,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 text represents superscript text4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,microscope4 ,illustration3 ,t4,s4 ,duch pinxit ,truth discovering to ,time1 ,science instructing her ,children in the ,improvements on the ,microscope4 ,london1 ,published ,july #a4st #aghg1 by ,geo4e ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,microscope2 ,,containing ,a ,,practical ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,improved ,,microscopes2 ,a ,,general ,,history ,,of ,,insects1 ,,their ,,transformations1 ,,peculiar ,,habits1 ,,and ,,conomy3 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,species1 ,,and ,,singular ,,properties1 ,,of ,,the ,,hydr ,,and ,,vorticell3 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,three ,,hundred ,,and ,,eighty-,,three ,,animalcula3 ,,with ,a ,,concise ,,catalogue ,,of ,,interesting ,,objects3 ,a ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,timber1 ,,and ,,the ,,configuration ,,of ,,salts1 ,,when ,,under ,,the ,,microscope4 ,,illustrated ,,with ,,thirty-,,two ,,folio ,,plates ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,george ,,adams1 ,,mathematical ,,instrument ,,maker ,,to ,,his ,,majesty1 c4 ,,the ,,second ,,edition1 ,,with ,,considerable ,,additions ,,and ,,improvements1 ,,by ,,frederick ,,kanmacher1 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,dillon ,,and ,,keating1 ,,for ,,the ,,editor2 ,,and ,,for ,w4 ,,and ,s4 ,,jones1 ,,holborn4 ,,mdccxcviii4 ,,price #al4 #hs4 ,,in ,,boards4 ,,to ,,the ,,king4 ,,sir1 ,every work that tends to enlarge the boundaries of science has a peculiar claim to the protection of ,kings4 ,he that diffuses science1 civilizes man1 opens the inlets to his happiness1 and co-operates with the ,fountain and ,source of all knowledge4 ,by science truth is advanced2 and of ,,divine ,,truth ,kings are the representatives4 ,the work which ,i have now the honour to present to ,,your ,,majesty1 calls the attention of the reader to those laws of ,divine order by which the universe is governed and supported2 in it we find that the minutest beings share in the protection1 and triumph in the bounty of the ,sovereign of all things3 that the infinitely small manifest to the astonished eye the same proportion1 regularity and design1 which are conspicuous to the unassisted sight in the larger parts of creation4 ,by finding all things formed in beauty1 and produced for use1 the mind is raised from the fleeting and evanescent appearances of matter1 to contemplate the permanent principles of truth1 and acknowledge that the whole proceeds from the wisdom that originates in love4 ,it was by ,,your ,,majesty',s goodness and gracious patronage that ,i was first induced to undertake a description of mathematical and philosophical instruments1 that ,i might thereby facilitate the attainment of those sciences that are connected with them1 and by shewing what was already obtained1 excite emulation1 and quicken invention4 ,it is to the same goodness that ,i am indebted for this opportunity of subscribing myself1 ,,sir1 ,,your ,,majesty',s ,most humble1 ,most obedient1 and most dutiful ,subject and ,servant1 ,,george ,,adams4 ,,preface4 ,in the preface to my ,,essays ,,on ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism1 ,i informed the public that it was my intention to publish1 from time to time1 essays describing the construction and explaining the use of mathematical and philosophical instruments1 in their present state of improvement4 ,this work will1 ,i hope1 be considered as a performance of my promise1 as far as relates to the subject here treated of4#a #a ,towards the completion of this design1 our author afterwards published1 #a4 ,astronomical and ,geographical ,essays2 #b4 ,geometrical and ,graphical ,essays2 #c4 ,an ,essay on ,vision2 #d4 ,lectures on ,natural and ,experimental ,philosophy4 ,he had projected other compilations1 and was preparing a new edition of this work2 but1 alas6 how uncertain are all human projects6 constant attention to an extensive business and to literature1 preyed on a constitution far from robust1 and at length rapidly accelerated his dissolution1 which happened at ,southampton1 on the #adth of ,august1 #agie2 aged #de4 ,by this event1 the world was prematurely deprived of the beneficial effects of his farther labours1 and his friends of the conversation of a man1 whose amiable and communicative disposition endeared him to all those who had the pleasure of knowing him4 ,his life had been devoted to religious and moral duties1 to the acquisition of science1 and its diffusion for the benefit of mankind4 ,to those who had no personal knowledge of ,mr4 ,,adams1 his works will continue to display his merits as an author1 and his virtues as a valuable member of society4 ,,edit4 ,the first chapter contains a short history of the invention and improvements that have been made on the microscope1 and ,father ,di ,torre's method of making his celebrated glass globules4 ,the second treats of vision1 in which ,i have endeavoured to explain in a familiar manner the reason of those advantages which are obtained by the use of magnifying lenses2 but as the reader is supposed to be unacquainted with the elements of this science1 so many intermediate ideas have been necessarily omitted1 as must in some degree lessen the force1 and weaken the perception of the truths intended to be inculcated3 to have given these1 would have required a treatise on optics4 ,in the third chapter1 the most improved microscopes1 and some others which are in general use1 are particularly described2 no pains have been spared to lessen the difficulty of observation1 and remove obscurity from description2 the relative advantages of each instrument are briefly pointed out1 to enable the reader to select that which is best adapted to his pursuits4 ,the method of preparing different objects for observation1 and the cautions necessary to be observed in the use of the microscope1 are the subjects of the fourth chapter4 ,when ,i first undertook the present essays1 ,i had confined myself to a re-publication of my fathers work1 entitled1 ,micrographia ,illustrata2 but ,i soon found that both his and ,mr4 ,baker's tracts on the microscope were very imperfect4 ,natural history had not been so much cultivated at the period when they wrote1 as it is in the present day4 ,to the want of that information which is now easily obtained1 we may with propriety impute their errors and imperfections4 ,i have1 therefore1 in the fifth chapter1 after some general observations on the utility of natural history1 endeavoured to remedy their defects1 by arranging the subject in systematic order1 and by introducing the microscopic reader to the system of ,linnus1 as far as relates to insects3 by this he will learn to discriminate one insect from another1 to characterize their different parts1 and thus be better enabled to avoid error himself1 and to convey instruction to others4 ,as the transformations which insects undergo1 constitute a principal branch of their history1 and furnish many objects for the microscope1 ,i have given a very ample description of them2 the more so1 as many microscopic writers1 by not considering these changes with attention1 have fallen into a variety of mistakes4 ,here ,i intended to stop2 but the charms of natural history are so seducing1 that ,i was led on to describe the peculiar and striking marks in the conomy of these little creatures4 ,and should the purchaser of these essays receive as much pleasure in reading this part as ,i did in compiling it2 should it induce him to study this part of natural history2 nay1 should it only lead him to read the stupendous work of the most excellent ,swammerdam1 he will have no reason to regret his purchase1 and one of my warmest wishes will be gratified4 ,in the next chapter ,i have endeavoured to give the reader some idea of the internal parts of insects1 principally from ,m4 ,lyonet's ,anatomical and ,microscopical ,description of the ,caterpillar of the ,cossus or ,goat-moth4 ,as this book is but little known in our country1 ,i concluded that a specimen of the indefatigable labour of this patient and humane anatomist would be acceptable to all lovers of the microscope2 and ,i have1 therefore1 appropriated a plate1 which1 whilst it shews what may be effected when microscopic observation is accompanied by patience and industry1 displays also the wonderful organization of this insect4 ,this is followed by a description of several miscellaneous objects1 of which no proper idea could be formed without the assistance of glasses4 ,to describe the fresh-water polype or hydra2 to give a short history of the discovery of these curious animals1 and some account of their singular properties1 is the business of the succeeding chapter4 ,the properties of these animals are so extraordinary1 that they were considered at first to be as contrary to the common course of nature1 as they really were to the received opinions of animal life4 ,indeed1 who can even now contemplate without astonishment animals that multiply by slips and shoots like a plant8 that may be grafted together as one tree to another1 that may be turned inside out like a glove1 and yet live1 act1 and perform all the various functions of their contracted spheres8 ,as nearly allied to these1 the chapter finishes with an account of those vorticell which have been enumerated by ,linnus4 ,it has been my endeavour to dissipate confusion by the introduction of order1 to dispose into method1 and select under proper heads the substance of all that is known relative to these little creatures1 and in the compass of a few pages to give the reader the information that is dispersed through volumes4 ,from the hydr and vorticell1 it was natural to proceed to the animalcula which are to be found in vegetable infusions2 microscopic beings1 that seem as it were to border on the infinitely small1 that leave no space destitute of inhabitants1 and are of greater importance in the immense scale of beings than our contracted imagination can conceive2 yet1 small as they are1 each of them possesses all that beauty and proportion of organized texture which is necessary to its well-being1 and suited to the happiness it is called forth to enjoy4 ,a short account of three hundred and seventy-seven#b of these minute beings is then given1 agreeable to the system of the laborious ,mller1 enlarging considerably his description of those animalcula that are most easily met with1 better known1 and consequently more interesting to the generality of readers4 #b ,to these1 six more are now added1 making the whole three hundred and eighty three4 ,,edit4 ,the construction of timber1 and the disposition of its component parts1 as seen by the microscope1 is the subject of the next chapter2 a subject confessedly obscure4 ,with what degree of success this attempt has been prosecuted1 must be left to the judgment of the reader4 ,the best treatise on this part of vegetation is that of ,m4 ,du ,hamel du ,monceau sur la ,physique des ,arbres4 ,if either my time or situation in life would have permitted it1 ,i should have followed his plan2 but being confined to business and to ,london1 ,i can only recommend it to those lovers of the works of the ,almighty1 who live in the country1 to pursue this important branch of natural history4 ,there is no doubt but that new views of the operations in nature1 and of the wisdom with which all things are contrived1 would amply repay the labour of investigation4 ,every part of the vegetable kingdom is rich in microscopic beauties1 from the stateliest tree of the forest1 from the cedar of ,lebanon1 to the lowliest moss and the hyssop that springeth out of the wall2 all conspiring to say how much is hid from the natural sight of man1 how little can be known till it receives assistance1 and is benefited by adventitious aid4 ,from the wonderful organization of animals1 and the curious texture of vegetables1 we proceed to the mineral kingdom1 and take a cursory view of the configuration of salts and saline substances1 exhibiting a few specimens of the beautiful order in which they arrange themselves under the eye1 after having been separated by dissolution2 every species working as it were upon a different plan1 and producing cubes1 pyramids1 hexagons1 or some other figure peculiar to itself1 with a constant regularity amidst boundless variety4 ,though all nature teems with objects for the microscopic observer1 yet such is the indolence of the human mind1 or such its inattention to what is obvious1 that among the purchasers of microscopes many have complained that they knew not what subjects to apply to their instrument1 or where to find objects for examination4 ,to obviate this complaint1 a catalogue is here given1 which is interspersed with the description of a few insects1 and other objects1 which could not be conveniently introduced in the foregoing chapters4 ,by this catalogue it is hoped that the use of the microscope will be extended1 and the path of observation facilitated4 ,to avoid the formal parade of quotation1 and the fastidious charge of plagiarism1 ,i have subjoined to this preface a list of the authors which have been consulted4 ,as my extracts were made at very distant periods1 it would have been impossible for me to recollect to whom ,i was indebted for every new fact or ingenious observation4 ,the plates were drawn and engraved with a view to be folded up with the work2 but as it is the opinion of many of my friends that they would1 by this mean1 be materially injured1 ,i have been advised to have them stitched in strong blue paper1 and leave it to the purchaser to dispose of them to his own mind4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,authors ,,which ,,have ,,been ,,consulted ,,in ,,the ,,compilation ,,of ,,the ,,former ,,and ,,present ,,edition ,,of ,,these ,,essays4 ,,adams4 ,micrographia ,illustrata1 or the ,microscope ,explained4 ,london1 #agdf and #agha4 ,,addison4 ,spectator4 ,,baker4 ,an ,attempt towards the ,natural ,history of the ,polype4 ,london1 #agdc4 ,,baker4 ,the ,microscope made ,easy4 ,london1 #agdd4 ,,baker4 ,employment for the ,microscope4 ,london1 #agec4 ,,barbut4 ,genera ,insectorum of ,linnus4 #dto4 ,london1 #agha4 ,,berkenhout4 ,botanical ,lexicon4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agfd4 ,,berkenhout4 ,synopsis of ,natural ,history4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aghi4 ,,birch4 ,history of the ,royal ,society4 #dto4 #d vols4 ,london1 #agef4 ,,blair4 ,sermons4 ,london1 #agib4 ,,bonnani4 ,observationes circa ,viventia1 qu in ,rebus non ,viventibus reperiuntur1 c4 #dto4 #afia4 ,,bonnet4 ,oeuvres d',histoire ,naturelle et de ,philosophie4 #i tom4 #dto4 ,neufchatel1 #aggi4 ,,borellus4 ,de vero ,telescopii ,inventore4 ,,brand4 ,select ,dissertations from the ,amnitates ,academic1 c4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agha4 ,,curtis4 ,instructions for ,collecting and ,preserving ,insects4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agga4 ,,curtis4 ,translation of the ,fundamenta ,entomologi4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aggb4 ,,curtis4 ,flora ,londinensis4 ,folio4 ,london1 #aggg1 c4 ,,curtis4 ,botanical ,magazine4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aghg1 c4 ,,cyclop,,dia4 ,by ,dr4 ,rees4 #d vols4 ,folio4 ,london1 #aghf4 ,,de ,,geer4 ,memoires pour servir a l',histoire des ,insectes4 #dto4 #g tom4 #ageb4 ,,dellebarre4 ,memoires sur les ,differences de la ,construction et des ,effects du ,microscope4 #aggg4 ,,derham4 ,physico-,theology4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agcb4 ,,donovan4 ,history of ,british ,insects4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agib1 c4 ,,donovan4 ,treatise on the ,management of ,insects4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agid4 ,,du ,,hamel ,,du ,,monceau4 ,la ,physique des ,arbres4 ,paris1 #ageg4 ,,ellis4 ,essay towards a ,natural ,history of ,corallines4 #dto4 #agee4 ,,ellis4 ,zoophytes1 by ,dr4 ,solander4 #dto4 ,london1 #aghf4 ,,encyclop,,dia ,,britannica4 #dto4 #ah vols4 ,edinburgh1 #agig4 ,,epinus4 ,description des ,nouveaux ,microscopes4 ,,fabricius4 ,philosophia ,entomologica4 #hvo4 #aggh4 ,,geoffroy4 ,histoire ,abregee des ,insectes4 #b tom4 #dto4 ,paris1 #agfd4 ,,gleichen4 ,les plus ,nouvelles ,deucouverts dans le ,regne ,vegetal1 c4 ,folio4 #aggj4 ,,goldsmith4 ,history of the ,earth and ,animated ,nature4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aggd4 ,,grew4 ,anatomy of ,plants4 ,folio4 ,london1 #afhb4 ,,haller4 ,physiologia4 ,,hedwig4 ,theoria ,generationis et ,fructificationis de ,plantarum ,cryptogamicarum4 ,petersb4 #aghd4 ,,hill4 ,review of the ,royal ,society4 #dto4 ,london1 #agea4 ,,hill4 ,history of ,animals4 ,folio4 ,london1 #ageb4 ,,hill4 ,essays in ,natural ,history4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ageb4 ,,hill4 ,the ,construction of ,timber explained by the ,microscope4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aggj4 ,,hill4 ,inspector4 ,,home4 ,treatise on ,ulcers1 c4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agig4 ,,hooke4 ,micrographia4 ,folio4 ,london1 #affe4 ,,hooke4 ,lectures and ,collections4 #dto4 ,london1 #afgh4 ,,hooper4 ,economy of ,plants4 #hvo4 ,oxford1 #agig4 ,,joblot4 ,observations d',histoire ,naturelle faites avec le ,microscope4 #dto4 #b tom4 ,paris4 ,,journal ,,de ,,physique1 ,,par ,,rozier1 c4 ,,jones4 ,a ,course of ,lectures on the ,figurative ,language of the ,holy ,scriptures4 #hvo4 #aghg4 ,,kippis4 ,biographia ,britannica4 ,folio4 #aggh1 c4 ,,ledermuller4 ,microscopische ,ergtzungen4 #d theile4 #dto4 ,,leeuwenhoek4 ,arcana ,natur4 #dto4 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #agbb4 ,,leeuwenhoek4 ,opera ,omnia4 #dto4 ,ibid4 #agbb4 ,,lettsom4 ,naturalist's ,companion4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aggd4 ,,linnean ,,society4 ,transactions4 #c vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #agia1 c4 ,,linn,,us4 ,systema ,natur4 #hvo4 edit4 #abmo4 ,holmi1 #agff4 ,,lyonet4 ,theologie des ,insectes de ,lesser4 #b tom4 #hvo4 ,la ,haye1 #agdb4 ,,lyonet4 ,traite ,anatomique de la ,chenille qui ronge le ,bois de ,saule4 #dto4 ,,macquer4 ,dictionary of ,chemistry4 ,london1 #aggg4 ,,magny4 ,journal d',economie4 #agec4 ,,malpighi4 ,opera4 #dto4 ,lugduni ,bat4 #afhg4 ,,martin4 ,micrographia ,nova4 #dto4 ,reading1 #agdb4 ,,martin4 ,optical ,essays4 #hvo4 ,london4 ,,muller4 ,animalcula ,infusoria ,fluviatilia et ,marina4 #dto4 ,hauni1 #aghf4 ,,nicholson4 ,introduction to ,natural ,philosophy4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #aghg4 ,,nicholson4 ,journal of ,natural ,philosophy1 c4 #agig4 ,,needham4 ,new ,microscopical ,discoveries4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agde4 ,,neuere ,,geschichte ,,der ,,missions ,,anstalten4 #dto4 ,halle1 #agif4 ,,pallas4 ,elenchus ,zoophytorum4 #hvo4 ,hag ,comit4 #agff4 ,,parsons4 ,microscopic ,theatre of ,seeds4 #dto4 ,london1 #agde4 ,,power4 ,microscopical ,observations4 #dto4 #affd4 ,,priestley4 ,on ,light1 ,vision1 and ,colours4 #dto4 #aggb4 ,,reaumur4 ,memoires pour servir a l',histoire des ,insectes4 #hvo4 ,amsterdam1 #agcg4 ,,redi4 ,de ,insectis4 #afga4 ,,reid4 ,on the ,intellectual ,powers of ,man4 ,nrnberg1 #agdf1 c4 ,,rosel4 ,insecten ,belustigung4 #d theile4 #dto4 ,,royal ,,society4 ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,,rutherforth4 ,natural ,philosophy4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,cambridge1 #agdh4 ,,schirach4 ,histoire ,naturelle de la ,reine des ,abeilles4 ,a la ,haye1 #agga4 ,,shaw4 ,naturalist's ,miscellany4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agij1 c4 ,,smith1 ,r4 ,optics4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,cambridge1 #agch4 ,,smith1 ,i4 ,e4 ,english ,botany4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agij1 c4 ,,spalanzani4 ,opuscules de ,physiques ,animale et ,vegetale4 ,geneva1 #aggg4 ,,stillingfleet4 ,miscellaneous ,tracts4 #hvo4 ,london1 #agfb4 ,,swammerdam4 ,the ,book of ,nature1 revised by ,hill4 ,folio4 ,london1 #ageh4 ,,swedenborg4 conomia ,regni ,animalis1 cui accedit ,introductio ad ,psychologiam ,rationalem4 #dto4 ,amsterdam1 #agdc4 ,,swedenborg4 ,regnum ,animale1 ,anatomice1 ,physice et ,philosophice ,perlustratum4 #dto4 ,hag ,comit4 #agdd4 ,,trembley4 ,memoires pour servir a l',histoire des ,polypes d'eau douce4 ,paris1 #agdd4 ,,valmont ,,de ,,bomare4 ,dictionnaire ,raisonne universal d',histoire ,naturelle4 ,lyon1 #aggf4 ,,walker4 ,a ,collection of ,minute and ,rare ,shells4 #dto4 ,london1 #aghd4 ,,yeats4 ,institutions of ,entomology4 #hvo4 ,ibid4 #aggc4 ,,london1 ,dec4 #ab1 #agig4 ,the ,public are hereby respectfully informed1 that the ,,stock and ,,copyright of the following ,works by the same ,,author1 lately deceased1 have been purchased by ,w4 and ,s4 ,,jones1 ,opticians1 c4 and that they are now to be had at their ,shop in ,holborn4 ,i4 ,,geometrical ,,and ,,graphical ,,essays4 ,this ,work contains1 #a4 ,a select ,set of ,geometrical ,problems1 many of which are new1 and not contained in any other ,work4 #b4 ,the ,description and ,use of those ,mathematical ,instruments that are usually put into a ,case of ,drawing ,instruments4 ,besides these1 there are also described several ,new and ,useful ,instruments for ,geometrical ,purposes4 #c4 ,a complete and concise ,system of ,,surveying1 with an ,account of some very essential ,improvements in that useful ,art4 ,to which is added1 a ,description of the most improved ,,theodolites1 ,,plane ,,tables1 and other ,instruments used in ,surveying2 and most accurate ,methods of adjusting them4 #d4 ,the ,methods of ,,levelling1 for the ,purpose of conveying ,water from one ,place to another2 with a ,description of the most improved ,spirit ,level4 #e4 ,a ,course of ,,practical ,,military ,,geometry1 as taught at ,woolwich4 #f4 ,a short ,essay on ,perspective4 ,the ,second ,edition1 corrected1 and enlarged with the ,descriptions of several ,instruments unnoticed in the former ,edition1 by ,w4 ,,jones1 ,math4 ,inst4 ,maker2 illustrated by #ce ,copper-plates1 in #b vols4 #hvo4 ,price #ads4 in ,boards4 ,,ii4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,electricity1 explaining clearly and fully the ,principles of that useful ,science1 describing the various ,instruments that have been contrived1 either to illustrate the ,theory1 or render the ,practice of it entertaining4 ,to which is added1 ,a ,,letter to the ,,author1 from ,mr4 ,,john ,,birch1 ,surgeon1 on ,,medical ,,electricity4 ,fourth ,edition1 #hvo4 ,price #fs4 illustrated with six ,plates4 ,,iii4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,vision1 briefly explaining the ,fabric of the ,eye1 and the ,nature of ,vision2 intended for the ,service of those whose ,eyes are weak and impaired1 enabling them to form an accurate ,idea of the ,state of their ,sight1 the ,means of preserving it1 together with proper ,rules for ascertaining when ,spectacles are necessary1 and how to choose them without injuring the ,sight4 #hvo4 ,second ,edition4 ,illustrated with ,figures4 ,price #cs4 in ,boards4 ,,iv4 ,,astronomical ,,and ,,geographical ,,essays1 containing1 #a4 ,a full and comprehensive ,view of the general ,principles of ,astronomy1 with a large ,account of the ,discoveries of ,dr4 ,herschel1 c4 #b4 ,the ,use of the ,globes1 exemplified in a greater ,variety of ,problems than are to be found in any other ,work2 arranged under distinct ,heads1 and interspersed with much curious but relative ,information4 #c4 ,the ,description and ,use of ,orreries and ,planetaria1 c4 #d4 ,an ,introduction to ,practical ,astronomy1 by a ,set of easy and entertaining ,problems4 ,third ,edition1 #hvo4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4 in ,boards1 illustrated with sixteen ,plates4 ,v4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,astronomy1 or the ,use of the ,quadrant and ,equatorial1 being extracted from the preceding ,work4 ,sewed1 with two ,plates1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,vi4 ,,an ,,appendix to the ,,geometrical ,,and ,,graphical ,,essays1 containing the following ,table by ,mr4 ,,john ,,gale1 viz4 a ,table of the ,northings1 ,southings1 ,eastings1 and ,westings to every ,degree and fifteenth ,minute of the ,quadrant1 ,radius from #a to #ajj1 with all the intermediate ,numbers1 computed to the three ,places of ,decimals4 ,price #bs4 ,in the ,press1 and speedily will be ,published1 ,,lectures ,,on ,,natural ,,and ,,experimental ,,philosophy1 ,in ,five ,volumes #hvo4 ,the ,second ,edition1 with upwards of ,forty large ,plates1 considerable ,alterations and ,improvements2 containing more complete ,explanations of the ,instruments1 ,machines1 c4 and the ,description of many others not inserted in the former ,edition4 ,,by ,w4 ,,jones1 ,,mathematical ,,and ,,philosophical ,,instrument ,,maker4 ,,advertisement4 ,the editor esteems it his indispensable duty1 to point out the several improvements which have been made in this work1 in order to render it still more acceptable to the public4 ,the whole has been carefully revised--many typographical errors corrected--numerous additions and emendations from the author's own copy incorporated1 and some superfluities rejected4 ,wherever any ambiguity occurred1 the editor has endeavoured to elucidate the passage1 observing due caution not to misconceive the idea which the author meant to inculcate4 ,a more regular arrangement has been attempted1 and occasional notes subjoined3 in these1 and in other parts of the work1 it has been the editor's primary object to ascertain facts1 not to decide peremptorily4 ,should he in any instance have erred1 he can assure the candid critic1 that he shall experience a most sensible pleasure in conviction4 ,the principal additions are1 ,accounts of the latest improvements which have been made in the construction of microscopes1 particularly the lucernal4 ,a description of the glass1 pearl1 c4 micrometers1 as made by ,mr4 ,coventry1 and others4 ,an arrangement and description of minute and rare shells4 ,a descriptive list of a variety of vegetable seeds4 ,instructions for collecting and preserving insects1 together with directions for forming a cabinet4 ,a copious list of objects for the microscope4 ,a list of ,mr4 ,custance's fine vegetable cuttings4 ,with respect to the plates1 three new engravings are introduced1 viz4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,exhibiting the most improved compound microscopes1 with their apparatus4 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,microscopical figures of minute and rare shells4 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,microscopical figures of a variety of vegetable seeds4 ,many additional figures have been inserted in other plates1 and a number of errors in the references corrected4 ,a complete list of the plates and a more extensive index are also added4 ,it has been generally understood1 that the author intended to have published this edition in octavo2 but1 the impropriety of adopting that mode must appear evident1 for the very reason assigned by the author himself in the concluding part of his preface4 ,if the plates are liable to sustain damage by folding them into a quarto1 they would have been subjected to far greater injury by being doubled into an octavo size1 besides1 being extremely incommodious for reference4 ,as the work now appears1 the purchaser may either retain the plates in the separate volume1 or1 without much inconvenience1 if properly guarded1 have them bound with the letter press4 ,it affords the editor a pleasing satisfaction to mention1 that notwithstanding the additional heavy expense incurred in the article of paper1 c4 yet1 by somewhat enlarging the page1 and other economical regulations in the mode of printing1 this edition is offered to the public at a trifling advance on the original price1 though the improvements now made occupy considerably more than one-hundred pages4 ,anxious1 lest the reputation which the work has already acquired1 should be diminished by any deficiency on his part1 the editor has sedulously applied himself to render it extensively useful to the serious admirer of the wonders of the creation2 whether he has succeeded1 is now submitted to the decision of the intelligent part of the public4 ,he shall only add1 that conscious of the purity of his intentions1 and convinced of the instability of all terrestrial attainments1 he trusts that he is equally secured from the weakness of being elevated by success1 or depressed by disappointment4 ,apothecaries ,hall1 ,london1 ,jan4 #a1 #agih4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,a concise ,history of the ,invention and ,improvements which have been made upon the ,instrument called a ,microscope4 p4 #a4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,of ,vision2 of the optical ,effects of ,microscopes1 and of the ,manner of estimating their magnifying ,powers4 p4 #bf4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,a ,description of the most improved ,microscopes1 and the ,method of using them4 p4 #fd4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,general ,instructions for using the ,microscope1 and preparing the ,objects4 p4 #abi4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,the ,importance of ,natural ,history2 of ,insects in general1 and of their constituent ,parts4 p4 #afg4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,a general ,view of the internal ,parts of ,insects1 and more particularly of the ,caterpillar of the ,phalna ,cossus4 ,a ,description of sundry miscellaneous ,objects4 p4 #ccd4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,hydra1 or ,fresh ,water ,polype4 p4 #ceg4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,of the ,animalcula ,infusoria4 p4 #dae4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,on the ,organization or ,construction of ,timber1 as viewed by the ,microscope4 p4 #egd4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,of the ,crystallization of ,salts1 as seen by the ,microscope2 together with a concise ,list of ,objects4 p4 #fjj4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,an ,arrangement and ,description of minute and rare ,shells4 ,a descriptive ,list of a ,variety of vegetable ,seeds1 as they appear when viewed by the ,microscope4 ,by the ,editor4 p4 #fbi4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,instructions for collecting and preserving ,insects4 ,a copious ,list of microscopic ,objects4 ,by the ,editor4 p4 #ffe4 ,,additions4 p4 #gac4 ,,errata4 ,page #af1 line #bb1 for lead read led ,page #bj1 line #f1 for ,fig4 ,t read ,fig4 #a ,page #di1 last line1 for usefully read successfully ,page #fb1 last but one1 for stop read stage ,page #hj1 line #bb1 after microscope add by ,page #hh1 three lines from bottom1 for improvent read improvement ,page #ie1 line #b1 for ,r read ,k ,page #aaa1 two lines from bottom1 for ,,vk read ,,vx ,page #aae1 line #ab1 for g read q ,page #abe1 note1 for ,fig4 #ac read ,fig4 #ac99 ,page #ade1 line #ag1 for cast of read cast-off ,page #aec1 line #ba1 for unkown read unknown ,page #afi1 eight lines from bottom1 for is read are ,page #ahh1 note line #i1 for preventatives read preventives ,page #aie1 line #g1 for exagon read hexagon ,page #bch1 line #af1 for scarc read scarce ,page #cai1 line #ai1 for rise read raise ,page #cdf1 line #ah1 for bread read bred ,page #ced1 three lines from bottom1 for ,fig4 #a and #b read ,fig4 #a and #c ,page #dde1 line #ah1 for immediate read intermediate ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,plates1 ,,with ,,references ,,to ,,the ,,pages ,,where ,,the ,,several ,,figures ,,are ,,described4 ,plate ,page ,i4 ,various diagrams illustrative of vision and the optical effect of microscopes #bi ,,ii4 ,a4 ,ibid4--,needle micrometer1 #ed4--;,coventry's pearl1 c4 micrometers #ei ,b4 ,fig4 #a4 ,wilson's microscope and apparatus1 #aae4--;,fig4 #b4 ,ditto with a scroll #aag ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,small opake microscope and apparatus #aah ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 and #d4 ,adams's lucernal microscope and apparatus #fd ,fig4 #c4 ,argand's patent lamp #fi ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 ,jones's improved compound microscope and apparatus #ib ,fig4 #b4 ,jones's most improved ditto1 ditto #ii ,fig4 #c4 ,culpeper's three-pillared microscope and apparatus #ajd ,v4 ,martin's improved solar opake and transparent microscope #ajf ,,vi4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,withering's botanical microscope1 #abc4--;,fig4 #b4 ,pocket botanical and universal microscope #abd ,fig4 #c4 ,lyonet's anatomical microscope #abb ,fig4 #d4 ,transparent solar microscope and apparatus #aac ,fig4 #e4 ,tooth and pinion microscope ibid4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,common flower and insect microscope note #abe ,,vii4 ,a4 ,cuff's double constructed microscope and apparatus #hi ,b4 ,ellis's aquatic microscope #aai ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a-f4 ,portable microscope and telescope with apparatus #abe ,fig4 #g1 #h4 ,botanical magnifiers ibid4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,engine for cutting sections of wood1 and appendage #abg ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,jones's improved lucernal microscope and apparatus #hj ,fig4 #e1 #g4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,prince's and ,mr4 ,hill's improvements on the illuminating lenses and lamp of the lucernal microscope #hd ,fig4 #f4 ,lanthorn microscope and screen #hh ,x4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,nest of the phalna neustria4--,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,vertical section of ditto4 ,fig4 #e1 #f4 ,horizontal section #bhg ,fig4 #g1 #h4 ,scales of the parrot fish1 #cee4--;,fig4 #i1 #aj4 ,scales of sea perch #cef ,,xi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,larva of the musca chamleon #bdh ,fig4 #d1 #e4 ,eels in blighted wheat #dfi ,fig4 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa4 ,paste eel #dfb ,fig4 #g4 ,vinegar eel #dfa ,,xii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,dissection of the caterpillar of the phalna cossus #ccf ,fig4 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,dissection of the head of the caterpillar #ccg ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,beard of the lepas anatifera #cdd ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,collector of the bee #ahb ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,wing of the forficula auricularia #adc and #bje ,fig4 #b to #dg4 ,magnified figures of minute and rare shells #fbi ,,xv4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,wing of the hemerobius perla #bjf ,fig4 #a to #df4 ,microscopic views of a variety of vegetable seeds #fde ,,xvi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 and ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,proboscis of the tabanus #ahh ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,cornea of the libellula #aig ,fig4 #e1 #f4 ,cornea of the lobster ibid4 ,fig4 #g1 #h1 ,e1 ,f1 ,h1 ,i4 ,feathers of the wings of the sphinx stellatarum #bjh and #fbg ,,xvii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,leucopsis dorsigera #cdg ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #a and #f4 ,the lobster insect #cdh ,fig4 #b and #g4 ,skin of the lump-sucker #ceb ,fig4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,thrips physapus #cej ,,xix4 ,fig4 #a-d4 ,feet of the monoculus apus #ced ,fig4 #e and #f4 ,skin of the sole fish4--,fig4 #g1 #h4 ,scale of the haddock4--,fig4 #i1 #aj4 ,scale of ,west ,indian perch4--,fig4 #aa1 #ab4 ,scale of sole fish #cef ,,xx4 ,fig4 #a and ,a4 ,cimex striatus1 #ceb4--;,fig4 #b and ,b4 ,chrysomela asparagi #cec ,fig4 #c and ,c4 ,meloe monoceros #ced ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #a-bd4 ,various hydr and vorticell #cfd ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #bf-dj4 ,ditto #cib ,,xxiii4 ,a4 ,fig4 #a-ac4 ,various hydr1 #cfe4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ad-bi4 ,ditto #chb ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #a-aj4 and ,b4 ,fig4 #aa-bd4 ,ditto #cgf ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #a-fh4 ,a variety of animalcula infusoria #dca ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #a-bc4 ,ditto #edh ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #a-ff4 ,ditto #eai ,,xxviii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,transverse section of chenopodium #eii ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,transverse section of a reed from ,portugal ibid4 ,,xxix4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,transverse section of altha frutex ibid4 ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,transverse section of hazel ibid4 ,fig4 #e1 #f4 ,transverse section branch of lime tree ibid4 ,,xxx4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,transverse section of sugarcane4 ibid4 ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,transverse section of bamboo cane ibid4 ,fig4 #e1 #f4 ,transverse section of common cane ibid4 ,,xxxi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b4 ,crystals of nitre #fjf ,fig4 #c1 #d4 ,distilled verdigrise ibid4 ,,xxxii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,microscopical crystals of salt of wormwood #fjg ,fig4 #b4 ,microscopical crystals of salt of amber ibid4 ,fig4 #c4 ,microscopical crystals of salt of hartshorn ibid4 ,fig4 #d4 ,microscopical crystals of salt of sal ammoniac ibid4 ,n4 ,b4 ,the reader will find no references to the several letters which appear in the bodies of these figures1 for reasons assigned by the author as above2 in order not to deface the plate1 they were suffered to remain4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,microscope4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,a ,,concise ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,invention ,,and ,,improvements ,,which ,,have ,,been ,,made ,,upon ,,the ,,instrument ,,called ,a ,,microscope4 ,it is generally supposed that microscopes#c were invented about the year #aehj1 a period fruitful in discoveries2 a time when the mind began to emancipate itself from those errors and prejudices by which it had been too long enslaved1 to assert its rights1 extend its powers1 and follow the paths which lead to truth4 ,the honor of the invention is claimed by the ,italians and the ,dutch2 the name of the inventor1 however1 is lost2 probably the discovery did not at first appear sufficiently important1 to engage the attention of those men1 who1 by their reputation in science1 were able to establish an opinion of its merit with the rest of the world1 and hand down the name of the inventor to succeeding ages4 ,men of great literary abilities are too apt to despise the first dawnings of invention1 not considering that all real knowledge is progressive1 and that what they deem trifling1 may be the first and necessary link to a new branch of science4 #c ,the term microscope is derived from the ,greek little1 and to view2 it is a dioptric instrument1 by means of which objects invisible to the naked eye1 or very minute1 are by the assistance of lenses1 or mirrors1 represented exceeding large and very distinct4 ,,edit4 ,the microscope extends the boundaries of the organs of vision2 enables us to examine the structure of plants and animals2 presents to the eye myriads of beings1 of whose existence we had before formed no idea2 opens to the curious an exhaustless source of information and pleasure2 and furnishes the philosopher with an unlimited field of investigation4 8,it leads10 to use the words of an ingenious writer1 8to the discovery of a thousand wonders in the works of his hand1 who created ourselves1 as well as the objects of our admiration2 it improves the faculties1 exalts the comprehension1 and multiplies the inlets to happiness2 is a new source of praise to him1 to whom all we pay is nothing of what we owe2 and1 while it pleases the imagination with the unbounded treasures it offers to the view1 it tends to make the whole life one continued act of admiration40 ,it is not difficult to fix the period when the microscope first began to be generally known1 and was used for the purpose of examining minute objects2 for1 though we are ignorant of the name of the first inventor1 we are acquainted with the names of those who introduced it to the public1 and engaged their attention to it1 by exhibiting some of its wonderful effects4 ,zacharias ,jansens and his son had made microscopes before the year #afai1 for in that year the ingenious ,cornelius ,drebell brought one1 which was made by them1 with him into ,england1 and shewed it to ,william ,borel1 and others4 ,it is possible1 this instrument of ,drebell's was not strictly what is now meant by a microscope1 but was rather a kind of microscopic telescope1#d something similar in principle to that lately described by ,mr4 pinus1 in a letter to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,petersburgh4 ,it was formed of a copper tube six feet long and one inch diameter1 supported by three brass pillars in the shape of dolphins2 these were fixed to a base of ebony1 on which the objects to be viewed by the microscope were also placed4 ,in contradiction to this1 ,fontana1 in a work which he published in #afdf1 says1 that he had made microscopes in the year #afah3 this may be also very true1 without derogating from the merit of the ,jansens1 for we have many instances in our own times of more than one person having executed the same contrivance1 nearly at the same time1 without any communication from one to the other4#e ,in #afhe1 ,stelluti published a description of the parts of a bee1 which he had examined with a microscope4 #d ,vide ,borellum de vero ,telescopii ,inventore4 #e ,in #affd ,dr4 ,power published his 8,experimental ,philosophy10 the first part of which consists of a variety of microscopical observations2 and in the following year ,dr4 ,hooke produced his 8,micrographia10 illustrated with a number of elegant figures of the different objects4 ,,edit4 ,if we consider the microscope as an instrument consisting of one lens only1 it is not at all improbable that it was known to the ancients much sooner than the last century2 nay1 even in a degree to the ,greeks and ,romans3 for it is certain1 that spectacles were in use long before the above-mentioned period3 now1 as the glasses of these were made of different convexities1 and consequently of different magnifying powers1 it is natural to suppose1 that smaller and more convex lenses were made1 and applied to the examination of minute objects4 ,in this sense1 there is also some ground for thinking the ancients were not ignorant of the use of lenses1 or at least of what approached nearly to1 and might in some instances be substituted for them4 ,the two principal reasons which support this opinion are1 first1 the minuteness of some ancient pieces of workmanship1 which are to be met with in the cabinets of the curious3 the parts of some of these are so small1 that it does not appear at present how they could have been executed without the use of magnifying glasses1 or of what use they could have been when executed1 unless they were in possession of glasses to examine them with4 ,a remarkable piece of this kind1 a seal with very minute work1 and which to the naked eye appears very confused and indistinct1 but beautiful when examined with a proper lense1 is described 8,dans l',histoire de l',academie des ,inscriptions10 tom4 #a1 p4 #ccc4 ,the second argument is founded on a great variety of passages1 that are to be seen in the works of ,jamblichus1 ,pliny1 ,plutarch1 ,seneca1 ,agellius1 ,pisidias1 c4 ,from these passages it is evident that they were enabled by some instrument1 or other means1 not only to view distant objects1 but also to magnify small ones2 for1 if this is not admitted1 the passages appear absurd1 and not capable of having a rational meaning applied to them4 ,i shall only adduce a short passage from ,pisidias1 a christian writer of the seventh century1 3 8,you see things future by a dioptrum30 now we know of nothing but a perspective glass or small telescope1 whereby things at a distance may be seen as if they were near at hand1 the circumstance on which the simile was founded4 ,it is also clear1 that they were acquainted with1 and did make use of that kind of microscope1 which is even at this day commonly sold in our streets by the ,italian pedlars1 namely1 a glass bubble filled with water4 ,seneca plainly affirms it1 ,liter1 quamvis minut et obscur1 per vitream pilam aqua plenam majores clarioresque cernuntur4 ,nat4 ,qust4 lib4 #a1 cap4 #g4 8,letters1 though minute and obscure1 appear larger and clearer through a glass bubble filled with water40 ,those who wish to see further evidence concerning the knowledge of the ancients in optics1 may consult ,smith's ,optics1 ,dr4 ,priestley's ,history of ,light and ,colours1 the ,appendix to an ,essay on the first ,principles of ,natural ,philosophy by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,jones1 ,dr4 ,rogers's ,dissertation on the ,knowledge of the ,ancients1 and the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,dutens's ,enquiry into the ,origin of the ,discoveries attributed to the ,moderns4#f #f ,a new edition in ,french of this learned and valuable work1 with many and useful notes1 is just published4 ,,edit4 ,the history of the microscope1 like that of nations and arts1 has had its brilliant periods1 in which it has shone with uncommon splendor1 and been cultivated with extraordinary ardour2 these have been succeeded by intervals marked with no discovery1 and in which the science seemed to fade away1 or at least lie dormant1 till some favourable circumstance1 the discovery of a new object1 or some new improvement in the instruments of observation1 awakened the attention of the curious1 and animated their researches4 ,thus1 soon after the invention of the microscope1 the field it presented to observation was cultivated by men of the first rank in science1 who enriched almost every branch of natural history by the discoveries they made with this instrument3 there is indeed scarce any object so inconsiderable1 that has not something to invite the curious eye to examine it2 nor is there any1 which1 when properly examined1 will not amply repay the trouble of investigation4 ,i shall first speak of the ,,single ,,microscope1 not only as it is the most simple1 but because1 as we have already observed1 it was invented and used long before the double or compound microscope4 ,when the lenses of the single microscope are very convex1 and consequently the magnifying power very great1 the field of view is so small1 and it is so difficult to adjust with accuracy their focal distance1 that it requires some practice to render the use thereof familiar2 at the same time1 the smallness of the aperture to these lenses has been found injurious to the eyes of some observers3 notwithstanding1 however1 these defects1 the great magnifying power1 as well as the distinct vision which is obtained by the use of a deep single lens1 more than counterbalances every difficulty and disadvantage4 ,it was with this instrument that ,leeuwenhoek and ,swammerdam1 ,lyonet and ,ellis examined the minima of nature1 laid open some of her hidden recesses1 and by their example stimulated others to the same pursuit4 ,the construction of the single microscope is so simple1 that it is susceptible of but little improvement1 and has therefore undergone but few alterations2 and these have been chiefly confined to the mode of mounting it1 or the additions to its apparatus4 ,the greatest improvement this instrument has received1 was made by ,dr4 ,lieberkhn1 about the year #agdj2 it consisted in placing the small lens in the center of a highly polished concave speculum of silver1 by which means he was enabled to reflect a strong light upon the upper surface of an object1 and thus examine it with great ease and pleasure4 ,before this contrivance1 it was almost impossible to examine small opake objects with any degree of exactness and satisfaction2 for the dark side of the object being next the eye1 and also overshadowed by the proximity of the instrument1 its appearance was necessarily obscure and indistinct4 ,dr4 ,lieberkhn adapted a microscope to every object2 it consisted of a short brass tube1 at the eye end of which a concave silver speculum was fixed1 and in the center of the speculum a magnifying lens3 the object was placed in the middle of the tube1 and had a small adjustment to regulate it to the focus2 at the other end of the tube there was a plano convex lens1 to condense and render more uniform the light which was reflected from the mirror4 ,but all these pains were not bestowed upon trifling objects2 his were generally the most curious anatomical preparations1 a few of which1 with their microscopes1 are1 ,i believe1 deposited in the ,british ,museum4 ,it will be proper1 in this place1 to give some account of ,mr4 ,leeuwenhoek's microscopes1 which were rendered famous throughout all ,europe1 on account of the numerous discoveries he had made with them1 as well as from his afterwards bequeathing a part of them to the ,royal ,society4 ,the microscopes he used were all single1 and fitted up in a convenient simple manner2 each of them consisted of a very small double convex lens1 let into a socket between two plates rivetted together1 and pierced with a small hole2 the object was placed on a silver point or needle1 which1 by means of screws adapted for that purpose1 might be turned about1 raised or depressed at pleasure1 and thus be brought nearer to1 or be removed farther from the glass1 as the eye of the observer1 the nature of the object1 and the convenient examination of its parts required4 ,mr4 ,leeuwenhoek fixed his objects1 if they were solid1 to the foregoing point with glue2 if they were fluid1 he fitted them on a little plate of talc1 or exceeding thin blown glass1 which he afterwards glued to the needle1 in the same manner as his other objects4 ,the glasses were all exceeding clear1 and of different magnifying powers1 which were proportioned to the nature of the object1 and the parts designed to be examined4 ,but none of those1 which were presented to the ,royal ,society1 magnify so much as the glass globules1 which have been used in other microscopes4 ,he had observed1 in a letter of his to the ,royal ,society1 that from upwards of forty years experience1 he found that the most considerable discoveries were to be made with such glasses1 as magnifying but moderately1 exhibited the object with the most perfect brightness and distinctness4 ,each instrument was devoted to one or two objects3 hence he had always some hundreds by him4#g ,there is some reason for supposing1 that ,leeuwenhoek was acquainted with a mode of viewing opake objects1 similar to that invented by ,dr4 ,lieberkhn4#h #g ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 #ihj1 ,no4 #deh4 #h ,priestley's ,history of ,optics1 p4 #bbj4 ,about the year #affe1 small glass globules began to be occasionally applied to the single microscope1 instead of convex lenses4 ,by these globules1 an immense magnifying power is obtained4 ,the invention of them has been generally attributed to ,m4 ,hartsoeker2 it appears1 however1 to me1 that we are indebted to the celebrated ,dr4 ,hooke for this discovery2 for he described the manner of making them in the preface to his 8,micrographia10 which was published in the year #affe4 ,now the first account we have of any microscopical discovery by ,m4 ,hartsoeker1 was that of the spermatic animalcul1 made by him when he was eighteen years old2 which brings us down to the year #afgd1 long after ,dr4 ,hooke's publication4 ,as these glass globules have been very useful in the hands of experienced observers1 ,i shall lay before my readers the different modes which have been described for making them1 that the reader may be enabled thereby to ascertain the reality of the discoveries that have been said to be made with them4 ,take a small rod#i of the clearest and cleanest glass you can procure1 free1 if possible from blebs1 veins1 or sandy particles2 then by melting it in a lamp with spirit of wine1 or the purest and clearest sallad oil1 draw it out into exceeding fine and small threads2 take a small piece of these threads1 and melt the end thereof in the same flame1 till you perceive it run into a small drop1 or globule1 of the desired size2 let this globule cool1 then fix it upon a thin plate of brass or silver1 so that the middle of it may be directly over the center of a very small hole made in this plate1 turning it till it is fixed by the before-mentioned thread of glass4 ,when the plate is properly fixed to your microscope1 and the object adjusted to the focal distance of the globule1 you will perceive the object distinctly and immensely magnified4 8,by these means10 says ,dr4 ,hooke1 8,i have been able to distinguish the particles of bodies not only a million times smaller than a visible point1 but even to make those visible whereof a million of millions would hardly make up the bulk of the smallest visible grain of sand2 so prodigiously do these exceeding small globules enlarge our prospect into the more hidden recesses of nature40 #i ,lectures and ,collections by ,dr4 ,hooke4 ,mr4 ,butterfield1 in making of the globules1 used a lamp with spirit of wine2 but instead of a cotton wick1 he used fine silver wire1 doubled up and down like a skain of thread4#aj ,he prepared his glass by beating it to powder1 and washing it very clean2 he then took a little of this glass upon the sharp point of a silver needle1 wetted with spittle1 and held it in the flame1 turning it about till a glass ball was formed2 then taking it from the flame1 he afterwards cleaned it with soft leather1 and set it in a brass cell4 #aj ,philos4 ,trans4 ,no4 #ada4 ,no person has carried the use of these globules so far as ,father ,di ,torre1 of ,naples1 nor been so dexterous in the execution of them2 and if others have not been able to follow him in the same line1 it may be fairly attributed to a want of that delicacy of touch for adjusting the objects to their focus1 and that acuteness of vision which can only be acquired by long practice4 ,di ,torre has also described1 more minutely than any other author1 the mode of executing these globules1 which1 as it throws much light upon the preceding description by ,dr4 ,hooke1 will not1 it is presumed1 be unacceptable to the reader4 ,three things are necessary for forming of these globules3 #a4 ,a lamp and bellows1 such as are used by the glass-blowers4 #b4 ,a piece of perfect tripoli4 #c4 ,a variety of small glass rods4 ,when the flame of the lamp is blown in an horizontal direction1 it will be found to consist of two parts2 from the base to about two thirds of its length1 it is of a white colour2 beyond this1 it is transparent and colourless4 ,it is this transparent part which is to be used for melting the glass1 because by this it will not be in the least sullied2 but it will be immediately soiled1 if it touch the white part of the flame4 ,the part of the glass which is presented to the flame1 ought to be exceeding clean1 and great care should be taken that it be not touched by the fingers4 ,if the glass rod has contracted any spots1 it must either be thrown away1 or the parts that are spotted must be cut off4 ,the piece of tripoli which is to be used in forming the globules1 should be flat on one side1 and so large that it may be handled conveniently1 and protect the fingers from the flame4 ,a piece four or five inches long1 and three or four inches thick1 will answer very well4 ,the best tripoli for this purpose is of a white colour1 with a fine grain1 heavy and compact1 and which1 after it has been calcined1 is of a red colour4 ,this kind resists the fire best1 is not apt to break when calcined1 and the melted glass does not adhere to it4 ,to calcine this tripoli1 cover it well all round with charcoal nearly red hot1 leaving it thus till the charcoal is quite cold2 it may then be taken out4 ,let several hemispherical cavities be made on the flat side of the tripoli2 they should be of different sizes1 nicely polished1 and neatly rounded at the edges1 in order to facilitate the entrance of the flame4 ,the large globules are to be placed in the large cavities1 and the minuter ones1 in the small cavities4 ,the holes in the tripoli must never be touched with the finger4 ,if it be necessary to clean them1 it should be done with white paper2 the larger globules may be cleaned with wash leather4 ,the glass rods should be of various sizes1 as of th1 th1 th of an inch in diameter1 as clean and free from specks and bubbles as possible4 ,,to ,,make ,,small ,,glass ,,microscopic ,,globules4 ,take two rods of glass1 one in each hand1 place their extremities close to each other1 and in the purest part of the flame2 when you perceive the ends to be fused1 separate them from each other2 the heated glass following each rod1 will be finer1 in proportion to the length it is drawn to1 and the smallness of the rod2 in this manner you may procure threads of glass of any degree of fineness4 ,direct the flame to the middle of the thread1 and it will be instantly divided into two parts4 ,when one of the threads is perfectly cool1 place it at the extremity of the flame1 by which it will be rendered round2 and1 if the thread of glass be very fine1 an exceeding small globule will be formed4 ,this thread may now be broke off from the rod1 and a new one may be again drawn out as before1 by the assistance of the other glass rod4 ,the small ball is now to be separated from the thread of glass2 this is easily effected by the sharp edge of a piece of flint4 ,the ball should be placed in a groove of paper1 and another piece of paper be held over it1 to prevent the ball from flying about and being lost4 ,a quantity of globules ought to be prepared in this manner2 they are then to be cleaned1 and afterwards placed in the cavities of the tripoli1 by means of a delicate pair of nippers4 ,the globules are now to be melted a second time1 in order to render them completely spherical2 for this purpose1 bring one of the cavities near the extremity of the flame1 directing this towards the tripoli1 which must be first heated2 the cavity is then to be lowered1 so that the flame may touch the glass1 which1 when it is red hot1 will assume a perfect globular form2 it must then be removed from the flame1 and laid by2 when cold1 it should be cleaned1 by rubbing between two pieces of white paper4 ,let it now be set in a brass cap1 to try whether the figure be perfect4 ,if the object be not well defined1 the globule must be thrown away4 ,though1 if it be large1 it may be exposed two or three times to the flame4 ,when a large globule is forming1 it should be gently agitated by shaking the tripoli1 which will prevent its becoming flat on one side4 ,by attending to these directions1 the greater part of the globules will be round and fit for use4 ,in damp weather1 notwithstanding every precaution1 it will often happen1 that out of forty globules1 four or five only will be fit for use4 ,mr4 ,stephen ,gray1 of the ,charter-,house1 having observed some irregular particles within a glass globule1 and finding that they appeared distinct and prodigiously magnified when held close to his eye1 concluded1 that if he placed a globule of water1 in which there were any particles more opake than the water1 near his eye1 he should see those particles distinctly and highly magnified4 ,this idea1 when realized1 far exceeded his expectation4 ,his method was1 to take on a pin a small portion of water which he knew had in it some minute animalcul2 this he laid on the end of a small piece of brass wire1 till there was formed somewhat more than an hemisphere of water2 on applying it then to the eye1 he found the animalcul most enormously magnified2 for those which were scarce discernible with his glass globules1 with this appeared as large as ordinary sized peas4 ,they cannot be seen in day-time1 except the room be darkened1 but are seen to the greatest advantage by candle-light4 ,montucla observes1 that when any objects are inclosed within this transparent globule1 the hinder part of it acts like a concave mirror1 provided they be situated between that surface and the focus2 and that by these means they are magnified three times and an half more than they would be in the usual way4 ,an extempore microscope may be formed1 by taking up a small drop of water on the point of a pin1 and placing it over a fine hole made in a piece of metal2 but as the refractive power of water is less than that of glass1 these globules do not magnify so much as those of the same size which are made of glass3 this was also contrived by ,mr4 ,gray4 ,the same ingenious author invented another water microscope1 consisting of two drops of water1 separated in part by a thin brass plate1 but touching near the center2 which were thus rendered equivalent to a double convex lens of unequal convexities4 ,dr4 ,hooke describes a method of using the single microscope1 which seems to have a great analogy to the foregoing methods of ,mr4 ,gray4 8,if you are desirous10 says he1 8of obtaining a microscope with one single refraction1 and consequently capable of procuring the greatest clearness and brightness any one kind of microscope is susceptible of2 spread a little of the fluid you intend to examine1 on a glass plate1 bring this under one of your microscopic globules1 then move it gently upwards1 till the fluid touch the globule1 to which it will soon adhere1 and that so firmly1 as to bear being moved a little backwards or forwards4 ,by looking through the globule1 you will then have a perfect view of the animalcul in the drop40#aa #aa ,hooke's ,lectures and ,conjectures1 p4 #ih4 ,having laid before the reader the principal improvements that have been suggested1 or made in the single microscope1 it remains only to point out those instruments of this kind1 which1 from the mode in which they are fitted up1 seem best adapted for general use2 the peculiar advantages of which1 as well as the manner of using them1 will be described in the third chapter of this work4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,a botanical microscope1 contrived by ,dr4 ,withering4 ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,a botanical microscope1 by ,mr4 ,b4 ,martin1 being the most universal pocket microscope4 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,vi1 represents that which was used by ,m4 ,lyonnet for dissecting the cossus4 ,fig4 #e4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,the tooth and pinion microscope1 which is now generally substituted in the room of ,wilson's4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,vii4 ,b4 ,the aquatic microscope used by ,mr4 ,ellis for investigating the nature of coralline1 and recommended to botanists by ,mr4 ,curtis1 in his valuable publication1 the 8,flora ,londinensis40 ,fig4 #g4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,a botanical magnifier1 or hand megalascope1 which by the different combinations of its three lenses produces seven different magnifying powers2 when the three are used together1 they are turned in1 and the object viewed through the apertures in the sides4 ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,a botanical magnifier1 having one large lens and two small ones1 but not admitting of more than three powers4 ,a ,,compound ,,microscope1 as it consists of two1 three1 or more glasses1 is more easily varied1 and is susceptible of greater changes in its construction1 than the single microscope4 ,the number of the lenses1 of which it is formed1 may be increased or diminished1 their respective positions may be varied1 and the form in which they are mounted be altered almost ad infinitum4 ,but among these varieties1 some will be found more deserving of attention than others2 we shall here treat of these only4 ,the three first compound microscopes deserving of notice1 are those of ,dr4 ,hooke1 ,eustachio ,divinis1 and ,philip ,bonnani4 ,dr4 ,hooke gives an account of his in the preface to his ,micrographia1 which has been already cited2 it was about three inches in diameter1 seven long1 and furnished with four draw-out tubes1 by which it might be lengthened as occasion required3 it had three glasses--a small object glass1 a middle glass1 and a deep eye glass4 ,dr4 ,hooke used all the glasses when he wanted to take in a considerable part of an object at once1 as by the middle glass a number of radiating pencils were conveyed to the eye1 which would otherwise have been lost3 but when he wanted to examine with accuracy the small parts of any substance1 he took out the middle glass1 and only made use of the eye and object lenses2 for the fewer the refractions are1 the clearer and more bright the object appears4 ,an account of ,eustachio ,divinis's microscope was read at the ,royal ,society1 in #affh4ab ,it consisted of an object lens1 a middle glass1 and two eye glasses1 which were plano convex lenses1 and were placed so that they touched each other in the center of their convex surfaces2 by which means the glass takes in more of an object1 the field is larger1 the extremities of it less curved1 and the magnifying power greater4 ,the tube1 in which the glasses were inclosed1 was as large as a man's leg1 and the eye glasses as broad as the palm of the hand4 ,it had four several lengths2 when shut up1 it was sixteen inches long1 and magnified the diameter of an object forty-one times2 at the second length1 ninety times2 at the third length1 one hundred and eleven times2 at the fourth length1 one hundred and forty-three times4 ,it does not appear that ,e4 ,divinis varied the object lenses4 #ab ,philos4 ,trans4 ,no4 #db4 ,philip ,bonnani published an account of his two microscopes in #afih2ac both were compound2 the first was similar to that which ,mr4 ,martin published as new1 in his ,micrographia ,nova1#ad in #agdb4 ,his second was like the former1 composed of three glasses1 one for the eye1 a middle glass1 and an object lens2 they were mounted in a cylindrical tube1 which was placed in an horizontal position2 behind the stage was a small tube1 with a convex lens at each end2 beyond this was a lamp2 the whole capable of various adjustments1 and regulated by a pinion and rack2 the small tube was used to condense the light on the object1 and spread it uniformly over it according to its nature1 and the magnifying power that was used4 #ac ,bonnani ,observationes circa ,viventia4 #ad ,micrographia ,nova1 by ,b4 ,martin1 #dto4 ,if the reader attentively consider the construction of the foregoing microscopes1 and compare them with more modern ones1 he will be led to think with me1 that the compound microscope has received very little improvement since the time of ,bonnani4 ,taken separately1 the foregoing constructions are equal to some of the most famed modern microscopes4 ,if their advantages be combined1 they are far superior to that of ,m4 ,dellebarre1 notwithstanding the pompous eulogium affixed thereto by ,mess4 ,de ,l',academie ,royale des ,sciences4#ae #ae ,memoires sur les ,differences de la ,construction et des ,effets du ,microscope1 de ,m4 ,l4 ,f4 ,dellebarre1 #aggg4 ,from this period1 to the year #agcf1 the microscope appears not to have received any considerable alteration1 but the science itself to have been at a stand4 ,the improvements which were making in the reflecting telescope1 naturally led those who had considered the subject1 to expect a similar advantage would accrue to microscopes on the same principles3 accordingly we find two plans of this kind2 the first was that of ,dr4 ,robert ,barker4 ,this instrument is entirely the same as the reflecting telescope1 excepting the distance of the two speculums1 which is lengthened1 in order to adapt it to those pencils of rays which enter the telescope diverging2 whereas1 from very distant objects1 they come in a direction nearly parallel4 ,but this was soon laid aside1 not only as it was more difficult to manage1 but also because it was unfit for any but very small or transparent objects3 for the object being between the speculum and the image1 would1 if it were large and opake1 prevent a due reflection of light on the object4 ,the second was contrived by ,dr4 ,smith4#af ,in this there were two reflecting mirrors1 one concave and the other convex2 the image was viewed by a lens4 ,this microscope1 though far from being executed in the best manner1 performed1 says ,dr4 ,smith1 very well1 so that he did not doubt but that it would have excelled others1 if it had been properly finished4 #af ,dr4 ,smith's ,optics1 ,remarks1 p4 #id4 ,as some years are more favourable to the fruits of the earth1 so also some periods are more favourable to particular sciences1 being rich in discovery1 and cultivated with ardor4 ,thus1 in the year #agch1 ,dr4 ,lieberkhn's invention of the solar microscope was communicated to the public3 the vast magnifying power which was obtained by this instrument1 the colossal grandeur with which it exhibited the minima of nature1 the pleasure which arose from being able to display the same object to a number of observers at the same time1 by affording a new source of rational amusement1 increased the number of microscopic observers1 who were further stimulated to the same pursuits by ,mr4 ,trembley's famous discovery of the polype3 the wonderful properties of this little animal1 together with the works of ,mr4 ,trembley1 ,baker1 and my father1 revived the reputation of this instrument4#ag #ag ,trembley ,memoires sur les ,polypes4 ,baker's ,microscope made ,easy2 ,attempt towards an ,history of the ,polype2 ,employment for the ,microscope4 ,adams's ,micrographia ,illustrata4 ,joblot's ,observations d',histoire ,naturelle4 ,every optician now exercised his talents in improving1 as he called it1 the microscope2 in other words1 in varying its construction1 and rendering it different from that sold by his neighbour4 ,their principal object seemed to be1 only to subdivide the instrument1 and make it lie in as small a compass as possible2 by which means1 they not only rendered it complex and troublesome in use1 but lost sight also of the extensive field1 great light1 and other excellent properties of the more ancient instruments2 and1 in some measure1 shut themselves out from further improvements on the microscope4 ,every mechanical instrument is susceptible of almost infinite combinations and changes1 which are attended with their relative advantages and disadvantages3 thus1 what is gained in power1 is lost in time2 8he that loves to be confined to a small house1 must lose the benefit of air and exercise40 ,the microscope1 nearly at the same period1 gave rise to ,m4 ,buffon's famous system of organic molecules1 and ,m4 ,needham's incomprehensible ideas concerning a vegetable force and the vitality of matter4 ,m4 ,buffon has dressed up his system with all the charms of eloquence1 presenting it to the mind in the most agreeable and lively colours1 exerting the depths of erudition in the most interesting and seducing manner to establish his hypothesis1 making us almost ready to adopt it against the dictates of reason1 and the evidence of facts4 ,but whether this great man was misled by the warmth of his imagination1 his attachment to a favourite system1 or the use of imperfect instruments1 it appears but too evident1 that he was not acquainted with the objects whose nature he attempted to investigate2 and it is probable1 that he never saw#ah those which he supposed he was describing1 continually confounding the animalcul produced from the putrifying decomposition of animal substances1 with the spermatic animalcul1 although they are two kinds of beings1 differing in form and nature2 so that the beautiful fabric attempted to be raised on his hypothesis1 vanishes before the light of truth and well conducted experiments4 #ah ,porro ,buffonius1 ut cum illustris viri venia dicam1 omnino non videtur vermiculos seminales vidisse4 ,diuturnitas enim vit quam suis corpusculis tribuit1 ostendit non esse nostra animalcula 7id est1 spermatica7 quibus brevis et paucarum horarum vita est4 ,haller ,physiol4 tom4 #g4 ,after this period1 the mind1 either satisfied with the discoveries already made1 which will be particularly described hereafter1 or tired by its own exertions1 sought for repose in other pursuits2 so that for several years this instrument was again1 in some measure1 laid aside4 ,in #aggj1 ,dr4 ,hill#ai published a treatise1 in which he endeavoured to explain the construction of timber by the microscope1 and shew the number1 the nature1 and office of its several parts1 their various arrangements and proportions in the different kinds2 and point out a way of judging1 from the structure of trees1 the uses they will best serve in the affairs of life4 ,so important a subject soon revived the ardor for microscopic pursuits1 which seems to have been increasing ever since4 ,about the same time1 my father contrived an instrument for cutting the transverse sections of wood1 in order that the texture thereof might be rendered more visible in the microscope1 and consequently be better understood2 this instrument was afterwards improved by ,mr4 ,cumming4 ,another instrument for the same purpose1 more certain in its effects1 and more easily managed1 is represented in ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,ix2 and will be described in one of the following chapters4 ,dr4 ,hill and ,mr4 ,custance now endeavoured to bring back the microscope nearer to the old standard1 to increase the field by the multiplication of the eye glasses1 and to augment the light on the object1 by condensing lenses2 and in this they happily succeeded3 ,mr4 ,custance was unrivalled in his dexterity in preparing1 and accuracy in cutting thin transverse sections of wood4 #ai ,dr4 ,hill on the ,construction of ,timber4 ,in #agga1 my father published a fourth edition of his ,micrographia1 in which he described the principal inventions then in use2 particularly a contrivance of his own1 for applying the solar microscope to the camera obscura1 and illuminating it at night by a lamp1 by which means a picture of microscopic objects might be exhibited in winter evenings4 ,it appears#bj from the testimony of ,m4 pinus1 that ,dr4 ,lieberkhn had considerably improved the solar microscope1 by adapting it to view opake objects4 ,this contrivance was by some means lost4 ,the knowledge1 however1 that such an effect had been produced1 led pinus to attend to the subject himself1 in which he in some measure succeeded1 and would1 no doubt1 have brought it to perfection1 if he had increased the size of his illuminating mirror4 ,some further improvements were made on this instrument by ,m4 ,ziehr2 but the most perfect instrument of the kind1 is that of ,mr4 ,b4 ,martin1 who published an account of it in the year #aggd4ba ,the common solar microscope does not shew the surface of any object1 whereas the opake solar microscope not only magnifies the object1 but exhibits on a screen an expanded picture of its surface1 with all its colours1 in a most beautiful manner4 #bj ,priestley's ,hist4 of ,optics1 p4 #gdc4 #ba ,martin's ,description and ,use of an ,opake ,solar ,microscope4 ,the merits and ingenuity in constructing and improving microscopes by this learned optician1 seem to be unnoticed by our late author4 ,the following pamphlets by ,mr4 ,b4 ,martin are1 among others of his valuable publications1 instances of his indefatigable industry4 ,description and ,use of a ,pocket ,reflecting ,microscope1 with a ,micrometer2 #agci4 ,micrographia ,nova1 or a ,new ,treatise on the ,microscope2 #agdb4 ,description of a ,new ,universal ,microscope2 a ,postscript to his ,new ,elements of ,optics2 #agei4 ,description of several ,sorts of ,microscopes1 and the ,use of the ,reflecting ,telescope1 as an universal ,perspective for viewing every ,sort of ,objects4 ,optical ,essays2 #aggj4 ,a ,description and ,use of a ,proportional ,camera ,obscura1 with a ,solar ,microscope adapted thereto1 annexed to his ,description of the ,opake ,solar ,microscope above-mentioned4 ,description of a ,new ,universal ,microscope2 #aggf4 ,description and ,use of a ,graphical ,perspective and ,microscope2 #agga4 ,microscopium ,polydynamicum1 or a ,new ,construction of a ,microscope2 #agga4 ,an ,essay on the genuine ,construction of a standard ,microscope and ,telescope2 #aggf4 ,microscopium ,pantometricum1 or a new ,construction of a ,micrometer adapted to the ,microscope4 ,the most essential articles in the above works will be hereafter described4 ,,edit4 ,about the year #aggd1 ,i invented the improved lucernal microscope2 this instrument does not in the least fatigue the eye3 it shews all opake objects in a most beautiful manner2 and transparent objects may be examined by it in various ways1 so that no part of an object is left unexplored2 and the outlines of all may be taken with ease1 even by those who are most unskilled in drawing4 ,m4 ,l4 ,f4 ,dellebarre published an account of his microscope in the year #aggg4 ,it does not appear from this1 that it was superior in any respect to those that were made in ,england1 but was inferior in others2 for those published by my father in #agga possessed all the advantages of ,dellebarre's in a higher degree1 except that of changing the eye glasses4 ,in #aghd1 ,m4 pinus published a description of what he termed new-invented microscopes1 in a letter to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,petersburgh2#bb they are nothing more than an application of the achromatic perspective to microscopic purposes4 ,now it has been long known to every one who is the least versed in optics1 that any telescope is easily converted into a microscope1 by removing the object glass to a greater distance from the eye glasses2 and that the distance of the image varies with the distance of the object from the focus1 and is magnified more as its distance from the object is greater3 the same telescope may1 therefore be successively turned into a microscope1 with different magnifying powers4 ,mr4 ,martin had also shewn1 in his description and use of a polydynamic microscope1 how easily the small achromatic perspective may be applied to this purpose4 ,botanists might find some advantage in attending to this instrument2 it would assist them in discovering small plants at a distance1 and thus often save them from the thorns of the hedge1 and the dirt of a ditch4 #bb ,description des ,nouveaux ,microscopes inventes par ,m4 pinus4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iii1 represents the improved lucernal microscope4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iv4 ,the improved compound and single microscope4 ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,,iv4 ,the best universal compound microscope4 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,iv1 is what is usually called ,culpeper's1 or the common three pillared compound microscope4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,v1 represents ,martin's solar opake microscope4 ,fig4 #d4 ,plate ,,vi1 is a picture of the common solar microscope4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,vii4 ,a1 is ,cuff's common compound microscope4 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,martin's new microscopic telescope1 or convenient portable apparatus for a traveller4 ,we cannot conclude this chapter better than with the following observations on the microscope4 ,we are indebted to it for many discoveries in natural history2 but let us not suppose that the ,creator intended to hide these objects from our observation4 ,it is true1 this instrument discovers to us as it were a new creation1 new series of animals1 new forests of vegetables2 but he who gave being to these1 gave us an understanding capable of inventing means to assist our organs in the discovery of their hidden beauties4 ,he gave us eyes adapted to enlarge our ideas1 and capable of comprehending a universe at one view1 and consequently incapable of discerning those minute beings1 with which he has peopled every atom of the universe4 ,but then he gave properties and qualities to matter of a particular kind1 by which it would procure us this advantage1 and at the same time elevated the understanding from one degree of knowledge to another1 till it was able to discover these assistances for our sight4 ,it is thus we should consider the discoveries made by those instruments1 which have received their birth from an exertion of our faculties4 ,it is to the same power1 who created the objects of our admiration1 that we are ultimately to refer the means of discovering them4 ,let no one1 therefore1 accuse us of prying deeper into the wonders of nature1 than was intended by the great author of the universe4 ,there is nothing we discover by their assistance1 which is not a fresh source of praise2 and it does not appear that our faculties can be better employed1 than in finding means to investigate the works of ,god4 ,from a partial consideration of these things1 we are very apt to criticise what we ought to admire2 to look upon as useless what perhaps we should own to be of infinite advantage to us1 did we see a little farther2 to be peevish where we ought to give thanks2 and at the same time to ridicule those who employ their time and thoughts in examining what we were1 i4 e4 some of us most assuredly were created and appointed to study4 ,in short1 we are too apt to treat the ,almighty worse than a rational man would treat a good mechanic1 whose works he would either thoroughly examine1 or be ashamed to find any fault with them4 ,this is the effect of a partial consideration of nature2 but he who has candor of mind1 and leisure to look farther1 will be inclined to cry out3 ,how wond'rous is this scene6 where all is form'd ,with number1 weight1 and measure6 all design'd ,for some great end6 where not alone the plant ,of stately growth2 the herb of glorious hue1 ,or food-full substance6 not the laboring steed1 ,the herd1 and flock that feed us2 not the mine ,that yields us stores for elegance and use2 ,the sea that loads our table1 and conveys ,the wanderer man from clime to clime1 with all ,those rolling spheres1 that from on high shed down ,their kindly influence2 not these alone1 ,which strike ev'n eyes incurious1 but each moss1 ,each shell1 each crawling insect1 holds a rank ,important in the plan of ,him1 who fram'd ,this scale of beings2 holds a rank1 which lost1 ,would break the chain1 and leave behind a gap ,which nature's self would rue4 ,almighty ,being1 ,cause and support of all things1 can ,i view ,these objects of my wonder2 can ,i feel ,these fine sensations1 and not think of thee8 ,thou who dost thro' th' eternal round of time1 ,dost thro' th' immensity of space exist ,alone1 shalt thou alone excluded be ,from this thy universe8 ,shall feeble man ,think it beneath his proud philosophy ,to call for thy assistance1 and pretend ,to frame a world1 who cannot frame a clod8-- ,not to know thee1 is not to know ourselves-- ,is to know nothing--nothing worth the care ,of man's exalted spirit3--all becomes1 ,without thy ray divine1 one dreary gloom1 ,where lurk the monsters of phantastic brains1 ,order bereft of thought1 uncaus'd effects1 ,fate freely acting1 and unerring chance4 ,where meanless matter to a chaos sinks1 ,or something lower still1 for without thee ,it crumbles into atoms void of force1 ,void of resistance--it eludes our thought4 ,where laws eternal to the varying code ,of self-love dwindle4 ,interest1 passion1 whim1 ,take place of right and wrong1 the golden chain ,of beings melts away1 and the mind's eye ,sees nothing but the present4 ,all beyond ,is visionary guess--is dream--is death4#bc #bc ,stillingfleet's ,miscellaneous ,tracts4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,,of ,,vision2 ,,of ,,the ,,optical ,,effect ,,of ,,microscopes1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,manner ,,of ,,estimating ,,their ,,magnifying ,,powers4 ,the progress that has been made in the science of optics1 in the last and present century1 particularly by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 may with propriety be ranked among the greatest acquisitions of human knowledge4 ,and ,mess4 ,delaval and ,herschel have shewn by their discoveries1 that the boundaries of this science may be considerably enlarged4 ,the rays of light1 which minister to the sense of sight1 are the most wonderful and astonishing part of the inanimate creation2 of which we shall soon be convinced1 if we consider their extreme minuteness1 their inconceivable velocity1 the regular variety of colours they exhibit1 the invariable laws according to which they are acted upon by other substances1 in their reflections1 inflections1 and refractions1 without the least change of their original properties2 and the facility with which they pervade bodies of the greatest density and closest texture1 without resistance1 without crouding or disturbing each other4 ,these1 ,i believe1 will be deemed sufficient proofs of the wonderful nature of these rays2 without adding1 that it is by a peculiar modification of them1 that we are indebted for the advantages obtained by the microscope4 ,the science of optics1 which explains and treats of many of the properties of those rays of light1 is deduced from experiments1 on which all philosophers are agreed4 ,it is impossible to give an adequate idea of the nature of vision1 without a knowledge of these experiments1 and the mathematical reasoning grounded upon them2 but as to do this would alone fill a large volume1 ,i shall only endeavour to render some of the more general principles clear1 that the reader1 who is unacquainted with the science of optics1 may nevertheless be enabled to comprehend the nature of vision by the microscope4 ,some of the most important of these principles may be deduced from the following very interesting experiment4 ,darken a room1 and let the light be admitted therein only by a small hole2 then1 if the weather be fine1 you will see on the wall1 which is facing the hole1 a picture of all those exterior objects which are opposite thereto1 with all their colours1 though these will be but faintly seen4 ,the image of the objects that are stationary1 as trees1 houses1 c4 will appear fixed2 while the images of those that are in motion1 will be seen to move4 ,the image of every object will appear inverted1 because the rays cross each other in passing through the small hole4 ,if the sun shine on the hole1 we shall see a luminous ray proceed in a strait line1 and terminate on the wall4 ,if the eye be placed in this ray1 it will be in a right line with the hole and the sun3 it is the same with every other object which is painted on the wall4 ,the images of the objects exhibited on the same plane1 are smaller in proportion as the objects are further from the hole4 ,many and important are the inferences which may be deduced from the foregoing experiment1 among which are the following3 #a4 ,that light flows in a right line4 #b4 ,that a luminous point may be seen from all those places to which a strait line can be drawn from the point1 without meeting with any obstacle2 and consequently1 #c4 ,that a luminous point1 by some unknown power1 sends forth rays of light in all directions1 and is the center of a sphere of light1 which extends indefinitely on all sides2 and if we conceive some of these rays to be intercepted by a plane1 then is the luminous point the summit of a pyramid1 whose body is formed by the rays1 and its base by the intercepting plane4 ,the image of the surface of an object1 which is painted on the wall1 is also the base of a pyramid of light1 the apex of which is the hole2 the rays which form this pyramid1 by crossing at the hole1 form another1 similar and opposite to this1 of which the hole is also the summit1 and the surface of the object the base4 #d4 ,that an object is visible1 because all its points are radiant points4 #e4 ,that the particles of light are indefinitely small2 for the rays1 which proceed from the points of all the objects opposite to the hole1 pass through it1 though extremely small1 without embarrassing or confounding each other4 #f4 ,that every ray of light carries with it the image of the object from which it was emitted4 ,the nature of vision in the eye may be imperfectly illustrated by the experiment of the darkened room2 the pupil of the eye being considered as the hole through which the rays of light pass1 and cross each other1 to paint on the retina1 at the bottom of the eye1 the inverted images of all those objects which are exposed to the sight1 so that the diameters of the images of the same object are greater1 in proportion to the angles formed at the pupil1 by the crossing rays which proceed from the extremities of the object2 that is1 the diameter of the image is greater1 in proportion as the distance is less2 or1 in other words1 the apparent magnitude of an object is in some degree measured by the angle under which it is seen1 and this angle increases or diminishes1 according as the object is nearer to1 or farther from the eye2 and consequently1 the less the distance is between the eye and the object1 the larger the latter will appear4 ,from hence it follows1 that the apparent diameter of an object seen by the naked eye1 may be magnified in any proportion we please2 for1 as the apparent diameter is increased1 in proportion as the distance from the eye is lessenned1 we have only to lessen the distance of the object from the eye1 in order to increase the apparent diameter thereof4#bd ,thus1 suppose there is an object1 ,a ,b1 ,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a1 which to an eye at ,e subtends or appears under the angle ,a ,e ,b1 we may magnify the apparent diameter in what proportion we please1 by bringing our eye nearer to it4 ,if1 for instance1 we would magnify it in the proportion of ,f ,g to ,a ,b2 that is1 if we would see the object under an angle as large as ,f ,e ,g1 or would make it appear the same length that an object as long as ,f ,g would appear1 it may be done by coming nearer to the object4 ,for the apparent diameter is as the distance inversely2 therefore1 if ,c ,d is as much less than ,c ,e1 as ,f ,g is greater than ,a ,b1 by bringing the eye nearer to the object in the proportion of ,c ,d to ,e ,d1 the apparent diameter will be magnified in the proportion of ,f ,g to ,a ,b2 so that the object ,a ,b1 to the eye at ,d1 will appear as long as an object ,f ,g would appear to the eye at ,e4 ,in the same manner we might shew1 that the apparent diameter of an object1 when seen by the naked eye1 may be infinite4 ,for since the apparent diameter is reciprocally as the distance of the eye1 when the distance of the eye is nothing or when the eye is close to the object at ,c1 the apparent diameter will be the reciprocal of nothing1 or infinite4 #bd ,rutherforth's ,system of ,natural ,philosophy1 p4 #ccj4 ,there is1 however1 one great inconvenience in thus magnifying an object1 without the help of glasses1 by placing the eye nearer to it4 ,the inconvenience is1 that we cannot see an object distinctly1 unless the eye is about five or six inches from it2 therefore1 if we bring it nearer to our eye than five or six inches1 however it may be magnified1 it will be seen confusedly4 ,upon this account1 the greatest apparent magnitude of an object that we are used to1 is the apparent magnitude when the eye is about five or six inches from it3 and we never place an object much within that distance2 because1 though it might be magnified by these means1 yet the confusion would prevent our deriving any advantage from seeing it so large4 ,the size of an object seems extraordinary1 when viewed through a convex lens2 not because it is impossible to make it appear of the same size to the naked eye1 but because at the distance from the eye which would be necessary for this purpose1 it would appear exceedingly confused2 for which reason1 we never bring our eye so near to it1 and consequently1 as we have not been accustomed to see the object of this size1 it appears an extraordinary one4 ,on account of the extreme minuteness of the atoms of light1 it is clear1 a single ray1 or even a small number of rays1 cannot make a sensible impression on the organ of sight1 whose fibres are very gross1 when compared to these atoms2 it is necessary1 therefore1 that a great number should proceed from the surface of an object1 to render it visible4 ,but as the rays of light1 which proceed from an object1 are continually diverging1 different methods have been contrived1 either of uniting them in a given point1 or of separating them at pleasure3 the manner of doing this is the subject of dioptrics and catoptrics4 ,by the help of glasses1 we unite in the same sensible point a great number or rays1 proceeding from one point of an object2 and as each ray carries with it the image of the point from whence it proceeded1 all the rays united must form an image of the object from whence they were emitted4 ,this image is brighter1 in proportion as there are more rays united2 and more distinct1 in proportion as the order1 in which they proceeded1 is better preserved in their union4 ,this may be rendered evident2 for1 if a white and polished plane be placed where the union is formed1 we shall see the image of the object painted in all its colours on this plane2 which image will be brighter1 if all adventitious light be excluded from the plane on which it is received4 ,the point of union of the rays of light1 formed by means of a glass lens1 c4 is called the ,,focus4 ,now1 as each ray carries with it the image of the object from whence it proceeded1 it follows1 that if those rays1 after intersecting each other1 and having formed an image at their intersection1 are again united by a refraction or reflection1 they will form a new image1 and that repeatedly1 as long as their order is not confounded or disturbed4 ,it follows also1 that when the progress of the luminous ray is under consideration1 we may look on the image as the object1 and the object as the image2 and consider the second image as if it had been produced by the first as an object1 and so on4 ,in order to gain a clear idea of the wonderful effects produced by glasses1 we must proceed to say something of the principles of refraction4 ,any body1 which is so constituted as to yield a passage to the rays of light1 is called a ,,medium4 ,air1 water1 glass1 c4 are mediums of light4 ,if any medium afford an easy passage to the rays of light1 it is called a ,,rare ,,medium2 but if it do not afford an easy passage to these rays1 it is called a ,,dense ,,medium4 ,let ,z1 ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,i4 be a rare medium1 and ,y a dense one2 and let them be separated by the plane surface ,g ,h4 ,let ,i ,k be a perpendicular to it1 and cutting it in ,c4 ,with the center ,c1 and any distance1 let a circle be described4 ,then let ,a ,c be a ray of light1 falling upon the dense medium4 ,this ray1 if nothing prevented1 would go forward to ,l2 but because the medium ,y is supposed to be denser than ,z1 it will be bent downward toward the perpendicular ,i ,k1 and describe the line ,c ,b4 ,the ray ,a ,c is called the ,,incident ,,ray2 and the ray ,c ,b1 the ,,refracted ,,ray4 ,the angle ,a ,c ,i is called the ,,angle ,,of ,,incidence1 and the angle ,b ,c ,k is called the ,,angle ,,of ,,refraction4 ,if from the point ,a upon the right line ,c ,i1 there be let fall the perpendicular ,a ,d1 that line is called the sine of the angle of incidence4 ,in the same manner1 if from the point ,b1 upon the right line ,i ,k1 there be let fall the perpendicular ,b ,e1 that line will be the sine of the angle of refraction4 ,the sines of the angles are the measures of the refractions1 and this measure is constant2 that is1 whatever is the sine of the angle of incidence1 it will be in a constant proportion to the sine of the angle of refraction1 when the mediums continue the same4 ,a general idea of refraction may be formed from the following experiments4 ,,experiment #a4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,i4 represent a vessel so placed1 with respect to the candle ,e1 that the shadow of the side ,a ,c may fall at ,d4 ,suppose the vessel to be now filled with water1 and the shadow will withdraw to d2 the ray of light1 instead of proceeding to ,d1 being refracted or bent to d4 ,and there is no doubt but that an eye1 placed at d1 would see the candle at e1 in the direction of the refracted ray d ,a4 ,this is also confirmed by the following pleasing experiment4 #b4 ,lay a shilling1 or any piece of money1 at the bottom of a bason2 then withdraw from the bason1 till you lose sight of the shilling2 fill the bason nearly with water1 and the shilling will be seen very plainly1 though you are at the same distance from it4 #c4 ,place a stick over a bason which is filled with water2 then reflect the sun's rays1 so that they may fall perpendicularly on the surface of the water2 the shadow of the stick will fall on the same place1 whether the vessel be empty or full4 ,what has been said of water1 may be applied to any transparent medium1 only the power of refraction is greater in some than in others4 ,it is from this wonderful property1 that we derive all the curious effects of glass1 which make it the subject of optics4 ,it is to this we owe the powers of the microscope and the telescope4 ,to produce these effects1 pieces of glass are formed into given figures1 which1 when so formed1 are called lenses4 ,the six following figures are those which are most in use for optical purposes4 #a4 ,a ,,plane ,,glass1 one that is flat on each side1 and of an equal thickness throughout4 ,f1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 #b4 ,a ,,double ,,convex ,,glass1 one that is more elevated towards the middle than the edge4 ,b1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 #c4 ,a ,,double ,,concave is hollow on both sides1 or thinner in the middle than at the edges4 ,d1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 #d4 ,a ,,plano ,,convex1 flat on one side1 and convex on the other4 ,a1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 #e4 ,a ,,plano ,,concave1 flat on one side1 and concave on the other4 ,c1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 #f4 ,a ,,meniscus1 convex on one side1 concave on the other4 ,e1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,i4 ,it has been already observed1 that light proceeds invariably from a luminous body1 in strait lines1 without the least deviation2 but if it happen to pass from one medium to another1 it always leaves the direction it had before1 and assumes a new one4 ,after having taken this new direction1 it proceeds in a strait line1 till it meets with a different medium1 which again turns it out of its course4 ,a ray of light passing obliquely through a plane glass1 will go out in the same direction it entered1 though not precisely in the same line4 ,the ray ,c ,d1 ,fig4#d4 ,plate ,i4 falling obliquely upon the surface of the plane glass ,a ,b1 will be refracted towards the glass in the direction ,d ,e2 but when it comes to ,e1 it will be as much refracted the contrary way4 ,if the ray of light had fallen perpendicularly on the surface of the plane glass1 it would have passed through it in a strait line1 and not have been refracted at all4 ,if parallel rays of light1 as a b c d e f g1 ,fig4 #f4 ,plate ,i4 fall directly upon a convex lens ,a ,b1 they will be so bent1 as to unite in a point ,c behind it4 ,for the ray d ,d which falls perpendicularly upon the middle of the glass1 will go through it without suffering any refraction3 but those which go through the sides of the lens1 falling obliquely on its surface1 will be so bent1 as to meet the central ray at ,c4 ,the further the ray a is from the axis of the lens1 the more obliquely it will fall upon it4 ,the rays a b c d e f g will be so refracted1 as to meet or be collected in the point ,c1 called the principal focus1 whose distance1 in a double convex lens1 is equal to the radius or semi-diameter of the sphere of the convexity of the lens4 ,all the rays cross the middle ray at ,c1 and then diverge from it to the contrary side1 in the same manner as they were before converged4 ,if another lens1 of the same convexity1 as ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #f4 ,plate ,i4 be placed in the rays1 and at the same distance from the focus1 it will refract them1 so that after going out of it1 they will all be parallel again1 and go on in the same manner as they came to the first glass ,a ,b1 but on the contrary sides of the middle ray4 ,the rays diverge from any radiant point1 as from a principal focus3 therefore1 if a candle be placed at ,c1 in the focus of the convex lens ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #f4 ,plate ,i4 the rays diverging from it will be so refracted by the lens1 that after going out of it1 they will become parallel4 ,if the candle be placed nearer the lens than its focal distance1 the rays will diverge more or less1 as the candle is more or less distant from the focus4 ,if any object1 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #g4 ,plate ,i4 be placed beyond the focus of the convex lens ,e ,f1 some of the rays which flow from every point of the object1 on the side next the glass1 will fall upon it1 and after passing through it1 they will be converged into as many points on the opposite side of the glass2 for the rays a b1 which flow from the point ,a1 will converge into a b1 and meet at ,c4 ,the rays c d1 flowing from the point ,g1 will be converged into c d1 and meet at g2 and the rays which flow from ,b1 will meet each other again at ,d2 and so of the rays which flow from any of the intermediate points3 for there will be as many focal points formed1 as there are radiant points in the object1 and consequently they will depict on a sheet of paper1 or any other light-coloured body1 placed at ,d g ,c1 an inverted image of the object4 ,if the object be brought nearer the lens1 the picture will be formed further off4 ,if it be placed at the principal focus1 the rays will go out parallel1 and consequently form no picture behind the glass4 ,to render this still plainer1 let us divest what has been said of the ,a's and ,b's1 and of the references to figures4 ,when objects are viewed through a flat or plane glass1 the rays of light in passing through it1 from the object to the eye1 proceed in a strait direction and parallel to each other1 and consequently the object appeared at the same distance as to the naked eye1 neither enlarged or diminished4 ,but if the glass be of a convex form1 the rays of light change their direction in passing through the glass1 and incline from the circumference towards the center of convexity1 in an angle proportional to the convexity1 and meet at a point at a less or greater distance from the glass1 as it is more or less convex4 ,the point where the rays thus meet is called the focus2 when1 therefore1 the convexity is small1 the focus is at a great distance1 but when it is considerable1 the focus is near2 the magnifying power is in proportion to the change made in the rays1 or the degree of convexity1 by which we are enabled to see an object nearer than we otherwise could2 and the nearer it is brought to the eye1 the larger will be the angle under which it appears1 and consequently the more it will be magnified4 ,the human eye is so constituted1 that it can only have distinct vision1 when the rays which fall on it are parallel1 or nearly so2 because the retina1 on which the image is painted1 is placed in the focus of the crystalline humor1 which performs the office of a lens in collecting rays1 and forming the image in the bottom of the eye4 ,as an object becomes perceptible to us1 by means of the image thereof which is formed on the retina1 it will1 therefore1 be seen in that direction1 in which the rays enter the eye to form the image1 and will always be found in the line1 in which the axis of a pencil of rays flowing from it enters the eye4 ,we from hence acquire a habit of judging the object to be situated in that line4 ,note2 as the mind is unacquainted with the refraction the rays suffer before they enter the eye1 it judges them to be in the line produced back1 in which the axis of a pencil of rays flowing from it is situated1 and not in that in which it was before the refraction4 ,if the rays1 therefore1 that proceed from an object1 are refracted and reflected several times before they enter the eye1 and these refractions or reflections change considerably the original direction of the rays which proceed from the object1 it is clear1 that it will not be seen in that line1 which would come strait from it to the eye2 but it will be seen in the direction of those rays which enter the eye1 and form the image thereof on it4 ,we perceive the presence and figure of objects1 by the impression each respective image makes on the retina2 the mind1 in consequence of these impressions1 forms conclusions concerning the size1 position1 and motion of the object4 ,it must however be observed1 that these conclusions are often rectified or changed by the mind1 in consequence of the effects of more habitual impressions4 ,for example1 there is a certain distance1 at which1 in the general business of life1 we are accustomed to see objects3 now1 though the measure of the image of these objects changes considerably when they move from1 or approach nearer to us1 yet we do not perceive that their size is much altered2 but beyond this distance1 we find the objects appear to be diminished1 or increased1 in proportion as they are more or less distant from us4 ,for instance1 if ,i place my eye successively at two1 at four1 and at six feet from the same person1 the dimensions of the image on the retina will be nearly in the proportion of #a1 of 1 of 1 and consequently they should appear to be diminished in the same proportion2 but we do not perceive this diminution1 because the mind has rectified the impression received on the retina4 ,to prove this1 we need only consider1 that if we see a person at #abj feet distance1 he will not appear so strikingly small1 as if the same person should be viewed from the top of a tower1 or other building #abj feet high1 a situation to which we had not been accustomed4 ,from hence1 also1 it is clear1 that when we place a glass between the object and the eye1 which from its figure changes the direction of the rays of light from the object1 this object ought not to be judged as if it were placed at the ordinary reach of the sight1 in which case we judge of its size more by habit than by the dimensions of the images formed on the retina2 but it must be estimated by the size of the image in the eye1 or by the angle formed at the eye1 by the two rays which come from the extremity of the object4 ,if the image of an object1 formed after refraction1 be greater or less than the angle formed at the eye1 by the rays proceeding from the extremities of the object itself1 the object will appear also proportionably enlarged or diminished2 so that if the eye approach to or remove from the last image1 the object will appear to increase or diminish1 though the eye should in reality remove from it in one case1 or approach toward it in the other2 because the image takes place of the object1 and is considered instead of it4 ,the apparent distance of an object from the eye1 is not measured by the real distance from the last image2 for1 as the apparent distance is estimated principally by the ideas we have of their size1 it follows1 that when we see objects1 whose images are increased or diminished by refraction1 we naturally judge them to be nearer or further from the eye1 in proportion to the size thereof1 when compared to that with which we are acquainted4 ,the apparent distance of an object is considerably affected by the brightness1 distinctness1 and magnitude thereof4 ,now as these circumstances are1 in a certain degree1 altered by the refraction of the rays1 in their passing through different mediums1 they will also1 in some measure1 affect the estimation of the apparent distance4 ,in the theory of vision it is necessary to be cautious not to confound the organs of vision with the being that perceives1 or with the perspective faculty4 ,the eye is not that which sees1 it is only the organ by which we see4 ,a man cannot see the satellites of ,jupiter but by a telescope4 ,does he conclude from this1 that it is the telescope that sees those stars8 ,by no means2 such a conclusion would be absurd4 ,it is no less absurd to conclude1 that it is the eye that sees4 ,the telescope is an artificial organ of sight1 but it sees not4 ,the eye is a natural organ of sight1 by which we see2 but the natural organ sees as little as the artificial4 ,the eye is a machine1 most admirably contrived for refracting the rays of light1 and forming a distinct picture of objects upon the retina2 but it sees neither the object nor the picture4 ,it can form the picture after it is taken out of the head1 but no vision ensues4 ,even when it is in its proper place1 and perfectly sound1 it is well known1 that an obstruction in the optic nerve takes away vision1 though the eye has performed all that belongs to it4#be #be ,reid on the ,intellectual ,powers of ,man1 p4 #gh4 ,,of ,,the ,,single ,,microscope4 ,the single microscope renders minute objects visible1 by means of a small glass globule1 or convex lens1 of a short focus4 ,let ,e ,y1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,plate ,i4 represent the eye2 and ,o ,b a small object1 situated very near to it2 consequently1 the angle of its apparent magnitude very large4 ,let the convex lens ,r ,s be interposed between the eye and the object1 so that the distance between it and the object may be equal to the focal length2 and the rays which diverge from the object1 and pass through the lens1 will afterwards proceed1 and consequently enter the eye parallel3 after which1 they will be converged1 and form an inverted picture on the retina1 and the object will be clearly seen2 though1 if removed to the distance of six inches1 its smallness would render it invisible4 ,when the lens is not held close to the eye1 the object is somewhat more magnified2 because the pencils1 which pass at a distance from the center of the lens1 are refracted inward toward the axis1 and consequently seem to come from points more remote from the center of the object1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #ab4 ,plate ,i4 where the pencils which proceed from ,o and ,b are refracted inwards1 and seem to come from the point i and m4 ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,i4 may1 perhaps give the reader a still clearer view1 why a convex lens increases the angle of vision4 ,without a lens1 as ,f ,g1 the eye at ,a would see the dart ,b ,c under the angle b ,a c2 but the rays ,b ,f and ,c ,g from the extremities of the dart in passing through the lens1 are refracted to the eye in the directions f ,a and g ,a1 which causes the dart to be seen under the much larger angle ,d ,a ,e 7the same as the angle f ,a g47 ,and therefore the dart ,b ,c will appear so much magnified1 as to extend in length from ,d to ,e4 ,the object1 when thus seen distinctly1 by means of a small lens1 appears to be magnified nearly in the proportion which the focal distance of the glass bears to the distance of the objects1 when viewed by the naked eye4 ,to explain this further1 place the eye close to the glass1 that as much of the object may be seen at one view as is possible2 then remove the object to and fro1 till it appear perfectly distinct1 and well defined2 now remove the lens1 and substitute in its place a thin plate1 with a very small hole in it1 and the object will appear as distinct1 and as much magnified1 as with the lens1 though not quite so bright2 and it appears as much more magnified in this case1 than it does when viewed with the naked eye1 as the distance of the object from the hole1 or lens1 is less than the distance at which it may be seen distinctly with the naked eye4 ,from hence we see1 that the whole effect of the lens is to render the object distinct1 which it does by assisting the eye to increase the refraction of the rays in each pencil2 and that the apparent magnitude is entirely owing to the object being seen so much nearer the eye than it could be viewed without it4 ,single microscopes magnify the diameter of the object1#bf as we have already shewn1 in the proportion of the focal distance 7to the limits of distinct vision with the naked eye7 to eight inches4 ,for example1 if the semi-diameter of a lens1 equally convex on both sides1 be half an inch1 which is also equal to its focal distance1 we shall have as is to #h1 so is #a to #af2 that is1 the diameter of the object in the proportion of sixteen to one4 #b4 ,as the distance of eight inches is always the same1 it follows1 that by how much the focal distance is smaller1 there will be a greater difference between it and the eight inches2 and consequently1 the diameter of the object will be so much the more magnified1 in proportion as the lenses are segments of smaller spheres4 #c4 ,if the object be placed in the focus of a glass globule or sphere1 and the eye be behind it in the focus1 the object will be seen distinct in an erect situation1 and magnified as to its diameter1 in the proportion of of the diameter of the globule to eight inches2 thus suppose the diameter of the sphere to be of an inch1 then of this will be equal to 2 consequently1 the real diameter of the object to the apparent one1 as to #h1 or as #c to #cbj1 or as #a to #ajf nearly4 #bf ,cyclopedia1 ,article ,microscope4 ,,of ,,the ,,double ,,or ,,compound ,,microscope4 ,in the compound microscope1 the image is viewed instead of the object1 which image is magnified by a single lens1 as the object is in a single microscope4 ,it consists of an object lens ,n ,l1 ,fig4 #e4 ,plate ,i4 and an eye glass ,f ,g4 ,the object ,b ,o is placed a little further from the lens than its principal focal distance1 so that the pencils of rays proceeding from the different points of the object through the lens1 may converge to their respective foci1 and form an inverted image of the object at ,q ,p2 which image is viewed by the eye through the eye glass ,f ,g1 which is so placed1 that the image may be in its focus on one side1 and the eye at the same distance on the other4 ,the rays of each pencil will be parallel1 after passing out of the glass1 till they reach the eye at ,e1 where they will begin to converge by the refractive powers of the humours2 and after having crossed each other in the pupil1 and passed through the crystalline and vitreous humours1 they will be collected in points on the retina1 and form a large inverted image thereon4 ,it will be easy1 from what has been already explained1 to understand the reason of the magnifying power of a compound microscope4 ,the object is magnified upon two accounts2 first1 because if we viewed the image with the naked eye1 it would appear as much larger than the object1 as the image is really larger than it1 or as the distance f ,r is greater than the distance f b2 and secondly1 because this picture is again magnified by the eye glass1 upon the principle explained in the foregoing article on vision1 by single microscopes4 ,but it is to be noted1 that the image formed in the focus of a lens1 as is the case in the compound microscope1 differs from the real object in a very essential particular2 that is to say1 the light being emitted from the object in every direction1 renders it visible to an eye placed in any position2 but the points of the image formed by a lens1 emitting no more than a small conical body of rays1 which arrives from the glass1 can be visible only when the eye is situate within its confine4 ,thus1 the pencil1 which emanates from o in the object1 and is converged by the lens to ,d1 proceeds afterwards diverging towards ,h1 and1 therefore1 never arrives at the lens ,f ,g1 nor enters the eye at ,e4 ,but the pencils which proceed from the points o and b1 will be received on the lens ,f ,g1 and by it carried parallel to the eye2 consequently1 the correspondent points of the image ,q ,p will be visible2 and those which are situate farther out towards ,h and ,i1 will not be seen4 ,this quantity of the image ,q ,p1 or visible area1 is called the field of view4 ,hence it appears1 that if the image be large1 a very small part of it will be visible2 because the pencils of rays will for the most part fall without the eye glass ,f ,g4 ,and it is likewise plain1 that a remedy which would cause the pencils1 which proceed from the extremes ,b and ,o of the object1 to arrive at the eye1 will render a greater part of it visible3 or1 in other words1 enlarge the field of view4 ,this is effected by the interposition of a broad lens ,d ,e1 ,fig4 #e1 of a proper curvature1 at a small distance from the focal image4 ,for1 by those means1 the pencil ,d ,n1 which would otherwise have proceeded towards ,h1 is refracted to the eye1 as delineated in the figure1 and the mind conceives from thence the existence of a radiant point at ,q1 from which the rays last proceeded4 ,in like manner1 and by a parity of reason1 the other extreme of the image is seen at ,p1 and the intermediate points are also rendered visible4 ,on these considerations it is1 that compound microscopes are usually made to consist of an object lens ,n ,l1 by which the image is formed1 enlarged1 and inverted2 an amplifying lens ,d ,e1 by which the field of view is enlarged1 and an eye glass or lens1 by which the eye is allowed to approach very near1 and consequently to view the image under a very great angle of apparent magnitude4 ,it is now customary to combine two or more lenses together at the eye glass1 in the manner of ,eustachio ,divinis and ,m4 ,joblot2 by which means the aberration of light from the figure is in some measure corrected1 and the apparent field increased4 ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,in this instrument1 the image of the object is refracted upon a screen in a darkened room4 ,it may be considered under two distinct heads3 #ast1 the mirror and lens1 which are intended to reflect and transmit the light of the sun upon the object2 and #b;dly1 that part which constitutes the microscope1 or which produces the magnified image of the object1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,plate ,i4 ,let ,n ,o represent the side of a darkened chamber1 ,g ,h a small convex lens1 fixed opposite to a perforation in the side ,n ,o1 ,a ,b a plane mirror or looking glass1 placed without the room to reflect the solar rays on the lens ,c ,d1 by which they are converged and concentrated on the object fixed at ,e ,f4 #b4 ,the object being thus illuminated1 the ray which proceeds from ,e will be converged by the lens ,g ,h to a focus ,k1 on the screen ,l ,m2 and the ray which comes from ,f will be converged to ,i1 and the intermediate points will be delineated between ,i and ,k2 thus forming a picture1 which will be as much larger than the object1 in proportion as the distance of the screen exceeds that of the image from the object2 a small object1 such as a mite1 c4 may be thus magnified to eight or ten feet in diameter4 ,from what has been said1 it appears plainly1 the advantages we gain by microscopes are derived1 first1 from their magnifying power1 by which the eye is enabled to view more distinctly the parts of minute objects3 secondly1 that by their assistance1 more light is thrown into the pupil of the eye1 than is done without them4 ,the advantages procured by the magnifying power1 would be exceedingly circumscribed1 if they were not accompanied by the latter3 for if the same quantity of light be diffused over a much larger surface1 its force is proportionably diminished2 and therefore the object1 though magnified1 will be dark and obscure4 ,thus1 suppose the diameter of the object to be enlarged ten times1 and consequently the surface one-hundred times1 yet1 if the focal distance of the glass were eight inches1 provided this were possible1 and its diameter only about the size of the pupil of the eye1 the object would appear one-hundred times more obscure when viewed through the glass1 than when it was seen by the naked eye2 and this even on the supposition that the glass transmitted all the light which fell upon it1 which no glass can do4 ,but if the glass were only four inches focal distance1 and its diameter remained as before1 the inconvenience would be vastly diminished1 because the glass could be placed twice as near the object as before1 and would consequently receive four times as many rays as in the former case1 and we should1 therefore1 see it much brighter than before4 ,by going on thus1 diminishing the focal distance of the glass1 and keeping its diameter as large as possible1 we shall perceive the object proportionably magnified1 and yet remain bright and distinct4 ,though this is the case in theory1 yet there is a limit in optical instruments1 which is soon arrived at1 but which cannot be passed4 ,this arises from the following circumstances4#bg #bg ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 last edition1 vol4 xiii1 p4 #ceg4 #a4 ,the quantity of light lost in passing through the glass4 #b4 ,the diminution in the diameter of the glass or lens itself1 by which it receives only a small quantity of rays4 #c4 ,the extreme shortness of the focal distance of great magnifiers1 whereby the free access of the light to the object we wish to view is impeded1 and consequently the reflection of the light from it is weakened4 #d4 ,the aberration of the rays1 occasioned by their different refrangibility4 ,to make this more clear1 let us suppose a lens made of such dull kind of glass1 that it transmits only one half the light that falls upon it4 ,it is evident1 that supposing this lens to be of four inches focus1 and to magnify the diameter of the object twice1 and its own breadth equal to that of the pupil of the eye1 the object will be four times magnified in surface1 but only half as bright as if it was seen by the naked eye at the usual distance2 for the light which falls upon the eye from the object at eight inches distance1 and likewise the surface of the object in its natural size1 being both represented by #a1 the surface of the magnified object will be #d1 and the light which makes it visible only #b2 because1 though the glass receives four times as much light as the naked eye does at the usual distance of distinct vision1 yet one half is lost in passing through the glass4 ,the inconvenience1 in this respect1 can only be removed so far as it is possible to increase the transparency of the glass1 that it may transmit nearly all the rays which fall upon it2 and how far this can be done1 has not been yet ascertained4 ,the second obstacle to the perfection of microscopic glasses1 is the small size of great magnifiers2 by which means1 notwithstanding their near approach to the object1 they receive a smaller quantity of light than might be expected4 ,thus1 suppose a glass of only one-tenth of an inch focal distance1 such a glass would increase the visible diameter eighty times1 and the surface #fdjj times4 ,if the breadth of the glass could at the same time be preserved as great as the pupil of the eye1 which we shall suppose one-tenth of an inch1 the object would appear magnified #fdjj times1 and every part would be as bright as it appears to the naked eye4 ,but if we suppose the lens to be only of an inch diameter1 it will then only receive one-fourth of the light which would otherwise have fallen upon it2 therefore1 instead of communicating to the magnified object a quantity of light equal to #fdjj1 it would communicate an illumination suited only to #afjj1 and the magnified object would appear four times as dim as it does to the naked eye4 ,this inconvenience can1 however1 in a great degree be removed1 by throwing a much larger quantity of light on the object4 ,various methods of effecting this purpose will be pointed out in the course of this work4 ,the third obstacle arises from the shortness of the focal distance in large magnifiers2 this inconvenience can1 like the former1 be remedied in some degree1 by artificial means of accumulating light2 but still the eye is strained1 as it must be brought nearer the glass than it can well bear1 which in some measure supersedes the use of very deep lenses1 or such as are capable of magnifying beyond a certain degree4 ,the fourth obstacle arises from the different refrangibility of the rays of light1 which frequently causes such deviations from truth in the appearance of things1 that many have imagined themselves to have made surprising discoveries1 and have communicated them as such to the world2 when1 in fact1 they have been only so many optical deceptions1 owing to the unequal refraction of the rays4 ,in telescopes1 this error has been happily corrected by the late ,mr4 ,dollond's valuable discovery of achromatic glasses2 but how far this invention is applicable to the improvement of microscopes1 has not yet been ascertained2 and1 indeed1 from some few trials made1 there is reason for supposing they cannot be successfully applied to microscopes with high powers2 so that this improvement is yet a desideratum in the construction of microscopes1 and they may be considered as being yet far from their ultimate degree of perfection4#bh #bh ,how many useful and ingenious discoveries have arisen from accidental circumstances8 ,to adduce one recent instance only--,aerostation1 a science1 which after having baffled the skill and ingenuity of philosophers for a series of years1 and by many illiterate persons deemed an idea bordering on absurdity1 has been of late discovered1 and successfully applied to practice4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,the ,,magnifying ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,microscope4 ,we have already treated of the apparent magnitude of objects1 and shewn that they are measured by the angles under which they are seen1 and that this angle is greater or smaller according as the object is nearer to1 or further from1 the eye2 and1 consequently1 the less the distance at which it can be viewed1 the larger it will appear3 but from the limits of natural vision1 the naked eye cannot distinguish an object that is very near to it2 yet1 when assisted by a convex lens1 distinct vision is obtained1 however short the focus of the lens1 and1 consequently1 how near soever the object is to the eye2 and the shorter the focus of the lens is1 the greater will be the magnifying power thereof4 ,from these considerations1 it will not be difficult to estimate the magnifying power of any lens used as a single microscope2 for this will be in the same proportion that the limits of natural sight bear to the focus of the lens4 ,if1 for instance1 the convex lens is of one inch focus1 and the natural sight of eight inches1 an object seen through that lens will have its diameter apparently increased eight times2 but1 as the object is increased in every direction1 we must square this apparent diameter1 to know how much the object is really magnified2 and thus multiplying #h by #h1 we find the superficies is magnified #fd times4 ,from these principles1 the following general rule for ascertaining the magnifying power of single lenses1 is deduced4 ,place a small thin transparent object on the stage of the microscope1 adjust the lens till the object appears perfectly distinct1 then measure the distance accurately between the lens and the object1 reduce the measure thus found to the hundredths of an inch1 and calculate how many times this measure is contained in eight inches1 first reducing the eight inches into hundredths1 which will give you the number of times the diameter of the object is magnified2 which number multiplied into itself1 or squared1 gives the apparent superficial magnitude of the object4 ,as only one side of an object can be viewed at a time1 it is sufficient1 in general1 to know how much the surface thereof is magnified3 but when it is necessary to know how many minute objects are contained in a larger1 as for instance1 how many given animalcul are contained in the bulk of a grain of sand1 then we must cube the first number1 by which means we shall obtain the solidity or magnified bulk4 ,the foregoing rule has been also applied to estimate the magnifying power of the compound microscope4 ,to this application1 ,mr4 ,magny1 in the 8,journal d',economie pour le mois d',aout #agec10 has made several objections3 one or two of these ,i shall just mention2 the first is the difficulty of ascertaining with accuracy the precise focus of a small lens2 the second is the want of a fixed or known measure1 with which to compare the focus when ascertained4 ,these considerations1 though apparently trifling1 will be found of importance in the calculations which are relative to deep magnifiers4 ,to this it may be further added1 that the same standard or fixed measure cannot be assumed for a short-sighted1 that is used for a well-constituted eye4 ,to obviate these difficulties1 and some errors in the methods which were recommended by ,mess4 ,baker and ,needham1 ,mr4 ,magny offers the following ,,proposition4 ,all convex lenses of whatsoever foci1 double the apparent diameter of an object1 provided that the object be at the focus of the glass on one side1 and the eye be at the same distance1 or on the focus of the glass1 at the opposite side4 ,,experiment4 ,take a double convex lens1 of six or eight inches focus1 and fix it as at ,a1 ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 into the piece ,a1 which is fixed perpendicular to the rule ,f ,g1 and may be slid along it by means of its socket3 the rule is divided into inches and parts4 ,paste a piece of white paper1 two or three tenths of an inch broad1 and three inches long1 on the board ,d2 draw three lines with ink on this piece of paper1 so as to divide it into four equal parts1 taking care that the middle of the paper corresponds with the center of the lens4 ,there is also a sliding eye-piece1 which is represented at e4 ,take this apparatus into the darkest part of the room1 but opposite to the window2 direct the glass towards any remarkable and distant object which is out of doors1 and move the sliding piece ,b1 until the image of the object on the paper be sharp and clear4 ,the distance between the face of the paper and the lens 7which is shewn on the side of the rule by the divisions thereon7 is the focus of the glass2 now set the eye-piece e ,e to the same distance on the other side of the glass1 then with one eye close to the sight at e1 look at the magnified image of the lines1 and with the other eye at the lines themselves3 the image1 seen by means of the glass1 and expressed in the figure by the dotted lines1 will be double the breadth of the same object seen by the natural eye4 ,this will be found to be true1 whatsoever is the focus of the lens with which the experiment is made4 ,this experiment is rendered more simple to those who are not accustomed to observe with both eyes at the same time1 by making use of half a lens1 and placing the diameter perpendicular to the rule1 as they may then readily view the magnified image and real object with the same glance of the eye1 and thus compare them together with ease and accuracy4 ,let the angle ,a ,f ,b1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 represent that which is formed at the naked eye1 by the rays of light which pass from the extremities of the object1 and unite at the eye in the point ,f4 ,the angle ,d ,f ,e is formed of the two rays1 which at first proceeded parallel to each other from the extremities of the object1 but that were afterwards so refracted1 or bent1 by passing through the glass1 as to unite at its focal point ,f4 ,c ,o is equal to the focal distance of the lens on the side next the object1 ,c ,f equal thereto on the side next the eye1 ,f ,o the distance of the eye4 ,from the allowed principles of optics1 it is evident1 that the object would appear double the size to the eye at ,c1 than it would to the eye when placed at ,f2 because the distance ,f ,o is double the distance ,c ,o4 ,we have only to prove then1 that the angle ,a ,c ,b is equal to the angle ,i ,f ,k1 in order to establish the proposition4 ,the optical axis is perpendicular to the glass and the surface of the object4 ,the rays ,a ,i1 ,b ,k1 which flow from the points ,a ,b are parallel to each other1 and perpendicular to the glass1 till they arrive at it2 they are then refracted and proceed to ,f1 where they form the triangle ,i ,f ,k1 resting on the base ,i ,k3 now as ,c ,f is equal to ,c ,o1 and ,i ,k is equal to ,a ,b1 the two triangles ,a ,c ,b1 ,i ,f ,k are similar1 and consequently the angle at ,c is equal to the angle ,f4 ,if the visual rays are continued to the surface of the object1 they will form the triangle ,d ,f ,e1 equiangled to the triangle ,a ,b ,c2 and therefore1 as ,c ,o is to ,a ,b1 so is ,f ,d to ,d ,e2 and consequently1 the apparent diameter of the object seen through the lens is double the size that it is when viewed by the naked eye4 ,no notice is here taken of the double refraction of the rays1 as it does not affect the demonstration4 ,if you advance towards ,m1 half the focal distance1 the apparent diameter will be only increased one-third4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the point of sight is lengthened to double the distance of its focus1 then the magnified diameter will appear to be three times that of the real object4 ,mr4 ,magny concludes from hence1 that there is an impropriety in estimating the magnifying power of the eye glass of compound microscopes1 by seeing how often its focus is contained in eight or ten inches2 and to obviate these defects1 he recommends two methods to be used1 which reciprocally confirm each other4 ,the first and most simple method to find how much any compound microscope magnifies an object1 is the same which is described by ,dr4 ,hooke in his ,micrographia1 and is as follows3 place an accurate scale1 which is divided into very minute parts of an inch1 on the stage of your microscope2 adjust the microscope1 till these divisions appear distinct2 then observe with the other eye how many divisions of a rule1 similarly divided and held at the stage1 are included in one of the magnified divisions3 for if one division1 as seen with one eye through the microscope1 extend to thirty divisions on the rule1 which is seen by the naked eye1 it is evident1 that the diameter of the object is increased or magnified thirty times4 ,for this purpose1 we often use a small black ebony rule1 7see ,fig4 #d4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a17 three or four tenths of an inch broad1 and about seven inches long2 at each inch is fixed a piece of ivory1 the first inch is entirely of ivory1 and subdivided into ten equal parts4 #b4 ,a piece of glass1 ,fig4 #b1 fixed in a brass or ivory slider2 on the diameter of this are drawn two parallel lines1 about three-tenths of an inch long2 each tenth being divided1 one into three1 the second into four1 the third into five parts4 ,to use this1 place the glass1 ,fig4 #b1 on the middle of the stage1 and the rule1 ,fig4 #d1 on one side1 but parallel to it2 then look into the microscope with one eye1 keeping the other open1 and observe how many parts one-tenth of a line in the microscope takes in upon the parts of the rule seen by the naked eye4 ,for instance1 suppose with a fourth magnifier that one-tenth of an inch magnified answers in length to forty-tenths or parts on the rule1 when seen by the naked eye1 then this magnifier increases the diameter of the object forty times4 ,this mode of actual admeasurement is1 without doubt1 the most simple that can be used2 by it we comprehend1 as it were1 at one glance1 the different effects of combined glasses2 it saves the trouble1 and avoids the obscurity that attends the usual modes of calculation2 but many persons find it exceedingly difficult to adopt this method1 because they have not been accustomed to observe with both eyes at once4 ,we shall therefore proceed to describe another method1 which has not this inconvenience4 ,,of ,,the ,,needle ,,micrometer4 ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 represents this micrometer4 ,the first of this kind was made by my father1 and was described by him in his ,micrographia ,illustrata4 ,it consists of a screw1 which has fifty threads to an inch2 this screw carries an index1 which points to the divisions on a circular plate1 which is fixed at right angles to the axis of the screw4 ,the revolutions of the screw are counted on a scale1 which is an inch divided into fifty parts2 the index to these divisions is a flower de luce marked upon the slider1 which carries the needle point across the field of the microscope4 ,every revolution of the micrometer screw measures part of an inch1 which is again subdivided by means of the divisions on the circular plate1 as this is divided into twenty equal parts1 over which the index passes at every revolution of the screw2 by which means1 we obtain with ease the measure of one-thousandth part of an inch2 for #ej1 the number of threads on the screw in one inch1 being multiplied by #bj1 the divisions on the circular plate1 are equal to #ajjj2 so that each division on the circular plate shews that the needle has either advanced or receded one-thousandth part of an inch4 ,to place this micrometer on the body of the microscope1 open the circular part ,f ,k ,h1 ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 by taking out the screw ,g1 throw back the semicircle ,f ,k which moves upon a joint at ,k1 then turn the sliding tube of the body of the microscope1 so that the small holes which are in both tubes may exactly coincide1 and let the needle g of the micrometer have a free passage through them2 after this1 screw it fast upon the body by the screw ,g4 ,the needle will now traverse the field of the microscope1 and measure the length and breadth of the image of any object that is applied to it4 ,but further assistance must be had1 in order to measure the object itself1 which is a subject of real importance2 for though we have ascertained the power of the microscope1 and know that it is so many thousand times1 yet this will be of little assistance towards ascertaining an accurate idea of its real size2 for our ideas of bulk being formed by the comparison of one object with another1 we can only judge of that of any particular body1 by comparing it with another whose size is known3 the same thing is necessary1 in order to form an estimate by the microscope2 therefore1 to ascertain the real measure of the object1 we must make the point of the needle pass over the image of a known part of an inch placed on the stage1 and write down the revolutions made by the screw1 while the needle passed over the image of this known measure2 by which means we ascertain the number of revolutions on the screw1 which are adequate to a real and known measure on the stage4 ,as it requires an attentive eye to watch the motion of the needle point1 as it passes over the image of a known part of an inch on the stage1 we ought not to trust to one single measurement of the image1 but ought to repeat it at least six times2 then add the six measures thus obtained together1 and divide their sum by six1 or the number of trials2 the quotient will be the mean of all the trials4 ,this result is to be placed in a column of a table1 next to that which contains the number of the magnifiers4 ,by the assistance of the sectoral scale1 we obtain with ease a small part of an inch4 ,this scale is shewn at ,fig4 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 in which the two lines c a c b1 with the side a b1 form an isosceles triangle2 each of the sides is two inches long1 and the base one-tenth of an inch4 ,the longer sides may be of any given length1 and the base still only of one-tenth of an inch4 ,the longer lines may be considered as the line of lines upon a sector opened to one-tenth of an inch4 ,hence1 whatever number of equal parts ca cb are divided into1 their transverse measure will be such a part of one-tenth as is expressed by their divisions4 ,thus1 if it be divided into ten equal parts1 this will divide the inch into one-hundred equal parts2 the first division next c will be equal to one-hundredth part of an inch1 because it is the tenth part of one-tenth of an inch4 ,if these lines be divided into twenty equal parts1 the inch will be by those means divided into two hundred equal parts4 ,lastly1 if a b c a be made three inches long1 and divided into one-hundred equal parts1 we obtain with ease the one-thousandth part4 ,the scale is represented as solid at ,fig4 #f1 but as perforated at ,fig4 #e and #g2 so that the light passes through the aperture1 when the sectoral part is placed on the stage4 ,to use this scale1 first fix the micrometer1 ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 to the body of the microscope2 then fit the sectoral scale1 ,fig4 #g1 in the stage1 and adjust the microscope to its proper focus or distance from the scale1 which is to be moved till the base appears in the middle of the field of view2 then bring the needle point g1 ,fig4 #h1 by turning the screw ,l1 to touch one of the lines c a exactly at the point answering to #bj on the sectoral scale4 ,the index a of the micrometer1 ,fig4 #h1 is to be set to the first division1 and that on the dial plate to #bj1 which is both the beginning and end of its divisions2 we are then prepared to find the magnifying power of every magnifier in the compound microscope which we are using4 ,,example4 ,every thing being prepared agreeable to the foregoing directions1 suppose you are desirous of ascertaining the magnifying power of the lens marked ,no4 #d2 turn the micrometer screw1 until the point of the needle has passed over the magnified image of the tenth part of one inch2 then the division1 where the two indices remain1 will shew how many revolutions1 and parts of a revolution1 the screw has made1 while the needle point traversed the magnified image of the one-tenth of an inch2 suppose the result to be twenty-six revolutions of the screw1 and fourteen parts of another revolution1 this is equal to #bf multiplied by #bj1 added to #ad2 that is1 #ecd thousandth parts of an inch4 ,the twenty-six divisions found on the strait scale of the micrometer1 while the point of the needle passed over the magnified image of one-tenth part of an inch1 were multiplied by #bj1 because the circular plate ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #h1 is divided into twenty equal parts2 this produced #ebj2 then adding the fourteen parts of the next revolution1 we obtain #ecd thousandth parts of an inch1 or #e-tenths and #cd-;hundredth parts of another tenth1 which is the measure of the magnified image of #a-tenth of an inch1 at the aperture of the eye glasses1 or at their foci4 ,now if we suppose the focus of the two eye-glasses to be one inch1 the double thereof is two inches2 or if we reckon in the thousandth part of an inch1 we have two thousand parts for the distance of the eye from the needle point of the micrometer4 ,again1 if we take the distance of the image from the object at the stage at six inches1 or six thousandths1 and add thereto two thousand1 double the distance of the focus of the eye glass1 we shall have eight thousand parts of an inch for the distance of the eye from the object2 and as from the proposition1 page #ea1 we gather that the glasses double the image1 we must double the number #ecd found upon the micrometer1 which then makes #ajfh3 then1 by the following analogy1 we shall obtain the number of times the microscope magnifies the diameter of the object2 say1 as #bdj1 the distance of the eye from the image of the object1 is to #hjj1 the distance of the eye from the object1 so is #ajfh1 double the measure found on the micrometer1 to #cefc1 or the number of times the microscope magnifies the diameter of the object4 ,by working in this manner1 the magnifying power of each lens used with the compound microscope may be easily found1 though the result will be different in different compound microscopes1 varying1 according to the combination of the lenses1 their distance from the object1 and one another1 c4 ,having discovered the magnifying power of the microscope1 with the different object lenses that are used therewith1 our next subject is to find out the real size of the objects themselves1 and their different parts2 this is easily effected1 by finding how many revolutions of the micrometer-screw answer to a known measure on the sectoral scale1 or other object placed on the stage2 from the number thus found1 a table should be constructed1 expressing the value of the different revolutions of the micrometer with that object lens1 by which the primary number was obtained4 ,similar tables must be constructed for each object lens4 ,by a set of tables of this kind1 the observer may readily find the measure of any object he is examining2 for he has only to make the needle point traverse over this object1 and observe the number of revolutions the screw has made in its passage1 and then look into his table for the real measure which corresponds to this number of revolutions1 which is the measure required4 ,,account ,,of ,,glass1 ,,pearl1 c4 ,,micrometers1 ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,having seen some glass1 c4 micrometers with exquisite fine divisions1 for the purposes of applying to microscopes and telescopes2 and in accuracy1 being equivalent to the micrometer just described by our author1 ,i judge1 some account of their application and uses here will be very acceptable to the curious and inquisitive reader4 ,a particular description of these as made by the ingenious ,mr4 ,coventry1 has been already given in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #gjh4 ,the singular dexterity which ,mr4 ,coventry and others now possess1 of cutting by an engine fine parallel lines upon glass1 pearl1 ivory1 and brass1 at such minute distances as1 by means of a microscope1 are proved to be from the #ajjth to the #ejjj;dth part of an inch1 render this sort of micrometer the easiest and most accurate means of obtaining the exact natural size of the object to be magnified1 and how many times that object is magnified4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,martin1 and other opticians1 many years ago applied divided slips of glass1 ivory1 and horn to the body1 in the focus of the eye glass of microscopes2 but the thickness of the whole medium of the glass was found to diminish the distinct view of the object3 ivory and horn1 from their variable texture1 were found to expand and contract too readily to be commodious4 ,it is therefore to ,mr4 ,cavallo that we are indebted for the happy thought of adapting slips of divided pearl to telescopes1 to ascertain their power1 c4 which substance the opticians now find to be the best for microscopical micrometers4 ,it possesses a sufficient degree of transparency1 when made about the thickness of writing paper2 is a steady substance2 admits very easily of the finest graduations1 and is generally made in breadth about the #bjth part of an inch4 ,fig4 #i4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 is a representation of this scale1 with divisions of the #bjjths of an inch1 every fifth and tenth division being left longer than the others1 which only go to about the middle4 ,if the eye glass of the microscope or telescope1 to which this micrometer is to be applied1 magnify very much1 its divisions may be proportionably minute4 ,to measure by this micrometer the size of an object in a single microscope1 nothing more is required than to lay it on the micrometer1 and adjust it to the focus of the magnifier1 noticing how many divisions it covers or coincides with4 ,supposing the parallel lines to be the #ajjj;dths of an inch1 and the object covers two divisions1 its real size is the #ejjth of an inch2 if five1 #bjjth of an inch1 c4 ,to find how much the object is magnified1 is not so easily done by the single1 as by the compound microscope1 as has been before explained4 ,the following simple method has been adopted by ,mr4 ,coventry1 and which may be considered tolerably accurate4 ,adjust a micrometer under the microscope1 suppose #ajjth of an inch of divisions1 with a small object on it1 if square1 the better2 notice how many divisions one side of the object covers1 suppose ten2 then cut a piece of white paper something larger than the magnified appearance of the object2 fix one eye on the object through the microscope1 and the other at the same time on the paper1 lowering it down till the object and the paper appear level and distinct3 then cut the paper till it appear exactly the size of the magnified object2 the paper being then measured1 suppose an inch square3 now1 as the object under the magnifier1 which appeared to be one inch square1 was in reality only ten hundredths1 or the tenth of an inch1 the experiment proves that it is magnified ten times in length1 one hundred times in superficies1 and one thousand times in cube1 which is the magnifying power of the glass2 and in the same manner a table may be made of the power of all the other glasses4 ,in using the compound microscope1 the real size of the object is found by the same method as in the single2 but to demonstrate the magnifying power to greater certainty1 adopt the following method4 ,lay a two-feet rule on the stage1 and a micrometer level with its surface1 7an inch suppose1 divided into #ajj parts37 with one eye see how many of those parts are contained in the field of the microscope1 suppose #ej2 and with the other1 at the same time1 look for the circle of light in the field of the microscope1 which with a little practice will soon appear distinct2 mark how much of the rule1 from the center of the stage1 is intersected by the circle of light1 which will be half the diameter of the field4 ,suppose eight inches2 consequently the whole diameter will be sixteen4 ,now1 as the real size of the field by the micrometers appeared to be only #ej hundredths1 or half an inch1 and as half an inch is only one #cb;d part of #af inches1 it shews the magnifying power to be #cb times in length1 #ajbd superficies1 and #cbgfh in cube or bulk4 ,for accuracy1 as well as for comparative observations1 the rule should always be a certain distance from the eye2 eight inches in general is a proper distance4 ,another way1 and the most easy for finding the magnifying power of compound microscopes1 is by using two micrometers of the same divisions2 one adjusted under the magnifier1 the other fixed in the body of the microscope in the focus of the eye glass4 ,notice how many divisions of the micrometer in the body are seen in one division of the micrometer under the magnifier1 which again must be multiplied by the power of the eye glass4 ,example3 ,ten divisions of the micrometer in the body are contained in one division under the magnifier2 so far the power is increased ten times3 now1 if the eye glass be one inch focus1 such glass will of itself magnify about eight times in length1 which1 with the ten times magnified before1 will be eight times ten1 or #hj times in length1 #fdjj superficies1 and #eabjjj cube4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,a1 represents the field of view of the compound microscope1 with the pearl micrometer1 as applied to the aperture in the body1 called the eye stop2 and a magnified micrometer that is laid on the stage1 shewing that one of the latter contains ten of the former4 ,a set of ivory and glass micrometers1 about six in number1 besides one or two pearl ones for the eye stops1 are generally packed up with the best sort of microscopes made by ,messrs4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,jones1 ,opticians1 ,holborn4 ,they are divided into lines and squares1 from the #ajjth to the #ajjj;dth parts of an inch2 and1 besides measuring the magnifying powers of microscopes1 are generally found useful in measuring the diameters1 proportions1 c4 of opake and transparent objects1 even of the minutest kind4 ,the smallest divisions of the glass micrometer to be useful1 are those divided into the #djjj;dth part of an inch2 and as these may be crossed again with an equal number of lines in the same manner1 they form squares of the ,,sixteen ,,millionth part of an inch surface1 each square of which appearing under the microscope true and distinct4 ,and1 even small as this is1 animalcul are found so minute as to be contained in one of these squares6 ,glass micrometers with squares1 applied to the solar microscope1 divide the objects into squares on the screen in such a manner1 as to render a drawing from it very easy2 and are employed with great advantage in the lucernal microscope4 ,the micrometers are constructed with moveable frames or tubes1 so as to be either applied or taken away in the readiest manner4 ,for the uses of the pearl micrometer as applied to the telescope1 see ,mr4 ,cavallo's pamphlet descriptive of its use1 #hvo4 #agic1 and the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agia4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,approved ,,microscopes1 ,,and ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,using ,,them4 ,in the preceding chapter ,i have endeavoured to give a comprehensive view of the theory of the microscope1 and the principles on which the wonderful effects of this instrument depend4 ,i shall now proceed to describe the various instruments themselves1 their apparatus1 and the most easy and ready mode of applying them to use2 selecting for description those that1 from some peculiar advantage in their construction1 or from the reputation of the authors who have recommended and used them1 are in most general use4 ,what is said of these will1 ,i hope1 be sufficient to enable the reader to manage any other kind that may fall in his way4 ,,description ,,of ,,adams',s ,,improved ,,and ,,universal ,,lucernal ,,microscope4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iii4 ,this microscope was originally thought of1 and in part executed by my father2 ,i have1 however1 so improved and altered it1 both in construction and form1 as to render it altogether a different instrument4 ,the approbation it has received from the most experienced microscopic observers1 as well as the great demand ,i have had for them1 has fully repaid my pains and expenses1 in bringing it to its present state of perfection4 ,as the far greater part of the objects which surround us are opake1 and very few sufficiently transparent to be examined by the common microscopes1 an instrument that could be readily applied to the examination of opake objects1 has always been a desideratum4 ,even in the examination of transparent objects1 many of the fine and more curious portions are lost1 and drowned as it were in the light which must be transmitted through them2 while different parts of the same object appear only as dark lines or spots1 because they are so opake1 as not to permit any light to pass through them4 ,these difficulties1 as well as many more1 are obviated in the lucernal microscope2 by which opake objects of various sizes may be seen with ease and distinctness2 the beautiful colours with which most of them are adorned1 are rendered more brilliant1 without in the least changing their natural teints4 ,the concave and convex parts of an object retain also their proper form4 ,the facility with which all opake objects are applied to this instrument is another considerable advantage1 and almost peculiar to itself2 as the texture and configuration of the more tender parts are often hurt by previous preparation1 every object may be examined by this instrument1 first as opake1 and afterwards1 if the texture will admit of it1 as transparent4 ,the lucernal microscope does not in the least fatigue the eye2 the object appears like nature itself1 giving ease to the sight1 and pleasure to the mind3 there is also in the use of this instrument1 no occasion to shut that eye which is not directed to the object4 ,a further advantage peculiar to this microscope is1 that by it the outlines of every object may be taken1 even by those who are not accustomed to draw2 while those who can draw well1 will receive great assistance1 and execute their work with more accuracy1 and in less time than they would otherwise have been able to have performed it in4 ,most of the designs for this work were taken with the lucernal microscope2 and ,i hope the accuracy with which they are executed1 will be deemed a sufficient testimony in favour of the instrument4 ,in this point of view it will1 ,i think1 be found of great use to the anatomist1 the botanist1 the entomologist1 c4 as it will enable them not only to investigate the object of their researches1 but to convey to others accurate delineations of the subject they wish to describe4 ,by the addition of a tin lanthorn1 transparent objects may be shewn on a screen1 as by the solar microscope4 ,transparent objects may be examined with this instrument in three or four different modes2 from a blaze of light almost too great for the eye to bear1 to that which is perfectly easy to it4 ,when this instrument is fitted up in the best way1 it is generally accompanied with a small double and single microscope4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iii4 represents the ,,improved ,,lucernal ,,microscope1 mounted to view opake objects2 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e is a large mahogany pyramidical box1 about fourteen inches long1 and six inches square at its larger end1 which forms the body of the microscope2 it is supported firmly on the brass pillar ,f ,g1 by means of the socket ,h1 and the curved piece ,i ,k4 ,l ,m ,n is a guide for the eye1 in order to direct it in the axis of the lenses2 it consists of two brass tubes1 one sliding within the other1 and a vertical flat piece1 at the top of which is the hole for the eye4 ,the outer tube is seen at ,m ,n1 the vertical piece is represented at ,l ,m4 ,the inner tube may be pulled out1 or pushed in1 to adjust it to the focus of the glasses4 ,the vertical piece may be raised or depressed1 that the hole1 through which the object is to be viewed1 may coincide with the center of the field of view2 it is fixed by a milled screw at ,m1 which could not be shewn in this figure4 ,at ,n is a dove-tailed piece of brass1 made to receive the dove-tail at the end of the tubes ,m ,n1 by which it is affixed to the wooden box ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e4 ,the tubes ,m ,n may be removed from this box occasionally1 for the convenience of packing it up in a less compass4 ,o ,p a small tube on which the magnifiers are screwed4 ,o one of the magnifiers2 it is screwed into the end of a tube1 which slides within the tube ,p2 the tube ,p may be unscrewed occasionally from the wooden body4 ,q ,r ,s ,t ,v ,x a long square bar1 which passes through the sockets ,y ,z1 and carries the stage or frame that holds the objects2 this bar may be moved backward or forward1 in order to adjust it to the focus1 by means of the pinion which is at a4 b e is a handle furnished with an universal joint1 for more conveniently turning the pinion4 ,when the handle is removed1 the nut1 ,fig4 #b1 may be used in its stead4 d e is a brass bar1 to support the curved piece ,k ,i1 and keep the body ,a ,b firm and steady4 f g h i is the stage for opake objects2 it fits upon the bar ,q ,r ,s ,t by means of the socket h i1 and is brought nearer to1 or removed farther from the magnifying lens1 by turning the pinion a2 the objects are placed in the front side of the stage1 which cannot be seen in this figure1 between four small brass plates2 the edges of two of these are seen at k l4 ,the two upper pieces of brass are moveable2 they are fixed to a plate1 which is acted on by a spiral spring that presses them down1 and confines the slider with the objects2 this plate1 and the two upper pieces of brass1 are lifted up by the small nut m4 ,at the lower part of the stage1 there is a glass semiglobe n1 which is designed to receive the light from the lamp1 ,fig4 #c1 and to collect and convey it to the concave mirror o1 from whence it is to be reflected on the object4 ,the upper part1 f g r ,s1 of the opake stage takes out1 that the stage for transparent objects may be inserted in its place4 ,fig4 #d4 represents the stage for transparent objects2 the two legs #e and #f1 fit into the under part r ,s of the stage for opake objects2 #g is the part which confines or holds the sliders1 and through which they are to be moved2 #i and #aj a brass tube1 which contains the lenses for condensing the light1 and throwing it upon the object2 there is a second tube within that1 marked #i and #aj1 which may be placed at different distances from the object by the pin #aa4 ,when this stage is used as a single microscope1 without any reference to the lucernal1 the magnifiers or object lenses are to be screwed into the hole #ab1 and to be adjusted to a proper focus by the nut #ac4 ,n4 ,b4 ,at the end ,a ,b of the wooden body there is a slider1 which is represented as partly drawn out at ,a2 when quite taken out1 three grooves will be perceived1 one of which contains a board that forms the end of the box1 the next contains a frame with a greyed glass2 the third1 or that farthest from the end ,a ,b1 two large convex lenses4 ,,of ,,the ,,lamp4 ,fig4 #c1 represents one of ,argand's lamps1 which is the most suitable for microscopic purposes1 on account of the clearness1 the intensity1 and the steadiness of the light4 ,the following method of managing it1 with other observations1 is copied from an account given by ,mr4 ,parker1 with those he sells4 ,the principle on which the lamp acts1 consists in disposing the wick in thin parts1 so that the air may come into contact with all the burning fuel1 by which means1 together with an increase of the current of air occasioned by rarefaction in the glass tube1 the whole of the fuel is converted into flame4 ,the wicks are circular1 and1 the more readily to regulate the quantity of light1 are fixed on a brass collar with a wire handle1 by means of which they are raised or depressed at pleasure4 ,to fix the wick on1 a wood mandril is contrived1 which is tapered at one end1 and has a groove turned at the other4 ,the wick has a selvage at one end1 which is to be put foremost on the mandril1 and moved up to the groove2 then putting the groove into the collar of the wick-holder1 the wick is easily pushed forward upon it4 ,the wick-holder and wick being put quite down in their place1 the spare part of the wick should1 while dry1 be set alight1 and suffered to burn to the edge of the tubes2 this will leave it more even than by cutting1 and1 being black by burning1 will be much easier lighted3 for this reason1 the black should never be intirely cut off4 ,the lamp should be filled an hour or two before it is wanted1 that the cotton may imbibe the oil1 and draw the better4 ,the lamps which have a reservoir and valve1 need no other direction for filling1 than to do it with a proper trimming pot1 carefully observing when they are full2 then pulling up the valve by the point1 the reservoir being turned by the other hand1 may be replaced without spilling a drop4 ,those lamps which fill in the front like a bird-fountain1 must be reclined on the back to fill1 and this should be done gently1 that the oil in the burner may return into the body when so placed and filled2 if1 by being too full1 any oil appear above the guard1 only move the lamp a little1 and the oil will disappear2 the lamp may then be placed erect1 and the oil will flow to its proper level4 ,the oil must be of the spermaceti kind1 commonly called chamber oil1 which may generally be distinguished by its paleness1 transparency1 and inoffensive scent2 all those oils which are of a red and brown colour1 and of an offensive smell1 should be carefully avoided1 as their glutinous parts clog the lamp1 and the impurities in such oil not being inflammable1 will accumulate and remain in the form of a crust on the wick4 ,seal oil is nearly as pale and sweet as chamber oil1 but being of a heavy sluggish quality1 is not proper for lamps with fine wicks4 ,whenever bad oil has been used1 on changing it1 the wick must also be changed1 because1 after having imbibed the coarse particles in its capillary tubes1 it will not draw up the fine oil4 ,to obtain the greatest degree of light1 the wick should be trimmed exactly even1 the flame will then be completely equal4 ,there will be a great advantage in keeping the lamp clean1 especially the burner and air tubes2 the neglect of cleanliness in lamps is too common3 a candlestick is generally cleaned every time it is used1 so should a lamp2 and if a candlestick is not to be objected to1 because it does not give light after the candle is exhausted1 so a lamp should not be thought ill of1 if it does not give light when it wants oil or cotton2 but this last has often happened1 because the deficiency is less visible4 ,the glass tubes are best cleaned with a piece of wash leather4 ,if a fountain lamp be left partly filled with oil1 it may be liable to overflow2 this happens by the contraction of the air when cold1 and its expansion by the warmth of a room1 the rays of the sun1 or the heat of the lamp when re-lighted3 this accident may be effectually prevented by keeping the reservoir filled1 the oil not being subject to expansion like air4 ,on this account1 those with a common reservoir are best adapted for microscopic purposes4 ,,to ,,examine ,,opake ,,objects ,,with ,,the ,,lucernal ,,microscope4 ,the microscope is represented as mounted1 and entirely ready for this purpose1 in ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iii4 ,to render the use of this instrument easy1 it is usually packed with as many of the parts together as possible2 it occupies on this account rather more room1 but is much less embarrassing to the observer1 who has only three parts to put on after it is taken out of its box1 namely1 the guide for the eye1 the stage1 and the tube with its magnifier4 ,but to be more particular1 take out the wooden slide ,a1 then lift out the cover and the grey glass from their respective grooves under the slide ,a4 ,put the end ,n of the guide for the eye ,l ,m ,n into its place1 so that it may stand in the position which is represented in this figure4 ,place the socket1 which is at the bottom of the opake stage1 on the bar ,q ,x ,t1 so that the concave mirror o may be next the end ,d ,e of the wooden body4 ,screw the tubes ,p ,o into the end ,d ,e4 ,the magnifier you intend to use is to be screwed on the end o of these tubes4 ,the handle ,g b1 or milled nut1 ,fig4 #b1 must be placed on the square end of the pinion a4 ,place the lamp lighted before the glass lump n1 and the object you intend to examine between the spring plates of the stage1 and the instrument is ready for use4 ,in all microscopes1 there are two circumstances which must be particularly attended to2 the modification of the light1 or the proper quantity to illuminate the object2 secondly1 the adjustment of the instrument to the focus of the glasses and the eye of the observer4 ,in the use of the lucernal microscope there is a third circumstance1 which is the regulation of the guide of the eye1 each of which ,i shall consider by itself4 #a4 ,to throw the light upon the object4 ,the flame of the lamp is to be placed rather below the center of the glass semiglobe n1 and as near it as possible2 the concave mirror o must be so inclined and turned1 as to receive the light from the semiglobe2 and reflect it thence upon the object2 the best situation of the concave mirror1 and the flame of the lamp1 depends on a combination of circumstances1 which a little practice will best point out4 #b4 ,to regulate the guide for the eye1 or to place the center of the eye piece ,l1 so that it may coincide with the focal point of the lenses1 and the axis of vision4 ,lengthen and shorten the tubes ,m ,n by drawing out or pushing in the inner tube1 and raising or depressing the eye-piece ,m ,l1 till you find the large lens1 which is placed at the end ,a ,b of the wooden body1 filled by an uniform field of light1 without any prismatic colours round the edge2 for1 till this piece be properly fixed1 the circle of light will be very small1 and only occupy a part of the lens2 the eye must be kept at the center of the eye-piece ,l1 during the whole of the operation2 which may be rendered somewhat easier to the observer1 on the first use of the instrument1 if he hold a piece of white paper parallel to the large lenses1 removing it from or bringing it nearer to them1 till he finds the place where a lucid circle1 which he will perceive on the paper1 is brightest and most distinct1 then to fix the center of the eye-piece to coincide with that spot2 after which a very small adjustment will set it perfectly right4 #c4 ,to adjust the lenses to their focal distance4 ,this is effected by turning the pinion a1 the eye being at the same time at the eye-piece ,l4 ,i often place the grey glass before the large lenses1 while ,i am regulating the guide for the eye1 and adjusting for the focal distance4 ,if the observer1 in the process of his examination of an object1 advance rapidly from a shallow to a deep magnifier1 he will save himself some labour by pulling out the internal tube at ,o4 ,the upper part f g r s of the stage1 is to be raised or lowered occasionally1 in order to make the center of the object coincide with the center of the lens at ,o4 ,to delineate objects1 the grey or rough ground glass must be placed before the large lenses2 the picture of the object will be formed on this glass1 and the outline may be accurately taken1 by going over the picture with a pencil4 ,the opake part may be used in the day-time without a lamp1 provided the large lenses at ,a ,b be screened from the light4 ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,lucernal ,,microscope ,,in ,,the ,,examination ,,of ,,transparent ,,objects4 ,the microscope is to remain as before3 the upper part f g r s of the opake stage must be removed1 and the stage for transparent objects1 represented at ,fig4 #d1 put in its place2 the end1 ,fig4 #i and #aj1 to be next the lamp4 ,place the rough glass in its groove at the end ,a ,b1 and the objects in the slider-holder at the front of the stage2 then transmit as strong a light as you are able on the object1 which you will easily do1 by raising or lowering the lamp4 ,the object will be beautifully depicted on the rough glass3 it must be regulated to the focus of the magnifier1 by turning the pinion a4 ,the object may be viewed either with or without the guide for the eye2 a single observer will see an object to the greatest advantage by using this guide1 which is to be adjusted as we have described1 page #gc4 ,if two or three wish to examine the object at the same time1 the guide for the eye must be laid aside4 ,take the large lens out of the groove1 and receive the image on the rough glass2 in this case the guide for the eye is of no use3 if the rough glass be taken away1 the image of the object may be represented on a paper screen4#bi #bi ,a tin cover is sometimes made to go over the glass chimney of the lamp1 ,fig4 #c1 with only a small square aperture in front1 sufficient to suffer the rays to pass into the microscope3 this1 by excluding all extraneous rays1 adds in many cases most materially to the effect1 particularly by day1 and when objects are to be represented on the rough glass or screen only4 ,,edit4 ,take out the rough glass1 replace the large lenses1 and use the guide for the eye2 attend to the foregoing directions1 and adjust the object to its proper focus4 ,you will then see the object in a blaze of light almost too great for the eye1 a circumstance that will be found very useful in the examination of particular objects2 the edges of the object in this mode will be somewhat coloured1 but as it is only used in this full light for occasional purposes1 it has been thought better to leave this small imperfection1 than by remedying it1 to sacrifice greater advantages2 the more so1 as this fault is easily corrected1 and a new and interesting view of the object is obtained1 by turning the instrument out of the direct rays of light1 and permitting them to pass through only in an oblique direction1 by which the upper surface is in some degree illuminated1 and the object is seen partly as opake1 partly as transparent4 ,it has been already observed1 that the transparent objects might be placed between the slider-holders kl of the stage for opake objects1 and then be examined as if opake4 ,some transparent objects appear to the greatest advantage when the lens at #i and #aj is taken away2 as1 by giving too great a quantity of light1 it renders the edges less sharp4 ,the variety of views which may be taken of every object1 by means of the improved lucernal microscope1 will be found to be of great use to an accurate observer3 it will give him an opportunity of correcting or confirming his discoveries1 and investigating those parts in one mode1 which are invisible in another4 ,,to ,,transmit ,,the ,,image ,,of ,,transparent ,,objects ,,on ,a ,,screen1 ,,as ,,by ,,the ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,it has been long a microscopical desideratum1 to have an instrument by which the image of transparent objects might be shewn on a screen1 as by the common solar microscope2 and this not only because the sun is so uncertain in this climate1 and the use of the solar microscope requires confinement in the finest part of the day1 when time seldom hangs heavy on the rational mind1 but as it also affords an increase of pleasure1 by displaying its wonders to several persons at the same instant1 without the least fatigue to the eye4 ,this purpose is now effectually answered1 by affixing the transparent stage1 ,fig4 #d1 of the lucernal to a lanthorn containing one of ,argand's lamps4 ,the lamp is placed within the lanthorn1 and the end #i1 #aj of the transparent stage is screwed into a female screw1 which is rivetted in the sliding part of the front of the lanthorn2 the magnifying lenses are to be screwed into the hole represented at #ab2 