,transcriber's notes3 ,italic text is denoted thus4 ,see further note at the end of this volume4 ,,bohn',s ,,classical ,,library4 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,pliny4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,pliny4 ,,translated1 ,,with ,,copious ,,notes ,,and ,,illustrations ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,john ,,bostock1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,and ,h4 ,t4 ,,riley1 ,,esq41 ,b4,a41 ,,late ,,scholar ,,of ,,clare ,,hall1 ,,cambridge4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,london3 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,,mdccclvi4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,volume4 ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,grain4 ,,chap4 ,page #a4 ,taste of the ancients for agriculture #a #b4 ,when the first wreaths of corn were used at ,rome #c #c4 ,the jugerum of land #d #d4 ,how often and on what occasions corn has sold at a remarkably low price #g #e4 ,illustrious men who have written upon agriculture #i #f4 ,points to be observed in buying land #aa #g4 ,the proper arrangements for a farm-house #ac #h4 ,maxims of the ancients on agriculture #af #i4 ,the different kinds of grain #ai #aj4 ,the history of the various kinds of grain ib4 #aa4 ,spelt #bd #ab4 ,wheat #be #ac4 ,barley3 rice #bg #ad4 ,polenta #bh #ae4 ,ptisan #bi #af4 ,tragum ib4 #ag4 ,amylum ib4 #ah4 ,the nature of barley #cj #ai4 ,arinca1 and other kinds of grain that are grown in the ,east #ca #bj4 ,winter wheat4 ,similago1 or fine flour #cb #ba4 ,the fruitfulness of ,africa in wheat #ce #bb4 ,sesame4 ,erysimum or irio4 ,horminum #cf #bc4 ,the mode of grinding corn ib4 #bd4 ,millet #ch #be4 ,panic ib4 #bf4 ,the various kinds of leaven ib4 #bg4 ,the method of making bread3 origin of the art #ci #bh4 ,when bakers were first introduced at ,rome #dj #bi4 ,alica #da #cj4 ,the leguminous plants3 the bean #dc #ca4 ,lentils4 ,pease #df #cb4 ,the several kinds of chick-pease ib4 #cc4 ,the kidney-bean #dg #cd4 ,the rape ib4 #ce4 ,the turnip #dh #cf4 ,the lupine #di #cg4 ,the vetch #ea #ch4 ,the fitch ib4 #ci4 ,silicia ib4 #dj4 ,secale or asia #eb #da4 ,farrago3 the cracca ib4 #db4 ,ocinum3 ervilia ib4 #dc4 ,lucerne #ec #dd4 ,the diseases of grain3 the oat #ed #de4 ,the best remedies for the diseases of grain #eg #df4 ,the crops that should be sown in the different soils #ei #dg4 ,the different systems of cultivation employed by various nations #fj #dh4 ,the various kinds of ploughs #fb #di4 ,the mode of ploughing ib4 #ej4 ,the methods of harrowing1 stubbing1 and hoeing1 employed for each description of grain4 ,the use of the harrow #ff #ea4 ,extreme fertility of soil #fg #eb4 ,the method of sowing more than once in the year #fh #ec4 ,the manuring of land ib4 #ed4 ,how to ascertain the quality of seed #fi #ee4 ,what quantity of each kind of grain is requisite for sowing a jugerum #ga #ef4 ,the proper times for sowing #gb #eg4 ,arrangement of the stars according to the terrestrial days and nights #gd #eh4 ,the rising and setting of the stars #gg #ei4 ,the epochs of the seasons #gh #fj4 ,the proper time for winter sowing #gi #fa4 ,when to sow the leguminous plants and the poppy #ha #fb4 ,work to be done in the country in each month respectively ib4 #fc4 ,work to be done at the winter solstice #hb #fd4 ,work to be done between the winter solstice and the prevalence of the west winds #hc #fe4 ,work to be done between the prevalence of the west winds and the vernal equinox #hd #ff4 ,work to be done after the vernal equinox #hf #fg4 ,work to be done after the rising of the ,vergili3 hay-making #hh #fh4 ,the summer solstice #ib #fi4 ,causes of sterility #ig #gj4 ,remedies against these noxious influences #aja #ga4 ,work to be done after the summer solstice #ajb #gb4 ,the harvest #ajc #gc4 ,the methods of storing corn #ajd #gd4 ,the vintage1 and the works of autumn #ajg #ge4 ,the revolutions of the moon #aaa #gf4 ,the theory of the winds #aac #gg4 ,the laying out of lands according to the points of the wind #aad #gh4 ,prognostics derived from the sun #aag #gi4 ,prognostics derived from the moon #aai #hj4 ,prognostics derived from the stars #abj #ha4 ,prognostics derived from thunder #aba #hb4 ,prognostics derived from clouds ib4 #hc4 ,prognostics derived from mists #abb #hd4 ,prognostics derived from fire kindled by man ib4 #he4 ,prognostics derived from water ib4 #hf4 ,prognostics derived from tempests #abc #hg4 ,prognostics derived from aquatic animals and birds ib4 #hh4 ,prognostics derived from quadrupeds #abd #hi4 ,prognostics derived from plants #abe #ij4 ,prognostics derived from food ib4 ,,book ,,xix4 ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,cultivation ,,of ,,flax1 ,,and ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,various ,,garden ,,plants4 #a4 ,the nature of flax--marvellous facts relative thereto #abi #b4 ,how flax is sown3 twenty-seven principal varieties of it #aca #c4 ,the mode of preparing flax #ace #d4 ,linen made of asbestos #acf #e4 ,at what period linen was first dyed #ach #f4 ,at what period coloured awnings were first employed in the theatres ib4 #g4 ,the nature of spartum #aci #h4 ,the mode of preparing spartum #adj #i4 ,at what period spartum was first employed #ada #aj4 ,the bulb eriophorus ib4 #aa4 ,plants which spring up and grow without a root--plants which grow1 but cannot be reproduced from seed #adb #ab4 ,misy2 iton2 and geranion #adc #ac4 ,particulars connected with the truffle #add #ad4 ,the pezica ib4 #ae4 ,laserpitium1 laser1 and maspetum ib4 #af4 ,magydaris #adg #ag4 ,madder #adh #ah4 ,the radicula ib4 #ai4 ,the pleasures of the garden #adi #bj4 ,the laying out of garden ground #aed #ba4 ,plants other than grain and shrubs #aee #bb4 ,the natural history of twenty different kinds of plants grown in gardens--the proper methods to be followed in sowing them respectively ib4 #bc4 ,vegetables of a cartilaginous nature--cucumbers4 ,pepones #aef #bd4 ,gourds #aeh #be4 ,rape4 ,turnips #afa #bf4 ,radishes #afb #bg4 ,parsnips #afe #bh4 ,the skirret #aff #bi4 ,elecampane #afg #cj4 ,bulbs1 squills1 and arum #afh #ca4 ,the roots1 flowers1 and leaves of all these plants4 ,garden plants which lose their leaves #agj #cb4 ,varieties of the onion #aga #cc4 ,the leek #agc #cd4 ,garlic #agd #ce4 ,the number of days required for the respective plants to make their appearance above ground #agg #cf4 ,the nature of the various seeds #agh #cg4 ,plants of which there is but a single kind4 ,plants of which there are several kinds #agi #ch4 ,the nature and varieties of twenty-three garden plants4 ,the lettuce2 its different varieties #ahj #ci4 ,endive #ahb #dj4 ,beet3 four varieties of it #ahc #da4 ,cabbages2 the several varieties of them #ahe #db4 ,wild and cultivated asparagus #ahh #dc4 ,thistles #aij #dd4 ,other plants that are sown in the garden3 ocimum2 rocket2 and nasturtium #aia #de4 ,rue ib4 #df4 ,parsley #aib #dg4 ,mint ib4 #dh4 ,olusatrum #aic #di4 ,the caraway #aid #ej4 ,lovage ib4 #ea4 ,dittander #aie #eb4 ,gith ib4 #ec4 ,the poppy #aif #ed4 ,other plants which require to be sown at the autumnal equinox #aig #ee4 ,wild thyme2 sisymbrium ib4 #ef4 ,four kinds of ferulaceous plants4 ,hemp #aih #eg4 ,the maladies of garden plants #aii #eh4 ,the proper remedies for these maladies4 ,how ants are best destroyed4 ,the best remedies against caterpillars and flies #bjj #ei4 ,what plants are benefitted by salt water #bja #fj4 ,the proper method of watering gardens ib4 #fa4 ,the juices and flavours of garden herbs #bjb #fb4 ,piperitis1 libanotis1 and smyrnium #bjc ,,book ,,xx4 ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,garden ,,plants4 #a4 ,introduction #bjf #b4 ,the wild cucumber3 twenty-six remedies #bjg #c4 ,elaterium3 twenty-seven remedies #bjh #d4 ,the anguine or erratic cucumber3 five remedies #bji #e4 ,the cultivated cucumber3 nine remedies #baj #f4 ,pepones3 eleven remedies #baa #g4 ,the gourd3 seventeen remedies4 ,the somphus3 one remedy #bab #h4 ,the colocynthis3 ten remedies ib4 #i4 ,rape3 nine remedies #bac #aj4 ,wild rape3 one remedy #bad #aa4 ,turnips2 those known as bunion and bunias3 five remedies ib4 #ab4 ,the wild radish1 or armoracia3 one remedy #bae #ac4 ,the cultivated radish3 forty-three remedies ib4 #ad4 ,the parsnip3 five remedies4 ,the hibiscum1 wild mallow1 or plistolochia3 eleven remedies #bah #ae4 ,the staphylinos1 or wild parsnip3 twenty-two remedies ib4 #af4 ,gingidion3 one remedy #bai #ag4 ,the skirret3 eleven remedies #bbj #ah4 ,sile1 or hartwort3 twelve remedies #bba #ai4 ,elecampane3 eleven remedies #bbb #bj4 ,onions3 twenty-seven remedies ib4 #ba4 ,cutleek3 thirty-two remedies #bbc #bb4 ,bulbed leek3 thirty-nine remedies #bbe #bc4 ,garlic3 sixty-one remedies ib4 #bd4 ,the lettuce3 forty-two remedies4 ,the goat-lettuce3 four remedies #bbh #be4 ,csapon3 one remedy4 ,isatis3 one remedy4 ,the wild lettuce3 seven remedies ib4 #bf4 ,hawk-weed3 seventeen remedies #bbi #bg4 ,beet3 twenty-four remedies #bcb #bh4 ,limonion1 or neuroides3 three remedies #bcc #bi4 ,endive3 three remedies ib4 #cj4 ,cichorium or chreston1 otherwise called pancration or ambula3 twelve remedies #bcd #ca4 ,hedypnos3 four remedies ib4 #cb4 ,seris1 three varieties of it3 seven remedies borrowed from it #bce #cc4 ,the cabbage3 eighty-seven remedies4 ,recipes mentioned by ,cato ib4 #cd4 ,opinions of the ,greeks relative thereto #bcg #ce4 ,cabbage-sprouts #bci #cf4 ,the wild cabbage3 thirty-seven remedies #bdj #cg4 ,the lapsana3 one remedy #bda #ch4 ,the sea-cabbage3 one remedy ib4 #ci4 ,the squill3 twenty-three remedies ib4 #dj4 ,bulbs3 thirty remedies #bdc #da4 ,bulbine3 one remedy4 ,bulb emetic #bdd #db4 ,garden asparagus2 with the next1 twenty-four remedies #bde #dc4 ,corruda1 libycura1 or orminum ib4 #dd4 ,parsley3 seventeen remedies #bdf #de4 ,apiastrum1 or melissophyllum #bdg #df4 ,olusatrum or ,hipposelinon3 eleven remedies4 ,oreoselinon3 two remedies4 ,helioselinon3 one remedy #bdh #dg4 ,petroselinon3 one remedy4 ,buselinon3 one remedy ib4 #dh4 ,ocimum3 thirty-five remedies #bdi #di4 ,rocket3 twelve remedies #bej #ej4 ,nasturtium3 forty-two remedies #bea #ea4 ,rue3 eighty-four remedies #beb #eb4 ,wild mint3 twenty remedies #bef #ec4 ,mint3 forty-one remedies #beg #ed4 ,pennyroyal3 twenty-five remedies #bei #ee4 ,wild pennyroyal3 seventeen remedies #bfj #ef4 ,nep3 nine remedies #bfa #eg4 ,cummin3 forty-eight remedies4 ,wild cummin3 twenty-six remedies #bfb #eh4 ,ammi3 ten remedies #bfc #ei4 ,the capparis or caper3 eighteen remedies #bfd #fj4 ,ligusticum1 or lovage3 four remedies #bfe #fa4 ,cunila bubula3 five remedies ib4 #fb4 ,cunila gallinacea1 or origanum3 five remedies #bff #fc4 ,cunilago3 eight remedies ib4 #fd4 ,soft cunila3 three remedies4 ,libanotis3 three remedies ib4 #fe4 ,cultivated cunila3 three remedies4 ,mountain cunila3 seven remedies #bfg #ff4 ,piperitis1 or siliquastrum3 five remedies ib4 #fg4 ,origanum1 onitis1 or prasion3 six remedies #bfh #fh4 ,tragoriganum3 nine remedies ib4 #fi4 ,three varieties of ,heracleotic origanum3 thirty remedies ib4 #gj4 ,dittander3 three remedies #bgj #ga4 ,gith1 or melanthion3 twenty-three remedies ib4 #gb4 ,anise3 sixty-one remedies #bga #gc4 ,where the best anise is found3 various remedies derived from this plant #bgb #gd4 ,dill3 nine remedies #bgd #ge4 ,sacopenium1 or sagapenon3 thirteen remedies ib4 #gf4 ,the white poppy3 three remedies4 ,the black poppy3 eight remedies4 ,remarks on sleep4 ,opium4 ,remarks in disfavour of the potions known as 8anodynes1 febrifuges1 digestives1 and cliacs40 ,in what way the juices of these plants are to be collected #bge #gg4 ,the poppy called rhas3 two remedies #bgh #gh4 ,the wild poppy called ceratitis1 glaucium1 or paralium3 six remedies ib4 #gi4 ,the wild poppy called heraclium1 or aphron3 four remedies4 ,diacodion ib4 #hj4 ,the poppy called tithymalon1 or paralion3 three remedies #bgi #ha4 ,porcillaca or purslain1 otherwise called peplis3 twenty-five remedies #bhj #hb4 ,coriander3 twenty-one remedies #bhb #hc4 ,orage3 fourteen remedies ib4 #hd4 ,the mallow called malope3 thirteen remedies4 ,the mallow called malache3 one remedy4 ,the mallow called altha or plistolochia3 fifty-nine remedies #bhc #he4 ,wild lapathum or oxalis1 otherwise called lapathum cantherinum1 or rumex3 one remedy4 ,hydrolapathum3 two remedies4 ,hippolapathum3 six remedies4 ,oxylapathum3 four remedies #bhg #hf4 ,cultivated lapathum3 twenty-one remedies4 ,bulapathum3 one remedy #bhh #hg4 ,mustard1 the three kinds of it3 forty-four remedies ib4 #hh4 ,adarca3 forty-eight remedies #bij #hi4 ,marrubium or prasion1 otherwise linostrophon1 philopais1 or philochares3 twenty-nine remedies ib4 #ij4 ,wild thyme3 eighteen remedies #bib #ia4 ,sisymbrium or thymbrum3 twenty-three remedies #bic #ib4 ,linseed3 thirty remedies #bid #ic4 ,blite3 six remedies #bie #id4 ,meum1 and meum athamanticum3 seven remedies ib4 #ie4 ,fennel3 twenty-two remedies #bif #if4 ,hippomarathron1 or myrsineum3 five remedies ib4 #ig4 ,hemp3 nine remedies #big #ih4 ,fennel-giant3 eight remedies #bih #ii4 ,the thistle or scolymos3 six remedies #bii #ajj4 ,the composition of theriaca ib4 ,,book ,,xxi4 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,flowers1 ,,and ,,those ,,used ,,for ,,chaplets ,,more ,,particularly4 #a4 ,the nature of flowers and gardens #cjd #b4 ,garlands and chaplets ib4 #c4 ,who invented the art of making garlands3 when they first received the name of 8coroll10 and for what reason #cje #d4 ,who was the first to give chaplets with leaves of silver and gold4 ,lemnisci3 who was the first to emboss them #cjf #e4 ,the great honour in which chaplets were held by the ancients ib4 #f4 ,the severity of the ancients in reference to chaplets #cjg #g4 ,a citizen decked with flowers by the ,roman people #cjh #h4 ,plaited chaplets4 ,needle-work chaplets4 ,nard-leaf chaplets4 ,silken chaplets ib4 #i4 ,authors who have written on flowers4 ,an anecdote relative to ,queen ,cleopatra and chaplets #cji #aj4 ,the rose3 twelve varieties of it #caj #aa4 ,the lily3 four varieties of it #cad #ab4 ,the narcissus3 three varieties of it #caf #ac4 ,how seed is stained to produce tinted flowers #cag #ad4 ,how the several varieties of the violet are respectively produced1 grown1 and cultivated4 ,the three different colours of the violet4 ,the five varieties of the yellow violet ib4 #ae4 ,the caltha4 ,the scopa regia #cah #af4 ,the bacchar4 ,the combretum4 ,asarum ib4 #ag4 ,saffron3 in what places it grows best4 ,what flowers were known at the time of the ,trojan war #cai #ah4 ,the nature of odours #cba #ai4 ,the iris #cbd #bj4 ,the saliunca #cbe #ba4 ,the polium or teuthrion ib4 #bb4 ,fabrics which rival the colour of flowers #cbf #bc4 ,the amaranth #cbg #bd4 ,the cyanos3 the holochrysos #cbh #be4 ,the petilium3 the bellio ib4 #bf4 ,the chrysocome1 or chrysitis #cbi #bg4 ,shrubs1 the blossoms of which are used for chaplets ib4 #bh4 ,shrubs1 the leaves of which are used for chaplets ib4 #bi4 ,the melothron1 spira1 and origanum4 ,the oneorum or cassia2 two varieties of it4 ,the melissophyllum or melittna4 ,the melilote1 otherwise known as ,campanian garland #ccj #cj4 ,three varieties of trefoil3 the myophonum ib4 #ca4 ,two varieties of thyme4 ,plants produced from blossoms and not from seed #cca #cb4 ,conyza #ccb #cc4 ,the flower of ,jove4 ,the hemerocalles4 ,the helenium4 ,the phlox4 ,plants in which the branches and roots are odoriferous #ccc #cd4 ,the abrotonum4 ,the adonium3 two varieties of it4 ,plants which reproduce themselves4 ,the leucanthemum #ccd #ce4 ,two varieties of the amaracus ib4 #cf4 ,the nyctegreton1 or chenamyche1 or nyctalops #cce #cg4 ,where the melilote is found ib4 #ch4 ,the succession in which flowers blossom3 the spring flowers4 ,the violet4 ,the chaplet anemone or phrenion4 ,the herb nanthe4 ,the melanthium4 ,the helichrysos4 ,the gladiolus4 ,the hyacinth #ccf #ci4 ,the summer flowers--the lychnis3 the tiphyon4 ,two varieties of the pothos4 ,two varieties of the orsinum4 ,the vincapervinca or chamdaphne--a plant which is an ever-green #ccg #dj4 ,the duration of life in the various kinds of flowers #cci #da4 ,plants which should be sown among flowers for bees4 ,the cerintha ib4 #db4 ,the maladies of bees1 and the remedies for them #cdj #dc4 ,the food of bees ib4 #dd4 ,poisoned honey1 and the remedies to be employed by those who have eaten it #cda #de4 ,maddening honey #cdb #df4 ,honey that flies will not touch #cdc #dg4 ,beehives1 and the attention which should be paid to them #cdd #dh4 ,that bees are sensible of hunger #cde #di4 ,the method of preparing wax4 ,the best kinds of wax4 ,punic wax ib4 #ej4 ,plants which grow spontaneously3 the use made of them by various nations1 their nature1 and remarkable facts connected with them4 ,the strawberry1 the tamnus1 and the butcher's broom4 ,the batis1 two varieties of it4 ,the meadow parsnip4 ,the hop #cdg #ea4 ,the colocasia ib4 #eb4 ,the cichorium4 ,the anthalium or anticellium1 or anthyllum4 ,the tum4 ,the arachidna4 ,the aracos4 ,the candryala4 ,the hypochris4 ,the caucalis4 ,the anthriscum4 ,the scandix4 ,the tragopogon4 ,the parthenium or leucanthes1 amaracus1 perdicium1 or muralis4 ,the trychnum or strychnum1 halicacabum1 callias1 dorycnion1 manicon1 peritton1 neuras1 morio1 or moly4 ,the corchorus4 ,the aphace4 ,the acynopos4 ,the epipetron4 ,plants which never flower4 ,plants which are always in flower #cdh #ec4 ,four varieties of the cnecos #cej #ed4 ,plants of a prickly nature3 the erynge1 the glycyrrhiza1 the tribulus1 the anonis1 the pheos or stbe1 and the hippophaes ib4 #ee4 ,four varieties of the nettle4 ,the lamium and the scorpio #cea #ef4 ,the carduus1 the acorna1 the phonos1 the leucanthos1 the chalceos1 the cnecos1 the polyacanthos1 the onopyxos1 the helxine1 the scolymos1 the chamleon1 the tetralix1 and acanthice mastiche #cec #eg4 ,the cactos3 the pternix1 pappos1 and ascalias #ced #eh4 ,the tribulus3 the anonis #cee #ei4 ,plants classified according to their stems3 the coronopus1 the anchusa1 the anthemis1 the phyllanthes1 the crepis1 and the lotus ib4 #fj4 ,plants classified according to their leaves4 ,plants which never lose their leaves3 plants which blossom a little at a time3 the heliotropium and the adiantum1 the remedies derived from which will be mentioned in the following ,book #cef #fa4 ,the various kinds of eared plants3 the stanyops2 the alopecuros2 the stelephurus1 ortyx1 or plantago2 the thryallis #ceg #fb4 ,the perdicium4 ,the ornithogale ib4 #fc4 ,plants which only make their appearance at the end of a year4 ,plants which begin to blossom at the top4 ,plants which begin to blossom at the lower part #ceh #fd4 ,the lappa1 a plant which produces within itself4 ,the opuntia1 which throws out a root from the leaf ib4 #fe4 ,the iasione4 ,the chondrylla4 ,the picris1 which remains in flower the whole year through ib4 #ff4 ,plants in which the blossom makes its appearance before the stem4 ,plants in which the stem appears before the blossom4 ,plants which blossom three times in the year #cei #fg4 ,the cypiros4 ,the thesion ib4 #fh4 ,the asphodel1 or royal spear4 ,the anthericus or albucus ib4 #fi4 ,six varieties of the rush3 four remedies derived from the cypiros #cfa #gj4 ,the cyperos3 fourteen remedies4 ,the cyperis4 ,the cypira #cfc #ga4 ,the holoschnus #cfd #gb4 ,ten remedies derived from the sweet-scented rush1 or teuchites ib4 #gc4 ,remedies derived from the flowers before mentioned3 thirty-two remedies derived from the rose ib4 #gd4 ,twenty-one remedies derived from the lily #cff #ge4 ,sixteen remedies derived from the narcissus #cfg #gf4 ,seventeen remedies derived from the violet #cfh #gg4 ,seventeen remedies derived from the bacchar4 ,one remedy derived from the combretum ib4 #gh4 ,eight remedies derived from asarum #cfi #gi4 ,eight remedies derived from gallic nard ib4 #hj4 ,four remedies derived from the plant called 8phu0 #cgj #ha4 ,twenty remedies derived from saffron ib4 #hb4 ,syrian crocomagna3 two remedies ib4 #hc4 ,forty-one remedies derived from the iris3 two remedies derived from the saliunca #cga #hd4 ,eighteen remedies derived from the polium #cgb #he4 ,three remedies derived from the holochrysos4 ,six remedies derived from the chrysocome #cgc #hf4 ,twenty-one remedies derived from the melissophyllum ib4 #hg4 ,thirteen remedies derived from the melilote #cgd #hh4 ,four remedies derived from the trefoil ib4 #hi4 ,twenty-eight remedies derived from thyme #cge #ij4 ,four remedies derived from the hemerocalles #cgf #ia4 ,five remedies derived from the helenium ib4 #ib4 ,twenty-two remedies derived from the abrotonum #cgg #ic4 ,one remedy derived from the leucanthemum4 ,nine remedies derived from the amaracus #cgh #id4 ,ten remedies derived from the anemone or phrenion #cgi #ie4 ,six remedies derived from the nanthe #chj #if4 ,eleven remedies derived from the helichrysos ib4 #ig4 ,eight remedies derived from the hyacinth #cha #ih4 ,seven remedies derived from the lychnis ib4 #ii4 ,four remedies derived from the vincapervinca #chb #ajj4 ,three remedies derived from butcher's broom ib4 #aja4 ,two remedies derived from the batis ib4 #ajb4 ,two remedies derived from the colocasia ib4 #ajc4 ,six remedies derived from the anthyllium or anthyllum #chc #ajd4 ,eight remedies derived from the parthenium1 leucanthes1 or amaracus ib4 #aje4 ,eight remedies derived from the trychnum or strychnum1 halicacabum1 callias1 dorycnion1 manicon1 neuras1 morio1 or moly #chd #ajf4 ,six remedies derived from the corchorus #chf #ajg4 ,three remedies derived from the cnecos ib4 #ajh4 ,one remedy derived from the pesoluta ib4 #aji4 ,an explanation of ,greek terms relative to weights and measures ib4 ,,book ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,properties ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,fruits4 #a4 ,the properties of plants #chi #b4 ,plants used by nations for the adornment of the person ib4 #c4 ,employment of plants for dyeing4 ,explanation of the terms sagmen1 verbena1 and clarigatio #cij #d4 ,the grass crown3 how rarely it has been awarded #cib #e4 ,the only persons that have been presented with this crown #cic #f4 ,the only centurion that has been thus honoured #cid #g4 ,remedies derived from other chaplet plants #cie #h4 ,the erynge or eryngium #cif #i4 ,the eryngium1 called centum capita3 thirty remedies #cig #aj4 ,the acanos3 one remedy #cih #aa4 ,the glycyrrhiza or adipsos3 fifteen remedies #cii #ab4 ,two varieties of the tribulus3 twelve remedies #djj #ac4 ,the stbe or pheos #dja #ad4 ,two varieties of the hippophaes3 two remedies ib4 #ae4 ,the nettle3 sixty-one remedies #djb #af4 ,the lamium3 seven remedies #djd #ag4 ,the scorpio1 two kinds of it3 one remedy #dje #ah4 ,the leucacantha1 phyllos1 ischias1 or polygonatos3 four remedies ib4 #ai4 ,the helxine3 twelve remedies #djf #bj4 ,the perdicium1 parthenium1 urceolaris1 or astercum3 eleven remedies #djg #ba4 ,the chamleon1 ixias1 ulophonon1 or cynozolon2 two varieties of it3 twelve remedies ib4 #bb4 ,the coronopus #dji #bc4 ,the anchusa3 fourteen remedies ib4 #bd4 ,the pseudoanchusa1 echis1 or doris3 three remedies #daj #be4 ,the onochilon1 archebion1 onochelis1 rhexia1 or enchrysa3 thirty remedies ib4 #bf4 ,the anthemis1 leucanthemis1 leucanthemum1 chammelum1 or melanthium2 three varieties of it3 eleven remedies #daa #bg4 ,the lotus plant3 four remedies #dab #bh4 ,the lotometra3 two remedies ib4 #bi4 ,the heliotropium1 helioscopium1 or verrucaria3 twelve remedies4 ,the heliotropium1 tricoccum1 or scorpiuron3 fourteen remedies #dac #cj4 ,the adiantum1 callitrichos1 trichomanes1 polytrichos1 or saxifragum2 two varieties of it3 twenty-eight remedies #dae #ca4 ,the picris3 one remedy4 ,the thesion3 one remedy #dag #cb4 ,the asphodel3 fifty-one remedies ib4 #cc4 ,the halimon3 fourteen remedies #dai #cd4 ,the acanthus1 pderos1 or melamphyllos3 five remedies #dba #ce4 ,the bupleuron3 five remedies ib4 #cf4 ,the buprestis3 one remedy #dbb #cg4 ,the elaphoboscon3 nine remedies ib4 #ch4 ,the scandix3 nine remedies4 ,the anthriscum3 two remedies #dbc #ci4 ,the iasione3 four remedies ib4 #dj4 ,the caucalis3 twelve remedies #dbd #da4 ,the sium3 eleven remedies ib4 #db4 ,the sillybum #dbe #dc4 ,the scolymos or limonia3 five remedies ib4 #dd4 ,the sonchos3 two varieties3 fifteen remedies #dbf #de4 ,the condrion or chondrylla3 six remedies #dbg #df4 ,mushrooms2 peculiarities of their growth #dbh #dg4 ,fungi2 signs by which the venomous kinds may be recognized3 nine remedies #dbi #dh4 ,silphium3 seven remedies #dca #di4 ,laser3 thirty-nine remedies #dcb #ej4 ,propolis3 five remedies #dcd #ea4 ,the various influences of different aliments upon the disposition #dce #eb4 ,hydromel3 eighteen remedies #dcf #ec4 ,honied wine3 six remedies #dcg #ed4 ,melitites3 three remedies #dch #ee4 ,wax3 eight remedies ib4 #ef4 ,remarks in disparagement of medicinal compositions #dci #eg4 ,remedies derived from grain4 ,siligo3 one remedy4 ,wheat3 one remedy4 ,chaff3 two remedies4 ,spelt3 one remedy4 ,bran3 one remedy4 ,olyra or arinca3 two remedies #ddj #eh4 ,the various kinds of meal3 twenty-eight remedies #dda #ei4 ,polenta3 eight remedies #ddb #fj4 ,fine flour3 five remedies4 ,puls3 one remedy4 ,meal used for pasting papyrus1 one remedy ib4 #fa4 ,alica3 six remedies #ddc #fb4 ,millet3 six remedies #ddd #fc4 ,panic3 four remedies ib4 #fd4 ,sesame3 seven remedies4 ,sesamoides3 three remedies4 ,anticyricum3 three remedies ib4 #fe4 ,barley3 nine remedies4 ,mouse-barley1 by the ,greeks called phnice3 one remedy #dde #ff4 ,ptisan3 four remedies #ddf #fg4 ,amylum3 eight remedies4 ,oats3 one remedy ib4 #fh4 ,bread3 twenty-one remedies #ddg #fi4 ,beans3 sixteen remedies ib4 #gj4 ,lentils3 seventeen remedies #ddh #ga4 ,the elelisphacos1 sphacos1 or salvia3 thirteen remedies #ddi #gb4 ,the chickpea and the chicheling vetch3 twenty-three remedies #dej #gc4 ,the fitch3 twenty remedies #dea #gd4 ,lupines3 thirty-five remedies #deb #ge4 ,irio or erysimum1 by the ,gauls called vela3 fifteen remedies #dec #gf4 ,horminum3 six remedies #ded #gg4 ,darnel3 five remedies ib4 #gh4 ,the plant miliaria3 one remedy #dee #gi4 ,bromos3 one remedy ib4 #hj4 ,orobanche or cynomorion3 one remedy ib4 #ha4 ,remedies for injuries inflicted by insects which breed among leguminous plants ib4 #hb4 ,the use made of the yeast of zythum #def ,,book ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,cultivated ,,trees4 #a4 ,introduction #deg #b4 ,the vine ib4 #c4 ,the leaves and shoots of the vine3 seven remedies #deh #d4 ,omphacium extracted from the vine3 fourteen remedies #dei #e4 nanthe3 twenty-one remedies #dfj #f4 ,grapes1 fresh gathered #dfa #g4 ,various kinds of preserved grapes3 eleven remedies ib4 #h4 ,cuttings of the vine3 one remedy #dfb #i4 ,grape-stones3 six remedies ib4 #aj4 ,grape-husks3 eight remedies #dfc #aa4 ,the grapes of the theriaca3 four remedies ib4 #ab4 ,raisins1 or astaphis3 fourteen remedies ib4 #ac4 ,the astaphis agria1 otherwise called staphis or taminia3 twelve remedies #dfd #ad4 ,the labrusca1 or wild vine3 twelve remedies #dfe #ae4 ,the salicastrum3 twelve remedies ib4 #af4 ,the white vine1 otherwise called ampeloleuce1 staphyle1 melothron1 psilotrum1 archezostis1 cedrostis1 or madon3 thirty-one remedies #dff #ag4 ,the black vine1 otherwise called bryonia1 chironia1 gyncanthe1 or apronia3 thirty-five remedies #dfh #ah4 ,must3 fifteen remedies ib4 #ai4 ,particulars relative to wine #dfi #bj4 ,the ,surrentine wines3 three remedies4 ,the ,alban wines3 two remedies4 ,the ,falernian wines3 six remedies #dgj #ba4 ,the ,setine wines2 one observation upon them4 ,the ,statan wines2 one observation upon them4 ,the ,signian wines3 one remedy #dga #bb4 ,other wines3 sixty-four remedies ib4 #bc4 ,sixty-one observations relative to wine #dgc #bd4 ,in what maladies wine should be administered2 how it should be administered1 and at what times #dgd #be4 ,ninety-one observations with reference to wine #dgg #bf4 ,artificial wines ib4 #bg4 ,vinegar3 twenty-eight remedies #dgh #bh4 ,squill vinegar3 seventeen remedies #dhj #bi4 ,oxymeli3 seven remedies #dha #cj4 ,sapa3 seven remedies ib4 #ca4 ,lees of wine3 twelve remedies #dhb #cb4 ,lees of vinegar3 seventeen remedies #dhc #cc4 ,lees of sapa3 four remedies #dhd #cd4 ,the leaves of the olive-tree3 twenty-three remedies ib4 #ce4 ,the blossom of the olive3 four remedies ib4 #cf4 ,white olives3 four remedies4 ,black olives3 three remedies #dhe #cg4 ,amurca of olives3 twenty-one remedies #dhf #ch4 ,the leaves of the wild olive3 sixteen remedies #dhg #ci4 ,omphacium3 three remedies #dhh #dj4 ,oil of nanthe3 twenty-eight remedies ib4 #da4 ,castor oil3 sixteen remedies #dhi #db4 ,oil of almonds3 sixteen remedies #dij #dc4 ,oil of laurel3 nine remedies ib4 #dd4 ,oil of myrtle3 twenty remedies ib4 #de4 ,oil of chammyrsine1 or oxymyrsine2 oil of cypros2 oil of citrus2 oil of walnuts2 oil of cnidium2 oil of mastich2 oil of balanus2 various remedies #dia #df4 ,the cyprus1 and the oil extracted from it2 sixteen remedies4 ,gleucinum3 one remedy #dib #dg4 ,oil of balsamum3 fifteen remedies ib4 #dh4 ,malobathrum3 five remedies #dic #di4 ,oil of henbane3 two remedies4 ,oil of lupines3 one remedy4 ,oil of narcissus3 one remedy4 ,oil of radishes3 five remedies4 ,oil of sesame3 three remedies4 ,oil of lilies3 three remedies4 ,oil of ,selga3 one remedy4 ,oil of ,iguvium3 one remedy ib4 #ej4 ,elomeli3 two remedies4 ,oil of pitch3 two remedies #did #ea4 ,the palm3 nine remedies ib4 #eb4 ,the palm which produces the myrobalanum3 three remedies #die #ec4 ,the palm called elate3 sixteen remedies ib4 #ed4 ,remedies derived from the blossoms1 leaves1 fruit1 branches1 bark1 juices1 roots1 wood1 and ashes of various kinds of trees4 ,six observations upon apples4 ,twenty-two observations upon quinces4 ,one observation upon struthea #dif #ee4 ,the sweet apples called melimela3 six observations upon them4 ,sour apples3 four observations upon them #dig #ef4 ,citrons3 five observations upon them #dih #eg4 ,punic apples1 or pomegranates3 twenty-six remedies ib4 #eh4 ,the composition called stomatice3 fourteen remedies #dii #ei4 ,cytinus3 eight remedies #ejj #fj4 ,balaustium3 twelve remedies ib4 #fa4 ,the wild pomegranate #eja #fb4 ,pears3 twelve observations upon them #ejb #fc4 ,figs3 one hundred and eleven observations upon them ib4 #fd4 ,the wild fig3 forty-two observations upon it #eje #fe4 ,the herb crineon3 three remedies #ejg #ff4 ,plums3 four observations upon them ib4 #fg4 ,peaches3 two remedies #ejh #fh4 ,wild plums2 two remedies ib4 #fi4 ,the lichen on plum-trees2 two remedies ib4 #gj4 ,mulberries2 thirty-nine remedies ib4 #ga4 ,the medicament called stomatice1 arteriace1 or panchrestos2 four remedies #eji #gb4 ,cherries3 five observations upon them #eaa #gc4 ,medlars3 two remedies4 ,sorbs3 two remedies #eab #gd4 ,pine-nuts3 thirteen remedies ib4 #ge4 ,almonds3 twenty-nine remedies ib4 #gf4 ,greek nuts3 one remedy #eac #gg4 ,walnuts3 twenty-four remedies4 ,the ,mithridatic antidote #ead #gh4 ,hazel-nuts3 three observations upon them4 ,pistachio-nuts3 eight observations upon them4 ,chesnuts3 five observations upon them #eae #gi4 ,carobs3 five observations upon them4 ,the cornel3 one remedy4 ,the fruit of the arbutus #eaf #hj4 ,the laurel3 sixty-nine observations upon it ib4 #ha4 ,myrtle3 sixty observations upon it #eai #hb4 ,myrtidanum3 thirteen remedies #eba #hc4 ,the wild myrtle1 otherwise called oxymyrsine1 or chammyrsine1 and the ruscus3 six remedies ib4 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,pliny4 ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,grain4 ,,chap4 #a4 7#a47--,,taste ,,of ,,the ,,ancients ,,for ,,agriculture4 ,we now pass on to the ,natural ,history of the various grains1 of the garden plants and flowers1 and indeed of all the other productions1 with the exception of the trees and shrubs1 which the ,earth1 in her bounteousness1 affords us--a boundless field for contemplation1 if even we regard the herbs alone1 when we take into consideration the varieties of them1 their numbers1 the flowers they produce1 their odours1 their colours1 their juices1 and the numerous properties they possess--all of which have been engendered by her with a view to either the preservation or the gratification of the human race4 ,on entering1 however1 upon this branch of my subject1 it is my wish in the first place to plead the cause of the ,earth1 and to act as the advocate of her who is the common parent of all1 although in the earlier#a part of this work ,i have already had occasion to speak in her defence4 ,for my subject matter1 as ,i proceed in the fulfilment of my task1 will now lead me to consider her in the light of being the producer of various noxious substances as well2 in consequence of which it is that we are in the habit of charging her with our crimes1 and imputing to her a guilt that is our own4 ,she has produced poisons1 it is true2 but who is it but man that has found them out8 ,for the birds of the air and the beasts of the field1 it is sufficient to be on their guard against them1 and to keep at a distance from them4 ,the elephant1 we find1 and the urus1 know how to sharpen#b and renovate their teeth against the trunks of trees1 and the rhinoceros against rocks2 wild boars1 again1 point their tusks like so many poniards by the aid of both rocks and trees2 and all animals1 in fact1 are aware how to prepare themselves for the infliction of injury upon others2 but still1 which is there among them all1 with the exception of man1 that dips his weapons in poison8 ,as for ourselves1 we envenom the point of the arrow1#c and we contrive to add to the destructive powers of iron itself2 by the aid of poisons we taint the waters of the stream1 and we infect the various elements of ,nature2 indeed1 the very air even1 which is the main support of life1 we turn into a medium for the destruction of life4 ,and it is not that we are to suppose that animals are ignorant of these means of defence1 for we have already had occasion to point out#d the preparations which they make against the attacks of the serpent1 and the methods they devise for effecting a cure when wounded by it2 and yet1 among them all1 there is not one that fights by the aid of the poison that belongs to another1 with the sole exception of man4 ,let us then candidly confess our guilt1 we who are not contented even with the poisons as ,nature has produced them2 for by far the greater portion of them1 in fact1 are artificially prepared by the human hand6 ,and then besides1 is it not the fact1 that there are many men1 the very existence of whom is a baneful poison1 as it were8 ,like that of the serpent1 they dart their livid tongue1 and the venom of their disposition corrodes every object upon which it concentrates itself4 ,ever vilifying and maligning1 like the ill-omened birds of the night1 they disturb the repose of that darkness which is so peculiarly their own1 and break in upon the quiet of the night even1 by their moans and wailings1 the only sounds they are ever heard to emit4 ,like animals of inauspicious presage1 they only cross our path to prevent us from employing our energies or becoming useful to our fellow-men2 and the only enjoyment that is sought by their abominable aspirations is centred in their universal hatred of mankind4 ,still1 however1 even in this respect ,nature has asserted her majestic sway2 for how much more numerous#e are the good and estimable characters which she has produced6 just in the same proportion that we find her giving birth to productions which are at once both salutary and nutritious to man4 ,it is in our high esteem for men such as these1 and the commendations they bestow1 that we shall be content to leave the others1 like so many brakes and brambles1 to the devouring flames of their own bad passions1 and to persist in promoting the welfare of the human race2 and this1 with all the more energy and perseverance1 from the circumstance that it has been our object throughout1 rather to produce a work of lasting utility than to ensure ourselves a widely-spread renown4 ,we have only to speak1 it is true1 of the fields and of rustic operations2 but still1 it is upon these that the enjoyment of life so materially depends1 and that the ancients conferred the very highest rank in their honours and commendations4 ,,chap4 #b4 7#b47--,,when ,,the ,,first ,,wreaths ,,of ,,corn ,,were ,,used ,,at ,,rome4 ,romulus was the first who established the ,arval#f priesthood at ,rome4 ,this order consisted of the eleven sons of ,acca ,larentia1 his nurse1#g together with ,romulus himself1 who assumed the appellation of the twelfth of the brotherhood4 ,upon this priesthood he bestowed1 as being the most august distinction that he could confer upon it1 a wreath of ears of corn1 tied together with a white fillet2 and this1 in fact1 was the first chaplet that was ever used at ,rome4 ,this dignity is only ended with life itself1 and whether in exile or in captivity1 it always attends its