the cloud did not prove a passing one1 and the rain fell so long and copiously that further picking for the day was abandoned4 ,some jogged off to the city1 at a pace that nothing but a fiery storm could have quickened4 ,a hundred or two remained under the sheds1 singing and laughing4 ,men and women1 and many bright young negro girls1 too1 lighted their pipes and waited till they could gather at the paying booth1 near the entrance of the farm1 after the rain was over4 ,this booth was a small shop1 extemporized of rough boards by an enterprising grocer of the city4 ,one side was open1 like the counter of a restaurant1 and within1 upon the grass1 as yet untrodden1 were barrels and boxes containing the edible enormities which seem indigenous to the semi-grocery and eating-house4 ,in most respects the place resembled the sutler's stand of our army days4 ,there was a small window on one end of the booth1 and at this sat the grocer1 metamorphosed into a paymaster1 with a huge bag of coin1 which he rapidly exchanged for the strawberry tickets4 ,our last glimpse of the pickers1 who had streamed out of the city in the gray dawn1 left them in a long line1 close as herrings in a box1 pressing toward the window1 from which came faintly the chink of silver4 ,as night at last closed about us1 we realized the difference between a strawberry farm and a strawberry bed1 or patch1 as country people say4 ,here was a large and well-developed business1 which proved the presence of no small degree of brain power and energy2 and our thoughts naturally turned to the proprietor and the methods by which he achieved success4 ,j4 ,e4 ,young1 ,jr41 is a veteran in strawberry culture1 although but twenty-nine years of age4 ,mr4 ,young1 ,sr41 was a ,presbyterian clergyman who always had a leaning toward man's primal calling4 ,when his son was a little boy1 he was preaching at ,plattsburgh1 ,new ,york1 and to his labors in the spiritual vineyard joined the care of a garden that was the pride of the town4 ,mr4 ,young1 ,jr41 admits that he hated weeding and working among strawberries as much as any other boy1 until he was given a share in the crop1 and permitted to send a few crates to ,montreal4 ,he had seen but nine years when he shipped his first berries to market1 and every summer since1 from several widely separated localities and with many and varied experiences1 he has sent to ,northern cities increasing quantities of his favorite fruit4 ,when but fifteen years of age he had the entire charge1 during the long season1 of three hundred hands1 and the large majority of them were ,irish women and children4 ,after considerable experience in strawberry farming in northern and southern ,new ,york and in ,new ,jersey1 his father induced him to settle at ,norfolk1 ,virginia1 and hither he came about ten years ago4 ,now he has under his control a farm of #ddj acres1 #aej of which are to-day covered with bearing strawberry plants4 ,in addition1 he has set out this spring over two million more plants1 which will occupy another hundred acres1 so that in #ahhj he will have #bej acres that must be picked over almost daily4 ,mr4 ,young prefers spring planting in operations upon a large scale4 ,such a choice is very natural in this latitude1 for they can begin setting the first of ,february and continue until the middle of ,april4 ,therefore1 nine-tenths of the plants grown in this region are set out in spring4 ,but at ,charleston and further south1 they reverse this practice1 and1 with few exceptions1 plant in the summer and fall1 beginning as early as ,july on some places1 and continuing well into ,december4 ,i must also state that the finest new plantation that ,i saw on ,mr4 ,young's place was a field of ,seth ,boydens set out in ,september4 ,this fact proves that he could follow the system of autumn planting successfully1 and ,i am inclined to think that he will regard this method with constantly increasing favor4 ,as an instance proving the adaptation to this latitude of the fall system of planting1 ,i may state that #if1jjj plants were sent to a gentleman at ,richmond1 in ,october1 #ahgg1 and when ,i visited his place1 the following spring1 there was scarcely a break in the long rows1 and nearly fruit enough1 ,i think1 to pay for the plants4 ,from his ,seth ,boydens1 set out last ,september1 ,mr4 ,young will certainly pick enough berries to pay expenses thus far2 and at the same time1 the plants are already four times the size of any set out this spring4 ,as the country about ,norfolk is level1 with spots where the water would stand in very wet weather1 ,mr4 ,young has it thrown up into slightly raised beds two and a half feet wide4 ,this is done by plows1 after the ground has been thoroughly prepared and levelled by a heavy1 fine-toothed harrow4 ,these ridges are but four or five inches high1 and are smoothed off by an implement made for the purpose4 ,upon these beds1 quite near the edges1 the plants are set in rows twenty inches apart1 while the depressed space between the beds is twenty-seven inches wide4 ,this space is also designed for the paths4 ,the rows and the proper distances for the plants are designated by a marker1 an implement consisting of several wheels fastened to a frame and drawn by hand4 ,on the rim of these wheels are two knobs shaped like an acorn4 ,each wheel marks a continuous line on the soft earth1 and with each revolution the knobs make two slight but distinct depressions twelve inches apart2 or1 if the variety to be planted is a vigorous grower1 he uses another set of wheels that indent the ground every fifteen inches4 ,a plant is dropped at each indentation1 and a gang of colored women follow with trowels1 and by two or three quick1 dexterous movements1 imbed the roots firmly in the soil4 ,some become so quick and skilful as to be able to set out six or seven thousand a day1 while four or five thousand is the average4 ,with his trained band of twenty women1 ,mr4 ,young calls the setting of a hundred thousand plants a good day's work4 ,in ,april commences the long campaign against the weeds1 which advance like successive armies4 ,no sooner is one growth slain than a different and perhaps more pestiferous class rises in its place--the worst of the ,philistines being nut-grass1 quack-grass1 and--direst foe of all--wire-grass4 ,this labor is reduced to its minimum by mule cultivation1 and ,mr4 ,young has on his farm a style of cultivator that is peculiarly adapted to the work4 ,as this is his own invention1 ,i will not describe it1 but merely state that it enables him to work very close to the rows1 and to stir the soil deeply without moving it or covering the plants4 ,these cultivators are followed by women1 with light1 sharp hoes1 who cut away the few weeds left between the plants4 ,they handle these tools so deftly that scarcely any weeding is left to be done by hand2 for1 by a rapid encircling stroke1 they cut within a half-inch of the plant4 ,for several years past1 ,i have urged upon ,mr4 ,young the advantage of the narrow row system1 and his own experience has led him to adopt it4 ,he is now able to keep his immense farm free of weeds chiefly by mule labor1 whereas1 in his old system of matted row culture it was impossible to keep down the grass1 or prevent the ground from becoming hard and dry4 ,he now restricts his plants to hills or stools1 from twelve to fifteen inches apart4 ,the runners are cut from time to time with shoe-knives1 the left hand gathering them up by a single rapid movement1 and the right hand severing them by a stroke4 ,one woman will1 by this method1 clip the runners from several acres during the growing season4 ,to keep his farm in order1 ,mr4 ,young must employ seventy-five hands through the summer4 ,the average wages for women is fifty cents1 and for men seventy-five to ninety cents4 ,in the item of cheap labor the ,south has the advantage of the ,north4 ,with the advent of autumn1 the onslaught of weeds gradually ceases1 and there is some respite in the labors of a ,virginia strawberry farm4 ,at ,charleston and further south1 this respite is brief1 for the winters there are so mild that certain kinds of weeds will grow all the time1 and early in ,february they must begin to cultivate the ground and mulch the plants for bearing4 ,bordering on ,mr4 ,young's farm1 and further up the creek1 there are hundreds of acres of salt meadows4 ,from these he has cut1 in the autumn and early winter1 two hundred tons of hay1 and with his lighter floats it down to his wharf4 ,in ,december1 acre after acre is covered until all the plants are quite hidden from view4 ,in the spring1 this winter mulch is left upon the ground as the summer mulch1 the new growth in most instances pushing its way through it readily4 ,when it is too thick to permit this1 it is pushed aside from the crowns of the plants4 ,thus far he has given the bearing fields no spring culture1 adopting the common theory that the ground around the plants must not be disturbed at this season4 ,i advocate the opposite view1 and believe in early spring culture1 as ,i have already explained2 and ,i think his experience this year will lead him to give my method a trial in #ahhj4 ,the latter part of ,april and early ,may was very dry at ,norfolk1 and the ground between the bearing plants became parched1 hard1 and in many instances full of weeds that had been developing through the long1 mild spring of this region4 ,now ,i am satisfied that if he1 and all others in this region who adopt the narrow row system1 would loosen the ground deeply with a subsoil plow early in the season1 before the plants had made any growth1 and then stir and pulverize all the surface between the plants in the rows1 they would increase the size and quantity of the berries at least one-third1 and in many instances double the crop4 ,it would require a very severe drought1 indeed1 to injure plants thus treated1 and it is well known1 also1 that a porous1 mellow soil will best endure too frequent rains4 ,i have sometimes thought that light and air are as indispensable to the roots of plants as to the foliage4 ,the winter mulch need not prevent this spring culture4 ,let the men begin on one side of a field1 and rake inward until half a dozen rows are uncovered4 ,down through these the subsoil plow and the cultivator can pass4 ,then the hay can be raked back again as the summer mulch1 and a new space cleared1 until the whole field is cultivated and the mulch left as it was before4 ,now1 however1 it is not a surface like hard-pan that is covered1 but a mellow soil in which the roots can luxuriate4 ,mr4 ,young uses fertilizers1 especially those containing ammonia1 only to a limited extent1 believing that while they undoubtedly increase the size of the fruit1 they also render it soft and unfit for long carriage1 and promote an undue growth of vine4 ,this theory is true1 to a certain extent1 but ,i think the compensating benefits of fertilizers of almost any kind far outweigh the disadvantages4 ,at his distance from the market1 firmness in the berry is essential1 but ,i think he will find this quality is dependent more upon the weather and the variety than upon the fertilizer4 ,of course1 over-stimulation by hot manures will always produce an unwholesome1 perishable growth1 but a good coat of well-rotted compost scattered down the rows1 just before they receive their fall or spring culture1 would be exceedingly beneficial in nine cases out of ten4 ,i most heartily agree with him1 however1 that all fertilizers containing potash are peculiarly adapted to the strawberry4 ,having considered his methods of planting and culture1 we now return again to the culminating period in which the hopes and labors of the year are rewarded or disappointed4 ,when we awoke the morning following our arrival1 we found the landscape obscured by a dense fog4 ,through this1 in dim1 uncertain outline1 throngs of pickers were streaming out from the city to ,mr4 ,young's place and the strawberry farms beyond4 ,the broad fields seemed all the more vast from the obscurity1 and the stooping forms of the fruit-gatherers took on odd and fantastic shapes in the silvery mist4 ,but while we drank our coffee the sun sipped these morning vapors1 and when we stepped out under the pines1 the day was hourly growing brighter and warmer4 ,the balmy1 fragrant air1 the meadow larks singing in the distance1 the cheery voices of the pickers in an adjacent field1 would tempt gloom itself to forget its care and stroll away through the sunlight4 ,the pickers were beginning to take possession of a field containing thirty acres of ,triomphe de ,gands1 and we followed them1 and there lighted on one of the oddest characters on the plantation--,sam ,jubilee1 the row-man1 black as night1 short1 stout1 and profane4 ,it is ,sam's business to give each picker a row of berries1 and he carries a brass-headed cane as the baton of authority4 ,as we came up1 he was whirling a glazed hat of portentous size in one hand and gesticulating so wildly with his cane that one might think he was in convulsions of rage1 but we soon learned that this was his way4 ,heah1 you1 dah6 he vociferated1 to the slouching1 leisurely pickers that were drifting after him1 what's de matter wid yer j'ints8 ,step along lively1 or by-- and then came a volley of the most outlandish oaths ever uttered by a human tongue4 ,don't swear so1 ,sam1 said ,mr4 ,young4 ,can't help it1 sah4 ,dey makes me swar4 ,feels as if ,i could bust inter ten thousand emptins1 dey's so agerwatin4 ,heah1 my sister1 take dat row4 ,you1 gemlin 7to a white man71 take dat4 ,heah1 chile1 step in dar an' pick right smart1 or ,i'll warm yer6 ,sam brothers and sisters the motley crowd he domineers like a colored preacher1 but ,i fear he is not in good and regular standing in any church in ,norfolk4 ,he can give out rows more rapidly and systematically than any man ,i ever had1 said ,mr4 ,young2 and we soon observed that wherever ,jubilee led1 with his stentorian voice and emphatic gestures1 there was life and movement4 ,thus we learned that although there might be #a1ejj people in the fields1 there was no haphazard picking4 ,each one would be assigned a row1 which could not be left until all the ripe berries on it were gathered4 ,passing to and fro across the fields are the two chief overseers of the farm1 ,harrison and ,peters1 both apparently full-blooded negroes1 but in the vernacular of the ,south1 right smart men4 ,they have been with ,mr4 ,young eight or ten years1 and were promoted and maintain their position solely on the ground of ability and faithfulness4 ,they go rapidly from one to another1 noting whether they are picking the rows clean4 ,they also take from each tray a basket at random1 and empty it into another1 thus discovering who are gathering green or imperfect berries4 ,if the fruit falls much below the accepted standard1 the baskets are confiscated and no tickets given for them1 and if the picker continues careless he is sent out of the field4 ,mr4 ,young says that he has never found any white overseers who could equal these men2 and through the long year they drive on the work with tireless energy4 ,indeed1 ,peters often has much ado to keep his energy under control4 ,a powerful engine cannot always be safe1 and ,peters slipped his bands one day to his cost4 ,a woman would not obey him1 and he threatened her with a pistol4 ,instead of obeying1 she started to run4 ,he fired and wounded her twice1 and then tried to get off on the lame excuse that he did not know the pistol was loaded4 ,the trouble was that he was overloaded4 ,but his offence resulted more from these characteristics than from innate ugliness of temper4 ,to make the business of the huge farm go has become his controlling passion2 and he chafes at an obstacle like an obstructed torrent4 ,harrison1 his associate overseer1 unites more discretion with his force1 and he gave us an example of this fact4 ,as we were strolling about1 we found1 seated at the end of the strawberry rows1 a group consisting of two young women and two children1 with a colored man standing near4 ,they had been picking in partnership1 we were informed by one of the young women1 who was smoking a pipe1 and who replied to our questions1 scarcely taking the trouble to look up4 ,she was about half white1 and her face was singularly expressive of sensuousness and indolent recklessness4 ,this man is your husband8 ,i suggested4 ,no1 he's only my brudder4 ,my ole man is pickin' on anoder farm1 she drawled out1 between the whiffs of her pipe4 ,i should think you and your husband would work together1 ,i ventured4 ,we doesn't4 ,he goes about his business and ,i goes about mine1 she remarked1 with languid complacency4 ,here is a character1 ,i thought1 as we passed on--the very embodiment of a certain kind of wilfulness4 ,she would not resist or chafe at authority1 but1 with an easy1 good-natured1 don't-care expression1 would do as she pleased1 though the heavens fell4 ,a little later there was a heavy rumble of thunder in the west1 and we met again the young woman whose marital relations resembled those of many of her fashionable sisters at the ,north4 ,she was leading her small band from the field4 ,the prospective shower was her excuse for going1 but laziness the undoubted cause4 ,harrison1 like a vigilant watch-dog1 spied them and blustered up1 never for a moment doubting that she would yield to his authority4 ,but he had met his match4 ,she merely looked at him with her slow1 quiet1 indolent smile1 in which there was not the faintest trace of irresolution or fear1 and he knew that the moment he stepped out of the way1 she would pass on4 ,his loud expostulations and threats soon ceased4 ,what could he do with that laughing woman1 who no doubt had been a slave1 but was now emancipated a trifle too completely8 ,he might as well try to stop a sluggish tide with his hands4 ,it would ooze away from him inevitably4 ,the instincts of this people are quick4 ,harrison knew he was defeated1 and his only anxiety now was to retreat in a way that would save appearances4 ,i'se a-gwine home1 ,m's'r ,harrison1 she said quietly4 ,you don't catch us gittin' wet ag'in4 ,oh1 well1 if you is 'fraid ob gittin' wet1 s'pose ,i'll habe to let you off jus' dis once1 he began1 pompously2 and here1 fortunately1 he saw a man leaving the field in the distance4 ,there was a subject with which he could deal1 and a line of retreat open at the same time2 and away he went1 therefore1 vociferating all the more loudly that he might cover his discomfiture4 ,the woman smiled a little more complacently and went on1 with her old easy1 don't-care swing1 as she undoubtedly will1 whithersoever her inclinations lead1 to the end of her life4 ,to crystallize such wayward1 human atoms into proper forms1 and make them useful1 is a problem that would puzzle wiser heads than that of the overseer4 ,i think1 however1 that not only ,harrison and ,peters1 but all who have charge of working people1 rely too much on driving1 and too little on encouraging and coaxing4 ,an incident which occurred may illustrate this truth4 ,my companion1 ,mr4 ,drake1 soon mastered one of the labors of a strawberry farm--the gathering of the fruit--and out of the plenitude of his benevolence essayed to teach a little sable how he could pick to better advantage4 ,put your basket down1 sonny1 he said4 ,now you have two hands to work with instead of one--so1 don't you see8 ,dat's mighty good in you1 ,mas'r1 said a woman near4 ,lor bress you6 de people 'ud jess jump over derselves tryin' to do the work if dey got sich good words1 but de oberseer's so cross dat we gits 'umptuous and don't keer4 ,still1 to the majority1 the strawberry season brings the halcyon days of the year4 ,they look forward to it and enjoy it as a prolonged picnic1 in which business and pleasure are equally combined4 ,they are essentially gregarious1 and this industry brings many together during the long bright days4 ,the light work leaves their tongues free1 and families and neighbors pick together with a ceaseless chatter1 a running fire of rude1 broad pleasantry1 intermingled occasionally with a windy war of words in a jargon that becomes all the more uncouth from anger1 but which rarely ends in blows4 ,we were continually impressed by their courage1 buoyancy1 animal spirits1 or whatever it is that enables them to face their uncertain future so unconcernedly4 ,multitudes live like the birds1 not knowing where their next year's nest will be1 or how to-morrow's food will come4 ,it has come1 thus far1 and this fact seems enough4 ,in many instances1 however1 their humble fortunes are built on the very best foundations4 ,what can you do after the berry season is over8 we asked a woman who had but one arm4 ,i kin do what any other woman kin do1 she said1 straightening herself up4 ,i kin bake1 cook1 wash1 iron1 scrub-- ,that will do1 ,i cried4 ,you are better off than most of us1 for the world will always need and pay for your accomplishments4 ,the story of her life was a simple one4 ,she did not remember when she lost her arm1 but only knew that it had been burned off4 ,when scarcely more than an infant1 she had been left alone in the little cabin by the slave mother1 who probably was toiling in the tobacco field4 ,there was a fire on the hearth--the rest can be imagined only too vividly4 ,she is fighting out the battle of life1 however1 more successfully with her one hand than are multitudes of men with two4 ,she is stout and cheery1 and can take keer of herself and children1 she said4 ,scattered here and there over the fields might be seen two heads that would keep in rather close juxtaposition up and down the long rows4 ,dey's pairin' off1 was the explanation4 ,you keep de tickets1 said a buxom young woman to her mate1 as he was about to take her tray1 as well as his own1 to the buyers4 ,you are in partnership1 ,i remarked4 ,yes1 we is1 she replied1 with a conscious laugh4 ,you are related1 ,i suppose8 ,well1 not 'zackly--dat is--we's partners4 ,how about this partnership business--does it not last sometimes after the strawberry season is over8 ,oh1 ,lor' yes6 ,heaps on 'em gits fallen in love2 den dey gits a-marryin' arter de pickin' time is done gone by4 ,now ,i see what your partnership means4 ,yah1 yah1 yah6 ,you sees a heap more dan ,i's told you6 ,but her partner grinned most approvingly4 ,we were afterward informed that there was no end to the love-making among the strawberry rows4 ,there are from fifty to one hundred and fifty pickers in a squad1 and these are in charge of subordinate overseers1 who are continually moving around among them1 on the watch for delinquencies of all kinds4 ,some of these minor potentates are white and some black4 ,as a rule1 ,mr4 ,young gives the blacks the preference and on strictly business principles1 too4 ,the colored men have more snap1 and can get more work out of their own people1 he says4 ,by means of these sub-overseers1 large numbers can be transferred from one part of the farm to another without confusion4 ,fortunes are never made in gathering strawberries1 and yet there seems no dearth of pickers4 ,the multitude of men1 women1 and children that streams out into the country every morning is surprisingly large4 ,five or six thousand bushels a day are often gathered in the vicinity of ,norfolk1 and the pickers rarely average over a bushel each4 ,right smart hands1 who have the good hap to be given full rows1 will occasionally pick two bushels2 but about thirty quarts per day is the usual amount1 while not a few of the lazy and feeble bring in only eight or ten4 ,as has been already suggested1 the pickers are followed by the buyers and packers1 and to these men1 at central points in the fields1 the mule-carts bring empty crates4 ,the pickers carry little trays containing six baskets1 each holding a quart4 ,as fast as they fill these1 they flock in to the buyers4 ,if a trayful1 or six good quarts1 are offered1 the buyer gives the picker a yellow ticket1 worth twelve cents4 ,when less than six baskets are brought1 each basket is paid for with a green ticket1 worth two cents4 ,these two tickets are eventually exchanged for a white fifty-cent ticket1 which is cashed at the paying-booth after the day's work is over4 ,the pickers1 therefore1 receive two cents for every quart of good1 salable berries4 ,if green1 muddy1 or decayed berries are brought in1 they are thrown away or confiscated1 and incorrigibly careless pickers are driven off the place4 ,every morning the buyers take out as many tickets of these three values as they think they can use1 and are charged with the same by the book-keeper4 ,their voucher for all they pay out is another ticket1 on which is printed forty-five quarts1 or just a crateful4 ,only ,mr4 ,young and one other person have a right to give out the last-named tickets1 and by night each buyer must have enough of them to balance the other tickets with which he was charged in the morning4 ,thus thousands of dollars change hands through the medium of four kinds of tickets not over an inch1 square1 and by means of them the financial part of gathering the crop is managed4 ,in previous years these tickets were received the same as money by any of the shops in the city1 and on one occasion were counterfeited4 ,mr4 ,young now has his own printing-office1 and gets them up in a way not easily imitated1 nor does he issue them until just as the fruit begins to ripen4 ,he has1 moreover1 given authority to one man only to cash these tickets4 ,thus there is little chance for rascality4 ,he also requires that no ticket shall be cashed until the fields have all been picked over4 ,were it not for this regulation1 the lazy and the bummers would earn enough merely to buy a few drinks1 then slink off4 ,now they must remain until all are through before they can get a cent4 ,peters and ,harrison see to it that none are lying around in the shade1 and thus1 through the compulsion of system1 many1 no doubt1 are surprised to find themselves at work for the greater part of the day4 ,and yet neither system nor ,peters1 with even his sanguinary reputation1 is able alone to control the hordes employed4 ,of course the very dregs of the population are largely represented4 ,many go out on a lark1 not a few to steal1 and some with the basest purposes4 ,walking continually back and forth through the fields1 therefore1 are two duly authorized constables and their presence only prevents a great deal of crime4 ,moreover1 according to ,virginian law1 every landholder has the right to arrest thieves and trespassers4 ,up to the time of our visit1 five persons had been arrested1 and the fact that they were all white does not speak very well for our color4 ,the law of the state requires that they shall be punished by so many lashes1 according to the gravity of the offence1 and by imprisonment4 ,the whipping-post is one of the institutions1 and man or woman1 white or black1 against whom the crime of stealing is proved1 is stripped to the waist and lashed upon the bare back4 ,such ignominious punishment may prevent theft1 but it must tend to destroy every vestige of self-respect and pride in criminals1 and render them hopelessly reckless4 ,therefore1 it should cease at once4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that very little lawlessness was apparent4 ,in no instance have ,i received a rude word while travelling in the ,south1 while1 on the other hand1 the courtesy and kindness were almost unstinted4 ,the negroes about ,norfolk certainly do not wear an intimidated or bull-dozed air4 ,git off my row1 dar1 or ,i'll bust yo' head open1 shouted a tall1 strapping colored girl to a white man1 and he got off her row with alacrity4 ,mr4 ,young says that the negro laborers are easily managed1 and will endure a great deal of severity if you deal squarely with them2 but if you wrong them out of even five cents1 they will never forget it4 ,what's more1 every citizen of ,blackville will be informed of the fact1 for what one knows they all seem to know very soon4 ,we were not long in learning to regard the strawberry farm as a little world within itself4 ,it would be difficult to make the reader understand its life and go at certain hours of the day4 ,scores are coming and going2 hundreds dot the fields2 carts piled up with crates are moving hither and thither4 ,at the same time the regular toil of cultivation is maintained4 ,back and forth between the young plants mules are drawing cultivators1 and following these come a score or two women with light1 sharp hoes4 ,from the great crate manufactory is heard the whir of machinery and the click of hammers2 at intervals the smithy sends forth its metallic voice1 while from one centre of toil and interest to another the proprietor whisks in his open buggy at a speed that often seems perilous4 ,after all1 ,mr4 ,young's most efficient aid in his business was his father 7recently deceased74 ,it gave me pleasure to note the frequency and deference with which the senior's judgment wa consulted1 and ,i also observed that wherever the old gentleman's umbrella was seen in the field1 all went well4 ,at four or five in the afternoon1 the whole area would be picked over4 ,the fields would be left to meadow-larks and quails1 whose liquid notes well replaced the songs and cries of the pickers4 ,here and there a mule-cart would come straggling in4 ,by night1 all signs of life were concentrated around the barns and paying booth2 but even from these one after another would drift away to the city1 till at last scarcely a vestige of the hurry and business of the day would be left4 ,the deep hush and quiet that settled down on the scene was all the more delightful from contrast4 ,to listen to the evening wind among the pines1 to watch the sun drop below the spires of ,norfolk1 and see the long shadows creep toward us2 to let our thoughts flit whither they would1 like the birds about us1 was all the occupation we craved at this hour4 ,were we younger and more romantic1 we might select this witching time for a visit to an ancient grave in one of the strawberry fields4 ,a mossy1 horizontal slab marks the spot1 and beneath it reposes the dust of a young ,english officer4 ,one bright ,june day--so the legend is told--one hundred and sixteen years ago1 this man1 in the early summer of his life1 was killed in a duel4 ,lingering here1 through the twilight1 until the landscape grows as obscure as this rash youth's history1 what fancies some might weave4 ,as the cause of the tragedy1 one would scarcely fail to see among the shadows the dim form and features of some old-time belle1 whose smiles had kindled the fierce passion that was here quenched1 more than a century since4 ,did she marry the rival1 of surer aim and cooler head and heart1 or did she haunt this place with regretful tears8 ,did she become a stout1 prosaic woman1 and end her days in whist and all the ancient proprieties1 or fade into a remorseful wraith that still haunts her unfortunate lover's grave8 ,one shivers1 and grows superstitious4 ,the light twinkling from the windows of the cottage under the pines becomes very attractive4 ,as we fall asleep after such a visit1 we like to think of the meadow-larks singing on the mossy tombstone in the morning4 ,daring a rainy day1 when driven from the field1 we found plenty to interest us in the printing-office1 smithy1 and especially in the huge crate manufactory4 ,here were piled up coils of baskets that suggested strawberries for a million supper-tables4 ,hour after hour the mule-power engine drove saws1 with teeth sharper than those of time1 through the pine boards that soon became crates for the round quart baskets4 ,these crates were painted green1 marked with ,mr4 ,young's name1 and piled to the lofty1 cobwebbed ceiling4 ,but ,saturday is the culminating period of the week4 ,the huge plantation has been gone over closely and carefully1 for the morrow is ,sunday1 on which day the birds are the only pickers4 ,around the office1 crate manufactory1 and paying booth were gathered over a thousand people--a motley and variegated crowd1 that the ,south only can produce4 ,the odd and often coarse jargon1 the infinite variety in appearance and character1 suggested again that humanity is a very tangled problem4 ,the shrewdness and accuracy1 however1 with which the most ignorant count their tickets and reckon their dues on their fingers1 is a trait characteristic of all1 and1 having received the few shillings1 which mean a luxurious ,sunday1 they trudge off to town1 chattering volubly1 whether any one listens or not4 ,but many can not resist the rollicking music back of the paying booth4 ,three sable musicians form the orchestra1 and from a bass viol1 fiddle and fife they extract melody that1 with all its short-coming1 would make a deacon wish to dance4 ,any one1 white or black1 can purchase the privilege of keeping step to the music for two cents1 or one strawberry ticket4 ,business was superb1 and every shade of color and character was represented4 ,in the vernacular of the farm1 the mulatto girls are called strawberry blondes1 and one that would have attracted attention anywhere was led out by a droll1 full-blooded negro1 who would have made the fortune of a minstrel troupe4 ,she was tall and willowy4 ,a profusion of dark hair curled about an oval face1 not too dark to prevent a faint color of the strawberry from glowing in her cheeks4 ,she wore neither hat nor shoes1 but was as unembarrassed1 apparently1 in her one close-fitting garment1 as could be any ballroom belle dressed in the latest mode4 ,another blonde1 who sported torn slippers and white stockings1 was in danger of being spoiled by much attention4 ,as a rule1 however1 bare feet were nothing against a lady in the estimation of the young men4 ,at any rate1 all who could spare a berry ticket speedily found a partner1 and1 as we rode away from the farm1 the last sounds were those of music and merriment1 and our last glimpse was of the throng of dancers on the green4 ,the confused uproar and rush of business around the ,old ,dominion steamship made a marked contrast4 ,to the ample wharves every species of vehicle had been coming all day1 while all kinds of craft1 from a skiff to a large two-masted schooner1 waiting their turn to discharge their freight of berry crates and garden produce1 reached half across the ,elizabeth river4 ,the rumble of the trucks was almost like the roar of thunder1 as scores of negroes hustled crates1 barrels and boxes aboard4 ,most of the time they were on a good round trot1 and one had to pick his way with care2 for1 apparently1 the truck was as thoughtful as the trundler4 ,as the long twilight fades utterly into night1 the last crate is aboard4 ,the dusky forms of the stevedores are seen in an old pontoon-shaped boat on their way to ,portsmouth1 but their outlines1 and the melody of their rude song1 are soon lost in the distance4 ,the ship1 that has become like a huge section of ,washington ,market1 casts off her lines1 and away we steam1 diffusing on the night air the fragrance of a thousand acres1 more or less1 of strawberries4 ,it was late in the night that followed the next day before we reached ,new ,york1 but on the great covered wharf1 to which was given a noonday glare by electric light1 there was no suggestion of the darkness and rain without4 ,various numbers1 prominent on the sides of the building1 indicated the lines of transit and the commission houses to which the immense1 indiscriminate cargo was assigned4 ,with a heavy jar and rumble that would not cease till the ship was empty1 a throng of white laborers wheel each package to its proper place4 ,mr4 ,young's crates soon grew into what seemed1 in the distance1 a good-sized mound4 ,the number above them stood for ,eldridge ,carpenter1 ,west ,washington ,market4 ,thither we followed them the next morning1 but found that the most of them had already been scattered throughout the city1 and realized that the berries we had seen a few hours before on the strawberry farm were even then on uptown breakfast-tables4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,forcing ,,strawberries ,,under ,,glass ,trained gardeners need no instruction from me on this topic4 ,there may be those1 however1 who have never given the subject attention1 and who would be glad to learn some of the first principles of success in forcing this fruit for market2 while a still larger number1 having small conservatories and warm south windows1 would be pleased to see a few strawberries blossoming and ripening1 as an earnest of the coming ,june4 ,there are no greater difficulties in the way than in having flowers1 for it is merely a question of doing the right thing at the right time4 ,i do not believe in a system of minute1 arbitrary directions1 so much as in the clear statement of a few general principles that will suggest what ought to be done4 ,the strawberry plant has the same character indoors as out1 and this fact alone1 in view of what has been written1 should suggest moisture1 coolness1 light1 and air4 ,i shall endeavor to present1 however1 each successive step4 ,first1 prepare a compost of thoroughly rotted sods and the cleanings of the cow-stable1 in the proportion of three parts sod-mould to one of manure4 ,in the place of sods1 decayed leaves1 muck1 sweetened by a year's exposure to air and frost1 or any good1 rich loam will answer4 ,with this compost1 made fine and clean by passing it through a coarse sieve1 fill in ,june1 and not later than ,july1 as many three-inch pots as you desire2 then sink them to their rims along the sides of the rows from which you propose to obtain winter-bearing plants4 ,varieties best adapted for forcing are those of a low1 stocky growth1 bearing perfect flowers and sweet or high-flavored berries4 ,i should say the ,triomphe de ,gand was the best1 and ,i observe that it and the ,la ,constante1 which it closely resembles1 are highly recommended abroad4 ,the bush ,alpines are said to do finely1 and ,i should think the ,black ,defiance would answer well4 ,mr4 ,henderson speaks highly of the ,champion1 which1 however1 must be grown with a perfect-flowered kind1 since it is a pistillate4 ,from the parent row1 guide the first runners so that they will take root in the pots4 ,let each runner form but a single1 strong plant1 which it will do in about two weeks1 filling the pot with roots4 ,then these plants1 with their accompanying balls of earth interlaced with roots1 are ready to be shifted into pots of from six to eight inches in diameter1 which also should be filled with the compost already described4 ,these larger pots should have three or four pieces of broken pottery in the bottom for drainage4 ,one plant to each pot is sufficient1 and the soil should be pressed firmly about the roots4 ,the methods of growers now differ somewhat1 but all agree in seeking to promote a continuous and healthy growth4 ,it may be necessary to place the pots in a half-shady position for a few days1 till the effects of shifting are over1 and the roots have taken hold of the new soil4 ,then they should stand in an open1 airy position1 close together1 where they can receive daily attention4 ,some recommend that they stand on boards1 flagging1 or bricks1 or a layer of coal ashes1 since earth-worms are thus kept out2 others sink them in cold frames1 where they can be protected somewhat from excessive heat and drenching storms2 while others1 still1 sink the pots in the open ground1 where it is convenient to care for and water them4 ,it is obvious that moisture must be steadily and continuously maintained1 and the plants be made to do their best until about the first of ,october4 ,after this1 they should be watered very sparingly--barely kept moist--since it is now our aim to ripen the foliage and roots and induce a season of rest4 ,at the same time1 they should not be permitted to dry out4 ,about the first of ,november1 an old hot-bed pit can be filled with dry leaves and the pots plunged in them1 close together1 up to their rims1 and1 as the season grows colder1 the tops can be covered1 so as to prevent the earth in the pots from freezing4 ,the top of the pit can be covered with boards to keep out the wet1 but not so tightly as to exclude the air4 ,our aim is to keep the plants dormant1 and yet a little above freezing1 and barely moist enough to prevent the slightest shrivelling4 ,since it requires from ten to fourteen weeks to mature the fruit under glass1 it would be well to subject some of the plants to heat early in ,october1 so as to have ripe berries at the holidays4 ,they can thereafter be taken from the storage place every two or three weeks1 so as to secure a succession4 ,by this course1 also1 if a mishap befalls one lot of plants1 there still remain several chances for winter fruit4 ,in the forcing process1 follow nature4 ,the plants do not start suddenly in spring1 but gradually awaken into life4 ,the weather1 also1 is comparatively cool when they are blossoming4 ,if these hints are not taken in the green-house1 there may be much promise but little fruit4 ,if the heat is turned on too rapidly when the plants begin to bloom1 the calyx and corolla will probably develop properly1 but the stamens will be destitute of pollen1 while the pistils1 the most complicated part of the flower1 and that which requires the longest time for perfect formation1 become a mere tuft of abortions1 incapable of quickening1 and shrivelling into pitch-black threads as soon as fully in contact with the air4 ,let the conditions within-doors accord as far as possible with those under the open sky4 ,the roots require coolness1 continuous and evenly maintained moisture4 ,one check from over-dryness may cause serious and lasting injury4 ,the foliage needs air and light in abundance4 ,therefore the pots should be on shelves close to the glass2 otherwise the leaf and fruit stalks will be drawn and spindling4 ,if the pot can be shaded while the plant is in full light1 all the better4 ,when first introduced1 the temperature should not exceed #de degrees or #ej degrees4 ,air must be freely admitted at all times1 though much less will suffice1 of course1 in cold than in warm weather4 ,watch the foliage1 and if it begins to grow long and without substance1 give more air and less heat4 ,an average of #ee degrees to #gj degrees by day may be allowed1 and from #de degrees to #ej degrees by night4 ,when the flower buds begin to open1 the forcing must be conducted more slowly and evenly1 so as to give the delicate organs time to perfect2 but after the fruit is set1 the heat can be increased till it occasionally reaches #ge degrees at midday4 ,after the fruit begins to color1 give less water--barely sufficient to prevent any check in growth1 and the fruit will be sweeter and ripen faster4 ,the upper blossoms may be pinched off1 so as to throw the whole strength of the plant into the lower berries4 ,keep off all runners2 syringe the plants if infested with the red spider1 and if the aphis appears1 fumigate him with tobacco4 ,the plants that have fruited need not be thrown away as useless4 ,if they are turned out of the pots into rich1 moist soil1 in ,april1 and the runners are kept off all summer1 they will make large1 bushy stools1 which will give a fine crop in autumn4 ,the amateur1 with a small conservatory or south window1 by approximating as far as possible to the conditions named1 can achieve a fair success4 ,i have had plants do moderately well by merely digging them from the beds late in the fall1 with considerable rich earth clinging to their roots1 and then potting with more rich soil1 and forcing them at once4 ,of course1 fine results cannot be expected from such careless work1 but some strawberries can be raised with very little trouble4 ,if one1 however1 wished to go into the business on a large and scientific scale1 ,i would recommend a straw berry-house1 designed by ,mr4 ,william ,ingram1 gardener at ,belvoir ,castle4 ,a figure of the structure may be seen on page #gd in ,mr4 ,fuller's valuable work1 ,the ,small ,fruit ,culturist4 ,on the same principles that we have been describing1 the ripening of strawberries can be hastened by the use of hot beds1 cold frames1 and ordinary sash4 ,during the ,christmas holidays strawberries sell readily at from #d to #h per quart1 and handsome fruit brings high prices till ,march2 but the profit of raising them under glass threatens to diminish in future years1 since ,florida berries begin to arrive freely even in ,february4 ,there are those who now seem to be doing well in the business of forcing1 if we may judge from the jealousy with which they guard the open secrets of their calling from their neighbors4 ,a rough and ready method of forcing is to dig up clumps of plants during a mild spell in winter or early spring1 put them in boxes or pots of rich earth1 and take them into the green-house4 ,considerable fruit is sometimes ripened in this way4 ,an ,english writer says3 ,we find forced strawberries mentioned as being served at an installation dinner1 ,april #bc;d1 #affg2 but the idea had already occurred to the great ,lord ,bacon1 who writes1 ',as we have housed the exotics of hot countries1 so we may house our natives to forward them1 and thus have violets1 strawberries1 and pease all winter4' ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,originating ,,new ,,varieties--,,hybridization ,this chapter introduces us to great diversities of opinion1 and to still greater differences in experience2 and ,i fear that ,i shall leave the subject as indefinite as ,i find it4 ,the scientist best versed in botany and the laws of heredity can here find a field that would tax his best skill for a lifetime1 and yet a child may amuse himself with raising new kinds2 and it would not be impossible that1 through some lucky combination of nature1 the latter might produce a variety that would surpass the results of the learned man's labor4 ,as in most other activities of life1 however1 the probabilities are on the side of skill and continuous effort4 ,we have already shown that all the seeds of the ,f4 ,virginiana and ,f4 ,chilensis may produce a new variety4 ,these seedlings often closely resemble the parent or parents1 and sometimes are practically identical with one of them2 more often they present distinct differences4 ,it is wholly impossible to predict the character of seedlings as they usually are produced4 ,if we could obtain pure specimens of the two great species1 and cross them1 the element of chance would not enter into the result so largely as must be the case when seed is gathered in our gardens4 ,the pedigrees of but few varieties are known1 and in many instances the two great races are so mingled that we can only guess which element predominates1 by the behavior and appearance of the plants4 ,the kinds with which we start are hybrids1 and1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller sagaciously remarks1 ,hybridizing1 or crossing hybrids1 is only mixing together two compounds1 the exact proportions of neither being known4 ,therefore1 the inevitable element of chance4 ,disagreeable traits and shiftless ways of strawberry grandparents and great-grandparents may develop themselves in a seedling produced by the union of two first-class varieties4 ,at the same time it is possible that fine ancestral qualities may also assert themselves4 ,the chance seedling1 which comes up in a garden where good varieties have been raised1 may prove a prize4 ,the ,forest ,rose was found growing in a vineyard4 ,if we propose to raise seedlings1 however1 we will1 of course1 select seeds from the best fruit of fine varieties1 even in our first and most rudimental efforts4 ,before making any serious or prolonged attempt to originate new varieties1 it would be well to familiarize ourselves with certain principles1 and gather experience from the successes and failures of others4 ,we have seen that the ,f4 ,virginiana is the native species of the eastern section of our continent1 and that its vigor and hardiness best adapt it to our extremes of climate4 ,it were best to start1 therefore1 with the most vigorous strains and varieties of this hardy species4 ,it is true that fine results can be obtained from crossing varieties of the ,f4 ,chilensis with our native species--the ,president ,wilder proves this--but few of such products are adapted to the country at large1 and they will be almost sure to falter on light soils4 ,we will achieve our best success in developing our native species4 ,by observation1 careful reading of the horticultural journals1 and by correspondence1 the propagator can learn what varieties show vigor and productiveness throughout a wide range of country1 and in great diversities of