they are adjusted by turning the milled nut4 ,the quantity of light is to be regulated1 by raising and lowering the sliding plate1 or the lamp4 ,n4 ,b4 ,this part1 with its lanthorn and lamp1 may be had separate from the lucernal microscope4#cj #cj ,this effect by the lanthorn and lamp is subject to much limitation in the field of view1 or circle of light thrown upon the screen4 ,a circle of not more than from #ab to about #ae inches can ever be obtained with any tolerable strength of light1 to shew the most transparent sort of objects that can be found1 such as the scale of a sole fish1 a fly's wing1 c4 ,the great difference between the light of the sun and a lamp is a natural obstacle to great performances in this way1 and renders them far short of the effects of the solar microscope4 ,the exhibition1 however1 is considerable1 and much deserving of the notice of any observer disposed to this sort of apparatus4 ,probably1 subsequent experiments may yet produce more light on this instrument4 ,the best sort of apparatus for this purpose hitherto made1 ,i shall describe in a following section4 ,,edit4 ,,apparatus ,,which ,,usually ,,accompanies ,,the ,,improved ,,lucernal ,,microscope4 ,the stage1 ,fig4 #a1 f g h i1 for opake objects1 with its glass semiglobe1 and concave mirror1 which is moveable upon the bar ,q ,r ,s ,t1 and set readily to any distance by the screw at a4 ,the glasses o and n are also moveable upon the bar for regulating and adjusting the light upon the object4 ,the stage1 ,fig4 #d1 for transparent objects1 which fits on the upper part ,p ,s of the foregoing stage4 ,when this is to be applied occasionally to a lanthorn for shewing transparent objects on a screen1 c4 it is made of a much larger diameter1 to admit of the illuminating lenses at #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 of greater power of condensing the rays from the lamp4 ,the sliding tube ,o ,p1 to which the magnifiers are to be affixed2 one end of this is to be screwed on the end ,b of the wooden body2 the magnifier in use is to be screwed to the other end on the inner tube4 ,this tube slides inwards or outwards2 it is first used to set the magnifier at nearly the right distance from the object1 before the exact adjustment for the focus is made1 by turning the pinion at a with ,hook's joint and handle b e4 ,eight magnifying lenses in brass cells1 ,fig4 #e4 ,plate ,,iii4 these are so constructed that any two of them may be combined together1 and thus produce a very great variety of magnifying powers4 ,the cells unscrew to admit of the glasses being cleaned4 ,a fish-pan1 such as is represented at ,fig4 #f1 whereon a small fish may be fastened in order to view the circulation of its blood2 its tail is to be spread across the oblong hole at the smallest end1 and tied fast by means of the attached ribbon4 ,the knob on its back is to be put through a slit hole on the brass piece1 ,no4 #e1 of ,fig4 #d4 ,the tail of the fish is to be brought then immediately before the magnifier4 ,a steel wire1 ,fig4 #g1 with a pair of nippers at one end1 and a steel point at the other2 the wire slides backwards or forwards1 in a spring tube which is affixed to a joint at the bottom1 on which is a pin to fit the hole in the leg1 ,no4 #f1 ,fig4 #d4 ,this is used to confine small objects4 ,a slider of brass1 ,fig4 #h1 containing a flat glass slider and a brass slider1 into which are fitted some small concave glasses4 ,it is for confining small living objects1 and when used is placed between the two plates1 ,no4 #g1 ,fig4 #d4 ,a pair of forceps1 ,fig4 #i1 by which any occasional small object may be conveniently taken up4 ,six large ivory sliders1 with transparent objects placed between two plates of talc1 and confined by brass rings1 and six small ditto with ditto4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the larger ones usually contain a set of ,custance's fine vegetable cuttings4 ,fourteen wood sliders1 containing on each four opake objects1 and two spare sliders for occasional objects2 all fitted to the cheeks kl of the stage4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,some capillary tubes1 ,fig4 #ab1 to receive small fish1 and for viewing small animalcula4 ,they are to be placed between the two plates of the stage ,no4 #g1 ,fig4 #d4 ,a small ivory double box1 containing spare plates of talc and brass rings1 for replacing any in the small ivory sliders1 when necessary4 ,a single lens mounted in a tortoiseshell case1 to examine minute objects previous to their being applied to the sliders4 ,opake objects are easily put on the spare sliders by a wetted wafer2 and1 for good security1 gum water may be added4 ,for the prices of the lucernal1 as well as all the other sorts of microscopes1 see the list annexed to these ,essays4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,improvements ,,made ,,upon ,,mr4 ,,adams',s ,,lucernal ,,microscope4 ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,the lucernal microscope being unquestionably the only instrument for exhibiting all sorts of opake objects under a brilliant and magnified appearance1 was1 as formerly constructed by the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,adams1 attended with some inconveniences and imperfections4 ,upon a proper inquiry into various improvements1 and from some observations made by myself1 ,i can recommend1 as a complete instrument1 one with the following emendations1 being1 in my opinion1 the best of any hitherto made known4 ,the lucernal microscope1 when placed up for use1 as represented in ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,iii4 is of some considerable length4 ,when the eye at ,l is viewing the image of the object upon the glasses1 the objects themselves in the sliders placed at kl at the stage1 are without the reach of the hand2 so that the indispensible change of the parts of an object1 or of one object to another1 can only be obtained by the observer's moving himself from the object to the eye-piece1 and vice versa4 ,this adjustment1 therefore1 proves uncertain and troublesome4 ,the application of rack-work motion to the stage has been contrived and applied to the lucernal microscope by ,mr4 ,w4 ,jones1 of ,holborn1 accompanied with ,hooke's joint and handle1 and a lever rod2 so that1 without altering his position1 the observer may change both the horizontal and vertical position of the sliders1 and thereby readily investigate all the variety of the objects1 and their parts1 and with the same exactness as by other microscopes4 ,for persons who may not wish to be at the expense of the lucernal1 as formerly mounted by ,mr4 ,adams1 ,mr4 ,jones has altered the manner of its support2 which1 as well as the other particulars1 and the method of using it1 may be understood from the following description4 ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #c1 is a representation of the instrument as placed up for use4 ,,aa1 the top of a mahogany chest1 about two feet long1 thirteen inches and an half high1 and eight inches broad1 which serves both as a case to contain the instrument1 and to support and preserve it steady when in use4 ,a groove is cut in the top of the box1 and another in the inside at the bottom1 in both of which the base of the instrument is made to slide4 ,when the instrument is placed inside1 a long slip of mahogany slides in at the top1 to secure the groove1 and make the top perfect4 ,thus the instrument may be most readily slid out of its case1 and then into the groove at top for use1 and in much less time than by the brass frame and jointed stand adopted by ,mr4 ,adams4 ,fig4 #c ,b1 is the stage for the objects1 with the condensing lens a1 and concave mirror b1 the same as in ,mr4 ,adams's4 ,c1 the brass slider case for opake objects1 with a rack cut into its lower edge1 and which is turned by a pinion4 ,to this pinion is applied an handle1 ,d1 with ,hooke's universal joint2 this contrivance gives a certain horizontal motion to the objects while viewing4 ,the stage at ,c is also made to slide vertically1 and a lever-rod or handle1 ,e1 to apply through the top1 to bring the objects to a just height4 ,hence1 by applying the left hand to the handle1 ,e1 and the right to the rod ,d1 the adjustment or the changing of the objects1 while under exhibition on the large lenses at ,f1 is produced in the most convenient and accurate manner1 and the observer has no occasion1 for one slider1 to shift from his seat or position4 ,rack-work might be applied to the vertical motion1 but it is not essentially necessary2 for when once the center of the slider is observed1 there requires very little change from that position for the complete exhibition of the objects4 ,the whole of the stage1 with the lense and mirror1 is fixed to a brass dove-tailed slider at ,g1 which slides in another brass piece fixed to the wooden slider or base of the instrument4 ,a long brass rod1 ,h1 with an adjusting screw at its end1 passes through the two brass pillars1 ,k1 ,k1 to the stage at f1 upon which it acts2 and according as it is turned to the right or left hand while examining the objects1 moves the objects nearer to or farther from the magnifiers screwed on at ,l1 and produces the just distance for rendering the appearance of the objects the most distinct and brilliant upon the glasses at ,f4 ,the management of the light from the lamp1 through the lens1 a1 and from the concave mirror1 b1 to the objects1 is exactly the same as before directed by ,mr4 ,adams4 ,for the exhibiting of transparent objects1 the stage1 ,c1 is to be slid away1 and the body1 ,fig4 #d1 applied in its place1 in that position1 with the large lens outwards next the lamp4 ,the slider with the objects passes through at a1 and the focus for the different magnifiers is adjusted by turning the long rod1 ,d1 to the right or left1 as with the opake objects4 ,in this case the lamp is to be raised to the center of the body of the microscope1 or even with the magnifiers at ,l4 ,the image of the objects may also1 as in ,mr4 ,adams's1 be best received on the rough glass placed at ,f1 for the simple reflected light through the body will sometimes be so strong1 as to irritate the eye2 the operator must1 therefore1 both modify that from the lamp1 and place the roughed glass to his own ease and pleasure4 ,the guide for the eye1 ,n1 in this instance is not necessary4 ,care being taken that the roughed glass at ,f be kept in as dark a situation as possible1 there will be a certainty of a clear and well-defined view of the object4 ,a tin chimney placed over the glass of the lamp about ten inches long1 with a suitable aperture to admit the light to pass through it to the glasses1 is of material service2 it excludes all superfluous light from the eye of the observer1 keeps the room sufficiently darkened1 and enables the observer to view his object with the proper brilliancy4 ,as a pleasing relief to the eye1 the interposition of a small piece of blue or green glass at the sight hole1 ,n1 ,mr4 ,jones has sometimes found necessary1 but it gives rather a false teint to the colour of the objects4 ,in the year #aghi the same artist applied a brass screw pillar and arm to the top of the box at ,o1 on which is occasionally slid the condensing lens1 a4 ,the lamp being then applied at the side of the box at ,o1 instead of the end1 and the lens1 a1 moved to such a distance as to give the strongest possible light upon the opake objects at ,c2 they were found to be more strongly illuminated by this simple refracted light than by the refracted and reflected light before used4 ,light is always somewhat diminished by reflection1 although condensed2 therefore1 as it is sometimes best to view the objects from oblique reflected light1 and sometimes from direct refracted1 he constructs the apparatus so as to give the operator the means of easily using either4 ,the dotted lines1 ,o ,p1 shew the manner that the glass semiglobe1 a1 is occasionally applied to refract or converge directly the light from the lamp to the objects on the stage4 ,it is scarcely necessary to observe to the reader1 the propriety of all the glasses of the apparatus being perfectly clean before the observations2 for if1 after being laid aside some time1 or by dust1 c4 they should appear soiled1 it will be necessary to wipe them previously with a piece of soft shammy leather usually sent in the box for that purpose1 or a clean soft cloth4 ,the two large lenses at ,f1 ,fig4 #c1 may be readily separated by turning aside the two brass screws that act upon a brass ring4 ,from the various ingenious admirers of this sort of instrument1 many improvements and alterations have been suggested2 among several that have been communicated1 those by the two following gentlemen appear to me the most deserving of notice1 and which ,i shall leave to the reader's judgment and experience4 ,the ,rev4 ,john ,prince1 ,,ll4 ,d4 now of ,salem1 ,massachuset's ,states1 ,north ,america1 a valuable correspondent and friend of our late author1 transmitted to him an alteration in the construction2 and of which ,i here insert the brief account1 in nearly the words given by ,mr4 ,adams4 ,dr4 ,prince applies a strong joint similar to that of a telescope at about the middle of the center part of the pyramidical box1 and a sort of adjusting screw at the large end4 ,the joint is nearly in the center of gravity1 so that a very small motion is sufficient to bring any object less than an inch in diameter into the field of view4 ,this motion is effected by two screws at right angles to each other2 one screw raising or levelling the body1 the other moving it sidewise1 the screw at the same time forming a double joint to accommodate the parts to the movement4#ca #ca ,a figure of this1 with an explanation1 as recommended by ,mr4 ,john ,hill1 ,wells1 in ,norfolk1 may be seen in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,vol4 ,,lxvi4 #b;d part1 page #hig4 ,in this particular1 as well as in the deviation from the parallel position of the glasses to the surfaces of the objects1 ,i think the construction not so simple and perfect1 as that by rack-work and pinion applied by ,mr4 ,jones4 ,probably1 ,dr4 ,prince had not1 at the time of his contriving the joint-work to the box1 seen or heard of the other method4 ,his subsequent contrivances shew real ingenuity2 and to the inquisitive in this instrument1 will afford much useful entertainment and advantage4 ,to secure the image formed upon the rough glass more completely from the light1 at times essentially necessary1 there is a pyramidical mahogany box1 of the same size1 to pack1 when not used1 in the body of the microscope2 when in use1 the broad end of this screen box is to be slid into the groove1 from which the exterior cover at the end has been taken4 ,this method is peculiarly useful in the day-time2 as1 by screening the large lenses from the light1 it may even then be used with satisfaction4 ,one of the large lenses may occasionally be placed on the outer edge of the screen box1 the other lens being taken out2 the view on the rough glass is by these means magnified1 and appears to greater advantage4 ,but1 besides the grey glass used in the former construction1 there is a second in this1 placed farther within the body1 about half way2 and1 when the large lens is in the screen box1 objects appear better in this than in the former way4 ,it has a still greater effect upon those who are unacquainted with the nature of lenses1 as it makes them judge the distance and magnitude much greater than they really are1 and is therefore more pleasing than the grey glass in front4 ,only one grey glass can be used at a time2 both being removed when opake objects are viewed4 ,the stage1 ,f1 ,fig4 #e1 is considerably different from that at ,c1 ,fig4 #c2 it is judged more convenient and commodious than the other1 and serves1 with a small alteration1 for both transparent and opake objects4 ,a truncated cone can also be here applied for cutting off superfluous rays of light occasionally4 ,the method of illuminating the objects is also different4 ,the mode now adopted answers better for opake and transparent objects1 throws a stronger light1 and is more convenient in application4 ,it consists of two lenses1 #a and #b1 ,fig4 #e2 the larger one is to be placed at the end of the bar next the lamp4 ,the smaller one to be adjusted so as to give a strong light4 ,a third is also added1 to be used occasionally with opake objects2 it is to be applied close to the large lens4 ,experience will shew when it is to be used1 or not4 ,by moving the bar1 ,g1 on which these lenses are placed round the stage pillar1 ,m1 you bring it so much fronting the stage as effectually to enlighten opake objects by means of the lamp4 ,the light thus afforded is received directly1 and none lost by reflection4 ,the objects are fixed on circular wheels of wood1 see ,fig4 #g1 the brass centers of which1 are fitted to the hole1 b1 of the stage1 ,fig4 #e2 and about this center they are to be turned by the hand for the changing of the objects4 ,as some objects1 such as sections of wood1 are seen to advantage both as transparent and opake1 a frame containing a plane and a concave mirror is added to this instrument1 serving two purposes3 by bringing the bar to the front of the stage1 removing the large lens1 and putting the mirror in its place1 the object may be viewed either way1 without moving from the seat1 by turning the instrument a little round4 ,this experience will discover4 ,the light of the sun may be thrown by the plane mirror on the condensing lens1 so as to produce a strong full field of light on the grey glass4 ,this has a grand effect when the large lens is at the end of the screen box1 and could not be applied in this manner in former constructions4 ,it becomes also an opake solar microscope1 by turning the bar round to enlighten opake objects4 ,by bringing the concave mirror to a focus that will burn objects1 a set of very curious and entertaining experiments may be made and exhibited on the grey glass4 ,the object for combustion should be put in the nippers1 and a piece of slate tied as a ground on the stage4 ,the ebullition of a piece of alum viewed in this manner is very beautiful2 the bubbles1 as they rise and pass off rapidly1 appear tinged with all the colours of the rainbow4 ,there are large-sized magnifiers for the purpose of throwing transparent objects on a screen1 in imitation of the solar microscope4 ,by removing the large lenses in front and the grey glass1 and placing the black tin cylinder represented in the drawing by dotted marks1 over the lamp1 they may be shewn in that manner to several persons2 thus1 this instrument in a great degree supersedes the use of a lanthorn4 ,the image may be contracted occasionally by one of the large lenses4 ,the following improvement consists in the manner of applying the lamp1 by ,mr4 ,hill4 ,by attaching it to the instrument1 it renders the light more permanent and steady1 and reduces considerably the bulk as well as the trouble of this appendage1 and is to be preferred when the lamp is not wanted separately for other uses or experiments4 ,h1 a brass support to the arm1 ,g1 for sustaining the weight of the lamp2 it turns round with the bar on the pillar1 ,m4 ,at about ,i is a brass cap soldered to the above support1 and which slips over the slider carrying the larger lens1 #b4 ,at ,k1 is a strong joint connected with the said cap1 and by which an horizontal motion of the cap is given1 when an oblique light is required4 ,to the end of this the lamp is fixed1 and in such a manner as to admit of its being easily slid upwards or downwards in a perpendicular direction1 to procure the just height of the flame4 ,l is a square brass rod to be occasionally screwed into the reservoir of the lamp1 for supporting the tin cylinder screen1 when transparent objects are to be represented on a screen in a darkened room4 ,the transparent microscope1 part of the lucernal1 is sometimes adapted to a large japanned tin lanthorn1 such as represented at ,fig4 #f4 ,a brass female screw is soldered to the front of the lanthorn1 which has a motion upwards or downwards1 fitted to the male screw of the transparent microscope4 ,a tall chimney is placed at the top of the lanthorn to conduct the heated air from an ,argand's lamp withinside4 ,the transparent objects in the sliders are magnified by the lenses screwed on at a1 and shewn on the screen ,a2 this screen may be about three feet square1 of white paper1 the objects on which1 if represented in a field larger than twelve or eighteen inches1 will not be sufficiently vivid4 ,mr4 ,jones has found that a large square glass1 from twelve to sixteen inches in the side1 rough ground on one of its surfaces1 exhibits the objects the best of any other contrivance2 answers tolerably well for opake objects1 and gives the artist the means of tracing their figure most correctly on its surface4 ,such sort of objects he fixes upon slips of glass for that purpose1 or applies them to a pair of nippers shewn at b1 sent with the microscope4 ,a concave silver speculum screws on at c1 before the magnifiers1 which reflects upon the objects the light that issues from the lamp through the body of the microscope4 ,the least dimensions of the lanthorn are about ten inches square1 and fourteen inches high4 ,this microscope and lanthorn1 when made as a separate apparatus from the lucernal1 is called the ,,lanthorn ,,microscope4 ,its effect is considerably short of what is produced by the solar microscope1 and not equal to what is much wished for in this manner of magnifying minute objects2 see note1 page #gg4 ,partly from the improvements just described1 ,mr4 ,jones is now constructing a lucernal microscope that he conceives will be the most simple and perfect yet made4 ,it could not be completed in time to be described in this work2 but its improvement and advantages will be quite evident to any reader who has attended to the description which ,i have just given4 ,,description ,,of ,,cuff',s ,,double-,,constructed ,,microscope1 ,,represented ,,at ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,vii4 ,a4#cb #cb ,the compound or double microscope is in more general use than any other sort4 ,besides its being less expensive than the lucernal or complete solar1 it is found commodious and portable in the observer's apartment1 when only a confined degree of microscopical pursuit is intended1 and that chiefly for a few hours amusement2 it may be used both by day and night4 ,in the most improved of this kind the objects appear magnified in a field of view from about #ab to #ae inches in diameter4 ,it is better adapted to transparent than to opake objects1 yet the latter may often be viewed to great advantage by the assistance of the sun's rays or the light of a candle condensed on them4 ,the intelligent reader1 by attending to the accounts of the different microscopes described in this work1 will be enabled to select that best adapted to the kind of objects he wishes to explore1 and the manner in which he is desirous of having them exhibited4 ,,edit4 ,this instrument was first described by ,mr4 ,baker1 and recommended by him4 ,it was also described by my father in the fourth edition of his ,micrographia ,illustrata1 page xix4 ,a ,b ,c represents the body of this microscope2 it contains an eye-glass at ,a1 a large lens at ,b1 and a magnifier which is screwed on at ,c1 one of which is represented at ,q4 ,the body of the microscope is supported by the arm ,d ,e1 from which it may be removed at pleasure4 ,the arm ,d ,e is fixed on the sliding bar ,f1 and may be raised or depressed to any height within its limits4 ,the main pillar a b is fixed in the box b e1 and by means of the brass foot d is screwed to the mahogany pedestal ,x ,y1 in which is a drawer containing all the apparatus4 ,o1 a milled-headed screw1 to tighten the bar ,f when the adjusting screw c g is used4 p q is the stage or plate which carries the objects2 it has a hole at the center n4 ,g1 a concave mirror1 that may be turned in any direction1 to reflect the light of the candle1 or the sky1 upon the object4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus ,,to ,,cuff',s ,,double-,,constructed ,,microscope4#cc #cc ,this microscope is made oftentimes with a joint at the bottom of the main pillar at e1 to admit placing the instrument into any oblique situation1 and connected to the bottom of a mahogany chest2 on which account1 it is by some of the instrument makers called the ,chest ,compound ,microscope4 ,,edit4 ,h1 a convex lens1 to collect the rays of light from the sun or a candle1 and condense them on the object1 or to magnify a flower or other large object placed upon the stage4 ,l1 a cylindrical tube1 open at each side1 with a concave silver speculum screwed to the lower end h4 ,p1 the slider-holder2 it consists of a cylindrical tube1 in which an inner tube is forced upwards by a spiral spring1 it is used to receive an ivory slider ,k1 which is to be slid between the plates h and i4 ,the cylinder ,p fits the hole n in the stage3 the hollow part at k is designed to receive a glass tube ,n4 ,r is a brass cone1 to be put under the bottom of the cylinder ,p1 to intercept occasionally some of the rays of light4 ,s1 a box containing a concave and a flat glass1 between which a small living insect may be confined2 it is to be placed over the hole n4 ,t1 a flat glass to lay any occasional object upon2 there is also a concave one u1 for fluids4 ,o1 a long steel wire1 with a small pair of pliers at one end1 and a point at the other1 designed to stick or hold objects2 it slips backwards and forwards in the short tube o2 the pin p fits into an hole m1 in the stage for that purpose4 ,w1 a little round ivory box1 to hold a supply of talc and rings for the sliders4 ,z1 a hair brush1 to wipe any dust off the glasses1 or to take up by the other end a drop of any liquid4 ,v1 a small ivory cylinder1 that fits on the pointed end of the steel wire ,o2 it is designed for opake objects4 ,light-coloured ones are to be stuck upon the dark side1 and vice versa4 ,y1 a common magnifying glass for any occasional purpose4 ,m1 a fish-pan whereon to fasten a small fish1 to view the circulation of the blood3 the tail is to be spread across the oblong hole at the small end k1 and tied fast by means of a ribband fixed thereto2 the knob l is to be put through the slit made in the stage1 and the tail may be brought under the magnifier4 ,x is a wire to clean the glass tubes by4 ,,to ,,use ,,this ,,microscope4 ,screw the magnifier you intend to use to the end ,c of the body1 place the slider-holder ,p in the hole n1 and the ivory slider ,k with the object1 between the plates h i of the slider-holder2 set the upper edge of the bar ,d ,e to coincide with the division which corresponds to the magnifier you have in use1 and tighten it by the milled nut ,o2 now reflect a proper quantity of light upon the object1 by means of the concave mirror ,g1 and regulate the body exactly to the eye and the focus of the glasses by the adjusting screw c g1 at the same time you are viewing the object4 ,to view opake objects1 take away the slider-holder ,p1 and place the object on a flat glass u1 under the center of the body1 or on one end of the jointed nippers o4 ,then screw the silver concave speculum to the end of the cylinder ,l1 and slide this cylinder on the lower part of the body1 so that the upper edge thereof may coincide with the line which has the same mark with the magnifier that is then used2 reflect the light from the concave mirror ,g to the silver speculum1 from which it will be again reflected on the object4 ,the glasses are to be adjusted to their focal distance as before directed4 ,,the ,,description ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,jones',s ,,improved ,,compound ,,or ,,double ,,microscopes1 ,,represented ,,in ,fig4 #a ,,and #b4 ,plate ,,iv4 ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,the chief imperfections of ,cuff's microscope1 as well as of others formerly made1 are1 their construction rendering them only compound microscopes1 the body of the instrument having but a fixed position over the object1 and the smallness of the field of view by the old construction of the glasses in the body4 ,to obviate these defects1 as well as for the application of material improvements1 the late ,messrs4 ,martin and ,adams1 and the present ,messrs4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,jones1 have constructed this kind of microscope in various ways4 ,two microscopes by the latter artists1 which ,i am now going to describe1 appear to me to be the best of any hitherto invented4 ,fig4 #a is a representation of the second best sort of compound microscopes4 ,the improvements1 though few in number1 are essential to the use thereof4 ,the field of view is considerably larger than in the former microscope4 ,the stage and the mirrors are both moveable1 so that their respective distances may be easily varied4 ,the magnifiers may be moved about over the object4 ,there is also a condensing glass1 for increasing the density of the light1 when it is reflected by the mirror from a candle or lamp4 ,it is furnished with two mirrors1 one plane and the other concave1 and may likewise be used as a complete single microscope4 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #a4 represents the body of the microscope1 containing a double eye glass1 and a body glass2 it is here shewn as screwed to the arm ,c ,d1 from whence it may be occasionally removed1 either for the convenience of packing1 or when the instrument is to be used as a single microscope4 ,the eye glasses and the body glasses are contained in a tube which fits into the exterior tube ,a ,b2 by pulling out a little this tube1 when the microscope is in use1 the magnifying power of each lens is increased4 ,the body ,a ,b of the microscope is supported by the arm ,c ,d2 this arm is moveable in a square socket cut in the head that is connected to the main pillar ,e ,f1 which is screwed firmly to the mahogany pedestal ,g ,h2 there is a drawer to this pedestal1 which holds the apparatus4 ,this arm may be slid backwards and forwards in its socket1 carrying the magnifiers and the body of glasses1 and also turned horizontally quite round upon the pillar1 giving a general motion all over the object on the stage below2 which is a material improvement and advantage of this microscope over a similar one described in the former edition of this work1 as any unavoidable motion of the living object to be viewed may be followed1 by the observer's hand moving the arm ,c ,d as the object changes its place4 ,n ,i ,s is the plate or stage which carries the slider-holder ,k1 this stage is moved up or down the pillar ,e ,f1 by turning the milled nut ,m2 this nut is fixed to a pinion1 that works in a toothed rack cut on one side of the pillar4 ,by means of this pinion the stage may be gradually raised or depressed1 and the object adjusted to the focus of the different lenses4 ,k is the slider-holder1 which fits into a hole that is in the middle of the stage ,n ,i ,s2 it is used to confine and guide either the motion of the sliders which contain the objects1 or the glass tubes that are designed to confine small fishes1 for viewing the circulation of the blood4 ,the sliders and tubes are to be passed between the two upper plates4 ,l is a brass tube1 in the upper part of which is fixed the condensing lens before spoken of2 it screws into the wire arm a1 which is placed in the hole ,i of the stage1 with the glass underneath1 and may be set at different distances from the object1 according to its distance from the mirror or the candle4 ,o is the frame which holds the two reflecting mirrors1 one of which is plane1 the other concave4 ,these mirrors may be moved in various directions1 in order to reflect the light properly1 by means of the pivots on which they move1 in the semicircle ,q1 and the motion of the semicircle itself on the pin ,r2 the concave mirror generally answers best in the day-time2 the plane mirror combines better with the condensing lens in ,l1 and a lamp or candle at night4 ,at ,s is a hole and slit for receiving either the nippers b1 or the fish-pan c2 when these are used1 the slider-holder ,k must be removed4 ,t1 a hole to receive the pin of the convex lens and illuminator d4 ,there are six magnifying lenses contained in a brass wheel screwed in a circular brass box ,p2 this wheel is moveable about its center with the finger1 and stops by a click when the magnifiers are each centrally under the body ,a ,b above1 or the hole in the arm ,c ,d4 ,they are marked from ,no4 #a1 to #f1 and the proper number shewn in a small opening made in the side of the brass box4 ,this wheel ,p screws into the arm ,c ,d1 and may occasionally be taken off to admit of the silver speculum1 or a single magnifier1 hereafter to be described4 ,there is a small line cut on the edge of the arm ,c ,d1 which must be brought to the right hand edge of its socket1 in order to center the magnifier to the body and the stage4 ,by unscrewing the body ,a ,b1 the single magnifiers in the wheel ,p being then only left1 the instrument readily forms a single microscope4 ,a small pocket hand single or opake microscope may easily be extracted from this apparatus4 ,when the body ,a ,b is screwed off1 and the arm ,c ,d slipt away from its frame with the wheel of magnifiers1 and the forceps1 wire1 and joint b applied to it1 by a hole made in the arm for that purpose1 as represented at ,v1 it is then ready for the examination of any small object that may present itself in the garden1 c4 and will be found very convenient whenever the whole instrument is not required4 ,,list ,,of ,,apparatus ,,generally ,,made ,,to ,,this ,,microscope4 ,the wheel1 with the magnifiers1 ,p4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the body of the microscope1 ,a ,b4 ,the slider-holder1 ,k4 ,the tube1 with the condensing lens ,l1 to be used by candle-light4 ,the pin and arm a1 either for the above lens1 or for the silver concave speculum e4 ,the silver concave speculum e1 fitted to the arm above1 and used common to all the magnifiers in the wheel and body ,a ,b1 it is to reflect the light from the concave or plane mirror ,o below1 upon the opake objects1 then called the compound opake microscope4 ,a silver concave speculum f1 with a single magnifier2 it screws to the under part of the arm ,c ,d in room of the wheel of magnifiers1 and forms then the single opake microscope4 ,a brass cone g1 to place under the stage ,n ,i ,s1 and serves to diminish the reflected light when necessary4 ,the jointed nippers b1 fitted to the stage1 to hold any small insect1 or other opake object4 ,a cylinder of ivory h1 to fix on the pointed end of the nippers1 black on one side and white on the other1 to make a contrast to the opake object used4 ,six ivory sliders1 i1 each having four holes1 and objects contained between two talcs confined together by brass circular wires4 ,one of the sliders is usually sent without objects1 to be supplied at pleasure4 ,when used1 they are placed between the perforated plates of the slider-holder ,k2 where also is to be applied the brass frame slider k1 containing in one brass piece four small concave glasses fixed2 a narrow slip of glass slides over these1 all within the frame2 so that any very small living object1 as a mite1 c41 may be viewed with the proper security4 ,a set of glass tubes1 l1 three in number1 to contain tadpoles1 water newts1 small frogs1 eels1 c4 which are curious objects for affording a fine view of the circulation of the blood1 c4 ,they are also to be placed in the slider-holder ,k4 ,there is a small hole at one end to admit air1 the other end is to be stopped with cork1 to contain the fluid and prevent the escape of the animal4 ,a brass twisted wire is sent1 to assist in the cleaning of these tubes4 ,a small ivory box1 m1 containing talcs and wires to supply the ivory sliders with1 should any be lost or damaged4 ,a lens set in a brass cell1 n1 of such a focus as to view objects under a magnifying power sufficient for the applying them to the instrument for further inspection2 hence it has been called the explorator4 ,it may occasionally be screwed to the arm ,c ,d1 and is then well adapted for viewing objects of the larger kind1 or the whole of an insect1 c4 before the observing of it in part under the regular magnifiers4 ,a concave1 or a circular plane glass1 o1 for transparent objects1 or animalcula in fluids1 c4 it is fitted to the side1 ,i1 of the stage4 ,it is necessary to describe the lens and frame1 d1 noticed at page #ie2 it is either for converging the sun's rays upon opake objects laid upon the stage1 or for magnifying a flower1 or other large objects applied to the stage1 or on the nippers or point1 b4 ,by its pin and spring socket it is easily raised to any height1 for the sun1 candle1 or the eye of the observer4 ,a brass insect box1 h1 consisting of a concave and plane glass that screw close together2 by means of which a louse1 flea1 c4 may be secured1 viewed alive1 and retained for any time4 ,it is applied to the hole ,i1 of the stage1 ,fig4 #a4 ,a pair of small brass forceps1 q1 by which any small object may be conveniently taken up or moved4 ,this microscope packs into a mahogany pyramidical shaped case1 about seven inches square at its base1 and fourteen inches in height4 ,for its price1 see the general list annexed to this work4 ,,to ,,use ,,this ,,microscope4 ,it will be obvious to the reader from the preceding description that it must be put together as represented in the figure2 that he has to place the slider-holder1 ,k1 to the stage1 ,n ,i ,s1 with one slider of objects2 to reflect as strong a light as possible from the concave mirror1 ,o1 below1 by turning it into the best position1 and moving it upwards or downwards all the while he is looking down the body1 ,a ,b4 ,then1 for a distinct view of the object1 to turn the pinion1 ,m1 in a slow and gentle manner4 ,a small degree of practice will render the management very familiar4 ,for opake objects1 the slider-holder1 ,k1 is to be removed2 the silver speculum1 e1 screwed to the arm1 a1 and by its pin placed in the hole1 ,i1 of the stage1 with the concave part downward above the stage2 the glass1 o1 or the nippers1 b1 with ivory1 h1 placed at the stage3 then the light reflected from the mirror1 ,o1 up to the speculum above1 which will again reflect the light very strongly upon the object4 ,practice also in this case can make it easy to the beginner4 ,the use of the rest of the apparatus has been sufficiently explained4 ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,improved ,,compound ,,microscope1 ,,being ,,universal ,,in ,,its ,,uses1 ,,and ,,forming ,,the ,,single1 ,,compound1 ,,opake1 ,,and ,,aquatic ,,microscopes4 ,a person much accustomed to observations by the microscope1 will readily discern the several advantages of this instrument over the preceding one4 ,besides its containing an additional quantity of useful apparatus1 it is more commodious and complete for the management while observing1 as it may instantly be placed in a vertical1 oblique1 or horizontal situation1 turned laterally at the ease of the observer1 and the objects viewed by the primary direct light1 or reflected as usual1 at pleasure4 ,these particulars the following description will clearly shew4 ,i shall not again so fully describe the same apparatus1 as the reader must already understand their uses from the preceding references4 ,fig4 #b is a representation of this instrument as placed up for use4 ,a ,b is the compound body4 ,the eye-glasses are contained in an inner tube that slides outwards or inwards1 thus altering its distance from a glass at ,b1 and thereby increasing or diminishing the magnifying power1 when thought necessary4 ,this body may be screwed on or off to the arm ,c ,d1 as in the microscope just described2 the arm ,c ,d may also be moved in any direction over the object4 ,e ,f is the square stem or bar1 on which is moved by the rack-work and pinion ,m1 the stage ,n ,i ,s1 to adjust a distinct view to any of the magnifiers1 or apparatus used4 ,v is a strong brass pillar with a joint-piece at top1 connected to the stem ,e ,f2 by means of this joint the position of the microscope is readily altered from a vertical to an oblique or horizontal one1 as may be desired or found most easy and convenient to the observer1 while sitting or standing2 it will also enable him to view objects by direct unreflected light2 for1 when the stem1 ,e ,f1 is put into an horizontal position1 the mirrors1 ,o1 ,r1 may be drawn off and laid aside4 ,against or before the condensing lens1 ,u1 the common day-light or the light of a candle may then be directed4 ,at the stage ,n ,i ,s1 is a sliding brass spring1 ,n1 serving to confine down slips of glass or large sliders1 when objects placed thereon are intended to be viewed out of the horizontal position of the stage4 ,a lens1 ,u1 called the condensing lens1 fixed in a frame connected to a socket1 is for condensing and modifying the rays of light reflected from the concave or plane mirror1 ,o1 below2 it may be set to a proper distance by raising it up by two little screws1 one of which is shewn at u4 ,this lens is of considerable use by candle-light1 as it serves to fill the whole body1 ,a ,b1 beautifully with light on the object4 ,it is turned aside on a joint pin1 when not in use4 ,six magnifiers are contained in the wheel at ,p1 as in the former microscope4 ,the mirrors1 ,o1 below may also be slid upwards or downwards on the stem1 by pushing against the screws at r4 ,thus the stage1 lens ,u1 and mirrors below1 being all in one axis of motion1 admit the adjustment of the distinct view1 light1 c4 in the most accurate and pleasing manner4 ,when the instrument is packed into its case1 the feet1 ,g ,g ,h1 may all be folded together as one1 and the body ,a ,b1 screwed off1 for the advantage of being portable4 ,the body1 as screwed off1 leaves the instrument a single microscope4 ,,the ,,general ,,apparatus ,,to ,,this ,,microscope ,,is ,,as ,,follows4 ,first1 such as accompany the preceding microscope4 ,the brass wheel with magnifiers1 ,p1 ,fig4 #b4 ,the slider-holder1 ,k4 ,the brass pin and arm1 a1 for receiving the concave speculum1 e1 which is applied to the upper side of the stage1 and used common to all the magnifiers4 ,the silver concave speculum1 f1 with a magnifier set therein1 used by itself in the arm ,c ,d4 ,these two speculums form the instrument into what is called an ,,opake ,,microscope4 ,a brass cone1 g1 fitting the under side of the stage1 ,n ,i ,s1 to exclude superfluous light4 ,the illuminator1 or convex lens1 d1 ,fig4 #a1 fitted to ,t of the stage4 ,the jointed nippers1 b1 fitted to the stage1 and either on the point or nippers to hold any small insect1 or other opake object4 ,an ivory black and white piece1 h1 is also fitted to the point to contrast the colour of any object laid thereon2 the light upon this is reflected from the silver concaves placed above1 which reflect the light downwards received from the mirrors at ,o4 ,six ivory sliders as shewn at i1 containing a selection of objects1 placed between ,muscovy talc1 and fastened by spring wires2 and a brass frame slider1 k3 all for the stage1 ,k1 when in use4 ,a set of glass tubes for fish or liquids1 l1 to be filled with water and stopped with cork1 for the slider-holder ,k4 ,a pan1 c1 for fish or frogs1 fitted to the stage at ,s4 ,a small ivory box1 m1 with spare talcs and wires4 ,the explorator1 n1 a lens set in a brass cell1 for viewing the larger sort of objects either by the hand1 or from the arm ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #b4 ,a plane glass1 o1 and a concave ditto1 s1 both fitted to the hole of the stage1 ,n ,i ,s1 for viewing fluids1 and confining the animalcula1 c4 between them1 and so forming what is called the ,,aquatic ,,microscope4 ,a brass box1 p1 with a concave and plane glass1 for insects and other objects1 fitted to the stage ,n ,i ,s1 when they are to be examined by the instrument4 ,a pair of brass forceps1 q1 to take or hold any object by4 ,a camel hair brush1 t4 ,,additional ,,apparatus ,,to ,,this ,,best ,,microscope4 ,three large wood sliders1 as shewn at ,x1 with talcs and wires1 for the larger sort of wings of flies1 and other objects which are too large for the small ivory sliders1 i2 they are to be placed in the slider-holder ,k1 when on the stage ,n ,i ,s1 and the objects to be magnified either by the magnifiers in the wheel ,p1 or the lens shewn at n1 screwed on the arm ,c ,d4 ,a brass cell1 y1 with a very small globule or lens1 or an extraordinary great magnifier1 usually about the #cjth or #djth of an inch focus2 it is to be screwed into the arm ,c ,d1 when the wheel1 ,p1 is first unscrewed away4 ,it is for the purpose of viewing extreme minute objects1 which may be so small as to elude the power of the magnifiers in the wheel1 ,p4 ,a moveable stage1 ,w1 which by the pin1 a1 is applied to the hole1 ,s1 of the stage ,fig4 #b1 and thereby has an horizontal motion under the whole field of view1 without disturbing any other part of the instrument4 ,to the large hole of this stage are fitted a deep concave glass1 r1 and the concave and plane glasses1 s and o2 and to the small holes1 x x1 a black and white piece of ivory1 w1 for opake objects1 and a concave and plane glass similar to o and s4 ,an extra concave silver speculum with a less magnifier than the other1 as shewn at f1 used for the larger kind of opake objects1 like the other1 fitted to the arm ,c ,d1 and used instead of the magnifiers in the wheel1 ,p4 ,rack-work is sometimes cut in the arm ,c ,d1 to turn the pinion above1 so as to move the magnifiers in a linear direction over the objects in the most accurate degree2 and also the stage ,n ,i ,s jointed1 to turn by a screw and teeth in an horizontal direction at right angles to the above1 thereby rendering a slow and accurate motion1 perfectly suitable to the various positions of any living animal under examination4 ,six or more larger ivory sliders1 with cuttings of different woods1 c4 are also frequently added2 but as these enhance the expense1 and may be extended to the desire of the purchaser1 his choice1 and not my description here1 will determine the extent of the apparatus to the microscope4 ,when packed up into its mahogany1 or black shagreen case1 the outside dimensions are about twelve inches and an half long1 nine inches broad1 and three inches three-quarters deep4 ,a microscope from this plan is frequently made of smaller dimensions1 for the convenience of persons who frequently travel1 and is contained in a fish-skin case about seven inches long1 four inches and an half broad1 and two inches deep1 and is the most complete instrument of the sort4 ,,to ,,use ,,this ,,microscope4 ,as in the former one1 place the slider-holder ,k1 with a slider of objects in it1 in the stage ,n ,i ,s2 move the arm ,c ,d1 in its socket1 so that a mark on the side is brought to the edge of the socket2 then turn the arm till the magnifier is directly central over the object2 look down the tube ,a ,b1 and during that time1 reflect the light strongly and clearly up into it from the mirror ,o below2 and then1 while you are looking through the body1 gently turn the pinion at ,m to the right or left1 till you see the object magnified in the most distinct and well-defined manner4 ,attending properly to this mode is the only care necessary to use any microscope whatsoever2 and for want of doing which1 many a beginner finds a difficulty in using properly his instrument4 ,for price1 see the list at the end4 ,for opake objects1 you take away the slider-holder1 ,k2 place on the stage either the concave glass1 s1 or the nippers1 b2 screw the concave speculum1 e1 to the arm1 a1 which place on the stage with the arm in the hole1 ,i4 ,the light is now to be reflected into this concave dish from one of the mirrors1 ,o1 below1 and it will thus be strongly condensed upon the object4 ,with this concave speculum any of the magnifiers in the wheel1 ,p1 may be used4 ,when the single silver concave1 f1 is used1 it is screwed to the arm ,c ,d1 and the one1 e1 and arm1 a1 are not then applied4 ,for further directions for the management of microscopes1 the light1 c4 see ,chap4 ,,iv4 p4 #abi1 and sequel4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,culpeper',s1 ,,or ,,the ,,common ,,three-,,pillared ,,microscope4 ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the only recommendations of this original instrument are1 its simple construction and lowness of price4 ,it gives a pleasing view of the object4 ,it is precluded by its form from some of the advantages of the two foregoing instruments1 because both the stage and the mirror are confined4 ,this microscope consists of a large exterior brass body1 ,a ,b1 supported on three brass scrolls1 which are fixed to the stage ,f2 the stage is supported by three larger scrolls that are screwed to the mahogany pedestal ,g ,h4 ,there is a drawer in the pedestal which holds the apparatus4 ,the concave mirror1 ,i1 is fitted to a socket in the center of the pedestal4 ,the lower part1 ,b1 of the body forms an exterior tube1 into which the upper part of the body1 ,c1 slides1 and may be moved up or down by the hand1 so as to bring the magnifiers which are screwed on at ,d1 nearer to1 or further from the object4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus ,,to ,,culpeper',s ,,microscope4 ,five magnifiers1 each fitted in a brass cell2 one of these is seen screwed on at ,d4 ,six ivory sliders1 k1 five of them with objects2 and a small ivory box1 m1 containing some spare talcs1 and wires for them4 ,a brass tube1 ,n1 to hold the concave speculum4 ,a brass box1 ,m1 for the same speculum4 ,a fish-pan1 c4 ,a set of glass tubes1 b4 ,a flat and a concave glass1 both fitted to the stage4 ,a brass cone1 g1 to exclude superfluous light2 it applies at the under side of the stage1 ,f4 ,a brass box1 p1 with plane and concave glasses for living objects4 ,a pair of forceps1 q4 ,a steel wire1 b1 with a pair of nippers at one end1 a point at the other1 and a small ivory cylinder1 h1 to fit on the pointed end of the nippers4 ,a convex lens1 ,e1 moveable in a brass semicircle2 this is affixed to a long brass pin1 which fits into a hole1 ,f1 on the stage4 ,the uses of the above apparatus have been sufficiently described in the preceding pages4 ,,to ,,use ,,this ,,microscope4 ,screw one of the five cells1 which contains a magnifying lens1 to the end1 ,d1 of the body2 place the slider i or k1 with the objects1 between the plates of the slider-holder1 ,k4 ,then1 to attain distinct vision and a pleasing view of the object1 adjust the sliding body to the focus of the lens you are using1 by moving the upper part1 ,c1 gently up and down while you are looking at the object1 and regulate the light by the concave mirror1 ,i1 below4 ,the image of the objects in this microscope is seen in a field of view of about six inches in diameter2 but1 in the improved ones before described1 it is from about twelve to fifteen inches4 ,for opake objects1 two additional pieces must be used2 the first is a cylindrical tube of brass1 represented at ,n1 which fits on the cylindrical snout above ,d of the body3 the second piece is the concave speculum1 ,l2 this is to be screwed to the lower end of the aforesaid tube4 ,the upper edge of this tube should be made to coincide with the line which has the same number affixed to it as the magnifier you are using2 that is1 if you are making use of the magnifier marked #e1 slide the tube to the circular line on the tube above ,d1 that is marked also with ,no4 #e4 ,the slider-holder1 ,k1 should be removed when you are going to view opake objects1 and a plane glass should be placed on the stage in its stead to receive the object2 or it may be placed on the nippers1 b1 the pin of which fits into the hole in the stage4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,martin',s ,,improved ,,solar ,,microscope1 ,,which ,,is ,,constructed ,,to ,,exhibit ,,transparent ,,and ,,opake ,,objects4 ,plate ,v4 ,the solar microscope is generally supposed to afford the most entertainment1 on account of the wonderful extent of its magnifying power1 and the ease with which several persons may view each single object at the same time4 ,the use of it was1 however1 confined for many years only to transparent objects4 ,about the year #aggd1 ,mr4 ,b4 ,martin so far improved this instrument1 as to render it applicable to opake1 as well as to transparent objects1 exhibiting the magnified image of either kind on a large screen4 ,treating of it himself1 he says#cd1 8,with this instrument all opake objects1 whether of the animal1 vegetable1 or mineral kingdom1 may be exhibited in great perfection1 in all their native beauty2 the lights and shades1 the prominences and cavities1 and all the varieties of different hues1 teints1 and colours1 heightened by the reflection of the solar rays condensed upon them40 ,from its enlarged dimensions1 transparent objects are also shewn with greater perfection than in the common solar microscope4 #cd ,description and ,use of an ,opake ,solar ,microscope4 #hvo4 #aggd4 ,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #a1 represents the solar opake microscope1 placed together for exhibiting opake objects4 ,fig4 #b1 is that part called the single tooth and pinion microscope1 which is used for shewing transparent objects2 the cylindrical tube1 ,y1 thereof1 being made to fit into the tube ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #a4 ,it may be occasionally used as a hand single1 or ,wilson's microscope1 and for which purpose1 the handle1 c1 is fitted by a screw to the body at g1 and the tube1 ,y1 screwed away4 ,fig4 #c1 the slider which contains the six magnifiers2 it fits into a dove-tail under ,p1 ,fig4 #b1 at the upper part of the microscope4 ,fig4 #d represents a brass dove-tail slider1 containing a small lens3 it is called a condenser4 ,there are three in number1 marked #a and #b1 c4 corresponding to the number of the magnifiers used3 they serve to condense the sun's rays strongly upon the object1 and enlarge the circle of light4 ,they slide in at h1 ,fig4 #b4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 represents the body of the solar microscope2 one part thereof1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 is conical1 the other1 ,c ,d ,e ,f1 is cylindrical4 ,the cylindrical part receives the tube1 ,g1 of the opake object box1 or the tube1 ,y1 of the single microscope1 ,fig4 #b4 ,at the large end1 ,a ,b1 of the conical part there is a convex lens to receive the rays from the mirror1 and refract them convergingly into the box1 ,h ,i ,k ,l4 ,n ,o ,p is a brass frame which is fixed to the moveable circular plate1 a b c2 in this frame there is a plane mirror1 to reflect the solar rays through the afore-mentioned lens4 ,this mirror may be moved into the proper positions for reflecting the solar rays1 by means of rack-work turned by the nuts ,q and ,r4 ,by the nut ,q1 it may be moved from right to left2 it maybe elevated or depressed by the nut1 ,r4 d e1 two screws to fasten the microscope to a window-shutter1 or a board fitted entirely before the window4 ,the box for opake objects is represented as open at ,h ,i ,k ,l2 it contains a plane mirror1 ,m1 for reflecting the light that it receives from the large lens to the object1 and thereby illuminating it2 ,s is a screw to adjust this mirror to its proper angle for reflecting the light4 ,v ,x1 two tubes of brass1 one sliding within the other1 the exterior one in the box1 ,h ,i ,k ,l2 these carry two magnifying lenses3 the interior tube is sometimes taken out1 and the exterior one is then used by itself4 ,part of this tube may be seen in the plate as within the box1 ,h ,i ,k ,l4 ,at ,h1 is a brass plate1 the back part of which is fixed to a tube1 h1 containing a spiral wire1 which keeps the plate always bearing against the side1 ,h1 of the brass box ,h ,i ,k ,l4 ,the sliders1 with the opake objects1 ,fig4 #e1 pass between this plate and the side of the box2 to apply which1 the plate is to be drawn back by means of the nut1 g4 k i1 a door to one side of the opake box1 to be opened when adjusting the mirror1 ,m4 ,the foregoing pieces constitute the several parts necessary for viewing opake objects4 ,we shall now proceed to describe the single microscope1 which is used for transparent objects2 but1 in order to examine these1 the box1 ,h ,i ,k ,l1 must be first removed1 and in its place we must insert the tube1 ,y1 of the single microscope1 ,fig4 #b1 now to be explained4 ,fig4 #b represents a large tooth and pinion microscope2 at m1 within the body of this microscope1 are two thin plates that are to be separated1 in order to let the ivory sliders1 ,fig4 #g1 pass between them2 they are pressed together by a spiral spring1 which bears up the under plate1 and forces it against the upper one4 ,the slider1 ,fig4 #c1 that contains the magnifiers1 fits into a hole at n2 any of the magnifiers may be placed before the object1 by moving the aforesaid slider3 when the magnifier is at the center of the hole ,p1 a small spring falls into one of the notches which is on the side of the slider1 ,fig4 #c4 ,at h1 slides a condenser1 ,fig4 #d1 for condensing the sun's rays1 and enlarging the field of view on the screen3 the number must correspond with that of the magnifier used4 ,this microscope is adjusted to the focus1 while exhibiting the object1 by turning the milled nut ,o4 ,,apparatus ,,to ,,the ,,opake ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,the mirror ,o ,p1 ,fig4 #a1 and square plate1 and the tubular body of the microscope1 ,a ,f4 ,the opake box and its tube1 ,i ,k ,g4 ,the tooth and pinion or single microscope1 ,fig4 #b4 ,the slider of magnifiers1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the megalascope magnifier1 ,fig4 #f1 fitted to ,p of ,fig4 #b4 ,six ivory sliders with transparent objects1 ,fig4 #g4 ,twelve wood sliders with opake objects1 and a brass frame to hold them1 ,fig4 #e4 ,a brass square-formed slider case1 ,fig4 #h1 to hold any animal1 piece of ore1 or other opake object1 and is to be placed like the other slider at ,h1 ,fig4 #a4 ,a pair of nippers and point1 ,fig4 #i1 the pin1 a1 of which fits into the hole of the slider1 ,fig4 #d1 and holds before the magnifiers at ,p1 ,fig4 #b1 any small fly or other complete object to be magnified4 ,a four-glass slider in a brass frame1 ,fig4 #aj1 for any animalcula1 c4 to be placed between the plates at m1 ,fig4 #b4 ,a set of glass fish tubes1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a pair of forceps1 ,fig4 #ab4 ,two brass nuts for the window-shutter or board1 ,fig4 #ac2 and the two brass fastening screws1 d e1 ,fig4 #a1 which may be either used with or without the above two nuts4 ,the figures on the plate are about half the original size1 and the apparatus now made by ,messrs4 ,jones packs into a case thirteen inches long1 nine inches broad1 and four inches deep4 ,for price1 see the list at the end4 ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,make a round hole in a window-shutter or window-board1 that is opposite to the meridian sun1 or as nearly so as possible1 a little larger than the circle a b c2 pass the mirror1 ,n ,o ,p1 through this hole1 and apply the square plate to the shutter2 then mark with a pencil the places which correspond to the two holes through which the screws are to pass2 take away the microscope1 and bore two holes at the marked places1 large enough to admit the milled screws1 d e1 to pass through them4 ,these screws are to pass from the outside of the shutter1 to go through it1 and being then screwed into their respective holes in the square plate1 they will1 when screwed home1 hold it fast against the inside of the shutter1 and thus support the microscope4 ,another way1 and perhaps more convenient1 is to previously screw the two brass nuts1 ,fig4 #ac1 to the shutter or window-board1 at the inside at a suitable distance1 to receive the two milled screws2 these nuts will always be ready for use1 and the operator may in a minute1 within his room1 fasten the plate1 a b c1 to the shutter by the two milled screws1 being placed contrarywise4 ,screw the conical tube1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 to the circle1 a b c1 and then slide the tube1 ,g1 of the opake box into the cylindrical part1 ,c ,d ,e ,f1 of the body1 if opake objects are to be examined2 but if transparent objects are intended to be shewn1 then place the tube ,y1 ,fig4 #b1 within the tube ,c ,d ,e ,f4 ,the room is to be darkened as much as possible1 that no light may enter but what passes through the body of the microscope2 for1 on this circumstance1 together with the brightness of the sun1 the perfection and distinctness of the image in a great measure depend4 ,we shall first consider the microscope as going ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,for ,,opake ,,objects4 ,adjust the mirror1 ,n ,o ,p1 so as to receive the solar rays1 by means of the two finger-screws or nuts1 ,q1 ,r2 the first1 ,q1 turns the mirror to the right or left2 the second1 ,r1 raises or depresses it3 this you are to do1 till you have reflected the sun's light through the lens at ,a ,b1 strongly upon a white-paper screen or cloth1 from four to eight feet square 7about the latter dimensions for transparent objects7 placed from about five to eight feet distance from the window1 and formed thereon a round spot of light3 a white wainscot or wall at a suitable distance answers very well4 ,an unexperienced observer will find it more convenient to obtain the light by first forming this spot1 before he puts on either the opake box1 or the tooth and pinion microscope1 ,fig4 #b4 ,now apply the opake box1 and place the object between the plates at ,h2 open the door1 k i1 and adjust the mirror1 ,m1 till you see you have illuminated the object strongly4 ,if you cannot effect this by the screw ,s1 you must move the screws ,q1 ,r1 in order to get the light reflected strongly from the mirror1 ,n ,o ,p1 on the mirror ,m2 without which the latter cannot illuminate the object4 ,the object being strongly illuminated1 shut the door1 k i1 and a distinct view of the object will soon be obtained on your screen1 by adjusting the tubes ,v ,x1 with the magnifiers1 which is effected by moving them backwards or forwards4 ,a perfectly round spot of light cannot always be procured in northern latitudes1 the altitude of the sun being often too low2 neither can it be obtained when the sun is directly perpendicular to the front of the room4 ,as the sun is continually changing its place1 it will be necessary1 in order to keep his rays full upon the object1 to keep them continually directed through the axis of the instrument1 by turning the two screws ,q and ,r4 ,to view transparent objects1 remove the opake box1 and insert the tube1 ,y1 of ,fig4 #b1 in its place2 put the slider1 ,fig4 #c1 into its place at n1 a condenser1 ,fig4 #d1 at h1 and the slider with the objects between the plates at m2 then adjust the mirror1 ,n ,o ,p1 as before directed1 by the screws1 ,q1 ,r1 so that the light may pass through the object2 regulate the focus of the magnifier by the pinion1 ,o4 ,the most pleasing magnifiers in use are the fourth and fifth4 ,the size of the object is generally from four to eight feet1 and may be increased or diminished by altering the distance of the screen from the microscope2 five or six feet is a convenient distance4 ,the effect by this sort of microscope is stupendous1 and never fails to excite wonder in an observer at the first view1 in seeing a flea1 c4 augmented in appearance to ,,seven1 ,,eight1 or even ,,ten ,,feet in length1 with all its colours1 motions1 and animal functions1 distinctly and beautifully exhibited4 ,,to ,,examine ,,transparent ,,objects ,,of ,a ,,larger ,,size1 or to render the instrument what is usually called a megalascope1 take out the slider1 ,fig4 #c1 from its place at n2 screw the cell and lens1 ,fig4 #f1 into the hole at ,p1 ,fig4 #b2 remove the glass which is placed at h1 and regulate the light and focus agreeable to the foregoing directions4 ,at ,c ,d1 is placed a lens for increasing the density of the rays1 for the purpose of burning or melting any fusible substance2 this lens must be removed in most cases1 lest the objects should be burnt4 ,the intensity of the light is also varied by moving the tube ,g1 and ,fig4 #b1 ,y1 inwards or outwards4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,transparent ,,solar ,,microscope ,,and ,,apparatus4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #d1 to #ad4 ,the foregoing description will1 in great part1 answer for this microscope2 but1 the dimensions1 apparatus1 c4 varying in a small degree from the preceding1 a distinct description here1 may be acceptable to those1 who possess this sort of microscope only4 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #d1 represents the body of the microscope1 consisting of two brass tubes4 ,e ,f is the end of the inner moveable tube2 e f1 that of the single tooth and pinion microscope4 ,fig4 #e1 screws into the end of this inner tube2 at the end1 ,a ,b1 of the external tube there is a convex lens1 to receive the sun's rays from the mirror1 ,k ,l1 and to condense them on the object2 the end1 ,a ,b1 screws into the circular plate1 ,g ,h ,i4 ,this part may also be used as a single microscope1 and may have at m the handle1 c1 screwed to it4 ,k ,l1 a long frame fixed to the moveable circular plate1 with a plane mirror1 to reflect the rays of the sun on the lens at ,a ,b4 ,an endless worm or screw1 which is cut on the lower part of the nut1 ,m1 works in a small wheel which is fixed to the frame1 ,k ,l1 so that by turning the nut1 the frame1 ,k ,l1 is moved up or down3 the nut1 ,n1 moves the mirror to the right or left4 ,o1 ,p1 two screws to fasten the square plate to the window-shutter4 ,fig4 #e1 the single microscope2 e f1 the end which screws on to the part1 ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #d1 of the internal tube of the body2 q1 the dove-tailed slit for receiving the slider1 ,fig4 #h2 g1 the hole in which the megalascope magnifier1 ,fig4 #f1 is to be screwed1 when the slider1 ,fig4 #h1 is removed4 ,at h1 are the moveable plates1 between which the object sliders are placed2 under the lowermost of these1 the lens represented at ,fig4 #aa is to be placed1 when the magnifiers in the slider1 ,fig4 #h1 are to be used1 a k is a small piece of rack-work1 which is moved backwards and forwards by the pinion fixed to the milled nut1 b2 by the gradual motion of this rack1 the objects are adjusted to the foci of the different lenses4 ,fig4 #h is a brass slider1 with six lenses1 or magnifying glasses2 it is to be inserted into the hole at q2 either of the magnifiers may be placed before the object1 by sliding it one way or the other3 you may perceive when the glass is in the center of the eye-hole by a small spring acting upon a notch which is made on the side of the slider opposite to each lens4 ,,apparatus ,,belonging ,,to ,,this ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,square plate and mirror4 ,the body1 ,a ,d1 consisting of two tubes1 one within the other4 ,the single microscope1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the megalascope lens1 ,fig4 #f4 ,the slider1 ,fig4 #h1 with six lenses4 ,the two screws ,o1 ,p4 ,six ivory sliders and a talc box1 ,fig4 #g and #ac4 ,some glass tubes1 ,fig4 #i4 ,a slider or brass case1 ,fig4 #aj1 containing a plane piece of glass1 and a brass slider with holes1 into which are cemented small concave glasses1 designed for confining minute insects between the plane and concave glasses1 which are thus preserved from being crushed1 or from moving out of the field of view4 ,three condensing lenses to enlarge the field of view1 such as ,fig4 #aa1 that are fitted to the hole1 l1 of ,fig4 #e4 ,their numbers correspond with the numbers used4 ,fig4 #ab1 two brass nuts for the window-shutter or board1 to receive the two screws1 ,o and ,p4 ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,transparent ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,fasten the square plate against the inside of a window-shutter1 by the two screws ,o1 ,p1 which are to go from the outside of the window-shutter through it1 and then be screwed into their respective holes in the square plate at ,g ,h ,i4 ,the mirror is to be on the outside of the shutter1 passing through a hole made for that purpose4 ,darken the room2 then place a screen at about six or eight feet distance from the window1 the farther it is from it the larger is the image3 now move the mirror1 ,k ,l1 by the two nuts ,m ,n1 till the sun's rays come through the instrument in an horizontal direction to the screen1 forming a round spot thereon2 screw the microscope1 ,fig4 #e1 into its place ,e ,f2 put the slider with the lenses1 ,fig4 #h1 at q1 ,fig4 #e1 and the object slider between the plates at h2 adjust the object to the focus of the magnifying lens by the screw b1 till the object appears distinct and clear on the screen4 ,by moving the internal tube of the body1 the object may be placed at different distances from the lens which is fixed at ,a ,b1 so as to be sufficiently illuminated1 and not burnt by the solar rays4 ,if the screws ,o1 ,p1 are to pass inside the room1 the two nuts1 ,fig4 #ab1 must be previously fixed4 ,,the ,,screw ,,barrel1 ,,or ,,wilson',s ,,single ,,pocket ,,microscope4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #a and #b4 ,this microscope of ,mr4 ,wilson's is an invention of many years standing1 and was in some measure laid aside1 till ,dr4 ,lieberkhn introduced the solar apparatus to which he applied it1 there being no other instrument at that time which would answer his purpose so well2 it is much esteemed in particular cases4 ,the body of the microscope is represented at ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #a1 and is made either of silver1 brass1 or ivory4 ,c ,c is a long fine-threaded male screw1 that turns into the body of the microscope4 ,d1 a convex glass at the end of the said screw1 on which may be placed1 as occasion requires1 one of the two concave apertures of thin brass to cover the said glass1 and thereby diminish the aperture when the greatest magnifiers are used4 ,e1 three thin plates of brass within the body of the microscope1 one whereof is bent to an arched cavity for the reception of a tube of glass4 ,f1 a piece of wood or brass1 curved in the manner of the said plate1 and fastened thereto4 ,g1 the other end of the microscope1 where a female screw is adapted to receive the different magnifiers4 ,h1 a spiral spring of steel1 between the said end1 ,g1 and the plates of brass1 ,e1 intended to keep the plates in a due position1 and counteract against the long screw1 ,c4 ,i1 a small ivory handle4 ,to this microscope belong seven different magnifying glasses1 six of which are set in cells1 as in ,fig4 ,k1 and are marked from #a1 to #f3 the lowest numbers to the greatest magnifiers4 ,l is the seventh magnifier1 set in the manner of a little barrel1 to be held in the hand for viewing any large object4 ,m is an ivory slider with the objects4 ,six of these1 and one of brass1 are usually sold with this microscope4 ,there is also a brass slider not shewn in the figure1 to confine any small object1 that it may be viewed without crashing or destroying it4 ,n1 a pair of forceps1 or pliers1 for the taking up of insects or other objects1 and applying them to the sliders or glasses4 ,o1 a camel hair brush1 to take up and examine a small drop of liquid1 brush the dust away1 c4 ,p is a glass tube to confine living objects1 such as frogs1 fishes1 c4 ,when you view an object1 push the ivory slider1 in which the said object is placed1 between the two flat brass plates1 observing always to put that side of the slider1 where the brass rings are1 farthest from the eye2 then screw in the magnifying glass you intend to use at the end of the instrument ,g1 and looking through it against the light1 turn the long screw1 ,c ,c1 till your object is brought to appear distinct1 or to the true focal distance4 ,to examine any object accurately1 view it first through a magnifier that will shew the whole at once1 and afterwards inspect the several parts more particularly with one of the greatest magnifiers2 for thus you will gain a true idea of the whole1 and all its parts3 and1 though the greatest magnifiers can shew but a minute portion of any object at once1 such as the claw of a flea1 the horn of a louse1 c4 yet by gently moving the slider that contains your object1 the eye will gradually see the whole2 and if any part should be out of the focal distance1 the screw1 ,c ,c1 will easily bring it to the true focus4 ,as objects must be brought very near the glass1 when the greatest magnifiers are used1 be particularly careful not to rub the slider against the glasses as you move it in or out4 ,a few turns of the screw1 ,c ,c1 will easily obviate this4 ,,description ,,of ,a ,,scroll ,,for ,,fixing ,,wilson',s ,,pocket ,,microscope1 ,,and ,a ,,mirror ,,for ,,reflecting ,,light ,,into ,,it4 ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b1 is a brass scroll1 which1 for the better conveniency of carriage1 is made to unscrew into three parts1 and may be put into the drawer upon which it stands1 with its reflecting mirror ,d1 and ,wilson's pocket microscope1 ,g4 ,the upper part of the scroll is taken off at ,b1 by unscrewing half a turn of the screw2 then1 if lifted up1 it will come out of the socket4 ,the lower part unscrews at ,c1 and the base at ,e4 ,the mirror lifts out at ,f1 which1 with the scroll1 lies in one partition of the box4 ,to apply this scroll for use1 fix the body of the microscope to the top thereof by the screw1 ,a1 as in ,fig4 #b1 by screwing it in the same hole as the ivory handle was applied to before4 ,the brass or ivory slider being fixed as before described1 and the microscope placed in a perpendicular position1 move the mirror1 ,d1 in such a manner as to reflect the light of the sky1 of the sun1 or a candle1 directly upwards through the microscope2 by which means the object will be most conveniently viewed4 ,it is further useful for viewing opake objects1 by screwing the arm1 ,q ,r1 ,fig4 #a1 into the body of the microscope at ,g2 then screwing into the round hole1 ,r1 that magnifier which you think will best suit your object1 and putting the concave speculum1 ,s1 on the outside of the ring1 ,r1 you will observe in the body of the microscope1 between the wood or brass1 ,f1 and the end of the male screw1 ,c ,c1 a small hole1 u1 through which slides the long wire1 ,t1 which has a point at one end1 and forceps at the other1 that may be used occasionally as your objects require4 ,when you have fixed this1 and your object on it1 turn the arm1 ,r1 till the magnifier is brought over the object2 it may be then adjusted to the true focus1 by turning the screw1 as before4 ,it must also be brought exactly over the speculum1 by turning the upper part of the scroll to one side1 till your object and the two specula are in one line1 as will be found by trial2 and then fix it by the screw1 ,b1 at which time the upper surface of the object will be enlightened by the light reflected from the mirror1 ,d1 to the concave speculum4 ,,description ,,of ,a ,,small ,,microscope ,,for ,,opake ,,objects4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #c and #d4 ,a1 ,fig4 #c1 is a fixed arm1 through which passes a screw1 ,b1 the other end is fastened to the moveable arm1 ,c4 ,d1 a nut fitted to the said screw1 which1 when turned1 will either separate or bring together the two arms1 ,a ,c4 ,e1 a steel spring1 that separates the two sides when the nut is unscrewed4 ,f1 a piece of brass turning round in a spring socket1 moving on a rivet1 in which moves a steel wire pointed at the end ,g1 and the other end a pair of pliers1 ,h3 these are either to thrust into1 or take up and hold any object1 and may be turned round as required4 ,i1 a ring of brass1 with a female screw fixed on an upright piece of the same metal1 turning on a rivet1 that it may be set at a due distance when the least magnifiers are used1 and is adapted to the screws of all the magnifiers4 ,fig4 #d1 ,k1 a concave speculum of polished silver1 in the center of which a lens is placed4 ,on the back of this speculum a male screw1 ,l1 is made to fit the brass ring ,i1 ,fig4 #c4 ,four of these specula of different concavities1 with four glasses of different magnifying powers1 as the objects may require4 ,the greatest magnifiers have the least apertures4 ,m1 a round object plate1 one side white and the other black1 intended to render objects the more visible1 by placing them1 if black1 upon the white1 and if white1 on the black side4 ,a steel spring1 ,n1 turns down on each side1 to secure any object2 from the object plate there is a hollow pipe1 to screw it on the needle's point ,g1 ,fig4 #c4 ,o1 a small box of brass1 with a glass on each side1 to confine any living object in order to examine it1 having a pipe to screw upon the end of the needle at ,g4 ,p1 an ivory handle4 ,q1 a pair of pliers to take up any object4 ,r1 a soft hair brush4 ,to view any object1 screw the speculum1 with the magnifier you intend to use1 into the brass ring1 ,i2 place your object either on the needle ,g1 in the pliers ,h1 on the object plate ,m1 or in the brass hollow box ,o1 as may be most convenient2 then holding up your instrument by the handle ,p1 look against the light through the magnifying lens1 and by means of the nut1 ,d1 together with moving of the needle at its lower end1 the object may be turned about1 raised or depressed1 brought nearer the glass1 or put farther from it1 till you have the true focal distance1 and the light be seen reflected from the speculum strongly upon the object4#ce #ce ,opake microscopes are now constructed more elegantly and simply4 ,the chief merit of ,wilson's microscope appears1 in being particularly adapted to minute objects1 and these principally of the transparent kind2 the barrel form is useful for excluding adventitious light4 ,excepting these peculiarities1 its general utility is considered far short of the universal pocket microscope hereafter to be described4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,ellis',s ,,single ,,or ,,aquatic ,,microscope4 ,plate ,,vii4 ,b4 ,this instrument takes its name from ,mr4 ,john ,ellis1 author of 8,an ,essay towards a ,natural ,history of ,corallines10 and of the 8,natural ,history of many curious and uncommon ,zoophytes40 ,by this instrument he was enabled to explain many singularities in the conomy and construction of these wonderful productions of nature4 ,to the practical botanist this instrument is recommended by the respectable authority of ,mr4 ,curtis1 author of the ,flora ,londinensis1 a work which does credit to the author and the nation4 ,this microscope is simple in its construction1 easy in its use1 and very portable2 these advantages1 as well as some others which it also has over other portable microscopes1 have accelerated the sale thereof1 and caused it to be very much adopted4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,microscope4 ,k1 the box which contains the whole apparatus2 it is generally made of fish-skin2 on the top of the box there is a female screw1 for receiving the screw which is at the bottom of the brass pillar ,a1 and which is to be screwed on the top of the box1 ,k4 ,d1 a brass pin which fits into the pillar2 on the top of this pin is a hollow socket to receive the arm which carries the magnifiers2 the pin is to be moved up and down1 in order to adjust the lenses to their focal or proper distance from the object4 ,in the representation of this microscope1 ,plate ,,vii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #a1 the pin1 ,d1 is delineated as passing through a socket at one side of the pillar1 ,a2 it is now usual to make it pass down a hole bored through the middle of the pillar4 ,e1 the bar which carries the magnifying lens2 it fits into the socket1 ,x1 which is at the top of the pillar1 ,d4 ,this arm may be moved backwards and forwards in the socket ,x1 and sidewise by the pin1 ,d2 so that the magnifier1 which is screwed into the ring at the end1 ,e1 of this bar1 may be easily made to traverse over any part of the object lying on the stage or plate ,b4 ,f is a polished silver speculum1 with a magnifying lens placed at the center thereof1 which is perforated for this purpose4 ,the silver speculum screws into the arm ,e1 as at ,f4 ,g1 another speculum of a different concavity from the former1 with its lens4 ,h1 the brass semicircle which supports the mirror1 ,i2 the pin1 ,r1 affixed to the semicircle1 ,h1 passes through the hole which is towards the bottom of the pillar1 ,a4 ,b1 the stage or the plane on which the objects are to be placed2 it fits into a small dove-tailed arm which is at the upper end of the pillar1 ,a4 ,c1 a plane glass1 with a small piece of black silk stuck on it2 this glass is fitted to a groove made in the stage1 ,b4 ,m1 a deep concave glass1 to be laid occasionally on the stage instead of the plane glass1 ,c4 ,l1 a pair of nippers2 these are fixed to the hole of the stage1 a1 by the pin ,k2 the steel wire of these nippers slides backwards and forwards in the socket1 and this socket is moveable upwards and downwards by means of the joint1 so that the position of the object may be varied at pleasure4 ,the object may be fixed in the nippers1 stuck on the point1 or affixed by a little gum-water1 c4 to the ivory cylinder1 ,n4 ,o1 a small pair of brass forceps to take up minute objects by4 ,p1 a brush to clean the glasses4 ,to use this microscope2 begin by screwing the pillar1 ,a1 to the cover thereof2 pass the pin1 ,r1 of the semicircle which carries the mirror through the hole that is near the bottom of the pillar1 ,a2 push the stage into the dove-tail at ,b2 slide the pin into the pillar1 then pass the bar1 ,e1 through the socket1 ,x1 which is at the top of the pin ,d1 and screw one of the magnifying lenses into the ring at ,f4 ,now place the object either on the stage1 or in the nippers ,l1 and in such a manner1 that it may be as nearly as possible over the center of the stage2 bring the speculum1 ,f1 over the part you mean to observe2 then get as much light on the speculum as you can1 by means of the mirror1 ,i2 the light received on the speculum is reflected by it on the object4 ,the distance of the lens1 ,f1 from the object is regulated by moving the pin1 ,d1 up and down1 until a distinct view of it is obtained4 ,the rule usually observed is1 to place the lens beyond its focal distance from the object1 and then gradually slide it down1 till the object appears sharp and well defined4 ,the adjustment of the lenses to their foci1 and the distribution of the light on the object1 are what require the most attention4 ,these microscopes are sometimes fitted up with a rack and pinion to the pillar ,a1 and pin ,d1 for the more ready adjustment of the glasses to their proper foci4 ,,description ,,of ,,lyonet',s ,,anatomical ,,microscope4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #c represents the instrument with which ,m4 ,lyonet made his microscopical and wonderful dissection of the chenille de saule or caterpillar of the goat moth1#cf of which a specimen is given in ,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 #a1 c4 of this work4 ,this portable instrument needs no further recommendation4 ,by it1 other observers may be enabled to dissect insects in general with the same accuracy as ,m4 ,lyonet1 and thus advance the knowledge of comparative anatomy1 by which alone the characteristic1 nature1 and rank of animals1 can be truly ascertained4 #cf ,phalna cossus4 ,linn4 #fc4 ,a ,b is the anatomical table1 which is supported by the pillar ,o ,n2 this is screwed on the mahogany foot1 ,d ,c4 ,the table ,a ,b1 is prevented from turning round by means of two steady pins2 in this table or board there is a hole1 ,g1 which is exactly over the center of the mirror1 ,f ,e1 that is to reflect the light on the object2 the hole1 ,g1 is1 designed to receive a flat or a concave glass1 on which the objects are to be placed that you design to examine or dissect4 ,r ,x ,z is an arm formed of several balls and sockets1 by which means it may be moved in every possible position2 it is fixed to the board by means of the screw1 ,h2 the last arm1 ,i ,z1 has a female screw1 into which a magnifier may be screwed1 as at ,z4 ,by means of the screw1 ,h1 a small motion may be occasionally given to the arm ,i ,z1 for adjusting the lens with accuracy to its focal distance from the object4 ,another chain of balls is sometimes used1 carrying a lens to throw light upon the object2 the mirror is also so mounted1 as to be taken from its place at ,k1 and fitted on a clamp1 by which it may be fixed to any part of the table1 ,a ,b4 ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,dissecting ,,table4 ,let the operator sit with his left side near a light window2 the instrument being placed on a firm table1 the side1 ,d ,l1 towards his breast1 the observations should be made with the left eye3 this position is well adapted for observing1 drawing1 or writing4 ,in dissecting1 the two elbows are to be supported by the table on which the instrument rests1 the hands resting against the board1 ,a ,b1 in order to give it greater stability1 as a small shake1 though imperceptible to the naked eye1 is very visible in the microscope2 the dissecting instruments are to be held one in each hand1 between the thumb and two fore-fingers4 ,farther directions are given on the mode of dissecting small objects in the following chapter4 ,,dr4 ,,withering',s ,,botanical ,,microscope4 ,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #a4 ,this small instrument consists of three brass parallel plates1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c2 two wires1 ,d and ,e1 are rivetted into the upper and lower plate2 the middle plate or stage is moveable on the aforesaid wires1 by two little sockets which are fixed to it4 ,the two upper plates each contain a magnifying lens1 but of different powers2 one of these confines and keeps in their places the fine point ,f1 the forceps ,g1 and the small knife ,h4 ,to use this instrument1 unscrew the upper lens1 and take out the point1 the knife1 and the forceps2 then screw the lens on again1 place the object on the stage1 and then move it up or down till you have gained a distinct view of the object1 as one lens is made of a shorter focus than the other2 and spare lenses of a still deeper focus are sometimes added4 ,the principal merit of this microscope is its simplicity4 ,,the ,,pocket ,,botanical ,,and ,,universal ,,microscope4 ,this pocket instrument is represented at ,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #b4 ,it is by most naturalists deemed preferable to ,dr4 ,withering's1 being equally simple1 more extensive in its application1 and the stage unincumbered2 though that of ,m4 ,lyonet seems better adapted than either to the purposes of dissection only4 ,a ,b1 a small arm1 carrying three magnifiers1 two fixed to the upper part1 as at ,b1 the other to the lower part of the arm1 at ,c2 these may be used separately or combined together1 by which you have seven powers4 ,the arm1 ,a ,b1 is supported by the square pillar ,i ,k1 the lower end of which fits into the socket1 ,e1 of the foot1 ,f ,g2 the stage1 ,d ,l1 is made to slide up and down the square pillar4 ,h1 a mirror for reflecting light on the object4 ,to use this microscope1 place the object on the stage1 ,l1 reflect the light on it from the mirror ,h1 and regulate it to the focus1 by moving the stage nearer to or further from the lenses at ,b ,c4 ,the ivory sliders pass under the stage1 ,l2 other objects may be fixed in the nippers1 ,m ,n1 and then brought under the magnifiers2 or they may be laid on one of the glasses fitted to the stage4 ,the apparatus to this instrument consists of three ivory sliders1 a pair of nippers1 a pair of forceps1 a flat glass1 and a concave ditto1 all fitted to the stage1 ,l4 ,by taking out the pin1 ,m1 the pillar1 ,i ,k1 may be turned half round1 and the foot1 ,f ,g1 made to answer as an handle4#cg #cg ,an adjusting screw1 ,fig4 #ac991 to move the stage1 with other additions1 are made by ,messrs4 ,jones2 and which then1 in my opinion1 constitute the most complete pocket microscope hitherto made2 for the particulars of which1 ,i refer the reader to their printed description4 ,fig4 #ad1 represents the common flower or insect microscope4 ,there are two lenses1 a and b1 that are used separately or conjointly4 ,,edit4 ,,botanical ,,magnifiers4 ,since botany has been cultivated with so much ardor1 it has been found necessary to contrive some very portable instrument1 by which the botanist might investigate the object of his pursuits as it rises before him4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #g and #h1 represent two of the most convenient sort4 ,in the tortoiseshell case1 ,fig4 #g1 three lenses are contained1 d1 e1 f1 of different foci1 which are all made to turn into the case1 and may be used combined or separately4 ,the three lenses in themselves afford three different magnifying powers2 by combining two and two1 we make three more2 and the three together make1 a seventh magnifying power4 ,when the three lenses are used together1 it is best to turn them into the case1 and look through the hole1 for more distinctness1 and the exclusion of superfluous light4 ,in the case1 ,fig4 #h1 are also three lenses1 g1 h1 i1 of different magnifying powers1 that all turn up1 and shut into the case2 but these are not capable of combination4 ,,description ,,of ,a ,,portable ,,microscope ,,and ,,telescope4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a1 to #f4 ,the telescope is one of those which are composed of several sliding drawers or tubes1 for the convenience of being put into the pocket2 the sliding tubes are made of thin brass1 the outside tube of mahogany4 ,the sliding tubes are contrived to stop1 when drawn out to a proper length1 so that by applying one hand to the outside tube1 and the other hand to the end of the smallest tube1 the telescope may at one pull be drawn out to its full length2 then any of the tubes 7that next the eye is most generally used7 may be pushed in gradually1 while you are looking through it1 till the object is rendered distinct to the eye4 ,to make the tubes slide properly1 they all pass through short springs or tubes2 these springs may be unscrewed from the ends of the sliding tubes1 by means of the milled edges which project above the tubes1 and the tubes taken from each other if required1 and the springs set closer if at any time they be too weak4 ,fig4 #e represents the exterior tube of the telescope1 which is to be unscrewed from the rest1 at m l1 as it does not make any part of the microscope2 the cover1 k1 which protects the object-glass1 serves also as a box to contain two ivory wheels1 ,fig4 #a and #b1 with the objects1 and a small mirror1 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #d is a view of this cover when taken off3 unscrew the top part of it1 and the mirror1 ,fig4 #f1 may be taken out2 unscrew the cover of the lower part1 and you will find therein the two circular object-wheels above mentioned4 ,fig4 #c represents the three internal tubes of the telescope1 which constitute the microscopic part thereof4 ,draw the tubes out in the manner as shewn in the figure2 then at the inside1 but at the lower end of the exterior tube1 a1 you will find a short tube1 which serves as a stage to hold the object and support the mirror2 pull this tube partly out1 and turn it1 so that a circular hole which is pierced in it may coincide with a similar hole in the exterior tube4 ,this tube is represented as drawn out at ,fig4 #c1 the mirror1 ,fig4 #f1 placed therein at b c1 and the transparent object-wheel fixed at a4 ,fig4 #a represents the slider with transparent objects4 ,fig4 #b1 that with the opake4 ,they are made of ivory1 and turn on a pin at the center2 the slit end of this pin fits on the edge of the tube1 which is then to be pushed up1 so that the lower end of the exterior tube may bear lightly on the upper side of the slider1 agreeable to the view which is given at a1 ,fig4 #c4 ,now push down the second tube till the milled part falls on the milled edge of the extreme tube1 being careful of the circular hole in the exterior one4 ,nothing now remains to be done but to adjust for the focus1 which is effected by pushing in the tube ,r1 and moving only the first1 n4 ,the instrument may be used in two ways for transparent objects3 first1 in a vertical position1 when the light is to be thrown on the object by the mirror1 b c2 or it may be examined by looking up directly at the light2 in the latter case the mirror must be taken away4 ,in viewing opake objects the mirror is not used2 as much light as possible must be admitted on them through the circular holes of the tubes4 ,any object may be viewed by first pushing in the tube1 ,r1 and then bringing the tube1 n1 to its focal distance from the object4 ,the telescope1 when shut up1 is about eight inches in length1 and when drawn out1 is about twenty inches4 ,it is of the achromatic construction4 ,,description ,,of ,,an ,,instrument ,,for ,,cutting ,,thin ,,transverse ,,sections ,,of ,,wood1 ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #a4 ,it consists of a wooden base1 which supports four brass pillars2 on the top of the pillars is placed a flat piece of brass1 near the middle of which there is a triangular hole4 ,a sharp knife which moves in a diagonal direction1 is fixed on the upper side of the afore-mentioned plate1 and in such a manner1 that the edge always coincides with the surface thereof4 ,the knife is moved backwards and forwards by means of the handle1 a4 ,the piece of wood is placed in the triangular trough1 which is under the brass plate1 and is to be kept steady therein by a milled screw which is fitted to the trough2 the wood is to be pressed forward for cutting1 by the micrometer screw1 b4 ,the pieces of wood should be applied to this instrument immediately on being taken out of the ground1 or else they should be soaked for some time in water1 to soften them1 so that they may not hurt the edge of the knife4 ,when the edge of the knife is brought in contact with the piece of wood1 a small quantity of spirit of wine should be poured on the surface of the wood1 to prevent its curling up2 it will also make it adhere to the knife1 from which it may be removed by pressing a piece of blotting paper on it4 ,fig4 #b1 is an appendage to the cutting engine1 which may be used instead of the micrometer screw1 being by some practitioners preferred to it4 ,it is placed over the triangular hole1 and kept flat down upon the surface of the brass plate1 while the piece of wood is pressed against a circular piece of brass which is on the under side of it4 ,this circular piece of brass is fixed to a screw1 by which its distance from the flat plate on which the knife moves may be regulated4#ch #ch ,many other kinds of cutting engines have been constructed1 but the specimens from them have not yet appeared with that perfection which is requisite to this sort of objects2 whether it lies in the preparation of the woods1 or engine1 ,i do not take upon me to determine4 ,mr4 ,custance has certainly produced the most exquisite4 ,,edit4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,,general ,,instructions ,,for ,,using ,,the ,,microscope ,,and ,,preparing ,,the ,,objects4 ,as the advantages which are obtained from any instrument are considerably increased1 if it be used by a person who is master of its properties1 attentive to its adjustments1 and habituated by practice to the minuti of management1 it is the design of this chapter to point out those circumstances which more peculiarly require the attention of the observer1 and to give such plain directions1 as may enable him to examine any object with ease2 to shew how he may place it in the best point of view1 and if necessary1 prepare it for observation4 ,a small degree of diligence will render the observer master of every necessary rule1 and a little practice will make them familiar and habitual3 the pains he takes to acquire these habits will be rewarded by an increasing attachment to his instrument1 and the wonders it displays4 ,let him only persevere till he has overcome the natural indolence that opposes the advancement of every kind of knowledge1 and he will most assuredly find himself very amply recompensed1 by the gratification arising from the acquisition of a science that has the unlimited treasures of ,,infinite ,,wisdom for the object of its researches3 and his mind being strengthened by the victory it has gained1 will be more keen in perceiving1 and more patient in the investigation of truth4 ,it has long been a complaint1#ci that many of those who purchase microscopes are so little acquainted with their general and extensive usefulness1 and so much at a loss for objects to examine by them1 that after diverting themselves and their friends some few times with what they find in the sliders1 which generally accompany the instrument1 or perhaps two or three common objects1 the microscope is laid aside as of little further value3 whereas no instrument has yet appeared in the world capable of affording so constant1 various1 and satisfactory an entertainment to the mind4 ,this complaint will1 ,i hope1 be obviated by these ,essays1 in which ,i have endeavoured to make the use of the microscope easy1 point out an immense variety of objects1 and direct the observer how to prepare them for examination4 #ci ,baker's ,microscope made ,easy1 p4 #ea4 ,the subject treated of in this chapter naturally divides itself into three heads3 the first describes the necessary preparation and adjustment of the microscope2 the second treats of the proper quantity of the light1 and the best method of adapting it to the objects under examination2 and the third shews how to prepare and preserve the various objects1 that their nature1 organization1 and texture1 may be properly understood4 ,,of ,,the ,,necessary ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,microscope ,,for ,,observation4 ,we have in the last chapter explained those particulars that constitute the difference of one microscope from another1 and shewn the manner of using each instrument1 and how the several parts are to be applied to it4 ,we shall now proceed to give some general directions applicable to every microscope4 ,the observer is therefore supposed to have made himself master of his instrument1 and to know how to adapt the different parts of the apparatus to their proper places4 ,the first circumstance necessary to be examined into1 is1 whether the different glasses belonging to the microscope are perfectly clean or not2 if they be not clean1 they must be taken out and wiped with a piece of wash leather1 taking care at the same time not to soil the surface of the glass with the fingers3 in replacing the glasses1 you must also be careful not to lay them in an oblique situation1 to place the convex sides as before1 and if one glass be taken out1 wiped1 and replaced before the next1 it may prevent the misplacing of them by an unskilful hand4 ,the object should be brought as near the center of the field of view as possible1 for there only will it be exhibited in the greatest perfection4 ,the eye should be moved up and down from the eye-glass of a compound microscope1 till you find that situation where the largest field1 and most distinct view of the object is obtained2 and as the sight differs very much in different persons1 and even in the same person1 we frequently find each eye to have a different sight from the other1 particularly in those called myopes1 or short-sighted1 every one ought to adjust the microscope to his own eye1 and not depend upon the situation in which it was placed by another4 ,care must be taken not to let the breath fall upon the eye-glass1 nor to hold that part of the body of the microscope where the glasses are placed with a warm hand1 because the damp that is expelled from the metal by the heat will be attracted and condensed by the glasses1 and obstruct the sight of the object4 ,the observer should always begin with a small magnifying power2 with this he will gain an accurate idea of the situation and connection of the whole1 and will therefore be less liable to form any erroneous opinion1 when the parts are viewed separately by a deeper lens4 ,by a shallow magnifier he will also discover those parts which merit a further investigation4 ,objects that are transparent will bear a much greater magnifying power than those that are opake4 ,every object should1 if possible1 be examined first in that position which is most natural to it3 if this circumstance be neglected1 very inadequate ideas of the structure of the whole1 as well as of the connection and use of the parts1 will be formed4 ,if it be a living animal1 care must be taken not to squeeze1 hurt1 or discompose it4 ,there is a great difference between merely viewing an object by the microscope1 and investigating its nature3 in the first1 we only consider the magnified representation thereof2 in the second1 we endeavour to analyse and discover its nature and relation to other objects4 ,in the first case1 we receive the impression of an image formed by the action of the glasses2 in the second1 we form our judgment by investigating this image4 ,it is easy to view the image which is offered to the eye1 but not so easy to form a judgment of the things that are seen2 an extensive knowledge of the subject1 great patience1 and many experiments1 will be found necessary for this purpose3 for there are many circumstances where the images seen may be very similar1 though originating from substances totally different2 it is here the penetration of the observer will be exercised1 to discover the difference1 and avoid error4#dj #dj ,fontana sur les ,poisons1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bde4 ,hence ,mr4 ,baker cautions us against forming too suddenly an opinion of any microscopic object1 and not to draw our inferences till after repeated experiments and examinations of the objects1 in all lights and various positions2 to pass no judgment upon things extended by force1 or contracted by dryness1 or in any manner out of a natural state1 without making suitable allowances4 ,the true colour of objects cannot be properly determined when viewed through the deepest magnifiers2 for1 as the pores and interstices of an object are enlarged1 according to the magnifying power of the glasses made use of1 the component parts of its substance will appear separated many thousand times farther asunder than they do to the naked eye2 it is1 therefore1 very probable1 that the reflection of the light from these particles will be very different1 and exhibit different colours4 ,some consideration is also necessary in forming a judgment of the motion of living creatures1 or even of fluids1 when seen through the microscope2 for as the moving body1 and the space wherein it moves1 are magnified1 the motion will also be increased4 ,if an object be so opake as not to suffer any light to pass through it1 as much as possible must be thrown on its upper surface1 by that part of the apparatus which is peculiarly adapted to opake objects4 ,as the apertures of deep magnifiers are but small1 and consequently admit but little light1 they are not proper for the examination of opake objects3 this1 however1 naturally leads us to our second head4 ,,of ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,light4 ,the pleasure arising from a just view of a microscopic object1 the distinctness of vision1 c4 depend on a due management of the light1 and adapting the quantity of it to the nature of the object1 and the focus of the magnifier2 therefore1 an object should always be viewed in various degrees of light4 ,it is difficult to distinguish in some objects between a prominency and a depression1 between a shadow and a black stain2 and in colour1 between a reflection and a whiteness2 a truth which the reader will find fully exemplified in the examination of the eye of the libellula1 and other flies1 which will be found to appear exceedingly different in one position of the light from what they do in another4 ,the brightness of an object depends on the quantity of light2 the distinctness of vision1 on regulating the quantity to the object2 for some will be lost and drowned1 as it were1 in a quantity of light that is scarce sufficient to render another visible1 as a different portion of light under the same apparatus will often exhibit in perfection1 or totally conceal an object in the substance to be examined4 ,this is more particularly the case with the animalcul infusori1 whose thin and transparent form blend as it were with the water in which they swim2 the degree of light must therefore be suited to the object1 which1 if dark1 will be seen best in a strong and full light1 but if very transparent1 it should be examined in a fainter4 ,a strong light may be thrown on an object various ways3 first1 by means of the sun and a convex lens2 for this purpose1 place the microscope about three feet from a southern window2 take a deep convex lens1 that is mounted in a semicircle and fixed on a stand1 so that its position may be easily varied2 place this lens between the object and the window1 so that it may collect a considerable number of the solar rays1 and refract them on the object1 or the mirror of the microscope4 ,if the light thus collected from the sun be too powerful1 it may be tempered by placing a piece of oil paper1 or a glass lightly greyed1 between the object and the lens3 by these means1 a convenient degree of light may be obtained1 and diffused in an equal manner over the whole surface of an object1 a circumstance that should be particularly attended to2 for if the light be thrown in an irregular manner1 that is1 larger portions of it on some parts than on others1 it will not be distinctly exhibited4 ,where the solar light is preferred1 it will be found very convenient to darken the room1 and to reflect the rays of the sun on the above mentioned lens1 by means of the mirror of a solar microscope fitted to the window-shutter2 for1 by this apparatus1 the observer will be enabled to preserve the light on his object1 notwithstanding the motion of the sun4 ,cutting off the adventitious light as much as possible1 by darkening the room where you are using the microscope1 and admitting the light only through a hole in the window-shutter1 or at most1 keeping one window only open1 will also be found very conducive towards producing a distinct view of the object4 ,as the motion of the sun1 and the variable state of our atmosphere1 render solar observations both tedious and inconvenient1 it will be proper for the observer to be furnished with a large tin lanthorn1 made something like the common magic lanthorn1 fit to contain one of ,argand's lamps4#da ,the lanthorn should have an aperture in front1 that may be moved up and down1 and capable of holding a lens2 by this a pleasing uniform dense light may be easily procured4 ,the lamp should move on a rod1 that it may be readily elevated or depressed4 ,the lanthorn may be used for many other purposes1 as for viewing of pictures1 exhibiting microscopic objects on a screen1 c4 #da ,the lamp should not be of the fountain kind1 because the rarefaction of the air in the lanthorn will often force the oil over4 ,many transparent objects are seen best in a weak light2 among these we may place the prepared eyes of flies and animalcul in fluids2 the quantity of light from a lamp or candle may be lessened by removing the microscope to a greater distance from them1 or it may be more effectually lessened by cutting off a part of the cone of rays that fall on the object1 either by placing the cone1 as already described with the apparatus to different microscopes1 under the stage1 or by forming circular apertures of black paper of different sizes1 and placing either a large or small one on the reflecting mirror1 as occasion may require4 ,there is an oblique position of the mirrors1 and consequently of the light1 which is easily acquired by practice1 but for which no general rule can be given1 that will exhibit an object more beautifully and more distinctly than any other situation1 shewing the surface1 as well as those parts through which the light is transmitted4 ,a better view of most objects is obtained by a candle or lamp than by day-light2 it is more easy to modify the former than the latter1 and to throw it on the object with different degrees of density4 ,from what has been said1 the reader will have observed the importance of being able to examine the object in the greatest variety of positions and appearances1 which cannot be effected with equal convenience by any microscope1 but the improved lucernal4 ,,of ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,microscope4 ,in the preparation of objects1 no man was more successful or more indefatigable than ,swammerdam4 ,in minutely anatomizing1 in patiently investigating1 and in curiously exhibiting the minute wonders of the creation1 he stands unrivalled1 far exceeding all those that preceded1 as well as those which have succeeded him4 ,deeply impressed and warmly animated by the amazing scenes that he continually discovered1 his zeal in pursuit of truth was not to be abated by disappointment1 or alarmed by difficulty2 and he was never satisfied till he had attained a rational and clear idea of the organization of the object1 whose structure he wished to explore2 his 8,book of ,nature10 of which a translation was published by ,dr4 ,hill1 is a work of such vast extent of knowledge1 and so excellent in execution1 as to raise the highest admiration in even a superficial observer4 ,it is much to be regretted1 that we are ignorant of the methods he employed in his investigations4 ,to discover these1 the great ,boerhaave examined with a scrupulous attention all the letters and manuscripts of ,swammerdam1 and has communicated the result of his researches1 which1 though but small1 may enable us to form some idea of his immense labours in the field of science4 ,for dissecting of small insects he had a brass table1 which was made by that excellent artist1 ,s4 ,musschenbroeck2 to this table were affixed two brass arms1 moveable at pleasure to any part of it4 ,the upper portion of these arms was constructed so as to have a slow vertical motion1 by which means the operator could readily alter their height1 as he saw most convenient to his purpose2 the office of one of these arms was to hold the minute bodies1 and that of the other to apply the lens or microscope4 ,his microscopes or lenses were of various foci1 diameters1 and sizes1 from the least to the greatest1 and the best that could be procured in regard to the exactness of the workmanship1 and transparency of the substance4 ,his mode was1 to begin his observations with the smallest magnifiers1 and from thence proceed by degrees to the greatest4 ,formed by nature1 and habituated by experience1 he was so incomparably dexterous in the management of these instruments1 that he made every observation subservient to the next1 and all tend to confirm each other1 and complete the description4 ,his chief art seems to have been in constructing very fine scissars1 and giving them an extreme sharpness3 these he made use of to cut very minute objects1 because they dissected them equally2 whereas knives and lancets1 let them be ever so fine and sharp1 are apt to disorder delicate substances1 as in going through them1 they generally draw after and displace some of the filaments4 ,his knives1 lancets and styles1 were so very fine1 that he could not see to sharpen them without the assistance of a magnifying glass2 but with them he could dissect the intestines of bees with the same accuracy and distinctness that the most celebrated anatomist does those of large animals4 ,he was particularly expert in the management of small glass tubes1 which were no thicker than a bristle1 and drawn to a very fine point at one end1 but thicker at the other4 ,these he made use of to shew and blow up the smallest vessels discovered by the microscope1 to trace1 distinguish1 and separate their courses and communications1 or to inject them with very subtil coloured liquors4 ,he used to suffocate the insects in spirit of wine1 in water1 or spirit of turpentine1 and likewise preserved them for some time in these liquids2 by which means he kept the parts from putrefaction1 and consequently from collapsing and mixing together2 and added to them besides such strength and firmness1 as rendered the dissections more easy and agreeable4 ,when he had divided transversely with his fine scissars the little creature he intended to examine1 and had carefully noted every thing that appeared without further dissection1 he then proceeded to extract the viscera in a very cautious and deliberate manner1 with other instruments of great fineness2 first taking care to wash away and separate with very fine pencils1 the fat with which insects are very plentifully supplied1 and which always prejudices the internal parts before it can be extracted4 ,this operation is best performed upon insects while in the nympha state4 ,sometimes he put into water the delicate viscera of the insects he had suffocated2 and then shaking them gently he procured himself an opportunity of examining them1 especially the air vessels1 which by these means he could separate from all the other parts whole and intire1 to the great admiration of all those who beheld them2 as these vessels are not to be distinctly seen in any other manner1 or indeed seen at all without damaging them1 he often made use of water1 injected by a syringe1 to cleanse thoroughly the internal parts1 then blew them up with air and dried them1 and thus rendered them durable1 and fit for examination at a proper opportunity4 ,sometimes he has examined with the greatest success1 and made the most important discoveries in insects that he had preserved in balsam1 and kept for years together in that condition4 ,again1 he has frequently made punctures in other insects with a very fine needle1 and after squeezing out all their moisture through the holes made in this manner1 he filled them with air1 by means of very slender glass tubes1 then dried them in the shade1 and last of all anointed them with oil of spike1 in which a little rosin had been dissolved2 by which process they retained their proper forms a long time4 ,he had a singular secret1 whereby he could so preserve the nerves of insects1 that they used to continue as limber and perspicuous as ever they had been4 ,he used to make a small puncture or incision in the tail of worms1 and after having gently and with great patience squeezed out all their humours1 and great part of their viscera1 he then injected them with wax1 so as to give and continue to them all the appearance of healthy vigorous living creatures4 ,he discovered that the fat of all insects was perfectly dissoluble in oil of turpentine2 thus he was enabled to shew the viscera plainly2 only after this dissolution he used to cleanse and wash them well and often in clean water4 ,he frequently spent whole days in thus cleansing a single caterpillar of its fat1 in order to discover the true construction of this insect's heart4 ,his singular sagacity in stripping off the skin of caterpillars that were upon the point of spinning their cones1 deserves particular notice4 ,this he effected by letting them drop by their threads into scalding water1 and suddenly withdrawing them2 for1 by these means the epidermis peeled off very easily2 and when this was done1 he put them into distilled vinegar and spirit of wine1 mixed together in equal portions1 which1 by giving a proper firmness to the parts1 gave him an opportunity of separating them with very little trouble from the exuvi1 or skins1 without any danger to the parts2 so that by this contrivance1 the nymph could be shewn to be wrapped up in the caterpillar and the butterfly in the nymph4 ,those who look into the works of ,swammerdam1 will be abundantly gratified1 whether they consider his astonishing labour and unremitted ardour in these pursuits1 or his wonderful devotion and piety4 ,on one hand1 his genius urged him to examine the miracles of the great ,creator in his natural1 productions2 whilst1 on the other1 the love of that same all-perfect ,being rooted in his mind struggled hard to persuade him that ,god alone1 and not the creatures1 were worthy of his researches1 love1 and attention4 ,m4 ,lyonet always drowned first those insects he intended to anatomize1 as by these means he was enabled to preserve both the softness and transparency of the parts4 ,if the insect1 c4 be very small1 for instance one-tenth of an inch1 or a little more in length1 it should be dissected in water1 on a glass which is a little concave2 if1 after a few days1 there be any fear that the insect will putrefy1 it should be placed in weak spirit of wine1 instead of water4 ,in order to fix the little creature1 it must be suffered to dry1 and then be fastened by a piece of soft wax2 after which it may be again covered with water4 ,larger objects require a different process2 they should be placed in a small trough of thin wood2 the bottom of a common chip box will answer very well1 by surrounding the edge of it with soft wax1 to keep in the water or spirit of wine4 ,the insect is then to be opened1 and if the parts be soft1 like those of a caterpillar1 they should be turned back and fixed to the trough by small pins2 the pins are to be set by a pair of small nippers1 the skin being stretched at the same instant by another pair of finer forceps2 the insect must then be placed in water1 and dissected therein1 and after two or three days it should be covered with spirit of wine1 which should be renewed occasionally2 by these means the subject is preserved in perfection1 and its parts may be gradually unfolded1 without any other change being perceived than that the soft elastic parts become stiff and opake1 and some others lose their colour4 ,m4 ,lyonet used the following instruments in his curious dissection of the caterpillar of the cossus4 ,as small a pair of scissars as could be made1 the arms long and fine2 a small and sharp knife1 the end brought to a point2 a pair of forceps1 the ends of which had been so adjusted1 that they would easily lay hold of a spider's thread or a grain of sand4 ,but the most useful instruments were two fine steel needles1 fixed in small wooden handles1 about #b of an inch in length4 ,an observation of ,dr4 ,hooke's may be very useful if attended to1 for fixing objects intended to be delineated by the microscope4 ,he found no creature more troublesome to draw than the ant or pismire1 not being able to get the body quite in a natural posture4 ,if1 when alive1 its feet were fettered with wax or glue1 it would so twist and twine its body1 that it was impossible any way to get a good view of it2 if it was killed1 the body was so small1 that the shape was often spoiled before it could be examined4 ,it is the nature of many minute bodies1 when their life is destroyed1 for the parts to shrivel up immediately2 this is very observable in many small plants1 as well as in insects2 the surface of these small bodies1 if porous1 being affected by almost every change of the air1 and this is particularly the case with the ant4 ,but if the little creature be dropped in well rectified spirit or wine1 it is immediately killed2 and when taken out1 the spirit of wine evaporates1 leaving the animal dry and in its natural posture1 or at least so constituted1 that you may easily place it with a pin in what posture you please4#db #db ,hooke's ,micrographia1 p4 #bjc4 ,having thus given a general account of the methods used by ,swammerdam and ,lyonet1 in their examination and dissection of insects1 we shall proceed to shew how to prepare several of their parts for the microscope1 beginning with the ,,wings4 ,many of these are so transparent and clear1 as to require no previous preparation2 but the under wings of those that are covered with elytra1 or crustaceous cases1 being constantly folded up when at rest1 they must be unfolded before they can be examined by the microscope2 for this purpose a considerable share of dexterity and some patience is necessary1 for the natural spring of the wings is so strong1 that they immediately fold themselves again1 except they are carefully prevented4 ,one of the most curious and beautiful wings of this kind1 is that of the ,,forficula ,,auricularia1 or ,,earwig1 of which we have given a drawing1 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #a1 represents it considerably magnified1 and ,fig4 #b1 the same object of its natural size4 ,when expanded1 it is a tolerably large wing1 yet folds up under a case not one-eighth part of its size4 ,it is very difficult to unfold these wings1 on account of their curious texture4 ,they are best opened immediately after the insect is killed4 ,hold the earwig by the thorax1 between the finger and thumb2 then with a blunt-pointed pin endeavour gently to open the wing by spreading it over the fore-finger1 gradually sliding at the same time the thumb over it4 ,when fully expanded1 separate it from the insect by a sharp knife1 or a pair of scissars4 ,the wing should be pressed for some time between the thumb and finger before it be removed2 it may then be placed between two pieces of paper1 and again pressed for at least an hour2 after which it may be put between the talcs without any danger of folding up again4 ,the wings of the ,,notonecta1 or ,,boat-,,fly1 and other water insects1 as well as most species of the grylli1 require equal care and delicacy with that of the earwig to display them properly4 ,the wings of ,,butterflies and ,,moths are covered with very minute scales or feathers1 that afford a beautiful object for the microscope2 near the shoulder1 the thorax1 the middle of the wing1 and the fringes of the wings1 they are generally intermixed with hair4 ,the scales of one part1 also1 often differ in shape from those of another2 they may be first scraped off or loosened from the wing with a knife1 and then brushed into a piece of paper with a camel's hair pencil2 the scales may be separated from the hairs with the assistance of a common magnifying glass4 ,the proboscis of insects1 as of the ,,culex or ,,gnat1 the ,,tabanus or ,,breeze-,,fly1 c4 requires much attention and considerable care to be dissected properly for the microscope2 and many must be prepared before the observer desides upon the situation and shape of the parts2 he will often also be able to unfold in one specimen some parts that he can scarce discover in another4 ,it is well known that the ,,collector ,,of ,,the ,,bee forms a most beautiful object2 a figure of it is given in plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #c1 shews it greatly magnified1 and ,fig4 #d1 of the natural size4 ,in it is displayed a most wonderful mechanism1 admirably adapted to collect and extract the various sweets from flowers1 c4 ,to prepare this1 it should first be carefully washed with spirit of turpentine1 by which means it will be freed from the unctuous and melliferous particles which usually adhere to it2 when dry1 it must be again washed with a camel's hair pencil1 to disengage and bring forward the small hairs which form one part of its microscopic beauty4 ,the case which encloses ,,the ,,sting ,,of ,,the ,,bee1 the wasp1 and the hornet1 are so hard1 that it is very difficult to extract them without breaking or otherwise injuring them4 ,it will be found1 perhaps1 the best way to soak the case1 and the rest of the apparatus for some time in spirit of wine or turpentine1 then lay it on a piece of clean paper1 and with a blunt knife draw out the sting1 holding the sheath by the nail of the finger1 or by any blunt instrument2 great care is requisite to preserve the feelers1 which when cleaned add much to the beauty of the object4 ,the ,,eyes ,,of ,,the ,,libellula or ,,dragon-,,fly1 and different flies1 of the ,,lobster1 c4 are first to be cleaned from the blood and other extraneous matter2 they should then be soaked in water for some days1 after which you may separate one or two skins from the eye1 which1 if they remain1 render it too opake and confused2 some care is1 however requisite in this separation1 otherwise the skin may be made too thin1 so as not to enable you to form an accurate idea of its organization4 ,the ,,exuvi or ,,cast-,,off ,,of ,,skins of insects are in general very pleasing objects1 and require but little preparation4 ,if they be curled or bent up1 keep them in a moist atmosphere for a few hours1 and they will soon become so relaxed that you may extend them with ease to their natural positions4 ,the steam of warm water answers the purpose very well4 ,the ,,beard ,,of ,,the ,,lepas ,,anatifera or ,,barnacle is to be soaked in clean soft water1 and frequently brushed1 while wet1 with a camel's hair pencil2 it may then be left to dry2 after which it must be again brushed with a dry pencil1 to disengage and separate the hairs1 which are apt to adhere together4 ,a picture of this object is represented in plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a1 magnified2 ,fig4 #b1 natural size4 ,to view the ,,muscular ,,fibres1 take a very thin piece of dried flesh1 lay it upon a slip of glass1 and moisten it with warm water2 when this is evaporated1 the vessels will appear plain and more visible1 and by repeated macerations the parts may be further disengaged4 ,to examine ,,fat1 ,,brains1 and other similar substances1 we are advised by ,dr4 ,hooke to render the surface smooth1 by pressing it between two thin plates of flat glass1 by which the substance will be made much thinner and more transparent2 otherwise1 the parts lying thick one upon the other1 it appears confused and indistinct4 ,some substances are1 however1 so organized1 that if their peculiar form be altered1 the parts we wish to discover are destroyed2 such as nerves1 tendons1 muscular fibres1 pith of wood1 c4 ,many of these are best to be examined while floating in some convenient transparent fluid4 ,for instance1 very few of the fibres of any of the muscles can be discovered when they are viewed in the open air2 but if placed in water or oil1 great part of their wonderful fabric may be discovered4 ,if the thread of a ligament be viewed in this manner1 it will be seen to consist of an indefinite number of smooth round threads lying close together4 ,objects of an elastic nature should be pulled or stretched out while they are under the microscope1 that the texture and nature of those parts1 whose figure is altered by being thus pulled out1 may be more fully discovered4 ,to examine ,,bones with the microscope4 ,these should first be viewed as opake objects2 afterwards1 by procuring thin sections1 they should be looked at as if transparent4 ,the sections should be cut in all directions1 and be well washed and cleaned2 a degree of maceration will be useful in some cases4 ,or the bones may be put in a clear fire till they are red hot1 and then taken out2 by these means the bony cells will appear more conspicuous and visible1 being freed from extraneous matter4 ,to examine the ,,pores ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 ,first1 cut or pare off with a razor as thin a slice as possible of the upper skin2 then cut a second from the same place2 apply the last to the microscope4 ,the ,,scales ,,of ,,fish should be soaked in water for a few days1 and then be carefully rubbed1 to clean them from the skin and dirt which may adhere to them4 ,to procure the scales of the eel1 which are a great curiosity1 and the more so1 as the eel was not known to have any1 till they were discovered by the microscope1 take a piece of the skin of the eel that grows on the side1 and while it is moist spread it on a piece of glass1 that it may dry very smooth2 when thus dried1 the surface will appear all over dimpled or pitted by the scales1 which lie under a sort of cuticle or thin skin2 this skin may be raised with the sharp point of a penknife1 together with the scales which will then easily slip out1 and thus you may procure as many as you please4#dc #dc ,martin's ,micrographia ,nova1 p4 #bi4 ,on the lizard1 the guana1 c4 are two skins2 one of these is very transparent1 the other is thicker and more opake2 by separating these we procure two beautiful objects4 ,the ,,leaves of many trees1 and some plants1 when dissected1 form a very pleasing object4 ,to dissect them1 take a few of the most perfect leaves you can find1 and place them in a pan with clean water2 let them remain three weeks or a month without changing the water1 then take them up1 and try if they feel very soft1 and appear almost rotten2 if so1 they are sufficiently soaked4 ,you are then to lay them on a flat board1 and holding them by the stalk1 draw the edge of the knife over the upper side of the leaf1 which will take off most of the skin2 turn the leaf1 and do the same with the under side4 ,when the skin is taken off on both sides1 wash out the pulpy matter1 and the fibres will be exhibited in a beautiful manner4 ,by slitting the stalk you may separate the anatomized leaf into two parts4 ,the skins that are peeled from the fibres will also make a very good object4 ,the autumn is the best season for the foregoing operation1 as the fibres of the leaves are much stronger at that season1 and less liable to break4 ,,ores and ,,minerals should all be carefully washed and cleansed with a small brush1 to remove any extraneous matter that may adhere to them4 ,,shells may be ground down on a hone1 by which their internal structure will be displayed4 ,,to ,,view ,,the ,,circulation ,,and ,,examine ,,the ,,particles ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,the principal part the observer must aim at1 in order to view the circulation of the blood1 is to procure those small animals or insects that are most transparent1 that by seeing through them he may be enabled to discover the internal motion4 ,the particular kinds best adapted for the purpose will be enumerated in the descriptive catalogue at the end of this work4 ,if a small eel be used for this purpose1 it must be cleansed from the slime which covers it2 after which it maybe put either in the fish-pan1 or a glass tube filled with water1 and then placed under the microscope4 ,if the eel be small enough1 the circulation may be viewed in the most satisfactory manner4 ,leeuwenhoeck has given1 in his #aabth ,epistle1 an accurate description of the blood vessels in part of the tail of an eel4 ,the same figure may also be seen in my father's ,micrographia ,illustrata1 fourth edition1 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,the tail of any other small fish may be applied in the same manner1 or tied on a slip of flat glass1 and be thus laid before the microscope4 ,flounders1 eels1 and gudgeons1 are to be had at almost any time in ,london4 ,n4 ,b4 ,by filling the tube with water1 when an eel is used1 it will in a great measure prevent the sliminess of the eel from soiling the glass4 ,to view the particles of the blood1 take a small drop of it when warm1 and spread it as thin as possible upon a flat piece of glass4 ,by diluting it a little with warm water1 some of the larger particles will divide from the smaller1 and many of them will be subdivided into still smaller2 or a little drop of blood may be put into a capillary tube of glass1 and be then presented before the microscope4 ,mr4 ,baker advises the mixing the blood with a little warm milk1 which he says1 will cause the unbroken particles to be very distinctly seen4 ,but the most accurate observer of these particles was ,mr4 ,hewson1 and he says they have been termed globules with great impropriety1 being in reality flat bodies4 ,when we consider how many ingenious persons have been employed in examining the blood with the best microscopes1 it appears surprizing that the figure of the particles should be mistaken2 but the wonder is lessened when we reflect how many obvious things are overlooked1 till our attention is particularly directed towards them2 and besides1 the blood in the human subject1 and in quadrupeds1 is so full of these particles1 that it is with great difficulty they can be seen separate1 until the blood is diluted4 ,it was by discovering a proper method to effect this1 that ,mr4 ,hewson was indebted for his success4 ,he diluted the particles with serum1 in which they would remain undissolved1 and as he could dilute them to any degree with the serum1 he could easily examine the particles distinct from each other2 for example1 take a small quantity of the serum of the human blood1 and shake a piece of crassamentum in it1 till it be coloured a little with the red particles2 then with a soft hair pencil spread a little of it on a piece of thin glass1 and place this glass under the microscope1 in such a manner as not to be quite horizontal1 but rather higher at one end than the other2 by which means the serum will flow from the higher to the lower extremity1 and as it flows1 some of the particles will be found to swim on their flat sides1 and will appear to have a dark spot in the middle2 others will turn over from one side to the other1 as they roll down the glass4 ,several authors have described an apparatus for viewing the circulation of the blood in the mesentery of a frog2 but as the cruelty attendant on these kinds of investigations would deprive the humane reader of a great part of the gratification which might otherwise result from them1 he will probably rest satisfied with the accounts of such experiments to be met with in authors2 especially as there is an abundant variety of objects on which he may exercise his ingenuity without sacrificing the nicer feelings of humanity4#dd #dd ,whatever right mankind may claim over the lives of every creature that is placed in a subordinate rank of being to themselves1 in respect of food and self-defence1 as well as for the improvement of science1 and their judicious and ingenious application to the various purposes of use and ornament in human life1 we certainly cannot1 on the principles of reason and justice1 assert a privilege to gratify a wanton curiosity1 or the sports of an inordinate fancy1 by the exercise of an unnecessary cruelty over them4 ,the immortal ,,shakspeare1 in a passage which has often been quoted1 says1 ------- the poor beetle that we tread upon ,in corporal sufferance finds a pang as great ,as when a giant dies4 ,it may1 however1 be doubted whether this particular instance is strictly conformable to fact2 different animals certainly possess different degrees of sensibility1 and some are consequently more susceptible of pain than others4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that the ,hippobosca equina1 or ,horse-fly1 will live1 run1 nay even copulate1 after being deprived of its head2 most flies will survive that loss for some time1 and the loss of a leg or two does not prevent their appearing as lively and alert as if they had sustained no injury4 ,many insects1 on being caught1 will freely and voluntarily part with their limbs to escape2 and it is well known that lobsters shed their claws4 ,numbers of other instances might be adduced1 but on this subject it may be prudent not to enlarge4 ,montaigne remarks1 that there is a certain claim of kindness and benevolence which every species of creatures has a right to1 from us4 ,it is to be regretted1 that this general maxim is not more attended to in the affairs of education1 and pressed home upon tender minds in its full extent and latitude2 the early delight which children discover in tormenting different animals should by all possible means be discouraged1 as1 by being unrestrained in such sports1 they may at least acquire a habit of confirmed inattention to every kind of suffering but their own1 if not progressively be led to the perpetration of more atrocious acts of cruelty4 ,the supreme court of judicature at ,athens thought an instance of this sort not below its cognizance1 and punished a boy for putting out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhappily fallen into his hands2 and the inimitable ,,hogarth1 8the great painter of mankind10 has in his 8,five ,stages of ,cruelty10 admirably depicted the consequences which may result from an early indulgence of a propensity towards cruelty4 ,in order to awaken as early as possible in the minds of children an extensive sense of humanity1 it might be prudent to indulge them with a view of several sorts of insects as magnified by the microscope1 and to explain to them that the same marks of divine wisdom prevail in the formation of the minutest insect1 as in the most enormous leviathan2 that they are equally furnished with whatever is necessary1 not only for the preservation1 but the happiness of their beings1 in that class of existence which ,providence has assigned them3 in a word1 that the whole construction of their respective organs distinctly and decisively1 proclaims them the objects of divine benevolence1 and therefore they justly ought to be so of ours4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,animalcula ,,in ,,infusions1 ,c4 ,these require little or no preparation4 ,the first object is to procure them1 the second1 to render them visible by the microscope4 ,a few observations1 however1 may be of use4 ,many drops of water may be examined before any can be found2 so that if the observer be too hasty1 he may be easily disappointed1 though other parts of the same water may be fully peopled by them4 ,the surface of infused liquors is generally covered with a thin pellicle1 which is easily broken1 but acquires thickness by standing2 the greatest number of animalcula are generally to be found in this superficial film4 ,in some cases it is necessary to dilute the infusions2 but this is always to be done with distilled water1 and that water should be examined in the microscope before it is made use of3 the neglect of this precaution has been a source of many errors4 ,animalcula are in general better observed when the water is a little evaporated1 as the eye is not confused1 nor the attention diverted by a few objects4 ,to separate one or two animalcula from the rest1 place a small drop of water on the glass near that of the infusion2 make a small neck or gutter between the two drops with a pin1 which will join them together2 then the instant you perceive that an animalculum has traversed the neck or gutter1 and entered the drop1 cut off the communication between the two drops4 ,to procure the eels in paste1 boil a little flower and water1 till it becomes of a moderate consistence2 expose it to the air in an open vessel1 and beat it together from time to time1 to prevent the surface thereof from growing hard or mouldy2 after a few days1 especially in summer time1 it will turn sower1 then if it be examined with attention1 you will find myriads of eels on the surface4 ,to preserve these eels all the year1 you must keep the surface of the paste moist1 by putting a little water or fresh paste from time to time to the other4 ,mr4 ,baker advises a drop or two of vinegar to be put into the paste now and then4 ,the continual motion of the eels1 while the surface is moist1 will prevent the paste getting mouldy4 ,apply them to the microscope upon a slip of flat glass1 first putting on it a drop of water1 taken up by the head of a pin1 for them to swim in4 ,to make an infusion of pepper4 ,bruise as much common black pepper as will cover the bottom of an open jar1 and lay it thereon about half an inch thick2 pour as much soft water in the vessel as will rise about an inch above the pepper4 ,the pepper and water are then to be well shaken together2 after which they must not be stirred1 but be left exposed to the air for a few days1 when a thin pellicle will be formed on the surface of the water1 containing millions of animalcula4 ,the observer should be careful not to form a judgment of the nature1 the use1 and the operations of small animalcula1 from ideas which he has acquired by considering the properties of larger animals3 for1 by the assistance of glasses1 we are introduced as it were into a new world1 and become acquainted not only with a few unknown animals1 but with numerous species thereof1 which are so singular in their formation and habits1 that without the clearest proofs even their existence would not be credited2 and while they afford fresh instances of the ,creator's power1 they also give further proofs of the limits and weakness of the human understanding4 ,,directions ,,for ,,finding1 ,,feeding1 ,,and ,,preserving ,,the ,,polypes4 ,these little animals are to be found upon all sorts of aquatic plants1 upon branches of trees1 pieces of board1 rotten leaves1 stones1 and other substances that lie in the water2 they are also to be met with upon the bodies of several aquatic animals1 as on the water-snail1 on several species of the monoculus1 c4 they generally fix themselves to these by their tail1 so that it is a very good method when you are in search of the polypes1 to take up a great many of these substances1 and put them in a glass full of water4 ,if there be any polypes adhering to these1 you will soon perceive them stretching out their arms1 especially if the glass be suffered to be at rest for a while2 for the polypes1 which contract themselves on being first taken out of the water1 will soon extend again when they are at rest4 ,they are to be sought for in the corners of ditches1 puddles1 and ponds1 being frequently driven into these with the pieces of wood or leaves to which they have attached themselves4 ,you may1 therefore1 search for them in vain at one period1 in a place where at another they will be found in abundance4 ,they are more easily perceived in a ditch when the sun shines on the bottom1 than at another time4 ,in winter they are seldom to be met with2 about the month of ,may they begin to appear and increase4 ,they are generally to be found in waters which move gently2 for neither a rapid stream1 nor stagnant waters ever abound with them4 ,as they are always fixed to some substance by their tails1 and are very rarely loose in the water1 taking up water only can signify but little2 a circumstance which has probably been the cause of much disappointment to those who have searched for them4 ,the green polypes are usually about half an inch long when stretched out2 those of the second and third sort are between three quarters of an inch and an inch in length1 though some are to be found at times which are an inch and a half long4 ,heat and cold has the same effect upon these little creatures1 that it has upon those of a larger size4 ,they are animated and enlivened by heat1 whereas cold renders them faint and languid2 they should therefore be kept in such a degree of heat1 that the water may not be below temperate4 ,it is convenient for many experiments to suspend a polype from the surface of the water4 ,to effect this1 take a hair pencil in one hand1 and hold a pointed quill in the other2 with the pencil loosen the polype from the receiver in which it is kept1 and gradually raise it near the top of the water1 so that the anterior end may be next the point of the pencil2 then lift it out of the water1 and keep it so for a minute2 after which1 thrust the point of the pencil1 together with the anterior end1 by little and little under water1 until no more than about the twentieth part of an inch of the polype's tail remains above its surface2 at this instant1 with the pointed quill remove that part of the polype from the pencil which is already in the water1 at the same time blowing against the polype1 by which it will be loosened1 and remain out of the water4 ,when the polypes were first discovered1 ,mr4 ,trembley had some difficulty to find out the food which was proper for them2 but he soon discovered1 that a small species of the millepede answered the purpose very well3 the pulices aquatices have also been recommended4 ,the small red worms1 which are to be found on the mud-banks of the ,thames1 particularly near the shores1 answer the purpose also1 they are easily found when the tide is out1 when they rise in such swarms on the surface of the mud1 that it appears of a red colour4 ,these worms are an excellent food for the polype4 ,if a sufficient quantity be gathered in ,november1 and put into a large glass full of water1 with three or four inches of earth at the bottom1 you will have a supply for the polypes all the winter4 ,they may also be fed with common worms1 with the larva of gnats and other insects1 and even with butcher's meat1 c4 if it be cut small enough4 ,river1 or any soft water1 agrees with them2 but that which is hard and sharp prevents their thriving1 and generally kills them in a few days4 ,the worms with which they are fed should be always cleansed before you feed the polypes with them4 ,the polypes are commonly infested with little lice2 from these it is necessary to free them1 in order to preserve your polypes in a good state of health4 ,they may be cleansed from the lice by rubbing them with a hair pencil2 this cannot be easily done1 unless they adhere to some substance3 so that if they are suspended from the surface of the water1 you must endeavour to get them to fix themselves to a piece of packthread2 when they are fastened thereto1 you may then rub them with a hair pencil1 without loosening them from the thread4 ,the lice which torment the polype are not only very numerous1 but they are also very large proportionably to its size3 they may be said to be nearly as large with respect to them1 as a common beetle is to us4 ,if not rubbed off1 they soon cover their bodies1 and in a little time totally destroy them4 ,to preserve the polypes in health1 it is also necessary often to change the water they are kept in1 and particularly after they have done eating2 it is not sufficient to pour the water off1 all the polypes should be taken out1 and the bottom and sides of the vessel rubbed from the slimy sediment adhering thereto2 this is caused by their fces1 and is fatal to them if not cleaned away4 ,the fces often occasion a species of mortification1 which daily increases2 its progress may be stopped by cutting off the diseased part4 ,to take them out1 first loosen their tails from the sides or bottom of the glass2 then take them up one by one1 with a quill cut in the shape of a scoop1 and place them in another glass with clean water2 if they cling to the quill1 let it remain a minute or two in the water1 and they will soon disengage themselves4 ,they are preserved best in large glasses that hold three or four quarts of water2 for in a glass of this size the water need not be renewed so often1 particularly1 if the fces are taken out from time to time with the feathered end of a pen1 to which they readily adhere2 and further1 the trouble of feeding each individual is in some measure saved1 as you need only throw in a parcel of worms1 and let the polypes divide them for themselves4 ,to observe with accuracy the various habitudes1 positions1 c4 of this little animal1 it will be necessary to place some of them in narrow cylindrical glasses2 then1 by means of the microscope1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,vi4 you may observe them exerting all their actions of life with ease and convenience2 the facility with which the lens of the fore-mentioned microscope may be moved and placed in any direction1 renders it a most convenient instrument for examining any object that requires to be viewed in water4 ,it is also very proper to dry some of them1 and place them between talcs in a slider2 this1 however requires some dexterity and a little practice2 though1 when executed with success1 it fully rewards the pains of the observer4 ,choose a proper polype1 and put it into a small concave lens1 with a drop of water2 when it is extended1 and the tail fixed1 pour off a little of the water1 and then plunge it with the concave into some spirit of wine contained in the bowl of a large spoon2 by this it is instantly killed1 the arms and body contracting more or less2 rub it gently while in the spirit with a small hair pencil1 to cleanse it from the lice4 ,the difficulty now begins2 for the parts of the polype1 on being taken out of the spirit1 immediately cling together1 so that it is not practicable to extend the body1 and separate the arms on the talc1 without tearing them to pieces2 therefore the only method is1 to adjust them upon the talc while in the spirit3 this may be done by slipping the talc under the body of the polype1 while it lies in the spirit1 and displaying its arms thereon by the small hair pencil and a pair of nippers2 then lift the talc1 with the polype upon it1 out of the spirit2 take hold of it with the nippers in the left hand1 dip the pencil in the spirit with the right hand1 and therewith dispose of the several parts1 that they may lie in a convenient manner1 at the same time brushing away any lice that may be seen upon the talc2 now let it dry1 which it does in a little time1 and place the talc carefully in the hole of the slider4 ,to prevent the upper talc and ring pressing on the polype1 you must cut three pieces of cork1 about the bigness of a pin's head1 and the depth of the polype1 and fix them by gum in a triangular position1 partly on the edges of the said talc1 and partly to the sides of the ivory hole itself2 the upper talc may then be laid on these corks1 and pressed down by the ring as usual4#de #de ,baker on the ,polypes4 ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,it were to be wished a satisfactory account could here be given of all the preparations which are requisite to fit for the microscope the objects of the vegetable kingdom4 ,dr4 ,hill is the only writer who has handled this subject4 ,i shall1 therefore1 extract from his 8,treatise on the ,construction of ,timber10 what he has said2 this1 together with the improvements ,i have made on the cutting engine1 will enable the reader to pursue the subject and extend it further1 both for his own pleasure1 and the advantage of the public4 ,,the ,,manner ,,of ,,obtaining ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,shoot ,,separate4 ,in the beginning of ,april1 take a quantity of young branches from the scarlet oak1 and other trees4 ,these are first cut into lengths1 of the growth of different seasons2 and then part is left entire1 part split1 and the rest quartered4 ,in this state they are put into a wicker basket1 with large openings1 or of loose work1 and a heavy stone is put in with them2 a rope is tied to the handle of the basket1 and it is thrown into a brook of running water3 at times it is taken up1 and exposed a little to the air2 it is frequently shook about under water1 to wash off filth2 and once in ten days the sticks are examined4 ,by degrees the parts loosen from one another1 and by gentle rubbing in a bason of water just warmed1 they will be so far separated1 that a pencil brush will perfect the business1 and afford pieces of various sizes1 pure1 distinct1 and clean4 ,one part will in this way separate at one time1 and another1 at another2 but by turning the sticks to the water1 and repeating the operation1 in the course of four or five weeks every part may be obtained distinct4 ,they are best examined immediately2 but if any one wish to preserve them for repeated inquiries1 it may be done in this manner3 dissolve half an ounce of alum in two quarts of water2 drop the pieces thus separated1 for a few moments1 into this solution1 then dry them upon paper1 and put them up in vials of spirit of wine1 no other fluid being so well adapted to preserve these tender bodies4 ,,to ,,prepare ,,the ,,rind ,,for ,,observation4 ,as the vessels of the rind are of different diameters in various trees1 though their construction and that of the blebs is perfectly the same in all1 it will be best to choose for this purpose the rind of a tree wherein they are largest4 ,the rind of the ash-leaved maple is finely suited4 ,a piece of this may be obtained of two inches long1 and will very successfully answer the intention4 ,such a piece being prepared without alum or spirit1 but dried from the water in which it had been macerated1 it is to be impregnated with lead in the following manner1 to shew the apertures by their colour4 ,dissolve one drachm of sugar of lead in an ounce and an half of water2 filter this through paper1 and pour it into a tea-cup4 ,clip off a thin slice of what was the lower end of the piece of rind as it grew on the tree1 and plunge it near an inch deep into the liquor2 keep it upright between two pieces of stick1 so that one half or more may be above the water2 whelm a wine-and-water glass over the tea-cup1 and set the whole in a warm place4 ,when it has stood two days1 take it out1 clip off all that part which was in the liquor1 and throw it away4 ,the circumstances here mentioned1 trivial as they may seem1 must be attended to3 the operation will not succeed1 even if the covering-glass be omitted2 it keeps a moist atmosphere about the rind1 and makes its vessels supple4 ,while this is standing1 put into a bason two ounces of quick lime1 and an ounce of orpiment2 pour upon them a pint and an half of boiling water2 stir the whole together1 and when it has stood a day and a night1 it will be fit for use4 ,this is the 8liquor probatorius vini0 of some of the ,german chymists2 it discovers lead when wines are adulterated with it1 and will shew it any where4 ,put a little of this liquor in a tea-cup1 and plunge the piece of rind half way into it4 ,in the former part of this experiment1 the vessels of the rind have been filled with a solution of lead1 that makes of itself no visible alteration in them2 but this colourless impregnation1 when the orpiment lixivium gets to it1 becomes of a deep brown2 the vessels themselves appear somewhat the darker for it2 but these dots1 which are real openings1 are now plainly seen to be such1 the colour being perfectly visible in them1 and much darker than in the vessels4 ,this object must be always viewed dry4 ,if a piece of the rind1 thus impregnated1 be gently rubbed between the fingers1 till the parts are separated1 we shall be able in one place or other1 to get a view of the vessels all round1 and of the films which form the blebs between them4 ,every part of the rind1 and every coat of it1 even the interstitial place between its innermost coat and bark1 are filled with a fine fluid4 ,the very course and progress of the fluid may be shewn in this part1 even by an easy preparation2 only that different rinds must be sought for this purpose1 the vessels in some being larger than in others4 ,repeated trials have shewn me that the whole progress may be easily marked in the three following kinds1 with only a tincture of cochineal4 ,put half an ounce of cochineal1 in powder1 into half a pint of spirit of wine2 set it in a warm place1 and shake it often for four days2 then filter off the clear tincture4 ,put an inch depth of this into a cup1 and set upright in it pieces of the rind of ash1 white willow1 and ozier1 prepared as has been directed1 by maceration in water2 for in that way one trouble serves for an hundred kinds4 ,let an inch of the rinds also stand up out of the tincture4 ,after twenty-four hours take them out1 clip off the part which was immersed in the fluid1 and save the rest for observation4 ,,to ,,prepare ,,the ,,blea4 ,cut the pieces in a fit season1 either just before the first leaves of ,spring1 or in the ,midsummer shooting time4 ,then we see all the wonders of the structure2 the thousands of mouths which open throughout the course of these innumerable vessels1 to pour their fluid into the interstitial matter4 ,these vessels1 which are in nature cisterns of sap for the feeding the growth of the whole tree1 are so large1 that they are capable of being filled with coloured wax1 in the manner of the vessels in anatomical injections2 and this way they present pleasing objects for the microscope1 and afford excellent opportunities of tracing their course and structure4 ,a ,,method ,,of ,,filling ,,the ,,sap ,,vessels ,,of ,,plants4 ,a great many shoots of the scarlet and other oaks are to be taken off in the ,spring2 they must be cut into pieces of about two inches in length1 and immediately from the cutting they must drop into some warm rain water3 in this they are to stand twenty-four hours1 and then be boiled a little4 ,when taken out1 they are to be tied on strings1 and hung up in a place where the air passes freely1 but the sun does not shine4 ,when they are perfectly dry1 a large quantity of green wax1 such as is used for the seals of law deeds1 is to be gently melted in an earthen pipkin set in water2 the water to be heated and kept boiling4 ,as soon as the wax runs1 the sticks are to be put in1 and they are frequently to be stirred about4 ,they must be kept in this state about an hour1 and then the pipkin is to be taken out of the water1 and set upon a naked fire1 where it is to be kept with the wax boiling for two or three hours2 fresh supplies of the same wax being added from time to time4 ,after this it is to be removed from the fire1 and the sticks immediately taken out with a pair of nippers2 when they are cold1 the rough wax about them is to be broken off4 ,both ends of each stick are to be cut off half an inch long1 and thrown away1 and the middle pieces saved4 ,these are then to be cut in smaller lengths1 smoothed at the ends with a fine chissel1 and many of them split in various thicknesses4 ,thus are obtained preparations1 not only of great use1 but of wonderful beauty4 ,many trees this way afford handsome objects as well as the oak2 and in some1 where the sap vessels are few1 large1 and distinct1 the split pieces resemble striped satins1 in a way scarce to be credited4 ,it is in such that the outer coats of these vessels are most happily of all to be examined4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,salts ,,and ,,saline ,,substances1 ,,for ,,the ,,viewing ,,their ,,configurations4 ,dissolve the subject to be examined in no larger a quantity of river or rain water than is sufficient to saturate it2 if it be a body easily dissoluble1 make use of cold water1 otherwise make the water warm or hot1 or even boiling1 according as you find it necessary4 ,after it is perfectly dissolved1 let it rest for some hours1 till1 if over-charged1 the redundant saline particles are precipitated1 and settle at the bottom1 or shoot into crystals2 by which means you are most likely to have a solution of the same strength at one time as at another2 that is1 a solution fully charged with as much as it can hold up1 and no more2 and by these precautions the configurations appear alike1 how often soever tried3 whereas1 if the water be less saturated1 the proportions1 at different times1 will be subject to more uncertainty2 and if it be examined before such separation and precipitation of the redundant salts1 little more will be seen than a confused mass of crystals4 ,the solution being thus prepared1 take up a drop of it with a goose quill1 cut in fashion of a scoop1 and place it on a flat slip of glass1 of about three quarters of an inch in width1 and between three and four inches long1 spreading it on the glass with the quill1 in either a round or oval figure1 till it appears a quarter of an inch or more in diameter1 and so shallow as to rise very little above the surface of the glass4 ,when it is so disposed1 hold it as level as you can over the clear part of a fire that is not too fierce1 or over the flame of a candle1 at a distance proportionable to the degree of heat it requires1 which experience only can direct1 and watch it very carefully till you discover the saline particles beginning to gather and look white1 or of some other colour1 at the extremities of the edges2 then having adjusted the microscope before-hand for its reception1 armed with the fourth glass1 which is the fittest for most of these experiments1 place it under your eye1 and bring it exactly to the focus of the magnifier2 and after running over the whole drop1 fix your attention on that side where you observe any increase or pushing forwards of crystalline matter from the circumference towards the center4 ,this motion is extremely slow at the beginning1 unless the drop has been over-heated1 but quickens as the water evaporates1 and in many kinds1 towards the conclusion1 produces configurations with a swiftness inconceivable1 composed of an infinity of parts1 which are adjusted to each other with an elegance1 regularity1 and order1 beyond what the exactest pencil in the world1 guided by the ruler and compass1 can ever equal1 or the most luxurious imagination fancy4 ,when action once begins1 the eye cannot be taken off1 even for a moment1 without losing something worth observation2 for the figures alter every instant1 till the whole process is over2 and in many sorts1 after all seems at an end1 new forms arise1 different entirely from any that appeared before1 and which probably are owing to some small quantity of salt of another kind1 which the other separates from1 and leaves to act after itself has done2 and in some subjects three or four different sorts are observable1 few or none being simple and homogeneous4 ,when the configurations are fully formed1 and all the water evaporated1 most kinds of them are soon destroyed again by the moisture or action of the air upon them2 their points and angles lose their sharpness1 become uneven and defaced1 and moulder as it were away2 but some few are permanent1 and by being inclosed between glasses1 they may be preserved months or even years4 ,it happens oftentimes that a drop of a saline solution can hardly be spread on the slip of glass1 by reason of the glass's smoothness1 but breaks into little globules1 as it would do were the surface greasy3 the way to prevent this is1 by rubbing the broken drop with your finger over the glass1 so as to leave the glass smeared with it2 on which smeared place1 when dry1 another drop of the solution may be spread very easily in whatever form is agreeable4 ,it sometimes happens1 that when a heated drop is placed properly for examination1 the observer finds such a cloudiness that he can distinguish nothing of the object2 which is owing to saline steams that arise from the drop1 covering and obscuring the object glass1 and therefore must immediately be wiped away with a soft cloth or leather4 ,in all examinations of saline solutions by the microscope1 even though made in the day-time1 you must use a candle2 for the configurations1 being exceedingly transparent1 are rendered much more distinguishable by the brown light a candle affords1 than by the more white and transparent day-light2 and besides1 either by moving the candle1 or turning the microscope1 such light may be varied or directed just as the subject requires4 ,it may be also proper to take notice1 that no kinds of microscopes are fit for these observations1 but such as have an open stage1 whereon the slips of glass1 with the liquor upon them1 may be placed readily1 and in a perfect horizontal position2 and moreover1 where they can be turned about freely1 and without disordering the fluid4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,natural ,,history2 ,,of ,,insects ,,in ,,general1 ,,and ,,of ,,their ,,constituent ,,parts4 ,there is no human science which to a rational mind exhibits a greater variety of attractions1 or which is more deserving of general esteem1 than that of ,,natural ,,history2 accordingly we find1 that from the earliest times in which the sciences have been promulgated1 it has never been entirely destitute of its votaries2 but1 on the contrary1 has for ages employed the lives of many learned men1 as being1 in fact1 the study of ,,divine ,,wisdom displayed in the creation3 the farther our researches are carried1 the more striking proofs of it every where abound4 ,in the present century1 an ra particularly devoted to investigation1 and propitious to discovery and improvement in various branches of science1 ,natural ,history1 so far from being neglected1 has been more generally cultivated1 and pursued with an ardor unprecedented at any former period4 ,men of the first rank in literature have become indefatigable labourers in the vast and unbounded field which it presents to the eyes of an accurate and attentive observer4 ,the animal1 the vegetable1 and the mineral kingdoms1 have been examined with the utmost care2 that confusion and perplexity which seemed unavoidably to result from a view of the immense variety of articles contained in each of those departments1 and which frequently deterred persons from engaging in the pursuit1 have been in a great measure removed by the introduction of systematic arrangement2 by these means1 the various subjects are distributed into classes and genera1 enabling us to form distinct and comprehensive ideas of them4 ,to the same methodical plan1 and the nicety of discrimination thence arising1 we must attribute the discovery and description of many new species2 this has excited an emulation still farther to pursue the inquiry1 nor need any apprehension be entertained that the subject will be exhausted1 as1 no doubt1 an infinite variety still remains unexplored to engage the utmost attention of the philosophic mind1 and fully to compensate the pains bestowed on so interesting a branch of knowledge4 ,of the abundance of articles enumerated in books of ,natural ,history1 there are comparatively few1 whose uses are as yet known1 or their properties fully understood4 ,the true naturalist should always bear in mind that there is a vast difference between retaining the names1 and investigating the nature and peculiar qualities of the creatures to which they belong4 ,it is highly proper1 indeed necessary1 that the multifarious objects of ,natural ,history should be well ascertained and distinguished with nicety in all their varieties2 the science and admirers of it are1 therefore1 unquestionably indebted to the able naturalists who have devoted their time1 and exercised their ingenuity in devising commodious methods of arrangement1 and invented systems for identifying the several subjects with accuracy1 and less danger of fallacy or mistake3 but all who are1 or would wish to be thought naturalists1 ought to consider1 that the best possible mode of classification is1 after all1 but an introduction to ,natural ,history4 ,the ingenious and indefatigable ,,linn,,us1 who spent his life in fabricating the curious system now generally adopted1 intended it certainly for the improvement of the science1 as a basis for the service of knowledge and the benefit of mankind2 let us be cautious not to mistake the means for the end1 but in the prosecution of the science1 think of the true ends of knowledge1 and endeavour to promote our own instruction1 and the advancement of others1 with a view to the adoration of that ,,divine ,,being to whom all creation is indebted for existence1 and their application to the occasions and uses of life1 all along conducting and perfecting the study in the spirit of benevolence4 ,the study of nature1 or in other words1 a serious contemplation of the works of ,,god1 is indeed a great and proper object for the exercise of our rational faculties2 nor can we perhaps employ them better1 than in endeavouring to make ourselves acquainted with the works of that glorious ,being from whom they were received4 ,though there is a great deal of pleasure in contemplating the material world1 or that system of bodies into which the ,,divine ,,architect has so admirably wrought the mass of dead matter1 with the several relations which those bodies bear to one another2 there is still something more wonderful and surprizing arising from the contemplation of the animated world2 by which is to be understood all those animals with which every part of the universe is furnished4 ,the material world is only the shell of the universe2 the animated world are its inhabitants4 ,existence is a blessing to those beings only which are endowed with perception1 and appears useless when bestowed upon dead matter1 any farther than as it is subservient to beings which are conscious of their existence4 ,thus we find1 from the bodies which lie under our observation1 that matter is only made as the basis and support of animals1 and that there is no more of the one than what is necessary for the exigence of the other4 ,there are some living creatures which are raised but just above dead matter2 there are many others1 but one remove from these1 which have no other senses but those of feeling and taste2 others have still an additional sense of hearing2 others of smell1 and again others of sight4 ,it is wonderful to observe1 by what a gradual progress life advances through a prodigious variety of species1 before a creature is formed that possesses all these senses2 and even among these1 there is such a different degree of perfection in the senses which one animal enjoys beyond what appears in another1 that1 though the sense in different animals be distinguished by the same common denomination1 it seems almost of a different nature4 ,if1 after this1 we look into the several inward qualities of sagacity1 or what is generally called instinct1 we find them rising after the same manner imperceptibly one above another1 and receiving additional improvements1 according to the species in which they are implanted4 ,this progress in nature is so very gradual1 that what appears to us the most perfect of an inferior species1 comes very near to the most imperfect1 as we are accustomed to call it1 of that which is immediately above it4 ,the exuberant and overflowing goodness of the ,,supreme ,,being1 whose mercy extends to all his works1 is plainly seen1 as before observed1 from his having made so very little matter1 at least what falls within our knowledge1 that does not swarm with life2 nor is his goodness less visible in the diversity than in the multitude of living creatures4 ,had he only made one species of animals1 none else could have enjoyed the happiness of existence2 he has1 therefore1 included in his creation1 every degree of life1 every capacity of being4 ,the whole chasm of nature1 from a plant to a man1 is filled up with diverse kinds of creatures1 rising one above another1 by such a gentle and easy ascent1 that the little transitions and deviations from one species to the other are almost insensible4 ,this intermediate space is so prudently managed1 that there is scarce a degree of perception which does not appear in some one part of the animated world4 ,is the goodness or the wisdom of the ,,divine ,,being more manifest in this his proceeding8 ,in this system of creation there is no creature so wonderful in its nature1 and which so much merits our particular attention1 as man1 who fills up the middle space between the animal and intellectual nature1 the visible and invisible world2 and is that link1 in the chain of beings1 which has been often termed the 8nexus utriusque mundi40 ,so that he1 who in one respect being associated with angels and arch-angels1 may look upon a ,,being of infinite perfection as his father1 and the highest order of spirits as his brethren1 may1 in another respect1 say to corruption1 8,thou art my father1 and to the worm1 thou art my mother and my sister40#df #df ,spectator1 ,vol4 vii4 ,numb4 #eai4 ,there are1 however1 many who form their judgments of the works of nature from external appearance only2 hence they imagine1 that the greatest and most magnificent are the only perfect parts of creation1 and worthy of our regard4 ,hence they confine their attention to the more splendid and shining branches of philosophy1 and are too apt to treat the other parts with coolness and indifference1 not to say contempt4 ,but surely a true philosopher is one who diligently pursues the study of nature in all its branches2 who can behold with admiration her noblest productions1 yet view with pleasure the smallest of her works3 in short1 one who thinks every thing excellent that owes its formation to the ,,god of nature2 and we need only take a transient view of the smaller creatures with which the earth is peopled1 to discover that they are perfect in their kind1 and carry about them as strong marks of infinite wisdom1 power1 and beneficence as the greatest4 ,it has been justly said1 8that there is not a vegetable that grows1 nor an insect that moves1 but what is sufficient to confound the ,atheist1 and to afford the candid observer endless materials for devout adoration and praise40 ,if we examine insects with attention1 we shall soon be convinced of their divine origin1 and survey with admiration the wonderful art and mechanism of their structure1 wherein such a number of vessels1 parts1 and movements are collected in a single point2 yet are they furnished with weapons to seize their prey1 dexterity to escape their foes1 every thing requisite to perform the business of their stations1 and enjoy the pleasures of their conditions4 ,what a profusion of the richest ornaments and the gayest colours are often bestowed on one little insect6 and yet there are thousands of others that are as beautiful and wonderful in their kind2 some are covered with shining coats of mail1 others are adorned with plumes of feathers1 all of them furnished with every thing that is proper to make them answer the purposes for which they were designed4 8,after an attentive examination of the nature and fabric of both the least and largest animals1 ,i cannot10 says the great and excellent ,swammerdam1 8but allow the less an equal1 perhaps a superior degree of dignity2 whoever duly considers the conduct and instinct of the one1 with the manners and actions of the other1 must acknowledge1 that they are all under the direction and controul of a supreme and particular intelligence2 which1 as in the largest it extends beyond the limits of our comprehension1 escapes our researches in the smallest4 ,if1 while we dissect with care the larger animals1 we are filled with wonder at the elegant disposition of their limbs1 the inimitable order of their muscles1 and the regular direction of their veins1 arteries1 and nerves1 to what an height is our astonishment raised1 when we discover all the parts arranged in the least1 and in the same regular manner6 ,how is it possible but we