owner4 ,in those early days1 two jugera of land were considered enough for a citizen of ,rome1 and to none was a larger portion than this allotted4 ,and yet1 at the present day1 men who but lately were the slaves of the ,emperor ,nero have been hardly content with pleasure-gardens that occupied the same space as this2 while they must have fishponds1 forsooth1 of still greater extent1 and in some instances ,i might add1 perhaps1 kitchens even as well4 ,numa first established the custom of offering corn to the gods1 and of propitiating them with the salted#h cake2 he was the first1 too1 as we learn from ,hemina1 to parch spelt1 from the fact that1 when in this state1 it is more wholesome as an aliment4#i ,this method1 however1 he could only establish one way3 by making an enactment1 to the effect that spelt is not in a pure state for offering1 except when parched4 ,he it was1 too1 who instituted the ,fornacalia1#aj festivals appropriated for the parching of corn1 and others1#aa observed with equal solemnity1 for the erection and preservation of the 8termini10 or boundaries of the fields3 for these termini1 in those days1 they particularly regarded as gods2 while to other divinities they gave the names of ,seia1#ab from 8sero10 8to sow10 and of ,segesta1 from the 8segetes10 or 8crops of standing corn10 the statues of which goddesses we still see erected in the ,circus4 ,a third divinity it is forbidden by the rules of our religion to name even#ac beneath a roof4 ,in former days1 too1 they would not so much as taste the corn when newly cut1 nor yet wine when just made1 before the priests had made a libation of the first-fruits4 ,,chap4 #c4 7#c47--,,the ,,jugerum ,,of ,,land4 ,that portion of land used to be known as a 8jugerum10 which was capable of being ploughed by a single 8jugum10 or yoke of oxen1 in one day2 an 8actus0#ad being as much as the oxen could plough at a single spell1 fairly estimated1 without stopping4 ,this last was one hundred and twenty feet in length2 and two in length made a jugerum4 ,the most considerable recompense that could be bestowed upon generals and valiant citizens1 was the utmost extent of land around which a person could trace a furrow with the plough in a single day4 ,the whole population1 too1 used to contribute a quarter#ae of a sextarius of spelt1 or else half a one1 per head4 ,from agriculture the earliest surnames were derived4 ,thus1 for instance1 the name of ,pilumnus was given to him who invented the 8pilum10 or pestle of the bake-house1 for pounding corn2 that of ,piso was derived from 8piso10 to grind corn2 and those of ,fabius1 ,lentulus1 and ,cicero1 from the several varieties#af of leguminous plants in the cultivation of which respectively these individuals excelled4 ,one individual of the family of the ,junii received the name of 8,bubulcus10#ag from the skill he displayed in breeding oxen4 ,among the sacred ceremonials1 too1 there was nothing that was held more holy than the marriage by confarreation1#ah and the woman just married used to present a cake made of spelt4#ai ,careless cultivation of the land was in those times an offence that came under the cognizance of the censors2 and1 as we learn from ,cato1#bj when it was said that such and such a man was a good agriculturist or a good husbandman1 it was looked upon as the very highest compliment that could be paid him4 ,a man came to be called 8locuples10 or 8rich10 from being 8loci plenus10 or 8full of earth40 ,money1 too1 received its name of 8pecunia10#ba from 8pecus10 8cattle40 ,at the present day1 even1 in the registers of the censors1 we find set down under the head of 8pascua10 or 8pasture lands10 everything from which the public revenues are derived1 from the fact that for a long period of time pasture lands were the only sources of the public revenue4 ,fines1 too1 were only imposed in the shape of paying so many sheep or so many oxen2 and the benevolent spirit of the ancient laws deserves remark1 which most considerately enjoined that the magistrate1 when he indicted a penalty1 should never impose a fine of an ox before having first condemned the same party to the payment of a sheep4 ,those who celebrated the public games in honour of the ox received the name of ,bubetii4#bb ,king ,servius was the first who impressed upon our copper coin#bc the figures of sheep and oxen4 ,to depasture cattle secretly by night upon the unripe crops on plough lands1 or to cut them in that state1 was made by the ,twelve ,tables#bd a capital offence in the case of an adult2 and it was enacted that the person guilty of it should be hanged1 in order to make due reparation to the goddess ,ceres1 a punishment more severe1 even1 than that inflicted for murder4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the offender was not an adult1 he was beaten at the discretion of the prtor2 a penalty double the amount of the damage was also exacted4 ,the various ranks1 too1 and distinctions in the state had no other origin than the pursuits of agriculture4 ,the rural tribes held the foremost rank1 and were composed of those who possessed lands2 while those of the city1 a place to which it was looked upon as ignominious to be transferred1 had the discredit thrown upon them of being an indolent race4 ,hence it was that these last were only four in number1 and received their names from the several parts of the ,city which they respectively inhabited2 being the ,suburran1 the ,palatine1 ,colline1 and ,exquiline tribes4 ,every ninth day#be the rural tribes used to visit the city for the purpose of marketing1 and it was for this reason that it was made illegal to hold the comitia upon the ,nundin2 the object being that the country people might not be called away thereby from the transaction of their business4 ,in those days repose and sleep were enjoyed upon straw4 ,even to glory itself1 in compliment to corn1 the name was given of 8adorea40#bf ,for my own part1 ,i greatly admire#bg the modes of expression employed in our ancient language3 thus1 for instance1 we read in the ,commentaries of the ,priesthood to the following effect3--8,for deriving an augury from the sacrifice of a bitch1#bh a day should be set apart before the ear of corn appears from out of the sheath1#bi and then again before it enters the sheath40 ,,chap4 #d4--;,,how ,,often ,,and ,,on ,,what ,,occasions ,,corn ,,has ,,sold ,,at ,a ,,remarkably ,,low ,,price4 ,the consequence was1 that when the ,roman manners were such as these1 the corn that ,italy produced was sufficient for its wants1 and it had to be indebted to no province for its food2 and not only this1 but the price of provisions was incredibly cheap4 ,manius ,marcius1 the dile#cj of the people1 was the first who gave corn to the people at the price of one as for the modius4 ,l4 ,minutius ,augurinus1#ca the same who detected1 when eleventh tribune of the people1 the projects of ,spurius ,mlius1 reduced the price of corn on three market days1#cb to one as per modius2 for which reason a statue was erected in honour of him1 by public subscription1 without the ,trigeminian ,gate4#cc ,t4 ,seius distributed corn to the people1 in his dileship1#cd at one as per modius1 in remembrance of which statues were erected in honour of him also in the ,capitol and the ,palatium3 on the day of his funeral he was borne to the pile on the shoulders of the ,roman people4 ,in the year1#ce too1 in which the ,mother of the ,gods was brought to ,rome1 the harvest of that summer1 it is said1 was more abundant than it had been for ten years before4 ,m4 ,varro informs us1 that in the year#cf in which ,l4 ,metellus exhibited so many elephants in his triumphal procession1 a modius of spelt was sold for one as1 which was the standard price also of a congius of wine1 thirty pounds' weight of dried figs1 ten pounds of olive oil1 and twelve pounds of flesh meat4 ,nor did this cheapness originate in the wide-spread domains of individuals encroaching continually upon their neighbours1 for by a law proposed by ,licinius ,stolo1 the landed property of each individual was limited to five hundred jugera2 and he himself was convicted under his own law of being the owner of more than that amount1 having as a disguise prevailed upon his son to lend him his name4 ,such were the prices of commodities at a time when the fortunes of the republic were rapidly on the increase4 ,the words1 too1 that were uttered by ,manius ,curius#cg after his triumphs and the addition of an immense extent of territory to the ,roman sway1 are well known3 8,the man must be looked upon10 said he1 8as a dangerous citizen1 for whom seven jugera of land are not enough20 such being the amount of land that had been allotted to the people after the expulsion of the kings4 ,what1 then1 was the cause of a fertility so remarkable as this8 ,the fact1 we have every reason to believe1 that in those days the lands were tilled by the hands of generals even1 the soil exulting beneath a plough-share crowned with wreaths of laurel1 and guided by a husbandman graced with triumphs3 whether it is that they tended the seed with the same care that they had displayed in the conduct of wars1 and manifested the same diligent attention in the management of their fields that they had done in the arrangement of the camp1 or whether it is that under the hands of honest men everything prospers all the better1 from being attended to with a scrupulous exactness4 ,the honours awarded to ,serranus#ch found him engaged in sowing his fields1 a circumstance to which he owes his surname4#ci ,cincinnatus was ploughing his four jugera of land upon the ,vaticanian ,hill--the same that are still known as the 8,quintian ,meadows10#dj when the messenger brought him the dictatorship--finding him1 the tradition says1 stripped to the work1 and his very face begrimed with dust4 8,put on your clothes10 said he1 8that ,i may deliver to you the mandates of the senate and people of ,rome40 ,in those days these messengers bore the name of 8viator10 or 8wayfarer10 from the circumstance that their usual employment was to fetch the senators and generals from their fields4 ,but at the present day these same lands are tilled by slaves whose legs are in chains1 by the hands of malefactors and men with a branded face6 ,and yet the ,earth is not deaf to our adjurations1 when we address her by the name of 8parent10 and say that she receives our homage#da in being tilled by hands such as these2 as though1 forsooth1 we ought not to believe that she is reluctant and indignant at being tended in such a manner as this6 ,indeed1 ought we to feel any surprise were the recompense she gives us when worked by chastised slaves1#db not the same that she used to bestow upon the labours of warriors8 ,,chap4 #e4--;,,illustrious ,,men ,,who ,,have ,,written ,,upon ,,agriculture4 ,hence it was that to give precepts upon agriculture became one of the principal occupations among men of the highest rank1 and that in foreign nations even4 ,for among those who have written on this subject we find the names of kings even1 ,hiero1 for instance1 ,attalus ,philometor1 and ,archelas1 as well as of generals1 ,xenophon1 for example1 and ,mago the ,carthaginian4 ,indeed1 to this last writer did the ,roman senate award such high honours1 that1 after the capture of ,carthage1 when it bestowed the libraries of that city upon the petty kings of ,africa1 it gave orders1 in his case only1 that his thirty-two ,books should be translated into the ,latin language1 and this1 although ,m4 ,cato had already compiled his ,book of ,precepts2 it took every care also to entrust the execution of this task to men who were well versed in the ,carthaginian tongue1 among whom was pre-eminent ,d4 ,silanus1 a member of one of the most illustrious families of ,rome4 ,i have already indicated1#dc at the commencement of this work1 the numerous learned authors and writers in verse1 together with other illustrious men1 whose authority it is my intention to follow2 but among the number ,i may here more particularly distinguish ,m4 ,varro1 who1 at the advanced age of eighty-eight years1 thought it his duty to publish a treatise upon this subject4 7#d47 ,among the ,romans the cultivation of the vine was introduced at a comparatively recent period1 and at first1 as indeed they were obliged to do1 they paid their sole attention to the culture of the fields4 ,the various methods of cultivating the land will now be our subject2 and they shall be treated of by us in no ordinary or superficial manner1 but in the same spirit in which we have hitherto written2 enquiry shall be made with every care first into the usages of ancient days1 and then into the discoveries of more recent times1 our attention being devoted alike to the primary causes of these operations1 and the reasons upon which they are respectively based4 ,we shall make mention1#dd too1 of the various constellations1 and of the several indications which1 beyond all doubt1 they afford to the earth2 and the more so1 from the fact that those writers who have hitherto treated of them with any degree of exactness1 seem to have written their works for the use of any class of men but the agriculturist4 ,,chap4 #f4--,,points ,,to ,,be ,,observed ,,in ,,buying ,,land4 ,first of all1 then1 ,i shall proceed in a great measure according to the dicta of the oracles of agriculture2 for there is no branch of practical life in which we find them more numerous or more unerring4 ,and why should we not view in the light of oracles those precepts which have been tested by the infallibility of time and the truthfulness of experience8 7#e47 ,to make a beginning1 then1 with ,cato#de--8,the agricultural population10 says he1 8produces the bravest men1 the most valiant soldiers1#df and a class of citizens the least given of all to evil designs4--,do not be too eager in buying a farm4--,in rural operations never be sparing of your trouble1 and1 above all1 when you are purchasing land4--,a bad bargain is always a ground for repentance4--,those who are about to purchase land1 should always have an eye more particularly to the water there1 the roads1 and the neighbourhood40 ,each of these points is susceptible of a very extended explanation1 and replete with undoubted truths4 ,cato#dg recommends1 too1 that an eye should be given to the people in the neighbourhood1 to see how they look3 8,for where the land is good10 says he1 8the people will look well-conditioned and healthy40 ,atilius ,regulus1 the same who was twice consul in the ,punic ,war1 used to say#dh that a person should neither buy an unhealthy piece of land in the most fertile locality1 nor yet the very healthiest spot if in a barren country4 ,the salubrity of land1 however1 is not always to be judged of from the looks of the inhabitants1 for those who are well-seasoned are able to withstand the effects of living in pestilent localities even4 ,and then1 besides1 there are some localities that are healthy during certain periods of the year only2 though1 in reality1 there is no soil that can be looked upon as really valuable that is not healthy all the year through4 8,that#di is sure to be bad land against which its owner has a continual struggle40 ,cato recommends us before everything1 to see that the land which we are about to purchase not only excels in the advantages of locality1 as already stated1 but is really good of itself4 ,we should see1 too1 he says1 that there is an abundance of manual labour in the neighbourhood1 as well as a thriving town2 that there are either rivers or roads1 to facilitate the carriage of the produce2 that the buildings upon the land are substantially erected1 and that the land itself bears every mark of having been carefully tilled--a point upon which ,i find that many persons are greatly mistaken1 as they are apt to imagine that the negligence of the previous owner is greatly to the purchaser's advantage2 while the fact is1 that there is nothing more expensive than the cultivation of a neglected soil4 ,for this reason it is that ,cato#ej says that it is best to buy land of a careful proprietor1 and that the methods adopted by others ought not to be hastily rejected--that it is the same with land as with mankind--however great the proceeds1 if at the same time it is lavish and extravagant1 there will be no great profits left4 ,cato looks upon a vineyard as the most#ea profitable investment2 and he is far from wrong in that opinion1 seeing that he takes such particular care to retrench all superfluous expenses4 ,in the second rank he places gardens that have a good supply of water1 and with good reason1 too1 supposing always that they are near a town4 ,the ancients gave to meadow lands the name of 8parata10 or lands 8always ready40#eb ,cato being asked1 on one occasion1 what was the most certain source of profit1 8,good pasture land10 was his answer2 upon which1 enquiry was made what was the next best4 8,pretty good#ec pasture lands10 said he--the amount of all which is1 that he looked upon that as the most certain source of income which stands in need of the smallest outlay4 ,this1 however1 will naturally vary in degree1 according to the nature of the respective localities2 and the same is the case with the maxim#ed to which he gives utterance1 that a good agriculturist must be fond of selling4 ,the same1 too1 with his remark1 that in his youth a landowner should begin to plant without delay1 but that he ought not to build until the land is fully brought into cultivation1 and then only a little at a time3 and that the best plan is1 as the common proverb has it1 8,to profit by the folly of others20#ee taking due care1 however1 that the keeping up of a farm-house does not entail too much expense4 ,still1 however1 those persons are guilty of no falsehood who are in the habit of saying that a proprietor who is well housed comes all the oftener to his fields1 and that 8the master's forehead is of more use than his back40#ef ,,chap4 #g4 7#f47--,,the ,,proper ,,arrangements ,,for ,a ,,farm-,,house4 ,the proper plan to be pursued is this3#eg the farm-house must not be unsuitable for the farm1 nor the farm for the house2 and we must be on our guard against following the examples of ,l4 ,lucullus and ,q4 ,scvola1 who1 though living in the same age1 fell into the two opposite extremes2 for whereas the farm-house of ,scvola was not large enough for the produce of his farm1 the farm of ,lucullus was not sufficiently large for the house he built upon it2 an error which gave