soil and climate4 ,these sturdy kinds1 that seem bent on doing well everywhere1 should be the robust forefathers of the strawberries of the future4 ,starting with these1 we are already well on the way toward the excellence we hope to attain4 ,the pith of our difficulty now is to make any further advance4 ,how can we surpass that superb group of berries that prove their excellence year after year8 ,as ,mr4 ,durand well puts it1 new varieties1 to be of value1 should produce berries that measure from four to eight inches in circumference1 of good form1 color and flavor2 very large specimens are not expected to be perfect in form1 yet those of medium size should always be4 ,the calyx should never be imbedded in the flesh1 which should be sufficiently firm to carry well1 and withstand all changes of our variable climate4 ,the texture should be fine1 flesh rich1 with a moderate amount of acid--no more than just sufficient to make it palatable with sugar as a table berry4 ,the plant should be hardy1 vigorous1 large1 and strong2 of great endurance as to climatic change1 and able to stand any amount of manure of the right kind4 ,it should be a prolific bearer1 with stalks of sufficient length to keep the fruit out of the dirt1 and bear its berries of nearly uniform size to the end4 ,any serious departure from such necessary qualities would be fatal to any new variety4 ,what is the use of spending time on varieties that do not possess these good qualities1 or many of them1 so pre-eminently that they supersede those already in our gardens8 ,shall ,i root out the ,charles ,downing1 ,seth ,boyden1 and ,monarch1 and replace them with inferior kinds because they are new8 ,that is what we have been doing too extensively4 ,but if1 in very truth1 varieties can be originated that do surpass the best we now have1 then both common-sense and self-interest should lead to their general cultivation4 ,i believe that honest and intelligent effort can secure a continued advance in excellence which will probably be slow1 but may be sure4 ,the public1 however1 will suffer many disappointments1 and every year will buy thousands of some extravagantly praised and high-priced new variety1 in hope of obtaining the ideal strawberry2 and they so often get a good thing among the blanks that they seem disposed to continue indefinitely this mild form of speculation4 ,in the final result merit asserts itself1 and there is a survival of the fittest4 ,the process of winnowing the wheat from the chaff is a costly one to many1 however1 ,i have paid hundreds of dollars for varieties that ,i now regard as little better than weeds4 ,from thorough knowledge of the best kinds already in cultivation1 the propagator should not impose any second-rate kind on the public4 ,and yet the public1 or the law which the public sustains1 renders this duty difficult4 ,if a man invents a peculiar nutmeg-grater1 his patent protects him2 but if he discovers1 or originates1 a fruit that enriches the world1 any one who can get it1 by fair means or foul1 may propagate and sell to all4 ,to reap any advantages1 the originator must put his seedling1 which may have cost him years of effort1 into the market before it is fully and widely tested4 ,if he sends it for trial to other localities1 there is much danger of its falling into improper hands4 ,the variety may do splendidly in its native garden1 and yet not be adapted to general cultivation4 ,this fact1 which might have been learned by trial throughout the country before being sent out1 if there was protective law1 is learned afterward1 to the cost of the majority who buy4 ,in view of the above considerations1 it is doubtful whether the pecuniary reward will often repay for the time1 trouble1 and expense which is usually required to produce a variety worthy of general introduction4 ,other motives than money must actuate4 ,as ,mr4 ,durand once said1 when so perplexed by the difficulties and complications of his labor1 and so disheartened by the results that he was inclined to throw down the burden1 ,there is a fascination that binds me still4 ,in other words1 he was engaged in one of the divinest forms of alchemy4 ,having procured the vigorous stock from which we hope to obtain still stronger and more productive varieties1 we may go to work several ways4 ,we may plant our choice varieties in close proximity1 and let the bees and summer gales do the hybridizing4 ,it will be remembered that the organs of procreation in the perfect strawberry blossom are the pistils on the convex receptacle and the encircling stamens4 ,the anthers of the latter produce a golden powder1 so light that it will float on a summer breeze1 and so fine that insects dust themselves with it and carry it long distances4 ,when this dust1 which is called pollen1 comes in contact with the stigma of a pistil1 it imparts the power of development both to the seed and that which sustains it--the receptacle which is eventually transformed into the juicy pulp4 ,if the pistils are not fertilized1 there will be no strawberries1 as well as no seeds4 ,perfect-flowering varieties1 therefore1 are self-fertilizing4 ,there are stamens and pistils in the same flower1 and the pollen from the former impregnates the latter4 ,in view of this fact1 the probabilities are all against success in obtaining an improved variety4 ,while the pollen may pass from one perfect-flowering kind to another1 and produce a seed which will give a new combination1 the chances of self-fertilization1 and that1 in consequence1 the seeds will produce degenerate and somewhat varying counterparts of the parent1 are so great that it is a waste of time to plant them4 ,there is little to be hoped1 therefore1 from the seed of perfect-flowering kinds left to nature's influences4 ,in this country1 we have pistillate varieties1 or those that are wholly destitute of stamens4 ,mr4 ,fuller says that1 for some reason1 they do not originate abroad4 ,it is obvious that1 with these pistillates1 we can attain a direct cross with some staminate or perfect-flowering variety2 but if our pistillates grow openly in the garden1 near several staminates1 the seeds sown may have been fertilized by the poorest of them1 or by pollen from wild strawberries1 brought by the wind or insects4 ,it is all haphazard work1 and we can only guess at the parentage of the seedlings4 ,there is no skilful combination of good qualities1 such as the stock farmer makes when he mingles good blood4 ,gathering the seed1 therefore1 in our gardens1 even under the most favorable auspices1 is the veriest game of hazard1 with nearly all the chances against us2 and yet superb varieties are occasionally procured in this way4 ,indeed1 as we have seen1 they sometimes come up themselves1 and assert their merit wholly unaided4 ,by such methods1 however1 the propagator has not one chance in thousands1 as much experience shows4 ,we are1 therefore1 led to isolate our plants1 and to seek intelligently and definitely to unite the good qualities of two distinct varieties4 ,if they have no pistillate plants abroad1 they must remove all the stamens from some perfect flower before they are sufficiently developed to shed their pollen1 and then fertilize the pistils with the stamens of the other variety whose qualities they wish to enter into the combination4 ,there is no need of our doing this1 for it involves much trouble and care at best1 and then we are always haunted by the fear that the stamens were not removed in time1 or so completely as to prevent self-fertilization4 ,with such pistillate varieties as the ,golden ,defiance1 ,champion1 ,spring-dale1 and ,crescent1 we have as robust motherhood as we require4 ,in order to present to the reader the most approved systems of hybridization1 ,i will give the methods of two gentlemen who are among the best known in relation to this subject4 ,the late ,mr4 ,seth ,boyden won world-wide celebrity by his success1 and the berry named after him will perpetuate his memory for many years to come4 ,when grown under the proper conditions1 it presents a type of excellence still unsurpassed4 ,mr4 ,boyden's neighbor1 ,mr4 ,ogden ,brown1 of ,hilton1 ,n4 ,j41 writes to me as follows3 ,my method of raising seedlings is the one practiced by ,mr4 ,boyden4 ,in ,august ,i set the plants from which ,i wish to secure new combinations in a plot of ground the size of my glass frame1 and in early spring set the frame over them1 so that the plants may blossom before any others4 ,thus1 no mixture from the pollen of outside plants can take place1 for none are in bloom save those in the frame4 ,the plants within the frame are two or three pistillate plants1 all of one good variety like the ,champion2 and three or four superior1 perfect-flowering kinds1 any one of which1 ,i think1 will make a good combination with the pistillate variety4 ,the seeds from the pistillate only are used1 and when the fruit is ripened1 these seeds are slightly dried and placed between two pieces of ice for about two weeks4 ,i then put them in pure sand1 wrapped up in a wet rag1 and keep them sufficiently near the fire to preserve constant warmth until the germs are ready to burst forth4 ,i then sow the seeds in a bed of finely riddled rich earth1 and cover with boards about six inches from the soil4 ,this is to prevent the sun from drying the ground4 ,plants thus raised will be sufficiently large to set in the fruiting-bed in ,september4 ,in the fifteen years that ,i was acquainted with ,mr4 ,boyden1 ,i never knew him to fail in raising fruit from these plants the following summer4 ,i do not know that ,mr4 ,boyden's method has been improved upon4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,merrick1 ,jr41 recommends this same isolation of the pistillate plant under glass4 ,it should be distinctly understood that while several perfect-flowering plants may be placed under the sash with a pistillate1 the pollen of only one of these can fertilize a pistil4 ,mixing pollen from different kinds will never produce in a seedling the qualities of three or more varieties4 ,the seedling is the product of two kinds only4 ,inclosing the plants in a frame ensures that all the pistils are fertilized by one or the other of the perfect-flowered varieties that are so fine as to promise a better combination of excellence than yet exists4 ,the appearance of the seedling will probably show which of the kinds formed the combination1 but often there would be uncertainty on this point1 ,i think4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand1 who sent out the ,black ,defiance1 ,great ,american1 ,beauty1 ,pioneer1 and several others1 claims that the true method is to propagate by pairs1 each parent possessing certain distinctive features4 ,my course1 he writes1 in a paper read before the ,n4 ,j4 ,state ,horticultural ,society1 is to select my pistillates after years of trial1 subject them to severe tests1 and place alongside of each such a staminate as ,i think will harmonize and produce a certain desired effect4 ,another pistillate plant1 of the same variety1 is placed far away from the last1 with a different staminate1 and so on1 till ,i exhaust the staminates or perfect-flowering kinds that ,i wish to test with that pistillate variety4 ,of late years1 ,i have used but two or three kinds of pistillate plants1 and they are a combination of excellence4 ,i never show them to my most intimate friends1 and the public know nothing about them4 ,the years of trial and experiment necessary to produce such plants must necessarily discourage a beginner2 yet it is the only course that will lead to success4 ,i think that ,mr4 ,durand takes too gloomy a view of the subject1 and ,i can see no reason why any one starting with such pistillates as the ,golden ,defiance1 ,champion1 and others1 may not originate a variety superior to any now in existence4 ,at the same time1 ,i must caution against over-sanguine hopes4 ,mr4 ,durand states the interesting fact that he generally produces #c1jjj new varieties annually1 and including the year #ahgf1 he had already originated about #ej1jjj seedlings4 ,while some of these have already secured great celebrity1 like the ,great ,american1 ,i do not know of one that promises to maintain a continued and national popularity4 ,i regard his old ,black ,defiance and the later ,pioneer as his best seedlings1 so far as ,i have seen them4 ,very many others do not have even his success4 ,we may have to experiment for years before we obtain a seedling worth preserving2 nevertheless1 in the heart of each propagator lurks the hope that he may draw the prize of prizes4 ,i will close this chapter with a few simple and practical suggestions4 ,it is not necessary to place the seeds in ice4 ,they may be sown in ,july1 in rich soil1 rendered fine and mellow1 and in a half-shady position2 and the surface should be kept moist by watering1 and a sprinkling of a little very fine compost1 that will prevent the ground from baking4 ,some of the seeds will germinate that season1 more will come up the following spring4 ,or1 they may be started in a cold frame under glass1 and hastened in their growth so that good-sized plants are ready for the fruiting-bed by ,september4 ,mr4 ,durand plants his seed in the spring1 and the seedlings bear the following year4 ,the plants should be set eighteen inches apart each way in the fruiting-bed4 ,when they blossom1 note and mark all the pistillates as such4 ,those that grow feebly1 and whose foliage scalds or burns in the sun1 root out at once4 ,the ,spartan law of death to the feeble and deformed should be rigorously enforced in the fruit garden4 ,the first year of fruiting will satisfy you that the majority of seedlings are to be thrown away4 ,those that give special promise should be lifted with a large ball of earth1 and planted where they may be kept pure from mixture1 and given further trial4 ,remember that a seedling may do better the first year than ever after1 and that only a continued and varied trial can prove its worth4 ,all runners should be kept off1 unless the ground is infested with grubs1 and there is danger of losing a promising variety of which we have but one specimen4 ,if so fortunate as to raise superior seedlings1 test them side by side1 and under the same conditions with the best kinds in existence1 before calling to them public attention4 ,try them1 also1 in light and heavy soils2 and1 if possible1 send them to trusted friends who will subject them to varied climates in widely separated localities4 ,if1 however1 you find them vigorous and productive on the light1 poor soil of your own place1 you may hope much for them elsewhere4 ,no berry will be generally popular that requires much petting4 ,i only state this as a fact4 ,in my opinion1 some varieties are so superb in size and flavor that they deserve high culture1 and well repay it4 ,it is a question whether1 except for the purposes of propagation1 pistillate varieties should be preserved and sent out4 ,mr4 ,fuller and others take ground against them1 and their views are entitled to great respect1 but with such kinds as the ,golden ,defiance and ,champion in my garden1 ,i am not prepared to condemn them4 ,one objection urged against them is that many purchase a single variety1 and1 should it prove a pistillate1 they would have no fruit4 ,they would not deserve any1 if they gave the subject so little attention4 ,every fruit catalogue states which are pistillates1 and their need of a perfect-flowering kind near them4 ,again1 it is urged that this necessary proximity of two kinds leads to mixtures4 ,it need not1 and1 with the plant grower1 can only result from gross carelessness4 ,the different beds may be yards apart4 ,in order to secure thorough fertilization1 it is not at all necessary to plant so near that the two kinds can run together4 ,in a large field of pistillates1 every tenth row should be of a staminate1 blossoming at the same time with the pistillate4 ,the ,kentucky seedling is a first-class staminate1 but it should not be used to fertilize the ,crescent1 since the latter would almost be out of bloom before the former began to blossom4 ,plant early pistillates with early staminates1 and late with late4 ,many ask me3 ,do strawberries mix by being planted near each other8 ,they mix only by running together1 so that you can scarcely distinguish the two kinds2 but a ,wilson plant will produce ,wilson runners to the end of time2 and were one plant surrounded by a million other varieties1 it would still maintain the ,wilson characteristics4 ,it is through the seeds1 and seeds only1 that one variety has any appreciable effect upon another4 ,many have confused ideas on this point4 ,a man brought to the ,centennial ,exhibition1 at ,philadelphia1 a pot of strawberries that attracted great attention1 for the fruit was magnificent4 ,i suggested to him that it resembled the ,jucunda1 and he said that it was a cross between that berry and the ,seth ,boyden4 ,this was a combination that promised so well that ,i went twenty miles1 on a very hot day1 to see his bed1 and found that the crossing was simply the interlacing of the runners of the two distinct varieties1 and that ,i could tell the intermingled ,jucunda and ,boyden plants apart at a glance4 ,such crossing would make no marked change in varieties if continued for centuries4 ,the enemies and diseases of the strawberry will be grouped in a general chapter on these subjects4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,raspberries--,,species1 ,,history1 ,,propagation1 ,,etc4 ,i have given the greater part of this volume to the subject of strawberries1 not only because it is the most popular fruit1 but also for the reason that the principles of thorough preparation of the soil1 drainage1 culture1 etc41 apply equally to the other small fruits4 ,those who have followed me carefully thus far can soon master the conditions of success which apply to the fruits still to be treated4 ,i shall now consider a fruit which is only second in value1 and1 by many1 even preferred to all the others4 ,like the strawberry1 the raspberry is well connected1 since it1 also1 belongs to the ,rose family4 ,it has a perennial root1 producing biennial woody stems that reach a height of from three to six feet4 ,varieties1 however1 differ greatly in this respect4 ,usually1 the stems or canes do not bear until the second year1 and that season ends their life1 their place being taken by a new growth from the root4 ,the flowers are white or red1 very unobtrusive1 and rich in sweetness4 ,the discriminating bees forsake most other flowers while the raspberry blossoms last4 ,the pistils on the convex receptacle mature into a collection of small drupes1 or stone fruits1 of the same character as the cherry1 plum1 etc41 and the seeds within the drupes are miniature pits4 ,these drupes adhere together1 forming round or conical caps1 which will drop from the receptacle when over-ripe4 ,i have seen the ground covered with the fruit of certain varieties1 when picking has been delayed4 ,all peoples seem to have had a feeling sense of the spines1 or thorns of this plant1 as may be gathered from its name in different languages2 the ,italian term is ,raspo1 the ,scotch ,raspis1 and the ,german ,kratsberre1 or ,scratchberry4 ,the ,greeks traced the raspberry to ,mount ,ida1 and the original bush may have grown in the shadowy glade where the ,shepherd ,alexandre1 alias ,paris1 son of ,priam1 ,king of ,troy1 gave his fateful decision in favor of ,venus4 ,juno and ,minerva undoubtedly beguiled the time1 while the favored goddess presented her claims1 by eating the fruit1 and perhaps enhanced their competitive beauty by touching their cheeks with an occasional berry4 ,at any rate1 the raspberry of the ancients is ,rubus ,idoeus4 ,the elder ,pliny1 who wrote not far from #de ,a4,d41 states that the ,greeks distinguished the raspberry bramble by the term ,idoea1 and1 like so many other ,grecian ideas1 it has found increasing favor ever since4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller1 one of the best-read authorities on these subjects1 writes that ,paladius1 a ,roman agricultural author who flourished in the fourth century1 mentions the raspberry as one of the cultivated fruits of his time4 ,it thus appears that it was promoted to the garden long before the strawberry was so honored4 ,while it is true that the raspberry in various forms is found wild throughout the continent1 and that the ancient gardeners in most instances obtained their supply of plants in the adjacent fields or forests1 the late ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,downing is of the opinion that the large-fruited varieties are descendants of the ,mount ,ida ,bramble1 and from that locality were introduced into the gardens of southern ,europe4 ,in ,america1 two well-known and distinct species are enriching our gardens and gracing our tables with their healthful fruit4 ,we will first name ,r4 ,strigosus1 or the wild red raspberry1 almost as dear to our memory as the wild strawberry4 ,it grows best along the edge of woodlands and in half-shadowy places that seem equally adapted to lovers' rambles4 ,nature1 too1 in a kindly mood1 seems to have scattered the seeds of this fruit along the roadside1 thus fringing the highway in dusty1 hot ,july with ambrosial food4 ,professor ,gray thus describes the native red species3 ,r4 ,strigosus1 ,wild ,bed ,e4 ,common1 especially ,north2 from two to three feet high2 the upright stems1 stalks1 etc41 beset with copious bristles1 and some of them becoming weak prickles1 also glandular2 leaflets oblong-ovate1 pointed1 cut-serrate1 white-downy beneath1 the lateral ones 7either one or two pairs7 not stalked2 petals as long as the sepals2 fruit light-red1 tender and watery1 but high flavored1 ripening all summer4 ,the second great ,american species1 ,r4 ,occidentals1 will be described hereafter4 ,since this book is not designed to teach botany1 ,i shall not refer to the other species--,r4 ,triflorus1 ,r4 ,odoratus1 ,r4 ,nutkanno1 etc4--which are of no practical value1 and1 for the present1 will confine myself to the propagation and cultivation of ,r4 ,idoeus and ,r4 ,strigosus1 and their seedlings4 ,,propagation ,usually1 varieties of these two species throw up suckers from the roots in sufficient abundance for all practical purposes1 and these young canes from between the hills or rows are1 in most instances1 the plants of commerce1 and the means of extending our plantations4 ,but where a variety is scarce1 or the purpose is to increase it rapidly1 we can dig out the many interlacing roots that fill the soil between the hills1 cut them into two-inch pieces1 and each may be developed within a year into a good plant4 ,fall is the best season for making root cuttings1 and it can be continued as late as the frost permits4 ,my method is to store the roots in a cellar1 and cut them from time to time1 after out-of-door work is over4 ,i have holes bored in the bottom of a box to ensure drainage1 spread over it two inches of moist 7not wet7 earth1 then an inch layer of the root cuttings1 a thin layer of earth again1 then cuttings until the box is full4 ,if the cellar is cool and free from frost1 the cuttings may be kept there until spring2 or the boxes containing them can be buried so deeply on a dry knoll in a garden as to be below frost4 ,leaves piled above them ensure safety4 ,make sure that the boxes are buried where no water can collect either on or beneath the surface4 ,before new roots can be made by a cutting1 a whitish excrescence appears at both its ends1 called the callus1 and from this the rootlets start out4 ,this essential process goes on throughout the winter1 and therefore the advantage of making cuttings in the fall4 ,occasionally1 in the fall1 we may obtain a variety that we are anxious to increase1 in which case some of the roots may be taken off for cuttings before setting out the plants4 ,these little root-slips may be sown1 as one would sow peas1 early in the spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to work4 ,a plot of rich1 moist land should be chosen1 and the soil made mellow and fine1 as if for seed2 drills should then be opened eighteen inches apart1 two inches deep on heavy land1 and three inches deep on light4 ,the cuttings must now be dropped three inches from each other in the little furrows1 the ground levelled over them and firmed1 which is best done by walking on a board laid on the covered drill1 or else by the use of a garden roller4 ,if the entire cutting-bed were well sprinkled with fine compost1 and then covered so lightly--from one quarter to half an inch--with a mulch of straw that the shoots could come through it without hindrance1 scarcely a cutting would fail4 ,unfailing moisture1 without wetness1 is what a cutting requires4 ,roots may be divided into half-inch bits1 if forced under glass1 and in this way nurserymen often speedily provide themselves with large stocks of very scarce varieties4 ,the cuttings are placed in boxes of sand until the callus forms1 and little buds appear on the surface of the roots1 for which processes about five weeks are required4 ,they are then sown in shallow boxes containing about three inches of soil1 formed of equal parts of sand and decayed leaves1 and subjected to the heat of the green-house4 ,when they have formed plants from three to five inches high1 they may be potted1 if very valuable2 or1 if the weather is warm enough1 they can be transplanted at once into the open nursery-bed1 as one would a strawberry plant4 ,i have set out many thousands in this way1 only aiming to keep a little earth clinging to the roots as ,i took them from the shallow box4 ,plants grown from cuttings are usually regarded as the best2 but if a sucker plant is taken up with fibrous roots1 #a should regard it as equally good4 ,if we wish to try our fortune in originating new varieties1 we gather the largest and earliest berries1 dry them1 and plant the seeds the following spring2 or we may separate the seeds from the pulp by expressing it and mixing them with dry sand1 until they are in a condition to be sown evenly in a sheltered place at once4 ,as with strawberries1 they should be raked lightly into moist1 rich soil1 the surface of which should not be allowed to become dry and hard4 ,the probabilities are that they will germinate early in the spring and produce canes strong enough to bear the second year4 ,if the seed is from a kind that can not endure frost1 the young plant should receive thorough winter protection4 ,there is nothing better than a covering of earth4 ,in the spring of the second year1 cut the young plant down to the ground1 and it will send up a strong1 vigorous cane1 whose appearance and fruit will give a fair suggestion of its value the third year4 ,do not be sure of a prize1 even though the berries are superb and the new variety starts off most vigorously4 ,let me give a bit of experience4 ,in a fine old garden1 located in the centre of the city of ,newburgh1 ,n4 ,y41 my attention was attracted by the fruit of a raspberry bush whose roots were so interlaced with those of a grapevine that they could not be separated4 ,it scarcely seemed to have a fair chance to live at all1 and yet it was loaded with the largest and most delicious red raspberries that ,i had then ever seen4 ,it was evidently a chance1 and very distinct seedling4 ,i obtained from ,mr4 ,t4 ,h4 ,roe1 the proprietor of the garden1 permission to propagate the variety1 and in the autumn removed a number of the canes to my place at ,cornwall4 ,my first object was to learn whether it was hardy1 and therefore not the slightest protection was given the canes at ,newburgh1 nor even to those removed to my own place1 some of which were left four feet high for the sake of this test4 ,the winter that followed was one of the severest known2 the mercury sank to #cj degrees below zero1 but not a plant at either locality was injured2 and in the old garden a cane fourteen feet long1 that rested on the grape-arbor1 was alive to the tip1 and in ,july was loaded with the most beautiful fruit ,i had ever seen4 ,it was un-injured by the test of another winter1 and all who saw and tasted the fruit were enthusiastic in its praise4 ,the ,massachusetts ,horticultural ,society awarded it their first premium1 and ,mr4 ,charles ,downing said it was the finest red raspberry he had ever seen4 ,the veteran horticulturist1 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,parry1 who has had between forty and fifty years of experience in small fruits1 visited my place that summer4 ,the bushes he saw had never received any protection1 and had already been three weeks in bearing1 but they were still full of fruit4 ,after picking several berries that measured plump three inches in circumference1 he said1 quietly1 ,put me down for #ejj plants4 ,in no other way could he have stated his favorable opinion more emphatically4 ,it was as delicious as it was large and beautiful1 and surely ,i was reasonable in expecting for it a brilliant future4 ,in my faith ,i planted it largely myself1 expecting to make it my main dependence as a market berry4 ,but in ,august of that year many of the canes lost their foliage4 ,those that thus suffered were not entirely hardy the following winter4 ,it was eventually made clear that it belonged to the tender ,rubus ,idoeua class1 and1 therefore1 was not adapted to general cultivation1 especially on light soils1 and under sunny skies4 ,as ,i have shown1 its start was so full of vigor and promise that it won the favor and confidence of the horticultural veterans2 but it suddenly manifested lack of stamina and sturdy persistence in well-doing4 ,and this is just the trouble which every experienced propagator dreads4 ,only after years of test and trial in many localities can he be assured that his seedling may become a standard variety4 ,if this chance seedling1 the ,pride of the ,hudson1 is given a moist soil in some half-shady location1 it will yield fruit that will delight the amateur's heart1 but1 like ,brinkle's ,orange1 which it resembles in flavor1 only amateurs will give it the petting it requires4 ,as suggested when treating the strawberry1 so in seeking to originate new varieties of raspberries1 our aim should be to develop our hardy native species1 the ,r4 ,strigosus1 and if we employ the ,r4 ,idoeus class for parentage on one side1 seek its most vigorous representatives1 such as the ,belle de ,fontenay and ,franconia4 ,,choice ,,of ,,land--,,its ,,preparation--,,planting ,all that has been said about the thorough preparation of the soil for strawberries1 by drainage1 deep plowing1 trenching1 etc41 applies to raspberries1 but differences should be noted in respect to fertilizers4 ,land can scarcely be made too rich for any variety of strawberries1 but certain strong-growing raspberries1 like the ,cuthbert1 ,herstine1 and ,turner1 should not be over-fertilized4 ,some kinds demand good1 clean culture1 rather than a richness that would cause too great a growth of cane and foliage4 ,in contrast1 the feebler growing kinds1 like the ,brandywine1 and most of the foreign varieties1 require abundance of manure4 ,muck1 sweetened by lime and frost is one of the simplest and best2 but anything will answer that is not too full of heat and ferment4 ,like the strawberry1 the raspberry needs cool manures that have staying qualities4 ,unlike the former fruit1 however1 the raspberry does well in partial shade1 such as that furnished by the northern side of a fence1 hedge1 etc41 by a pear or even apple orchard1 if the trees still permit wide intervals of open sky4 ,the red varieties1 especially those of the foreign types much prefer moist1 heavy soils2 but the black-caps do quite as well on light ground1 if moisture can be maintained4 ,the latter1 also1 can be grown farther south than any other species1 but below the latitude of ,new ,york1 those containing foreign elements begin to fail rapidly1 until1 at last1 a point is reached where even the most vigorous native red varieties refuse to live4 ,if the climate1 however1 is tempered by height above the sea1 as in the mountains of ,georgia1 they will thrive abundantly4 ,illustration3 ,,spring ,,and ,,fall ,,plants ,i prefer fall planting for raspberries1 especially in southern latitudes1 for these reasons3 ,at the points where the roots branch 7see ,fig4 ,a7 are buds which make the future stems or canes4 ,in the fall1 these are dormant1 small1 and not easily broken off1 as in ,fig4 ,b2 but they start early in spring1 and if planting is delayed1 these become so long and brittle that the utmost care can scarcely save them1 ,if rubbed off1 the development of good bearing canes is often deferred a year1 although the plants may live and fill the ground with roots4 ,the more growth a raspberry plant has made when set out in spring1 the greater the probability that it will receive a check1 from which it will never recover4 ,illustration3 ,,winter ,,protection ,,of ,,newly ,,set ,,plants ,i have often planted in ,may and ,june1 successfully1 by taking up the young suckers when from six inches to a foot high1 and setting them where they are to grow4 ,immediately on taking them up1 ,i cut them back so that only one or two laches of the green cane is left1 and thus the roots are not taxed to sustain wood and foliage beyond their power4 ,this can often be done to advantage1 when the plants are on one's own place1 and in moist1 cloudy weather4 ,my preference1 however1 is to plant the latter part of ,october and through ,november1 in well-prepared and enriched land4 ,the holes are made quite deep and large1 and the bottom filled with good surface soil4 ,if possible1 before planting1 plow and cross-plow deeply1 and have a subsoiler follow in each furrow4 ,it should be remembered that we are preparing for a crop which may occupy the land for ten or fifteen years1 and plants will suffer from every drought if set immediately on a hard subsoil4 ,on heavy land1 ,i set the plants one inch deeper than they were before2 on light soils two or three inches deeper4 ,i cut the canes off six inches above the surface 7see ,fig4 ,c72 for leaving long canes is often ruinous1 and a plant is frequently two or three years in recovering from the strain of trying to produce fruit the first year4 ,the whole strength of the roots should go toward producing bearing canes for the season following2 and to stimulate such growth1 ,i throw directly on the hill one or two shovelfuls of finely rotted compost and then mound the earth over the hill until the cane is wholly covered 7as in ,fig4 ,d74 ,this prevents all injury from the winter's cold4 ,when severe frosts are over1 the mound is levelled down again4 ,under this system1 ,i rarely lose plants1 and usually find that double growth is made compared with those set late in spring4 ,i have always succeeded well1 however1 in early spring planting2 and well to the north1 this is1 perhaps1 the safer season4 ,with the exception of mounding the earth over the hill1 plant in ,march or ,april as ,i have already directed4 ,,cultivation ,in cultivation1 keep the ground level2 do not let it become banked up against the hills1 as is often the case1 especially with those tender varieties that are covered with earth every winter4 ,keep the surface clean and mellow by the use of the cultivator and hoe4 ,with the exception of from four to six canes in the hill1 treat all suckers as weeds1 cutting them down while they are little1 before they have sucked half the life out of the bearing hill4 ,put a shovelful or two of good compost--any fertilizer is better than none--around the hills or along the rows1 late in the fall1 and work it lightly in with a fork if there is time4 ,the autumn and winter rains will carry it down to the roots1 giving almost double vigor and fruitfulness the following season4 ,if the top-dressing is neglected in the autumn1 be sure to give it as early in the spring as possible1 and work it down toward the roots4 ,bone-dust1 ashes1 poudrette1 barnyard manure1 and muck with lime can be used alternate years1 so as to give variety of plant food1 and a plantation thus sustained can be kept twenty years or more2 but under the usual culture1 vigor begins to fail after the eighth or tenth season4 ,the first tendency of most varieties of newly set red raspberries is to sucker immoderately2 but this gradually declines1 even with the most rampant1 and under good culture the fruiting qualities improve4 ,in dry weather the fork should not be used during the growing or bearing season4 ,the turning down of a stratum of dry1 hot soil next to the roots must cause a sudden check and injury from which only a soaking rain can bring full relief4 ,but in moist weather1 and periods preceding and following the blossoming and fruiting season1 ,i have often used the fork to advantage1 especially if there is a sod of short1 succulent weeds to be turned under as a green crop4 ,if the ground between the hills was stirred frequently with an iron garden-rake1 the weeds would not have a chance to start4 ,this is by far the best and cheapest way of maintaining our part in the unceasing conflict with vegetable evil4 ,an ,irish bull hits the truth exactly3 the best way to fight weeds is to have none to fight2 and raking the ground over on a sunny day1 about once a week1 destroys them when they are as yet but germinating seeds4 ,at the same time it opens the pores of the earth1 as a physiologist might express himself4 ,unfailing moisture is maintained1 air1 light1 and heat are introduced to the roots in accordance with ,nature's taste1 and the whole strength of the mellow soil goes to produce only that which is useful4 ,but this teaching is like the familiar and sound advice1 ,form no bad habits4 ,we do form them2 the weeds do get the start of us2 and therefore1 as a practical fact1 the old moral and physical struggle must go on until the end of time4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,raspberries--,,pruning--,,staking--,,m ulching--,,winter ,,protection1 ,,etc4 ,usually1 there is no pruning either in the field or the garden beyond the cutting out of the old canes and the shortening in of the new growth4 ,there is a difference of opinion as to whether the old canes should be cut out immediately after fruiting1 or left to natural decay1 and removed the following fall or spring4 ,i prefer the former course4 ,it certainly is neater1 and ,i think ,i have seen increased growth in the young canes1 for which more room is made1 and to whose support the roots can give their whole strength4 ,the new growth can make foliage fast enough to develop the roots2 still1 ,i have not experimented carefully1 and so cannot speak accurately4 ,we see summer pruning often advocated on paper1 but ,i have rarely met it in practice4 ,if carefully done at the proper season1 however1 much can be accomplished by it in the way of making strong1 stocky plants1 capable of standing alone--plants full of lateral branches1 like little trees1 that will be loaded with fruit4 ,but this summer pinching back must be commenced early1 while the new1 succulent growth is under full headway1 and continued through the busiest season1 when strawberries are ripe and harvest is beginning4 ,it should not be done after the cane has practically made its growth1 or else the buds that ought to remain dormant until the following season are started into a late and feeble growth that does not ripen before the advent of early frosts4 ,few have time for pruning in ,may or ,june4 ,if they have1 let them try it by all means1 especially on the black-cap species4 ,it does not require so much time as it does prompt action at the proper period of growth4 ,in the garden1 summer pinching can transform a raspberry bush into an ornamental shrub as beautiful as useful4 ,it is much better adapted to the hardier varieties than to those that must be bent down and covered with earth4 ,with the ,r4 ,occidentalis species1 summer pinching would always pay well4 ,the best ,i can do1 usually1 with the red varieties1 is to prune in ,november and ,march2 it should be done before the buds develop4 ,unless early fruit is wanted1 ,i believe in cutting back heroically4 ,nature once gave me a very useful hint4 ,one very cold winter1 a row of ,clarke raspberries was left unprotected4 ,the canes were four or five feet high1 but were killed down to the snow-level1 or within eighteen inches of the ground2 but from what was left uninjured1 we had as many and far finer berries than were gathered from other rows where the canes had been left their full length and protected by a covering of earth4 ,the fruit was later1 however4 ,i would remind careful observers of the raspberry how often buds on canes that have been broken off or cut away back develop into long sprays1 enormously fruitful of the largest berries4 ,i have counted fifty1 and even eighty1 berries on a branch that had grown from a single bud within one or two feet of the ground4 ,these lower buds often do not start at all when the canes are left their full1 or nearly their full length4 ,in the latter case the fruit ripens much earlier and more together2 and since an early crop1 though inferior in quality and quantity1 may be more valuable than a late one1 the fruit grower often objects to pruning4 ,but in the garden1 while the canes of some early kinds are left their full length1 ,i would recommend that others1 especially those of the later varieties1 be cut back one-half4 ,even for market purposes ,i believe that the superb fruit resulting from such pruning would bring more money in most instances4 ,at any rate1 the season of bearing would be greatly prolonged4 ,mulching on a large scale would not pay in most localities4 ,in regions where salt hay1 flags1 etc41 can be cut in abundance1 or where straw is so plenty as to be of little value1 it no doubt could be applied profitably4 ,on ,staten ,island ,i have seen large patches mulched with salt hay4 ,the canes were unstaked1 and many of them bent over on the clean hay with their burden of fruit4 ,when there are no stakes or other support used1 the berries certainly should be kept from contact with the soil4 ,the chief advantage of the mulch1 however1 is in the preservation of moisture4 ,when it is given freely1 all the fruit perfects1 and in a much longer succession4 ,the weeds and suckers are kept down1 and the patch has a neat appearance4 ,moreover1 mulching prevents the foliage from burning1 and enables the gardener to grow successfully the finer varieties further to the south and on light soils4 ,in keeping down the weeds through the long summer1 a mulch of leaves1 straw1 or any coarse litter1 is often far less costly than would be the labor required4 ,staking raspberries is undoubtedly the best1 simplest1 and cheapest method of supporting the canes of most varieties and in most localities4 ,i agree with the view taken by ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller4 ,chestnut stakes1 he writes1 five feet long and two or three inches in diameter1 made from large trees1 cost me less than two cents each1 and my location is within twenty miles of ,new ,york ,city1 where timber of all kinds commands a large price4 ,i can not afford to grow raspberries without staking1 because every stake will save on an average ten cents' worth of fruit1 and1 in many instances1 three times that amount4 ,of course1 split chestnut stakes look the neatest and last the longest2 but a raspberry bush is not fastidious1 and ,i utilize old bean-poles1 limbs of trees--anything that keeps the canes from sprawling in the dirt with their delicate fruit4 ,thus1 in many instances1 the stakes will cost little more than a boy's labor in preparing them1 and they can be of various lengths1 according to the height of our canes4 ,as they become too much decayed for further use1 they make a cheery blaze on the hearth during the early autumn evenings4 ,there are stocky growing varieties1 like the ,cuthbert1 ,turner1 ,herstine and others1 that by summer pruning or vigorous cutting back would be self-supporting1 if not too much exposed to high winds4 ,the question is a very practical one1 and should be decided largely by experience and the grower's locality4 ,there are fields and regions in which gales1 and especially thunder-gusts1 would prostrate into the dirt the stoutest bushes that could be formed by summer pruning1 breaking down canes heavy with green and ripe fruit4 ,in saving a penny stake1 a bit of string1 and the moment required for tying1 one might be made to feel1 after a ,july storm1 that he had been too thrifty4 ,as far as my experience and observation go1 ,i would either stake all my bushes that stood separately and singly1 or else would grow them in a loose1 continuous1 bushy row1 and keep the fruit clean by some kind of mulch4 ,splashed1 muddy berries are not fit either to eat or to sell4 ,illustration3 a4 ,canes snugly tied4 b4 ,canes improperly tied4 ,,right ,,and ,,wrong ,,ways ,,of ,,tying ,,canes ,in many localities1 however1 stakes are dispensed with4 ,in the garden1 wires1 fastened to posts1 are occasionally stretched along the rows1 and the canes tied to these4 ,the method in this section1 however1 is to insert stakes firmly in the hill1 by means of a pointed crowbar1 and the canes are tied to them as early in spring as possible4 ,unless watched1 the boys who do the tying persist in leaving the upper cords of the canes loose4 ,these unsupported ends1 when weighted with fruit and foliage1 break1 of course4 ,the canes should be snugly tied their whole length4 ,if bushes made stocky by summer pruning are supported1 let the stake be inserted on the side opposite that from which heavy winds are expected4 ,,winter ,,protection--,,taking ,,up ,,plants ,,for ,,spring ,,use--,,storing ,,them ,nearly all foreign varieties and their seedlings need winter protection1 or are the better for it1 north of the latitude of ,new ,york ,city4 ,many of the hardier kinds1 like the ,herstine and ,clarke1 will usually survive if bent over and kept close to the earth by the weight of poles or a shovelful or two of soil2 but all of the ,antwerp class need to be entirely covered4 ,to many1 this winter covering is a great bugbear1 even when only a small patch in the garden is involved4 ,there is a constant demand for perfectly hardy varieties4 ,it should be remembered that many of the best kinds are not hardy at all1 and that perhaps none are perfectly hardy4 ,the ,turner has never been injured on my place1 and the ,cuthbert is rarely hurt2 but occasionally they are partially killed1 more by alternations of freezing and thawing than by steady cold4 ,what are termed open winters are often the most destructive4 ,i find that it pays to cover all those kinds that are liable to injury1 and1 as the varieties are described1 this need will be distinctly stated4 ,the difficulties of covering are chiefly imaginary1 and it can be done by the acre at comparatively slight cost ,the vast crops of the ,hudson ,river ,antwerp were raised from fields covered every fall4 ,in the garden1 ,i do not consider the labor worth naming in comparison with the advantages secured4 ,those who find time to carefully cover their cabbages and gather turnips should not talk of the trouble of protecting a row of delicious ,herstine raspberries4 ,still1 ,nature is very indulgent to the lazy1 and has given us as fine a raspberry as the ,cuthbert1 which thus far1 with but few exceptions1 has endured our ,northern winters4 ,in ,november1 ,i have the labor of covering performed in the following simple way3 ,b is a hill with canes untrimmed4 ,c1 the canes have been shortened one-third--my rule in pruning4 ,after trimming1 the canes are ready to be laid down1 and they should all be bent one way4 ,to turn them sharply over and cover them with earth would cause many of the stronger ones to break just above the root2 so ,i have a shovelful of soil thrown on one side of the hill1 as in ,fig4 ,c1 and the canes bent over this little mound4 ,they thus describe a curve1 instead of lying at right angles on the surface1 with a weight of earth upon them4 ,a boy holds the cane down1 while a man on either side of the row rapidly shovels the earth upon them4 ,if the work is to be done on a large scale1 one or two shovelfuls will pin the canes to the earth1 and then1 by throwing a furrow over them on both sides with a plow1 the labor is soon accomplished4 ,it will be necessary to follow the plow with a shovel1 and increase the covering here and there4 ,in spring1 as soon as hard frosts are over--the first week in ,april1 in our latitude1 usually--begin at the end of the row toward which the canes were bent1 and with a fork throw and push the earth aside