must stand amazed when we reflect1 that those little animals1 whose bodies are smaller than the point of the dissecting knife1 have muscles1 veins1 arteries1 and every other part common to the larger animals8 ,creatures so very diminutive1 that our hands are not delicate enough to manage1 or our eyes sufficiently acute to see them40 ,the subserviency of the several beings in the visible creation to one another2 the order in which each of them appears in that appointed season1 when only it can be conducive to the purposes of the rest2 and the preservation of a sufficient number of every species1 amidst the immense havoc that reigns throughout1 are1 among other things1 proofs of the amazing and incomprehensible wisdom by which they were all formed4 ,with what pleasure does the mind1 accustomed to look up from effects to their causes1 from created beings to the ,,great ,,source ,,of ,,being1 view that unbounded beneficence1 which leaves not the smallest space1 capable of supporting existence of any kind1 unplanted with them4 ,there is hardly any portion of matter1 or the least drop of fluid naturally found on the surface of the earth1 that is not inhabited by multitudes of animals2 the subterraneous regions are peopled with their minute inhabitants1 and the abyss of the sea1 where no human eye can penetrate1 abounds with animated beings4 ,the air is usually considered as the great source of destruction to bodies1 whether animal or vegetable2 but we do not always understand by what means or in what manner it is performed4 ,what we term destruction and decay of one substance1 occasions the production and ripening a multitude of others2 wherever the air is admitted1 with it a thousand different things find their way2 and what is usually attributed to the effects of that fluid1 is in general occasioned by the multitudes of bodies with which it is fraught4 ,redi observed1 that flesh preserved from the access of flies1 would bread no maggots2 and it is as constant an observation1 that vegetable substances will keep a long time in whatever state they are1 if the air be excluded2 but as soon as it is admitted1 they also produce or afford their several kinds either of animal1 or minuter vegetable inhabitants4 ,in the first of these cases1 the parent flies make their way to the exposed flesh1 and there deposit their eggs for the production of a new offspring2 in the other1 multitudes of the seeds of minute plants and ovula of animals are floating in the air1 and accompany it wherever it enters2 if they be thus deposited in a place proper for vegetation and accretion1 they burst their inclosures1 and attain their growth as regularly as the seeds of plants deposited in the earth1 or the eggs of larger animals in the nest4 ,the same wisdom which placed the sun in the center of the system1 and arranged the several planets around him in their order1 has no less shewn itself in the provision made for the food and dwelling of every bird that roams in the air1 and every beast that wanders in the desert2 equally great in the smallest and in the most magnificent objects2 in the star and in the insect2 in the elephant and in the fly2 in the beam that shines from heaven and in the grass that cloathes the ground4 ,nothing is overlooked1 nothing is carelessly performed3 every thing that exists is adapted with perfect symmetry to the end for which it was designed4 ,this wisdom displayed by the ,almighty in the creation1 was not intended merely to gratify curiosity and to raise wonder2 it ought to beget profound submission1 and pious trust in every heart4 ,histories of the providence and caution1 the care and foresight of the most inconsiderable among animal beings1 must surely ever be read with pleasure and attention1 as conveying a most beautiful lesson to a reflecting mind2 it is impossible for any one thus instructed to think that the ,great ,being1 who has been so careful of those inferior creatures1 can be regardless of him whom he has placed in a station infinitely more exalted4 ,throughout the whole system of things1 we behold a manifest tendency to promote the benefit either of the rational or the animal creation4 ,in some parts of nature1 this tendency may be less obvious than in others4 ,objects1 which to us seem useless or hurtful1 may sometimes occur2 and strange it were1 if in so vast and complicated a system1 difficulties of this kind should not occasionally present themselves to beings1 whose views are so narrow and limited as ours4 ,it is well known1 that in proportion as the knowledge of nature has increased among men1 these difficulties have diminished4 ,satisfactory accounts have been given of many perplexing appearances2 useful and proper purposes have been found to be promoted by objects which were at first thought to be unprofitable or noxious4#dg #dg ,the great beauty of the dye produced by the cochineal insect1 and the medical virtues of the cantharis1 have occasioned them to be considered as very extensive and valuable articles of commerce4 ,the benefits derived from the bee and the silk-worm are universally known2 and spiders1 could a method be devised to induce them to live in harmony1 might also be productive of very essential advantages to the human race4 ,,edit4 ,malignant must be the mind of that person2 with a distorted eye he must have contemplated creation1 who can suspect that it is not the production of infinite benignity and goodness4 ,how many clear marks of benevolent intention appear every where around us8 ,what a profusion of beauty and ornament is poured forth on the face of nature8 ,what a magnificent spectacle presented to the view of man8 ,what a supply contrived for his wants8 ,what a variety of objects set before him1 to gratify his senses1 to employ his understanding1 to entertain his imagination1 to cheer and gladden his heart8 ,indeed the very existence of the universe is a standing memorial of the goodness of the ,creator2 for nothing except goodness could originally prompt creation4 ,no new accession of felicity or glory was to result to him from creatures whom he made3 it was goodness communicating and pouring itself forth1 goodness delighting to impart happiness in all its forms1 which in the beginning created the heaven and the earth4 ,hence those innumerable orders of living creatures with which the earth is peopled1 from the lowest class of sensitive being to the highest rank of reason and intelligence4 ,wherever there is life1 there is some degree of happiness2 there are enjoyments suited to the different powers of feeling2 and earth1 air1 and water1 are with magnificent liberality made to teem with life4#dh #dh ,blair's ,sermons4 ,let us not then slight1 or deem that unworthy our notice1 in which immensity is so conspicuous2 or that trivial1 in which there is such a manifestation of infinite beneficence2 but rather let those striking displays of creating goodness call forth1 on our part1 responsive love1 gratitude1 and veneration4 ,to this ,great ,father of all existence and life1 to ,him who hath raised us up to behold the light of day1 and to enjoy all the comforts which his world presents1 let our hearts send forth a perpetual hymn of praise4 ,evening and morning let us celebrate ,him who maketh the morning and the evening to rejoice over our heads2 who 8openeth his hand and satisfieth the desire of every living thing40 ,let us rejoice that we are brought into a world1 which is the production of infinite goodness2 over which a supreme intelligence presides2 and where nothing happens but by his divine permission for the wisest purposes4 ,convinced that he hateth not the works which he hath made1 nor hath brought creatures into existence merely to suffer unnecessary pain1 let us even in the midst of sorrow1 receive with calm submission whatever he is pleased to send2 thankful for what he bestows2 and satisfied that1 without good reason1 he takes nothing away4 ,such1 in general1 are the effects which meditation on the works of the creation ought to produce4 ,it presents such an astonishing conjunction of power1 wisdom1 and goodness1 as we cannot behold without religious veneration4 ,in short1 the world around us is the mighty volume wherein god hath declared himself2 a picture wherein his perfections are displayed4 ,the book of nature is written in a character that every one may read2 it consists not of words1 but things2 it is a school where ,,god is the teacher4 ,all the objects of sense are as the letters of an universal language1 in which all people and nations have a common interest2 the ,creator himself has made this use of it1 revealing his will by it1 and referring man to it for instruction4 ,hence the universal agreement between nature and revelation2 hence1 also1 he that can understand ,,god as the ,fountain of truth and the ,saviour of men in the holy scriptures1 will be better enabled to understand and adore him as the fountain of power and goodness in the natural creation4 ,thus will philosophy and divinity go hand in hand1 and shew that the world was made1 as the scriptures were written1 for our instruction2 and that the creation of ,,god is a school for ,christians1 if they use it aright4#di #di ,it is a curious1 though melancholy subject of contemplation1 to observe how different have been the sentiments of learned and reputedly pious men in times less enlightened2 a period when attention to1 or compassion for1 the animal creation could find no place in a breast that withheld and denied the mercy of ,god unto men2 when mercy itself was deemed heresy6 ,even in prior and purer times it was affirmed that 8,it is absurd1 and a disparagement to the majesty of ,,god to suppose him to know how many insects there are in the world1 or how many fishes in the sea2 yea1 that such an idea of the ,omniscience of ,,god would be foolish flattery to ,him1 and an injury to ourselves40 ,for the satisfaction of the learned reader1 ,i shall here quote the original4 8,absurdum est ad hoc ,dei deducere ,majestatem1 ut sciat per momenta singula quot nascantur culices1 quotve moriantur2 qu cimicum et pulicum et muscarum sit in terra multitudo2 quanti pisces in aqua natent1 et qui de minoribus majorum prd cedere debeant4 ,non simus tam fatui ,adulatores ,dei1 ut dum potentiam ejus ad ima detrahimus in nos ipsos injuriosi simus40 ,,hieronymi ,comment4 in ,abac4 ,lib4 #a4 ,edit4 ,basil4 ,tom4 vi4 p4 #ahg4 ,,edit4 ,a ,,general ,,description ,,of ,,insects4 ,the subjects of that part of the creation we are now going to survey1 merit our attention as exceeding the rest of animated nature in their numbers1 the singularity of their appearance1 and the variety of their forms4 ,earth1 air1 and water are filled with hosts of them4 ,being for the major part very small1 and myriads so diminutive1 as even to be imperceptible to the unassisted eye1 our knowledge of them1 and their component parts would be extremely circumscribed and imperfect1 were it not for the advantages derived from the use of the microscope2 but happily possessed of this valuable instrument1 an inexhaustible source of entertainment and instruction is afforded to the curious inquirer into the wonders of nature4 ,the beauties of the minuter parts of creation are not more hidden from our unassisted sight1 than the ends and purposes of their conomy from slight and superficial observation2 the microscope does not more amaze and charm as with a discovery of the first1 than the application of our faculties in investigating the latter4 ,the name of ,,insect has been appropriated to these small animals on account of the sections or divisions that are observable in the bodies of the greatest part of them2 though1 perhaps1 it is impossible to find any precise term that shall embrace the whole genera1 as many particulars must be described before we can attain an exact notion of these animals and their structure4 ,an insect is now generally defined to be1 an animated being whose head is furnished with antenn2 that is destitute of bones1 but which1 instead thereof1 is covered with a very hard skin2 that has six or more feet2 and that breathes through spiracula1 or pores placed in the side of the body4 ,to be more particular1 quadrupeds1 birds1 and fishes have an internal skeleton of bones1 to which the muscles are affixed2 but the whole interior body of insects is composed of soft flesh1 and the muscles are attached to an external skeleton1 serving the double purpose of skin and bone4 ,insects are by most writers considered as divided into four principal parts3 the caput1 or head2 the thorax1 or trunk2 the abdomen1 or belly2 and artus1 or limbs4 ,a perfect knowledge of these parts1 and their several subdivisions1 is requisite for those who are desirous of forming accurate ideas of these minute animals1 or who wish to arrange them in their proper classes4 ,the head is affixed to the thorax by a species of articulation or joint2 it is the principal seat of the senses1 and contains the rudiments of the brain2#ej it is furnished with a mouth1 eyes1 antenn1 a forehead1 a throat1 and stemmata4 ,in the greater part of insects the head is distinctly divided from the thorax1 but in others it coalesces with it4 ,the head of some insects is very large compared with the size of their bodies2 the proportion between the head of the same insect is not always similar2 in the caterpillars with horny heads it is generally small1 before they moult or change their skin1 but much larger after each moulting4 ,the hardness of the exterior part of the head prevents its growth before the change2 it is1 consequently1 in proportion to the body very small2 but when the insect is disposing itself for the change1 the internal substance of the head retires inwards to the first ring of the neck1 where it has room to expand itself2 so that when the animal quits the skin1 we are surprized with a head twice the former size2 and1 as the insect neither eats nor grows while the head is forming1 there is this further circumstance to be remarked1 that the body and the head have each their particular time of growth3 while the head expands and grows1 the body does not grow at all2 when the body increases1 the head remains of the same size1 without any change4 ,the heads of all kinds of insects1 and their several parts1 form very pleasing1 as well as most diversified objects for the opake microscope4 #ej ,fabricius ,philos4 ,entomolog4 p4 #ah4 ,os1 the mouth1 is a part of the insect to which the naturalist will find it necessary to pay a very particular attention2 ,fabricius goes so far as to assert that1 without a thorough knowledge of the mouth1 its form1 and various appendages1 it will be impossible ever to discriminate with accuracy one insect from another4 ,in the structure of the mouth considerable art and wisdom is displayed2 the diversity of the figure is almost as great as the variety of species4 ,it is usually placed in the forepart of the head1 extending somewhat downwards2 in the chermes1 coccus1 and some other insects1 it is placed under the breast4 ,in some insects1 the mouth is forcipated1 to catch1 hold1 and tear the prey2 in others1 aculeated1 to pierce and wound animals1 and suck their blood2 in others1 strongly ridged with jaws and teeth1 to gnaw and scrape out their food1 carry burdens1 perforate the earth1 nay the hardest wood1 and even stones themselves1 for habitations and nests for their young4 ,others are furnished with a kind of tube or tongue1 at one time moveable1 at another fixed2 with this they suck the juices of the flowers3 in some again the tongue is so short1 as to appear to us incapable of answering the purpose for which it was formed1 and the oestri appear to have no mouth4 ,maxill1 the jaws1 are generally two in number2 in some1 four2 in others1 more4 ,they are sometimes placed in an horizontal1 sometimes in a transverse direction2 the inner edge is serrated1 or furnished with small teeth1 as in the cicada1 nepa1 notonecta1 cimex1 7bug17 aphis1 and remarkably so in some curculeones4 ,the rostrum1 or proboscis1 is in general a very curious and complicated organ2 it is the mouth drawn out to a rigid point4 ,in many insects of the hemiptera class1 it is bent down towards the breast and belly4 ,it has by some writers been considered as serving at once the different purposes of mouth1 nose1 and windpipe1 enabling the insect to extract the juices of plants1 communicate the sensation of smelling1 and convey air to the body4 ,lingua1 the tongue1 is a taper and compact instrument1 by which the insect obtains the juices of plants4 ,some can contract or expand it1 others roll it up with dexterity2 in some it is inclosed within a sheath4 ,it is taper and spiral in the butterfly1 tubular and fleshy in the fly2 in all affording agreeable amusement for the microscope4 ,to exemplify which in one or two instances1 while it relieves the reader from the tediousness of narration1 will1 it is hoped1 animate him to farther researches on the subject4 ,,of ,,the ,,proboscis ,,of ,,the ,,bee4 ,every day's experience shews that the more we penetrate into the hidden recesses and internal parts of natural bodies1 the more we find them marked with perfection in form and design2 of the truth of which observation the minute apparatus now to be described will1 no doubt1 ensure conviction4 ,swammerdam1 when speaking thereof1 breaks out into this pious and humble confession3 8,i cannot refrain10 says he1 8from confessing to the glory of the ,immense and ,incomprehensible ,architect1 that ,i have but imperfectly described and represented this small organ2 for1 to represent it to the life in its full perfection1 as truly most perfect it is1 far exceeds the utmost efforts of human knowledge40 ,from what has here been said1 it will be easy to perceive1 that the limits of these ,essays will not permit our entering largely into a description of the minute parts of the proboscis of the bee2 for an ample account of which recourse must be had to the works of ,swammerdam and ,reaumur4 ,the last writer1 like a skilful workman who takes to pieces a watch which he himself has made1 exhibits to you the several parts of which it is composed1 and explains their fitness1 their adjustments1 their uses1 the play of the pivots1 springs1 and pillars2 for all these parts1 and many more1 are to be found in the proboscis of a bee4 ,it is by this small instrument that the bee procures the food necessary for its subsistence4 ,in a general view1 it may be considered as consisting of seven pieces2 one of these1 i i1 b c1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xiii4 is placed in the middle2 this is supposed to be pervious1 and to constitute what may be properly called the tongue2 the other six smaller parts or sheaths1 disposed in three pairs1 are placed on each side of the former3 they not only assist in extracting and gathering the honey from the flowers1 but they also protect and strengthen the part4 ,the proboscis itself is very curiously divided2 the divisions are elegant and regular1 and are beset all round with shaggy triangular fibres or villi1 distributed in beautiful order3 these divisions1 though very numerous1 appear at first sight as a number of different articulations4 ,the tongue1 considered with respect to its length1 may be said to have three articulations2 one with the head1 then a kind of cylindrical horny substance1 which forms as it were a base for the true tongue1 which is not horny1 but soft1 fleshy1 and pliable4#ea #ea ,philos4 ,trans4 for #agib1 ,part ,i4 ,the two pieces a a of the exterior sheath are of a substance partly between bone and horn1 and partly membranaceous2 they are set round with fibres1 and are furnished with air vessels1 which are distributed through their whole texture2 the upper ends f f of this sheath appear to be a little bent1 but can be straitened by the bee when they are applied to the proboscis4 ,at d d are two articulations1 by means of which the pieces a a may be occasionally bent4 ,the joints contribute towards bending the proboscis downwards1 or rather underneath1 against the head4 ,these sheaths1 together with two interior ones e e1 assist in defending1 covering1 and protecting it from injuries2 it is also probable that they promote the descent of the honey1 by pressing the proboscis4 ,the parts k k of this sheath have been called by some writers the root4 ,the two parts e e of the interior sheath are placed higher than those of the exterior one2 they originate at g g on the proboscis itself1 and near that part or articulation1 by which the bee can upon occasion bend the proboscis2 this sheath1 therefore1 always moves with the middle part i i1 and is carried forward by it1 the exterior sheath being left behind1 because its attachments and origin are below that of the proboscis4 ,the pieces e e are very similar in structure to those of a a1 only that each of them has on the upper part three joints1 the lower one is much longer than the other two2 they are all of them surrounded with short fibres4 ,the smaller articulated pieces never lie close to the proboscis1 nor cover it1 but are only placed near it1 the two upper joints projecting outwards1 as in this figure1 even when the whole apparatus is shut up as much as possible4 ,swammerdam thinks these joints are of essential use to the bee1 acting as it were in the manner of fingers1 and assisting the proboscis1 by opening the leaves of the flowers1 and removing other obstructions from it2 or like the two fore feet of the mole1 by the help of which it pushes the earth from the sides both ways1 that it may be able with its sharp trunk to search for its food more conveniently4 ,there are two smaller pieces or sheaths1 m m1 near the bottom of the proboscis2 these cannot be well seen without removing the sheath e e4 ,the proboscis is partly membranaceous1 and partly of a gristly nature2 the lower part is formed in such a manner1 that it will swell out considerably1 by which means the internal cavity may be prodigiously enlarged1 and rendered capable of receiving a very large quantity of native and undigested honey1 and larger than might be expected from its size4 ,when the proboscis is shut up and inactive1 it is very much flattened1 and is three or four times broader than it is thick4 ,the edges are always round2 it grows tapering1 though very gradually1 towards the extremity4 ,the lower and membranaceous part of the trunk has no fibres or villi on it1 but is covered with little protuberant transparent pimples1 that are placed in regular order1 and at equal distances from each other1 resembling the little risings observable on the skin of birds when the feathers have been plucked off4 ,they are probably glandules1 and may have a considerable share in changing or preparing the honey that is swallowed or taken up by the proboscis4 ,down the middle of the proboscis there is a tube of a much harder nature than the sides1 it grows gradually smaller towards the top2 at this place the tongue itself is extremely villous1 having some very long villi at the point2 whether they are open tubes1 or whether they only serve as so many claws1 to keep it in its proper place while in action1 has not been determined2 ,mr4 ,john ,hunter conceives them to act somewhat like capillary tubes4 ,the proboscis terminates in a small cylinder c1 at the top of which there is a little globule or nipple2 the bee can contract this cylindrical part1 and the little membrane in which the villi are fixed1 into a much smaller compass1 and draw it inwards4 ,the exterior sheaths lap over each other on the upper part1 so that the outside of the proboscis is protected by a very strong double case1 a covering that was unnecessary for the under part2 because when this instrument is in use the sheaths are opened1 but when it is inactive1 it is so folded that the under part is protected by the body of the bee4 ,withinside the exterior sheath1 and near the bottom q1 are two levers1 which are fixed to the end of the proboscis1 and by which it is raised and lowered4 ,swammerdam thinks that the honey is1 as it were1 pumped or sucked up by the bee through the hole at the end b of the tongue2 he does not seem to have discovered the apertures which are on the cylindrical part1 near the end b4 ,but ,reaumur is of opinion that it is used to lap up the fluid1 which is then conveyed down between the sheath to the mouth of the bee4 ,to ascertain this1 he placed a bee in a glass tube1 the inside of which was rubbed over with honey1 and little pieces thereof placed in different parts2 the bee placed the tongue on the honey2 stretching the end beyond the piece thereof1 she bent it into the form of a bow1 and inserted the most convex part of the bow into the honey2 by rubbing the glass backwards and forwards with this part1 she soon cleaned that portion to which it was applied1 conveying the honey afterwards to the throat by the vermicular motion of the tongue4 ,if you attentively observe a bee1 when it has placed itself on a full-blown flower1 the activity and address with which it uses this apparatus will be very conspicuous4 ,it lengthens the end1 and applies it to the bottom of the petals or leaves of the flower1 moving it continually in a vast variety of different directions2 lengthening and shortening1 bending and turning it in every possible way1 to adapt it to the form1 c4 of the leaves of the flower4 ,these various movements are executed with a promptitude that surpasses all description4 ,the whole of this curious apparatus can be folded up into a very small compass under the head and neck4 ,the larynx1 or that part next to the head1 falls back into the neck1 which brings the extreme end of the first portion of the proboscis within the upper lip1 or behind the two teeth2 then the whole of the second part is bent down upon and under the first part1 and the two last sheaths or scales are also bent down over the whole2 so that the true tongue is inclosed laterally by the two second horny sheaths1 and over the whole lie the two first4 ,,of ,,the ,,proboscis ,,of ,,the ,,butterfly4 ,from the tongue of the bee1 let us now direct our attention to that of the butterfly4 ,this is a spiral substance1 somewhat resembling the spring of a watch when wound up1 consisting of eight rounds2 by means of a pin you may gently pull it out to its full length2 it grows gradually tapering from the base1 at the end it divides or separates into two tubes1 each furnished with little organs of suction2 probably1 it is by these that it extracts the juices on which it feeds1 and not by the extreme ends of the tongue4 ,as the butterfly has no mouth1 the proboscis is the only alimentary organ2 when separated from the insect1 it will often unroll itself1 then wind and coil itself up again1 continuing these motions at intervals for a considerable time4 ,,of ,,the ,,proboscis ,,of ,,the ,,culex ,,or ,,gnat4 ,the proboscis of the gnat consists of a great number of extremely delicate pieces1 all concurring to one purpose2 this is the instrument with which it strikes the flesh1 and sucks the blood of animal bodies4 ,the only part exhibited to the naked eye is the sheath1 which contains all the other pieces4 ,this sheath is a cylindrical tube1 which is slit in such a manner1 that the insect can separate it from the dart1 and bend it more or less in proportion as the dart is plunged into the wound4 ,from this tube the sting is darted1 which consists of five or six blades or lancets of exquisite minuteness1 lying one over the other2 some of these are sharpened like a two-edged sword1 while others are dentated and barbed at their extremities like the head of an arrow4 ,the instant the gnat lances this bundle of darts into the flesh1 and penetrates a vein1 a drop or two of fluid is by it insinuated into the wound1 by which the blood is attenuated1 and the blades acting as so many capillary tubes1 the blood ascends in them1 and is conveyed into the body of the gnat4 ,the injected fluid also by its fermentation causes that disagreeable and teazing sensation of itching1 to which most persons are subjected1 after having sustained an attack from one or more of these little animals4#eb #eb ,to some persons the gnat 7culex pipiens7 is so truly formidable1 that1 during the ,summer season1 they constantly dread the approach of evening1 that being the time when these blood-thirsty marauders sally forth in great numbers1 pursue them wherever they go1 and exempt no part of the face1 hands1 or even the legs from their depredations2 the consequences of which are1 violent1 though happily only local and temporary inflammation1 attended with insupportable itching1 succeeded by tumors very similar to those occasioned by a scald2 when these have discharged the pellucid fluid they contain1 the symptoms subside4 ,instances have been known in the vicinity of ,london1 where for several days the eyes of the sufferers have been closed1 the nose and lips violently swelled1 the fingers of both hands so affected as to prevent their motion1 and the legs equally affected4 ,it is remarkable1 that in general those who thus suffer are not conscious of the moment when they receive the injury1 but are soon made sensible of it by the effect it produces4 ,the approach of the enemy is1 however1 always known by the singing or humming noise they make2 the peculiar note of which1 though rendered very familiar by daily repetition1 is never esteemed sufficiently musical to render it pleasant or agreeable to the destined victims4 ,amongst the variety of remedies which have been recommended for the cure of this temporary evil1 ,barbut mentions the immediate application of volatile alkali1 or scratching the part newly stung1 and washing it with cold water2 he likewise asserts1 that rubbing the part at night with fuller's earth and water abates the inflammation4 ,as preventives are certainly more acceptable than curatives1 ,i wish ,i were enabled to recommend such in the present case3 in one instance1 the application of vinegar every evening before sun-set produced a happy effect2 possibly washing the parts exposed with extract of saturn properly diluted might prove effectual4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agfg1 is an account of uncommonly numerous swarms of gnats which made their appearance at ,oxford1 during the months of ,july1 ,august1 and ,september of the preceding year4 ,so many myriads sometimes occupied the same part of the atmosphere in contiguous bodies1 that they resembled a very black cloud1 greatly darkened the air1 and almost totally interrupted the solar rays4 ,the repeated bites of these malignant insects were so severe1 that the legs1 arms1 heads1 and other parts of many persons were swelled to an enormous size4 ,the colour of the parts was red and fiery1 perfectly similar to that of some of the most alarming inflammations4 ,some of these gnats had their bodies greatly distended by the uncommon quantities of blood which they had imbibed4 ,in short1 there is no species of insects more troublesome to mankind than the gnat2 others give more pain with their stings1 but it is only when they are attacked1 or by accident1 that we are stung by them2 but the gnats thirst for our blood1 and follow us in whole companies to attack us4 ,in marshy places of this country the limbs of the inhabitants are kept swelled during the whole season4 ,in warmer climates1 particularly the ,west ,indies1 they are1 under the denomination of musquetoes1 still more formidable4 ,hooke1 in his ,micrographia1 pleads in justification of these terrible little insects1 that they do not wound the skin and suck the blood out of enmity or revenge1 but through mere necessity1 and to satisfy their hunger3--it may be so2 and on this account we cannot annex the criminality to them which appertains to such of the highest rank in the scale of the animal creation1 who1 though not urged by the same powerful motive1 pursue a somewhat similar conduct2 but those who have experienced their assaults1 will scarcely admit this plea as a sufficient apology1 or feel themselves amicably disposed towards them2 as1 from whatever cause their attacks may proceed1 the effect is so very unpleasant1 as almost to justify the sufferers in addressing them in the language of the frogs in the fable to the boys1 8,consider1 ,i beseech ye1 that though this may be sport to you1 it is death to us10 and ejaculating a wish1 that they might be enabled to gratify their rapacious appetites by some other means4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,the ,,proboscis ,,of ,,the ,,tabanus ,,or ,,ox-,,fly4 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,fig4 #a4 is a microscopic view of the proboscis of a tabanus1 with which it pierces the skins of horses and oxen1 and nourishes itself with their blood2 ,fig4 #b4 the same of the natural size4 ,the singular and compound structure1 together with the wonderful form and exquisite beauty of this apparatus1 discovers such a view of the wisdom1 power1 and greatness of its infinite composer1 as must strike with admiration every contemplative observer1 and lead him to reflect on the weakness1 impotence1 and nothingness of all human mechanism1 when compared with the immense skill and inimitable finishing displayed in the subject before us4 ,the whole of this formidable apparatus is composed of six parts1 exclusive of the two guards or feelers a a1 all of which are inclosed in a fleshy case1 which in the figure is totally removed1 as it contained nothing remarkably different from that of other insects with two wings4 ,the guards or feelers a a1 are of a spungy or fleshy substance1 and are grey1 covered with short hairs or villi2 they are united to the head by a little joint of the same texture1 which in this view of the object could not be shewn4 ,these guards are a defence to the other parts of the apparatus1 as they are laid upon it side by side1 whenever the animal stings1 and by that means preserve it from external injury4 ,the two lancets b b and ,b1 evidently open the wound1 and are of a delicate and tender structure1 formed like the dissecting knife of the anatomist1 with a sharp point and slender edge1 but gradually increasing to the back4 ,the two instruments1 c c and ,c1 appear as if intended to enlarge the wound1 by irritating the parts round it2 to accomplish which1 they are jagged or serrated2 they may also serve1 from their hard and horny texture1 to defend the tube e ,e1 which is of a softer nature and tubular to admit the blood1 and convey it to the stomach2 this delicate part is inclosed in a case d ,d1 which entirely covers it4 ,these parts are drawn separately at ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,de ,geer observes1 that it is only the female that sucks the blood of animals2 and ,reaumur declares1 that having made one disgorge itself1 the blood it threw up1 appeared to him to be more than the whole body of the insect could have contained4 ,many other instances of the variety and curious fabrication of this little organ in different insects1 may be found in the works of ,reaumur and ,de ,geer2 enough has been said to shew that its mechanism not only eludes the human eye1 but far surpasses every work of man2 ,i shall therefore proceed1 in the next place1 to notice ,,the ,,antenn ,,of ,,insects4 ,the antenn are fine slender horns consisting of several articulations1 moveable in various directions1 and constituting one of the discriminating characteristics of insects4 ,they are beautiful in form1 and of a very delicate structure1 so finely articulated1 and so minutely jointed1 as to be instantaneously moveable in every direction4 ,they are situated on the fore part of the head4 ,the shape1 the length1 the number1 and kind of articulations1 not only vary in different species1 but the antenn of the male generally differ from those of the female4 ,the greater number of insects have only two antenn1 but the oniscus1 the pagurus1 and astacus have four4 ,regular rows of minute holes are said to have been discovered in the antenn4 ,several insects cover their eyes with them while they sleep4 ,we are far from being certain of the use of this organ2 some writers have conjectured that they were the organs of smell and hearing1 others have supposed them appropriated to a delicate species of feeling1 sensible to the least motion or disturbance in the circumambient fluid in which they move4#ec ,the following observations throw some light on this obscure subject4 ,when a wingless insect is placed at the end of a twig1 or in any other situation where it meets with a vacuity1 it moves the antenn backward and forward1 elevates and depresses them from side to side1 and will not advance further lest it should fall4 ,place a stick or any other substance near the antenn1 and the insect immediately applies them to this new object1 seems to examine whether it be sufficient to support its weight1 and then proceeds on its journey4 ,from these observations it would appear that the antenn assist the insect in judging of the vicinity of objects1 and probably enable them to walk with safety in the dark4 #ec ,some have thought them intended to defend the eyes1 but though this might seem probable in regard to the short plumose ones1 it can never hold good in those that are slender and smooth1 which can be of no such service4 ,others have thought them made for wiping and cleaning the eyes1 but for this purpose they are totally unfit2 the fore legs of the insect are much better calculated for this use by the hairs or fibrilla with which they are covered4 ,possibly they may be the organs of smelling1 since we evidently find that many insects possess this sense in a very exquisite degree1 and yet we see no external organs except these to serve that purpose4 ,,edit4 ,that these observations are not1 however conclusive1 appears from an experiment of a very ingenious naturalist3 being desirous of ascertaining the nature and use of the antenn and proboscis of a butterfly1 he gently approached one that was flying about in search of food2 he observed that it turned the antenn about every way1 till coming within scent of a flower1 it kept them fixedly bent toward that object1 directing its course by their guidance1 till it arrived at the flower2 there they appeared to act as an organ of smell1 and that the minute holes with which it is furnished assisted in promoting this operation4 ,when the creature had reached the flower1 it hovered over it as with rapture1 poising itself quietly upon its wing1 like a kite or hawk in the air2 it then dropped suddenly1 till it was on a level with the flower1 when it began to agitate its wings briskly and to unroll its spiral trunk1 thrusting it to the bottom of the flower2 in a little time the trunk was rolled up1 and again in a moment unrolled2 these operations it repeated till the flower yielded no more juices1 the butterfly then sought for and alighted on another4#ed #ed ,after all1 this subject must for the present remain undecided4 ,indeed1 the bodies of insects are throughout formed of parts so different from ours1 that we can probably conceive no more idea of the use of some of their organs1 than a man born blind or deaf can of the senses of vision or hearing4 ,they may have senses different from ours1 and these may be the organs of them4 ,,edit4 ,the differences in the form1 c4 of the antenn are characterized by naturalists under the following names3 ,setace2 are those that1 like a bristle1 grow gradually taper towards the point or extremity1 as in many of the phalen4 ,filiformes2 thread-shaped1 and of an uniform thickness4 ,moniliformes2 these are filiform like the preceding1 and of a regular thickness1 but consist of a series of round knobs1 like a necklace of beads1 as in the chrysomela4 ,clavat2 formed like a club1 increasing gradually from the base to the extremity1 as in the papilio1 butterfly4 ,capitat2 these are also formed like a club1 but the last articulation is larger than the rest1 finishing with a kind of capital or head4 ,fissiles2 these are like the former1 only that the capitulum or head is divided longitudinally into three or four parts or lamin1 as in the scarabi4 ,perfoliat2 are also capitated1 but have the capitulum divided horizontally1 and the lamin connected by a kind of thread passing through their center1 as in the dermestes and dytiscus4 ,pectinat2 so called from their similitude to a comb1 though they more properly resemble a feather1 as in the phalen and elateres2 this is most obvious in the male4 ,aristat2 such as have a lateral hair1 which is either naked1 or furnished with smaller hairs1 as in the fly4 ,besides the foregoing terms1 the antenn are called breviores1 or short1 when they are shorter than the body2 mediocres1 or middling1 when they are of the same length2 and longiores1 when they are longer4 ,near the mouth there is also a species of small filiform articulated antenn1 called the palpi1 or feelers2 they are generally four in number1 sometimes six2 they are placed under and at the sides of the mouth1 which situation1 together with their size1 sufficiently distinguish them from the antenn2 they are in continual motion1 the animal thrusting them in every matter1 as a hog would its nose1 when in search of food4 ,some have supposed them to be a kind of hand to assist in holding the food when it is near the mouth4 ,,of ,,the ,,eyes ,,of ,,insects4 ,the structure of the eye has always been considered as a wonderful piece of mechanism2 the admirable manner in which those of the human species are formed1 and the nature of vision1 are speculations which cannot but excite the attention of every inquisitive mind4 ,the eyes of insects1 though they differ considerably in their construction from those of other animals1 are no less objects of our admiration4 ,indeed1 among the exterior parts of insects1 none are more worthy of minute investigation1 and very few persons are to be found1 who can be insensible to the beauties of this organ when exhibited under the microscope1 as that instrument alone points out to us the prodigious art employed in their organization1 and evidently shews how many wonders escape the unassisted sight4 ,the construction of the eye in insects is not only distinct from that of other animals1 but also differs in different species4 ,they vary in number1 situation1 connection1 and figure4 ,in other creatures the eyes are moveable1 and two in number1 one on each side of the head3 in insects1 the genus of cancri excepted1 the eyes are fixed2 they have no eye-brows1 but the outer coating is hard and transparent4 ,the greater part of insects have two eyes2 in the monoculus they approach so near to each other1 as to appear like one2 the gyrinus has four eyes1 the scorpion six1 the spider eight1 and the scolopendra three4 ,of the eyes of insects1 some have them single1 that is1 placed at a small distance from each other2 while others are furnished with an indefinite number1 all placed in one common case or socket2 the latter are generally termed the reticulated eyes4 ,,of ,,the ,,reticulated ,,eyes ,,of ,,insects4 ,the microscope does not disclose greater wonders1 when it exhibits to us millions of animals invisible to the naked eye1 where we should suppose nothing living existed1 than when it discovers to us hidden beauties in those1 which1 though they are large enough to be seen by our natural eye1 yet in their several minute parts are no ways discernible1 but by the assistance of glasses4 ,thus we readily discern those protuberances on the heads of insects1 which are formed by a congeries of eyes2 we can even perceive that they consist of a number of lines crossing each other with great regularity and exactness at some little distance1 like the meshes of a net4 ,by this we know that they are reticulated substances2 but in what manner they are so1 can only be shewn by the microscope4 ,the eyes of the libellula1 on account of their size1 are peculiarly well adapted for microscopical examination2 and1 by the assistance of the instrument1 you will find that they are divided into a number of hexagonal cells1 each of which forms a complete eye4 ,the external parts of these eyes are so perfectly smooth1 and so well polished1 that1 when viewed as opake objects1 they will1 like so many mirrors1 reflect the images of all the surrounding objects4 ,the figure of a candle may be seen on their surface multiplied almost to infinity1 shifting its beam to each eye1 according to the motion given to it by the hands of the observer4 ,other creatures are obliged to turn their eyes towards the object1 but insects have eyes directed thereto1 on whatsoever side it may appear3 they more than realize the wonderful accounts of fabulous history3 poets gave to ,argus an hundred eyes2 insects are furnished with thousands1 having the benefit of vision on every side with the utmost ease and speed1 though without any motion of the eye or flexion of the neck4 ,each of these protuberances1 in its natural state1 is a body cut into a number of faces2 like an artificial multiplying glass2 but with this superiority in the workmanship1 that as there1 every face is plane1 here1 every one is convex1 immensely more numerous1 and contained in a much smaller space4 ,if one of these protuberant substances be nicely taken from the head of the insect1 washed clean1 and placed before the microscope1 its structure is elegantly seen1 and it becomes an object worthy of the highest admiration4 ,you will find that each of the eyes is an hexagon1 varying in its size according to its situation in the head1 and that each of them is a distinct convex lens1 and has the same effect in forming the image of an object placed before it4 ,of this you will be convinced1 by turning the mirror of the microscope so as to bring the picture of some well-defined object under the eye2 thus1 turn it towards a house1 and in the eye of the insect you will perceive the house diminished to a box1 but multiplied into a city2 turn it towards a soldier1 and you will have an army of pigmies performing every motion at the same instant of time2 again1 turn the mirror towards a candle1 and you will have a beautiful and resplendent blaze from multitudes of regular flames4 ,hooke1 ,catalan1 c4 have shewn that these small eyes are furnished with every requisite of vision1 and that each of them has the use1 the power1 and properties of an eye4 ,but we must have recourse to the works of ,swammerdam for a full account of the astonishing organization of the eyes of insects4 ,among other things1 he has shewn1 that under each facet there is a pyramid of fibres broad at the base1 and growing smaller as it proceeds inwards2 the pyramid has the same number of sides as the eye1 and there are as many hexagonal pyramids1 as there are small facets or eyes in the insect4 ,an innumerable number of pulmonary tubes ascend these fibres1 terminating in a white fibrous convex membrane2 under these membranes there is another1 still more delicate and transparent2 beneath this1 a second species of fibres is transversely applied1 like so many beams to support the pyramids that are laid upon them4 ,still we cannot determine with certainty1 how these numerous inlets to sight operate for the service of the animal2 they may increase the field of view1 augment the intensity of light1 and be productive of advantages of which we can have no conception4 ,hooke computed #adjjj of these facets in the two eyes of a drone2 ,leeuwenhoek reckoned #fjcf in the two eyes of a silkworm1 when in its fly state2 in the eyes of the libellula he reckoned #abedd hexangular lenses4 ,swammerdam covered the reticulated eyes of certain insects with black paint2 in this state they flew at random1 and seemed to be deprived of their strength2 when they settled1 they did not avoid the hand that was going to take hold of them4 ,reaumur made similar experiments on the eyes of bees1 which concurred with those of ,swammerdam4 ,some ephemera flies have four reticulated eyes1 two of which are placed as in the common fly2 the other two are placed1 one beside the other1 upon the upper part of the head1 and have the appearance of a kind of mushroom1 the head extended somewhat beyond the stalk4 ,the first pair are of a brown colour1 those of the mushroom form are of a very beautiful citron colour4 ,in some of the fly class1 these reticulated eyes are little inferior in colour and brilliance to the brightest gem4 ,the colour varies in different species2 in some you find it green1 in others red1 c4 some have a most elegant changeable colour thrown over them1 partly purple1 partly green1 and partly of that brassy hue1 which is seen on the backs of some of our beetles1 and which is not equalled by any other production of art or nature4 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xvi4 is a representation of a small part of the cornea of a libellula1 as seen by the microscope2 the sides of the hexagons in some positions of the light1 appear of a fine gold colour1 and divided into three parallel borders4 ,fig4 #d4 the same object of its natural size4 ,fig4 #e4 ,plate ,,xvi4 represents a small portion of the cornea of a lobster2 here each of the eyes are small squares1 not hexagons2 a conformation which admits a smaller number in the same surface2 so great a number was not necessary in this instance1 as the eyes of the lobster are moveable4 ,fig4 #f4 the same of its natural size4 ,,of ,,the ,,eyes ,,of ,,the ,,monoculus ,,polyphemus4 ,the monoculus polyphemus1 or king crab1 has four eyes1 two large and two small ones2 the large eyes are formed of a great number of transparent amber-like cones1 the small ones of a single cone1 8,the internal surface of the large eyes1 examined with the microscope1 is found to be thick set with a great number of small transparent cones1 of an amber colour1 the bases of which stand downward1 and their points upward next the eye of the observer4 ,the cones in general have an oblique direction1 except some in the middle of the cornea1 about thirty in number1 the direction of which is perpendicular4 ,the center of every cone being the most transparent part1 and that through which the light passes1 on that account the perpendicular or central cones always appear beautifully illuminated at their points4 ,in a word1 they are all so disposed1 as that a certain number of them receive the light from whatever point it may issue1 and transmit it to the immediate organ of sight1 which we may reasonably suppose is placed underneath them4 ,the cones are not all of the same length2 those on the edges of the cornea are the longest1 from whence they gradually diminish as they approach the center1 where they are not above half the length of those on the edges4 8,the structure of the small eyes being less elaborate1 their internal appearance1 when placed in the microscope1 will be described in a few words4 ,they consist of an oval transparent horny plate1 of an amber colour1 in the center of which stands a single cone1 through which and the oval plate the light passes40#ee #ee ,see ,mr4 ,andr's paper with a plate1 in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #aghb1 page #ddj4 ,,of ,,the ,,eyes ,,of ,a ,,spider4 ,though the form of this insect is naturally disgusting1 yet the eyes make a beautiful object for the microscope4 ,they have generally eight2 two on the top of the head1 that look directly upwards2 two in the front1 a little below the foregoing1 to discover what passes before it2 on each side a couple more1 whereof one points sideways forward1 the other sideways backward2 so that the spider can nearly see all around4 ,these eyes are immoveable1 and seem to be formed of a hard transparent horny substance4 ,a portion of each sphere projects externally beyond the socket1 the largest part is sunk within it4 ,there is round each eye a circular transparent membrane4 ,mr4 ,baker placed the eye of a spider over a pin-hole made through a piece of card1 and then applied it as a lens to examine objects2 he found it magnified the objects greatly1 but that it did not exhibit them distinctly2 this he however attributed to the length of time the spider had been dead whose eye he used4 ,the number of eyes is not the same in all species of the spider4 ,,of ,,the ,,stemmata4 ,it might be imagined1 that as every fly has two reticulated eyes1 they could not have occasion for more2 but so it has not appeared to that ,,great ,,being who formed them1 for many are furnished besides with other eyes1 differing in form and construction from those that are reticulated4 ,these were first noticed by ,m4 de la ,hire2 they are three lucid protuberances placed on the back part of the head of many insects3 their surface is glossy1 of an hemispheric figure1 and a coal black colour4 ,they are transparent1 and disposed in a triangular form2 by modern naturalists they are termed stemmata4 ,reaumur made experiments on these eyes1 similar to those he had made on the reticulated ones1 and found that when the stemmata were covered with dark varnish1 the insects flew but to a small distance1 and always at random4 ,no insect is1 ,i believe1 found with both kind of eyes1 unless in its perfect state3 there are many species which are not furnished with stemmata1 gnats and tipul are without them4 ,we are apt to suppose that nature has lavished all her bounty upon her larger creatures1 and left her minims of existence1 as ,shakspeare phrases it1 unfinished2 with what different ideas must those be impressed1 who find the apparatus for vision in these small creatures so various and so wonderful in their structure1 and who must perceive so much design and order manifested in the position1 construction1 and number of these delicate and useful organs4 ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,insects4 ,the trunk or body of the insect is situated between the head and abdomen4 ,naturalists divide it into three parts2 the thorax1 scutellum1 and sternum4 ,the thorax is the upper part of the body1 it is of various shapes and proportions2 the sides and back of it are often armed with points4 ,the scutellum1 or escutcheon1 is the lower part of the body1 and is generally of a triangular form2 though it adheres to the thorax1 it is easily distinguished therefrom by its figure1 and often by an intervening suture4 ,it seems intended to assist in expanding the wings4 ,the sternum is situated on the under part of the thorax2 in some species it is pointed behind1 as in the elateres2 in others1 bifid1 as in some of the dytisci4 ,,of ,,the ,,abdomen ,,of ,,insects4 ,the abdomen1 or under part of the body1 contains the stomach1 the intestines1 the air vessels1 c4 ,it is composed of several rings or segments1 so that it may be moved in various directions1 or lengthened and shortened at pleasure2 in some it is formed of one piece only4 ,it is perforated with spiracula1 or breathing holes1 and is terminated by the tail4 ,the spiracula are small oblong holes or pores placed singly one on each side of every ring of the abdomen2 these are the means or instruments of respiration1 supply the want of lungs1 and form a peculiar characteristic of insects4 ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,of ,,insects4 ,by the limbs are here meant the instruments used by the insect both for motion and defence4 ,they are1 al1 the wings2 halteres1 the poisers2 pedes1 the legs2 cauda1 the tail2 and aculeus1 the sting4 ,,of ,,the ,,wings ,,of ,,insects4 ,the wings are those organs by which the insect is enabled to fly2 some have only two1 others are furnished with four1 two on each side2 these are1 in some1 of the same size2 in others1 the superior ones are much larger than the inferior3 ,linnus has made them the foundation of the order into which he has divided this numerous class of beings4 ,the variety in the form and structure of the wings is almost infinite2 the beauty of their colouring1 the art with which they are connected to the body1 the curious manner in which some are folded up1 the fine articulations provided for this purpose1 by which they are laid up in their cases when out of use1 and yet are ready to be extended in a moment for flight2 together with the various ramifications1 by which the nourishing juices are circulated1 and the wing strengthened1 afford a fund of rational investigation highly entertaining2 exhibiting1 particularly when examined by the microscope1 a most wonderful display of divine wisdom and power4 ,the more delicate and transparent wings are covered and protected by elytra1 or cases1 which are generally hard and opake4 ,the wings of moths and butterflies are mostly farinaceous1 covered with a fine dust2 by the assistance of the microscope1 we discover that this dust is a regular assemblage of organized scales1 which will be more particularly noticed hereafter4 ,the following names are made use of to describe the different kinds of wings4 ,they are first distinguished1 with respect to their surfaces1 into superior and inferior4 ,the part next the head is called the anterior part2 that nearer the tail1 the posterior part4 ,the interior part is that next the abdomen2 the exterior part is the outermost edge4 ,those wings are termed plicatiles1 which are folded when the insect is at rest1 as in the wasp4 ,plan2 those which are incapable of being folded4 ,erect2 whose superior surfaces are brought in contact when the insect is at rest1 as in the ephemera1 papiliones1 c4 ,patentes2 if they are extended horizontally when the insect is at rest1 as in the phaln geometr4 ,incumbentes2 those insects which1 when they are not in motion1 cover horizontally with their wings the superior part of the abdomen4 ,deflex2 those are also incumbentes1 but not horizontally1 the outer edges declining towards the sides1 ,revers1 are also deflex1 with this addition1 that the edges of the inferior wings project from under the anterior part of the superior ones4 ,dentat2 with serrated or scolloped edges4 ,caudat2 in these some of the fibres of the wings are extended beyond the margin into a kind of tail4 ,reticulat2 when the veins or membranes of the wings put on the appearance of net-work4 ,the wings are further distinguished by their ornaments1 being painted with spots1 macul2 bands1 fasci2 streaks1 strig3 when these are extended lengthways1 they are called lines1 lin2 and if with dots1 punct2 one or more rings are termed eyes1 ocelli2 if the spots are shaped like a kidney1 they are termed stigmata4 ,the elytra1 or crustaceous cases of the wings are extended when the insect flies1 and shut when it rests1 forming a longitudinal suture down the middle of the back2 they are of various shapes1 and distinguished by the following names3 ,abbreviata2 when they are shorter than the abdomen4 ,truncata2 when their extremities terminate in a transverse direct line4 ,fastigiata2 when of equal or greater length than the abdomen1 and terminating in a transverse line4 ,serrata2 having their external margins edged with teeth or notches4 ,spinosa2 when their exterior surfaces are covered with small sharp points4 ,scabra2 when they are very rough4 ,striata2 marked with slender longitudinal furrows4 ,porcata2 having sharp longitudinal ridges4 ,sulcata2 with deep furrows4 ,they are likewise distinguished by the denomination of ,hemelytra1 when their cases are neither so hard as the elytra1 nor so delicate as the transparent wings4 ,,of ,,the ,,halteres ,,or ,,poisers ,,of ,,insects4 ,under the wings of most insects which have only two1 there is a small head placed on a stalk1 frequently under a little arched scale2 these are called halteres1 poisers2 they appear to be rudiments of the hinder wings3 it has been supposed that they serve to keep the body in equilibrio when the insect is flying4 ,,of ,,the ,,elytra1 ,,and ,,wings ,,under ,,the ,,elytra4 ,i have already observed1 that the delicate and transparent wings of many insects are covered and protected by elytra1 or cases1 which also in some measure act as wings4 ,these exterior cases are harder and more opake than the wings under them2 they are generally highly polished1 and often enriched with various colours1 adorned with ornamental flutings1 and studded with brilliants1 whose beauties are beyond description4 ,all these ornaments are united in the curculio imperialis1#ef or diamond beetle1 one of the richest and most magnificent creatures in nature2 the head1 the wings1 the legs1 c4 are curiously beset with scales of a most splendid appearance1 outvying the ruby1 saphire1 and emerald1 forming in miniature one of the most noble phenomena that the colours of light can exhibit4 ,it is said1 that in the ,brazils1 from whence they come1 it is almost impossible to look at them on a sunny day1 when they are flying in little swarms1 so great is the glowing splendor of their heightened colours4 #ef ,fabricis ,spec4 ,ins4 #ahd4 #abi4--;,drury4 ,ins4 #b ,tab4 #cc1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the strength and hardness of the elytra are admirably adapted to the various purposes of the insects to which they are appropriated2 at the same time that they protect the tender wings beneath them1 they serve as a shield to the body2 while the ribs1 and other prominences1 contribute to lessen the friction and diminish the pressure to which they are often exposed4 ,in most of these insects1 the under wing is longer and larger than the exterior one1 so that it is obliged to be bent and folded up1 in order to lye under the elytra2 for this purpose they are furnished with strong muscles1 and proper articulations to display or conceal them at pleasure4 ,,of ,,the ,,wings ,,of ,,the ,,forficula ,,auricularia1 ,,or ,,earwig4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,xiv4 is a magnified view of the wing of an earwig4 ,fig4 #b4 the natural size4 ,though the insect is so very common1 yet few people know that it has wings1 and fewer yet have seen them2 they are of a curious and elegant texture1 and wonderful structure4 ,the upper part is crustaceous and opake1 while the other part is beautifully transparent4 ,they fold up into a very small compass1 and lie neatly concealed under the elytra1 which are not more than a sixth part of the wing in size4 ,they first fold back the parts ,a ,b1 and then shut up the ribs like a fan2 the strong muscles used for this purpose are seen at the upper part of the figure4 ,the ribs are extended from the center to the outer edge1 others are extended only from the edge about half-way2 but they are all united by a kind of band1 at a small1 but equal distance from the edge2 the whole evidently contrived to strengthen the wing1 and facilitate the various motions thereof2 so that1 in these wings you find all the motions that are in the most elaborate and portable umbrellas1 executed with a neatness and elegance surpassing description4 ,the earwig is a very destructive animal1 doing considerable injury to most kinds of wall fruit1 to carnations1 and other fine flowers1 c4 and as they only feed in the night1 they escape the search of the gardener4 ,reeds open at both ends1 and placed among fruit trees1 are a good trap for them1 as they croud into these open channels1 and may be blown out into a tub of water4 ,as they conceal themselves in the day-time1 those that are curious in flowers place tobacco pipes1 lobster claws1 c4 on the top of their garden sticks1 in order to catch them4 ,this insect differs very little in appearance in its three different states4 ,de ,geer asserts1 that the female sits on her eggs1 and broods over the young ones1 as a hen does over her chickens4 ,,of ,,the ,,wings ,,of ,,the ,,hemerobius ,,perla4 ,so infinite is the variety displayed in the disposition1 structure1 and ornaments of the wings of insects1 that only to enumerate them would fill many pages2 ,i must leave this subject to be further pursued by the reader1 contenting myself with presenting him with the view of a wing of the hemerobius perla1 as it appears under the microscope4 ,the insect to which it belongs1 has acquired the name of hemerobius1 from the shortness of its life1 as it seldom lives more than two or three days in the fly state4 ,linnus has placed it in his fourth class1 among those insects which have four transparent wings and no sting4 ,the body of the insect is of a fine green colour2 the eyes appear like two delicate beads of burnished gold1 whence it is by many called the golden eye4 ,the wings are delicate and elegant1 nearly of a length1 and exactly similar2 they are composed of a beautiful thin transparent membrane1 furnished with slender fine ribs1 regularly and elegantly disposed1 adorned with hairs1 and slightly tinged with green4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,xv4 exhibits its magnified appearance2 ,fig4 #b4 the natural size4 ,,of ,,the ,,wings ,,of ,,moths ,,and ,,butterflies4 ,the wings of these insects are mostly farinaceous1 being covered with a fine dust1 which renders them opake1 and produces those beautiful and variegated colours by which they are so richly adorned1 and so profusely decked4 ,if this be wiped off1 you find the remaining part1 or naked wing1 to consist of a number of ribs1 like those in the leaves of plants2 but of a crustaceous or talcy nature2 the largest rib runs along and fortifies the exterior edge of the wing2 the interior edge is strengthened by a smaller vessel or rib4 ,the ribs are all hollow1 by which means the wing1 though comparatively large1 is very light4 ,the substance between the ribs1 and which constitutes the body of the wing1 resembles talc1#eg surprizingly thin and transparent2 as this is extremely tender1 one use of the scales may be to protect it from injuries4 ,when the moth emerges from the chrysalis1 the wings are soft and thick1 and if they be examined in that state1 will be found to consist of two membranes1 that may be raised up and separated1 by blowing between them with a small tube3 the ribs lie between these membranes4 ,you may with the assistance of glasses discover certain strait and circular rows of extremely minute holes1 running from rib to rib1 or forming figures in the intermediate spaces1 which seem to answer to the figures and variegations on the complete wing1 and are probably the sockets for the stalks or stems of the small scales4 #eg ,as the author's idea of this substance being of the nature of talc1 does not appear correct1 and ,i cannot find that entomologists are agreed in the definition of it1 ,i shall just give the following extract on the subject from the ,cyclopdia by ,rees1 and submit the decision to the reader4 8,the substance which connects and fills up the spaces between these ribs1 is of so peculiar a nature1 that it is not easy to find any name to design it by1 at least there is no substance that enters the composition of the bodies of the larger animals1 that is at all analogous to it4 ,it is a white substance1 transparent and friable1 and seems indeed to differ in nothing from that of the large and thick ribs1 but in that it is extended into thin plates2 but this is saying little toward the determining what it really is1 since we are as much at a loss to know by what name to call the substance they are composed of4 ,malpighi indeed calls them bones2 but though they do serve in the place of bones1 rendering the wing firm and strong1 c4 yet1 when strictly examined1 they do not appear to have any thing of the structure of bones1 but appear rather of the substance of scales1 or of that sort of imperfect scales1 of which1 the covering of crustaceous insects is composed40 ,,edit4 ,ever since the microscope was invented1 the dust that covers these wings has engaged the attention of microscopic observers2 as by this instrument it is found to be a regular collection of organized scales of various shapes1 and in whose construction there is as much symmetry1 as there is beauty in their colours4 ,a view of some of these scales1 as they appear in the microscope1 is exhibited at ,f ,e ,h ,i1 in ,fig4 #g4 ,plate ,,xvi4 and in ,fig4 #h4 of the natural size4 ,their shapes are not only very different in moths of various species1 but those on the same moth are also found to differ4 ,of the scales1 some are so long and slender that they resemble hairs1 except that they are a little flattened and divided at the ends2 some are short and broad2 some are notched at the edges1 others smooth2 some are nearly oval1 while others are triangular3 they are mostly furnished with a short stalk or stem to fix them to the wing4 ,with the microscope1 a variety of large stripes or ribs are to be discovered2 between these larger lines1 minuter ones may be seen with a deep magnifier4 ,the larger stripes rise in general from the exterior notches2 some have a rib running down the middle1 through their whole length4 ,the upper and under parts of the wing are equally supplied with them4 ,the regular arrangement of these plates1 one beside and partly covering the other1 as in the tiling of an house1 is best seen by examining a wing in the opake microscope4 ,the prodigious number of small scales which cover the wings of these beautiful insects1 is a sure proof of their utility to them1 because they are given by ,,him who makes nothing in vain4 ,that the lively and variegated colours1 which adorn the wings of the moth and butterfly1 arise from the small scales or plates that are planted therein1 is very evident from this1 that if they be brushed off from it1 the wing is perfectly transparent3 but whence this profusion and difference of colour on the same wing8 is a question as difficult to resolve1 as that of ,prior1 when he asks4 8,why does one climate and one soil endue ,the blushing poppy with a crimson hue1 ,yet leave the lilly pale1 and tinge the violet blue80 ,as the wings of the moths and butterflies are very light1 they can support themselves for a long time in the air2 their manner of flying is ungraceful1 generally moving in a zigzag line1 to the right and to the left1 alternately ascending and descending2 this undulating motion however has its uses1 as it disappoints the birds who chase them in taking aim2 by which means they frequently elude their pursuit1 though continued for a considerable time4 ,dr4 ,hooke#eh endeavoured to investigate the nature of the motions of the wings of insects2 and1 although he was not able1 from the experiments he made1 to give a satisfactory account of them1 yet as they may be useful to some future inquirer1 and lead him more readily into the path of truth1 ,i hope an extract therefrom will not prove unacceptable to the reader4 ,to investigate the mode or manner of moving their wings1 he considered with attention those spinning insects that suspend1 or as it were poise themselves in one place in the air1 without rising or falling1 or even moving backwards or forwards2 by looking down on these1 he could1 by a kind of faint shadow1 perceive the utmost extremes of the vibratory motion of their wings2 the shadow1 while they were thus suspended1 was not very long1 but was lengthened when they endeavoured to fly forwards4 ,he next tried by fixing the legs of a fly upon the top of the stalk of a feather with glue1 wax1 c4 and then making it endeavour to fly away2 he was thereby able to view it in any posture4 ,from hence he collected1 that the extreme limits of the vibrations were usually somewhat about the length of the body distant from each other1 often shorter1 and sometimes longer4 ,the foremost limit was generally a little above the back1 and the hinder one somewhat beneath the belly2 between these1 to judge by the sound1 they seemed to move with an equal velocity4 ,the manner of their moving them1 if a just idea can be formed by the shadow of the wing1 and a consideration of its nature and structure1 seemed to be this3 the wing being supposed to be in the extreme limit1 it is then nearly horizontal1 the forepart only being a little depressed2 in this situation the wing moves to the lower limit2 before it arrives at this1 the hinder part begins to move fastest2 the area of the wing begins to dip behind1 and in that posture it seems to be moved to the upper limit back again4 ,these vibrations1 judging by the sound1 and comparing them with a string tuned in unison thereto1 consist of many hundreds1 if not thousands1 in a second of time4 ,the powers of the governing faculty of the insect1 and the vivacity of its sensations1 whereby every organ is stimulated to act with so much velocity and regularity1 surpass our present comprehension4 #eh ,hooke's ,micrographia1 p4 #agb4 ,,pedes ,,the ,,feet1 ,,and ,,legs ,,of ,,insects4 ,these are admirably adapted for their intended service1 to give the most convenient and proper motion1 and1 from the variety in their construction1 their various articulations1 c4 furnish the microscopic observer with an abundance of curious and interesting objects3 the most general number is six2 many of the class aptera have eight1 as the spider2 the crab has ten2 the oniscus fourteen2 the julus has from seventy to one-hundred and twenty on each side4 ,the legs of those insects that have not more than ten1 are affixed to the trunk2 while those that exceed that number1 have part fixed to the trunk1 the rest to the abdomen4 ,the legs of insects are generally divided into four parts4 ,the first1 which is usually the largest1 is called the femur2 the second1 or tibia1 is joined to the former1 and is commonly of the same size throughout1 and longer than the femur2 this is followed by the third part1 which is distinguished by the name of tarsus1 or foot2 it is composed of several joints1 the one articulated to the other1 the number of rings varying in different insects2 the tarsus is terminated by the unguis1 or claw4 ,the writers on natural history1 in order to render their descriptions clear and accurate1 have given several names to the legs of insects1 from the nature of the motions produced by them4 ,thus cursorii1 from that of running2 these are the most numerous4 ,the saltatorii1 those that are used for leaping2 the thighs of these are remarkably large1 by which means they possess considerable strength and power to leap to great distances4 ,the natatorii1 those that serve as oars for swimming2 the feet of these are flat and edged with hairs1 possessing a proper surface to strike against the water1 as in the dytiscus1 notonecta1 c4 ,such feet as have no claws are termed mutici4 ,the chel1 or claws1 are an enlargement of the extremity of the fore feet1 each of which is furnished with two lesser claws1 which act like a thumb and finger1 as in the crab4 ,the under part of the feet in some insects is covered with a kind of brush or sponge1 by which they are enabled to walk with ease1 on the most polished substances1 and in situations from which it would seem they must necessarily fall4 ,motion is one of the principal phenomena of nature2 it is as it were the soul of our system1 and is as admirable in the smallest animal1 as in the universe at large4 ,it is the principal agent in producing all that diversity and change which perpetually affect every object in the creation4 ,the motions of animals are proportioned to their weight and structure1 a flea can leap to the distance of at least two hundred times its own length2 were an elephant1 a camel1 or an horse to leap in the same proportion1 their weight would crush them to atoms4 ,the same remark is applicable to spiders1 worms1 and other insects2 the softness of their texture1 and the comparative smallness of their specific gravity1 enable them to fall without injury from heights that would prove fatal to larger and heavier animals4#ei #ei ,the parts of some of the larger animals are1 however1 so admirably constructed for swiftness1 as to enable them to perform surprizing acts of agility2 for instance1 the ,siberian jerboa1 mus saliens1 ,pennant2 this animal springs forward by successive leaping so very nimbly1 that it is said to be very difficult for a man well mounted to overtake it2 it is about the size of a large rat4 ,the kanguroo1 opossum of ,pennant1 macropus giganteus1 ,shaw1 leaps to so uncommon a height1 and to so great a distance1 as to outstrip the swiftest greyhound2 its size is that of a full-grown sheep4 ,accurate coloured figures of both these extraordinary animals are given in that elegant work1 the ,naturalist's ,miscellany4 ,,edit4 ,many insects can only move the thigh in a vertical direction1 while others can move it in a variety of ways4 ,the progressive motion of insects1 and the various methods employed to effect it1 will be found a very curious and important subject1 and well worthy the attention of the naturalist4 ,the intelligent mechanic will not find it lost labour if he bestow some time on the same subject4 ,very little has been done on this head1 and that principally by ,reaumur1 in his excellent ,memoires2 and by ,m4 ,weiss1 in a ,memoir published in the ,journal de ,physique for #agga4 ,the reader may also consult ,borelli de ,motu ,animalium4 ,,of ,,the ,,tail ,,and ,,sting ,,of ,,insects4 ,cauda1 the tail1 terminates the abdomen1 and is constructed in a wonderful manner for answering the purposes for which it is formed1 namely1 to direct the motion of the insect1 to serve as an instrument of defence1 or for depositing the eggs2 the figure and size thereof varying in each genus and its families4 ,in most insects it is simple1 simplex1 and yet capable of being extended or drawn back at pleasure2 in others1 elongata1 elongated1 as in the crab and scorpion2 setacea1 shaped like a bristle1 as in the raphidia2 triseta1 with three appendages like bristles1 as in the ephemera2 in some it is forked1 furcata1 as in the podura2 and in others it is furnished with a pair of forceps1 forcipata1 as in the forficula2 in the blatta1 grylli1 and others1 it is foliosa1 or like a leaf2 in the scorpion and panorpa it is telifera1 furnished with a dart or sting4 ,further particulars may be obtained from the ,philosophia ,entomologica of ,fabricius4 ,aculeus1 or the sting1 is an instrument with which insects wound and instil a poison2 the sting generally proceeds from the under part of the last ring of the belly3 in some it is sharp and pointed1 in others serrated or formed like a saw4 ,it is used by many insects both as an offensive and defensive weapon2 by others it is only used to pierce the substances where they mean to deposit their eggs4 ,this instrument cannot be properly seen or known1 but with the assistance of a microscope4 ,,of ,,the ,,sting ,,of ,a ,,bee4 ,of bees1 it is only the labourers and the queen that have stings4 ,the apparatus is of a very curious construction1 fitted for inflicting a wound1 and at the same time conveying poison into that wound4 ,the apparatus consists of two piercers conducted in a sheath1 groove1 or director4 ,this groove is rather large at the base1 but terminates in a point2 it is affixed to the last scale of the upper side of the abdomen by thirteen thin scales1 six on each side1 and one behind the rectum4 ,these scales inclose the rectum all round1 and are attached to each other by thin membranes which allow of a variety of motions2 three of them are however attached more closely to a round and curved process1 which comes from the basis of the groove in which the sting lies1 as also to the curved arms of the sting which spread out externally4 ,the two stings may be said to begin by those two curved processes at their union with the scales1 and converging towards the groove at its base1 which they enter1 and then pass along to its point4 ,the two stings are serrated or notched towards the points2 they can be thrust out a little way1 and drawn within it4 ,these parts are all moved by very strong muscles1 which give motions in almost all directions1 but most particularly outwards4 ,it is wonderful how deep they will pierce solid bodies with this sting4 ,to perform this by mere force1 two things are necessary1 power of muscles1 and strength of sting2 neither of which they seem to possess in a sufficient degree4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,hunter thinks that it cannot be by simple force1 because the least pressure bends the sting in any direction4 ,it is probable that the serrated edges may assist1 by cutting their way like a saw4 ,the apparatus for the poison consists of two small ducts1 which are the glands that secrete the poison2 these lie in the abdomen among the air cells1 they soon however unite into one oblong bag2 at the opposite end of which a duct passes out1 which runs towards the angle where the two stings meet1 and1 entering between them1 forms a canal by the union of the two stings at this point4 ,from the serrated construction of the stings the bee can seldom disengage them1 and hence1 when they pass into materials of too strong a nature1 the bee generally leaves them behind1 and often a part of the bowels therewith4#fj #fj ,phil4 ,trans4 for #agib1 page #ahi4 ,,distinguishing ,,criteria ,,of ,,insects4 ,it has already been observed1 that the bodies of insects are covered with a hard skin1 answering the purpose of an internal skeleton1 and forming one of the characters by which they are distinguished from other animals4 ,this external covering is very strong in those insects which1 from their manner of life1 are particularly liable to great friction1 or violent compression2 but is more tender and delicate in such as are not so exposed4 ,the skin of insects1 like that of larger animals1 is porous2 the pores in some species are very large2 many insects often change or cast off their skin2 this exuvia forms an excellent object for the microscope4 ,another distinguishing criterion of insects is the colour of their circulating fluid or blood1 which is never red2 this1 at first sight1 seems liable to some objections1 on account of the drop of red liquor which is often procured from small insects when squeezed or pressed to pieces4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that this is the blood of the little animal2 when it existed as a worm there was no such appearance1 and when transformed to the perfect1 or fly state1 it is only found in the eye1 and not in the body1 which would be the case if it circulated in the veins of the insect4 ,it is probable there is a circulation of some fluid analogous to the blood in most insects3 with the assistance of the microscope this circulation may be perceived in many2 but the circulating liquor is not red4 ,to these discriminating characteristics we may also add the following particulars3 #a4 ,that the body of insects is divided by incisur1 or transversal divisions1 from whence they take their name4 #b4 ,that they are furnished with antenn1 which are placed upon the fore part of the head2 these are jointed and moveable in various directions4 #c4 ,that no insect in its perfect state1 or after it has gone through all its transformations1 has less than six legs1 though many have more4 ,there are some moths1 whose two fore feet are so small1 as scarcely to entitle them to that name4 #d4 ,that insects have neither the organs of smell nor hearing2 at least they have not as yet been discovered1 though it is reported that ,fabricius has lately found and described the organs of hearing in a lobster4#fa #fa ,that many insects are susceptible of a shrill or loud noise1 is a fact so well ascertained1 as to be indisputable2 but in what manner1 or by what organs the sensation is conveyed1 is not so evident2 ,barbut1 however1 supposes them to possess the sense of hearing in a very distinct manner4 ,many insects1 he observes1 are well known to be endued with the power of uttering sounds1 viz4 large beetles1 bees1 wasps1 common flies1 gnats1 c4 ,the sphinx atropos squeaks1 when hurt1 nearly as loud as a mouse3 this faculty certainly must be intended for some purpose1 and as they vary their cry occasionally1 it appears designed to give notice of pleasure or pain1 or some affection in the creature which possesses it4 8,the knowledge of their sounds10 says he1 8is undoubtedly confined to their tribe1 and is a language intelligible to them only2 saving when violence obliges the animal to exert the voice of nature in distress1 craving compassion2 then all animals understand the doleful cry2 for instance1 attack a bee or wasp near the hive or nest1 or a few of them2 the consequence will be1 the animal or animals1 by a different tone of voice will express his or their disapprobation or pain2 that sound is known to the hive to be plaintive1 and that their brother or brethren require their assistance1 and the offending party seldom escapes with impunity4 ,now1 if they had not the sense of hearing1 they could not have known the danger their brother or brethren were in1 by the alteration of their tone40 ,another proof1 which he reckons still more decisive1 was taken from his observation on a spider1 which had made a very large web on a wooden railing1 and was at the time in a cavity behind one of the rails1 at a considerable distance from the part where a fly had entangled himself2 the spider became immediately sensible of it1 though1 from the situation of the rail1 he could not possibly have seen the fly4 ,this observation1 however1 cannot be considered as conclusive1 as it is very probable that the spider was alarmed by the tremulous motion of the threads of the web occasioned by the fluttering of the fly1 which he might well know how to distinguish from their vibration by the wind4 ,it is this author's opinion1 that the organ of hearing is situated in the antenn2 he likewise supposes that the organs of smell reside in the palpi or feelers4 ,for his reasoning on these subjects1 see the ,genera ,insectorum1 ,preface1 p4 vii4 seq4 ,,edit4 #e4 ,that they do not respire air by the mouth1 but that they inspire and exhale it by means of organs which are placed on the body4 #f4 ,that they move the jaws from right to left1 not up and down4 #g4 ,that they have neither eye-lid nor pupil4 ,to these we may also add1 that the mechanism resulting from the ,,life of insects is not of so compound a nature as in animals of a larger size4 ,they have less variety of organs1 though some of them are more multiplied2 and it is by the number and situation of these that their rank in the great scale of beings is to be determined4 ,these characters are often united in the same insect2 there are1 however1 some species in which one or two of them are wanting4 ,the student in entomology1 who wishes to attain a proper knowledge of the science1 and indeed every microscopic observer1 desirous of availing himself of the discoveries of others1 and of communicating intelligibly his own1 will find it necessary to make himself conversant with the various classes1 genera1 c4 into which insects have been divided by ,linnus4 ,every system has its defects1 and probably some may be found in that of this truly celebrated naturalist1 but the purpose of science is answered by using those discriminations which are generally adopted4 ,the following general idea of the ,linnan classes may serve as a foundation for this knowledge3 a more particular account may be obtained by consulting the under-mentioned works4 ,institutions of ,entomology1 a translation of ,linnus's ,ordines et ,genera ,insectorum1 or systematic arrangement of insects1 c4 by ,thomas ,pattinson ,yeats4 ,fundamenta ,entomologi1 or an ,introduction to the ,knowledge of ,insects1 translated from ,linnus by ,w4 ,curtis1 the ingenious author of ,flora ,londinensis1 the ,botanical ,magazine1 c4 ,the ,genera ,insectorum of ,linnus1 exemplified by various ,specimens of ,english ,insects1 drawn from ,nature1 by ,james ,barbut4#fb #fb ,this work contains two excellent plates1 illustrative of the ,distinctions of the ,ordines and ,genera ,insectorum1 by their antenn1 tarsi of the feet1 c4 ,,edit4 ,class the first4 ,,coleoptera4 ,the insects of this class have four wings2 the upper ones1 called the elytra1 are crustaceous1 being of a hard horny substance2 these1 when shut1 form a longitudinal suture down the back1 as in the scarabus1 melolontha1 or cockchaffer1 c4 #b4 ,,hemiptera4 ,these have also four wings2 but the elytra are different1 being half crustaceous1 half membranaceous3 the wings do not form a longitudinal suture1 but extend the one over the other1 as in the gryllus1 grasshopper1 c4 #c4 ,,lepidoptera4 ,those which have four membranaceous wings covered with fine scales1 appearing to the naked eye like powder or meal1 as in the butterfly and moth4 #d4 ,,neuroptera4 ,these have four membranaceous transparent wings1 which are generally reticulated1 the tail without a sting1 as in the libellula1 or dragon fly4 #e4 ,,hymenoptera4 ,these1 like the preceding class1 have four membranaceous naked wings2 but the abdomen is furnished with a sting1 as in the bee1 wasp1 ichneumon1 c4 #f4 ,,diptera4 ,these have only two wings1 and are furnished with halteres1 or poisers1 instead of under wings1 as in the common house fly1 gnat1 c4 #g4 ,,aptera4 ,these are distinguished by having no wings1 as in the spider1 louse1 acarus1 c4 ,,of ,,the ,,transformation ,,of ,,insects4 ,insects are farther distinguished from other animals by the wonderful changes that all those of the winged species without exception1 and some which are destitute of wings1 must pass through1 before they arrive at the perfection of their nature4 ,most animals retain1 during their whole life1 the same form which they receive at their birth2 but insects go through wonderful exterior and interior changes1 insomuch that the same individual1 at its birth and middle state1 differs essentially from that under which it appears when arrived at a state of maturity2 and this difference is not confined to marks1 colour1 or texture1 but is extended to their form1 proportion1 motion1 organs1 and habits of life4 ,the ancient writers on natural history were not unacquainted with these transformations1 but the ideas they entertained of them were very imperfect and often erroneous4 ,the changes are produced in so sudden a manner1 that they seem like the metamorphoses recorded in the fables of the ancients1 and it is not improbable that those fables owe their origin to the transformation of insects4 ,it was not till towards the latter end of the last century that any just conception of this subject was formed2 the mystery was then unveiled by those two great anatomists ,malpighi and ,swammerdam1 who observed these insects under every appearance1 and traced them through all their forms2 by dissecting them at the time just preceding their changes1 they were enabled to prove that the moth and butterfly grow and strengthen themselves1 that their members are formed and unfolded under the figure of the insect we call a caterpillar1 and that the growth was effected by a developement of parts2 they also shewed that it is not difficult to exhibit in these all the parts of the future moth1 as its wings1 legs1 antenn1 c4 and consequently that the changes which are apparently sudden to our eyes1 are gradually formed under the skin of the animal1 and only appear sudden to us1 because the insect then gets rid of a case which had before concealed its real members4 ,by this case it is preserved from injuries1 till its wings1 and every other part of its delicate frame are in a condition to bear the impulse of the sun1 and the action of the air naked2 when all the parts are grown firm1 and ready to perform their several offices1 the perfect animal appears in the form of its parent4 ,though these discoveries dissipated the false wonders of the metamorphoses that the world before believed1 they created a fund of real admiration by the discovery of the truth4 ,these transformations clearly prove1 that without experience every thing in nature would appear a mystery2 so much so1 that a person unacquainted with the transformation of the caterpillar to the chrysalis1 and of this to the fly1 would consider them as three distinct species2 for who1 by the mere light of nature1 or the powers of reason unaided by experience1 could believe that a butterfly1 adorned with four beautiful wings1 furnished with a long spiral proboscis or tongue1 instead of a mouth1 and with six legs1 proceeded from a disgusting hairy caterpillar1 provided with jaws and teeth1 and fourteen feet8 ,without experience1 who could imagine that a long white smooth soft worm hid under the earth1 should be transformed into a black crustaceous beetle8 ,nor could any one1 from considering them in their perfect state1 have discovered the relation which they bear to the several changes of state1 and their corresponding forms1 through which they have passed1 and which are to appearance as distinct as difference can make them4 ,the life of those insects which pass through these various changes1 may be divided into four principal parts1 each of which will be found truly worthy of the utmost attention of the microscopic observer4 ,the first change is from the ,,egg into the ,,larva1 or1 as it is more generally called1 into the worm or caterpillar4 ,from the ,,larva1 it passes into the ,,pupa1 or chrysalis state4 ,from the ,,pupa1 into the ,,imago1 or fly state4 ,few subjects can be found that are more expressive of the extensive goodness of ,divine ,providence1 than these transformations1 in which we find the occasional and temporary parts and organs of these little animals suited and adapted with the most minute exactness to the immediate manner and convenience of their existence2 which again are shifted and changed1 upon the insects commencing a new scene and state of action4 ,in its larva state the insect appears groveling1 heavy1 and voracious1 in the form of a worm1 with a long body composed of successive rings2 crawling along by the assistance of these1 or small little hooks1 which are placed on the side of the body4 ,its head is armed with strong jaws1 its eyes smooth1 entirely deprived of sex1 the blood circulating from the hind part towards the head4 ,it breathes through small apertures1 which are situated on each side of the body1 or through one or more tubes placed in the hinder part thereof4 ,while it is in the larva state1 the insect is as it were masked1 and its true appearance concealed2 for under this mask the more perfect form is hidden from the human eye4 ,in the pupa1 or chrysalis state1 the insect may be compared to a child in swaddling cloathes2 its members are all folded together under the breast1 and inclosed within one or more coverings1 remaining there without motion4 ,while in this state1 no insects but those of the hemiptera class1 take any nourishment4 ,the change is effected various ways2 in some insects the skin of the larva opens1 and leaves a passage1 with all its integuments2 in others1 the skin hardens and becomes a species of cone1 which entirely conceals the insect2 others form or spin cones for themselves1 and in this state they remain till the parts have acquired sufficient firmness1 and are ready to perform their several offices4 ,the insect then casts off the spoils of its former state1 wakes from a death-like inactivity1 breaks as it were the inclosures of the tomb1 throws off the dusky shroud1 and appears in its imago or perfect form2 for it has now attained the state of organical perfection1 which answers to the rank it is to hold in the corporeal world3 the structure of the body1 the alimentary organs1 and those of motion1 are materially changed4 ,it is now furnished with wings magnificently adorned1 soars above and despises its former pursuits1 wafts the soft air1 chooses its mate1 and transmits its nature to a succeeding race4 ,those members1 which in the preceding state were wrapped up1 soft1 and motionless1 now display themselves1 grow strong1 and are put in exercise4 ,the interior changes are as considerable as those of the exterior form1 and that in proportion as the first state differs from the last2 some organs acquire greater strength and firmness1 others are rendered more delicate2 some are suppressed1 and some unfolded1 which did not seem to exist in the former stages of its life4 ,,of ,,the ,,larva ,,state ,,of ,,insects4 ,as the larv or caterpillars of the moth and butterfly#fc form the most numerous family among the tribe of insects1 ,i shall first describe them1 and their various changes from this state to their last and perfect form1 and then proceed to those insects which differ most from the caterpillar in one or all of their various changes4 #fc ,butterflies are distinguished from moths by the time of their flying abroad1 and by their antenn2 the butterflies appear by day1 their antenn are generally terminated by a little knob2 the moths fly mostly in the evening1 and their antenn are either setaceous or pectinated4 ,the greater part of those insects which come forth in spring or summer1 perish or disappear at the approach of winter2 there are very few1 the period of whose life exceeds that of a year2 some survive the rigours of winter1 being concealed and buried under ground2 many are hid in the bark of trees1 and others in the chinks of old walls2 some1 like the caterpillar of the brown-tailed moth1#fd at the approach of winter not only secure and strengthen the web in which the society inhabit1 and thus protect themselves from impertinent intruders1 but each individual also spins a case for itself1 where it rests in torpid security1 notwithstanding the inclemency of the season1 till the spring animates it afresh1 and informs it1 that the all-bountiful ,author of nature has provided food convenient for it4 ,many that are hatched in the autumn retire and live under the earth during the winter months1 but in the spring come out1 feed1 and proceed onward to their several changes2 while no small part pass the colder months in their chrysalis or pupa state3 but the greater number of the caterpillar race remain in the egg1 being carefully deposited by the parent fly in those places where they will be hatched with the greatest safety and success2 in this state the latent principle of life is preserved till the genial influences of the spring call it into action1 and bring forth the young insect to share the banquet that nature has provided4 #fd ,this moth was uncommonly numerous and destructive near ,london in the year #aghb1 and1 aided by the predictions of an empirical imposter1 occasioned a considerable alarm in the minds of the ignorant and superstitious4 ,the judicious publication of a short history of the insect1 by ,mr4 ,curtis1 in some measure contributed to dissipate their fears4 ,,edit4 ,all caterpillars are hatched from the egg1 and when they first proceed from it are generally small and feeble1 but grow in strength as they increase in size4 ,the body is divided into twelve rings2 the head is connected with the first1 and is hard and crustaceous4 ,no caterpillar of the moth or butterfly has less than eight1 or more than sixteen feet2 the six first are crustaceous1 pointed1 and fixed to the three first rings of the body2 these feet are the covering to the six future feet of the moth2 the other six feet are soft and flexible or membranaceous2 they vary both in figure and number1 and are proper only to the larva state2 with respect to their external figure1 they are either smooth or hairy1 soft to the touch1 or hard like shagreen1 beautifully adorned with a great variety of the most lively teints2 on each side of the body nine little oval holes are placed1 which are generally considered as the organs of respiration4 ,there are on each side of the head of the caterpillar five or six little black spots1 which are supposed to be its eyes4 ,these creatures vary in size1 from half an inch long to four and five inches4 ,the caterpillar1 whose life is one continued succession of changes1 often moults its skin before it attains its full growth2 not one of them arrives at perfection1 without having cast its skin at least once or twice4 ,these changes are the more remarkable1 because when the caterpillar moults1 it is not simply the skin that is changed2 for we find in the exuvia1 the skull1 the jaws1 and all the exterior parts1 both scaly and membranaceous1 which compose its upper and under lip1 its antenn1 palpi1 and even those crustaceous pieces within the head1 which serve as a fixed basis to a number of muscles2 we further find in the exuvia1 the spiracula1 the claws1 and sheaths of the anterior limbs1 and in general all that is visible of the caterpillar4 ,the new organs were under the old ones as in a sheath1 so that the caterpillar effects the changes by withdrawing itself from the old skin1 when it finds itself lodged in too narrow a compass4 ,but to produce this change1 to push off the old covering1 and bring forward the new1 is a work of labour and time4 ,those caterpillars who live in society1 and have a kind of nest or habitation1 retire there to change their skins1 fixing the hooks of the feet1 during the operation1 firmly in the web of their nest4 ,some of the solitary species spin at this time a slender web1 to which they affix themselves4 ,a day or two before the critical moment approaches1 the insect ceases to eat1 and loses its usual activity2 in proportion as the time of change advances1 the colour of the caterpillar becomes more feeble1 the skin hardens and withers1 and is soon incapable of receiving those juices by which it was heretofore nourished and supported4 ,the insect may now be seen1 at distant intervals1 to elevate its back1 and stretch itself to its utmost extent2 sometimes to lift up the head1 move it a little from side to side1 and then let it fall again2 near the change1 the second and third rings are seen to swell considerably2 by these internal efforts the old parts are stretched and distended as much as possible1 an operation which is attended with great difficulty1 as the new parts are all weak and tender4 ,however1 by repeated exertions1 all the vessels which conveyed the nourishment to the exterior skin are disengaged1 and cease to act1 and a slit is made on the back1 generally beginning at the second or third ring2 the new skin may now be just perceived1 being distinguished by the freshness and brightness of its colour2 the caterpillar then presses the body like a wedge into this slit1 by which means it is soon opened from the first down to the fourth ring2 this renders it large enough to afford the insect a passage1 which it soon effects in a very curious manner4 ,the caterpillar generally fasts a whole day after each moulting1 for it is necessary that the parts should acquire a certain degree of consistency1 before it can live and act in its usual manner2 many also perish under the operation4 ,the body having grown under the old skin1 till the insect was become too large for it1 it always appears much larger after it has quitted the exuvia3 now as the growth was gradual1 and the parts soft1 the skin pressed them together1 so that they lay in a small space2 but as soon as the skin is cast off1 they are as it were liberated from their bonds1 and distend themselves considerably4 ,some caterpillars1 in changing their skin1 from smooth1 become covered with fine hair2 while others1 that were covered with this fine hair1 have the last skin smooth4#fe ,the silk-worm1 previous to its chrysalis or pupa state1 casts its skin four times2 the first is cast on the tenth1 eleventh1 or twelfth day1 according to the nature of the season2 the second1 in five or six days after2 the third in five or six days more1 and the fourth and last in six or seven days after the third4 #fe ,valmont de ,bomare ,dictionnaire ,universel d',histoire ,naturelle1 vol4 ii4 #b;d edit4 #abmo4 p4 #cid4 ,before we describe the change of the larva into the pupa state1 it will be necessary to give the reader an account of those names by which entomologists distinguish the different appearances of the insect in its pupa state4 ,it is called ,coarctata1 when it is straitened or confined to a case of a globular form1 without the smallest resemblance to the structure of the insect it contains1 as in the diptera4 ,it is called ,obtecta1 disguised or shrouded1 when the insect is inveloped in a crustaceous covering1 consisting of two parts1 one of which surrounds the head and thorax1 the other the abdomen4 ,it is termed ,incompleta1 when the pupa has perceptible wings and feet1 but cannot move them1 as in most of the hymenoptera4 ,semicompleta2 these can walk or run1 but have only the rudiments of wings4 ,the difference between the pupa and the larva of this class is very inconsiderable1 as they eat1 walk1 and act1 just as they did in their primitive state2 the only remarkable difference is a kind of case which contains the wings that are to be developed in their fly state4 ,completa2 those designed by this name take their perfect form at their birth1 and do not pass1 like other insects1 through a variety of states1 though they often change their skin4 ,it is a general rule1 that all winged insects pass through the larva and pupa state1 before they assume their perfect form3 there are also insects which have no wings1 and yet undergo similar transformations1 as the bed bug1 the flea1 c4 ,other insects1 which have no wings1 and which always remain without them1 never pass through the pupa state1 but are subject to considerable changes1 as well with respect to the number1 as the figure of their parts2 thus mites have four pair of feet1 and two smaller ones at the fore part of the body1 near the head2 yet some of these are born with only three pair of feet1 the fourth is not perceived till some time after their birth4#ff ,the figure of the monoculus quadricornis of ,linnus 7,fauna ,suecica1 edit4 ,stockholm1 #agfa1 ,no4 #bjdi7 changes considerably after its birth4#fg ,the julus is an insect with a great number of feet1 some species having an hundred pair and upwards4 ,m4 ,de ,geer has given a description of one with more than two-hundred pair1#fh and yet these at their birth have only three pair1 the rest are not perceived till some time after4 #ff ,de ,geer ,memoires pour servir a l',histoire des ,insectes1 tom4 #a4 p4 #aed4 #fg ,ibid4 #fh ,memoires des ,scavans etrangers1 tom4 #c1 p4 #fa4 ,,of ,,the ,,change ,,from ,,the ,,larva ,,to ,,the ,,pupa ,,state4 ,i shall now return to the caterpillar1 and take notice of the care and provision it makes to pass from the larva state into that of the pupa or chrysalis2 which is1 in general1 a state of imperfection1 inactivity1 and weakness1 through which the insect1 when it has obtained a proper size1 must pass2 and in which it remains often for months1 sometimes for a whole year1 exposed1 without any means of escaping1 to every event2 and in which it receives the necessary preparations for its perfect state1 and is enabled once more to appear upon the transitory scene of time4 ,during its passage from one state to the other1 as well as when it is in the pupa form1 the microscopical observer will find many opportunities of exercising his instrument4 ,the transitions of the caterpillar from one state to another1 are to it a subject of the most interesting nature2 for in passing through them1 it often runs the risk of losing its life1 that precious boon of heaven1 which is ever accompanied with a degree of delight1 proportioned to the state in which the creature exists1 and the use it makes of the gift it has received4 ,if the caterpillar could therefore foresee the efforts and exertions it must make to put off its present form1 and the state of weakness and impotence under which it must exist while in the pupa state1 it would undoubtedly choose the most convenient place1 and the most advantageous situation1 for the performance of this arduous operation2 one where it would be the least exposed to danger1 at a time when it had neither strength to resist1 nor swiftness to avoid the attack of an enemy4 ,all these necessary instructions the caterpillar receives from the influence of an all-regulating ,providence1 which conveys the proper information to it by its own sensations3 hence1 when the critical period approaches1 it proceeds as if it knew what would be the result of its operations4 ,different species prepare themselves for the change different ways1 suited to their nature and the length of time they are to remain in this state4 ,when the caterpillar has attained to its full growth1 and the parts of the future butterfly are sufficiently formed beneath its skin1 it prepares for its change into the pupa state2 it seeks for a proper place in which to perform the important business3 the different methods employed by these little animals to secure this state of rest1 may be reduced to four3 #a4 ,some spin webs or cones1 in which they inclose themselves4 #b4 ,others conceal themselves in little cells1 which they form under ground4 #c4 ,some suspend themselves by their posterior extremity2 #d4 ,while others are suspended by a girdle that goes round their body4 ,i shall describe the variety in these1 as well as the industry used in constructing them1 after we have gone through the manner in which the caterpillar prepares itself for1 and passes through the pupa state4 ,preparatory to the change1 it ceases to take any food1 empties itself of all the excrementitious matter that is contained in the intestines1 voiding at the same time the membrane which served as a lining to these and the stomach4 ,the intestinal canal is composed of two principal tubes1 the one inserted into the other2 the external tube is compact and fleshy1 the internal one is thin and transparent2 it is the inner tube1 which lines the stomach and intestines1 that is voided with the excrement before the change4 ,it generally perseveres in a state of rest and inactivity for several days1 which affords the external and internal organs that are under the skin an opportunity of gradually unfolding themselves4 ,in proportion as the change into the pupa form approaches1 the body is observed often to extend and contract itself2 the hinder part is that which is first disengaged from the caterpillar skin2 when this part of the body is free1 the animal contracts and draws it up towards the head2 it then liberates itself in the same manner from the two succeeding rings1 consequently the insect is now lodged in the fore part of its caterpillar covering2 the half which is abandoned remains flaccid and empty1 while the fore part is swoln and distended4 ,the animal1 by strong efforts1 still forcing itself against the fore part of the skin1 bursts the skull into three pieces1 and forms a longitudinal opening in the three first rings of the body2 through this it proceeds1 drawing one part after the other1 by alternately lengthening and shortening1 swelling and contracting the body and different rings2 or else1 by pushing back the exuvia1 gets rid of its odious reptile form4 ,the caterpillar1 thus stripped from its skin1 is what we call the pupa1 chrysalis1 or aurelia1 in which the parts of the future moth are inclosed in a crustaceous covering1 but are so soft1 that the slightest touch will discompose them4 ,the exterior part of the chrysalis is at first exceedingly tender1 soft1 and partly transparent1 being covered with a viscous fluid2 this soon dries up1 thickens1 and forms a new covering for the animal1 capable of resisting external injuries2 a case1 which is at the same time the sepulchre of the caterpillar1 and the cradle of the moth2 where1 as under a veil1 this wonderful transformation is carried on4 ,the pupa has been called a chrysalis1 or creature made of gold1 from the resplendent yellow colour with which some kinds are adorned4 ,reaumur has shewn us whence they derive this rich colour2 that it proceeds from two skins1 the upper one a beautiful brown1 which lies upon or covers a highly polished and smooth white skin3 the light reflected from the last1 in passing through1 gives it the golden yellow1 in the same manner as this colour is often given to leather2 so that the whole appears gilt1 although no gold enters into the tincture4 ,the chrysalis of the common white butterfly furnishes a most beautiful object for the lucernal opake microscope4 ,those who are desirous to discover distinctly the various members of the moth in the pupa1 should examine it before the fore-mentioned fluid is dried up1 when it will be found to be only the moth with the members glued together2 these1 by degrees1 acquire sufficient force to break their covering1 and disengage themselves from the bands which confine them4 ,while in this state1 all the parts of the moth may be traced out1 though so folded and laid together1 that it cannot make any use of them2 nor is it expedient that it should1 as they are too soft and tender to be used1 and pass through this state merely to be hardened and strengthened4 ,to examine the moth concealed under the skin of a caterpillar1 one of them should be taken at the last change2 when the skin begins to open1 it should be drowned in spirit of wine1 or some strong liquor1 and be left therein for some days1 that it may take more consistency and harden itself2 the skin of the caterpillar may then be easily removed3 the chrysalis1 or feeble moth1 will be first discovered1 after which the tender moth may be traced out1 and its wings1 legs1 antenn1 c4 may be opened and displayed by an accurate observer4 ,the parts of the moth or butterfly are not disposed exactly in the same manner in the body of the caterpillar1 as when left naked in the chrysalis4 ,the wings are longer and narrower1 being wound up into the form of a cord1 and the antenn are rolled up on the head2 the tongue is also twisted up and laid upon the head1 but in a very different manner from what it is in the perfect animal1 and different from that which it lies in within the chrysalis2 so that it is by a progressive and gradual change1 that the interior parts are prepared for the pupa and moth state4 ,the eggs1 hereafter to be deposited by the moth1 are also to be found1 not only in the chrysalis1 but in the caterpillar itself1 arranged in their natural and regular order4 ,while in this state1 the creature generally remains immoveable1 and seems to have no other business but patiently to attend the time of its change1 which depends on the parts becoming hard and firm1 and the transpiration of that humidity which keeps them soft2 the powers of life are as it were absorbed in a deep sleep2 the organs of sensation seem obliterated1 being imprisoned by coverings more or less strong1 the greater part remains fixed in those situations which the caterpillar had selected for them till their final metamorphosis2 some1 however1 are capable of changing place1 but their movements are slow and painful4 ,the time1 therefore1 which the moth or butterfly remains in the pupa state is not always the same1 varying in different species1 and depending also upon the warmth of the weather1 and other adventitious circumstances2 some remain in that situation for a few weeks2 others do not attain their perfect form for eight1 nine1 or eleven months3 this often depends on the season in which they assume the pupa form1 or rather on the time of their birth4 ,some irregularities are also occasioned by the different temperature of the air1 by which they are retarded or accelerated1 so as to be brought forward in the season best suited to their nature and the ends of their existence4 ,i have heard of an instance1 where the pupa1 produced from caterpillars of the same eggs1 nourished in the same manner1 and which all spun up within a few days of each other in the autumn1 came into the fly state at three different and distant periods2 viz4 one-third of them the spring following their change1 one-third more the succeeding spring1 and the remainder the spring after1 making three years from their first hatching2 a further and manifest proof of the beauty and wisdom of the laws of ,divine order1 which are continually operating for the best interests of all created beings4 ,as the transformation of insects is retarded by cold1 and accelerated by heat1 the ordinary period of these changes may sometimes be altered1 by placing them in different degrees of heat or cold2 by these they may be awakened sooner to a new state of existence1 or kept in one of profound sleep4#fi #fi ,reaumur ,memoires sur les ,insectes1 tom4 #b1 mem4 #a4 ,there are some caterpillars which remain in their cone eight or nine months before they acquire the complete pupa state2 so that their duration in that form is much shorter than it naturally appears to be4 ,,of ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,caterpillar ,,for ,,the ,,metamorphoses4 ,the industry of the caterpillar1 in securing itself for its change into the chrysalis1 must not be passed by2 not only because it naturally leads the reader to consider and admire that divine agency1 by which the insect is informed1 but because the different modes it makes use of cannot be properly investigated1 without the assistance of glasses1 it therefore consequently becomes a proper subject for the microscope2 we shall select from a great variety1 a few instances1 to animate the reader in these researches4 ,some caterpillars1 towards the time of their change1 suspend themselves from the branch of a tree1 with the head downwards2 in this position they assume the pupa form1 and from thence immerge a butterfly or moth4 ,in order to secure itself in this position1 the insect covers with threads that part of the branch from which it means to suspend itself2 it places these in different directions1 and then covers them with other threads1 laying on several successive thicknesses1 each new layer being smaller in size than that which preceded it2 forming1 when finished1 a little cone or hillock of silk1 as will be found when examined by the microscope4 ,the caterpillar hooks itself by the hinder feet to this hillock1 and when it has found by several trials that it is strongly fixed thereto1 throws itself forward1 letting the body fall with the head downwards4 ,soon after it is thus suspended1 it bends the fore part of the body1 keeping this bent posture for some time1 then straitening the body1 again in a little time bending it1 and so on1 repeating this operation till it has formed a slit in the skin upon the back2 part of the pupa soon forces itself through this1 and extends the slit as far as the last crustaceous feet2 the pupa then forces upwards the skin1 as we would push down a stocking1 by means of its little hooks and the motion of the body1 till it has slipped it off to that part from which the caterpillar had suspended itself4 ,but the pupa has still to disengage itself from this small packet1 to which the exuvia is now reduced3 here the observer will find himself interested for the little animal1 anxious to learn how the pupa will quit this skin1 and how it will be enabled to fix itself to the hillock1 as it has neither arms nor legs4 ,a little attention soon explains the operation1 and extricates the observer from his embarrassment4 ,it seizes the exuvia by the rings of the body1 and thus holds itself as it were by a pair of pincers2 then1 by bending the tail1 it frees itself from the old skin1 and by the same method soon suspends itself to the silken mount2 it lengthens out the hinder part of the body1 and clasps1 by means of its rings1 the various foldings of the exuvia1 one after another2 thus creeping backward on the spoils1 till it can reach the hillock with the tail2 which1 when examined by the microscope1 will be found to be furnished with hooks to fix itself by4 ,it is surprizing to see with what exactness and ease these insects perform an operation so delicate and dangerous1 which is only executed once in their lives2 and nought else can account for it1 but the consideration that ,,he1 who designed that the caterpillar should pass through these changes1 had provided means for that end1 regularly connecting the greater steps by intermediate ones1 the desire of extending their species forming and acting upon the organization1 till the purposes of their life are completed4 ,different kinds of these insects require variety in the mode of suspension2 some fix themselves in an horizontal position1 by a girdle which they tie round their body2 this girdle appears to the naked eye as a single thread2 when examined with the microscope1 it will be found to be an assemblage of fine threads1 lying close to each other1 so fixed as to support the caterpillar1 and yet leave it in full freedom to effect the changes4 ,like the preceding kind1 it fixes the girdle to the branch of a tree2 in this situation it remains for some time motionless1 and then begins to bend1 move1 and agitate its body in a very singular manner1 till it has opened the exterior covering1 which it pushes off and removes much in the same manner as we have described in the preceding article1 and yet with such dexterity1 that the pupa remains suspended by the same girdle4 ,,of ,,the ,,imago ,,or ,,fly ,,state ,,of ,,insects4 ,as soon as the moth acquires sufficient strength to break the bonds which surround it1 and of which it is informed by its internal sensations1 it makes a powerful effort to escape from its prison1 and view the world with new-formed eyes4 ,the moth frees itself from the pupa with much greater ease than the pupa from the caterpillar2 for the case of the pupa becomes so dry1 when the moth is near the time of throwing off its covering1 that it will break to pieces if it be only gently pressed between the fingers2 and very few of the parts will be found1 on examination1 to adhere to the body4 ,hence1 when the insect has acquired a proper degree of solidity1 it does not require any great exertion to split the membrane which covers it4 ,a small degree of motion1 or a little inflation of the body1 is sufficient for this purpose2 these motions reiterated a few times1 enlarge the hole1 and afford the moth room to escape from its confinement4 ,the opening through which they pass is always at the same part of the skin1 a little above the trunk1 between the wings1 and a small piece which covers the head2 the different fissures are generally made in the same direction4 ,if the outer case be opened1 it is easy to discover the efforts the insect makes to emancipate itself from its shell2 when the operation begins1 there seems to be a violent agitation in the humours contained in the little animal2 the fluids seem to be driven with rapidity through all the vessels1 and it is seen to agitate its legs1 c4 as it were struggling to get free2 these efforts soon break its brittle skin4 ,the loosening the exterior bands of the pupa is not the only difficulty many moths have to encounter with2 it has often also to pierce the cone or case in which it has been inclosed1 and that at a time when its members are very feeble1 when it is no longer furnished with strong jaws to pierce and cut its way through2 but by the regular laws of divine order1 means are furnished to every creature of attaining the end for which it was produced3 thus1 in the present case1 some of these insects are provided with a liquor with which they soften and weaken the end of the cone2 some leave one end feeble1 and close it only with a few threads1 so that a slight effort of the head enables the moth to burst the prison doors1 and immerge into day4 ,when the moth first sees the day1 it is humid and moist2 but this humidity soon evaporates1 the interior parts dry and harden as well as the exterior2 the wings1 which are wrinkled1 being thick and small1 then extend themselves1 strengthen and harden insensibly1 and the fibres which were at first flexible1 become hard and stiff2 so much so1 that ,malpighi considered them as bones3 in proportion as these fibres harden1 the fluid which circulates within them1 and extends the wings1 loses its force2 so that if any extraneous circumstance prevent the motion of this fluid1 at the first instant of the moth's escape from its former state1 the wings will then become ill-shaped2 often expanding with such rapidity1 that the naked eye cannot trace their unfolding4 ,the wings1 which were scarce half the length of the body1 acquire in a few minutes their full size1 so as to be nearly five times as large as they were before3 nor is it the wings only which are thus increased2 all their spots and colours1 heretofore so minute as to be scarce discernible1 are proportionably extended1 so that what before appeared as only so many unmeaning and confused points1 become distinct and beautiful ornaments2 and those that are furnished with a tongue or trunk1 curl and coil it up4 ,when the wings are unfolded1 the tongue rolled up1 the moth sufficiently dried1 and the different members strengthened1 it takes its flight4 ,most of them1 soon after they have attained their perfect state1 void an excrementitious substance2 ,reaumur thinks that they eject very little1 if any1 during the rest of their lives4 ,in the progress of these insects1 such changes take place1 as we could have formed no conception of1 if the great ,author of these wonders had not been pleased to reward the industrious naturalist with the discovery4 ,if the moth be opened down the belly1 and the unctuous parts which fill it1 be removed1 the gross artery1 which has been called the heart1 will be visible1 and the contractions and dilatations1 by which it pushes forward the liquor it contains1 may be easily observed4 ,one of the most remarkable circumstances is1 that the circulation of this fluid in the moth is directly contrary to that which took place in the caterpillar2 in this1 the liquor moved from the tail to the head1 whereas in the moth1 it moves from the head to the tail2 so that the fluid which answers the purposes of the blood in the moth1 goes from the superior1 towards the inferior parts1 but in the voracious sensual caterpillar1 the order is inverted1 it proceeds from the inferior towards the superior parts2 all its members1 formerly soft1 inactive1 and folded up under an envelope1 are expanded1 strengthened1 and exposed to observation4 ,the food of the caterpillar is gross and solid1 and even this it is obliged to earn with much labour and danger2 but1 when freed as it were from the jaws of death1 and arrived at its perfect form1 the purest nectar is its potion1 and the air its element4 ,it was supplied with coarse food1 in the first state1 by the painful operation of its teeth1 which was afterwards digested by a violent trituration of the stomach4 ,the intestines are now formed in a more delicate manner1 and suited to a more pure and elegant aliment1 which nature has prepared for its use from the most fragrant and beautiful flowers4 ,many internal parts of the caterpillar disappear in the chrysalis1 and many that could not be perceived before1 are now rendered visible3 the interior changes are not less surprizing than those of the exterior form1 and are1 properly speaking1 creative of them2 for it is from these the exterior form originates1 and with these it always corresponds4 ,in a word1 the creature that heretofore crept upon the earth1 now flies freely through the air2 and far from creating our aversion by its frightful prickles and foul appearance1 it attracts our notice by the most elegant shape and apparel1 and1 from being scarce able to move from one shrub to another1 acquires strength and agility to tower far above the tallest inhabitant of the forest4 ,,of ,,the ,,silk-,,worm4 ,the industry of those that spin cones or cases1 in which they inclose themselves1 in order to prepare for their transformation in security1 is more generally known1 as it is from one species of these that we derive so many benefits1 namely from the silk-worm1 whose works afford an ornament for greatness1 and add magnificence to royalty4 ,all caterpillars undergo similar changes with it1 and many in the butterfly state greatly exceed it in beauty3 but the golden tissue1 in which the silk-worm wraps itself1 far surpasses the silky threads of all the other kinds2 they may indeed come forth with a variety of colours1 and wings bedecked with gold and scarlet1 yet they are but the beings of a summer's day2 both their life and beauty quickly vanish1 and leave no remembrance after them2 but the silk-worm leaves behind it such beneficial monuments1 as at once record the wisdom of its ,creator1 and his bounty to man4#gj #gj ,pullein on the ,culture of ,silk4 ,the substance of which the silk is formed1 is a fine yellow transparent gum1 contained in two reservoirs that wind about the intestines1 and which1 when they are unfolded1 are about ten inches long2 they terminate in two exceeding small orifices near the mouth1 through which the silk is drawn1 or spun to the degree of fineness which its occasions may require4 ,this apparatus has been compared to the instrument used by wire-drawers1 and by which gold and silver is drawn to any degree of minuteness4 ,from each of these reservoirs proceeds a thread1 which are united afterwards2 so that if it be examined by the microscope1 it will be found to consist of two cylinders or threads glued together1 with a groove in the middle2 a separation may sometimes be perceived4 ,when the silk-worm has found a convenient situation1 it sets to work1 first spinning some random threads1 which serve to support the future superstructure2 upon these it forms an oval of a loose texture1 consisting of what is called the floss-silk2 within this it forms a firm and more consistent ball of silk1 remaining during the whole business within the circumference of the spheroid that it is forming1 resting on its hinder parts1 and with its mouth and fore legs directing and fastening the threads4 ,these threads are not directed in a regular circular form1 but are spun in different spots1 in an infinite number of zig-zag lines2 so that when it is wound off1 it proceeds in a very irregular manner1 sometimes from one side of the cone1 then from the other4 ,this thread1 when measured1 has been found to be about three-hundred yards long1 and so fine1 that eight or ten are generally rolled off into one by the manufacturers4 ,the silk-worm usually employs about three days in finishing this cone2 the inside is generally smeared with a kind of gum1 that is designed to keep out the rain3 in this cone it assumes the pupa form1 and remains therein from fifteen to thirty days1 according to the warmth of the climate4 ,when the moth is formed1 it moistens the end of this cone1 and by frequent motions of the head loosens the texture of the silk1 so as to form a hole without breaking it4 ,when the silk-worm has acquired its perfect growth1 the reservoirs of silk are full1 and it is pressed by its sensations to get rid of this incumbrance1 and accordingly spins a cone1 the altitude and size of which are proportioned to its wants3 by traversing backwards and forwards1 it is relieved1 and attains by an innate desire the end for which it was formed2 and thus a caterpillar1 whose form is rather disgusting to the human unphilosophic eye1 becomes a considerable object of manufacture and trade1 a source of wealth1 and1 from the extensive employment it affords1 a blessing to thousands4 ,the size of the cone is not always proportioned to that of the caterpillar2 some that are small construct larger cones than others which exceed them in bulk4 ,there is a caterpillar which forms its silken cone in the shape of a boat turned bottom upwards1 whence it is called by ,reaumur the 8coque en batteau20 the construction is complicated1 and seems to require more art than is usually attributed to this insect4 ,it consists of two principal parts1 shaped like shells1 which are united with considerable skill and propriety2 each shell or side is framed by itself1 and formed of an innumerable quantity of minute silk rings2 in the fore part there is a projection1 in which a small crevice may be perceived1 which serves1 when opened1 for the escape of the moth2 the sides are connected with so much art1 that they open and shut as if framed with springs2 so that the cone1 from which the butterfly has escaped1 appears as close as that which is still inhabited4 ,those caterpillars which are not furnished with a silky cone1 supply that want with various materials1 which they possess sufficient skill to form into a proper habitation1 to secure them while preparing for the perfect state2 some construct theirs with leaves and branches1 tying them fast together1 and then strengthening the connection2 others connect these leaves with great regularity2 many strip themselves of their hairs1 and form a mixture of hair and silk2 others construct a cone of sand1 or earth1 cementing the particles with a kind of glue2 some gnaw the wood into a kind of saw-dust1 and glue it together2 with an innumerable variety of modes suited to their present and future state4 ,,of ,,the ,,beetle4 ,to make the reader more fully acquainted with a subject which affords such abundant matter for the exercise of his microscope1 ,i shall proceed to describe1 in as concise a manner as ,i am able1 the changes of a few insects of different classes1 beginning with the beetle4 ,the beetle is of the first or coleopterous class1 having four wings4 ,the two upper ones are crustaceous1 and form a case to the lower ones2 when they are shut1 there is a longitudinal suture down the back3 this formation of the wings is necessary1 as the beetle often lives under the surface of the earth1 in holes which it digs by its own industry and strength4 ,these cases save the real wings from the damage which they might otherwise sustain1 by rubbing or crushing against the sides of its abode2 they serve also to keep the wings clean1 and produce a buzzing noise when the animal rises in the air4 ,the strength of this insect is astonishing2 it has been estimated that1 bulk for bulk1 their muscles are a thousand times stronger than those of a man6 ,the beetle is only an insect disengaged from the pupa form2 the pupa is a transformation in like manner from the worm or larva1 and this proceeds from the egg2 so that here1 as in the foregoing instances1 one insect is exhibited in four different states of life1 after passing through three of which1 and the various inconveniences attendant on them1 it is advanced to a more perfect state4 ,when a larva1 it trains a miserable existence under the earth2 in the pupa form it is deprived of motion1 and as it were dead2 but the beetle itself lives at pleasure above and under ground1 and also in the air1 enjoying a higher degree of life1 which it has attained by slow progression1 after passing through difficulties1 affliction1 and death4 ,if we judge of the rank which the beetle holds in the scale of animation1 from the places where they are generally found1 from the food which nourishes them1 from the disgusting and odious forms of many1 from their antipathy to light1 and their delight in darkness1 we shall not form great ideas of the dignity of their situation4 ,but as all things are rendered subservient to the laws of divine order1 it is sufficient for us to contemplate the wonders that are displayed in this and every other organ of life1 for the reception of which1 from the ,,fountain ,,and ,,source ,,of ,,all ,,life1 each individual is adapted1 and that in a manner corresponding to the state of existence it is to enjoy1 and the energies it is called forth to represent4 ,the egg of the rhinoceros beetle#ga is of an oblong round figure1 of a white colour2 the shell thin1 tender1 and flexible2 the teeth of the worm that is within the shell come to perfection before the other parts2 so that as soon as it is hatched1 it is capable of devouring1 and nourishing itself with the wood among which it is placed4 ,the larva or worm is curiously folded in the egg1 the tail resting between the teeth1 which are disposed on each side the belly2 the worm in proper time breaks the shell1 in the same manner as a chicken1 and crawls from thence to the next substance suitable for its food4 ,the worm1 when it is hatched1 is very white1 has six legs1 and a wrinkled naked body1 but the other parts are all covered with hair2 the head is then also bigger than the whole body1 a circumstance which may be observed in larger animals1 and which is founded on wise reasons4#gb ,if the egg be observed from time to time while the insect is within it1 the beating of the heart may be perceived4 #ga ,scarabus ,acteon1 ,lin4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #eda-c4 #gb ,swammerdam's ,book of ,nature1 pt4 #a1 p4 #cc4 ,the eggs of the earth-worm1 the snail1 and the beetle1 will afford many subjects for the microscope1 and will be found to deserve a very attentive examination4 ,swammerdam was accustomed to hatch them in a dish1 covered with white paper1 which he always kept in a moist state4 ,to preserve these and similar eggs1 they must be pierced with a fine needle2 the contained liquors must be pressed out1 after which they should be blown up by means of a small glass tube1 and then filled with a little resin dissolved in oil of spike4 ,the worm of the rhinoceros beetle1 like other insects in the larva state1 changes its skin2 in order to effect which1 it discharges all its excrement1 and forms a convenient hole in the earth1 in which it may perform the wonderful operation2 for it does not1 like the serpent1 cast off merely an external covering1 but the throat1 a part of the stomach1 and the inward surface of the great gut1 change at the same time their skin3 as if it were to increase the wonder1 and to call forth our attention to these representative changes1 some hundreds of pulmonary pipes cast also each its delicate skin1 a transparent membrane is taken from the eyes1 and the skull remains fixed to the exuvia4 ,after the operation1 the head and teeth are white and tender1 though at other times as hard as bone2 so that the larva1 when provoked1 will attempt to gnaw iron4 ,for an accurate anatomical description of this worm1 ,i must refer the reader to ,swammerdam2 he will find it1 like the rest of this author's works1 well worthy of his attentive perusal4 ,to dissect it1 he first killed it in spirit of wine1 or suffocated it in rain water rather more than lukewarm1 not taking it out from thence for some hours4 ,this preparation prevents an improper contraction of the muscular fibres4 ,when the time approaches for the worm to assume the pupa form1 it generally penetrates deeper into the ground1#gc or those places where it inhabits1 to find a situation that it can more easily suit to its subsequent process4 ,having found a proper place1 it forms with the hinder feet a polished cavity1 in this it lies for sometime immoveable2 after which1 by voiding excrementitious substances1 and by the evaporation of humidity1 it becomes thinner and shorter1 the skin more furrowed and wrinkled1 so that it soon appears as if it were starved by degrees4 ,if it be dissected about this period1 the head1 the belly1 and the thorax may be clearly distinguished4 ,while some external and internal parts are changing by a slow accretion1 others are gently distended by the force of the blood and impelled humours4 ,the body contracting itself1 while the blood is propelled towards the head1 forces the skull open in three parts1 and the skin in the middle of the back is separated1 by means of an undulating motion of the incisions of the back2 at the same time the eyes1 the horns1 the lips1 c4 cast their exuvia4 ,during this operation1 a thin watery humour is diffused between the old and new skin1 which renders the separation easier4 ,the process going on gradually1 the worm is at last disengaged from its skin1 and the limbs and parts are1 by a continual unfolding1 transformed into the pupa state2 after which1 it twists and compresses the exuvia by the fundament1 and throws it towards the hinder part under the belly4 ,the pupa is at this time very delicate1 tender1 and flexible2 and affords a most astonishing appearance to an attentive observer4 ,swammerdam thinks it is scarce to be equalled among the wonders which are displayed in the insect part of the creation2 in it the future parts of the beetle are finely exhibited1 so disposed and formed1 as soon to be able to serve the creature in a more perfect state of life1 and to put on a more elegant form4 #gc ,the larv of those beetles which live under ground are in general heavy1 idle1 and voracious2 on the contrary1 the larv which inhabit the waters are exceedingly active4 ,the pupa#gd of this insect weighs1 a little after its change1 much heavier than it does in its beetle state2 this is also the case with the pupa of the bee and hornet4 ,the latter has been found to weigh ten times as much as the hornet itself2 this is probably occasioned by a superabundant degree of moisture1 by which these insects are kept in a state of inactivity1 which may be compared to a kind of preternatural dropsy1 till it is in some measure dissipated2 in proportion as this moisture is evaporated1 the skin hardens and dries3 some days are required to exhale this superfluous moisture4 ,if the skin be taken off at this time1 many curious circumstances may be noted2 but what claims our attention most is1 that the horn1 which is so hard in the male beetle when in a state of maturity1 that it will bear to be sharpened against a grindstone1#ge in the pupa state is quite soft1 and more like a fluid than a solid substance4 ,how long the scene of mutation continues is not known2 some remain during the whole winter1 more particularly those which quit the larva state in autumn1 when a sudden cold checks their further operations1 and consequently they remain in a torpid state1 without any food1 for several months4 ,some species of the beetle tribe go through all the stages of their existence in a season1 while others employ near four years in the process1 and live as winged insects a year4 #gd ,swammerdam's ,book of ,nature1 p4 #add4 #ge ,mouffet1 p4 #aeb4 ,when the proper time for the final change arrives1 all the muscular parts grow strong1 and are thus more able to shake off their last integuments1 which is performed exactly in the same manner as in the passage of the insect from the larva to the pupa state2 so that in this last skin1 which is extremely delicate1 the traces of the pulmonary tubes1 that have been pulled off and turned out1 again become visible4 ,all parts of the insect1 and more particularly the wings and their cases1 are at this period swelled and extended by the air and fluids which are driven into them through the arteries and pulmonary tubes2 the wings are now soft as wet paper1 and the blood issues from them on the least wound2 but when they have acquired their proper consistency1 which in the elytra is very considerable1 they do not exhibit the least sign of any fluid within them1 though cut or torn almost asunder4 ,the pupa being disengaged from its skin1 assumes a different form1 in which it is dignified with the name of a beetle1 and acquires a distinction of sex1 being either male or female4 ,the insect now begins to enjoy a life far preferable to its former state of existence2 from living in dirt and filth1 under briars and thorns1 it raises itself towards the skies1 plays in the sun-beam1 rejoices in its existence1 and is nourished with the oozing liquors of flowers4 ,,of ,,the ,,musca ,,cham,,leon4 ,i shall now proceed to illustrate the nature of the different transformations in insects1 by giving an account of the musca chamleon4 ,in the worm or larva condition it lives in the water1 breathes by the tail1 and carries its legs within a little snout near its mouth4 ,when the time arrives for its pupa state1 it goes through the change without casting off the skin of the larva4 ,lastly1 in the imago1 or fly state1 it would infallibly perish in the water1 that element which had hitherto supplied it with life and motion1 was not the larva by nature instructed where to choose a suitable situation for its approaching transformation4 ,this insect is characterized by ,linnus as 8,musca chamleon4 ,habitat larva in aquis dulcibus2 musca supra aquam obambulare solet40 ,in a former edition of the ,fauna ,suecica he called it oestrus aqu2 but on a more minute examination1 he found it was a musca2 besides1 the larv of all known oestri are nourished in the bodies of animals4 ,the larva of this insect appears to consist of twelve annular divisions1 see ,plate ,,xi4 ,fig4 #a4 by these it is separated into a head1 thorax1 and abdomen2 but as the stomach and intestines lie equally in the thorax and abdomen1 it is not easy to distinguish their limits until the insect approaches the pupa state4 ,the parts most worthy of notice are the tail and snout4 ,the tail is furnished with an elegant crown or circle of hair b1 disposed quite round it in an annular form2 by means of this the tail is supported on the surface of the water1 while the worm or larva is moving therein1 the body in the mean while hanging towards the bottom2 it will sometimes remain in this situation for a considerable time1 without the least sensible motion4 ,when it is disposed to sink to the bottom by means of its tail1 it generally bends the hairs of that part towards each other in the middle1 but much closer towards the extremity2 by these means a hollow space is formed1 and the bladder of air pent up in it looks like a pearl1 ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,,xi4 ,it is by the assistance of this bubble1 or little balloon1 that the insect raises itself again to the surface of the water4 ,if this bubble escape1 it can replace it from the pulmonary tubes2 sometimes large quantities of air may be seen to arise in bubbles from the tail of the worm to the surface of the water1 and there mix with the incumbent atmosphere4 ,this operation may be easily seen by placing the worm in a glass full of water1 where it will afford a very entertaining spectacle4 ,the snout is divided into three parts1 of which that in the middle is immoveable2 the two other parts grow from the sides of the former2 these are moveable1 vibrating in a very singular manner1 like the tongues of lizards and serpents4 ,the greatest strength of the creature is fixed in these lateral parts of the snout2 it is on these that it walks when it is out of the water1 appearing1 as it were to walk on its mouth1 using it to assist motion1 as a parrot does its beak to climb1 with greater advantage4 ,we shall now consider the external figure of this worm1 as it appears with the microscope4 ,it is small toward the head1 larger about those parts which may be considered as the thorax2 it then again diminishes1 converging at the abdomen1 and terminates in a sharp tail1 surrounded with hairs in the form of the rays of a star4 ,this worm1 the head and tail included1 has twelve annular divisions1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xi4 ,its skin resembles the covering of those animals that are provided with a crustaceous habit1 more than it does that of naked worms or caterpillars2 it is moderately hard1 and like the rough skin called shagreen1 being thick set with a number of grains1 evenly distributed4 ,the substance of the skin is firm and hard1 and yet very flexible4 ,on each side of the body are nine spiracula or holes1 for the purpose of respiration2 there are no such holes visible on the tail ring a1 nor on the third ring counting from the head2 for at the extremity of the tail there is an opening for the admission and expulsion of air2 in the third ring the spiracula are very small1 and appear only under the skin1 near the place where the embryo wings of the future fly are concealed4 ,it is remarkable that caterpillars1 in general1 have two rings without these spiracula2 perhaps1 because they change into flies with four wings1 whereas this worm produces a fly that has only two4 ,the skin has three different shades of colour2 it is adorned with oblong black furrows1 with spots of a light colour1 and orbicular rings1 from which there generally springs a hair1 as in the figure before us1 only the hair that grows on the insect's side is represented2 besides this1 there are here and there some other larger hairs1 c c4 ,the difference of colour in this worm arises from the quantity of grains in the same space2 for in proportion as there is a greater or lesser quantity of these1 the furrows and rings are of a deeper or paler colour4 ,the head d is divided into three parts1 and covered with a skin1 the grains on which are hardly discernible4 ,the eyes are rather protuberant1 and lie forwards near the snout4 ,it has also two small horns i i1 on the fore part of the head4 ,the snout is crooked1 and ends in a sharp point as at f2 but what is altogether singular and surprizing1 though no doubt wisely contrived by the great and almighty ,architect1 is1 that this insect's legs are placed near the snout1 between the sinuses1 in which the eyes are fixed4 ,each of these legs consists of three joints1 the outermost of which is covered with hard and stiff hairs like bristles4 ,from the next joint there springs a horny bone h h1 which the insect uses as a kind of thumb2 the joint is also of a black substance1 between bone and horn in hardness2 the third joint is of the same nature4 ,to distinguish these particulars1 the parts that form the upper sides of the mouth and the eyes must be separated by means of a small fine knife2 you may then1 by the assistance of the microscope1 perceive that the leg is articulated1 by means of some particular ligaments1 with that portion of the insect's mouth which answers to the lower jaw in the human frame4 ,we may then also discern the muscles which serve to move the legs1 and draw them up into a cavity that lies between the snout and those parts of the mouth which are near the horns i i4 ,this insect not only walks with these legs at the bottom of the water1 but even moves itself on land by means of them2 it likewise makes use of them to swim1 while it keeps its tail on the surface contiguous to the air1 and hangs downward with the rest of the body in the water3 in this situation no motion is perceived in it1 but what arises from its legs1 which it moves in a most elegant manner4 ,it is reasonable to conclude from what has been said1 that the principal part of the creature's strength lies in these legs2 nor will it be difficult for those who are acquainted with the nature of the ancient hieroglyphics1 which are now opening so clearly1 to fix the rank of this insect in animated life1 and point out those orders of being1 and the moral state through which it receives its form and habits of life4 ,the snout is black and hard1 the back part is quite solid1 and somewhat of a globular form1 whereas the front f1 is sharp and hollow2 on the back part three membranaceous divisions may be observed1 by means of which1 and the muscles contained in the snout1 the insect can at pleasure expand or contract it4 ,the tail is constructed and planned with great skill and wisdom4 ,the extreme verge or border1 is surrounded by thirty hairs1 and the sides adorned with others that are smaller2 here and there the large hairs branch out into smaller ones1 which may be reckoned as single hairs4 ,these hairs are all rooted in the outer skin1 which in this place is covered with rough grains1 as may be seen by cutting it off1 and holding it up1 when dry1 against the light1 upon a thin plate of glass4 ,by the same mode you will find1 that at the extremities of the hairs there are also grains like those of the skin2 in the middle of the tail there is a small opening1 within it are minute holes1 by which the insect inhales and expels the air it breathes4 ,the hairs are very seldom disposed in so regular a manner as they are represented in ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xi4 except when the insect floats with the body in the water1 and the tail with its hairs a little lower than the surface1 for they are then displayed exactly as delineated in the plate4 ,the least motion downward of the tail produces a concavity in the water1 and it then assumes the figure of a wine-glass1 wide at the top1 narrow at the bottom4 ,the tail serves the larva both for the purposes of swimming and breathing1 and it receives through the tail that which is the universal principle of life and motion in animals4 ,by means of the hairs it can stop itself at pleasure when swimming1 or remain suspended quietly in the water for any length of time4 ,the motion of the insect in swimming is very beautiful1 especially when it advances with its whole body floating on the surface of the water2 after filling itself with air by the tail4 ,to set out1 it first bends the body to the right or left1 and then contracts it in the form of the letter ,s1 and again stretches it out in a strait line3 by thus alternately contracting and then extending the body1 it moves along on the surface of the water4 ,it is of a very quiet disposition1 and not to be disturbed by handling4 ,these larv are generally to be found in shallow standing waters1 about the beginning of ,june1 sooner or later1 as the summer is more or less favourable2 in some seasons they are to be found in great numbers1 while in others1 it is no easy matter to meet with them4 ,they love to crawl on the plants and grass which grow in the water1 and are often to be met with in ditches1 floating on the surface of the water by means of their tail1 the head and thorax at the same time hanging down2 and in this situation they will turn over the clay and dirt with their snout and feet in search of food1 which is generally a viscous matter that is common in small ponds and about the sides of ditches4 ,this worm is very harmless1 contrary to the opinion one might form at first sight1 from the surprizing vibratory motion of the legs1 which resembles the brandishing of an envenomed tongue or sting4 ,they are most easily killed for dissection in spirit of turpentine4 ,after a certain period they pass into the pupa form2 when they are about to change1 they betake themselves to the herbs that float on the surface of the water1 and creep gently thereon1 till at length they lie partly on the dry surface1 and partly on the water2 when in the larva or pupa state1 they can live in water1 but can by no means inhabit there when changed into flies3 indeed1 man also1 whilst in the uterus1 lives in water1 which he cannot do afterwards4 ,when these worms have found a proper situation1 they by degrees contract themselves1 and in a manner scarce perceptible lose all power of motion4 ,the inward parts of the worm's tail now separate from the outmost skin1 and become greatly contracted2 this probably gives the insect considerable pain3 by this contraction1 an empty space is left in the exterior skin1 into which the air soon penetrates4 ,thus this insect passes into the pupa state under its own skin1 entirely different from that of the caterpillar1 which casts off the exterior skin at this time2 this change may often be observed to take place in the space of ten or twelve hours1 but in what manner it is performed we are ignorant1 as it is effected in a hidden unknown way1 inwardly within the skin1 which conceals it from our view4 ,whilst the larva is changing under the skin1 the body1 head1 and tail1 separate insensibly from their outward vesture4 ,the legs at this time1 and their cartilaginous bones1 are1 on account of the parts which are withdrawn from them1 left empty2 the worm loses also now the former skull1 the beak1 together with the horny bones belonging thereto1 which remain in the skin of the exuvia4 ,it is worthy of notice1 that the optic nerves separate also from the eyes1 and no more perform their office4 ,the muscles of the rings in like manner1 and a great part of the pulmonary points of respiration1 are separated from the external skin4 ,thus the whole body contracts itself by degrees into a small compact mass4 ,at this time the gullet and the pulmonary tubes cast a coat within the skin4 ,to make this evident1 it is necessary to open the abdomen1 when the pupa1 its parts1 together with the cast off pulmonary pipes1 may be clearly seen4 ,an exact account of all the changes of the interior parts is to be found in ,swammerdam's ,book of ,nature4 ,these changes are best examined by taking the pupa out of the skin1 or outside case1 when it begins to harden2 for as it has not then quite attained the pupa form1 and the members are somewhat different from what they will be when in that state1 it is more easy to observe their respective situation1 than when the pupa is some days older1 and has lost the greatest part of the superfluous humours4 ,the pupa is inclosed in a double garment2 the interior one is a thin membrane1 which invests it very closely2 the other1 or exterior one1 is formed of the outermost hard skin of the larva1 within which it performs its changes in an invisible manner3 it is this skin which gives it the appearance of the larva while in the pupa state4 ,when the time approaches that the hidden insect1 now in the pupa form within its old covering1 is to attain the imago1 fly1 or perfect state1 which generally happens in about eleven days after the preceding change1 the superfluous humours are evaporated by insensible perspiration4 ,the little pupa is contracted into the fifth ring of the skin1 and the four last rings of the abdomen are filled with air1 through the aperture in the respiratory orifice of the tail4 ,this may be seen by exposing the pupa for a short space to the rays of the sun1 and then putting its tail in water1 when you will find it breathe stronger than it did before1 and1 by expressing an air bubble out of its tail1 and then sucking it in again1 will manifestly perform the action of inspiration and expiration4 ,the anterior part of the pupa is drawn back from the skin1 and having partly deserted it1 with the beak1 head1 and first ring of the breast1 the little creature lies still1 until its exhaling members have acquired strength to burst the two membranes which surround it4 ,if the exterior case be opened near this period1 a wonderful variety of colour may be perceived through the thin skin which invests the pupa4 ,the colours of many of the different parts are now changed2 some parts from aqueous become membranaceous1 some fleshy1 and others crustaceous4 ,the whole body becomes insensibly shaggy1 the feet and claws begin to move3 the variations may be accurately observed by opening a pupa every day until the time of change4 ,for this purpose they should be laid on white paper in an earthen dish2 they should also be made somewhat moist1 and be kept under a glass3 the paper serves the pupa to fix its claw to1 when they come forth in the form of a fly4 ,a little water should be poured into the dish1 to keep the pupa from drying and suffocation4 ,when the fly begins to appear1 the exterior skin is seen to move about the third and fourth anterior ring2 the insect then uses all its efforts to promote its escape1 and to quit the interior and exterior skin at one and the same time4 ,the exterior skin is divided into four parts2 the insect immediately afterwards breaks open its inner coat1 and casting it off1 escapes from the prison in which it was entombed1 in the form of a beautiful fly4 ,it is to be observed here1 that there is nothing accidental in the breaking of the outermost skin1 being perfectly conformable to the rule ordained1 always happening in the same manner in all these changes3 the skin also is1 in those places where it is broke open1 so constructed by the ,author of nature1 as if joined together by sutures4 ,having now acquired its perfect state1 the little creature which lived before in water and mud1 enters into a new scene of life1 visits the fields and meadows1 is transported through the air on its elegant wings1 and sports in the wide expanse with unrestrained jollity and freedom4 ,the larva a queue de rat1#gf musca pendula1 ,lin4 is also transformed under the skin1 which hardens1 and forms a case or general covering to the pupa3 two horns are pushed out1 while it is in this state1 from the interior parts2 they serve the purpose of respiration3 this larva will be more particularly described in a subsequent part of this chapter4 #gf ,reaum4 #hvo4 edit4 tom4 #d1 pt4 #b1 #aa mem4 p4 #aii1 plate #cj and #ca4 ,according to ,reaumur1 the insects in this class1 that is1 those that pass into the pupa state under the skin of the larva1 go through a change more than the caterpillar1 a transformation taking place while under their skin1 before they assume the pupa form4 ,the aquatic larva of the musca chamleon retains its form to the last2 but there are many insects that are transformed under their skin1 which forms a cone or case for the pupa4 ,in these the larva loses first its length2 the body becoming shorter1 assumes the figure of an egg2 and the skin forms a hard and crustaceous case or solid lodging for the embryo insect4 ,,of ,,the ,,libellula ,,or ,,dragon ,,fly4 ,in the libellula we have an instance of those insects which are termed in the pupa state1 semicompleta1 that is1 such as proceed from the egg in the figure which they preserve till the time arrives for assuming their wings2 and who walk1 act1 and eat as well before that period as afterwards4 ,of all the flies which adorn or diversify the face of nature1 there are few1 if any1 more beautiful than the libellul3 they are almost of all colours1 green1 blue1 crimson1 scarlet1 and white2 some unite a variety of the most vivid teints1 and exhibit in one animal more different shades than are to be found in the rainbow4 ,it is not to colour alone that their beauty is confined1 it is heightened by the brilliancy of their eyes1 and the delicate texture and wide expansion of their wings4 ,the larva of the libellula is an inhabitant of the water1 the fly itself is generally found hovering on the borders thereof4 ,these insects are produced from an egg1 which is deposited in the water by the parent2 the egg sinks to the bottom1 and remains there till the young insect finds strength to break the shell4 ,the larva is hexapode1 and is not quite so long as the fly2 on the trunk are four prominences or little bunches1 which become more apparent1 in proportion as the larva increases in size and changes its skin4 ,these bunches contain the rudiments of the wings1 which adorn the insect when in its perfect state4 ,the head of the larva is exceedingly singular1 the whole fore part of it being covered with a mask1 which fits it more exactly than the common mask does the human face1 having proper cavities within to suit the different prominences of the face2 it is of a triangular form1 growing smaller towards the bottom2 at this part there is a knuckle which fits a cavity near the neck1 on this it turns as on a pivot4 ,the upper part of this mask is divided into two pieces or shutters1 which the insect can open or close at pleasure2 it can also let down the whole mask whenever it pleases4 ,the edges of the shutters are jagged like a saw4 ,it makes use of the mask to seize and hold its prey4 ,there is a considerable difference in the shape of these masks in different species of the libellula1 some having two claws near the top of it1 which they can thrust out or draw in1 as most convenient2 these render it a very formidable instrument to the insects on which they feed4 ,these animals generally live and feed at the bottom of the water1 swimming only occasionally3 their manner of swimming1 or rather moving in the water1 is curious1 being by sudden jerks given at intervals2 but this motion is not occasioned by their legs1 which at this time are kept immoveable and close to the body2 it is by forcing out a stream of water from the tail that the body is carried forward2 this may be easily perceived1 by placing them in a flat vessel1 in which there is only just water enough to cover the bottom4 ,here the action of the water squirted from their tail will be very visible2 it will occasion a small current1 and give a sensible motion to any light bodies that are lying on the surface thereof4 ,this action can only be effected at intervals1 because after each expulsion the insect is obliged to inhale a fresh supply of water4 ,the larva will sometimes turn its tail above the surface of the water1 and eject a small stream from it as from a little fountain1 and that with considerable force4 ,the pupa differs but very little from the larva1 the bunches containing the wings grow large1 and begin to appear like four short thick wings4 ,it is full as lively as the larva1 seeking and enjoying its food in the same manner3 when it is arrived at its full growth1 and is nearly ready to go through its last change1 it approaches the edge of the water1 or comes entirely out of it1 fixing itself firmly to some piece of wood or other substance1 by its acute claws4 ,it remains for some time immoveable2 the skin then opens down the back1 and on the head2 through this opening is exhibited the real head and eyes1 and at length the legs2 it then creeps gradually forward1 drawing its wings1 and then the body out of the skin4 ,the wings1 which are moist and folded1 now expand themselves to their real size2 the body is also extended till it has gained its proper dimensions1 which extension is accomplished by the propelling force of the circulating fluids4 ,when the wings and limbs are dry1 it enters on a more noble state of life3 in this new scene it enjoys itself to the fullest extent1 feasts on the living fragrance issuing from innumerable openings1 sports and revels in delight1 and1 having laid the foundation for its future progeny1 sinks into an easy dissolution4 ,the dragon fly is of a ferocious and warlike disposition1 hovering in the air like a bird of prey1 in order to feed on and destroy every species of fly2 its appetite is gross and voracious1 not confining itself to small flies only1 but the large flesh-fly1 moths1 and butterflies1 are equally subjected to its tyranny4 ,it frequents marshy grounds1 where insects mostly abound4 ,the female of the ,,cynips or ,,gall ,,insect1 which has no wings1 passes through no transformation2 while the male1 which has four wings1 passes through the pupa state before it becomes a fly4 ,the only change1 though a considerable one1 which takes place in the female gall insect1 is this1 that after a certain time it fixes itself to the branch of a tree1 without being able to detach itself2 it afterwards increases much in size1 and becomes like a true gall2 the female1 by remaining thus fixed for the greater part of her life1 to the place where she was first seen1 has very little the appearance of an animal2 it is in this period of their life that they grow most and produce their young1 while they appear a portion of the branch they adhere to2 and what is more singular1 the larger they grow1 the less they appear like animals1 and whilst they are employed in laying thousands of eggs1 seem to be nothing but mere galls4 ,the genera of gall insects are very extensive2 they are to be found on almost every shrub and tree4 ,the ,,aphides or ,,plant ,,lice1 to arrive at their respective state1 pass through that of the semicomplete pupa1 and their wings do not appear till they have quitted their pupa state2 but as in all the families of the pucerons there are many which never become winged1 we must not forget to observe1 that these undergo no transformation1 remaining always the same1 without changing their figure1 though they increase in size and change their skin4 ,it is remarkable1 that amongst insects of the same kind1 some individuals should be transformed1 while others are not at all changed4 ,these insects will be considered more fully in another part of this chapter4 ,reaumur#gg has shewn that the ,,spider ,,fly1 hyppobosca equina1 ,lin4 lays so large an egg1 that the fly which proceeds from it is as big as the mother1 though the egg does not increase the least in size from the time it is first laid4 ,the insect proceeds also from the egg in the imago or fly state2 it is probably transformed in the egg1 for ,reaumur has found it in the pupa state therein1 and having boiled some of their eggs which had been laid for some days1 he found the insect in the form of an oval ball1 similar to that in which the pupa of flies with two wings are generally found4 ,de ,geer is of opinion that the egg itself is a true larva1 which1 when it is born1 has only to disengage its limbs1 c4 from the shell which covers it2 and he thinks this the more probable1 because there is no embryo seen in this egg1 but it is entirely filled with the insect2 he has also perceived a contracting and dilating motion in the egg1 while it was in the belly of the mother1 and immediately after it was laid2 circumstances which do not agree with a simple egg4 #gg ,reaumur1 tom4 #f1 mem4 #ad4 ,as ,m4 ,bonnet#gh has attempted to give a theory of these various changes1 the following extract from it will1 ,i hope1 prove agreeable to the reader2 it will at least tend to render his ideas of this wonderful subject clearer1 and will probably open to his mind many new sources of contemplation4 #gh ,bonnet ,considerations sur les ,corps organises4 ,contemplation of ,nature1 c4 ,an insect that must cast off its exuvia1 or moult five times before it attains the pupa state1 may be considered as composed of five organized bodies1 inclosed within each other1 and nourished by common viscera1 placed in the center3 what the bud of the tree is to the invisible buds it contains1 such is the exterior part of the caterpillar to the interior bodies it conceals in its bosom4 ,four of these bodies have the same essential structure1 namely1 that which is peculiar to the insect in its larva or caterpillar state3 the fifth body is that of the pupa4 ,the respective state of these bodies is in proportion to their distance from the center of the animal2 those that are farthest off have most consistence1 or unfold themselves soonest4 ,when the exterior body has attained its full growth1 that interior one which is next in order is considerably unfolded2 it is then lodged in too narrow a compass1 therefore it stretches on all sides the sheath which covers it2 the vessels which nourish the external covering1 are broken by this violent distension1 and ceasing to act1 the skin wrinkles and dries up2 at length it opens1 and the insect is cloathed with a new skin1 and new organs4 ,the insect generally fasts for a day or two preceding each change2 this is probably occasioned by the violent state in which it then is1 or it may be necessary to prevent obstructions1 c4 let this be as it may1 the insect is always very weak after it has changed its skin1 the parts being as yet affected by the exertions they have gone through4 ,the scaly parts1 as the head and legs1 are almost entirely membranaceous1 and imbrued with a fluid that insinuates itself between the two skins1 and thus facilitates their separation2 this moisture evaporates by degrees1 all the parts acquire a consistence1 and the insect is then in a condition to act4 ,the first use that some caterpillars which live on leaves make of their new form1 is to devour greedily their exuvia3 sometimes they do not wait till their jaws have acquired their full strength2 some have been seen to gnaw the shell from which they proceeded1 and even the eggs of such caterpillars as have not been hatched4 ,when we have once formed the idea that all the exterior parts are inlaid1 or included one within the other1 the production of new organs does not appear so embarrassing1 being nothing more than a simple developement2 but it is more difficult to form any conception of the changes that happen in the viscera before and after the transformation1 the various modifications they undergo eluding our researches4 ,we have already observed1 that a little before the change the caterpillar rejects the membrane that lines the intestinal bag3 this bowel has hitherto digested only gross food1 whereas it must hereafter digest that which is very delicate3 a fluid that circulates in the caterpillar from the hind part towards the head1 circulates a contrary way after transformation4 ,now if this inversion is as real as observation seems to indicate1 how amazing the change the interior parts of the animal must have undergone8 ,when the caterpillar moults1 small clusters of the tracheal vessels are cast off with the exuvia1 and new ones are substituted in their room2 but how is this effected1 and how are the lungs replaced by other lungs8 ,the more we endeavour to investigate this subject1 the more we find it is enveloped in darkness4 ,whilst the powers of life are employed conformable to the laws of ,divine ,providence1 to change the viscera1 and give them a new form1 they are also unfolding divers other organs1 which were useless to the insect while in the larva state1 but which are necessary to that which succeeds4 ,that these interior operations of life may be carried on with greater energy1 the animal is thrown into a kind of sleep2 during this period1 the corpus crassum is distributed into all the parts1 in order to bring them to perfection1 while the evaporation of the superfluous humours makes way for the elements of the fibres to approach each other1 and unite more closely4 ,the little wounds in the inside1 which have been occasioned by the rupture of the vessels1 are gradually consolidated2 those parts which had been violently exercised1 recover their tone1 and the circulating fluids insensibly find their new channel4 ,lastly1 many vessels are effaced1 and turned into a liquid sediment1 which is rejected by the perfect insect4 ,when these various changes are considered1 we are surprized at the singularity of the means the ,,author ,,of ,,nature has made choice of1 in order to bring the different species of animals to perfection2 and are apt to ask1 why the caterpillar was not born a moth8 why it passes through the larva and pupa state8 why all insects that are transformed do not undergo the same change8 ,these1 and a variety of questions that may be started concerning the constituent substances of those existences which appear before us1 derive their solution from the general system which is unknown to us4 ,if all were to arrive at perfection at once1 the chain would be broken1 the creature unhappy1 and man most of all4 ,let us also consider what riches we should have been deprived of1 if the silk-worm had been born in its perfect state4 ,amongst insects1 some are produced in the state in which they will remain during their whole lives2 others come forth inclosed in an egg1 and are hatched from this into a form that admits of no variation2 many come into the world under a form which differs but little from that which they have when arrived at an age of maturity2 some again assume various forms1 more or less remote from that which constitutes their perfect state2 lastly1 some go through part of these transformations in the body of the parent1 and are born of an equal size with them4 ,by these various changes1 a single individual unites within itself two or three different species1 and becomes successively the inhabitant of two or three worlds3 and how great is the diversity of its operation in these various abodes6 ,since it has been shewn that the larva