occasion to the reproof of the censors1 that on his farm there was less of ground for ploughing than of floor for sweeping4 ,the proper arrangements for a farm-house are not to be made without a certain degree of skill4 ,c4 ,marius1 who was seven times consul1 was the last person who had one built at ,misenum2#eh but he erected it with such a degree of that artistic skill which he had displayed in castrametation1 that ,sylla ,felix#ei even made the remark1 that in comparison with ,marius1 all the others had been no better than blind4#fj ,it is generally agreed1 that a farm-house ought neither to be built near a marsh1 nor with a river in front of it2 for1 as ,homer#fa has remarked1 with the greatest correctness1 unwholesome vapours are always exhaled from rivers before the rising of the sun4 ,in hot localities1 a farm-house should have a northern aspect1 but where it is cold1 it should look towards the south2 where1 on the other hand1 the site is temperate1 the house should look due east4 ,although1 when speaking#fb of the best kinds of soil1 ,i may seem to have sufficiently discussed the characteristics by which it may be known1 ,i shall take the present opportunity of adding a few more indications1 employing the words of ,cato#fc more particularly for the purpose4 8,the dwarf-elder10 says he1 8the wild plum1#fd the bramble the small bulb1#fe trefoil1 meadow grass1#ff the quercus1 and the wild pear and wild apple1 are all of them indicative of a corn land4 ,the same is the case1 too1 where the land is black1 or of an ashy colour4 ,all chalky soils are scorching1 unless they are very thin2 the same1 too1 with sand1 unless it is remarkably fine4 ,these remarks1 however1 are more applicable to champaign localities than declivities40 ,the ancients were of opinion1 that before everything1 moderation should be observed in the extent of a farm2 for it was a favourite maxim of theirs1 that we ought to sow the less1 and plough the more3 such too1 ,i find1 was the opinion entertained by ,virgil1#fg and indeed1 if we must confess the truth1 it is the wide-spread domains that have been the ruin#fh of ,italy1 and soon will be that of the provinces as well4 ,six proprietors were in possession of one half of ,africa1#fi at the period when the ,emperor ,nero had them put to death4 ,with that greatness of mind which was so peculiarly his own1 and of which he ought not to lose the credit1 ,cneius ,pompeius would never purchase the lands that belonged to a neighbour4 ,mago has stated it as his opinion1 that a person1 on buying a farm1 ought at once to sell his town house2#gj an opinion1 however1 which savours of too great rigidity1 and is by no means conformable to the public good4 ,it is with these words1 indeed1 that he begins his precepts2 a good proof1 at all events1 that he looks upon the personal inspection of the owner as of primary importance4 ,the next point which requires our care is to employ a farm-steward#ga of experience1 and upon this1 too1 ,cato#gb has given many useful precepts4 ,still1 however1 it must suffice for me to say that the steward ought to be a man nearly as clever as his master1 though without appearing to know it4 ,it is the very worst plan of all1 to have land tilled by slaves let loose from the houses of correction1 as1 indeed1 is the case with all work entrusted to men who live without hope4 ,i may possibly appear guilty of some degree of rashness in making mention of a maxim of the ancients1 which will very probably be looked upon as quite incredible--8,that nothing is so disadvantageous as to cultivate land in the highest style of perfection40 ,l4 ,tarius ,rufus1 a man who1 born in the very lowest ranks of life1 by his military talents finally attained the consulship1#gc and who in other respects adhered to the old-fashioned notions of thriftiness1 made away with about one hundred millions of sesterces1 which1 by the liberality of the late ,emperor ,augustus1 he had contrived to amass1 in buying up lands in ,picenum1 and cultivating them in the highest style1 his object being to gain a name thereby2 the consequence of which was1 that his heir renounced#gd the inheritance4 ,are we of opinion1 then1 that ruin and starvation must be the necessary consequence of such a course as this8 ,yes1 by ,hercules6 and the very best plan of all is to let moderation guide our judgment in all things4 ,to cultivate land well is absolutely necessary1 but to cultivate it in the very highest style is mere extravagance1 unless1 indeed1 the work is done by the hands of a man's own family1 his tenants1 or those whom he is obliged to keep at any rate4 ,but besides this1 even when the owner tills the land itself1 there are some crops which it is really not worth the while to gather1 if we only take into account the manual labour expended upon them4 ,the olive1 too1 should never be too highly#ge cultivated1 nor must certain soils1 it is said1 be too carefully tilled1 those of ,sicily1#gf for instance2 hence it is1 that new comers there so often find themselves deceived4#gg ,,chap4 #h4--,,maxims ,,of ,,the ,,ancients ,,on ,,agriculture4 ,in what way1 then1 can land be most profitably cultivated8 ,why1 in the words of our agricultural oracles1 8by making good out of bad40 ,but here it is only right that we should say a word in justification of our forefathers1 who in their precepts on this subject had nothing else in view but the benefit of mankind3 for when they use the term 8bad0 here1 they only mean to say that which costs the smallest amount of money4 ,the principal object with them was in all cases to cut down expenses to the lowest possible sum2 and it was in this spirit that they made the enactments which pronounced it criminal for a person who had enjoyed a triumph1 to be in possession1 among his other furniture1 of ten pounds' weight of silver plate3 which permitted a man1 upon the death of his farm-steward1 to abandon all his victories1 and return to the cultivation of his lands--such being the men the culture of whose farms the state used to take upon itself2 and thus1 while they led our armies1 did the senate act as their steward4 ,it was in the same spirit1 too1 that those oracles of ours have given utterance to these other precepts1 to the effect that he is a bad agriculturist who has to buy what his farm might have supplied him with2 that the man is a bad manager who does in the day-time what he might have done in the night1 except1 indeed1 when the state of the weather does not allow it2 that he is a worse manager still1 who does on a work-day what he might have done on a feast-day2#gh but that he is the very worst of all1 who works under cover in fine weather1 instead of labouring in the fields4 ,i cannot refrain from taking the present opportunity of quoting one illustration afforded us by ancient times1 from which it will be found that it was the usage in those days to bring before the people even questions connected with the various methods employed in agriculture1 and will be seen in what way men were accustomed to speak out in their own defence4 ,c4 ,furius ,chresimus1 a freedman1 having found himself able1 from a very small piece of land1 to raise far more abundant harvests than his neighbours could from the largest farms1 became the object of very considerable jealousy among them1 and was accordingly accused of enticing away the crops of others by the practice of sorcery4 ,upon this1 a day was named by ,spurius ,calvinus1 the curule dile1 for his appearance4 ,apprehensive of being condemned1 when the question came to be put to the vote among the tribes1 he had all his implements of husbandry brought into the ,forum1 together with his farm servants1 robust1 well-conditioned1 and well-clad people1 ,piso says4 ,the iron tools were of first-rate quality1 the mattocks were stout and strong1 the plough-shares ponderous and substantial1 and the oxen sleek and in prime condition4 ,when all this had been done1 8,here1 ,roman citizens10 said he1 8are my implements of magic2 but it is impossible for me to exhibit to your view1 or to bring into this ,forum1 those midnight toils of mine1 those early watchings1 those sweats1 and those fatigues40 ,upon this1 by the unanimous voice of the people1 he was immediately acquitted4 ,agriculture1 in fact1 depends upon the expenditure of labour and exertion2 and hence it is that the ancients were in the habit of saying1 that it is the eye of the master that does more towards fertilizing a field than anything else4 ,we shall give the rest of these precepts in their appropriate places1 according as we find them adapted to each variety of cultivation2 but in the meantime we must not omit some of a general nature1 which here recur to our recollection1 and more particularly that maxim of ,cato1 as profitable as it is humane3 8,always act in such a way as to secure the love of your neighbours40 ,he then proceeds to state his reasons for giving this advice1 but it appears to me that no one surely can entertain the slightest doubt upon the subject4 ,one of the very first recommendations that he gives is to take every care that the farm servants are kept in good condition4#gi ,it is a maxim universally agreed upon in agriculture1 that nothing must be done too late2 and again1 that everything must be done at its proper season2 while there is a third precept1 which reminds us that opportunities lost can never be regained4 ,the malediction uttered by ,cato against rotten ground has been treated of at some length already2#hj but there is another precept which he is never tired of repeating1 8,whatever can be done by the help of the ass1 will cost the least money40 ,fern will be sure to die at the end of a couple of years1 if you prevent it from putting forth leaves2 the most efficient method of ensuring this is to beat the branches with a stick while they are in bud2 for then the juices that drop from it will kill the roots4#ha ,it is said1 too1 that fern will not spring up again if it is pulled up by the roots about the turn of the summer solstice1 or if the stalks are cut with the edge of a reed1 or if it is turned up with a plough-share with a reed placed#hb upon it4 ,in the same way1 too1 we are told that reeds may be effectually ploughed up1 if care is taken to place a stalk of fern upon the share4 ,a field infested with rushes should be turned up with the spade1 or1 if the locality is stony1 with a two-pronged mattock3 overgrown shrubs are best removed by fire4 ,where ground is too moist1 it is an advantageous plan to cut trenches in it and so drain it2 where the soil is cretaceous1 these trenches should he left open2 and where it is loose1 they should be strengthened with a hedge to prevent them from falling in4 ,when these drains are made on a declivity1 they should have a layer of gutter tiles at the bottom1 or else house tiles with the face upwards3 in some cases1 too1 they should be covered#hc with earth1 and made to run into others of a larger size and wider2 the bottom1 also1 should1 if possible1 have a coating of stones or of gravel4 ,the openings1 too1 should be strengthened with two stones placed on either side1 and another laid upon the top4 ,democritus has described a method of rooting up a forest1 by first macerating the flower of the lupine#hd for one day in the juice of hemlock1 and then watering the roots of the trees with it4 ,,chap4 #i4 7#g47--,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,grain4 ,as the field is now prepared1 we shall proceed to speak of the nature of the various kinds of grain2 we must premise1 however1 that there are two principal classes of grain1 the cereals1#he comprising wheat and barley1 and the legumina1 such as the bean and the chick-pea1 for instance4 ,the difference between these two classes is too well known to require any further description4 ,,chap4 #aj4--,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,grain4 ,the cereals are divided again into the same number of varieties1 according to the time of the year at which they are sown4 ,the winter grains are those which are put in the ground about the setting of the ,vergili1#hf and there receive their nutriment throughout the winter1 for instance1 wheat1#hg spelt1#hh and barley4#hi ,the summer grains are those which are sown in summer1 before the rising of the ,vergili1#ij such as millet1#ia panic1#ib sesame1#ic horminum1#id and irio1#ie in accordance1 however1 with the usage of ,italy only2 for in ,greece and ,asia all the grains are sown just after the setting of the ,vergili4 ,there are some1 again1 that are sown at either season in ,italy1 and others at a third period1 or1 in other words1 in the spring4 ,some authors give the name of spring-grain to millet1 panic1 lentils1#if chick-peas1#ig and alica1#ih while they call wheat1 barley1 beans1 turnips1 and rape1 sementive or early sowing seeds4 ,certain species of wheat are only sown to make fodder for cattle1 and are known by the name of 8farrago10#ii or mixed grain2 the same1 too1 with the leguminous plants1 the vetch1 for instance4 ,the lupine1#ajj however1 is grown in common as food for both cattle and men4 ,all the leguminous#aja plants1 with the exception of the bean1 have a single root1 hard and tough1 like wood1 and destitute of numerous ramifications2 the chick-pea has the deepest root of all4 ,corn has numerous fibrous roots1 but no ramifications4 ,barley makes its appearance#ajb above ground the seventh day after sowing2 the leguminous plants on the fourth1 or at the very latest1 the seventh2 the bean from the fifteenth day to the twentieth3 though in ,egypt the leguminous plants appear as early as the third day after they are sown4 ,in barley1 one extremity of the grain throws out the root1 and the other the blade2 this last flowers1 too1 before the other grain4 ,in the cereals in general it is the thicker end of the seed that throws out the root1 the thinner end the blossom2 while in the other seeds both root and blossom issue from the same part4 ,during the winter1 corn is in the blade2 but in the spring winter corn throws out a tall stem4 ,as for millet and panic1 they grow with a jointed and grooved#ajc stalk1 while sesame has a stem resembling that of fennel-giant4 ,the fruit of all these seeds is either contained in an ear1 as in wheat and barley1 for instance1 and protected from the attacks of birds and small animals by a prickly beard bristling like so many palisades2 or else it is enclosed in pods1 as in the leguminous plants1 or in capsules1 as in sesame and the poppy4 ,millet and panic can only be said to belong to the grower and the small birds in common1 as they have nothing but a thin membrane to cover them1 without the slightest protection4 ,panic receives that name from the panicule#ajd or down that is to be seen upon it2 the head of it droops languidly1 and the stalk tapers gradually in thickness1 being of almost the toughness and consistency of wood3 the head is loaded with grain closely packed1 there being a tuft upon the top1 nearly a foot in length4 ,in millet the husks which embrace the grain bend downward with a wavy tuft upon the edge4 ,there are several varieties of panic1 the mammose1 for instance1 the ears of which are in clusters with small edgings of down1 the head of the plant being double2 it is distinguished also according to the colour1 the white1 for instance1 the black1 the red1 and the purple even4 ,several kinds of bread are made from millet1 but very little from panic3 there is no grain known that weighs heavier than millet1 and which swells more in baking4 ,a modius of millet will yield sixty pounds' weight of bread2 and three sextarii steeped in water will make one modius of fermenty4#aje ,a kind of millet#ajf has been introduced from ,india into ,italy within the last ten years1 of a swarthy colour1 large grain1 and a stalk like that of the reed4 ,this stalk springs up to the height of seven feet1 and has tufts of a remarkable size1 known by the name of 8phob40#ajg ,this is the most prolific of all the cereals1 for from a single grain no less than three sextarii#ajh are produced3 it requires1 however1 to be sown in a humid soil4 ,some kinds of corn begin to form the ear at the third joint1 and others at the fourth1 though at its first formation the ear remains still concealed4 ,wheat1 however1 has four#aji articulations1 spelt#aaj six1 and barley eight4 ,in the case of these last1 the ear does not begin to form before the number of joints1 as above mentioned1 is complete4 ,within four or five days1 at the very latest1 after the ear has given signs of forming1 the plant begins to flower1 and in the course of as many days or a little more1 sheds its blossom3 barley blossoms at the end of seven days at the very latest4 ,varro says that the grains are perfectly formed at the end of four times#aaa nine days from their flowering1 and are ready for cutting at the ninth month4 ,the bean1 again1 first appears in leaf1 and then throws out a stalk1 which has no articulations#aab upon it4 ,the other leguminous plants have a tough1 ligneous stalk1 and some of them throw out branches1 the chick-pea1 the fitch1 and the lentil1 for instance4 ,in some of the leguminous plants1 the pea1 for example1 the stem creeps along the ground1 if care is not taken to support it by sticks3 if this precaution is omitted1 the quality is deteriorated4 ,the bean and the lupine are the only ones among the leguminous plants that have a single stem3 in all the others the stem throws out branches1 being of a ligneous nature1 very thin1 and in all cases hollow4 ,some of these plants throw out the leaves from the root1 others at the top4#aac ,wheat1 barley1 and the vetch1 all the plants1 in fact1 which produce straw1 have a single leaf only at the summit3 in barley1 however1 this leaf is rough1 while in the others it is smooth4 99 99 99 ,in the bean1 again1 the chick-pea1 and the pea1 the leaves are numerous and divided4 ,in corn the leaf is similar to that of the reed1 while in the bean it is round1 as also in a great proportion of the leguminous plants4 ,in the ervilia#aad and the pea the leaf is long1#aae in the kidney-bean veined1 and in sesame#aaf and irio the colour of blood4 ,the lupine and the poppy are the only ones among these plants that lose#aag their leaves4 ,the leguminous plants remain a longer time in flower1 the fitch and the chick-pea more particularly2 but the bean is in blossom the longest of them all1 for the flower remains on it forty days2 not1 indeed1 