and gently lift the canes out of the soil1 taking pains to level the ground thoroughly1 and not leave it heaped up against the hills4 ,this should not be done when the earth is wet and sticky4 ,keep off the ground at such times1 unless the season is growing so late that there is danger of the canes decaying if not exposed to the air4 ,the sooner they are staked and tied up after uncovering1 the better4 ,illustration3 ,,pruning ,,and ,,laying ,,down ,,canes ,for market or other purposes1 we may wish a number of young plants1 in which case there is much room for good sense in taking them up4 ,many lay hold upon the canes and pull so hastily that little save sticks comes out4 ,a gardener wants fibrous roots rather than top2 therefore1 send the spade down under the roots and pry them out4 ,suckers and root-cutting plants can be dug in ,october1 after the wood has fairly ripened1 but be careful to leave no foliage on the canes that are taken up before the leaves fall1 for they rapidly drain the vitality of the plants4 ,it is best to cut the canes down to within a foot of the surface before digging4 ,i prefer taking up all plants for sale or use in the latter part of ,october and ,november1 and those not set out or disposed of are stored closely in trenches1 with the roots a foot or more below the surface4 ,by thus burying them deeply and by leaving on them a heavy covering of leaves1 they are kept in a dormant state quite late in spring1 and so can be handled without breaking off the buds which make the future canes4 ,but1 as we have already said1 the earlier they are planted after the frost is out1 the better4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,raspberries--,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,foreign ,,and ,,native ,,species ,this chapter will treat first of the imported kinds1 which usually are more or less tender1 and then1 by way of contrast1 of the hardy varieties of our native ,r4 ,strigosus4 ,i shall speak of those only that are now in general cultivation1 naming a few1 also1 whose popularity in the past has been so great as to entitle them to mention4 ,as was true of strawberries1 so also varieties of raspberries that won name and fame abroad were imported1 and a few of them have adapted themselves so well to ,american soil and climate as to have become standards of excellence4 ,among the best-known of these formerly was the ,red ,antwerp of ,england4 ,few old-fashioned gardens were without it at one time1 but it is fast giving way to newer and more popular varieties4 ,the canes are vigorous1 stocky1 and tall2 spines light-red1 numerous1 and rather strong4 ,winter protection is always needed4 ,the berries are large and very obtuse1 conical1 dark-red1 large-grained1 and covered with a thick bloom1 very juicy1 and exceedingly soft--too much so for market purposes4 ,they made a dainty dish for home use1 however1 and our grandmothers1 when maidens1 gathered them in the lengthening summer shadows4 ,the ,hudson ,river ,antwerp1 the most celebrated foreign berry in ,america1 is quite distinct from the above1 although belonging to the same family4 ,it is shorter and more slender in its growth1 quite free from spines1 and its canes are of a peculiar mouse-color4 ,its fruit is even larger1 but firm1 decidedly conical1 not very bright when fully ripe1 and rather dry1 but sweet and agreeable in flavor4 ,mr4 ,downing says that its origin is unknown1 and that it was brought to this country by the late ,mr4 ,briggs1 of ,poughkeepsie1 ,n4,y4 ,as this gentleman was leaving ,england 7thus the story is told1 ,mr4 ,downing writes to me71 he visited a friend to say good-by1 and solicited this new raspberry4 ,since he was leaving the country1 and could cause no injury to the sale of plants1 his friend gave him a few in parting1 although three guineas had been refused for a single plant hitherto1 in the careful effort to secure a large stock before putting the variety on the market4 ,its name suggests ,belgium as its original home4 ,this ,antwerp continues long in bearing1 and the berries begin to ripen early4 ,the good carrying qualities of the fruit1 combined with great productiveness1 made it at one time the most profitable market berry in this section2 but its culture was chiefly confined to a narrow strip on the west shore of the ,hudson1 extending from ,cornwall to ,kingston4 ,for some obscure reasons1 it did not thrive in other localities1 and now it appears to be failing fast in its favorite haunt4 ,a disease called the curl-leaf is destroying some of the oldest and largest plantations1 and the growers are looking about for hardier and more vigorous varieties4 ,but in its palmy days1 and even still1 the ,hudson ,river ,antwerp was one of the great productions of the country1 sending barges and steamers nightly to ,new ,york laden with ruby cones1 whose aroma was often very distinct on the windward shore while the boats were passing4 ,this enormous business had in part a chance and curious origin1 and a very small beginning2 while the celebrated variety itself1 which eventually covered so many hundreds of acres on the west bank of the ,hudson1 may be traced back through two lines of ancestry4 ,an ,english gardener1 who probably obtained the plants from ,mr4 ,briggs1 gave some of them to a ,mr4 ,samuel ,barnes1 who resided in ,westchester ,county4 ,from him1 ,mr4 ,thos4 ,h4 ,burling1 of ,new ,rochelle1 ,n4,y41 secured an abundant supply for his home garden4 ,here its value was observed by ,mr4 ,nathaniel ,hallock1 who transferred some of the canes to his place at ,milton1 ,n4 ,y4 ,from his garden they spread over many fields besides his own4 ,in respect to the other line of ancestry of this historical berry1 ,i am indebted for the following facts to ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,young1 of ,marlboro'1 ,n4 ,y43 ,many years ago a bundle of raspberry plants was left at a meat-market in ,poughkeepsie1 and ,mr4 ,watters1 the proprietor of the place1 kept them several days1 expecting that they would be called for4 ,as they remained upon his hands1 he planted them in his garden1 where1 like genuine worth1 they soon asserted their superiority4 ,mr4 ,edward ,young1 of ,marlboro'1 a relative of ,mr4 ,watters1 received a present of a few roots1 which supplied his family with the largest and most beautiful berries he had ever seen4 ,good propagates itself as well as evil if given a chance1 and ,mr4 ,young soon had far more fruit than was needed by his family1 and he resolved to try the fortunes of his favorite in ,new ,york market4 ,for this purpose1 his son writes1 my father procured imported fancy willow baskets1 holding about one pint each1 and carefully packed these in crates made for the purpose4 ,this mode proved a success1 both in carrying them securely and in making them very attractive4 ,the putting up such a fine variety of fruit in this way gave it notoriety at once1 and it brought at first as much as one dollar per quart4 ,my father was so well satisfied with his experiment that he advised his sons1 ,alexander1 ,edward and myself1 to extend the culture of this variety largely4 ,we entered into the business1 and1 pursuing it with diligence1 were well compensated4 ,our success made others desirous of engaging in it1 and so it spread out into its large dimensions4 ,mr4 ,alexander ,young estimates that in the year #aheh #a1jjj1jjj pint baskets1 or about #ad1gjj bushels1 were shipped from ,marlboro'2 but adds that since #ahfj it has decreased as fast4 ,from present appearances1 the variety must become extinct1 and ,i fear will never have its equal4 ,milton1 ,cornwall1 ,new burgh1 and other points competed in the profitable industry1 and now1 with ,marlboro'1 are replacing the failing variety with other kinds more vigorous in growth1 but thus far inferior in quality4 ,that the great industry is not falling off is shown by the following statement1 taken from the ,new ,york ,tribune in the summer of #aggi3 ,the village of ,highland1 opposite ,poughkeepsie1 runs a berry boat daily to ,new ,york1 and the large night steamers are now taking out immense loads of raspberries from the river towns every evening1 having at times nearly #b1jjj bushels on board4 ,from as careful a computation as ,i have been able to make1 through the courtesy of the officers of the large ,kingston boats the ,baldwin and ,cornell1 ,i am led to believe that these two steamers unitedly carried to the city over twenty thousand bushels of berries that same year4 ,the magnitude of this industry on the ,hudson will be still better realized when it is remembered that several other freight boats divide this traffic with the ,kingston steamers4 ,when we consider what a delicate and perishable fruit this is1 it can be understood that gathering and packing it properly is no bagatelle4 ,sometimes you will find the fruit grower's family in the field1 from the matron down to the little ones that cannot reach the highest berries4 ,but the home force is wholly insufficient1 and any one who will pick--man1 woman or child--is employed4 ,therefore1 drifting through the river towns during ,june and ,july1 are found specimens almost as picturesque1 if not so highly colored1 as those we saw at ,norfolk--poor whites from the back country and mountains2 people from the cities on a humble lark1 who cannot afford to rusticate at a hotel2 semi-tramps1 who have not attained to the final stage of aristocratic idleness1 wherein the offer of work is an insult which they resent by burning a barn4 ,rude shanties1 with bunks1 are fitted up to give all the shelter they require4 ,here they lead a gypsy life1 quite as much to their taste as camping in the ,adirondacks1 cooking and smoking through the ,june twilight1 and as oblivious of the exquisite scenery about them as the onion-eating peasants of ,italy2 but when picking the fruit on a sunny slope1 and half-hidden by the raspberry bushes1 ,nature blends them with the scene so deftly that even they become picturesque4 ,the little round thirds1 as they are termed1 into which the berries are gathered1 are carried out of the sunlight to sheds and barns2 the packer receives them1 giving tickets in exchange1 and then1 too often with the deliberation and ease induced by the summer heat1 packs them in crates4 ,as a result1 there is frequently a hurry-scurry later in the day to get the berries off in time4 ,the ,fastollf1 ,northumberland ,fillbasket1 and ,knevett's ,giant are fine old ,english varieties that are found in private gardens1 but have never made their way into general favor4 ,the ,franconia is now the best foreign variety we have4 ,it was introduced from ,paris by ,mr4 ,s4 ,g4 ,perkins1 of ,boston1 about thirty-seven years ago1 and is a large1 obtuse1 conical berry1 firm1 thus carrying well to market1 and although a little sour1 its acid is of a rich1 sprightly character4 ,it is raised largely in ,western ,new ,york1 and in northern latitudes is one of the most profitable4 ,it is almost hardy in the vicinity of ,rochester1 receiving by some growers no winter protection4 ,its lack of hardiness with us1 and further southward1 is due to its tendency--common to nearly all foreign berries--to lose its foliage in ,august4 ,i am inclined to think that it would prove one of the most profitable in ,canada1 and that if it were simply pinned down to the surface of the ground1 and thus kept under the deep snows1 it would rarely suffer from the cold4 ,it should be distinctly understood that the climate of ,canada1 if winter protection is given--indeed1 ,i may say1 without protection--is far better adapted to tender raspberries than that of ,new ,jersey1 ,virginia1 or even ,pennsylvania4 ,the long continuance of the ,franconia in bearing is one of its best qualities4 ,we usually enjoy its fruit for six weeks together4 ,its almost globular shape is in contrast with another excellent ,french variety1 the ,belle de ,fontenay1 a large1 long1 conical1 but somewhat irregular-shaped berry of very superior flavor4 ,mr4 ,fuller says that it is entirely hardy4 ,it survives the winter without protection on my grounds4 ,the canes are very stocky and strong1 and unless growing thickly together are branching4 ,its most marked characteristic1 however1 is a second crop in autumn1 produced on the tips of the new canes4 ,if the canes of the previous year are cut even with the ground early in spring1 the new growth gives a very abundant autumn crop of berries1 which1 although much inclined to crumble in picking1 and to be irregular in shape1 have still the rare flavor of a delicious fruit long out of season4 ,it certainly is the best of the fall-bearing kinds1 and deserves a place in every garden4 ,there are more profitable market varieties1 however2 but1 if the suckers are vigorously destroyed1 and the bearing canes cut well back1 the fruit is often very large1 abundant1 and attractive1 bringing the highest prices4 ,as a plantation grows older1 the tendency to sucker immoderately decreases1 and the fruit improves4 ,the ,belle de ,pallua and ,hornet are also ,french varieties that in some sections yield fine fruit1 but are too uncertain to become favorites in our country4 ,i have a few canes of a ,french variety that ,mr4 ,downing imported a number of years since1 and of which the name has been lost4 ,it certainly is the finest raspberry ,i have ever seen1 and ,i am testing its adaptation to various soils4 ,having named the best-known foreign varieties1 ,i will now turn to ,r4 ,strigosus1 or our native species1 which is scattered almost everywhere throughout the ,north4 ,in its favorite haunts by roadside hedge and open glade in the forest1 a bush is occasionally found producing such fine fruit that the delighted discoverer marks it1 and in the autumn transfers it to his garden4 ,as a result1 a new variety is often heralded throughout the land4 ,a few of these wildings have become widely popular1 and among them the ,brandywine probably has had the most noted career4 ,mr4 ,william ,parry1 of ,new ,jersey1 who has been largely interested in this variety1 writes to me as follows3 ,i have never been able to trace the origin of this berry4 ,it attracted attention some eight or ten years since in the ,wilmington market1 and was for a time called the ',wilmington4' ,subsequently ,mr4 ,edward ,tatnall1 of that city1 undertook to introduce it by the name of ,susqueco1 the ,indian name for the ,brandywine4 ,it soon became the principal raspberry grown along the ,brandywine ,creek1 and as the market-men would persist in calling it after its chief haunt1 it will probably bear the historical name until it passes wholly out of favor4 ,its popularity is already on the wane1 because of its dry texture and insipid flavor1 but its bright color1 good size1 and especially its firmness and remarkable carrying qualities1 will ever lead to its ready sale in the market4 ,it is not a tall1 vigorous grower1 except in very rich land4 ,the young canes are usually small1 slender1 of a pale red color1 and have but few spines4 ,like nearly all the ,r4 ,strigosus species1 it tends to sucker immoderately4 ,if this disposition is rigorously checked by hoe and cultivator1 it is productive2 otherwise1 the bearing canes are choked and rendered comparatively unfruitful4 ,this variety is waning before the ,cuthbert--a larger and much better berry4 ,the ,turner is another of this class1 and1 in ,mr4 ,charles ,downing's opinion1 is the best of them4 ,it was introduced by ,professor ,j4 ,b4 ,turner1 of ,illinois1 and is a great favorite in many parts of the ,west4 ,it has behaved well on my place for several years1 and ,i am steadily increasing my stock of it4 ,i regard it as the hardiest raspberry in cultivation1 and a winter must be severe1 indeed1 that injures it4 ,like the ,crescent ,seedling strawberry1 it will grow anywhere1 and under almost any conditions4 ,the laziest man on the continent can have its fruit in abundance1 if he can muster sufficient spirit to put out a few roots1 and hoe out all the suckers except five or six in the hill4 ,it is early1 and in flavor surpasses all of its class2 the fruit is only moderately firm4 ,plant a few in some out-of-the-way place1 and it will give the largest return for the least amount of labor of any kind with which ,i am acquainted4 ,the canes are very vigorous1 of a golden reddish-brown1 like mahogany1 over which spreads in many places a purple bloom1 like that on a grape1 and which rubs off at the touch4 ,it is almost free from spines1 and so closely resembles the ,southern ,thornless in all respects that ,i cannot distinguish between them4 ,the ,turner is a fine example of the result of persistent well-doing4 ,after having been treated slightingly and written down at the ,east for ten years or more1 it is now steadily winning its way toward the front rank4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller1 who has tried most of the older varieties1 says that he keeps a patch of it for his own use1 because it gives so much good fruit with so little trouble4 ,i shall give its origin in ,professor ,turner's own words1 as far as possible3 ,soon after ,i came to ,illinois1 in #ahcc1 ,i obtained1 through a friend from the ,east1 some raspberries sold to me as the ',red ,antwerp4' ,i do not know or believe that there was at that time any other red raspberry within one hundred miles of this place4 ,indeed1 ,i have never seen a native wild red raspberry in the ,state1 though it may be there are some4 ,i found the ,antwerp would not stand our climate1 but by extreme care ,i protected it one winter1 and it bore some fruit4 ,i conceived the idea of amusing my leisure hours from college duty by raising new seedling raspberries1 strawberries1 etc41 that would be adapted to the climate of the ,state4 ,i had only a small garden spot1 no particular knowledge of the business1 and no interest in it outside of the public good4 ,i read upon the subject1 as far as ,i then could1 and planted and nursed my seedlings4 ,out of hundreds or thousands sown1 ,i got one good early strawberry1 which had a local run for a time2 one fair blackberry1 but no grapes or raspberries that seemed worth anything4 ,the seeds of the raspberries were sown in a bed back of my house1 and the shoots reserved were all nurtured on the same bed4 ,after ,i supposed them to be a failure1 ,i set out an arbor vitae hedge directly across the raspberry bed1 making some effort to destroy the canes so that the little cedars might grow4 ,sometimes1 when they were in the way of the cedars they were hoed out4 ,if any of them bore berries1 the fowls doubtless destroyed them1 or the children ate them before they ripened1 until the cedars got so high as to give them protection4 ,then the children found the ripe fruit1 and reported it to me4 ,i have not the least doubt but this raspberry came from a seed of the plants obtained from the ,east as the ,red ,antwerp4 ,the original canes may have been false to name1 or a mixture of the true and false4 ,whatever they were1 they bore good1 red berries1 which ,i supposed to be ,antwerps2 but the canes were so tender as to be worthless4 ,it is wholly impossible that the new variety should have come from any other seed than that sown by me where the vitae hedge now stands4 ,this letter is very interesting in showing how curiously some of our best varieties originate4 ,moreover1 it suggests a dilemma4 ,how is it possible that an ,antwerp--one of the most tender varieties--could have been the parent of the hardiest known raspberry8 ,how could a sort having every characteristic of our native ,r4 ,strigosus spring direct from ,r4 ,idoeus8 ,i have been familiar with the ,antwerps all my life1 and can see no trace of them in this hardy berry4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller writes to me1 ,the ,turner is a true native--,r4 ,strigosus2 and ,mr4 ,charles ,downing holds the same opinion4 ,hence ,i am led to believe that there was a native variety among the plants the professor obtained from the ,east1 or that a seed of a native was dropped among the cedars by a bird1 or brought thither in the roots of the cedars4 ,be this as it may1 ,professor ,turner's good motives have been rewarded and he has given the public an excellent raspberry4 ,in connection with this subject1 ,mr4 ,fuller added the following fact1 which opens to the amateur a very interesting field for experiment3 ,if there is any doubt in regard to such matters1 raise a few seedlings of the variety1 and if it is a cross or hybrid1 a part of the seedlings will revert back to each parent1 or so near them that there will be no difficulty in determining that there was a mixture of blood4 ,if all our so-called hybrid fruits were thus tested1 we would then know more of their true parentage4 ,in the sunny laboratory of the garden1 therefore1 ,nature's chemistry will resolve these juicy compounds back into their original constituents4 ,the ,highland ,hardy1 or ,native1 also belongs to this species1 and is quite a favorite still in some localities2 but it has had its day1 ,i think4 ,its extreme earliness has made it profitable in some regions2 but its softness1 small size and wretched flavor should banish it from cultivation as soon as possible4 ,there are others1 like the ,thwack1 ,pearl1 and ,bristol2 they are but second rate1 being inferior in most regions to the ,brandywine1 which they resemble4 ,in my opinion1 the chief value of ,r4 ,strigosus is to be found in two facts4 ,in the first place1 they endure the severe ,northern winters1 and--what is of far more consequence--their best representatives thrive in light soils1 and their tough foliage does not burn under the hot sun4 ,it thus becomes the one species of red raspberry that can be raised successfully in the ,south1 and from it1 as a hardy stock1 we should seek to develop the raspberries of the future4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,rubus ,,occidentalis--,,black-,,cap ,,and ,,purple ,,cane ,,raspberries ,we now turn to the other great ,american species--,rubus ,occidentalis--the well-known black-cap1 or thimble berry1 that is found along almost every roadside and fence in the land4 ,there are few little people who have not stained their lips and fingers1 not to mention their clothes1 with this homely favorite4 ,i can recall the days when1 to the horror of the laundress1 ,i filled my pockets with the juicy caps4 ,it is scarcely necessary to recall its long1 rambling1 purple shoots1 its light-green foliage1 silvery on the under side1 its sharp and abundant spines1 from which we have received many a vicious scratch4 ,its cultivation is so simple that it may be suggested in a few sentences4 ,it does not produce suckers1 like ,r4 ,strigosus1 but the tips of the drooping branches root themselves in the soil during ,august and ,september1 forming young plants4 ,these1 planted1 produce a vigorous bush the first year that bears the second season1 and then dies down to the perennial root1 as is the case with all raspberries4 ,usually1 the tips of the young canes will take root1 if left to themselves1 unless whipped about by the wind4 ,if new plants in abundance are desired1 it is best to assist ,nature1 however1 by placing a little earth on the tip just after it begins to enlarge slightly1 thus showing it is ready to take root4 ,this labor is quickly performed by throwing a handful or two of earth on the tips with a trowel4 ,the tips do not all mature for propagation at one time2 therefore1 it is well to go over the plantation every two weeks after the middle of ,august and cover lightly with earth only such as are enlarged4 ,if covered before this sign of readiness appears1 the tip merely decays4 ,if a variety is very scarce1 we may cover not only the tips1 but also much of the cane1 lightly--an inch or two--with earth1 and each bud will eventually make a plant4 ,this should not be done1 however1 until the wood is well ripened1 say about the first of ,october4 ,throw a few leaves over such layered canes in ,november1 and divide the buds and roots into separate plants early in spring4 ,they will probably be so small as to need a year in the nursery row4 ,sometimes1 after the first tip is rooted1 buds a little above it will push into shoots which also will root themselves with slight assistance1 and thus the number of new plants is greatly increased4 ,spring is by far the best time1 at the ,north1 for planting these rooted tips2 but it should be done as early as possible1 before the bud has started into its brittle1 succulent growth4 ,at the ,south1 ,november is probably the best season for planting4 ,it is a species that adapts itself to most soils1 even the lightest1 and endures much neglect4 ,at the same time1 it responds generously to good culture and rigorous pruning1 and if moisture is abundant the yield is simply enormous4 ,it not only thrives far to the north1 but can also be grown further south than any other class of raspberries4 ,in planting1 spread out the roots and let them go down their full length1 but do not put over an inch or two of soil on the bud from which the new canes are to spring4 ,press the earth firmly around this bud1 but not on it4 ,let the rows be six feet apart1 and the plants three feet from each other in the row2 at this distance1 #b1djj will be required for an acre4 ,summer pinching back will transform these sprawling1 drooping canes into compact1 stocky bushes1 or ornamental shrubs that in sheltered locations will be self-supporting4 ,clean culture1 and1 as the plantation grows older1 higher stimulation1 greatly enhance success4 ,after the plants begin to show signs of age and feebleness1 it is best to set out young plants on new ground4 ,the varieties of this species are almost innumerable1 since seedlings come up by the million every year2 but the differences between the majority of them are usually very slight4 ,there are four kinds1 however1 that have won honorable distinction and just popularity4 ,the earliest of these is ,davidson's ,thornless1 said to have originated in the garden of ,mrs4 ,mercy ,davidson1 ,towanda1 ,erie ,co41 ,n4,y4 ,it is nothing like so vigorous a grower as the other three varieties2 but the sweetness of the fruit and the freedom from thorns make it desirable for the home garden4 ,unless high culture or moist soil is given1 ,i do not recommend it for market4 ,next in order of ripening is the ,doolittle1 or ,american ,improved1 found growing wild1 about thirty-five years since1 by ,leander ,joslyn1 of ,phelps1 ,ontario ,co41 ,n4,y41 and introduced by ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,doolittle4 ,this1 hitherto1 has been the most popular of all the species1 and thousands of bushels are annually raised for market4 ,the plant is exceedingly vigorous1 producing strong1 branching canes that literally cover themselves with fruit4 ,i have seen long rows fairly black with caps4 ,perhaps it should be stated that the thorns are vigorous also4 ,latest in ripening is the ,mammoth ,cluster1 or ,mc,cormick1 which1 thus far1 has been my favorite4 ,it is even more vigorous than the preceding1 but not so briery or branching4 ,the fruit is produced usually in a thick cluster or bunch at the end of the branch1 and they ripen more together than the other kinds4 ,the caps1 too1 are much larger1 more juicy and fine-flavored4 ,one is less conscious of the seeds4 ,between the thumb and finger you can often gather a handful from a single spray1 it is so prodigiously productive4 ,thus far it has been unsurpassed1 either for home use or market2 but now it is encountering a rival in the ,gregg1 a new variety that is attracting much attention4 ,its history1 as far as ,i have been able to learn it1 is as follows3 ,in the latter part of ,june1 #ahff1 this black raspberry was found growing wild in a ravine on the ,gregg farm1 which is located in ,ohio ,co41 ,indiana4 ,the original bush was bending under the weight of colossal-sized clusters4 ,it was then a single clump1 surrounded by a few young plants growing from its tips4 ,before introducing it to the public1 we gave it a most thorough and complete trial4 ,we have put it on the tables of some of the most prominent horticultural societies1 and by each it has been voted the highest rank in their fruit lists4 ,at the ,centennial ,exposition1 at ,philadelphia1 in competition with all the prominent varieties in the world1 it was ranked highest by the judges4 ,during eleven years of observation it has survived the coldest winters1 and never failed to yield an abundant crop4 ,it is a vigorous1 rapid grower1 producing strong1 well-matured canes by fall4 ,the fruit is beautiful in appearance1 delicious1 possessing excellent shipping and keeping qualities4 ,the above is a mild and condensed statement of its claims1 as set forth by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,p4 ,gregg1 proprietors of the ,gregg farm1 and ,i believe these gentlemen have given a correct account of their experience4 ,as the result of much inquiry1 it would appear that this variety is also doing well throughout the country at large4 ,mr4 ,n4 ,ohmer1 who has been most prominent in introducing the ,gregg1 gives the following account of his first acquaintance with it3 ,at a meeting of the ,indiana ,state ,horticultural ,society1 held at ,indianapolis1 a gentleman asked for the privilege of making some remarks about a new black raspberry that he was cultivating4 ,being pretty long-winded1 as most lawyers are1 he spoke so long1 and said so much in favor of his berry1 that no one believed him1 and were glad when he got through4 ,the summer following1 ,i chanced to call on the ,secretary of the ,indiana ,state ,board of ,agriculture1 in the ,capitol building1 and was surprised to see on his table about half a peck of berries and an armful of canes loaded with the largest1 handsomest1 and best black raspberries ,i had ever seen4 ,mr4 ,herron1 the ,secretary1 informed me that they were grown by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,p4 ,gregg4 ,i obtained two hundred plants1 a few of which bore fruit so fine1 the following season1 that all who saw it wanted plants4 ,it was learned that ,mr4 ,gregg was the lawyer who was thought long-winded1 and many who then yawned have since thought1 no doubt1 that they might have listened with much profit1 for the demand for the plants has become greater than the supply4 ,only time can show whether the ,gregg is to supersede the ,mammoth ,cluster4 ,i observe that veteran fruit growers are very conservative1 and by no means hasty to give a newcomer the place that a fine old variety has won by years of excellence in nearly all diversities of soil and climate4 ,the ,gregg certainly promises remarkably well1 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,meehan1 editor of the ,gardener's ,monthly1 who is well known to be exceedingly careful and conscientious in indorsing new fruits1 writes3 ,we believe this variety is generally larger than any other of its kind yet known4 ,there are many other candidates for favor1 but thus far they are untried1 or have not proved themselves equal to the kinds ,i have named4 ,quite a distinct branch of ,r4 ,occidentalis is the ,purple ,cane family--so named1 ,i think1 from the purple cane raspberry that was so well known in old gardens a few years ago1 but since it has been superseded by better kinds is now fast passing out of cultivation4 ,it almost took care of itself in our home garden for forty years or more1 and its soft1 small berries would melt in one's mouth4 ,its canes were smooth and its fruit of a dusky-red color4 ,in other respects1 it resembles the black-cap tribe4 ,the ,catawissa1 found growing in a ,pennsylvania graveyard1 is another berry of this class1 which produces a second crop in autumn4 ,it is tender in the ,northern ,states1 and has never become popular4 ,the ,philadelphia is the best known of the class1 and at one time was immensely popular4 ,its canes are smooth1 stout1 erect in growth1 and enormously productive of medium-sized1 round1 dusky-red berries of very poor flavor4 ,it throve so well on the light soils about ,philadelphia1 that it was heralded to the skies1 and the plants sold at one time as high as #dj per #ajj1 but the inferior flavor and unattractive appearance of the fruit caused it to decline steadily in favor1 and now it has but few friends4 ,unlike others of its class1 it does not root from the tips1 but propagates itself by suckers1 producing them sparingly1 however4 ,when it was in such great demand1 the nurserymen increased it by root cuttings1 forced under glass4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,raspberries ,,of ,,the ,,future ,we now come to a class that are destined1 ,i think1 to be the raspberries of the future1 or1 at least1 a type of them4 ,i refer to the seedlings of the three original species that have been described4 ,as a rule 7having exceptions of course71 these native seedling varieties are comparatively hardy1 and adapted to the climate of ,america4 ,this adaptation applies to the ,south in the proportion that they possess the qualities of the ,rubus ,strigosus or ,occidentalis4 ,to the degree that the foreign element of ,r4 ,idoeus exists1 they will1 with a few exceptions1 require winter protection1 and will be unable to thrive in light soils and under hot suns4 ,forgetfulness of this principle is often the cause of much misapprehension and undiscriminating censure4 ,i have known certain ,new ,jersey fruit growers to condemn a variety unsparingly4 ,would it not be more sensible to say it belongs to the ,r4 ,idoeus class1 and1 therefore1 is not adapted to our climate and light soil1 but in higher latitudes and on heavy land it may prove one of the best8 ,it should here be premised that these seedlings originated in this country4 ,perhaps they are the product solely of our native species1 or they may result from crossing varieties of ,r4 ,idoeus1 in which case they will exhibit the characteristics of the foreign species2 or1 finally1 from the foreign and our native species may be produced a hybrid that will combine traits of each line of its lineage4 ,a conspicuous example of the second statement may be seen in ,brinkle's ,orange1 originated by ,dr4 ,brinkle many years ago4 ,it is essentially an ,antwerp in character1 and yet it is more vigorous1 and adapted to a wider range of country than the ,antwerp4 ,the berry is of a beautiful buff color1 and its delicious flavor is the accepted standard of excellence4 ,at the same time1 it is well known that it will not thrive under hot suns or upon light land4 ,it can be raised south of ,new ,york only in cool1 moist soils1 and in half-shady locations2 but at the ,north1 where the conditions of growth are favorable1 it produces strong branching canes1 covered with white spines1 and is exceedingly productive of large1 light-colored berries that melt on the tongue4 ,there is the same difference between it and the ,brandywine that exists between ,stowell's ,evergreen and flint field corn4 ,it invariably requires winter protection4 ,the ,pride of the ,hudson possesses the same general character as the ,orange1 and approaches it very nearly in excellence4 ,it certainly is the largest1 most beautiful red raspberry now before the public2 but in its later development it has shown such sensitiveness to both heat and cold that ,i cannot recommend it for general cultivation4 ,give it a moist soil and a half-shady location1 such as may be found on the northern side of a fence or hedge1 and it will become the pride of any northern garden2 but in the ,south1 and on light soils1 it can scarcely live4 ,it should have winter protection4 ,in contrast with these native berries of foreign parentage1 we have the ,herstine2 ,mr4 ,b4 ,k4 ,bliss1 the well-known seedsman of ,new ,york ,city1 kindly furnishes me the following facts of its history3 ,about ten years since ,i was invited1 with several gentlemen 7mostly horticulturists71 to visit the late ,mr4 ,herstine1 at ,philadelphia4 ,we were to examine a lot of seedling raspberries1 and select names for those that we thought worthy of general cultivation4 ,we found quite a company there from the vicinity of ,philadelphia and from ,washington1 while ,new ,york was represented by such eminent authorities as ,dr4 ,thurber and ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller4 ,the raspberry bushes were completely loaded with large fine fruit--the finest ,i ever saw4 ,each variety was carefully examined1 and the guests voted as to which1 in his opinion1 was the best4 ,the ,herstine stood first and the ,saunders second4 ,mr4 ,herstine explained that they were raised from the ,allen raspberry1 which had been planted in alternate rows with the ,philadelphia4 ,this parentage would make it a hybrid of the ,r4 ,strigosus and the purple cane branch of the ,r4 ,occidentalis species2 but the plant and fruit indicate the presence1 also1 of the ,r4 ,ideous element4 ,after several years' experience on my own place1 ,i regard it as the best early raspberry in existence4 ,the berry is large1 obtusely conical1 bright red1 and delicious in flavor4 ,it is scarcely firm enough for market where it must be sent any great distance1 but if picked promptly after it reddens1 and packed in a cool1 airy place1 it carries well and brings good prices4 ,the canes are strong1 red1 stocky1 and covered with spines4 ,they are but half-hardy1 and ,i think it is best to cover them before the first of ,december1 in our latitude4 ,the canes of the ,saunders1 also sent out by ,mr4 ,herstine1 are much darker in color1 and not so vigorous1 but sufficiently so4 ,the berries are large1 ripen later1 are more globular1 and are of the same excellent quality4 ,it deserves greater popularity than it has received4 ,it is1 also1 only half-hardy4 ,in the ,clarke1 we undoubtedly have a variety containing considerable of the ,r4 ,idoeus element4 ,the berries are often very large1 bright crimson1 conical1 with large1 hairy grains4 ,occasionally1 the fruit on my vines was very imperfect1 and crumbled badly in picking4 ,i found that by cutting the canes rigorously back--even one-half--,i obtained much larger and more perfect berries1 and in increased quantities4 ,the canes are very strong1 upright growers1 ending usually in a thick tuft of foliage1 rather than in long1 drooping tips4 ,it was originated by ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,clarke1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 and is but half-hardy4 ,in the ,new ,rochelle1 we have a hybrid of the black-cap and red raspberry1 the ,r4 ,occidentalis element predominating1 and manifesting itself in the stocky and branching character of the canes1 and in the fact that they propagate themselves by tips1 and not suckers4 ,the ,new ,rochelle1 originated by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,carpenter1 of ,rye1 ,n4,y41 is perhaps the best of this class4 ,it is very vigorous1 hardy1 and enormously productive1 and the fruit is of good size4 ,i do not like its sharp acid1 however1 and its dun or dusky-brown color will probably prevent it from becoming a favorite in market1 since bright-hued berries are justly much preferred4 ,but ,mr4 ,carpenter has sent out another seedling which1 ,i think1 is destined to have a brilliant future--the ,caroline1 ,it is thought to be a cross between the ,catawissa and ,brinkle's ,orange4 ,the canes are perfectly hardy1 very strong1 vigorous1 branching1 light-red1 with a lighter bloom upon them here and there4 ,it suckers freely1 and also propagates itself sparingly from the tips4 ,the fruit is exceedingly abundant and is a round cap of a beautiful buff color1 almost equalling ,brinkle's ,orange in flavor4 ,i think it will grow anywhere1 and thus will find a place in innumerable gardens where the ,orange does not thrive4 ,at the same time1 it is good enough for any garden4 ,the ,ganargua was said to be a hybrid1 but ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomas writes to me3 ,i have never been able to discover proof that it is one4 ,i think it all ,r4 ,occidentalis--a variety4 ,the ,reliance1 a seedling of the ,philadelphia1 but far superior to it1 is doing remarkably well on my place1 and ,i hear favorable accounts from other localities4 ,there are many others that are either old and passing into obscurity or else so new and dubious in character that limited space forbids their mention4 ,we will close this sketch of varieties with the ,cuthbert1 which that experienced and careful horticulturist1 ,dr4 ,hexamer1 calls the best raspberry now in existence4 ,this is a chance seedling1 which the late ,thomas ,cuthbert found in his garden1 at ,riverdale1 ,n4,y4 ,his son has kindly furnished the following facts3 ,the raspberry in question was discovered by my father about eleven years ago in the garden of our country seat at ,riverdale-on-the-,hudson4 ,it is probably a seedling of the ,hudson ,river ,antwerp1 as it was found growing near the edge of a patch of that variety1 but its great vigor of growth and the size and quality of the fruit marked it at once as a new and distinct kind4 ,its canes were carefully separated from the others and a small plantation made of them4 ,the next year1 and from time to time since1 plants were given to our friends in various parts of the ,state for trial4 ,without exception1 their reports have been favorable1 particular mention having been made of their unusual vigor of growth1 their hardiness1 and the firmness and good keeping qualities of the fruit4 ,the first year or so we gave the canes winter protection1 but finding that it was unnecessary1 we have discontinued it1 and ,i have never heard of the canes being winter-killed4 ,from other sources ,i learn that ,mr4 ,cuthbert made an arrangement with a nurseryman by the name of ,thompson1 to propagate and send out the variety4 ,this gentleman dying soon after1 the stock came into the possession of ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,corson1 of ,staten ,island1 ,n4,y41 and by him and ,mr4 ,i4 ,j4 ,simonson1 a florist1 the plants have been sent out to different parts of the country4 ,this dissemination was very limited1 and was characterized by an almost utter absence of heralding and extravagant praise4 ,the berry has literally made its way on its own merits4 ,dr4 ,hexamer remarked to me that he had had it for years1 and had wondered why its merits were so overlooked4 ,my attention was called to it in the summer of #ahgh1 and ,i took pains to see it in several localities4 ,the large size of the berries1 their firmness and fine flavor1 convinced me that it was very valuable1 and the fact that ,i found it flourishing luxuriantly on ,new ,jersey sand1 and maintaining a perfectly healthful foliage under an ,august sun1 led me to believe that we had at last found a first-class variety that would thrive on light soils and under hot suns4 ,the late ,w4 ,c4 ,bryant1 the poet1 himself well versed in horticulture1 closed a letter to me with the following words3 ,it has always seemed to me a scandal to our horticulture that in a region where the raspberry grows wild1 we should not have a sort that would resist both the winter cold and summer heat1 and produce abundantly4 ,after another year of observation and of much correspondence1 extending even to ,california1 ,i am convinced that the ,cuthbert does resist both the winter cold and summer heat1 and produce abundantly1 far better than any other raspberry that equals it in size and flavor4 ,the canes are strong1 upright1 branching1 if space permits1 reddish-brown1 spines abundant1 but not very long and harsh4 ,it is a rampant grower on good soil1 but the foliage1 so far from being rank and large1 is delicate1 and the under side of the leaves has a light1 silvery hue4 ,after once getting hold of the soil1 it suckers immoderately1 but is no worse in this respect than other vigorous varieties2 and this tendency rapidly declines after the second year4 ,is it perfectly hardy8 ,no2 and ,i do not know of a single good raspberry that is2 except1 perhaps1 the ,turner1 which1 however1 is inferior to the ,cuthbert4 ,i have seen the latter badly winter-killed1 but it had stood eight years on the same ground without injury before4 ,then1 because of a rank growth late in the season1 that especial patch was hit hard1 while other fields1 but a few miles away1 were unharmed4 ,if planted on well-drained soil1 where the wood could ripen well1 ,i think it would be injured very rarely1 if ever2 but ,i have no faith in talk about perfectly hardy raspberries4 ,those who observe closely will often find our hardy native species killed to the ground1 and ,i think many varieties suffer more from the mild1 variable winters of the ,middle ,states than from the steady cold and snowy winters of the ,north4 ,moreover1 any variety that has not the power of maintaining a healthy foliage through the hot season will usually be too feeble to resist the winter following4 ,the question of hardiness can often be settled better in ,august than in ,january4 ,one of the most hopeful features of the ,cuthbert1 therefore1 is its tough1 sun-enduring foliage1 which enables the wood to ripen perfectly4 ,it has never received winter protection thus far1 either in this region or in ,michigan1 where it is largely raised1 but it may be found necessary to shield it somewhat in some localities4 ,it is both absurd and dishonest to claim perfection for a fruit1 and the ,cuthbert1 especially as it grows older and loses something of its pristine vigor1 will1 probably1 like all other varieties1 develop faults and weaknesses4 ,we cannot too much deprecate the arrogant spirit often manifested in introducing new fruits4 ,interested parties insist on boundless praise1 and if their advice were followed1 the fine old standards would be plowed out to make room for a newcomer that often proves1 on trial1 little better than a weed4 ,the ,cuthbert is not exactly a novelty4 ,through the gifts of the originator1 and sales running through several years1 it has become widely scattered1 and has proved a success in every instance1 as far as ,i can learn4 ,i show my faith in it by my works1 for ,i am setting it out more largely than all other kinds together1 even going so far as to rent land for the purpose4 ,i am satisfied1 from frequent inquiries in ,washington ,market1 that it will take the lead of all others1 and it is so firm that it can be shipped by rail1 like a ,wilson strawberry4 ,in ,delaware and ,southern ,new ,jersey1 a variety named ,queen of the ,market is being largely set out4 ,i have this variety in my specimen-bed1 side by side with plants that came from ,thomas ,cuthbert's garden1 and am almost satisfied that they are identical1 and that ,queen of the ,market is but a synonym of the ,cuthbert4 ,i have placed the canes and spines of each under a powerful microscope and can detect no differences1 and the fruit also appeared so much alike that ,i could not see wherein it varied4 ,plants of this variety were sent to ,delaware some years since as they were to ,michigan and ,california1 and1 wherever tested1 they seem to win strong and immediate favor4 ,its chief fault in this locality is its lateness4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,blackberries--,,varieties1 ,,cultivation1 ,,etc4 ,the small-fruit branch of the rose family is assuredly entitled to respect when it is remembered that the blackberry is the blackest sheep in it4 ,unlike the raspberry1 the drupes cling to the receptacle1 which falls off with them when mature1 and forms the hard1 disagreeable core when the berry is black1 but often only half ripe4 ,the bush is1 in truth1 what the ancients called it--a bramble1 and one of our ,highland wildcats could scarcely scratch more viciously than it1 if treated too familiarly2 but1 with judicious respect and good management1 it will yield large and beautiful berries4 ,it would seem that ,nature had given her mind more to blackberries than to strawberries1 for1 instead of merely five1 she has scattered about #aej species up and down the globe4 ,to describe all these would be a thorny experience indeed1 robbing the reader of his patience as completely as he would be bereft of his clothing should he literally attempt to go through them all4 ,therefore1 ,i shall give ,professor ,gray's description of the two species which have furnished our few really good varieties1 and dismiss with mere mention a few other species4 ,rubus ,villosus1 ,high ,blackberry4 ,everywhere along thickets1 fence-rows1 etc41 and several varieties cultivated2 stems one to six feet high1 furrowed2 prickles strong and hooked2 leaflets three to five1 ovate or lance-ovate1 pointed1 their lower surface and stalks hairy and glandular1 the