or caterpillar is really the moth1 crawling1 eating1 and spinning1 under the form of the worm1 and that the pupa is only the moth swathed up1 it is clear that they are not three beings1 but that the same individual feels1 tastes1 sees1 and acts by different organs1 at different periods of its life1 having sensations and wants at one time1 which it has not at another2 these always bearing a relation to the organs which excite them4 ,,of ,,the ,,respiration ,,of ,,insects4 ,as respiration is one of the most important actions in the life of every animal1 great pains have been taken by many naturalists to investigate the nature of this action in insects2 to prove its existence1 and explain in what manner it is carried on4 ,malpighi1 ,swammerdam1 ,reaumur1 and ,lyonet have discovered in the caterpillar two air-vessels placed the whole length of the insect1 these they have called the trache2 they have also shewn that an infinite number of ramifications proceed from these1 and are dispersed through the whole body2 that the tracheal vessels communicate with particular openings on the skin of the caterpillar1 termed spiracula2 there are nine of these on each side of the body4 ,these vessels seem calculated for the reception of air2 they contain no fluids1 are of a cartilaginous nature1 and when cut preserve their figure1 and exhibit a well-terminated opening4 ,notwithstanding this discovery1 respiration has not been proved to exist in many species of insects1 and the mechanism thereof is very obscure in all2 nor is the absence of it more surprising in the caterpillar or embryo state of insects1 than in that of other animals1 where we find that respiration is by no means necessary to existence previous to their birth1 though indispensably so afterwards4 ,reaumur thought that the air entered by the spiracula into the trachea1 but was not expelled by the same orifice1 and consequently that the respiration of insects was carried on in a manner totally different from that of other animals2 that the air was expired through a number of small holes or pores which are to be found in the skin of the caterpillar1 after having been conducted to them through the extremities of the finer ramifications of the tracheal vessels2 whereas ,bonnet1 in consequence of a great variety of experiments1 supposed that the inspiration and expiration of the air was through the spiracula1 and that there was no expiration of air through the pores of the skin4 ,these experiments were made either by plunging the caterpillars into water1 or anointing them with fat and greasy substances1 some all over1 others only partially4 ,the number of small bubbles which are observed to cover the surface of their bodies1 when they are immerged in water1 does not arise from the air which is included within1 and then proceeding from them1 but they are formed by the air which is lodged near the surface of their bodies1 in the same manner that it is about all other substances4 ,to render the experiments more accurate1 and prevent the air from adhering to the skin1 before he plunged the caterpillars in water he always brushed them over with an hair pencil2 after this1 very few air bubbles were found on their bodies when immerged in water4 ,caterpillars will remain a considerable time under water1 without destroying the principle of life2 and they also recover1 in general1 soon after they are taken out4 ,to know whether a few only of the spiracula might not be sufficient for the purposes of respiration1 he plunged some partially in water1 so that only two or more spiracula remained in the open air3 in these cases the caterpillar did not become torpid as it did when they were all immerged in water4 ,one caterpillar1 upon which ,bonnet made his experiments1 lived eight days suspended in water1 with only two of its anterior spiracula in the air2 during this time he observed1 that when the insect moved itself1 little streams of bubbles issued from the anterior spiracula on the left side2 from this1 and many other experiments1 it appeared to him1 that amongst all the eighteen spiracula1 the two anterior and the two posterior are of the greatest use in respiration4#gi ,sometimes when the apertures of these have been stopped with oil1 the caterpillar has fallen into convulsions4 ,if the posterior part had been oiled1 that part became paralytic4 ,notwithstanding these experiments1 and many more which have been made1 the subject is far from being decided1 and many still doubt whether there is any respiration in insects similar to ours1 at least at certain periods of their life4 ,this opinion seems to be further confirmed by the experiments of ,m4 ,lyonet4 ,he confined several large musk beetles under a glass for more than half an hour1 exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur2 and1 though during their continuance there the vapour was so thick that he could not see them1 yet on their being liberated1 they did not seem at all effected thereby4#hj #gi ,philos4 ,trans4 vol4 xlv4 p4 #cjj4 #hj ,lesser ,theologie des ,insectes1 tom4 #a1 p4 #abd4 ,ibid4 p4 #abf4 ,supposing respiration to be absolutely necessary to the existence of the pup of different insects1 when we reflect on the great solidity of their cases or cones1 it is not easy to conceive how they can live several months under the earth1 in spaces so confined1 and almost impervious to the air3 and indeed if they did respire1 the same situation seems to preclude a continuance of the operation1 as the air would soon be corrupted1 and unfit for the offices of life4 ,as the trache are divided and subdivided to a prodigious degree of minuteness1 it has been conjectured by some writers1 that they may act as so many sieves1 which1 by separations properly contrived1 filtrate the air1 and so furnish it to the body of different degrees of purity and subtilty1 agreeable to the purposes and nature of the various parts4 ,the experiments that have been made with the air-pump are by no means conclusive2 the injury which the insect sustains when the atmospheric pressure is taken from the body1 does not prove that it inspired and expired the air that we have removed2 it only shews that an incumbent pressure is necessary to their comfortable existence1 as it prevents the fluids from disengaging themselves in an aerial form1 and as it counterbalances and re-acts on the principle of life1 and1 by keeping the action thereof in proper tone and order1 confines and regulates its energies4 ,though it is difficult to ascertain whether some insects respire1 at least at certain periods of their existence1 yet there are others to whom the inspiration and expiration of air seems absolutely necessary3 there are many aquatic insects which are obliged to keep their tails suspended on the surface of the water for this purpose4 ,to prove this1 keep the tail under water1 and you will perceive the insect to be agitated and uneasy1 and to seek for some opening to expose this part to the air2 if it find none1 it soon goes to the bottom and dies4 ,some aquatic beetles resist the trial for a considerable time1 while their larv can only support it for a few minutes4 ,there is a circumstance which renders all experiments on this subject with insects doubtful and difficult1 namely1 the vast tenaciousness of the life principle in the lower orders of animated nature1 and its dissemination through their whole frame4 ,musschenbroeck inclosed the pupa of a moth in a glass tube1 very little larger than the moth itself1 and of the following figure4 ,illustration ,the end ,a of the tube was drawn out in a capillary form1 the other end was covered with a piece of wet bladder to exclude the air2 the capillary end ,b was then plunged in water1 which rose to ,d4 ,he placed the capillary part of the tube before a microscope1 on a small micrometer1 in order to observe any motion or change in the situation of the water2 as it is evident the expiration or inspiration of air by the insect would make it rise or fall alternately4 ,in the first experiment he observed a small degree of motion at distant intervals1 not above two or three times in an hour2 in a second experiment on another subject1 he could observe no motion at all4 ,he then placed some pup under the receiver of an air-pump1 in water which he had previously purged of its air2 on exhausting the air from the receiver1 he observed one bubble to arise in a part near the tail1 and a few near the wings4 ,the pup did not swell under the operation2 on the contrary1 on letting in the air1 it was found to be diminished in a small degree1 but in less than a quarter of an hour it recovered its former figure4 ,m4 ,martinet published at ,leyden1 in #agec1 a dissertation1 in which1 it is said1 he has clearly proved by a number of experiments that the pup of caterpillars and some other insects do not respire4 ,,of ,,respiration ,,in ,,the ,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,musca ,,pendula4 ,among the insects in which respiration seems to be most clearly proved1 are the larv of the musca pendula1 ,lin4 ,these1 while in the worm state1 live under water in the mud1 to which they affix themselves2 the respiration of fresh air in this situation is necessary to their existence2 for this purpose they are furnished with a tail1 which often appears of an excessive length comparatively with the body1 as this is seldom more than three quarters of an inch in length1 while the tail is frequently more than four inches2 it is composed of two tubes1 which run one into the other1 something similar to the tubes of a refracting telescope4 ,besides this1 the materials of which the tubes are composed are capable of a great degree of extension4 ,when the tail is at its full length1 it is exceeding small1 not being larger near the extremity than a horse-hair2 there is a little knob at the end1 which is furnished with small hairs1 to extend on the water1 in some measure resembling those at the tail of the musca chamleon4 ,in the body of the larva are two large tracheal vessels2 these air-vessels extend from the head to the tail1 terminate in the respiring tubes1 and receive the air from them4 ,the larva quits the water when the time of its transformation approaches1 and enters into the earth1 where the skin hardens and forms a case in which the pupa is formed2 soon after the change1 four tubes or horns are seen projecting from the case3 these ,reaumur supposes to be organs for communicating air to the interior parts of the insect2 they are connected with little bladders which are found filled with air1 and by which it is conveyed to the spiracula of the pupa4 ,the larv of gnats1 and other small aquatic insects of the same kind1 are furnished with small tubes1 that play on the surface of the water1 and convey the air from thence to the insect4 ,many other singularities are to be found amongst the aquatic larv4 ,,of ,,the ,,generation ,,of ,,insects4 ,one of the greatest mysteries in nature is generation1 or that power by which the various species of animals1 c4 are propagated1 enabling one single individual to give birth to thousands1 or even millions of individuals like itself2 all formed agreeable to proportions which are only known to that ,,adorable ,,wisdom which has established them4 ,we shall never be able to form any adequate conception of this power1 till we are acquainted with the principles of life1 and can trace their various gradations in different orders of beings4 ,many ancient philosophers1 from a misconception and perversion of the sentiments of the more ancient sages1 imagined that insects were produced from corrupt and putrefied substances2 that organized bodies1 animated with life1 and framed in a most wonderful manner1 owed their origin to mere chance6 ,not so the most ancient sages2 they taught that every degree of life must proceed from the fountain and source of all life1 and that therefore1 when manifested1 it must be replete with infinite wonders2 but then they also shewed1 that if in its descent through the higher orders of being it was perverted1 it would be manifested in loathsome forms1 and with filthy propensities2 and that according to the degree of reception of the ,divine ,goodness and ,truth1 or the perversion thereof1 new forms of life would be occasionally manifested4 ,the gloom of night still wraps this subject in obscurity2 will the dawn of day ere long gild the horizon of the scientific world8 or is the time of its breaking forth yet far from us8 ,be this as it may1 insects will be found to conform to that general law of order which runs through the whole of animated nature1 namely1 that the conjunction of the male and female is necessary for the production of their offspring4 ,where we cannot ascertain causes1 we must be content with facts4 ,though insects are1 like larger animals1 distinguished into male and female1 yet in some classes there is a kind of mules1 partaking of neither sex1 though themselves originating from the conjunction of both3 many other particularities relative to the sexes can only be touched upon here4 ,in many insects the male and female are with difficulty distinguished1 and in some they differ so widely1 that an unskilful person might easily take the male and female of the same insect for different species2 as for instance1 in the phalna humuli1 piniaria1 russula4 ,the dissimilarity is still greater in those insects in which the male has wings and the female none1 as in the coccus lampyris1 phalna antiqua1 c4 ,in general the male is smaller than the female4 ,the antenn of the male are1 for the most part1 larger than those of the female4 ,in some moths1 and other insects which are furnished with feathered antenn1 the feathers of the male fly are large and beautiful1 while those of the female are small1 and hardly perceptible4 ,some male beetles are furnished with a horn1 which is wanting in the female4 8,pleraque insectorum genitalia sua intra anum habent abscondita1 et penes solitarios1 sed nonnulla penem habent bifidum3 cancri autem et aranei geminos1 quemadmodum nonnulla amphibia1 et quod mirandum in loco alieno1 ut cancer1 sub basi caud4 ,araneus mas palpos habet clavatos1 qui penes sunt1 juxta os utrinque unicum1 qu clav sexum nec speciem distinguunt2 et fmina vulvas suas habet in abdomine juxta pectus2 heic vero si unquam vere dixeris3 res plena timoris amor1 si enim procus inauspicato accesserit1 fmina ipsum devorat1 quod etiam fit1 si non statim se retraxerit4 ,libellula fmina genitale suum sub apice gerit caud1 et mas sub pectore1 adeo ut cum mas collum fmina forcipe caud arripit1 illa caudam suam pectori ejus adplicet1 sicque peculiari ratione connex volitent40 ,insects are either oviparous or viviparous2 or1 in other words1 the species is perpetuated either by their laying of eggs1 or bringing forth their young alive4 ,the former is the more general case2 there are but few instances of the latter4 ,those insects which pass through the different transformations already described1 cannot propagate till they arrive at their imago or perfect state2 and we believe there is seldom any conjunction of the sexes in other classes till they have moulted1 or put off their last skin1 the cancri and monoculi excepted4 ,to form a just idea of the ovaries of insects1 ,i could wish the reader to consult the description that ,swammerdam has given of that of the queen bee1 and to take a view of the elegant figure that accompanies it1 a figure that speaks to the eyes1 and by them to the imagination4 ,malpighi has given a description of the ovaries of the silk-worm moth4 ,reaumur mentions six or seven species of two-winged flies that are viviparous1 bringing forth worms1 which are afterwards transformed into flies4 ,the womb of one of these is singularly curious2 it is formed of a band rolled up in a spiral form1 and about two inches and an half in length2 so that it is seven or eight times longer than the body of the fly1 and composed of worms placed one on the side of the other with wonderful art3 they are many thousands in number4#ha #ha ,reaumur ,mem4 des ,insectes1 tom4 #d1 p4 #dae4 ,,of ,,the ,,aphides ,,or ,,pucerons4 ,these are a species of insects that have opened new views of the conomy of animated beings2 they belong to the hemiptera class4 ,the rostrum is inflected1 the antenn are longer than the thorax2 some have four erect wings1 others are entirety without them4 ,towards the end of the abdomen there are two tubes ejecting that most delicate juice called honey-dew4 ,various names have been applied to them1 the proper one is aphis1 that by which they are most generally known1 is puceron2 they are also frequently called vine-fretters or plant-lice3 many among the genera are both oviparous and viviparous1 bringing forth their young alive in summer1 but in autumn depositing their eggs upon the branches and bark of trees4 ,the different aphides are very curious objects for the microscope3 they are a very numerous genus1 ,linnus has enumerated thirty-three different species1 whose trivial names are taken from the plant which they inhabit1 though it is probable the number is much larger1 as the same plant is often found to support two or three different sorts of them4 ,their habits are very singular3 an aphis or puceron1 brought up in the most perfect solitude from the very moment of its birth1 in a few days will be found in the midst of a numerous family2 repeat the experiment on one of the individuals of this family1 and you will find this second generation will multiply like its parent2 and this you may pursue through many generations4 ,m4 ,bonnet had repeated experiments of this kind1 as far as the sixth generation1 which all uniformly presented the observer with fruitful virgins1 when he was engaged in a series of new and tedious experiments1 from a suspicion imparted by ,m4 ,trembley in a letter to him1 who thus expresses himself3 8,i have formed the design of rearing several generations of solitary pucerons1 in order to see if they would all equally bring forth young4 ,in cases so remote from usual circumstances1 it is allowed to try all sorts of means2 and ,i argued with myself1 ,who knows but that one copulation might serve for several generations80 ,this 8,,who ,,knows0 persuaded ,m4 ,bonnet that he had not sufficiently pursued his investigations4 ,he therefore now reared to the tenth generation his solitary aphides1 having the patience to keep an exact account of the days and hours of the birth of each generation4 ,the result of this pursuit was1 his discovering both males and females among them1 whose amours were not in the least equivocal2 the males are produced only in the tenth generation1 and are but few in number2 these soon arriving at their full growth1 copulate with the females1 and the virtue of this copulation serves for ten successive generations2 all these generations1 except the first from fecundated eggs1 are produced viviparous1 and all the individuals are females1 except those of the last generation1 among whom some males appear1 to lay the foundation of a fresh series4 ,in order to give a further insight into the nature of these insects1 ,i shall insert an extract of a description of their different generations1 by ,dr4 ,richardson1 as published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agga4 ,the great variety of species which occur in the insects now under consideration1 may make an inquiry into their particular natures seem not a little perplexing1 but by reducing them under their proper genera1 the difficulty is considerably diminished4 ,we may reasonably suppose all the insects1 comprehended under any distinct genus1 to partake of one general nature2 and1 by diligently examining any particular species1 may thence gain some insight into the nature of all the rest4 ,with this view ,dr4 ,richardson chose out of the various sorts of aphides the largest of those found on the rose-tree1 not only as its size makes it the more conspicuous1 but as there are few others of so long a duration4 ,this sort appears early in the spring1 and continues late in the autumn2 while several are limited to a much shorter term1 in conformity to the different trees and plants from whence they draw their nourishment4 ,if at the beginning of ,february the weather happen to be so warm1 as to make the buds of the rose-tree swell and appear green1 small aphides are frequently to be found on them1 though not larger than the young ones in summer1 when first produced4 ,it will be found1 that those aphides which appear only in spring1 proceed from small black oval eggs1 which were deposited on the last year's shoots2 though when it happens that the insects make too early an appearance1 the greater part suffers from the sharp weather that usually succeeds2 by which means the rose-trees are some years in a manner freed from them4 ,the same kind of animal is then at one time of the year viviparous1 and at another1 oviparous4 ,those aphides which withstand the severity of the weather seldom come to their full growth before the month of ,april1 at which time they usually begin to breed1 after twice casting off their exuvia1 or outward covering4 ,it appears that they are all females1 which produce each of them a numerous progeny1 and that without having intercourse with any male insect2 they are viviparous1 and what is equally singular1 the young ones all come into the world backwards4 ,when they first come from the parent1 they are enveloped by a thin membrane1 having in this situation the appearance of an oval egg2 these egg-like appearances adhere by one extremity to the mother1 while the young ones contained in them extend the other1 by that means gradually drawing the ruptured membrane over the head and body to the hind feet4 ,during this operation1 and for some time after1 the fore part of the head adheres1 by means of something glutinous1 to the vent of the parent4 ,being thus suspended in the air1 it soon frees itself from the membrane in which it was confined2 and after its limbs are a little strengthened1 is set down on some tender shoots1 and left to provide for itself4 ,in the spring months there appear on the rose-trees but two generations of aphides1 including those which proceed immediately from the last year's eggs2 the warmth of the summer adds so much to their fertility1 that no less than five generations succeed one another in the interval4 ,one is produced in ,may1 which casts off its covering2 while the months of ,june and ,july each supply two more1 which cast off their coverings three or four times1 according to the different warmth of the season4 ,this frequent change of their outward coat is the more extraordinary1 because it is repeated more often when the insects come the soonest to their growth1 which sometimes happens in ten days1 where warmth and plenty of nourishment conspired4 ,early in the month of ,june1 some of the third generation1 which were produced about the middle of ,may1 after casting off their last covering1 discover four erect wings1 much longer than their bodies2 and the same is observable in all the succeeding generations which are produced during the summer months1 but still without any diversity of sex2 for some time before the aphides come to their full growth1 it is easy to distinguish which will have wings1 by a remarkable fullness of the breast1 which in the others is hardly to be distinguished from the body4 ,when the last covering is rejected1 the wings1 which were before folded up in a very narrow compass1 are gradually extended in a surprizing manner1 till their dimensions are at last very considerable4 ,the increase of these insects in the summer time is so very great1 that by wounding and exhausting the tender shoots1 they would frequently suppress all vegetation1 had they not many enemies to restrain them4 ,notwithstanding these insects have a numerous tribe of enemies1 they are not without friends1 if those may be considered as such1 who are officious in their attendance for the good things they expect to reap thereby4 ,the ant and the bee are of this kind1 collecting the honey in which the aphides abound1 but with this difference1 that the ants are constant visitors1 the bee only when flowers are scarce2 the ants will suck in the honey while the aphides are in the act of discharging it1 the bees only collect it from the leaves on which it has fallen4 ,in the autumn three more generations of aphides are produced1 two of which generally make their appearance in the month of ,august1 and the third before the middle of ,september4 ,the two first differ in no respect from those which are found in summer2 but the third differs greatly from all the rest4 ,though all the aphides which have hitherto appeared were females1 in this tenth generation several male insects are found1 but not by any means so numerous as the females4 ,the females have at first the same appearance with those of the former generations1 but in a few days their colour changes from a green to a yellow1 which is gradually converted into an orange before they come to their full growth2 they differ also in another respect from those which occur in summer1 for all these yellow females are without wings4 ,the male insects are1 however1 still more remarkable1 their outward appearance readily distinguishing them from this and all other generations4 ,when first produced1 they are not of a green colour like the rest1 but of a reddish brown1 and have afterwards a dark line along the back2 they come to their full growth in about three weeks1 and then cast off their last covering1 the whole insect being after this of a bright yellow colour1 the wings only excepted2 but after this change to a deeper yellow1 and in a very few hours to a dark brown1 if we except the body1 which is something lighter coloured1 and has a reddish cast4 ,the males no sooner come to maturity than they copulate with the females1 who in a day or two after their intercourse with the males lay their eggs1 generally near the buds4 ,where there are a number crowded together1 they of course interfere with each other1 in which case they will frequently deposit their eggs on other parts of the branches4 ,it is highly probable that the aphides derive considerable advantages by living in society2 the reiterated punctures of a great number of them may attract a larger quantity of nutritious juices to that part of the tree or plant where they have taken up their abode4 ,the aphides are very injurious to trees and vegetables of almost every kind2 the species is so numerous1 and all endued with so much fertility1 that if they were not destroyed by a numerous host of enemies1 the leaves1 the branches1 and the stem of every plant would be covered with them4 ,on almost every leaf inhabited by aphides1 a small worm is to be found1 that feeds not upon the leaves1 but upon these insects1 devouring them with incredible rapacity3 ,reaumur supplied a single worm with above one-hundred aphides1 every one of which it devoured in less than three hours4 ,indeed myriads of insects seem to be produced for no other purpose than to destroy them4 ,,of ,,the ,,apis ,,or ,,bee4 ,the bee belongs to the hymenoptera order1 the mouth is furnished with two jaws1 and a proboscis protected by a double sheath1 see ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xiii4 ,they have four wings2 when these are at rest1 the two foremost cover those behind4 ,there is a sting in the tail of the working and female bee4 ,of the bee kind fifty-five species are enumerated by ,linnus4 ,our present observations are confined to the common or domestic bee4 ,in the natural history of insects new objects of surprize are continually rising before the observer3 however singular the preceding account of the production of the aphides may appear1 that of bees is not less so4 ,this little republic has at all times gained universal esteem and admiration2 and1 though they have attracted the attention of the most ingenious and laborious inquirers into nature1 yet the mode of propagating their species seems to have baffled the ingenuity of ages1 and rendered all attempts to discover it abortive2 even the labours and scrupulous attention of ,swammerdam were unsuccessful4 ,he spent one month entirely in examining1 describing1 and representing their intestines2 and many months on other parts2 employing whole days in making observations1 and whole nights in registering them1 till at last he brought his treatise of bees to the wished for perfection2 a work which1 from the commencement of natural history to our own times1 has not its equal4 ,reaumur1 however1 thought he had in some measure removed the veil1 and explained their manner of generating3 he supposes the queen bee to be the only female in the hive1 and the mother of the next generation2 that the drones are the males1 by which she is fecundated1 and that the working bees1 or those that collect wax on the flowers1 that knead it1 and form from it the combs and cells1 which they afterwards fill with honey1 are of neither sex4 ,the queen bee is known by its size1 being generally much larger than the working bee or the drone4 ,m4 ,schirach1 a ,german naturalist1 affirms that all the common bees are females in disguise1 in which the organs that distinguish the sex1 and particularly the ovaria1 are obliterated1 or at least from their extreme minuteness have escaped the observer's eye2 that every one of these bees1 in the earlier period of its existence1 is capable of becoming a queen bee1 if the whole community should think it proper to nurse it in a particular manner1 and raise it to that rank3 in short1 that the queen bee lays only two kinds of eggs1 those that are to produce the drones1 and those from which the working bees are to proceed4 ,schirach made his experiments not only in the early spring months1 but even as late as ,november4 ,he cut off from an old hive a piece of the brood-comb1 taking care that it contained worms which had been hatched about three days4 ,he fixed this in an empty hive1 together with a piece of honey-comb1 for food to his bees1 and then introduced a number of common bees into the hive4 ,as soon as these found themselves deprived of their queen and their liberty1 a dreadful uproar took place1 which lasted for the space of twenty-four hours4 ,on the cessation of this tumult1 they betook themselves to work1 first proceeding to the construction of a royal cell1 and then taking the proper methods for feeding and hatching the brood inclosed with them2 sometimes even on the second day the foundation of one or more royal cells were to be perceived2 the view of which furnished certain indications that they had elected one of the inclosed worms to the sovereignty4 ,the bees may now be left at liberty4 ,the final result of these experiments is1 that the colony of working bees being thus shut up with a morsel of brood-comb1 not only hatch1 but at the end of eighteen or twenty days produce from thence one or two queens1 to all appearance proceeding from worms of the common sort1 converted by them into a queen merely because they wanted one4#hb ,from experiments of the same kind1 varied and often repeated1 ,schirach concludes that all the common working bees were originally of the female sex2 but that if they are not fed1 lodged1 and brought up in a particular manner while they are in the larva state1 their organs are not developed2 and that it is to this circumstance attending the bringing up the queen1 that the extension of the female organs is effected1 and the difference in her form and size produced4 #hb ,schirach ,histoire ,naturelle des ,abeilles4 ,mr4 ,debraw has carried the subject further1 by discovering the impregnation of the eggs by the males1 and the difference of the size among the drones or males2 though indeed this last circumstance was not unknown to ,mess4 ,maraldi and ,reaumur4 ,mr4 ,debraw watched the glass hives with indefatigable attention1 from the moment the bees1 among which he took care there should be a large number of drones1 were put into them1 to the time of the queen's laying her eggs1 which generally happens on the fourth or fifth day2 he observed1 that on the first or second day1 always before the third from the time the eggs are placed in the cells1 a great number of bees1 fastening themselves to one another1 hung down in the form of a curtain1 from the top to the bottom of the hive2 they had done the same at the time the queen deposited her eggs1 an operation which seems contrived on purpose to conceal what is transacting2 however1 through some parts of this veil he was enabled to see some of the bees inserting the posterior part of their bodies each into a cell1 and sinking into it1 but continuing there only a little while4 ,when they had retired1 it was easy to discover a whitish liquor left in the angle of the basis of each cell1 which contained an egg4 ,in a day or two this liquor was absorbed into the embryo1 which on the fourth day assumes its worm or larva state1 to which the working bees bring a little honey for nourishment1 during the first eight or ten days after its birth4 ,when the bees find the worm has attained its full growth1 they leave off bringing it food1 they know it has no more need of it2 they have still1 however1 another service to pay it1 in which they never fail2 it is that of shutting it up in its cell1 where the larva is inclosed for eight or ten days3 here a further change takes place2 the larva1 which was heretofore idle1 now begins to work1 and lines its cell with fine silk1 while the working bee incloses it exteriorly with a wax covering4 ,the concealed larva then voids its excrement1 quits its skin1 and assumes the pupa2 at the end of some days the young bee acquires sufficient strength to quit the slender covering of the pupa1 tears the wax covering of its cell1 and proceeds a perfect insect4 ,to prove further that the eggs are fecundated by the males1 and that their presence is necessary at the time of breeding1 ,mr4 ,debraw made the following experiments4 ,they consist in leaving in a hive the queen1 with only the common or working bees1 without any drones1 to see whether the eggs she laid would be prolific4 ,to this end he took a swarm1 and shook all the bees into a tub of water1 leaving them there till they were quite senseless2 by which means he could distinguish the drones without any danger of being stung3 he then restored the queen and working bees to their former state1 by spreading them on a brown paper in the sun2 after this he replaced them in a glass hive1 where they soon began to work as usual4 ,the queen laid eggs1 which1 to his great surprize1 were impregnated1 for he imagined he had separated all the drones or males1 and therefore omitted watching them2 at the end of twenty days he found several of his eggs had1 in the usual course of changes1 produced bees1 while some had withered away1 and others were covered with honey4 ,hence he inferred1 that some of the males had escaped his notice1 and impregnated part of the eggs4 ,to convince himself of this1 he took away all the brood-comb that was in the hive1 in order to oblige the bees to provide a fresh quantity1 being determined to watch narrowly their motions after new eggs should be laid in the cells4 ,on the second day after the eggs were deposited1 he perceived the same operation that was mentioned before1 namely1 that of the bees hanging down in the form of a curtain1 while others thrust the posterior part of their bodies into the cells4 ,he then introduced his hand into the hive1 broke off a piece of the comb1 in which there were two of these insects2 he found in neither of them any sting1 a circumstance peculiar to the drones2 upon dissection1 with the assistance of a microscope1 he discovered the four cylindrical bodies which contain the glutinous liquor of a whitish colour1 as observed by ,maraldi in the large drones4 ,he was therefore now under the necessity of repeating his experiments1 in destroying the males1 and even those that might be suspected to be such4 ,he once more immersed the same bees in water1 and when they appeared in a senseless state1 he gently pressed every one1 in order to distinguish those armed with stings from those which had none1 and which of course he supposed to be males3 of these last he found fifty-seven1 and replaced the swarm in a glass hive1 where they immediately applied again to the work of making cells1 and on the fourth or fifth day1 very early in the morning1 he had the pleasure to see the queen bee deposit her eggs in those cells3 he continued watching most part of the ensuing days1 but could discover nothing of what he had seen before4 ,the eggs1 after the fourth day1 instead of changing in the manner of caterpillars1 were found in the same state they were in the first day1 except that some were covered with honey4 ,a singular event happened the next day1 about noon2 all the bees left their own hive1 and were seen attempting to get into a neighbouring one1 on the stool of which the queen was found dead1 being no doubt slain in the engagement4 ,this event seems to have arisen from the great desire of perpetuating their species1 and to which end the concurrence of the males seems so absolutely necessary2 it made them desert their habitations1 where no males were left1 in order to fix a residence in a new one1 in which there was a good stock of them4 ,to be further satisfied1 ,mr4 ,debraw took the brood-comb1 which had not been impregnated1 and divided it into two parts2 one he placed under a glass bell1 ,no4 #a1 with honey-comb for the bees food1 taking care to leave a queen1 but no drones1 among the bees confined in it2 the other piece of the brood-comb he placed under another glass bell1 ,no4 #b1 with a few drones1 a queen1 and a proportionable number of common bees4 ,the result was1 that in the glass1 ,no4 #a1 there was no impregnation1 the eggs remaining in the same state they were in when put into the glass2 and on giving the bees their liberty on the seventh day1 they all flew away as was found to be the case in the former experiment2 whereas in the glass1 ,no4 #b1 the very day after the bees had been put into it1 the eggs were impregnated by the drones1 and the bees did not leave their hive on receiving their liberty4 ,the editor of the ,cyclopdia says1 that the small drones are all dead before the end of ,may1 when the larger species appear1 and supersede their use2 and that it is not without reason that a modern author suggests1 that a small number of drones are reserved to supply the necessities of the ensuing year2 but that they are very little1 if any1 larger than the common bee4 ,it does not enter into our plan to notice further in this place the wonders of this little society4 ,a bee-hive is certainly one of the finest objects that can offer itself to the eyes of the beholder4 ,it is not easy to be weary of contemplating those workshops1 where thousands of labourers are constantly engaged in different employments4#hc #hc ,the remarks made by the late ,mr4 ,hunter on the experiments of ,messrs4 ,schirach and ,debraw1 in my opinion1 merit the attention of the reader2 they are contained in his 8,observations on ,bees10 comprizing a variety of information respecting the history and conomy of those curious insects4 ,this ingenious and interesting account is inserted in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agib1 page #abh-aie4 ,i cannot altogether subscribe to his opinion relative to the minuteness and prolixity of ,swammerdam4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,the ,,eggs ,,of ,,insects4 ,the eggs are contained and arranged in the body of the insect1 in vessels which vary in number and figure in different species2 the same variety is found in the eggs themselves3 some are round1 others oval1 some cylindrical1 and others nearly square2 the shells of some are hard and smooth1 while others are soft and flexible4 ,it is a general rule1 that eggs do not increase in size after they are laid2 among insects1 we find however an exception to this2 the eggs of the tenthredo of ,linnus increase after they are laid1 but their shell is soft and membranaceous4 ,the eggs of insects differ in their colours2 some may be found of almost every shade1 of yellow1 green1 brown1 and even black4 ,the eggs of the lion puceron1#hd hemerobius1 ,lin4 are very singular objects1 and cannot have escaped the eye of any person who is conversant among the insects which live on trees2 though of the many who have seen them1 few1 if any1 have found what they really were4 ,it is common to see on the leaves and pedicles of the leaves of the plumb-tree1 and several other trees1 as also on their young branches1 a number of long and slender filaments1 running out to about an inch in length2 ten or twelve of these are usually seen placed near one another1 and a vast number of these clusters are found on the same tree2 each of these filaments is terminated by a sort of swelling or tubercle of the shape of an egg4 ,they have generally been supposed to be of vegetable origin1 and that they were a sort of parasitical plant growing out of others4 ,there is a time when these egg-like balls are found open at the ends2 in this state they very much resemble flowers1 and have been figured as such by some authors1 though they are only the shells of the eggs out of which the young animals have escaped after being hatched4 ,if these eggs be examined by a microscope1 a worm may be discovered in them2 or they may be put into a box1 in which1 in due time1 they will produce an insect1 which1 when viewed with a microscope1 will be found to be the true lion puceron4 #hd ,reaumur ,hist4 de ,insectes1 vol4 xi4 p4 #adb4 ,divine ,providence instructs the insects1 by a lower species of perception1 to deposit their eggs not only in safety from their numerous enemies1 but also in situations where a sufficient quantity of food is on the spot to support and nourish the larva immediately on breaking the shell4 ,some deposit their eggs in the oak leaf1 producing there the red gall2 others choose the leaf of the poplar1 which swells into a red node or bladder2 to a similar cause we must attribute the red knob which is often seen on the willow leaf1 and the three pointed protuberances upon the termination of the juniper branches4 ,the leaves of the veronica and cerastium are drawn into a globular head by the eggs of an insect lodged therein4 ,the phalna neustria glues its eggs with great symmetry and propriety round the smaller branches of trees4 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,x4 represents a magnified view of the nest of eggs taken off the tree after the caterpillar had eaten its way through them2 the strong ground-work of gum1 by which they are connected and bound together1 is very visible in many places2 they strengthen this connection further1 by filling up all the intervening space between the eggs with a very tenacious substance4 ,these eggs are crustaceous1 and similar to those of the hen2 ,fig4 #b represents the natural size4 ,fig4 #c is a magnified vertical section of the eggs1 shewing their oval shape2 ,fig4 #d the natural size4 ,fig4 #e is an horizontal section through the middle of the egg1 and ,fig4 #f the same not magnified4 ,it is not easy to describe the beauty of these objects1 when viewed in the lucernal microscope2 the regularity with which they are placed1 the delicacy of their texture1 the beautiful and ever-varying colours which they present to the eye1 give the spectator a high degree of rational delight4 ,in the ,lapland ,alps there is a fly covered with a downy hair1 called the rhen-deer gad-fly1 oestrus tarandi1 ,linn4 it hovers all day over these animals1 whose legs tremble under them2 they prick up their ears1 and flee to the mountains covered with ice and snow to escape from a little hovering fly1 but generally in vain1 for the insect but too soon finds an opportunity to lodge its egg in the back of the deer2 the worm hatched from this egg perforates the skin1 and remains under it during the whole winter3 in the following year it becomes a fly4 ,the oestrus bovis is an equal terror to oxen2 the hippobosca equina1 to horses2 oestrus ovis1#he to the sheep1 c4 #he ,oestrus ovis in naso sive sinu frontis animalium rumenantium4 ,linn4 ,the gnat1 the ephemera1 the phryganea1 the libellula1 hover over the water all day to drop their eggs1 which are hatched in the water1 and continue there all the time they are in the larva form4 ,the mass formed by the gnat resembles a little vessel set afloat by the insect2 each egg is in the form of a keel1 these are curiously connected together4 ,the gnat lays but one egg at a time1 which she deposits on the water in a very ingenious and simple manner2 she stretches her legs out1 and crosses them1 thus forming an angle to receive and hold the first egg2 a second egg is soon placed next the first2 then a third1 and so on1 till the base is capable of supporting itself2 these1 as they come to maturity1 sink deeper4 ,the spawn of this insect is sometimes above an inch long1 and one-eighth of an inch in diameter1 and tied by a little stem or stalk to some stick or stone4 ,sometimes they are laid in a single1 sometimes in a double spiral line2 sometimes transversely4 ,many moths cover their offspring with a thick bed of hair1 which they gather from their own body2 while others cover them with a glutinous composition1 which1 when hard1 protects them from moisture1 rain1 and cold4 ,the gall-flies1 it has been observed1 know how to open the nerves of the leaves1 to deposit thus their eggs in a place which afterwards serves them for a lodging and a magazine of food4 ,the solitary bees and wasps prepare an habitation for their little ones in the earth1 placing there a proper quantity of food for them1 when they proceed from the egg4 ,the voracious and cruel spider is attentive and careful of its eggs2 the wolf spider carries them on its back in a little bag formed of its silk1 it cannot be separated from them but by violence1 and exhibits the most marked signs of uneasiness when deprived of them3 a circumstance the more remarkable1 as they love to destroy each other1 and even carry on their courtships with a diffidence and caution unknown in any other species of animals4 ,the history of bees and wasps1 and their care and attention to their offspring1 is so well known1 that ,i may with propriety pass it over here1 and proceed just to notice the industrious ant1 whose paternal affection and care is not so well known4 ,they are not satisfied with placing their eggs in situations made on purpose1 and to raise or rear them till they come to the nymph or pupa state1 but they even extend their care to the pup themselves1 removing them from their nest to the surface of the earth1 whenever the weather is fine1 that they may receive the benignant influence of the sun1 carrying them back again as soon as the air begins to grow cold4 ,if any accident disturb their nest1 and disperse the pup1 they manifest the greatest signs of distress1 seeking those which are lost and scattered1 placing them in some sheltered place while they repair the nest1 when they again transport them to it4#hf ,many other curious particulars might be related relative to this industrious insect2 as their uniting together in scooping out earth1 the conveyance of materials for the construction of their nests1 and the curious structure of the nest itself1 which1 though it appears piled up at random1 will be found1 on stricter examination1 to be a work of art and design1 with other circumstances which are too long to be enumerated here4 #hf ,lessers ,theologie des ,insectes1 tom4 #a1 p4 #adc4 ,the fecundity of insects exceeds in an astonishing degree that of all the productions of nature2 the vegetables which cover the surface of the earth bear no proportion to their multitudes1 every plant supporting a number often of scarce perceptible creatures3 of the fatal effects of their prodigious multiplication1 our fruit trees1 c4 are too frequently a deplorable testimony4 ,on the continent whole provinces sometimes languish in consequence of the dreadful havoc made by them4 ,reaumur calculated the fecundity of the queen bee as follows3 he found that she laid in the two months of ,march and ,april #ab1jjj eggs1 so that the swarm which left the hive in ,may consisted of near #ab1jjj bees1 all produced from one mother3 but this calculation falls short of that which was made by ,leeuwenhoek on a fly1 whose larva feeds on flesh1 putrid carcases1 c4 which multiply prodigiously1 and that in a short space of time4 ,one of these laid #add eggs1 from which he got as many flies in the first month2 so that1 supposing one-half of these to be females1 in the third month we shall have #gdf1dif1 all produced in three months from one fly4 ,the following is an experiment of ,m4 ,lyonet on the generation of a moth which comes from the chenille a brosse3 out of a brood of #cej eggs1 produced by a single moth of this kind1 he took #hj1 from which he obtained1 when they were arrived at their perfect state1 #ae females2 from whence he deduces the following consequence3 if #hj eggs give #ae females1 the whole brood of #cej would have produced #fe2 these #fe1 supposing them as fertile as their mother1 would have produced #bb1gej caterpillars1 among which there would have been at least #dbfe females1 who would have produced for the third generation #a1dib1gej caterpillars4 ,this number would have been much larger1 if the number of females among those which were selected by ,m4 ,lyonet had been greater4 ,m4 de ,geer counted in the belly of a moth #dhj eggs2 reducing these to #djj1 if supposing one-fourth only of these to be females and as fruitful as their mother1 they will give birth to #dj1jjj caterpillars for the second generation2 and for the third1 supposing all things equal1 four millions of caterpillars4 ,it is not surprizing1 therefore1 that they are found so numerous in years that are favourable to their propagation4 ,but the ,creator of all things has for our sakes limited this abundant multiplication1 and wisely ordained1 that those species which are the most numerous shall have the greatest number of enemies1 who1 though constantly employed on the destruction of individuals1 are unable to effect that of the species2 by which means an equilibrium is preserved1 and no one species preponderates4 ,few insects live long after their last transformation1 but their species are continued by their amazing fecundity2 their growth is completed1 and their parts hardened sooner than those of larger animals1 and the duration of their existence is proportionably limited4 ,there are1 however some species of flies which lie in a torpid state during the winter1 and revive with the returning warmth of spring4 ,,of ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,insects4 ,there are few1 if any1 productions either of the animal or vegetable kingdoms1 which do not supply some kind of insect with food4 ,they may1 therefore1 be considered under two heads1 those which live on vegetables1 and those which are supported by animal food2 each insect knows that which is proper to sustain its life1 where to seek it1 and how to procure it4 ,i have already observed1 that several insects1 when arrived at a state of perfection1 feed after their transformation upon food totally different from that which nourished them in their larva state4 ,among those which feed on vegetables1 some sink themselves in the earth1 and by destroying the roots of the plants1 do considerable injuries to our gardens4 ,the food of others is dry and hard2 they pierce the wood1 reduce it to powder1 and then feed on it2 some1 as the cossus1 attack and destroy the trees1 while the food of others more delicate is the leaves4 ,the leaf is eaten in a different manner by different insects2 some eat the whole substance1 while others feed only on the parenchymous parts1 which are contained between its superficial membranes1 forming withinside the leaf paths and galleries4 ,these insects are not always content with the leaf1 but attack the flower also3 even this food is too gross for many2 the bee1 the butterfly1 the moth1 as well as several species of flies1 feed only on the honey1 or finer juices1 which they collect from flowers4 ,we are continually finding the larva of some insect in pears1 plumbs1 peaches1 and other fruit2 these unwelcome intruders on the produce of human industry divide fruits1 grain1 and corn with us1 often depriving us of large quantities4 ,there is1 indeed1 no part of a plant which does not serve as food to different insects2 some have one kind of plant marked out for them to inhabit and feed on1 others have another assigned to them1 on which1 and no other1 they will feed2 each has its appropriate food1 and though the parent animal eats not at all1 or lives upon food entirely different1 yet she is guided1 as has before been observed1 to deposit her eggs on that peculiar shrub or plant that will be food for her young2 while some1 more voracious than the rest1 feed upon all with equal avidity2 but in countries less cultivated than our own1 their annoyance and devastations are terrible4 ,the gryllus migratorius1 a few years since1 poured out of ,tartary in such quantities1 as to lay waste a great part of ,europe1 producing almost unequalled calamities1 swarming in such multitudes as to cloud the air and cover the ground1 mocking human power and craft2 wherever they settled1 all verdure disappeared1 and the summer fruitfulness was turned into winter desolation2 in ,sweden the cattle perished with hunger1 and the men were forced to abandon their country1 and fly to the neighbouring regions4#hg ,the far greater part feed only1 however1 on one species of plant1 or at most on those which are similar to it1 and the same species may always be found on the same plant4 ,reaumur says1 that the caterpillar which infests and feeds upon the cabbage1 destroys in twenty-four hours more than twice its weight4 ,if larger animals required a proportionable quantity1 the earth would not afford sufficient nourishment for its inhabitants4 #hg ,select ,dissertations from the ,amnitates ,academic1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cih4 ,a great number of insects reject vegetable1 and live on animal food2 some seeking that which is beginning to putrefy1 while others delight in food entirely putrid2 others again are nourished by the most filthy puddles1 and disgusting excrements2 some attack and feed on man himself1 while others are nourished by his provision1 his cloaths1 his furniture3 some prey upon insects of another species2 others1 again1 attack their own1 and harrass each other with perpetual carnage4 ,reaumur informs us1 that those insects which feed upon dead carcases never attack living animals2 the flesh-fly deposits her eggs in the bodies of dead animals1 where her progeny receive that nourishment best adapted for them2 but this fly never attempts to lay her eggs in the flesh of sound and living animals4 ,every animal has its appropriate lice1 which feed on and infest it4 ,m4 ,rhedi has given an accurate account of a great number of these little noxious creatures accompanied with figures2 but1 as if it were not sufficient that these creatures should dwell and live on the external part of the body1 and suck the blood of the animal that they infest1 we find another species of insects seeking their food in the more vital parts1 and feeding on the flesh of the animal1 while full of life and health4 ,reaumur has given an history of a fly1 oestrus bovis1 the larva of which lives upon the backs1 and feeds on the flesh of young oxen and cows1 where it produces a kind of tumor4 ,the fly lodges its eggs in the flesh1 by making a number of little wounds1 in each of which it deposits eggs1 so that every wound becomes a nest1 the eggs of which are hatched by the heat of the animal4 ,here the larv find abundant food1 at the same time that they are protected from the changes of the weather2 and here they stay till they are fit for transformation4 ,the parts they inhabit are often easy to be discovered by a kind of lump or tumor1 which they form by their ravages2 this tumor suppurates1 and is filled with matter2 on this disgusting substance the larv feed1 and their heads are always found plunged in it4#hh #hh ,the obscure and singular habitations of the ,british oestri are the stomach and intestines of the horse1 the frontal and maxillary sinuses of sheep1 and beneath the skin of the backs of horned cattle4 ,in other parts of the world they inhabit various other animals4 ,the larva of the oestrus bovis lives beneath the skin of horned cattle1 between it and the cellular membrane1 in a proper sack or abcess1 which is rather larger than the insect1 and by narrowing upwards opens externally to the air by a small aperture4 ,when arrived at its full growth1 it effects its escape from the abcess by pressing against the external opening2 when the opening has thus obtained the size of a small pea1 the larva writhes itself through1 and falls from the back of the animal to the ground2 and1 seeking a convenient retreat1 becomes a chrysalis1 in which state it continues from about the latter end of ,june to about the middle of ,august2 the perfect insect1 on leaving the chrysalis1 forces open a very remarkable marginated triangular lid or operculum4 ,the oestrus in its perfect or fly state is the largest of the ,european species of this genus1 and is very beautiful4 ,although its effects on the cattle have been so often remarked1 yet the fly itself is rarely seen or taken1 as the attempt would be attended with considerable danger4 ,the pain it inflicts in depositing its egg is much more severe than in any of the other species3 when one of the cattle is attacked by this fly1 it is easily known by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd2 the unfortunate object of the attack runs bellowing from among them to some distant part of the heath1 or the nearest water1 while the tail1 from the severity of the pain1 is held with a tremulous motion straight from the body1 in the direction of the spine1 and the head and neck are also stretched out to the utmost4 ,the rest1 from fear1 generally follow to the water1 and disperse to different parts of the field4 ,the larv of this insect are mostly known among the country people by the name of wornuls1 wormuls1 or warbles1 or more properly bots4 ,the larva of the oestrus equi is very commonly found in the stomach of horses4 ,these larv attach themselves to every part of the stomach1 but are generally most numerous about the pylorus2 and are sometimes found in the intestines4 ,they hang most commonly in clusters1 being fixed by the small end to the inner membrane of the stomach1 to which they adhere by two small hooks or tentacula4 ,the larv having attained their full growth in about a month1 on dropping to the ground find some convenient retreat1 change to the chrysalis1 and in about six or seven weeks the fly appears4 ,the larva of the oestrus hmorrhoidalis resembles in almost every respect that of the oestrus equi1 and occupies the same situation in the stomach of the horse4 ,when it is ripe1 and has passed through the intestines and the sphincter ani it assumes the chrysalis state in about two days1 and in about two months the fly appears4 ,the generally received opinion has been that the female fly enters the anus of the horse to deposit its eggs1 and ,reaumur relates this circumstance on the authority of ,dr4 ,gaspari2 from the account of its getting beneath the tail1 it is probable that the fly he saw was the hippobosca equina1 which frequently does this3 its getting within the rectum appears to have been additional4 ,that a fly might deposit its eggs on the verge of the anus is not impossible1 but we know no instance of it3 the fact is1 that the part chosen by the oestrus hmorrhoidalis for this purpose is the lips of the horse1 which is very distressing to the animal from the excessive titillation it occasions2 for he immediately after rubs his mouth against the ground1 his fore legs1 or sometimes against a tree1 or if two are standing together1 they often rub themselves against each other4 ,at the sight of this fly1 the horse appears much agitated1 and moves its head backward and forward in the air to baulk its touch1 and prevent its darting on the lips2 but the fly1 watching for a favourable opportunity1 continues to repeat the operation2 till at length1 the enraged animal endeavours to avoid it by galloping away to a distant part of the field4 ,if still pursued1 its last resource is in the water1 where the oestrus is never observed to follow him4 ,the oestrus veterinus is by ,linnus called nasalis1 from an idea of its entering the nostrils of the horse to deposit its eggs1 which it could not well do without destroying its wings1 and is therefore probably as much a fable as the 8mire per anum intrans0 of the oestrus hmorrhoidalis4 ,the oestrus ovis is mostly found in the horns and frontal sinuses of the sheep1 though it has been remarked that the membranes lining these cavities were hardly at all inflamed1 while those of the maxillary sinuses were highly so2 from which it is suspected that they inhabit the maxillary sinuses1 and crawl1 on the death of the animal1 into these situations in the horns and frontal sinuses4 ,when the larv are full-grown they fall through the nostrils1 and change to the pupa state1 lying on the earth1 or adhering by the side to a blade of grass4 ,the fly bursts the shell of the pupa in about two months4 ,the above concise account of the different oestri is extracted from the excellent paper on the subject by ,mr4 ,b4 ,clark1 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 ,for his more ample description1 accompanied with coloured figures of the several ,british species1 see ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society1 vol4 iii4 page #bhc-cbi1 just published4 ,,edit4 ,neither the larva1 pupa1 or even the egg-state of some insects are exempt from the attacks of others1 who deposit their eggs in them2 these1 after having passed through the usual transformations1 become what is termed the ichneumon fly4 ,the following are the curious observations of an ingenious naturalist on this fly4 8,as ,i was observing10 says he1 8one day some caterpillars which were feeding voluptuously on a cabbage leaf1 my attention was attracted to part of the plant1 about which a little fly was buzzing on its wing1 as if deliberating where to settle3 ,i was surprized to see the herd of caterpillars1 creatures of twenty times its size1 endeavouring in an uncouth manner1 by various contortions of the body to get out of its way1 and more so whenever the fly poised on the wing as if going to drop2 at length the creature made its choice1 and seated itself on the back of one of the largest and fairest of the cluster2 it was in vain the unhappy reptile endeavoured to dislodge the enemy4 ,if the caterpillar had shewn terror on the approach of the fly1 its anguish at intervals now seemed intolerable1 and ,i soon found that it was in consequence of the strokes or wounds given by the fly4 ,at every wound the poor caterpillar wreathed and twisted its whole frame1 endeavouring to disengage itself1 by shaking off the enemy1 sometimes aiming its mouth towards the place2 but it was all in vain2 its little1 but cruel tormentor kept its place4 ,when it had inflicted thirty or forty of these wounds1 it took its flight with a visible triumph2 in each of these wounds the little fly had deposited an egg4 ,i took the caterpillar home with me1 to observe the progress of the eggs which were thus placed in its body1 taking care to give it a fresh supply of leaves from time to time2 it recovered to all appearance in a few hours from the wounds it had received1 and from that time1 for the space of four or five days1 seemed to feed with its usual avidity4 ,the eggs were all hatched into small oblong voracious worms1 which fed from the moment of their appearance on the flesh of the caterpillar1 in whose body they were inclosed1 and seemingly without wounding the organs of respiration or digestion2 and when they had arrived at their full growth1 they eat their way out of the sides of the animal1 at the same time destroying it4 ,the caterpillar thus attacked by the larva of the ichneumon never escapes1 its destruction is infallible2 but then its life is not taken away at once2 the larva1 while it is feeding thereon1 knows how to spare the parts which are essential to its life1 because its own is at that time tied up in that of the caterpillar4 ,no butterfly is produced from it2 the worms that feed on the wretched creature1 are no sooner out of its body1 than every one spins its own web1 and under this they pass the state of rest necessary to introduce them to their winged form40#hi ,to treat of each species of the ichneumon would alone fill a volume2 ,linnus enumerates no less than seventy-seven of them4#ij #hi ,inspector1 ,no4 #fd4 #ij 8,the genus of insects called ichneumon derive their support and nourishment from other insects1 some depositing their eggs in the larva1 others again in the pupa1 and some even in the ovum or egg itself1 the contents of which1 minute as they are1 are sufficient to support the young larv until their change into their pupa state4 ,some deposit only one egg in a place1 as the ichneumon ovulorum1 and others again a great number1 as ichneumon puparum1 c4 but whether the egg be placed in the pupa1 larva1 or ovum1 the destruction of the foster parent is inevitable4 ,the larv of large moths or butterflies that have been wounded by an ichneumon1 live and feed1 though with evident marks of disease1 until those parasites are full fed1 and able to change into their second or pupa state40 ,see ,observations on the conomy of the ,ichneumon ,manifestator1 in the ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society1 vol4 #c1 p4 #bc seq4 by ,t4 ,marsham1 ,esq4 ,sec4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,edit4 ,of this strange scene it is difficult for us to form a proper judgment2 we are unacquainted with the organs of the caterpillar1 ignorant of the nature of its sensations1 and therefore we cannot be assured what may be the effects of that which we see it suffer4 8,it is wisdom to suppose we are ignorant1 while we know the ,creator cannot be cruel40 ,from revelation we learn1 that man is the mean through which life is conveyed to the creatures of this lower world2 that by sinking into error1 and fostering evil1 he perverts his own life1 and corrupts all that which proceeds from him3 so that the effects are the same on the orders beneath him1 as would arise to the world if a continual cloud was placed between us and the sun1 depriving us at once of the salutary effects of its invigorating heat and cheering light4 ,hence there is in this degraded world an obscure and melancholy shade cast over all the beauties of creation4 ,lastly1 the number of insects which feed upon others1 nay1 some even upon their own species1 is very great3 it is among these that we find the traces of the greatest art and cunning1 as well in attack as defence2 some indeed use main force alone4 ,most persons are acquainted with the dexterous arts of the spider1 the curious construction of the web he spins1 and the central position he takes1 in order to watch more effectually the least motion that may be communicated to its tender net4 ,those who wish to pursue this subject further1 will find ample satisfaction by consulting the works of ,reaumur and ,de ,geer4 ,,of ,,the ,,habitation ,,of ,,insects4 ,insects may be divided1 with respect to their habitations1 into two classes1 aquatic and terrestrial4 ,stagnant waters are generally filled with insects1 who live therein in different manners4 ,these are1 #a4 ,aquatic insects which remain always on the superficies of the water1 or which at least plunge themselves therein but rarely4 #b4 ,others that live only in the water1 and cannot subsist out of it4 #c4 ,many1 after having lived in the water while in the larva and pupa state1 quit it afterwards with wings1 and become entirely terrestrial4 #d4 ,some undergo all their transformations in the water1 and then become amphibious4 #e4 ,others again are born and grow in the water1 but undergo their pupa state on dry land1 and after they are arrived at their perfect state1 live equally in air and water2 and #f4 ,there are some who live at the same time part in the water and part on land1 but after their transformation cease to be aquatic4 ,among the insects which remain on the superficies of the water1 are some spiders1 which run with great address and agility1 without moistening their feet or their body2 when they repose themselves1 they extend their feet as much as possible4 ,there are also aquatic bugs1 which swim1 or rather run on the water with great velocity1 and by troops2 another bug walks very slowly on the water2 the gyrinus moves very swiftly1 and in circles4 ,there is a species of podura#ia which live in society1 and are often accumulated together in little black lumps4 ,those insects which always live in the water are generally born with the figure which they retain during their whole lives1 as the monoculi1 crabs1 several kinds of water mites1 c4 #ia ,de ,geer ,discours sur les ,insectes1 tom4 #b1 p4 #ajc4 ,those insects which1 after having lived in the water1 leave it when in a winged state1 are very numerous3 among these we may reckon the libellula1 the ephemera1 the phryganea1 culices1 tipul1 and some species of musc4 ,all these1 when in the larva and pupa state1 live in the water2 but when they have assumed their perfect form1 are entirely terrestrial1 and would perish in their former element4 ,the notonecta1 the nepa or aquatic scorpion1 c4 never quit the water till they have passed through all their transformations1 when they become amphibious1 generally quitting it in the evening4 ,the water-beetles1 of which there are many species1 remain in the water all day1 but toward evening come upon the ground and fly about1 then plunge themselves again in the water at the approach of the rising sun4 ,the larv of these insects are entirely aquatic1 but when the time of their pupa state arrives1 they take to the earth1 where they make a spherical case2 so that these insects are aquatic in the larva1 terrestrial in the pupa1 and amphibious in the imago state4 ,we find an instance of an insect that lives at the same time in the water and the air1 in the singular larva described by ,reaumur1 ,memoires de l',acad4 in #agad1 p4 #bjc4 ,it has the head and tail in the water1 while the rest of the body is continually kept above the surface4 ,in order to support itself in this singular position1 it bends the body1 bringing the head near the tail1 raising the rest above the water1 and supporting itself against some fixed object1 as a plant1 or against the borders of the pond2 or1 if it be placed in a glass vessel1 against the sides of the vessel2 and if the glass be inclined gently1 so that the water may nearly cover the larva1 it immediately changes its position1 in order that part of the body may be kept dry4 ,at the baths of ,abano1 a small town in the ,venetian state1 there is a multitude of springs1 strongly impregnated with sulphur1 and of a boiling heat4 ,in the midst of these boiling springs1 within three feet of four or five of them1 there is a tepid one about blood-warm4 ,in this water1 not only the common potamogetons and confervas1 or pond-weeds and water-mosses are found growing in an healthy state1 but numbers of small black water beetles are seen swimming about1 which die on being taken out and plunged suddenly into cold water4#ib #ib ,jones's ,physiological ,disquisitions1 p4 #aga4 ,many insects that live under the surface of the earth crawl out on certain occasions1 as the julus1 scolopendra1 and the oniscus2 they are often also to be found under stones1 or pieces of rotten wood4 ,some insects remain under ground part of their life1 but quit that situation after their change2 as do some caterpillars1 many of the coleoptera class1 c4 ,there are some species of spiders1 which form habitations in sand2 one of which makes a hole in the sand1 lining it with a kind of silk1 to prevent its crumbling away2 this spider generally keeps on the watch near the mouth of the hole1 and1 if a fly approach1 runs at it with such velocity1 as seldom to fail in its attempt of seizing the little animal1 which is immediately conveyed to the den of the spider4 ,the formica-leo1 or ant-lion1 also inhabits sand4#ic #ic ,the art and dexterity with which the formica-leo entraps ants1 as well as other insects1 merits notice2 he makes a pit in fine dry sand1 shaped like a funnel or an inverted cone1 at the point or reverted apex of which he takes his station1 concealing every part of his body except the tips of his two horns2 these are expanded to the two sides of the pit4 ,when an insect treads on the edge of this precipice1 it perhaps slides into it2 if not1 its steps remove a little of the sand1 which of course descends down the sides1 and gives the enemy notice of his prey4 ,he then throws up the sand with which his head is covered1 to involve the insect1 and bring it to the bottom with the returning force of the sand3 this1 by repeated efforts he is sure to effect1 as all the attempts of the unfortunate victim to escape1 when once within the verge of the pit1 are in vain4 ,one species of the formica-leo forms no pit to entrap its prey1 but seizes it by main force4 ,,edit4 ,another spider1 discovered by ,m4 l',abbe ,sauvage1#id burrows in the earth like a rabbit1 making a hole one or two feet deep1 of a regular diameter1 and sufficiently large to move itself with ease4 ,it lines the whole of it1 either to keep the ground from tumbling in1 or in order to perceive more regularly at the bottom what happens at the mouth1 at which it forms a kind of door1 made of different layers of earth1 connected together by threads and covered with a strong web of a close texture2 the threads are prolonged on one side1 and fixed to the ground1 so as to form a strong joint2 the door is hung in such a manner1 as always to fall by its own gravity4 ,one of these cases or nests is in her ,majesty's cabinet at ,kew4 #id ,histoire de l',acad4 #ageh1 p4 #bf4 ,the several parts of trees and plants afford a variety of habitations for insects1 where they find an abundance of food4 ,they dwell1 l4 in the roots2 #b4 in the wood2 #c4 in the leaves1 and in the galls which grow upon them and the branches2 #d4 in the flowers2 #e4 in the fruits and grains4 ,to enumerate the various species of these inhabitants would be endless2 many particulars have been already noticed2 it has also appeared that some inhabit the most ftid substances they can find1 while others dwell with and live on the larger animals2 so that it only remains just to mention some of those in whom industry and art is more strongly marked to our eyes than in others4 ,among the solitary bees there are so many curious circumstances to be described1 that a single volume would not suffice to contain the particulars2 we shall here only relate such as concern their habitations4 ,one of these forms its nest under ground1 which is composed of several cells artfully let into each other1 but not covered with a common inclosure2 each cell consists of two or three membranes1 inexpressibly fine1 and placed over each other4 ,the cavity1 in which the nest is placed1 is smeared over with a layer of matter1 like that of which the cells are formed1 and apparently similar to the viscous humour which snails spread in their passage from one place to another1 and it is probable that they are formed of the same materials2 this substance1 though of so delicate a nature1 gives them such a degree of consistency1 that they may be handled without altering their form4 ,an egg is deposited at the bottom of each cell1 where1 after it is hatched1 the worm finds itself in the midst of a plentiful stock of provision2 for in each cell there is placed a quantity of paste1 or a kind of wax1 which is to serve as food for the worm1 and support the wall of the cell4 ,the worm is also instructed so to conduct itself1 and eat this food1 as to leave sufficient props for supporting the walls of its apartment4 ,many species of these bees content themselves with penetrating into the earth1 scooping out hollow cavities therein1 polishing the walls1 then depositing an egg and a sufficient quantity of provisions4 ,there is another species1 that forms its nest under ground with remarkable industry2 this bee generally makes a perpendicular hole in the earth about three inches deep1 and cylindrical1 till within about three-fourths of an inch of the bottom1 when it begins to enlarge2 as soon as the bee has given it the suitable proportions1 it proceeds to line not only the whole inside of its dwelling1 but round the entrance2 the substance with which it is lined is of a crimson colour1 and looks like satin4 ,from this circumstance ,reaumur#ie terms it the tapestry bee4 ,this tapestry or lining is formed of fragments of the flowers of the wild poppy1 which she cuts out curiously1 and then seizing them with her legs1 conveys them to her nest4 ,if the pieces are wrinkled1 she first straightens and then affixes them to her walls with wonderous art2 she generally applies two layers of these fragments one over the other4 ,if the piece she has cut and transported be too large for the place she intends it for1 she clips off the superfluous parts and conveys the shreds out of the apartment4 ,after the bee has lined her cell1 she fills it nearly half an inch deep with a paste proper to nourish the larva when hatched from the egg2 when the bee has amassed a sufficient quantity of paste1 she then takes her tapestry1 and folds it over the paste and egg1 which are by these means inclosed as it were in a bag of paste2 this done1 she fills up with earth the empty space that is above the bag4 ,there is another bee which does the same with rose-leaves1 and in the substance of a thick post4 ,a friend of mine had a piece of wood cut from a strong post that supported the roof of a cart-house1 full of these cells or round holes1 three-eighths of an inch in diameter1 and about three-fourths deep1 each of which was filled with these rose-leaf cases finely covered in at top and bottom4 #ie ,reaumur ,memoires pour l',histoire des ,insectes1 edit4 #hvo4 tom4 #f1 partie #a1 p4 #agj4 ,the mason bee is so called by ,reaumur from the manner of its building its nest4 ,these bees collect with their jaws small parcels of earth and sand1 which they glue together with a strong cement furnished from the proboscis2 and of this they form a simple but commodious habitation1 which is generally placed along walls that are exposed to the south4 ,each nest resembles a lump of rude earth1 of about six or seven inches diameter1 thrown against the wall2 the labour of constructing so large an edifice must be very great1 as the bee can only carry a few grains at a time4 ,the exterior form is rude and irregular1 but the construction and art exhibited in the interior parts make up for this seeming defect2 it is generally divided into twelve or fifteen cells1 separated from each other by a thick wall2 in each of these an egg is deposited by the parent bee4 ,the cells are not constructed all at once1 for when one is finished1 she places an egg therein1 with a sufficient quantity of honey to nourish the larva2 she then builds another4 ,when the insect is arrived at a proper state1 it penetrates through its inclosures by means of its strong jaws4 ,when all the bees have quitted the nest1 there are as many holes on the surface thereof as there are cells within4 ,we find no neutral bees among this species1 or at least we do not know of any being yet discovered4 ,another species of the solitary bee 7apis centuncularis1 ,linn47 constructs her nest in pieces of rotten wood1 and has therefore been called the carpenter bee4#if ,she divides it into stages1 disposing them sometimes in three rows1 with partitions curiously left between each2 in these she deposits her eggs1 with the food necessary for the young ones when hatched4 ,they separate the wood in a very expeditious manner1 by dividing its ligneous fibres or threads1 till they have made a proper sized hole4 #if ,geoffroy ,hist4 abregee des ,insectes1 tom4 #b1 p4 #dja4 ,the art and sagacity displayed by another bee1#ig whose nest is constructed of single pieces of leaves1 is truly wonderful4 ,the nest itself is cylindrical1 formed of several cells1 placed one within the other1 as thimbles are in a hard-ware shop4 ,the cells consist of several pieces cut from one leaf1 of forms and proportions proper to coincide with the place each is intended to occupy4 ,the outer case or cover is formed with equal care and exactness4 ,in a word1 says ,bonnet1 there is so much exactness1 symmetry1 uniformity1 and skill1 in this little master-piece1 that we should not believe it to be the work of a fly1 if we did not know at what school she learnt the art of constructing it4 ,in each cell the mother deposits an almost liquid substance1 and yet so nicely are the cells formed1 as not to suffer any of this substance to be lost4 ,but for a minute account of the works of this bee1 and the curious mechanism of its cells1 we must refer the reader to ,reaumur's admirable history of insects4 #ig ,reaumur ,memoires pour l',histoire des ,insectes1 tom4 #f1 par4 #a1 p4 #abb4 ,the proceedings of the mason ichneumon wasp1#ih sphex1 ,linn4 are totally different from those of the common wasp1 though equally curious4 ,it generally begins its work in ,may1 and continues it for the greatest part of ,june4 ,the true object of her labour seems to be the digging of a hole a few inches deep in the ground2 yet in the constructing of this1 she forms a hollow tube above ground1 the base of which is the aperture of the hole1 and which is raised as high above ground as the hole is deep below2 it is formed with a great deal of care1 resembling a gross kind of fillagree work1 consisting of the sand drawn from the hole4 ,the sand out of which she excavates her cell1 is nearly as hard as a common stone2 this it readily softens with a penetrating liquor with which she is well provided2 a drop or two of it is imbibed immediately by the sand on which it falls1 which is instantly rendered so soft1 that she can separate and knead it with her teeth and fore feet1 forming it into a small ball1 which she places on the edge of the hole as the foundation stone of the pillar she is going to erect2 the whole of it is formed of such balls1 ranged circularly1 and then placed one above the other4 ,she leaves her work at intervals1 probably in order to renew her stock of that liquor which is so necessary for her operations4 ,these intervals are of short duration2 she soon returns1 and labours with so much activity and ardour1 that in a few hours she will dig a hole two or three inches deep1 and raise a hollow pillar two inches high4 ,after the column has been raised a certain height perpendicular from the ground1 it begins to curve a little1 which curvature increases till it is finished1 though the cylindrical form is maintained3 she constructs several of these holes all of the same form1 and for the same purpose4 ,it is easy to see why the hole was dug in the ground2 that it was destined to receive an egg2 but it is not so easy to perceive why the tube of sand was formed4 ,by attending to the labours of the wasp1 one end1 however1 may be discovered2 it will be found to serve the purpose of a scaffold1 and that the balls are as useful to the wasp1 as materials1 c4 to the mason2 and are therefore placed as much within her reach as possible4 ,she uses them to stop and fill up the hole after she has deposited an egg therein1 so that the pillar is then destroyed1 and not the least remains left in the nest4 ,the parent wasp generally leaves ten or twelve worms as provision necessary and proper for the growth of the young larva3 no purveyor could take better precautions than our wasp1 for she has received her instructions from ,,him who provides for the necessities of all his creatures4 ,in selecting the worms1 she chooses those of a proper size1 that they may be sufficient in quantity1 and of an age that will not be in danger of perishing with hunger1 in which case they would have been corrupted2 she therefore selects them when they have their full growth4 ,it is also observed1 that if she choose a larger sort1 she gives a less number of them1 and so reciprocally4 #ih ,reaumur ,mem4 pour l',histoire des ,insectes1 tom4 xi4 par4 #b1 p4 #i4 ,from a retrospect view of this chapter1 we may observe a striking difference between man and the lower orders of animal creation4 ,man is born totally ignorant2 so much so1 that he has no knowledge even of the mother's breast1 till he has been brought acquainted with it by repeated trials2 he has no innate ideas1 is unable to choose what is proper for his food2 he cannot form his voice to any articulate pronunciation1 or to express the affections of love2 whereas the quadruped1 the bird1 and the insect1 are born to all that knowledge which is necessary for the gratification of those desires or that love which forms their life2 and1 consequently1 in the knowledge of every thing relating to their well-being1 their food1 their habitations1 the commerce of the sexes1 their provision for their young1 c4 from the impulse of the pleasure arising from these innate desires and affections1 the larva is also prompted to seek and aspire after a change of its earthly state4 ,if it were not foreign to the subject in hand1 it might be easy to shew1 by a variety of reasons1 that this imperfection of man at his nativity constitutes his real perfection1 and places him infinitely1 if ,i may so speak1 above the brute creation2 for man is not created relatively perfect1 but formed a recipient of all perfection4 ,,of ,,the ,,termites1 ,,generally ,,called ,,white ,,ants4 ,as no insects exceed the termites in their wonderful conomy1 wise contrivances1 and stupendous buildings1 it will be proper to give the reader some account of them2 which ,i am enabled to do from the excellent paper written by the late ,mr4 ,smeathman1 and published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agha1 part #a4 ,the termites are represented by ,linnus as the greatest plagues of both ,indies1 and are indeed justly deemed so every where between the tropics1 on account of the vast damages sustained through them in consequence of their eating and perforating wooden buildings1 utensils1 furniture1 c4 which are totally destroyed by them if not timely prevented2 for no substance less hard than metal or stone can escape their most destructive jaws4 ,these insects have been noticed by various travellers in different parts of the torrid zone2 where numerous1 as is the case with all equinoctial continents1 and islands not fully cultivated1 many persons have been excited by curiosity to observe them2 and1 indeed1 those devoid of that disposition must have been very fortunate1 if1 after a short residence1 they were not compelled to pay them attention for the preservation of their property4 ,they make their approaches chiefly under ground1 descending below the foundations of houses and stores1 at several feet from the surface1 and rising again either in the floors1 or entering at the bottoms of the posts of which the sides of the buildings are composed1 boring quite through them1 following the course of the fibres to the top1 or making lateral perforations and cavities here and there as they proceed4 ,while some are employed in gutting the posts1 others ascend from them1 entering a rafter1 or some other part of the roof4 ,if they once find the thatch1 which seems to be a favourite food1 they soon bring up wet clay1 and build their pipes or galleries through the roof in various directions1 as long as it will support them2 sometimes eating the palm-tree leaves and branches of which it is composed1 and perhaps1 for variety seems very pleasing to them1 the rattan1 or other running plant1 which is used as a cord to tie the various parts of the roof together1 and that to the posts which support it4 ,thus1 with the assistance of the rats1 who during the rainy season are apt to shelter themselves there1 and to burrow through it1 they very soon ruin the house1 by weakening the fastenings1 and exposing it to the wet4 ,in the mean time the posts will be perforated in every direction as full of holes as that timber in the bottoms of ships1 which has been bored by the worms2 the fibrous and knotty parts1 which are the hardest1 being left to the last4 ,these insects are not less expeditious in destroying the shelves1 wainscotting1 and other fixtures of an house1 than the house itself4 ,they are continually piercing and boring in all directions1 and sometimes go out of the broadside of one post into that of another adjoining to it2 but they prefer and always destroy the softer substances the first1 and are particularly fond of pine and fir boards1 which they excavate and carry away with wonderful dispatch and astonishing cunning2 for1 except a shelf has something standing upon it1 as a book1 or any thing else which may tempt them1 they will not perforate the surface1 but artfully preserve it quite whole1 and eat away all the inside1 except a few fibres which barely keep the two sides connected together2 so that a piece of an inch-board1 which appears solid to the eye1 will not weigh much more than two sheets of pasteboard of equal dimensions1 after these animals have been a little while in possession of it4 ,in short1 the termites are so insidious in their attacks1 that we cannot be too much upon our guard against them3 they will sometimes begin and raise their works1 especially in new houses1 through the floor4 ,if you destroy the work so begun1 and make a fire upon the spot1 the next night they will attempt to rise through another part2 and if they happen to emerge under a chest or trunk1 early in the night will pierce the bottom1 and destroy or spoil every thing in it before the morning4 ,on these accounts the inhabitants set all their chests or boxes upon stones or bricks1 so as to leave the bottoms of such furniture some inches above the ground1 which not only prevents these insects finding them out so readily1 but preserves the bottoms from a corrosive damp1 which would strike from the earth through1 and rot every thing therein3 a vast deal of vermin also would harbour under1 such as cockroaches1 centipedes1 millepedes1 scorpions1 ants1 and various other noisome insects4 ,it may be presumed that they have obtained the name of ants from the similarity in their manner of living with those insects1 which is in large communities1 that erect very extraordinary nests1 for the most part on the surface of the ground2 from whence their excursions are made through subterraneous passages or covered galleries1 which they build whenever necessity obliges1 or plunder induces them to march above ground1 and at a great distance from their habitations1 carry on a business of depredation and destruction scarce credible but to those who have seen it2 but1 notwithstanding they live in communities1 and are1 like the ants1 omnivorous2 though1 like them1 at a certain period they are furnished with four wings1 and emigrate or colonize at the same season1 they are by no means the same kind of insects1 nor does their form correspond with that of ants in any one state of their existence4 ,the termites resemble the ants1 indeed1 in their provident and diligent labour1 but surpass them1 as well as the bees1 wasps1 beavers1 and all other animals1 in the art of building1 as much as ,europeans excel the most uncultivated savages4 ,they shew more substantial instances of ingenuity and industry than any other animals2 and do1 in fact1 lay up vast magazines of provisions and other stores2 a degree of prudence which has of late years been denied1 perhaps without reason1 to the ants4 ,the communities consist of one male and one female1 which are generally the common parents of the whole or greater part of the rest1 and of three orders of insects1 apparently very different species1 but really the same1 which together compose great commonwealths or rather monarchies4 ,the great ,linnus having seen or heard of but two of these orders1 has classed the genus erroneously1 for he has placed it among the aptera1 or insects without wings2 whereas the insect in its perfect state1 having four wings without any sting1 belongs to the neuroptera2 in which class it will constitute a new genus of many species4 ,the different species of this genus resemble each other in form1 in their manner of living1 and in their good and bad qualities1 but differ as much as birds in the manner of building their habitations or nests1 and in the choice of the materials of which they compose them4 ,there are some species which build upon the surface of the ground1 or part above and part beneath2 and one or two species1 perhaps more1 that build on the stem or branches of trees4 ,there are of every species of termites three orders3 #a4 ,the working insects1 which for brevity we shall call labourers4 #b4 ,the fighters or soldiers1 which do not labour2 and #c4 ,the winged or perfect insects1 which are male and female1 and capable of propagation4 ,from these the kings and queens are chosen1 and nature has so ordered it1 that they emigrate within a few weeks after their elevation to this state1 and either establish new kingdoms1 or perish within a day or two4 ,of these1 the working insects or labourers are always the most numerous2 among that species emphatically called termes bellicosus1 which is the largest1 there seem to be at the least one-hundred labourers to one of the fighting insects or soldiers4 ,they are in this state about one-fourth of an inch long1 and twenty-five of them weigh about a grain1 so that they are not so large as some of our ants2 from their external habits and fondness for wood1 they have been very expressively called wood-lice by some people1 and the whole genus has been known by that name1 particularly among the ,french4 ,they resemble them1 it is true1 very much at a distance2 they run as fast or faster than any other insect of their size1 and are incessantly in a bustle4 ,the second order1 or soldiers1 have a very different appearance from the labourers1 and have been by some authors supposed to be the males1 and the former neuters2 but they are1 in fact1 the same insects as the foregoing1 only they have undergone a change of form1 and approached one degree nearer to the perfect state4 ,they are much larger1 being half an inch long1 and equal in size to fifteen of the labourers4 ,there is now1 likewise1 a most remarkable circumstance in the form of the head and mouth2 for in the former state the mouth is evidently calculated for gnawing and holding bodies2 but in this state1 the jaws being shaped like two very sharp awls a little jagged1 they are incapable of any thing but piercing or wounding1 for which purposes they are well calculated1 being as hard as a crab's claw and placed in a strong horny head larger than all the rest of the body together4 ,the insect in its perfect state is varied still more in its form2 the head1 thorax1 and abdomen1 differ almost entirely from the same parts in the labourers and soldiers2 and1 besides this1 the animal is now furnished with four fine large brownish transparent wings1 with which it is1 at the time of emigration1 to wing its way in search of a new settlement2 in short1 it differs so much from its form and appearance in the two other states1 that it has never been supposed to be the same animal1 but by those who have seen it in the same nest2 and some of these have distrusted the evidence of their senses4 ,it was so long before ,mr4 ,smeathman met with them in the nests1 that he doubted the information which was given him by the natives1 that they belonged to the same family3 indeed1 twenty nests may be opened without finding one winged one2 for those are to be found only just before the commencement of the rainy season1 when they undergo the last change1 which is preparative to their colonization4 ,add to this1 they sometimes abandon an outward part of their building1 the community being diminished by some accident that is unknown2 sometimes different species of the real ant1 formica1 possess themselves by force of a lodgment1 and so are frequently dislodged from the same nest1 and taken for the same kind of insects4 ,this is often the case with the nests of the smaller species1 which are frequently totally abandoned by the termites1 and completely inhabited by different species of ants1 cockroaches1 scolopendr1 scorpions1 and other vermin fond of obscure retreats1 that occupy different parts of their roomy buildings4 ,in the winged state1 their size as well as form is altered4 ,their bodies in this state measure between six and seven-tenths of an inch in length1 their wings above two inches and an half from tip to tip1 and they are equal in bulk to about thirty labourers1 or two soldiers4 ,they are furnished with two large eyes placed on each side of the head2 if they had any before1 they are not easily to be distinguished4 ,in this form the animal comes abroad during or soon after the first tornado1 which at the latter end of the dry season proclaims the approach of the ensuing rains1 and seldom waits for a second or third shower2 if the first1 as is generally the case1 happen in the night1 and bring much wet after it1 the quantities that are to be found the next morning all over the surface of the earth1 but particularly on the waters1 is astonishing2 for their wings are only calculated to carry them a few hours2 and after the rising of the sun1 not one in a thousand is to be found with four wings1 unless the morning continues rainy1 when here and there a solitary being is seen winging its way from one place to another1 as if solicitous to avoid its numerous enemies1 particularly various species of ants1 which are hunting on every spray1 on every leaf1 and in every possible place for this unhappy race1 of which probably not one pair in many millions are preserved to fulfil the first law of nature1 and lay the foundation of a new community4 ,not only all kinds of ants1 and other insects1 but birds1 and carnivorous reptiles1 are upon the hunt for them1 and the inhabitants of many countries eat them4 ,from one of the most active1 industrious1 and rapacious2 from one of the most fierce and implacable little animals in the world1 they are in this state changed into an innocent helpless insect1 incapable of making the least resistance to the smallest ant4 ,the ants are to be seen on every side in infinite numbers1 of various species and sizes1 dragging these annual victims to their different nests4 ,some are however so fortunate as to escape1 and be discovered by the labouring insects that are continually running about the surface of the ground under their covered galleries1 the little industrious creatures immediately inclose them in a small chamber of clay1 suitable to their size1 into which at first they leave but one small entrance1 only large enough for themselves and the soldiers to go in and out1 but necessity obliges them to make more entrances4 ,the voluntary subjects charge themselves with the task of providing for the offspring of their sovereigns1 as well as to work and to fight for them1 until they shall have raised a progeny capable at least of dividing the task with them4 ,the business of propagation soon commences2 and the labourers having constructed a small wooden nursery1 hereafter to be described1 carry the eggs and lodge them there as fast as they can obtain them from the queen4 ,about this time a most extraordinary change begins to take place in the queen1 to which we know nothing similar1 except in the pulex penetrans of ,linnus1 the jigger of the ,west-,indies1 and in the different species of coccus cochineal4 ,the abdomen of this female begins gradually to extend and enlarge to such an enormous size1 that an old queen will have it increased so as to be fifteen hundred or two thousand times the bulk of the rest of her body1 and twenty or thirty thousand times the bulk of a labourer2 the skin between the segments of the abdomen extends in every direction1 and at last the segments are removed to half an inch distance from each other1 though at first the length of the whole abdomen was not above half an inch4 ,they preserve their dark-brown colour1 and the upper part of the abdomen is marked with a regular series of brown bars1 from the thorax to the posterior part of the abdomen1 while the intervals between them are covered with a thin1 delicate1 transparent skin1 and appear of a fine cream colour1 a little shaded by the dark colour of the intestines and watery fluid seen here and there beneath4 ,it is supposed that the animal is upwards of two years old when the abdomen is increased to three inches in length3 they have sometimes been found of near twice that size4 ,the abdomen is then of an irregular oblong shape1 being contracted by the muscles of every segment1 and is become one vast matrix full of eggs1 which make long circumvolutions through an innumerable quantity of very minute vessels1 that circulate round the inside in a serpentine manner1 which would exercise the ingenuity of a skilful anatomist to dissect and develope4 ,this singular matrix is not more remarkable for its amazing extension and size1 than for its peristaltic motion1 which resembles the undulation of waves1 and continues incessantly without any apparent effort of the animal2 so that one part or other is alternately rising and sinking in perpetual succession4 ,the matrix seems never at rest1 but to be always protruding eggs to the amount1 in old queens1 of sixty in a minute1 or eighty thousand and upwards in one day of twenty-four hours4 ,these eggs are instantly taken from her body by her attendants1 and carried to the nurseries1 which in a great nest may some of them be four or five feet distant in a straight line1 and consequently much farther by their winding galleries4 ,here the young1 when they are hatched1 are attended and provided with every thing necessary1 until they are able to shift for themselves1 and take their share of the labours of the community4 ,the termes bellicosus being the largest species1 is most remarkable1 and best known on the coast of ,africa4 ,it erects immense buildings of well-tempered clay or earth1 which are contrived and finished with such art and ingenuity1 that we are at a loss to say whether they are most to be admired on that account1 or for their enormous magnitude and solidity4 ,the reason that the larger termites have been most remarked is obvious2 they not only build larger and more curious nests1 but are also more numerous and do infinitely more mischief to mankind4#ii #ii ,it may appear surprizing1 that a ,being perfectly good should have created animals which seem to serve no other end but to spread destruction and desolation wherever they go4 ,but let us be cautious in suspecting any imperfection in the ,father of the universe3 what1 on a superficial view may seem only productive of mischief1 will upon mature deliberation be found worthy of that wisdom which pervades every part of the creation4 ,many poisons prove valuable medicines2 storms are beneficial2 and diseases often preserve life1 and are conducive to its future enjoyments4 ,the termites1 it must be allowed1 are frequently pernicious to mankind1 but they are also very useful1 and even necessary2 one valuable purpose which they serve1 is1 to destroy decayed trees and other substances1 which1 if left on the surface of the ground in hot climates1 would in a short time pollute the air4 ,in this respect1 they resemble very much the common flies1 which are regarded by the generality of mankind as noxious1 and at best1 as useless beings in the creation2 but this is certainly for want of due consideration4 ,there are not probably in all nature animals of more importance2 and it would not be difficult to prove1 that we should feel the want of one or two species of large quadrupeds much less than of one or two species of these despicable looking insects4 ,nothing is more disagreeable or more pestiferous than putrid substances2 and it is apparent to all who have made the observation1 that these little insects contribute more to the quick dissolution and dispersion of putrescent matter than any other4 ,they are so necessary in all hot climates1 that even in the open fields a dead animal or small putrid substance cannot be laid on the ground two minutes1 before it will be covered with flies and their maggots1 which instantly entering1 quickly devour one part1 and1 perforating the rest in various directions1 expose the whole to be much sooner dissipated by the elements4 ,thus it is with the termites2 the rapid vegetation in hot climates1 of which no idea can be formed by any thing to be seen in this1 is equalled by as great a degree of destruction from natural as well as accidental causes4 ,when trees and even woods are in part destroyed by tornados or fire1 it is wonderful to observe how many agents are employed in hastening the total dissolution of the rest2 in this business none are so expert or so expeditious and effectual as the termites1 who in a few weeks destroy and carry away the bodies of large trees without leaving a particle behind2 thus clearing the place for other vegetables1 which soon fill up every vacancy4 ,see ,encycl4 ,brit4 art4 ,termes4 ,,edit4 ,the nests of this species are so numerous all over the island of ,bananas1 and the adjacent continent of ,africa1 that it is scarcely possible to stand upon any open place1 such as a rice plantation1 or other clear spot1 where one of these buildings is not to be seen almost close to each other4 ,in some parts near ,senegal1 as mentioned by ,m4 ,adanson1 their number1 magnitude1 and closeness of situation1 make them appear like the villages of the natives4 ,these buildings are usually termed hills1 by the inhabitants as well as strangers1 from their outward appearance1 which is that of little hills more or less conical1 generally very much in the form of sugar-loaves1 and about ten or twelve feet in perpendicular height above the common surface of the ground4 ,these hills continue quite bare until they are six or eight feet high2 but1 in time1 the dead barren clay of which they are composed becomes fertilized by the genial power of the elements in these prolific climates1 and the addition of vegetable salts and other matters brought by the wind2 and in the second or third year the hillock1 if not overshaded by trees1 becomes like the rest of the earth1 almost covered with grass and other plants2 and in the dry season1 when the herbage is burnt up by the rays of the sun1 it is not much unlike a very large hay-cock4 ,every one of these buildings consists of two distinct parts1 the exterior and interior4 ,the exterior cover is one large clay shell1 in the form of a dome1 capacious and strong enough to inclose and shelter the interior building from the vicissitudes of the weather1 and the inhabitants from the attacks of natural or accidental enemies4 ,the external cover is always1 therefore1 much stronger than the interior building1 which is the habitable part1 divided with wonderful regularity and contrivance into an amazing number of apartments for the residence of the king and queen1 for the nursing of their numerous progeny1 and for magazines1 which are always found well filled with stores and provisions4 ,these hills make their first appearance above ground by a little turret or two in the shape of sugar-loaves1 which are run a foot high or more2 soon after1 at some little distance1 while the former are increasing in height and size1 they rise others1 and so go on increasing the number1 and widening them at the base1 till their works below are covered with these turrets1 which the insects always raise highest and largest towards the middle of the hill1 and by filling up the intervals between each turret1 collect them as it were into one dome4 ,they are not very curious or exact about these turrets1 except in making them very solid and strong2 and when1 by the junction of them1 the dome is completed1 for which purpose the turrets serve as scaffolds1 they take away the middle ones entirely1 except the tops1 which joined together make the crown of the cupola1 and apply the clay to the building of the works within1 or to erecting fresh turrets for the purpose of raising the hillock still higher2 so that no doubt some part of the clay is used several times1 like the boards and posts of a mason's scaffold4 ,the royal chamber1 which1 on account of its being adapted for1 and occupied by the king and queen1 appears to be in the opinion of this little people1 of the most consequence1 is always situated as near the center of the interior building as possible1 and generally about the height of the common surface of the ground1 at a pace or two from the hillock2 it is always nearly in the shape of half an egg or an obtuse oval within1 and may be supposed to represent a long oven4 ,in the infant state of the colony1 it is not above an inch1 or thereabouts1 in length2 but in time will be increased to six or eight inches or more in the clear1 being always in proportion to the size of the queen1 who1 increasing in bulk as in age1 at length requires a chamber of such dimensions4 ,the floor is horizontal1 sometimes an inch thick and upward of solid clay2 the roof also1 which is one solid and well-turned oval arch1 is generally of about the same solidity1 but in some places it is not a quarter of an inch thick2 this is on the sides where it joins the floor1 and where the doors or entrances are made4 ,these entrances will not admit any animal larger than the soldiers or labourers2 so that the king1 and the queen1 who is when full grown a thousand times the weight of a king1 can never possibly go out4 ,the royal chamber1 if in a large hillock1 is surrounded by an innumerable quantity of others1 of different sizes1 shapes1 and dimensions2 but all of them arched1 sometimes of a circular1 sometimes of an elliptical form4 ,these chambers either open into each other1 or have communicating passages1 and being always empty1 are evidently made for the soldiers and attendants2 of whom1 it will soon appear1 great numbers are necessary1 and of course always in waiting4 ,these apartments are joined by the magazines and nurseries2 the former are chambers of clay1 and are always well filled with provisions1 which to the naked eye seem to consist of the raspings of wood and plants1 which the termites destroy1 but are found by the microscope to be chiefly composed of the gums or inspissated juices of plants1 thrown together in little masses1 some of which are finer than others1 and resemble the sugar about preserved fruits2 others are like drops of gum4 ,the magazines are intermixed with the nurseries1 buildings totally different from the rest of the apartments1 being composed entirely of wooden materials1 seemingly joined together with gums4 ,they are called nurseries because they are invariably occupied by the eggs and young ones1 which appear at first in the shape of labourers1 but as white as snow4 ,these buildings are exceedingly compact1 and divided into many very small irregular-shaped chambers1 placed all round the royal apartments1 and as near as possible to them4 ,when the nest is in the infant state1 the nurseries are close to the royal chamber2 but as in process of time the queen increases in size1 it is necessary to enlarge the chamber for her accommodation2 and as she then lays a greater number of eggs1 and requires a more numerous train of attendants1 so it is necessary to enlarge and increase the number of the adjacent apartments2 for which purpose1 the small nurseries which are first built1 are taken to pieces1 rebuilt a little further off1 a size larger1 and the number of them increased at the same time4 ,thus they continually enlarge their apartments1 pull down1 repair1 or rebuild1 according to their wants1 with a degree of sagacity1 regularity1 and foresight1 not even imitated by any other kind of animals or insects4 ,the nurseries are inclosed in chambers of clay1 like those which contain the provisions1 but much more extensive4 ,in the early state of the nest they are not larger than an hazel nut1 but in great hills are often as large as a child's head of a year old4 ,the royal chamber is situated nearly on a level with the surface of the ground1 at an equal distance from all the sides of the building1 and directly under the apex of the hill4 ,it is1 on all sides1 both above and below1 surrounded by what may be called the royal apartments1 which have only labourers and soldiers in them1 and can be intended for no other purpose than for these to wait in1 either to guard or serve their common father and mother1 on whose safety depends the happiness1 and1 according to the account of the negroes1 even the existence of the whole community4 ,these apartments form an intricate labyrinth1 which extends a foot or more in diameter from the royal chamber on every side4 ,here the nurseries and magazines of provisions begin1 and being separated by small empty chambers and galleries1 which go round them1 or communicate from one to the other1 are continued on all sides to the outward shell1 and reach up within it two-thirds or three-fourths of its height1 having an open area in the middle under the dome1 resembling the nave of an old cathedral4 ,this area is surrounded by large gothic arches1 which are sometimes two or three feet high next the front of the area1 but diminish very rapidly as they recede from thence1 like the arches of aisles in perspective1 and are soon lost among the innumerable chambers and nurseries behind them4 ,all these chambers1 and the passages leading to and from them1 being arched1 contribute to support one another2 and while the interior large arches prevent their falling into the center1 and keep the area open1 the exterior building supports them on the outside4 ,the interior building1 or assemblage of nurseries1 chambers1 c4 has a flattish top or roof without any perforation2 by this contrivance1 if any water should penetrate the external dome1 the apartments below are preserved from injury4 ,it is never exactly flat and uniform1 because they are always adding to it by building more chambers and nurseries3 so that the divisions or columns between the future arched apartments resemble the pinnacles upon the fronts of some old buildings1 and demand particular notice1 as affording one proof that for the most part the insects project their arches1 and do not make them by excavation4 ,the area is likewise water-proof1 and contrived so as to let the water off1 if it should get in and run over1 by some short way1 into the subterraneous passages1 which run under the lowest apartments in the hill in various directions1 and are of an astonishing size1 being wider than the bore of a great cannon4 ,there is an account of one that was measured1 which was perfectly cylindrical1 and thirteen inches in diameter4 ,these subterraneous passages or galleries are lined very thick with the same kind of clay of which the hill is composed1 and ascend the inside of the outward shell in a spiral manner2 winding round the whole building up to the top1 they intersect each other at different heights1 opening either immediately into the dome in various places1 and into the interior building1 the new turrets1 c4 or communicating thereto by other galleries of different bores or diameters1 either circular or oval4 ,from every part of these large galleries are various small pipes or galleries1 leading to different parts of the building2 under ground there are a great many which lead downward1 by sloping descents three and four feet perpendicular among the gravel1 from whence the labouring termites cull the finer parts1 which being worked up in their mouths to the consistence of mortar1 becomes that solid clay or stone1 of which their hills and all their buildings1 except the nurseries1 are composed4 ,other galleries again ascend and lead out horizontally on every side1 and are carried under ground near to the surface1 a vast distance4 ,there is a kind of necessity for the galleries under the hills being thus large1 as they are the great thoroughfares for all the labourers and soldiers going forth or returning upon any business whatever1 whether fetching clay1 wood1 water1 or provisions2 and they are certainly well calculated for the purposes to which they are applied1 by the spiral slope which is given them4 ,those species which build either the roofed turrets1 or the nests in the trees1 seem in most instances to have a strong resemblance to the preceding1 both in their form and conomy1 going through the same changes from the egg to the winged state4 ,the queens also increase to a great size when compared with the labourers1 but very short of those queens before described4 ,the largest are from about an inch to an inch and an half long1 and not much thicker than a common quill4 ,there is the same kind of peristaltic motion in the abdomen1 but in a much smaller degree2 and as the animal is incapable of moving from her place1 the eggs1 no doubt are carried to the different cells by the labourers1 and reared with a care similar to that which is practised in the larger nests4 ,it is remarkable of all these different species1 that the working and the fighting insects never expose themselves to the open air1 but either travel under ground1 or within such trees and substances as they destroy2 except1 indeed1 when they cannot proceed by their latent passages1 and find it convenient or necessary to search for plunder above ground3 in that case they make pipes of that material with which they build their nests4 ,the larger sort use the red clay2 the turret builders use the black clay2 and those which build in the trees employ the same ligneous substance of which their nests are composed4 ,the termites1 except their heads1 are exceedingly soft1 and covered with a very thin and delicate skin2 being blind1 they are no match on open ground for the ants1 who can see1 and are all of them covered with a strong horny shell not easily pierced1 and are of dispositions bold1 active1 and rapacious4 ,whenever the termites are dislodged from their covered ways1 the various species of formic or ants1 who probably are as numerous above ground1 as the latter are in their subterraneous passages1 instantly seize and drag them away to their nests1 to feed the young brood4 ,the termites are1 therefore1 exceedingly solicitous about the preserving their covered ways in good repair2 and if you demolish one of them for a few inches in length1 it is wonderful how soon they re-build it4 ,at first in their hurry they get into the open part an inch or two1 but stop so suddenly1 that it is very apparent they are surprized2 for1 though some run straight on1 and get under the arch as speedily as possible in the further part1 most of them run as fast back1 and very few will venture through that part of the track which is left uncovered4 ,in a few minutes you will perceive them re-building the arch1 and by the next morning they will have restored their gallery for three or four yards in length1 if so much has been ruined2 and upon opening it again1 will be found as numerous as ever under it1 passing both ways4 ,if you continue to destroy it several times1 they will at length seem to give up the point1 and build another in a different direction2 but1 if the old one should lead to some favourite plunder1 in a few days will re-build it again1 and1 unless you destroy their nest1 never totally abandon their1 gallery4 ,,of ,,the ,,habitations ,,of ,,caterpillars4 ,though the view which has already been given of the various proceedings of insects in forming their habitations1 has extended to some length1 ,i cannot with propriety omit noticing the wonderful art and industry which is manifested in these respects by the caterpillar2 and more particularly so1 as from the larva state the foundation of all our present knowledge of the natural history of insects has been obtained4 ,some species of caterpillars form a kind of hammock1 in which they eat and go through their various changes2 while others erect a silken tent1 under which they live until they have consumed the surrounding herbs4 ,they then leave their abodes1 and pitch their tents in a more fruitful spot4 ,many associate together all their lives2 these proceed from the same moth1 who deposited her eggs near each other1 or rather laid them in a heap1 forming as it were a kind of nest4 ,they are generally hatched on the same day1 and1 living together1 constitute a new species of republic1 in which all are brethren4 ,they often amount to near six hundred in a family1 though they are frequently to be found with only about two hundred4 ,of these social caterpillars there are some species which not only continue with the society while they are in a larva state1 but even place their pup close together4 ,there are other kinds who associate only for a short period4 ,among the vast variety of insects which inhabit the oak1 there is a species of caterpillar which live separate till they arrive at a certain age2 they then assemble together1 and do not quit each other till they attain their perfect state4 ,as the number thus assembled is considerable1 the nest is also very large4 ,they remain in-doors during the day1 not leaving their habitation till sun-set4 ,when they go out1 one of the body precedes the rest as a chief1 whom they regularly follow2 when the leader stops1 the rest do the same1 and wait till it goes on again1 before they recommence their march4 ,the first file generally consists of a single caterpillar1 which is succeeded by a double file2 these1 by three in a row1 which are then followed by files of five1 and so on4 ,they keep exceeding close to each other1 not leaving any interval either between the ranks1 or those in each rank2 all of them following their captain in every direction1 whether straight or crooked4 ,after they have taken their repast1 which is done on the march1 they return to their nest in the same order in which they set out4 ,this mode is followed till they are full grown1 when each forms a cone1 in which it is changed into a chrysalis4 ,m4 ,bonnet has shewn1 that though these caterpillars proceed often very far from their nest1 it is by no means difficult for them to get back again1 because they spin over all the places in their rout4 ,the first leads the way1 the second follows spinning1 the third spins after the first and second1 and so on with the rest4 ,all these threads form by degrees a small shining track1 a little path2 and all these paths meet at the nest4 ,to be fully convinced of the use of these threads1 let any one but break the continuation of them in some particular part1 and he will see the little caterpillars turn back1 as if they were at a loss1 till one more daring than the rest restores the communication by spinning new threads4 ,the reader who is desirous of a fuller information concerning the habits of these1 as well as many other insects1 must be referred to the laborious and interesting memoirs of ,reaumur4 ,happy if he should1 like ,de ,geer1 be induced thereby to follow the steps of so great a master2 he will derive from thence a continual source of new pleasures and increasing delights2 and the more he extends the boundaries of his observations1 the more he will be convinced that ,,infinity is1 as it were1 impressed on all the works of the ,,creator4 ,different species of caterpillars are often to be found in great numbers on the same tree or plant2 but then as they seem to have no connection with each other1 and the actions of the one have no influence on the rest1 they may be considered as solitary2 but there are others who seem still more independent of each other1 and greater friends to solitude1 constructing a lodging formed of leaves tied together with considerable ingenuity1 in which they live as in a hermitage4 ,the operation by which these tie the leaves together1 is far surpassed by another kind1 who fold and bend one part of the leaf till it meets the other4 ,these are again exceeded by those who roll the leaves which they inhabit4 ,for this purpose the caterpillar chooses a part of a leaf which it finds in some degree bent2 here it establishes its abode1 and begins its work1 moving the head with great velocity in a curved line1 or rather vibrating it like a pendulum1 the middle of the body being the center on which it moves4 ,at each motion of the head a thread is spun1 and fixed to that part to which the head seems to be applied4 ,the threads are extended from the bent to the flat part of the leaf1 being always adjusted both in length and strength to the nature of the leaf1 and the curvature which is to be given to it4 ,de ,geer attending to the operations of a species of this kind of caterpillar1 observed that at each new thread it spun1 the edges of the leaf insensibly approached to each other1 and were bent more and more1 in proportion as the caterpillar spun new threads2 when the last thread that was spun was tight1 that which preceded it was loose and floating in the air4 ,to effect this1 the caterpillar1 after it has fixed a thread to the two edges of the leaf1 and before it spins another1 draws it towards itself by the hooks of its feet1 and by these means bends the leaf2 it then spins another thread1 to maintain the leaf in this position1 which it again pulls towards itself1 and repeats the operation1 till it has bent the leaf in its whole direction4 ,it now begins again1 placing the threads further back upon the bent part of the leaf1 and by proceeding in this manner1 it is rolled up2 when it has finished this business1 it strengthens the work1 by fastening the ends of the leaf together4 ,the habitation thus formed is a kind of hollow cylinder1 open to the light at both ends1 the sides of it affording the insect food and protection1 for within it the creature feeds in safety4 ,in the same case they are also transformed2 at the approach of the change the caterpillar lines the rolled leaf with silk1 that the rough parts of it may not injure the chrysalis4 ,a great number of the smaller larv require an artificial covering1 to protect them from the open air4 ,among these1 some inhabit the interior parts of leaves1 making their way between the superior and inferior membranes1 living upon the parenchymous parts of the leaf2 and as they are exceedingly small1 a leaf affords them a spacious habitation4 ,if the distance between the membranes be not large enough for them1 they enlarge the space by forming different folds in one of them1 in which they can move with ease3 from these circumstances they have been named by ,reaumur miners of leaves4 ,this illustrious author has described these larv1 the flies into which they are changed1 and all the ,various methods made use of by them in performing this work4 ,some mine a large oval or circular space2 others form a kind of gallery1 which is sometimes straight1 sometimes crooked4 ,they only leave a thin membrane on the upper side of the leaf2 but they leave the under side more substantial4 ,one species of moth which proceeds from these larv is very small but exceedingly beautiful4 ,the larv of the phryganea mostly live in little cases of their own building1 which are formed of a variety of materials1 that they train after them in the water wherever they go4 ,these cases are generally cylindrical1 and open at both ends2 the inside is lined with silk spun by the larva1 the outside formed of different substances1 as bits of reed1 stone1 gravel1 and some entirely of small shells1 c4 which they arrange and manage with singular dexterity3 they never quit this case4 ,when they walk1 they put out the head1 and a few of the first rings of the body1 training the case after them4 ,having lived in the water for some time1 they become inhabitants of the air4 ,they assume the pupa form in the water1 closing up the two ends of the case with bars of silk1 by which it is secured from the attacks of its enemies2 and at the same time there is a free passage for the water1 which is still necessary for its existence4 ,at a proper period the pupa forces its way through the case1 and makes for the land1 where its further change instantly commences1 and is soon completed4 ,we shall close these specimens of the industry of insects with an account of that which is displayed by the larv of the tine4 ,the greatest part of the body of these little creatures1 except the head and six fore feet1 is covered over with a thin tender skin2 the body of the insect is cylindrical1 and lodged in a tube which is open at both ends4 ,soon after they are born1 they begin to cover themselves1 and are1 therefore1 seldom to be found but in these tubes or cases4 ,they are in general so small1 that it is not easy to distinguish the cases without a magnifier2 but as the body lengthens1 the case becomes too short2 it is1 therefore1 part of its daily employ to lengthen it4 ,for this purpose it extends the head beyond the tube1 and having found the materials which answer its purpose1 it tears it off1 and brings it to the end of the tube1 and fixes it there1 repeating this manoeuvre till it has sufficiently lengthened it4 ,after it has finished one end1 it turns itself round within the case1 and performs the same operation at the other4 ,this does not terminate their labours1 for the tube must also be increased in diameter1 as it soon becomes too small for the body2 the means they make use of to enlarge it1 is precisely the same as we ourselves should adopt under similar circumstances4 ,the insect slits the tube at the two opposite sides1 at the same end1 and inserts in the slit two pieces of the required size2 it then performs the same at the other end4 ,by these means they soon enlarge it sufficiently1 without exposing themselves to the air during the operation4 ,the outside of these cases is made of silk1 hair1 c4 the inside is of silk only4 ,their covering always partakes of the colour of the cloth or tree1 c4 from whence it was taken2 if it pass over a red piece1 the colour will be red4 ,when they are come to their perfect growth1 they abandon the cloth1 and seek for a proper place wherein they may pass from their present to a more perfect state4 ,i cannot conclude this long chapter better than in the words of ,mr4 ,stillingfleet4 8,many are apt to treat with contempt any man whom they see employed in poring over a moss1 or examining an insect1 from day to day1 thinking that he spends his time and his life in unimportant and barren speculations2 yet were the whole scene of nature laid open to our views1 were we admitted to behold the connections and dependences of every thing on every other1 and to trace the conomy of nature through the smaller1 as well as greater parts of this globe1 we might1 perhaps1 be obliged to own that we were mistaken2 that the ,supreme ,architect had contrived his works in such a manner1 that we cannot properly be said to be unconcerned in any one of them2 and1 therefore1 that studies1 which seem upon a slight view to be quite useless1 may in the end appear of no small importance to mankind4 ,nay1 were we only to look back into the history of arts and sciences1 we must be convinced that we are apt to judge over hastily of things of this nature4 ,we should there find many proofs that he who gave this instinctive curiosity to some of his creatures1 gave it for good and great purposes1 and that he rewards with useful discoveries all these minute researches4 8,it is true1 this does not always happen to the searcher1 or his contemporaries1 nor even sometimes to the immediate succeeding generation2 but ,i am apt to think1 that advantages of one kind or other always accrue to mankind from such pursuits2 some men are born to observe and record what perhaps by itself is perfectly useless1 but yet of great importance to another who follows and goes a step further1 still as useless2 to him another succeeds1 and thus by degrees1 till at last one of a superior genius comes1 who laying all that has been done before this time together1 brings on a new face of things1 improves1 adorns1 exalts human society4 8,all those speculations concerning lines and numbers1 so ardently pursued1 and so exquisitely conducted by the ,grecians1 what did they aim at8 or what did they produce for ages8 a little arithmetic1 and the first elements of geometry1 were all they had need of4 ,this ,plato asserts2 and though1 as being himself an able mathematician1 and remarkably fond of these sciences1 he recommends the study of them2 yet he makes use of motives that have no relation to the common purposes of life4 8,when ,kepler1 from a blind and strong impulse1 merely to find analogies in nature1 discovered that famous one between the distance of the several planets from the sun1 and the periods in which they complete their revolutions1 of what importance was it to him or the world8 8,again2 when ,galileo1 pushed on by the same irresistible curiosity1 found out the law by which bodies fall to the earth1 did he1 or could he foresee that any good would come from his ingenious theorems2 or was any immediate use made of them8 8,yet had not the ,greeks pushed their abstract speculations so far1 had not ,kepler and ,galileo made the above-mentioned discoveries1 we never could have seen the greatest work that ever came from the hands of man1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,principia4 8,some obscure person1 whose name is not so much as known1 diverting himself idly1 as a stander-by would have thought1 with trying experiments on a seemingly contemptible piece of stone1 found out a guide for mariners on the ocean1 and such a guide as no science1 however subtil and sublime its speculations may be1 however wonderful its conclusions1 would ever have arrived at4 ,it was mere curiosity that put ,sir ,thomas ,millington upon examining the minute parts of flowers2 but his discoveries have produced the most perfect and most useful system of botany that the world has yet seen4 8,other instances might be produced to prove1 that bare curiosity in one age1 is the source of the greatest utility in another2 and what has frequently been said of chemists1 may be applied to every other kind of vertuosi4 ,they hunt1 perhaps1 after chimeras and impossibilities2 they find something really valuable by the bye4 ,we are but instruments under the ,supreme ,director1 and do not so much as know1 in many cases1 what is of most importance for us to search after2 but we may be sure of one thing1 viz4 that if we study and follow nature1 whatever paths we are led into1 we shall at last arrive at something valuable to ourselves and others1 but of what kind we must be content to remain ignorant40 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,internal ,,parts ,,of ,,insects1 ,,and ,,more ,,particularly ,,of ,,the ,,caterpillar ,,of ,,the ,,phal,,na ,,cossus---,a ,,description ,,of ,,sundry ,,miscellaneous ,,objects4 ,the interior part of insects includes four principal viscera2 the spinal marrow1 the intestinal bag1 the heart1 and tracheal vessels4 ,the spinal marrow1 or principal trunk of the nerves of insects1 is a whitish thread1 extended the whole length from the head to the hindermost part1 furnished at intervals with small knots or ganglions4 ,from these knots proceed the nervous threads that are supposed to be the instruments of sensation and motion4 ,on the medullary thread is placed the intestinal bag1 which is equal to it in length2 it is a long gut1 in which are contained the oesophagus1 the stomach1 and intestines4 ,along the back1 and parallel to the intestinal bag1 runs a long thin vessel1 in which may be perceived through the skin of the insect alternate contractions and dilatations2 this part is supposed to perform the functions of the heart4 ,the tracheal vessels of insects are very similar to those of plants2 are of the same structure1 colour1 and elasticity1 and are1 like them1 dispersed through the whole body4 ,a clearer idea of these parts will be obtained by the short extract ,i shall give of ,m4 ,lyonet's work2 which1 at the same time that it displays the wonderful organization of insects1 shews how worthy it is of the attention of a rational being2 and1 though this description is confined to a particular species1 it will be found to accord in general with a great number4 ,of all the modifications of which matter is susceptible1 the most noble is undoubtedly the organization thereof4 ,in the structure of animals1 the ,sovereign ,wisdom is exhibited to our view in the most striking manner4 ,the body of an animal is a little particular system more or less complicated1 and which1 like the system of the universe at large1 is the result of the combination and connection of a multitude of different parts1 which all conspire to produce one general effect1 the manifestation of the principle which we term life4 ,so wonderful are these combinations that we are incapable of comprehending1 or even of admiring sufficiently the astonishing apparatus of springs1 levers1 counter-weights1 tubes of different diameters1 c4 which constitute these organical machines4 ,the interior parts of the insect1 the most despicable in appearance1 would absorb all the powers of the most able anatomist4 ,he would be lost in the labyrinth as soon as he attempted to explore all its windings4 ,a truth that will be evident to every one who considers only the small portion here introduced of the anatomy of the caterpillar inhabiting the trunk of the willow-tree4 ,this caterpillar produces the phalna cossus1 or goat-moth4 ,m4 ,lyonet in his admirable work entitled1 8,traite ,anatomique de la ,chenille qui ronge le ,bois de ,saule10 has given an ample and minute description of this insect4 ,in the following concise abstract enough will appear to convince the reader of the utility of microscopic glasses1 in displaying the wonders of the creation1 and to afford additional proof that the attention of the ,almighty is not confined merely to objects of magnitude4 ,in a former edition of this work1 ,i entered into a more minute detail of the several parts contained in the figures exhibited in plate ,,xii4 ,this account ,i have now omitted1 as after all it could not convey a clear idea of the muscles alone1 much less of the different parts of the caterpillar1 without a reference to other plates of ,m4 ,lyonet's work4 ,i therefore concluded it would be better to let the figures speak for themselves1 and then give a general description of the interior parts of the caterpillar2 referring the reader for full particulars to the original4 ,figures #a and #b represent the muscles of the caterpillar1 when it is opened at the belly4 ,fig4 #c and #d exhibit a view of the muscles when it is opened at the back4 ,fig4 #e and #f1 an anatomical delineation of the head2 so complex is this organ1 that in order to give an adequate idea of its structure1 ,m4 ,lyonet has employed no less than twenty figures4 ,fig4 #g is an out-line of the head more magnified than in the last figures4 ,in order to obtain the views here exhibited1 the muscles were freed as well from fat1 as from the nerves and other vessels4 ,the ,,body of the caterpillar in the ,plate ,fig4 #b and #c1 is divided into twelve parts1 corresponding to its rings marked by the numbers #a to #ab2 to the first number the word ,,ring is affixed4 ,each of these rings is distinguished from that which follows1 and that preceding it1 by a kind of neck or small hollow part4 ,by conceiving a line to pass through these necks1 and forming boundaries to the rings1 we acquire twelve more divisions1 ,fig4 #a and #d2 these are also marked with the numbers #a to #ab2 to the first the word ,,division is annexed4 ,the several parts exhibited in the divisions1 ,fig4 #a1 are the muscles2 those in ,fig4 #b1 under the word ring1 are also muscles1 which appear when those in ,fig4 #a are removed1 lying under them4 ,the anatomical delineation of the muscles of the head1 ,fig4 #e and #f1 should be considered as consisting of two figures1 which join in the middle1 being terminated by the superior and inferior lines4 ,the head1 as here represented1 is magnified about three-hundred times4 ,h ,h are the two palpi3 the truncated muscles d1 belong to the lower lip1 and form a part of those which give it motion3 ,k1 the two ganglions of the neck united3 ,i ,i1 the two silk vessels3 ,l1 the oesophagus3 ,m1 the two dissolving vessels3 the ,hebrew letters denote the continuation of the cephalic arteries3 ,s ,t ,u ,w and ,x are the ten abductor muscles of the jaw3 under e e and f f are seen four occipital muscles3 a a1 a nerve of the first pair1 belonging to the ganglion of the neck2 b1 a branch of this nerve4 ,fig4 #g is an outline of the head magnified considerably more than in the last figure1 exhibiting the nerves as seen from the under part4 ,excepting in two or three instances1 only one nerve of each pair is shewn1 as a greater number would have occasioned confusion4 ,the nerves of the first ganglion of the neck are designed by capital letters2 those of the ganglion a1 are distinguished by ,roman letters2 those of the small ganglion1 by ,greek characters2 and those of the frontal ganglion1 except one1 by numbers4 ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,caterpillar4 ,the ,,muscles have neither the exterior form1 nor the colour of those of larger animals4 ,in their natural state they are soft1 and have the appearance of a jelly2 they are of a greyish blue1 and the silver-coloured appearance of the aerial or pulmonary vessels1 which creep over and penetrate their substance1 exhibits under the microscope a most beautiful spectacle4 ,when the caterpillar has been soaked for some time in spirit of wine1 they lose their elasticity and transparency1 and become firm1 opake1 and white2 the aerial vessels disappear4 ,at first sight they might be taken for tendons1 as they are of the same colour and possess almost the same lustre4 ,they are generally flat1 and of an equal size throughout2 the middle seldom differs either in colour1 substance1 or size1 from the extremities4 ,the ends are fixed to the skin2 the rest of the muscle is generally free and floating2 several of them branch out considerably2 the branches extend sometimes so far1 that it is not always easy to discover whether they are distinct and separate muscles1 or parts of another4 ,they are of a moderate strength2 those that have been soaked in spirit of wine1 when examined by the microscope1 will be found to be covered with a membrane which may be separated from them2 they then appear to consist of several parallel bands1 disposed according to the length of the muscle4 ,these1 when divided by the assistance of very fine needles1 appear to be composed of still smaller bundles of fibres1 in the same direction2 which1 when examined by a very deep magnifier1 and in a favourable light1 appear twisted like a small cord4 ,the muscular fibres of the spider1 which are much larger than those of the caterpillar1 are found on examination to consist of two substances1 one soft1 and the other hard2 the last is twisted round the former spirally1 and thus gives to it the afore-mentioned cord-like appearance4 ,if the muscles are separated by means of very fine needles1 in a drop of some fluid1 we find that they are not only composed of fibres1 membranes1 and aerial vessels1 but also of nerves2 and1 from the drops of oil that may be seen floating on the fluid1 that they are also furnished with many unctuous particles4 ,the muscles in a caterpillar are very numerous1 exceeding by much those of the human body2 the reader may form some idea of their number by inspecting ,fig4 #a #b #c and #d of ,plate ,,xii4 ,they occupy the greatest part of the head2 there is an amazing number at the oesophagus1 the intestines1 c4 the skin is as it were lined by different beds of them1 placed one under the other1 and ranged with very great symmetry4 ,the number of muscles that our observer has been able to distinguish is truly astonishing2 he found #bbh in the head1 #afdg in the body1 and #bjff in the intestinal tube1 making in all #cida6 ,the ,,spinal ,,marrow1 and the brain of the caterpillar1 if it can be said to have any1 seem to have very little relation to those of man2 in the last1 the brain is inclosed in a bony cavity2 it occupies the greatest part of the head1 and is anfractuose1 and divided into lobes4 ,there is nothing similar to this in the caterpillar2 we find indeed in the head of that which we are describing1 a part which seems to answer the purpose of the brain1 because the nerves that are disseminated through the head are derived from it2 but then this part is unprotected1 and so small1 that it does not occupy one-fifth part of the head2 the surface is smooth1 and has neither lobes nor anfractuousness2 and if we must call this a brain1 the caterpillar may be said to have thirteen1 as there are twelve more such parts following each other in a line2 they are nearly of the same size with that in the head1 and of the same substance1 and it is from them that the nerves are distributed through the whole body4 ,lest the idea of thirteen brains might be disagreeable to his readers1 ,lyonet has called these parts ganglions4 ,the spinal marrow in the human species descends down the back1 inclosed in a bony case2 is large with respect to its length1 and not divided into branches1 diminishing in thickness in proportion as it is removed further from the brain4 ,in the caterpillar1 the spinal marrow goes along the belly1 is not inclosed in any tube1 is very small1 forks out at intervals1 and is nearly of the same thickness throughout1 except at the ganglions4 ,for a description of the numerous vessels1 and curious texture of these parts1 reference must be had to the original work of ,lyonet4 ,the substance of the spinal marrow1 and of the ganglions1 is not near so tender and easily separated as in man2 it has a very great degree of tenacity1 and does not break without considerable tension4 ,the substance of the ganglions differs from that of the spinal marrow1 as no vessels can be discovered in the latter1 whereas the former are full of very delicate ones4 ,the patient anatomist of the caterpillar has counted forty-five pair of nerves1 and two single ones2 so that there are ninety-two principal nerves1 whose ramifications are innumerable4 ,the ,,tracheal ,,arteries of the caterpillar are two large aerial elastic vessels1 which with their numerous ramifications may be pressed close together1 and drawn out considerably1 but return immediately to their usual size when the tension ceases2 they creep under the skin close to the spiracula1 one at the right side of the insect1 the other at the left1 each of them communicating with the air1 by means of nine spiracula2 they are nearly as long as the body1 beginning at the first spiraculum1 and going a little farther than the last1 terminating in some branches which extend to the extremities of the body4 ,round about each spiraculum the tracheal artery pushes forth a great number of branches1 which are again divided into smaller ones2 these further subdivide1 and spread through the whole body of the caterpillar4 ,this vessel and its principal branches are composed of three coats1 which may be separated one from the other4 ,the exterior covering is a thick membrane1 furnished with a great number of fibres1 which describe a vast variety of circles round it1 communicating with each other by numerous shoots4 ,the second is very thin and transparent2 no particular vessel is distinguished in it4 ,the third is composed of scaly threads1 which are generally turned in a spiral form1 and come so near each other1 as scarce to leave any interval2 these threads are curiously united with the membrane which occupies the intervals1 and form a tube which is always open1 notwithstanding the flexure of the vessel4 ,there are also many other peculiarities in its structure1 which cannot be well explained without more plates4 ,the principal tracheal vessels branch out into #bcf smaller ones1 from which there spring #acbf different ramifications4 ,the part of the caterpillar which naturalists call the ,,heart1 without being certain that it performs the functions thereof1 is of a nature very different from that of larger animals4 ,it is almost as long as the caterpillar itself1 lies immediately under the skin at the top of the back1 entering into the head1 and terminating near the mouth4 ,it is large and spacious towards the last rings of the body1 and diminishes very much as it approaches the head1 from the fourth to the twelfth division2 it has on both sides1 at each division1 an appendage1 which partly covers the muscles of the back2 but1 growing narrower as it approaches the lateral line1 forms a number of irregular lozenge-shaped bodies4 ,this muscular tube has been called the heart of the caterpillar2 first1 because it is generally filled with a kind of lymph1 which has been supposed to be the blood of the caterpillar2 secondly1 because in all caterpillars1 whose skin is in some degree transparent1 continual1 regular1 and alternate dilatations and contractions may be perceived along the superior line1 beginning at the eleventh ring1 and going on from ring to ring to the fourth1 whence this vessel has been considered as a file of hearts2 but still this viscera seems to have very little relation to the heart of larger animals2 we find no vessel opening into it1 to answer to the aorta1 vena cava1 c4 c4 ,near the eighth division are two white oblong masses1 that join the tube of the heart2 they have been called reniform bodies1 because they are something similar to a kidney in their shape4 ,the ,,corpus ,,crassum is1 with respect to volume1 the most considerable part of the whole caterpillar2 it is the first and only substance that is seen on opening it1 forming a kind of sheath1 which envelopes and covers all the entrails1 and introducing itself into the head1 enters all the muscles of the body1 filling the greatest part of the empty spaces in the caterpillar4 ,it is of a milk-white colour4 ,in its configuration it is very similar to the human brain4 ,when the different masses of the corpus crassum which covers the entrails are removed1 the largest parts are the oesophagus1 the ventricle1 and the large intestines4 ,the ,,oesophagus descends from the bottom of the mouth to about the fourth division4 ,the anterior part which is in the head is fleshy1 narrow1 and fixed by different muscles to the crustaceous parts thereof2 the lower part which passes into the body is wider1 and forms a kind of membranaceous bag1 which is covered with very small muscles2 near the stomach it is again narrower1 and is as it were bridled by a strong nerve1 which is fixed to it at distant intervals4 ,the ,,ventricle begins a little above the fourth division1 where the oesophagus finishes1 and terminates at the tenth division2 it is about seven times longer than it is broad2 the anterior part1 which is the broadest1 is generally folded4 ,the folds diminish with the bulk1 in proportion as it approaches the intestines4 ,an assemblage of nerves cover the surface1 it is surrounded by a number of aerial vessels1 and opens into a tube1 which ,lyonet calls the large intestine4 ,there are three of these large tubes or ,,intestines1 each of which differs from the other so much1 both in structure and character as to require a particular name to distinguish them2 though this is not the place to enumerate these characteristic differences4 ,as most caterpillars are endued with a power or faculty of spinning1 they are provided with two vessels where the substance is prepared1 which1 when drawn out1 and extended in the air1 becomes a silken thread2 these two vessels are termed the silk-vessels or tubes2 in the caterpillar of the cossus1 they are often above three inches long1 and are distinguished into three parts1 the anterior1 the intermediate1 and posterior4 ,it has also two other vessels1 which are supposed to prepare and contain the liquor by which it dissolves the wood on which it feeds4 ,thus have we endeavoured to give the reader some idea of the wonderful organization of this apparently imperfect animal4 ,assuredly the four-thousand#ajj muscles employed in the construction of the caterpillar of the cossus cannot be considered without the deepest astonishment3 their admirable co-ordination and junction with other parts equally numerous1 yet all harmonizing and acting together as if they were essentially one1 naturally lead the mind to consider the nature and perfection of creation1 and to perceive that it is an exhibition of the highest wisdom2 and that this wisdom1 which in the minutest things gives evidence of such an immense attention to order and use1 has1 no doubt1 framed the whole for some great purpose2 but what that purpose is1 exceeds the present limits of the human understanding to discover4 #ajj ,lyonet sur la ,chenille de ,saule1 p4 #ehd4 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,sundry ,,miscellaneous ,,objects1 ,,exhibited ,,in ,,several ,,plates ,,of ,,this ,,work4 ,,of ,,the ,,lepas ,,anatifera ,,or ,,barnacle4#aja ,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a and #b4 ,this is a tender and brittle shell-fish of a very peculiar species2 its length is about an inch1 and its diameter about three quarters of an inch4 ,the shell is not composed of two pieces or valves1 as in others1 but of five2 two of these are larger than the rest1 to which are affixed two smaller ones2 the fifth piece is long1 slender1 and crooked1 running down length-ways1 and covering the joinings of the other pieces4 ,the shell part is of a pale red1 variegated with white2 it adheres to a neck or pedicle of an inch long1 and about a fifth of an inch in diameter2 by which means it affixes itself to old wood1 to stones1 to sea-plants1 or any other solid substance that lies under water4 ,it can shorten or extend this neck at pleasure1 which resembles a small gut1 and is usually full of a glareous liquor2 it is composed of two membranes1 an external one1 hard and brown1 an internal one1 soft and of an orange colour4 ,the large portions of the shell open and shut in the manner of the bivalves2 the others1 being moveable by means of their membranaceous attachments1 give way to the opening of these1 and to the motions of the body of the fish in any direction4 ,it is furnished with a cluster of filaments or tentacida1 placed in a row on each side1 usually twelve1 sometimes fourteen in number4 ,they are a kind of arms appropriated for catching its prey1 and therefore placed so as to surround the mouth of the animal1 which is situated between them1 and consequently easily receives what they thrust towards it4 ,by the motion of these arms1 which may be exerted in such a manner as to play either within or without the cavity of the shell1 it forms a current of water1 which brings with it the prey it feeds upon4 ,fig4 #a represents two of these arms as magnified by the microscope2 ,fig4 #b1 the natural size of those from which these drawings were made4 ,each arm consists of several joints1 and each joint is furnished on the concave side of the arm with a brush of fibrill or long hairs4 ,the arms1 when viewed in the microscope1 seem rather opake2 but they maybe rendered transparent1 and form a most beautiful object1 by extracting out of the interior cavity a bundle of longitudinal fibres1 which runs the whole length of the arm4 ,mr4 ,needham#ajb thinks the motion and use of these arms illustrates the nature of that rotatory motion which some writers have thought they discovered in the wheel animal4 #aja ,this animal is classed by ,linnus among the ,vermes ,testace4 ,its generic character is3 ,animal1 resembling a triton2 ,shell1 consisting of several unequal valves2 affixed by its base4 ,specific character3 ,pedunculated ,barnacle1 with compressed shell consisting of five valves4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #aajg1 #aaji4 ,,edit4 #ajb ,needham's ,microscopical ,observations4 ,in the midst of the arms is a hollow trunk1 consisting of a jointed fibrous or hairy tube1 which incloses a long round tongue or proboscis1 that the animal can push occasionally out of the tube or sheath1 and retract at pleasure4 ,the mouth of this animal is singular in its kind1 consisting of six lamin1 which go off with a bend1 indented like a saw on the convex edge1 and by their circular disposition are so ranged1 that the teeth in the alternate elevation and depression of each plate1 act against whatever intervenes between them4 ,the plates are placed together in such a manner1 that to the naked eye they form an aperture not much unlike the mouth of a contracted purse4 ,the western isles of ,scotland1 and some other parts of the ,british dominions1 are abundantly stored1 at certain times of the year1 with a bird of the goose kind1 commonly known in those places by the name of the brent goose or barnacle4 ,these birds rarely breed with us1 but seek1 for their sitting season1 islands less frequented than those where we find them in common4 ,the seeing the birds so frequent1 and yet never finding any of their nests1 induced ignorant people to believe they never had any1 and that they were not bred like other birds4 ,about the very shores where these birds are most common1 the lepas anatifera is also found in great abundance4 ,the fishermen1 who observed vast quantities of these shells affixed to rotten wood1 or dead trees that were floating in the water1 or lodged by it on the shore1 were soon led to imagine that the fibrous substances that hung out of them resembled feathers1 and persuaded themselves that the geese1 whose origin they could before by no means make out1 were bred from them1 instead of being hatched1 like other birds1 from eggs4#ajc ,it was afterwards affirmed1 that the shells themselves originally grew on the trees1 in the manner of their fruit2 and that the young bird1 having in the shell obtained its plumage1 dropt from thence into the water4 ,from this arose the opinion that the barnacle or brent goose was the produce of a tree4#ajd #ajc ,hill's ,natural ,history of ,animals4 #ajd ,the absurd idea1 that the brent goose or barnacle derived its origin from this shell1 was not confined to the illiterate2 men of science1 incautiously confiding in the bold assertions of the ignorant1 appear to have given full credit to this truly curious hypothesis1 and disseminated the knowledge of it in their writings4 ,even ,gerard1 the author of the ,herbal1 caught the infection3 so confident was he of the fact1 that he invited the credulous to apply to him for full satisfaction2 his words are1 8,for the truth hereof1 if any do doubt1 may it please them to repaire unto me1 and ,i shall satisfie them by the testimonie of good witnesses40 ,see his ,herbal1 page #aehg4 ,barbut says1 8,this fabulous account originated from the sea-fowls1 when ready to lay their eggs1 depositing them on the marine plants2 and1 pecking sometimes these anatiferous shells1 oblige the fish to come out1 which having devoured1 they lay eggs in their place4 ,the young when hatched break through their prison1 and fly away40 ,genera ,vermium1 ,pars ii4 page #ac4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,the ,,leucopsis ,,dorsigera4 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,this very beautiful and singular insect was first pointed out to me by ,t4 ,marsham1 ,esq4 ,sec4 ,l4 ,s4 who had seen it in the cabinet of insects belonging to the ,queen1 in the royal observatory at ,richmond4 ,her ,majesty was pleased to permit me to have the drawing taken from it1 from which this plate was engraved4 ,when ,mr4 ,marsham first saw it at ,richmond1 he considered it as a non-descript insect1 and an unique in this country4 ,but he has since found that it is mentioned by ,fabricius1 in his ,systema ,entomologi1 as a new genus under the name of leucospis dorsigera4 ,there is one of the insects in the cabinet of the celebrated ,linnus1 now in the possession of ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,pr4 ,l4 ,s4 ,sulz1 and other writers1 have also described it4 ,it appears at first sight like a wasp1 to which genus the folded wings would have given it a place1 had not the remarkable sting or tube on the back removed it from thence4 ,it is probably a species between1 and uniting the sphex and wasp1 in some degree partaking of the characters of both4 ,the antenn are black and cylindrical1 increasing in thickness towards the extremity2 the joint nearest the head is yellow1 the head is black1 the thorax is also black1 encompassed round with a yellow line1 and furnished with a cross one of the same colour near the head4 ,the scutellum is yellow1 the abdomen black1 with two yellow bands1 and a spot of the same colour on each side between the bands4 ,a deep black polished groove extends down the back1 from the thorax to the anus1 into which the sting turns and is deposited1 leaving the anus very circular2 a yellow line runs on each side the sting4 ,the anus and the whole body1 when viewed with a shallow magnifier1 appear punctuated2 these points1 when examined in the microscope1 appear hexagonal1 as in the plate2 and in the center of each hexagon a small hair is to be seen2 the feet are yellow1 the hinder thighs very thick and dentated1 forming also a groove for the next joint2 they are yellow with black spots4 ,this insect is found in ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,fig4 #a shews it very much magnified2 ,fig4 #b is a side view of it less magnified2 ,fig4 #c is the object of its real size4 ,,of ,,the ,,lobster ,,insect4 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #a and #f4 ,this extraordinary little creature was found by my ingenious friend1 ,mr4 ,john ,adams1 of ,edmonton2 he was at the ,new ,inn1 ,waltham ,abbey1 where it was spied by some labouring men who were drinking their porter4 ,the man who first perceived it1 thought it was of an uncommon form2 on a more minute inspection1 it was supposed to be a louse with unusual long horns2 others thought it was a mite4 ,this produced a debate1 which attracted the attention of my friend1 who obtained the insect from them for further observation4 ,mr4 ,martin has given some account of it in the third volume of 8,the ,young ,gentleman and ,lady's ,philosophy40 ,mr4 ,adams favoured me with the insect1 that an accurate drawing might be taken from it1 which ,i thought would be highly pleasing not only to the lovers of microscopic observations1 but also to the entomologist4 ,it appears to be quite a distinct species from the phalangium cancroides of ,linnus1 of which a good drawing has been given by ,hooke1 ,rsel1 ,schffer1 c42 it has also been described by ,scopoli1 ,geoffroy1 and other naturalists2 not one1 however1 of these descriptions agrees with the animal under consideration4 ,the abdomen of this is more extended1 the claws are larger and much more obtuse2 the body of the other being nearly orbicular1 the claws slender1 and finishing almost in a point1 more transparent1 and of a paler colour4 ,it is very probable1 that there are several species nearly similar4 ,mr4 ,marsham has two in his possession1 one like the drawings of ,reaumur1 the other not to be distinguished from that which is represented in the plate1 except that it wants the break or dent in the claws1 so conspicuous in this4 ,the latter he caught on a flower in ,essex1 the first week in ,august1 firmly affixed by its claws to the thigh of a large fly1 and could not disengage it from thence without considerable difficulty2 to accomplish which1 he was obliged to tear off the fly's leg1 and was much surprized to see the bold little creature spring forward full a quarter of an inch1 and once more seize its prey1 from which he again found it very difficult to disengage it4 ,fig4 #a represents the insect considerably magnified1 ,fig4 #f the natural size4#aje #aje ,according to ,aldrovandus1 this insect was not unknown to ,aristotle1 who mentions it as being found in books and paper4 ,wolphius1 on the authority of ,gesner1 says that a few are to be met with in some parts of ,switzerland4 ,scaliger also notices it1 having found two of them in his books4 ,it has been by various systematic writers referred to different genera2 ,de ,geer has instituted a new genus for it under the name of chelifer2 ,fabricius has remanded it to that of scorpio1 to which perhaps it is more nearly allied than any other4 ,amongst the number of naturalists who have observed and described the insect1 it appears rather extraordinary that none have met with one similar to that in the plate1 in respect to the break in the claws4 ,in a cabinet of curious microscopic objects which ,i purchased several years since1 and which originally came from ,holland1 there were four of them in the most perfect condition4 ,a botanical friend1 ,mr4 ,young1 also favoured me with a living one which he found among some plants collected by him in one of his excursions2 but1 as his box contained a variety of plants1 and he did not discover the insect till his return1 it was impossible to ascertain the particular one on which it was taken4 ,all these resembled the one here exhibited1 excepting the claws being longer and more slender1 and being deficient in the distinguishing characteristic2 ,i have lately seen another1 in which the two fangs that are shewn highly magnified in ,plate #he of the ,naturalist's ,miscellany1 are very apparent1 being so large1 as to exceed in diameter the thickest part of the claws4 ,my respectable friend1 ,matthew ,yatman1 ,esq4 informs me1 that some years since one was found on a bottle of wine packed in saw-dust1 at the house in which he then resided in ,percy street2 on putting the point of a pin towards it to remove it from the bottle1 it ran backward1 put itself into an attitude of defence1 and opened its claws as meditating vengeance4 ,in the same cellar one had many years previous been discovered1 sufficiently large to admit its being fastened to a card with thread by a young gentleman1 being at least four times the usual size4 ,rsel says it dwells among paper1 in old books and their bindings1 in chests of drawers1 and in the crevices of old buildings4 ,in order to discover whether the insect possessed a sting1 he often by various means endeavoured to irritate it2 but it never shewed the smallest inclination to defend itself1 on the contrary1 it always endeavoured to avoid a contest2 if so1 it evidently appears that those few met with in this country are of a more bold and warlike disposition4 ,seba asserts that these insects resemble the large scorpions1 the tail excepted1 which is small1 and usually concealed by being drawn close to the under part of the abdomen2 but in this respect he must probably have been mistaken1 as it does not appear that this circumstance has been noticed by any other person4 ,,edit4 ,,of ,,the ,,thrips ,,physapus4 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,the insect1 which is represented very considerably magnified at ,fig4 #c1 is of the hemiptera class4 ,it was first described and figured by ,de ,geer in the ,swedish ,transactions for #agdd1 under the name of physapus ater1 alis albis2 ,linnus afterwards introduced it in a subsequent edition of the ,systema ,natur distinguished by the name thrips physapus4 ,these insects live upon plants1 and particularly in flowers4 ,the one figured here is the black thrips1 with white wings2 the antenn have six articulations2 the body is black2 the wings whitish1 long1 and hairy2 the head small1 with two large reticular eyes4 ,the antenn are of an equal size throughout1 and divided into six oval pieces which are articulated together4 ,the extremities of the feet are furnished with a membranaceous and flexible bladder1 which it can throw out and draw in at pleasure4 ,it places and presses this bladder against the substances on which it is walking1 and seems to fix itself thereby to them2 the bladder sometimes appears concave towards the bottom1 the concavity increasing or diminishing in proportion to the degree of pressure4 ,they have four wings1 two upper and two under ones2 these last are with great difficulty perceived1 they are fixed to the upper part of the breast1 lying horizontally2 both of them are rather pointed towards the edges1 and have a strong nerve running round them1 which is set with a fringe of fibrill1 tufted at the extremity4 ,the wings are represented by themselves at ,fig4 #d2 the insect of the real size at ,fig4 #e4 ,they are to be found in great plenty in the spring and summer1 in the flowers of the dandelion1 and various other plants4 ,,of ,,the ,,skin ,,of ,,the ,,lump ,,sucker4 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #b and #g4 ,for a full description of this singular fish1 ,i must refer the reader to ,pennant's ,british ,zoology1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aag4 ,the ,linnean name is cyclopterus lumpus4 ,fig4 #b is a piece of the skin highly magnified3 there are no scales on the body1 but a great number of tubercles1 which are here exhibited4 ,fig4 #g is the natural size of the object4 ,these fishes being extremely fat1 renders them an agreeable diet to the natives of ,greenland1 in which seas they abound in the months of ,april and ,may2 they also resort in multitudes during spring to the coast of ,sutherland1 near the ,ord of ,caithness in ,north ,britain1 where the seals prey greatly upon them1 leaving the skins2 numbers of which thus emptied float at that season ashore4 ,when a good specimen is procured1 it forms a most beautiful object for the opake microscope4 ,,of ,,the ,,cimex ,,striatus4 ,plate ,,xx4 ,fig4 #a and ,a4 ,this is a beautiful insect of the hemiptera class1 or that kind where the elytra are only in part crustaceous1 and which do not form a longitudinal suture down the back1 but fold over about one-third of their length toward the bottom1 where it is also partly transparent4 ,it is of the genus cimex1 and called striatus by ,linnus4 ,its colours are bright and elegantly disposed3 the head1 proboscis1 and thorax are black4 ,the thorax is ornamented with yellow spots1 the middle one large1 and occupying almost one-third of the posterior part2 the other two are on each side1 and triangular4 ,the scutellum has two yellow oblong spots1 pointed at each end2 the ground of the elytra is a bright yellow1 spotted and striped with black4 ,the nerves are yellow1 and there is a brilliant triangular spot of orange1 which unites the crustaceous and membranaceous parts2 the latter is brown and clouded4 ,the feet are of a fine red1 and the rings of the abdomen are black1 edged with white4 ,this pretty insect is to be found in ,june1 upon the elm-tree4 ,it is represented at ,a of the natural size4 ,,of ,,the ,,chrysomela ,,asparagi4 ,plate ,,xx4 ,fig4 #b and ,b4 ,a very common1 though elegant insect of the coleoptera class1 is represented at ,fig4 #b1 as seen in the lucernal microscope1 and of its natural size at ,b2 it is called by ,linnus chrysomela asparagi1 from the larva feeding on the leaves of that plant4 ,its shape is oblong1 the antenn black1 composed of many joints nearly oval4 ,the head is of a bright1 but deep blue2 the thorax red and cylindrical2 the elytra blue1 with a yellow margin1 and three spots of the same colour on each1 one at the base of an oblong form1 and two united with the margin2 the legs are black1 but the under side of the belly is of the same blue colour with the elytra and head4 ,this little animal1 when viewed by the naked eye1 scarcely appears to deserve any notice2 but when examined by the microscope1 is one of the most pleasing opake objects we have4 ,it is found in ,june1 on the asparagus after it has run to seed4 ,de ,geer says1 that it is very scarce in ,sweden4 ,,of ,,the ,,meloe ,,monoceros4 ,plate ,,xx4 ,fig4 #c and ,c4 ,the insect which comes at present under our inspection is particularly adapted to shew the advantages of the microscope1 which alone will discover the peculiarities of its figure2 this is so remarkable1 that entomologists appear undetermined as to its genus4 ,geoffroy formed a new one for it1 under the title of notoxus1 in which he has been followed by ,fabricius2 even ,linnus himself could not determine at first where to place it1 for in the ,fauna ,suecica he makes it an attelabus1 but in the last edition of the ,systema ,natur he has fixed it as a meloe1 calling it the meloe monoceros2 but still he adds1 8genus difficile terminatur forte huic proximum40 ,both ,geoffroy and ,schffer have given figures of it1 but as they had not that kind of microscope which would assist them1 their figures are imperfect4 ,the head is black1 and appears to be hid or buried under the thorax1 which projects forwards like a horn2 the antenn are composed of many articulations1 and with the feet are of a dingy yellow4 ,the hinder part of the thorax is reddish1 the fore part black4 ,the elytra are yellow1 with a black longitudinal line down the suture2 there is a band of the same colour near the apex1 and also a black point near the base2 the whole animal is curiously covered with hair4 ,geoffroy says it is found on umbelliferous plants3 the one here described was found in ,may2 the natural size is seen at ,c4 ,plate ,,xix4 ,fig4 #a and #c1 ,represent two magnified views of the feet of the monoculus apus of ,linnus4 ,they are curiously contrived to assist the animal in swimming1 and form very agreeable objects for the microscope4 ,fig4 #b and #d are the same objects of the natural size4 ,,of ,,the ,,scales ,,of ,,fish4 ,the outside covering or scales of fish afford an immense variety of beautiful objects for the microscope4 ,they are formed in the most admirable manner1 and arranged with inconceivable regularity and symmetry3 some are long1 others nearly round1 others again square2 varying in shape1 not only in different species1 but even considerably on the same fish2 those which are taken from one part not being entirely similar to those which are taken from another4 ,leeuwenhoeck supposed each scale to consist of an infinity of scales laid one over the other2 or1 more simply1 of an infinity of strata1 of which those next to the body of the fish are the largest4 ,these strata1 when viewed with the microscope1 exhibit specimens of wonderful mechanism and exquisite workmanship4 ,in some scales we discover a prodigious number of concentric flutings1 too fine1 as well as too near each other1 to be easily enumerated2 