that each stalk retains its blossom for all that length of time1 but1 as the flower goes off in one1 it comes on in another4 ,in the bean1 too1 the crop is not ripe all at once1 as is the case with corn2 for the pods make their appearance at different times1 at the lowest parts first1 the blossom mounting upwards by degrees4 ,when the blossom is off in corn1 the stalk gradually thickens1 and it ripens within forty days at the most4 ,the same is the case1 too1 with the bean1 but the chick-pea takes a much shorter time to ripen2 indeed1 it is fit for gathering within forty days from the time that it is sown4 ,millet1 panic1 sesame1 and all the summer grains are ripe within forty days after blossoming1 with considerable variations1 of course1 in reference to soil and weather4 ,thus1 in ,egypt1 we find barley cut at the end of six months1 and wheat at the end of seven1 from the time of sowing4 ,in ,hellas1 again1 barley is cut in the seventh month1 and in ,peloponnesus in the eighth2 the wheat being got in at a still later period4 ,those grains which grow on a stalk of straw are enclosed in an envelope protected by a prickly beard2 while in the bean and the leguminous plants in general they are enclosed in pods upon branches which shoot alternately from either side4 ,the cereals are the best able to withstand the winter1 but the leguminous plants afford the most substantial food4 ,in wheat1 the grain has several coats1 but in barley1#aah more particularly1 it is naked and exposed2 the same1 too1 with arinca1#aai but most of all1 the oat4 ,the stem is taller in wheat than it is in barley1 but the ear is more bearded#abj in the last4 ,wheat1 barley1 and winter-wheat#aba are threshed out2 they are cleaned1 too1 for sowing just as they are prepared for the mill1 there being no necessity for parching#abb them4 ,spelt1 on the other hand1 millet1 and panic1 cannot be cleaned without parching them2 hence it is that they are always sown raw and with the chaff on4 ,spelt is preserved in the husk1 too1 for sowing1 and1 of course1 is not in such case parched by the action of fire4 ,,chap4 #aa4--,,spelt4 ,of all these grains barley is the lightest1#abc its weight rarely exceeding fifteen pounds to the modius1 while that of the bean is twenty-two4 ,spelt is much heavier than barley1 and wheat heavier than spelt4 ,in ,egypt they make a meal#abd of olyra1#abe a third variety of corn that grows there4 ,the ,gauls have also a kind of spelt peculiar to that country3 they give it the name of 8brace10#abf while to us it is known as 8sandala30 it has a grain of remarkable whiteness4 ,another difference1 again1 is the fact that it yields nearly four pounds more of bread to the modius than any other kind of spelt4 ,verrius states that for three hundred years the ,romans made use of no other meal than that of corn4 ,,chap4 #ab4--,,wheat4 ,there are numerous kinds of wheat which have received their names from the countries where they were first produced4 ,for my part1 however1 ,i can compare no kind of wheat to that of ,italy either for whiteness or weight1 qualities for which it is more particularly distinguished3 indeed it is only with the produce of the more mountainous parts of ,italy that the foreign wheats can be put in comparison4 ,among these the wheat of ,botia#abg occupies the first rank1 that of ,sicily the second1 and that of ,africa the third4 ,the wheats of ,thrace1 ,syria1 and1 more recently1 of ,egypt1 used to hold the third rank for weight1 these facts having been ascertained through the medium of the athletes2 whose powers of consumption1 equal to those of beasts of burden1 have established the gradations in weight1 as already stated4 ,greece1 too1 held the ,pontic#abh wheat in high esteem2 but this has not reached ,italy as yet4 ,of all the varieties of grain1 however1 the ,greeks gave the preference to the kinds called dracontion1 strangia1 and ,selinusium1 the chief characteristic of which is a stem of remarkable thickness3 it was this1 in the opinion of the ,greeks1 that marked them as the peculiar growth of a rich soil4 ,on the other hand1 they recommended for sowing in humid soils an extremely light and diminutive species of grain1 with a remarkably thin stalk1 known to them as speudias1 and standing in need of an abundance of nutriment4 ,such1 at all events1 were the opinions generally entertained in the reign of ,alexander the ,great1 at a time when ,greece was at the height of her glory1 and the most powerful country in the world4 ,still1 however1 nearly one hundred and forty-four years before the death of that prince we find the poet ,sophocles1 in his ,tragedy of 8,triptolemus10 praising the corn of ,italy before all others4 ,the passage1 translated word for word1 is to the following effect3-- 8,and favour'd ,italy grows white with hoary wheat40 ,and it is this whiteness that is still one of the peculiar merits of the ,italian wheat2 a circumstance which makes me the more surprised to find that none of the ,greek writers of a later period have made any reference to it4 ,of the various kinds of wheat which are imported at the present day into ,rome1 the lightest in weight are those which come from ,gaul and ,chersonnesus2 for1 upon weighing them1 it will be found that they do not yield more than twenty pounds to the modius4 ,the grain of ,sardinia weighs half a pound more1 and that of ,alexandria one-third of a pound more than that of ,sardinia2 the ,sicilian wheat is the same in weight as the ,alexandrian4 ,the ,botian wheat1 again1 weighs a whole pound more than these last1 and that of ,africa a pound and three quarters4 ,in ,italy beyond the ,padus1 the spelt1 to my knowledge1 weighs twenty-five pounds to the modius1 and1 in the vicinity of ,clusium1 six-and-twenty4 ,we find it a rule1 universally established by ,nature1 that in every kind of commissariat bread#abi that is made1 the bread exceeds the weight of the grain by one-third2 and in the same way it is generally considered that that is the best kind of wheat1 which1 in kneading1 will absorb one congius of water4#acj ,there are some kinds of wheat which give1 when used by themselves1 an additional weight equal to this3 the ,balearic wheat1 for instance1 which to a modius of grain yields thirty-five pounds weight of bread4 ,others1 again1 will only give this additional weight by being mixed with other kinds1 the ,cyprian wheat and the ,alexandrian1 for example2 which1 if used by themselves1 will yield no more than twenty pounds to the modius4 ,the wheat of ,cyprus is swarthy1 and produces a dark bread2 for which reason it is generally mixed with the white wheat of ,alexandria2 the mixture yielding twenty-five pounds of bread to the modius of grain4 ,the wheat of ,thebais1 in ,egypt1 when made into bread1 yields twenty-six pounds to the modius4 ,to knead the meal with sea-water1 as is mostly done in the maritime districts1 for the purpose of saving the salt1 is extremely pernicious2 there is nothing1 in fact1 that will more readily predispose the human body to disease4 ,in ,gaul and ,spain1 where they make a drink#aca by steeping corn in the way that has been already described--they employ the foam#acb which thickens upon the surface as a leaven3 hence it is that the bread in those countries is lighter than that made elsewhere4 ,there are some differences1 also1 in the stem of wheat2 for the better the kind the thicker it is4 ,in ,thrace1 the stem of the wheat is covered with several coats1#acc which are rendered absolutely necessary by the excessive cold of those regions4 ,it is the cold1 also1 that led to the discovery there of the three-month#acd wheat1 the ground being covered with snow most of the year4 ,at the end mostly of three months after it has been sown1 this wheat is ready for cutting1 both in ,thrace and in other parts of the world as well4 ,this variety is well known1 too1 throughout all the ,alpine range1 and in the northern provinces there is no kind of wheat that is more prolific2 it has a single stem only1 is by no means of large size in any part of it1 and is never sown but in a thin1 light soil4 ,there is a two-month#ace wheat also found in the vicinity of nos1 in ,thrace1 which ripens the fortieth day after sowing2 and yet it is a surprising fact1 that there is no kind of wheat that weighs heavier than this1 while at the same time it produces no bran4 ,both ,sicily and ,achaia grow it1 in the mountainous districts of those countries2 as also ,euba1 in the vicinity of ,carystus4 ,so greatly1 then1 is ,columella in error1#acf in supposing that there is no distinct variety of three-month wheat even2 the fact being that these varieties have been known from the very earliest times4 ,the ,greeks give to these wheats the name of 8setanion40 ,it is said that in ,bactria the grains of wheat are of such an enormous size1 that a single one is as large as our ears of corn4#acg ,,chap4 #ac4--;,,barley3 ,,rice4 ,of all the cereals the first that is sown is barley4 ,we shall state the appropriate time for sowing each kind when we come to treat of the nature of each individually4 ,in ,india1 there is both a cultivated and a wild#ach barley1 from which they make excellent bread1 as well as alica4#aci ,but the most favourite food of all there is rice1#adj from which they prepare a ptisan#ada similar to that made from barley in other parts of the world4 ,the leaves of rice are fleshy1#adb very like those of the leek1 but broader2 the stem is a cubit in height1 the blossom purple1 and the root globular1 like a pearl in shape4#adc ,,chap4 #ad4--,,polenta4 ,barley is one of the most ancient aliments of man1 a fact that is proved by a custom of the ,athenians1 mentioned by ,menander1#add as also by the name of 8hordearii10#ade that used to be given to gladiators4 ,the ,greeks1 too1 prefer barley to anything else for making polenta4#adf ,this food is made in various ways3 in ,greece1 the barley is first steeped in water1 and then left a night to dry4 ,the next day they parch it1 and then grind it in the mill4 ,some persons parch it more highly1 and then sprinkle it again with a little water2 after which they dry it for grinding4 ,others shake the grain from out of the ear while green1 and1 after cleaning and soaking it in water1 pound it in a mortar4 ,they then wash the paste in baskets1 and leave it to dry in the sun2 after which they pound it again1 clean it1 and grind it in the mill4 ,but whatever the mode of preparation adopted1 the proportions are always twenty pounds of barley to three pounds of linseed1#adg half a pound of coriander1 and fifteen drachm#adh of salt3 the ingredients are first parched1 and then ground in the mill4 ,those who want it for keeping1 store it in new earthen vessels1 with fine flour and bran4 ,in ,italy1 the barley is parched without being steeped in water1 and then ground to a fine meal1 with the addition of the ingredients already mentioned1 and some millet as well4 ,barley bread1 which was extensively used by the ancients1 has now fallen into universal disrepute1 and is mostly used as a food for cattle only4 ,,chap4 #ae4--,,ptisan4 ,with barley1 too1 the food called ptisan#adi is made1 a most substantial and salutary aliment1 and one that is held in very high esteem4 ,hippocrates1 one of the most famous writers on medical science1 has devoted a whole volume to the praises of this aliment4 ,the ptisan of the highest quality is that which is made at ,utica2 that of ,egypt is prepared from a kind of barley1 the grain of which grows with two points4#aej ,in ,btica and ,africa1 the kind of barley from which this food is made is that which ,turranius calls the 8smooth0#aea barley3 the same author expresses an opinion1 too1 that olyra#aeb and rice are the same4 ,the method of preparing ptisan is universally known4 ,,chap4 #af4--,,tragum4 ,in a similar manner1 too1 tragum is prepared from seed#aec wheat1 but only in ,campania and ,egypt4 ,,chap4 #ag4--;,,amylum4 ,amylum is prepared from every kind of wheat1 and from winter-wheat#aed as well2 but the best of all is that made from three-month wheat4 ,the invention of it we owe to the island of ,chios1 and still1 at the present day1 the most esteemed kind comes from there2 it derives its name from its being made without the help of the mill4#aee ,next to the amylum made with three-month wheat1 is that which is prepared from the lighter kinds of wheat4 ,in making it1 the grain is soaked in fresh water1 placed in wooden vessels2 care being taken to keep it covered with the liquid1 which is changed no less than five times in the course of the day4 ,if it can be changed at night as well1 it is all the better for it1 the object being to let it imbibe the water gradually and equally4 ,when it is quite soft1 but before it turns sour1 it is passed through linen cloth1 or else wicker-work1 after which it is poured out upon a tile covered with leaven1 and left to harden in the sun4 ,next to the amylum of ,chios1 that of ,crete is the most esteemed1 and next to that the gyptian4 ,the tests of its goodness are its being light and smooth3 it should be used1 too1 while it is fresh4 ,cato1#aef among our writers1 has made mention of it4 ,,chap4 #ah4--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,barley4 ,barley-meal1 too1 is employed for medicinal purposes2 and it is a curious fact1 that for beasts of burden they make a paste of it1 which is first hardened by the action of fire1 and then ground4 ,it is then made up into balls1 which are introduced with the hand into the paunch1 the result of which is1 that the vigour and muscular strength of the animal is considerably increased4 ,in some kinds of barley1 the ears have two rows of grains1#aeg and in others more2 in some cases1 as many as six4#aeh ,the grain itself1 too1 presents certain differences1 being long and thin1 or else short or round1 white1 black1#aei or1 in some instances1 of a purple colour4 ,this last kind is employed for making polenta3 the white is ill adapted for standing the severity of the weather4 ,barley is the softest of all the grains3 it can only be sown in a dry1 loose soil1#afj but fertile withal4 ,the chaff of barley ranks among the very best2 indeed1 for litter there is none that can be compared with it4 ,of all grain1 barley is the least exposed to accidents1 as it is gathered before the time that mildew begins to attack wheat2 for which reason it is that the provident agriculturist sows only as much wheat as may be required for food4 ,the saying is1 that 8barley is sown in a money-bag10 because it so soon returns a profit4 ,the most prolific kind of all is that which is got in at ,carthage1#afa in ,spain1 in the month of ,april4 ,it is in the same month that it is sown in ,celtiberia1 and yet it yields two harvests in the same year4 ,all kinds of barley are cut sooner than other grain1 and immediately after they are ripe2 for the straw is extremely brittle1 and the grain is enclosed in a husk of remarkable thinness4 ,it is said1 too1 that a better polenta#afb is made from it1 if it is gathered before it is perfectly ripe4 ,,chap4 #ai4 7#h47--;,,arinca1 ,,and ,,other ,,kinds ,,of ,,grain ,,that ,,are ,,grown ,,in ,,the ,,east4 ,the several kinds of corn are not everywhere the same2 and even where they are the same1 they do not always bear a similar name4 ,the kinds most universally grown are spelt1 by the ancients known as 8adorea10 winter wheat1#afc and wheat2#afd all these being common to many countries4 ,arinca was originally peculiar to ,gaul1 though now it is widely diffused over ,italy as well4 ,egypt1 too1 ,syria1 ,cilicia1 ,asia1 and ,greece1 have their own peculiar kinds1 known by the names of zea1#afe olyra1 and tiphe4#aff ,in ,egypt1 they make a fine flour from wheat of their own growth1 but it is by no means equal to that of ,italy4 ,those countries which employ zea1 have no spelt4 ,zea1 however1 is to be found in ,italy1 and in ,campania more particularly1 where it is known by the name of 8seed40#afg ,the grain that bears this name enjoys a very considerable celebrity1 as we shall have occasion to state#afh on another occasion2 and it is in honour of this that ,homer#afi uses the expression1 1 and not1 as some suppose1 from the fact of the earth giving life4#agj ,amylum is made1 too1 from this grain1 but of a coarser#aga quality than the kind already mentioned2#agb this1 however1 is the only difference that is perceptible4 ,the most hardy kind1 however1 of all the grains is spelt1 and the best to stand the severity of the weather2 it will grow in the very coldest places1 as also in localities that are but half tilled1 or soils that are extremely hot1 and destitute of water4 ,this was the earliest food of the ancient inhabitants of ,latium2 a strong proof of which is the distributions of adorea that were made in those times1 as already stated4#agc ,it is evident1 too1 that the ,romans subsisted for a long time upon pottage1#agd and not bread2 for we find that from its name of 8puls10 certain kinds of food are known1 even at the present day1 as 8pulmentaria40#age ,ennius1 too1 the most ancient of our poets1 in describing the famine in a siege1 relates how that the parents snatched away the messes of pottage#agf from their weeping children4 ,at the present day1 even1 the sacrifices in conformity with the ancient rites1 as well as those offered upon birthdays1 are made with parched pottage4#agg ,this food appears to have been as much unknown in those days in ,greece as polenta was in ,italy4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,winter ,,wheat4 ,,similago1 ,,or ,,fine ,,flour4 ,there is no grain that displays a greater avidity than wheat1 and none that absorbs a greater quantity of nutriment4 ,with all propriety ,i may justly call winter wheat#agh the very choicest of all the varieties of wheat4 ,it is white1 destitute of all flavour1#agi and not oppressive#ahj to the stomach4 ,it suits moist localities particularly well1 such as we find in ,italy and ,gallia ,comata2 but beyond the ,alps it is found to maintain its character only in the territory of the ,allobroges and that of the ,memini2 for in the other parts of those countries it degenerates at the end of two years into common wheat4#aha ,the only method of preventing this is to take care and sow the heaviest grains only4 7#i47 ,winter wheat furnishes bread of the very finest quality and the most esteemed delicacies of the bakers4 ,the best bread that is known in ,italy is made from a mixture of ,campanian winter