middle one long-stalked and sometimes heart-shaped2 flowers racemed1 rather large1 with short bracts2 fruit oblong or cylindrical4 ,r4 ,canadensis1 ,low ,blackberry or ,dewberry4 ,rocky and sandy soil2 long trailing1 slightly prickly1 smooth or smoothish1 and with three to seven smaller leaflets than in the foregoing1 the racemes of flowers with more leaf-like bracts1 the fruit of fewer grains and ripening earlier4 ,the ,r4 ,cuneifolius1 or ,sand ,blackberry1 is common in the sandy ground and barrens from ,new ,jersey southward2 the ,r4 ,trivialis1 ,southern ,low ,blackberry1 is found in light soils from ,virginia southward2 the ,r4 ,hispidus is a ,running ,swamp ,blackberry whose long1 slender stems creep through low1 damp woods and marshes2 the ,r4 ,spectabilis produces purple solitary flowers1 and grows on the banks of the ,columbia ,river in the far ,northwest4 ,whatever improvements may originate from these species in the future1 they have not as yet1 to my knowledge1 given us any fine cultivated variety4 ,r1 fruticosus is the best-known ,european species1 but neither has it1 as far as ,i can discover1 been the source of any varieties worthy of favor4 ,it is said to have a peculiar flavor1 that produces satiety at once4 ,the blackberry1 therefore1 is exceptional1 in that we have no fine foreign varieties1 and ,mr4 ,fuller writes that he cannot find any practical information in regard to their culture in any ,european work on gardening4 ,the bramble is quite fully treated in ,mr4 ,r4 ,thompson's valuable ,english work1 but ,i find little to interest the ,american reader4 ,he suggests that the several native species that he describes are capable of great improvement1 but ,i cannot learn that such effort has ever been made successfully4 ,i do not know of any reason why our fine varieties will not thrive abroad1 under conditions that accord with their nature4 ,in ,america there are innumerable varieties1 since ,nature produces wild seedlings on every hillside1 and not a few seeds have been planted by horticulturists in the hope of originating a prize berry4 ,nature appears to have had the better fortune1 thus far1 for our best varieties are chance seedlings1 found growing wild4 ,it is not so many years since the blackberry was regarded as merely a bramble in this country1 as it now is abroad1 and people were content with such fruit as the woods and fields furnished4 ,even still1 in some localities1 this supply is so abundant as to make the culture of the blackberry unprofitable4 ,but1 a number of years since1 ,mr4 ,lewis ,a4 ,seacor led to better things1 by observing on the roadside1 in the town of ,new ,rochelle1 ,westchester ,county1 ,new ,york1 a bush flourishing where ,nature had planted it4 ,this variety took kindly to civilization1 and has done more to introduce this fruit to the garden than all other kinds together4 ,mr4 ,donald ,,gk ,mitchell1 in his breezy out-of-door book1 ,my ,farm at ,edgewood1 gives its characteristics so admirably that ,i am tempted to quote him3 ,the ,new ,rochelle or ,lawton ,blackberry has been despitefully spoken of by many2 first1 because the market fruit is generally bad1 being plucked before it is fully ripened2 and next1 because1 in rich1 clayey grounds1 the briers1 unless severely cut back1 grow into a tangled1 unapproachable forest1 with all the juices exhausted in wood4 ,but upon a soil moderately rich1 a little gravelly and warm1 protected from winds1 served with occasional top-dressings and good hoeings1 the ,lawton bears magnificent burdens4 ,even then1 if you wish to enjoy the richness of the fruit1 you must not be hasty to pluck it4 ,when the children say1 with a shout1 ',the blackberries are ripe6' ,i know they are black only1 and ,i can wait4 ,when the children report1 ',the birds are eating the berries6' ,i know ,i can wait4 ,but when they say1 ',the bees are on the berries6' ,i know they are at their ripest4 ,then1 with baskets1 we sally out2 ,i taking the middle rank1 and the children the outer spray of boughs4 ,even now we gather those only which drop at the touch2 these1 in a brimming saucer1 with golden ,alderney cream and a soupcon of powdered sugar1 are ,olympian nectar2 they melt before the tongue can measure their full soundness1 and seem to be mere bloated bubbles of forest honey4 ,notwithstanding this eloquent plea and truthful statement1 the ,lawton is decidedly on the wane4 ,it is so liable to be winter-killed1 even with best of care1 and its fruit is go unpalatable1 in its half-ripe condition1 that it has given place to a more successful rival1 the ,kittatinny--discovered in ,warren ,county1 ,k4 ,j41 growing in a forest near the mountains1 whose ,indian name has become a household word from association with this most delicious fruit4 ,mr4 ,wolverton1 in finding it1 has done more for the world than if he had opened a gold mine4 ,under good culture1 the fruit is very large2 sweet1 rich1 and melting1 when fully ripe1 but rather sour and hard when immature4 ,it reaches its best condition if allowed to ripen fully on the vines2 but the majority of pickers use their hands only1 and no more think of making nice discriminations than of questioning nature according to the ,baconian method4 ,they gather all that are black1 or nearly so2 but if this half-ripe fruit is allowed to stand in some cool1 dry place for about twelve hours1 ,kittatinny berries may be had possessing nearly all their luscious qualities4 ,the plant is an upright and very vigorous grower1 exceedingly productive if soil and culture are suitable4 ,its leaves are long-pointed1 finely and unevenly serrate4 ,the season of fruiting is medium1 continuing from four to six weeks1 if moisture is maintained4 ,both of these varieties are derived from the ,rubus villosus species4 ,in contrast is the next-best known sort1 ,wilson's ,early--having many of the characteristics of the ,dewberry1 or running blackberry1 and1 therefore1 representing the second species described1 ,r4 ,canadensis4 ,whether it is merely a sport from this species1 or a hybrid between it and the first-named or high blackberry1 cannot be accurately known1 ,i imagine2 for it also was found growing wild by ,mr4 ,john ,wilson1 of ,burlington1 ,n4 ,j4 ,under high culture1 and with increasing age1 the plants become quite erect and stocky growers1 but the ends of the cane are drooping4 ,frequently1 they trail along the ground1 and root at the tips1 like the common ,dewberry2 and they rarely grow so stocky but that they can be bent over and covered with earth or litter1 as is the case with the tender raspberries4 ,it is well that this is possible1 for it has so little power of resisting frost that a winter of ordinary severity kills the canes in the latitude of ,new ,york4 ,i have always covered mine1 and thus secured1 at slight expense1 a sure and abundant crop4 ,the fruit is earlier than the ,kittatinny1 and tends to ripen altogether in about ten days4 ,these advantages1 with its large size and firmness1 make it a valuable market berry in ,new ,jersey1 where hundreds of acres of it have been planted1 and where it is still very popular4 ,throughout the ,north and ,west1 it has been found too tender for cultivation1 unless protected4 ,in flavor1 it is inferior to the ,kittatinny or ,snyder4 ,for many years1 the great desideratum has been a perfectly hardy blackberry1 and this want has at last been met in part by the ,snyder1 a ,western variety that seems able to endure1 without the slightest injury1 the extremes of temperature common in the ,northwestern ,states4 ,from ,nebraska eastward1 ,i have followed its history1 and have never heard of its being injured by frost4 ,it originated on1 or in the vicinity of1 ,mr4 ,snyder's farm1 near ,la ,porte1 ,ind41 about #ahea1 and is an upright1 exceedingly vigorous1 and stocky grower1 a true child of the ,r4 vittosus4 ,its one fault is that it is not quite large enough to compete with those already described4 ,on moist land1 with judicious pruning1 it could be made to approach them very nearly1 however1 while its earliness1 hardiness1 fine flavor1 and ability to grow and yield abundantly almost anywhere1 will lead to an increasing popularity4 ,for home use1 size is not so important as flavor and certainty of a crop4 ,it is also more nearly ripe when first black than any other kind that ,i have seen2 its thorns are straight1 and therefore less vicious4 ,i find that it is growing steadily in favor2 and where the ,kittatinny is winter-killed1 this hardy new variety leaves little cause for repining4 ,there are several kinds that are passing out of cultivation1 and not a few new candidates for favor2 but the claims of superiority are as yet too doubtful to be recognized4 ,mr4 ,james ,wilson1 of ,west ,point1 ,n4 ,y41 found some magnificent wild berries growing on ,crow ,nest ,mountain4 ,the bush that bore them is now in my garden1 and if it should produce fruit having a flavor equal to ,rodman ,drake's poem1 ,mr4 ,wilson has1 then1 found something more real than a ,culprit ,fay4 ,occasionally1 a thornless blackberry is heralded1 and not a few have reason to recall the ,hoosac1 which was generally found1 ,i think1 about as free from fruit as thorns4 ,we have1 also1 the horticultural paradox of white blackberries1 in the ,crystal1 introduced by ,mr4 ,john ,b4 ,orange1 of ,albion1 ,illinois1 and some others4 ,they have little value1 save as curiosities4 ,,propagation1 ,,culture1 ,,etc4 ,in most instances ,i think more difficulty would be found in making a blackberry die than live4 ,a plant set out in fall or early spring will thrive if given the ghost of a chance4 ,late spring planting1 however1 often fails if subjected to heat and drought while in the green1 succulent condition of early growth4 ,like the raspberry1 the blackberry should be set1 if possible1 while in a dormant condition4 ,if planted late1 shade should be given and moisture maintained until danger of wilting and shrivelling is past4 ,i advise decidedly against late spring plantings on a large scale1 but in early spring planting ,i have rarely lost a plant4 ,almost all that has been said concerning the planting and propagation of raspberries applies to this fruit4 ,set the plants two or three inches deeper than they were before4 ,with the exception of the early ,wilson1 all speedily propagate themselves by suckers1 and this variety can be increased readily by root cuttings4 ,indeed1 better plants are usually obtained from all varieties by sowing slips of the root1 as has already been explained in the paper on raspberries4 ,the treatment of the blackberry can best be indicated by merely noting wherein its requirements differ from the last-named and kindred fruit4 ,for instance1 it does best on light soils and in sunny exposures4 ,the partial shade1 and moist1 heavy land in which the raspberry luxuriates would produce a rank growth of canes that winter would generally find unripened1 and unable to endure the frost4 ,warm1 well-drained1 but not dry land1 therefore1 is the best4 ,on hard1 dry ground1 the fruit often never matures1 but becomes mere collections of seeds4 ,therefore the need in the preparation of the soil of deep plowing1 and the thorough loosening1 if possible1 of the subsoil with the lifting plow4 ,any one who has traced blackberry roots in light soils will seek to give them foraging-room4 ,neither does this fruit require the fertility needed in most instances by the raspberry4 ,it inclines to grow too rankly at best1 and demands mellowness rather than richness of soil4 ,more room should also be given to the blackberry than to the raspberry4 ,the rows should be six feet apart in the garden and eight feet in field culture1 and the plants set three feet apart in the rows4 ,at this distance1 #a1hae are required for an acre1 if one plant only is placed in a hill4 ,since these plants are usually cheap1 if one is small or unprovided with good roots1 it is well to plant two4 ,if the ground is not very fertile1 it is well to give the young plants a good start by scattering a liberal quantity of muck compost down the furrow in which they are planted4 ,this ensures the most vigorous growth of young canes in the rows rather than in the intervening spaces4 ,as generally grown1 they require support1 and may be staked as raspberries4 ,very often1 cheap post-and-wire trellises are employed1 and answer excellently4 ,under this system they can be grown in a continuous and bushy row1 with care against over-crowding4 ,the ideal treatment of the blackberry is management rather than culture4 ,more can be done with the thumb and finger at the right time than with the most savage pruning-shears after a year of neglect4 ,in ,may and ,june the perennial roots send up vigorous shoots that grow with amazing rapidity1 until from five to ten feet high4 ,very often1 this summer growth is so brittle and heavy with foliage1 that thunder-gusts break them off from the parent stem just beneath the ground1 and the bearing cane of the coming year is lost4 ,these and the following considerations show the need of summer pruning4 ,tall1 overgrown canes are much more liable to be injured by frost4 ,they need high and expensive supports4 ,such branchless canes are by no means so productive as those which are made to throw out low and lateral shoots4 ,they can always be made to do this by a timely pinch that takes off the terminal bud of the cane4 ,this stops its upward growth1 and the buds beneath it1 which otherwise might remain dormant1 are immediately forced to become side branches near the ground1 where the snow may cover them1 and over which1 in the garden1 straw or other light litter may be thrown1 on the approach of winter4 ,it thus is seen that by early summer pinching the blackberry may be compelled to become as low and bushy a shrub as we desire1 and is made stocky and self-supporting at the same time4 ,usually it is not well to let the bushes grow over four feet high2 and in regions where they winter-kill badly1 ,i would keep them under three feet1 so that the snow might be a protection4 ,it should be remembered that the ,kittatinny is so nearly hardy that in almost all instances a very slight covering saves it4 ,the suckers that come up thickly between the rows can be cut away while small with the least possible trouble2 but leave the patch or field to its own wild impulses for a year or so1 and you may find a slip of wilderness in the midst of your garden that will require not a little strength and patience to subdue4 ,by far the best weapon for such a battle1 and the best implement also for cutting out the old wood1 is a pair of long-handled shears4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,currants--,,choice ,,of ,,soil1 ,,cultivation1 ,,pruning1 ,,etc4 ,they wore curns in our early boyhood1 and curns they are still in the rural vernacular of many regions4 ,in old ,english they were corrans1 because the people associated them with the raisins of the small ,zante grape1 once imported so exclusively from ,corinth as to acquire the name of that city4 ,under the tribe ,grossulariae of the ,saxifrage family we find the ,ribes containing many species of currants and gooseberries2 but1 in accordance with the scope of this book1 we shall quote from ,professor ,gray 7whose arrangement we follow7 only those that furnish the currants of cultivation4 ,ribes rubrum1 red currant1 cultivated from ,europe1 also wild on our northern border1 with straggling or reclining stems1 somewhat heart-shaped1 moderately three to five lobed leaves1 the lobes roundish and drooping racemes from lateral buds distinct from the leaf buds2 edible berries red1 or a white variety4 ,this is the parent of our cultivated red and white varieties4 ,currants are comparatively new-comers in the garden4 ,when the ,greek and ,roman writers were carefully noting and naming the fruits of their time1 the ,ribes tribe was as wild as any of the hordes of the far ,north1 in whose dim1 cold1 damp woods and bogs it then flourished1 but1 like other ,northern tribes1 it is making great improvement under the genial influences of civilization and culture4 ,until within a century or two1 gardeners who cultivated currants at all were content with wild specimens from the woods4 ,the exceedingly small1 acid fruit of these wildings was not calculated to inspire enthusiasm2 but a people possessing the surer qualities of patience and perseverance determined to develop them1 and1 as a result1 we have the old ,bed and ,white ,dutch varieties1 as yet unsurpassed for the table4 ,in the ,victoria1 ,cherry1 and ,white ,grape1 we have decided advances in size1 but not in flavor4 ,,choice ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,soil ,the secret of success in the culture of currants is suggested by the fact that nature has planted nearly every species of the ,ribes in cold1 damp1 northern exposures4 ,throughout the woods and bogs of the ,northern ,hemisphere is found the scraggy1 untamed1 hurdy stock from which has been developed the superb ,white ,grape4 ,as with people1 so with plants3 development does not eradicate constitutional traits and tendencies4 ,beneath all is the craving for the primeval conditions of life1 and the best success with the currant and gooseberry will assuredly be obtained by those who can give them a reasonable approach to the soil1 climate1 and culture suggested by their damp1 cold1 native haunts4 ,as with the strawberry1 then1 the first requisite is1 not wetness1 but abundant and continuous moisture4 ,soils naturally deficient in this1 and which cannot be made drought-resisting by deep plowing and cultivation1 are not adapted to the currant4 ,because this fruit is found wild in bogs1 it does not follow that it can be grown successfully in undrained swamps4 ,it will do better in such places than on dry1 gravelly knolls1 or on thin1 light soils2 but our fine civilized varieties need civilized conditions4 ,the well-drained swamp may become the very best of currant fields2 and damp1 heavy land1 that is capable of deep1 thorough cultivation1 should be selected if possible4 ,when such is not to be had1 then1 by deep plowing1 subsoiling1 by abundant mulch around the plants throughout the summer1 and by occasional waterings in the garden1 counteracting the effects of lightness and dryness of soil1 skill can go far in making good nature's deficiencies4 ,next to depth of soil and moisture1 the currant requires fertility4 ,it is justly called one of the gross feeders1 and is not particular as to the quality of its food1 so that it is abundant4 ,i would still suggest1 however1 that it be fed according to its nature with heavy composts1 in which muck1 leaf-mould1 and the cleanings of the cow-stable are largely present4 ,wood-ashes and bone-meal are also most excellent4 ,if stable or other light manures must be used1 ,i would suggest that they be scattered liberally on the surface in the fall or early spring and gradually worked in by cultivation4 ,thus used1 their light heating qualities will do no harm1 and they will keep the surface mellow and1 therefore1 moist4 ,the shadowy1 ,northern haunts of the wild currant also suggest that it will falter and fail under the ,southern sun2 and this is true1 ,as we pass down through the ,middle ,states1 we find it difficult to make thrive even the hardy ,white and ,bed ,dutch varieties1 and a point is at last reached when the bushes lose their leaves in the hot season1 and die4 ,from the latitude of ,new ,york south1 therefore1 increasing effort should be made to supply the currants' constitutional need1 by giving partial shade among pear or widely set apple-trees1 or1 better still1 by planting on the northern side of fences1 buildings1 etc4 ,by giving a cool1 half-shady exposure in moist land1 the culture of the currant can be extended far to the south1 especially in the high mountain regions4 ,even well to the north it is unprofitable when grown on light1 thin1 poor land1 unless given liberal1 skilful culture4 ,,planting1 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,pruning ,i regard autumn as the best season for planting currants1 but have succeeded nearly as well in early spring4 ,if kept moist1 there is little danger of the plants dying at any time1 but those set in the fall or early spring make1 the first year1 a much larger growth than those planted when the buds have developed into leaves4 ,since they start so early1 they should be set in the spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to work1 and in the autumn1 any time after the leaves fall or the wood is ripe4 ,the plants of commerce are one1 two and three years old1 though not very many of the last are sold4 ,i would as soon have one-year plants1 if well rooted1 as any1 since they are cheaper and more certain to make strong1 vigorous bushes1 if given generous treatment in the open field1 than if left crowded too long in nursery rows4 ,for the garden1 where fruit is desired as soon as possible1 two and three year old plants are preferable4 ,after planting1 cut the young bushes back one-half or two-thirds1 so as to ensure new and vigorous growth4 ,in field culture1 ,i recommend that the rows be five feet apart1 and the plants four feet from each other in the row4 ,in this case #b1agh plants are required for an acre4 ,if it is designed to cultivate them both ways1 let the plants be set at right angles five feet apart1 an acre now requiring #a1gdb plants4 ,sink them two or three inches deeper than they stood in the nursery rows1 and although in preparation the ground was well enriched1 a shovel of compost around the young plant gives it a fine send-off1 and hastens the development of a profitable bush4 ,in the field and for market1 ,i would urge that currants be grown invariably in bush1 rather than in tree form4 ,english writers1 and some here who follow them1 recommend the latter method2 but it is not adapted to our climate1 and to such limited attention as we can afford to give4 ,the borers1 moreover1 having but a single stem to work upon1 would soon cause many vacancies in the rows4 ,currants are grown for market with large and increasing profits2 indeed1 there is scarcely a fruit that now pays better4 ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,collins1 of ,moorestown1 ,n4 ,j41 by the following ingenious1 yet simple1 invention1 is able to drive through his currant and raspberry fields without injuring the plants4 ,an ordinary cart is changed by putting in an axle fifteen inches longer than usual1 the wheels thus making a track six feet and eight inches wide4 ,the shafts and body of the cart are put just as close to one wheel as possible1 so that the horse and the wheel will pass as near together1 and as near in a line1 as practicable4 ,the axle of the other wheel being long1 and bowing up several inches higher than ordinary in the middle1 it passes over a row of bushes with little or no damage4 ,thus1 fertilizers can be carried to all parts of the field4 ,of course1 it would not do to drive through bushes laden with fruit2 but after they were picked1 such a vehicle could cause but little injury4 ,in the garden and for home use there is the widest latitude4 ,we may content ourselves1 as many do1 with a few old ,red ,dutch bushes that for a generation have struggled with grass and burdocks4 ,we may do a little better1 and set out plants in ordinary garden soil1 but forget for years to give a particle of food to the starving bushes1 remarking annually1 with increasing emphasis1 that they must be running out4 ,few plants of the garden need high feeding more1 and no others are more generally starved4 ,i will guarantee that there are successful farmers who no more think of manuring a currant bush than of feeding crows4 ,this fruit will live1 no matter how we abuse it1 but there are scarcely any that respond more quickly to generous treatment2 and in the garden where it is not necessary to keep such a single eye to the margin of profit1 many beautiful and interesting things can be done with the currant4 ,the majority will be satisfied with large1 vigorous bushes1 well enriched1 mulched and skilfully pruned4 ,if we choose1 however1 we may train them into pretty little trees1 umbrella1 globe1 or pyramid in shape1 according to our fancy1 and by watchfulness and the use of ashes1 keep away the borers4 ,in one instance ,i found a few vigorous shoots that had made a growth of nearly three feet in a single season4 ,with the exception of the terminal bud and three or four just below it1 ,i disbudded these shoots carefully1 imbedded the lower ends six inches in moist soil as one would an ordinary cutting1 and they speedily took root and developed into little trees4 ,much taller and more ornamental currant and gooseberry trees can be obtained by grafting any variety we wish on the ,missouri species 7,ribes aureum74 ,these can be made pretty and useful ornaments of the lawn1 as well as of the garden4 ,instead1 therefore1 of weed-choked1 sprawling1 unsightly objects1 currant bushes can be made things of beauty1 as well as of sterling worth4 ,the cultivation of the currant is very simple4 ,as early in the spring as the ground is dry enough1 it should be thoroughly stirred by plow or cultivator1 and all perennial weeds and grasses just around the bushes taken out with pronged hoes or forks4 ,if a liberal top-dressing of compost or some other fertilizer was not given in the autumn1 which is the best time to apply it1 let it be spread over the roots 7not up against the stems7 before the first spring cultivation4 ,while the bushes are still young1 they can be cultivated and kept clean1 like any hoed crop2 but after they come into bearing--say the third summer --a different course must be adopted4 ,if the ground is kept mellow and bare under the bushes1 the fruit will be so splashed with earth as to be unsalable1 and washed fruit is scarcely fit for the table4 ,we very properly wish it with just the bloom and coloring which ,nature is a month or more in elaborating4 ,muddy or rinsed fruit suggests the sty1 not a dining-room4 ,a mulch of leaves1 straw1 evergreen boughs--anything that will keep the ground clean--applied immediately after the early spring culture1 is the best and most obvious way of preserving the fruit2 and this method also secures all the good results which have been shown to follow mulching4 ,where it is not convenient to mulch1 ,i would suggest that the ground be left undisturbed after the first thorough culture1 until the fruit is gathered4 ,the weeds that grow in the interval may be mowed1 and allowed to fall under the bushes4 ,by the end of ,june1 the soil will have become so fixed that1 with a partial sod of weeds1 the fruit may hang over1 or even rest upon it1 without being splashed by the heavy rains then prevalent4 ,this course is not so neat as clean cultivation or mulching4 ,few fruit growers1 however1 can afford to make appearances the first consideration4 ,i have heard of oats being sown among the bushes to keep the fruit clean1 but their growth must check the best development of the fruit quite as much as the natural crop of weeds4 ,it would be better to give clean culture1 and grow rye1 or any early maturing green crop1 somewhere else1 and when the fruit begins to turn1 spread this material under the bushes4 ,on many places1 the mowings of weedy1 swampy places would be found sufficient for the purpose4 ,after the fruit is gathered1 start the cultivator and hoe at once1 so as to secure vigorous foliage and healthful growth throughout the entire summer4 ,pruning may be done any time after the leaves fall1 and success depends upon its judicious and rigorous performance4 ,the ,english gardeners have recognized this fact1 and they have as minute and careful a system as we apply to the grape4 ,these formal and rather arbitrary methods can scarcely be followed practically in our hurried ,american life4 ,it seems to me that ,i can do no better than to lay down some sound and general principles and leave their working out to the judgment of the grower4 ,in most instances1 ,i imagine1 our best gardeners rarely trim two bushes exactly alike1 but deal with each according to its vigor and natural tendencies2 for a currant bush has not a little individuality4 ,a young bush needs cutting back like a young grapevine1 and for the same reason4 ,a grapevine left to itself would soon become a mass of tangled wood yielding but little fruit1 and that of inferior quality4 ,in like manner nature1 uncurbed1 gives us a great1 straggling bush that is choked and rendered barren by its own luxuriance4 ,air and light are essential1 and the knife must make spaces for them4 ,cutting back and shortening branches develops fruit buds4 ,otherwise1 we have long1 unproductive reaches of wood4 ,this is especially true of the ,cherry and other varieties resembling it4 ,the judicious use of the knife1 kept up from year to year1 will almost double their productiveness4 ,again1 too much very young and too much old wood are causes of unfruitfulness4 ,the skilful culturist seeks to produce and preserve many points of branching and short spurs1 for it is here that the little fruit buds cluster thickly4 ,when a branch is becoming black and feeble from age1 cut it back to the root1 that space may be given for younger growth4 ,from six to twelve bearing stems1 from three to five feet high1 with their shortened branches and fruit spurs1 may be allowed to grow from the roots1 according to the vigor of the plant and the space allotted to it4 ,usually1 too many suckers start in the spring4 ,unless the crop of young wood is valuable for propagation1 all except such as are needed to renew the bush should be cut out as early as possible1 before they have injured the forming crop4 ,in ,england1 great attention is paid to summer pruning1 and here much might be accomplished by it if we had1 or would take1 the time4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,currants1 ,,continued--,,propagation1 ,,varieties ,pruning naturally leads to the subject of propagation1 for much of that which is cut away1 so far from being useless1 is often of great value to the nurseryman2 and there are few who grow this fruit for market who could not turn many an honest penny if they would take the refuse young wood of the previous summer's growth and develop it into salable bushes4 ,in most instances a market would be found in their own neighborhood4 ,nothing is easier than success in raising young currant bushes1 except failure4 ,if cuttings are treated in accordance with their demand for moisture and coolness1 they grow with almost certainty2 if subjected to heat and drought1 they usually soon become dry sticks4 ,the very best course is to make and plant our cuttings in ,september or very early in ,october--just as soon as the leaves fall or will rub off readily4 ,as is true of a root-slip1 so also the wood cutting must make a callus at its base before there can be growth4 ,from this the roots start out4 ,therefore1 the earlier in the fall that cuttings are made1 the more time for the formation of this callus4 ,often1 autumn-planted cuttings are well rooted before winter1 and have just that much start over those that must begin life in the spring4 ,six inches is the average length4 ,see ,figures ,a1 ,b and ,c4 ,let the cuttings be sunk in deep1 rich1 moist1 but thoroughly well-drained soil1 so deeply as to leave but two or three buds above the ground4 ,in the garden1 where the design is to raise a few fine bushes for home use merely1 let the rows be two feet apart and the cuttings six inches apart in the row4 ,in raising them by the thousand for market1 we must economize space and labor2 and therefore one of the best methods1 after rendering the ground mellow and smooth1 is to stretch a line across the plat or field2 then1 beginning on one side of the line1 to strike a spade into the soil its full depth1 press it forward and draw it out4 ,this leaves a slight opening1 of the width and depth of the spade1 and a boy following inserts in this three cuttings1 one in the middle and one at each end4 ,the man then steps back and drives the spade down again about four inches in the rear of the first opening1 and1 as he presses his spade forward to make a second1 he closes up the first opening1 pressing--indeed1 almost pinching--the earth around the three slips that have just been thrust down1 until but one or two buds are above the surface4 ,we thus have a row of cuttings1 three abreast1 and about three inches apart1 across the entire field4 ,a space of three feet is left for cultivation1 and then we plant1 as before1 another triple row4 ,these thick rows should be taken up the following fall1 when the largest may be sold2 or planted where they are to fruit1 and the smaller ones replanted in nursery rows4 ,when land is abundant the cuttings may be sunk in single rows1 with sufficient space between for horse cultivation1 and allowed to mature into two-year-old plants without removal4 ,if these are not planted or sold1 they should be cut back rigorously before making the third year's growth4 ,illustration3 ,,currant ,,cuttings ,,and ,,callus ,in moist land1 cuttings can be made to grow even if set out late in the spring1 especially if top-dressed and mulched2 but if they are to be started on high1 dry land1 they should be out sufficiently early in the autumn to become rooted before winter4 ,if our land is of a nature that tends to throw roots out of the ground--and moist1 heavy land has this tendency--it may be best to bury the cuttings in bundles1 tied up with fine wire1 on a dry knoll1 below the action of the frost1 and set them out early--as early as possible--in the spring4 ,at any season the rows of cuttings should be well top-dressed with fine manure1 and if planted in autumn1 they should be so well covered with straw1 leaves1 or some litter1 as not to suffer or be thrown out in freezing and thawing weather4 ,i manage to get half my cuttings out in the fall1 and half in early spring4 ,in the greenhouse1 and even out-of-doors1 under very favorable circumstances1 plants may be grown from single buds2 and green wood also propagates readily under glass4 ,a vigorous young plant1 with roots attached1 may often be obtained by breaking off the suckers that start beneath the surface around the stems2 and1 by layering or bending bushes over and throwing dirt upon them1 new plants are readily made also2 but more shapely1 and usually more vigorous1 bushes are obtained by simple cuttings1 as ,i have described4 ,when it is designed to grow a cutting in a tree form1 all the buds but two or three at the top should be carefully removed4 ,if we wish to try our fortune in raising new varieties1 we must sow seeds of the very best specimens we can find1 gathered when perfectly ripe4 ,these seeds should never be kept where it is hot or very dry1 and should be soaked for a day or two in tepid water before planting4 ,sow early in spring1 quarter of an inch deep1 in fine rich soil1 which must continually be kept moist1 but never wet4 ,top-dressings of very fine1 light manure would keep the surface from baking1 thus giving the seeds a chance to germinate4 ,tolerate no weeds4 ,remove the seedlings in the fall to rows three feet apart1 and the plants two feet distant in the row4 ,there they may stand until their comparative value can be determined4 ,,varieties ,black currants form quite a distinct class in appearance and flavor1 and are not as popular with us as in ,england4 ,they are stronger and coarser-growing plants than the red and white species1 and do not require as high culture4 ,they can be grown to advantage in tree form1 as they are quite exempt from insect enemies4 ,the tent caterpillar is the only one that ,i have seen injuring them4 ,they also require much less pruning1 since the best fruit is borne on the young wood of the previous year's growth4 ,if they are grown as bushes1 they need more room--six feet apart each way--and the knife need be used only to secure good form and space for air and light4 ,two native species--,ribes floridum and ,ribes aureum--are cultivated to some extent 7for description see ,gray's ,botany74 ,although these species and their varieties are of little value1 ,mr4 ,fuller thinks that they might become the parents of far better kinds than we now have1 since they are strong growers1 and their fruit is naturally of better flavor than that of the ,european black currant4 ,ribes aureum is largely cultivated as an ornamental shrub1 and its spicy-scented1 bright yellow flowers of early spring are among my pleasantest memories4 ,as has already been explained1 we can make miniature trees of our white and red currants1 by grafting them on its strong1 erect-growing stems4 ,ribes nigrum is the ,european species1 and is found wild throughout the northern part of the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,mr4 ,fuller writes that the inhabitants of ,siberia make a beverage from its dried leaves which is said closely to resemble green tea4 ,black ,naples is the finest variety of this species4 ,charles ,downing says of it3 ,its berries often measure nearly three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,its leaves and blossoms appear earlier than those of the common1 or ,english ,black1 but the fruit is later1 and the clusters as well as the berries are larger and more numerous4 ,lee's ,prolific is said by some to be a slight improvement on the above2 by others it is thought to be very similar4 ,of red currants1 the old ,red ,dutch is the most prominent4 ,it is the currant of memory4 ,from it was made the wine which our mothers and grandmothers felt that they could offer with perfect propriety to the minister4 ,there are rural homes to-day in which the impression still lingers that it is a kind of temperance drink4 ,from it is usually made the currant jelly without which no lady would think of keeping house in the country4 ,one of the gravest questions in domestic economy is whether the jelly will jell4 ,often it does not1 and cannot be made to4 ,the cause of its lamentable perversity is this3 ,the currants have been left until over-ripe before picking1 or they have been picked wet1 just after rain4 ,gather them when dry1 and as soon as possible after they have turned red1 and ,i am informed by the highest domestic authority 7my wife7 that there will be no difficulty4 ,in flavor1 the ,red ,dutch is unequalled by any other red currant4 ,it is also a variety that can scarcely be killed by abuse and neglect1 and it responds so generously to high culture and rigorous pruning that it is an open question whether it cannot be made1 after all1 the most profitable for market1 since it is so much more productive than the larger varieties1 and can be made to approach them so nearly in size4 ,indeed1 not a few are annually sold for ,cherry currants4 ,the ,white ,dutch is similar to the ,red in the growth and character of the bush4 ,the clusters1 however1 are a little shorter1 and the fruit a little larger and sweeter1 and is of a fine yellowish-white color1 with a veined1 translucent skin4 ,the ,white ,grape is an advance in size upon the last-named1 and of marvellous productiveness and beauty4 ,it is not as vigorous as the ,white ,dutch1 and is more spreading in its mode of growth1 requiring careful pruning to make a shapely bush4 ,the fruit1 also1 is not spread so evenly over the wood1 but is produced more in bunches4 ,in flavor1 it is one of the very best4 ,dana's ,transparent1 and other white varieties1 do not vary materially from either the ,white ,grape or ,dutch4 ,the great market currant is the ,cherry4 ,in the ,canadian ,horticulturist for ,september1 #ahgh1 ,i find the following3 ,the history of this handsome currant is not without interest4 ,monsieur ,adrienne ,seneclause1 a distinguished horticulturist in ,france1 received it from ,italy among a lot of other currants4 ,he noticed the extraordinary size of the fruit1 and gave it1 in consequence1 the name it yet bears4 ,in the year #ahdc it was fruited in the nursery of the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 and figured from these samples in the ',annales de ,flore et de ,pomone' for ,february1 #ahdh4 ,dr4 ,william ,w4 ,valk1 of ,flushing1 ,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 introduced it to the notice of ,american fruit growers in #ahdf1 having imported some of the plants in the spring of that year4 ,this variety is now very widely disseminated1 and its culture is apparently becoming increasingly profitable every year4 ,two essentials are requisite to success with it--high manuring and skilful pruning4 ,it has the tendency to produce long branches1 on which there are but few buds4 ,rigorous cutting back1 so as to cause branching joints and fruit spurs1 should be practiced annually4 ,the foliage is strong and coarse1 and the fruit much more acid than the ,dutch family2 but size and beauty carry the market1 and the ,cherry can be made1 by high culture1 very large and beautiful4 ,versailles1 or ,la ,versaillaise1 is a figurative bone of contention4 ,the horticultural doctors disagree so decidedly that the rest of us can1 without presumption1 think for ourselves4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller has probably given the subject more attention than any one else1 and he asserts1 without any hesitancy1 that this so-called variety is identical with the ,cherry4 ,mr4 ,fuller is certainly entitled to his opinion1 for he obtained plants of the ,cherry and ,versailles from all the leading nurserymen in ,america1 and imported them from the standard nurseries abroad1 not only once1 but repeatedly1 yet could never get two distinct varieties4 ,the writer in the ,canadian ,horticulturist also states in regard to the ,versailles3 ,some pains were taken to obtain this variety on different occasions1 and from the most reliable sources1 so that there might be no mistake as to the correctness of the name2 but after many years of trial we are unable to perceive any decided variation1 either in the quality of the fruit1 the length of the bunch1 or the habit of the plant1 from the ,cherry currant4 ,i must admit that ,i am inclined to take the same view2 for1 during several years1 ,i have looked in vain for two distinct varieties4 ,i have carefully kept the two kinds separate1 but find in each case the same stout1 stocky1 short-jointed1 erect shoots that are often devoid of buds1 and tend to become naked with age1 and the same dark green1 thick1 bluntly and coarsely serrated foliage4 ,mr4 ,downing thinks the difference lies in the fact that1 while the ,versailles strain produces many short bunches like the ,cherry1 it also frequently bears clusters1 and that such long1 tapering clusters are never formed on the ,cherry4 ,this is the only difference1 ,i think1 if any exists2 but in no instance have ,i been able to find this distinction well defined and sustained by the bearing plantations that ,i have seen4 ,mr4 ,downing1 however1 has had tenfold more experience than ,i have1 and his opinions are entitled to corresponding weight4 ,that this class is much inclined to sport1 ,i think all will admit4 ,one bush in a row may be loaded with fruit year after year1 and the next one be comparatively barren4 ,the clusters on one bush may be short and characteristic of the ,cherry1 while a neighboring bush in the same patch may show a tendency to mingle some long clusters with the short ones2 and young bushes grown from the same plant will show these variations4 ,i am satisfied that distinct and much improved strains could be developed by propagating from bushes producing the best and most abundant fruit1 and that a variety having the characteristics of the ,ideal ,versailles could be developed4 ,the importance of this careful selection in propagation can scarcely be overestimated1 and the fruit grower who followed it up for a few years might almost double the productiveness and quality of many of his varieties4 ,victoria 7known also as ,may's ,victoria1 and having a half-dozen other synonymes7 is a distinct variety1 whose great value consists in its lengthening out the currant season two or three weeks after the above-named kinds have matured4 ,the fruit is also large--between the ,red ,dutch and ,cherry in size--exceedingly abundant1 and although rather acid1 of good flavor when fully ripe4 ,the clusters are very long--from five to seven inches--tapering1 and the berries are bright red4 ,if it is grown in some moist1 cool1 half-shady location1 the bunches will hang on the bushes very late in the season4 ,in many localities it is found very profitable1 since it need not be sold until the others are out of the market4 ,the young branches are rather slender1 but the plant itself is vigorous1 and can be grown at less expense than the ,cherry4 ,there are many other named varieties1 but in the majority of instances the distinctions between them are slight1 and as they are waning before the finer varieties that ,i have described1 ,i shall not attempt to lighten the shadows that are gathering around them4 ,the future promises more than the past1 and ,i think that1 before many years pass1 some fine new kinds will be introduced4 ,the enemies and diseases of the currant will be treated in a later chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,gooseberries ,i have treated the currant very fully1 not only because it is the more popular fruit in this country1 but also because the greater part of my suggestions under that heading applies equally to this branch of the ,ribes tribe4 ,possessing the same general characteristics1 it should be treated on the same principles that were seen to be applicable to the currant4 ,it flourishes best in the same cool exposures1 and is the better for partial shade4 ,even in the south of ,england the more tender-skinned varieties often scald in the sun4 ,however1 ,i would recommend the shade of a fence or a northern hillside1 rather than overhanging branches of trees4 ,a rich soil1 especially one that is deep and moist but not wet1 is equally requisite1 and the rigorous annual pruning is even more essential4 ,as the wood becomes old and black1 it should be cut out altogether4 ,fruit buds and spurs are produced on wood two or more years old1 and cutting back causes these1 but they must not be allowed to become too crowded4 ,to no fruit are air and light more essential4 ,we have in this country two very distinct classes of gooseberries-the first of foreign origin1 and the second consisting of our native species4 ,gray thus describes ,ribes ,grossularia1 garden or ,english gooseberry3 ,cultivated from ,europe for the well-known fruit2 thorny and prickly1 with small1 obtuse1 three to five lobed leaves1 green flowers1 one to three on short pedicels1 bell-shaped calyx1 and large berry4 ,this native of northern ,europe and the forests of the ,british ,islands has been developed into the superb varieties which have been famous so long in ,england1 but which we are able to grow with very partial success4 ,it remembers its birthplace even more strongly than the currant1 and the almost invariable mildew of our gardens is the sign of its homesickness4 ,the cool1 moist climate of ,england just suits it1 and it is the pride of the gardens of ,lancashire to surpass the world in the development of large specimens4 ,mr4 ,downing writes3 ,we are indebted to the ,lancashire weavers1 who seem to have taken it up as a hobby1 for nearly all the surprisingly large sorts of modern date4 ,their annual shows exhibit this fruit in its greatest perfection1 and a gooseberry book is published in ,manchester every year1 giving a list of all the prize sorts1 etc4 ,the extraordinary pains taken is suggested by the following quotation from the ,encyclopaedia of ,gardening3 ,to effect this increased size1 every stimulant is applied that their ingenuity can suggest4 ,they not only annually manure the soil richly1 but also surround the plants with trenches of manure for the extremities of the roots to strike into1 and form round the stem of each plant a basin1 to be mulched1 or manured1 or watered1 as may become necessary4 ,when a root has extended too far from the stem1 it is uncovered1 and all the strongest leaders are shortened back nearly one-half of their length1 and covered with fresh1 marly loam1 well manured4 ,the effect of this pruning is to increase the number of fibres and spongioles1 which form rapidly on the shortened roots1 and strike out in all directions among the fresh1 newly stirred loam1 in search of nutriment4 ,this is carrying culture to an extreme rarely1 if ever1 seen in ,america4 ,the annual referred to above recorded one hundred and fifty-five gooseberry exhibitions in #ahfc4 ,the number of varieties is almost endless1 