they are probably formed by the edges of each stratum1 denoting the limits thereof1 and the different stages of the growth of the scale4 ,these flutings are often traversed by others diverging from the center of the scale1 and generally proceeding from thence in a straight line to the circumference4 ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #g1 exhibits a scale from a species of the parrot fish of the ,west-,indies1 considerably magnified4 ,fig4 #h1 the real size of the scale4 ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #i1 is a magnified scale of the sea-perch1 which is found on the ,english coast4 ,fig4 #aj1 the same scale of the natural size4 ,plate ,,xix4 ,fig4 #g1 a scale from the haddock1 as seen in the microscope4 ,fig4 #h1 the same of the natural size4 ,plate ,,xix4 ,fig4 #i1 a scale from a species of perch from the ,west-,indies1 magnified4 ,fig4 #aj1 the scale of its real size4 ,plate ,,xix4 ,fig4 #aa1 a scale from the sole-fish1 delineated as it appears in the microscope2 the pointed part is that which stands without the skin1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #e1 which represents a piece of the skin of a sole1 as viewed by the opake microscope4 ,fig4 #f and #ab1 the same objects of their real size4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hydra1 ,,or ,,fresh-,,water ,,polype4 ,having in the two preceding chapters given the reader such a general idea of the history and conomy of a great variety of those minute animated bodies1 called insects1 as ,i am inclined to hope has not only afforded him entertainment and instruction1 but tended to excite an emulation for further researches2 ,i shall endeavour to gratify so laudable a disposition1 by introducing him to a class of beings whose conomy and singular properties equally engage the attention of the philosopher and the natural historian2 a scene which opposes our general system of vitality1 and which presents to the eye of the mind1 as well as that of the body1 a series of astonishing wonders4 ,it is among the minuti of nature that we find her models most diversified1 and displaying the marvellous fecundity of its powers4 ,the polypes described in this chapter are fresh-water insects1 of the genus of hydra1 of the order of zoophytes1 and class of vermes4 ,the body consists of a single tube1 furnished at one end with long arms1 by these it seizes small worms1 and conveys them to its mouth4 ,it has1 according to our general notions1 neither head1 heart1 stomach1 nor intestines of any kind2 and is without the distinction of sexes1 yet extremely prolific4 ,from the simplicity of its structure those of its conomy and functions are probably derived4 ,when they are cut or divided into a number of pieces1 the separated parts in a very little time become so many perfect and distinct animals2 each piece having a power of producing a head1 a tail1 and the other organs necessary for its existence4 ,they are generally known by the name of polype2 but as this was thought by many to be improper1 because that1 strictly speaking1 they have no feet1 ,linnus called the genus hydra1 probably from their property of re-producing the parts which are cut off1 a circumstance that naturally brings to mind the fabulous story of the ,lernean hydra4 ,dr4 ,hill called them biota1 on account of the strong principle of life with which every part is endued4 ,leeuwenhoeck1 whose indefatigable industry in his researches after small insects permitted very few things to escape his notice1 discovered these animals1 and gave some account of them in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #agjc4 ,there is also in the same volume a letter from an anonymous hand on this subject4 ,we had1 however1 no regular account of them1 their various habits1 their different species1 or of their wonderful properties1 till the year #agdj1 when they first engaged the attention of ,m4 ,trembley1 to whose assiduity and observations we are indebted for the display of their nature and conomy4 ,previous to the successful experiments of this gentleman1 ,leibnitz and ,boerhaave1 as well as some of the ancient philosophers1 reflecting on the various gradations in the scale of animated nature1 had endeavoured to prove that there might be degrees of life between the animal and the plant1 and that animals might be found which would propagate by slips1 like plants4 ,these conjectures were verified by ,trembley1 but not in consequence of any pre-conceived ideas in favour of such a supposition2 on the contrary1 it was only by repeated observations that he could destroy his own prejudices1 and join these wonderful beings to the animal kingdom4#ajf #ajf ,a great part of the knowledge of the ancients consisted in an extensive variety of ingenious hypotheses1 the result of intense study and application2 and it need not excite surprize1 if1 amongst a number of suppositions1 some of them have since been found conformable to truth4 ,the moderns1 animated by the example of the great ,bacon1 by an abundance of experiments frequently repeated1 and the assistance of good instruments1 have introduced unquestionable demonstration in the place of speculation2 this renders the present philosophy very far superior to that of the ancients4 ,thus it is with respect to the subject now under consideration2 many of the ancients conjectured that animated beings might exist possessed of the wonderful properties of the hydra2 that some of them1 however1 were even witnesses of the fact1 cannot well be disputed2 though it may be fairly presumed1 that their knowledge of this animal1 comparatively with that we are now in possession of1 was very circumscribed and imperfect4 ,st4 ,augustine relates that one of his friends performed the experiment before him1 of cutting a polype in two1 and that immediately the two parts thus separated betook themselves to flight1 moving with precipitation different ways4 ,the original passage is too long to be here inserted1 but may be found in his work 8,de ,quantitate ,anim10 c4 #fb1 p4 #dca1 col4 #a4 ,aristotle1 speaking of insects with many feet1 expresses himself nearly in the same manner2 without naming the particular creatures to which he alludes1 he observes1 that there are of these animals or insects1 as well as of plants and trees1 some that propagate themselves by shoots2 and1 as what were but the parts of a tree before1 become thus distinct and separate trees2 so1 in cutting one of these animals1 the pieces which before composed altogether but one animal1 become suddenly so many distinct individuals4 ,and he adds1 that the soul in these insects is in effect but one1 though multiplied in its powers1 as it is in plants4 ,aristot4 de ,histor4 ,animal4 tom4 #a1 lib4 #d1 cap4 #g1 pag4 #hbd1 de ,part4 ,animal4 lib4 #d1 tom4 #a1 cap4 #f1 pag4 #ajbi4 c4 ,this will suffice to shew that the ancients were not entirely unacquainted with the subject before us2 though it does not derogate from the merit of ,leeuwenhoeck1 ,trembley1 and other ingenious naturalists1 by whose assiduous and patient investigations we have obtained a more perfect knowledge of this astonishing class of animated beings4 ,,edit4 ,though natural history is so fruitful in extraordinary facts1 it has hitherto produced none so singular as the various properties of the different species of the hydra4 ,i shall endeavour1 first1 to trace the progress of this discovery1 in which we shall see with what sage caution and accuracy ,trembley1 and other naturalists examined this wonderful phnomenon1 and what accumulated evidence was judged necessary to establish the fact4 ,we find ,m4 ,trembley writing in ,january1 #agda1 to ,m4 ,bonnet1 that he did not know whether he should call the object which then engaged his attention1 a plant or an animal4 8,i have studied it10 says he1 8ever since ,june last1 and have found in it striking characteristics of both plant and animal4 ,it is a little aquatic being4 ,at first sight1 every one imagines it to be a plant2 but if it be a plant1 it is sensitive and ambulant2 if it be an animal1 it may be propagated by slips or cuttings1 like many plants40 ,it was not till the month of ,march1 in the same year1 that he could satisfy himself as to their nature4 ,when ,reaumur saw1 for the first time1 two polypes formed from one that he had divided into two parts1 he could hardly believe his eyes2 and even after having repeated the operation an hundred times1 and again examined it an hundred more1 he says that the sight was not become familiar to him4 ,the first account the ,royal ,society received of the surprizing properties of the hydra1 was in a letter from ,m4 ,buffon1 dated the #ahth of ,july1 #agda1 to ,martin ,folkes1 ,esq4 their president1 acquainting them with the discovery of a small insect called a polypus1 which is found sticking about the common duck weed1 and which1 being cut in two1 puts forth from the upper part a tail1 and from the lower end a head1 so as to become two animals instead of one4 ,if it be cut into three parts1 the middlemost puts out from one end a head1 and from the other a tail1 so as to become three distinct animals1 all living like the first1 and performing the various offices of their species3 which observations are1 adds ,buffon1 well averred4 ,there is no phnomenon in all natural history more astonishing than this1 that man1 at pleasure1 should have a kind of creative power1 and out of one life make two1 each completely formed with all its apparatus and functions1 its perceptions and powers of motion and self-preservation2 and as complete in all respects as that from which they derived their existence1 and equally enjoying the humble gratifications of their nature4#ajg #ajg ,goldsmith's ,history of the ,earth and ,animated ,nature4 ,mr4 ,folkes1 in confirmation of the foregoing article1 communicated to the ,society a letter from the ,hon4 ,w4 ,bentinck1 ,esq4 at the ,hague1 dated ,september1 describing the insects discovered by ,trembley1 adding1 that he himself had seen them4 ,in ,november1 a letter was read from ,dr4 ,gronovius1 of ,leyden1 giving an account of a water insect not yet known to1 or described by any author2 after describing it1 he adds1 8but what is more surprizing1 if this animal is cut into five or six pieces1 in a few hours there will be as many animals1 exactly similar to their parent40 ,the accounts of this animal were so extraordinary1 that they were not credited until ,professors ,albinus and ,musschenbroeck were provided with some specimens1 and found all that had been related thereof to be exactly true4 ,november #be1 a letter from ,cambridge was read to the ,royal ,society1 in which the author endeavours to lessen1 by reason1 the prejudices which then combated the belief of these facts4 8,some of our friends10 says the author1 8who are firmly attached to the general metaphysical notions they have formerly learned1 reason strongly against the possibility of such a fact3 but ,i have myself owned on other occasions1 my distrust of the truth1 or certainty at least1 of some of those principles1 and ,i shall make no scruple of acknowledging1 that ,i have already seen so many strange things in nature1 that ,i am become very diffident of all general assertions1 and very cautious in affirming what may or may not possibly be4 ,the most common operations both of the animal and vegetable world1 are all in themselves astonishing1 and nothing but daily experience and constant observation can make us see without amazement an animal bring forth another of the same kind1 or a tree blossom and bear leaves and fruit4 8,the same observation and experience make it also familiar to us1 that1 besides the first way of propagating vegetables from their respective fruit and seed1 they are also propagated from cuttings1 and every one knows that a twig of a willow particularly1 cut off and only stuck into the ground1 does presently take root and grow1 and become as real and perfect a tree as the original one from which it was taken4 ,here then we find in the vegetable kingdom quite common1 the very thing of which we have an example before us in the animal kingdom1 in this new-discovered insect4 ,the best philosophers have long observed strong analogies between these two classes of beings2 and the more they have penetrated into nature1 the more they have extended this analogy3 now in such a scale1 who is the man that will be bold to say1 just here animal life entirely ends1 and here vegetable life begins8 or1 just so far1 and no farther1 one sort of operation goes2 and just here another sort1 quite different1 takes its place8 or again1 who will venture to say1 life in every animal is a thing absolutely different from that which we dignify by the same name in every vegetable80 ,thus does the author endeavour to persuade the prejudiced1 and lead them to pay attention to the facts which were now laid open to their view1 and which were further confirmed by a letter from ,m4 ,trembley1 in ,january #agdj2 which letter was strengthened by an extract from the preface to the sixth volume of ,reaumur's history of insects4 ,in ,march1 #agdb1 ,mr4 ,folkes gave an account of them to the ,royal ,society1 from observations made on several polypes which had been sent by ,m4 ,trembley from ,holland to him4 ,the insects now began to be known1 and were soon found in ,england1 and the experiments that had been made on them abroad were published by ,mr4 ,folkes1#ajh my father1#aji and ,mr4 ,baker3#aaj conviction now became too strong for argument1 and metaphysical objections gave way to facts4 ,the animal is described in the following manner3 ,,hydra4#aaa ,flos3 os terminale1 cinctum cirris setaceis4 ,stirps vaga1 gelatinosa1 uniflora1 basi se affigens4#aab #ajh ,philosophical ,transactions4 #aji ,micrographia ,illustrata4 #aaj ,natural ,history of the ,polype4 #aaa ,the hydr or polypes have generally been denominated ,insects3 is there not a manifest impropriety in the application of this term to them8 ,if we admit of the systematic arrangement of ,,linn,,us1 we find that he has divided the animal kingdom into six classes3 #a4 ,mammalia4 #b4 ,aves4 #c4 ,amphibia4 #d4 ,pisces4 #e4 ,insecta2 and #f4 ,vermes4 ,of the last or ,vermes1 the ,zoophytes 7from 1 or animal plant7 constitute the fifth order4 ,he defines it as ,animalia composita1 efflorescentia more vegetabilium3 amongst these he includes the various species of ,vorticell and ,hydr4 ,the term animalcul1 or small animals1 is certainly not inapplicable to them1 but they differ materially in the peculiar characteristics by which insects are distinguished1 see page #agi1 and pages #bae-bbj4 ,they do not undergo those transformations to which insects are subject1 and which have been so fully described in the preceding part of this work3 their figure1 habits1 and conomy are also very different4 ,in short1 they seem to be in every respect1 except their minuteness1 quite a distinct race of animated beings1 as will be more fully exemplified in the following pages4 ,,edit4 #aab ,lin4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #acbj4 ,this animal fixes itself by its base1 it is gelatinous1 linear1 naked1 can contract itself1 and change its place4 ,its mouth1 which is at one end1 is surrounded by hair1 like feelers4 ,it sends forth its young ones from its sides1 which drop off4 #a4 ,hydra viridis1 tentaculis subdenis brevioribus4 ,green polype1 generally with about ten short arms2 it is represented in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #e4 #b4 ,hydra fusca1 tentaculis suboctonis longissimis4 ,this polype has very long arms1 often eight in number2 it is represented at ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #g4 ,the arms are several times longer than the body4 #c4 ,hydra grisea1 tentaculis subseptenis longioribus4 ,this polype has also generally long arms1 in number about seven2 it is of a yellowish colour1 small towards the bottom2 it is represented at ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #f4 #d4 ,hydra pallens1 tentaculis subsenis mediocribus4 ,the arms of this polype are generally about six in number1 and of a moderate length4 #e4 ,hydra hydatula1 tentaculis quaternis obsoletis corpore vesicario4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,this polype has a vesicular body1 and four obsolete arms2 is found in the abdomen of sheep1 swine1 c4 #f4 ,hydra stentorea1 tentaculis ciliaribus corpore infundibuliformi4 ,this polype has been called tunnel-shaped2 the mouth is surrounded with a row of hairs2 it is represented at ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #bg and #bh4 #g4 ,hydra socialis1 mutica torosa rugosa4 ,bearded1 thick1 and wrinkled4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,,of ,,the ,,hydra ,,viridis1 ,,hydra ,,fusca1 ,,and ,,hydra ,,grisea4 ,plate ,,xxi4 and ,,xxiii4 ,these three species of the hydra having been those on which the greatest number of experiments have been made1 and of which we have the best information1 it is of these only ,i shall speak in the following account1 unless it is particularly mentioned otherwise4 ,there are few animals more difficult to describe than the hydra1 as it has scarce any thing constant in its form1 varying continually in its figure3 they are often so beset with young1 as to appear ramose and divaricated1 the young ones constituting as it were a part of the parent's body4 ,whoever has looked with care at the bottom of a wet shallow ditch1 when the water is stagnant1 and the sun has been powerful1 may remember to have seen many little transparent lumps1 of a jelly-like appearance1 about the size of a pea1 and flatted on one side2 the same appearances are also often to be seen on the under side of the leaves of those weeds or plants that grow on the surface of the water2 these are the hydr gathered up into a quiescent state1 and seemingly inanimate1 because either undisturbed or not excited by the calls of appetite to action4 ,they are generally fixed by one end to some solid substance1 at the other end there is a large opening1 round about which the arms are placed as so many rays round a center1 which center is the mouth4 ,they are slender and pellucid1 formed of a tender kind of substance1 in consistence something like the horns of a snail1 and can contract the body into a very small compass1 or extend it to a considerable length4 ,they can do the same with the arms2 with these they seize minute worms and various kinds of aquatic insects1 bring them to the mouth1 and swallow them4 ,after the food is digested1 and the nutritive parts which are employed in sustaining its life are separated from the rest1 they reject the remainder by the mouth4 ,the first polype which ,trembley discovered was one of the hydra viridis1 represented in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #e4 ,these are generally of a fine green colour4 ,the indications of spontaneous motion were first perceived in the arms of these little creatures2 they can extend or contract1 bend and wind them divers ways4 ,upon the slightest touch they contract themselves so much1 as to appear little more than a grain of a green substance1 the arms disappearing entirely4 ,he soon after found the hydra grisea1 ,fig4 #f1 and saw it eat1 swallow1 and digest worms much larger than itself4 ,this discovery was soon followed by that of the hydra fusca1 ,fig4 #g4 ,the most general attitudes of these hydr are those which are represented in ,fig4 #e and #f of the same plate4 ,they fix the posterior extremity b against a plant or other substance1 as e f2 the body a b2 and the arms a c1 being extended in the water4 ,there is a small difference in the attitudes of the three kinds which we are now describing4 ,the bodies of the hydra viridis1 ,fig4 #e1 and of the hydra grisea1 ,fig4 #f1 diminish from the anterior to the posterior extremity by an almost insensible gradation4 ,the hydra fusca does not diminish in the same gradual manner1 but from the anterior extremity a1 to the part d1 which is often two-thirds of the length of their body1 it is nearly of an equal size2 from this part it becomes abruptly smaller1 and goes on from thence of a regular size to the end4 ,the number of arms in these three kinds are at least six1 and at most twelve or thirteen1 though eighteen may sometimes be found on the hydra grisea4 ,they can contract their bodies till they are not above one-tenth of an inch in length2 they can also stop at any intermediate degree1 either of contraction or extension1 from the greatest to the least4 ,the species represented at ,fig4 #e1 are generally about half an inch long when stretched out4 ,those exhibited at ,fig4 #f and #g1 are about three-fourths of an inch1 or one inch in length1 though some are to be found at times about an inch and half long4 ,the arms of the hydra viridis1 ,fig4 #e1 are seldom longer than their bodies2 those of ,fig4 #f are commonly one inch long1 while those of ,fig4 #g are generally about eight inches2 whence ,trembley has called it the long-armed polype4 ,the bulk of the hydr decreases1 in proportion as they extend themselves1 and vice versa4 ,they may be made to contract themselves1 either by touching them1 or agitating the water in which they are contained4 ,they all contract themselves so much when1 taken out of the water1 as to appear only like a little lump of jelly4 ,they can contract or extend their arms without extending or contracting the body1 or the body1 without making any alteration in the arms2 or they can contract or dilate only some of the arms1 independent of the rest3 they can also bend their body and arms in all possible directions4 ,those represented at ,fig4 #g let their arms in general hang down1 making different turns and returns1 often directing some of them back again to the top of the water4 ,they can also dilate the body at different places1 sometimes at one part1 and then again at another2 sometimes they are thick set with folds1 which1 if carelessly viewed1 might be taken for rings4 ,they have a progressive motion1 which is performed by that power by which they stretch out1 contract1 and turn themselves every way4 ,for suppose the hydra or polype1 a b1 ,fig4 #af1 to be fixed by the tail b1 having the body and the arms a extended in the water2 in order to advance1 it draws itself together1 by bending itself so as to bring the head and arms down to the substance on which it is to move2 to do this1 it fixes the head or the arms as in ,fig4 #ag2 when these are well fixed1 it loosens the tail1 and draws it towards the head1 as in ,fig4 #ah1 which it again loosens1 and resting on the tail1 stretches it out1 as in ,fig4 #ai4 ,it is easy to see from this account1 that their manner of walking is very analogous to that of various terrestrial and aquatic animals4 ,they walk very slow1 often stopping in the middle of a step1 turning and winding their body and arms every way4 ,their step is sometimes very singular1 as in the following instance3 suppose the polype a b1 ,fig4 #bj1 to be fixed by the tail b1 the body and arms being extended in the water1 it first bends the fore-part towards the substance on which it is moving1 and fixes it thereto1 as at a1 ,fig4 #ba2 it then loosens the lower end1 and raises it up perpendicular1 as in ,fig4 #bb2 now bending the body to the other side1 it fixes the tail1 as in ,fig4 #bc2 then loosening the anterior end1 it rises up1 as in ,fig4 #bd4 ,they descend at pleasure to the bottom of the water1 and ascend again1 either by the sides1 or upon some aquatic plants2 they often hang from the surface of the water1 resting as it were upon the tail2 or1 at other times they are suspended by one arm from it4 ,they walk also with ease upon the surface of the water4 ,if the extremity of the tail b1 ,fig4 #g1 be examined with a magnifying glass1 a small part of it will be found to be dry1 and above the surface of the water1 and as it were in a little concave space1 of which the tail forms the bottom1 so that it seems to be suspended on the surface of the water1 on the same principle that a small pin or needle is made to swim4 ,hence1 when a polype means to pass from the sides of the glass to the surface of the water1 it has only to put that part out of the water by which it means to be supported1 and give it time to dry1 which it always does upon these occasions4 ,they attach themselves so firmly by the tail to aquatic plants1 stones1 c4 as not to be easily driven from the place where they have fixed themselves2 they often further strengthen these attachments by means of one or two of their arms1 which they throw out and fix to adjacent substances1 as so many anchors4 ,the mouth of the polype or hydra is situated at the fore-part of the body1 in the middle between the shooting forth of the arms4 ,the mouth assumes different appearances1 according to the different purposes of the insect2 sometimes it is lengthened out1 and forms a little conical nipple1 as in ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,a4 ,fig4 #ac2 sometimes it appears truncated1 as in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #h2 at other times the interval between the arms appears closed1 as in ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,a4 ,fig4 #b and #ab2 or hollow1 as in ,fig4 #aa of the same plate4 ,if it be observed with a deep magnifier in either of the two last cases1 a small aperture may be discovered4 ,the mouth of the polype opens into the stomach1 which is a kind of bag or gut that goes from head to tail2 this may be perceived by the naked eye1 when the animal is exposed to a strong light1 or a candle placed on the opposite side to the eye2 for the colour of the polype does not destroy the transparency thereof4 ,the stomach will1 however1 be better seen1 if the eye be assisted by a deep magnifier2 one of them is represented as highly magnified in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #h4 ,to be fully satisfied whether they were perforated throughout1 ,trembley cut one transversely into three parts2 each piece immediately contracted itself1 and became very short2 being then placed in a shallow glass full of water1 and viewed through the microscope1 they were found to be visibly perforated4 ,their microscopic appearance is represented in ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,a4 ,fig4 #f1 #g1 #h2 its mouth was at the anterior end a1 ,fig4 #h1 of one of these parts4 ,the tail was at the end b of the third part1 ,fig4 #f2 as this piece was also perforated1 it plainly appears that the tail of the hydra is open4 ,the perforation1 which is thus continued from one end to the other1 is called the stomach1 because it contains and digests the aliments4 ,the skin which incloses the bag1 and forms the stomach1 is the skin of the polype itself2 so that the animal may be said to consist of but one skin1 disposed in the form of a tube or gut open at both ends4 ,on opening the polype1 no vessels are to be distinguished2 and whatever be the nature of its organization1 it must reside in the skin4 ,the skin must be so far organized1 as to perform all the operations necessary for the nutrition and growth of the animal1 without considering those that are necessary for its various motions4 ,whatever are the means the ,author of ,nature has employed for these purposes1 we are ignorant of them4 ,if their skin be examined by a microscope1 it appears like shagreen1 or as if it were covered with little grains2 these are more or less separated from each other1 according to the degree in which the body is extended or contracted4 ,if the lips of a polype be cut transversely1 and placed so that the cut part of the skin may lie directly before the microscope1 the skin throughout its whole thickness will be found to consist of an infinite number of these grains4 ,to know whether the inside of the stomach was formed of similar grains1 several of them have been laid open and examined by the microscope2 the interior surface was then found to consist of an immense number of them1 being as it were more shagreened than the exterior one1 and less transparent4 ,the grains are not strongly united to each other1 but may be separated without much trouble4 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,a4 ,fig4 #aj1 represents a piece of skin thus laid open4 ,to examine these particulars further1 a piece of skin a1 ,fig4 #i1 was laid in a few drops of water1 on a piece of glass before the microscope1 and some of the grains were separated from it1 as at b c d1 by pressing them with the point of a pin2 in endeavouring to open them1 they spread themselves into all parts of the water1 and at last remained in heaps1 as at e and f4 ,if a polype be carefully placed before the microscope1 without wounding it1 you will seldom be disappointed in seeing some of these grains detach themselves from the superficies thereof1 and that even in the most healthy4 ,but if the grains separate themselves in large quantities1 it is the symptom of a very dangerous disorder2 the surface of the polype thus attacked becomes more and more irregular1 and is no longer well terminated and defined as before4 ,the grains fall off on all sides1 the body and arms contract and dilate1 it becomes of a white shining colour1 loses its form as at a1 ,fig4 #d1 and then dissolves into a heap of grains1 as at b1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the progress of this disorder is most easily observed in the hydra viridis4 ,a very attentive and accurate examination shews that the skin is formed of a kind of glareous substance1 a species of gum1 which fills up the intervals between the grains1 in which they are lodged1 and by which they are attached1 though weakly1 together4 ,it has been already observed1 that it is to these grains that it owes its shagreen-like appearance2 it is from them also that it derives its colour2 for1 when they are separated from the polype1 they are the same colour with it1 whereas the glareous matter is without any distinguishing colour4 ,the construction of the polype seems then to be confined to these glandular grains1 to the viscous matter1 and the invisible fibres which act upon the glareous substance4 ,the structure of the arms of the polypes is very analogous to that of their body4 ,when they are examined by the microscope1 either in a contracted or dilated state1 their surface is shagreened2 if the arm be much contracted1 it appears more so than the body2 on the contrary1 it appears less so in proportion as they are more extended2 almost quite smooth when at their full extension2 so that in the hydra viridis the appearance of the arms is continually varying1 and these variations are more sensible towards the extremity of the arm than at its origin1 as1 in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #aj2 but more thinly scattered1 or farther asunder1 in the parts further on1 as at ,fig4 #i4 ,the hairs which are exhibited in this figure cannot be seen without a very deep magnifier1 however they indicate a further degree of organization in this little animal4 ,the extremity is often terminated by a knob4 ,all animals of this kind have a remarkable attachment to turn towards the light1 and this might naturally induce the inquirer to look for their eyes2 but how carefully soever this search has been pursued1 and however excellent the microscope with which every part has been examined1 yet no appearance of this organ has been found4 ,notwithstanding this1 they constantly turn themselves toward the light2 so that if that part of the glass in which we placed them be turned from it1 they will be found the next day to have removed themselves to the side that is next the light1 and the dark side will be quite depopulated4 ,,of ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,the ,,hydr1 ,,and ,,their ,,method ,,of ,,seizing ,,and ,,swallowing ,,their ,,prey4 ,as the hydra fusca1 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #g1 has the longest arms1 its manner of feeding1 and the different manuvres it makes use of to seize and manage its prey1 are more remarkable than those of the two other species2 it will be1 therefore1 this kind only which will be principally spoken of under the present head4 ,to obtain a proper view1 it should be placed in a glass seven or eight inches deep4 ,if the polype be fixed near the top of the glass1 the arms for the most part hang down toward the bottom4 ,this is a very convenient situation for feeding it1 and observing its management of the food4 ,the polypes are in general very voracious3 an hungry one extends its arms as a fisherman his nets2 it spreads them every way1 so that they form a circle of considerable extent1 every part of which is entirely within the reach of one of them4 ,in this expanded posture it lies in expectation of its food2 whatever comes within the verge of this circle is seized by one or other of its arms3 the arms are then contracted till the prey is brought to the mouth1 when it is soon devoured4 ,while the arms are contracting and exerting themselves vigorously to counteract the efforts of the animal1 which it has seized1 to escape1 they may be observed to swell like the muscles of the human body when they are in a state of exertion4 ,though in general all ideas are derived from the senses1 there are certainly some that seem infused into us independently of the exertions of any sense4 ,this may be confirmed by many instances of animal instinct2 among others1 it may be illustrated by the polype4 ,who taught it1 when just separated from the parent stock1 to expand its arms1 that it might catch its prey8 ,that its native element abounded with insects8 or that these were its proper food8 ,no sense that we are acquainted with could first give the information4 ,the polype does not always wait for its prey1 it feels for it1 and in a manner follows it4 ,it may be asked how can it perform this if destitute of vision8 or do the glandular grains answer the purpose of eyes8 ,who can answer the question8 what are our own eyes but glandular grains of a larger size8 ,if this should be the case1 our hydra1 like the libellul and other insects1 would realize1 nay1 exceed the fables of the ancients1 being an ,argus entirely composed of eyes4 ,be this as it may1 they are certainly in possession of some sensation by which they are informed of the approach of their prey1 and which renders them attentive to all that may confirm or destroy this perception4 ,when the arms of a polype are extended within a glass1 put a centipe or any kind of worm into it1 see ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #a1 and with the point of a pin push it towards one of the arms2 as soon as it touches this it is seized2 the worm or centipe endeavours by quick and strong efforts to disengage itself1 often swimming and dragging the arm from one side of the glass to the other4 ,this violent motion of the prey obliges the polype to contract strongly the arm2 in doing which1 it often twists it in the form of a cork-screw1 as at o i1 by which means it shortens it more rapidly4 ,the struggles of the devoted animal soon bring it in contact with another arm2 these contracting further1 the little creature is presently engaged with all the arms1 and by degrees conveyed to the mouth1 against which it is held and subdued4 ,when a polype has nothing to eat1 its mouth is generally open1 but so small1 that it can scarce be perceived without the assistance of a magnifying glass2 but as soon as the arms have conveyed the prey to the mouth1 it opens itself wider1 and this in proportion to the size of the animal that is to be devoured2 the lips gradually dilate1 and adjust themselves accurately to the figure of the prey4 ,the greatest part of the animals on which the polype feeds1 are to its mouth1 what an apple the size of our heads would be to the mouth of a man4 ,the worms or other minute animals which are seized by the polype1 are not always brought to the mouth in the same situation2 if they be presented to it by one of their extremities1 it is not requisite that the polype should open its mouth considerably1 and in effect it only opens it so wide1 as precisely to give entrance to the worm1 ,fig4 #e4 ,if it be not too long for the stomach1 it remains there extended2 but if it be longer1 the end which first enters is bent1 so that when the worm is entirely swallowed1 it may be seen lying folded in the stomach1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,if the middle1 or any other part of the worm1 be presented to the mouth of the polype1 it seizes this part with the lips1 extending them on both sides1 and applying them against the worm1 so that the mouth assumes the form of a boat1 pointed at each end1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #b2 the polype gradually closes the two points of its boat-like lips1 and by this motion and suction swallows the worm1 ,fig4 #d4 ,the polypes kill worms so speedily1 that ,fontana thinks they must contain the most active and powerful venom2 for the lips of a polype scarce touch the worm1 but it expires1 so great is the energy of the poison it conveys into it1 though no wound can be observed in the dead animal4 ,as soon as the stomach is filled1 its capacity is enlarged1 the body is shortened1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #f1 the arms are for the most part contracted1 the polype hangs down without motion1 and appears to be in a kind of stupor1 and very different from its shape when extended2 but in proportion as the food is digested1 and it has voided the excrementitious parts1 the body lengthens1 and gradually recovers its usual form4 ,the transparency of the polype permits us to see distinctly the worm it has swallowed1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ab1 which gradually loses its form4 ,it is at first macerated in the stomach of the polype1 and when the nutritious juices are separated from it1 the remainder is discharged by the mouth1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,it is with these1 as with other voracious animals1 as they devour a great quantity of food at once1 so also they can fast for a long time4 ,the history of insects furnishes many examples of this kind4 ,one circumstance is observable1 which probably contributes much to the digestion of their food1 namely1 that the aliments are continually pushed backward from one extremity of the stomach to the other2 this motion may be easily observed with a microscope1 in a polype which is not too full1 and in which the food has been already divided into little fragments4 ,for these observations1 it is best to feed the polype with such food as will give a lively-coloured juice2 as for example1 those worms whose intestines are filled with red substances3 for by these means we shall see that the nutritious juices are conveyed not only to the extremity of the body1 but also into the arms2 from whence it is probable that each of the arms form also a kind of gut1 which communicates with that of the body4 ,some bits of a small black snail that is frequently to be found in our ditches1 was given to a polype4 ,the substance of this skin was soon reduced into a pulp1 consisting of little black fragments2 on examining the polype with the microscope1 these particles were perceived to be driven about the stomach1 and to pass from head to tail1 and into their arms1 even where these were as fine as a thread2 they were afterwards forced into the stomach1 and from thence to the tail1 from whence they were again driven into the arms1 and so on4 ,the grains take their tinge from the food which nourishes the polypes2 these grains become red or black1 if the polype be fed with juices that are either red or black2 and they are more or less tinged with these different colours1 in proportion to the strength and quantity of the nutritive juices4 ,it is also observable1 that they lose their colour if fed with aliments that are not of the same colour with themselves4 ,the polypes feed on the greater part of those insects that are to be found in fresh water4 ,they may be nourished with worms1 the larv of gnats1 c4 they will also eat larger animals if they are cut into small pieces1 as snails1 large aquatic insects1 small fish1 butcher's meat1 c4 ,sometimes two polypes seize the same worm1 and each begins to swallow its own end1 continuing so to do till their mouths meet1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #h2 in this position they remain for some time1 at last the worm breaks1 and each has its share2 sometimes the combat does not end here1 for each continuing to dispute the prize1 one of the polypes opens its mouth advantageously1 and swallows the other with its portion of the worm1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ad2 this combat ends more fortunately for the devoured polype than might be at first expected1 for the other often gets the prey out of its stomach1 but lets it out again sound and safe1 after having imprisoned it above an hour4 ,from hence we learn1 that the stomach of the polype1 which so soon dissolves the animal substances which are conveyed into it1 is not capable of digesting that of another polype4 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,a4 ,fig4 #e1 represents a polype with one half a centipe in its mouth1 as at a2 the other part without1 as at m4 ,fig4 #a represents one suspended in water by a piece of packthread2 c n1 a centipe seized by it1 and drawn partly towards the mouth2 i o1 the bendings in the arm2 p1 an arm in search of a small aquatic insect4 ,fig4 #b1 a polype stretching itself into a boat-like form1 to take or swallow a worm lying sideways4 ,fig4 #d1 the same polype with the worm swallowed and bent within it4 ,fig4 #f1 is a polype in the situation they generally assume when they have satisfied their voracious appetite4 ,fig4 #g1 one that has swallowed a small monoculus4 ,fig4 #i1 a1 one whose arms are loaded with monoculi4 ,fig4 #aj1 a polype full of them from head to tail4 ,fig4 #c1 one that has only swallowed a few of them4 ,fig4 #h1 represents two polypes engaged in combat for a worm1 of which both of them have swallowed a part4 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #aa1 represents a polype engaged with a very large worm4 ,fig4 #ab1 a worm seen within the skin of a polype4 ,fig4 #ac1 a polype disgorging the excrementitious parts of a worm4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #ab1 a polype that has swallowed a small fish1 and taken the shape thereof4 ,,of ,,the ,,generation ,,of ,,the ,,hydr4 ,as the hydra fusca and the hydra grisea are considerably larger than the hydra viridis1 it is more easy to observe the manner of their producing their young4 ,it is upon these1 therefore1 that most of the observations here recited have been made4 ,if one of them be examined in summer1 when the animals are most active1 and more particularly prepared for propagation1 it will be found to shoot forth from its side several little tubercles1 or knobs1 which grow larger and larger every day2 after two or three days inspection1 what at first appeared but a small excrescence1 takes the figure of a small animal1 entirely resembling its parent4 ,it does not inclose a young polype1 but is the real animal in miniature1 united to the parent1 as a sucker to the tree4 ,when a young polype first begins to shoot1 the excrescence terminates in a point1 as at e1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #bd2 so that it is rather of a conical figure1 and of a deeper colour than that of the body4 ,this cone soon becomes truncated1 and in a little time appears cylindrical4 ,the arms then begin to shoot from the anterior end c i4 ,the tail adheres to the body of the parent1 but grows gradually smaller1 till at last it only adheres by a point b1 ,fig4 #bc1 it is then ready to be separated2 for this purpose the mother and young ones fix themselves to the glass1 or other substance upon which they may be situated4 ,they have then only to give a sudden jerk1 and they are divided from each other4 ,there are some trifling differences to be observed now and then in their performing this operation1 which it would be too tedious to enumerate here4 ,a polype1 a b1 ,fig4 #bj1 with a young one1 c d1 places its body in an arch of a circle a d b1 against the sides of the glass1 the young one being fixed at the top d of the arch1 with its head also fixed against the glass2 so that the mother1 by contracting the body1 and thus becoming straight1 loosens herself from the young one4 ,the young ones shoot in proportion to the warmth of the weather1 and the nature of the food eaten by the mother2 some have been observed to be perfectly formed in twenty-four hours1 while others have required fifteen days for the same purpose2 the first were produced in the midst of summer1 the latter in a cold season4 ,the tail of the young polype communicates with1 and partakes of the food from the parent in the same manner as its own arms do1 and the food lies in the same manner as in the arms4 ,when this ftus is furnished with arms1 it catches its prey1 swallows1 digests1 and distributes the juices thereof even to the parent body2 every good is common to each4 ,here then we have evident communication between the ftus and the mother2 this communication was further proved by the following experiment4 ,a large polype1 one of the hydra fusca1 was placed on a slip of paper1 in a little water2 the middle of the body of the young one was cut1 and the superior part of that end which remained fixed to the parent was found to be open4 ,the parent polype was then cut on each side of the shoot4 ,thus a short cylinder was obtained1 which was open at both ends4 ,this being viewed through a microscope1 the light was seen to come through the side slip1 or young one1 into the stomach of the old one4 ,for further conviction1 the cylindrical portion was cut lengthways2 on observing these parts1 not only the hole t of the communication1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ag1 was distinctly seen1 but one might see through the end o of the young one4 ,on changing the situation of these two pieces of prepared polypes1 and looking through the opening e1 ,fig4 #ah1 the day-light was seen through the hole of communication i4 ,this communication1 between the parent polype and its young ones may be seen on feeding them2 for1 after the parent a b1 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,b4 ,fig4 #bb1 has eaten1 the bodies of the young ones swell1 being filled with the aliments as if they themselves had been eating4 ,in the hydra fusca the young ones do not proceed from the tail part b c1 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #af1 but only from the part a c1 with this exception1 there is no particular part of the body before the rest1 on which they produce their young4 ,some of them have been so closely observed1 and have so greatly multiplied1 that there would be scarce any impropriety in saying they produced their young ones from all the exterior parts of their body4 ,a polype puts forth frequently five or six young ones at the same time4 ,trembley has had some that have produced nine or ten at the same time1 and when one dropped off another came in its place4 ,though this gentleman had for two years thousands of them under his eye1 and considered them with the most scrupulous attention1 he never observed any thing like copulation4 ,to be more certain on this head1 he took two young ones the instant they came from their parent1 and placed them in separate glasses2 they both multiplied1 not only themselves1 but their offspring1 which were separated and watched in the same manner to the seventh generation2 nay1 they have even the faculty of multiplying while they adhere to the parent4 ,the arms of the young ones do not sprout till the body has attained some length4 ,several excrescences or buds often appear at the same time on a polype1 which are so many polypes growing from one trunk2 whilst these are developing1 they also bud1 which buds again put forth little ones1 the parent and the young ones forming a singular kind of animal society1 in which all participate of the same life1 and the same wants4 ,in this state1 the parent appears like a shrub thick set with branches4 ,several generations are often thus attached to one another1 and all to the parent polype2 after a time1 this tree of polypes or hydr is decomposed1 and gives birth to new generations1 or fresh genealogical trees4 ,here we see a surprizing chain of existence continued1 and numbers of animals naturally produced1 without any union of sexes2 every polype raising a numerous posterity by a kind of animal vegetation4 ,from ,fig4 #af1 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,b4 the reader may form an idea of the promptitude with which these creatures increase and multiply2 the whole group formed by the parent and its young was about an inch and an half long1 and one inch broad1 the arms of the mother and her nineteen little ones hanging down towards the bottom of the vessel2 the animal would eat about twelve monoculi per day1 and the little ones about twenty among them1 or rather more than thirty for the group4 ,,of ,,the ,,re-,,production ,,of ,,the ,,hydr4 ,so strange is the nature of this creature's life1 that the method by which other animals are killed and destroyed becomes a means of propagating these4 ,when divided and cut to pieces in every direction that fancy can suggest1 it not only continues to exist1 but each section becomes an animal of the same kind4 ,a polype cut transversely or longitudinally1 in two or three parts1 is not destroyed2 each part in a little time becomes a perfect polype4 ,this species of fecundity is so great in these animals1 that even a small portion of their skin will become a little polype1 a new animal rising as it were from the ruins of the old1 each small fragment yielding a polype4 ,if the young ones be mutilated while they grow upon the parent1 the mutilated parts are re-produced2 the same changes succeed also in the parent4 ,a truncated portion will put forth young before it is perfectly formed itself1 or has acquired its new head and tail2 sometimes the head of the young one supplies the place of that which would grow out of the anterior part of the trunk4 ,if a polype be slit1 beginning at the head1 and proceeding to the middle of the body1 a polype will be formed with two heads1 and will eat at the same time with both4 ,if the polype be slit into six or seven parts1 it becomes a hydra with six or seven heads4 ,if these be again divided1 we shall have one with fourteen2 cut off these1 and as many new ones will spring up in their place1 and the heads thus cut off will become new polypes1 of which so many new hydr may again be formed2 so that in every respect it exceeds the fabulous relation of the ,lernean hydra4 ,as if the wonders already related of the polype were not sufficient to engage our attention to these singular animals1 new circumstances1 as surprizing as the foregoing1 present themselves to convince us of the imperfection of our ideas of animality1 and of the greatness of the power of our ,,lord and ,,saviour1 who is the source and origin of every degree of life1 in all its immense gradations1 as unity is the origin of number in all its varied series1 multiplied proportions and combinations2 and as numbers may be considered as recipient of unity1 in order to make manifest the wonderful powers thereof1 so the universe and its parts are adapted to receive life from the source of all life1 and thus become representatives of his immensity and eternity4 ,the polypes may be as it were grafted together4 ,if the truncated portions of a polype be placed end to end1 and then pushed together with a gentle force1 they will unite1 and form a single one4 ,the union is at first made by a fine thread1 and the portions are distinguished by a narrow neck1 which gradually fills up and disappears1 the food passing from one portion to another4 ,portions not only of the same1 but pieces of different polypes may be thus united together4 ,you may fix the head of one polype to the trunk of another2 and that which is thus produced1 will grow1 eat1 and multiply like another4 ,there is still another method of uniting these animals together1 more wonderful in its nature1 and less analogous to any known principles of animation1 and more difficult to perform4 ,it is effected by introducing one within the other1 forcing the body of one into the mouth of the other1 and pushing it down so that their heads may be brought together3 in this state it must be kept for some time2 the two individuals are at last united1 and grafted into each other2 and the polype1 which was at first double1 is converted into one1 with a great number of arms1 and performs all its functions like another4 ,the hydra fusca furnishes us with another prodigy1 to which we know nothing that is similar either in the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,they may be turned inside out like a glove1 and1 notwithstanding the apparent improbability of the circumstance1 they live and act as before4 ,the lining or coating of the stomach now forms the epidermis1 and the former epidermis now constitutes the coating of the stomach4 ,a polype thus turned1 may often have young ones attached to its side4 ,if this be the case1 after the operation they are of course inclosed in the stomach4 ,those which have acquired a certain size extend themselves towards the mouth1 that they may get out when separated from the body2 those which are but little grown1 turn themselves inside out1 and by these means place themselves again on the outside of the parent polype4 ,the polype thus turned combines itself a thousand different ways4 ,the fore-part often closes itself1 and becomes a supernumerary tail4 ,the polype which was at first straight1 now bends itself1 so that the two tails resemble the legs of a pair of compasses1 which it can open and shut4 ,the old mouth is at the joint as it were of the compasses2 it cannot1 however1 act as one1 so that a new one is formed near it1 and in a little time a new species of hydra is formed with several mouths4 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ah1 represents the upper part of a polype that has been divided into two parts2 a1 the upper1 c1 the lower part1 the end c being something larger than that of a common polype1 and is sensibly perforated2 in the summer time this part often walks and eats the same day it is cut4 ,fig4 #ag1 the other part of the same polype2 the anterior end is very open1 and the edges of it turned a little outwards1 which afterwards folding inwards1 close the aperture4 ,this end now appears swelled1 as at c1 ,fig4 #ba2 the arms shoot out from this end3 at first three or four points only begin to shoot1 as at c1 ,fig4 #bj1 and while these increase in size1 others appear between them2 they can seize their prey and eat before their arms have done growing4 ,in the height of summer the arms will often begin to shoot in twenty-four hours2 but in cold weather it will be fifteen or twenty days before the head is formed4 ,fig4 #bb1 represents a polype that was cut close under the arms2 this became also a complete animal in a little time4 ,the sides of a polype that has been cut longitudinally1 roll themselves up in different ways1 generally beginning at one of the extremities1 rolling itself up in a heap1 as in ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,b4 ,fig4 #ai1 with the outside of the skin inwards2 it soon unrolls itself1 and the cut sides form themselves into a tube1 whereof the edges a b and e i1 ,fig4 #ae1 on both sides meet each other and unite4 ,sometimes they begin to join at the tail end1 at other times the whole sides gradually approach each other4 ,the sides join so close1 that from the first moment of their junction no scar can be discovered4 ,fig4 #ad1 represents a polype partly joined1 as at i b1 the part c a e not yet closed4 ,fig4 #bi1 represents a polype1 the heads of which have been repeatedly divided1 by which means it becomes literally a hydra4 ,fig4 #bd1 represents a polype that has been turned1 endeavouring to turn itself back again1 the skin of the anterior part lying back upon the other2 the arms varying in their direction1 being sometimes turned towards the head1 see ,fig4 #bd and #bf1 at others1 towards the tail4 ,the anterior extremity c1 formed by the edges of the reversed part a1 remained open for some days1 and then began to close2 new arms shot out near the old ones1 and several mouths were formed at those parts where the arms joined the body4 ,fig4 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #bh1 represent the different changes that took place in another polype that had been turned inside out1 and the different revolutions it went through before it acquired a fixed state2 a c always shews the part the polype had turned back1 and a b the part it could not turn back4 ,a polype1 which has been partly turned back1 remains but a little time in that situation4 ,fig4 #bh1 a1 the part where the portion it had turned back joined to the body a b2 this became straight1 and formed a right angle with a b2 the same day another head appeared at e1 and several arms1 a o1 a n1 began to shoot from the mouth a2 at the other side of this mouth there were the old arms a d4 ,the next day the portion a c was drawn near the body1 and formed an acute angle with it1 as at ,fig4 #be4 ,fig4 #bg1 represents the same swelled1 after having swallowed a worm4 ,four days afterwards its form had varied considerably1 as may be seen by comparing ,fig4 #be and #bh1 having now one common mouth1 and two small polypes growing on it4 ,we may now be permitted to make a few reflections on this singular animal4 ,on considering the various properties that have been already described1 many particulars will be found in them that are very analogous to others that are continually carrying on around us2 we perceive that there is a successive unfolding of new parts4 ,in every organized frame there is a continual effort to extend its sphere of action1 and enlarge the operation of that portion of life which is communicated to it4 ,this gradual evolution requires a secret and curious mechanism1 to regulate and modify by re-action the continued conatus of the forming principle within it4 ,the polype is an organized whole1 of which each part1 each molecule1 each atom1 tends to produce another2 it is1 if we may so speak1 one entire ovary1 a compound of germ1 or seed4 ,in cutting a polype to pieces1 the nourishing juices1 which would have been employed in supporting the whole1 are made to act upon each portion4 ,when a polype is divided longitudinally1 it forms two half tubes2 the opposite edges of these approach1 and in a very short time form a perfect tube4 ,the sides are made to touch each other by certain motions and contractions of the piece2 but as soon as the edges come in contact1 a slight adhesion takes place1 the corresponding vessels unite1 and new ones are unfolded1 as in a vegetable graft2 by these means the points of connection and cohesion are multiplied1 the motion of the fluids is re-established1 and with them the vital conomy4 ,this is performed with more rapidity than in vegetables1 because the polype is nearly gelatinous1 and its parts are extremely ductile2 this ductility is supported and preserved by the element which it inhabits4 ,the same reasoning applies equally to explain the formation of so many heads to a polype1 as constitute it a real hydra4 ,a new polype is formed out of small portions or fragments1 in a very different manner1 the operations in nature being always varied1 according as the circumstances differ2 each fragment is puffed up1 the skin separated1 and an empty space is formed within it2 this part is to become the stomach of the rising polype1 which soon sends forth arms1 and is formed to the perfection proper to its kind4 ,we learn from this instance that the skin of the polype is not so simple as was at first imagined2 for we find it dividing itself into two membranes1 and forming thereby a cavity fit to perform all the functions of a stomach2 but why these membranes are separated in the small portions1 and not in the larger1 we cannot tell2 but though we are ignorant of this1 and many more circumstances relative to the re-production of these little animals1 yet the foregoing facts enable us to understand better the nature of the existence of these polypes which have been turned inside out4 ,for as that part which formed the interior skin of the stomach in the little fragments before-mentioned1 became the exterior part of the animal1 the inside of the polype is consequently so similar to the exterior skin1 that one may be substituted for the other1 without injuring the vital functions2 from hence we might1 in some measure1 have inferred the possibility of the polypes living1 after they have been turned inside out1 independent of the fact itself4 ,the viscera of the animal are situated in the thickness of the skin1 and absorbing pores are placed both on the inside and outside1 so that the animal can live whether the skin be turned one way or the other4 ,the ,author of nature did not create the polype to be turned as we turn a glove2 but he formed an animal whose viscera were lodged in the thickness of the skin1 and with powers to resist the various accidents to which it was unavoidably exposed by the nature of its life2 and the organization necessary for this purpose was so constructed1 that the skin might be turned without destroying life4 ,every portion of a divided polype has1 like the vegetable bud1 all the viscera necessary to its existence2 it can1 therefore1 live by itself1 and push forth a head and tail1 when placed end to end against another piece4 ,the vegetation consists in uniting the portions1 the vessels of each part increase in length1 and a communication is soon formed between them1 which unites the whole4 ,the ease with which the parts unite1 is as has been observed before1 probably owing to their gelatinous nature2 for we find many similar instances in tender substances4 ,the solid parts of the embryo1 as the fingers1 unite in the womb2 tender fruit and leaves may be also thus united4 ,a portion of these creatures is capable of devouring its prey almost as soon as it is divided from the rest4 ,in the structure of those animals which are most familiar to us1 a particular place is appropriated for the developement and passage of the embryo4 ,but on the body of an animal1 which1 like a tree1 is covered with prolific gems1 it is not surprizing that the young ones should proceed from its sides1 like branches from a tree4 ,the mother and her young ones form but one whole2 she nourishes them1 and they contribute to her existence1 as a tree supports1 and is reciprocally supported by its branches and leaves4 ,,of ,,the ,,hydra ,,pallens4 ,the hydra pallens has been fully described only by ,m4 ,rsel2#aac it is very seldom to be met with1 is of a pale yellow colour1 and grows smaller gradually from the bottom1 the tail is somewhat round or knobbed1 the arms are about the length of the body1 of a white colour1 and generally seven in number1 apparently composed of a chain of globules2 it brings forth the young from all parts of its body4 ,linnus defines it as1 hydra pallens tentaculis subsenis mediocribus2#aad ,pallas as1 hydra attenuata corpore flavescente1 sursum attenuato4#aae #aac ,insecten ,belustigung1 #c4 ,theil4 pag4 #dfe4 ,tab4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,lxxvii4 #aad ,system4 ,nat4 p4 #acbj1 ,no4 #d4 #aae ,zoophyt4 #d4 ,,of ,,the ,,hydra ,,hydatula4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,the next in order is the hydra hydatula1 which we have already defined from ,linnus as a hydra with four obsolete arms1 and a vesicular body3 it is spoken of by several medical writers1 who are enumerated in the ,systema ,natur1 p4 #acba4 ,it is described also by ,hartman1 ,misc4 ,nat4 ,cur4 ,dec4 ,i4 ,an4 #g1 ,obs4 #bjf1 ,dec4 ,,ii4 ,an4 #d1 ,obs4 #gc1 as hydatis animata2 also in the ,dissert4 de ,inf4 ,viv4 p4 #ej2 n4 #f1 tnia hydatoidea4 ,pallas defines it as tnia hydatigena rugis imbricata corpore postice bulla lymphatic terminato4 ,the following description is extracted from that in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 #aic1 by ,dr4 ,tyson1 who names it lumbricus hydropicus4 ,in the dissection of a gazella or antelope1 ,dr4 ,tyson observed several hydatides or films filled with water1 about the size of a pigeon's egg1 and of an oval form1 fastened to the omentum1 and some in the pelvis1 between the bladder of urine and the rectum2 and he then suspected them to be a particular sort of insect1 bred in animal bodies1 or at least the embryos or eggs of them3 #a4 ,because he observed them included in a membrane1 like a matrix1 so loosely1 that by opening it with a finger or knife1 the internal bladder1 containing the serum or lympha1 seemed no where to have any connection with it1 but would very readily drop out1 still retaining its liquor1 without spilling any of it4 #b4 ,he observed that this internal bladder had a neck or white body1 more opake than the rest of the bladder1 and protuberant from it1 with an orifice at its extremity1 by which1 as with a mouth1 it exhausted the serum from the external membrane1 and so supplied its bladder or stomach4 #c4 ,upon bringing this neck near the candle1 it moved and shortened itself4 ,fig4 #a1 represents one of these watery bladders inclosed in its external membrane1 its shape was nearly round1 being only a little depressed or flatted1 as a drop of quicksilver will be by lying on a plane4 ,in ,fig4 #b1 the neck is better seen2 the external membrane being taken off1 an open orifice is found at its extremity2 it consists of circular rings or incisures1 which are more visible when magnified1 as in ,fig4 #c2 it then appears granulated with a number of little eminences all over the surface2 the orifice at the extremity seems to be formed by retracting itself inwards1 and upon trial it was found to be so2 for in ,fig4 #d1 the neck of this polype is represented magnified and drawn out its whole length2 on opening it there were found within the two strings a1 a1 which probably convey into the stomach the moisture and nourishment1 which the animal1 by protruding its neck1 extracts from the external membrane4#aaf #aaf ,hydra hydatula habitat in abdomine mammalium1 ovium1 suum1 murium1 c4 inter peritoneum et intestina4 ,vesica lymphatica1 pellucida1 magnitudine pruni1 petiolata corpore cylindrico1 in cujus apice os1 quod1 corpore compresso1 movet tentacula vix manifesta4 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #acba1 ,no4#e4 ,,of ,,the ,,hydra ,,stentorea4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #bg and #bh4 ,hydra tentaculis ciliaribus corpore infundibuliformi4 ,the arms of this hydra are rows of short hairs1 the body trumpet-shaped4 ,this species of hydra is very common1 and has been described by almost every writer on these subjects2 it is placed by ,mller among the vorticell4 ,vorticella stentorea caudata1 elongata1 tubformis limbo ciliato4 ,mller animalcula infusoria4 ,mr4 ,baker originally named it the funnel-like polype1 which ,messrs4 ,trembley and ,reaumur changed to the tunnel-like polype1 under which name it appears in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 #dgd4 ,there are three kinds of them1 which are of different colours1 green1 blue1 and white4 ,the white ones are the most common4 ,it is necessary to observe them often1 and in various attitudes1 in order to obtain a tolerable idea of their structure4 ,they do not form clusters1 but adhere singly by their tail to whatever comes in their way2 their anterior end is wider than the posterior1 and being round1 gives the animal somewhat of a funnel form1 though it is not completely circular1 having a sort of slit or gap that interrupts the circle4 ,the edge of this opening is furnished with a great number of fibrill1 which by their brisk and continual motions excite a current of water2 the small bodies that float or swim near this current1 are forced by it into the mouth of the little animal4 ,trembley says1 that he has often seen a number of very small animalcula fall one after another into the mouth1 some of which were afterwards let out again at another opening1 which he was not able to describe4 ,they can fashion their mouths into several different forms4 ,if any thing touch them1 they shrink back and contract themselves4 ,they live independent of each other1 swimming freely through the water in search of their prey1 and fix to any thing they meet with4 ,these animals multiply by dividing themselves1 not longitudinally1 nor transversely1 but sloping and diagonal wise2 the proceedings in nature continually varying in every new form of life4 ,of the two polypes produced by the division of one1 the first has the old head and a new tail2 the other1 the old tail and a new head4 ,to make the description more clear1 ,trembley called that with the old head the superior polype1 that with the new head the inferior one4 ,the first particular that is observable in these polypes1 when they are going to divide1 is the lips of the inferior one2 a transverse and oblique stripe indicates the part where it is going to divide2 the new lips are formed at about two-thirds of the length of the polype1 reckoning from the head2 the division is made in a sloping line1 that goes about half way round the parent animal2 these lips are at first discerned by a slow motion1 which engages the attention of the observer4 ,they then insensibly approach each other and close1 whereby a swelling is formed on the side of the polype1 which is soon found to be a new head4 ,when the swelling is considerably increased1 the two polypes may be plainly distinguished4 ,the superior one being now connected with the inferior one only by its lower extremity1 is soon detached from it1 and swims away to fix itself on some convenient substance2 the inferior one remains fastened to the place where the original polype was fixed before the division4 ,from the various modes by which different species of polypes are multiplied1 we are led to form more exalted ideas of nature1 and to see that the little we discover is but an exceeding small part of her contents2 we learn also to be more cautious in reasoning from analogy1 and laying down the known for a model to the unknown1 because we find that the operations in nature are varied ad infinitum4 ,the growth of the hydra fusca is very quick1 but that of the hydra stentorea is much more so4 ,the progress of the ftus is always more rapid than that of the infant and adult animal2 but in these organized atoms the evolution is so rapid1 as to appear almost like an immediate creation4 ,fig4 #bh represents the hydr stentore1 or funnel-polypes1 fixed to the under side of a piece of some vegetable substance2 they are in this figure of their natural size4 ,fig4 #bg1 the same polypes magnified2 the different forms they assume are also seen here1 sometimes short and thick1 as at m m2 long1 as at n2 nearly globular1 as at o2 extended to the full size1 as at k2 seen as contracted at i4 ,the fibrill or little hairs may be seen in most of the attitudes except those of l4 ,,of ,,the ,,hydra ,,socialis4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,hydra socialis mutica torosa rugosa4#aag #aag ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #acba4 ,no4 #g4 ,social hydra1 bearded thick and wrinkled4 ,this species of hydra has been described by many writers4 ,it is the vorticella socialis of ,mller1 who defines it as vort cella caudata1 aggregata1 clavata2 disco obliquo4 ,mller ,animalcula ,infusoria1 p4 #cjd4 ,pallas makes it a brachionus1 ,pall4 ,zooph4 #ec4 ,in ,fig4 #aa1 these animals are represented as considerably magnified2 they appear like a circle1 surrounded with crowns1 or ciliated heads1 tied by small thin tails to a common center1 from whence they advance towards the circumference1 where they turn like a wheel1 with a great deal of vivacity and swiftness1 till they occasion a kind of whirlpool1 which brings into its sphere the proper food for the polype4 ,when one of them has been in motion for a time1 it stops1 and another begins2 sometimes two or three may be perceived in motion together4 ,they are often to be found separate1 with the tail sticking in the mud4 ,the body contracts and dilates very much1 so as sometimes to have the appearance of a cudgel2 at others1 to assume almost a globular form4 ,the young polypes of this species have been sometimes taken for the hydra stentorea4 ,,of ,,the ,,vorticell4 ,we now come to another division of these animals1 to which later writers have given the name of vorticell2 this term ,i shall therefore adopt1 being of opinion that it behoves every man to maintain that order in scientific arrangement which is not inconsistent with truth1 except he can produce another arrangement more expressive of the nature of the objects it is designed to discriminate2 a process requiring no small degree of attention4 ,the variety that may be observed in these minute animals confirms a principle1 which1 the more it is inquired into1 the more it will be found to accord with the general operations in nature1 namely1 that there is always a pre-existent principle of life necessary to the organization both of animals and vegetables2 that the alimentary and other particles which are added to1 or apparently belong to them1 produce nothing of themselves2 they are incapable of forming the least fibre1 but they are able to become constituent parts of one organical whole1 together with the instruments whereby the forming principle is manifested1 and rendered capable of acting upon certain orders of creatures4 ,,vorticella4 ,animal calyce vasculoso2 ore contractili ciliato1 terminali4 ,stirps fixa4 ,a small animal1 with a vascular cup2 the mouth is at one end ciliated1 and capable of being contracted1 the stem fixed4 ,,vorticella ,,anastatica4 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,fig4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 and #af994 ,vorticella anastatica1 composita1 floribus campanulatis1 stirpe multiflora rigescente4 ,vorticella anastatica1 compound1 with bell-shaped flowers1 and a rigid stem4 ,cluster polype1 second species4 ,trembley1 ,philos4 ,trans4 vol4 xliv4 part4 #b4 p4 #fdc4 ,these polypes form a group resembling a cluster1 or more properly an open flower2 this flower or cluster is supported by a stem1 which is fixed by its lower extremity to some of the aquatic plants or extraneous bodies that are found in the water2 the upper extremity forms itself into eight or nine lateral branches1 perfectly similar to each other2 these have also subordinate branches1 whose collective form much resembles that of a leaf4 ,every one of these assemblages is composed of one principal branch or nerve1 which makes with the main stem of the cluster an angle somewhat greater than a right one2 from both sides of this nerve the smaller lateral branches proceed2 these are shorter the nearer their origin is to the principal branch4 ,at the extremity of the principal branch1 and also of all the lateral ones1 there is a polype or vorticella4 ,there are others on both sides of the lateral twigs1 but at different distances from their extremity4 ,these polypes are all exceeding small1 and of a bell-like figure2 near their mouth a quick motion may be discerned1 though not with sufficient distinctness to convey an adequate idea of its cause2 upon the branches of these clusters are round bodies1 which will be more particularly described presently4 ,every cluster has eight or nine of these branches or leaves2 they do not all proceed from the same point1 but the points from whence they set out are not far asunder2 each of these branches is bent a little inwards1 so that all of them taken together form a kind of shallow cup4 ,if the eye be placed right over the base of this cup1 the appearance of the whole eight or nine branches is like unto that of a star1 with so many rays proceeding from the center4 ,if the cluster be slightly touched1 all the branches instantly fold up1 and form a small round mass4 ,the stem which supports the cluster contracts also at the same time1 folding up like a workman's measuring rule1 that consists of three or four joints4 ,this extraordinary assemblage constitutes one organized whole1 formed of a multitude of similar and particular ones4 ,a new species of society1 in which all the individuals are members of each other in the strictest sense1 and all participate of the same life4 ,a few days after one of these clusters is formed1 small round bodies or bulbs may be perceived to protrude in several places from the body of the branch2 these grow very fast1 and arrive at their greatest growth in two or three days4 ,the bulbs detach themselves from the branches out of which they spring1 and go away1 swimming till they can settle upon some substance which they meet with in the water1 and to which they fix themselves by a short pedicle2 the bulbs are then round1 only a little flatted on the under side1 the pedicle continues to lengthen gradually for about twenty-four hours1 during the same time the bulbs also change their figure1 and become nearly oval4 ,there are in a cluster but few of these bulbs1 compared with the number of the vorticell1 neither do all the bulbs come out at the same time4 ,the bulb then divides lengthways into two smaller ones1 but which are still much larger than the vorticell themselves4 ,it is not long before these are separated like the first1 and thus form four bulbs on the same stalk2 these again divide themselves1 and form eight2 which again subdivide1 and consequently make sixteen4 ,they are all connected with the stalk by a proper pedicle1 but they are not all of an equal size2 the largest continue to divide1 and the smallest begin to open1 and take the bell-formed shape4 ,trembley observed from one round bulb1 in about twenty-four hours1 by repeated divisions1 one-hundred and ten vorticell to be formed4 ,it has been asked with propriety1 what plant or what animal could have led us to expect an existence and mode of propagation similar to that of the vorticella anastatica8 ,fig4 #ac represents one branch of the vorticella anastatica2 on this branch1 besides the vorticell which are of a bell-like form1 some of those round bodies from which they first spring1 and by which they are so remarkably distinguished from any other species1 may be seen4 ,fig4 #ad represents one of the globular bodies after it has parted from the cluster1 and has fixed itself to some other body1 and after the globule itself and its pedicle have begun to lengthen4 ,fig4 #ae represents the two bodies that were formed by the parting of that which is shewn at ,fig4 #ad4 ,fig4 #af99 represents four that were formed by the separation of the two bulbs1 exhibited in the foregoing figure4 ,,vorticella ,,pyraria4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #be1 #bf4 ,vorticella composita1 floribus muticis obovatis2 tentaculis bigeminis1 stirpe ramosa4 ,compound1 with beardless oval florets1 two double arms1 the stem branched4 ,it is somewhat of a pear shape1 the base is pellucid1 the top truncated1 the lateral arms1 which are a pair on each side1 cannot be distinguished without some attention2 they are sometimes to be seen disengaged from the pedicle1 and rolling swiftly in a kind of circle4 ,,vorticella ,,crat,,garia4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,vorticella composita1 floribus muticis globosis2 tentaculis binis1 stirpe ramosa4 ,compound1 with globous naked florets1 two tentacules1 and a branched stem4 ,these vorticell are to be found in the month of ,april1 both in the mud1 and upon the tail of the monoculus quadricornis2 they are generally heaped together in the manner in which they are represented in the figure2 they are of a spherical form1 and united to one common stalk4 ,they are also often to be found without any pedicle4 ,the body is rather contracted2 the aperture is circular1 and surrounded with a marked margin2 it has two small arms4 ,with a deep magnifier1 a vehement rotatory motion may be seen4 ,they sometimes separate from the community1 and go forwards in a kind of spiral line1 and then in a little time come back again to the rest4 ,the figure represents a parcel of these vorticell united together4 ,among the other authorities for this animal1 ,linnus refers to ,baker's description of the mulberry insect1 8,employment for the ,microscope10 p4 #cdh1 which1 as it differs a little from the preceding account1 we shall insert here4 ,that from which his drawing was made1 and which he has described1 was found in a ditch near ,norwich2 he called it the mulberry insect1 from the resemblance it bore to that fruit2 though the protuberances that stand out round it are more globular than those of a mulberry4 ,it is to be seen rolling about from one place to another1 and is probably a congeries of animalcula2 they are to be met with in different numbers of knobs or protuberances1 some having fifty or sixty1 others more or less1 down to four or five4 ,the manner of moving is the same in all4 ,they are generally of a pale yellow4 ,,vorticella ,,opercularia4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,vorticella composita floribus muticis ovalibus1 stirpe ramosa4 ,compound1 with naked oval florets1 and a branched stem4 ,these vorticell are of a lemon shape1 and are generally found in clusters1 branching out from a stem1 which mostly adheres to some convenient substance4 ,that species of them which is described by ,baker had a very short pedicle1 and the animals were much longer than those which are represented at ,fig4 #bi4 ,there was no main stem1 but all the pedicles were joined in one center1 round which the animals extended themselves as so many radii1 forming a very pleasing figure4 ,the mouths of these animalcula are not ciliated1 but they are furnished with a round operculum or cover1 connected by a long ligament or muscle1 which extends downwards through the body1 and is affixed withinside of it1 near the tail4 ,this ligament may be contracted or dilated1 so that the cover can be removed to some distance from the mouth2 in this situation several short hairs maybe found to radiate from it2 these have a vibratory motion1 by which they excite a current of water1 most probably to draw in the proper nourishment1 after which they shut or pull down the cover1 which they again extend at pleasure3 when the cover is pulled close down1 the mouth contracts1 and no hairs are to be seen4 ,fig4 #bi represents the vorticella opercularia2 1 the operculum removed at some distance from the mouth1 at t2 it is nearly close at r1 the mouth contracted1 the cover drawn in1 and no hairs to be seen2 u1 a part of the stalk1 from which some of the animalcula are separated4 ,,vorticella ,,umbellaria4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,vorticella composita1 floribus ciliatis globosis muticis1 stirpe umbellata4 ,compound1 with ciliated globous naked florets and an umbellated stem4 ,vorticella acinosa1 simplex1 globosa1 granis nigricantibus1 pedunculo rigido4 ,mller ,animal4 ,infus4 p4 #cai4 ,we frequently find in divers places1 upon water-plants1 and other bodies in the water1 a whitish substance that looks like mould2 plants1 pieces of wood1 snail shells1 c4 are often entirely covered over with this substance4 ,if we examine any of these minute bodies by the microscope1 we shall find such motions as will induce us to think them an assemblage of living animals1 severally fixed to the extremities of small stems or pedicles1 many of which are often so united as to form together a sort of branches or clusters1 from whence they have been termed clustering polypes1 or des polypes en bouquet4 ,these clusters are larger or smaller1 according to the species of the vorticell which form them1 as well as owing to the concurrence of many other circumstances4 ,to obtain a clear idea of the figure of these animals1 it is best to observe the smaller clusters1 as in the larger they are often rendered less distinct on account of the number4 ,the length of those which are represented at ,fig4 #cj1 is about the #bdjth of an inch2 they are of a bell-shape4 ,the anterior part a c generally appears open1 the posterior part is fixed to a stem or pedicle1 b e2 it is by the extremity of this pedicle that the vorticella fastens itself to any substance4 ,it appears in the microscope of a brownish colour1 excepting at the smaller end b1 where it is transparent1 as well as the whole pedicle b e4 ,when the anterior part a c is open1 a very lively motion may be perceived about its edges2 and when it presents itself in a particular manner1 something very much resembling the little wheels of a mill1 moving with great velocity1 may be discovered on both sides of the edges of this anterior part4 ,these vorticell are able to contract themselves suddenly4 ,they may be made to do this1 either by touching them1 or moving the substance to which they are fixed4 ,when they contract1 the edges of the anterior parts are drawn quite into the body2 on resuming their former posture1 the edges may be seen to come forth1 and put themselves in motion as before4 ,minute substances that float in the water are often forced down into these openings1 and sometimes are thrown out again4 ,they are capable of swimming about singly1 but their form is in that case considerably different from that which they have when they are fixed4 ,to see regularly in what manner the clusters are formed1 and in what way these little creatures multiply1 it is best to observe one that is fixed by itself4 ,the pedicle of a single vorticella is at first short1 but it soon grows longer1 and then begins to multiply1 that is1 to divide or split itself into two lengthways4 ,to effect this1 the lips are first drawn into the body1 the anterior part closes and becomes round1 and loses its bell shape1 the motion about the lips ceases1 though a small degree of motion may be perceived within the body4 ,the anterior end flattens gradually1 and spreads wider in proportion as it grows smaller4 ,it then gradually splits down the middle1 that is1 from the middle of the head to the pedicle1 so that in a little time two separate round bodies appear to be joined to the end of the pedicle that before supported but one4 ,the mouth or anterior part of each of these bodies now opens by degrees2 and in proportion as they open1 the lips of the new vorticella begin to display themselves4 ,the motion before spoken of may then also be perceived4 ,indeed it is the best time of observing it2 it is at first slow1 but more rapid in proportion as the mouth opens1 when it is as swift as that of the vorticella before it began to divide1 and we may now look upon it as completely formed4 ,a vorticella is generally about one hour in dividing itself4 ,the lower of the three drawings1 ,fig4 #cj1 represents two vorticell joined by their posterior extremity to one pedicle2 soon after the division1 each vorticella begins to shew a pedicle of its own4 ,fig4 #cj represents a cluster of eight vorticell2 by this figure we may form some idea in what manner the pedicles are disposed as their number increases4 ,there were at first only two at b1 whose branches lengthened to d1 and then each of them was divided into two1 now forming four2 these again lengthened and reached i2 when they were again subdivided1 as in the figure4 ,the reader will join with ,bonnet in admiring the group of wonders afforded by a single spot of mouldiness4 ,what unforeseen1 varied1 and interesting scenes are presented within so small a compass6 what a theatre is exhibited to a thinking mind6 ,but our abode is so recluse1 that we have but a glimmering view of it3 how great would our astonishment be1 if the whole spectacle was disclosed to us at once1 and we were enabled to penetrate into the interior structure of this wonderful assemblage of living atoms6 ,our eyes see only the gross parts of the decorations1 whilst the machines that execute them remain in impenetrable darkness6 ,who shall enlighten this profound obscurity1 or dive into an abyss where reason is lost2 or draw from thence the treasures of wisdom concealed within it8 ,let us learn to be content with the small portion that is communicated to us1 and contemplate with gratitude the first traces of human understanding that are imparted to us in these discoveries4 ,,vorticella ,,berberina4 ,vorticella composita1 floribus ovalibus muticis1 stirpe ramosa4 ,compound1 with oval beardless florets4 ,this is a species of the vorticell1 which resembles the preceding one in many respects1 particularly in being multiplied in the same manner1 that is1 by dividing or splitting1 according to its length4 ,they are more slender than the vorticella umbellaria2 the branches of the clusters are transparent4 ,when many of them are together1 they appear of a changeable violet colour2 the clusters are not unlike a sprig of spun glass4 ,the motion of the lips is not so easily distinguished as in the foregoing species1 though it may be observed in these whilst they are opening and completing their formation4 ,for at these times the motion is but slow1 whereas it becomes afterwards very quick in those that are arrived at a state of perfection4 ,all the cluster vorticell detach themselves from time to time from the stem1 and from these they swim about till they fix again upon some convenient substance2 the branches1 when deserted1 bear no more vorticell4 ,,vorticella ,,digitalis4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,vorticella composita1 floribus cylindricis1 unisulcatis semiclausis1 stirpe ramosa4 ,compound1 with cylindrical florets4 ,vorticella composita1 cylindrica1 crystallina1 apice truncata et fissa1 pedunculo fistuloso ramosa4 ,mller ,animal4 ,infus4 p4 #cbg4 ,this species of the vorticella is very scarce1 it seems only to have been seen by ,rsel1 who found it on the monoculus quadricornis1 till it was discovered in the year #aghd by ,mller1 who had sought for it several years before1 but in vain4 ,the body is cylindrical1 crystalline1 and appears almost empty2 it has three pellucid points disposed lengthways1 the apex is truncated in an oblique direction1 the margin bent back4 ,the upper part contracts itself1 and the margin then assumes a conical shape1 with a convex surface2 there are in general but few branches from the principal stem1 and these are short and thick4 ,it excites an undulatory motion1 but no hairs1 nor any rotatory motion1 have been discovered4 ,fig4 #ca1 o and n1 represents the vorticella adhering to the monoculus quadricornis4 ,,vorticella ,,convallaria4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,vorticella simplex1 gregaria1 flore campanulata mutico2 tentaculis bigeminis1 stirpe fixa4 ,simple1 but gregarious1 the florets bell-shaped1 with two pair of little arms1 and a fixed stem4 ,vorticella simplex1 campanulata1 pedunculo rotortili4 ,mller ,animal4 ,infus4 ,these vorticell1 or bell-animals1 as they are termed by ,baker1 are generally found adhering to some substance in the water2 they are represented here as found by ,rsel1 fixed to a curious cornu ammonis1 with points projecting from the back4 ,to the naked eye they appear only as so many little white points1 but under the microscope1 as little bells1 agitating the water to a considerable distance4 ,the stems of these have a particular motion1 they draw themselves up and shorten all at once1 taking the form of a spiral wire or screw2 in a moment after they again resume their former shape1 stretching themselves out straight as before4 ,many of them may be seen at times adhering to each other by their tails2 the cilia1 which are two on each side of the mouths1 are very seldom to be perceived4 ,,vorticella ,,urceolaris4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch4 ,vorticella simplex1 pedunculata1 ore dentato4 ,single1 with a short tail1 and toothed mouth4 ,brachionus capsularis testa ovata apice sexdentata basi incisa1 cauda longa bicuspi4 ,mller ,animal4 ,infus4 p4 #cef4 ,to the naked eye it appears as a white moveable point2 but when examined by the microscope1 a tail projecting from the lower part is discovered1 and a double rotatory instrument is seen1 which it can conceal or expose at pleasure4 ,it has been seen and described by most microscopical writers2 but as ,baker's seems to be the most perfect description1 ,i shall principally follow his account of it4 ,he discovered three species of them1 two of which are included under the vorticella urceolaris4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 are of the first species2 ,fig4 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 are of the second kind4 ,the first sort1 when extended1 is about twice as long as it is broad4 ,it is contained in a shell2 the fore part of this is armed with four sharp teeth or points2 the opposite side has no teeth1 but is waved or bent in two places1 like the form of a ,turkish bow4 ,at the bottom there is a hole1 through which it pushes the tail4 ,it fastens itself by this tail to any convenient substance when it intends to use its rotatory organs2 but when it is floating in the water1 and at all other times when not adhering to any body1 it wags the tail backwards and forwards something like a dog4 ,we may consider it as divided into a head1 thorax1 and abdomen2 each of which may be extended and contracted considerably3 it can1 by dilating all three1 protrude the head beyond the shell1 or by contracting them1 draw the whole body within the same4 ,the head1 when extended1 divides itself into two branches1 between which1 another part1 a kind of proboscis1 is pushed out2 at the end of this are two fibrils1 that appear when they are at rest like a broad point1 but which can be moved to and from each other very briskly with a vibratory motion1 see ,fig4 #cc4 ,the form and situation of the two branches are sometimes changed1 the ends thereof becoming more round1 and the vibratory motion is altered to a rotatory one3 this alteration is represented at ,fig4 #cd3 the head also appears in this figure4 ,the thorax is annexed to the lower part of the head2 it is muscular3 within it there is a moving intestine1 which has been supposed to be either the lungs or the heart of the little creature1 see b1 ,fig4 #cc and #cd4 ,a communication is formed between the thorax and the abdomen by means of a short vessel c1 whose alternate contractions and dilatations occasion the abdomen to rise and fall alternately1 having at the same time a sort of peristaltic motion4 ,the food is conveyed through this vessel into the abdomen1 where it is digested2 it is then discharged by the anus1 which is placed near the tail4 ,the tail has three joints1 and is cleft or divided at the extremity1 by which means it can better fasten itself to suitable objects4 ,it is in general projected from the lower end of the shell1 moving nimbly to and fro1 serving the animal as a rudder when it is swimming1 to direct its course4 ,when the water in which the little animal is placed is nearly dried away1 or when it has a mind to compose itself to rest1 it contracts the head and fore-part of the body1 brings them down into the shell1 and pulls the tail upwards1 so that the whole of this minute creature is contained within the shell1 see ,fig4 #ce4 ,the shell is so transparent that the terminations cannot be easily distinguished when the animal is extended2 but whatever is transacted within the shell1 is as plain as if there was no substance between the eye and the interior parts4 ,fig4 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 exhibit the appearance of another species of these animals1 which differs from the foregoing kind4 ,this has also a head1 a thorax1 and abdomen1 but then they are not separated by a gut or intermediate vessel1 as in the former1 but are joined immediately together1 and at the place where in the first kind a moveable intestine was seen2 in this a muscle1 most probably the heart1 may be discovered2 it has a regular systole and diastole3 this part is intended to be shewn at a1 ,fig4 #cf1 #cg1 #ch4 ,like the other1 it draws the head and tail within the shell1 which then appears to have six teeth or spikes on one side1 and two on the other4 ,it very seldom protrudes its head so far out as the other2 sometimes the fibrill may be seen within the margin of the shell4 ,both species carry their young in an oval integument or bag1 fastened externally to the lower part of the shell1 somewhere about the tail2 these bags are sometimes opake at one end1 and seemingly empty at the other1 see d1 ,fig4 #cd3 sometimes the middle is opake1 with a transparent margin1 see b1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,it is highly entertaining to see a young one burst its integument1 and gradually force its way out2 in performing this operation1 it is much assisted by the motion of the tail of the parent4 ,the head part comes out first1 it then sets its rotatory organ in motion1 by which it is completely disengaged1 leaving the integument behind1 which the vorticella freed itself from by repeated strokes with its tail4 ,a young one almost disengaged is seen at b1 ,fig4 #ch2 another embryo1 c1 was left adhering to the shell4 ,there are four more species of the vorticell mentioned by ,linnus1 which are1 the vorticella encrinus1 the vorticella polypina1 the vorticella stellata1 and the vorticella ovifera2 which1 being marine animals1 do not come properly within our plan4 ,the vorticella polypina will be described hereafter4 ,,tubularia ,,campanulata4 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,tubularia reptans1 tubis campanulatis4 ,creeping1 with campanulated tubes4 ,it is called by ,baker the bell-flowered1 or plumed animal4 ,these little creatures dwell in colonies together1 from ten to fifteen in number1 living in a kind of slimy mucilaginous case1 which1 when expanded in the water1 has some resemblance to a bell with its mouth upwards4 ,these bells or colonies are to be found adhering to the large leaves of duck-weed and other aquatic plants4 ,the bell or case which these animals inhabit1 being very transparent1 all the motions of its inhabitants may be discerned distinctly through it4 ,there are several ramifications or smaller bells proceeding from the larger one2 in each of these there is an inhabitant4 ,the opening at the top of these bells is just large enough for the creature's head1 and a small part of its body to be thrust out from it1 the rest remaining in the case1 into which it also draws the head on the least alarm4 ,besides the particular and separate motions which each of these creatures is able to exert within its case1 and independent of the rest1 the whole colony has a power of altering the position of the bell1 and removing it from one place to another4 ,these animalcula seem not to like to dwell in societies1 whose number exceeds fifteen2 when the colony happens to increase in number1 the bell may be observed to split gradually1 beginning from about the middle of the upper extremity1 and proceeding downwards towards the bottom1 till they at last separate and become two colonies1 independent of each other4 ,the arms are very near each other2 sixty may often be counted in one plume1 having each the figure of an ,italic 1 one of whose hooked ends is fastened to the head2 and altogether1 when expanded1 compose a figure somewhat like a horseshoe1 convex on the side next the body1 but gradually opening and turning outwards1 so as to leave a considerable distance within the outer extremities of the arms4 ,the plumed polype is of a very voracious disposition1 devouring a great number of small animals4 ,if the arms1 when extended1 be observed attentively with the microscope1 they will be found to have a constant vibratory motion2 alternately bending withinside of the plume1 and then rising up again4 ,when one arm ceases its motion1 the same is performed by another2 thus by the perpetual agitation of the several arms1 such a strong current is produced in the water1 as brings the animalcula1 and other minute bodies1 that are floating near the polype1 into its mouth1 which is situated between the arms4 ,the food1 if agreeable to the creature1 is swallowed2 if otherwise1 it is rejected by a contrary motion4 ,the animal may be seen very plain when it has retired within the tube4 ,the body is about one-eighth of an inch long1 without reckoning the plume1 which is about the same length4 ,it is cylindrical1 and the skin is very transparent4 ,the plume is only a continuation of this transparent skin1 it is very broad in proportion to the body1 and of a remarkable figure2 the base is of the shape of a horseshoe2 from this base the arms project1 they bend rather outwards4 ,the plume which they form1 gives them a resemblance to some flowers4 ,the arms may be compared1 from their fineness and transparency1 to very fine threads of glass4 ,the base of the plume is grooved1 and is fixed to the animal by the middle of the horseshoe which it forms1 and it is here that there is an opening which serves as a mouth to the animal4 ,the intestines are easily distinguished through its transparent skin2 when it has just been eating1 they are of a deep brown colour4 ,three principal parts are very visible1 the oesophagus1 the stomach1 and the rectum4 ,in the inside of these animals a small oblong whitish body is formed1 which is carried to the outside1 and remains fixed in a perpendicular direction to the body2 many of these are formed daily1 and of these oval bodies new animals are produced1 exactly similar to the parent4 ,if these minute bodies be eggs1 they are of a singular kind1 being destitute of any covering1 and are neither membranaceous nor crustaceous2 we cannot with propriety say the young ones are hatched from them2 we can1 however1 perceive these oviform bodies to unfold themselves gradually4 ,the developement is accomplished in a few minutes1 and an animalculum appears like the parent4 ,trembley amassed a great number of these eggs1 and carried them from ,england with him1 keeping them quite dry2 on putting them into water1 they gradually developed1 and became as perfect as the tubularia from which they proceeded4 ,there is a very great similarity in the construction of this little creature and many of the marine polypes1 who1 like it1 exist in tubes of the same growth with themselves4 ,fig4 #cb represents three tubulari campanulat or plumed polypes very much magnified1 namely1 one1 b f a c d d e h g i1 which is out of its cell2 e h1 the oesophagus2 f g1 the stomach2 a f1 the rectum2 a c d d e1 the plume1 consisting of the base a e1 which is but little seen1 and the arms c d d1 which proceed from the edges of this base2 a second polype1 ,a ,b ,i1 which is within its cell1 and in which the skin containing the plume is reversed4 ,the third polype1 s t u u1 is a young one exhibited out of its cell2 g o o1 threads which are fixed at one end to the intestines of the animal1 by the other to the bottom of the cell1 l k4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,,of ,,the ,,animalcula ,,infusoria4 ,our knowledge of the microscopic world is at present very contracted1 but we know enough to give us high conceptions of its concealed wonders1 and to fill us with profound astonishment at the infinite variety of forms that are made recipient of life4 ,a few of the inhabitants of this minute world have been discovered4 ,the figure and apparent habits of life of these1 resemble so little those with which we are more acquainted1 that it is often difficult to find terms to express what is represented to the eye4 ,animalculum signifies a little animal1 and therefore the term might be applied to every animal which is considerably inferior in size to ourselves4 ,it has been customary1 however1 to distinguish by the name of animalcula only such animals as are of a size so diminutive1 that their true figure cannot be discerned without the assistance of glasses2 and more especially it is applied to such as are altogether invisible to the naked eye1 and cannot even be perceived to exist1 but by the aid of microscopes4 ,by the help of magnifying glasses we are brought into a kind of new world2 and numberless animals are discovered1 which1 from their minuteness1 must otherwise for ever have escaped our observation3 and how many kinds of these invisibles there may be1 is yet unknown2 as they are observed of all sizes1 from those which are barely invisible to the naked eye1 to such as resist the action of the microscope1 as the fixed stars do that of the telescope1 and with the best magnifiers hitherto invented1 appear only as so many moving points4 ,the smallest living creatures our instruments can shew1 are those that inhabit the waters2 for1 though possibly animalcula equally minute1 or perhaps more so1 may fly in the air1 or creep upon the earth1 it is scarce possible to obtain a view of them2 whereas1 water being transparent1 and confining the creatures within it1 we are enabled1 by applying a drop of it to our glasses1 to discover with ease a great part of its contents1 and in a space barely visible to the naked eye1 often perceive a thousand little creatures1 all full of life and vigour4 ,by the animalcula infusoria are meant1 not the larv of those insects which in their first state are inhabitants of water1 and afterwards become winged insects1 as the gnat1 c4 ,baker1 and many other writers on the subject1 have often confounded these1 and hence entered into a train of reasoning contrary to fact and experience4 ,the animalcula infusoria take their name from their being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal infusions2 if seeds1 herbs1 or other vegetable substances1 be infused in water1 it will soon be filled with an indefinite number of these minute beings4 ,there is a prodigious variety in their forms2 some perfectly resemble the bell-polype2 others are round or oblong1 without any1 at least apparent1 members2 some resemble a bulb with a long taper tail2 some are nearly spherical2 the greater part are vesicular and transparent4 ,those most generally found in every drop of ditch water are mere inflated bladders1 with a small trace of intestines in the center2 the next are a flat kind1 with a number of legs under the belly4 ,motion seems to be their great delight2 they pervade with equal ease and rapidity1 and in all forms and directions1 the whole dimensions of the drop1 in which they find ample space for their various progressions1 sometimes darting straight forward1 at other times moving obliquely1 then again circularly3 they know how to avoid with dexterity any obstacles that might obstruct their progress4 ,hundreds may be seen in a drop of water in constant action1 yet never striking against each other4 ,if at any time the clusters prove so thick as to impede any of their motions1 they roll and tumble themselves over head1 creep under the whole range1 force their way through the midst1 or wheel round the cluster1 with surprizing swiftness2 sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which they are moving1 and take one diametrically opposite thereto4 ,by inclining the glass on which the drop of water is laid1 it may be made to move in any direction2 the animalcula in the drop will swim as easily against the stream as with it4 ,if the water begin to evaporate1 and the drop to grow smaller1 they flock impetuously towards the remaining part of the fluid2 an anxious desire of attaining this momentary respite of life is very visible1 as well as an uncommon agitation of the organs by which they imbibe the water4 ,these motions grow more languid as the water fails1 till at last they entirely cease4 ,animalcula and insects will support a great degree of cold1 but both one and the other perish when it is carried beyond a certain point4 ,the same degree of heat that destroys the existence of insects1 is fatal to animalcula2 as there are animalcula produced in water at the freezing point1 so there are insects which live in snow4 ,if the smallest drop of urine be put into a drop of water where these animalcula are roving about1 apparently happy and easy1 they instantly fly to the other side1 but the acid soon communicating itself to this part1 their struggles to escape are increased1 but the evil also increasing1 they are thrown into convulsions1 and soon expire4 ,among animalcula1 as in every other part of nature1 there is constantly a certain proportion preserved between the size of the individuals and their number4 ,there are always fewest amongst the larger kinds1 but they increase in number as they diminish in size1 till of the last1 or lowest to which our powers of magnifying will reach1 there are myriads to one of the larger4 ,like other animals1 they increase in size from their birth till they have attained their full growth4 ,when deprived of food1 they grow thin and perish2 and different degrees of organization are to be discovered in their structure4 ,the birth and propagation of these microscopic beings is as regular as that of the largest animals of our globe2 for though their extreme minuteness prevents us1 in most cases1 from seeing the germ from which they spring1 yet we are well assured1 from numerous observations1 that the manner in which they multiply is regulated by constant and invariable laws4 ,it has been shewn that different species of the hydr and vorticell multiply and increase by natural divisions and subdivisions of the parent's body2 this manner of propagation is very common among the animalcula in infusions1 though with many remarkable varieties4 ,some multiply by a transverse division1 a contraction takes place in the middle1 forming a kind of neck that becomes smaller every instant1 till they are enabled by a slight degree of motion to separate from each other4 ,these animalcula in general studiously avoid each other2 but when they are in the labour of multiplication1 and the division is in great forwardness1 it is not uncommon to see one of them precipitate itself on the neck of the dividing animalculum1 and thus accelerate the separation4 ,another species1 when it is on the point of multiplying1 fixes itself to the bottom of the infusion2 it then forms an oblong figure1 afterwards becomes round1 and begins to turn rapidly1 as if upon an internal center1 continually changing the direction of its rotatory motion2 after some time1 we may perceive two lines on the spherule1 forming a kind of cross2 soon after which the animalculum divides into four distinct beings1 which grow1 and are again subdivided4 ,some multiply by a longitudinal division1 which in one kind begins in the fore-part1 and others in the hind-part2 from another kind a small fragment is seen to detach itself1 which very soon acquires the form of the parent animalculum4 ,lastly1 some propagate in the same manner as those we deem more perfect animals4 ,from what has been said1 it appears clearly that their motions are not purely mechanical1 but are produced by an internal spontaneous principle1 and that they must therefore be placed among the class of living animals1 for they possess the strongest marks1 and the most decided characters of animation2 and consequently1 that there is no foundation for the supposition of a chaotic and neutral kingdom1 which can only have derived its origin from a very transient and superficial view of these animalcula4 ,it may also be further observed1 that as we see the motions of the limbs1 c4 of the more noble animals1 viz4 the human species1 are produced by the mechanical construction of the body and the action of the soul thereon1 and are forced by the ocular demonstration arising from anatomical dissection1 to acknowledge this mechanism which is adapted to produce the various motions necessary to the animal2 and as when we have recourse to the microscope1 we find those pieces which had appeared to the naked eye as the primary mechanical causes of the particular motions1 to consist themselves of lesser parts1 which are the causes of motion1 extension1 c4 in the larger2 when the structure can therefore be traced no further by the eye or glasses1 we have no right to conclude1 that the parts which are invisible1 are not equally the subject of mechanism3 for this would be only to assert in other words1 that a thing may exist because we see and feel it1 and has no existence when it is not the object of our senses4 ,the same train of reasoning may be applied to microscopic insects and animalcula2 we see them move1 but because the muscles and members which occasion these motions are invisible1 shall we infer that they have not muscles1 with organs appropriated to the motion of the whole and its parts8 ,to say that they exist not1 because we cannot perceive them1 would surely not be a rational conclusion4 ,our senses are indeed given us1 that we may comprehend some effects2 but then we have also a mind with reason bestowed upon us1 that from the things which we do perceive with our senses1 we may deduce the nature of those causes and effects which are imperceptible to the corporeal eye4 ,messrs4 ,buffon1 ,needham1 and ,baron ,mnchhausen1 have considered this part of animated nature in so different a light from other writers1 that we cannot with propriety entirely pass them over4 ,needham imagined that there was a vegetative force in every microscopical point of water1 and every visible filament of which the whole vegetable contexture consists2 that the several species of microscopic animals may subside1 resolve again into gelatinous filaments1 and again give lesser animals1 and so on1 till they can be no further pursued by glasses4 ,that agreeable to this idea1 every animal or vegetable substance advances as fast as it can in its revolution1 to return by a slow descent to one common principle1 whence its atoms may return again1 and ascend to a new life4 ,that notwithstanding this1 the specific seed of one animal can never give another of a different species1 on account of the preparation it must receive to constitute it this specific seed4 ,buffon asserts1 that what have been called spermatic animals1 are not creatures really possessing life1 but something proper to compose a living creature1 distinguishing them by the name of organic particles1 and that the moving bodies which are to be found in the infusions either of animal or vegetable substances1 are of the same nature4 ,baron ,mnchhausen supposed that the seeds of mushrooms were first animals1 and then vegetables2 and this1 because he had observed some of the globules in the infusions of mushrooms1 after moving some time1 to begin to vegetate4 ,it might be sufficient in the first instance to observe1 that ,messrs4 ,needham1 and ,buffon1 by having recourse to a vegetative force and organic particles1 to account for the existence and explain the nature of animalcula1 and the difficulties of generation1 have substituted words in the place of things2 and that we are no gainers by the substitution1 unless they explain the nature of these powers4 ,but to this we may add1 that all those who have examined the subject with accuracy and attention1 as ,bonnet1 ,de ,saussure1 ,baker1 ,wrisberg1 ,spalanzani1 ,haller1 ,ellis1 ,mller1 ,ledermller1 ,corti1 ,rofredi1 c4 disagree with the foregoing gentlemen1 proving that they had deceived themselves by inaccurate experiments1 and that one of them1 ,buffon1 had not seen the spermatic animals he supposed himself to be describing1 insomuch that ,needham was at last induced to give up his favourite hypothesis4 ,though we can by no means pretend to account for the appearance of most animalcula1 yet we cannot help observing1 that our ignorance of the cause of any phnomenon is no argument against its existence4 ,though we are not1 for instance1 able to account in a satisfactory manner for the origin of the native ,americans1 yet we suppose ,buffon himself would reckon it absurd to maintain1 that the ,spaniards on their arrival there found only ,,organic ,,particles moving about in disorder4 ,the case is the very same with the eels in paste1 to whose animation he objects4 ,they are exceedingly small in comparison with us2 but1 with the solar microscope1 ,baker has made them assume a more respectable appearance1 so as to have a diameter of an inch and an half1 and a proportionable length4 ,they swam up and down very briskly2 the motion of their intestines was very visible2 when the water dried up they died with apparent agonies1 and their mouths opened very wide4 ,now1 were we to find a creature of the size of this magnified eel gasping in a place where water had lately been1 we certainly should never conclude it to be merely an ,,organic ,,particle1 or fortuitous assemblage of them1 but a fish4 ,why then should we conclude otherwise with regard to the eel in its natural state1 than that it is a little fish8 ,in reasoning on this subject1 we ought ever to remember1 that however essential the distinction of bodies into great and small may appear to us1 they are not so to the ,deity1 with whom1 as ,baker well expresses himself1 8an atom is a world1 and a world but as an atom40 ,were the ,deity to exert his power a little1 and give a natural philosopher a view of a quantity of paste filled with eels1 from each of whose bodies the light was reflected as in the solar microscope2 our philosopher1 instead of imagining them to be mere organic particles1 as the paste would appear like a little mountain1 he would probably look upon the whole as an assemblage of serpents1 and be afraid to come near them4 ,whenever1 therefore1 we discover beings to appearance endued with a principle of self-preservation1 or whatever we make the characteristic of animals1 neither the smallness of their size1 nor the impossibility of our knowing how they came there1 ought to cause us to doubt of their being animated4 ,i shall here insert some extracts of the experiments made by ,ellis at the desire of ,linnus1 and which are a full refutation of those made by ,needham and ,mnchhausen4 ,by those he made on the infusions of mushrooms in water1 it appeared evidently that the seeds were put in motion by minute animals1 which arose on the decomposition of the mushroom2 these1 by pecking at the seeds1 which are little round reddish bodies1 moved them about with great agility in a variety of directions1 while the little animals themselves were scarce visible till the food they had eaten discovered them4 ,the ramified filaments1 and jointed or coralloid bodies1 which the microscope discovers to us on the surface of most vegetable and animal infusions1 when they become putrid1 and which were supposed by ,needham to be zoophytes1 were found by ,ellis to be of that genus of fungi called mucor1 many of which have been figured by ,michelius1 and described by ,linnus4 ,their vegetation is so quick1 that they may be seen to grow and seed under the eye of the observer4 ,other instances of similar mistakes in ,needham's experiments may be seen in ,ellis's paper1 ,philos4 ,trans4 vol4 lix4 p4 #ach4 ,a species of mucor arises also from the bodies of insects putrefying in water2 this species sends forth a mass of transparent filamentous roots1 from whence arise hollow seed vessels2 on the top there is a hole1 from which minute globules often issue in abundance1 and with considerable elastic force1 which move about in the water4 ,it will however be found1 with a little attention1 that the water is full of very minute animalcula1 which attack these seeds1 and thus prolong their motion2 but after a small space of time they rise to the surface1 and remain there without any motion2 a fresh quantity rises up1 and floating to the edge of the water1 remains there inactive2 but no appearance can be observed of detached and separated parts becoming what are called microscopic animalcula4 ,indeed1 it is surprizing that ,needham should ever take the filaments of the moistened grains for any thing else than a vegetable production1 a true species of mouldiness4 ,on the #beth of ,may1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer #gj1 ,ellis boiled a potatoe in the ,new ,river water1 till it was reduced to a mealy consistence4 ,he put part of it1 with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor1 into a cylindrical glass vessel1 that held something less than half a wine pint1 and covered it close immediately with a glass cover4 ,at the same time he sliced an unboiled potatoe1 and1 as near as he could judge1 put the same quantity into a glass vessel of the same kind1 with the same proportion of ,new ,river water not boiled1 and covering it with a glass cover1 placed both vessels close to each other4 ,on the #bfth of ,may1 twenty-four hours afterwards1 he examined a small drop of each by the first magnifier of ,wilson's microscope1 whose focal distance is reckoned at part of an inch2 and1 to his amazement1 they were both full of animalcula of a linear shape1 very distinguishable1 moving to and fro with great celerity2 so that there appeared to be more particles of animal than vegetable life in each drop4 ,this experiment he repeatedly tried1 and always found it to succeed in proportion to the heat of the circumambient air2 so that even in winter1 if the liquors be kept properly warm1 at least in two or three days the experiment will succeed4 ,the animalcula are infinitely smaller than spermatic animals1 and of a very different shape2 the truth of which every accurate observer will soon be convinced of1 whose curiosity may lead him to compare them1 and he is persuaded they will find they are no way akin4 ,having learnt from ,m4 ,de ,saussure1 of ,geneva1 that he found one kind of these animalcula infusoria that increases by dividing across into nearly two equal parts1 and that the infusion was made from hemp-seed1 he procured a quantity of this seed1 some of it he put into ,new ,river water1 some into distilled water1 and some into very hard pump water2 the result was1 that in proportion to the heat of the weather1 or the warmth in which they were kept1 there was an appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the infusions2 and some time after some oval ones made their appearance2 these were much larger than the first1 which still continued4 ,these wriggled to and fro in an undulatory motion1 turning themselves round very quick all the time that they moved forwards4 ,ellis found out by mere accident a method to make their fins appear very distinctly1 especially in the larger kind of animalcula1 which are common to most vegetable infusions1 such as the terebella4 ,this has a longish body1 with a cavity or groove at one end1 like a gimblet4 ,by applying a small stalk of the horseshoe geranium1 the geranium zonale of ,linnus1 fresh broken1 to a drop of water in which these animalcula are swimming1 we shall find that they will become instantly torpid1 contracting themselves into an oblong oval shape1 with their fins extended like so many bristles all round their bodies4 ,the fins are in length about half the diameter of the middle of their bodies4 ,after lying in this state of torpitude for two or three minutes1 if a drop of clean water be applied to them1 they will recover their shape1 and swim about immediately1 rendering their fins again invisible4 ,before he discovered this expedient1 he tried to kill them by different kinds of salts and spirits2 but though they were destroyed by these means1 their fins were so contracted1 that he could not distinguish them in the least4#aah #aah ,the preceding recital of the hypothesis of ,messrs4 ,buffon1 ,needham1 and ,baron ,mnchhausen1 may appear superfluous1 having been so ably refuted by ,mr4 ,ellis2 the consideration1 however1 that it may afford entertainment to some of my readers1 and prove beneficial to others1 by cautioning them against too precipitately adopting plausible suppositions1 induced me to retain the account4 ,,edit4 ,it is one of the wonders of the modern philosophy to have invented means for bringing creatures so imperceptible as the various animalcula under our cognizance and inspection4 ,one might well have deemed an object that was a thousand times too little to be able to affect our sense1 as perfectly removed from human discovery2 yet we have extended our sight over animals to whom these would be mountains4 ,the naked eye takes in animal beings from the elephant to the mite2 but below this1 commences a new order1 reserved only for the microscope1 which comprehends all those from the mite1 to those many millions of times smaller2 and this order cannot be said to be exhausted1 if the microscope be not arrived at its ultimate state of perfection4 ,in reality1 the greater number of microscopic animalcula are of so small a magnitude1 that through a lens1 whose focal distance is the tenth part of an inch1 they only appear as so many points2 that is1 their parts cannot be distinguished1 so that they appear from the vertex of that lens under an angle not exceeding the minute of a degree4 ,if we investigate the magnitude of such an object1 it will be found nearly equal to of an inch long4 ,supposing1 therefore1 these animalcula to be of a cubic figure1 that is1 of the same length1 breadth1 and thickness1 their magnitude would be expressed by the cube of the fraction 1 that is1 by the number 1 that is1 each animalculum is equal to so many parts of a square inch4 ,this contemplation of animalcula has rendered the idea of indefinitely small bodies very familiar to us2 a mite was formerly thought the limit of littleness1 but we are not now surprized to be told of animals many millions of times smaller than a mite2 for1 8there are in some liquors animalcules so small1 as1 upon calculation1 the whole magnitude of the earth is not found large enough to be a third proportional to these minute floating animals and the whales in the ocean40#aai ,these considerations are still further heightened1 by reflecting on the internal structure of animalcula1 for each must have all the proportion1 symmetry and adjustment of that organized texture1 which is indispensably necessary for the several functions of life1 and each must be furnished with proper organs1 tubes1 c4 for secreting the fluids1 digesting its food1 and propagating its species4#abj #aai ,chambers's ,cyclopedia by ,rees1 ,art4 ,animalcule4 #abj ,minute animals proportionably exceed the larger kinds in strength1 activity1 and vivacity4 ,it has been already observed1 p4 #bab1 that the spring of a flea vastly outstrips any thing animals of a greater magnitude are capable of2 the motion of a mite is much quicker than that of the swiftest race-horse4 ,m4 ,de ,l',isle1 ,hist4 ,acad4 ,scienc4 #agaa4 p4 #bc1 has given the computation of the velocity of a little creature1 so small as to be scarcely visible1 which he found to run three inches in a second2 supposing now its feet to be the fifteenth part of a line1 it must make five-hundred steps in the space of three inches1 that is1 it must shift its legs five-hundred times in a second1 or in the time of the ordinary pulsation of an artery4 ,the rapidity with which many of the water insects skim the surface of the fluid1 and others swim in it1 is astonishing1 nor is the celerity of the various species of animalcula infusoria less deserving of admiration4 ,,edit4 ,having thus given a general idea of the properties of animalcula1 ,i now proceed to describe the various individuals1 following the arrangements of ,o4 ,f4 ,mller1#aba and giving the discriminating characters by which he has distinguished them2 abridging1 enlarging1 or altering the descriptions1 to render them in some instances more exact1 in others less tedious1 and upon the whole1 ,i hope1 more interesting to the reader4 #aba ,mller ,animalcula ,infusoria1 ,fluviatilia1 et ,marina4 ,a ,,methodical ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,animalcula ,,infusoria4 ,i4 ,,those ,,that ,,have ,,no ,,external ,,organs4 #a4 ,,monas3 punctiforme4 ,a mere point4 #b4 ,,proteus3 mutabile4 ,mutable1 or changeable4 #c4 ,,volvox3 sphricum4 ,spherical4 #d4 ,,enchelis3 cylindraceum4 ,cylindrical4 #e4 ,,vibrio3 elongatum4 ,long4 ,membranaceous4 #f4 ,,cyclidium3 ovale4 ,oval4 #g4 ,,param,,cium3 oblongum4 ,oblong4 #h4 ,,kolpoda3 sinuatum4 ,crooked1 or bent4 #i4 ,,gonium3 angulatum4 ,with angles4 #aj4 ,,bursaria4 ,hollow like a purse4 ,,ii4 ,,those ,,that ,,have ,,external ,,organs4 ,naked1 or not inclosed in a shell4 #aa4 ,,cercaria3 caudatum4 ,with a tail4 #ab4 ,,leucophra3 ciliatum undique4 ,every part ciliated4 #ac4 ,,trichoda3 crinitum4 ,hairy4 #ad4 ,,kerona3 corniculatum4 ,with horns4 #ae4 ,,himantopus3 cirratum4 ,cirrated1 or curled4 #af4 ,,vorticella3 ciliatum apice4 ,the apex ciliated4 ,covered with a shell4 #ag4 ,,brachionus3 ciliatum apice4 ,the apex ciliated4 ,i4 ,,monas4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplissimus1 pellucidus1 punctiformis4 ,an invisible1#abb pellucid1 simple1 punctiform worm4 #abb ,by invisible1 we only mean that they are too small to be discerned by the naked eye4 #a4 ,,monas ,,termo4 ,m4 gelatinosa4 ,gelatinous mona4 ,animalcules semblable a des points4 ,spallanzani ,opusc4 ,phys4 ,i4 ,bull continuo motu4 ,bonanni ,obs4 p4 #agd4 ,among the various animalcula which are discovered by the microscope1 this is the most minute1 and the most simple2 a small jelly-like point1 eluding the powers of the compound microscope1 and being but imperfectly seen by the single2 these1 and some others of the mona kind1 are so delicate and slender1 that it is no wonder they often escape the sight of many who have examined infusions with attention2 in a full light they totally disappear1 their thin and transparent forms blending as it were with the water in which they swim4 ,small drops of infused water are often so full of these1 that it is not easy to discover the least empty space1 so that the water itself appears changed into another substance less transparent1 but consisting of innumerable globular points1 thick sown together2 which1 though full of life1 seem only a kind of inflated bladders4 ,in this a motion may be perceived1 something similar to that which is observed when the sun's rays shine on the water1 the animalcula being violently agitated1 or in a commotion like unto a hive of bees4 ,they are very common in ditch water1 and in almost all infusions1 both of animal and vegetable substances4 #b4 ,,monas ,,atomus4 ,m4 albida puncto1 variabili instructa1 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #a4 ,white mona1 with a variable point4 ,this animalculum appears as a white point1 which1 when it is highly magnified1 is somewhat of an egg-shape2 the smaller end is generally marked with a black point2 the situation of this is sometimes varied1 and found at the other end of the animalculum3 sometimes two black points are to be seen crossing the middle of the body4 ,it was found in sea water that had been kept the whole winter2 it was not1 however1 very fetid2 there were no other animalcula in the same water4 #c4 ,,monas ,,punctum4 ,m4 nigra4 ,a black mona4 ,a very minute point1 solid1 opake and black1 round and long4 ,they are dispersed in the infusion1 and move with a slow wavering motion2 were found in a fetid infusion of pears4 #d4 ,,monas ,,ocellus4 ,m4 hyalina puncto centrali notata4 ,transparent like talc1 with a point in the middle4 ,the margin black1 and a black point in the middle2 it moves irregularly1 is found in ditches covered with conferva1 and frequently with the cyclidium milium1 see ,no4 #hd4 #e4 ,,monas ,,lens4 ,m4 hyalina4 ,transparent mona of the appearance of talc4 ,this is among the number of the smaller animalcula1 nearly of a round figure1 and so pellucid1 that it is not possible to discover the least vestige of intestines4 ,though they may often be seen separate1 yet they are more generally collected together1 forming a kind of vesicular or membranaceous mass4 ,contrary to the custom of other animalcula1 they seek the edges of the evaporating water1 the consequence of which is almost immediate death4 ,when the water is nearly evaporated1 a few dark shades are perceived1 probably occasioned by the wrinkling of the body4 ,a slow tremulous motion1 confined to one spot1 may be perceived at intervals2 this in a little time becomes more lively1 and soon pervades the whole drop4 ,its motions are in general very quick3 two united together may sometimes be seen swimming among the rest2 while in this situation1 they have been mistaken by some writers for a different species1 whereas it is the same generating another by division4 ,it is to be found in all water1 though but seldom in that which is pure2 they are in great plenty in the summer in ditch water1 also in infusions of animal or vegetable substances1 made either of fresh or salt water1 myriads being contained in a drop2 numbers of various sizes are to be found in the filth of the teeth4#abc #abc ,the circumstance of animalcula being found in the teeth is mentioned with confidence by various authors2 some doubts may1 however1 still remain of the fact4 ,mr4 ,willughby detected a woman1 who pretended to take worms out of the teeth with a quill1 having forced the quill1 from her just as she was putting it into his mouth1 and found small worms in it2 see ,birch's ,history of the ,royal ,society1 vol4 iv4 p4 #chg4 ,i am inclined to think that the accounts usually met with in authors have no better foundation4 ,it has also repeatedly happened1 that ingenious men1 from their anxiety for discovery1 have imagined that objects have appeared to their view1 which1 having related as facts1 themselves or others have afterwards found to be nothing more than a deceptio visus2 and thus they have been1 at least for a time1 the unintentional promulgators of error2 considerable caution is therefore necessary on these occasions1 see p4 #acb1 #acc4 ,some authors1 in support of a favourite system1 have made bold assertions on the subject of animalcula2 the small-pox1 the measles1 the epilepsy1 c4 have been attributed to them3 ,langius reduces all diseases in general to the same principle4 ,a writer at ,paris1 who assumed the title of an ,english physician1 has proceeded still farther2 he not only accounts for all diseases1 but for the operation of all medicines1 from the hypothesis of animalcula4 ,he has peculiar animals for every disorder2 scorbutic animalcula1 podagrical animalcula1 variolous animalcula1 c4 all at his service4 ,journ4 des ,scav4 tom4 lxxxvii4 p4 #ece1 c4 ,it is not at all surprising that the wonderful discoveries relating to animalcula should have been applied1 however improperly1 to support the most whimsical and chymerical systems4 ,most of the discoveries in natural philosophy have been subjected to similar abuses1 and laid the foundation for the warm imaginations of some men to fabricate visionary theories2 these have been of great prejudice to real science1 the primary object and ultimate reward of which is the acquisition of truth4 ,,edit4 ,the animalcula of this1 and the first species are so numerous as to exceed all calculation1 though they are contained in a very confined space4 #f4 ,,monas ,,mica4 ,m4 circulo notata4 ,mona1 marked with a circle4 ,this lucid little point may be discovered with the third lens of the common single microscope2 when the magnifying power is increased1 it appears either of an oval or spherical figure1 for it assumes each of these at pleasure4 ,it is transparent1 and has a small ellipse inscribed as it were within its circumference2 this ellipse is moveable1 being sometimes in the middle1 sometimes a little towards the fore-part1 at others1 nearer the hind-part4 ,there is a considerable variety in its motions2 it often turns round for a long time in the same place2 an appearance like two kidneys may sometimes be perceived in the middle of the body1 and the animalculum is beautifully encompassed with a kind of halo1 arising most probably from invisible and vibrating fibrill4 ,they are to be found in the purest waters4 #g4 ,,monas ,,tranquilla4 ,m4 ovata1 hyalina1 margine nigro4 ,egg-shaped1 transparent mona1 with a black margin4 ,these animated points seem to be nearly fixed to one spot1 where they have a fluctuating or reeling motion4 ,they are frequently surrounded with a halo1 and differ in their figure1 being sometimes rather spherical1 at others quadrangular4 ,the black margin is not always to be found1 and sometimes one would almost be tempted to think it had a tail4 ,they are found in urine which has been kept for a time4 ,the urine is covered1 after it has remained in the vessel1 with a dark-coloured pellicle or film1 in which these animals live3 although the urine was preserved for several months1 no new animalcula were observed therein4 ,it has been already shewn1 that a drop of urine is in general fatal to other animalcula1 yet we find in this instance1 that there are animated beings of a peculiar kind1 appropriated to1 and living in it4 #h4 ,,monas ,,lamellula4 ,m4 hyalina compressa4 ,flat transparent mona4 ,this is mostly found in salt water4 ,it is of a whitish colour1 more than twice as long as it is broad1 transparent1 with a dark margin1 the motion vacillatory2 it often appears as if double4 #i4 ,,monas ,,pulvisculus4 ,m4 hyalina1 margini virente4 ,transparent mona1 with a green margin4 ,little spherical pellucid grains of different sizes1 the circumference green1 a green bent line passes through the middle of some1 probably indicating that they are near separating or dividing into two distinct animalcula2 sometimes three or four1 at others1 six1 seven1 or even more1 are collected together4 ,they rove about with a wavering motion2 and are mostly found in the month of ,march in marshy grounds4 #aj4 ,,monas ,,uva4 ,m4 hyalina gregaria4 ,transparent gregarious mona4 ,it is not easy to decide on the nature of these little assemblages of corpuscles1 which sometimes consist of four1 at others of five1 and frequently of many more3 the corpuscles are of different sizes1 according to the number assembled in one group4 ,when collected in a heap1 the only motion they have is a kind of revolution or rotatory one4 ,the smaller particles separate from the larger1 often dividing into as many portions as there are constituent particles in the group2 when separated1 they revolve with incredible swiftness4 ,to try whether this was a group of animalcula collected together by chance1 or whether this was their natural state1 the following experiment was made4 ,a single corpuscle was taken the moment it was separated from the heap1 and placed in a glass by itself2 it soon increased in size1 and when it had attained nearly the same bulk as the group from which it was separated1 the surface began to assume a wrinkled appearance1 which gradually changed till it became exactly similar to the parent group4 ,this new-formed group was again decomposed1 like the preceding one1 and in a little time the separated particles became as large as that from which they proceeded4 ,it is found in a variety of infusions4 ,,ii4 ,,proteus4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 pellucidus1 mutabilis4 ,an invisible1 very simple1 pellucid worm1 of a variable form4 #aa4 ,,proteus ,,diffluens4 ,p4 in ramulos diffluens1 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #b and #c4 ,proteus1 branching itself out in a variety of directions4 ,a very singular animalculum1 appearing only as a grey mucous mass2 it is filled with a number of black globules of different sizes1 and is continually changing its figure4 ,being formed of a gelatinous pellucid substance1 the shape is easily altered1 and it pushes out branches of different lengths and breadths4 ,the globules which are within divide and pass immediately into the new formed parts1 always following the various changes of form in the animalcula4 ,the changes that are observed in the form of this little creature1 do not arise from any extraneous cause1 but are entirely dependent on its internal powers4 ,it is to be met with but very seldom2 the indefatigable ,mller only saw it twice1 although he examined such an immense variety of infusions4 ,it is to be found in fenny situations4 #ab4 ,,proteus ,,tenax4 ,p4 in spiculum diffluens1 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #d and #e4 ,proteus1 running out into a fine point4 ,a gelatinous pellucid body1 stored with black molecules2 it changes its form like the preceding1 but always in a regular order1 first extending itself out in a straight line1 ,fig4 #e1 the lower part terminating in an acute bright point1 a1 without any intestines2 and the globules being all collected in the upper part1 c1 it next draws the pointed end up towards the middle of the body1 swelling it into a round form4 ,the contraction goes on for some time1 after which the lower part is swelled out as it is represented in ,fig4 #d1 d2 the point a1 is afterwards projected from this ventricose part4 ,it passes through five different forms before it arrives at that which is seen1 at ,fig4 #d4 ,it scarcely moves from one spot1 only bending about sideways4 ,it is to be found in river water4 ,,iii4 ,,volvox4 ,volvox inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 pellucidus1 sphricus4 ,an invisible1 very simple1 pellucid1 spherical worm4 #ac4 ,,volvox ,,punctum4 ,v4 sphricus1 nigricans1 puncto lucido4 ,spherical1 of a black colour1 with a lucid point4 ,a small globule2 one hemisphere is opake and black1 the other has a pellucid crystalline appearance2 a vehement motion is observable in the dark part4 ,it moves in a tremulous manner1 and often passes through the drop1 turning round as if upon an axis4 ,many may be often seen joined together in their passage through1 the water2 they sometimes move as in a little whirlpool1 and then separate4 ,they are found in great numbers on the surface of fetid sea water4 #ad4 ,,volvox ,,granulum4 ,v4 sphricus1 viridis1 peripheria hyalina4 ,spherical and green1 the circumference of a bright colour4 ,there seems to be a kind of green opake nucleus in this animalculum2 the circumference is transparent4 ,it is to be found generally in the month of ,june1 in marshy places2 it moves but slowly4 #ae4 ,,volvox ,,globulus4 ,v4 globosus2 postice subobscurus4 ,globular volvox1 the hind-part somewhat obscure4 ,this globular animalculum is ten times larger than the monas lens2 it verges sometimes a little towards the oval in its form4 ,the intestines are just visible1 and make the hinder part of the body appear opake2 it has commonly a slow fluttering kind of motion1 but if it be disturbed1 the motion is more rapid4 ,it is found in most infusions of vegetables4 #af4 ,,volvox ,,pilula4 ,v4 sphricus1 interaneis immobilibus virescentibus4 ,small round volvox1 with immoveable green intestines4 ,this is a small transparent animalculum2 its intestines are immoveable1 of a green colour1 and are placed near the middle of the body1 the edges often yellow2 a small obtuse incision may be discovered on the edge1 which is1 perhaps the mouth of the animalculum4 ,this little creature appears to be encompassed with a kind of halo or circle4 ,if this be occasioned by the vibratory motion of any fringe of hairs1 they are invisible to the eye1 even when assisted by the microscope4 ,it seems to have a kind of rotatory motion1 at one time slow1 at another quick2 and is to be found in water where the lemna minor1 or least ducks-meat1 grows1 sometimes as late as the month of ,december4 #ag4 ,,volvox ,,grandinella4 ,v4 sphricus1 opacus1 interaneis immobilibus4 ,spherical and opake1 with immoveable intestines4 ,this is much smaller than the preceding1 and is marked with several circular lines2 no motion is to be perceived among the interior molecules4 ,it sometimes moves about in a straight line1 sometimes its course is irregular1 at others it keeps in the same spot with a tremulous motion4 #ah4 ,,volvox ,,socialis4 ,v4 sphricus1 moleculis crystallinis1 qualibus distantibus4 ,spherical volvox1 with crystalline molecules1 placed at equal distances from one another4 ,when very much magnified this animalculum seems to have some relation to the vorticella socialis1 as seen with the naked eye4 ,it consists of crystalline molecules1 disposed in a sphere1 and filling up the whole circumference2 they are all of an equal size4 ,whether they are included in a common membrane1 or whether they are united by one common stalk1 as in the vorticella socialis1 has not been discovered4 ,we are also ignorant of the exact figure of the little particles of which it is composed2 when a very large magnifying power is used1 some black points may be discerned in the center of the crystalline molecules4 ,the motion is sometimes rotatory1 sometimes from right to left1 and the contrary4 ,it is found where the chara vulgaris has been kept4 #ai4 ,,volvox ,,sph,,ricula4 ,v4 sphricus1 moleculis similaribus rotundis4 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #f4 ,spherical volvox1 with round molecules4 ,this spherule is formed of pellucid homogeneous points of different sizes4 ,it moves slowly about a quarter of a circle from right to left1 and then back again from left to right4 #bj4 ,,volvox ,,lunula4 ,v4 hemisphricus1 moleculis similaribus lunatis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #g4 ,an hemispherical volvox1 with lunular molecules4 ,is a small roundish transparent body1 composed of innumerable molecules1 homogeneous1 pellucid1 and of the shape of the moon in its first quarter1 without any common margin4 ,it is in a continual two-fold motion2 the one1 of the whole mass turning slowly round2 the other1 of the molecules one among the other4 ,they are found in marshy places in the beginning of spring4 #ba4 ,,volvox ,,globator4 ,v4 sphricus membranaceus4 ,spherical membranaceous volvox4 ,this is a transparent globule1 of a greenish colour2 the ftus is composed of smaller greenish globules4 ,it becomes whiter and brighter with age1 moves slowly round its axis1 and may be perceived by the naked eye4 ,but to the microscope the superficies of this pellucid membrane appears covered with molecules1 as if it were granulated1 which has occasioned some observers to imagine it to be hairy2 the round pellucid molecules that are fixed in the center are generally largest in those that are young4 ,the exterior molecules may be wiped off1 leaving the membrane naked4 ,when the young ones are of a proper size1 the membrane opens1 and they pass through the fissure2 after this the mother melts away4 ,they sometimes change their spherical figure1 the superficies being flattened in different places4 ,most authors speak of finding eight lesser globules within the larger2 but ,mller says1 that he has counted thirty or forty of different sizes4 ,this wonderful capsulate situation of its progeny is well known2 indeed it often exhibits itself big with children and grand-children4 ,leeuwenhoeck was the first who noticed this curious animalculum1 and depicted it2 a circumstance which has not been mentioned by ,baker and other microscopic writers1 who have described it4 ,it may be found in great plenty in stagnant waters in spring and summer1 and in infusions of hemp-seed and tremella4 ,baker describes it as follows3 ,this singular minute water animal1 seen before the microscope1 appears to be exactly globular1 without either head1 tail1 or fins4 ,it moves in all directions1 forwards or backwards1 up or down1 rolling over and over like a bowl1 spinning horizontally like a top1 or gliding along smoothly without turning itself at all4 ,sometimes its motions are very slow1 at other times very swift2 and when it pleases1 it can turn round as upon an axis very nimbly1 without moving out of its place4 ,the body is transparent1 except where the circular spots are placed1 which are probably its young4 ,the surface of the body in some is as it were dotted all over with little points1 and in others1 as if granulated like shagreen4 ,baker thought also that in general it appeared as if it was set round with short moveable hairs4 ,by another writer they are thus described3 ,these animalcula are at first very small1 but grow so large as to be discerned with the naked eye2 they are of a yellowish green colour1 globular figure1 and in substance membranaceous and transparent4 ,in the midst of this substance several small globes may be perceived2 each of these are smaller animalcula1 which have also their diaphanous membrane1 and contain within themselves still smaller generations1 which may be distinguished by the assistance of very powerful glasses4 ,the larger globules may be seen to escape from the parent1 and then increase in size1 as has been already observed4 #bb4 ,,volvox ,,morum4 ,v4 membranaceus orbicularis1 centro moleculis sphricis viridibus4 ,membranaceous orbicular1 with spherical green molecules in the center4 ,this animalculum has some resemblance to the volvox uva1 but is sufficiently distinguished by the surrounding bright orbicular membrane3 the middle part is full of clear green globules4 ,the globules seldom move1 though a quivering motion may sometimes be perceived at the center4 ,it has a slow rotatory motion1 and is found amongst the lemna1 in the months of ,october and ,december4 #bc4 ,,volvox ,,uva4 ,v4 globosus1 moleculis sphricis virescentibus nudis4 ,globular volvox1 composed of green spherical globules1 which are not inclosed in a common membrane4 ,this animalculum seems to be a kind of medium between the volvox pilula1 ,no4 #af1 and the gonium pectorale1 ,no4 #aad1 being1 like the one1 composed of green spherules1 and in form1 resembling the other4 ,it consists of a congeries of equal globules of a greenish colour1 with a bright spot in the middle2 the whole mass is sometimes of a spherical form1 sometimes oval1 without any common membrane2 a kind of halo may be perceived round it1 but whether this is occasioned by the motion of any invisible hairs has not been discovered4 ,the mass generally moves from right to left1 and from left to right2 scarce any motion can be discovered in the globules themselves4 ,it was found in the month of ,august1 in water where the lemna polyrrhiza was growing4 ,two masses of these globules have been seen joined together4 ,they contain from four to fifty of the globules1 of which a solitary one may now and then be found4 #bd4 ,,volvox ,,vegetans4 ,v4 ramulis simplicibus et dichitomis1 rosula globulari terminatis4 ,a volvox with simple dichitomous branches1 terminating in a little bunch of globules4 ,it consists of a number of floccose opake branches1 which are invisible to the naked eye2 at the apex of these there is a little congeries of very minute oval pellucid corpuscles4 ,mller at first thought it to be a species of microscopic and river sertularia2 but afterwards he found the bunches quitting the branches1 and swimming about in the water with a proper spontaneous motion4 ,many old branches were found deserted of their globules1 while the younger branches were furnished with them4 ,it was found in river water in ,november #aggi and #aghj4 ,,iv4 ,,enchelis4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 cylindraceus4 ,an invisible1 simple1 cylindric worm4 #be4 ,,enchelis ,,viridis4 ,e4 subcylindrica1 antice oblique truncata4 ,green enchelis1 of a subcylindric figure1 the fore-part truncated4 ,this is an opake green1 subcylindric animalculum1 with an obtuse tail1 the fore-part terminating in an acute truncated angle2 the intestines obscure and indistinct4 ,it is continually varying in its motion1 turning from right to left4 #bf4 ,,enchelis ,,punctifera4 ,e4 viridis1 subcylindracea1 antice obtusa1 postice acuminata1 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #h4 ,green enchelis1 subcylindric1 the fore-part obtuse1 the hinder part pointed4 ,it is an opake animalculum1 of a green colour2 there is a small pellucid spot in the fore-part a1 in which two black points may be seen2 a kind of double band1 c c1 crosses the middle of the body4 ,the hinder part is pellucid and pointed2 an incision is discovered at the apex of the fore-part1 which seems to be the mouth4 ,when in motion1 the whole of it appears opake and green4 ,it is found in marshes4 #bg4 ,,enchelis ,,deses4 ,e4 viridis1 cylindrica1 subacuminata gelatinosa4 ,green1 cylindrical1 gelatinous1 the end somewhat pointed4 ,the body is round1 the colour a very dark green1 so that it is quite opake2 the fore-part is bluntly rounded off1 the hinder-part is somewhat tapering1 but finishes with a rounded end4 ,from its opacity1 no internal parts can be discovered2 there is a degree of transparency near the ends4 ,it is exceeding idle1 moving very slowly2 to be found1 though rarely1 in an infusion of lemn4 #bh4 ,,enchelis ,,similis4 ,e4 obovato opaca1 interaneis mobilibus4 ,enchelis1 of an egg-shape1 opake with moveable intestines4 ,it is an opake body1 with a pellucid margin2 both extremities are obtuse1 but the upper one much more so than the under one2 it is filled with moveable spherules4 ,its motion is generally quick1 either to the right or the left2 it is probably furnished with hairs1 because1 when moving rapidly1 the margin appears striated4 ,it is found in water that has been kept for months4 #bi4 ,,enchelis ,,serotina4 ,e4 ovato cylindracea1 interaneis immobilibus4 ,enchelis partly oval1 partly cylindrical1 the interior parts immoveable4 ,an oval animalculum1 round the fore-part smaller than the hind-part1 the margin of a black colour2 it is replete with grey vesicular molecules1 and moves slowly4 #cj4 ,,enchelis ,,nebulosa4 ,e4 ovato-cylindracea1 interaneis manifestis mobilibus4 ,oval and cylindric enchelis1 with visible moveable intestines4 ,the body is shaped like an egg1 the fore-part narrow1 and often filled with opake confused intestines2 in moving1 it elevates the fore-part of the body4 ,it is found in the same water as the cyclidium glaucoma1 ,no4 #hf1 but is three times its size1 and considerably more scarce4 #ca4 ,,enchelis ,,seminulum4 ,e4 cylindracea qualis4 ,enchelis equally cylindric4 ,it is a cylindrical animalculum1 twice as long as it is broad1 the fore and hind-part of the same size2 the intestines in the fore-part are pellucid1 those in the hinder-part obscure4 ,it moves by ascending and descending alternately4 ,it may be seen sometimes swimming about with the extremities joined together4 ,found in water that has been kept for some days4 #cb4 ,,enchelis ,,intermedia4 ,e4 cylindracea1 hyalina1 margine nigricante4 ,cylindrical enchelis1 transparent1 with a blackish margin4 ,this animalculum forms an intermediate kind between the monas punctum1 the enchelis seminulum1 and the cyclidium milium4 ,it is one of the smallest among the animalcula4 ,the body is transparent1 it has no visible intestines1 the fore and hind-part are of an equal size1 the edge of a deeper colour than the rest of the body2 a point is to be seen in the middle of some of them2 in others1 it is as if a line passed through the middle4 #cc4 ,,enchelis ,,ovulum4 ,e4 cylindrico-ovato hyalina4 ,egg-shaped transparent enchelis4 ,a transparent1 round1 egg-shaped animalculum2 nothing is discovered withinside1 even by the third magnifier2 but1 with an increased power1 some long foldings may be seen on the superficies1 and here and there a few bright molecules4 #cd4 ,,enchelis ,,pirum4 ,e4 inverse conica1 postice hyalina4 ,pear-form enchelis1 the hinder-part transparent4 ,this enchelis is lively and pellucid1 the fore-part is protuberant1 and filled with molecules1 the hinder-part smaller and empty2 it has moveable molecular intestines4 ,its motion is rapid1 passing backwards and forwards through the diameter of the drop4 ,when at rest1 it seems to have a little swelling1 or tubercle1 on the middle of the body4 #ce4 ,,enchelis ,,tremula4 ,e4 ovato-cylindracea1 gelatina4 ,oval enchelis1 cylindrical1 gelatinous4 ,this is also to be placed amongst the most minute animalcula2 the end of it is rather pointed1 and has a tremulous motion2 it almost induces one to think it has a tail4 ,two of these little creatures may at times be perceived to adhere together4 ,it was found in an infusion with the paramcia aurelia1 ,no4 #ic1 and many other animalcula4 #cf4 ,,enchelis ,,constricta4 ,e4 obovata1 crystallina1 medio coarctata4 ,sub-oval enchelis1 crystalline1 with a stricture in the middle4 ,an animalculum of an oval shape1 the middle part drawn in1 as if a string was tied round it4 ,it is of a very small size1 and is found in salt water4 #cg4 ,,enchelis ,,pulvisculus4 ,e4 elliptica1 interaneorum congerie viridi4 ,of an elliptic shape1 with a congeries of green intestines4 ,it is a round animalculum1 pellucid1 the fore-part obtuse1 the hind-part rather sharp1 marked with green spots2 myriads may sometimes be seen wandering about in one drop2 it is found among the green matter on the sides of the vessels in which water has been kept for some time4 #ch4 ,,enchelis ,,fusus4 ,e4 cylindracea1 utraque extremitate angustiore truncata4 ,cylindrical enchelis1 both ends truncated4 ,the body is round and transparent1 the fore and hind-part smaller than the rest of the body1 and equally so1 the ends a little truncated4 ,in the inside a long and somewhat winding intestine1 a sky-coloured bright fluid1 and some black molecules transversely situated1 may be discerned4 ,the motions of this animalculum are languid2 it was found in pure water4 #ci4 ,,enchelis ,,fritillus4 ,a cylindric enchelis1 the fore-part truncated4 ,this is one of the most transparent animalcula2 the hinder-part of an obtuse convexity1 the fore-part truncated4 ,mller suspects that there is a rotatory organ in the fore-part4 ,no intestines can be seen4 ,it runs backwards and forwards through the drop in a diametrical line1 with a wavering motion2 sometimes turns round for a moment1 but presently enters on its usual course4 ,is found in an infusion of grass and hay4 #dj4 ,,enchelis ,,caudata4 ,e4 elongata1 antice obtusa1 postice in caudam hyalinam attenuata1 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #i4 ,enchelis with a long body1 the fore-part obtuse1 the hinder-part diminishing into a kind of tail4 ,the body is of a grey colour1 pellucid1 with globular molecules divided from each other1 and dispersed through the whole body2 the fore-part a1 thick and obtuse1 the hind-part b1 crystalline and small1 the end truncated4 ,it is but seldom met with4 #da4 ,,enchelis ,,epistomium4 ,e4 cylindrico-elongata1 apice gracili subgloboso4 ,enchelis with a long cylindric body1 the fore-part slender and roundish4 ,it is among the smaller animalcula1 the body is cylindrical and bright1 the hinder-part obtuse1 the fore-part smaller1 and terminating in a globule2 a black line may now and then be perceived down the middle of it4 #db4 ,,enchelis ,,gemmata4 ,e4 cylindracea1 serie globulorum duplici1 in collum hyalinum producta4 ,enchelis with a cylindrical body1 the upper part prolonged into a transparent neck1 a double series of globules running down the body4 ,its motion is slow1 and generally in a straight line2 it is found in ditch-water where the lemna thrives4 #dc4 ,,enchelis ,,retrograda4 ,e4 hyalina1 antice angustata1 apice globulari4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #aa and #ab4 ,transparent enchelis1 the fore-part rather smaller1 and terminating in a small globule4 ,it has a gelatinous transparent body2 no visible intestines1 though a pellucid globule is discoverable near the hinder-part2 the body is thickest in the middle1 and grows smaller towards each end4 ,it generally moves side-ways1 sometimes in a retrograde manner2 and if it be obstructed in its motion1 draws itself up1 as it is represented at ,fig4 #aa4 #dd4 ,,enchelis ,,festinans4 ,e4 cylindrica oblonga1 obtusa1 antice hyalina4 ,oblong cylindrical enchelis2 the ends obtuse1 the fore-part transparent4 ,the body is round1 of an equal size throughout1 and both ends obtuse2 more than half the length is without any visible intestines1 the lower end full of vesicular1 pellucid1 minute globules2 a large globular vesicle is also to be found in the fore-part2 it moves quickly from one side to the other1 in a reeling or staggering manner4 ,it was found in sea water4 #de4 ,,enchelis ,,farcimen4 ,e4 cylindracea curvata utrinque truncata4 ,a cylindric enchelis1 crooked and truncated at both ends4 ,the body of this is cylindrical1 about four times as long as broad1 even1 truncated at both ends1 the intestines opake1 and not to be distinguished from one another2 it turns the extremities opposite ways1 so as to form the figure of an ,s4 ,it is to be found in water that has stood for some time1 though but seldom4 ,joblot found it in an infusion of corn centaury or blue-bottle2 it moves in an undulatory manner1 but very slowly4 #df4 ,,enchelis ,,index4 ,e4 inverse conica1 apicis altero angulo producto4 ,enchelis in the form of an inverted cone1 one edge of the apex produced out so as to form an angle with the other part4 ,the body rather opake1 of a grey colour1 and of a long conical figure2 the lower end obtuse1 the fore-part thick1 one side of this part projecting like a finger from the edge2 two very small projections proceed also sometimes from the lower end4 ,this animalculum has the power of retracting these projections1 and making both ends appear obtuse4 ,it moves about but slowly1 and was found in water with the lemna minor1 or least ducks-meat4 #dg4 ,,enchelis ,,truncus4 ,e4 cylindrica1 subcapitata4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,cylindrical enchelis with a kind of head4 ,this is the largest of this kind of animalcula2 the body is cylindrical1 mucose1 grey1 long and rather opake1 the fore-part globular1 the hind-part obtuse4 ,something like three-teeth1 c1 may be sometimes seen to proceed from one of the sides2 it can alter its shape considerably4 ,globules of different sizes may be seen within the body4 ,it rolls about slowly from right to left4 #dh4 ,,enchelis ,,larva4 ,e4 elongata1 medio papillula utrinque notata4 ,a long enchelis1 with two little nipples projecting from the middle of the body1 one on each side4 ,it is long1 round1 and filled with grey molecules2 the fore-part is obtuse and pellucid2 a kind of neck or small contraction is formed at some little distance from this end4 ,the lower part pointed2 about the middle of the body there are two small projections4 #di4 ,,enchelis ,,spatula4 ,e4 cylindrica striata1 apice hyalino spatulata4 ,a cylindrical striated enchelis1 the fore-part transparent1 and of the shape of a spatula4 ,this animalculum is perfectly cylindrical1 very pellucid1 of a crystalline appearance2 it is marked with very fine longitudinal furrows1 and has generally two transparent globules1 one placed below the middle1 the other near the extremity of the body2 on the other side are five smaller ones1 which are oval4 ,the top is dilated1 with the corners rounded like the spatula1 or instrument for spreading plaisters4 ,it has a wavering kind of motion1 folding the spatula variously1 yet retaining its general form4 ,mller mentions his seeing it once draw the spatula into the body1 and keep it there for two hours1 when it again appeared4 #ej4 ,,exchelis ,,pupula4 ,a cylindric enchelis1 the fore-part papillary4 ,the fore-part is protuberantly round1 and rather opake1 the hind-part pellucid1 both extremities obtuse1 furnished with a papillary finger-shaped head1 the hinder part marked with a transparent circle1 or circular aperture4 ,the fore-part filled up with moveable molecules1 which are more scarce in the hinder-part4 ,it has a rotatory motion on a longitudinal axis1 and moves through the water in an oblique direction4 ,it is to be found in dunghill water in ,november and ,december4 #ea4 ,,enchelis ,,pupa4 ,e4 ventricoso cylindrica1 apice in papillam producta4 ,enchelis forming a kind of ventricose cylinder1 with a small nipple proceeding from the apex4 ,it is not unlike the preceding animalculum1 but is much larger2 the anterior end not so obtuse1 the nipple gradually formed from the fore-part1 all but this end is opake1 and filled with obscure particles3 it has no transparent circle1 as was observed in the enchelis pupula4 ,its motion is exceeding slow4 ,v4 ,,vibrio4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 teres1 elongatus4 ,an invisible worm1 very simple1 round1 and rather long4 #eb4 ,,vibrio ,,lineola4 ,v4 linearis minutissimus4 ,very small linear vibrio4 ,this is one of the most minute animalcula1 surpassing in slenderness the monas termo1 ,no4 #a4 ,the greatest magnifier exhibits little more than a tremulous motion of myriads of little oblong obscure points4 ,in a few days it almost fills the whole substance of the water in vegetable infusions4 #ec4 ,,vibrio ,,rugula4 ,v4 linearis flexuosus4 ,vibrio like a bent line4 ,myriads of this species may be found2 it is between the vibrio lineola1 just described1 and the vibrio undula1 ,no4 #ee4 ,it appears as a little line1 which is sometimes drawn up in an undulated shape1 and moves backwards and forwards in a straight line1 often without bending the body at all4 #ed4 ,,vibrio ,,bacillus4 ,v4 linearis1 qualis utrinque truncata4 ,linear vibrio1 equally truncated at both ends4 ,this is an exceeding small creature1 but visible with the third lens2 in a certain position of the light1 transparent4 ,it is gelatinous1 and not half so large as the monas lens1 ,no4 #e1 though six1 and sometimes ten times longer2 it is everywhere of an equal size1 and has no visible intestines2 its action is languid1 the serpentine flexures of the body are with great difficulty perceived4 ,mller made two infusions of hay in the same water1 and at the same time1 in the one he put the hay whole1 in the other it was cut in small pieces2 in the first there were none of the vibrio bacillus1 but many of the monas lens and kolpoda cucullus1 ,no4 #ajh2 in the latter1 many of the vibrio bacillus1 and few of the mon4 #ee4 ,,vibrio ,,undula4 ,v4 filiformis flexuosus4 ,a filiform flexuous vibrio4 ,a perfect undulating little line1 round1 gelatinous1 without any visible intestines4 ,it is never straight2 when at rest it resembles the letter ,v1 when in motion the letter ,m1 or a bending line like that which geese form in their flight through the air2 its motions are so rapid1 that the eye can scarce follow them4 ,it generally rests upon the top of the water1 sometimes it fixes itself obliquely by one extremity1 and whirls itself round4 ,this is the little creature that ,leeuwenhoeck says exceeds in slenderness the tail of the animalculum seminale1 which he has described in ,fig4 #e1 ,epis4 ,phys4 #da1 being an hundred times less than a mustard-seed1 and on which he makes the following very just observation3 ,that as these very small animalcula can contract and variously fold their little tails1 we must conclude that tendons and muscles are as necessary to them as to other animals2 if to these we add the organs of sensation1 and those of the intestines1 the mind is lost in the astonishment which arises from the impression of infinite1 in the indefinitely small4 #ef4 ,,vibrio ,,serpens4 ,v4 filiformis1 ambagibus in angulum obtusum productis4 ,a filiform vibrio1 the windings or flexures obtuse4 ,a slender gelatinous little animal1 in the form of a long serpentine line1 all the bendings being nearly equal in size1 and at equal distances2 it generally moves in a straight line2 an intestine may be discovered down the middle4 ,it is to be found in river water1 but is not commonly to be met with4 #eg4 ,,vibrio ,,spirillum4 ,v4 filiformis1 ambagibus in angulum acutum tornatis4 ,filiform vibrio1 twisted something like a spiral wire or cork-screw1 the bending acute4 ,it is an exceeding minute1 singular creature1 twisted in a spiral form2 the shape of these bendings remains the same even when the animal is in motion1 not occasioned by any internal force1 but are its natural shape4 ,it moves generally in a straight line1 vibrating the hind and fore-parts4 ,it was found in #aghb1 in an infusion of the sonchus arvensis1 or corn sow-thistle4 #eh4 ,,vibrio ,,vermiculus4 ,v4 tortuosus gelatinus4 ,this little vibrio is twisted and gelatinous4 ,the body is white1 or rather of a milky appearance1 cylindric1 long1 the apex obtuse1 rather growing smaller1 and twisted towards the hind-part4 ,its motion is languid and undulatory1 like that of the common worm2 it sometimes moves quicker1 but with seeming labour4 ,when it bends itself alternately from one side to the other1 a black long line may be discovered1 sometimes whole1 sometimes broken3 when at rest1 it occasionally twists into various folds4 ,it may be observed easily with the first lens of the single microscope1 and is probably the same animalculum mentioned by ,leeuwenhoeck in all his works1 as found in the dung of frogs1 and in the spawn of the male libellula4 ,it is to be found in marshy water in ,november1 though but seldom4 #ei4 ,,vibrio ,,intestinum4 ,v4 gelatinosus1 teres1 antice angustatus4 ,this vibrio is gelatinous1 round1 the fore-part small4 ,it is cylindric1 milk-coloured1 and slender towards the top1 both ends obtuse2 no traces of intestines to be discovered1 though four or five spherical eggs are perceived at the extremity of the hind-part4 ,it can draw the fore-part so much inwards as to give it a truncated and dilated appearance1 something like a spatula4 ,its motion is slow and progressive4 ,it is found in marshy waters4 #fj4 ,,vibrio ,,bipunctatus4 ,v4 linearis1 qualis1 utraque extremitate truncata1 globulis binis mediis4 ,linear vibrio1 of an equal size throughout1 both ends truncated1 and two small globules in the middle of the body4 ,it is of a small size1 and rather less than the following animalculum2 the body is of a pellucid talc-like appearance1 the fore and hind-part truncated2 in the middle are two 7sometimes there is only one7 pellucid globules1 placed lengthwise4 ,it most commonly moves forward in a straight line2 its movements are slow4 ,it was found in fetid salt water4 #fa4 ,,vibrio ,,tripunctatus4 ,v4 linearis1 utrinque attenuatus1 globulis tribus1 extremis minoribus4 ,linear vibrio1 both the ends smaller than the middle1 furnished with three globular points1 the two which are at the extremities being smaller than that at the middle4 ,the body is pellucid1 talky1 each of the ends rather tapering1 furnished with three pellucid globules1 the middle one is the largest2 the space between these globules is generally filled with a green matter2 in some there is nothing of the green substance near the extremities1 but only about the middle4 ,it seldom moves far1 and then its motion is rectilinear1 backwards and forwards4 #fb4 ,,vibrio ,,paxilifer4 ,v4 flavescens paleis gregariis multifariam ordinatis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae4 ,yellow1 gregarious1 straw-like vibrio4 ,this is a wonderful animalculum1 or rather a congeries of animalcula4 ,it is invisible to the naked eye1 and consists of a transparent membrane1 with yellow intestines1 and two or three visible points2 they are generally found collected together in different parcels1 from seven to forty in number1 and ranged in a variety of forms1 sometimes in a straight line1 as in ,fig4 #ad1 then forming the concave ,figure #ac1 at others1 moving in a zig-zag direction1 as in ,fig4 #ae2 when at rest they are generally in a quadrangular form1 and found in great plenty with the ulva latissima1 or brown laver4 ,as this animalculum seems to have some affinity with the hair-like animal of ,baker1 ,i think the reader will be better pleased to see his description of it introduced in this place1 than to have it raised into a new and distinct species4 ,this little animal is extremely slender1 and not uncommonly one-hundred and fifty times longer than broad4 ,its resemblance to an hair induced ,baker to call it the hair-like insect4 ,the body or middle part1 which is nearly straight1 appears in some composed of such parallel rings as the windpipe of land animals consists of1 but seems in others scaled1 or rather made up of rings that obliquely cross each other4 ,its two ends are bent or hooked1 pretty nearly in the same degree1 but in a direction contrary each to the other2 and as no eyes can be discerned1 it is difficult to judge which is the head or tail4 ,its progressive motion differs from that of all animals hitherto described2 for1 notwithstanding the body is composed of many rings and joints1 it seems unable to bend them1 or move directly forwards2 but when it is inclinable to change its quarters1 it can move from right to left1 or left to right1 and proceed at the same time backwards or forwards obliquely2 and this it performs by turning upon one end as a center1 and describing with the other the quarter of a circle2 then it does the same with the other end1 and so alternately2 whereby its progression is in a diagonal line1 or from corner to corner4 ,of this any one may immediately be satisfied1 who will take the trouble of shifting the points of a pair of compasses in that manner4 ,all its motions are extremely slow1 and require much patience and attention in the observer4 ,it has neither feet1 fins1 nor hairs1 but appears perfectly smooth and transparent1 with the head bending one way1 and the tail another1 so as to be like a long ,italic ,s2 nor is any internal motion1 or particularly opake part1 to be perceived1 which may determine one to suppose it either the stomach1 or the intestines4 ,these creatures are so small1 that millions of millions might be contained in an inch square4 ,when viewed singly1 or separated from one another1 they are exceedingly transparent1 and of a lovely green2 but1 like all other transparent bodies1 when numbers of them are brought together they become opake1 and lose their green colour in proportion as the quantity increases1 till at last they appear entirely black4 ,notwithstanding the extreme minuteness of these animalcula1 they seem to be fond of society2 for1 on viewing for some time a parcel of them taken up at random1 they will be seen to disperse themselves in a kind of regular order4 ,if a multitude of them be put into a jar of water1 they will form themselves into a regular body1 and ascend slowly to the top1 where1 after they have remained some time exposed to the air1 their green colour changes to a beautiful sky-blue4 ,when they are weary of this situation1 they form themselves into a kind of rope1 which slowly descends as low as they intend4 ,a small quantity of the substance containing these creatures having been put into a jar of water1 it so happened1 that one part descended immediately to the bottom1 the other continuing to float on the surface4 ,after some time1 each of these swarms of animalcula exhibited a disposition to change its quarters4 ,both armies1 therefore1 set out at the same time1 the one proceeding upwards1 and the other downwards2 so that after some hours journey