wheat with that of ,pis4 ,the ,campanian kind is of a redder colour1 while the latter is white2 when mixed with chalk1#ahb it is increased in weight4 ,the proper proportion for the yield of ,campanian wheat to the modius of grain is four sextarii of what is known as bolted flour2#ahc but when it is used in the rough and has not been bolted1 then the yield should be five sextarii of flour4 ,in addition to this1 in either case there should be half a modius of white meal1 with four sextarii of coarse meal1 known as 8seconds10 and the same quantity of bran4#ahd ,the ,pisan wheat produces five sextarii of fine flour to the modius2 in other respects it yields the same as that of ,campania4 ,the wheat of ,clusium and ,arretium gives another sextarius of fine flour1 but the yield is similar to that of the kinds already mentioned in all other respects4 ,if1 however1 as much of it as possible is converted into fine wheat meal1 the modius will yield sixteen pounds weight of white bread1 and three of seconds1 with half a modius of bran4 ,these differences1 however1 depend very materially upon the grinding2 for when the grain is ground quite dry it produces more meal1 but when sprinkled with salt water#ahe a whiter flour1 though at the same time a greater quantity of bran4 ,it is very evident that 8farina10 the name we give to meal1 is derived from 8far40 ,a modius of meal made from ,gallic winter wheat1 yields twenty-two pounds of bread2 while that of ,italy1 if made into bread baked in tins1#ahf will yield two or three pounds more4 ,when the bread is baked in the oven1#ahg two pounds must be added in weight in either case4 7#aj47 ,wheat yields a fine flour#ahh of the very highest quality4 ,in ,african wheat the modius ought to yield half a modius of fine flour and five sextarii of pollen1 that being the name given to fine wheat meal1 in the same way that that of winter wheat is generally known as 8flos10 or the 8flower40 ,this fine meal is extensively used in copper works and paper manufactories4 ,in addition to the above1 the modius should yield four sextarii of coarse meal1 and the same quantity of bran4 ,the finest wheaten flour will yield one hundred#ahi and twenty-two pounds of bread1 and the fine meal of winter wheat one hundred#ahi and seventeen1 to the modius of grain4 ,when the prices of grain are moderate1 meal sells at forty asses the modius1 bolted wheaten flour at eight asses more1 and bolted flour of winter wheat1 at sixteen asses more4 ,there is another distinction again in fine wheaten flour1 which originated formerly in the days of ,l4 ,paulus4 ,there were three classes of wheat2 the first of which would appear to have yielded seventeen pounds of bread1 the second eighteen1 and the third nineteen pounds and a third3 to these were added two pounds and a half of seconds1#aij and the same quantity of brown#aij bread1 with six sextarii of bran4#aia ,winter wheat never ripens all at once1 and yet there is none of the cereals that can so ill brook any delay2 it being of so delicate a nature1 that the ears directly they are ripe will begin to shed their grain4 ,so long1 however1 as it is in stalk1 it is exposed to fewer risks than other kinds of wheat1 from the fact of its always having the ear upright1 and not retaining the dew1 which is a prolific cause of mildew4 ,from arinca#aib a bread of remarkable sweetness is made4 ,the grains in this variety lie closer than they do in spelt2 the ear1 too1 is larger and more weighty4 ,it is rarely the case that a modius of this grain does not weigh full sixteen pounds4 ,in ,greece they find great difficulty in threshing it2 and hence it is that we find ,homer#aic saying that it is given to beasts of burden1 this being the same as the grain that he calls 8olyra40 ,in ,egypt it is threshed without any difficulty1 and is remarkably prolific4 ,spelt has no beard1 and the same is the case with winter wheat1 except#aid that known as the ,laconian variety4 ,to the kinds already mentioned we have to add bromos1#aie the winter wheat just excepted1 and tragos1#aif all of them exotics introduced from the ,east1 and very similar to rice4 ,tiphe#aig also belongs to the same class1 from which in our part of the world a cleaned grain resembling rice is prepared4 ,among the ,greeks1 too1 there is the grain known as zea2 and it is said that this1 as well as tiphe1 when cleaned from the husk and sown1 will degenerate#aih and assume the form of wheat2 not immediately1 but in the course of three years4 ,,chap4 #ba4--,,the ,,fruitfulness ,,of ,,africa ,,in ,,wheat4 ,there is no grain more prolific than wheat1 ,nature having bestowed upon it this quality1 as being the substance which she destined for the principal nutriment of man4 ,a modius of wheat1 if the soil is favourable1 as at ,byzacium1#aii a champaign district of ,africa1 will yield as much as one hundred and fifty#bjj modii of grain4 ,the procurator of the late ,emperor ,augustus sent him from that place--a fact almost beyond belief--little short of four hundred shoots all springing from a single grain2 and we have still in existence his letters on the subject4 ,in a similar manner1 too1 the procurator of ,nero sent him three hundred and sixty stalks all issuing from a single grain4#bja ,the plains of ,leontium in ,sicily1 and other places in that island1 as well as the whole of ,btica1 and ,egypt more particularly1 yield produce a hundred-fold4 ,the most prolific kinds of wheat are the ramose wheat1#bjb and that known as the 8hundred-grain0#bjc wheat4 ,before now1 as many as one hundred beans1 too1 have been found on a single stalk4 ,,chap4 #bb4--,,sesame4 ,,erysimum1 ,,or ,,irio4 ,,horminum4 ,we have spoken#bjd of sesame1 millet1 and panic as belonging to the summer grains4 ,sesame#bje comes from ,india1 where they extract an oil from it2 the colour of its grain is white4 ,similar in appearance to this is the erysimum of ,asia and ,greece1 and indeed it would be identical with it were it not that the grain is better filled4#bjf ,it is the same grain that is known among us as 8irio20 and strictly speaking1 ought rather to be classed among the medicaments than the cereals4 ,of the same nature1 too1 is the plant called 8horminum0#bjg by the ,greeks1 though resembling cummin#bjh in appearance2 it is sown at the same time as sesame3 no animal will eat either this or irio while green4 ,,chap4 #bc4--,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,grinding ,,corn4 ,all the grains are not easily broken4 ,in ,etruria they first parch the spelt in the ear1 and then pound it with a pestle shod with iron at the end4 ,in this instrument the iron is notched#bji at the bottom1 sharp ridges running out like the edge of a knife1 and concentrating in the form of a star2 so that if care is not taken to hold the pestle perpendicularly while pounding1 the grains will only be splintered and the iron teeth broken4 ,throughout the greater part of ,italy1 however1 they employ a pestle that is only rough#baj at the end1 and wheels turned by water1 by means of which the corn is gradually ground4 ,i shall here set forth the opinions given by ,mago as to the best method of pounding corn4 ,he says that the wheat should be steeped first of all in water1 and then cleaned from the husk2 after which it should be dried in the sun1 and then pounded with the pestle2 the same plan1 he says1 should be adopted in the preparation of barley4 ,in the latter case1 however1 twenty sextarii of grain require only two sextarii of water4 ,when lentils are used1 they should be first parched1 and then lightly pounded with the bran2 or else1 adopting another method1 a piece of unbaked brick and half a modius of sand#baa should be added to every twenty sextarii of lentils4 ,ervilia should be treated in the same way as lentils4 ,sesame should be first steeped in warm water1 and then laid out to dry1 after which it should be rubbed out briskly1 and then thrown into cold water1 so that the chaff may be disengaged by floating to the surface4 ,after this is done1 the grain should again be spread out in the sun1 upon linen cloths1 to dry4 ,care1 however1 should be taken to lose no time in doing this1 as it is apt to turn musty1 and assume a dull1 livid colour4 ,the grains1 too1 which are just cleaned from the husk1 require various methods of pounding4 ,when the beard is ground by itself1 without the grain1 the result is known as 8acus10#bab but it is only used by goldsmiths4#bac ,if1 on the other hand1 it is beaten out on the threshing-floor1 together with the straw1 the chaff has the name of 8palea10 99 99 99 99 and in most parts of the world is employed as fodder for beasts of burden4 ,the residue of millet1 panic1 and sesame1 is known to us as 8apluda20 but in other countries it is called by various other names4 ,,chap4 #bd4--,,millet4 ,campania is particularly prolific in millet1 and a fine white porridge is made from it3 it makes a bread1 too1 of remarkable sweetness4 ,the nations of ,sarmatia#bad live principally on this porridge1 and even the raw meal1 with the sole addition of mares' milk1 or else blood#bae extracted from the thigh of the horse4 ,the thiopians know of no other grain but millet and barley4 ,,chap4 #be4--,,panic4 ,the people of ,gaul1 and of ,aquitania#baf more particularly1 make use of panic2 the same is the case1 too1 in ,italy beyond the ,padus1 with the addition1 however1 of the bean1 without which they prepare none of their food4 ,there is no aliment held in higher esteem than panic by the nations of ,pontus4 ,the other summer grains thrive better in well-watered soils than in rainy localities2 but water is by no means beneficial to millet or panic when they are coming into blade4 ,it is recommended not to sow them among vines or fruit-trees1 as it is generally thought that these crops impoverish the soil4 ,,chap4 #bf4 7#aa7--,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,leaven4 ,millet is more particularly employed for making leaven2 and if kneaded with must1#bag it will keep a whole year4 ,the same is done1 too1 with the fine wheat-bran of the best quality2 it is kneaded with white must three days old1 and then dried in the sun1 after which it is made into small cakes4 ,when required for making bread1 these cakes are first soaked in water1 and then boiled with the finest spelt flour1 after which the whole is mixed up with the meal2 and it is generally thought that this is the best method of making bread4 ,the ,greeks have established a rule that for a modius of meal eight ounces of leaven is enough4 ,these kinds of leaven1 however1 can only be made at the time of vintage1 but there is another leaven which may be prepared with barley and water1 at any time it may happen to be required4 ,it is first made up into cakes of two pounds in weight1 and these are then baked upon a hot hearth1 or else in an earthen dish upon hot ashes and charcoal1 being left till they turn of a reddish brown4 ,when this is done1 the cakes are shut close in vessels1 until they turn quite sour3 when wanted for leaven1 they are steeped in water first4 ,when barley bread used to be made1 it was leavened with the meal of the fitch1#bah or else the chicheling vetch1#bai the proportion being1 two pounds of leaven to two modii and a half of barley meal4 ,at the present day1 however1 the leaven is prepared from the meal that is used for making the bread4 ,for this purpose1 some of the meal is kneaded before adding the salt1 and is then boiled to the consistency of porridge1 and left till it begins to turn sour4 ,in most cases1 however1 they do not warm it at all1 but only make use of a little of the dough that has been kept from the day before4 ,it is very evident that the principle which causes the dough to rise is of an acid nature1 and it is equally evident that those persons who are dieted upon fermented bread are stronger#bbj in body4 ,among the ancients1 too1 it was generally thought that the heavier wheat is1 the more wholesome it is4 ,,chap4 #bg4--,,the ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,bread3 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,art4 ,it seems to me quite unnecessary to enter into an account of the various kinds of bread that are made4 ,some kinds1 we find1 receive their names from the dishes with which they are eaten1 the oyster-bread1#bba for instance3 others1 again1 from their peculiar delicacy1 the artolaganus1#bbb or cake-bread1 for example2 and others from the expedition with which they are prepared1 such as the 8speusticus10#bbc or 8hurry-bread40 ,other varieties receive their names from the peculiar method of baking them1 such as oven-bread1#bbd tin-bread1#bbe and mould-bread4#bbf ,it is not so very long since that we had a bread introduced from ,parthia1 known as water-bread1#bbg from a method in kneading it1 of drawing out the dough by the aid of water1 a process which renders it remarkably light1 and full of holes1 like a sponge3 some call this ,parthian bread4 ,the excellence of the finest kinds of bread depends principally on the goodness of the wheat1 and the fineness of the bolter4 ,some persons knead the dough with eggs or milk1 and butter even has been employed for the purpose by nations that have had leisure to cultivate the arts of peace1 and to give their attention to the art of making pastry4 ,picenum still maintains its ancient reputation for making the bread which it was the first to invent1 alica#bbh being the grain employed4 ,the flour is kept in soak for nine days1 and is kneaded on the tenth with raisin juice1 in the shape of long rolls2 after which it is baked in an oven in earthen pots1 till they break4 ,this bread1 however1 is never eaten till it has been well#bbi soaked1 which is mostly done in milk mixed with honey4 ,,chap4 #bh4--,,when ,,bakers ,,were ,,first ,,introduced ,,at ,,rome4 ,there were no bakers at ,rome until#bcj the war with ,king ,perseus1 more than five hundred and eighty years after the building of the ,city4 ,the ancient ,romans used to make their own bread1 it being an occupation which belonged to the women1 as we see the case in many nations even at the present day4 ,plautus speaks of the artopta1 or bread-tin1 in his ,comedy of the ,aulularia1#bca though there has been considerable discussion for that very reason among the learned1 whether or not that line really belongs to him4 ,we have the fact1 too1 well ascertained1 in the opinion of ,ateius ,capito1 that the cooks in those days were in the habit of making the bread for persons of affluence1 while the name of 8pistor0#bcb was only given to the person who pounded1 or 8pisebat10 the spelt4 ,in those times1 they had no cooks in the number of their slaves1 but used to hire them for the occasion from the market4 ,the ,gauls were the first to employ the bolter that is made of horse-hair2 while the people of ,spain make their sieves and meal-dressers of flax1#bcc and the ,egyptians of papyrus and rushes4 ,,chap4 #bi4--;,,alica4 ,but among the very first things of all1 we ought to speak of the method employed in preparing alica1#bcd a most delightful and most wholesome food1 and which incontestably confers upon ,italy the highest rank among the countries that produce the cereals4 ,this delicacy is prepared1 no doubt1 in ,egypt as well1 but of a very inferior quality1 and not worth our notice4 ,in ,italy1 however1 it is prepared in numerous places1 the territories of ,verona and ,pis1 for example2 but that of ,campania is the most highly esteemed4 ,there1 at the foot of mountains capped with clouds1 runs a plain1 not less in all than forty miles in extent4 ,the land here--to give a description first of the nature of the soil--is dusty on the surface1 but spongy below1 and as porous as pumice4 ,the inconveniences that generally arise from the close vicinity of mountains are here converted into so many advantages3 for the soil1 acting on it as a sort of filter1 absorbs the water of the abundant rains that fall2 the consequence of which is1 that the water not being left to soak or form mud on the surface1 the cultivation is greatly facilitated thereby4 ,this land does not return1 by the aid of any springs1 the moisture it has thus absorbed1 but thoroughly digests it1 by warming it in its bosom1 in a heated oven as it were4 ,the ground is kept cropped the whole year through1 once with panic1 and twice with spelt2 and yet in the spring1 when the soil is allowed to have a moment's repose1 it will produce roses more odoriferous by far than the cultivated rose3 for the earth here is never tired of producing1 a circumstance in which originated the common saying1 that ,campania produces more unguents#bce than other countries do oil4 ,in the same degree1 however1 that the ,campanian soil excels that of all other countries1 so does that part of it which is known to us as ,labori1#bcf and to the ,greeks as ,phlegrum1 surpass all the rest4 ,this district is bounded on two sides by the consular high road1 which leads from ,puteoli to ,capua on the one side1 and from ,cum on the other4 ,alica is prepared from the grain called zea1 which we have already mentioned#bcg as being known to us as 8seed0 wheat4 ,the grain is cleansed in a wooden mortar1 for fear lest stone1 from its hardness1 should have the effect of grating it4 ,the motive power for raising the pestle1 as is generally known1 is supplied by slaves working in chains1 the end of it being enclosed in a case of iron4 ,after the husks have been removed by this process1 the pure grain is broken to pieces1 the same implements being employed4 ,in this way1 there are three different kinds of alica made1 the finest1 the seconds1 and the coarse1 which last is known as 8aphrema40#bch ,still1 however1 these various kinds have none of them that whiteness as yet for which they are so distinguished1 though even now they are preferable to the ,alexandrian alica4 ,with this view--a most singular fact--chalk#bci is mixed with the meal1 which1 upon becoming well incorporated with it1 adds very materially to both the whiteness and the shortness#bdj of the mixture4 ,this chalk is found between ,puteoli and ,neapolis1 upon a hill called ,leucogum2#bda and there is still in existence a decree of the late ,emperor ,augustus1 7who established a colony at ,capua71 which orders a sum of twenty thousand sesterces to be paid annually from his exchequer to the people of ,neapolis1 for the lease of this hill4 ,his motive for paying this rent1 he stated1 was the fact that the people of ,campania