and more than seven hundred prize sorts are named in ,lindley's ,guide to the ,orchard2 but not one of them1 ,i fear1 can be grown in this country1 except under favorable conditions and with extra care4 ,even after supplying such conditions1 they will often mildew in spite of our best efforts4 ,again1 in some localities1 and for obscure causes1 they will thrive and continue for years quite free from this chief enemy of the foreign gooseberry4 ,repeated applications of the flowers of sulphur over the bushes1 from the time the fruit sets until it is ripe1 are probably the best preventive4 ,thorough mulching1 rigorous pruning1 and high culture are also to be recommended4 ,those who garden for pleasure would do well to try some of these fine foreigners4 ,the following are some that ,mr4 ,downing and others have recommended3 ,i4 ,red ,varieties3 ,british ,crown1 ,top ,sawyer1 ,roaring ,lion1 ,lancashire ,lad1 ,crown ,bob4 ,,ii4 ,white3 ,cheshire ,lass1 ,white ,lion1 ,whitesmith1 ,white ,honey4 ,,iii4 ,green3 ,laurel1 ,heart of ,oak1 ,jolly ,angler1 ,jolly ,tar4 ,,iv4 ,yellow3 ,golden ,fleece1 ,bunker ,hill1 ,conqueror1 etc4 ,if but two or three foreign berries are to be chosen1 ,i would recommend ,crown ,bob1 ,bearing ,lion1 and ,whitesmith4 ,i am sorry to say that seedlings of these foreign varieties have the same tendency to mildew shown by their parents4 ,the ,late ,emerald was originated in the old garden at ,newburgh1 and is a sad example of this fact4 ,for many years it thrived in its birthplace without a trace of mildew1 but on my own place it has behaved so badly that ,i do not recommend it4 ,were it not for this fault1 ,i should grow no other variety4 ,in view of this inveterate evil1 mildew1 which is so seldom escaped and so difficult to overcome1 we must turn to the second great class1 our native species1 since they are adapted to our climate4 ,of these there are several species1 of which the following are the most prominent3 ,ribes speciosum1 showy1 flowering gooseberry of ,california1 cultivated for ornament1 especially in ,england1 and likely to succeed in the southern ,middle ,states4 ,it is trained like a climber2 has small1 shining leaves1 very handsome flowers resembling those of a fuchsia1 berry prickly1 and few-seeded4 ,r4 rotundifolium1 more common in the ,west1 is often downy-leaved2 peduncles slender2 the slender stamens and two-parted style longer than the narrow calyx2 berry smooth4 ,r4 cynosbati is found in the rocky woods of the ,north1 is downy-leaved1 with slender peduncle1 stamens and undivided style not exceeding the broad calyx2 large berry1 usually prickly4 ,r4 lacustre1 ,lake or ,swamp ,gooseberry1 with the prickly stems of the gooseberry1 but with a raceme of flowers like those of a currant2 found in the cold bogs and wet woods of the ,north2 small1 bristly berries1 of unpleasant flavor4 ,last1 but by no means the least1 is the ,ribes hirtellum1 commonest in our ,eastern ,states1 seldom downy1 with very short thorns or none1 very short peduncles1 stamens and two-cleft style scarcely longer than the bell-shaped calyx2 and the smooth berry is purple1 small and sweet4 7,gray47 ,this is the parent of the most widely known of our native varieties1 the ,houghton ,seedling1 named from its originator1 ,abel ,houghton1 of ,lynn1 ,massachusetts4 ,the bush is a vigorous grower1 that will thrive1 with decent culture1 on any moderately good soil1 and is very rarely injured by mildew4 ,at the same time it improves greatly under high culture and pruning4 ,the bush has a slender and even weeping habit of growth1 and can be propagated readily by cuttings4 ,from the ,houghton have been grown two seedlings that now are justly the most popular4 ,the first and best of these is the ,downing1 originated by ,mr4 ,charles ,downing of ,newburgh4 ,it is an upright1 vigorous-growing plant1 very productive4 ,fruit somewhat larger than the ,houghton1 roundish-oval1 whitish-green1 with the rib veins distinct4 ,skin smooth4 ,flesh rather soft1 juicy4 ,i consider this the best and most profitable variety that can be generally grown in this country4 ,in flavor1 it is excellent4 ,i have had good success with this whenever ,i have given it fair culture4 ,it does not propagate readily from cuttings1 and therefore ,i increase it usually by layering4 ,the second seedling is ,smith's ,improved1 a comparatively new variety that is winning favor4 ,it more closely resembles the ,houghton in its habit of growth than the ,downing1 and yet is more vigorous and upright than its parent4 ,the fruit is considerably larger than the ,houghton1 oval1 light green1 with a bloom1 moderately firm1 sweet and good4 ,mountain ,seedling1 originating with the ,shakers at ,lebanon1 ,new ,york1 is the largest of the ,american varieties1 but for some reason it does not gain in popularity4 ,cluster1 or ,american ,red1 is a variety of unknown origin4 ,the ancestral bush may have been found in the woods4 ,the fruit is scarcely as large as that of the ,houghton1 is darker in color when fully ripe1 hangs long on the bush1 and is sweet and good4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,barry says that it never mildews4 ,therefore1 it should be made one of the parents of new varieties1 for in this direction lies the future of this fruit in ,america4 ,in support of this opinion1 ,i am led to quote the following letter1 recently received3 ,i write to call your attention to a native variety of gooseberry1 of which you make no mention in your ',scribner ,papers1' growing in great abundance in the ,sierra ,nevada1 at an elevation of from #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet1 often in the most exposed places1 generally on northern slopes4 ,thinking it may not have come to your knowledge1 ,i will describe it4 ,the bush is of stiff1 erect habit1 two to three feet high1 a stocky grower and an abundant bearer4 ,the berries vary from one-half to one and one-quarter inches in diameter1 are covered with innumerable thorns1 scarcely less savage in the green state than those on an ordinary wild bush of this country4 ,when cooked1 the prickles soften down to the same consistence as the skin1 which is rather thick4 ,when ripe1 they are easily peeled1 and well repay the trouble1 the spines being then much less obdurate than when green4 ,the mature fruit is of a deep1 dull1 coppery red color1 and in flavor is equal1 if not superior1 to any of the red varieties which ,i have eaten in ,england4 ,i have often wondered whether cultivation might not remove the spines from the berries1 or1 that failing1 whether a seedling could not be raised from them which would give us a berry far more reliable than any good gooseberry we now have4 ,the scorching sun of the long1 dry season of ,california seemed to have no effect on the foliage1 and is five years' experience ,i never found a mildewed berry4 ,the berry is round1 like the red ,english berries1 instead of ellipsoid1 like their white or golden ones4 ,there is also another variety1 hairy instead of spiny1 about the size of your picture of the ,downing2 bush not so free a grower1 rarely reaching two feet1 and the berry1 to my taste1 much inferior4 ,tastes1 however1 differ1 and it may be the more promising fruit4 ,both varieties are common throughout the eastern end of ,el ,dorado1 ,placer1 and ,nevada counties4 ,the first-named1 or thorny gooseberry1 probably belongs to the ,ribes cynosbati1 and the latter to the ,r4 rotundifolium4 ,the writer is correct in thinking that1 if such gooseberries are growing wild1 cultivation and selection could secure vast improvements4 ,when we remember that ,english gardeners started with a native species inferior to ours1 we are led to believe that effort and skill like theirs will here be rewarded by kinds as superb1 and as perfectly adapted to our climate4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,diseases ,,and ,,insect ,,enemies ,,of ,,small ,,fruits ,nature is very impartial4 ,it is evidently her intention that we shall enjoy all the fruits for which we are willing to pay her price1 in work1 care1 or skill1 but she seems equally bent on supplying the hateful white grub with strawberry roots1 and currant worms with succulent foliage4 ,indeed1 it might even appear that she had a leaning toward her small children1 no matter how pestiferous they are4 ,at any rate1 under the present order of things1 lordly man is often their servant1 and they reap the reward of his labors4 ,did not ,nature stumble a little when man fell8 ,she manages to keep on the right side of the poets and painters1 for it would seem that they see her only when in moods that are smiling1 serious1 or grand4 ,the scientist1 too1 she beguiles1 by showing under the microscope how exquisitely she has fashioned some little embodiment of evil that may be the terror of a province1 or the scourge of a continent4 ,while the learned man is explaining how wonderfully its minute organs are formed1 for mastication1 assimilation1 procreation1 etc41 practical people1 who have their bread to earn1 are impatiently wishing that the whole genus was under their heels1 confident that the organs would become still more minute4 ,the horticulturist should be cast in heroic mold1 for he not only must bear his part in the fight with moral wrong1 like other men1 but must also cope with vegetable and insect evil4 ,weeds1 bugs1 worms1 what hateful little vices many of them seem in nature6 ,i do not wish to be thought indiscriminate4 ,many insects are harmless and beautiful2 and1 if harmless1 no one can object if they are not pretty4 ,not a few are very useful1 as1 for instance1 the little parasite of the cabbage worm4 ,there is need of a general and unremitting crusade against our insect enemies2 but it should be a discriminating war1 for it is downright cruelty to kill a harmless creature1 however small4 ,still1 there are many pests that1 like certain forms of evil1 will destroy if not destroyed2 and they have brought disaster and financial ruin to multitudes4 ,mark ,tapley hit upon the true philosophy of life1 and it is usually possible to take a cheerful view of everything2 such a view ,i suggest to the reader1 in regard to the pests of the garden that often lead us into sympathy with the man who wished that there was a form of sound words in the ,prayer-,book which might be used in cases of great provocation4 ,under the present order of things1 skills1 industry1 and prompt1 vigilant action are rewarded4 ,humanity's besetting sin is laziness2 but weeds and insects for months together make this vice wellnigh impossible1 save to those who are so unfortunate as to live on the industry of others4 ,therefore1 though our fruits often suffer1 men are developed1 and made more patient1 energetic1 resolute1 persevering--in brief1 more manly4 ,put the average man into a garden where there were no vegetable diseases1 insects1 and weeds to cope with1 and he himself would become a weed4 ,moreover1 it would seem that in those regions where ,nature hinders men as much as she helps them1 they are all the better for their difficulties1 and their gardens also4 ,such skill and energy are developed that not only are the horticultural enemies vanquished1 but they are often made the means of a richer and a fuller success4 ,in a valuable paper read before the ,new ,jersey ,state ,horticultural ,society1 and recently published in the ,american ,entomologist1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller makes the following useful suggestions3 ,insects and diseases are frequently so closely united1 or so dependent upon each other1 that the naturalist often finds it difficult to determine to which the fruit grower should attribute his losses4 ,some species of insects attack only diseased or dead plants2 others only the living and healthy4 ,if a plant shows signs of failing1 we are inclined to speak of it as being diseased1 whether the failure is caused by a lack of some element in the soil1 attacks of parasitic fungi1 or noxious insects4 ,the loss is the same in the end1 whether from one or all of these enemies combined4 ,there are two practical methods of combating insect enemies and diseases of plants2 one is to so carefully cultivate and stimulate the growth of the plants that they may possess the power of resisting attack2 the other is to make war directly upon them by artificial means4 ,of course1 the first method is most applicable or practicable against the more minute species1 such as the plant-lice1 rust1 smut1 and mildew4 ,i do not recommend forcing plants to extremes1 in order to enable them to resist their enemies1 as this might work an irreparable injury2 but the condition to be aimed at should be a healthy1 vigorous growth2 for anything beyond this is more the sign of weakness than strength4 ,the half-starved1 overworked and uncared-for horse is sure1 sooner or later1 to become the prey of various kinds of internal and external parasites1 which are thrown off1 or successfully resisted in their attacks1 by the healthy1 vigorous1 and well-fed animal2 and the same principle holds good all through the animal and vegetable kingdoms--whether the subject be a man1 horse1 sturdy oak1 or delicate strawberry plant4 ,not that all diseases are due to loss of vigor through starvation and neglect2 but that a large number of them are is well known4 ,,strawberries ,we all have seen these principles verified4 ,in the ,great ,american strawberry1 ,i think1 we have an example of feebleness resulting from over-stimulation4 ,the ,wilson ,seedling1 that1 in the local vernacular1 is sometimes said to be running out1 is1 in contrast1 the consequence of starvation1 neglect1 and long-continued propagation from poor1 mixed stock4 ,feebleness can scarcely be called a disease1 and yet it is best counteracted by the tonic treatment suggested by ,mr4 ,fuller4 ,in loose1 light soils1 the ,aphis1 or ,green ,fly1 often penetrates to the roots of strawberry plants in immense numbers1 and they suck away life or vitality4 ,the tonic of wood-ashes scattered over the rows will usually destroy the pests4 ,refuse from the tobacco-factory is also recommended4 ,i think that wood-ashes and bone-dust are excellent preventives of burning or sun-scalding4 ,they give the plants such vigor that they are able to resist sudden or great climatic changes1 from heat to cold1 or from drought to moisture4 ,many varieties are enfeebled by their disposition to run profusely4 ,kerr's ,prolific1 for example1 will speedily sod the ground with small1 puny plants1 whose foliage will burn so badly that the fruit can scarcely mature4 ,set out these small plants1 and give the tonic treatment of cutting off all runners1 and large1 bushy stools1 with vigorous foliage and superb fruit1 will result4 ,indeed1 next to fertilizers and moisture1 there is nothing that so enhances the vigor and productiveness of a plant as clipping the runners as fast as they appear4 ,the uncurbed habit of running depletes almost like disease2 and but few varieties will make large fruit buds and runners at the same time4 ,in close1 wet weather the fruit and leaf stalks will sometimes suffer from mildew2 and occasionally a microscopic fungus1 known as the strawberry brand1 will attack the foliage4 ,i have also seen1 in a few instances1 a disease that resembled the curl-leaf in raspberries4 ,the plants were dwarfed1 foliage wrinkled and rusty1 and fruit misshapen1 like small1 gnarly apples4 ,in all such instances ,i believe in tonic treatment1 of wood-ashes1 bone-dust1 guano1 and fertilizers of like nature1 used with care4 ,plants do not need over-doses or over-feeding any more than we do ourselves4 ,when a few plants are diseased1 ,i believe in rigorously rooting them out and burning them4 ,if a field is affected1 as soon as possible turn the plants under1 and renovate the land with clover1 buckwheat1 a light dressing of lime1 and thorough exposure to the air1 light1 and frost4 ,by such methods1 and a wise selection of fertilizers1 ,i believe that strawberries can be raised on the same ground for centuries4 ,my plants have always been exceptionally free from all kinds of disease or rust1 and ,i attribute it to the liberal use of wood-ashes4 ,but there is one enemy that inspires me with fear and unmingled disgust4 ,it is the type of a certain phase of character in society most difficult to deal with1 and which the mantle of charity is rarely broad enough to cover--the stupidly and stolidly malignant1 who have just sense enough to do a great deal of mischief1 and to keep it hidden until too late for remedy4 ,science has dignified the detestable thing with a sonorous name1 as usual--the ,lachnosterna ,fusca1 already referred to4 ,it does not deserve even its name in the common vernacular--,white ,grub2 for its white is of a dingy hue1 and its head dark1 like its deeds4 ,has it a redeeming trait8 ,give the de'il his due1 says the proverb4 ,the best ,i can say of the white grub is that crows1 and an odorous animal ,i forbear to name1 are very fond of it1 ,this fact1 ,i think1 is its sole virtue1 its one entry on the credit side2 but there is a long1 dark score against it4 ,of its havoc on the lawn and farm ,i will not speak1 since it is sufficient for our purposes to state that it is the strawberry's worst foe4 ,the best method of circumventing the varmint is to learn its ways2 and therefore ,i shall outline its history1 beginning at a period in its being when stupidity predominates over its evil-that is1 when it is the ,may beetle or ,june bug1 that blunders and bumps around in utter disregard of itself and every one else4 ,in this stage it is like the awkward village loafer1 quiet by day1 but active and obtrusive in the early evening4 ,it dislikes honest sunshine1 but is attracted by artificial light1 at which it precipitates itself with the same lack of sense and reason that marks the loafer's gravitation toward a lighted groggery4 ,moreover1 in the beetle phase1 it is sure to appear at the most inopportune times and unsuitable places1 creating the inevitable commotion which the blunder and tactless are born to make4 ,as it whisks aimlessly around1 it may hit the clergyman's nose in the most pathetic sentence of his sermon1 or drop into the soprano's mouth at the supreme climax of her trill4 ,satan himself could scarcely produce a more complete absence of devotion than is often caused by these brainless creatures4 ,because quiet by day1 they are not out of mischief1 as defoliated trees often prove4 ,as midsummer approaches1 they die off2 but never until each female beetle has put into the ground about two hundred eggs1 which never fail to hatch4 ,the first year1 the grubs are little1 and1 while they do all the harm they can1 the small roots they destroy are not seriously missed by the plants4 ,the second year1 their ability keeps pace with their disposition1 and they occasionally destroy strawberries by the acre4 ,more often1 certain patches of a field or garden are infested1 and sometimes will be kept bare of plants in spite of all one can do4 ,too often1 the presence of the grub is learned only after the mischief is complete4 ,you may have petted a strawberry plant for a year1 and after it has developed into noble proportions1 and awakened the best expectations from its load of immature fruit1 you will1 perhaps1 find it wilting some morning4 ,you then learn1 for the first time1 that this insidious enemy has been at work for days1 and that not a root is left4 ,an inch or two beneath the dying plant1 the grub lies gorged and quiet in the early morning2 but if undisturbed it soon seeks the next-best plant it can find1 and it is so voracious that it is hard to compute the number it can destroy throughout the long season in which it works4 ,having made its full growth in the spring of the third year1 this grub passes into the chrysalis state1 and in ,may or ,june comes out a perfect insect or beetle4 ,it is one1 two1 three1 and out4 ,while there are beetles every year1 there is1 in every locality1 a special crop every third year2 in other words1 if we observe beetles in great numbers during the coming ,may and ,june1 we may expect them again in like quantities three years after2 and every second year from such super-abundance they will be very destructive in all those fields throughout the locality wherein the eggs were laid4 ,,remedies ,when once our soil is full of them1 scarcely any remedy is possible that year4 ,surface applications that would kill the grubs would also kill the plants4 ,where they are few and scattering1 they can be dug out and killed4 ,sometimes boys are paid so much a pint4 ,when seeing a wilting plant1 it would scarcely be human nature not to dig out the pest and grind it under our heel4 ,prevention of the evil is usually our best hope4 ,mr4 ,downing writes to me3 ,i believe that if you would use refuse salt three or four years in succession1 at the rate of five or six bushels to the acre1 the grubs would not trouble you much4 ,salt will not kill the full-grown larvae1 but those in a very young state4 ,the reader will remember a statement in ,mr4 ,hale's letter on commercial fertilizers confirmatory of this view4 ,experiments in this direction should be carefully made1 since1 in one instance that ,i am aware of1 a fruit grower remarked1 ,i do not know whether the salt killed the grubs1 but ,i know it killed my plants4 ,it is my purpose1 however1 to try this agent very thoroughly4 ,there is danger of our being misled in our estimate of the value of remedies1 from forgetfulness of the habits of the insect4 ,we find our ground full of larvae one year1 and apply some cure or preventive4 ,the following spring1 the larvae become beetles and fly away1 and1 even if they fill the same ground with eggs again1 the grubs are too small to be noticed that year2 and therefore we may claim that our remedy is effectual1 when there may have been no effect from it whatever4 ,one of the best preventives is to keep the soil under cultivation1 for this beetle rarely lays its eggs in loose soil1 preferring old meadows and moist1 loamy1 sodded land2 the larvae are equally fond of grass roots4 ,this is one of the reasons why a year or two of cultivation must often precede the planting of strawberries4 ,when this fruit is grown in matted beds1 they afford as attractive a place for the deposit of eggs as grass land2 and this is another fact in favor of the narrow-row system and thorough cultivation4 ,mr4 ,caywood1 a nurseryman1 says that he has prevented the approach of the grub by mixing a teaspoonful of sulphur in the soil just beneath a plant1 when setting it out4 ,mr4 ,peter ,b4 ,mead recommends the pomace of the castor bean spread on the surface around the plants4 ,i have never tried these preventives4 ,one thing certainly might be done2 exterminating war might be waged on the beetles4 ,in the morning they are sluggish and easily caught2 and in the evening we can treat them as whiskey venders do the loafers--burn them up4 ,every female beetle killed heads off #bjj grubs4 ,if one could discover a complete remedy for this pest1 he would deserve a statue in bronze4 ,mr4 ,fuller had a domesticated crow that would eat a hundred of these grubs daily4 ,when domesticated1 he adds1 the crow forgets the tricks of his wild nature1 and1 not being a timid bird1 he is not frightened by hoe or spade1 but when the earth is turned over1 is generally there to see and do his duty4 ,a fruit grower writes to ,professor ,c4 ,v4 ,riley3 ,i inclose specimens of a terrible pest on my strawberry vines4 ,the leaves are almost entirely destroyed4 ,i must fight them some way1 or else give up the fruit entirely1 etc4 ,in a letter to the ,new ,york ,tribune1 ,professor ,riley replied3 ,the insect referred to is the ,strawberry ,worm 7,emphytus maculatus71 the larva of a saw-fly1 which is of quite frequent occurrence in the ,west4 ,i quote the following account of it from my ,ninth ,report3 ',early in the spring numerous flies may be seen hanging to and flying about the vines in fields which have been previously affected4 ,they are dull and inactive in the cool of the morning and evening1 and at these hours are seldom noticed4 ,they are of a pitchy black color1 with two rows of large1 transverse1 dull1 whitish spots upon the abdomen4 ,the female1 with the saw-like instrument peculiar to the insects of this family1 deposits her eggs1 by a most curious and interesting process1 in the stems of the plants1 clinging the while to the hairy substance by which these stems are covered4 ',the eggs are white1 opaque1 and #j4jc of an inch long1 and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk1 though the outside orifice at which they were introduced is scarcely visible4 ,they soon increase somewhat in bulk1 causing a swelling of the stalk1 and hatch in two weeks--more or less1 according to the temperature2 and during the early part of ,may the worms attract attention by the innumerable small holes they make in the leaves4 ,their colors are dirty yellow and gray-green1 and when not feeding1 they rest on the under side of the leaf1 curled up in a spiral manner1 the tail occupying the centre1 and fall to the ground at the slightest disturbance4 ,after changing their skin four times they become fully grown1 when they measure about three-fourths of an inch4 ',at this season they descend into the ground1 and form a weak cocoon of earth1 the inside being made smooth by a sort of gum4 ,in this they soon change to pupae1 from which are produced a second breed of flies by the end of ,june and beginning of ,july4 ,under the influence of ,july weather1 the whole process of egg depositing1 etc41 is rapidly repeated1 and the second brood of worms descend into the earth during the fore part of ,august1 and form their cocoons2 in which they remain in the caterpillar state through the fall1 winter1 and early spring months1 till the middle of ,april following1 when they become pupae and flies again1 as related4 ',the remedy is the same as that employed against the currant worm1 which belongs to the same family4 ,it consists of white hellebore1 used either in powder or liquid4' ,i think that tobacco dust or a strong decoction from the stems would prove effective1 also4 ,i have never had any experience with this worm1 but have read of instances in which fields had been entirely cleared of the pest by young chickens and turkeys4 ,the common little flea-beetle has often caused great injury to my recently planted beds4 ,i once paid nearly #ajj for a new1 high-priced variety1 and before ,i was aware of it every plant had been devoured4 ,they rarely injure large1 fully matured plants1 but are often very destructive to those recently planted1 especially if set during the summer4 ,you can not catch them2 for1 as your hand approaches a leaf on which they cluster1 they scatter with a sudden bound1 and are at once lost to view1 so nearly do they resemble the color of the ground4 ,slight dustings of dry wood-ashes impede their feeding somewhat2 but ,i think we must cope with this insect as we do with the ,colorado or potato beetle4 ,it must be poisoned4 ,paris green1 of course1 will finish them speedily1 but such a deadly poison must be used with great care1 and if there is any green or ripe fruit on the vines1 not used at all4 ,hellebore1 ,london purple1 tobacco dust1 may destroy them2 and when little chickens can be employed1 they are a sure remedy4 ,black eyes1 or the receptacle turning black1 is caused by light frosts1 to which the open flowers are very susceptible4 ,if one's strawberry bed were in bloom1 and there was a prospect of a frosty night1 ,i think the blossoms could be saved by covering the bed with four or five inches of straw or hay1 and raking it off again as soon as the temperature rose sufficiently high in the morning4 ,without doubt1 new diseases and enemies to the strawberry will be developed in the future1 and as they come we must experiment till we find some means of mastering them4 ,,raspberries ,,and ,,blackberries ,these two fruits are so near akin that they are subject to the attacks of the same diseases and enemies4 ,the most fatal scourge of red raspberries that ,i have seen is what is called at ,marlboro' the curl-leaf2 and1 if unchecked1 it will eventually banish the famous ,hudson ,river ,antwerp from cultivation4 ,as yet1 no remedy has been found for it that ,i am aware of4 ,i believe it to be contagious1 and would advise that the plants be dug out and burned immediately1 and that plantations of strong1 healthy plants be made on new land that has never been in raspberries4 ,i also suggest the free use of wood-ashes and well-decayed compost4 ,as far as my experience goes1 this disease is confined to foreign varieties1 and almost wholly1 as yet1 to the ,antwerps4 ,mr4 ,fuller1 in the paper already named1 describes a disease among blackberries that resembles the raspberry curl-leaf so closely that it may be identical1 and spring from the same cause4 ,some ten years ago1 the cultivators of the blackberry in various parts of ,new ,jersey noticed that the ends of the young1 growing canes1 in summer1 would occasionally curl1 twist about1 and often assume a singular1 fasciated form1 resulting in an entire check to their growth4 ,the leaves on these infested shoots did not die and fall off1 but merely curled up1 sometimes assuming a deeper green than the healthy leaves on the same stalk4 ,at the approach of winter1 the infested leaves remained firmly attached to the diseased stems2 and all through the cold weather1 and far into the spring1 these leaf-laden and diseased stems were a conspicuous object in many of the blackberry plantations of this ,state4 ,if the infested shoots are examined in summer1 thousands of minute insects1 of a pale yellow color1 and covered with a powdery exudation1 will be found sucking the juices of the succulent stem and leaves1 causing the crimping1 curling1 and twisting of these parts as described4 ,this parasite resembles somewhat an ordinary greenfly 7,aphis7 or plant louse2 but1 according to the observations of ,professor ,riley1 it belongs to the closely allied ,flea-lice family 7,psyllidae71 distinguished from the plant-lice by a different veining of the wings1 and by the antennae being knobbed at the tip1 like those of the butterfly1 the knob usually terminating in two bristles4 ,these insects jump as briskly as a flea1 from which characteristic they derive their scientific name4 ,the particular species in question was called by ,professor ,riley the ',bramble-,flea-louse 7,psylla rubi ,footnote3 ,it can not be distinguished from ,psylla tripunctata1 ,fitch 7,catalogue of ,homoptera1 etc471 and1 what is most singular1 the same species is very common on pine-trees all over the eastern part of the continent1 from ,florida to ,canada471' in the ,american ,entomologist 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bbe74 ,it has increased rapidly during the past half-dozen years or more1 and unless fruit-growers make a more vigorous fight than they have yet done1 it will soon get the mastery of many blackberry plantations4 ,the only practical method as yet discovered for checking the ravages of this insect is to cut off the ends of the infested canes and burn them4 ,this operation should always be performed either in the morning or during cool1 wet weather1 else many of the insects will escape2 and at all times the severed shoots should be immediately dropped into bags1 and in them carried to the place where they are to be burned1 and there emptied into the fire4 ,if every one having blackberry bushes in their gardens would practice this method of destruction1 this pest would soon cease to do much harm4 ,there are species of borers and gall insects that attack these two fruits1 but as yet they have not become formidable4 ,all infested canes should be cut out and burned with their contents1 or else the pests may so increase as to cause much injury4 ,the larvae of the ,selandria rubi1 an insect nearly related to the imported currant worm1 and known as the raspberry saw-fly1 is destructive in some regions4 ,it is semi-transparent1 and so like the foliage in color that it could scarcely be detected1 did not the ragged1 perforated leaves indicate both its presence and its mischief4 ,this worm measures half an inch in length1 when fully developed4 ,it has two black eyes1 like spots1 upon a green head1 and usually a slightly fuzzy body4 ,the remedies recommended are the same as those used against the currant worm4 ,i have had no experience with this pest4 ,the ,orange-rust 7,uredo rubrum7 is one of the worst of foes to both the blackberry and raspberry--the ,rubus occidentalis1 or black-cap family1 suffering the most1 usually4 ,i have seen fields of the ,early ,wilson and ,kittatinny blackberries in ,new ,jersey that presented a melancholy appearance4 ,it is believed to be very contagious1 and it can be spread by both trimmer and pickers4 ,mr4 ,chas4 ,a4 ,green1 of ,monroe ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 writes3 ,the end plant of a row in my garden was affected1 and ,i let it remain1 as an experiment4 ,in three years1 nearly every plant in the row was more or less diseased4 ,we have tried picking the leaves and cutting back the canes1 without relief1 and have found that the only safe method is to dig out and destroy all affected plants without delay4 ,mr4 ,fuller says that application of lime1 salt1 or some similar substance1 may check the disease2 but ,i know of no remedy except that of rooting up every affected plant1 and burning it4 ,mr4 ,downing recommends the same course4 ,it is one of those evils that should be stamped out at once4 ,if a plantation were generally affected with this yellow symbol of contagion1 it would be well to destroy all the plants1 and1 obtaining new1 healthful stock from a distance1 start again on different grounds4 ,should the snowy tree-cricket become very abundant1 it might cause much injury1 chiefly by cutting off the leaves1 as the ordinary cut-worm serves the stem of a young plant4 ,,currants ,,and ,,gooseberries ,we have not only imported our best currants from ,europe1 but also their worst enemies4 ,the most formidable of these is popularly known as the currant worm4 ,robert ,thompson1 the ,english authority1 thus describes it3 ,the magpie moth 7,abraxas grossulariata7 deposits its eggs upon the foliage1 and from them is hatched a slightly hairy cream-colored caterpillar1 spotted with black1 and marked with orange along the sides1 and which forms a loop in walking4 ,it feeds upon the leaves1 devouring all but the petiole1 and often entirely defoliating both gooseberry and currant bushes4 ,it changes into a pupa in ,may or ,june1 and in about three weeks afterward1 the perfect insect makes its appearance4 ,very naturally1 this currant worm made its debut near ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 a great fruit centre1 receiving annually large importations of plants4 ,its first appearance was in #aheg4 ,in ,england1 the caterpillar of the ,phalaena vanaria1 a similar insect1 is often destructive4 ,whether it has appeared among us yet1 ,i am not informed4 ,they fight it abroad as they do the ordinary worm4 ,the gooseberry and currant saw-fly 7,nematus ribesii71 another pestiferous foreigner1 has made its appearance in some localities4 ,we have1 besides1 a native saw-fly 7,pristiphera grossulariae71 which resembles its ,european congener1 and emulates it in mischief4 ,the larva of this fly feeds upon both1 the currant and the gooseberry1 but prefers the latter4 ,nature is liberal1 and has given us1 in addition1 a native gooseberry span-worm1 the larva of a small moth4 ,these several worms1 unchecked1 would soon render the culture of the currant and gooseberry impossible in the regions where they abounded2 and1 at first1 horticulturists were almost in despair1 for the pests seemed proof against the usual insecticides and means of destruction4 ,it was eventually discovered that powdered white hellebore was a specific remedy4 ,usually1 it is applied unmixed with other substances2 and pains should be taken to get a genuine article1 or else it will not destroy the worms4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,t4 ,jones1 of ,rochester1 recommends the following3 ,to one pailful of wood-ashes1 add one quart each of white hellebore and flowers of sulphur2 mix thoroughly2 apply by sifting on the bushes while the dew is on them4 ,i used nothing else on my plantation of over two acres last season1 and want nothing better2 but it must be used daily as long as any worms are seen4 ,i have heard that1 if applied in a liquid form1 a heaping table-spoonful of hellebore to a gallon of water is a good proportion4 ,at the meeting of the ,new ,jersey ,historical ,society1 it was stated by good authorities1 as the result of actual experience1 that tobacco-dust would kill the worms as readily as hellebore4 ,i hope this is true1 since the latter is expensive when applied on a large scale1 and the tobacco-dust can be bought at from two dollars to three dollars per barrel4 ,i shall try it next year4 ,i also quote the following from a recent editorial by ,mr4 ,fuller1 in the ,new ,york ,weekly ,sun3 ,white hellebore has long been considered one of the most efficacious of all poisons for the imported currant worm1 but a ,new ,jersey fruit-grower of considerable experience informed us not long ago that he had found strong tobacco water quite as good as the hellebore1 and it was also soon washed off by heavy rains1 whereby the fruit was not rendered unfit for use1 as when other and more virulent poisons are employed4 ,to make a strong solution1 put a half-bushel or bushel of tobacco stems1 or even the leaves1 into a cask or barrel1 and press down and hold in place with a stone or other weight2 then pour on hot water enough to cover the tobacco1 and leave it for a few days to steep4 ,after steeping1 the cask may be filled up with warm or cold water1 and the solution is ready for use4 ,if a half-pound or pound of crude potash is added1 or a quart or two of soft soap is stirred in1 the solution will be much improved1 especially in its destructive properties4 ,after using the first liquid1 the barrels may be filled again with water1 and left to steep a few days longer than the first time1 or some fresh tobacco may be added1 to give the solution the required strength4 ,tobacco water is certainly a cheap insecticide1 and will frequently be found quite as efficacious as those that are more costly and troublesome to apply4 ,a gentleman from ,erie1 ,pa41 writes to me that he has used this remedy for years1 with complete success4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,mc,k4 ,beattie1 of ,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia1 has written to me of a still simpler method3 ,i notice in the ,april number of ',scribner's ,monthly' that you intend to use tobacco-dust to destroy the currant worms4 ,it will prove effectual2 but as ,i can give you a far more simple plan1 ,i take the liberty of writing4 ,it is one which ,i have proved for the past seven years1 and never have known it to fail wherever tried4 ,after digging about my bushes1 and manuring in the spring1 ,i cover the earth around the bushes with tobacco stems1 and place a handful in the middle of the bush1 and the work is done for the season4 ,i found that when using the dust ,i had to renew it after every heavy rain1 whereas the stems did not need renewing1 unless it was a very wet season1 and then1 if any worms appeared1 a handful of fresh stems scattered through the bushes made them disappear4 ,the stems have several advantages3 they are cheaper than dust2 they serve as a mulch to keep the ground off the fruit2 and when dug in about the bush1 they make an excellent manure4 ,i think if you once gave them a fair trial you would never be tempted to try any other method4 ,last year stems were very scarce here1 and ,i could not get enough to mulch all my bushes1 so ,i only put a generous handful in the centre of a good many bushes1 and they were not troubled2 but ,i would not like to recommend that plan until ,i experimented further4 ,for the past two years the worm has attacked my bushes savagely2 but1 as ,i am very fond of currants1 and relish white1 powdered sugar more than hellebore1 ,i fought the pests successfully by hand-picking4 ,i kept a boy1 at moderate wages1 whose business it was to kill insects and worms4 ,he had a lively time of it occasionally1 for ,nature sometimes appeared to take sides with the pests4 ,the cautious use of lime and salt around and under the bushes might prove beneficial1 since the worm descends into the soil before changing into a pupa4 ,the current and gooseberry are also infested with several species of plant-lice4 ,a gentleman whose bushes were attacked by lice and the currant worm at the same time1 wrote to the ,country ,gentleman that he destroyed both by a strong decoction of white hellebore1 applied from a fine rose-sprinkling can4 ,the bushes were turned back and forth1 so as to get the solution on the under side of the leaves4 ,the writer concludes3 ,the decoction of hellebore must be strong to be effectual4 ,i make it as follows3 ,to a gallon of boiling water add a tablespoonful of pulverized hellebore4 ,after standing fifteen or twenty minutes1 add three gallons of common soapsuds4 ,when cool1 apply with a sprinkler1 ,i do not know that there is any virtue in the soapsuds1 excepting it makes the solution stick to the leaves4 ,there are three species of currant borers with unpronounceable names4 ,their presence is shown by yellow foliage and withering fruit in summer1 and by brown1 shrivelled branches in winter4 ,cutting out and burning is the only remedy4 ,usually1 a vigorous bush will outgrow the attacks of this enemy2 and good cultivation gives vigor1 and also disturbs and brings to the surface the worms that have entered the soil to undergo their transformation4 ,from first to last1 tonic treatment supplements and renders more effective our direct efforts to destroy diseases and enemies4 ,most earnestly would ,i urge caution in using all virulent poisons like ,paris green1 ,london purple1 hellebore1 etc4 ,whenever it is possible to substitute a less poisonous substance1 do so by all means4 ,some good people regard tobacco as the bane of banes2 but to many it does not cause the feeling of repugnance and fear inspired by hellebore and more poisonous insecticides4 ,let all such articles be kept under lock and key2 and one person should have charge of their use1 and be held responsible for them4 ,moreover1 any watering-can used with ,paris green and like substances should be marked with the word ,poison1 in large letters4 ,if insecticides are used in the form of a powder1 great care should be exercised to keep it from falling on other vegetation or fruit that might be eaten by man or beast4 ,i have known of pigs and horses dying from eating herbage on which ,paris green had blown from a potato field4 ,london purple1 which1 as a cheaper and equally effective article1 is taking the place of ,paris green1 must be used with the same caution1 since it is a compound of arsenic1 and equally poisonous4 ,it is my wish and intention to experiment carefully with the various means and methods of coping with the diseases and enemies of small fruits1 and to give this chapter frequent revisions4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,picking ,,and ,,marketing ,in the proceedings of the ,new ,jersey ,state ,horticultural ,society1 ,i find the following interesting paper from the pen of ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,idell1 a commission merchant1 whose intelligent interest in fruits extends beyond their current price4 ,he gives so graphic a picture of the diminutive beginning of small fruit growing and marketing1 that ,i am led to quote freely3 ,about the earliest knowledge ,i could obtain of the strawberry in our ,state is that it first grew wild in many regions1 particularly in the county of ,bergen4 ,the negroes were the first to pick this fruit for the ,new ,york market1 and invented those quaint old-fashioned splint baskets1 with handles1 that were and are still in use in that county4 ,these berries were taken to ,new ,york1 the baskets being strung on poles1 and thus peddled through the city4 ,i would state1 for the benefit of those who have not seen these baskets1 that it was the intention of the original makers of them to have them contain a half-pint each1 but soon they became so reduced in size that each buyer was compelled to guess at the contents of those he bought4 ,just when cultivated berries made their appearance1 ,i am unable to say1 but ,i am inclined to think they were derived from seedlings of the wild fruit4 ,from the information ,i have gathered1 ,i think that the cultivation of the fruit for the market originated in the vicinity of ,hackensack1 ,bergen county1 and from there spread over the ,state4 ,as there were no railroads in that section at that early date1 all the berries had to be carted to ,new ,york in wagons1 crossing the ,hudson at ,hoboken4 ,quite recently ,i met with ,mr4 ,andrew ,m4 ,hopper1 of ,pascack1 who gave me several interesting points from his early recollections4 ,mr4 ,hopper said3 ',i am sixty-five years old1 and can well remember picking berries for my father1 when a boy ten years of age4 ,at that time we had no crates as we have now1 but packed them in large baskets that we called hampers4 ',our only shipping point to ,new ,york was ,piermont1 on the ,hudson1 ,new ,york ,state1 a distance of about eight miles4 ',at this point there was a line of sloops that sailed semi-weekly1 when wind and tide permitted4 ,in those days there were no commission merchants in ,new ,york that dealt in berries1 and each farmer was compelled to go with and sell his own fruit4 ,the fare on these vessels was one shilling for a round trip1 board not included2 and as it sometimes required two days to reach the city1 each farmer provided a lunch for himself before starting from home1 as well as provender for his team1 which was left at the landing to await his return4 ,the usual fee for caring for the team while they were gone was twenty-five cents4' ,the ,hautbois was the first named variety he could remember1 which was introduced among them in #ahce4 ,in about #ahdj the ,scotch ,runner was introduced at ,hackensack4 ,it was a valuable variety for the growers1 as it was hardy1 a good bearer1 and the fruit grew unusually large for that period4 ,an incident connected with the introduction of this variety is worth mentioning1 showing the eagerness of the cultivators to procure the plants4 ,a gentleman living at ',old ,bridge1' which is a few miles above ,hackensack1 secured quite a number of plants and set them out in his garden for the purpose of propagating them1 so that he could in due time plant a large patch of them4 ,the vines being in great demand1 his neighbors insisted upon his selling them2 but this proposition he positively refused1 and the consequence was that1 one night1 some person entered his garden and stole every plant he had4 ,at this period and up to the introduction of the ,wilson1 all strawberries in that section were picked and marketed without the hulls4 ,for a long time ,i have been trying to find out the originator of the quart-berry-box and crate1 and1 thinking ,mr4 ,hopper might possess some knowledge on this point1 ,i inquired of him4 ,he replied3 ',i know nothing about the quart box1 for ,i never used them1 but ,i do about the crate4 ',in #ahdj ,i made the first crate ever used in our section1 if not in the ,state1 and ,i will tell you how ,i came to do it4 ,in those days ,i raised large quantities of apricots1 and marketed them in such baskets as we happened to have4 ,in the year named my fruit was very large and finely colored1 and knowing they would be damaged by carting in the usual way1 ,i had a number of small baskets made1 and then ,i constructed a crate to fit them4 ,the next day after ,i made them1 ,gen4 ,acker1 who was an old fruit grower1 called on me1 admired the arrangement1 and suggested that they would answer to pack berries in1 and requested me to make two for him1 which ,i did4 ,from these the use of them became general4' ,the cases referred to were skeleton cases1 some with and others without lids1 each grower making them to suit his own convenience for handling2 but they generally contained from one to two hundred baskets each4 ,the number of baskets in each was marked either on the lid or slat4 ,from the above quotation1 the reader can realize what vast changes have taken place within the last fifty years4 ,a few sable pedlers1 with little baskets strung on poles1 form