they met in the middle4 ,a desire of knowing how they would conduct themselves on this occasion1 engaged the observer to watch them carefully2 and to his surprize1 he saw the army that was marching upwards open to the right and left1 to make room for those that were descending4 ,thus without confusion or intermixture each held on its way1 the ascending army marching in two columns to the top1 and the other proceeding in one column to the bottom1 as if each had been under the direction of wise leaders4 #fc4 ,,vibrio ,,lunula4 ,v4 arcuatus1 utraque extremitate quali4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #af4 ,bow-shaped vibrio1 both ends of an equal size4 ,the body resembles much the shape of the moon at the first quarter2 it is of a green colour1 and has generally from seven to ten globules disposed lengthwise2 the smaller ones are of a very pale colour1 a pale green vacuity may sometimes be seen in the middle3 some little varieties may be observed amongst them1 which are not easily to be described2 it will be enough to have given the reader their general and distinguishing characteristics4 #fd4 ,,vibrio ,,verminus4 ,v4 linearis compressus1 antice quam postice angustior4 ,linear compressed vibrio1 the fore-part narrower than the hind-part4 ,a round transparent animalculum1 or rather a long crystalline membrane1 the hind-part broader than the fore-part1 the apex subtruncated1 the base obtuse1 no perceptible intestines2 in the middle are two spherical vesicules1 and a third towards the lower edge4 ,it moves quickly backwards and forwards with an undulatory motion2 they seem to be joined in a very singular manner1 and were found in great plenty in salt water that had been kept several days1 till it became fetid4 #fe4 ,,vibrio ,,mall,,us4 ,v4 linearis basi globuli1 apice linea transversa4 ,a linear vibrio1 with a globule at the base1 and transverse line at the apex4 ,this is a white pellucid animalculum1 resembling the letter ,t1 with a globule affixed to the base4 ,it is in motion and at rest every moment alternately2 in the former case1 it resembles the letter ,v2 in the latter1 the letter ,t4 ,they are found plentifully in spring water4 #ff4 ,,vibrio ,,acus4 ,v4 linearis1 colli1 apice obtuso1 cauda setacea4 ,linear vibrio1 with a neck1 the upper extremity obtuse1 the lower one terminating in a setaceous tail4 ,this vibrio is of the shape of a sewing needle2 the neck round1 partly transparent1 and marked in the middle with a red point2 the trunk cylindrical1 the edges obscure1 the middle bright1 and nearly of a triangular appearance1 the tail resembling a fine bristle4 ,a motion may be observed in the inside of this little creature4 ,it does not bend the body when in motion4 #fg4 ,,vibrio ,,sagitta4 ,v4 sublinearis1 colli1 apice truncato atro1 cauda setacea4 ,somewhat linear in its appearance1 a well-marked neck1 the apex truncated and open1 the tail setaceous4 ,the body is very long and flexible1 broadest towards the middle1 which is also filled with grey molecules2 the fore-part is drawn out into a straight transparent neck1 the upper end of it thick and black4 ,the motion of this animalculum seems to be produced by the contraction and extension of the neck4 ,it is found in salt water4 #fh4 ,,vibrio ,,gordius4 ,v4 qualis1 caud apice tuberculato4 ,vibrio of an equal size throughout1 the tail terminated by a little tubercle4 ,a round animalculum2 the fore-part for about one-sixth of the whole length is transparent1 and furnished with a sky-coloured alimentary tube2 the lower part is bright and pointed1 the middle full of small globules2 a small knob terminates the tail4 ,found in an infusion made with salt water4 #fi4 ,,vibrio ,,serpentulus4 ,v4 qualis utrinque subacuminatus4 ,this vibrio is of an equal size1 rather pointed at both ends4 ,it is very similar to the vibrio anguillula1 ,no4 #ga1 differing principally in the shape of the ends1 which in this are furnished with a long row of the most minute points4 ,it does not adhere to objects by the pointed tail4 ,the body is of a whitish colour1 frequently convoluted1 and drawn into different figures4 ,its motion is serpentine1 sometimes to be met with perfectly straight and still1 and is found in infusions of vegetables after some weeks standing4 #gj4 ,,vibrio ,,coluber4 ,v4 filiformis1 seta caudali geneculata4 ,filiform vibrio1 the tail setaceous1 and bending up nearly to form a right angle with the body4 ,in this vibrio1 the mouth1 the oesophagus1 the molecules in the intestines1 and the twisting of them1 are very conspicuous4 ,the tail is exceeding small1 and bent so as to form a considerable angle with the body4 ,it is found in river water4 #ga4 ,,vibrio ,,anguillula4 ,v4 qualis1 subrigidus4 ,vibrio of an equal size throughout1 and somewhat hard4 ,this animalculum may be divided into four varieties1 if not distinct species3 namely1 #a4 ,anguillula aceti4 #b4 ,anguillula glutinis farinosi4 #c4 ,anguillula aqu dulcis2 and #d4 ,anguillula aqu marin4 ,these varieties ,i shall first describe1 together with the eels in blighted wheat1 and then proceed with the rest of the vibrio4 #a4 ,,anguillula ,,aceti1 ,,or ,,vinegar ,,eel4 ,plate ,,xi4 ,fig4 #g4 ,chaos redivivum1 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 #acbf4abd ,leeuwenhoeck ,opera ,omn4 p4 #c1 n4 #a1 f1 l1 o4 ,joblot ,observ4 ,micros4 #a1 p4 #b1 pl4 #b4 ,hooke's ,micrograph1 p4 #baf1 pl4 #be1 fig4 #c4 ,borelli ,observ4 ,micros4 #a1 p4 #g4 ,power's ,micros4 ,observ4 p4 #cb4 ,adams ,micrograph4 ,illustr4 #dth edition1 p4 #abe1 pl4 #ch1 fig4 #aig1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,rozier ,journal ,physique1 ,mars #agge1 ,janv4 ,mars #aggf4 ,spallanzani ,opusc4 ,phys4 part #a1 p4 #hc4 #abd ,linnus includes this and the paste eel under the same title3--,habitat in aceto et glutine bibliopegorum4 ,he adds1--,reviviscit ex aqua per annos exsiccatum4 ,,edit4 ,this eel is both oviparous and viviparous2 it is filiform1 but in other respects differs considerably from the paste eel4 ,it is longer1 not near so large1 the tail is smaller and more tapering2 it moves with much greater ease1 and is more lively4 ,in the tail of this eel we may observe in miniature1 what may be seen on a much larger scale in that of the viper1 viz4 a small projection somewhat resembling a tongue1 which occasionally appears as delineated in the figure at a b1 and at other times adheres close to the body4 ,an alimentary duct may be easily discovered1 but no other intestines can be discerned1 without deranging altogether the organization of the animalculum4 ,the pungent taste of vinegar was formerly attributed to these animalcula1 an opinion which was soon exploded4 #b4 ,,anguillula ,,glutinis ,,farinosi1 ,,or ,,paste ,,eel4 ,plate ,,xi4 ,fig4 #f1 #h1 #i1 and #aj4 ,chaos redivivum1 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 #acbf4 ,ledermller ,micros4 ,ergtzungen1 p4 #cc1 tab4 #ag4 ,baker ,micros4 made easy1 p4 #ha4 ,ibid4 ,empl4 for the ,micros4 p4 #bdd1 pl4 #aj1 no4 #h and #i4 ,rozier ,journal ,physique1 ,mars #agge1 ,mars #aggf4 ,adams ,micrograph4 ,illustr4 #dth edition1 p4 #abe1 pl4 #ch1 fig4 #agi4 ,the eels in paste have been more distinguished than most other animalcula1 as well on account of their many curious properties1 as the various speculations and theories to which they have given rise4 ,four different species of eels may be found in paste2 of the first1 ,i shall now give a particular description4 ,the body is filiform or like a thread1 round1 pellucid1 replete with little grains in the middle1 both extremities very pellucid and empty1 the fore-part a little truncated1 the hind-part terminating in a very short bristly point4 ,it is the same of every age and size4 ,to be certain of procuring this species of eels1 boil some flower in water1 to which you have added a few drops of vinegar2 provide an earthen pot which has an hole at the bottom1 and fill it with earth2 then put the paste in a piece of coarse cloth1 and bury it in this earth2 the pot is to be exposed to the sun in the summer1 or kept in a warm place in the winter2 by these means in ten or twelve days you will very seldom fail of finding a large quantity of eels in the paste4 ,this eel1 when at its full growth1 is about one-tenth of an inch long1 and rather less than one-hundredth of an inch in diameter4 ,fig4 #f represents one of these eels magnified about one-hundred and twenty times1 only compressed so much between two plates1 by means of an adjusting screw1 as not only to prevent it from moving1 but to lengthen and flatten it in a small degree4 ,at the upper part there are two little moveable pieces or nipples1 a a1 between which an empty space b is formed1 that terminates in the mouth2 the hinder-part is round1 but there projects from it a short setaceous tail w2 in the young eels the termination of the tail is not so abrupt as in the present specimen1 but it finishes by a gradual diminution4 ,there is probably a vent near z1 for the passage of the excrements2 because when that part has been gently pressed1 two or three jets of a very subtile substance have been observed to issue from it4 ,if the pressure be increased1 a small bladder will be forced out1 a further compression bursts the bladder1 and the intestines are forced through the opening4 ,a greater degree of magnifying power is necessary to obtain an exact idea of the viscera of these eels4 ,fig4 #aj represents the alimentary duct further magnified1 from its origin to the belly4 ,it is shewn here as separated from the animal1 which is easily effected2 for nature1 assisted by very little art1 performs the operation4 ,the oesophagus1 b c2 ,fig4 #f and #aj1 at its origin a a1 is very small1 but soon grows larger1 as at c1 and forms a kind of oblong bag1 c d2 the diameter of this increases till it comes to d1 where it swells out as at d e f2 it then grows smaller till it comes to g1 when it again swells out at g k l4 ,the part k l is the stomach4 ,m4 ,becli has shewn1 that the alimentary duct of many species of worms is formed of two bags1 one of which is inclosed within the other4 ,it is the same with this animalculum2 the little vessel b c1 that we have called the oesophagus1 which is the origin of the bag c d1 enters into the same bag1 and preserves its form within it till it comes to m1 from whence it is prolonged in the form of a black line m n1 which passes by the axis of the duct e1 and apparently terminates itself at the beginning of the abdomen l4 ,to this tube1 near the center of the swelling g k l1 are fixed two small transparent bodies2 that end of these which is connected with the tube is round1 the other end is pointed2 these small pieces cannot be discerned in every position of the eel4 ,i shall now shew how this duct is to be forced out of the eel4 ,the body1 when compressed1 generally bursts either at the head or tail1 and always at that part which is least pressed2 hence when the mass of fluids contained in the body is forced towards the anterior part1 they meet with a resistance in passing from the abdomen to the duct already described2 the abdomen1 being forced by the fluids which are made to act against it1 bursts at the upper end1 and the fluids1 striking against the neck1 force it1 with all its contents1 out of the body1 through an opening at the anterior part2 on lessening the pressure1 the intestine thus discharged will float in the water between the two plates of glass4 ,not to enter into a detail of those parts which have been supposed by some writers to constitute the heart1 c4 of these minute animalcula1 it will be sufficient here to describe those in which motion may be discovered1 and to leave the rest to future observations on the subject4 ,the parts which may be seen in motion within these minute creatures are1 #a4 the small tube or duct1 from its origin at m1 to the two appendages2 #b4 these appendages themselves1 h2 #c4 the remainder of the tube1 from the appendages to the insertion at the ventricle k2 #d4 in the swelling g k l4 ,the rest of this duct1 from the beginning by the oesophagus b c1 to the second swelling1 has no motion4 ,there is a variety in the motions of the first part of this duct1 sometimes it dilates and contracts1 at other times it has an oscillatory motion4 ,it is difficult to gain a good view of the appendages2 but when the position of the little creature is favourable1 they seem to have a two-fold motion1 by which the pointed ends approach to1 and then separate from1 each other1 and another by which they move up and down4 ,the part g k l moves backwards and forwards alternately2 the motion of each of these parts is independent of the rest4 ,these are the principal parts1 whose motion is connected with the life of the animal4 ,the other viscera that are contained in the body of the eel1 and which may be observed by the aid of the microscope1 are1 the vessels which contain the food1 those which are filled with a transparent substance1 and the womb or ovary4 ,the first form the abdomen and intestines2 these are filled with a black substance1 which prevents their being properly and clearly distinguished2 these vessels1 in their passage through the posterior part of the body1 form an empty space1 in which we may perceive that one side of the animalculum is occupied by the ovary q q q1 which runs from j to u x2 it is at these two extremities of the ovaries that the eggs begin to be formed1 for the largest eggs are always to be found in the middle1 and the smallest at the ends1 as may be seen at j f and u x4 ,all the eels which bear eggs have two protuberances1 y y1 formed on the exterior part near the center of the ovary2 it appears like a transparent semicircular membrane1 but is really a kind of hernia or bag1 in which one or two eggs may be sometimes seen2 all the larger eels have this appendage1 which also bears the marks of having been burst4 ,now1 as the younger eels have not this appendage1 nor any marks of a rupture1 we may reasonably conclude that it is from hence that the little eels issue from the parent4 ,in the latter part of the year1 and during the winter1 these eels are oviparous1 and the young eels may be seen to proceed from the egg2 at other times they are viviparous2 six live eels have been seen at one time in the belly of the parent1 twenty-two eggs have been counted in the ovary4 ,mller suspected that there was a difference of sex in some of these animalcula1 but it was left to ,m4 ,roffredi to afford the proof1 and it was only from a variety of repeated observations that he could allow himself to be convinced of this truth4 ,he continued his researches upon the same subject on other microscopic eels1 and has since been able to distinguish the sexual parts of the vinegar eels4 ,the second species of paste eel is oviparous4 ,it is easily distinguished from the first kind by being much smaller2 in ,fig4 #h1 is exhibited a magnified view of this eel4 ,the conformation of the alimentary duct and the intestines are in general nearly the same1 though an intelligent observer will find out some specific differences4 ,by the flexion of the intestines c c c1 a void space is left a little beyond the middle of the body1 where the ovary1 d d1 is situated4 ,there is no exterior protuberance near this ovary1 as in the preceding one4 ,we meet with another eel in paste1 which may with propriety be called the common eel4 ,it is often to be found in grains placed in the earth1 in which the germ is destroyed1 in the roots and stems of farinaceous plants1 in the tremella of ,adanson1 and in several species of conferva1 as well as in several infusions4 ,this eel1 when at its full growth is rather longer than the common eel of blighted wheat2 one of them is represented at ,fig4 #aa4 ,they are easily distinguished from the eels of blighted wheat1 because they have no ranges of globules like it1 by the two little protuberances which are near the middle of the body1 and by the regular diminution of the tail4 ,it is oviparous4 ,a very small species1 represented at ,fig4 #i1 may also be found in paste2 they may be distinguished from the young eels of the larger sort by their vivacity and slenderness4 ,as the eels in paste are objects which are so often exhibited in the microscope1 it will be proper1 before we leave this subject1 to inform the reader how he may procure the young eels from the parent animalcula2 a discovery which was originally made by ,mr4 ,sherwood1 but more particularly pursued and described by ,baker4 ,take up a very small quantity of paste where these eels abound on the point of a pin1 or with a sharpened quill2 lay it on a slip of glass1 and dilute it well with water2 by these means1 many of them will become visible to the naked eye2 then with the nib of a pen cut to a very fine point1 and shaved so thin as to be extremely pliable1 single out one of the largest eels1 and insinuate the point of the pen underneath it2 remove it into a very small drop of water1 which you must have ready prepared on another slip of glass4 ,when thus confined1 it may easily be cut asunder transversely1 by the help of a good eye and steady hand1 with a lancet or sharp penknife2 or if the eye be deficient1 a hand-magnifier will enable almost any person to perform the operation4 ,as soon as the parts are separated1 apply your object to the microscope1 and if the division has been made about the middle of the animal1 several oval bodies of different sizes will be seen to issue forth4 ,these are young anguillul of different degrees of maturity1 each of which is coiled up1 and included in its proper membrane1 of so exquisite a fineness1 as to be scarce discernible by the greatest magnifier while it incloses the embryo animal4 ,the largest and most forward break immediately through this delicate integument1 unfold themselves1 and wriggle about nimbly in the water2 others get out1 uncoil1 and move about more slowly2 and the least mature continue entirely without motion4 ,the uterus or vessel that contains all these oval bodies is composed of many annula or ringlets1 not unlike the aspera arteria of land animals1 and it seems to be considerably elastic2 for as soon as the operation is performed1 the oval bodies are thrust out with some degree of violence by the spring or action of this bowel4 ,an hundred or upwards of young ones have been seen to issue from one single eel1 whereby the prodigious increase of them may be accounted for1 as probably several such numerous generations are produced in a short time4 ,hereby we also learn that these creatures are not only like eels in shape1 but are likewise viviparous1 as eels are generally supposed to be4 ,few experiments are to be found more entertaining1 or in which there is so little risk of being disappointed2 for they seem1 like earth-worms1 to be all prolific1 and you may be sure of success1 unless by accident you cut one that has already brought forth all its young1 or make your trials when the paste has been kept a very long time1 in which cases they have been found unfruitful4 #c4 ,,anguillula ,,aqu ,,dulcis1 ,,or ,,fresh ,,water ,,eel4 ,corculum vermiculo simile1 ,linn4 ,amn4 7,mund4 ,invis47 ,anguille ,vulgaire1 ,rozier ,journal ,physique1 #agge4 ,mars1 ,nov4 #aggf4 ,ibid4 ,anguille du ,bled ,rachitique4 ,ibid4 ,anguille du ,faux ,ergot4 ,spallanz4 ,opusc4 ,phys4 part #b1 p4 #ced1 pl4 #e1 fig4 #aj4 ,the body of this is exceedingly transparent1 with no visible entrails1 though a few transverse lines may be discovered on the body4 ,it is sometimes1 though rarely1 furnished with a long row of little globules1 and often with two small oval ones2 the tail terminates in a point4 ,mller says he found these eels in the sediment which is formed by vegetables on the sides of vessels in which water had been kept for some time4 #d4 ,,anguillula ,,aqu ,,marin1 ,,or ,,salt ,,water ,,eel4 ,this1 when pressed between two plates of glass1 appears to be little more than a crystalline skin1 with a kind of clay-coloured intestines4 ,the fore-part of the body is truncated1 the lower part drawn out to a fine point1 the rest of the body is of an equal size throughout4 ,the younger ones are filled with pellucid molecular intestines4 ,,of ,,the ,,eels ,,in ,,blighted ,,wheat4 ,plate ,,xi4 ,fig4 #d and #e4 ,these animalcula were discovered by ,needham1 and described by him in a work entitled1 ,new ,microscopical ,discoveries1 and afterwards more fully treated upon by ,baker4 ,they are not lodged in those blighted1 grains which are covered externally with a soot-like dust1 whose inside is often also little more than a black powder2 but abundance of ears may be observed in some fields of corn1 which have grains that appear blackish1 as if scorched3 these1 when opened1 are found to contain a soft white substance1 that when attentively examined looks like a congeries of threads or fibres lying as close as possible to each other in a parallel direction1 and much resembling the unripe down of some thistles4 ,this fibrous matter does not discover any signs of life or motion1 unless water be applied to it2 the fibres then separate1 and prove themselves to be living creatures4 ,these eels are in general of a large size1 and may be seen with a common magnifying glass1 being about one-thirtieth of an inch in length1 and one-hundred and fortieth broad4 ,fig4 #e represents one of them magnified about one-hundred and twenty times2 they are in general of a bright chesnut colour1 the extremity a b is whiter and more transparent than the rest of the body4 ,the end a is rather round1 the end c is pointed4 ,a distinguishing mark of these little creatures is a row of transparent globules1 which are placed at intervals through the whole length of the body1 beginning at b1 where the transparency of the fore-part ceases1 and going on towards the extremity c4 ,they are in diameter rather less than one-third of the body4 ,another peculiar mark is a small lunular space d1 near the middle of the body4 ,this part is transparent1 and is free from the coloured matter of the intestines2 there is a neck in the intestines near this space1 which confines them to one part of the body4 ,great care should be taken by the observer1 not to burst the skin of the eels in disengaging them from the grain1 for they never break or burst of themselves2 but if broke1 visible intestines1 filled with a black matter1 rush out of the body1 from which little black globules are disengaged2 if the observation be made immediately after these globules proceed from the eel1 they swim slowly about the water1 though divested of any principle of internal motion2 but if the eels that are broke be left long in the water1 the same phnomena will take place1 as in other animal and vegetable infusions4 ,the want of due attention to these circumstances has been productive of many of the fanciful positions of ,needham1 which were deduced from ill-conducted experiments2 and1 consequently1 when properly examined1 are found to be in a great measure false4 ,m4 ,roffredi sowed some of the grains of this wheat1 which sprang up2 but the ear was either wholly or in a great measure spoiled1 being filled with these eels4 ,he also found them in other parts of the plant2 in order to disengage them1 the plant must be soaked in water1 and then compressed a little4 ,at first sight these eels seem to resemble the foregoing1 but a more accurate inspection shews that they have neither the same curious disposition of the internal globules1 nor the transparent place in the middle of the body4 ,the intestinal bag leaves indeed in these an empty space1 but it is of an undetermined form4 ,the animalcula from the plant are much more lively than those which are procured from the dried grains4 ,the principal phnomena in this kind of blighted wheat is probably owing to these animalcula1 who prevent the regular circulation of the sap4 ,they increase in size in a certain proportion to the plant1 so that at last they may be observed with great ease by the naked eye1 being two-tenths of an inch long1 and nearly one-tenth in diameter4 ,fig4 #d represents one of these magnified nearly in the same proportion as ,fig4 #e2 a a a a1 the ovary1 which may be traced almost from the lower extremity to the middle of the body1 where the body becomes so opake as to prevent its being seen any further4 ,the eggs1 when arrived at their full growth1 are nearly of a cylindric shape1 both ends rounded2 towards the extremity b there are two little protuberances d d1 through which the eggs are most probably extruded2 these protuberances are not always visible4 ,the eggs are formed of a fine transparent membrane2 it covers the young eel1 which is folded curiously therein2 these eggs may be frequently found in the plant4 ,a most satisfactory view of these eels is obtained by examining them with the solar microscope2 it affords one of the most surprizing and magnificent spectacles2 two generations may be often seen1 one1 which draws near the allotted period of its existence1 and another which only begins to enjoy the blessings of life3 some arrived at their full growth1 and others quite small4 ,in some we may perceive the young animalcula in motion in the eggs1 in others1 no such motion can be observed2 with a variety of other circumstances too tedious to enumerate1 though they afford great pleasure to the spectator4 ,one of the most remarkable circumstances in these animalcula is the faculty they have of receiving again the powers of life1 after having lost them for a considerable time2 for instance1 when some of these blighted grains1 that have been preserved for many years1 have been soaked in water for ten or twelve hours1 living eels of this species have been found in it2 if the water evaporate1 or begin to fail1 they cease to move1 but1 on a fresh application1 will be again revived4#abe #abe ,the property of revivification is not confined to this species1 being common to other kinds of worms1 and it is not improbable that the hydr may possess the same faculty4 ,,edit4 ,it may be proper to notice here1 that according to the observations of ,roffredi1 those eels which have done laying of eggs are incapable of being resuscitated upon being moistened2 the same seems to be also the case with those that are very young2 it is probable they must attain a certain age and degree of strength before they are endowed with this wonderful faculty4 ,in the month of ,august1 #agdc1 a small parcel of blighted wheat was sent by ,mr4 ,needham to ,martin ,folkes1 ,esq4 ,president of the ,royal ,society1 with an account of his then new discovery2 which parcel the president was pleased to give to ,mr4 ,baker1 desiring him to examine it carefully4 ,in order so to do1 he cut open some of the grains that were become dry1 took out the fibrous matter1 and applied water to it on a slip of glass1 but could discern no other motion than a separation of the fibres or threads1 which separation he imputed wholly to an elasticity in the fibres2 and perceiving no token of life1 after watching them with due care1 and repeating the experiment till he was weary1 an account thereof was written to ,needham1 who1 having by trials of his own1 found out the cause of this bad success1 advised him to steep the grains before he attempted to open them2 on doing which he was very soon convinced of his veracity1 and entertained with the pleasing sight of this wonderful phnomenon4 ,at different times after this1 ,baker made experiments with grains of the same parcel1 without being once disappointed4 ,he soaked a couple of grains in water for the space of thirty-six hours1 when1 believing them sufficiently moistened1 he cut one open1 and applying some of the fibrous substance to the microscope in a drop of water1 it separated immediately1 and presented multitudes of the anguillul without the least motion or sign of life2 but being taught by experience that they might notwithstanding possibly revive1 he left them for about four hours1 and then examining them again1 found much the greatest number moving their extremities pretty briskly1 and in an hour or two after they appeared as lively as these creatures usually are4 ,mr4 ,folkes and some other friends were witnesses of this experiment4 ,we find an instance here that life may be suspended and seemingly destroyed2 that by an exhalation of the fluids necessary to a living animal1 the circulations may cease1 all the organs and vessels of the body may be shrunk up1 dried1 and hardened2 and yet1 after a long while1 life may begin anew to actuate the same body1 and all the animal motions and faculties may be restored1 merely by replenishing the organs and vessels with a fresh supply of fluid4 ,here is a proof that the animalcula in the grains of blighted wheat can endure having their bodies quite dried up for the space of four years together1 without being thereby deprived of the property of resuscitation4 ,it appears plainly from the foregoing experiments1 that when the blighted grains of wheat have been kept a long time1 and the bodies of these animalcula are consequently become extremely dry1 the rigidity of their minute vessels requires to be relaxed very gently1 and by exceeding slow degrees2 for we find that1 on the application of water immediately to the bodies of these animalcula1 when taken from the dry grains1 they do not so certainly revive1 as they do if the grains themselves be either buried in earth1 or steeped in water for some time before they are taken out3 the reason of which most probably is1 that too sudden a relaxation bursts their delicate and tender organs1 and thereby renders them incapable of being any more employed to perform the actions of life2 and1 indeed1 there are always some dead ones amongst the living1 whose bodies appear bursten1 or lacerated1 as well as others that lie extended and never come to life4 ,some discretion is needful to adapt the time of continuing the grains in water or earth to the age and dryness of them2 for if they be not opened before they have been too much or too long softened1 the animalculum will not only seem dead1 but will really be so4 ,of the two grains mentioned to have been four years old when put to soak1 one was opened after it had lain thirty-six hours1 and the event proved as already related2 the other was suffered to lie for above a week1 on opening which1 all the anguillul near the husk were found dead1 and seemingly in a decayed condition2 but great numbers issued alive from the middle1 and moved themselves briskly4 ,unless the husks be opened to let these creatures out after being steeped1 they all inevitably perish2 and when taken out and preserved in water1 if the husks be left with them1 they will die in a few days2 but otherwise1 continue alive in water for several months together2 and1 should the water evaporate1 may be revived again by giving them a fresh supply4 #gb4 ,,vibrio ,,linter4 ,v4 ventricoso-ovatus1 collo brevissimo4 ,ventricose oval vibrio1 with a short neck4 ,this is one of the larger animalcula1 of an egg-shape1 pellucid1 inflated1 somewhat depressed at top2 the apex is prolonged into a moveable crystalline neck1 the belly is replete with pellucid molecules4 ,it is not very common1 though occasionally to be found among the lemn4 #gc4 ,,vibrio ,,utriculus4 ,v4 teres1 antice angustatus truncatus1 postice ventricosus4 ,round vibrio1 the fore-part narrow and truncated1 the lower ventricose4 ,it does not ill resemble a bottle in shape2 the belly is replete with molecular intestines1 the neck bright and clear1 the top truncated2 in some a pellucid point is visible at the bottom of the belly4 ,it is in an unceasing1 vehement1 and vacillatory motion1 the neck moving from one side to the other as fast as possible4 #gd4 ,,vibrio ,,fasciola4 ,v4 antice attenuatus1 medio latiusculus1 postice acutus4 ,vibrio with a small fore-part1 the middle a little bigger1 the hind-part acute4 ,this is a pellucid animalculum1 in the middle are the intestines in the form of points2 an alimentary pipe1 which lessens gradually in size1 is also perceptible4 ,the motion of it is quick1 darting itself up and down in the water with great velocity4 ,it is found in water just loosened from the frost1 and seldom elsewhere4 #ge4 ,,vibrio ,,colymbus4 ,v4 crassus1 postice acuminatus1 collo subfalcato4 ,thick vibrio1 sharpened at the end1 the neck a little bent4 ,it is larger than most of the vibrios1 and not unlike a bird in shape4 ,the neck is round1 shorter than the trunk1 of an equal size throughout1 and of a bright appearance1 the apex obtuse4 ,the trunk is thick1 somewhat triangular1 full of yellow molecules2 the fore-part broad1 the hinder-part acute1 the motion slow4 #gf4 ,,vibrio ,,strictus4 ,v4 elongatus linearis1 anticem versus attenuatus1 apice obtuso4 ,vibrio lengthened out almost to a line1 small towards the fore-part1 the apex obtuse4 ,the body linear1 being a bright membranaceous thread1 without any flexure2 the hind-part somewhat thicker1 round1 and filled with molecules1 excepting just at the end1 where there is a small pellucid empty space4 ,the apex is obtuse1 and rather globose2 it has a power of contracting and drawing in the filiform part4 #gg4 ,,vibrio ,,anas4 ,v4 oblongus1 utroque fine attenuatus1 collo cauda longiore4 ,oblong vibrio1 both ends attenuated1 the neck longer than the tail4 ,the trunk is oblong1 opake1 and filled with molecules4 ,both the fore and the hind-part is prolonged into a pellucid talky membrane1 which the animalculum has a power of retracting at pleasure4 ,the tail is more acute than the neck4 ,it is most generally found in salt water2 a species of them have been found in river water1 with a longer neck4 #gh4 ,,vibrio ,,cygnus4 ,v4 ventricosus1 collo adunco4 ,corpulent vibrio1 with a crooked neck4 ,this animalculum is little more than a most pellucid line1 crooked at top1 prominent in the middle1 and sharp at the end2 the fore-part1 or neck1 is equal in length to the rest of the body1 and three times longer than the hind-part or tail2 the intermediate part swelling out1 is full of dark-coloured molecules and pellucid intestines4 ,it is very small1 and the most slothful of all those which move and advance their necks4 #gi4 ,,vibrio ,,anser4 ,v4 ellipticus1 collo longo1 tuberculo dorsali4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bg and #bi4 ,elliptical vibrio1 with a long neck1 and a little lump on the back4 ,it is between the vibrio proteus and vibrio falx1 and is distinguished by the lump b1 ,fig4 #bi1 on the back1 placed behind the neck2 from this an even long neck1 a1 proceeds4 ,the trunk1 d1 is elliptic1 round1 and without any lateral inequality2 full of molecules1 the hind-part1 e1 sharp and bright1 the fore-part produced into a bending neck that is longer than the body2 the apex even and whole1 with blue canals passing between the marginal edges1 occupying the whole length of the neck2 in one of them a vehement descent of water to the beginning of the trunk is perceivable4 ,the motion of the body is slow1 that of the neck is more lively and flexuous1 sometimes spiral4 ,it is found in water where duck-weed grows4 #hj4 ,,vibrio ,,olor4 ,v4 ellipticus1 collo longissimo1 apice nodoso4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,elliptical1 with a very long neck1 and a knob on the apex4 ,the form of the body is elliptical and ventricose1 the hind-part somewhat sharp4 ,it is membranaceous1 dilatable1 winding variously2 the hind-part is sometimes replete with darkish molecules4 ,the neck1 d1 is three or four times longer than the body1 of an equal size throughout1 except a small degree of thickness at the apex1 f1 very pellucid4 ,the motion of its neck is very lively1 that of the body slow4 ,it is found in water that has been kept for a long time1 and which has acquired a vegetable greenness4 #ha4 ,,vibrio ,,falx4 ,v4 gibbosus1 postice obtusus1 collo falcato4 ,a gibbous vibrio1 the hind-part obtuse1 the neck crooked4 ,the body is pellucid1 elliptical1 the fore-part lessening into a little round bright neck1 nearly of the same length as the trunk1 the hind-part obtuse4 ,the trunk itself is rather rounding or tending to the gibbous1 and filled with very small molecules2 there are also two bright globules1 one within the hind extremity1 the other in the middle of the body4 ,the neck being immoveable1 the motions of the animalculum somewhat resemble those of a scythe4 #hb4 ,,vibrio ,,intermedius4 ,v4 membranaceus1 antice attenuatus1 postice subacutus4 ,membranaceous vibrio1 the fore-part small1 the hinder part somewhat acute4 ,it seems to be an intermediate species between the preceding vibrio and the fasciola1 ,no4 #gd2 it is a thin membrane1 constantly folded4 ,the whole of it has a crystalline talky appearance1 the middle replete with grey particles of different sizes2 it has all round a distinct bright margin2 the apex of the neck is truncated1 the tail obtuse4 ,,vi4 ,,cyclidium4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 pellucidus1 complanatus1 orbicularis vel ovatus4 ,a simple1 invisible1 flat1 pellucid1 orbicular or oval worm4 #hc4 ,,cyclidium ,,bulla4 ,c4 orbiculare hyalinum4 ,orbicular bright cyclidium4 ,a very pellucid white animalculum1 or orbicular skin1 the edges a little darker than the rest4 ,by the assistance of the compound microscope1 some globular intestines of a very crystalline appearance are just perceptible4 ,its motion is slow and semicircular4 ,it is found occasionally in an infusion of hay4 #hd4 ,,cyclidium ,,milium4 ,c4 ellipticum crystallinum4 ,elliptic and crystalline cyclidium4 ,it is very pellucid1 of a crystalline splendour1 membranaceous and elliptical2 a line may be perceived through the whole length of it1 a point in the fore-part1 the hinder-part getting darker4 ,its motion is swift1 fluttering1 and interrupted2 probably both extremities are ciliated4 #he4 ,,cyclidium ,,fluitans4 ,c4 ovale crystallinum4 ,oval crystalline cyclidium4 ,this is one of the smallest animalcula4 ,the body of an oval1 or rather suborbicular shape1 depressed1 crystalline2 two small blue spaces may be discovered by the assistance of the microscope at the sides of this little creature4 #hf4 ,,cyclidium ,,glaucoma4 ,c4 ovatum1 interaneis gre conspicuis4 ,oval cyclidium1 the intestines perceived with difficulty4 ,a pellucid oval body1 with both ends plain1 or an oval membrane1 with a distinct well-defined edge2 the intestines are so transparent that they can scarce be discerned1 when it is empty2 when full1 they are of a green colour1 and there are dark globules discoverable in the middle4 ,in plenty of water it moves swiftly in a circular and diagonal direction2 whenever it moves slowly it seems to be taking in water1 the intestines are then also in a violent commotion4 ,two of the smaller ones may often be perceived cohering to each other1 and drawing one another by turns2 nor are they separated by death1 for they remain united even when the water is evaporated4 ,those who are not familiar with these kinds of observations1 may easily mistake the shade in a single one for a junction of two1 or the junction of two for a copulation1 for they generate by division4 #hg4 ,,cyclidium ,,nigricans4 ,c4 oblongiusculum1 margine nigricans4 ,oblong cyclidium1 with a black margin4 ,it is very small1 pellucid1 and flat4 ,with a small magnifier1 it may be mistaken for an enchelis4 #hh4 ,,cyclidium ,,rostratium4 ,c4 ovale1 antice mucronatum4 ,an oval cyclidium1 the fore-part pointed4 ,this is an oval1 smooth1 and very pellucid animalculum1 with the fore-part running out into an obtuse point2 with this it seems to feel and examine the bodies which it approaches4 ,it is probably ciliated1 though the hairs have not been discovered4 ,the intestines are filled with a blue liquor1 forming in a tube1 which1 from the aperture to the middle of the body1 is divided into two legs or branches2 beyond the middle there are two little transverse blue lines4 ,this colour sometimes vanishes1 and then they seem to be composed of vesicles4 #hi4 ,,cyclidium ,,nucleus4 ,c4 ovale1 postice acuminatum4 ,an oval cyclidium1 the hind-part pointed4 ,the body is pellucid1 depressed1 the fore-part obtusely convex1 the hind-part acute1 the intestines vesicular1 the fore and hind-part on each side dark4 ,it resembles a grape-seed4 #ij4 ,,cyclidium ,,hyalinum4 ,c4 ovatum1 postice acutum4 ,oval cyclidium1 the hind-part acute4 ,this cyclidium is oval1 flat1 and bright1 without any visible intestines1 the hinder-part somewhat smaller than the fore-part2 it has a tremulous kind of motion4 #ia4 ,,cyclidium ,,pediculus4 ,c4 ovale convexum1 subtus planum4 ,an oval convex cyclidium1 the bottom even4 ,trembley ,polyp4 #a1 p4 #bhb4 ,this is a gelatinous white animalculum1 the bottom gibbous over the back1 the extremities depressed and truncated1 with one end sometimes apparently cloven into two2 perhaps this is the aperture of the mouth4 ,it is scarce ever seen but on the arms and the body of the hydra pallida1 upon which it runs as if it had feet4 #ib4 ,,cyclidium ,,dubium4 ,c4 ovale1 supra convexum1 subtus cavum4 ,oval cyclidium1 the upper part convex1 the under part concave4 ,this is one of the larger species1 the margin is pellucid1 and the inner part contains a great number of black molecules4 ,,vii4 ,,param,,cium4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplex1 pellucidus1 membranaceus1 oblongus4 ,an invisible1 simple1 membranaceous1 flat1 and pellucid worm4 #ic4 ,,param,,cium ,,aurelia4 ,,volvox ,,terebella4 ,,ellis4 ,p4 compressum1 versus anticem plicatum1 postice acutum4 ,compressed paramcium1 oblong1 folded towards the fore-part1 the hinder-part acute4 ,this is rather a large animalculum1 membranaceous1 pellucid1 and four times longer than it is broad2 the fore-part obtuse1 transparent1 without intestines2 the hind-part replete with molecules of various sizes2 the fold1 which goes from the middle to the apex is a striking characteristic of the species1 forming a kind of triangular aperture1 and giving it somewhat the appearance of a gimblet4 ,its motion is rectilinear1 reeling or staggering1 and generally vehement4 ,they are frequently found cohering lengthwise2 the lateral edges of both bodies appear bright4 ,they may also sometimes be seen lying on one another alternately1 at others1 adhering by the middle4 ,they will live many months in the same water without its being renewed4 ,they are to be found in ,june in ditches where there is plenty of duck-weed4 #id4 ,,param,,cium ,,chrysalis4 ,p4 cylindraceum1 versus anticam plicatum1 postice obtusum4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,cylindrical paramcium1 folded towards the fore-part1 the hinder-part obtuse4 ,it differs very little from the preceding1 only the ends1 a b1 are more obtuse1 and the margins filled with black globules4 ,it is an inhabitant of salt water4 #ie4 ,,param,,cium ,,versutum4 ,p4 cylindraceum1 postice incrassatum1 utraque extremitate obtusum4 ,cylindrical paramcium1 the lower part thick1 and both ends very obtuse4 ,an oblong1 green1 and gelatinous body1 filled with molecules2 the lower-part thick1 the fore-part smaller1 both ends obtuse1 and may be seen to propagate by division4 ,it is found in ditches4 #if4 ,,param,,cium ,,oviferum4 ,p4 depressum1 intus bullis ovalibus4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #be4 ,depressed paramcium1 with large oval molecules withinside4 ,a membranaceous1 oval1 oblong animalculum1 grey and pellucid1 having many oval very pellucid corpuscles1 a1 dispersed about the body1 and many black grains towards b4 #ig4 ,,param,,cium ,,marginatum4 ,p4 depressum1 griseum1 margine duplici4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,depressed paramcium1 grey1 with a double margin4 ,this is one of the largest of the class1 flat1 elliptical1 every part filled with molecules1 except in the lower end1 b1 where there is a pellucid vesicle2 this animalculum is surrounded by a broad double margin2 when expiring1 a bright spiral intestine is observable4 a1 the apex2 b1 the vesicle2 c1 the spiral intestine4 ,,viii4 ,,kolpoda4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 pellucidus1 complanatus1 sinuatus4 ,an invisible1 very simple1 pellucid1 flat and crooked worm4 #ih4 ,,kolpoda ,,lamella4 ,k4 elongata1 membranacea1 antice curvata4 ,this animalculum resembles a long1 narrow1 and pellucid membrane1 the hind-part obtuse1 narrower1 and curved towards the top2 no intestines discoverable1 only a ridge or fold going through the middle4 ,its motion is reeling or staggering1 and very singular1 moving to and fro on its edge1 not on the flat side1 as is usual with most microscopic animals4 ,it is found in water1 but is very seldom to be met with4 #ii4 ,,kolpoda ,,gallinula4 ,k4 oblonga1 dorso antico membranaceo hyalino4 ,oblong kolpoda1 the back towards the fore-part bright and membranaceous4 ,the apex rather bent2 the belly oval1 convex and striated4 ,it is found in fetid salt water4 #ajj4 ,,kolpoda ,,rostrum4 ,k4 oblonga1 antice uncinata4 ,oblong1 the fore-part hooked4 ,the fore-part is bent into a kind of hook2 the hind-part is obtuse1 and everywhere filled with black molecules4 ,one of the edges from the fore-part to the middle1 is often so blunted and dilated1 that the rest of the body appears quite smooth1 and that part thick and triangular4 ,it has a slow and horizontal motion4 ,it is to be found1 though but seldom1 in water where the lemn grow4 #aja4 ,,kolpoda ,,ochrea4 ,k4 elongata1 membranacea1 apice attenuato1 basi in angulum rectum producta4 ,long kolpoda1 membranaceous1 the apex attenuated1 the base bent in a right angle to the body4 ,a large animalculum1 long1 and of a singular figure1 depressed1 membranaceous1 flexible2 one edge nearly straight1 the other somewhat bent1 filled with obscure molecules1 and a few little bladders dispersed here and there2 the apex bright and small1 the base projecting like the human foot from the leg4 #ajb4 ,,kolpoda ,,mucronata4 ,k4 membranacea dilatata1 antice angustata1 altero margine incisa4 ,membranaceous1 dilated kolpoda1 the fore-part smaller than the hind-part1 with a small incision at one side4 ,this animalculum is a dilated bright membrane2 the apex an obtuse point1 with a broad marked border running entirely round it2 within the margin it is filled with grey molecules1 a fleshy disc on one side1 which terminates in a splendid little point on the other side the disc4 ,it has a truncated appearance4 #ajc4 ,,kolpoda ,,triquetra4 ,k4 obovata depressa1 altero margine retuso4 ,kolpoda nearly of an egg-shape1 one edge turned back4 ,this animalculum appears to consist of two membranes2 the upper side flattened1 the lower convex2 the apex is bent so as to form a kind of shoulder4 ,it was found in salt water4 #ajd4 ,,kolpoda ,,striata4 ,k4 oblonga1 subarcuata depressa1 candida1 antice acuminata1 postice rotundata4 ,oblong1 somewhat of a pear-shape1 white1 the fore-part pointed1 the hind-part round4 ,it is very pellucid and white1 the upper part rather bent1 and terminating in a point1 the lower part obtusely round2 at the apex or mouth there is a little black pellucid vesicle2 when a very great magnifying power is used1 the body appears covered with long streaks2 the lower extremity is furnished1 like many other animalcula1 with very small globules4 ,it is to be found in salt water4 #aje4 ,,kolpoda ,,nucleus4 ,k4 ovata1 vertice acuto4 ,egg-shaped kolpoda1 with an acute vertex4 ,it is of an oval shape1 the vertex pointed1 of a brilliant transparency1 which renders the viscera visible2 they consist of a number of round diaphanous vesicles4 #ajf4 ,,kolpoda ,,meleagris4 ,k4 mutabilis1 antice uncinata1 postice complicata4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,changeable1 with the fore-part like a hook1 the hind-part folded up4 ,a most singular animalculum of the larger species2 it has a dilated membrane1 with the finest folds1 which it varies and bends in a moment2 the fore-part of the body to the middle is clear and bright1 the hind-part variously folded in transverse elevated plaits1 and full of molecules2 the apex turned into a hook1 the margin sinuous1 and beneath the apex denticulated with three or four teeth2 but in some which are more beautifully wrought1 the edge is obtusely notched1 and set with still smaller notches2 in the hind-part there are twelve or more equal pellucid globules4 ,it moves sometimes in a straight1 at other times in a crooked line1 a1 the hooked apex2 b1 the denticulated margin2 c1 the series of globules2 d1 the folded part at bottom4 #ajg4 ,,kolpoda ,,assimilis4 ,k4 depressa1 non plicatilis apice uncinato1 margine antico ad medium1 usque crenulato postice1 dilatato acutiusculo4 ,depressed kolpoda1 the apex turned in the form of a small hook2 the margin of the fore-part notched from the top to the middle1 the lower part swells out1 then diminishes again into a short point4 ,it has an elliptic mass in the middle1 but is never folded like the preceding4 ,it was found on the sea coast4 #ajh4 ,,kolpoda ,,cucullus4 ,k4 ovata1 ventricosa1 infra apicem incisa4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,egg-shaped1 ventricose1 with an incision in the fore-part4 ,it is very pellucid1 with a well-defined margin1 filled with little bright vesicles1 differing in size1 and of no certain number4 ,its figure is commonly oval1 the top bent into a kind of beak1 seldom an acute one1 sometimes oblong1 but most usually obtuse4 ,its intestines are formed of from eight to twenty-four bright little vesicles1 not conspicuous in such as are young4 ,some have supposed these to be animalcula which the kolpoda had swallowed1 but ,mller is of opinion that they are its offspring4 ,in some only one crystalline vesicle occupies the middle of the body4 ,it moves in general with great vivacity1 and in all directions4 ,when this creature is near death in consequence of the evaporation of the water1 it protrudes its offspring with violence4 ,it is found in infusions of vegetables1 and in fetid hay4 ,in some few a transparent membranaceous substance may be perceived projecting beyond the beak1 and resembling an exuvia2 the same may also be observed in the enchelis and vibrio3 it is1 therefore1 possible that these animalcula cast their skin1 as is the case with many of the class of insects4 a shews the cap or hood1 b the incision4 #aji4 ,,kolpoda ,,cucullulus4 ,k4 oblonga1 infra apicem oblique incisa4 ,oblong kolpoda1 with an oblique incision a little below the apex4 ,a very pellucid crystalline animalculum2 it is furnished with several pellucid globules2 there is a bending a little beneath the top1 which in some positions is very distinctly seen1 in others not4 ,it was observed in an infusion of the sonchus arvensis4 #aaj4 ,,kolpoda ,,cucullio4 ,k4 ovalis depressa1 infra apicem tantillum sinuata4 ,flat oval kolpoda1 with a small degree of bending beneath the apex4 ,this is an oval1 or rather an elliptical kolpoda1 membranaceous and bright2 flat on the upper side1 and convex on the under2 the fore-part is clear1 and from the middle to the hinder-part it is filled with silver-like globules4 ,it frequently stretches out the fore-part1 and folds it in different positions4 #aaa4 ,,kolpoda ,,ren4 ,k4 crassa medio sinuata4 ,this kolpoda is thick1 and carved in the middle4 ,the body is yellow1 thick1 and rather opake2 curved a little1 in the middle1 so as to have the appearance of a kidney2 the whole body is filled with molecules4 ,its motion is quick1 fluctuating1 and interrupted4 ,when the water in which it swims is about to fail1 it assumes an oval form1 is compressed1 and at last bursts4 ,it is found in an infusion of hay1 generally about thirteen hours after the infusion is made4 #aab4 ,,kolpoda ,,pirum4 ,k4 convexa1 ovalis1 apice in rostrum producta4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bj and #ba4 ,convex kolpoda1 oval1 the apex formed into a kind of beak4 ,the body is uniform and transparent1 without any sensible inequality2 the neck rather long and a little bent2 it is of a pale colour1 and furnished with obscure little globules4 ,it propagates by division4 ,fig4 #bj represents this animalculum2 ,fig4 #ba1 the same dividing to form another2 a1 the fore-part2 b1 the hind-part2 c1 where it is dividing4 #aac4 ,,kolpoda ,,cuneus4 ,k4 clavata1 teres1 apice dentata4 ,clavated kolpoda1 round1 the apex dentated4 ,this is a large animalculum1 the body white1 gelatinous1 without any distinct viscera4 ,it has a pellucid1 bright1 striated pustule on one side of the fore-part2 the apex is distinguished by three or four teeth1 the hinder-part is smaller than the fore-part1 with an obtuse termination1 which it can bend into a spiral form4 ,,ix4 ,,gonium4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 simplicissimus1 complanatus1 angulatus4 ,an invisible1 simple1 smooth1 angular worm4 #aad4 ,,gonium ,,pectorale4 ,g4 quadrangulare1 pellucidum moleculis sedecim sphricis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,this gonium is quadrangular1 pellucid1 with sixteen spherical molecules4 ,these sixteen little oval bodies are nearly equal in size1 of a greenish colour1 pellucid1 and set in a quadrangular membrane1 like the jewels in the breast-plate of the high-priest1 reflecting light on both sides4 ,its animality is evinced by its spontaneous motion1 advancing alternately towards the right and left2 these little bodies seem oval when in motion1 round when at rest2 the four interior ones are a little larger than the rest4 ,it is found in pure water4 #aae4 ,,gonium ,,pulvinatum4 ,g4 quadrangulare1 opacum pulvillis quatuor4 ,quadrangular1 opake1 with four little pillows4 ,this appears like a little quadrangular membrane1 plain on both sides2 with a large magnifier it looks like a bolster1 formed of three or four cylindric pillows1 flattened or sunk here and there4 ,thus it appeared to ,mller on the first examination2 some days after all the sides were plain1 without any convexity1 and divided into little square spaces by lines crossing each other4 ,it is found upon dunghills4 #aaf4 ,,gonium ,,corrugatum4 ,g4 quadrangulare1 albidum1 medio correptum4 ,quadrangular gonium1 white1 sunk a little in the middle4 ,it is somewhat of a square shape1 very minute1 without any visible viscera1 a little depressed in the middle4 ,it is found in various infusions2 in some positions it appears streaked4 #aag4 ,,gonium ,,rectangulum4 ,g4 rectangulum1 dorso arcuato4 ,this gonium is rectangular1 the hind-part arched4 ,this differs but little from the preceding2 the angle at the base is a right one1 the larger vesicle is transparent1 the rest green4 #aah4 ,,gonium ,,truncatum4 ,g4 obtusangulum1 postice arcuatum4 ,gonium with obtuse corners1 the hind-part arched4 ,much larger than the foregoing1 the fore-part is a straight line1 with which the sides form obtuse angles1 the ends of the sides being united by a curved line2 the internal molecules are of a dark green1 there are two little bright vesicles in the middle2 its motion is languid4 ,it is found chiefly in pure water1 and that but seldom4 ,x4 ,,bursaria4 ,vermis simplicissimus1 membranaceus1 cavus4 ,a very simple1 hollow1 membranaceous worm4 #aai4 ,,bursaria ,,truncatella4 ,b4 ventricosa1 apice truncata4 ,ventricose bursaria1 the top truncated4 ,an animalculum that is visible to the naked eye1 white1 oval1 and truncated at the top1 where there is a large aperture descending towards the base2 most of them have four or five yellow eggs at the bottom4 ,it moves itself at pleasure from right to left1 and from left to right1 ascending to the surface of the water in a right line1 and sometimes rolling about while descending4 #abj4 ,,bursaria ,,bullina4 ,b4 cymbformis1 antice labrata4 ,boat-shaped bursaria1 the fore-part formed into a lip4 ,a pellucid crystalline animalculum1 furnished with splendid globules of different sizes swimming about within it2 the under-side convex1 the upper side hollow1 the fore-part forming a kind of lip4 #aba4 ,,bursaria ,,hirundinella4 ,b4 utrinque laciniata1 extremitatibus productis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,bursaria with two small projecting wings1 which give it somewhat of the appearance of a bird1 and it moves something like a swallow4 ,it is invisible to the naked eye1 but by the microscope appears to be a pellucid hollow membrane2 no intestines are visible4 a1 the head2 b1 the tail2 c1 one of the wings4 #abb4 ,,bursaria ,,duplella4 ,b4 elliptica1 marginibus inflexis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,elliptic bursaria with the edge bent in and out4 ,a crystalline membrane folded up1 without any visible intestines1 if we except a little congeries of points under one of the folds4 ,it was found among duck-weed4 #abc4 ,,bursaria ,,globina4 ,b4 sphrica1 medio pellucentissima4 ,spherical bursaria1 very pellucid in the middle4 ,a subspheric hollow animalculum1 the lower end furnished with black molecules of various sizes1 the fore-part with obscure points1 the rest entirely empty1 and the middle very pellucid2 it moves slowly from right to left4 ,,xi4 ,,cercaria4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 pellucidus1 caudatus4 ,an invisible pellucid worm with a tail4 #abd4 ,,cercaria ,,gyrinus4 ,c4 rotundata1 cauda acuminata4 ,round cercaria1 with a sharp tail4 ,it has a white gelatinous body1 without any traces of intestines2 the fore-part somewhat globular1 the hind-part round1 long1 and pointed2 sometimes it appears a little compressed on each side4 ,when swimming1 the tail is in a continual vibration1 like that of a tadpole4 ,it seems very similar to the spermatic animalcula4 #abe4 ,,cercaria ,,gibba4 ,c4 subovata1 convexa1 antice subacuta1 cauda tereti4 ,somewhat of an oval shape1 convex1 the fore-part rather acute1 the tail round4 ,it is a small animalculum1 gelatinous1 white1 opake1 and without any visible intestines2 the upper part convex or gibbous2 many of them were found in infusions of hay1 as well as of other vegetables4 #abf4 ,,cercaria ,,inquieta4 ,c4 mutabilis1 convexa1 cauda lvi4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ca and #cb4 ,changeable convex cercaria1 with a smooth tail4 ,this animalculum so often changes the form of its body1 that it is not easy to describe it2 it is sometimes spherical1 sometimes like a long cylinder1 at other times of an oval figure1 white and gelatinous2 the tail is filiform and flexible1 the upper part vibrating vehemently2 no visible viscera2 a pellucid globule may be observed at the base1 and two very small black points placed near the top at d1 ,fig4 #cb2 whether they be eyes to the animalculum is not known4 ,it was found in salt water4 a1 ,fig4 #ca1 the body2 b1 the tail4 #abg4 ,,cercaria ,,lemna4 ,c4 mutabilis1 subdepressa1 cauda annulata4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd1 and #ce4 ,mutable cercaria1 somewhat flattened1 with an annulated tail4 ,this animalculum varies its form so much1 that it might be mistaken for the proteus of ,baker1 though1 in fact1 it is totally different4 ,the body sometimes appears of an oblong1 sometimes of a triangular1 and sometimes of a kidney shape4 ,the tail is generally short1 thick1 and annulated1 but sometimes long1 flexible1 cylindric1 and without rings2 vibrating1 when stretched out1 with so much velocity1 that it appears as it were double4 ,the intestines are not very distinct2 a small pellucid globule1 which ,mller supposes to be its mouth1 is observable at the apex2 and two black points not easily discovered1 he thinks are its eyes2 sometimes it draws the tail entirely into the body4 ,it walks slowly after taking three or four steps1 and extends the tail1 erecting it perpendicularly1 shaking and bending it2 in which state it very much resembles a leaf of the lemna4 ,fig4 #cc1 a1 the body rather spherical2 b1 the tail4 ,fig4 #cd1 c1 the triangular body2 b1 the tail4 ,fig4 #ce1 the body extended2 e e1 the eyes2 f f1 the intestines2 g1 a large vesicle2 h1 a smaller one4 #abh4 ,,cercaria ,,turbo4 ,c4 globulosa1 medio coarctata1 cauda uniseta4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,globular cercaria1 the middle contracted1 with a tail like a bristle4 ,partly of an oval1 and partly of a spherical shape1 pellucid1 and of a talky appearance4 ,it seems to be composed of two globular bodies1 the lowermost of which is the smallest2 this figure is occasioned by the contraction at the middle4 ,there are two black points1 like eyes1 even with a transverse line which crosses the upper part of this little creature2 several large globules may also be discerned2 the tail is sometimes quite straight1 sometimes turned back on the body4 ,it is to be found among duck-weed4 #abi4 ,,cercaria ,,poduria4 ,c4 cylindracea1 postice acuminata subfissa4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #cf and #cg4 ,cylindric cercaria1 the hind-part sharp and somewhat cloven4 ,it resembles the young ones of the podura#abf which live among the lemn1 is pellucid1 and appears to consist of a head1 trunk1 and tail2 the head resembles that of a herring2 the trunk is cylindric1 replete with black spiral intestines1 and appears more or less extended1 at the will of the animal2 nothing is to be discovered in the hinder-part4 ,the tail most commonly appears to be divided into two bristles4 ,the intestines are in a continual motion when the body moves1 and by reason of their various shades give it a very rough appearance2 some lateral hairs or cilia are likewise to be perceived4 ,when it moves1 it revolves at the same time as upon an axis4 ,it is to be found in ,november and ,december1 in marshy places that are covered with the lemna4 ,fig4 #cf1 a1 the head2 b1 the trunk2 c1 the tail2 d1 with one point2 it is seen at e1 ,fig4 #cg1 with two points2 f1 the hairs on the side4 #abf ,a genus of insects of the order of aptera4 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #ajac4 #acj4 ,,cercaria ,,viridis4 ,c4 cylindracea mutabilis1 postice accuminata fissa4 ,cylindrical cercaria1 mutable1 the lower end sharp1 and divided into two parts4 ,this animalculum in some of its states considerably resembles the last1 but has a much greater power of changing its shape4 ,it is naturally cylindrical1 the lower end sharp1 and divided into two parts2 but it sometimes contracts the head and tail so as to assume a spherical figure1 at other times it projects outwards4 ,it is found in the spring1 in ditches of standing water4 #aca4 ,,cercaria ,,setifera4 ,c4 cylindracea1 antice angustior1 postice acuminata4 ,cylindric cercaria1 the fore-part smallest1 the hind-part pointed4 ,this is a small cercaria1 the body rather opake1 and of a round figure4 ,the upper part is bright1 and smaller than the rest2 the trunk is more opake2 the tail sharp1 and near it a little row of short hairs4 ,it has a slow rotatory motion4 ,it is found in salt water1 though but seldom4 #acb4 ,,cercaria ,,hirta4 ,c4 cylindrica1 antice subtruncata1 postice obtusa1 bimucronata4 ,cylindrical cercaria1 the fore-part somewhat truncated1 the lower part obtuse1 finishing with two small points4 ,a cylindrical opake animalculum1 with two small points at the lower end1 moveable1 yet rigid1 and placed at some distance2 when in motion1 the body appears to be surrounded with rows of small hairs separated a little from each other4 ,it was observed in salt water4 #acc4 ,,cercaria ,,crumena4 ,c4 cylindraceo-ventricosa1 antice oblique truncata1 cauda lineari bicuspidata4 ,cylindrical1 ventricose cercaria1 the fore-part obliquely truncated1 the tail linear1 terminating with two diverging points4 ,the body is ventricose1 cylindrical1 thick1 and wrinkled2 the lower part small1 the upper part terminates in a small1 straight neck1 like that of a pitcher2 the tail terminates in two diverging points4 #acd4 ,,cercaria ,,catellus4 ,c4 tripartita1 cauda bisecta4 ,three-parted cercaria1 the tail divided into two parts4 ,this animalculum is more complex in its form than many others2 it has a moveable head1 which is affixed to the body only by a point2 an abdomen1 which is not so wide1 but twice as long as the head1 replete with intestines2 and a tail which is shorter than the head1 narrower than the belly1 and terminating in two bristles1 which it can unite and separate at pleasure4 ,it moves with vivacity1 though without going far from its own place4 #ace4 ,,cercaria ,,catelina4 ,c4 tripartita1 cauda bicuspidata4 ,cercaria distinguished into three parts1 with a short forked tail4 ,it differs from the preceding in several respects1 being larger1 the body thicker1 and more cylindrical2 the lower part truncated1 with two short diverging points projecting from the middle4 ,it was found in a ditch containing plenty of duck-weed4 #acf4 ,,cercaria ,,lupus4 ,c4 cylindrica1 elongata1 torosa cauda spinis duabus4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,cylindric cercaria1 long1 the tail furnished with two spines4 ,this animalculum is larger than most of the cercarias1 and in some particulars resembles the vorticella4 ,it is full of muscles1 capable of being contracted or extended2 cylindric1 composed of a head1 a trunk1 and a tail2 the head is larger than the body1 the apex turned down into a little hook2 the tail is like the body1 but narrower1 terminating in two very bright spines1 which it extends in different directions2 sometimes it contracts itself into one half its common size2 and again extends itself as before4 ,it was found in water among duck-weed4 a the head1 b the trunk1 c the tail1 d d the spines thereof4 #acg4 ,,cercaria ,,vermicularis4 ,c4 cylindrica annulata1 proboscide exsertili1 cauda spina duplici4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,cylindrical1 annulated1 with a projecting proboscis1 two small spines for the tail4 ,it is a long1 cylindrical1 fleshy1 mutable animalculum1 divided into eight or nine rings1 or folding plaits2 the apex either obtuse or notched into two points2 the hind-part rather acute1 and terminating in two pellucid thorns1 between which a swelling is sometimes perceived4 ,it often projects a kind of cloven proboscis4 ,it is found in water where duck-weed grows4 d d the points of the fore-part1 e the proboscis4 #ach4 ,,cercaria ,,forcipata4 ,c4 cylindrica1 rugosa1 proboscide forcipata exsertili1 cauda bicuspidata4 ,cylindrical cercaria1 wrinkled1 with a forked proboscis1 which it can extend1 or retract4 ,it is found in marshy situations4 #aci4 ,,cercaria ,,pleuronectes4 ,c4 orbicularis1 cauda uniseta4 ,orbicular1 the tail consisting of one bristle4 ,it is membranaceous1 rather round1 and white4 ,in the fore-part are two blackish points2 the hind-part is furnished with a slender sharp tail2 it has orbicular intestines of different sizes in the middle2 the largest of them are bright4 ,its motion is staggering or wavering2 in swimming it keeps one edge of the lateral membrane upwards2 the other folded down4 ,it is found in water which has been kept for several months4 #adj4 ,,cercaria ,,tripos4 ,c4 subtriangularis1 brachiis deflexis1 cauda recta4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,cercaria somewhat of a triangular form1 two bent arms1 and a straight tail4 ,the body is flat1 pellucid1 and triangular1 having each angle of the base or fore-part bent down into two linear arms2 the apex of the triangle is prolonged into a tail4 ,it was found in salt water2 b1 the tail2 a a1 the bent arms4 #ada4 ,,cercaria ,,cyclidium4 ,c4 ovalis1 postice subemarginata1 cauda extersili4 ,this is oval1 the hind-part somewhat notched1 with a tail that it thrusts out at pleasure4 ,it has an oval1 smooth1 membranaceous1 and pellucid body1 with a black margin4 ,the tail is not fixed to the edge1 but concealed under it1 and comes out from it at every motion1 but in such a manner1 as to project but little from the edge4 ,there is also a kind of border to the hinder-part4 ,its intestines are very pellucid vesicles4 ,it is frequently found in pure water4 #adb4 ,,cercaria ,,tenax4 ,c4 membranacea1 antice crassiuscula1 truncata1 cauda triplo breviore4 ,membranaceous1 the fore-part rather thick1 truncated1 the tail three times shorter4 ,it is an oval1 pellucid membrane1 something larger than the monas lens4 ,the fore-edge is thick and truncated1 the hinder-part acute1 and terminating in a short tail4 ,it whirls about in various directions with great velocity4 #adc4 ,,cercaria ,,discus4 ,c4 orbicularis1 cauda curvata4 ,a small orbicular animalculum1 with a bent tail4 #add4 ,,cercaria ,,orbis4 ,c4 orbicularis1 seta caudali duplici longissima4 ,orbicular cercaria1 with a tail consisting of two very long bristles4 #ade4 ,,cercaria ,,luna4 ,c4 orbicularis1 cauda lineari duplici brevi4 ,this is likewise orbicular1 with two short spines for a tail2 the fore-part hollowed1 so as to form a kind of crescent4 ,,xii4 ,,leucophra4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 pellucidus1 undique ciliatus4 ,an invisible worm1 pellucid1 and everywhere ciliated4 #adf4 ,,leucophra ,,conflictor4 ,l4 sphrica1 subopaca1 interaneis mobilibus4 ,spherical opake leucophra1 with moveable intestines4 ,this animalculum1 or rather a heap of animalcula1 is larger than most species of the vorticella2 it is perfectly spherical1 and semi-transparent1 of a yellow colour1 the edges dark4 ,it rolls at intervals from right to left1 but seldom removes from the spot where it is first found4 ,it is filled with a number of the most minute molecules1 which move as if they were in a violent conflict4 ,in proportion to the number of these little combatants1 which are accumulated either on one side or the other1 the whole mass rolls either to the right or left1 the molecules going in the same direction2 it is then tranquil for a short time1 but the conflict soon becomes more violent1 and the sphere moves the contrary way in a spiral line4 ,when the water begins to fail1 they assume an oblong1 oval1 or cylindric figure2 the hind-part of some being compressed into a triangular shape1 and the transparent part escaping as it were from the intestines1 which continue to move with the same violence till the water wholly fails1 when the molecules are spread into a shapeless mass1 which also soon vanishes1 and the whole shoot into a form1 having the appearance of crystals of sal ammoniac1 as figured by ,baker4 ,empl4 for the ,micros4 ,plate ,,iii4 ,no4 #c4 #adg4 ,,leucophra ,,mamilla4 ,l4 sphrica1 opaca1 papilla exsertili4 ,sphrical opake leucophra1 with a small papillary projection4 ,it is of a dark colour1 and filled with globular molecules1 the short hairs are curved inwards2 and it occasionally projects and retracts a little white protuberance4 ,it is not uncommon in marshy water4 #adh4 ,,leucophra ,,virescens4 ,l4 cylindracea1 opaca1 postice crassiore4 ,cylindrical1 opake1 leucophra1 the lower part much thicker than the upper part4 ,this is a large1 pear-shaped1 greenish coloured animalculum1 filled with opake molecules1 and covered with short hairs2 generally moving in a straight line4 ,it is found in salt water4 #adi4 ,,leucophra ,,viridis4 ,l4 ovalis opaca4 ,oval1 opake leucophra4 ,though at first sight it may be taken for a variety of the leucophra virescens2 yet1 on a further examination1 it differs in many particulars2 it cannot lengthen and shorten itself as that does4 ,it is also much smaller4 ,sometimes it appears contracted in the middle1 as if it were about to be divided in two4 #aej4 ,,leucophra ,,bursata4 ,l4 viridis1 ovalis1 antice truncata4 ,green oval leucophra1 the fore-part truncated4 ,this is similar in many respects to the foregoing leucophra2 it is of a long oval shape1 bulging in the middle1 and filled with green molecules2 every where ciliated1 except at the apex1 which is truncated1 and shaped somewhat like a purse2 the hairs larger1 and sometimes collected in minute fasciculi4 ,it is to be found in salt water4 #aea4 ,,leucophra ,,posthuma4 ,l4 globularis1 opaca1 reticulo pellucenti4 ,this is globular and opake1 covered as it were with a pellucid net4 ,it was found in fetid salt water4 #aeb4 ,,leucophra ,,aurea4 ,l4 ovalis1 fulva1 utraque extremitate quali obtusus4 ,oval yellow leucophra1 both ends of it equally obtuse4 ,the little hairs are discovered with difficulty2 it has1 in general1 a vehement rotatory motion4 #aec4 ,,leucophra ,,pertusa4 ,l4 ovalis1 gelatinosa1 apice truncato obtusa altera latera suffossa4 ,oval gelatinous leucophra1 the apex obtusely truncated1 one side sunk down4 ,gelatinous1 yellow1 and small1 without any molecules2 the forepart is truncated1 the hind-part brought nearly to a point1 with a kind of oval hole on one side4 ,it was found in salt water4 #aed4 ,,leucophra ,,fracta4 ,l4 elongata1 sinuato angulata subdepressa4 ,leucophra long1 with sinuated angles1 rather flat4 ,the body is white1 gelatinous1 and granulated2 it changes its form considerably4 #aee4 ,,leucophra ,,dilatata4 ,l4 complanata1 mutabilis1 marginibus sinuatis4 ,smooth changeable leucophra1 with a sinuated edge4 ,a gelatinous membrane1 with a few grey molecules in the forepart1 and a great number in the hinder-part2 it is sometimes dilated into a triangular form1 with sinuated sides2 at other times the shape is more irregular and oblong4 #aef4 ,,leucophra ,,scintillans4 ,l4 ovalis1 teres1 opaca1 viridis4 ,oval1 round1 opake1 green leucophra4 ,this animalculum is supposed to be ciliated1 from its bright twinkling appearance1 which probably arises from the motion it gives the water2 it is nearly of an egg-shape4 ,it was found in ,december among the lemna minor4 #aeg4 ,,leucophra ,,vesiculifera4 ,l4 ovata1 interaneis vesicularibus4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #da4 ,oval leucophra1 with vesicular intestines4 ,an animalculum that is a kind of mean between the orbicular and oval1 very pellucid1 with a defined dark edge and inside1 containing some very bright vesicles1 or bladders4 ,the middle frequently appears blue1 and the vesicles seem as if set in a ground of that colour4 ,mller could never perceive any of those rays which are mentioned by ,spallanzani2 he confesses1 however1 that he once saw an individual like this environed with very small unequal shining rays4 #aeh4 ,,leucophra ,,globulifera4 ,l4 crystallina1 ovato-oblonga4 ,crystalline leucophra1 of an oblong oval shape4 ,the body is round1 very pellucid1 without molecular intestines1 though at one edge it has three little pellucid globules2 it is everywhere set with short hairs4 ,it was found in a ditch where the lemna minor grew4 #aei4 ,,leucophra ,,pustulata4 ,l4 ovato oblonga1 postice oblique truncata4 ,an oblong oval leucophra1 the lower end obliquely truncated4 ,the body is white1 gelatinous1 and somewhat granulated2 the lower part truncated1 as if an oblique section were made in an egg near the bottom4 ,it is covered with little erect shining hairs2 at the lower extremities a few bright pustules may be discovered4 ,it is found in marshy waters4 #afj4 ,,leucophra ,,turbinata4 ,l4 inverse conica1 subopaca4 ,leucophra in shape like an inverted cone1 and rather opake4 ,it is a round pellucid body1 somewhat of the shape of an acorn1 with a pellucid globule at the lower end4 ,it was found in fetid salt water4 #afa4 ,,leucophra ,,acuta4 ,l4 ovata1 teres1 apice acuto1 mutabilis1 flaviscans4 ,oval leucophra1 round1 with the apex acute1 mutable1 yellow4 ,this is gelatinous1 thick1 and capable of assuming different shapes2 the apex bright1 and the rest of the body filled with innumerable little spherules2 sometimes it draws itself up into an orbicular shape1 at other times one edge is sinuated4 ,it was found in salt water4 #afb4 ,,leucophra ,,notata4 ,l4 ovata1 teres1 puncto marginali atro4 ,oval leucophra1 round1 with a black point at the edge4 #afc4 ,,leucophra ,,candida4 ,l4 hyalina1 oblonga1 altera extremitate attenuata1 curvata4 ,leucophra of a talky appearance1 oblong1 one end smaller than the other1 and bent back4 ,the body membranaceous1 flat1 very white1 with no visible intestines1 except two oval bodies which are with difficulty perceptible2 the whole edge is ciliated4 ,found in an infusion with salt water4 #afd4 ,,leucophra ,,nodulata4 ,l4 ovato-oblonga1 depressa1 serie nodulorum duplici4 ,an oblong oval species of leucophra1 with a double row of little nodules4 #afe4 ,,leucophra ,,signata4 ,l4 oblonga1 subdepressa4 ,oblong1 subdepressed leucophra1 with a black margin1 filled with little molecular globules1 but more particularly distinguished by a curved line in the middle1 something in the shape of a long ,s2 one end of which is at times bent into the form of a small spiral4 ,it is common in salt water1 in the months of ,november and ,december4 #aff4 ,,leucophra ,,trigona4 ,l4 crassa1 obtusa1 angulata1 flava4 ,thick1 obtuse1 angular1 and yellow leucophra4 ,a yellow1 triangular mass1 filled with unequal pellucid vesicles1 one of which is much larger than the rest1 and the edge surrounded with short fluctuating hairs4 ,it was found in a marshy situation1 but is not common4 #afg4 ,,leucophra ,,fluida4 ,l4 subreniformis1 ventricosa4 ,leucophra somewhat of a kidney shape1 but ventricose4 #afh4 ,,leucophra ,,fluxa4 ,l4 sinuata reniformis4 ,reniform1 sinuated leucophra4 #afi4 ,,leucophra ,,armilla4 ,l4 teres annularis4 ,round annular leucophra4 #agj4 ,,leucophra ,,cornuta4 ,l4 inverse conica1 viridis opaca4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #db and #dc4 ,an inverted cone1 green1 opake4 ,it bears some resemblance to the vorticella polymorpha1 ,no4 #bij1 and the vorticella viridis1 ,no4 #bhc1 and requires to be observed for some time before its peculiar characters can be ascertained2 the body is composed of molecular vesicles1 of a dark green colour2 for the most part it is like an inverted cone1 the fore-part being wide and truncated1 with a little prominent horn or hook on both sides2 the hind-part conical1 everywhere ciliated1 the hairs exceedingly minute2 those in the fore-part are three times longer than the latter1 and move in a circular direction4 ,the hinder-part is pellucid1 and sometimes terminates in two or three obtuse pellucid projections4 ,the animalculum will at one moment appear oval1 at another reniform1 and ciliated at the fore-part2 but at another time the hairs are concealed4 ,when the water evaporates1 it breaks or dissolves into molecular vesicles4 ,it is found late in the year in marshy grounds4 ,fig4 #db1 a1 the hinder-part pointed2 g1 the cilia2 h h1 the sides4 ,fig4 #dc1 b1 the hinder-part obtuse2 e1 the fore-part2 f1 the horns4 #aga4 ,,leucophra ,,heteroclita4 ,l4 cylindrica1 antice obtusa1 postice organo cristato duplici exsertili4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #dd and #de4 ,cylindrical leucophra1 the fore-part obtuse1 the hind-part furnished with a double-tufted organ1 which it can thrust in or out at pleasure4 ,to the naked eye it appears like a white point2 in the microscope1 as a cylindrical body1 the fore-part obtusely round1 the middle rather drawn in1 the lower-part round1 but much smaller than the upper-part4 ,with a large magnifying power the whole body is found to be ciliated4 ,the intestines are very visible4 ,it is represented in ,fig4 #dd as it generally appears2 a1 the fore-part2 b1 the hind-part2 d1 the hooked intestines2 in ,fig4 #de1 with the plumed organs2 i i1 the plumes2 g g1 the sheaths from which they are projected4 ,,xiii4 ,,trichoda4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 pellucidus1 crinitus4 ,an invisible1 pellucid1 hairy worm4 #agb4 ,,trichoda ,,grandinella4 ,t4 sphrica1 pellucida1 superne crinata4 ,spherical1 pellucid1 the upper-part hairy4 ,a most minute pellucid globule1 the intestines scarce visible1 the top of its surface furnished with several short bristles1 which are not easily distinguished1 as the animalculum has a power of extending and withdrawing them in an instant4 ,it is found in pure water1 and in infusions of vegetables4 #agc4 ,,trichoda ,,cometa4 ,t4 sphrica1 antice crinita1 globulo appendente4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #df and #dg4 ,spherical1 the fore-part hairy1 with an appendant globule4 ,it is a pellucid globule1 replete with bright intestines1 the fore-part furnished with hairs1 the hind-part with a pellucid appendant globule4 #agd4 ,,trichoda ,,granata4 ,t4 sphrica1 centro opaco peripheria crinita4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,spherical1 with an opake center1 the periphery hairy4 ,it resembles the trichoda grandinella and trichoda cometa just described4 ,it has a darkish nucleus in the center2 its intestines are imperceptible2 short hairs on the edge4 #age4 ,,trichoda ,,trochus4 ,t4 subpiriformis1 pellucida1 antice utrinque crinita4 ,trichoda somewhat of a pear-shape1 pellucid1 each side of the fore-part distinguished by a little bunch of hairs4 #agf4 ,,trichoda ,,gyrinus4 ,t4 ovalis1 teres1 crystallina1 antice crinita4 ,oval1 round1 crystalline trichoda1 the front hairy4 ,it is one of the smallest among the trichoda1 the body smooth and free from hairs1 except at the fore-part1 where there are a few4 ,it is found in salt water4 #agg4 ,,trichoda ,,sol4 ,t4 globularis1 undique radiata4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #fe and #ff4 ,globular trichoda1 everywhere radiated4 ,this splendid creature constitutes a new genus1 but as we know of no more of the same kind1 it is introduced here4 ,it is a little crystalline round corpuscle1 the upper part convex2 it is beset with innumerable diverging rays1 which are longer than the diameter of the body1 proceeding from every part of its surface3 the inside is full of molecules4 ,the body contracts and dilates1 but the animalculum remains confined to the same spot4 ,it was found with other animalcula in water which had been kept for three weeks4 ,it propagates by division1 and is represented as dividing in ,fig4 #ff4 #agh4 ,,trichoda ,,solaris4 ,t4 sphroidea1 peripheria crinita4 ,spheroidal trichoda1 with a few hairs round the circumference4 ,the body is orbicular1 bright1 and filled with globular intestines2 in many1 a moveable substance1 something like the letter ,s1 may be discovered2 it has hairs1 seldom exceeding seventeen in number1 which are disposed round the circumference1 each of them nearly equal in length to the diameter of the animalculum4 #agi4 ,,trichoda ,,bomba4 ,t4 mutabilis1 antice pilis sparsis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #fg and #fh4 ,changeable1 with a few hairs dispersed on the fore-part4 ,it is a thick animalculum1 larger than the trichoda granata1 ,no4 #agd1 and of a yellow colour2 pellucid1 and replete with clay-like molecules2 it is very lively1 moving about with so much velocity1 as to elude the sharpest sight and most pertinacious observer1 and assuming various shapes1 sometimes appearing spherical1 sometimes reniform1 or kidney-shaped1 sometimes as at ,fig4 #fg4 #ahj4 ,,trichoda ,,orbis4 ,t4 orbicularis1 antice emarginata crinita4 ,orbicular1 the fore-part notched and hairy4 ,it in some1 respects resembles the former1 but is larger4 ,it is composed of vesicular molecules2 is of a spherical figure1 smooth1 pellucid1 and a little notched in the fore-part4 ,the notched part is filled with long hairs1 but there are none on the rest of the body4 #aha4 ,,trichoda ,,urnula4 ,t4 urceolaris1 antice crinita4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,this trichoda is in the form of a water pitcher1 the fore-part hairy4 ,a membranaceous pellucid animalculum1 the hind-part obtuse1 the middle something broader1 the fore-part truncated1 filled with vesicular black molecules2 the hairs in the fore-part are even and short4 ,its motion is slow4 #ahb4 ,,trichoda ,,diota4 ,t4 urceolaris1 antice angustata1 ora apicis utrinque crinita4 ,pitcher-shaped trichoda1 the fore-part smallest2 the upper part of the mouth hairy at the edges4 ,the body is of a clay-colour1 and filled with molecules2 the upper-part cylindrical and truncated1 the lower part spherical4 #ahc4 ,,trichoda ,,horrida4 ,t4 subconica antice latiuscula1 truncata postice obtusa1 setis radiantibus cincta4 ,trichoda somewhat of a conical form1 the fore-part rather broad and truncated1 the lower-part obtuse1 and the whole covered with radiating bristles4 #ahd4 ,,trichoda ,,urinarium4 ,t4 ovata1 rostro brevissimo crinito4 ,egg-shaped1 with a short hairy beak4 #ahe4 ,,trichoda ,,semiluna4 ,t4 ,semiorbicularis1 antice subtus crinita4 ,semiorbicular1 the fore-part hairy underneath4 ,a smooth pellucid animalculum1 and shaped like a crescent4 #ahf4 ,,trichoda ,,trigona4 ,t4 convexa1 antice ciliata1 postice erosa4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #fc4 ,convex1 the fore-part ciliated1 the hind-part as it were gnawed off4 ,this is a triangular animalculum1 a little convex on both sides1 the fore-part acute1 the hind-part a little broader4 ,a notch is seen at a1 in the hind-part2 b1 the ciliated fore-part2 c1 a tube4 #ahg4 ,,trichoda ,,tinea4 ,t4 clavata1 antice crinita1 postice grossa4 ,this is clubbed1 the fore-part hairy1 the hind-part large4 ,this animalculum is round1 not very pellucid1 narrow in the fore-part1 and resembling an inverted club2 it is also like some of the tinea4 #ahh4 ,,trichoda ,,nigra4 ,t4 ovalis compressa1 antice latior crinita4 ,oval1 compressed trichoda1 the fore-part broader and hairy4 ,the body is opake1 when in violent motion it is black1 when at rest one side is pellucid2 the middle of the fore-part is furnished with little moveable hairs4 ,it was found in salt water4 #ahi4 ,,trichoda ,,pubes4 ,t4 ovato-oblonga gibba1 antice depressa4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #fa and #fb4 ,an egg-shaped oblong bunch1 the fore-part depressed4 ,an animalculum with a bunch above the hind-part1 marked with black spots1 depressed towards the top1 a little folded1 and somewhat convex underneath2 at least this is its appearance when in motion4 ,very minute hairs occupy the apex1 but they are seldom visible till the creature is in the agonies of death1 when it extends and moves them vehemently from an arched chink at top1 apparently endeavouring to draw in the last drop of water4 ,it is found in water where the duck-weed grows1 chiefly in ,december4 b1 the hairs2 c1 the black globules2 a1 the projecting bunch4 #aij4 ,,trichoda ,,floccus4 ,t4 membranacea1 antice subconica1 papillis tribus crinitis4 ,membranaceous trichoda1 the fore-part rather conical2 three small papill project from the base1 which are set with hairs4 #aia4 ,,trichoda ,,sinuata4 ,t4 oblonga depressa1 altero margine sinuato crinita1 postice obtusa4 ,an oblong depressed trichoda1 one margin hollow and hairy1 the lower end obtuse4 ,the intestines seem to be more lymphatic than molecular2 it is of a yellow colour1 and the hollow edge ciliated4 ,it was found in river water4 #aib4 ,,trichoda ,,pr,,ceps4 ,t4 membranacea1 sublunata1 medio protuberante1 extorsum crinita4 ,membranaceous trichoda1 somewhat lunated1 protuberant in the middle1 a row of hairs on the outside4 ,a pellucid membrane1 the fore-part formed into a kind of neck1 one edge rising into a protuberance like a hump-back1 the other edge convex4 #aic4 ,,trichoda ,,proteus4 ,t4 ovalis1 postice obtusa1 collo elongata retractile1 apice crinito4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj4 ,oval trichoda1 the lower-part obtuse1 with a long neck1 which it has a power of contracting or extending4 ,baker in his ,employment for the ,microscope1 p4 #bfj-bff1 dignifies this animalculum with the name of proteus1 on account of its assuming a great number of different shapes1 so as scarce to be known for the same animal in its various transformations2 and1 indeed1 unless it be carefully watched while passing from one shape to another1 it will often become suddenly invisible4 ,when water1 wherein any kinds of vegetables have been infused1 or animals preserved1 has stood quietly for some days or weeks in a glass or other vessel1 a slimy substance will be collected about the sides1 some of which being taken up with the point of a penknife1 placed on a slip of glass in a drop of water1 and viewed through the microscope1 will1 be found to harbour several kinds of little animals that are seldom seen swimming about at large4 ,the insect we are treating of is one of these1 and was discovered in such slime-like matter taken from the side of a glass jar1 in which small fishes1 water-snails1 and other creatures had been kept4 ,its body in substance and colour resembled that of a snail2 the shape thereof was somewhat elliptical1 but pointed at one end1 whilst from the other proceeded a long1 slender1 and finely proportioned neck1 terminated with a head1 of a size perfectly suitable to the other parts of the animal4 #aid4 ,,trichoda ,,versatilis4 ,t4 oblonga1 postice acuminata1 collo retractili1 infra apicem crinito4 ,oblong trichoda1 the hind-part acute1 with a neck that it can extend or contract at pleasure1 the under-part of the extremity of the neck hairy4 ,it resembles in some measure the trichoda proteus just described1 but the neck is shorter1 the apex less spherical1 and the hinder part of the trunk acute4 ,it lives in the sea4 #aie4 ,,trichoda ,,gibba4 ,t4 oblonga1 dorso gibbera1 ventre excavata1 antice ciliata1 extremitatibus obtusis4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ee4 ,oblong trichoda1 with a bunch on the back1 the belly hollowed out1 the fore-part ciliated1 both ends obtuse4 ,the body is pellucid1 the upper part swelled out1 within it are numerous obscure molecules1 and three large globules1 the ends rather incline downwards2 when the water begins to fail1 a few minute hairs may be discovered about the head and at the abdomen2 the body then becomes striated longitudinally4 #aif4 ,,trichoda ,,foeta4 ,t4 oblonga1 dorso protuberante1 antice ciliata1 extremitatibus obtusis4 ,oblong trichoda1 with the back protuberant1 the fore-part ciliated1 both ends obtuse4 ,the body is round and long1 and when extended somewhat resembles a rolling-pin in shape2 both ends are obtuse1 and one shorter than the other2 it can draw in the ends and swell out the sides1 so as to appear almost spherical4 #aig4 ,,trichoda ,,patens4 ,t4 elongata1 teres1 antice foveata1 fov marginibus ciliata4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,this trichoda is long1 round1 in the fore-part it has a long hole1 the edges of which are ciliated4 ,it is a long cylindrical animalculum1 filled with molecules2 the fore-part bright and clear1 with a long opening1 a1 near the top1 which tapers to a point1 and is beset with hairs4 ,it is found of different lengths in salt water4 #aih4 ,,trichoda ,,patula4 ,t4 ventricosa1 subovata1 antice canaliculata1 apice et caniculo crinito4 ,big-bellied1 rather inclining towards an oval figure1 with a small tube at the fore-part1 the upper-end of which is covered with hairs4 #aii4 ,,trichoda ,,foveata4 ,t4 oblonga1 latiuscula1 antice corniculis micantibus1 postice mutica4 ,oblong trichoda1 rather broad1 three little horns on the fore-part1 the hinder-part beardless4 #bjj4 ,,trichoda ,,striata4 ,t4 oblonga1 altero margine cursum1 sinuata et ciliata1 utraque extremitate obtusa4 ,oblong trichoda1 one edge rather curved1 and also furnished with a row of hairs2 both extremities obtuse4 ,it is a splendid animalculum1 of a fox colour1 and at first sight might be taken for a kolpoda4 ,the body is oblong1 the lower end somewhat larger than the other1 the body becoming smaller at that part where the hairs commence2 it has a set of streaks which run from one end to the other1 and at the abdomen a double row of little eggs1 lying in a transverse direction4 ,it was found in river water in ,december4 #bja4 ,,trichoda ,,uvula4 ,t4 planiuscula elongata1 qualis1 antice crinita4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,rather flat and long1 of an equal size throughout1 the fore-part hairy4 ,this animalculum is six times longer than broad1 round1 flexuous1 and of an equal size2 the greater part filled with obscure molecules2 the fore-part1 a1 rather empty1 distinguished by an alimentary canal1 and lucid globules near the middle1 c2 short hairs occupy the margin of the fore-part1 some are dispersed into a chink near the canal4 ,it is found in an infusion of hay and other vegetables4 #bjb4 ,,trichoda ,,aurantia4 ,t4 subsinuata1 ovata1 antice patula1 apice ad medium crinita4 ,trichoda somewhat sinuated1 oval1 the fore-part broad1 the apex hairy to the middle4 ,it is of a gold colour1 pellucid1 and filled with a variety of vesicles4 #bjc4 ,,trichoda ,,ignita4 ,t4 ovata1 apice acuminata1 subtus fulcata1 fulco crinito4 ,oval trichoda1 the apex rather acute1 the under-part furrowed1 the furrows hairy4 ,it is of a fine purple gold colour1 somewhat of a reddish cast1 pellucid1 splendid1 with a number of globules of different sizes2 the fore-part small1 the hind-part obtuse1 and having a very large opening1 which appears to run through the body4 #bjd4 ,,trichoda ,,prisma4 ,t4 ovata1 subtus convexa1 supra in carinam compressa1 antice angustior4 ,oval trichoda1 the under part convex1 the upper part compressed into a kind of keel1 the fore-part small4 ,it is very small1 and so transparent that it cannot easily be delineated2 its form is singular1 and no hairs can be observed4 #bje4 ,,trichoda ,,forceps4 ,t4 ovalis1 antice forcipata1 cruribus inqualibus crinitis4 ,oval trichoda1 with a pair of forceps at the fore-part1 with unequal hairy legs4 ,a large animalculum1 somewhat depressed1 of a pellucid yellow colour1 and filled with molecules2 in the lower part there is a black opake globule1 the fore-part is divided into long lobes1 one of which is falciform and acute1 the other dilated1 and obliquely truncated2 both the apex and the edge of these are furnished with hairs of different lengths2 it can open1 shut1 or cross these lobes at pleasure2 by this motion of them it appears to suck in the water4 ,it was found about the winter solstice in water1 covered with lemn4 #bjf4 ,,trichoda ,,forfex4 ,t4 ventrosa1 antice forcipata1 postice papilla duplici instructa4 ,round and prominent trichoda1 the fore-part formed into a kind of forceps1 and two small protuberances4 ,one of the forceps of this animalculum is twice as long as the other1 hooked1 and ciliated4 ,it was found in river water4 #bjg4 ,,trichoda ,,index4 ,t4 obovata1 margine antico subtus crinito1 alteroque apicis in degitum producto4 ,obovated trichoda1 the under part of the front of the margin hairy1 the apex is formed by the fore-part1 projecting like the finger on a direction-post4 ,it was found in salt water4 #bjh4 ,,trichoda ,s4 ,t4 striata1 antice ciliata1 extremitatibus in oppositum flexis4 ,striated trichoda1 the fore part ciliated1 the extremities bent in opposite directions4 ,a yellow animalculum1 formed of two pellucid membranes1 striated longitudinally2 the lower end is obliquely truncated4 #bji4 ,,trichoda ,,navicula4 ,t4 triquetra1 antice truncata ciliata1 postice acuta prominula4 ,three-cornered trichoda1 the fore-part truncated and ciliated1 the hind-part acute1 and bent a little upwards4 ,it has a crystalline appearance1 rather broad1 the under side towards the hinder-part convex1 the fore-part broad1 the apex nearly a straight line1 the bent end pointed and turned upwards2 and a kind of longitudinal keel running down the middle4 #baj4 ,,trichoda ,,succisa4 ,t4 ovalis depressa1 margine crinito1 postice in crura inqualia erosa4 ,flattened oval trichoda1 the edge hairy1 the hinder part hollowed out so as to form two unequal legs4 #baa4 ,,trichoda ,,sulcata4 ,t4 ovato-ventricosa1 apice acuminata1 fulco ventrali1 utrinque crinito4 ,ovated ventricose trichoda1 the apex acute1 with a furrow at the abdomen1 and both sides of it ciliated4 #bab4 ,,trichoda ,,anas4 ,t4 elongata1 apice colli subtus crinito4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #di4 ,long1 the apex of the neck underneath hairy4 ,a smooth animalculum1 five times broader than it is long1 filled with darkish molecules2 it has a bright neck1 b c2 under the top of the neck at d a few unequal hairs are perceptible4 ,its motions are languid4 ,it is found in pure water4 #bac4 ,,trichoda ,,barbata4 ,t4 elongata1 teres1 subtus ab apice ad medium crinita4 ,long trichoda1 round1 the under part from the apex to the middle hairy4 ,this animalculum is round1 somewhat linear1 with both ends obtuse2 the fore-part narrower1 forming as it were a kind of neck1 under which is a row of fluctuating hairs4 ,the trunk is full of grey molecules4 #bad4 ,,trichoda ,,farcimen4 ,t4 elongata1 torulosa1 setulis cincta4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ej and #eb4 ,long and thick trichoda1 surrounded with small bristles4 ,the body is long1 round1 pellucid1 and covered with very minute hairs2 it has also a great number of mucid vesicles about the body4 #bae4 ,,trichoda ,,crinita4 ,t4 elongata1 teres1 undique ciliata1 subtus ad medium usque crinita4 ,long trichoda1 round1 everywhere ciliated on the upper part1 and the under part likewise hairy as far as the middle4 #baf4 ,,trichoda ,,angulus4 ,t4 angulata1 apice crinita4 ,angular1 the apex hairy4 ,this animalculum is long1 more convex than most of the genus1 divided by a kind of articulation into two parts equal in breadth1 but of different lengths1 the fore-part being shorter than the hind-part2 the apex furnished with short waving hair1 indistinct molecules withinside1 no hair on the hind-part4 #bag4 ,,trichoda ,,linter4 ,t4 ovato oblonga1 utraque extremitate prominula4 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the shape of an oblong egg1 with prominences at both extremities4 ,both extremities of the body are raised1 so that the bottom becomes convex1 and the upper part depressed like a boat4 ,it varies in shape at different ages1 and sometimes has a rotatory motion4 ,it is found in an infusion of old grass4 #bah4 ,,trichoda ,,paxillus4 ,t4 linearis depressa1 antice truncata crinitaque1 postice obtusa4 ,linear flat trichoda1 the fore-part truncated and hairy1 the hinder-part obtuse4 ,a long animalculum1 full of grey molecules2 the fore-part rather smaller than the hind-part1 and furnished with minute hairs4 ,it was found in salt water4 #bai4 ,,trichoda ,,vermicularis4 ,t4 elongata1 cylindracea1 collo brevi1 apice crinito4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,long cylindrical trichoda1 with a short neck1 the apex hairy4 ,gelatinous1 the fore-part pellucid1 the hind-part full of molecules4 ,it was found in river water4 ,it is represented in different appearances in the figure2 a1 the neck2 b1 the hairs2 c1 a little vesicle in the hinder-part4 #bbj4 ,,trichoda ,,melit,a4 ,t4 oblonga1 ciliata1 colli dilatabilis1 apice globoso1 pilifero4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #c4 ,oblong ciliated trichoda1 with a dilatable neck1 the apex globular1 and surrounded with hairs1 the edge is ciliated1 and a kind of peristaltic motion perceivable in it4 ,it is found1 in salt water1 though but very rarely4 a1 the neck2 b1 the globular apex2 c1 the body ciliated4 #bba4 ,,trichoda ,,fimbriata4 ,t4 obovata1 apice crinita1 postice oblique truncata1 serrata4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #b4 ,obovated trichoda1 the apex hairy1 the hinder-part obliquely truncated and serrated4 #bbb4 ,,trichoda ,,camelus4 ,t4 antice crinita1 crassiuscula medio utrinque emarginata4 ,thick1 and the fore-part hairy1 with notches on the middle and each side4 ,the fore-part of the body is ventricose2 the back divided by an incision in the middle into two tubercles2 the lower part of the belly sinuated2 its motions are languid4 ,it is found1 though not often1 in vegetable infusions4 #bbc4 ,,trichoda ,,augur4 ,t4 oblonga1 vertice truncata1 antico corporis margine1 superne pedata1 inferne setosa4 ,the body is oblong1 depressed1 pellucid1 and filled with molecules2 the vertex truncated1 the fore-part forming a small beak2 underneath are three feet2 beyond these1 towards the hinder-part1 it is furnished with bristles4 #bbd4 ,,trichoda ,,pupa4 ,t4 cucullata1 fronte crinita1 cauda inflexa1 ,this trichoda is hooded1 the front hairy1 the tail inflected4 ,the body is rather round1 pellucid and consists of three parts2 the head1 which is broad1 appears to be hooded1 the top being furnished with very small hairs2 a transparent vesicle occupies the lower region of the head2 and over the breast from the base of the head is suspended a production resembling the sheath of the feet in the pupa of the gnat4 #bbe4 ,,trichoda ,,lunaris4 ,t4 arcuata1 teres1 apice crinita1 cirro1 caudali inflexo4 ,arched trichoda1 round1 the apex hairy1 the tail bent4 ,this animalculum is round and crystalline2 the hind-part somewhat smaller than the fore-part2 the intestines are with difficulty distinguished4 ,the edge of the back and the part near the tail are bright and clear4 ,it bends itself into the form of an arch4 #bbf4 ,,trichoda ,,bilunis4 ,t4 arcuata1 depressa1 apice crinita1 cauda biseta4 ,arched flattened trichoda1 the apex hairy1 and two little bristles proceeding from the tail4 #bbg4 ,,trichoda ,,rattus4 ,t4 oblonga1 carinata1 antice crinita1 postice seta longissima4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #d4 ,oblong trichoda1 with a kind of keel2 the fore-part hairy1 and a very long bristle proceeding from the hinder-part4 a1 the mouth2 b1 a small knob at the bending of the tail2 c1 the tail4 #bbh4 ,,trichoda ,,tigris4 ,t4 subcylindrica1 elongata1 apice crinita1 cauda setis duabus longis4 ,this trichoda is long1 and somewhat cylindrical1 the apex hairy1 the tail divided into two long bristles4 ,it resembles the former1 but differs in the form of the tail1 which consists of two bristles1 and likewise in having a kind of incision in the body1 at some little distance from the apex4 #bbi4 ,,trichoda ,,pocillum4 ,t4 oblonga1 antice truncata1 crinita1 cauda articulata1 biseta4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #e and #f4 ,oblong trichoda1 the fore-part truncated and hairy1 the tail articulated1 and divided into two bristles4 ,the body is cylindrical1 pellucid1 muscular1 and capable of being folded up2 it appears double2 the interior part is full of molecules1 with an orbicular muscular appendage which it can open and shut1 and this forms the mouth4 ,the external part is membranaceous1 pellucid1 dilated1 and marked with transverse streaks2 the animalculum can protrude or withdraw the orbicular membrane at pleasure4 ,some have four articulations in the tail1 others five2 and it has two pair of bristles1 or projecting parts1 one placed at the second joint1 the other at the last4 ,it has been frequently found in marshes4 ,in ,fig4 #f it is seen with the mouth open2 in ,fig4 #e1 with it shut1 a a1 the jaws2 b b1 the first bristles2 c c1 the second pair2 d1 the spine at the tail4 #bcj4 ,,trichoda ,,clavus4 ,t4 antice rotundata1 crinita1 postice acuminato-caudata4 ,the fore-part round and hairy1 the hind-part furnished with a sharp tail4 ,this animalculum has a considerable resemblance to a common nail4 #bca4 ,,trichoda ,,cornuta4 ,t4 supra convexa1 subtus plana1 apice crinita1 cauda lineari simplici4 ,trichoda with the upper part convex1 the under side plain1 the apex hairy1 the tail linear and simple4 ,to these characters we may add1 that the body is membranaceous1 elliptical1 closely filled with molecules2 the fore-part lunated1 the hinder-part round1 and terminating in a tail as long as the body4 #bcb4 ,,trichoda ,,gallina4 ,t4 elongata1 antice sinuata1 fronte crinita1 cauda pilosa4 ,long trichoda1 the fore-part sinuated1 the front hairy1 the tail formed of small hairs4 ,it is of a grey colour1 flat1 with seven large molecules and globules within it1 the front obtuse1 and set with hairs2 the hinder-part terminating in a tail formed of very fine hairs4 ,it was found in river water4 #bcc4 ,,trichoda ,,musculus4 ,t4 ovalis1 antice crinita1 postice subtus caudata4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #g4 ,egg-shaped1 the fore-part hairy1 the tail projecting from the under part4 ,a smooth egg-shaped animalculum1 with a double margin or line drawn underneath it2 the fore-part narrow1 and furnished with short hairs1 which are continually playing about2 underneath the hind-part is a small tail4 ,it has molecular intestines1 and moves slowly4 ,it is found in infusions of hay which have been kept for some months1 a1 the head2 b1 the tail4 #bcd4 ,,trichoda ,,delphis4 ,t4 clavata1 fronte crinita1 cauda acuminata1 subreflexa4 ,clubbed trichoda1 the front hairy1 the tail small and rather bent upwards4 ,it is smooth and pellucid1 having the fore-part dilated into a semicircle1 gradually decreasing in breadth towards the tail2 the front is hairy1 the hairs standing as rays from the semicircular edge2 one of these edges is sometimes contracted4 ,it is to be found in river water4 #bce4 ,,trichoda ,,delphinus4 ,t4 oblonga1 antice crinita1 postice cauda reflexa truncata4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #h4 ,oblong1 the fore-part hairy2 in the hind-part is the tail1 which is turned back1 the end of it truncated4 ,a pellucid1 smooth1 egg-shaped animalculum2 the hind-part terminating in a tail about half the length of the body1 dilated at the upper end1 truncated1 and always bent upwards4 ,in the inside are vesicles of an unequal size2 it moves sometimes on its belly1 sometimes on its side2 the tail seldom varies its position4 ,it was found in hay which had been infused for some months1 a1 the hairs on the fore-part2 b1 the tail4 #bcf4 ,,trichoda ,,clava4 ,t4 clavata1 fronte crinita1 cauda reflexili4 ,club trichoda1 the fore-part hairy1 the tail turned back4 ,the fore-part is thick1 the hind-part narrow2 both extremities obtuse1 pellucid1 and replete with molecules2 the hind-part bent down towards the middle4 #bcg4 ,,trichoda ,,cuniculus4 ,t4 oblonga1 antice crinita1 postice subacuminata4 ,oblong1 the fore-part hairy1 the hind-part rather acute1 filled with molecules and black vesicles4 #bch4 ,,trichoda ,,felis4 ,t4 curvata1 grossa1 antice angustior1 postice in caudam attenuata1 subtus longitudinaliter crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #i4 ,curved trichoda1 large1 the fore-part small1 the hinder-part gradually diminishing into a tail2 the under part set longitudinally with hairs4 a1 the head2 b1 the tail2 c1 the hairs4 #bci4 ,,trichoda ,,piscis4 ,t4 oblongata1 antice crinita1 postice in caudam exquisitam attenuata4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ac and #ad4 ,oblong1 the fore-part is hairy1 the hind-part terminating in a very slender tail4 ,it is smooth1 pellucid1 much longer than broad1 but of nearly an equal breadth throughout1 and filled with yellow molecules2 the fore-part obtuse1 the hind-part exquisitely slender and transparent2 the upper side is convex4 a1 the fore-part2 b1 the tail4 #bdj4 ,,trichoda ,,larus4 ,t4 elongata1 teres1 crinita1 cuspidi caudali duplici4 ,long1 round trichoda1 surrounded with hairs1 the tail divided into two points4 ,see ,zoologia ,danica4 #bda4 ,,trichoda ,,longicauda4 ,t4 cylindracea1 antice truncata et crinita1 cauda elongata1 biarticulata et biseta4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,cylindrical trichoda1 the fore-part truncated and surrounded with hairs1 the tail long1 furnished with two bristles1 and having two joints4 a1 the hairs at the mouth2 d1 the oesophagus2 e1 the articulation of the tail2 f1 the bristles4 #bdb4 ,,trichoda ,,fixa4 ,t4 sphrica1 peripheria crinita1 pedicello solitario4 ,spherical trichoda2 this has the circumference set with hairs1 and a little solitary pedicle projecting from the body4 #bdc4 ,,trichoda ,,inquilinus4 ,t4 vaginata1 folliculo cylindrico hyalino1 pedicello intra folliculum retortili4 ,sheathed trichoda1 in a cylindrical transparent bag1 having a little pedicle bent back within the bag4 ,see ,zool4 ,dan4 prodr4 addend4 p4 #bha4 #bdd4 ,,trichoda ,,ingenita4 ,t4 vaginata1 folliculo depressa1 basi latiore sessilis4 ,sheathed trichoda1 the bag depressed1 the base broadest4 ,the animalculum that is contained in this sheath is funnel-shaped1 with one or more hairs1 proceeding from each side of the mouth of the funnel4 ,it can extend or contract itself freely in the bag1 fixing its tail to the base1 without touching the sides4 ,it was found in salt water4 #bde4 ,,trichoda ,,innata4 ,t4 vaginata1 folliculo cylindrico1 pedicello extra folliculum4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,trichoda sheathed in a cylindrical bag1 with a pedicle passing through and projecting beyond it4 ,these characters distinguish it sufficiently from the preceding one4 b1 the animalculum in the sheath2 d1 the tail4 #bdf4 ,,trichoda ,,transfuga4 ,t4 latiuscula1 antice crinita1 postice setosa1 altero latere sinuata1 altero mucronata4 ,broad trichoda1 the fore-part hairy1 the hinder-part full of bristles2 one side sinuated1 and the other pointed4 ,see ,zool4 ,dan4 prod4 addend4 p4 #bha4 #bdg4 ,,trichoda ,,ciliata4 ,t4 ventricosa1 postice crinibus pectinata4 ,ventricose1 the hinder-part covered with hair4 ,see ,zool4 ,dan4 ,icon4 ,tab4 #gc1 ,fig4 #ac1 #ae4 #bdh4 ,,trichoda ,,bulla4 ,t4 membranacea1 lateribus inflexis1 antice et postice crinita4 ,membranaceous trichoda1 the sides bent inwards2 the fore and hind-part are both furnished with hairs4 #bdi4 ,,trichoda ,,pellionella4 ,t4 cylindracea1 antice crinita1 postice setosa4 ,cylindrical1 the fore-part hairy1 the hinder-part furnished with bristles4 ,this trichoda is rather thick in the middle1 and pellucid1 with a few molecules here and there1 the sides obtuse1 the fore-part ciliated with very fine hairs1 the hind part terminating in a kind of bristles4 #bej4 ,,trichoda ,,cyllidium4 ,t4 ovata1 apice hiante1 basique crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,egg-shaped1 the apex gaping1 the base hairy4 ,pellucid1 the hinder extremity filled with globules of various sizes1 the fore-part narrower1 without any appearance of an external organ4 ,it vacillates upon the edge1 commonly advancing on its flat side1 and continually drawing in water2 it then gapes1 and opens into a very acute angle1 almost to the middle of the body2 but this is done so instantaneously1 that it is scarcely perceptible4 a1 the mouth2 b1 the hairs or bristles1 which it extends when nearly expiring4 #bea4 ,,trichoda ,,cursor4 ,t4 ovata1 antice crinita1 postice duplici pilorum strictorum et curvorum fasciculo4 ,oval trichoda1 the fore-part hairy1 and the hinder-part also furnished with some straight and curved hairs in two fascicles4 ,the body is flat and filled with molecules2 in the fore-part is an oblong empty space1 into which we may sometimes see the water sucked in4 #beb4 ,,trichoda ,,pulex4 ,t4 ovata1 antice incisa1 fronte et basi crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,egg-shaped1 with an incision in the fore-part2 the front and base hairy4 a1 the anterior part2 b1 the posterior part2 c1 the incision4 #bec4 ,,trichoda ,,lynceus4 ,t4 subquadrata1 rostro adunco1 ore crinito4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #af4 ,nearly square1 with a crooked beak1 the mouth hairy4 ,at first sight it does not seem very dissimilar to some of the monoculi4 ,the body is membranaceous1 and appears compressed1 stretched out into a beak above1 the lower part truncated2 under the beak is a little bundle of hairs2 the lower edge bends in and out1 and is surrounded with a few bristles4 ,the intestines are beautifully visible1 and a small bent tube goes from the mouth to them in the middle of the body2 these1 as well as the tube1 are in frequent agitation4 ,there is likewise another tube between the fore and hind edge filled with a blue liquor4 a1 the beak2 b1 the mouth2 c1 the base4 #bed4 ,,trichoda ,,erosa4 ,t4 orbicularis1 antice emarginata1 altero latere crinita1 postice setosa4 ,orbicular trichoda1 the fore-part notched2 one side furnished with hairs1 the hinder-part with bristles4 #bee4 ,,trichoda ,,rostrata4 ,t4 depressa1 mutabilis1 flavescens1 ciliis longis setisque pediformibus4 ,depressed trichoda1 mutable1 yellow1 with long ciliated hairs1 and feet tapering to a point4 ,the figure of the body is generally triangular2 the apex formed into an obtuse beak1 which the animalculum sometimes draws in1 so that it appears quite round2 the feet are four in number1 one of them is longer than the rest2 both feet and hairs are within the margin4 ,it is found in water where duck-weed has been kept4 #bef4 ,,trichoda ,,lagena4 ,t4 teres1 ventricosa1 rostro producta1 postice setosa4 ,round ventricose trichoda1 with a long neck1 and the lower end set with bristles4 #beg4 ,,trichoda ,,charon4 ,t4 cymbiformis fulcata1 antice et postice crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ag and #ah4 ,boat-shaped trichoda with furrows1 the fore and hind-parts both hairy4 ,the body is oval2 it resembles a boat as well in its motion as shape2 the upper part is hollowed1 the under part furrowed and convex2 the stern round1 with several hairs proceeding from it4 ,it was found in salt water4 ,fig4 #ag1 a1 the head2 b1 the tail4 ,fig4 #ah1 d1 a pellucid bubble that is sometimes to be perceived4 #beh4 ,,trichoda ,,cimex4 ,t4 ovalis1 marginibus lucidis1 antice et postice crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,oval trichoda1 with a lucid margin1 both the fore and hind-part hairy4 ,it is about the size of the trichoda lynceus1 ,no4 #bec1 has an oval body1 with a convex back1 flat belly1 and an incision in the margin of the fore-part1 the edges of which incision appear to be in motion4 ,its intestines are pellucid and ill-defined4 ,when it meets with any obstacles in swimming1 it makes use of four small bristles1 which are fixed to the under side1 as feet4 a1 the hairs in the fore-part2 b1 the bristles at the hind-part2 d1 the back2 e1 two small projecting hairs2 f1 the substance to which the animalculum has affixed itself4 #bei4 ,,trichoda ,,cicada4 ,t4 ovalis1 marginibus obscuris1 antice et subtus crinita1 postice mutica4 ,oval trichoda1 with an obscure margin1 the fore-part covered with hairs on the under side1 and the hinder-part beardless4 ,it does not differ considerably from the preceding1 though ,mller has pointed out some shades by which they may be discriminated4 ,,xiv4 ,,kerona4 ,vermis inconspicuus corniculatus4 ,an invisible worm with horns4 #bfj4 ,,kerona ,,rastellum4 ,k4 orbicularis membranacea1 nasuta1 corniculis in tota pagina4 ,membranaceous1 orbicular kerona1 with one projecting point1 the upper surface covered with small horns4 ,there are three rows of horns on the back1 which nearly occupy the whole of it4 ,it was found in river water4 #bfa4 ,,kerona ,,lyncaster4 ,k4 subquadrata1 rostro obtuso1 disco corniculis micantibus4 ,this species of kerona is rather square1 and its disc furnished with shining horns4 ,see ,zool4 ,dan4 prod4 add4 p4 #bha4 #bfb4 ,,kerona ,,histrio4 ,k4 oblonga1 antice punctis mucronatis nigris1 postice pinnulis longitudinalibus instructa4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,it is an oblong membrane1 pellucid1 with four or five black points in the fore-part1 which are continually changing their situation1 thick set with small globules in the middle1 among which four larger ones are sometimes perceived1 these are probably eggs2 in the middle space of the hind-part are some longitudinal strokes resembling bristles1 which1 however1 do not seem to project beyond the body4 b1 the horns2 c1 some hairs2 d1 a solitary horn2 e1 a large globule2 f1 some bristles4 #bfc4 ,,kerona ,,cypris4 ,k4 obovata1 versus postica superne sinuata1 antice crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,egg-shaped1 towards the hind-part sinuated1 the fore-part hairy4 ,this animalculum is compressed1 and somewhat of a pear-shape2 the fore-part broad and blunt2 the front is furnished with short hairs or little vibrating points inserted under the edge a1 shorter in the hind-part e1 partly extended straight1 and partly bent down1 having a retrograde motion4 ,it is found in water which is covered with lemna4 #bfd4 ,,kerona ,,haustrum4 ,k4 orbiculata1 corniculis mediis1 antice membranacea ciliata1 postice setosa4 ,orbicular kerona1 with the horns in the middle1 the fore-part membranaceous and ciliated1 and several bristles at the hinder-part4 #bfe4 ,,kerona ,,haustellum4 ,differs from the preceding only in having the hinder-part without any bristles4 #bff4 ,,kerona ,,patella4 ,k4 univalvis1 antice emarginata corniculata1 postice setis flexilibus pendulis4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bb and #bc4 ,kerona with a univalved shell1 orbicular1 crystalline2 the fore-part somewhat notched2 the fleshy body lies in the middle of the shell2 above and below are hairs or horns of different lengths jutting out beyond the shell1 and acting instead of feet and oars1 some of which are bent2 the superior ones constitute a double transverse row4 a1 the fore-part2 b1 the horns2 d1 a lunated figure in the shell2 c1 a pulpous body2 f1 bristles at the hinder-part4 #bfg4 ,,kerona ,,vannus4 ,k4 ovalis subdepressa1 margine altero flexo1 opposito ciliato1 corniculis anticis1 setisque posticis4 ,oval and rather flat kerona1 with one edge bent1 the opposite one ciliated1 the front furnished with horns1 and the hind-part with bristles4 #bfh4 ,,kerona ,,pullaster4 ,k4 ovata1 antice sinuata1 fronte crestata1 basi crinita4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bd and #be4 ,oval1 the fore-part sinuated1 a crest on the front1 the base hairy4 ,it agrees in many respects with the trichoda pulex1 ,no4 #beb2 but the upper part is pellucid1 without any black molecules2 the front truncated1 the whole surface of the head covered with hair1 and the fore-part sinuous4 a1 the horns2 b1 the hairs at the hinder-part2 c1 the cilia of the front4 #bfi4 ,,kerona ,,mytillus4 ,k4 subclavata1 utraque extremitate latiori1 hyalina ciliata4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,rather clubbed1 broad at both extremities1 clear and ciliated4 ,a large animalculum1 the fore and hind-part rounded1 very pellucid and white1 dark in the middle1 with black intestines1 intermixed with a few pellucid vesicles2 both extremities appear as if composed of two thin plates4 ,the fore-part is ciliated1 the hairs short1 lying within the margin2 it is also ornamented with two small horns1 erected from an obscure mass2 with these it agitates the water1 forming a little whirlpool4 ,the hind-part is likewise ciliated1 and furnished with two bristles1 extending beyond the margin4 a1 the horns2 b1 the fore-part ciliated2 c1 the hind-part2 d1 projecting bristles4 #bgj4 ,,kerona ,,lepus4 ,k4 ovata1 apice crinito1 basi setosa4 ,egg-shaped1 the fore-part hairy1 the base furnished with bristles4 ,the body is egg-shaped1 compressed1 pellucid1 and crowned with short waving hairs1 the base terminating with bristles4 #bga4 ,,kerona ,,silurus4 ,k4 oblonga1 antice et postice crinita1 dorso ciliato4 ,oblong1 the fore and hind-part hairy1 the back ciliated4 ,an oval smooth animalculum1 somewhat crooked and opake1 with a fascicle of vibrating hair on the fore-part2 it has a sharp tail1 furnished with unequal rows of moveable hairs1 producing a rotatory motion2 in the inside are some partly lucid1 and partly opake points4 ,the figure varies from oval to oblong1 the filaments of the conferva are often entangled in the tail4 #bgb4 ,,kerona ,,calvitium4 ,r4 latiuscula1 oblonga1 antice corniculis micantibus4 ,rather broad1 oblong1 with glittering horns on the fore-part4 ,the body is rather broad and flat1 both sides obtuse1 filled with black molecules1 and there is a dark spot near the hinder-part1 where there are likewise a few short bristles4 ,the interjacent vesicles are pellucid2 no hairs on the fore-part1 but instead thereof two little moveable horns1 and from three to five moveable black points4 ,it is found in the infusions of vegetables4 #bgc4 ,,kerona ,,pustulata4 ,k4 ovalis convexa1 postice altero margine sinuata1 utraque extremitate crinita1 corniculisque anticis4 ,oval1 convex1 kerona1 one edge of the hinder-part sinuated1 both ends set with hairs1 and some horns placed on the fore-part4 ,this animalculum was found in salt water4 ,,xv4 ,,himantopus4 ,vermis inconspicuus1 pellucidus1 cirratus4 ,a pellucid1 invisible1 cirrated#abg worm4 #abg ,that is1 furnished with a tuft or lock of hair4 #bgd4 ,,himantopus ,,acarus4 ,h4 ventrosus1 postice cirratus1 antice acuminatus4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,round and prominent himantopus1 the hinder-part cirrated1 the fore-part sharp4 ,it is a lively1 conical1 ventricose animalculum1 full of black molecules1 the fore-part bright and transparent4 ,the apex1 which has long hairs on the under part set like rays1 is more or less attenuated1 at the will of the little creature2 four locks of long and crooked hair1 or feet1 proceed from the belly2 and it is continually moving these and the other hairs in various directions4 ,it is found1 though seldom1 where the lemna grows4 a1 the apex2 b1 the ciliated part2 c1 the feet4 #bge4 ,,himantopus ,,ludio4 ,h4 cirrata1 supra crinita1 cauda sursum extensa4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,curled himantopus1 the upper part hairy1 the tail extended upwards4 ,this is a lively and diverting animalculum1 smooth1 pellucid1 full of small points1 the fore-part clubbed and a little bent1 the hind-part narrow2 the base obliquely truncated1 and terminating in a tail stretched out transversely4 ,the top of the head1 and the middle of the back b1 are furnished with long vibrating hairs2 three moveable and flexible curls a1 are suspended from the side of the head1 at a distance from each other4 ,when the animalculum is at rest1 its tail is curled2 but when in motion1 it is drawn tight1 and extended upwards1 frequently appearing as if it were cleft1 as at f4 #bgf4 ,,himantopus ,,sannio4 ,h4 incurvata1 supra ciliata1 infra crinita4 ,crooked himantopus1 the upper part ciliated1 the under part hairy4 ,this very much resembles the himantopus ludio1 the cilia are longer than the hairs1 and are continually vibrating2 it has two moveable curls hanging on the side of the head4 ,is found1 though seldom1 in water where the lemna grows4 #bgg4 ,,himantopus ,,volutator4 ,h4 lunatus1 antice cirratus4 ,lunated himantopus1 the fore-part hairy4 ,a very lively animalculum1 often turning round in a circular direction4 ,its shape is that of a crescent1 with some crystalline points2 the convex part is furnished with a row of hairs1 which are longest towards the tail1 and underneath are four feet4 #bgh4 ,,himantopus ,,larva4 ,h4 elongatus1 medio cirratus4 ,long himantopus1 cirrated in the middle4 ,the body is rather depressed and long2 the hinder-parts acute1 and generally curved1 pellucid1 and filled with granular molecules4 ,its motion resembles that of the himantopus ludio1 ,no4 #bge1 but its figure1 and the situation of its parts are different4 #bgi4 ,,himantopus ,,charon4 ,h4 cymbformis fulcata1 in fovea ventrali cirrata4 ,boat-shaped furrowed himantopus1 the hollow part of the belly cirrated4 ,an oval pellucid membrane1 the fore-part hairy1 furrowed longitudinally1 each side bent up1 so as to form an intermediate hollow place1 or belly1 filled with grey molecules2 beneath the middle it has several bent diverging rows of hairs2 no hairs on the hinder-part4 ,it is found in sea water1 but rarely4 #bhj4 ,,himantopus ,,corona4 ,h4 semiorbiculata1 depressa1 in utraque pagina cirrata4 ,semiorbicular himantopus1 flattened1 both sides cirrated4 ,a membranaceous lamina1 very thin1 pellucid1 crystalline1 and semilunar2 the edge of the base is thick set with molecular intestines2 the fore-part furnished with short hairs1 or a kind of mane2 towards the hind-part are three equal curved hairs1 or spines4 ,,xvi4 ,,vorticella4 ,vermis contractilis1 nudus1 ciliis rotatoriis4 ,a naked worm1 with rotatory cilia1 capable of contracting and extending itself4 #bha4 ,,vorticella ,,cincta4 ,v4 trapeziformis1 nigro-viridis1 opaca4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,this vorticella is in the form of a trapezium1 of a blackish green colour1 and opake4 ,it is of an irregular shape1 sometimes assuming an oval figure1 and appearing as if girt round with a transverse keel1 a4 ,it is invisible to the naked eye1 ciliated on every side2 the hairs all moveable1 and longer on one side than the other4 #bhb4 ,,vorticella ,,sph,,roida4 ,v4 cylindrico-globosa1 uniformis1 opaca4 ,a globous cylinder1 uniform and opake4 ,to the naked eye this appears also little more than a point1 but the microscope exhibits it as a globular mass of a dark green colour4 ,it occasions a vehement motion in the surrounding water1 which is probably effected by some very short hairs1 which are perceptible4 #bhc4 ,,vorticella ,,viridis4 ,v4 cylindracea1 uniformis1 viridis opaca4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,cylindrical1 uniform1 green1 and opake4 ,this vorticella is visible to the naked eye1 appearing like a minute green point2 but the microscope discovers it to be nearly cylindrical1 of a dark green colour1 a little thicker at the fore-part a1 than the hinder-part b1 and both extremities obtuse4 ,it appears to be totally destitute of limbs2 notwithstanding which1 it keeps the water in constant motion2 so that it has probably some invisible rotatory instrument4 ,it does not change its figure4 ,its motion is sometimes circular1 at others1 in a straight line4 ,at c1 some short hairs are visible4 #bhd4 ,,vorticella ,,lunifera4 ,v4 viridis1 postice lunata1 medio margine mucronato4 ,green vorticella1 the hinder part lunated1 with a point in the middle projecting from the edge4 ,the fore-part obtuse1 the base broad1 and hollowed away like a crescent1 with a protuberance in the middle of the concave part shorter than the horns or points of the crescent2 the fore-part is ciliated4 ,it is found in salt water4 #bhe4 ,,vorticella ,,bursata4 ,v4 viridis1 apertura truncata1 papillaque centrali4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,green vorticella1 the aperture truncated1 with a central papillary projection4 ,round and prominent1 filled with molecules2 the fore-part truncated1 and both sides of it pellucid2 in the center of the aperture there is a prominent papilla or nipple1 which when the animalculum is at rest1 appears notched2 the edge of the aperture is surrounded with cilia2 these are sometimes all erect1 shining1 and in motion1 or part bent back and quiescent1 and part in motion2 sometimes a few of them are collected together1 and turned back like little hooks1 one on each side4 ,it is found in salt water4 a1 the cilia2 b1 the projecting papilla2 c1 the pellucid space at the fore-part4 #bhf4 ,,vorticella ,,varia4 ,v4 cylindrica1 truncata1 opaca1 nigricans4 ,cylindrical1 truncated1 opake1 blackish-coloured vorticella1 the fore-part ciliated4 #bhg4 ,,vorticella ,,sputarium4 ,v4 ventrosa1 apertura orbiculari1 ciliis longis raris excentricis4 ,round and prominent1 with an orbicular aperture1 and long hairs radiating as from a center4 ,this is one of the most singular of the microscopic animalcula2 when viewed sidewise1 it is sometimes nearly cylindrical1 but somewhat tapering towards the hinder-part1 and having a broad pellucid edge2 viewed from the top1 it has sometimes a broad face or disc furnished with radiating hairs1 the under part contracted into a globular shape1 of a dark green colour1 and filled with small grains4 ,it was found in ,october with the lesser lemna4 #bhh4 ,,vorticella ,,nigra4 ,v4 trochiformis nigra4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #cf and #cg4 ,top-shaped black vorticella4 ,this may be seen with the naked eye1 appearing like a black point swimming on the surface of the water2 the microscope exhibits it as a minute conical body1 opake1 obtuse1 and ventricose at one extremity1 and acute at the other4 ,when it extends the extremities1 two small white hooks become visible2 by the assistance of these it moves in the water1 and it is probable from some circumstances that they inclose a rotatory organ4 ,it moves continually in a vacillating manner on the top of the water4 ,it is found in ,august1 in meadows that are covered with water4 a1 the rotatory organ2 b1 the two small hooks2 c1 the acute end4 #bhi4 ,,vorticella ,,multiformis4 ,v4 viridis1 opaca1 varia1 vesiculis sparsis4 ,green1 opake1 variable vorticella1 with vesicles scattered about the body4 ,the vesicles of this vorticella are larger2 in other respects it so much resembles the preceding one1 that a further description is unnecessary4 ,it is found in salt water4 #bij4 ,,vorticella ,,polymorpha4 ,v4 multiformis1 viridis1 opaca4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd1 #ce4 ,many-shaped vorticella1 green1 opake4 ,to the naked eye it appears like a green point1 moving with great agility2 but1 when viewed through a microscope1 it assumes such a variety of forms1 that they can neither be exhibited to the eye by drawings1 nor described by words2 it is truly one of the wonders of nature1 astonishing the mind1 fatiguing the eye1 and continually exciting the beholder to ask1 8,quo teneam vultus mutantem protea nodo80 ,the body is granulous1 and a series of pellucid points is sometimes to be observed1 as at b b4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 represent this vorticella in three different forms2 a1 the fore-part2 g1 the hind-part2 c1 the fore-part simple2 d1 the fore-part turned in or doubled4 #bia4 ,,vorticella ,,cucullus4 ,v4 elongata1 teres1 apertura oblique truncata4 ,this vorticella is long1 round1 the aperture or mouth obliquely truncated4 ,this being visible to the naked eye1 may likewise be ranked among the larger vorticell4 ,the body is somewhat conical1 of a dingy red colour2 its shape has been compared to that of a grenadier's cap4 #bib4 ,,vorticella ,,utriculata4 ,v4 ,viridis1 ventricosa1 productilis1 antice truncata4 ,green vorticella1 the belly round and prominent1 capable of being lengthened or shortened2 the fore-part truncated1 much in the shape of a common water-bottle2 the neck is sometimes very long1 at others1 very short1 and filled with green molecules4 #bic4 ,,vorticella ,,ocreata4 ,v4 subcubica1 infra in angulum obtusum producta4 ,this vorticella is somewhat of a cubical figure1 the under part bent in an obtuse angle4 ,it is a very singular animalculum1 in shape somewhat resembling the lower part of a boot2 the apex of the upper part or leg is truncated and ciliated1 the heel pointed1 and the foot round4 ,it is to be found in rivers1 though very rarely4 #bid4 ,,vorticella ,,valga4 ,v4 cubica1 infra divaricata4 ,cubical vorticella1 the lower part divaricated4 ,this is as broad as long1 and filled with grey molecules1 the apex truncated and ciliated2 both angles of the base projecting outwards1 one somewhat like a wart1 the other like a finger4 ,it is found in marshy waters4 #bie4 ,,vorticella ,,papillaris4 ,v4 ventricosa1 antice truncata1 papilla caudali et laterali hyalina4 ,big-belled vorticella1 the fore-part truncated1 with a papillary tail1 and a splendid papillary excrescence on the side4 ,it is found in marshes where the conferva nitida grows4 #bif4 ,,vorticella ,,sacculus4 ,v4 cylindracea1 apertura repanda1 margine reflexo4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 the aperture broad and flat1 the edge turned down4 ,a thick animalculum1 of an equal diameter everywhere1 and filled with molecules2 the edge of the mouth is bent back1 the hinder-part obtuse1 sometimes notched and contracted1 with cilia on both sides of the mouth4 #big4 ,,vorticella ,,cirrata4 ,v4 ventrosa1 apertura sinuata1 cirro utrinque ventrali4 ,big-bellied vorticella1 the aperture sinuated1 two tufts of hair on each side of the belly4 ,it is found in ditch water4 #bih4 ,,vorticella ,,nasuta4 ,v4 cylindracea1 crateris medio mucrone prominente4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ch1 #ci4 ,cylindrical1 with a prominent point in the middle of the cup4 ,an animalculum that is invisible to the naked eye2 but the microscope discovers it to be furnished with a rotatory organ1 which encompasses the middle of the body4 ,it is pellucid1 cylindrical1 of an unequal size2 the fore-part1 a1 truncated and ciliated1 and a triangular prominence1 e1 in the middle of the aperture2 the hind-part is obtuse1 with a point on each side of the middle of the body4 ,this is the appearance of the little creature when in motion2 but when the water is nearly exhaled1 some further parts of its structure are rendered visible2 two rotatory organs are now observable2 one on the fore-part1 and the other encompassing the middle of the body1 h h2 the hairs of the latter are in vehement motion4 ,other fascicles of moving hair may likewise be observed1 and the variegated and quick motion of this apparatus is very surprizing1 especially if the animalculum be big with young1 moving at the same time within the mother4 #bii4 ,,vorticella ,,stellina4 ,v4 orbicularis1 disco moleculari1 peripheria ciliata4 ,orbicular vorticella1 with a molecular disc1 and ciliated margin4 #cjj4 ,,vorticella ,,discina4 ,v4 orbicularis1 margine ciliato1 subtus convexo-ansata4 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,orbicular vorticella1 the edge ciliated1 with a kind of convex handle on the under-side4 #cja4 ,,vorticella ,,scyphina4 ,v4 craterformis1 crystallina1 medio sprula opaca4 ,bowl-shaped vorticella1 crystalline1 with an opake spherule in the middle4 #cjb4 ,,vorticella ,,albina4 ,v4 cylindrica1 postice acuminata4 ,the fore-part cylindrical1 the hinder-part tapering1 and ending nearly in a point4 #cjc4 ,,vorticella ,,fritillina4 ,v4 cylindrica vacua1 apice truncata1 ciliis prlongis4 ,empty cylindrical vorticella1 the apex truncated4 #cjd4 ,,vorticella ,,truncatella4 ,v4 cylindrica1 differta1 apice truncata1 cyliis breviusculis4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 stuffed or filled1 the apex truncated1 with very short cilia4 ,this is one of the larger kind of animalcula2 the body is crystalline1 and replete with black molecules2 the skin is perfectly smooth and colourless1 the hinder extremity rounded1 and the anterior truncated2 at this extremity there is a large opening thickly ciliated1 which serves as a mouth4 #cje4 ,,vorticella ,,limacina4 ,v4 cylindrica1 truncata1 ciliis bigeminis4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,cylindrical truncated vorticella1 with two pair of cilia4 #cjf4 ,,vorticella ,,fraxinina4 ,v4 gregaria1 cylindracea1 oblique truncata1 ciliis bigeminis1 apice margine fissa4 ,gregarious cylindrical vorticella1 obliquely truncated1 with two pair of cilia1 and a fissure or notch at the upper edge4 ,the greater part of the body is cylindrical2 the hinder-part rather tapering1 and filled with opake molecules2 towards the upper end it is transparent2 within the edge1 at the top are two small tubercles1 from each side of which proceed a pair of small hairs4 #cjg4 ,,vorticella ,,crategaria4 ,v4 composita1 floribus muticis globosis2 tentaculis binis1 stirpe ramosa1 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,compound1 with globous naked florets1 two tentacules1 and a branched stem4 ,for an ample description of this animalculum1 see page #djj4 #cjh4 ,,vorticella ,,hamata4 ,v4 bursformis1 margine apertur aculeis rigidis4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,purse-formed2 the edge of its aperture or mouth set with rigid points4 ,it is not ciliated1 nor have any hairs been discovered upon it2 the body is granulated1 the fore-part broad and truncated1 the hinder-part obtuse1 and capable of being contracted or extended4 a1 the rigid points4 #cji4 ,,vorticella ,,crateriformis4 ,v4 subquadrata1 ciliorum fasciculis etiam postice4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #dj1 #da4 ,approaching somewhat to a square figure1 with fascicles of cilia even at the hinder-part4 ,a lively animalculum1 pellucid1 round1 longer than it is broad1 with convex sides2 the head is situated at the large end1 the skin smooth1 and some traces of intestines may be discovered with difficulty4 ,there is a considerable opening surrounded with hair at the larger end1 and the filaments composing it are in continual motion4 ,two of them are sometimes seen joined together1 as at ,fig4 #da1 and full of small spherules2 in this state they draw each other alternately different ways1 the surface is smooth and the hairs invisible4 e1 moveable cilia4 #caj4 ,,vorticella ,,canaliculata4 ,v4 dilatata1 pellucida1 latere inciso4 ,dilated1 pellucid1 with an incision in the side4 ,to the naked eye it appears as so many white points adhering to the sides of the glass2 when magnified1 the anterior part is narrower than the hind one2 in the side a kind of incision may be perceived1 and the hind-part is a little notched towards the middle2 it is furnished with a rotatory organ1 with which it excites a continual whirling motion in the water4 #caa4 ,,vorticella ,,versatilis4 ,v4 elongata spiculiformis1 mox urceolaris4 ,long spear-formed vorticella1 but which often changes its shape into a pitcher-like form4 ,a pellucid1 gelatinous animalculum1 of a greenish colour1 furnished with small radii1 particularly about the circumference1 which gives it the appearance of a minute water hedge-hog4 #cab4 ,,vorticella ,,ampulla4 ,v4 folliculo ampulaceo1 pellucido1 capite bilobo4 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #d and #e4 ,this vorticella is contained in a pellucid bottle-shaped bag1 the head divided into two lobes4 ,little more need be said to enable the reader to know this animalculum1 if he should meet with it1 than to observe that the bag is nearly in the shape of the common water-bottle1 and that the animalculum is sometimes to be observed at the bottom of it1 sometimes nearly filling it4 #cac4 ,,vorticella ,,folliculata4 ,v4 oblonga1 folliculo cylindraceo hyalino4 ,oblong vorticella1 in a bright cylindrical bag4 ,this animalculum is gelatinous and cylindrical2 when at its greatest extension1 the base appears attenuated1 and the apex truncated4 #cad4 ,,vorticella ,,larva4 ,v4 cylindrica1 apertura lunata1 spinis caudalibus binis4 ,cylindrical1 the aperture somewhat in the shape of a crescent1 two small thorny points projecting from the hinder-part4 ,the head1 the trunk1 and the tail1 may be easily distinguished from each other4 ,it is of a clay-colour1 the aperture ciliated2 with a globular projection at times appearing to proceed from it4 #cae4 ,,vorticella ,,sacculata4 ,v4 inverse conica1 apertura lunata1 trunco postice bidentato1 cauda elongata biphylla4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #db and #dc4 ,this vorticella is in the shape of an inverted cone1 with an aperture the figure of a crescent2 the lower part of the trunk is notched1 forming as it were two teeth2 the tail biphyllous4 ,each of these parts is surrounded with a loose bright skin1 the head is divided from the trunk by a deep incision4 a a a1 small points projecting from the head2 b1 the cilia2 c and d d1 the interior parts2 ,fig4 #db1 l1 the little horn at the bottom of the trunk4 #caf4 ,,vorticella ,,aurita4 ,v4 cylindrico-ventrosa1 apertura mutica1 ciliis utrinque rotantibus cauda1 articulata biphylla4 ,cylindrical and big-bellied1 the aperture destitute of hairs1 both sides of it are furnished with rotatory cilia1 the tail biphyllous4 #cag4 ,,vorticella ,,tremula4 ,v4 inverse conica1 apertura lobata spinulosa1 cauda brevi unicuspi4 ,somewhat of a conical shape2 the mouth being divided into two parts which are set with small spines1 and a point projects from the tail4 ,it is a pellucid crystalline ventricose animalculum1 within the body on one side1 there is a large clay-coloured oval mass1 and a pellucid oval substance adjacent to it2 the tail is articulated and very short4 #cah4 ,,vorticella ,,serita4 ,v4 inverse conica1 apertura spinosa integra1 cauda brevi bicuspi4 ,somewhat of the shape of a cone1 the aperture set with spines1 the tail short and divided into two points4 ,the body is muscular1 pellucid1 folding variously2 the fore-part truncated2 round the margin of the aperture are rows of hairs1 but it has also stiffer hairs or spines continually vibrating1 with which it draws in both animate and inanimate substances4 ,it has some resemblance to the larger vorticella rotatoria1 but is easily distinguished from it by its horned spiny aperture1 and simple rotatory organ4 #cai4 ,,vorticella ,,lacinulata4 ,v4 inverse conica1 apertura lobata1 setis binis caudalibus4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #de4 ,shaped like an inverted cone1 the aperture lobated1 the tail small and furnished with two bristles1 d4 ,the body is pellucid1 cylindrical1 and muscular2 the apex about a third part down1 drawn into a little neck2 in the middle is a little lamina or triangular point2 another of these is discovered when the aperture faces the observer1 which makes it appear like a small flower4 ,the hind-part1 when in motion1 is a little bent2 it terminates in two minute bristles1 which are seen sometimes united1 at other times diverging4 ,when the animalculum is swimming1 its rotatory organ1 a1 may be seen2 molecular intestines are visible2 it moves with velocity in an oblique direction4 ,it is found in pure water4 #cbj4 ,,vorticella ,,constricta4 ,v4 elliptico-ventricosa1 apertura integra1 cauda annulata biphylla4 ,elliptical ventricose vorticella1 the aperture or mouth undivided1 the tail annulated and forked4 ,there are two kinds of this vorticella2 viz4 one of a pale yellow1 the other of a white colour2 the head1 the tail1 and the trunk1 are fully distinguished2 a substance in motion has been perceived1 which has been supposed to be the heart2 they move by fixing their tail to the glass upon the stage of the microscope1 and extending their body as much as possible2 they then fix the fore-part to the place where they intend to move1 and draw the hinder-part to it1 proceeding thus alternately4 ,they sometimes turn round about upon one of the points of their tail1 at other times they spring forwards with a jerk4 ,when at rest they open their mouths very wide2 the lips are ciliated1 in some of them two black globules are discovered4 #cba4 ,,vorticella ,,togata4 ,v4 subquadrata1 apertura integra1 spinis caudalibus binis1 plerumque unitis4 ,square vorticella1 the aperture not divided1 the tail consisting of two long spines1 which are sometimes so united as to appear as one4 ,the body is convex1 of a dark colour1 and filled with molecules2 the middle part is pellucid1 the hinder-part rather broader than the fore-part2 the latter is ciliated1 and the tail formed of two very thin pellucid spines1 which are somewhat curved and much longer than the body4 #cbb4 ,,vorticella ,,longiseta4 ,v4 elongata1 compressa1 setis caudalibus binis longissimis4 ,long vorticella1 flat1 the tail formed of two very long bristles4 ,the fore-part sinuated1 and set with minute cilia2 the two bristles which constitute the tail are long1 but one is longer than the other4 #cbc4 ,,vorticella ,,rotatoria4 ,v4 cylindrica1 pedicello collari1 cauda longa quadracuspi4 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 and ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 and #di4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 with a little foot projecting from the neck1 a long tail furnished with four points4 ,brachionus corpore conico subquali4 ,hill ,hist4 ,anim4 ,brachionus corpore conico toruloso4 ,ibid4 ,brachionus4 ,pallas ,zooph4 #ej4 ,joblot ,micros1 part #b1 p4 #gg1 pl4 #aj1 fig4 #ah2 and p4 #if1 pl4 #e1 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,k4 ,adams's ,microgr4 ,illustr4 p4 #adh1 pl4 #dj1 fig4 #bee4 ,leeuwenhoeck ,contin4 ,arc4 ,nat4 p4 #chf1 fig4 #a1 #b4 ,baker's ,micros4 made easy1 p4 #ia-ic1 pl4 #h1 fig4 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,ibid4 ,empl4 for the ,micr4 p4 #bfg-bid1 pl4 #aa1 fig4 #a to #ac4 ,spallanz4 ,opusc4 ,phys4 #b1 p4 #cja1 #cae1 pl4 #d1 fig4 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,rozier ,journal ,physique1 #agge1 p4 #bbj4 ,this animalculum has long been known by the name of the wheel animal2 in the description of which no person appears to have succeeded so well as ,baker2 and to him every writer has since referred for an ample account of this curious little being4 ,what ,i shall now say on the subject will be chiefly extracted from the same source of information1 with such alterations and additions as appear to be necessary to render his account more complete4 ,i shall begin with observing1 that ,mller's wheel animal differs in some respects from that of ,baker's2 first1 with regard to the rotatory organs which are extended on the back like ears2 secondly1 the two little splendid substances within the body2 and thirdly1 the two black points near the top of the head1 which are probably the creature's eyes4 ,this little animal is found in rain water that has stood for some days in leaden gutters2 in the hollows of lead on the tops of houses2 or in the slime and sediment left in rain water2 they are also sometimes to be met with in ditches and amongst duck-weed4 ,it has been called the wheel animal1 because it is furnished with a pair of instruments1 which in figure and motion resemble wheels4 ,it appears only as a living creature when immersed in water2 notwithstanding which1 it may be kept for many months out of water1 and in a state of perfect dryness1 without losing the principle of life4 ,when dry1 it is of a globular form1 about the size of a grain of sand1 and without any apparent signs of life4 ,if it be put into water1 in the space of half an hour a languid motion begins1 the globule turns itself about1 lengthens itself by slow degrees1 and becomes very lively2 in a short time it protrudes its wheels1 and swims about in search of food2 or else1 fixing itself by its tail1 brings the food to it by its rotatory organs1 which throw the whole circumjacent fluid into a violent commotion2 when its hunger is satisfied1 it generally becomes quiescent1 and sometimes resumes its globular form4 ,if the water that is found standing in gutters of lead1 or the sediment it has left behind1 has any appearance of a red or a dark brown colour1 little doubt need be entertained of its containing these animalcula4 ,in the summer season1 if a small quantity of this dust be put into water1 and placed under a microscope1 it seldom fails of discovering a great number of minute reddish globules1 which are1 in fact1 the animals themselves4 ,it will be best to view them first with the third or fourth magnifiers1 and afterward apply those possessing greater powers4 ,the motions of this little creature somewhat resemble those of a caterpillar2 like many of those insects1 removing itself from place to place by first fixing the tail to some substance1 then extending the whole body1 fixing the head1 and afterward drawing the tail to it2 by these alternate actions it moves with some degree of swiftness4 ,this animal frequently changes its appearance1 and assumes a very different form2 for1 the snout being drawn inwards1 the fore-part becomes clubbed1 and immediately dividing1 exhibits to our view two circular instruments set with minute hairs1 that move very briskly1 sometimes in a rotatory1 at other times in a kind of trembling or vibratory manner4 ,an aperture or mouth is also perceived between the two semicircles2 whilst in this state1 the animal may often be perceived swimming about in pursuit of food4 ,the most distinguishing parts of this animalculum are1 the head1 the thorax1 and the abdomen4 ,it differs from any other creature hitherto described in the wonderful form and structure of its head2 the sudden changes of which from one form to another are equally surprizing and singular2 from being of a very taper form1 it becomes almost instantaneously as broad as any part of its body1 and protrudes an amazingly curious machinery formed to procure its food4 ,the circular bodies which project from the animal have much the resemblance of wheels1 appearing to turn round with considerable velocity1 by which means a very rapid current of water is brought from a great distance to its mouth4 ,as these wheels are very transparent1 the edges excepted1 which are set with fibrill1 as cogs to a wheel1 it is difficult to determine how the rotatory motions are performed1 or whether their figure be flat1 concave1 or conical2 be this as it may1 they are protruded from a couple of tubular cases1 into which they can be again withdrawn1 at the will and pleasure of the animal4 ,they do not always turn the same way1 nor with the same degree of velocity1 sometimes moving in opposite directions1 at other times both one way4 ,the figure varies according to the degree of their protrusion1 as well as from other circumstances4 ,they appear occasionally like minute oblong squares1 rising from the periphery of a circle2 at other times they terminate in sharp points1 and sometimes they are curved1 bending the same way like so many hooks2 now and then the ends appear clubbed1 or in resemblance like a number of small mallets4 ,when the fore-part of this creature is first seen to open or divide1 the parts1 which when fully protruded resemble wheels1 seem only like a couple of semicircles1 the edges of which are set with little spicul1 having a nimble1 and continually vibrating motion upwards and downwards1 for the purpose of agitating the water1 each wheel being in this case doubled1 or like a round piece of paper folded in the middle4 ,when the wheels are in motion1 the head appears very large in proportion to the size of the animal2 and though it is then everywhere transparent1 yet a ring or circle1 more particularly distinguished by its brightness1 may be perceived about the middle of the forehead1 from whence many vessels are seen to originate4 ,the thorax or breast is united to the head by a short annular circle or neck2 the size of the thorax is nearly one-sixth part of the whole animalculum4 ,in it the heart is distinctly seen2 being placed nearly in the center1 the diastole and systole cannot fail to attract the eye of every attentive observer2 the alternate dilatation and contraction is very perceptible through the back of the animal1 being performed with great strength and vigour4 ,it appears to be composed of two semilunar parts1 which in the time of contraction approach each other laterally1 and form between them a figure somewhat like a horse-shoe1 whose upper side is flat1 the under one convex4 ,in the diastole1 these two parts separate2 the separation begins exactly in the middle of the lower part next the tail4 ,in each of the semilunar parts there is a cavity1 which closes when they come together2 and opens when they separate4 ,the motion of the heart is communicated to all the other parts of the thorax1 and indeed through the whole animal4 ,it is necessary however to remark1 that this motion is sometimes suspended1 or at least quite imperceptible1 for two or three minutes1 after which it re-commences1 and goes on with the same vigour and regularity as before4 ,from the under part of the thorax a small transparent horn proceeds1 which cannot be seen unless the insect turns on its back or side4 ,below the thorax there is an annular circle that joins the thorax to the abdomen2 this is considerably the largest part of the animal1 and contains the stomach and viscera4 ,when full of food1 the intestines are opake1 and of a crimson colour1 extending from the thorax quite through the abdomen and a great part of the tail1 exhibiting a fine view of the peristaltic motion1 or those gradual contractions and dilatations of the intestines1 which propel their contents downwards4 ,numerous ramifications of vessels1 both longitudinal and transverse1 surround the intestines4 ,the abdomen is not only capable of contraction1 but also admits of such a degree of extension1 as to form a case for all the other parts of the body4 ,the tail extends from a joint at the lower part of the belly to the posterior extremity2 it is of a tapering form1 and consists generally of three joints2 when the animal is inclined to fix itself to any thing by the tail1 it thrusts out four1 sometimes six1 little hooks from the extreme part2 these are placed in pairs1 one at the very extremity itself1 the other two a little way up the sides2 the three pair are seldom seen at the same time4 ,the wheels appear to be the organs used by the animal to assist it in swimming4 ,all the actions of this creature seem to imply sagacity and quickness of sensation2 at the least touch or motion in the water1 they instantly draw in their wheels4 ,baker conjectures that they have eyes lodged near the wheels1 because while they are in the globular or maggot state1 their motions are slow and stumbling2 but after the wheels are protruded1 they are performed with great regularity1 swiftness1 and steadiness4 ,can we sufficiently admire the wonderful contrivance in the apparatus of this animal8 a being so diminutive1 as not to exceed in size a grain of sand6 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #ag1 represents the wheel animal in what ,baker calls the maggot state2 while in this form small spicul are seen to dart out near the anterior part2 the snout is sometimes more1 at other times less acute than in this delineation4 a1 a small horn near the thorax4 ,fig4 #ae represents its manner of moving from place to place1 while in the maggot state4 a1 the projecting horn4 ,fig4 #ab exhibits it with the two semicircular parts1 a a1 protruded1 and in the posture in which it places itself1 when preparing to swim about1 or going to set its wheels in motion4 ,fig4 #a shews the head at its full extent1 and a couple of small bodies1 a a1 on the top of it1 armed with small teeth1 b1 like those of the balance-wheel of a watch4 ,at ,fig4 #ah the interior parts are more particularly exhibited4 a1 the circle from which many vessels originate2 b1 the thorax or breast1 joined to the head by the neck1 c2 the part which is supposed to be the heart is plainly seen at d2 the abdomen1 f1 is separated from the breast by a ring1 e2 g1 the tail4 ,fig4 #ai exhibits the animal not fully extended1 though with its wheels in motion4 ,fig4 #bj shews it with its side towards the eye2 in this position one of the wheels1 a1 appears to lie considerably below the other4 ,fig4 #f and #af represent two of these creatures in the postures in which they are frequently seen when the wheels are not protruded1 but with the fibrill1 a b1 vibrating quickly4 ,fig4 #b exhibits the animal with the body nearly drawn into the abdomen2 at ,fig4 #ba1 the body still further drawn in2 at ,fig4 #bb1 as it appears with the tail partly drawn in2 at ,fig4 #bc1 in a globular form1 but still adhering by the tail4 ,sometimes1 when in the maggot form1 it rolls its head and tail together1 without drawing them into the body2 as represented at ,fig4 #ad4 ,baker has also described three other species1 one of which1 differing only from the preceding in having a very long tail1 is represented at ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #aa is another kind1 with crustaceous spicul1 b1 at the fore-part2 within this1 at c1 an opake oval body may be seen1 which has been taken for an egg4 ,fig4 #c is another kind2 it has two projecting points1 a a1 from the tail1 and the head furnished with a number of fibrill1 b b4 ,fig4 #ac represents another species1 described by ,spallanzani4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 represent the wheel animals seen and delineated by ,mller4 a1 the head2 b1 the eyes2 c1 a small horn2 d1 the rotatory organ2 e1 the tail2 f1 the points of the tail4 #cbd4 ,,vorticella ,,furcata4 ,v4 cylindrica1 apertura integra1 cauda longiuscula bifida4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 the aperture undivided1 the tail rather long1 and divided into two parts4 ,a cylindric body with a rotatory organ1 consisting of a row of hairs at the apex2 the tail is divided into two parts turning a little inwards4 ,when at rest1 it joins the segments of the tail2 but opens them when in motion4 ,it is generally found in common water4 #cbe4 ,,vorticella ,,catulus4 ,v4 cylindracea1 apertura mutica1 cauda perbrevi1 reflexa1 bicuspi4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 the aperture plain1 the tail short1 bent back1 and divided into two points4 ,it is a little thick muscular animalculum1 folding itself up2 of an equal breadth throughout1 the body disfigured by longitudinal folds winding in various directions2 the anterior part or head is connected to the body by a little neck1 and it occasionally exhibits a very minute rotatory organ4 ,the tail1 e1 is short1 terminating in two very small bristles1 d1 which are exposed or concealed at pleasure2 the intestines ill-defined4 ,its motion is rotatory1 but in different directions4 ,it is commonly found in marshy waters4 #cbf4 ,,vorticella ,,canicula4 ,v4 cylindracea1 apertura mutica1 cauda brevi1 articulata1 bicuspi4 ,cylindrical vorticella1 the aperture plain1 with a short articulated tail divided into two pointed parts4 #cbg4 ,,vorticella ,,felis4 ,v4 caudata1 cylindracea1 mutica1 cauda spinis duabus longis terminata4 ,with a tail1 cylindrical1 beardless1 the tail terminating in two long spines4 ,the body is large1 the apex of an equal thickness1 obtuse1 with rotatory filaments2 the tail acute1 with two pellucid spines1 in length about one-third part of the body1 alternately separating from and approaching each other4 #cbh4 ,,vorticella ,,stentorea4 ,v4 caudata1 elongata1 tubformis limbo ciliato4 ,long-tailed vorticella1 trumpet-shaped1 the arms furnished with rows of short hairs4 ,see this fully described by the name of hydra stentorea1 in page #cib4 #cbi4 ,,vorticella ,,socialis4 ,v4 caudata1 aggregata1 clavata2 disco obliquo4 ,a description of this vorticella has also been given1 as hydra socialis1 in page #cie4 #ccj4 ,,vorticella ,,flosculosa4 ,v4 caudata1 aggregata1 oblongo-ovata1 disco dilatato pellucido4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ea and #eb4 ,with a tail aggregated1 of an oblong oval shape1 with a dilated pellucid disc4 ,to the naked eye it appears as a yellow globule1 adhering to the ceratophyllum1 or common horn-wort1 ,fig4 #eb1 a1 like a little flower2 or a heap of yellow eggs1 b4 ,with the assistance of the microscope they are discovered to be a congeries of vorticell1 constituting a sphere from a mouldy center4 ,they contract or extend their bodies either when alone or associated1 and excite a vortex in the water by means of the disc4 ,when they quit the society1 and act singly1 their parts may be more readily distinguished1 and will be found to consist of a head1 abdomen1 and tail4 ,the head is often drawn back so far into the abdomen1 that it cannot be seen1 exhibiting only a projecting1 broad kidney-shaped disc4 ,the abdomen1 ,fig4 #ea1 d1 is oblong1 oval1 and pellucid1 replete with obscure intestines1 amongst which are one or two remarkable black oval spots1 e2 the tail1 f1 is sharp1 twice as long as the abdomen1 either rough and annulated1 or altogether smooth4 #cca4 ,,vorticella ,,citrina4 ,v4 simplex1 multiformis1 orificio contractili1 pedunculo quali4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,simple1 many-shaped1 with an orifice admitting of contraction1 and equal-sized foot-stalk4 ,the head is full of molecules1 round1 everywhere of an equal size1 and very pellucid2 both sides of the orifice are ciliated1 and each has a rotatory motion1 appearing sometimes without the edge of the mouth1 as at a a2 at other times within it4 ,no distinct intestines or internal motion are perceivable4 ,its motion is different from most of this genus1 but not easily described2 at c c are small feet4 ,it is found in stagnant water4 #ccb4 ,,vorticella ,,piriformis4 ,v4 simplex1 obovata1 pedicello minimo retractili4 ,simple1 somewhat oval1 with a very small retractile foot1 which it can draw within itself4 #ccc4 ,,vorticella ,,tuberosa4 ,v4 simplex1 turbinata1 apice bituberculata4 ,simple vorticella1 the upper part broad1 the under part small1 with two projections at the anterior end1 furnished with a number of fibrill1 which produce a current of water by their vibration1 and thus collect food for the animal4 ,baker has delineated it in ,plate ,,xiii4 ,no4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 of his ,employment for the ,microscope4 #ccd4 ,,vorticella ,,ringens4 ,v4 simplex1 obovata1 pedunculo minimo1 orificio contractili4 ,simple1 somewhat of an oval shape1 with a small pedicle1 and an orifice which it contracts or dilates4 ,the small head1 or rather body of this little creature is pear-shaped1 pellucid1 the middle of the aperture convex1 both sides ciliated1 the pedicle four times shorter than the body2 it can contract the orifice to an obtuse point4 #cce4 ,,vorticella ,,inclinans4 ,v4 simplex1 deflexa1 pedunculo brevi1 capitulo retractili4 ,simple1 bent1 with a short pedicle1 and small retractile head4 ,this has a pellucid pendulous little head2 the anterior part truncated1 occasionally contracting itself twice as short as the pedicle2 its shape resembles that of a tobacco-pipe4 #ccf4 ,,vorticella ,,vaginata4 ,v4 simplex1 erecta1 ovato-truncata1 pedunculo vaginato4 ,simple vorticella1 erect1 of the shape of a truncated egg2 the pedicle is contained in a sheath4 ,for the #ccgth1 #cchth1 and #ccith1 the author refers to the ,zool4 ,dan4 he terms them1 vorticella cyathina1 vorticella putrina1 vorticella patellina4 #cdj4 ,,vorticella ,,globularia4 ,v4 simplex1 sphrica1 pedunculo retortili4 ,simple1 spherical1 with a twisted pedicle4 ,this animalculum has a small spherical head1 the aperture of the mouth ciliated2 the pedicle four times longer than the body1 which it contracts into a spiral form4 ,it is frequent among the cyclopa quadricorni4 #cda4 ,,vorticella ,,lunaris4 ,v4 simplex1 hemisphrica1 pedunculo retortili4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,simple1 hemispherical1 with a twisted pedicle4 ,the small head of this animalculum is goblet-shaped1 the margin of the orifice protuberant1 ciliated on both sides1 with undulating hairs2 the pedicle eight or ten times the length of the body4 ,the pedicle extends itself as often as the mouth is opened1 but is twisted up spirally when it is shut2 and these motions are frequently repeated in a short space of time1 a a1 the head when expanded2 b1 when shut2 c1 the undulated edge2 d d1 the cilia erect2 e1 when horizontal2 f1 the pedicle when straight2 g1 when bent in a spiral form4 #cdb4 ,,vorticella ,,convallaria4 ,v4 simplex1 campanulata1 pedunculo retortili4 ,this animalculum1 the bell-animal of ,baker1 has been fully described in page #djg4 #cdc4 ,,vorticella ,,nutans4 ,v4 simplex1 turbinata1 pedunculo retortili4 ,simple1 with a twisted turbinated pedicle4 ,the pedicle is simple1 and twists itself spirally2 is extremely slender1 with a kind of cap on its head2 the margin white and round1 and appearing as if encompassed with a lucid ring2 the head diminishes towards the base4 ,it is transparent4 #cdd4 ,,vorticella ,,nebulifera4 ,v4 simplex1 ovata1 pedunculo reflexili4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,simple1 egg-shaped1 the pedicle bent back4 ,the body is narrow at the base1 open and truncated at the top2 the margin apparently surrounded with a ring2 but1 when the aperture is shut1 the animalculum is egg-shaped1 with a simple setaceous pedicle1 considerably longer than the body1 and generally much bent back4 a a a1 the head open2 b1 partly closed2 c1 quite shut2 d1 the stalk when straight2 and at e1 when bent4 #cde4 ,,vorticella ,,annularis4 ,v4 simplex1 truncata1 pedunculo apice retortili4 ,simple1 truncated1 with a pedicle twisted at the end4 ,this is visible to the naked eye2 when contracted1 it appears to be annulated2 the head is an inverted cone1 convex when the mouth is shut1 but truncated when it is open1 and with a protuberant edge2 the pedicle is simple1 very long and thick1 whiter at the top than any other part1 and formed into a little head2 the apex is twisted spirally4 #cdf4 ,,vorticella ,,acinosa4 ,an ample description of this animalculum1 under the title of vorticella umbellaria1 has been given in page #djb4 #cdg4 ,,vorticella ,,fasciculata4 ,v4 simplex1 viridis1 campanulata1 margine reflexo1 pedunculo retortili4 ,simple1 green1 bell-shaped1 the margin or edge turned back1 the pedicle twisted4 ,the head is bell-shaped1 green1 opake1 narrow at bottom1 pellucid4 ,it has a rotatory organ1 which may sometimes be seen projecting beyond the aperture2 there is a little head at the apex1 and the pedicle is twisted and very slender4 ,a congealed green mass1 which is often swimming about in ditches1 is composed of myriads of these animalcula1 which are invisible to the eye1 but when magnified1 appear like a bundle of green flowers4 #cdh4 ,,vorticella ,,hians4 ,v4 simplex1 citriformis1 pedunculo retortili4 ,this may be classed among the most minute4 ,the head resembles a citron1 the apex is truncated1 the base narrow2 a gaping cleft is observable descending from the apex1 to one-third of the body4 #cdi4 ,,vorticella ,,bellis4 ,v4 simplex1 hemispherica1 margine contractili4 ,simple1 hemispherical1 with a margin which it can contract at pleasure4 ,the body is of a yellow colour1 much resembling the flower of a daisy2 the head scarcely pellucid2 the internal part quite filled2 it is abundantly ciliated round the margin1 moving in a rotatory manner4 ,the foot or pedicle is long1 slender1 and pellucid2 it is divided into two parts1 with small knobs on the top of each2 the base adheres to a bulb1 the under-part is covered with small scales4 #cej4 ,,vorticella ,,gemella4 ,v4 simplex1 sphrica1 capitulo gemino4 ,simple1 spherical1 with a double head4 ,the pedicle is long1 and constantly furnished with two small heads at its apex2 these are bright and clear4 #cea4 ,,vorticella ,,pyraria4 ,the distinguishing characters of this animalculum will be found at page #djj4 #ceb4 ,,vorticella ,,anastatica4 ,a full description of this vorticella has also been given at page #cig4 #cec4 ,,vorticella ,,digitalis4 ,at page #djf the reader will likewise meet with an account of the v4 digitalis4 #ced4 ,,vorticella ,,polypina4 ,v4 composita1 ovato-truncata1 pedunculo reflexili ramosissimo4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #fa4 ,compound vorticella1 oval1 truncated1 with a bending branching stalk4 ,when viewed with a small magnifier1 they appear like so many little trees2 the upper part or heads are egg-shaped1 the top truncated1 the lower part filled with intestines2 the branches are thick set with little knobs4 a1 the trunk2 b b b1 the branches2 c c1 the head when extended2 d1 the small knobs on the branches4 #cee4 ,,vorticella ,,racemosa4 ,v4 composita1 pedunculo rigido1 pedicellis ramosissimis longis4 ,compound1 rigid pedicle1 with small branched long feet4 ,to the naked eye it appears like the vorticella socialis1 described in page #cie1 but is distinguished from it by always adhering to the sides of the vessel in which it is placed4 ,with the microscope1 a long very slender pedicle is discovered sticking to the sides of the vessels1 from which proceed an innumerable quantity of crystalline pellucid pearls1 which1 together with the stalk1 are variously agitated in the water4 ,they sometimes move separately1 at other times together1 are sometimes drawn down to the root1 and in a moment expanded again4 ,,xvii4 ,,brachionus4 ,vermis contractilis1 testa tectus1 ciliis rotatoriis4 ,a worm capable of contracting1 covered with a shell1 and furnished with rotatory cilia4 #cef4 ,,brachionus ,,striatus4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa ovata striata1 apice sexdentata1 basi integra1 cauda nulla4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #fd and #fe4 ,univalved brachionus1 the shell oval and striated1 six notches or teeth round the upper edge1 the base whole or even1 without a tail4 ,the shell is oblong1 pellucid1 and capable of altering its figure4 ,the apex1 a1 is truncated1 with six small teeth on the edge of it1 twelve longitudinal streaks down the back1 the base obtuse and smooth4 ,the teeth are occasionally either protruded or retracted2 on the other side of the shell1 towards the tail1 there are two little spines or horns1 c4 ,the animalculum itself is muscular1 pellucid1 and crystalline1 often of a yellow colour2 from the apex it now and then puts forth three little bundles of playing hairs1 the two lateral ones shorter than the middle one2 a forked deglutatory muscle1 e1 is perceptible2 and on the under side1 when the apex is drawn in1 two rigid points may be discovered4 ,it is found in sea water4 #ceg4 ,,brachionus ,,squamula4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa orbicularis1 apice truncata quadridentata1 basi integra1 cauda nulla4 ,univalved brachionus1 with an orbicular shell2 the apex truncated1 and having four teeth1 the base smooth1 no tail4 #ceh4 ,,brachionus ,,pala4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa oblonga excavata1 apice quadridentata1 basi integra1 cauda nulla4 ,univalved brachionus1 with an oblong excavated shell1 four long teeth at the apex1 the base smooth1 no tail4 ,it is of a yellow colour4 #cei4 ,,brachionus ,,bipalium4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa oblonga inflexa1 apice decemdentata1 basi integra1 cauda spuria4 ,univalved brachionus1 the shell oblong and inflected1 ten teeth at the apex1 the base smooth1 and a spurious tail4 #cfj4 ,,brachionus ,,patina4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa orbiculari integra1 cauda mutica4 ,univalved brachionus1 with an orbicular shell1 the edges regular1 and having a long beardless tail4 ,the patina is extremely bright and splendid2 it has a large body1 a crystalline and nearly circular shell1 without either incision or teeth1 though towards the apex it falls in so as to form a smooth notch2 the body is affixed to the middle of the shell2 a double glittering organ1 with ciliated edges1 is projected from the apex2 both these organs are of a conical figure1 appearing to stand on a pellucid substance1 which is divided into two lobes2 between these and the rotatory organ there is a silver-coloured crenulated membrane2 two small claws may be discovered near the mouth4 ,it is reckoned as one of the rarer species of vorticella1 and is found in stagnant waters in the month of ,may4 #cfa4 ,,brachionus ,,clypeatus4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa oblonga1 apice emarginata1 basi integra1 cauda mutica4 ,univalved brachionus1 the shell oblong1 the apex notched1 the base smooth1 and the tail naked4 #cfb4 ,,brachionus ,,lamellaris4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa producta1 apice integra1 basi tricorni1 cauda bipili4 ,univalved brachionus1 the shell extending considerably beyond the body2 the base divided into three small horns1 with two hairs at the end of the tail4 #cfc4 ,,brachionus ,,patella4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa ovata1 apice bidentata1 basi emarginata1 cauda biseta4 ,brachionus with a univalve oval shell1 two teeth at the apex1 the base notched2 two bristles at the tail4 ,the shell plain1 oval1 orbicular1 crystalline1 with the anterior part terminating in two acute points on both sides1 though the intervening space is commonly filled up with the head of the animal4 ,the head1 the tail1 and the trunk are very distinct2 the bottom of the trunk is terminated in a semicircle1 the fore-part marked with two transverse lines2 it occupies the disc of the shell4 ,the intestines are indistinct1 and the tail affixed to the trunk2 it is short1 annulated1 flexible1 the middle projecting beyond the shell1 the apex diverging into two very fine bristles2 it fastens itself by these1 and whirls about with the body erect2 the rotatory cilia are not perceptible without great difficulty4 ,it is found in marshy water all the winter4 #cfd4 ,,brachionus ,,bractea4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa suborbiculari1 apice lunata1 basi integra1 cauda spina duplici4 ,univalved brachionus1 the shell rather orbicular1 lunated apex1 smooth base1 and the tail furnished with two spines4 #cfe4 ,,brachionus ,,plicatilis4 ,b4 univalvis1 testa oblonga1 apice crenulata1 basi emarginata4 ,univalved brachionus1 with an oblong shell1 the apex hairy1 and the base notched4 #cff4 ,,brachionus ,,ovalis4 ,b4 bivalvis1 testa depressa1 apice emarginata1 basi incisa1 cauda cirro duplici4 ,bivalved brachionus1 with a flattened shell1 the apex notched1 a hollow part at the base1 the tail formed of two tufts of hair4 #cfg4 ,,brachionus ,,tripos4 ,b4 bivalvis1 testa apice mutica1 basi tricorni1 cauda duplici4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,bivalved1 the apex of the shell beardless1 three horns at the base1 and double tail4 ,the body is pellucid1 nearly triangular1 bivalved1 and open on the back of the animalculum2 from the orifice proceed two little lamin larger than the rotatory cilia2 at the bottom are three or four rigid points1 e f e1 and a moveable tail1 g1 between them1 divided into two filaments1 which the little creature opens and shuts at pleasure2 by these it fixes itself to objects4 a a1 the lateral cilia2 b1 two small lamin2 c1 a deglutatory muscle2 d1 an opake mass4 #cfh4 ,,brachionus ,,dentatus4 ,b4 bivalvis1 testa arcuata1 apice et basi utrinque dentata1 cauda spina duplici4 ,bivalved brachionus1 with an arched shell2 the apex and the base are both toothed1 and the tail formed of two spines4 #cfi4 ,,brachionus ,,mucronatus4 ,b4 bivalvis1 subquadrata1 apice et basi utrinque mucronata1 cauda spina duplici4 ,bivalved1 somewhat of a square form2 the base and apex pointed2 the tail consisting of two spines4 #cgj4 ,,brachionus ,,uncinatus4 ,b4 bivalvis1 testa ovali1 apice integra1 basi mucronata1 cauda rugosa biseta4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ee4 ,bivalved brachionus1 with an oval shell1 the apex even1 the base pointed1 two thick bristles for the tail4 ,this is one of the smallest bivalved animalcula1 muscular1 the apex and anterior part round1 the hinder part straight1 terminating in a point1 furnished with a hook on the fore-part1 a small rotatory organ1 a long tail composed of joints1 and divided at the end into two bristles4 ,it can open its shell both at the fore and hind-part4 a1 the shell when close2 c1 the posterior point2 d1 the animalculum2 h1 the tail2 i1 the bristles4 #cga4 ,,brachionus ,,cirratus4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa apice producta1 basi curti bicorni1 cauda biseta4 ,larger than the preceding1 ventricose1 somewhat pellucid1 the head conical1 with a bundle of hairs on both sides2 it has likewise a rotatory organ4 #cgb4 ,,brachionus ,,passus4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa cylindracea1 frontis cirris binis pendulis1 setaque caudali unica4 ,capsular brachionus1 in a cylindric shell1 with two long pendulous locks of hair proceeding from the front2 the tail consists of a single bristle4 #cgc4 ,,brachionus ,,quadratus4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa quadrangula1 apice bidentata1 basi bicorni1 cauda nulla4 ,capsular brachionus1 in a quadrangular shell1 with two small teeth at the apex1 two horns proceeding from the base1 and no tail4 #cgd4 ,,brachionus ,,impressus4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa quadrangula1 apice integra1 basi obtusi emarginata1 cauda flexuosa4 ,capsular brachionus1 the shell quadrangular1 a smooth undivided apex2 obtuse base2 notched margin1 and a flexuous tail4 #cge4 ,,brachionus ,,urceolaris4 ,for a full description of this animalculum1 being the same as the vorticella urceolaris1 the reader will please to refer to page #djh4 ,views of the animal in its different positions will be found in ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 and in ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ef and #eg4 ,fig4 #ef1 a a1 are the two fibrill2 b1 the head2 f1 the intestines2 i1 the aperture from which the tail is protruded2 i k1 the tail2 at the end1 k1 is a cleft1 enabling the animal to affix itself more firmly to any substance4 ,fig4 #eg1 at a c a1 are seen the fibrill2 d shews the moveable intestine1 supposed to be the heart or lungs2 f1 the intestines2 h i k1 the tail4 #cgf4 ,,brachionus ,,bakeri4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa ventricosa1 apice quadridentata1 basi bicorni1 cauda longa bicuspi4 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #eh4 ,capsular brachionus1 the shell ventricose1 four teeth at the apex1 two horns at the base1 and a long tail terminating in two short points4 ,this differs considerably from the foregoing in the shape of the shell1 from each side of which there is a curved projection1 f f1 inclining towards the tail1 nearly of the same length with it1 and terminating in a point1 h h4 ,the upper part also of the shell is of a different form1 having in general four longer spicul1 and two shorter ones4 ,from the head two arms or branches1 e e1 are frequently extended2 the circular end of each is furnished with a tuft of little hairs1 which sometimes move in a vibratory manner1 at other times have a rotatory motion4 ,the eggs are either affixed to the tail1 or the curved part of the shell2 they have from one to five hanging from them4 ,mller has likewise discovered in this animalculum two small feelers1 and a kind of tongue4 a a1 the rotatory organs2 b1 the tongue2 c c1 the feelers2 d d1 a ciliated part on the side of the shell2 g1 the heart or lungs2 m k1 the tail2 at the extremity1 k1 two sharp points4 #cgg4 ,,brachionus ,,patulus4 ,b4 capsularis1 testa ventrosa1 apice octodentata1 basi lunata quadricorni1 cauda brevi bicuspi4 ,capsular brachionus1 the shell ventricose1 eight teeth at the apex1 the base lunated or hollowed into the form of a crescent1 and furnished with four horns2 the tail short1 with two small points at the end4 ,,additional ,,animalcula ,,infusoria1 ,,exhibited ,,in ,,plate ,,xxvi4 #cgh4 ,fig4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,an animalculum found in ditch water in the month of ,september1 represented in three different forms which it assumed4 #cgi4 ,fig4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,a species of testaceous wheel-animal2 a1 its appearance when protruded2 b1 when in the shell2 c1 another appearance of the same4 #chj4 ,fig4 ,c1 shews one of the same species2 and #cha4 ,fig4 ,d1 exhibits another of the same kind2 they both appear as protruded from the shell4 ,the above are all drawn as they were found adhering to a vegetable substance4 #chb4 ,fig4 ,e ,e ,e4 ,several appearances of an animalculum found in stagnant water in ,september1 about the one-hundredth part of an inch in length2 it moved slowly1 and there appeared a wheel-like motion in certain fibrill in the head4 ,the double-forked part of the tail had a similar motion to the tail of the pulex aquaticus2 the intestines appeared of different colours1 as brown1 yellow1 and reddish1 and had a quick irregular motion2 the external parts were very transparent4 #chc4 ,fig4 ,f ,f ,f ,f4 ,several animalcula in a drop of water from a leaden cistern2 of different sizes1 but apparently of the same species4 ,they moved either end foremost1 without any undulating motion1 but very uniform and slow2 each end appeared alike1 and very transparent2 the middle clear1 brown1 with a blackish list nearly the whole length of the animal4 ,the large one1 a1 lay sometime bent1 as in the drawing1 the others1 both when in motion and at rest continuing quite straight4 ,some of the very small ones were transparent2 others appeared as at b and c4#abh #abh ,in the former edition of this work1 owing to an error in the numeration1 it appeared that #cgi of these animalcula were described1 though in reality it contained only #cgg1 or the number which has already been given4 ,previous to the publication of ,mr4 ,adams's edition1 a friend communicated to him drawings and descriptions of several of these minute beings which had fallen under his observation2 but they were received too late for insertion4 ,mr4 ,a4 having at that time favoured me with a copy of the drawings and manuscript1 they are now added1 with the hope that they will not prove unacceptable to the curious reader4 ,,edit4 ,having in this and the preceding chapter described an extensive variety of those minute and wonderful productions of nature1 the hydr1 vorticell1 and animalcula infusoria1 ,i shall take my leave of the subject with remarking1 that though by the assistance of the microscope myriads of animated beings1 roving in the smallest drop of water as if it were a sea1 have been exhibited to the astonished eyes of attentive observers1 it surely cannot be deemed an unreasonable supposition1 that the ,,adorable ,,creator1 who has filled the immensity of extent with suns and worlds1 has also peopled every particle of fluid with beings far more minute than any apparatus of ours can perceive2 and however insignificant many of the smaller parts of the creation may appear to the uninformed bulk of mankind1 there cannot exist a doubt1 but that they were all1 collectively and individually1 formed for the wisest purposes2 and1 though in many instances these designations are to us incomprehensible1 let us not on that account rashly withhold our admiration4 ,these sentiments are beautifully enforced in the following expressive lines of ,thomson3 ,gradual from these what num'rous kinds descend1 ,evading ev'n the microscopic eye6 ,full nature swarms with life2 one wond'rous mass ,of animals1 or atoms organized1 ,waiting the vital breath1 when parent heaven ,shall bid his spirit blow4 ,the hoary fen1 ,in putrid streams1 emits the living cloud ,of pestilence4 ,thro' subterranean cells1 ,where searching sun-beams scarce can find a way1 ,earth animated heaves4 ,the flowery leaf ,wants not its soft inhabitants4 ,secure1 ,within its winding citadel1 the stone ,holds multitudes4 ,but chief the forest boughs1 ,that dance unnumber'd to the playful breeze1 ,the downy orchard1 and the melting pulp ,of mellow fruit1 the nameless nations feed ,of evanescent insects4 ,where the pool ,stands mantled o'er with green1 invisible1 ,amid the floating verdure1 millions stray4 ,each liquid too1 whether it pierces1 soothes1 ,inflames1 refreshes1 or exalts the taste1 ,with various forms abounds4 ,nor is the stream ,of purest crystal1 nor the lucid air1 ,tho' one transparent vacancy it seems1 ,void of their unseen people4 ,these1 conceal'd ,by the kind art of forming heaven1 escape ,the grosser eye of man3--------- ,let no presuming impious railer tax ,creative ,wisdom1 as if aught was form'd ,in vain1 or not for admirable ends4 ,shall little haughty ,ignorance pronounce ,his works unwise1 of which the smallest part ,exceeds the narrow vision of her mind8 ,as if upon a full-proportion'd dome1 ,on swelling columns heav'd1 the pride of art6 ,a critic fly1 whose feeble ray scarce spreads ,an inch around1 with blind presumption bold1 ,should dare to tax the structure of the whole4 ,and lives the man1 whose universal eye ,has swept at once th' unbounded scheme of things2 ,mark'd their dependance so1 and firm accord1 ,as with unfaultering accent to conclude ,that this availeth nought8 ,has any seen ,the mighty chain of beings lessening down ,from infinite perfection to the brink ,of dreary nothing1 desolate abyss6 ,from which astonish'd thought1 recoiling1 turns8 ,till then alone let zealous praise ascend1 ,and hymns of holy wonder1 to that ,power1 ,whose wisdom shines as lovely on our minds1 ,as on our smiling eyes his servant sun4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,,on ,,the ,,organization ,,or ,,construction ,,of ,,timber1 ,,as ,,viewed ,,by ,,the ,,microscope4 ,the subject of the following chapter opens an extensive field for observation to the naturalist1 in which the labour of a life may be well employed3 it is a branch where the observer will find the microscope of continual use1 and without which he will scarce be able to form any just idea of the organization of trees and plants1 or of the variations in the disposition1 the number1 nature1 and offices of their several parts4 ,vegetables are beautiful and perfect in their kind1 wonderful in their growth1 beneficial in their uses4 8,herbs and flowers may be regarded by some persons as objects of inferior consideration in philosophy2 but every thing must be great which has ,god for its author4 ,to him all the parts of nature are equally related3 the flowers of the earth can raise our thoughts up to the ,creator of the world as effectually as the stars of heaven2 and1 till we make this use of both1 we cannot be said to think properly of either4 ,all trees and herbs in their place and seasons speak the same language from the climates of the north to the torrid regions of the south1 and from the winter to the spring and the harvest1 they join their voices in the universal chorus of all created beings1 and to the ear of reason celebrate the wisdom of the ,almighty ,creator40 ,malpighi1 ,grew1 ,duhamel1 ,hill1 ,bonnet1 and ,de ,saussure1 are almost the only writers who have treated on the interior structure of vegetables2 and1 if we consider the imperfection of the instruments used by some of them in these anatomical researches1 and the little attention paid by the rest to the advantages their favourite pursuits might have derived from the use of the microscope1 as well as the dissecting knife1 we find greater cause to wonder at what has been done1 than at what remains to be performed4 ,to the general inattention to the structure of plants1 we may1 amongst other causes1 also ascribe the instability and fluctuation of the different theories on the principles of vegetation4 ,we are1 however1 so little acquainted with the steps which ,providence takes to lead intellectual1 but free agents1 to the knowledge of truth1 and the various difficulties1 errors1 and prejudices1 necessary to be removed1 before it can shine in its native colours1 that it is our duty to encourage every humble effort towards the advancement of science1 that thus we may co-operate with our ,creator and ,redeemer in promoting that vast plan to which all things are now converging1 the bringing all his creatures to a state of truth1 goodness1 and consequent happiness1 an end worthy of the best and wisest of beings4#abi #abi ,see the ,bishop of ,exeter's ,sermon before the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel4 ,as ,dr4 ,hill is the first writer who has treated this part of natural history in an orderly and scientific manner1 ,i shall use the names he has adopted for characterizing the different parts of trees1 c4 which are1 #a4 the rind2 #b4 the bark2 #c4 the blea2 #d4 the wood2 #e4 the corona or circle of propagation2 #f4 the pith4 ,these are placed immediately within or under one another2 they are the essential parts upon which the strength of the tree depends3 in1 among1 and between these1 the various vessels are placed1 which nourish the whole1 and maintain and carry on the vegetation of the tree1 and from which it obtains its peculiar qualities and virtues4 ,these vessels are of five kinds3 #a4 ,the ,exterior #b4 ,the ,interior ,juice ,vessels4 #c4 ,the ,intimate #d4 ,the ,sap ,vessels4 #e4 ,the ,coronal4 ,of these1 the first are placed between the rind and bark2 the second1 in the substance of the bark2 the third1 in the substance of the blea2 the fourth1 in the substance of the wood2 the fifth1 in the corona4 ,more accurate instruments1 or a more minute investigation of the parts1 may probably discover new vessels in a system which appears to be entirely vascular1 and brings us more thoroughly acquainted with the nature of vegetation4 ,,of ,,the ,,rind4 ,the exterior covering of all trees is a thin1 dry1 parched substance1 which has been compared by many writers to the skin of animals1 and called by names analogous thereto2 thus it is called the epidermis by ,duhamel1 the skin by ,grew1 the rind by ,hill4 ,when a tree is full of sap1 this membrane may be easily detached from the part it covers2 it may be separated from green branches which are not in sap1 by boiling them in water2 large pieces of it may also be obtained from rotten branches2 the rind of the leaves of many trees is detached with singular dexterity from the other parts1 by some of the mining caterpillars2 artificial methods for effecting this purpose have been described in page #afj of this work4 ,though the rind may at first sight be thought to be of little use1 it will be found to be a principal organ in the process of vegetation4 ,the part which covers the root has the most important offices assigned to it4 ,many are of opinion that the rind is formed of dried vesicul2 and ,malpighi says1 that we may see in the vascular texture of the bark of the cherry and plumb-trees an arrangement of the parts proper to form the rind1 and this arrangement is occasioned by the endeavour of the vascular part to extend itself to the circumference1 and the resistance it meets with from the rind2 and that hence the vessels are flattened1 and assume a membranaceous form4 ,the rind is a general covering to the young trunks of trees1 to the branches1 the roots1 the leaves1 the fruit1 the flowers1 c4 ,upon the trunks of large trees some pieces only of the rind are to be found1 having probably been broken by the increased size of the tree4 ,the rind of some species of trees will bear being stretched much further than those of others1 and remain for a considerable time uniformly spread over the bark4 ,du ,hamel asserts1 that the rind of vigorous healthy1 trees remains longer whole than on those that are more languid1 notwithstanding that the growth of the last is slower1 and therefore makes less efforts against the rind4 ,this circumstance is much in favour of the distinct organization of the rind1 and against the opinion of those who only suppose it to consist of dried bladders4 ,thin as the rind is1 it is formed of many coats1 adhering closely to each other1 which in some species may be separated with ease1 in others1 with difficulty4 ,du ,hamel says1 that he has divided the rind of the birch into six distinct coats1 and that he had no doubt but what the division might have been carried much further4 ,dr4 ,hill says1 that unless some of these coats be obtained in a state of separation from the rest1 the true construction of the rind cannot be discovered1 for the connection and form of the parts are lost by the confusion in which they appear while they lie one upon another4 ,the following experiments may throw a little light upon this obscure subject4#acj ,all the rind was taken from the trunk of a cherry-tree1 and the tree thus skinned exposed to the air2 a part of the bark which was next to the rind dried up and exfoliated2 the part next to this did the same2 after two or three exfoliations1 a farinaceous substance covered the superfice of the trunk1 soon after which a new rind appeared4 ,some pieces of rind were taken from a few young branches1 and the wounds were covered with a cloth that had been soaked in wax and turpentine2 on these the rind appeared in a very little time1 without any apparent exfoliation4 ,from some other branches1 not only the rind1 but a part of the bark was also taken away1 and the wounds covered as before2 a slight exfoliation was observed here1 which was soon followed with a new rind4 ,the bark was taken entirely off from a vigorous cherry-tree1 while it was in full sap1 so that the wood appeared the whole extent of the trunk4 ,this was protected from the rays of the sun1 and from the air4 ,a new bark and rind formed themselves upon the trunk1 but they did not originate from the bark that was left on the branches and the root1 but extended from different spots1 which were first formed at considerable distances from each other4 ,after a lapse of fifteen years1 this new rind did not appear like the natural rind of the cherry-tree4 ,from these experiments we learn1 that the rind regenerates more readily in some cases than in others1 and that it preserves and prevents in a degree the bark from becoming dry too soon1 and in consequence thereof exfoliating4 #acj ,du ,hamel ,physique des ,arbres1 tom4 #a1 p4 #ab4 ,aided by the microscope1 a number of luminous points may be discovered in the rind2#aca these are so many minute holes for other purposes of transpiration4 ,in the cane these holes are visible to the naked eye4 ,a few oval holes may also be perceived in it2 these are1 however1 no more than a separation of the parts1 occasioned by the extension of the vasa interiora4 #aca ,du ,hamel ,physique des ,arbres1 tom4 #a1 p4 #i4 ,dr4 ,grew supposed the rind to be formed of small vesicles1 or bladders1 clustered together1 and intermixed with ligneous fibres or vessels1 which run through the length of the rind2 these are conjoined by other transverse ones1 but that as the rind dries1 the bladders or blebs shrink up and disappear4 ,this account does not differ much from that of ,dr4 ,hill1 who says1 that the rind is formed of a series of longitudinal vessels1 and a filmy substance1 between them1 which1 when viewed in a transverse section1 form small circles1 the sides of which are supported and made up of these longitudinal fibres2 that the transverse vessels are only a deception1 occasioned by the spaces between them and part of the film4 ,the mode of obtaining an accurate view of the organization of this part1 by conveying coloured liquors into the several vessels thereof1 has been already described in page #afj of these ,essays2 by these means1 together with the microscope1 we find that the vessels are everywhere pierced with small dots or openings3 of the use of these1 the following conjectures have been formed4#acb #acb ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 c4 p4 #cg4 ,the root1 which is equal in surface to a third part of the tree above ground1 is covered with a pierced rind4 ,the cold of winter contracts the whole of this1 the parts are drawn closer together1 and the mouths of these innumerable vessels are shut or nearly so1 by this contraction2 a very little of the half-congealed moisture of the ground gets into them1 but this suffices for the service of the tree1 when there is little heat to cause any perspiration1 and at a time when in the deciduous trees1 the very organs of the greatest perspiration1 the leaves1 do not exist4 ,the warmth of the spring arrives1 the fluids of the earth grow thinner1 every part of the root expands2 this opens the mouths of the vessels1 and the torrent of nutrition rushes in4 ,by these means1 every coat of the rind1 and the interstitial spaces thereof1 are rendered supple1 and may be easily separated from the under coverings4 ,in roots1 the colour of the rind varies very much1 being white in some1 brown in others1 c4 ,every root1 according to ,grew1 after it has arrived at a certain age1 has a double skin1 the one coeval with the other parts1 and exists in the seed2 a ring is afterwards sent off from the bark1 which forms the second skin2 thus in the root of dandelion1 towards the end of ,may1 the original or outer skin appears shrivelled1 and is easily separated from the new one1 which is fresher1 and adheres more firmly to the bark4 ,perennial plants are supplied in this manner with a new skin every year2 the outer one always falls off in the autumn and winter1 and a new one is formed from the bark in the succeeding spring4 ,,of ,,the ,,vessels ,,which ,,are ,,contained ,,between ,,the ,,rind ,,and ,,the ,,bark4 ,these are called by ,du ,hamel the cellular coat1 enveloppe cellulaire2 by ,hill1 the exterior vessels1 and the vasa propria exteriora4 ,it has been already observed1 that in trees the juice vessels1 or vasa propria1 do not form those constituent parts of the wood of which the timber consists1 but that it is from the nature of these recipient vessels that it derives its virtues1 qualities1 and specific properties4#acc ,a tree may grow1 live1 and give shade without them2 but on those its peculiar character and decided virtues depend2 these are greatest where the vasa propria are largest or most numerous2 and where we do not find these1 we scarce find any thing that will affect the taste or the smell4 ,there are different ranges of these vessels between the several parts1 each of which has its allotted place1 its peculiar form1 its different structure1 and its separate use4 ,many trees have them in all their parts1 others only in some of them1 while others do not exhibit any4 #acc ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #gc4 ,on taking off the rind1 we find a substance of a deep green colour1 succulent and herbaceous1 formed of a prodigious number of filaments interwoven together in various directions2 it is more abundant in some trees than in others1 particularly in the elder1 and more succulent in summer than in winter2 it is then also less adherent to the rind4 ,dr4 ,hill thinks the best time of separating the rind1 in order to view this part1 is in a living branch1 at the time of its swelling for the spring1 or for the midsummer shoot1 but much easier by the means of maceration4#acd #acd ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #ge4 ,when the rind is perfectly separated1 it leaves the vasa propria of this class behind it2 they scarce adhere to the inner bark1 and but little to the rind2 they are disposed in packets1 and do not run straight down the branch1 but interweaving with each other1 form a kind of net4 ,these packets may be separated easily from the bark2 when a thin transverse section of one of them is examined1 it is found to be composed of twelve or fifteen distinct vessels with hard rinds4 ,dr4 ,hill says1 that with a great deal of patience1 a vast number of objects1 and a good microscope1 we may see by what means these vessels adhere to the bark2 for we shall find upon the sides small oval depressions which fit thereto1 and that are probably a kind of glands1 that separate from the general store of sap1 with which the bark is filled1 the juices peculiar to these vessels4 ,,of ,,the ,,bark4 ,the bark lies next within the rind1 and differs but little from it in construction1 though it holds a more important office in the scale of vegetation1 the growth and qualities of the tree being in a great measure connected with it4 ,it is1 therefore1 found to differ considerably in substance1 quantity1 and quality1 in various kinds4 ,it is originally the outer membrane1 covering the lobes of the seed4 ,even there1 as in the branch of a tree1 it appears in the form of a kind of spunge1 or like a crust of bread1 composed of flatted bladders4 ,its spunge-like nature may be further inferred from the contraction of its pores when dry1 and the ease with which they dilate when in water4 ,grew has called it a most curious and exquisitely fine1 wrought spunge4 ,in the course of its growth1 the outer ranges of these bladders drying1 it becomes what we call the rind2 for the rind was once bark1 and has only suffered a slight change in separating from it4 ,by the bark the tree is fed with a continual supply of moisture1 protected from external injuries1 and defended from the excesses of heat and cold2 for these purposes it is variously disposed in different trees4 ,in the hardy and slow growing1 as the oak and chesnut1 it is thin2 in the quick growing1 as willow1 poplar1 and the like1 it is thick4 ,and what is more particularly to be attended to is1 that in some its inner verge is radiated4 ,there are some trees1 and a great many herbaceous plants1 in which this part is continued inward1 in form of rays1 through the blea into the wood1 and seems to form so many green wedges1 that split as it were the substance of both those parts2#ace a circumstance which accounts for the vegetation of some particular trees1 which are known to live when deprived of the bark2 because they have rays of the same substance within which answer the purpose1 and this in a degree answering to the nature of their life4 #ace ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #aah4 ,ibid4 p4 #abj1 ,the bark appears to be formed1 first1 of longitudinal fibres1 which ,du ,hamel considers as so many lymphatic vessels2 secondly1 by a sort of a filmy cellular tissue1 which has been considered as a kind of bladders by some1 or as parenchymatous by others2 thirdly1 of the vasa propria interiora1 or interior juice vessels4 ,the longitudinal fibres are disposed in strata1 which lie one over the other4 ,in that stratum which is next the rind1 or rather the cellular coat1 we perceive a net of longitudinal fibres1 the meshes of which are large and easily distinguished1 particularly when the cellular tissue that fills up the interstices is removed4 ,to do this1 the branches should be macerated for a considerable time2 some require to be kept in this state for years4 ,it will then be easy to separate first the rind1 then the cellular coating1 and afterwards this pulpy matter4 ,it may sometimes be easily removed after the branches have been boiled4 ,the most exterior stratum1 when examined by the naked eye1 seems to be formed of simple fibres1 which graft1 solder1 or inosculate one with the other2 but when examined by a microscope1 each of these fibres will be found to be a bundle of filaments1 which may be easily separated from each other4 ,grew says1 that each filament1 like the nerves in animals1 consists of twenty or thirty small contiguous tubes1 which run uniformly from the extremity of the root1 without sending off any branches1 or suffering any change in their size and shape4 ,hence the bark may be torn or divided lengthwise1 with greater ease than in an horizontal direction2 when macerated1 they are capable of a very great degree of subdivision4 ,the filaments of a cortical vessel are to be looked on1 agreeable to what we have already observed1 as so many little bundles placed near together1 and at first growing parallel to each other2 but soon quitting this direction1 the filaments of one fascicle parting from that to which they originally belonged1 and inclining more or less obliquely towards another1 sometimes uniting with it1 at others1 bending backwards1 and uniting again with that from which it proceeded1 or with some one that it meets with4 ,in this manner new fascicles are often formed1 while other parcels are increased or diminished by the additions of new filaments2 by these means1 a kind of irregular net is formed1 and the fibres proceed in a serpentine line from the top to the bottom of the tree4 ,the thickness of the bark is entirely formed of strata of these longitudinal fibres1 which lie one over the other2 each of these strata is similar to the exterior one1 only the meshes are smaller1 and the fibres finer1 in proportion as they are more interior1 insomuch that at last the meshes are almost annihilated1 and the fibres seem to lie quite parallel to each other4 ,there are some trees1 however1 where the meshes are not visible1 and in which the fibres lie quite in a straight direction4 ,there are many other circumstances in which they vary in different trees2 in some the meshes of each stratum correspond with each other1 diminishing gradually in size as they are more interior1 and forming as it were so many conical cells4 ,we may1 ,i think1 conclude from what has been said1 that the bark is composed of several thin membranes1 which extend over the whole exterior surface of the tree4 ,the most exterior membrane is the rind2 under this is what ,du ,hamel calls the cellular coat2 next to this the cortical stratum or true bark of the tree1 which is formed of lymphatic vessels ranged more or less in a reticular form1 and of the vasa propria interiora4 ,the meshes are so constituted as to form large cavities next the rind1 and small ones near the wood4 ,these cavities are filled with a parenchymatous substance or the cellular tissue1 which being continued from the wood to the rind1 joins and unites the cortical stratum1 and afterwards spreading on the outside thereof1 forms what has been termed the cellular coat4 ,,of ,,the ,,cellular ,,tissue4 ,we now proceed to give some account of the substance which fills up the vacant spaces that are left between the longitudinal fibres4 ,it is called by ,grew the parenchyma or pulp1 by ,malpighi1 the vesicular tissue or web2 both of them consider it as formed of small bladders or reticles1 that are in contact with each other1 lying in an horizontal position1 or at right angles to the longitudinal fibres3 they do not suppose them to be all of the same size1 or even of the same figure3 ,grew compares it to the froth of beer or eggs4 ,the flesh of fruits consists for the most part of this substance1 very much filled with juice1 though with considerable difference in its organization4 ,be this as it may1 the nature of this substance1 its form and structure1 are at present but very little known4 ,it is floccose1 and varies in colour in different species4 ,,of ,,the ,,vasa ,,propria ,,interiora4 ,besides the lymphatic vessels and the cellular substance1 we find the juice vessels1 or vasa propria1 in the bark4 ,in those trees which are famous for medicinal virtues1 they are usually very large2 they carry the milky juices of the sumach1 and in them is lodged the finest and highest-flavoured turpentine in all the kinds of pine4 ,dr4 ,hill thinks that a tree of that genus exhibits them best1 and the more1 as the turpentine which fills them may be perfectly dissolved in spirit of wine4 ,the pinus orientalis is the species in which these vessels are most distinctly seen4 ,,of ,,the ,,blea4 ,this is that part of the tree which is formed into wood1 and therefore lies between it and the bark1 and may be separated from them by maceration4 ,a longitudinal piece of the blea1 when examined by the microscope1 exhibits a number of vessels running parallel to each other1 the interstitial spaces being filled with a floccose1 white1 formless substance1 of which ,dr4 ,hill suspects even the vessels themselves to be formed4 ,innumerable small openings or mouths may be discovered in these vessels1 suited to imbibe the moisture which is so essential to the life and health of plants4 ,these mouths cannot be well discerned1 except when they are opened by the season of the year1 either before the first leaves of spring1 or in the midsummer shooting time2 though a small quantity of moisture will keep them open at that time1 yet no quantity would be sufficient at an improper season4#acf #acf ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #dg4 ,the blea is a zone more or less perfect1 which lies under the bark1 and covers or surrounds the wood1 and is principally distinguished from it by being less dense4 ,in some species the difference between the blea and the wood is very remarkable1 in others it is less so4 ,the ancient botanists1 struck with the difference they observed between the wood and the blea1 compared this substance to the fat in animals4 ,malpighi1 ,grew1 and ,du ,hamel considered it as the wood not yet arrived to a state of perfection4 ,it is organized in a manner similar to the wood1 and possessing the same vessels disposed nearly in the same manner4 ,the juice vessels of this part may be separated from it by maceration2 ,dr4 ,hill says1 that in this state they appear perfect cylinders1 with thick white coats1 the surface perfectly uniform4 ,,of ,,the ,,wood4 ,when the bark and the blea are taken away1 we come to the wood1 which is a solid substance1 on which the strength of the tree depends1 and which has been considered by naturalists as being to the tree what bones are to the animal4 ,the wood1 in a general view may be considered as formed of strata1 which are inclosed one within the other2 these strata consist of ligneous fibres or lymphatic vessels1 the cellular web or tissue1 vasa propria1 and what have been called the air vessels4 ,it is more difficult to investigate the construction of the wood than that of the other parts1 because the texture is in general much harder1 and therefore not so easily separated1 requiring very long macerations1 and many subjects1 before one may be found fit for examination4 ,if a transverse section of almost any kind of wood be examined1 we shall perceive these strata very clearly and sensibly distinguished from one another4 ,it has been generally supposed that each of these is the product of one year's growth2 though1 if we cut the same wood obliquely1 it will be found that each of these strata is compounded of smaller ones1 which are therefore not so easy to discover as the larger4 ,by macerating rotten pieces of trees1 the wood may be divided into an immense number of leaves or strata1 thinner than the finest paper4 ,if the foregoing strata be examined in their detached state by the microscope1 we shall find them to be composed of longitudinal fibres2 some pieces of rotten wood1 after maceration1 will divide of themselves into very fine longitudinal fibres2 the existence of these is further proved by the facility with which wood may be split in the direction of these fibres4 ,from hence we may collect1 that the ligneous strata are formed of small fibres or vessels1 collected together in fascicles1 like the bark3 in some trees they are parallel to each other1 in others they are disposed more obliquely1 crossing and forming an irregular kind of network4 ,there is great probability that this reticular disposition exists in all trees1 though it may be difficult to discover it in many on account of the fineness of the meshes1 the hardness of the wood1 and the sameness of colour in the constituent fibres4 ,we are here only speaking of the lymphatic vessels or ligneous fibres of the wood1 which exist in it as well as in the bark1 though in different states2 for the ligneous fibres are always harder and less flexible than the cortical ones4 ,malpighi thinks they differ in another particular1 namely1 that a juice or fluid issues from the cortical fibres1 while none is found in those of the wood4 ,in this it would appear from the observations of ,du ,hamel1 that he was mistaken4 ,a transverse section of wood generally appears formed of a number of rays proceeding from the corona to the bark1 which are intersected at different distances by concentric circles1 interspersed with vessels of varying magnitude3 the variations in this structure afford much pleasure to the curious observer1 and throw considerable light upon the nature and properties of timber2 for it is by means of a variety of strainers that different juices are prepared from the same mass4 ,matter1 considered as matter1 has no share in the qualities of bodies4 ,it is from the arrangement of it1 or the recipient forms given to it1 that we have so many different substances4 ,according to the modifications that these receive1 we shall find the same light1 air1 water1 and earth1 manifesting themselves in one by a deadly poison1 and in another by the most salubrious food4 ,a lemon ingrafted upon an orange stock1 is capable of changing the sap of the orange into its own nature1 by a different arrangement of the nutritive juices4 ,one mass of earth will give life and vigour to the bitter aloe1 to the sweet cane1 the cool house-leek1 and the fiery mustard1 the nourishing grain1 and the deadly night-shade4 ,the wood may be considered as composed of two parts1 ligneous and parenchymatous4 ,the former has already been treated of2 the latter is that which is disposed into rays1 running as it were between the ligneous fibres1 and interweaving with them2 it originates either with the pith or corona4 ,there is a very great diversity in these radial insertions2 in some trees there are very few1 while they abound in others2 in some they are very fine1 in others very thick4 ,in texture1 they seem similar to the blebs of the bark1 only that here they are so crowded and stretched out as to appear like parallel threads1 somewhat similar to a net when drawn tight4 ,,of ,,the ,,corona4 ,dr4 ,hill gives this name to that circle which surrounds the pith1 and separates it from the wood2 although in his opinion it differs greatly from both1 and in its composition has no resemblance to either4 ,it is1 according to him1 the most important part in the whole vegetable fabric1 by which the propagation and increase of the branches1 buds1 and shoots1 are carried on4#acg #acg ,hill on the ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #ee4 ,it has been usual to suppose the pith of vegetables to be the part in which these wonderful sources of increase reside1 but this is not the case2 and he asserts1 that so far from being prior to the other parts1 it is in reality posterior to some of them in the time of its formation4 ,the corona is not so uniform as the other parts1 nor is it constituted exactly similar in all trees4 ,it is placed between the pith and wood in all vegetables1 forming a ring1 whose outline is more or less regulated4 ,the general circle is cellular1 composed of blebs and vessels1 like the bark and the rind1 and is perfectly similar to them1 only that at different distances oblong clusters of different vessels are placed amongst it4 ,these clusters are usually eight or ten in number1 and give origin to the angles of the corona4 ,they are not uniform1 or of one kind of vessels1 as in the bark1 but each has two distinct sorts1 the exterior one answering to the blea1 and the interior1 to the wood of trees2 and within each of these are disposed vessels not unlike those in the blea and wood1 though often larger than they are found in those parts4 ,thus each cluster is composed of all the essential parts of the succeeding branch1 and the intermediate parts of the circle are absolutely bark and rind2 they are ready to follow and clothe the cluster when it goes off in the form of a shoot1 because it will then need their covering and defence1 though in its present inclosed state it does not4 ,it is from this construction1 that a tree is ready at all times and in all parts to shoot out branches1 and every branch in the same manner to send out others2 for the whole trunk1 and the branch in all its length1 have this course of eight or ten clusters of essential vessels ready to be protruded out1 and the proper and natural integuments as ready to cover them4 ,in some trees1 these parts are more evident1 in others more obscurely arranged4 ,dr4 ,hill says1 the bocconia1 or parrot-wood of the ,west-,indies1 and the greater celandine1 are proper subjects for opening this great mystery of nature4 ,on the corona and its clusters depend that property of vegetables1 that they can be produced entire from every piece4 ,these clusters follow the course of the other portions of the tree2 they are therefore everywhere2 they are always capable of growing1 and their growth1 even in a cutting of the smallest twig1 cannot produce a leaf1 or any other part of a vegetable alone1 but must afford the whole2 for they are complete bodies1 and the whole is there waiting only for the opportunity of extension1 by obtaining sufficient nourishment4 ,for the knowledge we have of this part we are altogether indebted to ,dr4 ,hill4 ,it remains for future observers to confirm1 or disprove his observations4 ,,of ,,the ,,pith4 ,the pith is found in the center of every young shoot of a tree2 it is large in some1 less in others1 but present in all4 ,it is placed close within the corona4 ,it seems to be nothing more than a congeries of the cellular tissue2 it is generally found near the center of the tree1 inclosed as it were within a tube2 in general1 the cells of the pith are larger than those of the cellular tissue1 with which1 according to ,du ,hamel1 it communicates4 ,for the rays which extend from the pith to the bark are1 in his opinion1 produced from it4 ,thus1 though it may differ in name from the parenchymatous parts of the bark1 and the radial insertions in the wood1 yet it is of the same nature and texture1 and is continuous with them2 so that1 according to this idea1 the skin1 the parenchyma1 the insertions1 and the pith1 are all one piece of work1 filled up in divers manners with the vessels4 ,the bark and the wood grow thicker every year1 while the pith1 on the contrary1 grows more slender1 so that in a branch of one year it is of a larger size than it is in the same branch when two years old1 and so on4 ,in very young branches1 while in an herbaceous state1 the pith forms the greatest part of its substance2 but when the fibres are stronger1 the pith becomes less succulent1 and surrounded with a tube of wood2 when the branch has arrived to a certain age1 it is so compressed as to be almost annihilated4 ,in examining different branches that proceed from others in their first state1 a small communication between the pith of the one and the other will be found2 but this communication is generally entirely closed up in the second or third year4#ach ,the cells of which the pith is formed are at first entirely one connected body2 but as the plant grows up1 it is often so broken and ruptured1 as to remain no longer a continuous substance4 #ach ,du ,hamel ,physique des ,arbres1 tom4 #a1 p4 #ch4 ,this1 as well as many other particulars in the history of the pith1 corroborates the opinion of ,dr4 ,hill1#aci who thinks it is formed for the purpose of moistening the clusters of the corona1 and regulating its extension2 it has been supposed coeval with1 or primordial to all the other parts1 but he thinks it is postnate1 and comes after them in the order of time1 as well as in its uses2 that exhaled air gives origin to its blebs1 and the thickness of the juices cloathing the bubble1 gives it form and substance4 ,the first season is the time of its greatest use1 and it immediately after begins to decay4 #aci ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #ff4 ,the pith has in general been represented as much more complex than it really is4 ,it consists of a range of bladders lying one over the other4 ,the membrane is simple1 the outline single2 but as it is very difficult to procure it in this simple state1 it is often seen and represented under a variety of irregular1 though pleasing forms1 which are occasioned by the intersections of the outlines of the blebs1 as seen one over another4 ,a cluster in any part of the corona1 protruding itself onward and outward in the growing season1#adj carries a part of the circle out with it4 ,the cluster itself is a perfect piece of the wood and blea1 and the bark which follows it out in its progress perfectly clothes it2 thus is the first protrusion of the shoot made1 but all this while there is no pith4 ,the continuation of growth is made by the extension of all the parts obliquely upwards2 in the course of this extension they hollow themselves into a kind of cylinder1 of the form of the future branch1 and by this disposition a small vacancy is made in their center4 ,this enlarges as they increase1 and as it enlarges it becomes filled with the exudation of those little bladders which remain and constitute the pith1 fed from the inner coat of the pith1 which already begins to form itself into a new corona4 ,grew seemed to think1 that in some instances the pith was of posterior growth to the other parts1 and derived its origin from the bark2 and that the insertions of the bark running in between the rays of the wood meet in the center1 and constitute the pith4 #adj ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,sap ,,vessels4 ,the most numerous and the largest apertures are generally to be found in the wood1 which are perceived very distinctly in a transverse section1 in which the ends of the vessels are seen as cut through by the knife4 ,the scarlet oak of ,america is recommended as a proper object for exhibiting them4 ,if a short cylinder of a three years branch of this oak1 a little macerated1 be hollowed away with a chissel1 we shall see what a large portion of the wood is occupied by these vessels2 they are thick and strong1 and it is easy1 with some care and attention1 to loosen several of them4 ,if a number of these thus separated be put into a vial of rain water1 and frequently shook for several days1 some will at length be found perfectly clean2 these are then to be put into spirit of wine1 and when that has been two or three times changed1 they will be in a condition to be viewed for understanding their structure2 another method of preparation has already been shewn in page #afb4 ,these are the vessels which have been called by some writers air1 by others1 tracheal vessels4 ,it is1 however1 to be remarked1 that most of those who have considered them as air vessels1 refer us to the tree while in a more herbaceous state2 in this case they say1 that we shall find these parts filled with a fine spiral filament4 ,as these vessels are often to be found empty1 they have been supposed to answer the purposes of lungs to the plant4 ,malpighi asserts1 that if they be examined in winter1 they often exhibit a vermicular motion1 which astonishes the spectator4 ,those who suppose the corona to contain the whole structure of the tree in miniature1 and that it is the embryo of future shoots1 suppose it to contain the vessels proper for each part1 a subject that must be left to the decision of future observers4 ,,of ,,the ,,vasa ,,propria ,,intima4 ,these are the only vessels which remain to be spoken of4 ,they are large1 conspicuous1 and important2 their natural place is in the blea1 though they are sometimes repeated in the wood and the corona4 ,their coats are thicker than those of any other vessels4#ada ,it is not difficult1 after a successful maceration1 to separate some of these vessels from the blea2 in this state they appear perfect cylinders1 with thick white coats1 of a firm1 solid1 and uniform texture4 #ada ,hill's ,construction of ,timber1 p4 #hc and #he4 ,it has generally been supposed1 that each of those concentric circles1 which are to be observed in the transverse section of almost every tree1 was the product of one year1 or the quantity of wood added to the tree in that space2 here1 however1 ,dr4 ,hill differs again from the general opinion4 ,from what has been said1 we may deduce the following general ideas relative to the organization of trees4 ,the most obvious and remarkable parts of a plant1 or tree1 are the root1 the stem1 the branches1 the leaves1 the flower1 and the fruit4 ,the component parts of these divisions are not complicated2 they are simple when compared with those of an animal1 and this because the offices of the vegetable are fewer than those of the animal4 ,the interior part may be considered as consisting of ligneous fibres1 interspersed with a vast number of bladders1 which are here named the cellular tissue1 the vasa propria1 and the sap vessels2 though these are considered by some writers as mere air vessels4 ,the ligneous fibres are very fine tubes1 proceeding nearly in a vertical direction from the top to the bottom of the tree2 they are sometimes parallel to each other1 sometimes they divaricate1 and often leave oblong intervals or spaces4 ,there is great reason for supposing them to be a species of lymphatic vessels4 ,the vacant spaces between these fibres are filled up by a vesicular membrane1 lying in an horizontal direction1 and which is called in this chapter the cellular tissue4 ,the vasa propria are formed of ligneous fibres1 but differ from the foregoing in their size1 and in the juices which they contain4 ,in the part properly called the wood1 we meet with the sap vessels2 but as in some states they seem as if they were formed of a silver-coloured spiral membrane1 and are found without any juices1 they have been supposed to be air vessels1 and called the trachea1 making up an arterial system1 and supplying the place of the heart in animals4 ,the interior part of the tree may be further considered as divided into four principal concentric strata1 the bark1 the blea1 the wood1 and the pith2 to these ,dr4 ,hill has added the corona4 ,whatever part of a plant is examined1 we find these and no more4 ,the root1 its ascending stalk1 and descending fibre1 are formed of one1 and not three different substances4 ,thus the whole vegetable is reduced to one entire body4 ,and what appears in the flower to be formed of altogether distinct parts1 will be found to originate in these4 ,the bark1 which is the exterior covering of the tree1 is divided into two parts1 a thin outer rind1 and a much thicker inner one4 ,the exterior one seems to be little more than a fine film of irregular meshes1 the inner one composed of large blebs1 leaving in some subjects large vacant spaces1 which form its vasa propria4 ,it is made up of several strata lying one over the other4 ,next to this is the blea1 which is of an uniform structure4 ,it is an imperfect wood1 waiting only for the hand of time to be brought to perfection4 ,the duration of the blea in this middle state depends on the internal powers and strength of the tree1 being so much shorter as this is more vigorous4 ,the wood1 including the corona1 comes next2 it differs in density and duration both from the blea1 the bark1 and the wood4 ,it is made up of strong fibres4 ,the life of the vegetable seems to reside in it2 from it all the other parts are produced4 ,it shoots a pith inwards1 and a blea and a bark outwards4 ,every tree may be considered as consisting of numerous concentric strata or flakes1 forming so many cones1 inscribed one within the other1 and whose number is almost indefinite4 ,the most exterior contain the rudiments of the bark2 the more interior1 those of the wood4 ,in the germ they are gelatinous1 by degrees they become herbaceous1 and in process of time assume the consistence of wood4 ,thus the stem1 the root and the branch1 may be considered as formed of a prodigious number of concentric vertical strata1 each composed of different fascicles of fibres2 which fibres are again formed of smaller ones4 ,the spaces between these1 and among the fibres1 are filled up1 interwoven with1 and connected by the cellular tissue1 of which the radial insertions are formed4 ,the strata harden successively one after the other2 the most interior stratum is that which hardens first2 this is then covered by another which is more ductile and herbaceous1 and so on2 so that the bulk of the tree is increased every year by the accession of an hollow cylinder of wood derived from the internal bark4 ,from the extension in breadth1 the tree acquires bulk2 from that in length it gains its height4 ,the strata gradually diminish in size as they gain in length2 from hence the conical figure of the root1 stem1 and branch4 ,all the parts of the plant are the same1 differing in nothing more than in shape and size4 ,the roots are sharp and pointed1 that they may make their way more readily through the earth4 ,the leaves are broad1 that they may more effectually catch the moisture from the atmosphere1 c4 ,when the root of a tree is elevated above1 instead of being retained under the earth1 it assumes the appearance of a perfect plant1 with leaves and branches4 ,experiment shews that a young tree may have its branches placed in the earth1 and its roots elevated in the air1 and in that inverted state it will continue to live and grow4 ,the principal source of the phnomena of vegetation is the simplicity and uniformity of their organization4 ,the figures in ,plates ,,xxviii4 ,,xxix4 and ,,xxx4 are portions of transverse sections of trees and herbs4 ,the sections were cut by ,mr4 ,custance1#adb who first brought this art to perfection1 and remains hitherto unrivalled in these performances4 #adb ,for a collection of ,mr4 ,custance's vegetable cuttings1 and which1 in sets1 usually accompany the best sort of microscopes1 made by ,messrs4 ,jones1 see the list of microscopical objects now annexed to this work by the editor4 ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,fig4 #a1 exhibits a piece of an herb growing on rubbish1 and known by the name of fat-hen3#adc ,fig4 #b1 a microscopic view of the same4 ,fig4 #c1 a magnified representation of a section of a reed that comes from ,portugal3 ,fig4 #d1 the real size of the section4 #adc ,chenopedium bonus ,henricus4 ,plate ,,xxix4 ,fig4 #a1 is a magnified view of a section of the althea frutex3 ,fig4 #b1 the natural size of the section4 ,fig4 #c1 a magnified view of a section of the hazel3 ,fig4 #d1 its natural size4 ,fig4 #e1 a microscopic view of a section of a branch of the lime-tree3 ,fig4 #f represents its natural size4 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,fig4 #a1 a magnified view of a section of the sugarcane3 ,fig4 #b1 its natural size4 ,fig4 #c1 a magnified view of a section of the bamboo cane3 ,fig4 #d1 the natural size4 ,fig4 #e1 a magnified view of a section of the common cane3 ,fig4 #f1 the real size4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,,of ,,the ,,crystallization ,,of ,,salts1 ,,as ,,seen ,,by ,,the ,,microscope2 ,,together ,,with ,a ,,concise ,,list ,,of ,,objects4 ,crystallization1 in general1 signifies the natural formation of any substance into a regular figure1 resembling that of a natural crystal4 ,hence the phrases of the crystallized ores1 crystallized salts1 c4 and even the basaltic rocks are now generally reckoned to be effects of this operation2 the term1 however1 is most commonly applied to bodies of the saline kind2 and their separation in regular figures from the water1 or other fluid in which they were dissolved1 is called their crystallization4 ,if the word crystallization were to be confined to its most proper sense1 as it seems to have been formerly1 it could only be applied to operations by which certain substances are disposed to pass from a fluid to a solid state1 by the union of their parts1 which so arrange themselves1 that they form transparent and regularly-figured masses1 like native crystal2 from which resemblance the word crystallization has evidently been taken4#add #add ,macquer's ,dictionary of ,chemistry1 ,art4 ,crystallization4 ,but modern chemists and naturalists have much extended this expression1 and it now signifies a regular arrangement of the parts of any body which is capable of it1 whether the masses so arranged be transparent or not4 ,thus opake stones1 pyrites1 and minerals when regularly formed1 are said to be crystallized1 as well as transparent stones and salts4 ,the opacity and transparency of substances are justly disregarded1 in considering whether they be crystallized or not2 for these qualities are perfectly indifferent to the regular arrangement of the integrant parts of substances1 which is the essential object of crystallization4 ,this being established1 crystallization may be defined1 an operation by which the integrant parts of a body1 separated from each other by the interposition of a fluid1 are disposed to unite again1 and to form solid1 regular1 and uniform masses4 ,to understand as much as we can of the mechanism of crystallization1 we must remark1 #a4 ,that the integrant parts of all bodies have a tendency to each other1 by which they approach1 unite1 and adhere together1 when not prevented by an obstacle4 #b4 ,that in bodies simple or little-compounded1 this tendency of integrant parts is more obvious and sensible than in others more compounded2 hence the former are much more disposed to crystallize4 #c4 ,that although we do not know the figure of the primitive integrant molecules of any body1 we cannot doubt but that those of every different body have a constantly uniform and peculiar figure4 #d4 ,that these integrant parts cannot have an equal tendency to unite indiscriminately by any of their sides1 but by some preferably to others1 excepting all the sides of an integrant part of a body be equal and similar2 and probably the sides1 by which they tend to unite1 are those by which they can touch most extensively and immediately4 ,the most general phnomena of crystallization may be conceived in the following manner3 ,let a body be supposed to have its integrant parts separated from each other by some fluid2 if a part of this fluid be taken away1 these integrant parts will approach together3 and1 as the quantity of intervening fluid diminishes1 they will at last touch and unite4 ,they may also unite when they come so near to each other1 that their mutual tendency shall be capable of overcoming the distance betwixt them4 ,if1 besides1 they have time and liberty to unite with each other by the sides most disposed to this union1 they will form masses of a figure constantly uniform and similar4 ,for the same reason1 when the interposed fluid is hastily taken away1 so that the integrant parts shall be approximated1 and be brought into contact before they have taken the position of their natural tendency1 then they will join confusedly by such sides as chance presents to them2 they will1 in such circumstances1 form solid masses1 whose figures will not be determinate1 but irregular and various4 ,different salts assume different figures in crystallization1 and are1 by these means1 easily distinguished from one another4 ,but besides the large crystals produced in this way1 each salt is capable of producing a very different appearance of the crystalline kind1 when only a drop of the saline solution is made use of1 and the crystallization viewed through a microscope4 ,for our knowledge of this species of crystallization1 we are indebted to ,mr4 ,henry ,baker1 who was presented by the ,royal ,society with a gold medal for the discovery1 in the year #agdd4 ,these microscopical crystals he distinguishes from the larger ones by the name of configurations2 but this term seems inaccurate1 and the distinction may be properly preserved by calling the large ones the ,,common1 and the small ones the ,,microscopical1 crystals of the salt4 ,it has not yet been shewn by any writer on the subject1 why salts should assume any regular figure1 much less why every one should have a form peculiar to itself4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton endeavoured to account for this1 by supposing the particles of salt to be diffused through the solvent fluid1 at equal distances from each other2 and that then the power of the attraction between the saline particles could not fail to bring them together in regular figures1 as soon as the diminution of heat suffered them to act on each other4 ,but it is certain some other agent must be concerned in this operation1 besides mere attraction1 otherwise all salts would crystallize in the same manner4 ,others have1 therefore1 had recourse to some kind of polarity in the particles of each salt1 which determined them to arrange themselves in such a certain form2 but unless we give a reason for this polarity1 we only explain crystallization by itself4 ,one thing seems to have been overlooked by those who have endeavoured to investigate this subject1 namely1 that the saline particles do not only attract one another1 but they also attract some part of the water which dissolves them4 ,did they only attract each other1 the salt1 instead of crystallizing1 would fall to the bottom as a powder2 whereas1 a saline crystal is composed of salt and water1 as certainly as the body of an animal is composed of flesh and blood1 or a vegetable of solid matter and sap2 if a saline crystal be deprived of its aqueous part1 it will as certainly lose its crystalline form1 as if it were deprived of the saline part4 ,it is1 therefore1 not improbable1 that crystallization is a species of vegetation1 and is accomplished by the same powers to which the growth of plants and animals is to be ascribed4 ,some kinds of crystallization resemble vegetation so much1 that we can scarce avoid attributing them to the same cause4 ,it has been imagined1 that all the great operations in nature may be reduced to two principles1 those of crystallization and organization2 but that often they are so concealed1 as to be invisible4 ,hence crystallized substances have been frequently mistaken for organized ones1 and vice versa4 ,they differ1 however1 essentially in their growth and origin4 ,organized beings spring from a germ1 in which all the essential parts are concentrated1 and they grow by intusception2 whereas crystallized substances increase by the successive apposition of certain molecules of a determined figure1 which unite in one common mass4 ,thus crystallized beings do not grow1 properly speaking1 though their substance is augmented1 they are not preformed1 but formed daily4 ,the phnomena of crystallization have much engaged the attention of modern chemists1 and a vast number of experiments has been made with a view to determine exactly the different figures assumed by salts in passing from a fluid to a solid form4 ,it does not1 however1 appear1 from all that has yet been done1 that any certain rule can be laid down in these cases1 as the figure of saline crystals may be varied by the slightest circumstances4 ,thus1 sal ammoniac1 when prepared by a mixture of pure volatile alkali with spirit of salt1 shoots into crystals resembling feathers2 but if1 instead of a pure alkali1 we make use of one just distilled from bones1 and containing a great quantity of animal oil1 we shall1 after some crystallizations of the feathery kind1 obtain the very same salt in the form of cubes4 ,such salts as are sublimeable crystallize not only in the aqueous way by solution and evaporation1 but also by sublimation2 and the difference betwixt the figures of these crystals is often very remarkable4 ,thus1 sal ammoniac1 by sublimation never exhibits any appearance of feathery crystals1 but always forms cubes or parallelopipeds4 ,this method of crystallizing salts by sublimation has not as yet been investigated by chemists2 nor indeed does the subject seem capable of investigation without much trouble1 as the least augmentation of the heat beyond the proper degree would make the crystals run into a solid cake1 while a diminution of it would cause them to fall into powder4 ,in aqueous solutions1 too1 the circumstances which determine the shapes of the crystals are innumerable2 and the degree of heat1 the quantity of salt contained in the liquor1 nay1 the quantity of the liquor itself1 and the various constitutions of the atmosphere at the time of crystallization1 often occasion such differences as seem quite unaccountable and surprizing4 ,mr4 ,bergman has given a dissertation on the various forms of crystals2 which1 he observes1 always resemble geometrical figures more or less regular4 ,their variety at first appears infinite2 but by a careful examination it will be found1 that a great number of crystals1 seemingly very different from each other1 may be produced by the combination of a small number of original figures1 which therefore he thinks may be called primitive4 ,on this principle he explains the formation of the crystalline gems1 as well as salts4#ade #ade ,encycl4 ,britan4 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #ehc4 ,it has been already shewn1 page #afc1 how to prepare the various salts for microscopical observations4 ,the beautiful crystallizations represented in ,plates ,,xxxi4 and ,,xxxii4 were produced in the manner there described4 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,fig4 #b1 exhibits a view of the microscopical crystals of nitre4 ,these shoot from the edges with very little heat1 in flattish figures1 of various lengths1 and exceedingly transparent1 the sides nearly parallel1 though rather jagged1 and tapering to a point2 after a number of these are formed1 they often dissolve under the eye1 and disappear entirely2 but in a little time new shoots will push out1 and the process go on afresh4 ,beautiful ramifications are formed round the edge1 and many regular figures are to be observed in different parts of the drop4 ,fig4 #a is the real size of the drop4 ,fig4 #d is a drop of distilled verdigrise1 as it appeared when viewed by the microscope4 ,there is a difference in the appearance from this substance1 according as the time of the application is nearer to1 or more distant from that in which the solution was made4 ,fig4 #c1 the size of the drop4 ,if a drop of distilled verdigrise upon glass be viewed through the microscope1 after the crystallization is completed and the water evaporated1 there remains a substance round the crystallization1 which preserves the original size and shape of the drop when a liquid2 betwixt this verge of the drop and the crystals fine lines are discernible running from the crystals to the circumference of the drop1 at various angles with the crystals2 whatever direction they take1 they are always perfectly straight1 and of an equal thickness throughout4 ,when the drop is viewed through a light ground1 these lines appear dark2 but when viewed through a dark ground1 they then shine and appear of the beautiful green colour natural to the crystals of verdigrise4 ,plate ,,xxxii4 ,fig4 #a1 represents the microscopical appearance of the crystals of salt of wormwood4 ,the shootings from the edges of this solution are often very thick in proportion to their length1 their sides full of notches1 the ends generally acute2 many spear-like forms are also to be observed1 as well as little crystals of a variety of figures4 ,fig4 #b4 ,salt of amber4 ,the shootings of this salt are highly entertaining1 though the process is very slow2 many spicul shoot from the edge towards the middle of the solution1 and from the pointed ends of the spicul a great variety of diversified branches may be observed1 variously divided and subdivided1 and forming at last1 says ,baker1 a winter scene of trees without leaves4 ,fig4 #c4 ,salt of hartshorn4 ,this salt shoots out from the edge of the drop into solid1 thick1 and rather opake figures2 from these it often shoots into branches of a rugged appearance1 similar to those of some species of coral4 ,fig4 #d represents the microscopical crystals of sal ammoniac4 ,these form a most beautiful object in the microscope2 a general idea may be more easily acquired by attentively viewing the figure here exhibited1 than by any verbal description4#adf #adf ,a collection of salts1 as recommended by ,mr4 ,baker1 properly prepared and packed in portable boxes by ,messrs4 ,jones1 the reader will see in the extensive list of microscopic objects now annexed to this work by the editor4 ,a ,,concise ,,list ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,microscope4 ,the short list here presented to the reader must1 from the nature of the subject1 be very imperfect2 for the whole of the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms1 with all their numerous subdivisions1 furnish objects for the microscope2 and there is not one of them1 that1 when properly examined1 will not afford instruction and entertainment to the rational investigator of the works of creation4 ,the ,systema ,natur of ,linnus may therefore be regarded as a catalogue of universals for microscopic observation1 each of which comprehends a variety of particulars4 ,the list here given can be considered as little more than a directory1 to point out to those who have only begun to study this part of natural history a few of those objects which merit their attention1 and which1 from their beauties1 may incite them to pursue the study with greater ardor4 ,,of ,,opake ,,objects4 ,ores and minerals afford an immense variety of very beautiful and splendid objects4 ,from amongst these the observer may select the peacock or coloured copper ore1 green crystallized ditto1 lead ore1 crystallized ditto1 crystals of lead1 small grained marcasites1 coloured mundic1 cinnabar1 native sulphur1 needle and other antimony1 moss copper1 c4 ,a mixture of small pieces of ores1 c4 of different kinds1 produces a pleasing effect4 ,sands in general exhibit something not discoverable with the naked eye4 ,sand from the sea-shore is often intermixed with minute shells1 particularly that from ,rimini1 in ,italy4 ,mr4 ,walker has published a specimen of the small microscopic shells which are found on our own coast4 ,from this work we learn1 that there are shell-fish as small as the minutest insects1 and possessed of beauties of which we can form no conception till we have seen them4 ,mr4 ,walker's work is entitled1 8,a ,collection of the minute and rare ,shells lately discovered in the ,sand on the ,sea-shore near ,sandwich40#adg ,there is a sand from ,africa full of small garnets4 ,the ketton1 or kettering stone1 is a pleasing object2 when examined by the microscope1 we find the grain of it very different from that of other stones1 being composed of innumerable minute balls1 which barely touch each other1 and yet form a substance much harder than free-stone2 the grains are1 in general1 so firmly united together at the points of contact1 that it is hardly possible to separate them without breaking one or both of the grains4 ,see ,hooke's ,micrographia4 #adg ,this publication will be more particularly noticed in the ensuing chapter4 ,,edit4 ,insects of all kinds1 both foreign and domestic1 are pleasing objects2 but as the foreign ones are not so easily met with1 ,i shall mention but a few of them1 confining myself principally to those of this country4 ,among the exotic insects1 none appear more beautiful in the microscope than the curculio imperialis1 ,brazil or diamond beetle2 the buprestis ignita1 or large beetle from ,china2 the meloe vesicatorius1 ,linn4 the cantharis or ,spanish fly of the shops2 several species of locusts1 grasshoppers1 c4 ,among the ,english beetles1 we may reckon the scarabus auratus or rose chaffer1 scarabus nobilis1 scarabus horticola1 silpha aquatica1 cassida nobilis and nebulosa4 ,coccinella or lady-cow2 of these there are great varieties both in size and colour1 some red and black1 others black and red1 and some yellow and black4 ,chrysomela graminis1 chrysomela fastuosa1 chrysomela nitidula1 chrysomela sericea1 chrysomela melanopa1 chrysomela asparagi1 see ,plate ,,xx4 ,fig4 #b4 ,curculio frumentarius1 lapathi1 betula1 nucum1 scrophularia1 argenteus1 a beautiful little insect resembling the diamond beetle1 but in miniature2 curculio albinus1 very beautiful1 but scarce in this country4 ,leptura aquatica1 these are of various colours1 as blue1 purple1 bronze1 and crimson4 ,arcuata arietis1 very common1 and is often called the wasp beetle4 ,cicindela campestris1 on dry banks4 ,carabus nitens1 found in ,yorkshire1 a beautiful insect2 many small carabi4 ,gryllus1 gryllo-talpa or mole cricket1 this insect1 and the grasshoppers1 are many of them too large to be observed at one view1 but the head1 fore and hind feet1 elytra1 c4 viewed separately1 are fine objects4 ,cicada sanguinolenta1 nervosa1 interrupta1 notonecta striata1 minutissima1 head and claws of the nepa cinerea or water-scorpion1 and the whole variety of cimices or field bugs4 ,the wings of butterflies and moths2 the chrysalis of the common white butterfly is extremely fine4 ,i wish it were in my power to invite the reader to consider the pupa state of these insects1 as he would find them interesting in various points of view4 ,perhaps the following passage from an ingenious writer may have this effect4 8,some of these creatures crawl for a time as helpless worms upon the earth1 like ourselves2 they then retire into a covering1 which answers the end of a coffin or a sepulchre1 wherein they are invisibly transformed1 and come forth in glorious array1 with wings and painted plumes1 more like the inhabitants of the heavens than such worms as they were in their former state4 ,this transformation is so striking and pleasant an emblem of the present1 the intermediate1 and glorified state of man1 that people of the most remote antiquity1 when they buried their dead1 embalmed and inclosed them in an artificial covering1 so figured and painted1 as to resemble the caterpillar in the intermediate state2 and as ,joseph was the first we read of that was embalmed in ,egypt1 where this custom prevailed1 it was probably of ,hebrew original40 ,the eggs of moths and butterflies1 particularly the phalna neustria1 see ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #a to #f4 ,the bodies and heads of many libellul4 ,many of the ichneumon flies1 spheges1 and wasps1 head of the hornet1 sting of ditto1 collectors of the bee1 many sorts of musc1 or flies with two wings1 especially those whose bodies are highly coloured2 acari or ticks2 phalangium cancroides1 see ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #a and #f4 ,some spiders1 but the eyes of all2 the oniscus or wood-louse1 julus1 and scolopendra4 ,the feathers of peacocks1 and many other birds1 have a grand effect when viewed in the opake microscope1 as have also some species of ferns1 mosses1 and wood cut transversely4 ,madrepores1 millepores1 sponges1 corallines1 c4 exhibit wonderful appearances not discernible to the naked eye4 ,parts of echini or sea eggs1 spines of ditto2 these may also be cut transversely to shew their construction4 ,minute shells dissected1 skin of many species of fish1 particularly the lump-sucker1 see ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #b4 ,sole fish1 ,plate ,,xix4 ,fig4 #e4 and the rasp fish from ,otaheite2 also the skins of snakes1 lizards1 guanas1 c4 c4 ,the exterior form1 and even the interior structure of the generality of vegetable seeds1 have been supposed by some so much alike in the several kinds1 and of so little curiosity and beauty in the whole1 that they have scarcely been regarded by the curious2 but when nearly examined with the help of microscopes1 they are found to be worthy of a greater attention2 those which appear most like to one another when viewed by the naked eye1 often proving as different1 when thus examined1 in their several forms and characters1 as the different genera of any other bodies in the creation4 ,if their external forms carry all this variety and beauty about them1 their internal structure1 when laid open by different sections1 appears yet more admirable4 ,the seed of the greater maple1 which we commonly1 but improperly call the sycamore tree1#adh consists of a pod and its wing2 two of these grow upon a pedicle1 with the pods together1 which makes them resemble the body of an insect with its expanded wings3 the wings are finely vasculated1 and the pods are winged with a fine white down resembling silk2 this contains a round compact pellet1 covered with a brown membrane that sticks very closely to it4 ,when this is pulled off1 instead of discerning a kernel1 as in other seeds1 there appears an entire green plant folded up in a most surprizing manner4 ,the pedicle of this is about two-eighths of an inch long1 and its seminal leaves of about six-eighths each2 between these the germina of the next pair of leaves are plainly visible to the naked eye1 but with a microscope they are seen with the greatest beauty and perfection4 #adh ,the ,acer pseudo-platanus1 ,hudsoni ,fl4 ,angl4 p4 #dde4 ,parkinson calls it acer majus1 adding1 sycomorus falso dictum4 ,hudson1 however1 agrees with ,hunter in his edition of ,evelyn's ,sylva1 in affixing to it the ,english term greater maple or sycamore4 ,,edit4 ,the seed of the musk scabious is beautiful in its shape and structure4 ,the calix or cup which contains the seed is of an octagonal form1 and makes an appearance like a fine vase1 having scallopped edges1 and toward the inner part of the edge a white ruffled membrane4 ,the ribs run down from its mouth1 which is bell-fashioned1 and becoming narrower downward1 form obtuse angles by continuing from the bend to form the bottom of the vase4 ,between these ribs1 down to the beginning of the narrow part1 it is clear1 though not wholly transparent1 and from thence to the bottom the ribs are hairy4 ,this vase contains the seed1 wherein appears first its thick body1 which runs up with a narrow neck1 till it divides into five spiculated fibres1 whose spicul are determined upwards1 and are thereby prepared to cause the seed to recede from any thing that might injure it on being touched4 ,the bodies of the vases1 when first ripe1 are of a fine lemon yellow1 but grow by long keeping darker2 and the bason formed by the roots of the minute fibres is of a fine green1 but the fibres themselves of a shining brown1 like brown sugar-candy1 as their spines are also4 ,these1 and a number of similar beauties in this part of the creation1 are described at large by ,dr4 ,parsons1 in his work entitled1 8,the ,microscopic ,theatre of ,seeds40#adi ,most kinds of seeds should be prepared for a microscopical examination by steeping them in warm water till their coats are separated1 and their seminal leaves may then be opened without laceration4 ,but seeds1 while dry1 and without any preparation1 are of an almost infinite variety of shapes1 and afford a number of pleasing objects for the microscope4 #adi ,this curious work was published in the year #agde4 ,it was the author's intention to have comprised the whole design in four volumes quarto1 but the first volume only appeared4 ,it contains the etymology1 synonyma1 and description of the several plants and their flowers1 with an account of their medical virtues1 and an explanation of botanical terms4 ,as the work is in but few hands1 and a copy not easy to be procured1 ,i flatter myself that extracts from those parts containing the microscopical descriptions will form an agreeable addition to these ,essays2 which the reader will accordingly meet with in the following chapter4 ,,edit4 ,one of the most interesting scenes in microscopical botany is exhibited in mouldiness4 ,those miniature plants seem to bear the same relation to the vegetable kingdom that the animalcula infusoria do to the animal2 they were formerly considered as shapeless and unformed masses1 but we now view them with surprize and pleasure taking their place in the great scale of organized beings1 and presenting us with some of the most striking characteristics of vegetables4 ,,of ,,transparent ,,objects4 ,we may select from the elytra1 or upper wings of beetles1 many beautiful objects1 the construction of these will be found to differ very much2 the membranaceous wings1 as in the scarabus solstitialis or small cock-chaffer2 blatta ,americana or cockroach2 all the grylli1 as locusts1 grasshoppers1 c4 ,among the cicadas1 the elytra of the nervosa are the most elegant1 the nerves are elevated1 and curiously spotted with brown4 ,the elytra of the cimices or field bugs1 which are a very numerous tribe1 afford a great variety of objects2 we may select from these as the most beautiful the elytra of the cimex baccarum and the cimex striatus1 ,plate ,,xx4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the elytra of the fulgora candelaria1 from ,china1 differ essentially from all others4 ,the under or more transparent wings of beetles excite our attention even more than the upper or crustaceous ones2 for whether we consider the delicacy of their texture1 the great weight that many of them are calculated to sustain in the air1 or the very curious manner in which they fold them up under the upper case1 their mechanism must astonish and delight us2 no two genera will be found alike1 though every individual of the same genus will be exact4 ,the wing of the forficula auricularia or earwig1 ,plate ,,xiv4 is an elegant specimen of the manner of their folding2 this wing folds under a case not one-eighth of its size4 ,the under wing of the blatta orientalis1 or beetle common in most kitchens1 appears to unite the elytra and transparent wings1 partaking in some degree of both4 ,among the membranaceous or more transparent winged insects1 the variety is endless1 each genus differing essentially from the other2 some appearing full of membranes or nerves1 curiously disposed2 others1 again1 with scarce any1 like a clear piece of talc or isinglass2 some exhibit a curious ground-work of points1 which on close examination prove short hairs1 while the nerves of others are furnished with little scales or feathers1 as in some species of the gnat4 ,the wings of many musc are coloured with black1 brown1 and white1 in clouds1 spots1 stripes1 c4 c4 ,the libellul or dragon-flies alone afford a great variety1 not only in form but colour2 these are all furnished with numerous and very strong nerves1 adapted to the velocity of their flight4 ,the wings of the ephemera or may-flies1 are much more delicate1 these flies rest with their wings erect4 ,the phrygane differ very much from the foregoing1 and also from one another2 their under wings fold1 and their upper ones are of a stronger texture1 many of them so much resembling small moths as not easily to be distinguished from them3 these are all found in the vicinity of ponds and marshy places4 ,in the hemerobii a wonderful degree of elegance is exhibited in the disposition of the nerves which compose their wings1 each nerve being adorned with hair in a beautiful manner2 there are many species of these flies equally beautiful1 a specimen is given in ,plate ,,xv4 ,the ichneumon fly has four transparent wings1 the inferior ones smaller1 and more delicate than the superior2 the tube through which the female deposits its eggs is an additional object well worth attention4 ,the wings of wasps are folded longitudinally2 the wings of the large bee are very curious4 ,gnats in general1 and the various species of tipul1 together with the clouded and variegated wings of the musc1 tabani1 c4 increase the catalogue beyond the power of enumeration2 in short1 there is not a wing but has its particular beauties1 and will amply repay the attentive observer4 ,the currant sphinx moth connects the transparent and farinaceous wings1 partaking of both2 the white plumed1 and many-plumed moths1 exhibit wings totally different from all the rest2 many other small moths furnish wings sufficiently transparent for observation1 the fringe or edges being remarkably beautiful4 ,,of ,,the ,,pulex ,,irritans1 ,,or ,,common ,,flea4 ,many small insects that are not too opake1 may be viewed and examined as transparent objects2 some of these having been particularly noticed by the early microscopic writers1 it will be necessary to enumerate a few of them1 as without it the work might be deemed incomplete4 ,every one is acquainted with the agility and blood-thirsty disposition of the flea1 of the caution with which it comes to the attack1 and the readiness with which it avoids pursuit4 ,it belongs to the class aptera1 has two eyes1 six feet particularly constructed for leaping1 the antenn or feelers are filiform1 or rather moniliform2 the rostrum is inflected1 setaceous1 and armed with a sting2 the belly is compressed4 ,this creature is produced from eggs1 which it deposits on the animals that afford it food1 or affixes them to the wool of blankets1 rugs1 c4 ,these eggs in about a week are hatched into small larv or worms1 which are of a whitish colour1 with a slight tinge of reddish1 and adhere closely to the body of the animal1 or other substance on which they are produced2 in a fortnight they come to a tolerable size1 and are very lively and active2 but if they be touched1 they roll themselves up in a ball4 ,at this period they prepare themselves for their pupa or chrysalis state1 by inclosing themselves in a loosely-spun web1 or diffused envelopement of a very soft1 silky1 or rather cotton-like appearance1 and of a white colour4 ,in this the larva changes into a chrysalis1 out of which in about twelve days emerges the animal in its perfect state1 armed with powers to disturb the peace of an emperor1 and occasion uneasy sensations in the fairest bosom4#aej #aej ,notwithstanding the inconveniences attending this little insect1 and the general disapprobation which its frequent intrusion occasions1 there is something pleasing in the appearance of the flea2 all its motions are elegant1 and all its postures indicate agility4 ,the shelly armour in which it is enveloped1 is in a state of perpetual cleanliness2 while the muscular power which it is capable of exerting is so extraordinary1 as justly to excite our wonder at so much strength confined1 and concentrated as it were1 in so small a space4 ,the flea1 like many other insects1 is eminent for its powers of revivescence1 and will frequently recover after being placed in situations very unfavourable to animal life4 ,some of the coleopterous insects are1 however1 capable of exhibiting far more striking examples of suspended animation4 ,nat4 ,misc4 vol4 v4 ,,edit4 ,it is difficult to obtain such a view of the flea1 as will display the mechanism and apparatus belonging to the head2 these parts are but imperfectly represented in the celebrated drawing of ,dr4 ,hooke in his ,micrographia4 ,the neck is long1 finely arched1 and much resembles the tail of a lobster2 the body is covered all over with a polished suit of sable armour1 formed of a hard shelly substance1 curiously jointed and folded over one another1 and yet yielding to all the nimble motions of the little animal2 the edges of the scales are curiously set with short spikes or hairs3 it has two sharp eyes to look before it leaps1 for which purpose its legs are excellently adapted1 having three large joints in each1 besides several smaller ones4 ,these joints are so contrived1 that it can as it were fold them up one within another2 in leaping1 they all spring at once1 and the whole strength of the insect is exerted4 ,the flexure of the fore legs is forward1 that of the hind legs backward4 ,they are all very hairy1 and terminated by two long hooked sharp claws2 the two fore legs are placed very near the neck1 and often conceal the proboscis from our view1 the other four join all at the breast3 the proboscis or sucker with which it penetrates the skin1 is placed at the end of the snout1 and is not easily seen except the two fore legs are first removed2 in it are included a couple of darts or lancets1 which1 after the proboscis has made an entrance1 are thrust farther into the flesh1 and make the blood flow from the adjacent parts1 occasioning that round red spot1 with a hole in the center of it1 called a flea-bite4 ,,of ,,the ,,cimex ,,lectularius1 ,,or ,,bed ,,bug4 ,various are the antipathies of mankind1 but all appear to unite in their dislike to this animal and the louse1 and to detest them as their natural and nauseous enemies4 ,the bug 8intrudes upon the peace of mankind1 and often banishes that sleep which even anxiety and sorrow permitted to approach3 the night is the season when the bed bug issues from its retreat to make its depredations2 by day it lurks in the most secret parts of the bed1 takes the advantage of every chink and cranny to make a secure lodgement1 and contrives its habitation with so much art1 that scarce any industry can discover its retreat2 but when darkness promises security1 it then issues from every corner of the bed1 drops from the tester1 and crawls from behind the arras1 and travels to the unhappy patient1 who vainly wishes for rest and refreshment40 ,linnus is of opinion that this insect is not originally of ,european growth1 but was imported from some other country4 ,it is not only disagreeable on account of the extremely offensive smell proceeding from it1 but also because of the rapidity with which it increases1 and the voraciousness of its appetite4 ,it has two brown small prominent eyes1 two antenn1 and a crooked proboscis1 which lies close under the breast4 ,instead of wings1 we find on the first ring of the belly two flat pieces which entirely cover it1 and extend towards the sides4 ,these plates1 the trunk1 and the head1 are amply set with hairs4 ,the proboscis is divided transversely into four parts1 which are probably so many articulations2 this piece is best seen on the under side of the bug1 being bent flat on the belly1 and reaching half way down the body2 but the mechanism of this1 as well as other parts of these minute insects1 cannot be perfectly understood1 but by an accurate examination with the microscope4 ,it has six legs1 each of which has three joints2 these legs1 like those of the fly1 are formed for running1 not leaping2 the skin is shagreened1 and the separation of the rings usually marked by a smooth shining band4 ,on the belly1 at a small distance from the edge1 a set of circular spots may be perceived1 two on each ring1 except the last2 these are the spiracula4 ,examined internally1 we find one large artery1 a stomach1 and intestines4 ,the instant it perceives the light1 it endeavours to gain its obscure habitation1 and seldom fails in making good its retreat4 ,,of ,,the ,,pediculus ,,humanus1 ,,or ,,louse4 8,whenever wretchedness1 disease1 and hunger seize upon man1 the louse seldom fails to add itself to the tribe1 and to increase in proportion to the number of his calamities40 ,when the human louse is examined with the microscope1 its deformity fills us with disgust4 ,in the head we may distinguish two fine black eyes1 looking backward and fenced with hair2 near these are the two antenn1 each of which has five joints set with short bristles2 the fore-part of the head is rather long1 the hinder more round or obtuse2 there is a small part that projects from the nose or snout1 this serves as a sheath or case to the proboscis or piercer1 which the creature thrusts into the skin to draw out the blood and humours which are its destined food1 for it has no mouth which opens in the common way4 ,this proboscis has been estimated to be seven-hundred times smaller than a hair2 it is contained in another case within the first1 and can be drawn in or thrust out at pleasure2 the skin is hard and transparent4 ,from the under side proceed six legs1 each of which has five joints1 and terminates in two unequal hooked claws1 these it uses as we would a thumb and finger2 there are hairs between the claws1 as well as all over the legs2 the body finishes in a cloven tail1 which is generally covered1 and partly concealed by hairs4 ,from the extreme transparency of its skin1 the internal parts may be seen to greater advantage than in any other insect2 as1 the various ramifications of the veins and arteries1 in which a kind of regular pulsation may be observed1 as well as the peristaltic motion of the intestines1 which is continued from the stomach to the tail4 ,when the louse feeds1 the blood rushes like a torrent into the stomach1 moving with so strong a propulsion and contraction1 as appears very curious4 ,the digestive powers are so great1 that the colour of the blood changes in its passage from thick and black at its first entrance1 to a fine ruby colour in the intestines1 and nearly white in the veins4 ,its greediness is so great1 that the excrement contained in the intestines is ejected at the same time1 to make room for this new supply4 ,there is scarce any animal that multiplies so fast as this unwelcome intruder2 the moment it is excluded from the egg it begins to breed4 ,it would be endless to describe the various creatures which go under the name of lice1 and swarm upon every part of nature4 ,the reader1 desirous of a more particular account of those which infest various animals1 will obtain full satisfaction1 by consulting ,rhedi's ,treatise de ,generatione ,insectorum4 ,,of ,,the ,,aranea1 ,,or ,,spider4 ,the spider is another insect which is often examined with the microscope1 and certainly affords much matter for observation4 8,formed for a life of rapacity1 and incapable of living but by blood1 all its habits are calculated to deceive and surprize2 it spreads toils to entangle its prey2 it is endued with patience to expect its coming1 and is possessed of arms and strength to destroy it when fallen into the snare40 8 -------- ,to heedless flies the window proves ,a constant death2 where1 gloomily retired1 ,the villain spider lives1 cunning and fierce1 ,mixture abhorr'd2 amid a mangled heap ,of carcases1 in eager watch he sits1 ,o'erlooking all his waving snares around4 ,near the dire cell the dreadless wanderer oft ,passes1 as oft the ruffian shews his front2 ,the prey at last ensnar'd1 he dreadful darts ,with rapid glide along the leaning line2 ,and fixing in the wretch his cruel fangs1 ,strikes backward grimly pleas'd3 the flutt'ring wing ,and shriller sound declare extreme distress1 ,and ask the helping hospitable hand40 ,,thomson4 ,the eyes of the spider have been described in page #aii1 they are a very beautiful microscopic object1 viewed either as transparent or opake4 ,the spider has eight legs with three joints1 thickly beset with hairs1 and terminating in three crooked moveable claws1 which have little teeth like a saw2 at a small distance from these claws1 but placed higher up1 is another something like a cock's spur1 by the assistance of which it adheres to its webs2 but the weapon wherewith it seizes and kills its prey is a pair of sharp crooked claws or forceps placed in the fore-part of the head4 ,the insect can open or extend these pincers as occasion may require2 when undisturbed1 it suffers them to lie one upon another1 concealed in two cases constructed for their reception4 ,leeuwenhoeck says1 that each of these claws has a small aperture or slit1 through which he supposes a poisonous juice is injected into the wound it makes4 ,the exuvia1 or cast-off skin of the spider1 which may be found in cobwebs1 being transparent1 is an excellent object2 and the fangs or forceps may be more easily separated from it1 and examined with greater exactness than in a living subject4 ,the contexture of the spider's web1 and the manner of weaving it1 have been discovered by the microscope4 ,the spider is supplied with a large quantity of glutinous matter within its body1 and five tubercles or nipples for spinning it into thread1 of what size it pleases1 either by opening or contracting the sphincter muscles4 ,this substance1 when examined accurately1 will be found twisted into many coils1 of an agate colour1 and which from its tenacity may be easily drawn out into threads4 ,the five nipples are placed near the extremity of the tail2 from these the aforesaid substance proceeds2 it adheres to any thing against which it is pressed1 and being drawn out hardens in the air4 ,the threads unite at a small distance from the body1 so that those which appear to us so fine and single1 are1 notwithstanding1 composed of five joined together1 and these are many times doubled when the web is in formation4 ,the web serves him for the double purpose of an habitation and of a machine for catching his food2 for in the center of this web it dwells in dismal solitude1 like a dragon in his lonely den1 an image of the evil one1 wasting all things round about it1 and eager to destroy every appearance of life4 ,when first hatched1 even these loathsome insects seem endued with a principle of association1 spinning a web in common2 but this connection is of short duration1 and soon terminates by their destroying one another4 ,if1 like the silk-worm1 they were disposed to live together peaceably1 it is possible that their labours might be productive of advantages nearly similar to that valuable insect2 for which purpose repeated attempts have been made1 though they proved ineffectual4 ,,of ,,the ,,culex1 ,,or ,,gnat4 ,the gnat is a beautiful object for the microscope4 ,the curious manner in which it disposes its eggs upon the surface of the water has been noticed in page #bhh4 ,from the egg proceeds the larva1 in which state it is most happily suited to shew the several operations of life2 for a moderate magnifying power will discover what passes within its transparent body4 ,it has a large scaly head1 with two large antenn1 besides several hairy parts1 and articulated bristles near the mouth1 which are in continual motion4 ,if the worm be dissected1 the feet of the gnat may be found folded up in the divisions of the thorax2 the abdomen is divided into eight rings1 from the edges of each of which three or four bristles proceed4 ,the tail is divided into two parts of very different forms2 by one of these it can steer itself in any direction2 in the other1 two pulmonary tubes may be discovered1 through which the insect breathes4 ,the larva has a power of moistening the tail with an oleaginous liquor1 by which means it can suspend itself on the surface of the water4 ,on agitating the water1 the worms descend with precipitation to the bottom2 but they soon return to the surface1 to breathe the air through the tube that is annexed to their tail4 ,from this state1 they pass into that of the pupa1 which is the gnat enclosed in a third skin1 under which it is formed and strengthened2 the organs of respiration are changed1 breathing at this period through a couple of horns1 which are placed near the head1 keeping itself rolled upon the surface of the water1 though on the least motion it unrolls itself and descends1 aided by the oars near the tail4 ,from the spoils of the pupa1 a little winged insect proceeds1 whose every part is active to the highest degree1 and whose entire structure is the just object of our admiration4 ,its head1 adorned with feathers1 is a fine microscopic object2 but the proboscis may be deemed one of the most curious instruments in the insect creation4 ,this formidable apparatus has been particularly described in page #ahg4 ,the exuvi or cast-off skins of insects1 being exceedingly transparent1 are well adapted for observation1 as they exhibit the external appearance of the little animal2 among these1 may be reckoned those of spiders and cimices1 but particularly the forficula auricularia or earwig1 which is an elegant exuvia2 a magnified view of the beautiful wing of this insect is exhibited in ,plate ,,xiv4 and described in page #bje4 ,the stings of insects vary not only in their form1 but also in their apparatus2 most of them require dissection2 as the stings1 for they have generally two1 are inclosed in a hard sheath or case1 to which is added a pair of feelers4 ,the stings of bees1 wasps1 c4 are barbed1 while those of the chrysis are serrated1 or notched like a saw4 ,the head of insects is furnished with an instrument or proboscis various as the insects themselves1 but all meriting attention1 as being admirably adapted to their different uses and purposes4 ,among the most remarkable are those of the bed bug1 flea1 gnat1 empis1 conops1 c4 to which may be added the singular one of the tabanus1 described in page #ahh1 and figured in ,plate ,,xvi4 ,a description of the apparatus of the bee has also been given in page #aha1 and of that of the butterfly in page #ahf4 ,the antenn of moths1 butterflies1 and most other insects1 display as great beauty in their formation as they are endless in their variety2 the distinguishing characters of many of them have been described in pages #aij-aic1 and that of the lepas anatifera in particular in page #cde1 and exhibited in ,plate ,,xiii4 ,the eyes of insects are singularly constructed1 but this structure is not discoverable without the assistance of the microscope2 the eyes of the libellula are hexagonal1 see ,plate ,,xvi4 ,fig4 #c1 and their description in page #aie2 those of the lobster are square1 as exhibited in ,fig4 #e of the same plate1 and described in page #aig4 ,the hair of animals1 as the mouse1 goat1 large bee1 and many species of caterpillars1 particularly the tufts on the head and tail of the larva of the phalna antiqua1 offer many beauties to the curious observer4 ,the bristles of a hog1 cut transversely1 appear tubular1 and the root of hair is evidently bulbous4 ,the muscular fibres1 and every anatomical preparation that can be brought under the microscope1 are pleasing objects2 the reader will meet with many curious and interesting observations on the hairs1 the muscles1 nerves1 and other parts of the human body1 in ,fontana's ,treatise on the ,venom of ,vipers4 ,the legs of all insects appear very much diversified1 and their mechanism truly astonishing1 according with their different occupations1 as particularized in pages #baj-bab4 ,scales of fish1 as soles1 roach1 dace1 salmon1 eels1 c4 as also the scales of snakes1 lizards1 c4 c4 ,specimens of scales are given in ,plates ,x4 and ,,xix4 ,the scales form a light1 but at the same time a solid and smooth covering to the fish2 they hinder the fluid from penetrating the body1 for which purpose they are laid in a kind of natural oil2 they serve also as a protection1 and break the force of any accidental blow1 which may be the reason why river-fish have larger and stronger scales than sea-fish1 being more liable to accidents4 ,the purple tide of life1 nay the very globules of the blood1 may be seen distinctly rolling through veins and arteries smaller than the finest hair4#aea #aea ,the manner of viewing the particles of the blood has been described in p4 #adi1 together with some remarks on their form1 by our author4 ,it was not my intention to have renewed the subject2 but a chirurgical treatise having been lately published by ,everard ,home1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 in which it appears that he has paid particular attention towards investigating these minute particles1 and ascertaining their true form1 ,i shall here subjoin an abstract4 8,as the result of microscopical experiments has been found exceedingly fallacious1 a prejudice has very naturally arisen against all experiments of this kind upon the secretions of the human body1 from a supposition that they are not to be depended upon4 ,but it is right that we should discriminate1 and not condemn the use of the microscope altogether1 because from ignorance of its principles it has been misapplied2 since these very deceptions have been the means of our acquiring a more accurate knowledge of the use and application of that instrument4 8,the errors in the use of the microscope have arisen from increasing the magnifying powers of the glasses too much1 and not taking in all the circumstances relating to the refraction of the rays of light1 making no allowance for the aberration4 ,an attention to the aberration alone will explain the different appearances under which the red globules of the blood have been represented4 ,some have found them perfect spheres1 which will always be the case when the glasses are perfectly adjusted1 and the object placed at the true focal distance4 ,others have found them annular1 from the object being at the focal distance of the rays transmitted near the circumference of the magnifying glass1 which are refracted in a greater degree1 and consequently shorter than the central rays4 ,others1 again1 have viewed them as flattened bodies of a circular figure1 bright in the center1 and becoming darker towards the edges2 which appearance arises from the object being at the focal distance of the central rays of the magnifying glass1 which will be less refracted than those near the circumference4 ,although such are the errors which arise1 when microscopical researches are pushed beyond certain bounds2 yet1 that the red part of the blood is made up of globules1 is a discovery for which we are indebted to the microscope1 and which seems to be as well ascertained as any discovery in anatomy or physiology4 ,the appearances of pus are equally distinct1 when examined on the field of a microscope1 as the globules of the blood2 they are visible with a small degree of magnifying power1 and are the same to the eyes of different persons40 ,,edit4 ,feathers1 and parts of feathers of birds1 are not to be passed by or unnoticed2 but it is impossible to point out any of these in preference to others1 as each has its peculiar beauties2 the plumul of these have generally in the microscope the appearance of large feathers2 the pith contained in the quill1 if cut transversely and examined1 exhibits an admirable reticular texture4 ,many other parts of birds will afford a great variety of curious objects1 particularly the egg3 ,mr4 ,martin says1 that the internal spongy substance of bones may be better observed in those of birds1 than of any other animal2 even the feathers or scales of a moth's wing amply repay the observer2 these also vary in their texture and figure2 but the largest and most commonly applied1 are from the body of the sphinx stellatarum1 or humming-bird moth2 a specimen is given in ,plate ,,xvi4 ,fig4 ,e ,f ,h ,i4 ,transverse sections of all kinds of wood1 especially those of a pithy or soft nature1 form some of the most delightful objects for the microscope2 among these1 the section of fern root will be found strikingly curious1 from the singular disposition of the air and sap vessels2 their beauty will be seen by the figures in ,plates ,,xxviii4 ,,xxix4 and ,,xxx4 ,flowers1 whose brilliancy and variety constitute one of the principal beauties of nature1 each being distinguished from the rest by some peculiar beauty or shining character4 ,the flowers of most grasses1 with all the varieties of mosses2 the farina of flowers2 mouldiness1 which evidently appears to vegetate2 all the kinds of sponge2 sea-weeds2 particularly the conferv1 which are jointed like a cane4 ,the extensive family of corallines present an elegant appearance2 the most beautiful are the sea hair1 sea fir1 sickle1 fox tail1 c4 described by ,ellis4 ,dissected leaves1 which shew the fibres and nerves2 the human intestine injected with wax is a fine object2 as are many other anatomical preparations4 ,the seed of the silver-rind birch appears like an insect2 seed of the quaking grass is also much admired1 as is the leaf which covers the seed of sorrel4 ,among artificial productions1 the edge of a razor1 and point of a fine needle1 as also fine cambrick1 evidently discover the inferiority of the workman2 particles from the collision of flint and steel2 wire melted by the electric explosion1 and other articles innumerable4 ,besides these1 there is an immense variety of objects which can only be satisfactorily examined alive1 such as polypes1 minute aquatic insects2 animalcula of various infusions1 as eels in paste1 vinegar1 c4 ,the eyes and teeth of snails2 the circulation of the blood in the tails of fishes1 c4#aeb #aeb ,those who possess leisure1 particularly such who reside in the country1 may easily procure the major part of the preceding objects1 and also add an extensive variety to them2 but those who have not the opportunity of collecting for themselves1 may be supplied with objects in considerable variety by application to ,messrs4 ,jones4 ,,edit4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,,an ,,arrangement ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,minute ,,and ,,rare ,,shells4--,a ,,descriptive ,,list ,,of ,a ,,variety ,,of ,,vegetable ,,seeds1 ,,as ,,they ,,appear ,,when ,,viewed ,,by ,,the ,,microscope4 ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,notwithstanding the abundance of objects which have from time to time afforded delight to the attentive and diligent microscopic observer1 little doubt can be entertained but that amidst the immense variety of minute shells1 as well as the seeds of vegetables1 numbers remain unexplored1 though highly meriting notice4 ,with the hope of exciting the attention of the curious toward these subjects1 and affording hints to those who may happily possess inclination1 together with leisure and opportunity to pursue the inquiry1 ,i shall enumerate to the reader a few specimens of each of these admirable productions of nature2 towards the elucidating of which1 very little1 comparatively1 has as yet been done4 ,as far as my knowledge extends1 the first author who has treated on the subject of minute and rare shells1 is ,plancus1 who published a treatise in quarto1 at ,venice1 in the year #agci1 with the title 8,de ,conchis ,ariminensibus minus notis20 a third and improved edition of which appeared in #agfj4 ,it is a very curious and learned work1 containing a natural history of testaceous animals of ,rimini1 an ,italian town situated on the ,adriatic shore2 and more particularly of minute nautili4 ,in the year #aghd1 ,mr4 ,walker of ,faversham published in quarto a collection of minute shells1 which was the joint production of himself and ,william ,boys1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 of ,sandwich1 in ,kent1 assisted by the late ,edward ,jacob1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 ,it contains an arrangement and concise description of ninety shells1 accompanied with neatly engraved figures of the whole series2 the greater part of them as well in their magnified state1 as that in which they appear to the naked eye4 ,specimens of those which are esteemed most curious and rare1 ,i have selected from this work3 a reference to the original will afford the reader more complete satisfaction1 and possibly animate him to further pursuits4 ,this publication appeared in so favourable a light to that eminent patron of science1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 that ,i should accuse myself of unjustifiable remissness1 were ,i to neglect this opportunity of introducing an extract from the copy of a letter addressed by him to the late ,mr4 ,jacob1 which is now in my possession4 8,we0 7the ,royal ,society7 8are all much obliged to you for the pains you have taken in bringing this work to light4 ,natural history is1 ,i am convinced1 more benefited by a thin volume of real new facts1 which is the case in yours1 than by a folio of comments generally written by those who mean to receive praise1 more founded on the elegance with which they express the ideas they conceive1 than on any prospect of utility to be derived from the ideas themselves4 ,from such naturalists1 ,de ,buffon1 c4 good ,lord deliver our honest science40 ,that truly amiable1 and no less intelligent lady1 the late ,duchess ,dowager of ,portland1 likewise expressed her approbation of the work in a letter to ,mr4 ,boys4 ,by this publication1 a number of shells1 heretofore unknown1 are added to the ,british conchology1 sufficient to shew that the path is now laid open and made easy of access to inquisitive naturalists in different parts of the kingdom for still greater discoveries4 ,indeed1 it is rather extraordinary1 that the authors of this country1 who have so advantageously applied the microscope to a variety of objects in the animal kingdom1 should have neglected to examine the shores of our own seas1 crowded as they are with objects equally worthy of their investigation4 ,baker's observation in his 8,employment for the ,microscope10 p4 #bdd1 is entitled to more attention than has been paid to it4 8,shell-fish10 says he1 8are objects that have as yet been very slightly examined by the microscope1 and therefore the serious inquirer into nature's secret operations may here be certain of discovering beauties1 which at present he can have no conception of40 ,but thus it is1 nature opens her rich and inexhaustible treasures by slow degrees to the inquisitive mind of man4 ,in fact1 different observers have generally different pursuits1 otherwise these objects would scarcely have escaped the attention of many ingenious naturalists1 particularly the quick-sighted ,mr4 ,ellis1 who has so clearly investigated and described the corals and corallines of the adjacent coasts4 ,to those who have perused the treatise of ,plancus1 already mentioned1 it is necessary to observe1 that though the sand on our coasts contain a vast variety of specimens1 yet it by no means appears so productive as the sand of ,rimini2 lest1 despairing of success in their first researches1 they may be induced to desist from further examination4 ,every parcel will1 however1 be found to contain some of the more common shells4 ,it may not be improper here to point out to future inquirers the mode of facilitating the discovery of these minute objects4 ,the sand being perfectly dried1 put a handful on an open sheet of paper1 and by gently shaking it from side to side1 the minute shells1 being specifically lighter than the sand1 will be separated from1 and lie on its surface1 and will thus be more expeditiously procured than by any other method4 ,it is also adviseable to place the objects intended for inspection in a situation secured from any sudden blast of air1 otherwise1 owing to their levity1 they may be unexpectedly blown away1 and a loss sustained of some of the rarer specimens2 even incautiously breathing on them1 or coughing1 may be productive of similar disagreeable effects4 ,the following observations by an ingenious critic#aec are so apposite1 and so perfectly coincident with my own sentiments on the subject1 that ,i cannot resist the impulse ,i feel to enable the reader to partake of the pleasure which ,i have experienced in their perusal4 #aec ,monthly ,review1 ,vol4 ,,lxxi4 p4 #aij4 8,let not the minuteness of the objects here delineated call up the surly inquiries of those1 who have not been accustomed to live with their eyes open to the works of nature3 they are not fit judges in these matters4 ,if they will persist in asking1 ,of what use is all this labour8 ,what good can accrue to mankind from this knowledge1 in point of food1 or other use8 ,we know of none at all1 either present or likely to happen1 as to the body1 for use or ornament1 or to the satisfying any appetite3 nevertheless1 a much nobler idea will take its rise in our opinion2 one which1 by displaying so momentously the power of the omniscient ,creator1 will thwart the infidel in his favourite ideas of escaping the eyes of the ,almighty1 and force him1 as he descends the scale from the more immense objects to these minutissima1 to confess1 that the being which has formed these1 can fully equal all that the tongue of man has yet declared of the possibility of his power4 ,for1 what a train of wonders have we here to pursue8 ,what must be the conomy of animals so very diminutive1 so weak1 so exposed from their situation to the force of every rude wave1 and who1 notwithstanding1 so often escape unhurt8 ,how do they rear their young8 ,from whence collect their prey80 ,a ,,description ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,minute ,,and ,,rare ,,shells4#aed #aed ,being possessed of ,mr4 ,jacob's own corrected copy of the work1 to which he has annexed the trivial names1 ,i am thereby enabled to affix them to the several shells here enumerated4 ,,serpula4 ,,the ,,worm-,,shell4 ,,serpula ,,bicornis4 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #b4 ,s4 bicornis ventricosa4 ,the bellied semilunar worm-shell4 ,the colour white1 opake1 and glossy4 ,from ,sandwich and ,reculver1 though not common4 ,,serpula ,,perforata4 ,fig4 #c4 ,s4 bicornis umbilico perforato4 ,the semilunar perforated worm-shell4 ,the colour white1 opake1 and glossy4 ,from ,sandwich3 very rare4 ,,serpula ,,lactea4 ,fig4 #d4 ,s4 tenuis ovalis lvis4 ,the thin1 smooth1 egg-shaped worm-shell4 ,the colour pellucid1 with milky veins4 ,from ,sandwich3 not common4 ,,serpula ,,lagena ,,sulcata4 ,fig4 #e4 ,s4 7lagena7 striata sulcata rotunda4 ,the round striated and furrowed flask worm-shell4 ,the colour whitish1 transparent1 and glossy4 ,from ,sandwich1 ,reculver1 and ,shepey3 very rare4 ,,serpula ,,retorta4 ,fig4 #f4 ,s4 7retorta7 rotunda marginata cervice curvatim exerto4 ,the marginated retort worm-shell4 ,the colour white and opake4 ,from ,sandwich3 not common4 ,,serpula ,,incurvata4 ,fig4 #g4 ,s4 recta anfractibus tribus contiguis regulariter involutis4 ,the straight horn worm-shell1 with three close intorted spires at the tip4 ,the colour white1 semitransparent4 ,from ,sandwich3 rare4 ,this shell1 though resembling the semilituus of ,linnus1 p4 #aafc1 ,no4 #bhj1 is not of the genus of ,nautilus1 having neither syphon in the aperture1 nor the internal concamerated structure4 ,,dentale4 ,,the ,,tooth-,,shell4 ,,dentalium ,,imperforatum4 ,fig4 #h4 ,d4 apice imperforata transverse striatum4 ,the imperforated transversely striated tooth-shell4 ,the colour white and opake4 ,from ,sandwich3 not very common4 ,,patella4 ,,the ,,limpet4 ,,patella ,,rota4 ,fig4 #i4 ,p4 plana orbiculata margine regulariter dentato4 ,the toothed-wheel limpet4 ,the colour white and opake4 ,from ,sandwich3 extremely rare4 ,,helix4 ,,the ,,depressed ,,snail4 ,,helix ,,carinata4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,h4 striata apertura compressa tribus anfractibus carinata4 ,the striated suboval-mouthed snail1 of three spires and a sharp edge4 ,the colour light brown pellucid4 ,in a fresh water stream1 near ,faversham4 ,,helix ,,spinosa4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,h4 subglobosa umbilicata ore subrotundo margine spinoso4 ,the roundish mouth deeply umbelicated snail with a thorny margin4 ,the colour brown pellucid4 ,from ,bysing ,wood1 near ,faversham3 exceeding rare4 ,,helix ,,reticulata4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,h4 unici anfractus subumbilicata apertura rotunda marginata eleganter reticulata4 ,the round mouthed reticulated single spired slightly subumbilicated snail4 ,the colour white and pellucid4 ,from ,reculver3 extremely rare4 ,,helix ,,striata4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,h4 striata apertura subovali anfractibus supradorsalibus4 ,the oval mouthed striated snail with the spires reflected on the back4 ,the colour greenish1 white pellucid4 ,from ,sandwich3 very rare4 ,,turbo4 ,,the ,,produced ,,snail4 ,,turbo ,,reticulatus4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,t4 subumbilicatus quatuor anfractibus reticulatis apertura subrotunda4 ,the slightly umbilicated turbo with four reticulated spires1 and a roundish aperture4 ,the colour white and pellucid4 ,from ,seasalter3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,eburneus4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,t4 quinque anfractibus ventricosis apertura subrotunda4 ,the five spired ventricose turbo with a roundish mouth4 ,the colour white and opake4 ,from ,reculver3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,strigatus4 ,fig4 #af4 ,t4 tribus anfractibus primo strigis tribus transversis apertura subovata4 ,the three spired turbo1 the first spire with three transverse ridges and a suboval aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,seasalter3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,albidus4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,t4 turritus septem anfractibus strigatis apertura ovali4 ,the taper turbo with seven ridged spires and an oval aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 rare4 ,,turbo ,,carinatulus4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,t4 turritus carinatus septem anfractibus apertura coarctata marginata4 ,the taper carinated turbo with seven spires and a contracted marginated aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,clathratulus4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,t4 clathratus sex anfractibus apertura ovali marginata4 ,the barred six spired turbo with an oval marginated aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 exceeding rare4 ,,turbo ,,crassus4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,t4 crassus clathratus quinque anfractibus apertura rotunda marginata4 ,the thick barred turbo of five spires and a round marginated aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,punctatus4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,t4 turritus perversus novem anfractibus punctatis apertura coarctata4 ,the reversed taper turbo of nine dotted spires and straitened aperture4 ,the colour light-brown opake4 ,from ,sandwich3 not common4 ,,turbo ,,shepeianus4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,t4 sex anfractibus reticulatis apertura ovali submarginata4 ,the six spired reticulated turbo with an oval submarginated aperture4 ,the colour semipellucid white4 ,from ,shepey island3 very rare4 ,,turbo ,,sandvicensis4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,t4 tribus anfractibus reticulatis apertura unidentata4 ,the three spired elegantly reticulated turbo with a one toothed oval aperture4 ,the colour pellucid white4 ,from ,sandwich3 exceeding rare4 ,,trochus4 ,,the ,,top-,,shell4 ,,trochus ,,fuscus4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,t4 umbilicatus quinque anfractibus marginatus apertura subrotunda4 ,the five spired umbilicated marginated top-shell with a roundish aperture4 ,the colour opake brown4 ,from ,sandwich3 common4 ,,buccinum4 ,,the ,,whilk4 ,,buccinum ,,obtusulum4 ,fig4 #be4 ,b4 ampullaceum tribus anfractibus apertura ovali4 ,the bellied whilk of three spires with an oval aperture4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,faversham ,creek3 very rare4 ,,buccinum ,,longiusculum4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,b4 turritum quinque anfractibus apertura ovali4 ,the taper whilk of five spires with an oval aperture4 ,the colour white semipellucid and glossy4 ,in ,faversham ,creek only2 but not uncommon there4 ,,voluta4 ,,the ,,volute4 ,,voluta ,,alba4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,v4 alba opaca longitudinaliter striata4 ,the white opake volute4 ,from ,sandwich and ,shepey island3 not uncommon4 ,this shell resembles ,mr4 ,pennant's voluta ,jonensis1 but differs in the form of the aperture1 as well as in the size4 ,,bulla4 ,,the ,,dipper4 ,,bulla ,,regulbiensis4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,b4 crassa apertura medio coarctata4 ,the thick dipper1 with a compressed aperture4 ,the colour white and opake4 ,from ,reculver3 very rare4 ,,nautilus4 ,,the ,,chambered ,,nautilus4 ,,nautilus ,,beccarii4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,n4 spiralis umbilicatus geniculis insculptis4 ,the spiral umbilicated nautilus with deep joints4 ,the colour1 while the fish is alive1 is a fine pellucid crimson2 when dead1 is white4 ,it is found alive on the fucus vesiculosus1 and is a very common shell on all the coast1 and seems to be an universal litoral one1 by the numbers found at ,rimini1 and in the sand of the ,south ,seas4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 p4 #aafb1 ,no4 #bgf4 ,nautilus ,beccarii4 ,planch4 ,tab4 #a4 ,fig4 #a4 ,gualtier1 ,tab4 #ai4 ,fig4 ,h1 ,h1 ,i4 ,,nautilus ,,crispus4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,n4 spiralis geniculis crenatis4 ,the spiral nautilus with crenated joints4 ,the colour opake white4 ,the finest specimens are from ,shepey3 not uncommon4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 p4 #aafb1 ,no4 #bge4 crispus4 ,planch4 ,t4 #a4 f4 #b4 ,gualt4 ,t4 #ai4 f4 ,a4 ,d4 ,,nautilus ,,calcar4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,n4 spiralis apertura lineari geniculis elevatis4 ,the spiral nautilus1 with a narrow aperture and raised joints4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,shepey island3 not common4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 #aafb1 ,no4 #bgd1 calcar4 ,pl4 ,t4 #a4 f4 #c1 #d4 ,gualt4 ,t4 #ai4 f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,nautilus ,l,,vigatulus4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,n4 spiralis geniculis lvibus4 ,the spiral nautilus with smooth joints4 ,the colour semipellucid1 white and glossy4 ,from ,sandwich and ,seasalter3 not common4 ,,nautilus ,,depressulus4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,n4 spiralis utrinque subumbilicatus geniculis depressis plurimis4 ,the spiral subumbilicated nautilus1 with many depressed joints4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,reculver3 very rare4 ,,nautilus ,,umbilicatulus4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,n4 spiralis umbilicatus geniculis sulcatis4 ,the umbilicated spiral nautilus1 with furrowed joints4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 not common4 ,,nautilus ,,crassulus4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,n4 spiralis crassus utrinque umbilicatus geniculis lineatis4 ,the thick spiral doubly umbilicated nautilus1 with fine joints4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,reculver3 exceeding rare4 ,,nautilus ,,lobatulus4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,n4 spiralis lobatus anfractibus supra rotundatis subtus depressioribus4 ,the spiral lobated nautilus1 with the spires rounded on the upper side1 and depressed on the under4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,whitstable3 not common4 ,,nautilus ,,carinatulus4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,n4 oblongus carinatus apertura lineari ovali4 ,the oblong carinated nautilus1 with a narrow oval aperture4 ,the colour whitish1 transparent like glass4 ,from ,seasalter and ,sandwich3 very rare4 ,,nautilus ,,subarcuatulus4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,n4 subarcuatus geniculis exertis4 ,the bending nautilus with raised joints4 ,the colour opake brown4 ,from ,shepey island3 very rare4 ,,mytilus4 ,,the ,,muscle4 ,,mytilus ,,phaseolus4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,m4 lvis valvulis antice inflexis4 ,the smooth muscle1 with the valves inflected in front4 ,the colour brown and glossy4 ,from a fresh water stream near ,faversham3 common4 ,,mytilus ,,punctatulus4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,m4 subrhombiformis punctatus4 ,the subrombic dotted muscle4 ,the colour pellucid white4 ,from ,sandwich3 common4 ,,mytilus ,,discors4 ,fig4 #da4 ,m4 discors areis tribus distinctis4 ,the divided muscle4 ,the colour opake brown4 ,from ,sandwich3 not common4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 #aaei1 ,no4 #bfa4 ,da ,costa ,br4 ,conch1 p4 #bba4 ,tab4 #ag4 f4 #a4 where it is exactly described1 and as badly engraved4 ,,anomia4 ,,the ,,scale4 ,,anomia ,,squamula4 ,fig4#db4 ,a4 squamula4 ,the scale anomia4 ,the colour opake white and glossy4 ,from ,sandwich3 not uncommon4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 #aaea1 ,no4 #bba4 ,this shell is well described by ,da ,costa2 but neither he1 or ,mr4 ,pennant1 have caused it to be engraved4 ,,arca4 ,,the ,,arc4 ,,arca ,,modiolus4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,a4 oblonga striata antice angulata4 ,the oblong striated arc1 with the foreside angulated4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,sandwich3 not uncommon4 ,lin4 ,s4 ,n4 p4 #aada1 ,no4 #aga4 ,arca ,modiolus4 ,,cardium4 ,,the ,,cockle4 ,,cardium ,,muricatulum4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,c4 subcordatum antice muricatum4 ,the heart cockle1 with the front muricated4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,shepey island3 not uncommon4 ,,lepas4 ,,the ,,acorn-,,shell4 ,,lepas ,,strigatulus4 ,fig4 #de4 ,l4 balanus striatus apertura obliqua4 ,the striated acorn-shell1 with an oblique aperture4 ,the colour light brown4 ,from ,sandwich1 on the roots of sea-weeds1 the finest specimens on lobsters3 not uncommon4 ,,echinus4 ,,the ,,sea-,,urchin4 ,,echinus ,,lobatulus4 ,fig4 #df4 ,e4 subrotundus planus lobatus4 ,the flat roundish lobated echinus4 ,the colour opake white4 ,from ,reculver3 rare4 ,,asterias4 ,,the ,,star-,,fish4 ,,asterias ,,triradiata4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,a4 triradiata lvis4 ,the smooth three-rayed star-fish4 ,the colour white1 transparent as glass4 ,on all the different shores that have been examined4 ,having thus described a few specimens of those pleasing microscopical objects1 minute shells1 ,i shall agreeably to the intimation given in the note to page #fac1 proceed to ,a ,,descriptive ,,list ,,of ,a ,,variety ,,of ,,vegetable ,,seeds4#aee #aee ,to the names as given by ,dr4 ,parsons1 those adopted by ,linnus are here added4 ,,lithospermum ,,officinale4 ,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #a4 ,ibid4 ,linn4 ,gromwell4 ,this seed is in figure exactly like a human heart without the auricles1 but has no flat or depressed part on its sides2 it is pretty circular round its thickest part1 and terminates in a blunt cone4 ,at the thickest extremity there is a circular roughness1 which is the umbilicus1 and from thence to the cone on the shortest side it is bisulcated longitudinally2 so that the space between the sulci is a kind of ridge1 nor do either sulci or ridge extend to either extremity of the seed2 the rest of the surface is smooth and polished1 the ground a light ash-colour1 with a shade or cloud of yellow or brown4 ,these seeds are very hard1 and the ash-coloured shell is brittle like that of a hen's egg2 which being broken1 appears to be lined with a light olive-coloured uniform membrane1 which encloses a nucleus of a ,spanish snuff-colour1 pretty smooth1 and of the same form with its shell1 being in close contact with it all round4 ,the natural size of a middling grain of this seed is about the eighth part of an inch long1 and the ninth of an inch in diameter at the roundest part4 ,,cyminum4 ,fig4 #b4 ,cuminum ,c4 ,linn4 ,cummin4 ,this seed is double1 though fixed side by side to one little stem2 both which while together seem like one1 and are ribbed in an uneven manner longitudinally1 having great numbers of little threads or fibres sticking out all over them1 which makes them look hoary4 ,they are thick in the middle and run to a cone at each end4 ,at the upper extremity there is an appearance like a bifurcation in the stilus1 each of them belonging to its particular seed2 this appears when the seeds are separated4 ,these seeds are of a darkish straw-colour1 the little threads or fibres being much lighter than the body of the seed4 ,each of these seeds contains in it a kernel of an olive-colour1 and exactly in shape like a waterman's boat1 and of the same proportion1 having a concave and convex side2 the latter has a blunt ridge like the keel of a boat1 and the former has a white line from one end to the other1 which proves to be a ridge1 to which the stilus that rises from the little stem of the seed1 adheres to support it4 ,when the seeds are together upon the stem their length is about the fifth part of an inch1 and about an eighth part of an inch in the broadest part4 ,,papaver ,,album4 ,fig4 #c4 ,p4 somniferum4 ,linn4 ,poppy4 ,this is a little yellowish white seed exactly resembling in shape a sheep's kidney1 having a yellow place about the hollow part1 which is its umbilicus1 analogous to the hollow part of the kidney into which the blood-vessels 7emulgents7 enter4 ,if it be viewed on the back or convex part1 concealing the hollow1 it is exactly shaped like an egg1 having one end somewhat rounder than the other4 ,all over its surface it has superficial cells1 formed by ridges that rise from the surface1 which are some heptagons1 some pentagons1 but for the most part hexagons1 though not precisely of equal sides2 and the bottoms of these cells seem to be very porous4 ,the seeds seem very light and springy1 as a gentle blast of ones breath is capable of blowing them away1 or a touch of any thing of making them roll a considerable way4 ,as to their size1 they are not above a twenty-fourth part of an inch long1 and about a thirtieth part broad or thick4 ,,carduus ,,benedictus4 ,fig4 #d4 ,centaurea ,benedicta4 ,linn4 ,blessed ,thistle4 ,the body of this seed is about twice as long as it is thick1 is round and shaped much like a nine-pin1 only instead of being small at the upper end1 it has a stricture1 from whence arises a beautiful crown of ten angles or points1 out of which come also ten arist or spicul like ivory1 about the length of the body of the seed1 running taper upward1 and set round in an uniform manner4 ,within the circle of these long spikes there are ten more1 which are but very short1 and of the same colour and consistence with the others4 ,when these are all plucked off1 the vestiges of the circles they form appear in the upper surface of the crown2 in the middle of which a little process arises1 but very superficially4 ,that part which appears circular is white1 and the rest of this surface1 of the corona1 of the same colour with the rest of the body of the seed1 which is a sort of an olive-colour4 ,the body of the seed is of the sulcated kind1 and looks exactly like a fluted pillar1 and the surface shines as if varnished with some gummy substance4 ,at the lower or small end of this seed1 there is an opening reaching up above a third of the length of the body of the seed1 which discovers a white root1 shaped like a cone at the bottom1 and rising thicker by degrees till it divides into three limbs2 these run taper upwards1 till they are lost in the parenchyma of the seed1 which at the place of their entrance appears somewhat fungous1 but is more compact and clammy through its substance4 ,the length of the body is more than two eighths of an inch1 and the arist exactly the same length4 ,the corona is its umbilicus4 ,,plantago4 ,fig4 #e4 ,p4 ,major4 ,linn4 ,plantain4 ,by the imperfect idea we have of this seed from its minuteness1 it may seem like a flea1 as any small speck would1 if a little oblong2 yet its form is not constant1 that is1 there are scarce two of them precisely alike1 some being perfectly elliptical1 some with blunt angles1 and some approaching a spheroid4 ,they have a whitish mark on one side1 which is the umbilicus of the seed1 from whence the first rudiments of the plant spring1 and the surface is entirely granulated over1 and has a general appearance like some kinds of plumb-stones2 the surface also shines a little1 as if oiled or moist1 and their colour is brown4 ,one of the seeds cut transversely appears to have the shell or covering pretty strong in proportion to its size1 which contains a parenchyma that is very porous and succulent4 ,it is about a sixteenth part of an inch long1 and a twenty-second broad4 ,,staphis ,,agria4 ,fig4 #f and #g4 ,delphinum ,s4 ,a4 ,linn4 ,stavesacre4 ,the seeds of this plant are rough and angular1 inclining to a triangle1 although imperfectly so4 ,they may be considered as having a basis or apex2 the basis is thick and clumsy1 and the apex runs to an angular point1 which point is the umbilicus of the seed1 out of which its first rudiments arise2 it also has a convex and a plane or concave side2 the former1 ,fig4 #g1 is rough1 by reason of its being covered all over with porous cells1 the ridges of which are also depressed or indented with rough pores1 and granulated as if stuck full of sand4 ,the concave surface1 ,fig4 #f1 is also rough1 but not in the same manner1 and so are the sides1 which have a little flatness2 these also are porous and sandy1 and before the microscope1 shine1 and are coloured like dirty brown sugar-candy4 ,the concave surface1 notwithstanding the roughness1 has one longitudinal ridge1 and sometimes more1 running from the basis to the apex1 which has the same granulated surface with the rest4 ,it contains a parenchyma1 which is of a yellowish grey colour1 and is moist and succulent4 ,this seed is in its natural size about two eighths of an inch long from its basis to the apex1 and near as broad2 however1 some are broader in proportion to their length than others1 and they are one eighth of an inch thick4 ,,anisum4 ,fig4 #h and #i4 ,pimpinella ,a4 ,linn4 ,anise4 ,two of these seeds grow together upon one little stalk2 when they are pulled asunder1 they appear to have a flat and a convex surface4 ,on the convex surface1 ,fig4 #h1 each seed has three ribs placed at equal distances from one another1 which are porous and a little rough1 being of a straw-colour2 and the spaces between them are also rough and porous1 but of an olive-colour4 ,the flat surface1 ,fig4 #i1 has a white ridge running longitudinally from its basis to the apex in the middle2 this white ridge or line serves to cling to the stilus1 upon which it sticks4 ,the stilus is also white1 and has the same contexture with the ridge1 and is bifid1 in order to support two seeds with their flat sides together1 which keeps them the more compact and less liable to injuries than if a single seed stuck on4 ,it is certain1 a single stilus would do as well to support two seeds as the bifid one1 for even the two stick together as if single1 if there was not a necessity for a double stilus1 for a very important reason2 which is1 that when the seeds are ripe1 they would stick on a single one1 till the time of their being scattered about would pass1 which would be a detriment to their propagation2 but the stilus being double1 and of a springy nature1 the two parts are glued together1 as long as moisture remains about the seeds capable of keeping them together2 but when the seeds are grown ripe and dry1 then this moisture is exhaled1 and the stilus1 as well as the flat surfaces of the seeds1 begin to contract from their former plumpness2 the stilus first begins to split asunder1 and thereby separates the two surfaces of the seeds1 each of which sticks loosely to its particular limb of the stilus2 till at length the remaining moisture exhaling more and more1 it grows rigid1 and cracks with a blast of wind1 and so the seed is scattered or sown in the ground in its due time4 ,this is a most excellent provision of nature1 and highly worth regard4 ,when the two seeds are sticking together1 they have a round end which is the basis1 and grow smaller by degrees upward1 till they become an apex1 having upon each seed a kind of fungous or bulbous corona1 which is the umbilicus of the seed2 and the shape of the two together may be compared to that of a given fig reversed4 ,the parenchyma of these seeds is that of a pale greenish olive-colour4 ,they are more exactly of a size than most other seeds1 and are each one-eighth part of an inch long1 and more than half that breadth4 ,f,,niculum ,,dulce4 ,fig4 #aj and #aa4 ,anethum ,f4 ,linn4 ,sweet ,fennel4 ,in viewing these seeds1 they do not look much unlike one species of the cucumber in general1 some of them being thicker and longer than others1 and some straighter2 but upon applying the microscope1 the ridges appear high1 and form deep furrows4 ,two of these seeds grow together upon the same little stalk1 which is divided1 like that of the anise seed1 into a double or bifid stilus1 in the same manner1 and for the same reasons2 when the two are pulled asunder1 they appear to have a flat surface1 ,fig4 #aj1 and a round and ridged one1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,on the former1 these characters are conspicuous3 viz4 #a4 ,the whitish cortex or covering of the seed shews its edge distinctly4 #b4 ,withinside this edge a white fungous substance appears running parallel to1 and in close contact with it1 on each side from end to end1 being both together about one-third of the breadth of the seed2 and between these1 in the center1 there appears a dark brown elliptical substance1 which1 upon separating the cortical and fungous coverings1 appears to be a nucleus1 whose internal substance is of an olive colour and something succulent4 ,on the external surface there appears three high ridges1 and when the flat faces of the seeds are close together upon the stilus1 so as to seem but one1 these three ridges on each seed and the two edges of each meeting firmly together1 form eight regular ridges equally divided upon that round body that we have before said to resemble a cucumber4 ,the extremity which is fixed to the stem is smaller than the other2 the latter has a fungous kind of process arising from the body of the seed1 which is the umbilicus of the seed4 ,the ridges are of a light straw-colour1 and the bottoms of the sulci they form are darkish4 ,a middling seed is somewhat more than two-eighths of an inch long1 and above half that breadth4 ,,grana ,,paradisi4 ,fig4 #ab and #ac4 ,amomum ,g4 ,p4 ,linn4 ,grains of ,paradise4 ,these seeds are of an irregular form1 but may be said to have a basis and apex2 the basis is generally so flat as to render it capable of standing well upon it2 the sides consist of several flats and angles1 and the apex looks very much like the mouth of a purse drawn or gathered up close together4 ,the body of the seed is of a reddish brown colour1 the surface much granulated and rough2 and the apex1 which is its umbilicus1 degenerates from this reddish brown colour into a yellow1 appearing in little oblong ridges or plates4 ,upon making a transverse section of this seed1 a most beautiful appearance presents itself2 the external cortex is very thin1 and retains the same colour through its substance with the outer surface2 this incloses a black1 porous1 pitchy substance1 which is much thicker than the cortex1 in close contact with it1 and at the angles of the seed is pretty considerable4 ,next to this the parenchyma appears1 as white as the finest white salt1 and radiated from the center outward2 and in this transverse section seems to have a round hole in the center of one of the divided parts1 and a process answerable to it in the other4 ,if a longitudinal incision be made through the middle1 the appearance will be as in ,fig4 #ac1 when the center of the white parenchyma appears exactly like a modern vinegar glass1 commonly called a cruet1 the bottom of which tends obliquely towards the basis1 and the top towards the apex of the seed4 ,the surface of this part looks polished1 and the colour is a yellowish olive2 nor does it look unlike a gummy or resinous body2 however1 we cannot be certain what its substance is1 notwithstanding its great resemblance to that kind of matter4 ,the white parenchyma is very singular1 being almost divided into two lobes by this little cruet1 whose top runs up into or is lost in a remarkable circular part1 which has a rising towards the umbilicus of the seed in form of an acorn1 and this rising stands in the open place1 into which the pursy umbilicus leads4 ,as to its natural dimensions1 an ordinary seed is somewhat more than the eighth of an inch long1 and about an eighth thick4 ,,petroselinum4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,apium ,p4 ,linn4 ,common ,parsley4 ,the seeds of this garden parsley1 being of the umbellated kind1 grow two upon a little stem1 whose bifid stilus supports them like the ammi or smallage2 they are striated or ribbed like those1 having three of such ribs on the convex part1 spread further asunder1 and being much more conspicuous than those of either of the seeds just mentioned4 ,there is another rib which runs on each side of the seed1 which is its lateral rib1 and that which runs round the edge of the flat surface makes it resemble the edge or gunnel of a barge or lighter1 to which each of these bears some resemblance4 ,this seed is considerably larger than either1 and much longer in proportion to their size2 the colour of the interstices between the ribs is a dusky olive1 and the ribs of an oaker yellow4 ,they are pretty round where they rest on the stem1 and run up elliptically to an apex1 where there is a fungous corona1 which is the umbilicus4 ,in making a transverse section through the middle of one of them1 the parenchyma appears of the same form with the cortex1 having this remarkable property1 that between the ridges or ribs are canals1 formed of the cortex and the surface of the parenchyma1 containing a brown balsamic fluid1 with which they are filled from one end to the other of the seed2 and in some seeds this balsam appears all round between the parenchyma and the cortex4 ,this will be further explained when we come to speak of the seseli1 in which this is so apparent1 that a transverse view of that seed will serve for both4 ,the parenchyma is somewhat succulent1 and of a greyish olive colour4 ,an ordinary seed is one-eighth of an inch long1 and about a sixteenth thick4 ,,petroselinum ,,macedonicum4 ,fig4 #ae and #af4 ,bubon ,macedonicum4 ,linn4 ,macedonian ,parsley4 ,these are long slender elliptical seeds1 growing like the seeds of other umbelliferous plants1 two together on the stem and bifid stilus2 when they are pulled asunder they appear each to have a convex or back side1 and a flat part or belly4 ,the convex side1 ,fig4 #ae1 may be said1 from its roundness at one end1 and smallness at the other1 to have a basis and apex2 the former is round1 and after swelling a little towards the middle1 runs taper upwards1 till within one-fifth of its length there arise two rough hairy processes1 one on each side1 like ears1 and the rest runs to a point2 so that the entire back surface is a near representation of a mouse lying flat4 ,the colour of the body of this seed is a kind of olive1 but the hoary fibres all over are of an ash-colour1 and the stri or ridges much the same4 ,the flat surface1 ,fig4 #af1 is of a brown colour and porous1 having none of these fibres upon it2 and is surrounded by an edge or ridge1 like those on the back of the seed1 which are also hoary4 ,upon this surface the bifid stilus is apparent1 one extremity of which terminates at a hollow part1 that may be likened to the under jaw of the mouse1 between the roots of the ears2 and the other stands loose1 to which the fellow-seed was also attached4 ,the ridges are also hollow1 like those of the garden parsley1 and contain such a balsamic fluid as that2 but this being so exceedingly slender1 requires the greatest magnifier of the microscope for opake objects to discern it4 ,this seed is about an eighth of an inch long1 and about a twentieth broad4 ,,coriandrum4 ,fig4 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai4 ,c4 sativum4 ,linn4 ,coriander4 ,the seed of common coriander is spherical when entire1 and may be said to have two poles2 the lower1 or that into which the stem is fixed1 which forms a fungous hole1 and the upper or little apex1 as at ,fig4 #ag1 this is the umbilicus of the seed4 ,from one of these poles to the other several ridges or stri run like the lines of longitude upon the globe1 between which there are several roughnesses2 they are of a yellowish oaker colour1 and about the sixth of an inch in diameter1 or something less4 ,each of these seeds1 upon being bruised1 divides into two hemispheres1 ,fig4 #ah1 which discovers the edges of the rigid cortex1 on the concave side there is a rising1 and within it a lens1 concave on one side and convex on the other1 ,fig4 #ai1 as it is turned out of the cortex4 ,on the concave side is a rising in the middle extending from one pole to the other1 and on each side just below the apex1 there is a white roundish fungous spot rising from the surface1 from each of which runs downward a little curved a ridge1 which appears to be resinous2 and the surface is rough1 and has a great many particles of resin also4 ,,seseli4 ,fig4 #bj to #bd4 ,s4 ,montanum4 ,linn4 ,long-leaved ,meadow-saxifrage4 ,this seed stripped of its foliaceous wings may be compared to a sort of canoo which is too narrow in proportion to its great length1 has a hollow and a convex side1 like that kind of boat1 and is ridged longitudinally on its convex side1 ,fig4 #bj1 from end to end1 with four principal ridges2 and between these1 with others less considerable4 ,there are1 however1 some of these seeds wider than others in proportion1 but the majority are too long for their breadth1 as ,i have said before4 ,these principal ridges are the support of the wings1 and may be called their basis1 for they rise broad from the body of the seed1 and run out to a thin edge1 which being continued constitute this leafy border4 ,these are yellowish1 and the spaces between them and the other less considerable ridges inclining to a brown4 ,on the concave side1 ,fig4 #ba1 there is an edge or gunnel like that of a boat1 and a considerable cavity from the edge2 in the center of which the vestige of the stilus1 ,fig4 #bb1 which is also bifid here1 appears from one end to the other4 ,the edge and this vestige are also of a yellowish colour1 but the rest of the surface brown and porous1 and the whole body of the seed and ridges shine1 as if varnished over with some oily substance4 ,fig4 #bc is a view of the convex side of a seed divested of its wings1 which is one of the most proportioned seeds ,i could pick out2 at the upper extremity of which a little process may be perceived to turn or crook back upon the body2 the same may also be discerned on that of ,fig4 #bj4 ,at the root of this process the opening or umbilicus of the seed lies4 ,among the many beauties with which this seed abounds1 there is one that is most agreeably surprising1 which 7says our author7 ,i discovered by making a transverse section of one of them1 in order to see what its internal substance consisted of4 ,i no sooner applied the cut surface1 ,fig4 #bd1 to my microscope1 than each of the principal ridges1 which ,i said above is the basis of the leafy wing1 appeared to be a triangular tube1 containing a fine brown liquid balsam of the colour of brown basilicon4 ,this was a high entertainment1 as every other curious discovery that arises by the diligent inspection of the seed is1 and prompted my examining others in the same manner2 and ,i found such a balsam as this common to the several kinds of parsley seeds also1 as well as to that of the bishop's weed and smallage2 although these are so minute1 that ,i could not be sensible of it but with difficulty1 and with one of my greatest magnifiers4 ,there is also something analogous to this in the sweet fennel and finoki1 not in tubes of the husks or cortex1 but rather in spungy channels that sink into the surface of the parenchyma1 between the ridges of these last4 ,the length of an ordinary seed is one-third of an inch1 the thickness about an eighth1 and the breadth of each wing nearly equal to the thickness of the body4 ,,hyoscyamus4 ,fig4 #be4 ,h4 ,niger4 ,linn4 ,common ,henbane4 ,after the calyx has split and cracked by drying1 the seed-pot comes to be exposed to the heat of the sun1 which also grows dry1 by which the lid or cover becomes loose1 having no other visible attachment to keep it on the edge of the pot but its moisture1 which in some measure helps to keep it there by agglutination1 as well as by the squeezing or pressure of the segments of the calyx4 ,but1 this moisture exhaling1 and the calyx splitting off1 the lid1 being now dry1 blows off with the first blast of wind1 and scatters the seeds1 which by this time are hard and ripe4 ,when the seeds are ripe they are of a light colour1 like white-brown paper1 and incline to a triangular figure1 whose angles are rounded off4 ,they are depressed on both sides1 so as to become pretty flat1 and their whole surface is cellular2 the cells have no particular form1 but are somewhat irregular1 and the ridges that form them are pretty eminent4 ,as the drawing appears1 the seeds may be said to have a basis and an apex2 the former has no other particular mark than the cells1 but the latter has a kind of notch indented downward from the top1 which is the umbilicus of the seed4 ,the parenchyma appears of a greyish colour4 ,a middling grain is about a sixteenth of an inch long1 and not quite so broad in the broadest part4 ,,cicer ,,rubrum4 ,fig4 #bf to #bi4 ,c4 ,arietinum4 ,linn4 ,chickpea4 ,there is a good deal of reason for comparing the chiche grain to the head of a ram2 for each of them1 ,fig4 #bf1 consists of a round or back part1 and an apex or snout4 ,there are1 besides this shape1 which indeed favours the simile1 several depressions upon the grain which add still to the likeness of that head2 and these we shall consider in particular4 ,on the upper or convex side there is1 in most of them1 a longitudinal little ridge1 and a depression on each side1 which resembles the rising in the frontal bone of a sheep2 and1 a little further forward1 two risings1 one on each side1 which look like the superciliary eminences of the eyes4 ,each side of the round or occipital part has a depression that also adds to the same image2 but what is yet a greater argument for it1 is1 that the under part1 ,fig4 #bg1 is flattish1 having an edge on each side1 which may be compared to the edges of the under jaw4 ,in the center of this flat part there is a little mamillary rising very remarkable1 and just under the apex or snout an oval hole1 whitish at the bottom1 which is the umbilicus of the seed2 besides which1 there is an apparent sulcus on each side the apex1 running a little way back1 and is a close resemblance to the rictus oris4 ,the husk is thin and fragile1 and when taken off1 looks like thin tortoise-shell2 and the nucleus or parenchyma is of a yellowish white1 exactly like the substance of a split-pea1 without the covering4 ,the entire nucleus has the same depressions which appear on its husk or cortex2 and a fore view of it1 ,fig4 #bh1 shews the naked apex1 with the hole underneath1 which is but superficial2 and the seam which distinguishes the tip of the apex1 ,i take to be the rudiment of the plant1 for it is easily separated in that seam4 ,the natural size of this seed appears1 ,fig4 #bi1 being almost three-eighths of an inch from the apex to the outer edge of the basis1 and something narrower4 ,,laurus4 ,fig4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb4 ,l4 nobilis4 ,linn4 ,bay-berries4 ,the bay-berries1 ,fig4 #cj1 are a fruit of an oval shape1 sticking to a short stem not above a quarter of an inch long2 the surface is generally black1 but some of them1 whether through age ,i cannot say1 are crusted over with a dull ash-coloured scurfy matter1 and sometimes with fine ragged membranes4 ,when the husk is opened1 it appears of a fine dark-brown colour on the inner surface1 being a smooth thin membrane that lines the husk1 and at the smaller end it suddenly grows yellowish1 and looks like a brown cup with a yellow bottom4 ,the nucleus easily comes out when the husk is opened1 and as easily separates into two parts or lobes longitudinally2 each of which is represented1 ,fig4 #ca4 ,they lie in the husk with the flat surfaces together1 each of which has a sinus at the smaller end shaped like the sole of one's shoe2 one of these contains the little piece which has the rudiments of the tree1 adhering closely to its sinus2 the other is empty1 and serves only to give room to these rudiments when the flat surfaces of both lobes are together3 ,fig4 #cb represents that little piece taken out and viewed by a larger magnifier1 and appears to be convex on the visible side2 having in its outline much the same form with the cell or sinus which contained it4 ,it has a ridge in a longitudinal direction1 is smaller at one end than the other1 has risings on the sides1 and is a most entertaining object4 ,,ficoides ,,afra4 ,fig4 #cc1 #cd4 ,mesembryanthemum ,crystallinum4 ,linn4 ,diamond ,fig-marygold1 or ,ice-plant4#aef ,the whole stalks1 leaves1 and calix are covered with little glassy globules1 which are called diamond or silver drops2 and which are rather like ice than either4 ,they are transparent1 in as much as opposite windows of houses appear through them1 and the green stalk makes those between it and the microscope look green4 ,those upon the stalks are spheroids1 but those on the leaves and calix are globular4 ,they seem like so many transparent stones set into a case1 like those of a ring2 others are more prominent4 ,upon breaking them1 they appear to be little membranous bladders1 very clear1 and filled with an aqueous liquor4 ,when they begin to wither and the juice to exhale1 these membranes appear flaccid and collapsed4 #aef ,dr4 ,parsons having given the microscopical description of the flower as well as the seed of this plant1 and each of them forming a very agreeable object1 the figure and description of the flower is here introduced4 ,fig4 #cc shews a flower of its natural size1 with a bit of its stalk and a leaf2 the leaf has its apex bent towards one side1 is fat or thick1 and has in its sinus the bud of another4 ,the seed-vessel is also fleshy1 and the calix has but three leaves1 which is an exception to the general rule mentioned above1 each of which has its apex in the center1 or nearly so1 differing from those of the stalk4 ,the flower is indeed polypetalous1 having an infinite number of narrow little leaves crowded together1 of a whitish faint purple1 in some parts nearly white1 but very inconsiderable4 ,fig4 #cd is the seed1 which is enlarged microscopically1 having a streaky surface1 and being of a triangular form4 ,at one angle there is a dent or rictus1 the end of which is the umbilicus of the seed4 ,it is of a yellowish brown colour1 and is very minute in its natural size1 which is seen in those little specks near it4 ,,palma ,,arecifera4 ,fig4 #ce1 #cf1 #cg4 ,areca ,catechu4 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,vegetab4 ,areca ,nut4 ,the areca nut grows in a husk like the walnut or nutmeg4 ,fig4 #ce is that hard nut which we are now to describe4 ,its surface is a dark brown1 striated promiscuously with a yellowish brown colour2 its figure a cone1 and is capable of standing firmly upon its basis4 ,in the center of the basis there is the hole or vestige of its pedicle1 or whatever other thing stuck to it whilst inveloped in its husk1 round which the bottom is whitish4 ,fig4 #cf is another species of the areca nut1 at least in shape1 being somewhat less1 more squat1 and having no cone4 ,i cannot say1 whether these different shaped cones might not be a variation of the fruit of the same tree1 as apples or any other fruits often are2 but the surfaces are not precisely alike in one respect only1 their colour being the same1 that is1 the yellowish brown lines upon the surface of the latter are thicker together1 and sink deeper into the cortex between the dark brown parts1 which are consequently made more imminent thereby than those of the conical one4 ,upon cutting one of these into two parts1 the surface appears at ,fig4 #cg4 ,on the outer part all round the internal substance appears radiated outward1 being of a dark red and brown colour1 and in its center inclosing a white substance1 which in many places shoots itself out into the brown substance in little radii towards the cortex4 ,,juniperus4 ,fig4 #ch1 #ci4 ,j4 ,communis4 ,linn4 ,juniper ,berry4 ,fig4 #ch1 a1 is a juniper berry magnified to shew its marks the more plainly4 ,this fruit is quite round1 of a black colour1 which1 although it appears smooth1 yet the covering appears porous1 and resembles the surface of shagreen in some measure4 ,at the top it has a triangular sulcus1 which is not very deep1 and in some it is superficial4 ,at the other extremity the stem appears1 which is rough near the place of its insertion1 with a scaly covering for a little space4 b1 is a transverse section of a juniper berry1 which shews the thickness of the pulpy substance of the fruit1 which appears every where interspersed and mixed with a great quantity of fine yellow gum1 that in many places is in lumps1 especially about the ossicula or stones of the fruit4 ,this parenchyma incloses three of these ossicula1 lying in close contact together by their flatter sides1 and with their apices meeting at the top4 c1 is the fruit of its natural size1 some grains may be a little bigger1 some a little less4 ,fig4 #ci is the convex side of one of the stones1 having from the apex three or four ridges1 which render it triangular at the top1 and are lost towards the basis1 of an irregular form1 long1 narrow1 and shining1 after being cleansed of the pulp that covers them with the gummy matter just mentioned2 but when dry1 has an appearance like that of the stones of other fruit4 ,fig4 #dj shews a longitudinal section of one of them1 which brings to view a nucleus in all respects like that of a plumb-stone1 being cloathed with a membrane1 and having a succulent parenchyma4 a1 is the stone in its natural size4 ,,santonicum4 ,fig4 #da1 #db4 ,artemisia ,s4 ,linn4 ,worm-seed4 ,fig4 #da shews the form of a middling seed enlarged by the microscope1 for they are of different sizes among one another4 ,this is one of the most singular in its structure1 having scarce any thing substantial in it4 ,the four little figures near it are those of a natural size1 which are very small1 and therefore renders the examination of them the more difficult4 ,the seed has a small end or handle1 being the place to which the stem which supports it was fixed1 and the other end is bulky and round1 having from the hoary handles several bulges all round1 which are soft1 and so very tender1 that the rubbing of the seeds together reduces the surfaces to powder1 whereby a large seed may be reduced to a very small one4 ,the seed seems to be entirely composed of thin brittle membranes of an extreme delicate contexture1 as at ,fig4 #db1 having a dark center1 from which it is transparent outward to the edge all round1 and radiated upwards by infinitely fine radii1 which do not render it in the least opake4 ,thus from the very outer surface the seed is composed of these sort of membranes1 one after another1 till nothing remains behind4 ,their colour before the naked eye is of a yellowish cast1 but before the microscope for opake objects shines in many places like gold4 ,,scabiosa ,,major ,,vulgaris4 ,fig4 #dc to #df4 ,s4 ,arvensis4 ,linn4 ,scabious4 ,there is no seed perhaps which has more beauties than this of the scabious4 ,fig4 #dc is a view of what botanists call one of the florets1 which is a calix to the seed1 whose fibres appear to extend themselves over its edges4 ,this cup is of an octagonal form1 and makes an appearance like a fine vase1 having scallopped edges1 and towards the inner part of the edge a whitish ruffled membrane4 ,the ribs run down from its mouth1 which is bell-fashioned1 and becoming narrower downward1 form obtuse angles1 by continuing from the bend to form the bottom of the vase4 ,between these ribs down the bend the vase is clear1 though not quite transparent1 and from thence to the bottom the ribs are hairy1 and make an agreeable figure4 ,fig4 #dd is the seed taken out of the vase1 and drawn in another proportion1 wherein appears first its thick body1 which is somewhat hoary by the microscope1 and runs up with a narrow neck1 till it divides into five spiculated fibres1 called by ,gerard purple thrumbs1 whose spicul or spines are determined upwards1 and are thereby ready to cause the seed to recede from any thing that might injure it upon being touched4 ,the bodies of the vases when first ripe are of a fine lemon yellow1 but grow by long keeping darker2 and the bason formed by the roots of the fine fibres is of a fine green1 but the fibres themselves of a shining brown1 like brown sugar-candy1 as their spines are also4 ,fig4 #de represents the stalk to which the vases stick by their bottoms1 all which1 when together1 form the head mentioned by botanists to be the characters of some species of the scabious4 ,in this figure the body of the stalk appears all stuck full of narrow whitish leaves1 and the round spots between their roots are the vestiges of the bottoms of the vases2 so that the leaves and vases are mixed together all over the stalk4 ,fig4 #df shews a vase with a piece of its side cut out from the edge to the bottom4 ,the bulbous part of the seed is contained in a delicate white membranous case1 arising from the inner membrane of the bottom of the vase1 and running up about half way the neck of the seed1 embracing it pretty close1 with a mouth consisting of six or eight sides as beautifully formed as that of any fine cut-glass decanter4 ,the seed is loose in this theca1 so that it may be turned round within it1 but cannot be pulled out without tearing this beautiful theca1 upon account of its narrow neck4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,,instructions ,,for ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,insects--,a ,,copious ,,list ,,of ,,microscopic ,,objects4 ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,those who have been long accustomed to microscopical investigations will readily admit1 that the numerous class of insects1 and their several parts1 afford some of the most diversified1 as well as the most admirable objects for the microscope4 ,to readers of this description1 who should be considered as adepts1 the following instructions may possibly afford little that is novel1 as by constant habit they must be thoroughly conversant in the best manner of procuring and preserving the various objects2 it may be1 however1 reasonably presumed1 that there are many persons who have not hitherto devoted their attention to this subject1 as well as numbers who1 deterred by the imaginary difficulties attending it1 have either totally relinquished the pursuit1 or made but small progress therein2 to such1 the directions here given it is hoped will prove an acquisition4 ,confident as ,i am of the delights which this employment affords to the intelligent and industrious admirer of the works of nature1 it is to be deplored that so many persons1 who possess every requisite for these enjoyments1 should remain totally insensible to their attractions2 how much might be atchieved1 could such be prevailed upon to devote their hours of leisure to so rational a purpose8 especially if it be considered how easily these pleasures are to be attained1 as well as the tranquillity with which they may be enjoyed4 ,investigations of this kind particularly recommend themselves to the attention of the ladies1 as being congenial with that refinement of taste and sentiment1 and that pure and placid consistency of conduct which so eminently distinguish and adorn those of this happy isle4 ,to the honour of several ladies of eminence be it recorded1 that they are proficients in the study of the various branches of natural history1 and many others are making considerable progress in this pleasing science2 than which1 none can possess a greater tendency to sweeten the hours of solitude and anxiety4 ,how infinitely superior to a rational mind is the gratification arising from such pursuits1 to those1 to which numbers unhappily sacrifice their health and beauty1 and frequently the peace of mind of themselves and relatives1 by a baneful attachment to the gaming table2 and that not owing to intellectual incapacity1 but merely from not possessing fortitude sufficient to prefer the improvement of their minds to amusements1 for which no better plea can possibly be urged1 than that of their being sanctioned by the idol1 ,fashion4 ,actuated by no other motives1 than the sincerest respect ,i entertain for my fair countrywomen1 and anxiety for their real welfare1 ,i have presumed thus freely to deliver my sentiments2 with greater confidence in the merits of the cause ,i plead1 and reliance on their prudent discrimination1 than on the persuasive eloquence of the advocate1 ,i am willing to flatter myself that these remarks may not be entirely ineffectual2 at least in warning those who have happily as yet escaped so dangerous a gulf4 ,again1 how many of my own sex1 divested of a taste for rational enjoyments1 groan under the oppressive load of listlessness and dissatisfaction2 for1 independent of the more serious and requisite duties of our respective callings1 we require amusements to refresh us in our vacant moments1 which if not devoted to some laudable pursuit1 will necessarily1 like those of too many of our young men of fortune1 be sauntered away1 or consumed in senseless and illicit delights1 eventually productive of infallible ruin to both body and mind2 viewed in this light1 it may indeed be said1 that the situation of men of opulence is of all stations the least to be envied4 ,i cannot1 therefore1 but earnestly recommend to those entrusted with that important charge1 the education of youth1 to enforce both by precept and example1 their employment of that time which is not engaged in necessary avocations1 to some purpose1 that1 whilst it amuses1 may likewise instruct and improve their understandings4 ,these measures are more peculiarly important in times like the present1 when idleness1 dissipation1 and infidelity are with gigantic strides endeavouring to encompass mankind with chains of slavery of all others the most dreadful and pernicious4 ,i shall close these observations in the elegant language of an admired writer4 8,a man that has formed a habit of turning every new object to his entertainment1 finds in the productions of nature an inexhaustible stock of materials upon which he can employ himself1 without any temptations to envy or malevolence2 faults1 perhaps1 seldom totally avoided by those whose judgment is much exercised upon the works of art4 ,he has always a certain prospect of discovering new reasons for adoring the sovereign ,author of the universe1 and probable hopes of making some discovery of benefit to others1 or profit to himself4 ,there is no doubt but many vegetables and animals have qualities that might be of great use1 to the knowledge of which there is not required much force of penetration or fatigue of study1 but only frequent experiments and close attention4 ,what is said by the chemists of their darling mercury1 is1 perhaps1 true of every body through the whole creation1 that1 if a thousand lives should be spent upon it1 all its properties would not be found out4 8,mankind must necessarily be diversified by various tastes1 since life affords and requires such multitudes of employments1 and a nation of naturalists is neither to be hoped or desired2 but it is surely not improper to point out a fresh amusement to those who languish in health1 and repine in plenty1 for want of some source of diversion that may be less easily exhausted1 and to inform the multitudes of both sexes1 who are burthened with every new day1 that there are many shews which they have not seen4 ,he that enlarges his curiosity after the works of nature1 demonstrably multiplies the inlets to happiness40#aeg #aeg ,johnson4 ,the characters by which the several classes of insects are distinguished1 have been already explained in pages #bah and #bai2 their transformations have likewise been fully described2 ,i shall now proceed to enumerate the best methods of obtaining them in their different states4 ,justice to the merits of two eminent naturalists#aeh obliges me to mention1 that to them ,i am indebted for a considerable part of these instructions4 #aeh ,lettsom's ,naturalist's ,companion2 ,curtis's ,instructions for ,collecting and ,preserving ,insects4 ,both these tracts are now become very scarce4 ,of all the different classes or orders of insects1 that called ,,lepidoptera is not only one of the most numerous1 but the most beautiful1 with respect to the variety as well as richness of their colours2 and1 as from the peculiar delicacy of their structure1 they require greater care to be used in catching1 as well as in preserving them1 it will be proper first to speak of1 and be more particular in the directions concerning them4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,procuring ,,moths ,,and ,,butterflies4 ,there are two methods of collecting insects of this kind2 first1 by breeding2 secondly1 by catching them in their fly state3 of these1 the former is by much the preferable mode2 as1 besides the pleasure which arises from observing the gradual progress of the insects from their egg or caterpillar to their perfect or fly state1 they may be killed before they have sustained the smallest injury in the farina or meal of their wings by flying4 ,the difficulty likewise in procuring the most beautiful and valuable insects of this class in their fly state1 renders this method by far the most eligible4 ,most of the sphinges of ,linnus1 or1 as they are usually called1 hawk-moths1 are but seldom met with in their fly state1 and when seen on the wing1 generally elude the swiftest pursuit2 but in their caterpillar state they are frequently found1 and easily taken4 ,thus the caterpillar of the sphinx atropos or jasmine hawk-moth1 the largest and most beautiful species of moth this country produces1#aei is often found feeding on the jasmine and potatoe1 and sometimes on green elder2 the sphinx elpenor or elephant hawk-moth1 on the ,galium palustre or white ladies-bed-straw2 the sphinx ocellata or eyed hawk-moth1 on the willow and apple-trees2 sphinx tili or lime hawk-moth1 on the lime-tree2 sphinx lagustri or privet hawk-moth1 on the privet2 phalna pavonia or emperor-moth1 on the briar1 black-thorn1 willow1 c4 and so of a great number of others4 #aei ,desirous as every collector must be of obtaining these moths1 it is certain there are many persons still existing1 who would consider it as a great calamity were one of them to fly into1 or even approach their habitation2 and so far from affording the pretty fugitive an asylum1 would experience the highest satisfaction at his speedy departure4 ,the reason1 if it be not a prostitution of the term1 is1 that as the plumage on the back of this moth exhibits somewhat of the resemblance of a death's head1 these intelligent prognosticators 7naturalists they cannot be called7 are fully convinced that this harmless insect must be the harbinger of mortality1 and that its appearance infallibly portends speedy death to some one of the family6 ,indeed1 to weak minds1 especially if previously debilitated by sickness1 such an idea1 if permitted to prey upon their spirits1 may be productive of fatal consequences1 and thus stamp a credit on the prophetic abilities of those sagacious observers of the mysteries of nature4 ,to medical men1 who are daily witnesses of the wonderful influence which the mind possesses over the body in a diseased state1 such events do not appear at all surprizing4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,moths1 ,c4 ,,in ,,their ,,caterpillar ,,state4 ,independent of the method of collecting caterpillars by an attentive examination of the leaves1 and other parts of plants1 at those times of the year when they are in full verdure1 there is another1 viz4 by beating the boughs of trees1 particularly the taller ones1 with long poles1 having previously spread a large sheet underneath to receive them as they drop from the trees4 ,by these means many very valuable caterpillars are frequently obtained1 which could not otherwise be procured without considerable difficulty4 ,caterpillars should be handled as little as possible1 particularly those with smooth skins2 the more hairy ones in general sustain less injury by it4 ,to convey them home with safety1 the collector should be provided with a chip box in his pocket2 and it would be proper to have it partly filled with fresh leaves4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,rearing ,,or ,,breeding ,,them4 ,having procured the caterpillars1 our next endeavour must be to rear them4 ,for this purpose2 it will be indispensably necessary to afford them an ample supply of the plant on which they are found feeding1 and to renew their food as often as the decay of that first procured for them may render it expedient4 ,insects in this state usually feed voraciously2 the caterpillar of the papilio brassica has been known to consume in one day twice its own weight of food4 ,although many of them live on a variety of food1 the greatest part are attached to some particular kind2 deprived of which1 some species would form objects less beautiful when arrived at their perfect state1 and others infallibly perish4 ,as to many it may prove very inconvenient to supply the caterpillars with fresh food daily1 to avoid this trouble1 several sprigs of the tree or plant may be put into a wide-mouthed glass filled with water1 and the caterpillars placed on them4 ,most plants may in this manner be preserved fresh for three or four days4 ,the glass1 together with the caterpillars and their food1 is to be placed in the breeding box represented in the figure annexed1 a1 shews an opening in the front covered with gauze2 b1 the door on the side2 c1 a ring for conveniency of carriage2 and a constant supply of fresh food is to be given them1 as soon as the former appears in the least withered4 ,the breeding boxes should never be exposed to the scorching rays of the sun1 but placed in a cool and shady situation2 nor should they contain more than one kind of caterpillar1 as some species devour others4 ,illustration ,when arrived at their full growth1 the caterpillars leave off eating1 and soon after1 change into the chrysalis or pupa form2 previous to which1 butterflies spin a little web1 just sufficient to suspend themselves by3 many of the moths1 like the silk-worm1 spin a large web1 in which they inwrap themselves2 and a great number penetrate into the earth1 where they spin themselves cases1 or change without any spinning1 as do most of the sphinges or hawk-moths4 ,it will therefore be necessary to cover the bottom of the box with fine mould to the depth of four or five inches1 and keep it constantly moist4 ,it frequently happens that caterpillars are what the aurelians call stung1 that is1 have the eggs of the ichneumon-fly deposited in them1 of which operation a full account has been given in pages #bie-bih4 ,caterpillars1 previous to their going into the chrysalis state1 generally lose the brilliancy of their colours1 and many of them rove about for some time4 ,after remaining in their chrysalis state till near the time of their coming forth1 such as are inclosed in a hard case or spinning1 as the phalna vinula1 puss moth2 phalna quercus1 great egger moth1 c4 are to be carefully freed from it2 as the aperture which the insect naturally makes is often too narrow for it to pass through without sustaining considerable injury in its plumage4 ,the opening will be best made1 by cutting off the larger extremity of the case1 taking especial care not to wound the inclosed pupa or chrysalis4 ,the learned ,dr4 ,bellardi1 ,foreign ,member of the ,linnean ,society1 c4 a few years since discovered a new method of feeding silk-worms1 when they are hatched before the mulberry-trees have produced leaves1 or when the tender branches are destroyed by frost3 how far this practice may be successfully applied in other instances1 seems as yet undetermined2 though from some recent experiments1 it appears possible that caterpillars may be thus fed in backward seasons4 ,this method consists in giving the caterpillar-the dried leaves of their accustomed food reduced to powder1 and gently moistened with water2 a thin coating of which must be placed round the young worms1 who will immediately begin to feed upon it4 ,the ,doctor informs us that the caterpillars of the silk-worm prefer it to any other food1 and devour it with the utmost avidity4 ,the leaves should be gathered towards the close of the autumn1 before the frost commences1 in dry weather1 and when the heat is greatest2 they must be dried in the sun by spreading them upon large cloths1 and after being reduced into powder1 laid up in a dry place4 ,donovan says1#afj that the experiment has been tried with several caterpillars which were nearly full fed on the leaves of thorns and oaks thus prepared1 and that they were observed to eat it when no other food was given1 but he cannot determine how far they may thrive if fed on that aliment only4 #afj ,treatise on the ,management of ,insects4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,them ,,in ,,their ,,chrysalis ,,state4 ,butterflies and moths may often be found in chrysalis under the projection of garden walls1 pales1 out-houses1 in summer-houses1 c4 and frequently affixed to the food on which the caterpillar fed4 ,a great variety of moths in the pupa state may with more certainty be found1 during the winter months1 by digging under the trees on which they feed1 particularly under the oak1 willow1 lime1 and elm trees4 ,when they are procured in this manner1 they should be placed as soon as convenient in the breeding box before described1 and kept covered with moist earth till the ensuing spring2 when1 as soon as the weather is mild1 they may be dug up and placed somewhat nearer the surface of the mould1 and in that manner left to come out of themselves4 ,should the collector not succeed in procuring chrysalides by this method1 it will frequently happen that his labour will be amply recompensed by obtaining a variety of beetles4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,them ,,in ,,their ,,fly ,,or ,,perfect ,,state4 ,illustration ,the extreme delicacy of the wings of moths and butterflies will not admit of their being caught without injury1 but in nets made of the finest materials4 ,it will be necessary1 therefore1 that the collector should provide himself with a net properly adapted to this purpose3 the one here represented has1 after long experience1 been found to answer extremely well4 ,fig4 ,a shews the net expanded ready for use2 a exhibits the part made of fine ,scotch gauze1 which should be previously dyed green2 b b1 the sticks2 these should be of some light wood4 ,to render them compact and convenient for carriage1 they are made to take to pieces somewhat in the manner of fishing-rods1 and connected by means of screws or hollow brass ferrils fixed to the end of each3 there are three of them for each side of the net4 ,fig4 ,b shews one of the sticks2 a1 the brass ferril2 b1 the end of the next stick1 which fixes tight into it2 to the upper end of the sticks1 at c1 is joined in like manner a piece of cane bent to a proper shape4 ,instead of three pieces of wood1 as here described1 the other stick may consist of one entire piece1 and be used as a walking-stick4 ,the gauze must be edged with two pieces of binding sewed together1 to receive the sticks when joined2 and1 as the sticks are taper1 so must be the cavity to receive them4 ,at the lower part the gauze is to be turned up about six inches1 so as to form a bag1 ,fig4 ,a1 c4 ,at the extremity of the gauze1 next the handles1 two pieces of tape must be fixed on each side1 d d1 of sufficient length to pass through a hole bored in the stick1 and then be tied in a loop1 so as to prevent the gauze from sliding on the sticks4 ,at the upper part of the net where the canes meet1 e1 the cavity should be closed by a few stitches1 that the sticks may shut even together4 ,the net may be about a yard in width when expanded1 and the length of it a yard and an half3 the size1 however1 may be varied at pleasure4 ,the gauze should be deprived of its glazing by being soaked for a short time in warm water2 but1 if dyed green1 which is usually the case1 this will be unnecessary4 ,the handles are to be held one in each hand1 when the net is used4#afa #afa ,though this net be principally intended for catching moths and butterflies on the wing1 it maybe usefully applied to another purpose3 if one person expand the net under a bush or branch intended for examination1 and another shake the bush1 or beat it well with a stick1 numbers of caterpillars1 as well as some of the minuter kinds of coleopterous1 and other insects1 will fall into the net4 ,by these means moths are likewise often taken1 as they remain in a torpid state during the day1 sheltered in the bushes4 ,illustration ,besides the gauze net for catching butterflies1 c41 the collector should be provided with a pair of forceps1 made of steel1 about nine or ten inches in length1 and of the shape represented in the figure2#afb the fans are to be covered with fine green gauze4 ,this instrument will in many instances be found exceedingly commodious1 as being of more general use2 it is very portable1 and possesses this advantage over the net1 that the insect caught in it will be more confined1 and consequently not so liable to injure its down4 ,if the insect be met with on the trunk of a tree1 paling1 or any flat surface1 it may be readily caught2 if on a leaf1 both may be enclosed in the forceps4 ,whilst in the forceps1 it should be pressed with the thumb1 or1 if the creature be small1 with the thumb-nail1 sufficient to stupify1 but not crush it4 #afb ,this figure shews the forceps in the proportions in which they have been generally made2 ,i would1 however1 recommend the fans to be considerably larger1 and the handles shorter4 ,the form of the fans has commonly been either hexagonal1 or1 the worst of all1 triangular2 experience has taught me that the shape as here given is to be preferred1 as being less liable to miss the insects1 who are usually upon their guard1 and frequently elude the vigilance of their pursuers4 ,a front view of the fans is given1 the better to shew their form2 but it is obvious that they must be placed in a contrary direction1 so as to flap on1 not slide over1 each other4 ,the next articles necessary to be provided1 will be two or three oval chip boxes1 cut sufficiently flat for the pocket1 and lined at top and bottom with thin cork2 and a cushion well stored with pins of various sizes4 ,the collector being now furnished with the necessary instruments1 it will be proper to give him such instructions as may enable him to use them4 ,with regard to the manner of using the net with expertness and success1 this knowledge will be much better acquired by practice than by the most ample description4 ,harris1 in his elegant work1 ,the ,aurelian1 has been rather diffusive than clear on this subject4 ,having caught the butterfly or moth in the net1 it will be necessary to proceed with caution1 as on killing it properly its beauty in a great measure depends4 ,it should not be laid hold of indiscriminately in any part2 but by managing skilfully the net1 its wings must1 if possible1 be brought into an erect position or close together2 then press the under part of the thorax or breast between the thumb and the fore-finger sufficiently hard to kill the insect4 ,by carefully attending to these directions1 the wings will not be distorted or the plumage injured4 ,the net being now opened1 the insect is to be laid hold of by one of its antenn or horns1 and again placed between the thumb and fore-finger2 in which situation it is to be held1 while a pin proportioned to its size is stuck through the upper part of the thorax or back2 it may then be affixed to the pocket-box by sticking the point of the pin into the cork lining4 ,the larger kinds of these insects1 especially moths and hawk-moths1 which are far more tenacious of life than butterflies1 will not expire so readily by this method1 as by fixing them upon the bottom of a cork exactly fitted to the mouth of a bottle into which a little sulphur has been put2 by gradually heating the bottle till an exhalation of the sulphur takes place1 the insect usually dies without injuring its colour or plumage4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,managing ,,them ,,in ,,their ,,fly ,,state4 ,though by the means just described these insects may be caught uninjured1 some farther care is requisite in order to make them appear to advantage2 this is called setting them1 and is performed in the following manner4 ,the insect being stuck through with a pin of a proper size1 is to be placed before its wings are become stiff1 on a piece of cork1 having a smooth surface and covered with white paper4 ,the body of the fly should not be made to touch the cork when the insect is affixed to it1 but to stand up some little distance from it1 as only the edges of both wings are intended to touch1 not the wings to lie flat on the cork4 ,the wings are then to be expanded1 as in the figure1 with a fine needle1 or some sharp-pointed instrument4 ,the instruments used in the operation for the eye called couching1 being fixed to taper handles1 are peculiarly commodious for this purpose4 ,illustration ,the upper edges of the superior wings are to be placed in a line with the head of the insect1 and they are to be kept in this situation by means of little braces1 formed of card-paper and cut in the shape represented in the figure2 a number of which should always be kept in readiness in a small box4 ,these must be proportioned to the size of the wings1 and fitted to their shape1 by being more or less bent2 by a proper attention to which1 the spots1 c4 on both wings are rendered conspicuous1 and the beauties of the insect exhibited in full perfection4 ,to acquire the method1 however1 of setting them well1 requires considerable practice and some ingenuity4 ,after remaining in this position four or five days1 or till the insect is become thoroughly stiff1 the braces may be taken off1 and the insect removed into the store box4 ,the shape of the store box is immaterial2 it should1 however1 be flat1 and may be made either of wood1 or1 which is preferable1 of tin4 ,the inside should be lined with thin cork and covered with paper1 and some slips of cloth glued to its edges to make it shut closer1 and thus exclude as much as possible insects and animalcula2 a little camphor tied in a bit of rag1 and pinned to a corner of the box1 will be found very useful to prevent their depredations4 ,it is particularly to be observed1 that there is a continual succession of insects as well as of plants2 some appear with the early primrose1 others accompany the late-flowering ivy3 so that in this respect1 the aurelian and entomologist may regulate their excursions by those of the botanist2 the latter would in vain search for the ranunculus ficaria or pile-wort1 in the month of ,july1 and the former be equally disappointed in seeking for the papilio cardamines1 orange-tip1 in the month of ,august4 ,some of these insects continue longer in their fly state1 and their plumage is less injured by flying1 than others2 some continue for a few days only2 others1 several weeks4 ,in general1 moths and butterflies1 unless they are caught the first day of their coming out of chrysalis1 are of small value2 hence arises the necessity of carefully watching those particulars1 and of making frequent excursions in order to obtain them in the greatest perfection4 ,butterflies are to be caught on the wing only when the sun shines warm4 ,they inhabit a variety of places2 the greatest number of them frequent woods1 and may be taken in or near them1 as the papilio iris1 purple emperor2 papilio hyperantus1 ringlet2 and most1 if not all the fritillaries4 ,some delight in meadows1 as the papilio jurtina1 meadow brown2 galathea1 marbled white2 ,c4 album1 comma2 rhamni1 brimstone3 and others frequent gardens1 as the brassic and rap1 large and small garden white2 others1 again1 clover fields1 corn fields1 heaths1 lanes1 c4 ,many of those which frequent woods are taken with much greater facility in the morning1 a few hours after sun-rise2 at which time they are found feeding on the flowers that grow by the sides of the woods2 afterwards1 when the sun shines with greater strength1 they fly high1 and with such rapidity1 as not to be taken but with the utmost difficulty4 ,moths fly chiefly in the evening1 a little after sun-set4 ,like butterflies1 they inhabit a variety of places1 and are to be met with in the greatest plenty near woods2 they may also be taken in great numbers in the day-time by beating the hedges1 c4 more particularly in the afternoon1 as the least motion will then put them on the wing4 ,they are likewise frequently met with in the day-time sticking to the bark of trees1 on walls1 and pales that surround gardens1 c4 and may be thus caught in great perfection4 ,some few1 like the butterflies1 fly in the middle of the day1 when the sun shines warm1 over the flowers of honey-suckles1 and other plants with tubular flowers4 ,insects of this species seldom sit to feed1 but continue vibrating on the wing while they thrust their tongue or proboscis into the flower4 ,geoffroy says that moths may be taken in great plenty by means of a candle or lanthorn carried into or near some wood1 towards dark4 ,independent of the recommendation of authority so respectable1 the well-known propensity that moths have to fly towards1 and even into candles1 has induced some collectors to adopt this method with success2 many of the most valuable caterpillars have also been thus obtained4 ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,collecting ,,insects ,,of ,,the ,,beetle ,,kind4 ,by these are meant all such1 as are included in ,linnus's first order of insects1 under the term ,,coleoptera2 these have generally been called scarabi or beetles3 some few of them have obtained distinct ,english names1 as the chaffer1 lady-bird1 earwig1 c4 and all have been divided by ,linnus into genera and species4 ,the insects of this1 as well as the preceding and following order1 may be found in their caterpillar or grub state1 in which they often prove extremely destructive to the roots of plants2 and may in like manner be brought to their perfect or fly state1 regard being had to their different manner of feeding4 ,the time and care1 however1 required for this purpose1 is probably more than can be spared by the generality of collectors2 the curious entomologist1 possessed of both leisure and abilities to engage in the pursuit1 will be enabled to establish with certainty the different genera of insects4 ,these insects are generally collected in their fly state3 some creep and fly in the day-time when the sun shines warm2 others1 like the moth1 fly in the evening and the night only4 ,their habitations are exceedingly diversified3 some are found in rotten and half decayed wood1 and under the decayed bark of trees1 as the lucanus cervus1 flying stag1 scarabus cylindricus1 and many of the cerambyces2 others1 among the dung of various animals1 particularly of horses1 cows1 and sheep1 as the dermestes1 leather-eater2 hister1 mimic beetle2 scarabus fimetarius1 c4 ,many of them make holes under the dung three or four inches deep1 it will therefore be necessary to have an iron spade to dig them out1 when in search of this kind of insects2 some reside in the bodies of animals that are become putrid1 as the silpha vespillo1 carrion beetle1 hister1 c4 also in moist bones that have been gnawed by dogs1 or other animals1 on flowers having a fetid smell1 and on several kinds of fungous substances2 others may be found in the morning about the bottoms of perpendicular rocks and sand-banks1 as the curculio1 weevil2 and brachus1 sand-beetle4 ,great numbers are found on the leaves and stalks of plants1 as the scarabus melolantha1 chaffer2 coccinella1 lady-bird2 chrysomela1 curculiones1 c4 others delight more particularly in the flowers of plants1 as the scarabus auratus3 some reside altogether in woods1 as many of the cerambyces2 some are found swimming on the surface of standing waters1 as the gyrinus natator2 others in ditches1 ponds1 c4 as the dytisci2 many may be caught in rivers1 lakes1 and standing pools1 by means of a thread net with small meshes1 in a round wire hoop fixed to the end of a long pole2 some are discovered by the light which they emit1 as the lampyris noctiluca1 glow-worm2 and vast quantities are found on dry banks1 sand-banks1 sand-pits1 c4 particularly when the sun shines warm2 numbers may be found in houses1 dark cellars1 damp pits1 caves1 and subterraneous passages1 as the tenebrio1 stinking beetle2 or on umbelliferous flowers and in timber-yards4 ,multitudes live under stones1 moss1 rubbish1 and creeks near the shores of lakes and rivers2 these are found also in bogs1 marshes1 moist places1 pits1 and holes of the earth1 on stems of trees1 and in the evening they crawl plentifully along pathways after a shower of rain4 ,some may be discovered in the hollow stems of umbelliferous plants1 as the forficula1 earwig4 ,these insects1 as soon as caught1 may with a pin of a proper size be stuck through the body1 close to the suture that runs down the middle of the back1 and then placed in the pocket box1 taking care that they do not injure one another from being placed too close together4 ,or1 if the collector be disposed to procure this class of insects1 he will find it very convenient1 and certainly much less cruel1 to carry a number of small pill-boxes in his pocket1 in which the insects may be readily secured and kept till he return home1 without their suffering any pain2 they are then to be immersed in boiling water1 that being a most expeditious mode of killing them1 and far preferable to their immersion in spirits1 in which many of them will live a considerable time2#afc they may afterwards be stuck through in the manner above-mentioned1 being careful to make the pin pass a sufficient length through the body of the insect1 and then placed on a piece of smooth cork4 ,when they have remained in this situation two1 three1 or four days1 or longer1 according to their size1 the legs1 antenn1 c4 are to be extended with a pair of fine nippers or tweezers1 and placed in a natural position2 in which they will1 if proper care be taken of them1 always remain3 particular caution should1 however1 be used not to place them in the store box or cabinet till perfectly dry1 as otherwise they will be liable to be infested with animalcula1 by which they will soon be destroyed4 #afc 8,the best method is to inclose them in a chip box1 and kill them by exposing the box to the heat of a fire2 this treatment will rather absorb than add to the superfluous juices of the insect1 and greatly contribute to its preservation40 ,donovan4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,insects ,,called ,,hemiptera4 ,the genera contained in this order of insects are principally these3 viz4 blatta1 the cockroach2 mantis1 camel cricket2 gryllus1 locust1 grasshopper1 cricket2 cicada1 flea locust2 cimex or bug4 ,the first of these1 the cockroach1 has been imported from warmer climates1 where these insects are extremely numerous1 and far more troublesome4#afd ,they are found in the greatest plenty here in bakehouses1 particularly in the night1 their usual time of feeding2 they likewise abound in corn-mills1 in ships1 and in all places where meal is deposited4 #afd ,in the island of ,senegal they do incredible mischief2 they gnaw linen1 sheets1 wood1 paper1 books1 and1 in short1 whatever comes in their way2 they attack even the aloes1 the bitterness of which keeps off all other insects4 ,adanson's ,voyage1 p4 #bif4 ,all those of the next genus1 mantis1 are foreign2 some of them are extremely remarkable and curious1 and from their particular shape1 as well as their colour1 have been called walking leaves2 they are found in meadows1 on grass1 and on the leaves of plants and trees4 ,the grylli mostly reside in meadows and fields among the herbage2 however formidable the mischief occasioned by the blatt may appear1 it is trivial when compared with the ravages of the gryllus migratorius or locust4#afe ,one species of this genus1 the gryllus domesticus1 resides in houses1 particularly where there are ovens1 and entertains the inhabitants with the chirping sound it emits4 ,most of the fulgor or lanthorn-flies are discoverable by the light which proceeds from them2 these1 like the mant1 are foreign1 and many of them equally curious4 ,the cicad are found on trees and plants2 the notonect and nep frequent rivers1 lakes1 and standing waters4 ,there is scarce a person who has resided any time in a very populous place1 but knows where to find one species of the next genus or cimex1 viz4 that distinguished by the name of cimex lectularius or bed bug4#aff #afe ,adanson relates1 that soon after his arrival in ,senegal1 he was a witness to the mischief done by locusts1 that scourge so dreadful to hot climates6 ,towards eight o'clock in the morning there suddenly arose a thick cloud that darkened the air1 and obstructed the rays of the sun2 the cause of which was soon found to be myriads of locusts1 raised about twenty or thirty fathoms from the ground1 and covering an extent of several leagues1 upon which a shower of these insects fell1 devouring while they rested themselves1 and then resuming their flight4 ,this cloud was brought by a very strong easterly wind2 it was all the morning passing over the adjacent country1 and it was supposed the same wind drove the locusts into the sea4 ,they spread desolation wherever they came2 after devouring the herbage1 with the fruits and leaves of trees1 they attacked even the buds and the very bark2 they did not so much as spare the dry reeds with which the huts were thatched4 ,hasselquist in his ,voyage to the ,levant1 says that 8the inhabitants of ,asia sometimes take the field against locusts with all the apparatus of war4 ,the bashaw of ,tripoli in ,syria some years ago raised #djjj soldiers against these insects1 and ordered those to be hanged who refused to go40 ,amidst the numerous blessings our own favoured isle enjoys1 what a happiness it is to be exempted from the ravages of these pernicious insects1 as well as from the government of bashaws6 ,in the year #agdh great numbers of the grylli migratorii were seen in ,london and its vicinity1 but they were not productive of any mischief1 and soon perished4 #aff ,these unpleasant domestics were scarcely observed in ,england previous to the fire of ,london in the year #afff4 ,it is conjectured that they were afterwards introduced with the limber imported for re-building the houses3 allowing this to be the fact1 posterity may console themselves with the inconveniences they sustain from this evil1 by reflecting how much benefit they have derived in other respects from the unhappy catastrophe which produced it4 ,these insects may be killed either with boiling water or a few drops of the etherial oil or spirit of turpentine4 ,they are all of them to be stuck through the thorax or back1 betwixt the shoulders2 the wings of the grylli and some of the others are to be expanded1 and kept so by the little braces1 and their legs1 antenn1 c4 placed in a natural situation4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,insects ,,called ,,neuroptera4 ,those of this class1 the fourth order of ,linnus1 are chiefly aquatic1 residing in the waters as caterpillars1 and flying about them in their perfect state4 ,the principal genera are1 the libellula1 dragon-fly2 ephemera1 may-fly2 phryganea1 spring-fly2 hemerobius1 and panorpa4 ,the libellul are considered by the generality of people as containing in them something venomous2 and from hence1 in addition to the epithet1 alone sufficiently tremendous1 of dragon-fly1 have obtained the several names of adder-spear1 adder-bolt1 horse-stinger1 c4 ,it must be confessed1 that their shape1 manner of flight1 c4 are such as might readily raise such an idea in the minds of the multitude1 who but too often form their decisions from appearances only2 but naturalists are unaccustomed to such hasty determinations1 and they can safely advise the collector not to be misled by terrific words1 nor intimidated from catching them1 they being perfectly harmless1 indeed more so than the gnats which constitute a part of their food4 ,the butterfly net already described will be very convenient for catching insects of this order1 particularly the libellul4 ,they are all of them easily killed1 either by pressure of the thorax1 or with spirit of turpentine1 spirit of wine1 or the fumes of sulphur2 the same means are to be used in setting them as in the hemiptera4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,insects ,,called ,,hymenoptera4 ,the remarks which have just been made on the libellul do not apply to insects of this order1 the major part of them being armed with stings2 some of which are1 however1 harmless1 though others are venomous4 ,the principal genera are1 the tenthredo1 saw-fly2 ichneumon1 ichneumon-fly2 sphex1 ichneumon-wasp2 vespa1 wasp1 hornet2 apis1 bee2 formica1 ant2 sirex1 and chrysis4 ,the tenthredines are found on trees and flowers in their caterpillar state2 they feed on the leaves of plants4 ,the ichneumons are found in the same manner2 in their caterpillar state1 they live chiefly in the bodies of other insects1 particularly in the caterpillars of the moths and butterflies1 as has been already mentioned4 ,the sphex resides principally in sand-banks1 it is also caught on flowers1 shrubs and fruits1 and about hedges2 this insect catches and kills others1 which it buries in the sand1 having previously deposited its eggs in them4 ,wasps1 bees1 and ants1 are found on flowers and fruits1 and almost on every sweet substance4 ,the chrysis1 of which many species are exceeding beautiful1 is found flying about old walls1 posts1 sand-banks1 c4 in which it builds its nest4 ,wasps and bees are the only winged insects that have any great degree of poison in them1 they should therefore be taken with the forceps before described1 and handled cautiously on account of their stings1 which are dangerous4 ,some1 as the mytilla1 naked bee1 have stings1 but no poison1 and are to be found on the flowers of umbelliferous plants1 when the sun shines hot in the middle of the day2 at which time others1 as the chrysis1 c4 are also to be met with3 when caught1 a pin is to be stuck through them whilst in the net4 ,it is very difficult to kill these insects without injuring them in some respect2 boiling water hurts their wings1 and the fine hairs with which many of them are covered2 spirits of wine or turpentine prove immediately fatal to some1 whilst others are scarce affected by them2 and letting them remain transfixed till they are dead1 will probably be thought too cruel2 it is said1 that the best method hitherto practised1 is to stick them through with a needle dipped in aqua fortis2 the sphinges1 and other large moths1 are likewise killed in the same manner with the least injury3 the reader will adopt either of these methods1 or any other he may deem expedient4 ,when dead1 their wings are to be expanded1 and kept in as natural a position as possible4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,insects ,,called ,,diptera4 ,this order contains various kinds of flies and gnats2 the former abound in almost every place1 but they are found more particularly on all kinds of plants and flowers1 especially on the umbelliferous ones1 about the tops of trees1 little hills1 c4 ,some of them fly about cattle of various kind1 in the skins of which they deposit their eggs1 as the oestrus bovis1 c4 ,these insects are easily killed by a few drops of spirit of turpentine3 their wings are to be expanded so that their bodies may become apparent2 a little brace should be placed underneath them1 to prevent their bodies being too much incurvated in drying1 which they are very apt to be4 ,many of these are most easily taken when they begin to feed2 for1 in the middle of the day they are so quick and active1 that it is almost impossible to catch them4 ,with regard to the last order of insects1 distinguished by the term ,,aptera1 they are so common1 and the places they inhabit so generally known1 that any information on the means of collecting them must be superfluous4 ,under this class are included spiders1 scorpions1 centipes1 crabs1 lobsters1 c4 c4 ,most of these require to be preserved in some kind of spirit2 spirit of wine1 proof spirit1 or geneva1 are to be preferred1 on account of their pellucidness2 though rum or brandy may1 if no other spirit be at hand1 answer the purpose of preserving1 though not that of exhibiting them with equal advantage4 ,those of the genus cancer1 after being well dried or carefully baked1 may be conveniently preserved in store boxes1 or properly arranged in a cabinet collection4 ,the smaller kinds of insects in general1 as well as those of the order aptera1 are best disposed of between talcs in sliders2 such1 for instance1 as the termes pulsatorium1#afg the several podur1 pediculi1 pulices1 acari1 c4 #afg ,according to ,linnus1 this is the minute insect which has been long known by the ,english name of the death-watch1 and described by a number of authors3 ,linnus thus notices it2 8frequens in domibus1 invisum vestibus1 herbariis1 insectorum museis4 ,fmina horologii instar pulsatoria in ligneis festucis40 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #ajae4 ,no4 #b4 ,geoffroy1 however1 says he is confident that it is not from this insect1 but from the dermestes domesticus1 7,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #efc1 ,no4 #ab17 which makes the circular holes in furniture1 that the ticking noise proceeds4 ,hist4 des ,insectes1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #aaa4 ,tom4 ,,ii4 p4 #fjb4 ,neither of these are larger than the pediculus humanus4 ,again1 on the respectable authority of ,dr4 ,shaw1 we are assured1 that the insect properly called the death-watch is a coleopterous insect of the genus ptinus1 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #efe4 ,the ,doctor says1 8it is chiefly in the advanced state of the spring that this alarming little insect commences its sound--the prevailing number of distinct strokes is from seven to nine or eleven--these are given in pretty quick succession1 and are repeated at uncertain intervals2 and in old houses1 where the insects are numerous1 may be heard almost every hour of the day1 especially if the weather be warm4 ,the sound exactly resembles that which may be made by beating moderately hard with the nail on a table--,it is about a quarter of an inch in length40 ,this very able naturalist has distinguished the insect by the name of ptinus fatidicus1 the beating ptinus1 and supposes it to be the same with the dermestes tesselatus of ,fabricius1 and the ptinus pulsator of ,gmelin4 ,he also cautions us 8not to confound this insect1 which is the real death-watch of the vulgar1 emphatically so called1 with another insect1 which makes a sound like the ticking of a watch1 and which continues its sound for a long time without intermission3 it belongs to a totally different tribe from the death-watch1 and is the termes pulsatorium of ,linnaeus40 ,every one will agree with the ,doctor in his remark1 that1 8it is a very singular circumstance that an animal so common should not be more universally known40 ,nat4 ,misc4 vol4 iii4 ,whichsoever of the three above described is the real insect1 it is well known1 that for a series of years the dread of it has excited the most uneasy sensations in the minds of the weak and superstitious2 an unhappy prejudice which exists even to the present hour1 and cannot be totally eradicated by all the powers of reason and argument4 ,sir ,thomas ,brown long since observed1 8,he that could extinguish the terrifying apprehensions hereof1 might prevent the passions of the heart1 and many cold sweats in grandmothers and nurses40 ,pseudodoxia ,epidemica1 ,book ii4 ,chap4 #g4 ,with the feelings of these persons a well-known satirist sports in the following lines3 --------------8a wood worm ,that lies in old wood1 like a hare in her form3 ,with teeth or with claws it will bite or will scratch1 ,and chambermaids christen this worm a ,,death-,,watch3 ,because like a watch1 it always cries click1 ,then woe be to those in the house who are sick2 ,for sure as a gun1 they will give up the ghost1 ,if the maggot cries click1 when it scratches the post40 ,swift's ,invective against ,wood4 ,another poet has also diverted himself with the same subject3 --------------8,the weather's bell ,before the drooping flock told forth her knell4 ,the solemn ,,death-,,watch click'd the hour she died40 ,gay's ,pastoral ,dirge4 ,it is remarkable1 that though the ignorant despise the minuter parts of creation1 as too insignificant to engage their notice1 and venture to deride those better informed for their attention to such ,,trifling subjects2 yet are those the very persons on whom ,,real ,,trifles make the strongest impressions1 and by whose credulity an apparently insignificant creature has been ,,magnified1 so as to become an object of considerable importance in the scale of beings2 for1 as our great dramatist says of the ,,jealous3 ------------8,trifles light as air ,are to the ,,timid confirmations strong ,as proofs of holy writ40 ,as the collector will have frequent occasion for the use of cork1 both to line his boxes with1 and to set his insects on1 the following directions how to prepare it for these purposes will be found useful4 ,he may procure the cork in large pieces at any of the cork-cutters2 these must be cut into smaller ones1 and1 in order to make the cork flat1 it is to be held before the fire till the heat thoroughly penetrate it2 the cork is then to be immediately placed betwixt two smooth boards1 and a very heavy weight laid on it2 in which situation it must remain till cold4 ,thus flattened1 it is to be rasped on both sides1 with such a rasp as is used by the bakers2 afterwards1 with a finer one2 and1 lastly1 with a pumice-stone2 by which it will be rendered perfectly smooth4 ,if the cork be thick1 and the purpose of it to line boxes1 it may be sawed through the middle1 and rasped as before directed4 ,as1 without a due attention to the state of the atmosphere1 the collector may make many fruitless excursions1 it will be proper to point out to him the kind of weather best adapted for the purpose of ensuring success4 ,if the day prove fine1 and the sun emit much warmth1 insects are very brisk and lively2 if1 on the contrary1 the weather should be cold or windy1 it will be in vain to attempt catching them on the wing1 as at such times insects in general take shelter within the herbage1 and instead of flying upwards1 which is usually the case when disturbed1 they dart into the thickest underwood2 or should they rise above the bushes1 they are impetuously hurled by the current of the wind far beyond the reach of the net2 and1 were it otherwise1 the collector would find the apparatus unmanageable4 ,harris says the garden white is as good a token for fine weather as may be2 when these flies are out in the morning1 it generally prognosticates a fine day4 ,at day-break many insects are on the wing2 and most kinds are observed in hot weather to come forth after rain1 to enjoy the humidity of the air2 this is the best time for collecting1 as their wings are less subject to stiffen before they can be set4 ,the males of some1 if not of every species of moths1 and possibly of other insects1 by a faculty to us incomprehensible1 are able to discover the females1 not only at a great distance1 but in the most recluse situations4 ,this circumstance has induced some collectors to endeavour to entrap such of the males as are not easily procured by any of the common methods3 they enclose the female in a breeding box1 and place it as near the usual haunts of the species as convenient2 the males will generally be observed soon after fluttering on the box1 and endeavouring to gain admission to the females4 ,this artifice has been repeatedly practised with success on the fox and egger moths4 ,every species has its distinct time for appearance1 which is seldom accelerated or retarded a few days1 unless by the unusual mildness or inclemency of the season4 ,if a brood of insects be discovered at a certain season of the year1 a brood of the same species will be found precisely at1 or near the same period of the year following1 except by accident they should have been destroyed4 ,notwithstanding the observation holds good in general1 it is a fact that some insects are very variable in this respect2 for instance1 the sphinx convolvuli1 unicorn hawk-moth1 and the papilio hyale1 clouded-yellow butterfly1 were common about ,london in the year #agha1 but have been very scarce since that time1 especially the former2 the papilio cardui1 painted lady1 sometimes disappears for several years4 ,the papilio antiopa1 grand surprize or ,camberwell beauty1 was first discovered in the year #agdh1 in ,cold-arbour lane1 ,camberwell1 and has occasionally disappeared for some years2 a few seasons since several were taken in different parts of the kingdom2 subsequent to which period1 it is not known that even one specimen has been seen4 ,it has been repeatedly ascertained1 that1 as with plants1 so it is with insects1 some kinds are confined to one particular spot of ground1 and are not to be found in any other part of the same wood2 consequently1 the haunts being once discovered1 the collector may be encouraged to expect meeting with some of the same species for several seasons successively4 ,minute moths are to be found in winter as well as summer4 ,it would be scarcely credible1 did not experience prove1 that when the frost is so intense1 as to entirely subvert the appearance and almost annihilate the existence of vegetable productions1 within its influence myriads of these delicately-formed creatures brave the inclement season1 and exist securely within those habitations which they have the address to construct4 ,a skilful entomologist may at this season in a few hours collect a number of the coleoptera1 hemiptera1 and lepidoptera orders2 several of which are not to be obtained1 but in very cold weather4 ,these insects usually shelter themselves among the moss and other extraneous matters growing on the trunks or branches of trees1 or beneath the rotten bark2 these substances should be shut close in a box or tin canister1 to prevent the escape of those insects that may be revived by the warmth4 ,to examine them1 ,donovan recommends spreading a sheet of writing paper on a table1 and placing a lamp or candle1 with a shade of transparent or oiled paper before you1 so as to weaken the glare2 separate the moss1 and shake it loosely in your hand1 and you will perceive many insects fall down on the paper4 ,if they be too minute to admit of a pin being thrust through the thorax1 they may be fastened with gum-water to small slips of paper4 ,,general ,,instructions ,,for ,,fitting ,,up ,a ,,cabinet4 ,to those who delight in subjects of natural history1 a good cabinet of insects is esteemed a valuable acquisition3 if it be well constructed1 and the several objects arranged with judgment1 it certainly exhibits one of the most beautiful and admirable assemblages of objects in nature4 ,such1 however1 who are disposed to make a collection sufficiently extensive to form a complete one1 will find it necessary to devote a great deal of time to the purpose1 as well as to be endued with a considerable share of perseverance and ingenuity2 those who are possessed of affluence will find it far less difficult to acquire one4 ,the cabinet1 to appear with that elegance which the subject deserves1 should be of mahogany1 well seasoned1 and made by a good workman in such a manner that all the joints may fit with the greatest nicety2 the form and size may be according to fancy1 or the extent of the collection intended to be made4 ,to form a cabinet sufficiently capacious to receive specimens of all the ,english insects hitherto discovered1 those excepted which1 as before observed1 are better preserved in spirits or between sliders1 ,i would recommend one on the following plan3 ,the height may be about three feet four inches1 the width two feet four inches1 and the depth one foot four inches1 inclosed with folding doors1 and provided with a good lock4 ,the inside to be partitioned down the middle1 so as to admit of a range of twelve square drawers on each side2 under these1 two or three drawers may be fitted extending the whole width1 to admit the larger kinds of insects1 such as the sphinges1 cancri1 c4 the sides and backs of all these drawers should be of cedar1 and the fronts mahogany1 with a brass ring or button to each4 ,the cork with which their bottoms are lined1 must be chosen as free from cracks as possible1 and1 after being washed several times with a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirit of wine1 to destroy the animalcula1 glued on to prevent its warping4 ,the whole surface must be made perfectly smooth and level1 and this1 as well as the sides1 covered with imperial paper carefully pasted on1 and afterwards moistened with alum-water4 ,the paper should be exactly ruled into squares proportioned to the size of the insects they are intended to contain2 and the names of each order and genus affixed according to the system of ,linnus4 ,by way of embellishment1 the edges may be lined all round the drawers with narrow slips of some kind of ornamental paper4 ,the fore-part of each drawer should have a thin partition to admit of a proper quantity of camphor1 with a number of small air-holes for the more ready diffusion of its effluvia to the insects contained in the drawer3 the tops of these partitions must be closed with thin slips of wood laid on them and fitted with nicety1 but not glued4 ,to prevent the admission of dust and air1 and exhibit the contents to advantage1 the top of each drawer must be glazed with the finest glass1 fitted into a frame of the same size as the drawer1 made either to slide in a groove1 or let in on a rabbet4 ,having proceeded thus far1 it will be adviseable to let the cabinet be thoroughly aired1 before any insects are deposited in it1 and to be particularly careful that all the insects so deposited be as free as possible from moisture2 if the cabinet be then constantly kept in a dry situation1 the camphor occasionally renewed1 and the air excluded1 there is every reason to expect that the several insects may be for a long time preserved in a state of perfection4 ,if1 notwithstanding all these precautions1 little dusty particles should appear on any of the insects1 which is a certain sign of the presence of animalcula1 they should be gently wiped with a hair pencil dipped in spirit of wine1 or carefully removed into a chip box and placed on the side of a ,bath stove for a short time2 by these means1 if early attended to1 they will be sufficiently baked to prevent future injury4 ,a strict adherence to the above particulars1 enabled me to preserve the contents of the cabinet formerly in my possession1 now the property of ,sir ,john ,st4 ,aubyn1 ,bart4 ,f4 ,r4 ,l4 ,s4 for several years in the most perfect condition1 though containing considerably above #bjjj articles4 ,within the same space of time1 to my certain knowledge1 several valuable collections have been either totally destroyed1 or very materially injured2 as when once the depredations commence1 the destruction proceeds with rapidity1 if not speedily prevented4 ,those who are desirous of enriching their collection with the productions of other climes1 will require a cabinet much more extensive1 or1 as the subject may be said to be inexhaustible1 may devote several to exotic insects only4 ,the collection made by ,mr4 ,drury being1 ,i believe1 the most superb which has ever appeared in this kingdom1 it may prove agreeable to many of my readers to give them a concise account of it4 ,it is contained in five large cabinets1 and consists of two divisions2 first1 those found in this country1 and1 secondly1 those procured from various quarters of the globe4 ,the ,english collection contains #bcbd different insects1 and the foreign one #ejff2 total1 #gchj3 the latter comprises of coleoptera1 #agaf2 hemiptera1 #fgf2 lepidoptera1 #agci2 neuroptera1 #abb2 hymenoptera1 #dgb2 diptera1 #cab2 aptera1 #bi4 ,the whole of this magnificent collection is regularly arranged1 according to the ,linnean system1 in #add drawers4 ,some of the most beautiful objects in this collection are exhibited and fully described in a work published by ,mr4 ,drury1 in three vols4 quarto1 containing on #aej plates about #gjj elegantly coloured specimens4 ,the climate of ,asia is particularly favourable to the production of numerous articles in the several branches of natural history unknown to1 or not natives of ,europe2 especially those of the lepidoptera order of insects1 numbers of which are remarkably large1 and exhibit a variety of the most beautiful colours4 ,this induces gentlemen1 previous to their departure for ,india1 to furnish themselves with cabinets at a considerable expense1 anticipating the satisfaction they shall enjoy during their residence there1 in arranging and depositing therein the several articles they purpose collecting1 and entertaining their friends with a view of them4 ,besides this1 they receive commissions from their ,european friends to collect and remit to them as many as they can1 neither party conceiving that this would be attended with any considerable degree of trouble or inconvenience4 ,it may1 therefore1 not be amiss to introduce here what the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,john1 one of the ,danish missionaries at ,tranquebar1 says on the subject4#afh 8,the rainy season is in the highest degree injurious to collections in every part of natural history1 shells and minerals excepted4 ,to obtain a permanent cabinet1 if not impossible1 is at least very difficult and expensive4 ,insects1 unless carefully preserved in close cases1 well secured from the accession of the smallest particle of air1 are soon covered with mouldiness2 nor are dried fish1 stuffed birds1 skins of animals1 plants1 c4 exempted from this inconvenience2 if not frequently exposed to the rays of the sun or dried in ovens1 myriads of animalcula in a short time form a settlement and inevitably destroy them4 ,all the cabinets received from ,europe1 lined in the accustomed manner with cork or deal1 are here on this account totally useless1 besides their being soon disjointed by the heat of the climate4 ,sail cloth1 well pitched and extended on frames1 is far better calculated to answer the purpose2 a number of these may be placed one above another1 at a convenient distance1 and the whole supported on light feet3 to render them more pleasant to the eye1 the linen may be covered as most agreeable either with white or coloured paper4 ,even the echini1 and the smaller marine plants1 attract so much dampness as to lose their colours and spicul1 and fall to pieces1 especially if they have not for some time been previously soaked in fresh water1 in order to deprive them of their saline particles4 ,stuffed birds1 c4 lose their feathers or hair1 and the more soft and tender parts fall off4 ,consequently1 if no ships go from hence during the month of ,october1 but are detained till ,february1 the major part of what ,i have collected for such of my friends in ,europe who are admirers of the wonderful works of the ,creator1 will be lost to myself and them1 besides subjecting me to the imputation of a want of attention and gratitude for favours previously received1 than which nothing can be farther from my heart40 #afh ,neuere ,geschichte der ,missions ,anstalten4 #dh stck4 ,halle #agif4 ,the above remarks1 it is hoped1 will afford some useful hints to gentlemen intending to visit ,india2 as well as plead in justification of those who1 unacquainted with the difficulty of preserving collections in so warm a climate1 have previous to their departure precipitately made promises to their friends1 which for want of being realized1 have too frequently exposed them to unmerited censure4 ,a ,,copious ,,list ,,of ,,microscopic ,,objects4 ,in the introductory part to our author's list of objects in ,chap4 ,x4 he very justly observes1 that from the nature of the subject the list must be very imperfect1 c4 it is not with the vain idea of rendering that complete which he has left imperfect1 and which indeed must ever remain so1 that the following general list is introduced2 but principally with the view of still farther assisting the tyro1 and pointing out a variety of articles1 that might not otherwise so readily occur to him4 ,in most instances1 ,i have mentioned where the objects may be sought for with a probability of success2 to have described them would have exceeded my limits4 ,the specimen here given1 will convince the reader1 that it would be no very difficult task1 so to enlarge this list1 as to constitute a volume2 but1 it is presumed1 that in its present state it will be found sufficiently extensive1 and of considerable utility4 ,to those who are already conversant with the subject1 it may prove acceptable as a kind of index to assist their memories2 and to such as may be disposed to form a cabinet1 it will serve the purposes of directing them in their choice of the principal objects1 and exhibiting some idea of the manner in which they are to be arranged4 ,i4 ,,animals1 ,,and ,,their ,,parts4 ,,the ,,human ,,species1 ,,quadrupeds1 ,c4 ,the human hair ,horse hair ,hog's bristles ,mouse hair ,smellers of cats1 tygers1 c4 ,cuticle1 or scarf skin of the human body ,the skin itself ,membrana adiposa ,muscular fibres ,nerves ,arteries and veins ,intestines or guts ,lacteals ,lympha ducts ,lungs ,liver ,pancreas1 c4 ,brain ,eye1 its coats1 humours1 c4 ,nose1 its ossa spongiosa1 c4 ,ear1 its hair1 wax1 tympanum1 c4 ,tongue1 its fibres1 nervous papill1 c4 ,blood1 its globules1 circulation1 c4 ,nails and hoofs in thin slices ,bones1 c4 c4 ,,objects ,,peculiar ,,to ,,birds4 ,feathers and their plumage ,pith of ditto cut transversely ,red combs and gills of cocks ,scaly skin of the legs ,web or membrane of waterfowl ,fleshy fibres1 particularly the gizzard ,eggs1 their beautiful teints ,coloured iris of the eye in some1 c4 ,the breast bones and scapul of small birds2 to which may be added1 ,the membranaceous wings of the bat ,,objects ,,peculiar ,,to ,,fishes4 ,many of these exhibit most beautiful objects1 from the elegant variety of the colours and teints of their skins and scales ,their spines ,fins ,fleshy fibres ,sperm or hard roe ,teeth ,brain ,eye1 its iris ,lungs and other viscera ,gills ,circulation of the blood in the fins and tails of small fishes ,shells of most kind of shell-fish ,fimbri or fringed extremities of shells1 c4 ,,insects4 #a4 ,coleoptera4 ,the entire insect if not too large ,the head ,antenn ,wings ,elytra ,legs1 c4 ,scarabus auratus1 rose-chaffer2 on flowers ,dermestes domesticus1 the death-watch of ,geoffroy ,dermestes pulicaris1 flea beetle2 on flowers ,ptinus pectinicornis2 in old trunks of willows ,ptinus fur2 very destructive in cabinets ,ptinus fatidicus 7,shaw7 death-watch1 see page #fhh4 ,gyrinus natator1 water-flea ,byrrhus scrophularia2 on flowers ,silpha pustulata2 on trees ,silpha aquatica ,silpha pulicaria2 frequently running on flowers ,cassida viridis on verticillated plants and thistles ,cassida nebulosa2 on thistles ,cassida nobilis ,coccinella1 #b punctata2 on alder and other trees ,coccinella1 #e punct4 in gardens ,coccinella1 #g punct4 lady-cow or lady-bird ,coccinella1 #i punct4 on trees ,coccinella1 #ad punct4 ,coccinella1 #af punct4 ,coccinella1 #bb punct4 ,coccinella1 #ad guttata2 in woods ,coccinella1 #b pustulata2 on trees and flowers ,chrysomela tanaceti2 on tansy ,chrysomela alni2 on common alder ,chrysomela betul2 on birch trees ,chrysomela polygoni2 on grass ,chrysomela polita2 on willows ,chrysomela populi2 on poplar trees ,chrysomela sanguinolenta2 in woods ,chrysomela hyoscyami2 on henbane ,chrysomela exsoleta2 in gardens ,chrysomela #ab punctata2 on ,chrysomela asparagi2 asparagus ,curculio cyaneus2 on willows ,curculio cerasi2 on black cherry trees ,curculio pruni2 on cherry trees ,curculio acridulus2 on plants of the genus tetradynamia ,curculio granarius1 weevil ,curculio dorsalis2 on the lesser celandine ,curculio pini2 on ,scotch fir ,curculio lapathi2 on docks1 particularly water dock ,curculio scaber2 on nettles ,curculio quercus2 on leaves of oak ,curculio viscari2 on lychnis viscaria ,curculio pericarpius2 on fig-wort ,curculio betul2 on birch and alder ,curculio beccabung2 on veronica beccabunga ,curculio alni2 on leaves of alder ,curculio fagi2 on beech trees ,curculio pomorum2 on apple trees ,curculio nucum2 in hazel nuts ,curculio scrophulari2 on fig-wort ,curculio tortrix2 in the twisted leaves of poplars ,curculio pyri2 on pear trees ,curculio argentatus2 in gardens ,cerambyx moschatus2#afi on willows1 roses1 c4 ,lampyris noctiluca2 glowworm ,cantharis nea2 on flowers ,elater castaneus2 on the bark of trees in woods ,elater sanguineus2 on the bark of trees ,cicindela riparia2 on wet ,cicindela aquatica2 sandy ground ,dytiscus cinereus2 water ,dytiscus sulcatus2 ,carabus granulatus2 in fields near ,london ,carabus crepitans2 under stones ,carabus #f punctatus2 on sand near brooks ,carabus #d maculatus2 on sandy banks of rivers ,mordella aculeata2 on flowers ,staphylinus murinus2 on horse-dung ,staphylinus riparius2 on wet sand ,staphylinus chrysomelinus2 on sand and near walls ,forficula auricularia1 earwig ,forficula minor1 small ditto #afi ,i have caught great numbers of these on white rose trees and rasp-berry bushes1 in the vicinity of ,london2 their smell has to me always appeared approaching nearer to that of oil of rhodium than of musk4 #b4 ,hemiptera4 ,parts to be viewed the same as the ,coleoptera ,blatta orientalis2 in bakehouses and near chimnies ,gryllo-talpa1 mole-cricket2 chiefly under ground ,gryllus domesticus1 house-cricket ,gryllus campestris2 under ground ,gryllus grossus1 common grass-hopper ,gryllus verrucivorus1 great green grass-hopper ,cicada cornuta2 on trees1 c4 ,cicada spumaria1 black-headed frog-hopper1 cuckow-spit1 or froth-worm2 in froth on sundry plants ,cicada viridis2 on water plants ,cicada ulmi2 on elms ,cicada ros2 on rose trees ,notonecta glauca1 common boat-fly2 swims on its back in smooth water ,notonecta striata1 brown boat-fly2 on water ,notonecta minutissima1 little boat-fly2 swims on its back ,nepa cinerea1 water scorpion2 on water ,nepa cimicoides2 on water ,nepa linearis2 on stagnant water ,cimex lectularius1 bed bug ,cimex scaraboides2 on flowers in meadows ,cimex corticalis2 on trees ,cimex betul2 on birch trees ,cimex filicis2 on fern ,cimex baccarum2 on gooseberry bushes ,cimex personatus2 in houses ,cimex hyoscyami1 scarlet bug2 on henbane ,cimex umbratilis2 on flowers ,cimex striatus2 in woods near ,hampstead ,cimex populi2 in woods1 particularly on the trunk of the poplar ,cimex abietis2 on ,scotch fir ,cimex lacustris2 runs quick on still water ,cimex stagnorum2 on stagnant waters ,aphis ribis1 currant louse2 on the bushes ,aphis ulmi1 elm ,aphis sambuci1 elder ,aphis rumicis1 dock ,aphis aceos1 sorrel ,aphis lychnidis1 campion ,aphis ros1 rose ,aphis tili1 lime ,aphis brassic1 cabbage ,aphis sonchi1 sow thistle ,aphis cardui1 thistle ,aphis tanaceti1 tansey ,aphis absinthii1 wormwood ,aphis jace1 knapeseed ,aphis betul1 birch ,aphis fagi1 beech ,aphis quercus1 oak2 under the bark ,aphis salicis1 willow ,aphis populi1 poplar ,aphis aceris1 maple2 on the leaves ,aphis atriplicis2 rolled up in the leaves of the grass-leaved orach ,chermes graminis2 on grass ,chermes pyri2 on pear trees ,chermes scorbi2 on mountain ash ,chermes urtic2 on nettles ,chermes alni2 on common alder ,chermes quercus2 on leaves of oak ,chermes abietes2 on fir ,chermes fraxini2 on ash trees ,coccus hesperidum1 greenhouse bug2 on orange trees ,coccus betul2 on the divarications of the branches of birch trees ,coccus philarides2 on canary grass ,thrips junipera2 on bark of old trees ,thrips fasciata2 on flowers ,thrips physapus2 on dandelion1 c4 p4 #cej4 #c4 ,lepidoptera4 ,their wings1 scales1 and feathers1 tongue or proboscis1 head1 eyes1 antenn1 chrysalides1 eggs1 legs1 c4 ,papilio cardamines1 orange tip2 in hedge sides ,papilio ,io1 peacock2 in lanes and hedge sides ,papilio ,mra1 great ,argus or wall2 on walls and banks ,papilio galathea1 white marbled2 in meadow ,papilio cardui1 painted lady2 on furzes and teazles ,papilio ,iris1 purple emperor2 in woods ,papilio polychtoros1 large tortoise-shell2 in lanes ,papilio urtic1 small tortoise-shell2 on banks ,papilio maturna1 heath fritillary2 on heaths ,papilio cinxia1 glanville or plantain fritillary2 meadows ,papilio paphia1 silver wash or great fritillary2 in woods ,papilio aglaja1 dark green fritillary2 in woods ,papilio cuphrosyne1 pearl border fritillary2 in woods ,papilio quercus1 purple hair streak2 in bushes ,papilio rubi1 bramble or green2 in woods ,papilio pamphilus1 small gate keeper2 in meadows ,sphinx ocellata1 eyed hawk moth2 on willows ,sphinx populi1 poplar hawk moth2 poplars and willows ,sphinx tili1 lime hawk moth2 on lime tree bark ,sphinx convolvuli1 unicorn hawk moth2 in fields where bindweed grows ,sphinx ligustri1 privet hawk moth2 in privet hedges ,sphinx atropos1 jasmine hawk moth1 bee-tyger1 or death head2 in potatoe fields ,sphinx elpenor1 elephant moth2 on vines1 convolvulus1 c4 ,sphinx stellatarum1 large bee moth1 or humming bird2 in gardens on flowers ,sphinx filipendul1 burnet moth2 on grass in meadows ,phalna pavonia1 emperor2 on osier grounds ,phalna rubi1 fox2 near woods ,phalna pini1 pine lappet2 on pines ,phalna vinula1 puss2 on barks of trees ,phalna neustria1 lacky2 thorns ,phalna caja1 great tyger2 on banks ,phalna villica1 cream spot tyger2 on banks which face the rising sun ,phalna monacha1 black arches2 in woods ,phalna salicis1 white sattin2 in willow bark ,phalna zigzag1 pebble2 ibid4 ,phalna cossus1 goat2 p4 #ccd ,phalna libatrix1 furbelow ,phalna jacob1 cinnabar or pink underwing2 commons ,phalna pronuba1 large yellow underwing2 in gardens ,phalna festuc1 gold spot2 in ditches near marshes ,phalna psi1 grey dagger2 in bark of willows ,phalna meticulosa1 angled shades2 on nettles ,phalna aceris1 sycamore tussock2 near sycamores ,phalna exsoleta1 sword grass2 in marshes ,phalna oxyacanth1 ,ealing's glory2 in hedges at ,ealing ,phalna pisi1 broom1 or favourite2 in meadows ,phalna amataria1 buff argus2 in lanes ,phalna syringaria1 ,richmond beauty2 in hedges ,phalna prunaria1 orange2 in lanes and hedges ,phalna verticalis1 mother of pearl2 on nettles ,phalna evonymella1 small ermine2 in orchards ,phalna salicella1 rose2 gardens ,phalna sarcitella2 frequent in houses ,phalna granella2 in houses and granaries ,phalna pomonella1 codling or apple tree2 in orchards ,phalna didactyla1 brown-feathered2 among nettles ,phalna pentadactyla1 white-feathered2 in woods ,phalna hexadactyla1 many-feathered2 on the lonicera1 c4 #d4 ,neuroptera4 ,their wings1 head1 eyes1 antenn1c4 ,libellula depressa ,libellula nea ,libellula grandis ,libellula forcipata ,libellula virgo ,libellula puella ,ephemera vulgata ,ephemera vespertina ,ephemera culiciformis ,ephemera horaria ,ephemera striata ,phryganea bicaudata ,phryganea nebulosa ,phryganea striata ,phryganea rhomboidica ,phryganea flavilatera ,phryganea nigra ,phryganea longicornis ,hemerobius perla1 golden eye2 on plants1 page #bjf ,hemerobius chrysops ,hemerobius sexpunctatus ,hemerobius formicarum ,panorpa communis2 meadows #e4 ,hymenoptera4 ,wings1 sting1 proboscis1 c4 ,cynips glecom2 in tubercles on leaves of ground-ivy4 ,cynips quercus baccarum2 in small tubercles on the under side of oak leaves ,cynips quercus folii2 in large tubercles on oak leaves ,cynips quercus petioli2 in tubercles on the petiolus of oak leaves ,cynips quercus gemmae2 in the large imbricated galls on the extreme buds of oak trees ,tenthredo luta2 on willow1 alder1 birch ,tenthredo rustica2 on willows ,tenthredo scrophulari2 on fig-wort ,tenthredo ros2 on rose trees ,tenthredo cynosbati2 on hips ,tenthredo capr2 on willows ,ichneumon comitator2 in wasps nests ,ichneumon manifestator2 woods ,ichneumon puparum2 in the chrysalides of butterflies ,ichneumon aphidum2 breeds in the bodies of aphides ,ichneumon globatus2 breeds in white silky balls about one inch long1 which are found on different plants in meadows ,ichneumon glomeratus2 breeds in the caterpillar of the cabbage butterfly ,ichneumon pectinicornis2 in the chrysalides of butterflies ,sphex viatica ,sphex cribraria ,chrysis ignita2 in walls ,vespa crabro1 hornet2 builds in hollow trees ,vespa vulgaris1 common wasp ,vespa coarctata1 small wasp ,apis centuncularis2 builds in old trees ,apis rufa1 small field bee ,apis mellitica1 common hive bee ,apis manicata2 on flowers ,apis conica2 builds on the ground ,apis terrestris1 humble bee2 builds deep in the ground ,apis subterranea1 great humble bee ,formica herculeana1 horse ant1 large ,formica rufa2 in gardens ,formica fusca1 brown1 common ant ,formica nigra1 black ,formica rubra1 little red ant #f4 ,diptera4 ,oestrus bovis1 breeze or gad fly1 see page #bid1 note ,oestrus hmorrhoidalis1 see page #bie1 note ,oestrus ovis1 grey fly1 see page #bif1 note ,tipula crocata2 in meadows ,tipula lunata2 ibid4 ,tipula cornicina2 ibid4 ,tipula plumosa1 sea tipula1 resembles a gnat1 and is frequently mistaken for it ,tipula littoralis2 on trees ,tipula monilis2 in meadows and on windows1 c4 ,musca chamleon1 p4 #bdh ,musca morio2 in gardens ,musca pyrastri2 ibid4 ,musca menthastri2 flowers ,musca pipiens2 on mint1 c4 ,musca inanis2 on flowers ,musca pellucens2 on rose trees ,musca csar2 in woods and gardens ,musca cadaverina2 on flesh ,musca vomitoria1 blue flesh fly ,musca carnaria1 common flesh fly ,musca domestica1 common house fly ,musca cellaris2 frequently found dead in wine and vinegar ,musca putris2 breeds in cheese and dung ,musca stercoraria2 on dung ,musca vibrans2 on trees ,musca flava2 on flowers ,musca solstitialis2 on thistles ,tabanus bovinus1 great horse fly ,tabanus pluvialis2 in meadows ,culex pipiens1 common gnat1 see page #ahg note1 #fbc ,culex bifurcatus2 in watery places ,culex pulicaris2 in gardens in the spring ,conops calcitrans1 differs from the common fly1 in having a sharp hard proboscis1 with which it strikes our legs in autumn ,conops macrocephala2 in meadows ,asilus craboniformis1 hornet fly2 in wet meadows ,asilus forcipatus2 in gardens ,asilus morio2 in wet woods ,bombylius major1 humble bee fly1 sucks flowers without resting on them ,bombylius medius2 hovers in the air like a hawk1 and darts with great celerity ,bombylius minor2 in ,caen wood1 near ,hampstead ,hippobosca equina2 fastens on dogs and cattle ,hippobosca hirundinis2 in swallows' nests #g4 ,aptera4 ,lepisma saccharina2 in the joints of sash windows that are wet and seldom opened ,podura viridis2 on plants in ,april ,podura plumbea2 on trees1 solitary ,podura villosa2 on stones ,podura aquatica2 numerous on the leaves of aquatic plants ,termes pulsatorium1 the death-watch of ,linnus1 p4 #fhh1 note ,pediculus humanus1 common louse1 see p4 #fai ,pediculus pubis1 crab louse ,pediculus bovis1 cattle ,pediculus vituli1 ibid4 ,pediculus corvi1 raven ,pediculus gallin1 capon ,pediculus columb1 pidgeon ,pulex irritans2 see page #faf ,acarus reduvius1 sheep louse or tick ,acarus ricinus1 dog tick ,acarus passerinus2 on many species of small birds ,acarus aquaticus2 on stagnant water1 swims quick ,acarus holosericeus1 scarlet spider2 on the ground and on plants ,acarus coleoptratorum1 beetle-tick2 hundreds are found on the belly of a beetle ,acarus longicornis2 under stones1 c4 ,phalangium opilio1 long-legged spider ,phalangium cancroides1 scorpion tick2 on garden pots1 sometimes in houses ,aranea cucurbitina2 on fruit trees ,aranea labyrinthica2 in fields ,aranea domestica1 house spider ,aranea redimita2 in gardens ,aranea senaculata1 large2 on walls1 c4 ,aranea scenica1 black2 on old walls and windows2 spins no web ,aranea aquatica1 pale brown ,aranea viatica1 resembles a crab1 moves slow1 c4 ,cancer pisum1 pea1 size of a pea2 in mussels ,cancer minutus1 minute1 smaller than the preceding2 among sea weeds ,cancer longicornis1 long horned1 size of the last ,cancer plati-cheles1 great clawed1 size of a horse bean ,cancer ,bernardus1 hermit2 in the deserted shells of wilks1 c4 ,cancer gammarus1 lobster ,cancer homarus2 on the coast of ,ireland ,cancer astacus1 cray-fish ,cancer serratus1 prawn ,cancer squilla1 white shrimp ,cancer crangon1 shrimp ,cancer linearis1 linear shrimp ,cancer atomos1 atom shrimp ,cancer locusta1 locust2 frequently skipping in summer on the sea shore ,cancer mantis2 ,weymouth ,cancer pulex1 water flea2 in rivulets ,cancer salinus2 in ,lymington salt water ,monoculus apis2 in fish ponds and ditches ,monoculus pulex1 very minute2 frequent and numerous in stagnant water ,monoculus quadricornis ,oniscus asilus1 sea louse ,oniscus entomon1 sea wood-louse2 on the coasts ,oniscus aquaticus2 in clear springs ,oniscus asellus1 millepes or wood louse2 in old walls1 c4 ,oniscus armadillo2 under stones ,julus terrestris1 feet #bjj2 under stones ,julus sabulosus1 feet #bdj ,,vermes4 #a4 ,intestina4 ,gordius aquaticus1 like a horse hair2 in water and clay ,gordius lacustris2 in the liver of the pike ,ascaris vermicularis2 at the bottom of lakes1 and in the intestines of children and horses ,ascaris lumbricoides2 in the human intestines ,lumbricus terrestris1 earth worm2 in the ground and in the human intestines ,lumbricus marinus1 sea worm ,fasciola hepatica1 gourd worm2 in ditches1 rivulets1 and in the liver of sheep ,fasciola intestinalis2 in the intestines of fishes ,fasciola barbata2 in the intestines of the sepia loligo ,sepunculus nudus2 in the sea ,hirundo medicinalis1 common leech2 in shallow waters ,hirundo sanguisuga1 horse leech2 in fresh water ,hirundo geometra2 in fresh water ,hirundo muricata1 sea leech #b4 ,mollusca4 ,limax ater1 black snail2 in moist shady places ,limax rufus1 red2 at the foot of mountains ,limax maximus1 large grey2 in thick woods ,limax agrestis1 small grey2 on cabbages ,limax flavus1 amber2 on plants ,doris argo1 sea lemon ,doris verrucosa2 ,aberdeen ,doris elutrina2 ,anglesea ,aphrodita acculeata1 sea mouse2 often found in the stomach of a cod ,aphrodita squamata2 ,anglesea ,aphrodita minuta2 ibid4 ,nereis noctiluca1 scarce visible to the naked eye2 shines by night in the sea1 so as to make the water appear on fire ,nereis locustris2 in clayey water ,ascidia rustica2 ,scarborough ,actinea sulcata2 rocks of ,cornwall and ,anglesea ,holothuria pentactes2 in the deep ,lernea cyprinacea2 in fishponds1 adhering to the sides of carp ,lernea salmonea2 adheres to the gills of salmon ,lernea asellina2 in the gills of cod1 c4 ,sepia officinalis1 ink or cuttlefish2 in the sea ,sepia sepiola2 off ,flintshire ,medusa cruciata ,medusa aurita1 sea nettle ,medusa capillata1 sea lungs ,asterias rubens1 five-fingered star fish ,asterias glacialis1 common ditto ,asterias oculata1 dotted ditto ,asterias minuta2 ,denbigh ,asterias hastata2 ,cornwall ,asterias nigra2 ibid4 ,echius esculentus1 sea hedgehog2 on the coast1 near ,scarborough ,echius spatagus1 sea egg2 on the ,yorkshire coast #c4 ,testacca4 ,chiton crinitus1 hairy chiton2 ,aberdeen ,chiton marginatus2 in the sea1 at ,scarborough ,chiton levis1 lock broom2 ,west ,ross1 ,north ,britain ,lepas4 ,animal1 triton ,lepas balanus2 adhering to rocks and shells ,lepas balanoides1 acorn fish2 frequently adheres to oysters ,lepas tintinabulum2 on bottoms of ships ,lepas anatifera1 barnacle1 see page #cdd ,pholas4 ,animal1 ascidia ,pholas dactylus1 piddock2 in stones1 shines by night ,pholas crispatus2 frequent on the ,yorkshire coast ,solen4 ,animal1 ascidia ,solen siliqua2 frequent on the shore near ,scarborough ,solen vagina2 ,anglesea ,solen pellucidus2 ibid4 ,solen legumen2 ibid4 ,tellina4 ,animal1 tethys ,tellina cornea1 size of a pea2 in pools of fresh water ,cardium ,animal1 tethys ,cardium echinatum2 on the ,yorkshire coast ,cardium edule1 common cockle ,mactra4 ,animal1 tethys ,mactra solida2 on the ,yorkshire coast ,mactra lutraria2 sea1 at the mouth of rivers ,donax4 ,animal1 tethys ,donax trunculus2 on the coast near ,scarborough ,ostrea maxima1 large scallop2 on the ,irish coast1 and near ,portland ,ostrea obliterata1 small scallop ,ostrea edulis1 common oyster ,anomia truncata2 in limestones ,anomia crispa2 in bluish limestone1 in ,craven1 and other parts ,anomia squamula2 on oysters1 crabs1 and lobsters ,anomia ephipium2 adhering to oyster shells ,mytilus4 ,animal1 ascidia ,mytilus rugosus2 in lime-stone ,mytilus edulis1 common muscle ,mytilus cygneus2 in many lakes in the north ,buccinum4 ,animal1 limax ,buccinum lapillus1 larger ,english purple fish2 on the shore ,buccinum minimum1 less than a pea ,helix1 snails4 ,animal1 limax ,helix lapicida2 in woods in ,lincolnshire ,helix planorbis2 in rivulets ,helix cornea2 in still rivers and pools ,helix vivipera2 ibid4 ,helix putris2 in rivers and pools ,serpula4 ,animal1 terebella4 ,serpula spirorbis2 adheres to sea weeds on the coast ,sabella4 ,animal1 nereis ,sabella alviolata1 ,english tubular sand coral2 on the ,yarmouth coast1 and on ,peington strand1 ,devon #d4 ,lithophyta4 ,coral1 calcareous1 fixed1 built by animals ,madrepora4 ,coral1 with cavities1 lamellosa-stellated4 ,animal1 medusa ,madrepora musicalis2 on the ,irish coast ,millepora4 ,animal1 hydra ,millepora fascialis1 stony foliaceous coralline2 adhering to an oyster shell1 on the coast of the ,isle of ,wight ,cellepora1 coral1 submembranaceous1 composed of round shells4 ,animal1 hydra ,cellepora pumicosa1 appears in the microscope like a pumice-stone2 found on the sickle coralline1 like white sand #e4 ,zoophyta4 ,gorgonia placomus1 warted sea fan2 on the ,cornish coast ,gorgonia anceps1 sea willow ,gorgonia flabellum1 ,venus fan ,alcyonium4 ,florets1 hydr1 between the cortex2 epidermis vesicular1 porous ,alcyonium digitatum1 dead-man's hand2 frequently taken up by fishermen trawling for flat fish on the ,kentish coast ,alcyonium schlosseri2 on the ,cornish coast ,alcyonium ficus1 sea-fig2 near ,sheerness ,spongia oculata1 branched sponge2 on the coast ,spongia dicotoma1 forked sponge2 on the ,cornish and ,yorkshire coasts ,spongia lacustris1 creeping sponge2 at the bottom of lakes in ,westmoreland ,spongia fluviatilis1 river sponge2 in the ,thames1 ,cam1 c4 ,flustra foliacea1 broad-leaved horn-wrack2 on the coast ,tubularia indivisa1 tubular coralline ,tubularia ramosa1 small rarified tubular coralline ,tubularia fistulosa1 bugle coralline ,tubularia campanulata1 creeping1 extremely minute ,corallina officinalis1 coralline of the shops2 fixed to rocks and shells1 by stony joints ,corallina rubens1 crested or coxcomb coralline1 like moss in round tufts1 resembling a bird's crest2 the microscope shews the filaments to be dichotomous ,corallina corniculata1 white slender-jointed coralline2 adheres to small fuci ,sertularia rosacea1 lily-flowering oralline2 on oysters ,sertularia pumila1 sea-oak coralline2 about ,sheerness ,sertularia abietina1 sea-fir2 on oysters1 muscles1 c4 ,sertularia argentea1 squirrel's tail2 on oysters in the ,isle of ,shepey ,sertularia cornuta1 very minute--with many others ,vorticella1 see page #cif seq4 ,hydra1 see page #cfc seq4 ,tnia solium2 in the intestines of various animals ,tnia vulgaris1 common tapeworm2 in the intestines of men and brutes ,animalcula infusoria1 see page #dbh seq4#agj #agj ,those who are desirous of seeing well delineated and elegantly coloured figures of a variety of curious objects among the insect class1 particularly such as require investigation by the microscope1 will be amply gratified by having recourse to ,donovan's ,history of ,british ,insects4 ,from the ,naturalists ,miscellany1 by ,g4 ,shaw1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,vice ,pres4 ,l4 ,s4 numbers of beautiful subjects may likewise be selected4 ,,ii4 ,,fossils4 ,ketton or kettering stone ,spar opake2 in mines in ,wales1 ,derbyshire1 c4 ,spar refracting2 in lead mines in ,derbyshire1 c4 ,spar diaphonous2 in various parts of the kingdom ,spar stalactitical1 ,knaresborough1 c4 ,fluor transparent1 diaphonous resembling emeralds1 saphires1 topazes1 amethysts1 c4 ,,metals4 ,aurum nativum2 said to be found in some rivers in ,north ,britain ,argentum mineralizatum2 in small quantities in lead and copper ores ,plumbum galena1 lead glance2 in various parts of ,england ,plumbum stibiatum1 antimonial lead ore ,plumbum crystallinum1 lead crystals ,plumbum spatosum1 lead spar ,plumbum calciforme1 lead ochre ,plumbum nativum1 native lead ,cuprum nativum ,cuprum cruleum montanum1 mountain blue2 in the mines of ,derbyshire ,cuprum viride montanum1 mountain green2 in copper mines of ,england1 ,ireland1 and the ,isle of ,man ,cuprum rubrum1 glass copper ore2 generally found with native copper ,cuprum cinereum1 grey copper ore ,ferrum crystallinum1 crystalline ore2 ,forest of ,dean1 ,langron in ,cumberland ,ferrum crulescens1 bluish ore ,ferrum micaceum1 glimmer ,,semi-,,metals4 ,vismutum ochra1 flowers of bismuth ,vismutum mineralizatum1 bismuth ore ,antimonium striatum1 striated antimonial ore ,antimonium rubrum1 red antimonial ore ,,petrefactions4 ,animals1 or parts of animals1 changed into a fossile substance ,vermes4 ,helmintholithus ammonita1 nautilus2 in strata of earth and stones1 on the sea-shore1 c4 ,helmintholithus anomites2 in great abundance1 particularly at ,sherborne in ,gloucestershire ,helmintholithus gryphites2 in chalk hills1 c4 ,helmintholithus judaicus2 in many parts1 particularly chalk pits in ,kent ,helmintholithus echinites2 ,surrey1 ,essex1 ,kent1 ,middlesex1 in chalk and gravel pits ,helmintholithus astrion1 sea-star2 in chalk pits1 c4 ,helmintholithus astroites1 star stone2 ,gloucestershire1 ,norfolk1 c4 and many more4 ,vegetables4 ,phytolithus plant2 grass1 reeds1 horse-tail1 c4 found in the black slate called plate1 immediately above the pit coal1 in various parts of ,england4 ,phytolithus filices1 ferns2 ditto1 ,newcastle1 c4 ,rhizolithus1 roots of trees and plants buried in the earth ,lithophyllum1 leaves of trees2 at ,knaresborough1 also impressed in stone ,carpolithus1 fruits1 particularly impressions of the cones of pines1 hazel1 oak ,fishes4 ,ichthyolithus siliquastra1 fossile pods1 often resembling half the pod of a lupine1 c4 sometimes extremely minute1 at other times near two inches long4 ,ichthyolithus vertebra1 of various genera1 often in pits and quarries1 particularly at ,richmond in ,surrey1 on the cliffs of ,shepey ,island1 c4 ,insects4 ,enthomolithus cancri1 claws1 or parts of claws2 in pits in several parts of ,england ,shrubs4 ,graptolithus dentrides1 representing shrubs1 plants1 or moss2 on various stones1 slates1 and flints1 in many parts of ,england1 c4 ,,iii4 ,,vegetables4 ,having thus enumerated a considerable variety of articles in the animal and fossile kingdoms1 the only part which remains to be noticed is that of vegetables4 ,to any person possessing but a superficial knowledge of botany1 it must be obvious that this branch of natural history is extensive in the extreme2 and that1 consequently1 to point out but a small number of such plants as form interesting objects for the microscope1 would greatly extend this list1 already sufficiently large2 for1 8,how incompetent is human effort to portray the beauties of this sublime subject6 ,how inadequate the most descriptive talent to approximate to our view the vegetative profusion contained within the recess of nature6 ,how limited have been our public researches6 ,how contracted the knowledge which has been as yet obtained6 ,what an incomprehensible store remains yet concealed1 impenetrable to mortal view60#aga #aga ,observations on the ,structure and ,economy of ,plants1 by ,r4 ,hooper1 ,m4 ,d41 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 page #abh4 ,this work contains an ingenious display of the analogy which subsists between the animal and the vegetable kingdom4 ,from a source so abundant1 the botanist will be under no difficulty in selecting for himself2 those who have not made the science a part of their studies1 will be materially assisted by having recource to the elegant figures and their descriptions in the ,botanical ,magazine1 by ,w4 ,curtis1 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 the well-known author of ,flora ,londinensis2 and ,english ,botany1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,pres4 ,l4 ,s4 published by ,jas4 ,sowerby1 ,f4 ,l4 ,s4 ,i shall1 therefore1 just mention in general terms those parts of plants which are peculiarly adapted for microscopical investigation4 ,these are as follow3 ,the trunk1 composed of ,epidermis or cuticle ,cortex or outer bark ,liber or inner bark ,alburnum ,lignum or wood ,medulla or pith ,the root cut transversely or longitudinally ,leaves and their fibres ,the parts of fructification1 consisting of ,the calyx or flower cup corolla or foliation1 containing the leaves or petals1 and the nectarium stamina or threads1 their filaments and anthera or summit1 and the pollen contained therein#agb ,the pistillum or pointal1 its germen1 style1 and stigma pericarpium1 seed vessel1 or germen grown to maturity semina1 seeds and their parts receptaculum1 the base on which the fructification is seated #agb ,the pollen or meal is a fine dust designed for the impregnation of the germen2 a small quantity of this meal being put into hot water and applied to the microscope1 will exhibit the bursting of the elastic covering of each grain2 and the escape of the smaller atoms1 which is the true farina4 ,of the various classes of plants1 that called cryptogamia is eminently calculated for microscopical observation2 comprizing the filices1 the musci1 the alg1 and the fungi4 ,on these subjects ,hedwig has produced a valuable work1 entitled ,theoria ,generationis et ,fructificationis de ,plantarum ,cryptogamicarum1 of which a new and much improved edition has just appeared1 and to which for further information ,i refer the reader4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,mr4 ,,custance',s ,,vegetable ,,cuttings1 ,,that ,,usually ,,accompany ,,the ,,most ,,complete ,,sort ,,of ,,microscopes ,,made ,,by ,,messrs4 ,w4 ,,and ,s4 ,,jones4 ,english oak4 ,evergreen ditto4 ,norway oak4 ,ash4 ,cedar4 ,cork4 ,savin4 ,fir4 ,ceanothus4 ,hazel4 ,lime4 ,elm4 ,elm root4 ,mulberry ditto4 ,grape root4 ,lime ditto4 ,beech4 ,birch4 ,plum4 ,ivy4 ,spanish elder4 ,american climber4 ,cissampelos4 ,virgin's bower4 ,magnolia grandiflora4 ,gelder-rose4 ,altha frutex4 ,tulip tree4 ,ash4 ,spanish chesnut4 ,platanus orientalis4 ,viburnum lantana4 ,oak root4 ,ash root4 ,asp root4 ,walnut ditto4 ,grape vine4 ,indian turpeth4 ,china root4 ,jasmine4 ,dog rose4 ,raspberry4 ,barberry4 ,briar4 ,elder root4 ,ditto branch4 ,willow root4 ,ditto branch4 ,mulberry4 ,fig4 ,sycamore4 ,maple4 ,american dogwood4 ,ptelea trifoliata4 ,ligneous night-shade4 ,sumach4 ,apricot4 ,medlar4 ,bay4 ,laurel4 ,sea weed4 ,longitudinal cutting of plane tree4 ,ditto of ,spanish elder4 ,ditto of briar4 ,common cane4 ,ditto with curious center4 ,bamboo cane4 ,sarsaparilla4 ,longitudinal cuttings of sugar cane4 ,elder4 ,rose tree4 ,mugwort4 99,longitudinal slices of elder4 99,ditto grape vine4 99,transverse ditto4 99,dogwood4 99,plane tree4 99,beech4 99,grape vine4 99,spanish chesnut4 99,walnut4 99,fig4 99,ditto longitudinal4 ,asparagus4 ,artichoke4 ,thistle4 ,fennel4 ,parsley4 ,ditto root4 ,sunflower4 ,ditto root4 ,agrimony4 ,eryngo4 ,potatoe stalk4 ,centaurea4 ,indian reed4 ,ditto corn4 ,amaranthus4 ,bromelia pinguin4 ,campanula4 ,monkshood4 ,lavatera4 ,solidago4 ,mugwort4 ,chrysanthemum4 ,helianthus4 ,wormwood4 ,bulrush4 ,portugal reed4 ,burdock4 ,ditto4 ,wild mustard4 ,aloe flower stalk4 ,solomon's seal4 ,tulip4 ,calamus aromaticus4 ,buckbean4 ,gourd4 ,melon4 ,crown imperial4 ,flower-de-luce4 ,pine apple4 ,white lily4 ,asparagus4 ,ragwort4 ,water flag4 ,sugar cane4 ,stems of leaves of hog's fennel4 ,hemlock4 ,chesnut4 ,wild turnip4 ,stems of the leaves of red dock4 ,horse-radish4 ,cabbage4 ,carrots4 ,roots of phytolacca4 ,teasel4 ,carrot4 ,fennel4 ,stinging-nettle roots curiously variegated4 ,roots of parsley and wormwood variegated4 ,stalks of fern1 with variations4 ,n4 ,b4 ,those marked with an 99 ,mr4 ,custance conceives prove ,dr4 ,hill in an error1 when he observed1 that the pith of a shoot is not connected with the pith of the branch4 ,see his ,construction of ,timber1 c4 p4 #ajc1 #hvo edition4 ,,salts1 ,,and ,,various ,,chemical ,,preparations4 ,,salts4 ,salt ammoniac1 crude ,salt ammoniac1 volatile ,salt of amber ,salt of ,benjamin1 commonly called flowers of ,benjamin ,salt of berberry ,salt of buckthorn ,salt of butcher's broom ,salt of carduus ,salt of chamomile ,salt of coral ,salt of cucumber ,salt1 ,epsom1 so called ,salt of fennel ,salt gem ,salt1 glauber's1 vitriolated natron ,salt of hartshorn ,salt of lavender ,salt of lead1 commonly called sugar of lead ,salt of limons ,salt of liquorice ,salt of millepedes ,salt of mugwort ,salt of nitre1 or salt petre ,salt of ,peruvian bark ,salt polychrest ,salt ,rochelle ,salt of tartar ,salt of tartar vitriolated ,salt of tobacco ,salt of urine ,salt of wood sorrel ,salt of wormwood1 and a great variety of others4#agc #agc ,to ascertain the true configurations of salts1 particular attention should be paid to obtain them genuine2 it may therefore be proper to apprize the reader1 that some of those above enumerated are not easily procured in that state2 consequently1 though they exhibit pleasing figures1 yet they may not be those of the real salt purposed to be investigated4 ,many hundred weights of some salts are annually manufactured1 and sold under names very different from what they really are4 ,nor is this circumstance confined to salts only3 for want of botanical knowledge1 preparations of different plants have been frequently sold possessed of medical properties very different from those intended4 ,a valuable medicine1 the extract of ,hemlock1 for instance1 instead of being prepared of the conium maculatum1 has been made in large quantities of the chrophyllum sylvestre1 and thus administered6 ,on this unpleasant subject ,i could enlarge1 were it not digressing from that before us4 ,whilst such evils exist1 need we wonder if the physician as well as the patient are often disappointed in the beneficial effects expected from the adhibition of medicines8 ,,preparations ,,of ,,mercury4 ,acetated quicksilver ,calcined ditto ,calomel ,muriat1 commonly called corrosive sublimate ,red nitrated1 or red precipitate ,sulphurated1 or factitious cinnabar ,,miscellaneous4 ,camphor ,crystals 7called cream7 of tartar ,iron1 ammoniacal1 or martial flowers ,verdigrise1 ditto distilled ,vitriol1 blue1 or vitriolated copper ,vitriol1 green1 or vitriolated ,iron ,vitriol1 white1 or vitriolated zinc1 c4 c4 ,after having particularized so many of the works of ,,nature1 let us now pay some attention to those of ,,art4 ,but what an humiliating contrast shall we meet with6 ,if our design in viewing objects by the microscope be to discover beauty1 harmony1 and perfection1 it will be necessary to limit our inquiries to the former1 happily alone sufficiently abundant2 if1 on the contrary1 we are desirous of discovering deformity and imperfection1 we must confine ourselves to the latter4 ,even those works of art that appear to the unassisted eye as decisive proofs of consummate skill in the workman1 and which excite our admiration for their apparent neatness and accuracy1 when brought to this test1 exhibit their real state2 and1 consequently1 tend but to display the inferiority of the most finished performance of the ablest artist1 when put in competition with the glorious productions of nature4 ,the finest works of the loom and of the needle1 if exhibited with the microscope1 prove so rude and coarse1 that were they to appear thus to the naked eye1 so far from affording delight to our belles1 would be rejected with disgust4 ,but the more we inquire into the works of nature1 the more fully are we satisfied of their divine origin3 in a flower1 for instance1 we see how fibres too minute for the unassisted sight are composed of others still more minute1 till the primordial threads or first principles are utterly indiscernible2 whilst the whole substance presents a celestial radiance in its colouring1 with a richness so superior to silver or gold1 as if it were intended for the cloathing of an angel1 and we have the highest authority for asserting1 that the greatest monarch of the ,east in all his glory1 was not arrayed like one of these4 ,a very few specimens of art will1 therefore1 suffice4 ,the edge of the sharpest razor or penknife ,teeth of rasps and files ,threads of the finest screws ,finest engravings on gold1 silver1 copper1 c4 ,coins1 medals ,seals1 intaglios ,best executed miniature paintings1 prints1 drawings1 c4 ,the finest laces1 silks1 and ribbons ,smallest needles1 pins1 c4 ,woolen and linen cloth1 plain or printed2 camblets1 bombazeens1 c4 ,a drop of ink on paper ,paper1 from the coarsest to the finest ,the writing of the ablest penman ,the finest specimens of the typographic art1 c4 c4 ,an inspection of a few of the above articles only will clearly demonstrate1 that as in the moral and political world1 so in the works of art1 perfection is unattainable by mortal man4 ,with the fullest impression of which truth in the mind of the editor1 and an appeal to the candour of his readers towards those imperfections which they may have discovered in this performance1 he shall now conclude with1 ,,finis4 ,,additions4 ,the following is a new1 useful1 and ready method of making globules for microscopes1 differing from the customary one described in page #h1 and is extracted from ,mr4 ,w4 ,nicholson's scientifical ,journal of ,natural ,philosophy1 ,chemistry1 and the ,arts4 ,no4 #c1 ,june #a1 #agig4 p4 #acd4 8,the usual method has been to draw out a fine thread of the soft white glass called crystal1 and to convert the extremity of this into a spherule by melting it at the flame of a candle4 ,but this glass contains lead1 which is disposed to become opake by partial reduction1 unless the management be very carefully attended to4 ,i find that the hard glass used for windows seldom fails to afford excellent spherules4 ,this glass is of a clear bright green colour when seen edgeways4 ,a thin piece was cut from the edge of a pane of glass less than one-tenth of an inch broad4 ,this was held perpendicularly by the upper end1 and the flame of a candle was directed upon it by the blow-pipe at the distance of about an inch from the lower end4 ,the glass became soft1 and the lower piece descended by its own weight to the distance of about two feet1 where it remained suspended by a thin thread of glass about one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter4 ,a part of this thread was applied endways to the lower blue part of the flame of the candle without the use of the blow-pipe4 ,the extremity immediately became white-hot1 and formed a globule4 ,the glass was then gradually and regularly thrust towards the flame1 but never into it1 until the globule was sufficiently large4 ,a number of these were made1 and being afterwards examined by viewing their focal images with a deeper magnifier1 proved very bright1 perfect1 and round40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the opake solar microscope has been made by the late ,mr4 ,martin of larger dimensions than described in page #ajf4 ,the illuminating lens1 at ,a ,b1 ,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #a1 and the breadth of the mirror were about four inches and an half1 instead of three inches1 which gives more than double the light of the former2 and1 consequently1 all the larger sort of opake and transparent objects1 to the size of one and an half or two inches in diameter1 as well as diverting objects painted on glass1 like the magic lanthorn sliders1 are shewn with the greatest distinctness1 and has by ,mr4 ,martin been called the ,,megalascope of the apparatus4 ,the same ingenious and learned artist applied a lattice of small squares about one-tenth of an inch1 each square made of fine wire1 or lines drawn strongly on glass in a circle of one inch in diameter1 and placed these in the compound body of a microscope or telescope1 in the focus of the glasses next to the eye4 ,and having a copper-plate lattice of squares disposed into a circle1 and to any size as may be wanted1 the observer or artist may then with great facility make an exact drawing on the paper of the object observed4 ,the same contrivance is applicable to the solar microscope4 ,this he called the ,,graphical ,,microscope ,,or ,,perspective4 ,page #abg1 line #bd--;,any pocket telescope1 the drawers of which are made to allow of a further extension than usual1 may be used as a compound microscope for examining birds or insects alive1 in a garden on the flowers1 shrubberies1 c4 from a window near to the objects4 ,there are few pocket achromatic telescopes or perspectives1 but what will define and magnify objects from about six feet to any distance from the instrument4 ,the magnifying power is inversely as the distance of the object from the telescope1 and1 consequently variable in an infinite degree2 on which account ,mr4 ,martin named it the ,,polydynamic ,,microscope4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,prices ,,at ,,which ,,the ,,microscopes ,,and ,,apparatus ,,are ,,made ,,and ,,sold ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,jones1 ,,holborn1 ,,london4 ,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a triple magnifier1 tortoise-shell and silver #a #a #j ---- #g4 ,a ditto to combine1 in tortoise-shell #j #h #j ,,vi4 #ad4 ,a small pocket microscope for insects or flowers #j #g #f ---- #a4 ,dr4 ,withering's pocket botanical microscope #j #ae #j ---- #b4 ,jones's universal pocket microscope1 according to the apparatus1 from #al4 #fs4 to #b #aj #j ,,ii4 ,b4 #a and #b4 ,wilson's screw-barrel1 or single microscope1 #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #c #ac #f ---- #c and #d4 ---- opake microscope1 #b #b #j ,,vii4 ,b4 #c4 ,ellis's aquatic microscope #b #ab #f ,,vi4 #c4 ,lyonet's anatomical microscope #b #ab #f ,,vii4 ,a4 #a1 c4 ,cuffs double constructed microscope and apparatus1 in a case #e #ae #f ,,iv4 #c4 ,culpeper's compound microscope and apparatus1 in a mahogany case #d #ad #f ---- #a4 ,jones's improved universal ditto1 and apparatus #f #f #j ---- #b4 ---- best and most improved ditto1 with a greater variety of apparatus1 packed in a mahogany case #aj #aj #j ,ditto1 with the additions of a set of micrometers and vegetable cuttings #ab #ab #j ,,vi4 #d1 #e1 c4 ,transparent solar microscope and apparatus in brass1 in a mahogany case #e #ae #f ,v4 #a1 c4 ,opake and transparent solar microscope and apparatus1 with objects1 c4 in ditto case #aj #aj #j ,ditto with additional apparatus for large objects1 called a megalascope1 c4 #abl4 #abs4 to #af #af #j ,,iii4 #a1 c4 ,lucernal microscope1 as mounted by ,adams1 with apparatus1 complete #bj #j #j ,,ix4 #c and #d4 ,jones's improved ditto1 with or without rack-work to the stage1 and other additions1 from #abl4 #abs4 to #ah #ah #j ---- #f4 ,lanthorn microscope #f #f #j ,,viii4 #c4 ,pocket achromatic #bj-;inch telescope and microscope #c #ac #f ,,ix4 #a and #b4 ,cutting engine for slices of vegetable objects #c #c #j ,,ii4 ,a4 #aj4 ,micrometers on pearl or glass1 in sets1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #b #b #j ,ivory sliders prepared for transparent objects1 per dozen #j #ab #j ,custance's fine vegetable cuttings in large ivory sliders1 from a set of six sliders to four dozen1 per dozen #a #aj #j ,bottles of salts for configurations1 packed in mahogany portable cases1 according to the number1 from #bl4 #bs4 to #e #e #j ,magazines of microscopical apparatus1 with collections of objects1 fitted up to any extent and to order4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abdomen of insects1 #bja ,activity of minute animals1 #bab1 note #dbg ,adams improves lucernal microscope1 #ba ---- ---- ---- described1 #fd ,advantages of microscopes1 whence derived1 #de pinus1 his microscopic telescope1 #c1 #bb ,agility of jerboa1 note #bab--kanguroo1 ibid4 ,air destroys and produces animation1 #agc ,anatomical microscope1 ,lyonet's1 #abb ,angle of incidence1 what1 #cb--of refraction1 ibid4 ,animalcula1 a variety of diseases attributed to them1 note #dcc ---- in teeth1 their existence doubted1 note #dcb ---- in infusions1 to procure1 #aea ---- infusoria1 history of1 #dae ---- ---- erroneous opinion concerning them1 #dba--refuted1 #dbc ---- ---- monas1 #dcj--proteus1 #dcf--volvox1 #dcg--;enchelis1 #ddc--vibrio1 #dea--;cyclidium1 #dgi--paramcium1 #dhb--kolpoda1 #dhd--;gonium1 #dhi--;bursaria1 #dia--;cercaria1 #dib--leucophra1 #ejj--trichoda1 #ejg--kerona1 #ecj--;himantopus1 #ecc--vorticella1 #ecf--;brachionus1 #efc--;additional1 #egj ,antenn of insects described1 #aij--;conjectures on their use1 note #aia1 #aib ---- their characters1 #aib ,ants1 white1 or termites1 history of1 #cjh ,aphides1 their transformations1 #bfj ---- ---- generation1 #bgd ---- ---- ---- experiments on by ,bonnet1 #bgd ---- ---- ---- ---- by ,richardson1 #bge ,apis or bee1 its proboscis to dissect1 #add ---- sting to dissect1 ibid4 ---- proboscis described1 #aha ---- generation of1 #bgi ,apparatus to ,cuff's microscope1 #ij ---- ,adams's lucernal microscope1 #gg ---- ,jones's improved microscope1 #if ---- most improved1 #aja--;additional1 #ajb ---- ,culpeper's microscope1 #aje ---- ,martin's opake solar1 #aji ,aptera1 order of insects1 #bbj--to collect1 #fhg ,aquatic microscope by ,ellis1 #aai ,aranea or spider1 #fba ,argand's lamp described--the management of1 #fi ,aristotle1 polypes mentioned by1 note #cfj ,athens1 cruelty punished at1 note #aeb ,augustine 7,st47 polypes not unknown to him1 note #cei ,b4 ,baker1 his method of viewing particles of blood1 #adi ,banks 7,sir ,jos47 his approbation of ,walker's publication on shells1 #fcj ,barbut1 his remedy for sting of gnats1 note #ahh ---- his opinion on sense of hearing in insects1 note #bag ---- on the brent goose1 note #cdg ,barker's compound microscope1 #ag ,barnacle1 or lepas anatifera1 beard of1 to prepare1 #ade ,bee1 its proboscis to dissect1 #add ---- sting1 to dissect1 ibid4 ---- proboscis described1 #aha ---- generation of1 #bgi--,schirach's account of1 #bhj--;,debraw's ditto1 #bha ---- fecundity of1 #bij ,beetle1 its transformations1 #bdb ---- diamond1 its transcendant beauty1 #bjd ,beetles1 to procure1 #fhj ,blatta1 cockroach1 mischief occasioned by them1 note #fhc ,blea of vegetables1 to prepare1 #afb ,blood1 its circulation and particles to examine1 #adh ---- ---- in flounders1 c41 #adi ---- ---- in tails of eels1 ibid4 ,boat-fly1 its wings1 #adc ,body of insects1 #bjj ,bones1 to examine1 #adf ,bonnet1 theory of transformation of insects1 #bfa ---- experiments on aphides1 #bgd ---- on the interior structure of vegetables1 #ege ,botanical microscope by ,withering1 #abc ---- ---- pocket and universal1 #abd ---- magnifiers1 #abe ,box1 breeding1 figure of1 #fga ,brain of insects1 to prepare1 #adf ,brass micrometer1 by ,coventry1 #fj ,breeze-fly1 its proboscis to dissect1 #add ,brent-goose1 curious idea of its origin1 #cdf1 note #cdg ,buffon1 his hypothesis1 #dba ---- refuted by ,ellis1 #dbc ,bug1 bed1 described1 #fah--;introduced after the fire of ,london1 note #fhd ,butterfly net1 figure of1 #fgd ,butterflies1 wings of1 #add1 #bjg ---- remarks on their substance1 note #bjg ---- proboscis of1 #ahf ---- and moths1 to collect and preserve1 #ffi ---- figure of the manner of setting them1 #fgg ,c4 ,cabinet1 instructions for forming1 #fic ---- how to preserve insects in1 #fid ---- ,drury's1 short account of1 #fie ,cantharis1 its value in medicine and commerce1 note #age ,cast skin of insects1 to prepare1 #ade ,caterpillars1 habitations of1 #cbe ,cavallo applies pearl micrometers to telescopes1 #fj ,change of insects to pupa state1 #bbi--to fly or perfect state1 #bcf ,chrysalis1 see pupa ,chrysomela asparagi described1 #cec ,cimex striatus described1 #ceb ---- lectularius1 #fah ,circulation of blood1 to examine1 #adh ---- in eels1 flounders1 and gudgeons1 #adi ,clark1 his account of ,british oestri1 note #bid ,cochineal1 to prepare tincture of1 #fa ---- its beautiful dye1 note #age ,compassion to animals formerly not regarded1 note #agg ,coleoptera order of insects1 #bai ---- to collect1 #fhj ,configurations of salts1 to prepare1 #afc ---- ---- to view by the microscope1 #aff ,conjectures on the use of antenn1 note #aia1 #aib ---- on sense of hearing1 and on sounds proceeding from insects1 note #baf ,construction of timber1 #ege ,cossus1 caterpillar of1 described1 #ccd ,coventry1 his glass1 pearl1 c4 micrometers1 #fj ---- ---- ---- ---- how used1 ibid4 ,creation1 wisdom of ,god in the1 #afg ---- providence in ditto1 #agd--;goodness1 #age--the effect it ought to produce1 #agf ,criteria1 distinguishing1 of insects1 #baf ,cruelty to animals1 reflections on1 #aej1 note1 ibid4 ,cuff1 his double constructed microscope described1 #hi--;apparatus to ditto1 #ij--;how to use1 #ia ,culex1 its proboscis to dissect1 #add ---- pipiens1 its proboscis described1 #ahg ---- its unpleasant effects1 note1 ibid4--farther described1 #fbc ,culpeper's microscope1 #ajd ---- ---- apparatus to1 #aje ---- ---- to use1 ibid4 ,curculio imperialis1 #bjd ,custance1 list of his vegetable cuttings1 #gji ,cynips or gall-fly1 its transformation1 #bfj ,d4 ,death-head moth1 the harbinger of mortality61 note #ffi ---- watch of ,linnus--,geoffroy--,shaw--,fabricius--, gmelin1 note #fhh--the terror it occasions1 note #fhi--quotations from ,brown--,swift--,gay and ,shakspeare1 ibid4 ,debraw1 his account of bees1 #bha ,de ,geer1 on the generation of a moth1 #bia ,de la ,hire first notices the stemmata of insects1 #aii ,dellebarre's compound microscope1 #af ,dermestes tesselatus1 note #fhh ,de ,saussure1 a writer on the interior structure of vegetables1 #ege ,diptera order of insects1 #bai ---- ---- ---- to collect1 #fhg ,dissecting table1 ,lyonet's1 to use1 #abc ---- ---- ,musschenbroeck's1 #acg ---- ,swammerdam's method of1 #ach ---- ,lyonet's ditto1 #ada ---- ,hooke's observations on1 #adb ,divinis compound microscope1 #ae ,dragon-fly1 eyes of1 to dissect1 #ade ,drebell introduces the microscope into ,england1 #b ,drone-fly1 eyes of1 #aif ,drury1 his magnificent cabinet of insects1 #fie ---- illustrations of natural history1 #fif ,du ,hamel writes on the interior structure of vegetables1 #ege ,dutch claim the invention of the microscope1 #a ,e4 ,earwig1 its wings1 #adc1 #bje ,eels1 scales of1 to examine1 #adg ---- circulation of blood in1 #adh ---- paste1 to procure1 #aeb--to preserve1 ibid4--described1 #dfb ---- vinegar1 #dfa--;fresh water1 #dfh--salt water1 #dfi--;in blighted wheat1 ibid4 ,ellis's aquatic microscope1 #f1 #aai ---- refutes ,buffon1 c41 #dbc ,eggs of insects1 #bhf--tenthredo--hemerobius1 ibid4--phalna neustria1 #bhg--oestrus tarandi1 #bhh--;ephemera--phryganea--libellula1 ibid4--moths1 #bhi--;bees--wasps--spiders--ants1 ibid4 ,elytra of insects1 #bjd ,ephemera1 eyes of1 #aig ,exuvia of insects1 to prepare1 #ade ,eye1 nature of vision in1 #bh ,eyes of insects1 #aic--;drone1 #aif--silkworm1 ibid4--libellula1 ibid4--lobster1 #aig--;ephemera1 ibid4 ,f4 ,fat of insects1 to prepare1 #adf ,fibres1 muscular1 to prepare1 ibid4 ,fishes1 their scales to examine1 #adg ,flea described1 #faf--remarks on1 note #fag ,flies1 to dissect eyes of1 #ade ,fly1 ,spanish1 its utility1 note #age ---- or perfect state of insects1 #bcf ---- spider1 see hippobosca equina ,focus1 what it is1 #ca ,fontana1 an early maker of microscopes1 #c ,food of polypes1 #aee ---- insects1 #bia--;gryllus migratorius1 #bic--oestrus bovis1 #bid--;equi--hmorrhoidalis--veterinus--o vis1 note #bid--;ichneumon fly1 #bie1 note #big ,forceps for catching insects1 figure of1 #fge ,forficula auricularia1 its wings1 #adc--;farther described1 #bje ,frog1 circulation of blood in1 #aej ,g4 ,gay1 quotation from1 note #fij ,generation of aphides1 #bgc--;,bonnet's experiments on ditto1 #bgd--,richardson's ditto1 #bge ---- bees1 #bgi--,schirach's account of1 #bhj--;,debraw's1 #bha ,gerard1 author of the ,herbal1 his credulity1 note #cdg ,globules1 glass1 applied to the microscope1 #h--manner of making them1 ibid41 #aa--;by ,butterfield1 #i--;,di ,torre1 #aj--;,gray1 #ab ---- lenses described1 #cd ---- micrometer1 ,coventry's1 #fj ,gnat1 its proboscis to dissect1 #add--;described1 #ahg--;a formidable weapon1 note ibid4--,barbut's remedy for its sting1 #ahh--preventives recommended1 ibid4--mischiefs occasioned by them at ,oxford1 #fbc--;formidable in the ,west ,indies1 note #ahi--;,hooke an advocate for them--remarks on ditto1 ibid4 ---- farther described1 #fbc ,gray1 his water microscope1 #ac ,greeks not unacquainted with the single microscope1 #c--spectacles known to them1 ibid4 ,grew1 on the interior structure of vegetables1 #ege ,gryllus migratorius1 #bic--mischiefs occasioned by1 note #fhd--many seen in ,england1 ibid4 ,h4 ,habitation of insects1 #bii ,haddock1 scale of1 #cef ,halteres of insects1 #bjd ,hartsoeker applies glass globules to the microscope1 #h ,heads of insects1 #agi ,hemerobius perla1 its wings described1 #bjf ,hemiptera order of insects1 #bai--to collect1 #fhc ,hewson1 his method of viewing particles of blood1 #adi ,hieronymus1 curious passage quoted from1 note #agh ,hill 7,dr47 writes on the interior parts of vegetables1 #ege--on the rind1 #egf--vessels between rind and bark1 #ehj--;bark1 #ehb--;cellular tissue1 #ehe--vasa propria interiora1 #ehf--;blea1 ibid4--wood1 #ehg--;corona1 #eij--pith1 #eib--sap vessels1 #eid--vasa propria intima1 #eie ---- 7,mr4 ,john7 his improvement on the lucernal microscope1 #hd ,hippobosca equina survives the loss of its head1 note #aea--;its transformations1 #bfa ,hogarth1 his five stages of cruelty1 note #aeb ,home1 account of the particles of the blood1 note #fbf ,hooke applied glass globules to the microscope1 #h--;his compound microscope1 #ae--observations on dissecting insects1 #adb--pleads in justification of gnats1 note #ahi--;computation on the eyes of silkworm1 #aif--on the motion of butterflies wings1 #bji ,hooper1 quotation from1 #gaj ,hornet1 to dissect sting of1 #add ,humanity towards insects recommended1 note #aeb ,hunter's remarks on ,schirach and ,debraw's experiments1 note #bhe ,hydr or fresh water polypes1 history of the discovery of1 #ceg--;improperly called insects1 note #cfc--viridis--fusca--grisea1 #cfe--their food1 #cgc--;generation1 #cgi--re-production1 #chb--;hydra pallens1 #chi--;hydatula1 #cij--stentorea1 #cib--socialis1 #cie ,hymenoptera order of insects1 #bai ---- ---- ---- to collect1 #fhf ,i4 ,jansens and son among the first introducers of the microscope1 #b ,jerboa1 its agility1 note #bab--kanguroo1 ibid4 ,jerom1 curious passage from1 note #agh ,imperfections of microscopic glasses1 #df ,improvements on lucernal microscope1 #hj ---- compound microscope1 #ib1 #ii ,infusions1 animalcula in1 to procure1 #aea ---- of pepper1 c41 #aec ,insects1 ,lyonet's table to dissect1 #abc ---- ,musschenbroeck's ditto1 #acg ---- wings to dissect1 #adc--proboscis1 #add--;eyes1 #ade--;exuvia1 to prepare1 #ade--muscular fibres1 #adf--;fat1 ibid4--brains1 ibid4--muscles1 ibid4 ---- their wonderful mechanism1 #agb ---- preferred by ,swammerdam to other parts of the creation1 ibid4 ---- not included in divine omniscience1 note #agh ---- general description of1 #agh--;definition of1 #agi--;divisions1 ibid4--head1 ibid4--mouth1 #ahj--;jaws1 #aha--tongue and proboscis1 ibid4--proboscis of a bee1 #ahb--;butterfly1 #ahf--;gnat1 #ahg--tabanus1 #ahh--;antenn1 #aij--;conjectures on their use1 note #aia1 #aib--their characteristics1 #aic--palpi--eyes1 ibid4--reticulated eyes1 #aie--;drone--silk-worm--libellula--ephe mera--experiments on the eyes1 #aig--monoculus polyphemus1 #aih--spider1 #aii--stemmata1 ibid4 ---- trunk of--thorax--scutellum--sternum1 #bjj ---- abdomen--spiracula1 #bja ---- limbs--wings1 #bja--;halterers1 #bjd--;elytra and wings under ditto1 #bjd--wings of forficula auricularia1 #bje--;hemerobius perla1 #bjf--legs1 #baj--tail and sting1 #bac ---- distinguishing criteria of1 #bae--;conjectures on their sense of hearing and the sounds proceeding from them1 note #bag--;,barbut's opinion1 ibid4--remarks on ditto1 ibid4 ---- classes or orders into which they are divided1 #bai ---- transformation of1 #bbj--;egg to larva1 #bbb--;change to pupa1 #bbi--preparation for change to perfect state1 #bcd--;change to ditto1 #bcf--metamorphosis of silk-worm1 #bdj--;beetle1 #bdb--rhinoceros beetle1 #bde--musca chamleon1 #bdh--libellula1 #beg--;cynips1 #bfj--;aphides1 ibid4--hippobosca equina1 #bfa--;,bonnet's theory of1 ibid4 ---- respiration of1 #bfe--;experiments on by ,lyonet1 #bfg--,musschenbroeck1 #bfh ---- ---- in musca pendula1 #bfi ---- generation of--aphides1 #bgb--;,bonnet's experiments on1 #bgd--,richardson's1 #bge--;,bees1 #bgi--,schirach's account of1 #bhj--;,debraw's ditto1 #bha--;eggs of insects1 #bhf--tenthredo1 ibid4--hemerobius--phalna neustria--oestrus tarandi--ephemera--phryganea--libellula- -moths--bees--wasps--spiders --ants1 ibid4 ---- fecundity of1 #bij--,reaumur's calculation of that of the queen bee1 ibid4--,lyonet's on the generation of a moth1 #bia--;,de ,geer's1 ibid4 ---- food of1 #bia--;gryllus migratorius1 #bic--oestrus bovis1 #bid--;equi--hmorrhoidalis--veterinus--o vis1 note #bid--;ichneumon fly1 note #bie1 #big ---- habitations of1 #bii--spiders--aquatic bugs--gyrinus--podura-- libellula--ephemera--phryganea--culices- -tipul--notonecta--nepa1 #cjj--;julus--scolopendra--oniscus1 #cja--;formica-leo1 note1 #cja--solitary bees1 #cjc--;ichneumon wasp1 #cjf--termites1 #cjh--;caterpillars1 #cbe ---- internal parts of1 #ccd--,lyonet's account of the caterpillar of the cossus1 ibid4--muscles--spinal marrow1 #cci--tracheal arteries1 #cdj--;corpus crassum--oesophagus--ventricle1 #cdb--;intestines1 #cdc ---- to collect and preserve1 #ffe--the pursuit recommended1 #fff--method of procuring lepidoptera1 #ffh--;in their caterpillar state1 #fgj--manner of breeding them1 #fga--;figure of breeding box1 ibid4--to collect them in their chrysalis state1 #fgc--;in their fly state1 #fgd--;figure of the net1 ibid4--figure of forceps1 #fge--to manage them in their fly state1 with a figure1 #fgg--;coleoptera1 to collect1 #fhj--;hemiptera1 #fhc--neuroptera1 #fhe--;hymenoptera1 #fhf--;diptera1 #fhg--;aptera1 ibid4--proper time for collecting1 #fif--;instructions to form a cabinet1 #fic--;,drury's collection described1 #fie--remarks on collecting ,asiatic insects1 #fif ,instrument for cutting sections of wood1 by ,adams1 #ai--;,cumming1 ibid4--,custance1 ibid4--described1 #abg--;appendage to ditto1 #abh ,jones1 improved lucernal microscope1 #hj--lanthorn microscope1 #hh--;improved compound microscope1 #ib--most improved1 #ii--;apparatus to ditto1 #aja--;additional1 #ajb ,italians claim the invention of the microscope1 #a ,ivory micrometer by ,coventry1 #fj ,k4 ,kanguroo1 its agility1 note #bab ,l4 ,lamp1 ,argand's1 described1 #fi ---- ---- applied to lucernal microscope1 #gf ,lanthorn microscope1 #hh ,larva state of insects1 #bbc ,leaves of trees and plants to examine1 #adg ,leeuwenhoek's single microscope1 #g ---- description of blood vessels in eels1 #adi ,legs of insects1 #baj ,lenses1 different kinds of1 #cd--their properties1 ibid4 ,lepas anatifera1 beard of1 to prepare1 #ade--;described1 #cdd ,lepidoptera order of insects1 #bai ---- ---- to procure and preserve1 #ffh ,leucopsis dorsigera1 #cdg ,libellula1 eyes of1 to dissect1 #ade ---- described1 #aie ,lice1 polypes infested with them1 #aef ---- plant1 see aphides ,lieberkhn1 single microscope used by him1 #f ---- improves ditto1 #bj ,light1 to manage for microscope1 #acd ,limbs of insects1 #bja ,linnus1 his system commended1 #afh ---- classification of insects1 #bai ,lists of microscopic objects1 #fjh1 #fih ,lizard1 its skin to examine1 #adg ,lobster1 eyes of1 to dissect1 #ade ---- insect1 #cdh--;first noticed in this country by ,mr4 ,j4 ,adams1 #cdh--;described by ,martin--two in ,mr4 ,marsham's possession1 ibid4--known to ,aristotle--to ,wolphius--,scaliger--,de ,geer--,fabricius--four in the editor's possession--a living one presented to him--two found alive in ,percy street--,rsel's account of it--,seba probably mistaken1 note #cej ,locusts1 #bic--;dreadful scourge1 note #fhd ---- many seen in ,england in #agdh1 ibid4 ,louse1 common1 described1 #fai ,lump-sucker described1 #ceb ,lyonet1 single microscope used by him1 #f ---- anatomical microscope1 #abb--method of dissecting1 #ada--;experiments on the respiration of insects1 #bfg--;generation of a moth1 #bij--;description of the caterpillar of the cossus1 #ccd ,m4 ,magnifiers1 botanical1 #abe ,malpighi writes on the structure of vegetables1 #ege ,marsham on the ichneumon fly1 note #big ,martin improves solar microscope1 #bj ---- list of his tracts on the microscope1 note #ba ---- applies slips of glass1 c4 to microscopes1 #fj ---- improved opake and transparent solar microscope1 #ajf--objects1 #aaj ,medicines1 their operations attributed to animalcula61 note #dcc ,medium1 rare1 #cb--;dense1 ibid4 ,meloe monoceros described1 #ced ,metamorphoses of insects1 #bbj ,micrometer needle described1 #ed--;how used1 #ee ---- glass1 pearl1 c4 by ,coventry1 #fj--;how used1 #fa ---- ---- ---- a set accompanies ,jones's best microscope1 #fc ,microscope1 date of its invention1 #a--name of inventor not known1 ibid4--its excellence1 #b1 #bc--;early introduced by ,jansens1 #b--one brought to ,england by ,drebell1 ibid4--made by ,fontana in #afaf1 #c--to prepare vegetable substances for1 #aeh ---- single1 probably known to the ,greeks and ,romans1 #c--;account of1 #e--rationale of1 #dj--used by ,leeuwenhoek1 c41 #f--;described1 #g--;glass globules applied to1 #h--;how made by ,butterfield1 #i--;,di ,torre1 #aj--to make glass globules1 #aa ---- water by ,gray1 #ac--;extempore1 ibid4 ---- ,swammerdam's described1 #ach ---- single1 ,wilson's1 or screw barrel1 #aae--with a scroll and mirror1 #aag--small1 for opake objects1 #aah--;,ellis's aquatic1 #aai--,lyonet's anatomical1 #abb--,withering's botanical1 #abc--pocket botanical and universal1 #abd ---- compound1 by ,hooke1 ,divinis1 and ,bonnani1 #ae--;,delebarre1 #af--;,barker1 #ag--,smith1 ibid4 ---- ---- its principles1 #db--magnifying powers1 #di--;experiments on ditto1 #ea--;how ascertained1 #ec--of more general use than any other1 note #hi--;,cuff's described1 ibid4--apparatus to ditto1 #ij--to use1 #ia--;chest1 note #ij--;,jones's improved1 #ib--;apparatus to ditto1 #if--;how to use1 #ih--;,jones's most improved1 #ii--;apparatus1 #aja--;additional apparatus1 #ajb--;how to use1 #ajc--;,culpeper's or three pillared1 #ajd--;apparatus1 #aje--to use1 ibid4 ---- lanthorn1 #hh ---- solar1 by ,lieberkhn1 #ag--;improved by him1 #bj--;by ,ziehr1 ibid4--,martin1 ibid4--its principles1 #de--;as improved by ,martin described1 #ajf--;apparatus to1 #aji--to use1 #aaj ---- lucernal1 ,adams's1 #ba--;described1 #fd--to examine opake objects with1 #ga--;ansparent ditto1 #gd--;apparatus to1 #gg--;improvements on1 by ,jones1 ,prince and ,hill1 #hj ---- portable1 and telescope1 #abe ---- to prepare for observation1 #acj--to prepare objects for1 #acg ---- concise list of objects for1 #fjh--opake1 #fji--transparent1 #fad--;copious list of ditto1 #fih ,millepedes food for polypes1 #aee ,minerals1 to examine1 #adh ,minute animals1 their strength1 activity1 and vivacity1 note #dbg ---- shells1 arrangement and description of1 #fbi ,monoculus ,polyphemus1 its eyes described1 #aih ,montaigne's remarks on kindness to animals1 note #aea ,moths1 wings of1 #add1 #bjg ,motion of butterflies wings1 experiments on1 by ,hooke1 #bji--remarks on1 #bab--;dittoby ,reaumur1 #bac ,mouth of insects1 #agi ,mller on animalcula infusoria1 #dbh ,mnchhausen's hypothesis1 #dba ---- ---- refuted by ,ellis1 #dbc ,musca chamleon1 its transformation1 #bdh--pendula ditto1 #bef--;its respiration1 #bfi ,muscles and fibres of insects1 to prepare1 #adf ,musschenbroeck's table for dissecting insects1 #acg ---- experiments on their respiration1 #bfh ,musquetos1 their sting formidable1 note #ahi ,n4 ,natural history1 importance of1 #afg ,needham1 his hypothesis of animalcula in infusions1 #dba--refuted1 #dbc ,needle micrometer1 #ed ,net1 figure of butterfly1 #fgd ,neuroptera order of insects1 #bai--to collect1 #fhe ,notonecta1 its wings1 #adc ,o4 ,objects to prepare for the microscope1 #acg ---- ---- ,swammerdam's method1 ibid4 ---- ---- ,lyonet's ditto1 #ada ---- for the microscope1 concise list of1 #fjh--;copious list of1 #fih ,observation1 to prepare microscope for1 #acj ,observations1 ,hooke's on dissecting1 #adb ---- on ,hooke's apology for gnats1 note #ahi ,omniscience of ,god denied with respect to insects1 c41 note #agg ,opake objects1 to examine with the lucernal microscope1 #ga--list of1 #fjh ,opake and transparent solar microscope1 by ,martin1 #ajf ---- small1 microscope1 #aah ,optical glasses1 their several kinds1 #cd--;different effects1 ibid4--their imperfections1 #dg ,orders into which insects are divided1 #bai ,ores and minerals to examine1 #adh ,ox-fly1 its proboscis described1 #ahh ,oxford1 swarms of gnats which appeared at note1 #ahh--the mischiefs they occasioned1 ibid4 ,p4 ,palpi of insects described1 #aic ,parrot-fish1 scale of1 #cee ,particles of blood to examine1 #adi ---- ---- their true form ascertained1 ibid4 and note #fbf ,paste eel described1 #dfb ,pearch1 sea1 scale of1 #cef ,pearl micrometer1 ,coventry's1 #fj ,pediculus humanus described1 #fai ,plancus on minute shells1 #fbi ,plant lice1 see aphides ,plants1 their leaves to examine1 #adg ,pocket botanical and universal microscope1 #abd ,polypes to procure and feed1 #aec--;infested with lice1 #aef--to preserve in health1 ibid4--to observe with accuracy1 #aeg--to preserve in sliders1 ibid4--their food1 #bia ,pores of skin to examine1 #adg ,portable microscope and telescope1 #abe ,proboscis of insects1 to dissect1 #add--;culex--tabanus--bee1 ibid4--described1 #aha--;bee1 ibid4--butterfly1 #ahf--;gnat1 #ahg--tabanus1 #ahh ,prince1 7,rev4 ,dr47 his improvement on lucernal microscope1 #hd ,ptinus fatidicus1 note #fhh ---- pulsator1 ibid4 ,puceron1 see aphides ,pulex aquaticus food for polypes1 #aee ---- irritans described1 #faf ,pupa1 change of insects to1 #bbi ,r4 ,ray1 incident1 #cb--refracted1 ibid4 ,reaumur on the motion of insects1 #bab ---- ---- fecundity of queen bee1 #bij ,redi1 his observations on the production of flies1 #agd ,reflections on cruelty to animals1 #aej1 note ibid4 ,refraction1 its principles1 #cb--;ascertained by experiments1 #cc ,remarks on the substance of butterflies wings1 note #bjg ---- on ,barbut's opinion on the sense of hearing in insects1 note #bag ---- on collecting ,asiatic insects1 #fif ,respiration of insects1 #bfe--;experiments on1 by ,lyonet1 #bfg--,musschenbroeck1 #bfh ---- musca pendula1 #bfi ,richardson's experiments on the generation of aphides1 #bge ,rind of vegetables to prepare1 #afj ,romans probably acquainted with the single microscope1 #c ---- spectacles known to them1 ibid4 ,s4 ,salts and saline substances1 to prepare1 #afc ---- their crystallization1 #fjj--what understood by it1 #fja--phnomena of ditto1 #fjb--their various figures1 #fjc--;,bergman's account of their forms1 #fje ---- list of1 for microscopic observation1 #gaj ,sap vessels of plants1 to fill1 #afb ,scales of fish to examine1 #adg--;eel1 to prepare1 ibid4 ---- parrot fish1 #cee--sea pearch1 haddock--,west-,india pearch--sole fish1 #cef ,scutellum of insects1 #bjj ,sections of wood1 instrument for cutting1 #abg--;appendage to ditto1 #abh ,seeds1 vegetable1 a descriptive list of a variety of1 #fde--lithospermum1 ibid4--cyminum1 #fdf--papaver1 #fdg--;cardirus1 ibid4--plantago1 #fdh--staphis agria1 #fdi--;anisum1 ibid4--fniculum1 #fea--;grana ,paradisi1 #feb--petroselinum1 #fec--petroselinum ,macedonicum1 #fed--;coriandrum1 #fee--seseli1 ibid4--hyoscyamus1 #feg--;cicer1 #feh--laurus1 #fei--;ficoides afra1 #ffj--palma aricefera1 #ffa--;juniperus1 ibid4--santonicum1 #ffb--scabiosa1 #ffc ,sentiments of learned men in earlier times on minute parts of creation1 note #agg ,shakspeare1 quotation from1 on the feeling of insects1 note #aej--parody on a passage in1 note #fij ,shells1 to view1 #adh--minute1 arrangement and description of1 #fbi--manner of procuring them1 #fcb--observations on1 ibid4--serpula1 #fcc--;dentale1 #fce--patella1 ibid4--helix1 ibid4--turbo1 #fcf--trochus1 #fch--;buccinum1 #fci--voluta1 ibid4--bulla1 #fdj--nautilus1 ibid4--,mytilus1 #fdb--;anomia1 #fdc--;arca1 ibid4--cardium1 #fdd--lepas1 ibid4--echinus1 ibid4--asterias1 #fde ,shoots1 vegetable1 to obtain1 #aei ,silk-worm1 its eyes1 #aif--metamorphosis1 #bdj ,skin1 pores of1 to examine1 #adg ---- of sole-fish1 #cef--lizards1 #adg ,smith1 his compound microscope1 #ag ,sole-fish1 scale of1 #cef--skin of1 ibid4 ,spanish-fly1 its utility in medicine and commerce1 note #age ,spider1 eyes of1 #aii--;described1 #fba ,spiracula of insects1 #bja ,stemmata of ditto1 #aii ,sternum of ditto1 #bjj ,stillingfleet1 his remarks on the importance of natural history1 #cca ,sting of bee to dissect1 #add--;described1 #bad ,stings of insects1 #bac ,strength of minute animals1 note #dbg ,swammerdam uses the single microscope1 #f--;his method of preparing objects1 #acg--;his microscope described1 #ach--manner of dissecting1 ibid4 ,swift1 quotation from1 on the death-watch1 note #fhi ,system1 ,linnean1 commended1 #afh ,t4 ,tabanus1 its proboscis described1 #ahh ,tail of insects1 #bac ,telescope1 portable microscope and1 #abe ,termes pulsatorium1 note #fhh ,termites or white ants1 history of1 #cjh ,thorax of insects1 #bja ,thrips physapus described1 #cej ,timber1 organization of1 #egd ,tincture of cochineal1 to prepare1 #afa ,tongue of insects1 #aha ,transformation of insects1 #bbj--rhinoceros beetle1 #bde--musca chamleon1 #bdh--pendula1 #bef--libellula1 #beg--;cynips1 #bfj--;aphides1 ibid4--hippobosca equina1 #bfa--theory of1 by ,bonnet1 ibid4 ,transparent objects to examine with the lucernal microscope1 #gd--to transmit on a screen1 #ge ---- ---- list of1 #fad ,trees1 leaves of1 to examine1 #adg ,trunk of insects1 #bja ,tubularia campanulata1 #daa ,v4 ,vegetable substances1 to prepare for the microscope1 #aei--young shoots1 ibid4--rind1 #afj--;blea1 #afb--sap vessels1 to fill1 #afb ---- seeds1 descriptive list of1 #fde ,vegetables1 their beauty and perfection1 #egd ,vinegar eel described1 #dfa ,vision1 its principles shewn by experiments1 #bg ,vivacity of minute animals note1 #dbg ,vorticell described1 #cif--;anastatica1 #cig--pyraria1 #djj--;cratgaria1 ibid4--opercularia1 #dja--umbellaria1 #djb--;berberina1 #djf--;digitalis1 ibid4--convallaria1 #djg--urceolaris1 #djh--tubularia campanulata1 #daa ,w4 ,walker on minute shells1 #fcj--;commended by ,sir ,jos4 ,banks1 ibid4--extracts from1 #fcc ,wasp1 its sting to dissect1 #ade ,water1 eel in fresh1 #dfh--;in salt ditto1 #dfi ,wheat1 eel in blighted1 #dfg ,wheel animal1 #edi ,willughby detects a pretended discoverer of animalcula1 note #dcb ,wilson1 his screw-barrel microscope1 #aae--;ditto with scroll1 #aag ,wings of insects to dissect1 #adc ---- forficula auricularia1 ibid4--notonecta1 ibid4--butterflies and moths1 #add1 #bjg--;described1 #bja--;hemerobius perla1 #bjf ,wisdom1 divine1 displayed in the creation1 #bfg1 #agd--providence1 #agd--;benevolence1 #age ,withering1 his botanical microscope1 #aae ,wood1 instrument for cutting sections of1 #abg1--;appendage to1 #abh ,worm1 silk1 its eyes described1 #aif ,worms1 red1 food for polypes1 #aee ,z4 ,ziehr improves solar microscope1 #bj ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams ,n4o #fj1 ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #b;,a ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,goodnight sculp4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #b;,b ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams ,n4o #fj1 ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge sculp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,f4 ,kanmacher1 and ,w4 ,s4 ,jones1 #ace ,holborn as the ,act directs1 #a4st ,october #agig4 ,j4 ,hawksworth ,sculp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,plate #g;,a4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #g;,b4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,w4 ,s4 ,jones1 #ace ,holborn1 ,f4 ,kanmacher ,apothecaries ,hall1 as the ,act directs1 #a1st ,december #agig4 ,jn4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4o ,lodge sculp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,f4 ,kanmacher1 and ,w4 ,s4 ,jones1 #ace ,holborn1 as the ,act directs1 #a4st ,november #agig4 ,j4 ,hawksworth sculp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,w4 ,s4 ,jones1 #ace ,holborn1 and ,f4 ,kanmacher1 ,apothecaries ,hall1 as the ,act directs1 ,november #a4st #agig4 ,j4 ,hawksworth sculp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj1 ,fleet ,street1 as the ,act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4o ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4 ,adams1 #fj ,fleet ,street1 ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,london ,printed for ,publish'd by ,geo4 ,adams1 #fj ,fleet ,street1 ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4o ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4o ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the ,act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #bc ,a4 ,j4 ,wigley4 ,sc4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o ,illustration3 ,pl4 #bc4;,b4 #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 #bj ,may #aghg4 ,bonles ,sc4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #bd4;,a4 ,j4 ,wigley4 ,sc4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o ,illustration3 ,pl4 #bd4;,b4 #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 #bj ,may #aghg4 ,bonles ,sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv4 ,t4 ,milne ,delin4t ,london ,published ,may #a4st #aghg4 ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,london ,published ,may #a4st #aghg4 ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge scu4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,j4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4 ,london ,printed for ,publishd by ,geo4e ,adams ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street ,may #bjth #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4 ,t4 ,milne del4 ,london4 ,printed for ,published by ,george ,adams1 ,n4o #fj ,fleet ,street1 as the act directs4 ,may #bj1 #aghg4 ,jn4 ,lodge sc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 ,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,optical1 ,mathematical1 and ,philosophical ,instruments1 ,,made ,,and ,,sold ,,by ,w4 ,,and ,s4 ,,jones1 ,no4 #ace1 ,,next ,,furnival',s-,,inn1 ,,holborn1 ,,london4 ,,optical ,,instruments4 4 s4 d4 ,best double-jointed standard gold spectacles1 with pebbles1 and fish-skin gold-mounted case #af #af #j ,ditto single-jointed1 with ditto case #aj #aj #j ,best double-jointed silver ditto1 with pebbles #a #af #j ,ditto1 ditto1 with glasses #a #a #j ,best single-jointed1 with pebbles #a #h #j ,ditto1 with glasses #j #ac #j ,best double-jointed steel ditto1 with glasses #j #i #j ,an improved sort of ditto for ladies #j #aj #f ,second best double-jointed steel spectacles1 with spring case #j #g #f ,common ditto #j #d #f ,best single-jointed steel spectacles #j #d #f ,second best ditto #j #b #f ,common ditto #j #a #f ,tortoishell spectacles1 silver-jointed1 with pointed1 and other shaped sides1 peculiar for their lightness and uninterruption of dressed hair1 in morocco leather cases #j #aj #f ,ditto1 double-jointed frames #j #ae #j ,spectacles for eyes that have been couched #j #g #f ,ditto with green glasses for very weak and inflamed eyes1 according to the frames1 from #fs4 to #a #a #j ,ditto for the same purpose1 with new contrived portable shades to screen the eyes from candle1 or other light #j #ae #j ,nose spectacles in silver #j #g #f ,ditto in tortoishell and silver4 #j #d #j ,ditto in horn and steel #j #a #f ,spectacle cases in very great variety1 from #b;d4 each to #aj #aj #j ,concave glasses for short-sighted persons1 in horn cases #j #a #f ,ditto in tortoishell1 pearl1 silver1 c4 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #b #b #j ,ditto in new-contrived frames for gentlemen when shooting #j #af #j ,reading and burning glasses1 in various mountings1 from #as4 to #a #af #j ,convex glasses for watch-makers1 engravers1 c4 from #as4 to #j #aj #f ,gogglers1 to guard the eyes from the dust or wind #j #c #j ,new green-light shades for the eyes #j #f #f ,opera glasses1 in great variety of mountings1 from #ds4 #f;d4 to #b #ab #f ,ditto1 on an improved construction of glasses1 plain mounting #a #a #j ,,refracting ,,telescopes of various lengths1 from #fs4 to #a #af #j ,ditto to use at sea by night1 from #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 to #b #ab #f ,achromatic stick telescopes of various lengths from #ahs4 to #d #j #j ,the new-improved ditto1 with three sliding brass tubes1 by which an instantaneous view of the object is obtained1 and shuts up very short for the pocket1 of one foot in length1 in a case #a #aa #f ,second best two-drawers1 ditto #a #a #j ,twenty inch best three-drawers1 ditto #b #ab #f ,ditto second best two-drawers #a #aj #j ,two feet best three-drawers1 ditto #d #d #j ,ditto second best1 ditto #c #c #j ,three feet1 best four-drawer ditto #f #f #j ,second best ditto #d #d #j ,the preceding telescopes1 fitted up elegantly with silver or plated tubes1 from #bl4 #bs4 to #ba #j #j ,astronomical eye-pieces and portable brass stands for the above1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #b #ab #f ,the new-improved #b feet achromatic refractor1 on a brass stand1 mahogany tube1 with two sets of eye-glasses1 one magnifying about forty times for terrestrial objects1 and the other about seventy-five times for astronomical purposes1 packed in a mahogany box #i #i #j ,ditto1 ditto1 the tube all brass1 with three eye-pieces #aa #a #f ,the #c feet ditto1 ditto1 mahogany tube #ag #f #f ,ditto1 ditto1 brass tube #ai #h #f ,ditto all in brass1 with rack-work motions1 c4 #bd #c #j ,achromatic perspective glasses for the pocket1 in brass1 c4 tubes1 with a change of eye-glasses1 from #abs4 to #c #c #j ,new-improved ditto1 answering the purpose of an opera-glass1 with a compass1 and helioscope for viewing the sun1 from #al4 #cs4 to #b #b #j ,new-improved achromatic pocket telescope1 which1 by a small apparatus within its tubes1 is readily converted into a compound microscope #c #ac #f ,an improved portable seven-inch achromatic telescope in brass1 with a stand that packs up into the tube of the telescope1 adapted for astronomical uses #c #ac #f ,,reflecting ,,telescopes1 fitted up either upon the ,gregorian1 ,newtonian1 or ,herschelian principles1 with improved wood1 or metal stands1 and other apparatus for making celestial observations in the most commodious and accurate manner--,the general prices are as follow3 -- ,fifteen feet in length1 the large metal fifteen inches in diameter1 from #bejl4 to #ejj #j #j -- ,twelve feet in length1 fourteen inch metal #bjj #j #j -- ,ten feet in length1 twelve inch metal #aej #j #j -- ,eight feet in length1 eleven inch metal #adj #j #j -- ,six feet in length1 nine inch metal #ajj #j #j -- ,four feet long1 in brass tubes1 with portable brass or mahogany framed stands1 from #djl4 to #ajj #j #j ,those reflectors that are constructed upon the principles of ,newton or ,herschel are about twice the above lengths in the tubes4 ,the reflectors upon the usual ,gregorian construction are made with the vertical motion upon a new principle1 so as to render them more firm and steady while in use1 than any reflectors mounted in the old manner4 ,a four feet seven inch aperture ,gregorian reflector1 with the vertical motion upon a new invented principle1 as well as apparatus to render the tube more steady in observation2 according to the additional apparatus of small speculums1 eye-pieces1 micrometers1 c4 from #gjl4 to #ajj #j #j ,three feet long1 mounted on a brass stand1 common mounting #bc #b #j ,ditto with rack work motions1 improved mounting1 and metals #cf #ae #j ,two feet long1 without rack-work1 and with four magnifying powers1 improved1 #acl4 #acs4 to #ad #ad #j ,ditto improved1 with rack-work motions #bb #a #j ,eighteen inch on a plain stand #h #h #j ,twelve inch ditto #e #e #j ,telescopes of both the above kinds fitted up4 with equatorial1 c4 motions1 micrometers1 adjusting1 compensating1 c4 apparatus1 for the most accurate astronomical purposes4 ,common ,,microscopes1 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #a #a #j ,wilson's single pocket microscopes1 from #ahs4 to #b #ab #f ,compound microscopes improved1 from #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,new improved universal ditto #f #f #j ,ditto with the most complete apparatus #aj #aj #j ,solar microscopes in brass1 improved1 from #dl4 #ads4 #f;d4 to #f #f #j ,the new opake and transparent solar microscopes1 with improved apparatus1 from #ajl4 #ajs4 to #af #af #j ,ditto of a larger size1 with additional megalascopic apparatus1 from #adl4 #ads4 to #ai #ai #j ,ditto1 and best compound ditto1 packed together in one mahogany box #ba #j #j ,the ,,lucernal ,,microscope1 as improved by ,w4 ,,jones1 exhibiting images of opake and transparent objects by night or day1 in a manner singularly pleasing1 brilliant and distinct1 with upwards of #ajj objects1 proper apparatus1 patent lamp1 c4 #af #af #j ,ditto combined with a solar1 compound1 c4 apparatus1 forming the most perfect collection of microscopical apparatus #ce #ad #j ,a portable optical apparatus1 consisting of a scioptic ball and socket1 a solar microscope1 ,wilson's microscope1 a pocket compound microscope1 a pocket telescope1 and solar telescope1 in mahogany and brass #c #ac #f ,pocket microscopes for opake objects1 from #afs4 to #b #ab #f ,botannic microscopes for flowers1 c4 from #es4 to #a #aa #f ,a new universal pocket ditto1 adapted to all sorts of objects #a #f #j ,cloth microscopes1 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #j #aj #f ,magic lanthorns1 from #al4 #ds4 to #a #h #j ,sliders for ditto in great variety of subjects1 each #j #c #f ,a new set of moveable painted sliders1 shewing the fundamental principles of astronomy1 with the real and apparent motions and positions of the planets1 stars1 c4 c4 accompanied by a proper improved lanthorn1 complete #ac #ac #j ,small magic lanthorns1 with twelve sliders complete1 at #gs4 #f;d4 #ajs4 #f;d4 #abs4 and #a #j #j ,ditto with twelve sliders of best ,english paintings #b #b #j ,optical diagonal machines for viewing prints1 from #al4 to #a #aa #f ,perspective views in great variety for ditto1 each #j #a #f ,scioptic balls and sockets from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #a #aa #f ,an artificial eye in brass1 to exemplify the nature of vision #a #aa #f ,for a description of this instrument1 as well as of spectacles1 reading-glasses1 c4 see the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,,adams',s ,essay on ,vision1 #hvo4 price #cs4 now sold by ,w4 and ,s4 ,,jones4 ,camera obscuras for the pocket1 from #is4 to #a #af #j ,a new invented folding ditto1 very portable #b #b #j ,large ditto1 shutting up like a book1 or neat portable chest1 the objects represented on paper1 from #dl4 #ads4 #f;d4 to #h #ah #f ,concave and convex glass mirrors1 in plain black frames1 four1 five1 six1 and seven inches diameter1 each #is4 #abs4 #ads4 and #j #ah #j ,eight inches diameter ditto #a #a #j ,nine inches ditto #a #g #j ,ten inches ditto #a #ab #j ,twelve inches ditto #b #e #j ,fifteen inches ditto #c #ac #f ,eighteen inches ditto #f #f #j ,twenty-one inches ditto #aa #aa #j ,twenty-four inches ditto #af #af #j ,concave mirrors1 ground cylindrically1 possessing several curious properties in the deformation of objects1 according to the size1 from #al4 #as4 to #e #e #j ,concave metal burning mirrors1 superior to the glass ones1 from #cl4 #acs4 #f;d4 to #ba #j #j ,glass prisms1 plain1 or mounted on stands1 from #gs4 #f;d4 to #a #aa #f ,a curious set of optical models1 where the rays of light are represented by silken strings1 and illustrating the principles of vision1 telescopes1 prisms1 c4 packed in five cases #f #af #f ,,mathematical ,,instruments4 ,,theodolites of the common construction1 and of the best workmanship1 from #dl4 #ds4 to #ca #aj #j ,a portable theodolite1 with a telescope1 level1 and vertical arch #g #g #j ,ditto larger1 with parallel plates1 c4 divided to two minutes #ab #ab #j ,ditto with rack-work motions1 divisions to a minute #bb #a #j ,a new-improved theodolite1 with two telescopes1 and contrivances for every accurate adjustment #cf #ae #j ,a new very portable theodolite1 by rack-work1 measuring angles with equal accuracy as those of the common large sort1 is at the same time applicable for taking altitudes1 and is truly adapted for the purpose of levelling #h #h #j ,a #d-;inch further improved ditto1 by which the vertical and horizontal angles are shewn at the same time1 with portable staves1 c4 #aj #aj #j ,circumferentors1 much used in wood lands1 from #bl4 #bs4 to #d #d #j ,an improved ditto1 contrived to answer the purposes of a common theodolite1 level1 altitude instrument1 c4 #d #ad #f ,surveying crosses or squares1 on a staff1 from #abs4 to #a #aa #f ,a brass cylindrical ditto1 with a staff #j #ah #j ,ditto with compass1 agate capped needle1 c4 #a #aa #f ,improved ditto1 with rack-work and pinion1 and moveable divided limb1 making a very portable cross-staff1 compass and theodolite in one instrument #b #ah #j ,levels of the latest improvements1 from #bl4 #bs4 to #ab #ab #j ,station staves1 with sliding vanes1 for levelling #b #ab #f ,plane tables1 with index1 sights1 c4 complete1 from #cl4 #acs4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,pentagraphs1 by which any person unskilled in drawing may copy plans1 surveys1 profiles1 drawings1 c4 in any proportion to the original1 from #al4 #afs4 to #f #af #f ,perambulators or measuring wheels1 from #fa4 #fs4 to #aj #aj #j ,gunter's measuring chain1 according to strength1 from #es4 to #j #aa #j ---- navigation scale1 from #bs4 to #j #d #j ---- ditto improved by ,donn1 with book of directions #j #e #j ---- ditto improved by ,robertson1 with brass adjusting screws1 c4 being the completest scale of the kind #a #aj #j ---- sectors of various lengths1 from #bs4 to #a #aa #f ,a new pocket ten inch box sliding rule for solving all sorts of problems in trigonometry1 c4 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #j #d #j ,measuring tapes1 one1 two1 three1 and four poles1 #es4 #gs4 #f;d4 #is4 #j #aj #f ,pedeometers for ascertaining distances in walking or riding1 of a watch size for the pocket1 and also to apply to carriages1 from #ca4 #cs4 to #ab #ab #j ,miner's compasses1 for working in subterraneous grounds1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #a #aa #f ,cases of drawing instruments1 from #ds4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,magazine1 or complete collection of every kind of useful drawing instruments1 from #el4 #es4 to #ce #j #j ,a new portable drawing board and seat1 the board folds up for the pocket1 and the legs of the seat form a walking stick #j #ah #j ,proportional compasses1 from #al4 #ajs4 to #c #c #j ,elliptical compasses of various degrees of perfection and utility1 from #afs4 to #d #ad #f ,spiral and elliptical compasses1 from #fs4 #f;d4 to #aj #aj #j ,triangular compasses1 by which three points at once may be transferred1 from #acs4 to #a #e #j ,hair compasses that take extents to a great accuracy #j #g #f ,beam compasses for dividing large circles1 projections1 c4 from #al4 #as4 to #aj #j #j ,bow compasses for describing very small circles1 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #j #ab #j ,perspective compasses to take angles1 c4 from #al4 #es4 to #b #ab #f ,parallel rulers of different constructions1 from #bs4 to #b #ab #f ,protractors for laying down angles1 from #bs4 to #a #a #j ,ditto1 with a nonius and moveable limb #b #b #j ,ditto1 ditto1 with teeth and pinion #d #aj #j ,sets of protracting and plotting scales2 instruments for dividing lines or transferring divisions on paper4 ,an instrument for describing circles from four to six inches radius1 or to the utmost conceivable distance--,gunners callipers--,gunners levels or perpendiculars--,shot gauges--,shell ditto--,gunners quadrants1 with a plummet or level1 or adjusting screw1 c4 and all other instruments for military purposes4 ,,hadley',s ,,quadrants1 mahogany1 the divisions on wood #a #aa #f ,ditto mahogany with ivory arch and nonius1 double observation #b #b #j ,ditto1 ditto1 a brass index1 double observation #b #ab #f ,ditto1 ebony and brass1 best glasses1 engine divided1 c4 #c #j #j ,ebony and brass mounted best sextants1 from #dl4 #ds4 to #h #ah #f ,metal ditto1 all brass1 framed on a principle the least liable to be warped or strained1 with adjusting screws1 telescopes1 and other auxiliary apparatus1 the most proper for taking distances accurately1 to determine the longitude at sea1 c4 #ab #ab #j ,ditto1 second best #h #h #j ,a new small #c-;inch pocket box sextant to take angles to a minute1 from #bl4 #bs4 to #c #c #j ,artificial horizons1 by parallel glasses and quicksilver1 to take double altitudes by #a #af #j ,gunter's quadrant1 from #ds4 to #a #a #j ,azimuth compasses of different constructions1 from #el4 #es4 to #ab #ab #j ,pocket compasses from #bs4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,horizontal sun-dials1 in brass1 made for any latitude1 of four1 five1 or six inches diameter1 divided into five minutes of time1 each at #fs4 #is4 and #j #ab #j ,ditto seven inches #j #af #j ,ditto eight inches1 into two minutes #a #d #j ,ditto ten inches1 ditto #a #af #j ,ditto twelve inches1 ditto #b #aj #j ,ditto1 fifteen inches1 into every minute1 thirty-two points of the compass1 c4 #d #ad #f ,ditto eighteen inches1 ditto1 ditto1 with equation table1 c4 #h #h #j ,ditto #b feet diameter1 ditto1 ditto #ae #ae #j ,a new universal ditto and equatorial1 making a very portable angular instrument1 from #hl4 #hs4 to #ca #aj #j ,universal ring dials1 from #gs4 #f;d4 to #aj #aj #j ,for a general description and representation of the instruments used in surveying1 levelling1 and other branches of practical geometry1 see the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,,adams',s ,geometrical and ,graphical ,essays1 an improved edition by ,w4 ,,jones1 in two vols1 #hvo4 #agig1 with thirty-five folio copper-plates4 ,price #ads4 ,,astronomical1 c4 ,,instruments4 ,a portable ,,transit ,,instrument1 with a cast iron stand1 to ascertain the rate of chronometers1 the longitude1 c4 the axis is twelve inches in length1 and the telescope about twenty inches1 packed in a case #ab #ab #j ,ditto1 with a brass framed stand1 and other additions #bj #j #j ,transit instruments of larger dimensions made to order4 ,the new ,,circular ,,instruments and ,,equatorials1 from #fcl4 to #ahj #j #j ,planetariums1 shewing the phnomena of the ,ptolemaic and ,copernican systems1 from #gl4 #gs4 to #ej #j #j ,manual orreries of the common construction from #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #f #f #j ,jones's 7,wm47 new portable orrery1 the tellurian part #a #a #j ,ditto1 the planetarium part #a #a #j ,tellurian and planetarium together1 making the ,new ,portable ,orrery1 packed in a neat mahogany box1 according to the sizes1 from #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,an orrery shewing the motions of ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth and ,moon1 by wheel-work1 the ,earth is a #a inch globe1 packed in a box #d #d #j ,other planetariums and orreries in great variety1 the motions by wheel-work1 exemplifying all the motions and phnomena of all the planets1 the ,georgium ,sidus included1 from #djl4 to #ajjj #j #j ,cometariums1 for exemplifying the motion of comets1 from #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 to #e #e #j ,senex's globes improved1 twenty-eight inches diameter1 mahogany frames1 from #bel4 to #ej #j #j ,twelve inch ditto1 improved by ,ferguson1 with all the new discoveries of ,capt4 ,cooke1 c4 with the new hour circles1 which supersede all the intended advantages of cumbersome wires1 and other appendages1 in other globes1 mounted in neat mahogany claw-feet frames #e #e #j ,ditto1 in common coloured wood frames #c #c #j ,additional price of a compass1 and fitting to both globes #j #e #j ,a pair of red leather covers for the globes #j #i #f ,globes1 nine inches diameter1 with the new discoveries #b #b #j ,ditto1 three inches ditto1 in claw-feet1 mahogany frames #a #aj #j ,ditto1 three inches single1 one in a case for the pocket #j #i #j ,geographical planispheres1 to solve problems1 mounted as a hand fire-screen #j #g #f ,a brass armillary sphere1 three inches diameter #c #c #j ,a six inch ditto #f #f #j ,a nine inch ditto #i #i #j ,a twelve inch ditto #ab #ab #j ,larger ditto1 with planetarium1 from #bal4 to #aje #j #j ,for a general description of orreries and other astronomical instruments1 see the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,,adams',s ,astronomical ,essays1 #hvo4 with sixteen plates2 price #ajs4 #f;d4 now sold by ,w4 and ,s4 ,,jones4 ,,philosophical1 c4 ,,instruments4 ,a single-barrel ,,air ,,pump1 with receiver #b #ab #f ,improved ditto1 exhausting more accurately #e #ae #f ,a small double-barrel air pump1 with gage plate #e #e #j ,a middle size ditto #f #af #f ,a large size table ditto #aj #aj #j ,air pumps of the largest sort1 exhausting more accurately1 from the constructions of the different inventors4 ,condensing engines1 from #el4 #es4 to #ba #j #j ,papin's digester improved1 on a stand #e #ae #f ,the principal ,apparatus for the ,air ,pump as follow3 ,guinea and feather apparatus1 demonstrating the resistance of the air1 with one1 two1 or three falls1 from #ahs4 to #a #aa #f ,a set of wind-mills1 for the same demonstration #a #aa #f ,the brass hemispheres1 shewing the air's external pressure1 from #ads4 to #a #aj #j ,a bell1 proving that there is no sound without air #j #aj #f ,improved constructions of this bell1 from #al4 #as4 to #c #c #j ,lead weights1 with bladder1 c4 proving the air's elasticity #j #ag #j ,the double transferrer1 that transfers a vacuum from one receiver to another1 by turning stop-cocks only #c #j #j ,a model of a water-pump1 exemplifying the nature of pumps1 and proving the absurdity of what is called suction #a #d #j ,a single transferrer1 plate and pipe1 for a fountain #j #ah #j ,a copper air-pipe for experiments on infected air #j #ag #j ,a flat plate1 collar of leathers1 with sliding wire1 for placing on receivers #j #ab #j ,an apparatus for firing gun-powder in vacuo #j #ah #j ,a copper bottle1 beam and stand1 for accurately weighing of air #b #ab #f ,a glass vessel for making a fountain in vacuo #j #e #f ,ditto on a larger1 and different construction #j #af #j ,a glass with a bladder1 shewing the action of the lungs #j #f #j ,ditto mounted with the figure of a ,bacchus #a #aj #j ,a balance beam and stand #j #g #j ,a filtering cup shewing the porosity of vegetables #j #e #j ,a plate and piece of wood for the same purpose #j #d #f ,an apparatus for striking flint and steel in vacuo #j #ah #j ,the ,torricellian experiment #j #ah #j ,fruit stand #j #c #f ,candlestick #j #c #f ,syringe with lead weight #j #aj #f ,six breaking squares1 cage and cap #j #g #f ,glass bubble and stand #j #c #j ,hand and bladder glasses #j #c #f ,with a great variety of receivers1 and other apparatus1 described by various authors4 ,exhausting and condensing syringes1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #a #aa #f ,exhausting syringes1 with sets of cupping glasses1 breast glasses1 and scarificator1 complete #d #ad #f ,air fountains of copper1 with various jets1 from #cl4 #acs4 #f;d4 to #g #g #j ,,electrical ,,machines1 with conductors and jars1 from #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #aj #aj #j ,new and much improved ditto1 from #cl4 #acs4 #f;d4 to #db #j #j ,electrical machines and complete apparatus1 for medical purposes1 packed in boxes1 the cylinder from seven to ten inches diameter1 from #fl4 #fs4 to #ab #ab #j ,an electrical machine1 with apparatus for philosophical experiments and medical uses1 packed in a box1 the cylinder about eight inches diameter #h #ah #f ,apparatus for ,electrical ,machines as follow3 ,electrical batteries of combined jars1 from #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 to #aj #aj #j ,an universal discharger1 with a press #a #h #j ,a quadrant electrometer1 with divided arch #j #g #f ,jointed dischargers1 with glass handles #j #aj #f ,plain ditto1 ditto #j #e #f ,an useful and illustrative apparatus1 compounded of the luminous conductor1 exhausted flask1 two jars1 exhausted syringe1 insulated stand1 and wires with balls1 c4 complete #c #j #j ,luminous conductors1 from #abs4 to #a #e #j ,exhausted flasks1 called ,aurora ,borealis #j #f #f ,a thunder house1 demonstrating the use of conductors #j #f #j ,a powder house1 for the same purpose #j #af #j ,an obelisk or pyramid for ditto #j #aj #f ,a set of plain bells1 three to a set #j #g #f ,a new set of musical ditto1 containing the gamut #a #aj #j ,a magic picture for giving shocks #j #g #f ,an electrical cannon1 to be discharged by inflammable air #j #af #j ,brass pistols for ditto #j #g #f ,spiral tubes1 to illuminate by the spark1 from #ds4 #f;d4 to #j #aj #f ,luminous names1 or words1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #a #aa #f ,spotted jars1 from #fs4 to #j #aj #f ,a double jar for explaining the ,franklinian theory #j #ae #j ,copper plates and stands for dancing images #j #i #j ,an electrical tin fire house #j #aj #f ,an electrical shooter and mark #j #e #j ,a mahogany stand for eggs #j #d #f ,a small head with hair #j #g #f ,an artificial spider #j #a #f ,an electrical swan #j #b #j ,an electrical star #j #a #f ,balls of wood1 bone1 c4 each from #f;d4 to #j #b #f ,a curious collection of working models1 to be set in motion by the electrical fluid1 consisting of a corn mill and a three-barrelled water-pump1 worked by one crank only3 an orrery1 shewing the diurnal motion of the earth1 age and phases of the moon1 c4 and astronomical clock1 shewing the aspects of the sun and moon1 age1 phases1 c4 all delicately made of card paper1 cork1 and wire only1 packed in a deal case #b #ab #f ,kinnersley's electrical air thermometer #a #a #j ,cavallo's atmospherical electrometer #j #ab #j ,ditto1 as improved by ,saussure #a #a #j ,bennet's gold leaf electrometer #j #ah #j ,nicholson's spinning doubler4 #a #aj #j ,an electrophorus1 from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #c #c #j ,conductors for the preservation of ships1 houses1 c4 from lightning1 from #cl4 #cs4 to #e #e #j ,the medical ,apparatus consists of1 ,jars with electrometers1 from #abs4 to #a #a #j ,a new medical ditto1 for communicating shocks in the most convenient and qualified manner #j #g #f ,a pair of directors1 glass handles1 wood points1 c4 #j #g #f ,an electrometer to apply to the conductor #j #f #f ,electrical insulated stools and chairs1 from #is4 to #e #e #j ,a new perpetual inflammable air lamp1 lighted by the electrophorus1 a curious and useful apparatus #d #d #j ,a variety of other apparatus1 too numerous to be inserted here1 which as well as the machines1 are mounted from the most approved1 eligible methods1 so as to render them in action both powerful and permanent4 ,for a complete description of electrical apparatus1 see the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,,adams',s ,essay on ,electricity1 #hvo4 six plates2 price #fs4 now sold by ,w4 and ,s4 ,,jones4 ,barometers plain mounted from #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 to #b #ab #f ,thermometers for all the various purposes1 from #is4 to #c #c #j ,six's new thermometers1 for shewing the extremes of heat and cold1 in the absence of the observer1 from #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 to #b #ab #f ,an hygrometer1 shewing the moisture and dryness of the air #j #aj #f ,barometers1 thermometers1 and hygrometers1 all in one neat mahogany frame1 from #dl4 #ds4 to #f #f #j ,barometers for measuring the heights of mountains from #gs4 to #aj #aj #j ,marine barometers1 diagonal1 wheel1 and statical ditto4 ,new hygrometers constructed by ,de ,luc1 c4 from #bl4 #bs4 to #c #c #j ,a rain gauge1 with float and tin vessel #j #ah #j ,wind gages1 of the constructions of ,dr4 ,lind1 c4 #j #af #j ,hydrometers for discovering the strength and proportion of compound in spirituous liquors1 from #al4 #gs4 to #c #c #j ,hydrostatic balances1 from #al4 #as4 to #i #i #j ,an apparatus for hydrostatical experiments1 from #cl4 #acs4 #f;d4 to #ba #j #j ,artificial magnets in bars1 and sets of bars1 from #bs4 #f;d4 to #f #f #j ,ditto1 in the shape of a horse-shoe1 the strongest form1 from #as4 #f;d4 to #a #a #j ,ditto1 combined to any number1 from #abs4 to #ba #j #j ,a box of magnetical apparatus illustrating a variety of curious and entertaining properties in magnetism1 from #el4 #es4 to #g #g #j ,dipping needles1 variation1 and other compasses1 in great variety4 ,pyrometers1 shewing the expansion of metals1 from #cl4 #cs4 to #aj #aj #j ,the mechanical powers1 for illustrating and demonstrating the laws of motion1 gravity1 c4 a set neatly made in brass1 consisting of the balance1 the pullies1 the different kinds of levers1 the inclined plane1 the wheel and axle1 the screw1 a compound engine1 a compound lever1 a double cone to move up an inclined plane1 friction wheels1 weights1 wedges1 c4 complete #be #d #j ,the same occasionally made on a more enlarged plan1 for a large auditory4 ,ditto1 with many parts of the apparatus made of mahogany1 and the whole set packed in a neat mahogany box #ad #ad #j ,separate sets of pullies1 variously constructed and combined4 ,a small carriage with inclined plane1 and wheels of different sizes1 c4 experimentally proving the friction1 resistance1 c4 of all sorts of wheel carriages #g #g #j ,ferguson's compound engine1 in which all the simple mechanical powers work together #d #d #j ,a whirling table1 for explaining and demonstrating the laws of the planet's motion1 the demonstrations of the doctrine of the tides1 and other properties of gravity and centrifugal force1 from #gl4 #gs4 to #af #af #j ,atwood's elegant and accurate apparatus for demonstrating the laws of accelerated and retarded motion1 and other interesting particulars #be #d #j ,several small mahogany models for explaining the center of gravity1 the line of direction1 c4 #b #b #j ,,for ,,philosophical ,,chemistry4 ,glass bottles with bent necks1 from #ds4 to #j #aj #f ,a glass machine for impregnating water with fixed air1 and apparatus #b #ab #f ,glass eudiometer tubes1 for ascertaining the salubrity of airs1 c4 #j #aj #f ,ditto as improved by ,abbe ,fontana1 c4 #b #d #j ,gazometers by ,priestley1 ,lavoisier1 c4 from #al4 #as4 to #e #e #j ,a blow-pipe1 with various caps1 for fluxing metals1 c4 #j #g #f ,ditto1 with silver spoon1 megalascope1 c4 #a #a #j ,ditto1 ditto1 with a variety of other necessary apparatus1 packed in a fish-skin case1 forming ,cronstedt's complete pocket laboratory1 improved by ,magellan #b #ab #f ,magellan's new portable lamp furnace1 with the blow-pipe1 small glass retorts1 c4 c4 for chemical as well as mineralogical operations #d #ad #f ,ditto1 with the double bellows to apply to the blow-pipe #g #g #j ,double bellows1 with deal table1 and appendages1 for glass blowing #b #ab #f ,a wooden tub for water1 and another for quick-silver1 with a selection of glass apparatus for performing the late discovered experiments on air #f #f #j ,a box1 containing all the useful precipitants of ,bergman1 c4 for analysing waters1 and fluxes for the blow-pipe in phials with glass stoppers1 with ,gottling's printed description of ditto #d #h #j ,a mahogany case containing1 in phials1 a variety of preparations for young persons to perform amusive and instructive chemical experiments #c #ac #f ,fumigating bellows for destroying insects in gardens1 by tobacco1 from #al4 #fs4 to #a #af #j ,instruments of ,recreation and ,amusement4 ,the sensitive fishes1 that have the property of swimming to a piece of bread placed at the end of a stick2 and1 when the other end is presented1 of retreating and going back1 sensible1 as it were1 of no substance for them to eat #j #f #f ,the sagacious swan1 that with a machine makes three kinds of amusements--#ast4 the swan will point out the secrets of the cards2 #b;d4 it will point answers to #af humorous enigmas2 and #c;d4 disclose any particular hour that was thought of1 such as going to bed or rising2 packed in a case #a #ah #j ,a box containing four numbers and four letters1 the order of which may be discovered1 if ever so secretly placed1 by means of a curious magic perspective #j #aj #j ,ditto with five numbers1 no perspective1 but another very similar box1 made in neat mahogany boxes1 and more difficult to discover the reason of #a #ah #j ,a curious magic oracle1 unfolding answers to any proposed questions secretly taken out of a bag #j #af #j ,a magic painter1 exhibiting a copy of any one of eight different paintings secretly chosen #j #aj #f ,a communicative mirror1 shewing portraits of any one of four secretly chosen2 an elegant and curious instrument #b #ab #f ,a box containing five pieces of different metals1 which may any way be secretly placed1 and their situation be told by the magical perspective #a #h #j ,an optical paradox1 containing two perspectives1 between which a board may be placed1 and the object will be seen through them just as well as if the board was not there #j #g #f ,ditto mounted in mahogany1 larger size #a #h #j ,an optical deception1 containing from six to twelve different paintings1 and which are looked down upon through a perspective1 and immediately there appears another very different object1 without any alteration of the instrument whatsoever1 or concern of the person using it1 from #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 to #c #c #j ,a diagonal opera glass1 that shews persons on one side1 when the glass is presented to the object directly before you1 from #fs4 to #j #ae #j ,a multiplying glass1 making one object appear a great number1 from #as4 #f;d4 to #j #aj #f ,a set of anamorphoses or deformed pictures rectified by a polished cylinder #b #b #j ,a mathematical recreation1 containing near seventy figures on a card2 any one figure being thought of1 is readily pointed out by any one using it #j #a #j ,the two curious mathematical cubes1 one of which is gauged so as to prove it to be larger than the other1 yet the larger one will actually pass through the smaller one1 and not in any degree stretch it #a #j #j ,the mathematical paradox1 a piece of wood of one figure1 fits exactly1 and passes through a triangular1 a square1 and a circular hole #j #b #f ,a double cone1 that apparently rolls upwards up an inclined plane1 though actually descending #j #d #f ,a magic well1 in which may be put four buckets full of different seeds1 and fairly mixed together2 any particular seed of the above four kinds may be drawn up separately1 and1 when examined1 will be found to be perfectly pure #a #aa #f ,a mechanical instrument1 consisting of a cube and two wooden handles1 that supports itself on a point1 although the entire form and weight appear evidently all on one side #j #ab #j ,a cylindrical mirror that produces two or three curious optical effects #a #a #j ,a magic or electrical bottle1 that is charged by the rubbing of a ribband only1 and will give a shock to five or six persons1 with apparatus1 in a pocket case #j #aj #f ,a set of the artificial fireworks imitated1 containing a series of brilliant and entertaining scenes of fireworks1 cascades of fire1 c4 producing altogether a pleasing effect1 and not attended with any trouble1 noise1 or danger1 when using2 the whole contained in a neat mahogany box #g #g #j ,the magic lanthorn apparatus conjoined with the above #aj #aj #j ,concave mirrors fitted up in boxes1 to magnify prints1 to shew various deceptions in an entertaining and pleasing manner1 from #el4 #es4 to #ab #j #j 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the preceding1 a great variety of other articles too numerous to be included in this catalogue1 as well as any instrumental article made from particular drawings1 or as described by the different writers upon mathematics1 philosophy1 chemistry1 c4 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,merchants1 shopkeepers1 schoolmasters1 and others that sell again1 are supplied with the best articles1 and with good allowance4 ,letters from the country or abroad1 containing orders or previous enquiries1 explicitly and punctually attended to4 ,les acadmies1 observatoires et ecoles des pays etrangers ainsi que les ngociants1 merchands et autres personnes peuvent se procurer toutes sortes d'instruments de la meilleure qualit1 tant pour les matriaux1 que la main d'uvre1 avec la plus grande expdition1 et au plus juste prix4 ,,books ,,published ,,by ,w4 ,,jones4 ,a ,description and ,use of the ,new ,portable ,orrery1 to which is prefixed a short account of the solar system1 including the new planet1 the burning mountain in the moon lately discovered by ,dr4 ,herschel1 and the probable reasons why the comet did not appear1 as lately expected1 with two copper-plates1 #dth edition #j #a #f ,a ,description and ,use of the ,hadley's ,quadrant1 with an account of all the new apparatus added to it1 for taking observations accurately1 in order to determine the longitude at sea1 illustrated by copper-plate figures1 #b;d edit4 #j #a #j ,a ,description and ,use of the ,pocket ,case of ,mathematical ,drawing ,instruments1 illustrated by copper-plate figures #j #j #h ,methods of finding a ,meridian ,line1 to set sun-dials1 regulate clocks and watches1 c4 #j #j #f ,directions for finding a ,meridian ,line1 on a card #j #j #c ,a ,concise ,explanation of the ,barometer1 ,thermometer1 and ,hygrometer1 with rules for predicting changes in the weather1 in a small book1 #f;d4 on a pasteboard1 varnished #j #a #j ,cowley's ,illustration of ,,solid ,,geometry1 containing #db copper-plates of moveable figures2 a work very useful and convenient for teachers and young students of geometry1 as the figures1 when folded up1 form exactly the solid figures of the ,platonic bodies1 conic sections1 and several portions of ,euclid's ,elements1 c4 c4 boards #j #ah #j ,,other ,,books ,,sold ,,by ,w4 ,,and ,s4 ,,jones4 ,,quarto4 ,the ,new ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7printed at ,edinburgh7 a new edition1 quarto1 in #ah vols1 or #cf parts1 now complete1 in boards price #ah #ah #j ,this ,dictionary of ,arts and ,sciences is upon a new and enlarged plan1 and contains the systems of the different arts and sciences1 under the different heads1 as well as the explanations of the various detached terms4 ,hutton's 7,dr47 ,mathematical ,dictionary1 #b vols4 boards #b #ab #j ,nicholson's ,philosophical ,journal1 four numbers1 all that are now published1 each #bs4 #f;d4 #j #aj #j ,the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 containing #aa vols4 of the ,abridgement2 and from thence1 the ,continuation at large to the present time2 the index1 with ,birch's and ,sprat's history1 #e vols4 all in uniform clean calf binding and tooled backs1 in #eh vols4 #fj #j #j ,vince's ,treatise on ,astronomy1 #ast vol4 sewed #a #d #j ,,octavo4 ,cavallo's ,treatise on ,magnetism1 with ,supplement #j #h #j ,kelly's ,practical ,introduction to ,spherics and ,nautical ,astronomy #j #f #j ,moore's ,practical ,navigator1 or ,seamen's ,daily ,assistant #j #f #j ,nicholson's ,first ,principles of ,chemistry1 boards #j #g #f ---- ,introduction to ,natural ,philosophy1 #b vols4 #j #ab #j ,nautical ,almanacks1 a complete set bound1 #bh volumes #e #e #f ,ditto for any year to #ahjj #j #c #f ,requisite ,tables to the above1 unbound #j #e #j ,robertson's ,elements of ,navigation1 new edit4 #b vols4 #a #j #j ,wale's ,method of finding the ,longitude by ,time-keepers1 and ,description of a ,portable ,transit ,instrument1 c4 #j #b #f ,,finis4 ,,london1 ,dec4 #a1 #agig ,w4 and ,s4 ,,jones take this ,opportunity of informing the ,public that they have purchased the ,stock and ,copyright of the several ,philosophical ,essays by the late ,mr4 ,,george ,,adams1 of ,fleet ,street1 and that they are now sold at their ,shop in ,holborn4 ,the following are those now in print1 and to be had as above4 ,i4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,electricity1 explaining clearly and fuly the principles of that useful ,science1 describing the various ,instruments that have been contrived either to illustrate the ,theory1 or render the ,practice of it entertaining4 ,the different ,modes in which the ,electrical ,fluid may be applied to the human ,frame for medical ,purposes1 are distinctly and clearly pointed out1 and the necessary ,apparatus explained4 ,to which is now added1 ,a ,,letter to the ,,author1 from ,mr4 ,,john ,,birch1 ,surgeon1 on the ,subject of ,,medical ,,electricity4 ,fourth ,edition1 #hvo4 ,price #fs4 illustrated with six ,plates4 ,,ii4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,vision1 briefly explaining the ,fabric of the ,eye1 and the ,nature of ,vision2 intended for the ,service of those whose ,eyes are weak and impaired1 enabling them to form an accurate ,idea of the ,state of their ,sight1 the ,means of preserving it1 together with proper ,rules for ascertaining when ,spectacles are necessary1 and how to choose them without injuring the ,sight4 #hvo4 ,boards1 ,price #cs4 ,second ,edition4 ,,iii4 ,,astronomical ,,and ,,geographical ,,essays1 containing1 #a4 ,a full and comprehensive ,view1 on a new ,plan1 of the general ,principles of ,astronomy1 with a large ,account of the ,discoveries of ,mr4 ,herschel4 #b4 the ,use of the ,celestial and ,terrestrial ,globes1 exemplified in a greater ,variety of ,problems than are to be found in any other ,work3 they are arranged under distinct ,heads1 and interspersed with much curious but relative ,information4 #c4 ,the ,description and ,use of small ,orreries and ,planetaria1 c4 #d4 ,an ,introduction to ,practical ,astronomy1 by a ,set of easy and entertaining ,problems4 ,third ,edition1 #hvo4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4 in ,boards1 illustrated with sixteen ,plates4 ,,iv4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,astronomy1 or the ,use of the ,quadrant and ,equatorial1 being extracted from the preceding ,work4 ,sewed1 with two ,plates1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,v4 ,,geometrical ,,and ,,graphical ,,essays4 ,this ,work contains1 #a4 ,a select ,set of ,geometrical ,problems1 many of which are new1 and to be found in no other ,work4 #b4 ,the ,description and ,use of those ,mathematical ,instruments that are usually put into a ,case of ,drawing ,instruments4 ,besides these1 there are also described several ,new and ,useful ,instruments for ,geometrical ,purposes4 #c4 ,a complete and concise ,system of ,,surveying1 with an ,account of some very essential ,improvements in that useful ,art4 ,to which is added1 a ,description of the most improved ,,theodolites1 ,,plane ,,tables1 and other ,instruments used in ,surveying2 and most accurate ,methods of adjusting them4 #d4 ,the ,methods of ,,levelling1 for the ,purpose of conveying ,water from one ,place to another2 with a ,description of the most improved ,spirit ,level4 #e4 ,a ,course of ,,practical ,,military ,,geometry1 as taught at ,woolwich4 #f4 ,a short ,essay on ,perspective4 ,the ,second ,edition1 corrected1 and enlarged with the ,descriptions of several ,instruments not contained in the former ,edition1 by ,w4 ,,jones1 ,mathematical ,instrument ,maker2 illustrated by thirty-five ,copper-plates1 in #b vols4 #hvo4 ,price #ads4 in ,boards4 ,,vi4 ,,an ,,appendix to the ,,geometrical ,,and ,,graphical ,,essays1 containing the following ,table by ,mr4 ,,john ,,gale1 viz4 a ,table of the ,northings1 ,southings1 ,eastings1 and ,westings to every ,degree and fifteenth ,minute of the ,quadrant1 ,radius from #a to #ajj1 with all the intermediate ,numbers1 computed to three ,places of ,decimals4 ,price #bs4 ,just ,published ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,microscope1 ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,author1 ,in ,quarto1 with thirty-four folio ,plates1 separate4 ,the ,second ,edition1 with many ,corrections1 ,additions1 and ,improvements1 by ,,frederick ,,kanmacher1 ,fellow of the ,linnean ,society4 ,price #al4 #hs4 in ,boards4 ,also in the ,press1 ,and speedily will be published1 ,,lectures ,,on ,,natural ,,and ,,experimental ,,philosophy1 ,in ,five ,volumes #hvo4 ,the ,second ,edition1 with upwards of ,forty large ,plates1 considerable ,alterations and ,improvements2 containing more complete ,explanations of the ,instruments1 ,machines1 c4 and the ,description of many others not inserted in the former ,edition4 ,,by ,w4 ,,jones1 ,,mathematical ,,and ,,philosophical ,,instrument ,,maker4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settins1 not all elements may displayed as intended4 ,archaic1 unusual and inconsistent spelling1 grammar and sentence constructions have been retained2 accents etc4 for ,french and ,german have not been corrected unless listed below4 ,paragraph numbering has been retained1 also when this was not serving any obvious purpose and_/or was not contiguous4 ,the use of italicised and non-italicised reference letters in the text has not been standardised4 ,the hierarchy in 7sub-7section headings has been based on the text1 due to the absence of a detailed table of contents and lack of visible differences between the various levels of 7sub-7section headings in the source document4 ,the plates were originally bound separate from the text1 but in the source document used they were bound together with the text4 ,due to the way of binding parts of most plates are invisible and discoloured near and in the gutter4 ,captions and credits in and around the plates have been reconstructed as far as possible4 ,larger versions of the plates may not be available in all file formats1 but may be accessed through the browser version available at www4gutenberg4org4 ,in the descriptions of individual items hyperlinks have only been provided to the ,plates1 not to individual figures in the plates4 ,page xv-xvii and ,index3 the 7alphabetical7 order of entries has not been corrected4 ,errata for page #di3 #8last line' refers to footnote #bh4 ,page #cb1 ,fig4 #b4 and description3 as printed in the source document1 even though the description does not fully fit the illustration 7and vice versa74 ,page #gd1 the end1 ,fig4 #i and #aj3 #i and #aj are reference numbers within ,figure #d rather than figure numbers4 ,page #gh-gi1 ,eight magnifying lenses 444 the list annexed to these ,essays3 there are no ,figures #e through #ab in ,plate ,,iii4 ,several of the items described may be seen in other ,plates1 but with different reference and figure numbers4 ,page #hc-hd1 ,the two large lenses at ,f1 ,fig4 #c3 there are no large lenses at ,f1 ,fig4#c in ,plate ,,ix or in ,plate ,,iii 7or in any other ,plate74 ,page #hd1 ,massachuset's ,states3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #afb1 444 for the feeding the growth 4443 as printed in the source document4 ,page #ahb1 444 one of these1 i i1 b c1 ,fig4 #c4 ,plate ,,xiii1 444 and ,page #ahc1 444 the middle part i i 4443 there are no reference letters i in the illustration4 ,page #bje1 ,they first fold back the parts ,a ,b3 the reference letters are not present in the drawing4 ,page #ceb1 ,skin of the lump sucker3 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,fig4 #g falls in the gutter of the plate1 and has no caption4 ,page #ddf1 ,e4 eliptica3 eliptica and elliptica were both used4 ,page #fbc1 the blea1 the bark1 and the wood3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #fcf1 ,the roundish mouth 444 a thorny margin3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #fia1 ,cold-arbour lane3 possibly ,coldharbour ,lane or ,cool ,arbour ,lane4 ,page #fie1 ,the ,english collection contains 4443 the numbers given do not add up to the total4 ,page #gja1 knapeseed3 probably an error for knapeweed or knapweed4 ,page #gjc1 ,diptera1 entries ,oestrus3 ,footnote #hh continues for three pages 7#bid-bif7 in the source document4 ,plate ,,xxx1 ,publishd3 as printed in the source document4 ,changes made ,footnotes have been moved to under the text to which they belong4 ,where necessary1 page numbers in references to footnotes have been adjusted accordingly4 ,the book uses long dashes as ditto marks2 several of these have been replaced with the dittoed text4 ,where necessary1 the word ,ibid4 in references has been replaced with the actual title4 ,minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,the ,errata have already been corrected in the text4 ,fractions have been standardised mn4 ,page xxiv3 ,n4 ,b4 moved from bottom of page xxiii to bottom of list4 ,page xxvii3 deau douce changed to d'eau douce4 ,page #da3 f ,a and ,g a changed to f ,a and g ,a4 ,page #ej3 pour les mois changed to pour le mois4 ,page #eb3 that it would changed to than it would4 ,page #gg3 ,the stage1 ,fig4 f g h i changed to ,the stage1 ,fig4 #a1 f g h i2 the screw at a changed to the screw at a4 ,page #ha3 ,plate ,,iii4 ,b1 is the stage changed to ,fig4 #c ,b1 is the stage4 ,page #he3 that at ,c1 ,fig4 #d changed to that at ,c1 ,fig4 #c4 ,page #agb3 their divine original changed to their divine origin4 ,page #baf3 the sphinx atropos squeaks changed to ,the sphinx atropos squeaks4 ,page #cfa3 friends1 says the author1 who are 444 changed to friends10 says the author1 8who are 4444 ,page #chg3 motion of the fluids are changed to motion of the fluids is4 ,page #ddf3 ,e4 eliptica changed to ,e4 elliptica4 ,page #dgf3 accuminatus changed to acuminatus4 ,page #ebe3 #cdj4 changed to #bdj4 ,page #efj3 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,fig4 #ff changed to ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,page #gjc3 page #ahg1 note #fbc changed to page #ahg note1 #fbc4 ,page #gjd3 muscle changed to mussel 7,cancer pisum74 ,index3 the spelling of some entries has been standardised with that used in the body text4