had alleged that it was impossible to make their alica without the help of this mineral4 ,in the same hill1 sulphur is found as well1 and the springs of ,araxus issue from its declivities1 the waters of which are particularly efficacious for strengthening the sight1 healing wounds1 and preventing the teeth from becoming loose4 ,a spurious kind of alica is made1 more particularly of a degenerate kind of zea grown in ,africa2 the ears of it are larger and blacker than those of the genuine kind1 and the straw is short4 ,this grain is pounded with sand1 and even then it is with the greatest difficulty that the outer coats are removed2 when stripped1 the grain fills one half only of the original measure4 ,gypsum1 in the proportion of one fourth1 is then sprinkled#bdb over it1 and after the mixture has been well incorporated1 it is bolted through a meal-sieve4 ,the portion that remains behind1 after this is done1 is known as 8excepticia10#bdc and consists of the coarser parts2 while that which has passed through is submitted to a second process1 with a finer sieve2 and that which then refuses to pass has the name of 8secundaria40#bdd ,that1 again1 which1 in a similar manner1 is submitted to a third sifting1 with a sieve of the greatest fineness1 which will only admit of sand passing through it1 is known as 8cribraria10#bde when it remains on the top of the sieve4 ,there is another method1 again1 that is employed every where for adulterating it4 ,they pick out the whitest and largest grains of wheat1 and parboil them in earthen pots2 these are then dried in the sun till they have regained their original size1 after which they are lightly sprinkled with water1 and then ground in a mill4 ,a better granum#bdf is made from zea than from wheat1 although it is nothing else1 in fact1 but a spurious alica3 it is whitened by the addition of boiled milk1 in place of chalk4 ,,chap4 #cj4 7#ab47--,,the ,,leguminous ,,plants3 ,,the ,,bean4 ,we now come to the history of the leguminous plants1 among which the place of honour must be awarded to the bean2#bdg indeed1 some attempts have even been made to use it for bread4 ,bean meal is known as 8lomentum20 and1 as is the case with the meal of all leguminous plants1 it adds considerably1 when mixed with flour1 to the weight of the bread4 ,beans are on sale at the present day for numerous purposes1 and are employed for feeding cattle1 and man more particularly4 ,they are mixed1 also1 among most nations1 with wheat1#bdh and panic more particularly1 either whole or lightly broken4 ,in our ancient ceremonials1 too1 bean pottage#bdi occupies its place in the religious services of the gods4 ,beans are mostly eaten together with other food1 but it is generally thought that they dull the senses1 and cause sleepless nights attended with dreams4 ,hence it is that the bean has been condemned#bej by ,pythagoras2 though1 according to some1 the reason for this denunciation was the belief which he entertained that the souls of the dead are enclosed in the bean3 it is for this reason1 too1 that beans are used in the funereal banquets of the ,parentalia4#bea ,according to ,varro1 it is for a similar cause that the ,flamen abstains from eating beans3 in addition to which1 on the blossom of the bean1 there are certain letters of ill omen to be found4 ,there are some peculiar religious usages connected with the bean4 ,it is the custom to bring home from the harvest a bean by way of auspice1 which1 from that circumstance1 has the name of 8referiva40#beb ,in sales by public auction1 too1 it is thought lucky to include a bean in the lot for sale4 ,it is a fact1 too1 that the bean is the only one among all the grains that fills out at the increase of the moon1#bec however much it may have been eaten away3 it can never be thoroughly boiled in sea-water1 or indeed any other water that is salt4 ,the bean is the first leguminous plant that is sown2 that being done before the setting of the ,vergili1 in order that it may pass the winter in the ground4 ,virgil#bed recommends that it should be sown in spring1 according to the usage of the parts of ,italy near the ,padus3 but most people prefer the bean that has been sown early to that of only three months' growth2 for1 in the former case1 the pods as well as the stalk afford a most agreeable fodder for cattle4 ,when in blossom more particularly1 the bean requires water2 but after the blossom has passed off1 it stands in need of but very little4 ,it fertilizes#bee the ground in which it has been sown as well as any manure2 hence it is that in the neighbourhood of ,thessaly and ,macedonia1 as soon as it begins to blossom1 they turn up#bef the ground4 ,the bean1 too1 grows wild in most countries1 as in those islands of the ,northern ,ocean1 for instance1 which for that reason have been called by us the 8,fabari40#beg ,in ,mauritania1 also1 it is found in a wild state in various parts1 but so remarkably hard that it will never become soft by boiling4 ,in ,egypt there is a kind of bean#beh which grows upon a thorny stalk2 for which reason the crocodiles avoid it1 being apprehensive of danger to their eyes4 ,this stalk is four cubits in length1 and its thickness1 at the very most1 that of the finger3 were it not for the absence of articulations in it1 it would resemble a soft reed in appearance4 ,the head is similar to that of the poppy1 being of a rose colour3 the beans enclosed in this head are not above thirty in number2 the leaves are large1 and the fruit is bitter and odoriferous4 ,the root1 however1 is highly esteemed by the natives as a food1 whether eaten raw or well boiled2 it bears a strong resemblance to that of the reed4 ,this plant grows also in ,syria and ,cilicia1 and upon the banks of ,lake ,torone in ,chalcidice4 ,,chap4 #ca4--,,lentils4 ,,pease4 ,among the leguminous plants the lentil is sown in the month of ,november1 and the pea1#bei among the ,greeks4 ,the lentil thrives best in a soil that is rather thin than rich1 and mostly stands in need of dry weather4 ,there are two kinds of lentil grown in ,egypt2 one of which is rounder and blacker than the other1 which has a peculiar shape of its own4 ,the name of this plant has been applied to various uses1 and among others has given origin to our word 8lenticula40#bfj ,i find it stated in some authors that a lentil diet is productive of evenness of temper4 ,the pea requires to be sown in a warm1 sunny spot1 and is ill able to endure cold2 hence in ,italy and the more rigorous climates1 it is sown in the spring only1 a light1 loose soil being chosen for the purpose4 ,,chap4 #cb4--,,the ,,several ,,kinds ,,of ,,chick-,,pease4 ,the chick-pea#bfa is naturally salt1#bfb for which reason it is apt to scorch the ground1 and should only be sown after it has been steeped a day in water4 ,this plant presents considerable differences in reference to size1 colour1#bfc form1 and taste4 ,one variety resembles in shape a ram's head1 from which circumstance it has received the name of 8arietinum20 there are both the white and the black arietinum4 ,there is also the columbine chick-pea1 by some known as the 8pea of ,venus20 it is white1 round1 and smooth1 being smaller than the arietinum1 and is employed in the observances of the night festivals or vigils4 ,the chicheling vetch1#bfd too1 is a diminutive kind of chick-pea1 unequal and angular1 like#bfe the pea4 ,the chick-pea that is the sweetest in flavour is the one that bears the closest resemblance to the fitch2 the pod in the black and the red kinds is more firmly closed than in the white ones4 ,,chap4 #cc4--,,the ,,kidney-,,bean4 ,the pod of the chick-pea is rounded1 while in other leguminous plants it is long and broad1 like the seed which it contains2 in the pea1 again1 it is of a cylindrical form4 ,in the case of the kidney-bean#bff it is usual to eat the pod together with the seed4 ,this last may be sown in all kinds of soils indifferently1 between the ides of ,october#bfg and the calends of ,november4#bfh ,as soon as ever the leguminous plants begin to ripen1 they ought to be plucked1 for the pods will very soon open and the seed fall out1 in which case it is very difficult to find3 the same is the case1 too1 with the lupine4 ,but before we pass on to the lupine1 it will be as well to make some mention of the rape4#bfi ,,chap4 #cd4 7#ac47--,,the ,,rape4 ,the ,latin writers have only treated of this plant in a cursory manner1 while those of ,greece have considered it a little more attentively2 though even they have ranked it among the garden plants4 ,if1 however1 a methodical arrangement is to be strictly observed1 it should be spoken of immediately after corn1 or the bean1 at all events2 for next to these two productions1 there is no plant that is of more extensive use4 ,for1 in the first place1 all animals will feed upon it as it grows2 and it is far from being the least nutritious plant in the fields for various kinds of birds1 when boiled in water more particularly4 ,cattle1 too1 are remarkably fond of the leaves of rape2 and the stalks and leaves1 when in season1 are no less esteemed as a food for man than the sprouts of the cabbage2#bfi these1 too1 when turned yellow and left to die in the barn1 are even more highly esteemed than#bgj when green4 ,as to the rape itself1 it will keep all the better if left in its mould1 after which it should be dried in the open air till the next crop is nearly ripe1 as a resource in case of scarcity4 ,next to those of the grape and corn1 this is the most profitable harvest of all for the countries that lie beyond the ,padus4 ,the rape is by no means difficult to please in soil1 for it will grow almost anywhere1 indeed where nothing else can be sown4 ,it readily derives nutriment from fogs and hoar-frosts1 and grows to a marvelous size2 ,i have seen them weighing upwards of forty pounds4#bga ,it is prepared for table among us in several ways1 and is made to keep till the next crop1 its fermentation#bgb being prevented by preserving it in mustard4 ,it is also tinted with no less than six colours in addition to its own1 and with purple even2 indeed1 that which is used by us as food ought to be of no other colour4#bgc ,the ,greeks have distinguished two principal species of rape1 the male and the female1#bgd and have discovered a method of obtaining them both from the same seed2 for when it is sown thick1 or in a hard1 cloggy soil1 the produce will be male4 ,the smaller the seed the better it is in quality4 ,there are three kinds of rape in all2 the first is broad and flat1 the second of a spherical shape1 and the third1 to which the name of 8wild0 rape#bge has been given1 throws out a long root1 similar in appearance to a radish1 with an angular1 rough leaf1 and an acrid juice1 which1 if extracted about harvest1 and mixed with a woman's milk1 is good for cleansing the eyes and improving defective sight4 ,the colder the weather the sweeter they are1 and the larger1 it is generally thought2 heat makes them run to leaf4 ,the finest rape of all is that grown in the district of ,nursia3 it is valued at as much as one sesterce#bgf per pound1 and1 in times of scarcity1 two even4 ,that of the next best quality is produced on ,mount ,algidus4 ,,chap4 #ce4--,,the ,,turnip4 ,the turnip#bgg of ,amiternum1 which is pretty nearly of the same nature as the rape1 thrives equally well in a cold soil4 ,it is sown just before the calends of ,march1#bgh four sextarii of seed to the jugerum4 ,the more careful growers recommend that the ground should be turned up five times before putting in the turnip1 and four for rape1 care being taken1 in both cases1 to manure it well4 ,rape1 they say1 will thrive all the better1 if it is sown together with some chaff4 ,they will have it1 too1 that the sower ought to be stripped1 and that he should offer up a prayer while sowing1 and say3 8,i sow this for myself and for my neighbours40 ,the proper time for sowing both kinds is the period that intervenes between the festivals#bgi of the two divinities1 ,neptune and ,vulcan4 ,it is said1 too--and it is the result of very careful observation--that these plants will thrive wonderfully well1 if they are sown as many days after the festival of ,neptune as the moon was old when the first snow fell the previous winter4 ,they are sown in spring as well1 in warm and humid localities4 ,,chap4 #cf4 7#ad47--,,the ,,lupine4 ,the lupine is the next among the leguminous plants that is in extensive use1 as it serves for food for man in common with the hoofed quadrupeds4 ,to prevent it from springing out of the pod#bhj while being gathered1 and so lost1 the best plan is to gather it immediately after a shower4 ,of all the seeds that are sown1 there is not one of a more marvellous nature than this1 or more favoured by the earth4 ,first of all1 it turns every day with the sun1#bha and shows the hour to the husbandman1 even though the weather should happen to be cloudy and overcast4 ,it blossoms1 too1 no less than three times1 and so attached is it to the earth1 that it does not require to be covered with the soil2 indeed1 this is the only seed that does not require the earth to be turned up for sowing it4 ,it thrives more particularly on a sandy1 dry1 and even gravelly soil2 and requires no further care to be taken in its cultivation4 ,to such a degree is it attached to the earth1 that even though left upon a soil thickly covered with brambles1 it will throw out a root amid the leaves and brakes1 and so contrive to reach the ground4 ,we have already stated#bhb that the soil of a field or vineyard is enriched by the growth of a crop of lupines2 indeed1 so far is it from standing in need of manure1 that the lupines will act upon it as well as the very best4 ,it is the only seed that requires no outlay at all1 so much so1 in fact1 that there is no necessity to carry it even to the spot where it is sown2 for it may be sown the moment it is brought from the threshing-floor3#bhc and from the fact that it falls from the pod of its own accord1 it stands in need of no one to scatter it4 ,this is#bhd the very first grain sown and the last that is gathered1 both operations generally taking place in the month of ,september2 indeed1 if this is not done before winter sets in1 it is liable to receive injury from the cold4 ,and then1 besides1 it may even be left with impunity to lie upon the ground1 in case showers should not immediately ensue and cover it in1 it being quite safe from the attacks of all animals1 on account of its bitter taste3 still1 however1 it is mostly covered up in a slight furrow4 ,among the thicker soils1 it is attached to a red earth more particularly4 ,in order to enrich#bhe this earth1 it should be turned up just after the third blossom2 but where the soil is sandy1 after the second4 ,chalky and slimy soils are the only ones that it has an aversion to2 indeed1 it will never come to anything when sown in them4 ,soaked in warm water1 it is used as a food1 too1 for man4 ,one modius is a sufficient meal for an ox1 and it is found to impart considerable vigour to cattle2 placed1 too1 upon the abdomen#bhf of children1 it acts as a remedy in certain cases4 ,it is an excellent plan to season the lupine by smoking it2 for when it is kept in a moist state1 maggots are apt to attack the germ1 and render it useless for reproduction4 ,if cattle have eaten it off while in leaf1 as a matter of necessity it should be ploughed in as soon as possible4 ,,chap4 #cg4 7#ae47--,,the ,,vetch4 ,the vetch1#bhg too1 enriches the soil1 and its cultivation entails no labour on the agriculturist4 ,it is sown after the ground has been but once turned up1 and requires neither hoeing nor manuring2 nothing at all1 indeed1 except harrowing4 ,there are three periods for sowing it2 the first is about the setting of ,arcturus1 when it is intended for feeding cattle in the month of ,december1 while in the blade2 this crop1 too1 is the best of all for seed1 for1 although grazed upon1 it will bear just as well4 ,the second crop is sown in the month of ,january1 and the last in ,march2 this last being the best crop for fodder4 ,of all the seeds this is the one that thrives best in a dry soil2 still1 however1 it manifests no repugnance to a shaded locality4 ,this grain1 if gathered when quite ripe1 produces a chaff superior to that of any other4 ,if sown near vines supported by trees1 the vetch will draw away the juices from the vines1 and make them languid4 ,,chap4 #ch4--,,the ,,fitch4 ,the cultivation of the fitch1#bhh too1 is attended with no difficulty4 ,it requires weeding1 however1 more than the vetch4 ,like it1 the fitch has certain medicinal#bhi properties2 for we find the fact still kept in remembrance by some letters of his1 that the late ,emperor ,augustus was cured by its agency4 ,five modii will sow as much ground as a yoke of oxen can plough in a day4 ,if sown in the month of ,march1#bij it is injurious1 they say1 to oxen3 and when sown in autumn1 it is apt to produce head-ache4 ,if1 however1 it is put in the ground at the beginning of spring1 it will be productive of no bad results4 ,,chap4 #ci4 7#af47--,,silicia4 ,silicia1#bia or1 in other words1 fenugreek1 is sown after a light ploughing#bib merely1 the furrows being no more than some four fingers in depth2 the less the pains that are bestowed upon it the better it will thrive--a singular fact that there should be anything that profits from neglect4 ,the kinds1 however1 that are known as 8secale0 and 8farrago0 require harrowing only4 ,,chap4 #dj4--,,secale ,,or ,,asia4 ,the people of ,taurinum1 at the foot of the ,alps1 give to secale#bic the name of 8asia20 it is a very inferior#bid grain1 and is only employed to avert positive famine4 ,it is prolific1 but has a straw of remarkable thinness2 it is also black and sombre-looking1 but weighs extremely heavy4 ,spelt is mixed with this grain to modify its bitterness1#bie and even then it is very disagreeable to the stomach4 ,it will grow upon any soil1 and yields a hundred-fold2 it is employed also as a manure for enriching the land4 ,,chap4 #da4--;,,farrago3 ,,the ,,cracca4 ,farrago1 a mixture made of the refuse of 8far10 or spelt1 is sown very thick1 the vetch being sometimes mingled with it2 in ,africa1 this mixture is sometimes made with barley4 ,all these mixtures1 however1 are only intended for cattle1 and the same is the case with the cracca1#bif a degenerate kind of leguminous plant4 ,pigeons1 it is said1 are so remarkably fond of this grain1 that they will never leave