a decided contrast with a ,charleston steamer1 bringing in one trip ,north far more strawberries1 in patent refrigerators1 than were then sold in a year2 or with an ,old ,dominion steamship1 discharging six thousand bushels as a single item of cargo4 ,ninety-four car-loads of strawberries have passed over the ,delaware railroad in one day4 ,according to one computation already given1 ,new ,york consumes #be1jjj1jjj worth of small fruits annually4 ,if the business has grown to such proportions within the last half-century1 may we not expect even greater increase in the future8 ,the appliances for preserving fruit1 and for transporting it quickly and safely1 become more perfect every year4 ,thus a market is created in vast regions which1 though populous1 are not adapted to the raising of fruit4 ,the modern conditions of marketing fruit are just the reverse of those described by ,mr4 ,idell4 ,then the berries1 both in size and quantity1 were small2 but the labor and difficulty in reaching the consumer were immense4 ,now1 strawberries that in size resemble tomatoes can be forwarded by the ship and car load1 with brief printed labels1 and the commission merchant sells for his correspondent1 who may reside hundreds of miles away1 and for years never follow his fruits to their market4 ,our chief ground for solicitude is success in finding a commission house able to dispose of our fruit promptly at current rates1 and sufficiently honest to make exact returns at the end of each week4 ,there are many who do this1 and not a few who do not4 ,if one has not satisfactory business acquaintance in the city1 ,i suggest that they learn from their neighbors who have been in the habit of shipping produce1 the names of merchants that uniformly have made the best returns4 ,moreover1 it is often well1 if one has considerable fruit1 to ship to two or more parties1 and compare prices4 ,the homely proverb hinting that it is not wise to put all our eggs in one basket1 is sound4 ,,fruit ,,packages ,my experience and observation have led me to market my strawberries in square quart baskets1 and round pints1 and raspberries in half-pints2 although pints answer equally well for a firm raspberry1 like the ,cuthbert or ,brandywine4 ,if ,i were shipping long distances1 ,i would prefer baskets of which1 the round ,beecher quarts and pints are the types4 ,such packages occupy too much space1 however1 to be forwarded in refrigerators4 ,i think berries remain in good condition longer in this circular1 open basket than in any other4 ,of the crate1 it is sufficient to say that it should be light1 strong1 and so constructed as to permit free circulation of air4 ,few of the square quart baskets hold a quart4 ,indeed1 there are but few honest baskets in the market2 and the fact has come to be so well recognized that they are now sold by the basket1 the majority being aware that they are simply packages of fruit4 ,i think there should be a change in this respect1 and that the several packages should hold a full quart1 pint1 etc4 ,square quarts fill a crate compactly1 requiring the least amount of space2 there is no chance for the baskets to upset1 and when the crate is opened there is a continuous surface of fruit1 which is very attractive4 ,very large1 showy strawberries appear best1 however1 in round baskets4 ,if my market were a near one1 ,i would plan to dispose of the bulk of my crop in round pints1 since they could be used for strawberries1 the firmer raspberries1 and blackberries4 ,thus one stock and style of baskets would last throughout the whole season4 ,a little good taste bestowed upon the appearance of a fruit package often adds several cents per pound or quart to the price received1 and thus it comes that the brand of certain growers is sought after in the market4 ,a few green leaves1 judiciously placed1 cost nothing1 but may catch the eye and secure a fancy price4 ,after much inquiry in the market1 however1 ,i am led to the conclusion that the size1 quality1 and appearance of the fruit count for far more than ail other considerations combined4 ,the old ,marlboro' thirds1 still largely in use on the ,hudson1 should be superseded as soon as possible by baskets that permit circulation of air4 ,we should use boxes cheap enough to be given away with the fruit4 ,there is a box of this kind1 called the ,sunnyside fruit-box1 which can be obtained for about #aj per #a1jjj4 ,the purchaser sees a pretty box of fruit at a shop1 buys and takes it with him1 and is at no trouble to return the box4 ,the present frequent practice of pouring the fruit into brown-paper bags is villanous4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,budd1 of ,wilmington1 ,del41 in a sensible letter1 gives several excellent reasons why it would be better1 and1 in the end1 cheaper1 to use such cheap crates and baskets that one could afford to let them go with the fruit4 ,the expenses of transportation would thus be reduced1 and the prices of the berries enhanced1 not only because the purchaser would not have the trouble of returning packages1 but chiefly for the reason that the fruit would always appear in fresh1 new baskets1 instead of those soiled1 and often musty1 from long use4 ,mr4 ,budd shows that1 in ,delaware1 crates and baskets could be made sufficiently cheap for this practice4 ,,picking ,having procured the baskets which suit us best1 the next thing is to fill them properly1 and get them into market looking fresh and attractive4 ,it is just at this point that very many wrong themselves1 or permit themselves to be wronged1 ,the time is past when all strawberries will sell as such1 at so much per quart4 ,appearance often doubles the price1 or makes it difficult to sell the fruit at all4 ,soiled1 muddy berries1 even though large1 will fetch but wretched prices2 therefore the importance of mulching4 ,the fruit may be in beautiful condition upon the vines and yet be spoiled by careless picking4 ,the work is often performed by children1 or by those who have had no experience1 or who1 from inherent shiftlessness1 do everything in the worst possible way1 ,i have seen beautiful berries that in their brief transit through grimy hands lost half their value4 ,many pickers will lay hold of the soft berry itself and pinch it as they pull it off2 then1 instead of dropping it into the basket1 they will hold it in the hand as they pick others1 and as the hand grows fuller1 will squeeze them tighter1 and when1 at last1 the half-crushed handful is dropped into the basket1 the berries are almost ruined for market purposes4 ,not for #aj per day would ,i permit such a person to pick for me1 for he not only takes fifty per cent from the price of the fruit1 but gives my brand a bad reputation4 ,if possible1 the grower should carefully select his pickers1 and have them subscribe to a few plain rules1 like the following3 #a4 ,each berry must be picked with the thumb and forefinger nails1 and not held in the hand1 but dropped into the basket at once4 #b4 ,no green1 decayed1 or muddy berries will be received4 #c4 ,there must be no getting down upon all fours in the beds1 thus crushing both green and ripe fruit4 #d4 ,there must be no topping off with large berries1 but the fruit must be equally good all through the basket4 ,in the early pickings of ,wilsons1 when many of the berries are of good size1 and of all the large1 choice kinds1 it is best to make two grades1 putting the large and small by themselves1 and keeping varieties separate4 ,a small frame1 with short legs at the corners1 and a handle1 is a convenient appliance to hold six or more baskets while picking4 ,give to each picker two sets of baskets1 one for the small and one for the large berries1 and pay equally for both1 or perhaps a little more for the small ones1 so that there may be no motive to thwart your purpose2 one and a half to two cents per quart is the usual price4 ,have two styles of tickets1 red and blue1 for instance2 the red having a higher value and being given to those who bring the berries to the place of packing in good order1 according to rule2 let the baskets not picked in conformity to the rules be receipted for with the blue tickets4 ,receiving many of the latter soon becomes a kind of disgrace1 and thus you appeal to the principle of self-respect as well as self-interest4 ,get rid of those who persist in careless picking as soon as possible4 ,insist that the baskets be full and rounded up1 and the fruit equal in quality down to the bottom4 ,as far as possible1 let the hulls be down out of sight1 and only the fruit showing4 ,if you have berries that are extra fine1 it will pay you to pick and pack them yourself1 or have some one to do it who can be depended upon4 ,do not pick the fruit1 if you can help it1 when it is wet with dew or rain2 still1 there are times when this must be done to save it4 ,never let the baskets or crates stand long in the sun and wind1 as the berries so treated soon become dull and faded4 ,as soon as a crate is filled1 put it under cover in a cool place till shipped to market4 ,as far as possible1 insist upon careful1 gentle handling4 ,raspberries should be treated with even greater care than strawberries1 since they are softer and more perishable4 ,they should never be put into anything larger than a pint basket1 while thirds of a quart and half-pints are much better4 ,round half-pints seem to be coming into favor4 ,there is a wide1 shallow basket made in ,rochester1 that some growers think highly of4 ,with most varieties of raspberries1 if any considerable number are placed together they soon become a soft1 mouldy mass4 ,the ideal raspberry basket1 therefore1 is small1 open1 and shallow2 and the crates should permit free circulation4 ,pick the fruit when dry1 and as soon as it is ripe1 as over-ripe berries decay quickly4 ,keep varieties by themselves4 ,mr4 ,parry says that raspberries will pay at ten cents per quart1 but the margin of profit will be small4 ,they usually sell at much higher figures4 ,black-caps of late years have scarcely brought paying prices in ,new ,york market4 ,the following statement shows what a difference variety1 and therefore quality1 makes in the same market4 ,on the #gth day of ,july1 #ahga1 raspberries were sold at wholesale1 in ,philadelphia1 as follows1 viz43 ,black-cap 44444444444444444444#e cents per quart4 ,philadelphia 4444444444444444 #h ,pearl 4444444444444444444 #af ,susqueco1 or ,brandywine 4444 #cj ,hornet 444444444444444444444 #fj ,blackberries sell well in both quart and pint baskets1 but if one is sending a long distance1 pints will carry the fruit in better condition4 ,one of the best methods of shipping currants is to have tills1 or shallow boxes1 two or three in number1 fitting in one's berry crates1 which can thus be made to serve a double purpose4 ,mark on these tills the net weight of the fruit4 ,for large1 ,cherry currants1 quart and verbena baskets are often used4 ,many like a long market basket1 holding about twenty-five pounds1 while those who raise grapes often make the same shallow boxes answer for both4 ,gooseberries are shipped in all kinds of packages1 from barrels to quart boxes4 ,i prefer a crate with tills1 for both gooseberries and currants4 ,these two fruits1 especially the latter1 are becoming increasingly profitable every year4 ,in summing up1 it may be briefly stated that with all fruits1 and in all the large markets1 beauty1 size1 and good keeping qualities are the points which are chiefly considered4 ,very few know much about the names of varieties1 but eagerly purchase that which appears the most attractive4 ,the grower who can make his crates of berries1 when opened1 look better than others near1 will always receive good prices4 ,if he tops off poor fruit with large berries1 he will scarcely find a market eventually4 ,if he always fills his baskets well and honestly1 and gives good weight1 taking pains to make his packages appear attractive1 his fruit will soon be in much demand and spoken for in advance4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,irrigation ,this is a topic on which a book might be written4 ,the reader will draw a sigh of relief1 however1 on learning that ,i shall content myself with giving a few facts and suggestions1 since ,i am well aware that1 in spite of its title1 this chapter will be dry to many4 ,the first rays that fall from the lamp of history reveal vast systems of irrigation in full operation4 ,in many parts of the globe artificial watering is absolutely essential1 and there are few agricultural regions which might not be rendered far more productive if the supply of moisture could be regulated in accordance with the needs of each crop4 ,the question1 as we shall consider it1 is a practical one4 ,in ,california and other sections1 the land must be irrigated2 here1 and wherever the rainfall is more equally distributed throughout the year1 we can water if we find the practice remunerative4 ,the increased yield from the proper application of water is often marvellous4 ,mr4 ,james ,neilson1 in a paper read before the ,new ,jersey ,state ,board of ,agriculture1 gives some interesting facts observed abroad4 ,in regions along the ,cavour ,canal1 the people were able to mow in one season six heavy burdens of grass1 and in the vicinity of ,edinburgh1 by the use of sewage water1 five or six crops of grass annually4 ,in ,belgium1 sandy1 barren land 7resembling the pine barrens of ,new ,jersey7 was put into profitable cultivation when it could be irrigated4 ,the plain of ,gennevilliers1 near ,paris1 seemed utterly worthless for cultivation4 ,it consisted almost wholly of coarse gravel1 and bore no rent4 ,no land owner would make any effort to use water1 so the city of ,paris bought about twenty-five acres and turned upon it part of the sewage4 ,it now rents for nearly #ej per acre1 with sewage supplied4 ,in parts of ,spain1 land is worth #b1ejj irrigated1 and but #abe without the privilege of water4 ,the enormous and long-continued crops of strawberries raised in ,california prove that water is equally effective in our new land1 where the climate is similar1 as in the older countries4 ,will irrigation pay in our latitude1 where we hope for seasonable rains8 ,i think that in many sections it will1 and occasionally ,i hear of remarkable results obtained by the free use of water4 ,in one instance a gravelly hillside1 almost worthless for ordinary cultivation1 became the wonder of the neighborhood1 so large were the crops of strawberries secured by irrigation4 ,mr4 ,chas4 ,w4 ,garfield1 ,secretary of the ,michigan ,state ,pomological ,society1 gives an interesting account of his visit to ,mr4 ,dunkley1 a successful gardener1 at ,kalamazoo3 ,a force1 he writes1 were picking strawberries from rows of vigorous plants1 and as we opened the vines in advance of the pickers1 a more delightful strawberry prospect we had never seen4 ,the varieties were ,monarch1 ,seneca ,chief1 and ,wilson1 and under the system of irrigation employed they were just prime for market1 after all the other berries in the vicinity had ripened and were gone4 ,very remunerative prices were thus secured4 ,his vines were vigorous and independent of the rains4 ,every berry that set reached perfection in size and form4 ,the abundant moisture greatly increases the size of the fruit1 but retards the ripening4 ,when the fruit has reached the proper stage for maturity1 the water is withheld1 and then the berries ripen fast1 but in their perfect development are firm1 and are shielded from the sun by the luxuriant foliage4 ,we water1 said ,mr4 ,dunkley1 only to supplement the rain4 ,if the season is wet1 we employ our artificial system but little1 or not at all1 and in such seasons get no profit from our investments2 but generally1 sometime during a season there is a drought that shortens some crop2 then we irrigate1 and have the advantage of neighboring gardeners4 ,this statement suggests the practical question1 ,do droughts or dry seasons occur with sufficient frequency to warrant the outlay required for irrigation8 ,in a very interesting paper read before the ,massachusetts ,horticultural ,society1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,d4 ,philbrick gives much information on the subject of artificial watering1 and its need in our latitude and section1 and ,i quote from him freely3 ,the amount of water required will depend largely on the rainfall1 velocity of the wind1 atmospheric humidity1 soil1 etc4 ,a loose1 sandy soil will require much more water than a retentive clay4 ,in general1 however1 it may be assumed that in the warm1 growing months of ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 ,august and ,september1 most vegetation requires an inch in depth over the entire surface of the land every five days4 ,this is1 of course1 only an average4 ,this quantity1 estimated as needed by our gardens1 would be equivalent to six inches per month of rainfall4 ,if we compare this amount with the actual rainfall1 we shall arrive at an idea of what is to be supplied artificially4 ,the rainfall at ,boston for the past six years 7to #ahgh71 for the five growing months named1 varies from a maximum of #aj4e inches1 in ,august1 #ahgb1 to a minimum of #j4fe inch1 in ,june1 #ahgc4 ,during these six years there was not a single season when we did not suffer more or less from drought during some portion of the summer4 ,twenty-one of the thirty months in question had less rainfall than six inches per month1 and the average of these twenty-one months was about #c4jb inches per month1 or only about half of what was needed4 ,some of the protracted seasons of drought were almost entirely rainless for six weeks1 during which the weather was excessively hot and windy1 and vegetation suffered extremely in consequence4 ,mr4 ,philbrick estimates that #bg1jjj gallons1 or #ajh tons1 of water are needed per acre at each watering1 which1 in a dry period1 should be repeated every five days4 ,this enormous quantity leads him to suggest that-- before embarking in an enterprise of irrigation1 it would be best to make sure that the source can be depended upon for a sufficient supply of water in the driest seasons2 for it is precisely at such times that the most water is needed4 ,ordinary springs and wells1 therefore1 are entirely inadequate to furnish water for anything more than a small patch or garden4 ,the only sources to be depended upon for large areas are unfailing streams1 lakes1 and ponds4 ,there are few gardens so favorably situated that the water can be drawn from canals and ditches directly from some pond or stream4 ,when this can be done it is by far the cheapest method2 and it is in this way that the extensive irrigating works of ,lombardy1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,california1 and ,colorado are constructed4 ,where this system is adopted1 considerable expense is required to grade the land into inclined beds1 so as to distribute the water easily and evenly2 but1 once done1 the water is applied at a very trifling cost--so cheaply that it is used for farm crops in ,lombardy and the ,south of ,france4 ,in most instances1 however1 our land is so located that we cannot irrigate it by a natural flow and fall of water4 ,in this case1 it may be distributed by water-carts and by hand4 ,this can be done only on a very small scale4 ,the cost in time and labor would be much too great for profitable returns1 and the ground would be so beaten and trampled as to cause much injury4 ,such methods may answer very well for small and well-mulched fruit gardens1 making the home supply certain and large1 but it is inadequate from a business point of view4 ,distributing water through pipes laid underground1 beneath the plow1 does not work well at all1 practically1 and is not in accordance with nature4 ,most of the water is wasted4 ,mr4 ,phil brick continues3 ,the only method of distributing water much used in gardens where pumping is practiced is the system of iron pipes laid underground1 with hydrants distant #bjj feet asunder1 from which the water is distributed by #ajj feet of ,india rubber hose4 ,this is also the plan adopted by gardeners who make use of the public water supply4 ,when practicable1 such iron pipes should be carried along ridges and headlands1 so as to let the water flow where we wish it by gravity as far as possible4 ,where the water has to be distributed by hose and sprinkler it will be found good economy to use a powerful pump1 that will give a head of at least thirty feet1 and to use for distribution pipes of not less than one and a half inches in diameter2 provided1 of course1 that any considerable area--an acre or more--is to be watered4 ,thus1 for example1 we will suppose that it is required to water five acres of land1 and that we have near by a never-failing pond or river2 we can locate a steam pump near the river1 and1 while at work watering1 we load the safety-valve upon the delivering water pipe at fifteen pounds per square inch1 which corresponds to a head of about thirty feet of water4 ,we have #cjj feet of iron pipe1 two inches in diameter1 and #ajj feet of ,india rubber hose1 one and a half inches in diameter1 for the delivery of the water4 ,this apparatus would be capable of delivering #de gallons per minute1 or #bg1jjj gallons per day of ten hours--enough for the thorough wetting of one acre per day1 or every acre of the five once in five days2 by running nights1 ten acres could be watered4 ,when only a limited area is to be watered--less than an acre--the wind-mill furnishes a cheaper source of power than the steam pump4 ,to make it available1 large storage of water must be provided at a high level1 so that the mill may work during stormy weather and store the water until needed4 ,a wind-mill1 costing with pump and tank about #ejj1 will furnish water enough for one or two acres of land1 provided storage can be provided for #bjj1jjj gallons of water4 ,to provide this storage might cost as much as a steam pump4 ,where elevated reservoirs can easily be made1 and the amount of water needed is not over #aj1jjj gallons daily1 the wind-mill is1 without doubt1 cheaper power than steam4 ,mr4 ,philbrick shows conclusively that where a gardener pays at the rate of twenty-five cents per #a1jjj gallons1 or even much less1 only crops approaching #a1jjj per acre in value will warrant the outlay4 ,when land can be easily graded1 and irrigated through canals and ditches1 the yearly cost has been reduced1 in some cases1 as low as from one to three dollars per acre per year4 ,wherever drainage is not perfect1 it must be made so before irrigation can be safely practiced2 otherwise1 if a heavy fall of rain should occur just after application of water1 the plants might suffer seriously from being too wet4 ,in the discussion which followed the reading of this paper1 ,mr4 ,john ,b4 ,moore said1 among other things3 ,no crop takes the moisture out of the soil more quickly than strawberries1 and1 for these and other crops which soon suffer from dryness1 he lets the water run down the rows all night from half a dozen large pipes4 ,hon4 ,marshall ,t4 ,wilder then remarked that the secret how ,mr4 ,moore produced his large strawberries had now come out4 7,in a letter recently received1 ,mr4 ,moore further states3 ,in the garden1 ,i have had the best results where ,i have let the water run out of open hose between the rows of raspberries1 strawberries1 etc41 always making it a rule to wet the ground thoroughly1 and then stop1 and not apply any more until there is good evidence of the soil needing it again4 ,a constant drizzle is detrimental to vegetation47 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,strong said that the even distribution of water was very important2 otherwise1 the ground became sodden in places1 and other parts received no benefit4 ,he thought that considerable part of the benefit of irrigation arose from showering the foliage1 especially at night1 as in a green-house4 ,mr4 ,philbrick said that he applied water in sunshine sometimes1 but that in general he did not like to do so4 7,i would caution the reader to be very careful about wetting foliage under a hot sun1 as it often causes both leaves and fruit to scald4 ,i once lost a crop of gooseberries through a midday shower1 followed by a hot afternoon47 ,mr4 ,e4 ,p4 ,richardson had found a hose perforated with holes an eighth of an inch in diameter1 and about three or four inches apart1 very convenient for applying water4 ,it can be laid anywhere1 in a straight or crooked line1 and under plants whose leaves are injured by watering in the bright sun4 ,such a hose may be left for hours without attention4 ,in the garden at ,kalamazoo already referred to1 the water was obtained by damming up a spring4 ,the water was conveyed in a wooden conduit1 made of two-inch plank1 and rendered water-tight by coal tar4 ,the whole apparatus was very inexpensive1 and proves that in many instances the ingenious and enterprising horticulturist can work out a simple system of his own that1 at slight cost1 will answer his purpose4 ,this chapter aims at little more than to put the reader on the right track for further investigation1 and to suggest a few of the first principles and requirements of irrigation4 ,the great majority have little realization of the amount of water required1 and very often much loss is incurred and injury caused by attempting artificial watering with an insufficient supply4 ,mr4 ,dunkley1 at ,kalamazoo1 started with a wind-mill1 but found it wholly inadequate4 ,partial watering is worse than useless4 ,by liberal mulching1 very much less water is required1 and much longer intervals between irrigation may elapse4 ,if one designs to undertake irrigation upon a large scale1 he should employ the services of an expert1 and make haste slowly4 ,at the same time1 many fruit farms are so located1 or might be1 that the laborer with a pick and shovel could solve the problem of an abundant supply of water4 ,when unfailing moisture can be maintained1 and plants are not permitted to bear in ,june1 nor to make runners1 almost a full crop may be obtained in the autumn4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,suggestive ,,experiences ,,from ,,widely ,,separated ,,localities ,it is often said that there is no teaching like experience1 and in view of this sound principle ,i am led to quote from a few of the letters that ,i have received4 ,these statements1 from successful and intelligent cultivators1 throw side lights on the preceding pages from various standpoints4 ,i would advise the reader to note carefully the adaptation of different varieties to different parts of the country4 ,as we have just been discussing the subject of irrigation1 ,i will first quote from ,california letters1 since they touch on this topic4 ,from ,mr4 ,james ,shinn's interesting communication1 ,i take the following facts3 ,,niles1 ,,alameda ,,co41 ,,cal4 ,the greater part of the strawberries consumed in ,san ,francisco are grown in the neighborhood of ,san ,jose1 some fifty miles south of the city4 ,we are situated about halfway between1 in the great valley that borders the bay of ,san ,francisco4 ,we have occupied this place over twenty years1 and have made observations upon the culture of small fruits1 and have always grown more or less ourselves4 ,while1 therefore1 ,i do not claim to be authority on the points you inquire about1 ,i feel pretty safe in mentioning one or two things in this connection1 that ,i can hardly be mistaken about6 ,first--,those who plant extensively for market make it a sine qua non to have at hand plenty of water2 except in very favored localities1 they can't be grown to profit without this essential4 ,i know that the plants are planted on each side of a small ridge1 previously thrown up for the purpose4 ,the vines along the ridge stand twelve to fifteen inches apart4 ,the space between the ridges allows three and a half feet for cultivation and water4 ,the water is allowed to run between these ridges1 and1 of course1 wets the roots effectually4 ,it will be perceived that the ground must be nearly level4 ,i cannot tell how often these rows are watered1 but frequently4 ,the proper season for planting is as early in the winter as the ground can be put in order--from ,november #ast1 all winter--the earlier the better4 ,if planted early1 a fair crop of berries may be expected the next summer4 ,for many years the ,longwood's ,prolific and ,peabody ,seedling were the varieties generally grown4 ,recently some other varieties have been introduced1 but are mostly confined to the hands of amateurs4 ,the ,monarch of the ,west has1 however1 certainly secured a strong foothold among the large growers4 ,this berry commanded a much larger price in the market than the old varieties4 ,i just remark respecting irrigation that1 of course1 as you will see1 the object of planting upon ridges is to place the vines so high that when the water is let in1 the berries will be above its reach4 ,nearly all our large growers let their fields to ,chinamen1 who do all the work1 boarding themselves1 for half the net proceeds4 ,,san ,,jose1 ,,cal4 ,in answer to your letter1 asking about irrigation1 ,i would state that in the first place we grade the land1 after first plowing and harrowing it4 ,we do not like to do too much grading4 ,if the land is very uneven1 we make the rows conform to it1 bringing the water on the highest portions1 and cutting escape ditches through the low parts1 so that the water can run off readily4 ,the rows are made three feet apart1 and every alternate row is shovelled or plowed out to make a shallow ditch about three or four inches deep4 ,soil is thrown on or between the alternate rows1 making the ground look like small beds4 ,the plants are set in rows about six inches from the edge of the ditches4 ,we are now ready for the water1 which is nearly all taken from artesian wells4 ,the first year1 the plants do not require so much moisture2 but the second year1 we water about once a week4 ,we keep all runners cut off4 ,j4 ,h4 ,ogier4 ,brown's ,valley1 ,yuba ,co41 ,cal4 ,my business is raising strawberries and blackberries for market1 which is eleven miles distant1 and ,i send all my fruit by stage4 ,i have experimented with all leading varieties1 since ,orange ,judd introduced the ,agriculturist1 but succeed best with ,triomphe de ,gand1 ,longworth's ,prolific1 ,jucunda1 and ,colonel ,cheney4 ,the latter is rather soft to carry so far to market4 ,i commence sending to market about the middle of ,april4 ,about the middle of ,june the ,triomphe begins to ripen a second crop4 ,last year they were the largest and finest berries ,i ever saw4 ,in ,september the ,jucunda bears a third crop4 ,prom ,may until ,october we depend entirely on irrigation4 ,our soil is red1 stiff1 and heavy4 ,i use abundantly well-rotted stable manure and barnyard compost4 ,i prepare by deep plowing1 and then harrowing4 ,i then go over the ground for the plants with ,hexamer's pronged hoe1 making the soil very fine4 ,i set the plants two feet apart each way1 and where each one is to grow1 ,i work in a large shovelful of manure deeply and thoroughly4 ,i give blackberries the same mode of culture1 setting them three feet by eight4 ,no winter protection is needed4 ,in ordinary seasons1 there are a few strawberries all winter long4 ,strawberries and blackberries are very productive1 and enormous in size1 but currants1 gooseberries1 and red raspberries do not succeed in this region1 the long and intensely hot and dry season being unfavorable4 ,john ,palmer4 ,,new ,,castle1 ,,cal4 ,the ,president ,wilder is the finest flavored berry we have ever tasted1 and it is the most attractive in color of all4 ,the ,jucunda does not do well on our light soil4 ,the ,monarch is splendid4 ,we grow raspberries quite extensively1 our climate and location being better adapted to them1 perhaps1 than any other part of ,california4 ,the earliest berry with us is the ,red ,antwerp 7probably the ,english74 ,it is a week earlier than the ,franconia4 ,the ,herstine is a fine berry every way1 except as regards firmness4 ,the cap varieties are inferior in flavor here4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,silva ,,son ,from other sources ,i learn that the ,triomphe de ,gand and ,seth ,boyden are among the chief favorites in ,california4 ,mr4 ,felix ,gillet1 ,nevada ,city1 ,cal41 author of an excellent little treatise on the culture of the strawberry in his region1 says3 ,the row and hill system is certainly the best of all1 especially to raise large1 fine fruit4 ,the rows should be two feet apart1 or thirty-six inches1 if irrigating by running water in each row as it is done in ,california4 ,the plants should be set1 the large-growing sorts two feet from each other in the row1 the smaller ones from twelve to eighteen inches4 ,,austin1 ,,texas ,i put in water-works1 and it is the best investment ,i ever made4 ,i supply ,austin with vegetables the whole year round4 ,it was very dry last year1 but ,i loaded three wagons with vegetables every day4 ,we watered twenty acres regularly1 and will water thirty this year4 ,i am making a large reservoir on a hill1 which will be supplied from a large well through a six-inch pipe4 ,i use ,knowles's steam pump1 #cj horse-power1 capable of pumping #gej1jjj gallons daily4 ,of strawberries1 the ,kentucky ,seedling can stand the most heat and drought4 ,crescent ,seedling looks well here1 also the ,forest ,rose4 ,raspberries1 currants1 and gooseberries cannot be raised4 ,we plant strawberries one foot apart in the row1 and the rows are three feet apart ,we mulch early in spring1 and cultivate by horse-power after the bearing season is over4 ,i regard cow manure1 leaf mould1 and bone flour as the best fertilizers4 ,i consider fall1 ,october or ,november1 as the best time for planting4 ,,william ,,radam4 ,,palestine1 ,,texas4 ,the ,charles ,downing1 ,seth ,boyden1 and ,president ,wilder have done well4 ,the ,charles ,downing has flourished as though native and to the manner born4 ,the ,kentucky has done remarkably well2 the ,wilson not so well4 ,raspberries1 on the whole1 have done well1 but currants and gooseberries will not survive4 ,the strawberries have done better than ,i hoped4 ,i have always looked upon the strawberry as a semi-aquatic plant1 and this view has been strengthened by an account of a wonderful crop produced in this region by abundant and systematic watering4 ,the great difficulty against which we have to contend is the prolonged summer1 when1 for weeks1 the thermometer ranges from #ij degrees to #ie degrees in the shade4 ,to this must be added spells of dry weather1 lasting sometimes for six or eight consecutive weeks in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september4 ,d4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,smith4 ,,new ,,orleans1 ,,la4 ,experienced cultivators prepare for strawberries by thorough plowing and subsoiling4 ,we cultivate by subsoil plow1 cultivator1 and hoe1 with no stones to impede our work4 ,the bearing season lasts about #ij days4 ,i have had two full crops in the same season4 ,the best time to plant is1 #ast1 in ,august2 #b;d1 in ,december4 ,the ,wilson and ,charles ,downing do well4 ,the black-cap raspberries succeed3 the red raspberries are thus far a failure4 ,blackberries do very well4 ,d4 ,m4 ,,wiggins1 ,agricultural editor1 ',n4 #j4 ,times4' ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,lamb1 of ,colorado ,springs1 writes me that strawberries and the hardy red raspberries do well in his section4 ,they regard sheep manure as one of the best fertilizers4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,hape1 of ,atlanta1 ,ga41 writes3 ,in reply to your favor1 ,i would say that strawberries and blackberries do splendidly here1 raspberries moderately1 and currants and gooseberries as exceptions2 grapes finely4 ,our soils are mostly loam1 with some sand1 and a clay subsoil4 ,bottom lands have the usual deposits of muck and partially decomposed vegetable matter4 ,the damp1 rich soil1 of course1 suits strawberries and blackberries2 though the latter grow wild to such perfection1 and in such abundance1 as to do away with cultivation almost entirely4 ,the red raspberry does not succeed very well as a rule4 ,while damp1 under-drained soil and sandy loam are best for strawberries1 the dry uplands have almost invariably produced well4 ,as to fertilizers1 well-decomposed stable manure and bone meal have done the best with us4 ,no winter protection is needed4 ,the fall1 with us1 is the best season to transplant strawberries1 by all odds--as soon as the ,september rains set in4 ,,dr4 ,,samuel ,,hape4 ,,jacksonville1 ,,fla41 ,dec4 #bc1 #ahgh4 ,with pleasure1 ,i answer your questions to the best of my ability4 #a4 ,what varieties of small fruits do best in your locality8 ,strawberries and blackberries do well1 but owing to the abundance of wild fruit1 late and early1 the blackberry is not cultivated largely4 ,no other small fruits have been fairly tried4 ,the general opinion is that our warm weather lasts too long for the raspberry1 gooseberry1 and currant4 ,i have given the raspberry a trial1 and cannot recommend it4 #b4 ,what soils are best adapted to them8 ,we have two soils on which the strawberry thrives1 the low hummock bordering on the river4 ,it is rich in vegetable and mineral matter--clay from two to four feet under surface4 ,the next is our pine land2 soil light1 and of grayish color1 nearly devoid of vegetable matter1 but largely supplied with lime and potash4 ,strawberries and blackberries do well on this soil4 ,we have what is termed high hummock4 ,it is a yellow loam1 with clay1 varying from two to six feet from surface4 ,the orange1 peach1 grape1 fig1 quince and plum do well on this soil4 #c4 ,what is your mode of culture8 ,for strawberries1 ,i lay off beds1 slightly raised1 #h feet wide4 ,on each bed ,i put four rows of plants1 running the full length of beds4 ,for ,wilsons1 rows #ah inches1 and #ab inches between plants2 ,charles ,downing1 and ,seth ,boyden1 #ah by #ah inches4 ,cover all the space with pine-needles by the time warm weather sets in1 and shade their fruit from the hot sun4 ,i cultivate with a small hand cultivator1 partly invented by myself1 and by hoeing4 #d4 ,what fertilizer do you consider most efficient8 ,a compost of stable manure1 muck1 and potash4 #e4 ,what winter protection do you give1 if any8 ,none needed4 ,for summer protection1 pine straw between plants2 this answers a double purpose--to keep the fruit clean1 also to protect the plants in warm1 dry weather1 and retain moisture4 #f4 ,do you consider spring or fall the best season for planting in your locality8 ,if ,i have home-grown plants1 ,i prefer planting from last of ,august to first of ,december4 ,northern plants1 unless grown in pots1 do best if obtained in ,november or ,december4 ,i will add here1 for your information1 ,wilson's ,albany is very shy of making runners for the first year or two after coming from the ,north4 ,seth ,boyden and ,charles ,downing take possession of the ground after fruiting is over4 ,,william ,,james4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,j4 ,berkmans1 the well-known horticulturist of ,augusta1 ,ga41 informed me that the ,kentucky1 ,charles ,downing1 and ,crescent endured the southern sun well1 and that the ,captain ,jack and ,sharpless were fine with them2 all the purple cane and black-cap raspberries did well1 but none of the foreign kinds thrived4 ,mr4 ,berkmans remarked that1 even after ten years of bearing1 he hesitated to express a positive opinion concerning a fruit1 so great are the differences caused by location and soil4 ,it is your young men that have been two or three years in the business1 who have positive opinions on every subject4 ,in the suburbs of ,savannah1 ,ga41 ,i found three-quarters of an acre of strawberries that had yielded a clear profit of #hjj in one season4 ,the preparation and culture for this profitable crop were as follows3 ,a good coat of manure was spread early in spring and plowed under4 ,cow-peas were then sown and plowed under in ,august1 when another coat of manure was harrowed in4 ,planting was commenced ,august #aj1 and the plants set fourteen inches from each other1 in beds with alleys between1 twenty-eight inches wide4 ,they were worked with a cultivator1 mulched with pine straw in ,january1 and stimulated from time to time with liquid manure4 ,the fact that they secured a good home market accounts1 in part1 for the large profit4 ,through the courtesy of ,captain ,sigwald1 himself a successful horticulturist1 ,i was able to visit many strawberry plantations in the vicinity of ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 and will give a few statistics from one of the most nourishing4 ,the plants were vigorous1 and the long rows clean and free from runners4 ,the best plants had been set out in the preceding ,september4 ,the force employed to set five and a half acres was3 five hands taking up the plants with a large patent transplanter1 that brought away a ball of earth with the roots2 five more laborers toting1 or carrying on hand-barrows1 the plants from the propagating bed to the fruiting field1 and four planting4 ,the expense of planting was #ae per acre4 ,prom the five and a half acres1 there were shipped to ,new ,york #ae1bjj quarts1 on which the freight1 at fifteen cents per quart1 amounted to #b1bhj4 ,commission on sales was #dac--leaving a balance of only #a1fgj1 and out of this all other expenses had to come4 ,thus it way be seen that the expense of marketing the crop was greater than the expense of growing it and the net profit combined--a condition of things that should not last4 ,the freight has been reduced to ten cents per quart this year1 ,i understand4 ,the ,monarch seems peculiarly adapted to ,east ,tennessee1 and ,mr4 ,ed4 ,s4 ,sheppard1 who first introduced them1 found a sensation resulting that in its proportions resembled the mammoth berry4 ,the ,crystal ,city and ,captain ,jack are favorite varieties in ,missouri4 ,for the latitude and climate of ,new ,york1 and westward1 much suggestion has been given already4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,lovett1 of ,little ,silver1 ,n4 ,j41 gives the following list as the best selection for their light sandy soils3 ,,for ,,the ,,home ,,garden ,strawberries ,french's ,seedling--best early crop4 ,charles ,downing--best medium1 or main crop4 ,kentucky--best late4 ,red ,raspberries ,herstine--best early4,footnote3 ,requires winter protection to ensure a crop4 ,turner--best entirely hardy early4 ,cuthbert--best medium and late4 ,black-cap ,raspberries ,doolittle's ,improved--best early4 ,mammoth ,cluster--best medium and late4 ,mammoth ,blackberries ,wilson's ,early--best early4 ,kittatinny--best main crop4 ,currants ,cherry--best red4 ,red ,dutch--best for culinary purposes4 ,white ,grape--best white4 ,victoria--best late4 ,black ,naples--best black4 ,gooseberries ,downing ,,for ,,market--,,of ,,value ,,in ,,the ,,order ,,named ,strawberries ,wilson's ,albany1 ,captain ,jack1 ,for shipment4 ,crescent ,seedling1 ,charles ,downing1 ,for near market4 ,downer's ,prolific1 ,red ,raspberries ,cuthbert4 ,brandywine4 ,black-cap ,raspberries ,mammoth ,cluster4 ,doolittle's ,improved4 ,blackberries ,kittatinny4 ,wilson's early4 ,footnote3 ,in former years this was the most profitable of all sorts1 but latterly it is so frequently injured by winter1 and so generally attacked by disease or insects throughout the ,state1 as to render it uncertain4 ,currants ,cherry4 ,red ,dutch4 ,black ,naples4 ,gooseberries ,downing4 ,houghton ,seedling4 ,in the ,sixth ,annual ,report of the ,new ,jersey ,state ,board of ,agriculture1 ,i find the following interesting statement from the well-known horticulturist1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,t4 ,quinn4 ,,one ,,acre ,,op ,,strawbereies4 ,,newark1 ,october1 #ahgh4 ,the following are the methods of culture and the products of one acre of strawberries1 grown on my farm near ,newark1 during the season of #ahgh4 ,the ground on which these strawberries were grown was planted with ,early ,rose potatoes and heavily manured in the spring of #ahgg4 ,these potatoes were dug and marketed during the last week in ,july and first week in ,august of the same year4 ,the ground was at once cleared off1 plowed and harrowed smoothly4 ,furrows were then opened four or five inches deep and two and a half feet apart4 ,between the #aeth and #bb;d of ,august1 #ahgg1 the strawberry plants were set in these furrows from fifteen to eighteen inches apart1 without any manure being added4 ,some plants died here and there1 but the bulk of those set out made a strong growth before cold weather4 ,they were kept free from weeds by running a cultivator twice between the rows and hoeing twice4 ,this treatment kept the ground absolutely free from weeds4 ,in the middle of ,december1 the plants were covered over with a compost of the sweepings of the vegetable and fish markets1 with some horse manure mixed through it4 ,the whole was thoroughly decayed and light in character4 ,about the middle of ,april1 #ahgh1 the coarsest part of this mulch was raked off the strawberry plants1 and left in the spaces between the rows1 the finer portion being left among the plants4 ,to the coarse part raked off was added salt hay1 pressed under the leaves of the plants on either side of the rows1 enough being added to keep the soil around the plants moist and the fruit free from grit4 ,there was no disturbance of the soil in any way in the spring1 beyond the cutting off at the surface of a few straggling weeds that started up here and there4 ,the varieties grown upon this acre were ,charles ,downing and ,green ,prolific1 and the yield was five thousand four hundred and eighty-seven 7#e1dhg7 quarts4 ,the gross receipts from this acre of berries was seven hundred and ninety-five dollars and sixty-one cents 7#gie4fa74 ,deducting the commissions and picking the fruit1 the net returns were #fbj4fj4 ,messrs4 ,gibson and ,bennett1 of ,new ,jersey1 stated before the ,western ,new ,york ,horticultural ,society1 that they liked the bedding system1 say four-row beds1 with plants one foot apart each way and two-feet walks between the beds4 ,we fertilize with fine horse manure1 spreading it heavily and plowing it under4 ,we start plants in pots and transfer them to the beds in ,september1 the earlier the better4 ,these potted plants form fine large crowns ready for the finest fruit4 ,the beds are covered with manure ,january #a4 ,the fruit is picked the following ,june1 and the beds then plowed under at once and planted with other crops4 ,by this system1 it will be seen that the plants occupy the ground but about ten months1 and little or no cultivation is given4 ,it is practically the same method as that employed around ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 and1 ,i am inclined to think1 could often be practiced at the ,north with great profit4 ,in contrast1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,sharpless said1 on the same occasion1 ,we grow in the hill system1 and expect the plants to last four or five years2 adding1 ,my experience teaches me that strawberries should not be cultivated deeply until their season of rest is over1 say the last of ,august4 ,i think this view sound4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,underhill1 of ,poughkeepsie1 ,n4 ,y41 said that he valued the ,golden ,defiance for late fruit4 ,the ,glendale is more vigorous4 ,i think highly of the ,champion and ,kentucky4 ,the ,duncan is our best early of those well tested4 ,as the mid-market in this section will probably be glutted with ,crescents1 ,i shall take great pains with the ,cumberland ,triumph1 which1 picked in pints 7on account of its softness71 will yield almost as well1 and bring more dollars than any sort ,i have tested yet4 ,from ,mr4 ,frank ,s4 ,alling ,i learn that all the small fruits succeed finely on the shores of ,puget ,sound1 ,washington ,territory4 ,i will close this chapter of experiences with a very interesting letter from the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,von ,iffland1 of ,quebec1 who gives an admirable statement of the conditions of success in the latitude of ,northern ,canada4 ,it will be seen that his light1 warm soil makes a difference of several degrees of latitude in his favor4 ,my soil is of a light gravelly nature1 with a subsoil of coarse sand4 ,it requires annual applications of large quantities of manure to bring about the best results1 but then yields generous returns4 ,it is warm and quick1 and so porous that it can be worked almost immediately after the heaviest showers4 ,plants form roots in the soil with marvellous rapidity4 ,all kinds of vegetables can be successfully cultivated4 ,potatoes1 tomatoes1 squash1 corn1 carrots1 parsnips1 melons1 cucumbers1 beans1 and peas are grown to perfection4 ,of course1 it is liable to suffer severely in a drought--an evil which ,i find is best obviated by plenty of barnyard manure and cultivation4 ,the climate is doubtless severe1 and the winters long1 but the abundance of snow affords the best kind of protection and is of the greatest possible advantage in the culture of small fruits4 ,winter sets in with us sometimes as early as the first of ,november1 sometimes not till the middle of ,december1 and the snow has not disappeared from the vicinity of the fences till the last week in ,april4 ,the average depth of snow is #d #a_/b half feet1 and we have cold spells of three or four days at a time1 when the glass varies between #bj and #cj degrees below zero4 ,,strawberries ,i think that all the varieties which are cultivated in the ,united ,states can be cultivated here under the same conditions of soil4 ,i grow successfully the ,colonel ,cheney1 ,triomphe de ,gand1 ,wilson1 ,charles ,downing1 ,nicanor1 ,green ,prolific1 ,monarch of the ,west1 ,seth ,boyden1 but have discarded ,jucunda and ,kentucky4 ,i have the greatest success with the ,cheney1 ,charles ,downing1 ,wilson1 and ,triomphe1 in the order written4 ,i plant both in fall and spring1 but prefer fall setting when it can be done early and you have good plants4 ,i used to strike plants in three-inch pots1 but have abandoned that plan1 and instead1 lay the runners as early as ,i can get them 7from #ast to #bjth ,july71 and when well rooted1 set them out1 with a ball of earth1 from #aeth to #bjth ,august4 ,if the season is at all moist1 so that the young plants make good progress before the frosts set in 7about middle of ,october71 ,i get a good crop 7half a full crop7 the following summer4 ,from plants set in the spring1 ,i take no fruit4 ,with this exception1 fall and spring settings are treated alike4 ,as the cultivation is all done by hand1 ,i have found that planting in beds of three rows each combines the greatest advantages4 ,the rows are #ae inches apart1 and the plants #ah inches apart in the row--in the quincunx form2 each bed is separated from the rest by a path #hj inches wide4 ,i need not say that the soil has been previously well enriched--with compost1 generally1 and well-decomposed manure4 ,in fact1 as ,i usually plant on soil from which a crop of potatoes has been removed1 the ground has received two applications the year the plants are set4 ,as the ,colonel ,cheney is my favorite1 in order to fertilize it1 ,i plant alternate beds of some good staminate variety1 ,charles ,downing1 ,triomphe1 or ,wilson4 ,the cultivation of the young plants the first season consists in cutting off any runners that may form1 and keeping them clear of weeds4 ,when well established1 the beds are top-dressed with an inch or two of old manure2 this feeds the plants1 keeps the soil about the roots moist1 and acts as a mulch when the fruit sets1 and yields the following summer4 ,the following spring and summer1 nothing is done to these beds till after fruiting1 except to hoe out the weeds4 ,after fruiting1 a thorough weeding is effected1 and the runners are cut every three weeks2 and before the frosts set in1 the beds are given a top-dressing of old manure4 ,after the second crop of fruit is taken off1 they are weeded1 and the runners are allowed to strike4 ,the third spring1 wood-ashes are applied2 and after fruiting the plants are turned under4 ,no winter protection is given to the plants1 unless you except the top-dressing of manures2 but this is sometimes not applied till spring1 and ,i observe no appreciable difference between the plants with and those without it4 ,what ,i do observe is that an early winter1 and plenty of snow1 kills fewer plants than a winter in which the snowfalls have been delayed till after frosts and rains4 ,strawberries begin to ripen with us about the #bhth of ,june1 and raspberries about the #aeth of ,july4 ,with the above treatment1 ,i have grown ,wilsons and ,cheneys at the rate of #aa1jjj quarts1 or #cdd bushels1 to the acre4 ,,raspberries ,i prefer fall planting1 which may be done as late as they can be put in4 ,i have set them the last day of ,october1 without losing one4 ,i plant them four feet apart1 but five would be better1 and tie the canes1 when grown1 to stakes four and a half feet high4,footnote3 ,the following fall1 of course2 when planted1 the canes are cut back1 so as to be only six inches above ground4 ,sometimes ,i have laid them down1 and sometimes have tied up the young canes to the stakes in the fall1 and ,i find but little difference4 ,they always bear1 and are never winter-killed4 ,as to blackberries1 ,i have but little experience4 ,that blackberries will succeed here1 some canes ,i saw #aeth ,august1 in a friend's garden1 some two miles from my house1 afford ample proof4 ,they were loaded with clusters of magnificent1 large1 luscious fruit1 and were equally prolific last year4 ,my friend told me he was obliged to give them4 very warm protection--literally bury them in straw and earth4 ,red and black currants grow well with us1 under ordinary treatment4 ,gooseberries1 however1 are liable to mildew2 that is1 the ,english varieties4 ,the native hybrids1 of course1 are safe enough4 ,still1 under some conditions1 ,i have seen the ,english varieties without a touch of mildew4 ,my ,english varieties mildewed badly this summer1 and the man from whom ,i got them says that he has never seen it in his garden1 not far from me4 ,i went to see his bushes1 and there was not a sign of mildew affecting his gooseberries1 which were very large and fine4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,a ,,few ,,rules ,,and ,,maxims ,suggestive experiences and the methods of successful men are usually far more helpful than a system of rules4 ,nevertheless1 ,i have thought that some concise maxims and formulas would be of use to those not yet well versed in the labors of a fruit farm4 ,such rules1 also1 may be of service to the unfortunates who are dependent on the hired man1 since they can be copied and given to this minister of destiny whose hands work out our weal or woe so largely4 ,there are two types of workmen that are incorrigible4 ,the one slashes away with his haphazard hoe1 while he looks and talks in another direction4 ,his tongue1 at least1 is rarely idle1 and his curiosity awakes when he does4 ,if any one or anything goes by1 he must watch it while in sight and then comment and expectorate4 ,he is not only versed in all the coarse gossip concerning his neighbors1 but also can talk by the hour of the short-comings of even their horses and dogs4 ,the virtues of man or beast1 however1 make but little impression on what answers in his organism for a mind4 ,that which is good1 wholesome1 and refined interests him no more than strawberries would a buzzard4 ,to the degree that he is active1 he usually makes havoc4 ,the weeds do not suffer seriously from his efforts1 but if you have a few choice plants1 a single specimen or two of something unpurchasable and rare1 or a seedling that you dream may have a future1 the probabilities are that1 unless watched and warned1 he will extirpate them utterly4 ,it rarely happens that you can teach this type of man better things4 ,the leopard may change his spots and the ,ethiopian his skin1 but this man--though resembling both outwardly1 through his uncleanliness--never changes4 ,his blunders1 garrulity1 and brainless labor1 however1 would transform ,izaak ,walton himself into a dragon of irritability4 ,the effort to reform such a man would be heroic1 indeed1 but let those who enter upon such a task give their whole souls to it1 and not attempt gardening at the same time--unless the garden is maintained for the sake of the man1 and they1 in their zeal1 approach ,titania in her midsummer-night's madness1 when she bade her attendant fairies to feed the translated weaver-- ,with apricocks and dewberries1 ,with purple grapes1 green figs1 and mulberries4 ,this degenerate descendant of ,bottom1 however1 needs no such considerate attention2 he will help himself to the choicest and rarest4 ,scarcely better than the type portrayed above is the deliberate workman1 who can soon show you how easy it is to spend two dollars in order to make one4 ,his wages--the one thing he is prompt about--will leave little margin of profit on the berries that he has packed1 although1 by reason of his ancient pipe1 they may outrank all the fruit in the market4 ,this man never walks nor runs1 no matter how great the emergency and press of work2 he merely jogs around1 and picks a raspberry as he would pry out a bowlder4 ,he does his work fairly well1 usually2 but the fact that it would require a hundred such men to care for a small place causes not the slightest solicitude4 ,he would smoke just as stolidly and complacently after bringing wreck and ruin to a dozen employers4 ,men of these types are as disastrous on a fruit farm as the ,lachnosterna or currant worm4 ,unless the reader has far more native goodness and acquired grace than the writer1 he had better dismiss them speedily1 or his feelings may resemble those that ,sam ,jubilee described on previously4 ,i have given two extreme examples1 but there are also gradations of these characters1 who had better find employment from those requiring hands only4 ,successful work on a fruit farm1 or in a garden1 requires a quick brain1 a keen eye1 a brisk step and a deft hand4 ,many of its labors are light1 and no profit can follow unless they are performed with despatch1 at the right time and in the right way4 ,the majority of those we employ wish to do right and to give satisfaction4 ,they are not only willing but are glad to learn2 and while only actual and long-continued experience can make a thorough gardener1 perhaps the following rules1 maxims1 and principles1 embodying the experience of others1 may be of service to beginners1 giving them a start in the right direction3 #a4 ,never put off till spring work that might be done in the fall4 ,spring is always too short for the labor it brings1 even when not wet and late4 #b4 ,plow in the fall all heavy1 loamy land that you intend to plant in spring4 ,this exposes it to the action of frost1 and if done late1 tends to destroy insects and their larvae4 ,do not plow sand in the fall unless there is upon it sod1 stubble1 etc41 that is to decay4 #c4 ,top-dress very light land with an inch or two of clay or heavy loam in ,november1 and let the winter frosts and rains blend the two diverse soils to their mutual advantage4 ,harrowing in fertilizers on light ground is better than plowing them in4 #d4 ,in the fall top-dress all the small fruits with compost1 bone-dust or other fertilizers that have staying powers1 spreading it along close to the rows and over the roots1 and working it into the soil lightly by cultivation4 ,this gives everything a vigorous start in the spring4 #e4 ,if possible1 take out before winter all perennial weeds--sorrel1 white clover1 etc4--but do not greatly disturb the roots of strawberries1 just on the approach of winter4 #f4 ,in most localities and soils1 raspberries1 currants1 gooseberries1 and blackberries do better if planted any time after they drop their foliage in the fall4 ,such planting can be continued even into the winter1 on mild1 still days1 when frost is neither in the air nor soil4 ,frozen earth should never come in contact with roots4 ,i plant strawberries1 also1 all through the autumn1 even into ,december2 and before the ground freezes1 hoe upon them one or two inches of soil1 raking it off as soon as freezing weather is over in the spring4 #g4 ,the earlier plants are set out in spring1 the better1 if the ground and weather are suitable4 ,it is usually best to wait till the danger of severe frost is over4 ,do not plant when the ground is wet and sticky1 or dry and lumpy1 at any season1 if it can be helped4 ,do not plant in a high1 hot or cold wind4 ,make the most of mild1 still1 and cloudy days4 ,if plants can be set before a storm or shower1 much is gained2 but this is not essential if roots are imbedded their whole length in moist 7not wet7 earth1 and the soil made very firm1 around them4 ,plantings may be made in very dry weather if the land is forked or plowed late in the afternoon1 and the plants set immediately in the fresh1 moist earth4 ,keep the roots from contact with unfermented manure4 #h4 ,in handling plants at any time1 never let the little rootlets dry and shrivel4 ,keep them from sun1 frost1 and wind4 ,if the roots of plants received in boxes are frozen1 let them thaw out in a cellar undisturbed4 ,if roots are black1 shrivelled1 or musty from long transportation1 wash them in clean water1 and1 in the case of strawberries1 shorten them one-third1 and then plant at once in moist soil4 #i4 ,in cultivating strawberry plants recently set1 stir the surface merely1 with a rake1 not over half an inch deep4 #aj4 ,never disturb roots by working among them in dry weather4 ,at such times1 stir the surface only1 and often4 #aa4 ,if you water at all1 water thoroughly1 and keep the soil moist till rain comes2 otherwise watering is an injury4 #ab4 ,the easiest and cheapest way to keep a garden clean is to rake the ground over once a week on sunny days4 ,this method destroys the weeds when they are just appearing1 and maintains moisture4 #ah4 ,pick fruit1 if possible1 when it is dry1 and before it is over-ripe4 ,do not leave it in the sun or wind1 but take it at once to coolness and shade4 ,pack carefully and honestly4 ,a quart of small1 decayed1 green1 or muddy berries scattered through a crate of fine fruit may reduce its price one half4 #ad4 ,mulch everything you can4 ,save all the leaves and litter that can be gathered on the place1 and apply it around the plants only when the ground is moist4 ,dry ground covered with mulch may be kept dry all summer4 #ae4 ,practice summer pinching and pruning only when plants are in their spring and early summer growth1 and not after the wood begins to ripen4 ,if delayed till then1 wait till the plant is dormant in the fall4 #af4 ,sandy or gravelly land can usually be worked immediately after rain2 but if heavy land is plowed or cultivated when wet1 or so dry as to break up in lumps1 it is injured4 #ag4 ,watch all crops daily4 ,plants are living things1 and need attention4 ,diseases1 insects1 drought1 or wet may destroy them in a few days1 or even hours1 if left uncared for4 #ah4 ,if you cultivate strawberries in the spring1 do the work very early--as soon as the ground is dry enough to work4 ,after the fruit buds show themselves1 stir the ground with a rake or hoe only1 and never more than an inch deep4 ,i advocate early spring cultivation1 and then the immediate application of the mulch4 #ai4 ,just as the ground begins to freeze1 in the fall or early winter1 cover strawberry plants with some light material that will prevent alternate freezing and thawing during the winter4 ,never use heavy1 unfermented manure for this purpose4 ,leaves1 straw1 salt1 hay1 light stable manure1 or any old litter from the garden1 answer4 #bj4 ,in setting raspberry plants1 or any fruit1 never set in hard1 unprepared soil4 ,do not stick them in little1 shallow holes1 nor in deep1 narrow ones1 wherein the roots are all huddled together2 make the holes large and deep1 either with the plow or spade1 fill the bottom partly with fine1 rich1 moist1 surface soil1 free from lumps and manure1 and spread the roots out on this1 then fill in with very fine pulverized earth1 setting the plant1 in light land1 one or two inches deeper than it grew naturally2 and in heavy land at the same depth4 ,if manure is used1 spread it on the surface1 around1 not up against1 the stem of the plant4 #ba4 ,both for the sake of economy and thoroughness1 use the plow and cultivator rather than fork and hoe1 whenever it is possible4 ,ground can be laid out with a view to this rule4 #bb4 ,in cultivating crops among trees1 use short whiffle-trees1 with the traces so fastened as to prevent the young trees from being scratched and wounded4 #bc4 ,save1 with scrupulous economy1 all wood-ashes1 soap-suds1 and all articles having fertilizing qualities4 ,a compost heap is like a sixpenny savings bank4 ,small and frequent additions soon make a large aggregate4 ,the fruit-grower and his land usually grow rich together1 and in the same proportion4 #bd4 ,once more ,i repeat--in handling and setting out plants1 never let the roots shrivel and dry out4 ,after plants and cuttings are in the ground1 never leave them just long enough to dry out and die4 ,keep them moist--not wet and sodden1 but moist all the time4 ,in setting out plants1 especially strawberries1 spread out the roots1 and make the ground very firm about them4 ,in trenching stock1 put the roots down deeply1 and cover well half-way up the stems4 ,the gardener who fails to carry out the principles under this number has not learned the letter ,a of his business4 ,mr4 ,william ,parry gives the following rule for ascertaining the number of plants required for one acre of land1 which contains #dc1efj square feet3 ,multiply the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants are set apart in the row1 and their product will be the number of square feet for each plant or hill1 which1 divided into the number of feet in an acre1 will show how many plants or hills the acre will contain1 thus3 ,blackberries 4 4 4 #h feet by #c #bd7dc1efj7 #a1hae plants4 ,raspberries 4 4 4 #g #c #ba7dc1efj7 #b1jgd plants4 ,strawberries 4 4 4 #e #a #e7dc1efj7 #h1gab plants4 ,strawberries 4 4 4 #c #af #d7dc1efj7aj1hij plants4 ,the same rule can be applied to all other plants or trees4 ,i would suggest that fruit-growers take much pains to secure trustworthy pickers4 ,careless1 slovenly gathering of the fruit may rob it of half its value4 ,it often is necessary for those who live remote from villages to provide quarters for their pickers4 ,usually1 the better the quarters1 the better the class that can be obtained to do the work4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,varieties ,,of ,,strawberries ,to attempt to describe all the strawberries that have been named would be a task almost as interminable as useless4 ,this whole question of varieties presents a different phase every four or five years4 ,therefore ,i treat the subject in my final chapter1 in order that ,i may give revision as often as there shall be occasion for it1 without disturbing the body of the book4 ,a few years since1 certain varieties were making almost as great a sensation as the ,sharpless4 ,they are now regarded as little better than weeds1 in most localities4 ,thus the need of frequent revision is clearly indicated4 ,in chapter thirteen ,i have spoken of those varieties that have become so well established as to be regarded as standards1 or which are so promising and popular as to deserve especial mention4 ,more precise and technical descriptions will now be given4 ,i shall not copy old catalogues1 or name those kinds that have passed wholly out of cultivation4 ,such descriptions would have no practical value1 and the strawberry antiquarian can find them in the older works on this subject4 ,neither shall ,i name many foreign kinds1 as the majority of them have little value this side of the ,atlantic4 ,soil1 climate1 locality1 and other reasons1 cause such great differences in opinion in regard to varieties that ,i expect exceptions to be taken to every description4 ,many of the new sorts that ,i am testing have not1 as yet1 proved themselves worthy of mention4 ,agriculturist4--,originated with the late ,mr4 ,seth ,boyden1 of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,through the courtesy of an old friend of ,mr4 ,boyden1 ,i am able to give his description of his own berry1 copied from his diary by a member of his family3 ,no4 #aj4--,name1 ,agriculturist4 ,a cross between ,no4 #e and ,peabody's ,georgia2 a hardy1 tall grower1 with much foliage and few runners2 berries very large1 broad shoulders1 slightly necked1 often flat1 and some coxcombed or double1 high crimson color to the centre1 very firm1 and high-flavored4 ,a staminate variety4 7,no4 #e is the ,green ,prolific47 ,the ,agriculturist was once very popular1 and is still raised quite largely in some localities1 but is fast giving way to new varieties4 ,it is peculiarly adapted to light soils1 but on my place has scalded and dampened off badly4 ,it seemingly has had its day4 ,boyden's ,no4 #cj 7,seth ,boyden74--,i again let ,mr4 ,boyden describe his own seedling3 ,plant above medium size2 round leaf1 deep green2 bears the summer heat well2 berries necked1 rather long1 large2 abundance of seed2 dark red2 has buds1 blossoms1 and ripe berries on the same peduncle2 is of the ,agriculturist family1 and an eccentric plant4 ,perfect flower4 ,from the reference above1 ,i gather that ,no4 #e1 or ,green ,prolific1 is one of the parents of this famous berry4 ,mr4 ,boyden speaks of some of his other seedlings more favorably than of this--another instance of the truth that men do not always form the most correct judgments of their own children4 ,no4 #cj will perpetuate ,mr4 ,boyden's name through many coming years1 and all who have eaten this superb berry have reason to bless his memory4 ,no4 #e and ,no4 #aj are rapidly disappearing from our gardens4 ,the ,boyden 7as it should be named7 is one of the largest and sweetest berries in cultivation--too sweet for my taste4 ,it responds nobly to high culture1 but it is impatient of neglect and light1 dry soils4 ,it is one of the best market berries1 and although not hard1 is firm and dry1 and thus is well adapted for shipping4 ,it is one of the few fancy berries that will endure long transportation by rail4 ,as ,i have stated1 ,mr4 ,jerolemon has raised #cbg bushels of this variety on an acre1 and received for the same #a1chf4 ,give it moist soil and cut the runners4 ,bidwell4--,foliage light green1 plant very vigorous2 truss #c to #e inches high2 berry very conical1 bright scarlet1 with a neck highly glazed1 glossy2 flesh firm1 pink2 calyx close2 season very early4 ,not yet fully tested1 but giving remarkable promise4 ,it has seemed to me to be the best of the new early berries4 ,staminate4 ,beauty4--,plant fairly vigorous1 leaf crinkled2 truss #d to #f inches high2 berry obtusely conical2 long1 glazed neck2 crimson1 #c to #f inches in circumference2 flesh light pink2 flavor excellent2 calyx spreading2 season early--a very fine and beautiful variety for the amateur and fancy market4 ,it requires petting1 and repays it4 ,it makes very few runners4 ,it originated with ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand1 of ,irvington1 ,n4 ,j4 ,staminate4 ,black ,defiance4--,plant vigorous1 if the soil suits it2 foliage dark green1 low1 bushy2 downy leaf-stalk2 truss low2 #b #a_/b to #d inches2 berry very dark crimson2 very obtuse conical1 often round and irregular2 early1 flesh dark crimson1 flavor sprightly1 high1 and rich2 moderately productive2 calyx spreading2 inclined to stool2 its runners bear fruit in ,september4 ,it is one of the best varieties originated by ,mr4 ,durand1 who has given me the following history3 ,it is a seedling of ,boyden's ,green ,prolific1 impregnated by the ,triomphe de ,gand4 ,the seed was planted in #ahfj4 ,the berry was exceedingly tart when first red1 and was on that account pronounced worthless by competent judges 7so considered74 ,having but limited experience at the time1 ,i threw it aside1 but afterward retained five plants to finish a row of trial seedlings4 ,eventually it was shown at the exhibition of the ,new ,jersey ,agricultural ,society1 and was awarded the first prize as the best new seedling1 by such competent judges as ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller1 ,dr4 ,thurber1 and ,chas4 ,downing4 ,from that day to this all lovers of good fruit have indorsed their opinion4 ,it is firm1 and can be shipped long distances4 ,staminate4 ,black ,giant4--,said to be a decided improvement on the above1 and to have the same general characteristics2 but not yet tested by general cultivation4 ,black ,prince4--,an old and once popular ,english variety1 one of ,keen's seedlings1 now rarely grown in this country4 ,brilliant4--,originated with ,w4 ,b4 ,storer1 of ,akron1 ,ohio1 who describes it as a large conical berry2 color a dark1 glossy red1 and deep red all through2 flavor rich4 ,plant very hardy and prolific4 ,british ,queen4--,one of ,myatt's seedlings1 of which ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,merrick writes3 ,it is perhaps the most famous berry ever raised in ,england1 where it is a favorite for market4 ,unfortunately1 it does not come to full perfection here1 and is not only tender but very capricious in choice of soils4 ,it is the parent of many excellent kinds4 ,the fruit is of the largest size and highest flavor4 ,staminate4 ,brooklyn ,scarlet4--,one of the best-flavored berries1 but too soft1 except for home use4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller4 ,staminate4 ,boston ,pine4--,once a favorite in the vicinity of ,boston1 and largely used to fertilize ,hovey's ,seedling4 ,but few are raised now1 to my knowledge4 ,fruit quite large2 slightly conical2 deep1 glossy crimson2 rather firm2 juicy1 and of good flavor4 ,the plant requires hill culture in rich soil4 ,staminate4 ,burr's ,new ,pine4--,a medium-sized1 roundish berry2 scarlet in the sun2 pale in the shade2 juicy1 sweet1 aromatic1 early1 very soft4 ,pistillate4 ,belle4--,one of ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,moore's seedlings4 ,new4 ,i give an extract from the ,massachusetts ,horticultural ,society's report3 ,the ,belle1 we think1 is the largest strawberry ever exhibited on our tables4 ,as yet1 not generally tested4 ,captain ,jack4--,plant moderately vigorous2 leaf-stalk smooth1 wiry2 very dark green foliage1 which in many regions is inclined to burn2 truss #e to #g inches2 recumbent2 very much branched1 with from #ab to #ah berries2 berry light scarlet1 round1 fair size and uniform2 flesh pink1 moderately firm2 flavor poor2 calyx close2 season late2 very productive2 flowers grow above the leaves2 the fruit endures transportation remarkably well2 staminate4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,s4 ,miller1 of ,bluffton1 ,mo41 and is a seedling of the ,wilson4 ,charles ,downing4--,plant very vigorous2 foliage light green2 tall and slender2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #f to #g inches1 slender1 drooping2 #h to #aj berries1 which are scarlet1 with a pale cheek--crimson when fully ripe2 berry round to obtuse conical2 regular1 the first slightly ridged2 somewhat soft2 flesh juicy1 light pink2 flavor very fine2 size #c to #e inches in circumference2 calyx spreading and recurved2 season medium2 very productive4 ,this is one of the best family varieties1 and is planted every year more largely for market4 ,with care1 it endures transportation very well1 and those who once taste it ask for it again4 ,there are few1 if any other1 varieties that do so well throughout the country at large4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,downer1 ,fairview1 ,ky4 ,staminate4 ,champion4--,plant vigorous2 foliage dark green2 leafstalk downy2 truss #e to #f inches1 branched2 berry dark crimson1 round2 flesh rather soft1 crimson2 flavor very good when fully ripe1 but poor when it first turns red2 size #b #a_/b to #e inches2 calyx recurved2 season medium to late2 exceedingly productive4 ,one of the best and most profitable for near market4 ,originated with ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,neff1 ,carlisle1 ,pa4 ,pistillate4 ,caroline4--,plant a moderate grower2 foliage light green2 leaf-stalk somewhat downy2 truss #d to #e inches2 berry bright scarlet1 with a varnished appearance2 bulky1 conical2 flesh scarlet2 flavor good2 size #c to #d inches2 calyx spreading2 season medium4 ,originated with ,j4 ,b4 ,moore1 ,concord1 ,mass4 ,staminate4 ,crescent ,seedling4--,plant vigorous1 tall1 with dark green and very slender foliage2 leaf-stalk rather smooth2 truss #f to #h inches1 well branched2 bearing #ab to #ah berries2 bright scarlet berry1 round to conical1 with a peculiar depression near the apex2 large ones somewhat irregular2 size #b to #d inches2 flesh scarlet2 flavor not good1 unless grown on light land and the berry ripens in the sun2 calyx recurved4 ,soft for long carriage2 but its bright color and fair size1 under good culture1 cause it to sell readily in near markets4 ,i think the public will demand better-flavored berries4 ,it certainly should4 ,there are few weeds that can compete with the ,crescent in vigorous growth4 ,it does well in the hot climate of the ,south4 ,indeed1 there are few soils so poor and dry that it cannot thrive upon them2 and1 at the same time1 under high culture1 with runners cut1 it improves wonderfully4 ,it has yielded at the rate of #ae1jjj quarts to the acre4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,william ,parmelee1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 in #ahgj4 ,pistillate1 or nearly so4 ,centennial ,favorite4--,plant vigorous1 tall1 with light green foliage2 truss #c to #g inches1 much branched2 berry dark scarlet1 round to flat1 inclined to have a neck1 #b to #d inches2 smooth and glossy in appearance1 uniform in size1 flesh dark scarlet2 flavor fine2 calyx spreading2 season medium to late2 moderately productive4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand1 ,irvington1 ,n4 ,j4 ,pistillate4 ,cinderella4-,plant very vigorous1 with light green foliage2 leaf-stalks soft1 downy2 truss #d to #f inches2 berry conical1 sometimes necked1 bright scarlet1 glossy2 flesh moderately firm1 light pink2 flavor fair1 but not high2 size #c to #e inches2 season early to medium2 calyx spreading4 ,the young plants are not very productive1 but ,i think they would improve greatly in this respect if the runners were cut1 and that they would bear better the second year4 ,the berry is almost as beautiful and attractive as the ,jucanda1 which it resembles somewhat2 and it can be grown on light soils1 where the ,jucunda cannot thrive4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,oscar ,felton1 of ,new ,jersey1 #ahgh4 ,staminate4 ,continental4--,plant vigorous2 leaf-stalk smooth2 truss #e to #g inches1 well branched1 bearing #ab to #ah berries2 berry dark crimson1 obtusely conical2 flesh firm1 scarlet2 flavor good2 calyx recurving2 season late2 moderately productive1 and1 under hill culture1 very prolific4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,oscar ,felton4 ,staminate4 ,when visiting ,mr4 ,felton1 ,i saw several other seedlings of great promise1 which ,i hope he will send out at an early date4 ,colonel ,cheney4--,plant low1 spreading1 vigorous1 with light green foliage2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #c to #e inches1 low1 branching2 berry light scarlet1 long1 conical1 necked2 large ones very irregular2 flesh pink1 watery1 soft2 the core tends to pull out with the hull2 flavor poor2 calyx spreading2 season medium to late2 very productive1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,purdy1 editor ,small ,fruit ,recorder1 writes to me that for near markets it is still grown with great profit in western ,new ,york4 ,pistillate4 ,crimson ,cone4--7,scotch ,runner or ,pine-apple74 ,about fourteen years ago1 according to ,mr4 ,fuller1 there were more acres of this old-fashioned variety cultivated for the ,new ,york market than of all other kinds together4 ,they were also called ,hackensacks1 and were brought in the small1 handled baskets already described1 and were hulled as they were picked--their long neck making this an easy task4 ,they are small1 regular1 conical1 firm1 with a rich1 sprightly1 acid flavor4 ,it is not a pistillate1 as many claim1 ,mr4 ,fuller asserts1 but a spurious variety1 largely mixed with it1 is a pistillate4 ,it is one of the historical strawberries1 but it has had its day4 ,in size and flavor it is a near approach to the wild berry4 ,cumberland ,triumph4--,plant vigorous1 with dark green foliage2 leaf-stalk smooth2 truss #f to #g inches2 well branched2 berry round and very uniform in shape1 pale scarlet2 flesh light pink1 soft2 very large2 size #c to #f inches2 calyx close2 season early to medium4 ,one of the best for family use4 ,under high culture1 it is superb4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,amos ,miller1 of ,carlisle1 ,pa4 ,staminate4 ,damask ,beauty4--,foliage very dark green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss low1 #b #a_/b to #d inches1 berry very light scarlet obtusely conical2 size #b to #d inches2 flesh soft1 juicy1 pink2 flavor fine2 calyx close2 season early4 ,a very distinct variety1 and interesting to an amateur1 but of no great value4 ,staminate4 ,duchesse4--,plant vigorous1 tall2 leaves dark green2 leaf-stalk and midrib very downy2 truss #g inches2 recumbent1 well branched1 #f to #h berries that hold out well in size2 berry round1 bulky1 very uniform1 moderately firm2 bright scarlet2 flesh pink1 juicy2 flavor fine2 size #c to #d inches2 season very early1 but continuing quite long4 ,inclined to stool1 or make large plants from a single root2 enormously productive2 from #ej to #bjj berries to a plant1 in hill culture4 ,i regard it as the best early standard berry1 and have always found it one of the most profitable for market4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,d4 ,h4 ,barnes1 of ,poughkeepsie1 ,n4 ,y1 ,staminate4 ,duncan4--,plant vigorous2 foliage light green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #e to #g inches2 berry scarlet1 round to oval1 often decidedly conical2 large ones irregular1 and cox-combed1 flesh pink1 not very firm2 flavor very good2 calyx close to spreading2 a productive1 fine variety1 that1 ,i am inclined to think1 has not been appreciated4 ,originated by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,lucas1 of ,ulster ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,staminate4 ,doctor ,nicaise4--,a ,french variety2 enormously large2 soft2 not productive2 and on my grounds wretched in flavor4 ,downer's ,prolific4--,a light scarlet berry2 medium to large2 oval1 roundish1 soft2 acid1 but of good flavor1 and perfumed like the wild berry4 ,plant very vigorous and capable of enduring much neglect2 profitable for home use and near market4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,downer1 of ,kentucky4 ,staminate4 ,dr4 ,warder4--,plant tall1 moderately vigorous2 foliage light green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #g to #i inches1 branched1 full of different-sized berries2 berry long1 conical1 well shouldered1 crimson1 firm2 flesh pink2 flavor good2 size #d to #f inches2 calyx close2 season very late2 burns badly1 needs to be in shade4 ,staminate4 ,a superb variety if it did not lose its foliage4 ,early ,hudson4--,plant very vigorous1 with light green foliage2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #d to #e inches1 strong1 well branched2 berry crimson1 flattish-round2 when large1 somewhat irregular2 flesh crimson1 juicy1 soft2 size #c to #e inches2 season very early2 very productive4 ,one of the best for family use1 and very productive and fine1 with runners cut4 ,pistillate4 ,eliza4--,plant moderately vigorous2 dark green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #c to #e inches1 stout1 branched2 berry light scarlet1 round to conical1 necked1 large ones irregular and coxcombed2 flesh firm1 white2 flavor excellent2 calyx close2 season late2 moderately productive4 ,one of the best foreign varieties4 ,staminate4 ,early ,adela4--,not worth growing on my grounds4 ,french's ,seedling4--,plant vigorous1 with light green foliage2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #e to #g inches2 berry round1 scarlet2 size medium2 seeds deep-pitted2 flesh pink1 soft2 flavor good2 calyx spreading2 season early2 moderately productive4 ,found growing wild in a meadow1 near ,morristown1 ,n4 ,j4 ,forest ,rose4--,plant moderately vigorous2 foliage light green2 truss #c to #e inches1 branching2 berry bright scarlet1 large1 and the first somewhat irregular1 #d to #f inches2 flesh light pink2 flavor very fine2 calyx spreading and recurving2 season early4 ,one of the best where it can be grown1 but in some regions the foliage burns4 ,discovered growing in a vineyard1 by ,mr4 ,fetters1 of ,lancaster1 ,ohio4 ,staminate4 ,frontenac4--,foliage light green2 plant moderately vigorous2 leaf-stalk wiry2 truss #e inches1 #f to #h berries2 berry bright scarlet1 roundish and slightly irregular2 size #b to #c inches2 flesh pink1 solid2 season late2 moderately productive2 the foliage is inclined to burn4 ,glendale4--,this variety is now greatly praised as a market berry4 ,dr4 ,thurber and ,i examined it together1 and agreed that its flavor was only second-rate2 but1 as we have already seen1 the public does not discriminate very nicely on this point4 ,it averages large1 sometimes exceeding six inches in circumference4 ,it is long1 conical1 uniform in shape1 necked4 ,the first berries are often ridged somewhat1 but ,i have never seen it flat or coxcombed4 ,it has a very large calyx1 is light scarlet in flesh and color1 very firm1 and therefore will probably keep and ship well1 the large calyx aiding in this respect also4 ,the plant is vigorous and makes a long runner before the new plant forms4 ,leaves large and dark green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #d to #f inches2 season very late4 ,found1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,storer1 growing wild in ,glendale ,cemetery1 ,akron1 ,o41 in #ahga4 ,staminate4 ,i think this berry has a future as a market variety4 ,green ,prolific4---,one of the late ,mr4 ,seth ,boyden's noted varieties1 and a parent of far better berries than itself4 ,i quote again from ,mr4 ,boyden's diary3 ,no4 #e2 a cross with ,hovey's ,seedling and ,kitley's ,goliath2 a large plant1 and seldom injured by summer heat2 very luxuriant grower and bearer2 berries above medium size and of good quality4 ,a pistillate4 ,this berry was once very popular1 but has been superseded4 ,the fruit is very soft1 and second-rate in flavor4 ,the plant is so vigorous and hardy that1 in combination with a fine staminate1 it might be the parent of superior new varieties4 ,general ,sherman4--,new4 ,described as large1 conical1 regular1 brilliant scarlet2 quality good2 productive2 early4 ,great ,american4--,plant but moderately vigorous2 foliage dark green2 leaf-stalks downy2 truss #d to #g inches2 berry dark crimson1 round to conical2 under poor culture1 #b to #c inches in size1 but sometimes very large1 #aj to #ab inches2 flesh pink2 flavor only fair2 season late2 unproductive1 unless just suited in soil and treatment4 ,in most localities1 the foliage burns or scalds in the sun1 and also seems just adapted to the taste of the flea-beetle and other insects4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand1 and under his exceedingly high culture and skilful management it yielded immense crops of enormous berries that sold as high as a dollar per quart2 but throughout the country at large1 with a few exceptions1 it seems to have been a melancholy failure ,from this variety was produced a berry measuring over fourteen inches in circumference--probably the largest strawberry ever grown4 ,staminate4 ,golden ,defiance4--,plant tall1 very vigorous1 somewhat slender1 light green2 leaf-stalk moderately downy2 truss #e to #g inches1 #ab to #bj berries1 well clustered--all the berries developing to a good size2 berry dark scarlet1 obtusely conical1 smooth1 sometimes necked1 very uniform1 #c to #e inches2 flesh scarlet1 quite firm1 juicy2 flavor very fine2 calyx spreading and recurving2 season late4 ,for three successive years this has been the best late berry on my place1 and one of the most beautiful4 ,unless it changes its character1 it will win its way to the front rank in popularity4 ,if its runners are cut1 it is exceedingly productive of fruit that is as fine-flavored as showy4 ,pistillate4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,amos ,miller1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,glossy ,gone4--,one of ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,durand's seedlings4 ,a pretty berry1 with a varnished appearance1 but neither productive nor vigorous on my grounds1 thus far4 ,new4 ,helen4--,new4 ,plant tall1 vigorous1 with dark green foliage1 very downy2 truss #e to #g inches1 branched2 berry light scarlet1 flat1 conical2 flesh white1 firm2 flavor fine2 calyx close2 season late4 ,i fear the foliage is inclined to burn badly4 ,staminate4 ,hervey ,davis4-,new ,plant tall1 rather vigorous1 with light green foliage2 leaf-stalk smooth1 except when young2 truss #e to #f inches2 berry bright scarlet1 shouldered1 obtusely conical1 glossy2 flesh very light pink1 firm2 flavor good2 calyx close2 season medium2 productive4 ,it has seemed to me the most promising of ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,moore's seedlings4 ,the berry resembles the ,jucunda somewhat4 ,staminate4 ,hovey's ,seedling4--,one of the most famous of the historical berries1 and still raised quite largely around ,boston4 ,it was originated by ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,hovey1 and was first fruited in #ahce4 ,its introduction made a great sensation in the fruit world1 and the fact of its being a pistillate gave rise to no end of discussion4 ,many who first bought it set it out by itself1 and of course it bore no fruit2 therefore they condemned it4 ,when its need of fertilization was understood1 many used wild plants from the woods for this purpose1 and then found it to be the largest and most productive strawberry in cultivation at that period4 ,such large crops were often raised that the theory was advanced by many that pistillates as a class would be more productive than staminates1 and horticulturists became as controversial as the most zealous of theologians4 ,the berry and the vexed questions that it raised have both ceased to occupy general attention1 but many of the new varieties heralded to-day are not equal to this old-fashioned sort4 ,mr4 ,downing thus describes it3 ,the vines are vigorous and hardy1 producing moderately large crops1 and the fruit is always of the largest size and finely flavored2 the leaves are large1 rather light green1 and the fruit-stalks long and erect2 fruit roundish-oval and slightly conical1 deep shining1 scarlet1 seeds slightly imbedded2 flesh firm2 season about medium4 ,huddleston's ,favorite4--,new4 ,thus described by ,e4 ,y4 ,teas1 of ,dunreith1 ,ind43 ,a vigorous grower1 with large1 glossy foliage1 that stands the sun well2 berries of the largest size1 round1 with small calyx1 of a bright1 glossy1 crimson color1 ripening evenly1 firm1 with a rich1 spicy flavor2 late2 very beautiful in appearance4 ,jucunda4--,a slow rather than feeble grower1 on heavy soils2 light green foliage2 leaf-stalk smooth2 truss #e to #g inches2 berry high-shouldered1 conical1 of a bright1 glossy crimson1 very showy2 flesh scarlet1 firm2 flavor fair and good when fully ripe2 calyx close2 season late4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,hexamer for the following history3 ,the late ,rev4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,knox1 of ,pittsburgh1 told me that in a bed of what he received as ,bonte de ,st4 ,julien1 he found a number of plants that seemed to him a new variety4 ,supposing them to be a new and very desirable seedling1 he separated them from the others and propagated them under the name of '#gjj4' ,before he offered them for sale he discovered that they were identical with the ,jucunda1 and when they were brought out1 in #ahfe1 it was under the true name1 ,jucunda 7,knox's #gjj74 ,one authority states that it originated in ,england1 with a ,mr4 ,salter2 another says that it was imported from ,belgium4 ,this is of little consequence compared with the fact that it is the finest foreign berry we have1 on heavy soils4 ,i do not recommend it for light land1 unless the runners are cut and high culture is given4 ,mr4 ,m4 ,crawford1 of ,cuyahoga ,falls1 ,ohio1 makes the interesting statement that ,mr4 ,knox sold over two hundred bushels of this variety in one day1 at #af per bushel4 ,it has always been one of the most profitable on my heavy land4 ,the young plants are small and feeble4 ,staminate4 ,kentucky ,seedling4--,plant tall1 vigorous1 but slender and apt to fall2 light green foliage2 truss #h to #aj inches1 with #h to #aj berries2 berry scarlet1 conical1 high-shouldered1 somewhat flattened at the tip1 regular in shape and uniform in size1 a little rough1 knobby1 with seeds set in deep pits2 flesh but moderately firm1 and very white2 flavor of the best2 calyx spreading and recurving2 season late and long-continued2 very productive--one of the very best2 size #c to #d #a_/b inches4 ,it succeeds well on light soils and under the ,southern sun1 and improves wonderfully under hill culture4 ,staminate4 ,originated by ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,downer1 of ,kentucky4 ,lady of the ,lake4--,plant tall1 vigorous1 dark green foliage2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #g to #h inches2 berry crimson1 conical necked2 flesh pink1 firm2 flavor good1 but rather dry2 size moderate2 calyx spreading2 season medium2 productive4 ,staminate4 ,it has been1 and is still1 a favorite with the market-men around ,boston4 ,originated by a ,mr4 ,scott1 in ,brighton1 ,mass4 ,la ,constant4--,one of the most beautiful of the foreign berries2 flesh rosy white1 sweet1 juicy1 very firm1 and of exquisite flavor4 ,the plants are dwarf and compact1 and they require the highest culture4 ,even then the crop is uncertain2 for the variety1 like high-born beauty1 is very capricious2 but its smiles1 in the way of fruit1 are such as to delight the most fastidious of amateurs4 ,originated by ,de ,jonghe4 ,staminate4 ,it is one of the favorite varieties abroad for forcing4 ,lady's ,finger4--,an old variety1 now not often seen4 ,conical1 and very elongated1 and of a brilliant1 dark scarlet color4 ,it was once popular1 but has been superseded4 ,lennig's ,white 7,white ,pine-apple74--,this is not strictly a white berry1 for it has a delicate flush if exposed to the sun4 ,the flesh is pure white1 juicy1 melting1 sweet and delicious in flavor1 and so aromatic that one berry will perfume a large apartment4 ,the plant is vigorous and hardy1 but a shy bearer4 ,hill culture and clipped runners are essential to fruit1 but1 for a connoisseur's table1 a quart is worth a bushel of some varieties4 ,it is the best white variety1 and evidently a seedling of the ,f4 ,chilensis4 ,it originated in the garden of ,mr4 ,lennig1 of ,germantown1 ,pa4 ,staminate4 ,laurel ,leaf4--,new4 ,plant moderately vigorous2 foliage dark green2 leaf-stalk quite smooth2 truss #c to #e inches1 low1 stocky2 berry very light scarlet2 round to conical1 short neck2 flesh soft1 light pink2 size moderate2 flavor good2 calyx close4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,a4 ,n4 ,jones1 ,le ,roy1 ,n4 ,y4 ,staminate4 ,longworth's ,prolific4--,an old variety1 that is passing out of cultivation2 still grown quite extensively in ,california4 ,it is a large1 roundish-oval berry of good flavor4 ,the plant is said to be vigorous and productive4 ,originated on the grounds of the late ,mr4 ,n4 ,longworth of ,cincinnati4 ,longfellow4--,new4 ,described as very large1 elongated1 conical1 occasionally irregular2 color dark red1 glossy and beautiful2 flesh firm1 sweet1 and rich2 plant vigorous with dark green1 healthy foliage1 not liable to burn in the sun2 very productive1 continuing long in bearing1 and of large size to the last4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,webb1 ,bowling ,green1 ,ky4 ,marvin4-,this new berry is already exciting much attention1 and ,i am glad that ,i can give a description from so careful and eminent a horticulturist as ,mr4 ,t4 ,t4 ,lyon1 ,president ,michigan ,state ,pomological ,society3 ,from notes taken at the ripening of the fruit3 ',plant vigorous1 very stocky1 of rather low growth1 bearing a fine crop for young plants2 foliage nearly round1 thick in substance1 flat or cupped2 serratures broad and shallow2 fruit large to very large1 longish conical2 large specimens often coxcombed2 bright crimson2 began to color ,june #af1 and the first ripe berries were gathered on the #bjth2 stems of medium height--strong2 flesh light crimson2 whitish at the centre1 firm and juicy2 flavor high1 rich1 fine1 with a very pleasant aroma2 seeds prominent2 greenish brown4 ,we regard this as a highly promising1 very large1 late variety1 and especially so for market purposes4 ,staminate4' ,originated with ,mr4 ,harry ,marvin1 ,ovid1 ,mich41 and said to be from the ,wilson and ,jucunda--an excellent parentage4 ,miner's ,great ,prolific4--,plant vigorous2 leaves light green1 smooth2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss six inches1 well branched1 slender1 drooping2 berry deep crimson1 round and bulky1 regular shouldered2 tip green when half-ripe2 flesh pink1 moderately firm2 flavor good2 calyx spreading2 size four to five inches2 season medium to late4 ,the berry holds out well in size1 and resembles the ,charles ,downing somewhat1 but averages larger4 ,it has seemed to me as promising a new variety as the ,sharpless4 ,i believe it has a long future4 ,originated with late ,t4 ,b4 ,miner in #ahgg4 ,staminate4 ,monarch of the ,west4--,plant very vigorous2 leaves light1 when young1 and later of a golden green1 somewhat smooth2 truss six inches2 four to eight berries2 berry often of a carpet-bag shape1 square shouldered1 and sometimes coxcombed1 large1 magnificent2 pale scarlet2 flesh light pink1 tender2 flavor very fine2 calyx spreading and recurving2 tip of berry green when not fully ripe1 but it colors evenly if given time4 ,when flavor is the gauge of excellence in the market1 this famous berry will be in the front rank4 ,its color and softness are against it1 but its superb size1 deliciousness and aroma should make it eagerly sought after by all who want a genuine strawberry4 ,in the open market1 it already often brings double the price of ,wilsons4 ,in the home garden1 it has few equals4 ,with some exceptions1 it does well from ,maine to ,california4 ,the narrow row culture greatly increases its size and productiveness4 ,i have had many crates picked in which there were few berries that did not average five inches in circumference4 ,mr4 ,jesse ,brady1 of ,plano1 ,illinois1 gives me the following history3 ,the ,monarch was raised by me in #ahfg1 from one of a number of seedlings1 grown previously1 and crossed with ,boyden's ,green ,prolific4 ,the said seedling was never introduced to the public4 ,i raised fourteen1 and cultivated three of them several years4 ,they were produced from an ,english berry1 name unknown to me4 ,martha4--,a fine1 large berry1 but1 as ,i have seen it1 the foliage burns so badly that ,i think it will pass out of cultivation unless it improves in this respect4 ,staminate4 ,neunan's ,prolific 7,charleston ,berry74--,foliage tall1 slender1 dark green2 fruit-stalk tall2 berries light scarlet1 inclined to have a neck at the ,north1 not so much so at the ,south4 ,first berries large1 obtusely conical2 the latter and smaller berries becoming round2 calyx very large and drooping over the berry2 exceedingly firm--hard1 indeed--and sour when first red2 but growing richer and better in flavor in full maturity2 usually a vigorous grower4 ,it was originated by a ,mr4 ,neunan1 of ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 and scarcely any other variety is grown in that great strawberry centre4 ,napoleon ,,iii4--,a very large foreign berry1 often flattened and coxcombed4 ,i found that its foliage burned so badly ,i could not grow it4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,barry describes the plant as rarely vigorous1 and bearing only a few large1 beautiful berries4 ,new ,jersey ,scarlet4--,an old-fashioned market berry that succeeded well on the light soils of ,new ,jersey4 ,once popular1 but not much grown now1 ,i think4 ,mr4 ,downing describes it as medium in size1 conical1 with a neck2 light1 clear scarlet2 moderately firm1 juicy1 sprightly4 ,staminate4 ,nicanor4--,a seeding of the ,triomphe de ,gand1 that originated on the grounds of ,messrs4 ,ellwanger ,barry1 and is described by ,mr4 ,barry as hardy1 vigorous1 productive1 early1 and continuing in bearing a long time2 fruit moderately large2 uniform1 roundish1 conical2 bright scarlet2 flesh reddish1 rather firm1 juicy1 sweet2 of fine flavor4 ,i found that it required heavy soil1 high culture1 with clipped runners1 to produce1 on my place1 fruit large enough to be of value4 ,the fruit ripened very early and was of excellent flavor4 ,staminate4 ,new ,dominion4--,described by ,mr4 ,crawford1 as very large1 roundish1 uniform in size and shape2 bright red2 glossy1 firm1 of good flavor1 and productive2 season medium4 ,i have seen it looking poorly on light soil4 ,originated with ,mr4 ,c4 ,n4 ,biggar1 on the battlefield of ,lundy's ,lane4 ,oliver ,goldsmith4--,new2 a very vigorous grower1 bearing a long1 conical berry with a glazed neck4 ,untested1 but very promising4 ,staminate4 ,president ,lincoln4--,plant moderately vigorous2 foliage light green2 truss #e to #f inches1 strong2 berry crimson1 conical2 often long with a neck2 the first large berries are coxcombed and very irregular2 flesh firm1 scarlet2 flavor of the very best2 size #c to #f inches2 calyx close to spreading4 ,one of the best varieties for an amateur4 ,among them often1 without any apparent cause1 are found small bushy plants with smaller leaves1 and berries full of fingers and toes4 ,these should be pulled out4 ,the variety evidently contains much foreign blood1 but is one of the best of the class4 ,the berries almost rival the ,sharpless in size1 and are better in flavor1 but the plant is not so good a grower4 ,specimens have been picked measuring over eleven inches in circumference4 ,it is said to have originated with a ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,new ,york ,city1 in #ahge4 ,staminate4 ,president ,wilder4--,in the estimation of many good judges1 this is the most beautiful and best-flavored strawberry in existence--an opinion in which ,i coincide4 ,it has always done well with me1 and ,i have seen it thriving in many localities4 ,it is so fine1 however1 that it deserves all the attention that it requires4 ,it is a hybrid of the ,la ,constant and ,hovey's ,seedling1 and unites the good qualities of both1 having much the appearance of the beautiful foreign berry1 and the hardy1 sun-resisting foliage of ,hovey's ,seedling4 ,it has a suggestion of the musky1 ,hautbois flavor1 when fully ripe1 and is of a bright scarlet color1 deepening into crimson in maturity4 ,flesh quite firm1 rosy white1 juicy1 very rich and delicious4 ,the berry is diamond-shaped1 obtusely conical1 very regular and uniform2 seeds yellow and near the surface4 ,the plant is low1 compact1 rather dwarf1 the young plants quite small1 but the foliage endures the sun well1 even in the far ,south4 ,the plants are more productive the second year of bearing than in the first4 ,young plants often do not form fruit buds4 ,mr4 ,merrick states that it originated with ,president ,wilder1 in #ahfa1 and was selected as the best result obtained from many thousand seedlings in thirty years of continual experimenting4 ,staminate4 ,pioneer4--,plant vigorous2 foliage light green1 tall2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #e to #g inches2 berry scarlet1 necked1 dry1 sweet1 perfumed2 flesh pink1 only moderately firm2 flavor of the best2 calyx close to spreading2 season early4 ,this seems to me the best of all ,mr4 ,durand's new varieties that ,i have seen1 and it is very good indeed4 ,the foliage dies down during the winter1 but the root sends up a new1 strong growth1 which1 ,i fear1 will burn in the ,south and on light soils4 ,staminate4 ,prouty's ,seedling4--,plant not very vigorous2 leaf-stalk very smooth2 truss #c to #e inches2 berry bright scarlet1 glossy1 very long conical2 flesh pink1 firm2 flavor fair2 calyx close4 ,very productive1 but the plant does not seem vigorous enough to mature the enormous quantity of fruit that forms4 ,with high culture on heavy soil1 ,i think it might be made very profitable4 ,staminate4 ,panic4--,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,coleman1 of ,geneva1 writes me that this variety promises remarkably well in his region1 but on my ground it burns so badly as to be valueless4 ,it is a long1 conical berry1 very firm and of good flavor4 ,staminate4 ,red ,jacket4--,early1 high-flavored1 with a rich subacid1 suggesting the wild berry in taste and aroma2 of good size1 round1 dark crimson4 ,plant vigorous2 a promising new variety4 ,staminate4 ,russell's ,advance4--,a fine-flavored1 early variety1 but the plant proves not sufficiently vigorous and productive to compete with other early berries already described4 ,staminate4 ,russell's ,prolific4--,a fine1 large berry1 deservedly popular a few years since4 ,it has yielded splendid fruit on my grounds1 but it seems to have proved so uncertain over the country at large as to have passed out of general favor4 ,it is rather soft for market and not high-flavored enough for a first-class berry4 ,pistillate4 ,romeyn's ,seedling4--,i cannot distinguish it from the ,triomphe de ,gand4 ,staminate4 ,sharpless4--,a very strong1 upright grower1 with large1 crinkled foliage2 truss #e to #h inches1 strong branched2 #f to #aj large berries often on each2 berry carpet-bag in shape1 and often very irregular and flattened1 but growing more uniform as they diminish in size2 light red and glossy1 #e to #g inches2 flesh firm1 light pink2 flavor fine1 sweet1 perfumed2 calyx recurving2 season medium4 ,one of the very best if it proves sufficiently productive over the country at large4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,sharpless kindly writes me3 ,i have been much interested in growing strawberries for the last fifteen years1 and after being disappointed in many of the new and highly praised varieties1 the idea occurred to me that a seedling originating in our own soil and climate might prove more hardy and long-lived4 ,having saved a fine berry of each of the following varieties--the ,wilson1 ,colonel ,cheney1 ,jucunda1 and ,charles ,downing--,i planted their seeds in a box in ,march1 #ahgb4 ,the box was kept in the house 7probably by a warm south window71 and in ,may ,i set from this box about #ajj plants in the garden1 giving partial shade and frequently watering1 ,by fall1 nearly all were fine plants4 ,i then took them up and set them out in a row one foot apart1 protecting them slightly during the winter1 and the next season nearly all bore some fruit1 the ,sharpless four or five fine berries4 ,it was the most interesting employment of my life to grow and watch those seedlings4 ,some of the others bore fine1 large berries1 but ,i eventually came to the conclusion that the ,sharpless was the only one worthy of cultivation4 ,i am inclined to think that the ,jucunda and ,colonel ,cheney formed the combination producing this berry4 ,it is now in enormous demand1 and if it gives satisfaction throughout the country generally1 its popularity will continue4 ,it is peculiarly adapted to hill culture1 and the plant is so vigorous that it would develop into quite a bush on rich1 moist land1 with its runners clipped4 ,staminate4 ,seneca ,chief4--,plant vigorous and productive2 large1 downy leaf2 truss low2 berry bright scarlet1 glossy1 occasionally a little wedge-shaped2 round to conical1 shouldered2 flesh firm1 pink2 seeds yellow and brown2 flavor fine1 rich subacid2 season medium2 size #c to #e inches2 calyx close2 a fine berry1 originated by ,messrs4 ,hunt ,foote1 ,waterloo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,staminate4 ,seneca ,queen4--,plant vigorous1 foliage dark green2 leaf-stalk moderately downy2 truss #c to #e inches2 berry dark crimson1 round2 flesh red2 flavor fair2 size #c to #e inches2 calyx close2 season medium2 productive2 a promising variety4 ,staminate4 ,springdale4--,plant low1 stocky2 leaf-stalk downy2 leaf broad and smooth2 truss #c to #d inches2 berry bright scarlet1 round1 broader than long1 #c to #e inches2 flesh light pink1 juicy1 rather soft2 flavor very good2 calyx close2 season early to medium4 ,originated by ,amos ,miller1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,pistillate4 ,sucker ,state4--,plant seems vigorous2 foliage dark green2 leaf-stalk downy2 berry light scarlet2 flesh pink1 juicy1 firm4 ,a new and promising variety4 ,staminate4 ,stirling4--,only moderately vigorous2 foliage low1 light green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #c to #e inches1 well branched2 berry crimson1 ovate1 very uniform1 somewhat necked2 moderate-sized1 #b to #c inches2 flesh pink1 very firm2 flavor of the best2 calyx close to spreading2 season medium to late4 ,the foliage burns so badly in most localities that this variety will pass out of cultivation4 ,pistillate4 ,triomphe de ,gand4--,plant light green2 leaf-stalk and blade unusually smooth1 truss #d to #e inches1 berry1 the average ones1 round to conical1 large ones irregular and coxcombed2 light scarlet2 glossy2 flesh pink1 juicy1 and solid2 flavor of the best2 calyx close2 size #c #a_/b to #e inches2 season long2 rather feeble grower1 and comes slowly to maturity4 ,admirably adapted to the narrow row system1 and on heavy soils can be kept in bearing five or six years1 if the runners are cut regularly4 ,if ,i were restricted to one strawberry on a heavy1 loamy soil1 the ,triomphe would be my choice1 since1 on moist land with high culture1 it will continue six weeks in bearing1 giving delicious fruit4 ,when well grown1 it commands the highest price in market4 ,it is probably the best foreign variety we have1 and is peculiarly adapted to forcing4 ,it is said to be a ,belgian variety4 ,staminate4 ,the old-fashioned belief that strawberries thrived best on light soils caused this superb berry to be discarded2 but it was introduced again by ,mr4 ,knox1 who proved1 by a very profitable experience1 that heavy land is the best for many of our finest varieties4 ,triple ,crown4--,plant tall1 slender2 foliage light green2 leaf-stalk wiry1 smooth2 truss #e to #f inches2 berry dark crimson1 conical2 when large1 irregular1 with a glazed neck2 flesh crimson1 remarkably firm2 flavor rich and fine2 size #c to #d inches2 season medium2 very productive4 ,one of the best1 and ,i think the firmest strawberry in existence4 ,i may be mistaken1 but ,i think this berry will become exceedingly popular when it becomes better known4 ,i am testing it on various soils4 ,for canning and shipping qualities1 it has no equal1 and though so exceedingly firm1 is still rich and juicy when fully ripe4 ,originated by ,mr4 ,wm4 ,hunt1 of ,waterloo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,staminate4 ,warren4--,described as very large1 roundish1 conical2 very regular in shape and size2 color dark red1 ripening evenly2 flesh firm and of good quality4 ,plant a luxuriant grower and a good bearer4 ,new and untested4 ,originated by ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,webb1 ,bowling ,green1 ,ky4 ,wilding4--,plant tall1 vigorous2 foliage dark green2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss #f to #h inches2 well branched2 #aj to #ab berries2 ripe fruit and blossoms on the same stalk2 berry crimson1 high-shouldered1 round to conical2 size #c to #e inches2 flesh moderately firm1 pink2 flavor good4 ,new and very promising4 ,originated by ,mr4 ,a4 ,n4 ,jones1 ,le ,roy1 ,n4 ,y4 ,staminate4 ,wielandy4--,plant vigorous1 with dark green1 very glossy foliage2 leaf-stalk downy2 truss low2 berry bright scarlet1 round to conical2 flesh pink1 soft2 flavor fine2 size #b to #c inches2 season medium4 ,new and untested1 but of good promise for the home garden4 ,staminate4 ,windsor ,chief4--,said to have been originated by ,mr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,gardner1 of ,eaton ,county1 ,michigan1 and to be a cross between the ,champion and ,charles ,downing4 ,the plants that ,i obtained from ,mr4 ,gardner resemble the ,champion so closely1 both in foliage and fruit1 that ,i cannot yet distinguish between the mother and daughter4 ,this year ,i shall fruit both in perfection1 and fear that ,i shall have to record a distinction without a difference4 ,i hope ,i may be mistaken4 ,all that is claimed for the ,windsor ,chief is true if it is as good as the ,champion1 a variety that ,i have ever found one of the most profitable on my place4 ,pistillate4 ,,alpine ,,strawberkies ,alpines1 ,white and ,red4--,these are the ,fragaria ,vesca1 the strawberries of the ancients1 and well worthy of a place in our gardens to-day4 ,as ,i have already stated1 they are one of the most widely spread fruits in the world2 for while they take their name from the ,alps1 there are few mountains1 where the temperature is sufficiently cool1 on which they are not found1 either in this country or abroad4 ,in the high latitudes they descend into the fields1 and grow wild everywhere4 ,the berries are conical1 medium to small in size1 and the fruit-stalks rise above the leaves4 ,in flavor they are good1 very delicate1 but not rich4 ,the plants are very hardy1 and moderately productive4 ,grown from the seed they reproduce themselves with almost unvarying similarity1 but the young seedlings produce larger berries than the older plants4 ,the foliage of the ,white variety is of a lighter green than that of the ,red1 but in other respects there are no material differences1 except in the color4 ,white and ,red ,monthly ,alpines4--,varieties similar to the above1 with the exception that they bear continuously through the summer and fall1 if moisture is maintained and high culture given4 ,if much fruit is desired1 all runners should be cut1 and the ground made rich4 ,we are often misled by synonymes of these old varieties1 as1 for instance1 ,des ,quatre ,saisons1 ,mexican ,everbearing1 ,gallande1 etc4 ,they are all said to be identical with the common monthly ,alpines4 ,white and ,red ,bush ,alpines4--,a distinct class that produces no runners1 but are propagated by dividing the roots4 ,in other respects the plant and fruit are similar to the common ,alpines4 ,no matter how small the division1 if a little root is attached1 it will grow readily4 ,they make pretty and useful edgings for garden walks1 and with good culture bear considerable fruit1 especially in the cool1 moist months of autumn4 ,because1 throwing out no runners1 they give very little trouble1 and ,i have ever found them the most satisfactory of the monthly strawberries4 ,i see no reason why a good demand for them1 as a fancy fruit1 could not be created4 ,be this as it may1 there are many who are sufficiently civilized to consider the home market first2 and a dainty dish of strawberries on an ,october evening1 and a wood-fire blazing on the hearth1 form a combination that might reconcile misanthropy to the ills of life4 ,mr4 ,downing states that the ,bush ,alpines were first brought to this country by the late ,andrew ,parmentier1 of ,brooklyn4 ,wood ,strawberries1 ,white and ,red4--,these are the ,english phases of the ,alpine1 or ,f4 ,vesca species4 ,their fruit is not so conical as the ,alpine of the ,continent1 or our own land1 but is roundish ovate4 ,they are said to be rather more productive1 but ,i doubt whether they differ materially from the other ,alpines1 except in form4 ,they are the strawberries that our ,british forefathers ate1 and are the same that the ,bishop of ,ely brought to the bloody ,protector from his gardayne in ,holberne4 ,montreuil4--,said to be an improved variety of the ,alpines4 ,green ,alpine 7,green ,pine or ,wood1 ,fraisier ,vert74--,this variety was1 by some1 supposed to be a distinct species1 but the appearance of the plant and fruit shows it to be a true ,alpine4 ,berry small1 roundish1 depressed1 greenish brown2 flesh green1 with a somewhat musky flavor4 7,fuller47 ,mr4 ,downing says the berry is tinged with reddish brown on the sunny side at maturity1 and that it has a peculiar1 rich1 pine-apple flavor4 ,under the head of ,alpines1 one finds in the catalogues a bewildering array of names1 especially in those printed abroad2 but ,i am quite well satisfied that if all these named varieties were placed in a trial bed1 and treated precisely alike1 the differences between them1 in most instances1 would be found slight indeed1 too slight to warrant a name and separate existence4 ,,hautbois ,,strawberries--,,fragaria ,,elatior ,as far as ,i can learn1 this class was more raised in former years than at present1 both here and abroad4 ,at any rate1 the musky flavor of the ,hoboys 7as the term was often spelled in rural regions7 has not won favor1 and ,i rarely meet with them in cultivation4 ,they are well worth a little space in the garden1 however1 and are well suited to some tastes4 ,belle de ,bordelaise is said to be the best variety4 ,the berry is described by ,mr4 ,fuller1 as roundish oval1 dark1 brownish purple2 flesh white1 juicy1 sweet1 with a strong1 musky flavor4 ,common ,hautbois4--,fruit medium in size1 reddish green1 musky4 ,the fruit-stalks rise above the leaves--hence the term ,hautbois1 or high wood4 ,not worthy of cultivation4 ,prolific ,hautbois--7,double bearing1 and having many other synonymes74--,mr4 ,downing speaks highly of this variety1 saying that it is distinguished by its strong habit1 and very large and usually perfect flowers borne high above the leaves4 ,the fruit is very large and fine2 dark colored1 with a peculiarly rich1 slightly musky flavor4 ,productive4 ,royal ,hautbois4--,said to be one of the largest1 most vigorous1 and productive of this class4 ,mr4 ,merrick writes that the ,hautbois strawberries find few admirers in the vicinity of ,boston1 and seem equally neglected abroad4 ,i am gathering these and the ,alpines into trial-beds1 and thus hope to learn more accurately their differences1 characteristics and comparative values4 ,chili strawberries are now rarely met with in cultivation4 ,mr4 ,merrick writes of them3 ,although some of them are extolled for amateur culture1 they are of little value4 ,they are large1 coarse1 very apt to be hollow1 with soft1 poor-flavored flesh4 ,they have been so thoroughly intermingled with other species that it is difficult to say of certain named kinds that they are or are not partly ,chilis4 ,true ,chili1 ,wilmot's ,superb1 and the ,yellow ,chili are named as the best of the class4 ,there are very many other named strawberries that ,i might describe1 and a few of them may become popular4 ,some that ,i have named are scarcely worth the space1 and will soon be forgotten4 ,in my next revision1 ,i expect to drop not a few of them4 ,it should be our constant aim to shorten our catalogues of fruits rather than lengthen them1 to the bewilderment and loss of all save the plant grower4 ,the ,duchess1 for instance1 is a first-class early berry4 ,all others having the same general characteristics and adapted to the same soils1 but which are inferior to it1 should be discarded4 ,what is the use of raising second1 third1 and fourth rate berries of the same class8 ,where distinctions are so slight as to puzzle an expert1 they should be ignored1 and the best variety of the class preserved4 ,i refer those readers who would like to see a list of almost every strawberry named in modern times1 native and foreign1 to ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,merrick's work1 ,the ,strawberry and its ,culture4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,varieties ,,of ,,other ,,small ,,fruits ,i have already written so fully of the leading and profitable varieties of raspberries1 blackberries1 currants1 and gooseberries1 that little more remains to be said2 since1 for reasons previously given1 ,i do not care to go into long descriptions of obsolete varieties1 nor of those so new and untested as to be unknown quantities in value4 ,i am putting everything thought worthy of test in trial-beds1 and hope eventually to write accurately concerning them4 ,,raspberries ,rubus ,idceus and ,rubus ,strigosus ,arnold's ,orange4--,canes strong1 branching1 yellowish brown1 almost smooth1 and producing but few suckers4 ,fruit large1 somewhat shorter than ,brinkle's ,orange1 and of a darker orange color2 rich in flavor1 ,originated with ,mr4 ,charles ,arnold1 ,paris1 ,ontario1 ,c4 ,w4 ,antwerp 7,english74--,see page #bjb4 ,antwerp 7,hudson ,biver74--,see pages #bjb-bje4 ,antwerp 7,yellow--,white ,antwerp74--,a tender variety that needs winter protection1 good culture1 and vigorous pruning2 otherwise1 the berries are imperfect and crumble badly in picking4 ,the fruit is exceedingly delicate and soft1 and must be picked as soon as ripe or it cannot be handled4 ,it is much surpassed by ,brinkle's ,orange4 ,the canes are vigorous and the variety is easily grown4 ,brinkle's ,orange4--,for description1 see page #bah4 ,belle de ,fontenay4--,see page #bjg4 ,brandywine4--,see page #bjh4 ,belle de ,palnau4--,a ,french variety1 that thrives in some localities4 ,canes are strong1 vigorous1 upright1 covered with short1 purplish spines1 which are more numerous near the ground2 berry large1 obtuse conical1 bright crimson2 firm for so juicy and fine-flavored a berry2 grains large4 ,the berries were often imperfect on my place4 ,catawissa4--,see page #baf4 ,this variety is well spoken of by some good authorities4 ,the fact that it bears in autumn should give it some consideration4 ,clarke4--,see page #bbj4 ,caroline4--,see page #bba4 ,cuthbert4--,see pages #bba-bbe4 ,franconia4--,see page #bjf4 ,fastollf4--,an ,english variety of high reputation4 ,it derived its name from having originated near the ruins of an old castle1 so called1 in ,great ,yarmouth4 ,canes strong1 rather erect1 branching2 light yellowish brown1 with few strong bristles2 fruit very large1 obtuse or roundish conical1 bright1 purplish red1 rich and highly flavored1 slightly adhering to the germ in picking4 7,downing47 ,french4--7,vice-,president ,french74--,originated with ,dr4 ,brinkle4 ,canes strong1 upright1 spines short and stout2 fruit medium to large1 roundish1 rich1 bright crimson1 large grains1 sweet and very good4 7,barry47 ,it is foreign in its parentage1 and uncertain in many localities4 ,herstine4--,see pages #bai1 #bbj4 ,hornet4--,raised by ,souchet1 near ,paris4 ,very productive4 ,canes very strong1 vigorous1 upright spines1 purplish1 rather stout1 and numerous at the base2 fruit very large1 conical1 often irregular1 grains large1 quite hairy1 compact1 crimson2 flesh rather firm1 juicy1 sweet and good1 separates freely4 7,downing47 ,this variety appears to vary greatly with locality4 ,kirtland4--7,cincinnati ,red47--,one of the native varieties once grown largely1 but now superseded4 ,fruit medium in size1 obtuse conical1 soft1 and not very high-flavored4 ,knevett's ,giant4--,berry large1 round1 light crimson1 adheres too firmly to the core1 and often crumbles in picking1 but is juicy and good4 ,the canes are very strong and productive2 spines purplish1 short1 scattering4 ,an ,english variety4 ,merveille de ,quatre ,saisons4--,a ,french variety4 ,this and the ,belle de ,fontenay are almost as hardy as any of our native kinds1 and thus they form exceptions to the foreign sorts1 which are usually tender4 ,good results might be secured by crossing them with our best native kinds4 ,the canes of this variety must be cut to the ground in spring if much autumn fruit is desired4 ,it is not equal to the ,belle de ,fontenay1 to which class it belongs4 ,naomi4--,identical with ,franconia4 ,northumberland ,fillbasket4--,an old-fashioned ,english variety1 sometimes found in the garden of an amateur4 ,pride of the ,hudson4--,see pages #aij1 #bai4 ,pearl1 ,bristol1 ,thwack4--,native varieties that resemble the ,brandywine1 but are not equal to it in most localities4 ,they are passing out of cultivation4 ,reliance4--,a seedling of the ,philadelphia1 but judging from one year's test1 much superior to it1 and worthy of cultivation in those regions where the finer varieties cannot thrive4 ,it is hardy1 and will do well on light soils4 ,saunders4--,see page #bbj4 ,rubus ,occidentalis ,for descriptions of ,davison's ,thornless1 ,doolittle1 or ,american ,improved1 ,mammoth ,cluster1 and ,gregg1 see ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,american ,black4--,common black-cap raspberry1 found wild throughout the ,united ,states4 ,too well known to need description4 ,american ,white-,cap 7,yellow-,cap1 ,golden-,cap74--,also scattered widely throughout the country1 but not common4 ,those who discover it often imagine that they have found something new and rare4 ,berries slightly oval1 grains larger than those of the black-cap1 yellow1 with a white bloom4 ,the canes are light yellow1 strong1 stocky1 with but few spines4 ,propagated from the tips4 ,it might become the parent of very fine varieties4 7,fuller47 ,miami ,black-,cap4--,a vigorous1 productive variety1 found growing near the ,miami ,river1 in ,ohio4 ,the fruit approaches a brownish red in color1 and is not equal to the ,mammoth ,cluster in value4 ,philadelphia4--,see page #bbj4 ,seneca ,black-,cap4--,raised by ,mr4 ,dell1 of ,seneca ,county1 ,n4,y4 ,the fruit is between the ,doolittle and ,mammoth ,cluster in size1 and is later than the former2 not so black1 having a shade of purple1 and is juicy1 sweet1 and good4 ,lum's ,everbearing1 and ,ohio ,everbearing ,black ,raspberries4--,varieties that resemble each other4 ,if a good autumn crop is desired1 cut away the canes in the spring1 so as to secure a strong early growth of new wood1 on which the fruit is to be borne4 ,golden ,thornless4--,a large variety of the ,american ,white-,cap1 introduced by ,purdy ,johnson1 ,palmyra1 ,n4,y4 ,florence4--,a variety resembling the above4 ,ganargua and ,new ,rochelle4--,see pages #bbj1 #bba4 ,,blackberries ,in ,chapter xxiv4 ,i have described those varieties that have proved worthy of general cultivation4 ,the ,dorchester winter-killed so badly on my place1 and the fruit was so inferior to that of the ,kittatinny in size1 that ,i discarded it4 ,it is good in flavor4 ,the ,missouri ,mammoth is tender and often not productive4 ,there are new varieties that promise well1 as ,taylor's ,prolific1 ,ancient ,briton1 ,knox1 ,warren1 ,wachusett ,thornless1 ,cro' ,nest and several others4 ,i am testing them1 and do not care to express any opinion as yet1 or write descriptions that would probably need considerable revision within six months4 ,,currants ,,and ,,gooseberries ,in chapters xxvi4 and xxvii4 may be found a description of those distinct varieties that are of chief value in this country4 ,i find no good reason why ,i should fill pages with descriptions of varieties that are rarely cultivated1 and which might well give place to better kinds4 ,eventually1 ,i shall give the results gathered from my trial-beds1 in which ,i am placing all the new and old varieties said to be worthy of cultivation4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,closing ,,words ,our ramble among the small fruits is over4 ,to such readers as have not grown weary and left my company long since1 ,i will say but few words in parting4 ,in the preceding pages ,i have tried to take from our practical and often laborious calling its dull1 commonplace1 and prosaic aspects4 ,it should be our constant aim to lift life above mere plodding drudgery4 ,it is our great good fortune to co-work with ,nature1 and usually among her loveliest scenes4 ,is it not well to look up to the hills occasionally1 from whence may come help toward a truer1 larger manhood1 and then1 instead of going home to the heavy1 indigestible supper too often spread for those who are weary and feverish from the long1 hot day1 would it not be better to gather some sprays of the fruit whose mild subacid is just what the material man requires in mid-summer sultriness8 ,the horticulturist may thrive if he will1 in body and soul2 for ,nature1 at each season1 furnishes just such supplies as are best adapted to his need4 ,she will develop every good quality he possesses1 especially his patience4 ,as we have passed from one fruit to another1 ,i have expressed my own views frankly2 at the same time1 ,i think the reader will remember that ,i have taken no little pains to give the opinions of others4 ,dogmatism in pomology is as objectionable as in theology4 ,i shall be glad to have my errors pointed out1 and will hasten to correct them4 ,as a part of this book appeared as a serial in ,scribner's ,magazine1 ,i was encouraged by words of approval from many of the best horticultural authorities4 ,i shall not deny that ,i was very glad to receive such favorable opinions1 for ,i had much and just doubt of my ability to satisfy those who have made these subjects a lifelong study1 and to whom1 in fact1 ,i am largely indebted for the little ,i do know4 ,still more am ,i pleased by assurances that ,i have turned the thoughts of many toward the garden--a place that is naturally1 and1 ,i think1 correctly1 associated with man's primal and happiest condition4 ,we must recognize1 however1 the sad change in the gardening as well as gardeners of our degenerate world4 ,in worm and insect1 blight and mildew1 in heat1 frost1 drought and storm1 in weeds so innumerable that we are tempted to believe that ,nature has a leaning toward total depravity1 we have much to contend with2 and in the ignorant1 careless1 and often dishonest laborer1 who slashes away at random1 we find our chief obstacle to success4 ,in spite of all these drawbacks1 the work of the garden is the play and pleasure that never palls1 and which the oldest and wisest never outgrow4 ,i have delayed my departure too long1 and1 since ,i cannot place a basket of ,president ,wilder ,strawberries on the tables of my readers1 ,i will leave with them the best possible substitute1 the exquisite poem of ,h4 ,h43 ,,my ,,strawberry ,o marvel1 fruit of fruits1 ,i pause ,to reckon thee4 ,i ask what cause ,set free so much of red from heats ,at core of earth1 and mixed such sweets ,with sour and spice2 what was that strength ,which1 out of darkness1 length by length1 ,spun all thy shining threads of vine1 ,netting the fields in bond as thine2 ,i see thy tendrils drink by sips ,from grass and clover's smiling lips2 ,i hear thy roots dig down for wells1 ,tapping the meadow's hidden cells2 ,whole generations of green things1 ,descended from long lines of springs1 ,i see make room for thee to bide1 ,a quite comrade by their side2 ,i see the creeping peoples go ,mysterious journeys to and fro2 ,treading to right and left of thee1 ,doing thee homage wonderingly4 ,i see the wild bees as they fare ,thy cups of honey drink1 but spare2 ,i mark thee bathe1 and bathe again1 ,in sweet1 uncalendared spring rain4 ,i watch how all ,may has of sun ,makes haste to have thy ripeness done1 ,while all her nights let dews escape ,to set and cool thy perfect shape4 ,ah1 fruit of fruits1 no more ,i pause ,to dream and seek thy hidden laws6 ,i stretch my hand1 and dare to taste ,in instant of delicious waste ,on single feast1 all things that went ,to make the empire thou hast spent4 ,,appendix ,,new ,,varieties ,,new ,,strawberries ,the ,jewell4--,i quote the following description by the originators3 ,this new variety was raised from seed by ,p4,m4 ,augur ,sons1 in #ahhj1 and is one of a lot of seedlings produced from one quart of ,jersey ,queen and one quart of ,prince of ,berries 7the seed being sown together and taken from exhibition berries74 ,the ,jewell is the finest growing variety we have ever seen1 producing an abundance of very large1 high-colored fruit1 of fine quality4 ,season medium1 color bright red1 changing to crimson when very ripe2 flower pistillate2 enormously productive2 berry very solid and firm1 promising to become the great market strawberry4 ,the plant is robust and vigorous1 and has never shown any signs of rust or blight4 ,it has received the following high praise from ,hon4 ,marshall ,p4 ,wilder3 ,the large size1 good form1 bright color and remarkable solidity and productiveness will make it a permanent variety for years to come4 ,parry4--,all things considered1 this surpasses any novelty that has appeared for many years4 ,fruit extra large1 firm1 handsome1 and good2 plant vigorous and productive1 ,we can recommend it both for market and the home garden4 ,early to medium4--,j4,t4 ,lovett4 ,this is high praise of a fruit produced by a rival fruit-grower1 and does credit to the fairness of the writer4 ,the ,parry strawberry was produced from seed of the ,jersey ,queen1 planted in the summer of #ahhj by ,mr4 ,william ,parry1 the veteran fruit-grower of ,new ,jersey4 ,he thus describes it4 ,plant a rank1 vigorous grower1 clean foliage1 and very productive4 ,berries large1 obtuse conical1 bright glossy scarlet1 firm1 and of the best quality1 ripening all over at once4 ,blossoms perfect4 ,dr4 ,f4,m4 ,hexamer1 editor ,american ,garden1 also speaks highly of it1 as follows ,the ,parry has proved quite satisfactory on my grounds4 ,the plants are very vigorous1 healthy1 have wintered well1 and have yielded an abundant crop of large1 handsome berries4 ,it is also strongly praised by many other authorities1 and has received many premiums4 ,jersey ,queen4--,the plant is strong1 stocky1 and vigorous1 but only moderately productive2 the fruit large and beautiful4 ,it must have high culture1 and not be allowed to run1 or it is not satisfactory4 ,pistillate4 ,henderson4--,said to be moderately vigorous1 producing handsome fruit of exquisite flavor4 ,early and perfect in flower4 ,not yet generally tested1 but probably one of the best for amateurs4 ,daniel ,boone4--,produces good crops2 fruit of large size1 attractive in appearance1 medium quality1 rather soft1 and late in ripening2 plant hardy and vigorous4--,charles ,a4 ,green4 ,further south and on light soils the foliage is said to blight4 ,pistillate4 ,dollar4--,for beauty1 firmness1 and high quality has but few equals1 but the foliage blights so badly at ,monmouth as to greatly impair its value4 ,however1 it blossoms and fruits quite profusely in the autumn1 giving us strawberries when other patches are bare of fruit4 ,perfect in flower4--,j4 ,t4 ,lovett4 ,if the tendency to autumn bearing is so great as to enable us to secure a fair crop of berries in late summer and fall this variety is a valuable acquisition4 ,i shall certainly give it a fair trial4 ,further north and on heavier soils the foliage may be entirely healthy4 ,cornelia4--,highly praised by some1 and declared to be unproductive by others4 ,it undoubtedly requires high culture and runners clipped4 ,with such treatment it promises to be one of the best late berries4 ,pistillate4 ,crystal ,city4-,said to have been found growing wild in ,missouri4 ,i have fruited it for years1 and have ever found it the earliest and one of the most delicious of berries4 ,it is not valuable for market1 but for home use1 if the runners are clipped1 it yields a fair crop of berries1 with the genuine wild flavor4 ,may ,king4--,described as almost identical with the old ,crescent1 with the advantage that the flower is perfect4 ,garretson4--,much is claimed for this variety4 ,as its chief virtue it is declared to maintain a uniform size and regular form throughout a long picking season4 ,it has been awarded several flattering premiums4 ,pistillate4 ,old ,ironclad4--,one of the best early berries1 produced on an exceedingly vigorous plant that is said to be more productive on the second and third years of bearing than on the first4 ,the fruit1 not the plant1 closely resembles the ,wilson4 ,perfect flower4 ,vineland4-,said to be an improvement on the ,kentucky1 which it resembles4 ,perfect flower4 ,indiana4--,also said to be an improvement on the ,charles ,downing4 ,if it is we all want it1 but we have tried improvements on the fine old standards before4 ,perfect flower4 ,hart's ,minnesota4--,i know of no variety that responds more readily to good culture than this4 ,under neglect the berries are small1 but of a bright scarlet color1 quite firm and very good4 ,with high culture it is very large1 attractive1 and holds its size remarkably well4 ,perfect flower4--,m4 ,crawford4 ,jumbo4--,another name for the old ,cumberland ,triumph4 ,prince of ,berries4--,originated by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w1 ,durand1 and1 like nearly all the varieties sent out by him1 requiring very high culture4 ,the fruit is large1 meaty1 and firm in flesh1 of excellent flavor1 and possessing a fine aroma4 ,it is a berry for the amateur to pet and enjoy upon his table1 but not adapted to ordinary culture4 ,perfect flower4 ,manchester4--,pistillate4 ,the ,manchester has been a favorite with us1 but1 like most varieties1 has its defects4 ,it is deficient in flavor1 is too light in color1 is subject to leaf blight1 and is exceedingly soft4 ,it is necessary to pick every day in order to get it into market in good condition4 ,we were pushed hard the past season1 and did not pick the ,manchester every day4 ,the berries left the farm in apparently good condition1 but our men reported that they melted on hot days like so much butter4 ,they were often obliged to throw them away1 from the fact that they were too soft to be sold4 ,this softness1 however1 might have been obviated in a measure by picking more frequently4 ,it is very productive1 and the berries are of large size4--,charles ,a4 ,green4 ,the words quoted above embody my own experience with this variety4 ,james ,vick4--,should have been a better berry to bear so honored a name4 ,after a thorough test ,i have discarded it4 ,nevertheless1 in some localities it has proved a valuable market berry4 ,perfect flower4 ,many others might be named1 but1 as far as ,i can learn1 they have but short careers before them4 ,if by well-doing they win their way to the front we shall all be glad to recognize their merits4 ,the ,jessie1 and ,crawfard's ,no4 #f promise to claim considerable attention in the future4 ,,new ,,raspberries ,golden ,queen4--,this new variety has a curious history4 ,apparently it is simply an albino of the ,cuthbert1 for to all intents and purposes it is this favorite berry with the exception of its color4 ,mr4 ,ezra ,stokes1 of ,new ,jersey1 found the parent bush growing in a twelve-acre field of ,cuthberts1 but is unable to say whether it is a sport or a seedling4 ,at all events1 it was taken up and propagated1 and the result apparently is a fixed and valuable variety for home use4 ,i doubt whether a white raspberry will ever find much favor in market--not1 at least1 until the people are sufficiently civilized to buy white grape currants4 ,in color it is said to be a beautiful yellow2 in flavor1 hardiness1 and vigor it is declared to be superior to its parent1 which it nevertheless closely resembles4 ,rancocas4--,another raspberry of ,new ,jersey origin4 ,it was found growing wild4 ,its discoverer claims that it has a sturdy upright growth1 with a tendency to make branches like a miniature tree4 ,these branches load themselves with red berries1 which ripen early and nearly all together4 ,hardiness and other good qualities are claimed for it by the discoverer1 who is the originator of the ,hansel4 ,if it is no better than this variety it is not destined to long-continued popularity in regions where better fruit can be grown4 ,hansel4--,red4 ,a variety of the wild or native type which in my grounds so closely resembled the ,highland ,hardy that1 apart from its quality of earliness1 ,i do not regard it of value4 ,it is not by any means identical with the ,highland ,hardy2 but1 having picked berries of both varieties at the same time1 ,i could not tell them apart1 either in appearance or flavor4 ,such berries are better than none at all1 and may be grown by those who can raise no better4 ,it is also claimed that earliness in ripening1 and hardiness of plants made the variety profitable2 and this1 no doubt1 is true in some localities4 ,marlboro4--,a large1 showy1 good-flavored1 red raspberry that was originated by ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,caywood1 of ,marlboro1 ,n4 ,y4 ,it has done well on my grounds1 and promises finely as a market berry1 as its earliness1 bright color1 firmness1 and tendency to ripen its fruit rapidly and all together give the grower a chance to gather and sell his crop within a short period4 ,i do not advise any one to grow only this variety1 either for market or home use1 for the reason that it gives too short a season4 ,employed to secure a succession of fruit1 it is an excellent variety4 ,i doubt whether the canes will prove hardy throughout any wide extent of country1 for it evidently contains foreign blood4 ,i think it well worth protection1 however1 if1 in some regions1 experience proves it to be not entirely hardy4 ,,black-,,caps ,of the newer black-cap varieties the ,souhegan is the best that ,i have seen or have heard spoken of4 ,i think it may be regarded as the best early type of this class of berries4 ,the fruit is of good size and flavor1 moderately firm1 and wonderfully abundant4 ,for vigor1 hardiness1 and freedom from disease ,i do not know that it is surpassed by any other kind4 ,the ,tyler in my grounds resembled the ,souhegan so closely that ,i do not think that a distinction between them is worth maintaining4 ,the ,centennial promised wonderfully well at first on my place1 but after two or three years developed a feebleness and tendency to disease which led me to discard it4 ,the ,ohio is said to be the most valuable of all for drying purposes1 for the reason that it is very firm1 and retains its flavor and form better than any of the others4 ,it has been stated that but two and a half to three quarts of fresh berries will make a pound of dried fruit4 ,i think it would be well for those who are far from market to experiment with this variety4 ,if it is equal to the claims made for it1 it can be made very profitable4 ,the ,nemaha originated with ,ex-,governor ,furnas1 of ,nebraska4 ,charles ,a4 ,green says of this variety3 ,the season for ripening with the ,nemaha is a trifle later than the ,gregg4 ,the berries are equally large1 of better quality1 equally productive and vigorous1 and by far more hardy4 ,this point of hardiness of the ,nemaha1 it is hoped1 will make it the leading late variety1 giving it preference over the ,gregg4 ,i have fruited it alongside of the ,gregg on my grounds1 but have failed to note any difference in fruit1 cane1 or season of ripening4 ,the ,chapman1 ,hopkins1 and others have been introduced1 but ,i fail to see why they should take the place of the fine old standard varieties already described4 ,for either market or home use the ,souhegan 7early7 and ,gregg 7late7 leave little else to be desired4 ,,blackberries ,of the blackberries recently introduced1 ,wilson ,junior without doubt produces the largest and finest fruit1 and in this respect is probably unsurpassed by any variety now in existence4 ,but it is a child of the old ,wilson's ,early1 and ,i do not believe it will prove hardy north of ,new ,jersey4 ,it resembles its well-known parent1 but the fruit is earlier1 finer1 and larger1 fit for use as soon as black1 and sufficiently firm to carry well to market4 ,those who have tested it affirm that1 although it yields enormously1 it has not failed to perfect its crop4 ,i should give it winter protection in this latitude4 ,the ,early ,harvest is said to be the best very early blackberry yet introduced4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,lovett describes it as first-class in every respect1 perfecting its entire crop before any other blackberry can be gathered1 and as wonderfully prolific1 ,it is of medium size1 of good flavor1 and so firm that it carries to market in excellent condition4 ,in hardiness it is said to be second only to the ,snyder and ,taylor4 ,taylor's ,prolific is a variety that ,i was testing when this book was written4 ,it has fulfilled its promise4 ,the plants have proved hardy with me1 the fruit of medium size1 unusually fine-flavored1 and very abundant4 ,in the ,west ,mr4 ,m4 ,crawford speaks of the ,stone and especially of the ,agawam as the hardiest of all the varieties that he had tested4 ,they were comparatively uninjured when nearly all the others were killed to the ground4 ,there are other kinds which are good1 but since they do not equal the varieties already named in this volume1 ,i see no reason for keeping them before the public4 ,the ,industry gooseberry has been introduced by ,ellwanger and ,barry1 of ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 who think it will revolutionize gooseberry culture in this country4 ,it is an ,english variety1 but has succeeded so well in this country that it has been propagated and disseminated4 ,it remains to be seen whether it will continue to retain its vigor and health in our climate4 ,it is said to be unequalled for size1 of fine flavor1 very productive1 and showing no signs of mildew4