the place where it has been given to them4 ,,chap4 #db4--,,ocinum3 ,,ervilia4 ,among the ancients there was a sort of fodder1 to which ,cato#big gives the name of 8ocinum20 it was employed by them to stop scouring in oxen4 ,this was a mixture of various kinds of fodder1 cut green before the frosts came on4 ,mamilius ,sura1 however1 explains the term differently1 and says that ten modii of beans1 two of vetches1 and the same quantity of ervilia1#bih were mixed and sown in autumn on a jugerum of land4 ,he states1 also1 that it is a still better plan to mix some ,greek oats#bii with it1 the grain of which never falls to the ground2 this mixture1 according to him1 was ocinum1 and was usually sown as a food for oxen4 ,varro#cjj informs us that it received its name on account of the celerity with which it springs up1 from the ,greek 1 8quickly40 ,,chap4 #dc4--,,lucerne4 ,lucerne#cja is by nature an exotic to ,greece even1 it having been first introduced into that country from ,media1#cjb at the time of the ,persian wars with ,king ,darius2 still it deserves to be mentioned among the very first of these productions4 ,so superior are its qualities1 that a single sowing will last more than thirty#cjc years4 ,it resembles trefoil in appearance1 but the stalk and leaves are articulated4 ,the longer it grows in the stalk1 the narrower is the leaf4 ,amphilochus has devoted a whole book to this subject and the cytisus4#cjd ,the ground in which it is sown1 being first cleaned and cleared of stones1 is turned up in the autumn1 after which it is ploughed and harrowed4 ,it is then harrowed a second and a third time1 at intervals of five days2 after which manure is laid upon it4 ,this seed requires either a soil that is dry1 but full of nutriment1 or else a well-watered one4 ,after the ground has been thus prepared1 the seed is put in in the month of ,may2#cje for if sown earlier1 it is in danger from the frosts4 ,it is necessary to sow the seed very thick1 so that all the ground may be occupied1 and no room left for weeds to shoot up in the intervals2 a result which may be secured by sowing twenty modii to the jugerum4 ,the seed must be stirred at once with the rake1 to prevent the sun from scorching it1 and it should be covered over with earth as speedily as possible4 ,if the soil is naturally damp or weedy1 the lucerne will be overpowered1 and the spot degenerate into an ordinary pasture2 it is necessary1 therefore1 directly the crop is an inch in height1 to disengage it from all weeds1 by hand1 in preference to the weeding-hook4 ,it is cut when it is just beginning to flower1 and this is repeated as often as it throws out new blossoms2 which happens mostly six#cjf times in the year1 and four at the very least4 ,care should be taken to prevent it from running to seed1 as it is much more valuable as fodder1 up to the third year4 ,it should be hoed in the spring1 and cleared of all other plants2 and in the third year the surface should be well worked with the weeding-hook4 ,by adopting this method1 the weeds will be effectually destroyed1 though without detriment to the lucerne1 in consequence of the depth of its roots4 ,if the weeds should happen to get ahead of it1 the only remedy is to turn it up repeatedly with the plough1 until the roots of the weeds are thoroughly destroyed4 ,this fodder should never be given to cattle to satiety1 otherwise it may be necessary to let blood2 it is best1 too1 when used while green4 ,when dry1 it becomes tough and ligneous1 and falls away at last into a thin1 useless dust4 ,as to the cytisus1 which also occupies the very foremost rank among the fodders1 we have already spoken#cjg of it at sufficient length when describing the shrubs4 ,it remains for us now to complete our account of all the cereals1 and we shall here devote a portion of it to the diseases to which they are subject4 ,,chap4 #dd4 7#ag47--,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,grain3 ,,the ,,oat4 ,the foremost feature of disease in wheat is the oat4#cjh ,barley1 too1 will degenerate into the oat2 so much so1 in fact1 that the oat has become an equivalent for corn2 for the people of ,germany are in the habit of sowing it1 and make their porridge of nothing else4 ,this degeneracy is owing more particularly to humidity of soil and climate2 and a second cause is a weakness in the seed1 the result of its being retained too long in the ground before it makes its appearance above it4 ,the same1 too1 will be the consequence1 if the seed is decayed when put in the ground4 ,this may be known1 however1 the moment it makes its appearance1 from which it is quite evident that the defect lies in the root4 ,there is another form of disease1 too1 which closely resembles the oat1 and which supervenes when the grain1 already developed to its full size1 but not ripe1 is struck by a noxious blast1 before it has acquired its proper body and strength2 in this case1 the seed pines away in the ear1 by a kind of abortion1 as it were1 and totally disappears4 ,the wind is injurious to wheat and barley1 at three#cji periods of the year in particular3 when they are in blossom1 directly the blossom has passed off1 and just as the seed is beginning to ripen4 ,in this last case1 the grain wastes away1 while in the two former ones it is prevented from being developed4 ,gleams of sunshine1 every now and then1 from the midst of clouds1 are injurious to corn4 ,maggots1 too1 breed#caj in the roots1 when the rains that follow the seed-time are succeeded by a sudden heat1 which encloses the humidity in the ground4 ,maggots make their appearance1#caa also1 in the grain1 when the ear ferments through heat succeeding a fall of rain4 ,there is a small beetle1 too1 known by the name of 8cantharis10#cab which eats away the blade4 ,all these insects die1 however1 as soon as their nutriment fails them4 ,oil1#cac pitch1 and grease are prejudicial to grain1 and care should be taken not to let them come in contact with the seed that is sown4 ,rain is only beneficial to grain while in the blade2 it is injurious to wheat and barley while they are in blossom1 but is not detrimental to the leguminous plants1 with the exception of the chick-pea4 ,when grain is beginning to ripen1 rain is injurious1 and to barley in particular4 ,there is a white grass#cad that grows in the fields1 very similar to panic in appearance1 but fatal to cattle4 ,as to darnel1#cae the tribulus1#caf the thistle1#cag and the burdock1#cah ,i can consider them1 no more than the bramble1 among the maladies that attack the cereals1 but rather as so many pests inflicted on the earth4 ,mildew1#cai a malady resulting from the inclemency of the weather1 and equally attacking the vine#cbj and corn1 is in no degree less injurious4 ,it attacks corn most frequently in localities which are exposed to dews1 and in vallies which have not a thorough draught for the wind2 windy and elevated spots1 on the other hand1 are totally exempt from it4 ,another evil1 again1 in corn1 is over-luxuriance1 when it falls to the ground beneath the weight#cba of the grain4 ,one evil1 however1 to which all crops in common1 the chick-pea even1 are exposed1 is the attacks of the caterpillar1 when the rain1 by washing away the natural saltness of the vegetation1 makes it#cbb all the more tempting for its sweetness4 ,there is a certain plant1#cbc too1 which kills the chick-pea and the fitch1 by twining around them2 the name of it is 8orobanche40 ,in a similar manner1 also1 wheat is attacked by darnel1#cbd barley by a long-stalked plant1 called 8gilops10#cbe and the lentil by an axe-leafed grass1 to which1 from the resemblance#cbf of the leaf1 the ,greeks have given the name of 8pelecinon40 ,all these plants1 too1 kill the others by entwining around them4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,philippi1 there is a plant known as ateramon1#cbg which grows in a rich soil1 and kills the bean1 after it has been exposed1 while wet1 to the blasts of a certain wind3 when it grows in a thin1 light soil1 this plant is called 8teramon40 ,the seed of darnel is extremely minute1 and is enclosed in a prickly husk4 ,if introduced into bread1 it will speedily produce vertigo2 and it is said that in ,asia and ,greece1 the bath-keepers1 when they want to disperse a crowd of people1 throw this seed upon burning coals4 ,the phalangium1 a diminutive insect of the spider genus1#cbh breeds in the fitch1 if the winter happens to be wet4 ,slugs1 too1 breed in the vetch1 and sometimes a tiny snail makes its way out of the ground1 and eats it away in a most singular manner4 ,these are pretty nearly all the maladies to which grain is subject4 ,,chap4 #de4--,,the ,,best ,,remedies ,,for ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,grain4 ,the best remedy for these maladies1 so long as grain is in the blade1 is the weeding-hook1 and1 at the moment of sowing1 ashes4#cbi ,as to those diseases which develope themselves in the seed and about the root1 with due care precautions may be effectually employed against them4 ,it is generally supposed that if seed has been first steeped in wine1#ccj it will be less exposed to disease4 ,virgil#cca recommends that beans should be drenched with nitre and amurca of olives2 and he says that if this is done1 they will be all the larger4 ,some persons1 again1 are of opinion1 that they will grow of increased size1 if the seed is steeped for three days before it is sown in a solution of urine and water4 ,if the ground1 too1 is hoed three times1 a modius of beans in the pod1 they say1 will yield not less than a modius of shelled#ccb beans4 ,other seeds1 again1 it is said1 will be exempt from the attacks of maggots1 if bruised cypress#ccc leaves are mixed with them1 or if they are sown just at the moon's conjunction4 ,many persons1 for the more effectual protection of millet1 recommend that a bramble-frog should be carried at night round the field before the hoeing is done1 and then buried in an earthen vessel in the middle of it4 ,if this is done1 they say1 neither sparrows nor worms will attack the crop4 ,the frog1 however1 must be disinterred before the millet is cut2 for if this is neglected1 the produce will be bitter4 ,it is pretended1 too1 that all seeds which have been touched by the shoulders of a mole are remarkably productive4 ,democritus recommends that all seeds before they are sown should be steeped in the juice of the herb known as 8aizom10#ccd which grows on tiles or shingles1 and is known to us by the ,latin name of 8sedum0 or 8digitellum40#cce ,if blight prevails1 or if worms are found adhering to the roots1 it is a very common remedy to sprinkle the plants with pure amurca of olives without salt1 and then to hoe the ground4 ,if1 however1 the crop should be beginning to joint1 it should be stubbed at once1 for fear lest the weeds should gain the upper hand4 ,i know for certain#ccf that flights of starlings and sparrows1 those pests to millet and panic1 are effectually driven away by means of a certain herb1 the name of which is unknown to me1 being buried at the four corners of the field3 it is a wonderful thing to relate1 but in such case not a single bird will enter it4 ,mice are kept away by the ashes of a weasel or a cat being steeped in water and then thrown upon the seed1 or else by using the water in which the body of a weasel or a cat has been boiled4 ,the odour1 however1 of these animals makes itself perceived in the bread even2 for which reason it is generally thought a better plan to steep the seed in ox-gall4#ccg ,as for mildew1 that greatest curse of all to corn1 if branches of laurel are fixed in the ground1 it will pass away from the field into the leaves of the laurel4 ,over-luxuriance in corn is repressed by the teeth of cattle1#cch but only while it is in the blade2 in which case1 if depastured upon ever so often1 no injury to it when in the ear will be the result4 ,if the ear1 too1 is once cut off1 the grain1 it is well known1 will assume a larger#cci form1 but will be hollow within and worthless1 and if sown1 will come to nothing4 ,at ,babylon1 however1 they cut the blade twice1 and then let the cattle pasture on it a third time1 for otherwise it would run to nothing but leaf4 ,even then1 however1 so fertile is the soil1 that it yields fifty1 and1 indeed1 with care1 as much as a hundred1 fold4 ,nor is the cultivation of it attended with any difficulty1 the only object being to let the ground be under water as long as possible1 in order that the extreme richness and exuberance of the soil may be modified4 ,the ,euphrates1 however1 and the ,tigris do not deposit a slime1 in the same way that the ,nilus does in ,egypt1 nor does the soil produce vegetation spontaneously2 but still1 so great is the fertility1 that1 although the seed is only trodden in with the foot1 a crop springs up spontaneously the following year4 ,so great a difference in soils as this1 reminds me that ,i ought to take this opportunity of specifying those which are the best adapted for the various kinds of grain4 ,,chap4 #df4--,,the ,,crops ,,that ,,should ,,be ,,sown ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,soils4 ,this1 then1 is the opinion expressed by ,cato#cdj on the subject3 8,in a dense and fertile soil wheat should be sown3 but if the locality is subject to fogs1 rape1 radishes1 millet1 and panic4 ,where the land#cda is cold and moist1 sowing should be commenced earlier2 but where it is hot1 at a later period4 ,in a red1 black1 or gravelly soil1 provided it is not watery1 lupines should be sown2 but in chalk1 red earth1 or a watery soil1 spelt4#cdb ,where a locality is dry1 free from weeds1 and not overshadowed1 wheat should be put in2 and where the soil is strong and powerful1 beans4 ,vetches should be grown in a soil as free from water and weeds as possible2 while wheat and winter wheat are best adapted to an open1 elevated locality1 fully exposed to the warmth of the sun4 ,the lentil thrives best in a meagre1 red earth1 free from weeds4 ,barley is equally suited for fallow land and for a soil that is not intended to be fallow1 and three-month wheat1 for a soil upon which a crop of ordinary wheat would never ripen1 but strong enough to bear40 ,the following1 too1 is sound advice3#cdc ,those plants should be sown in a thin soil which do not stand in need of much nutriment1 the cytisus1 for instance1 and such of the leguminous plants1 with the exception of the chick-pea1 as are taken up by the roots and not cut4 ,from this mode of gathering them--8legere0--the legumina derive their name4 ,where it is a rich earth1 those plants should be grown which require a greater proportion of nutriment1 coleworts for instance1 wheat1 winter-wheat1 and flax4 ,the result1 then1 will be1 that a light soil will be given to barley--the root of that grain standing in need of less nutriment--while a more dense1 though easily-worked soil1 will be assigned to wheat4 ,in humid localities spelt should be sown in preference to wheat2 but where the soil is of moderate temperature1 either wheat or barley may be grown4 ,declivities produce a stronger growth of wheat1 but in smaller quantities4 ,spelt and winter-wheat adopt a moist1 cretaceous soil in preference to any other4 7#ah47 ,the only occasion on which there ever was a prodigy connected with grain1 at least that ,i am aware of1 was in the consulship of ,p4 lius and ,cneius ,cornelius1 the year#cdd in which ,hannibal was vanquished3 on that occasion1 we find it stated1 corn was seen growing upon trees4#cde ,,chap4 #dg4--,,the ,,different ,,systems ,,of ,,cultivation ,,employed ,,by ,,various ,,nations4 ,as we have now spoken at sufficient length of the several varieties of grain and soil1 we shall proceed to treat of the methods adopted in tilling the ground1 taking care1 in the very first place1 to make mention of the peculiar facilities enjoyed by ,egypt in this respect4 ,in that country1 performing the duties of the husbandman1 the ,nile begins to overflow1 as already stated1#cdf immediately after the summer solstice or the new moon1 gradually at first1 but afterwards with increased impetuosity1 as long as the sun remains in the sign of ,leo4 ,when the sun has passed into ,virgo1 the impetuosity of the overflow begins to slacken1 and when he has entered ,libra the river subsides4 ,should it not have exceeded twelve cubits in its overflow1 famine is the sure result2 and this is equally the case if it should chance to exceed sixteen2 for the higher it has risen1 the more slowly it subsides1 and1 of course1 the seed-time is impeded in proportion4 ,it was formerly a very general belief that immediately upon the subsiding of the waters the ,egyptians were in the habit of driving herds of swine over the ground1 for the purpose of treading the seed into the moist soil--and it is my own impression that this was done in ancient times4 ,at the present day even1 the operation is not attended with much greater labour4 ,it is well known1 however1 that the seed is first laid upon the slime that has been left by the river on its subsidence1 and then ploughed in2 this being done at the beginning of ,november4 ,after this is done1 a few persons are employed in stubbing1 an operation known there as 8botanismos40 ,the rest of the labourers1 however1 have no occasion to visit the land again till a little before the calends of ,april1#cdg and then it is with the reaping-hook4 ,the harvest is completed in the month of ,may4 ,the stem is never so much as a cubit in length1 as there is a stratum of sand beneath the slime1 from which last alone the grain receives its support4 ,the best wheat of all is that of the region of ,thebais1 ,egypt#cdh being of a marshy character4 ,the method adopted at ,seleucia in ,babylonia is very similar to this1 but the fertility there is still greater1 owing to the overflow of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1#cdi the degree of irrigation being artificially modified in those parts4 ,in ,syria1 too1 the furrows are made extremely light1 while in many parts of ,italy1 again1 it takes as many as eight oxen to pant and blow at a single plough4 ,all the operations of agriculture1 but this in particular1 should be regulated by the oracular precept--8,remember that every locality has its own tendencies40 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,ploughs4 ,ploughs are of various kinds4 ,the coulter#cej is the iron part that cuts up the dense earth before it is broken into pieces1 and traces beforehand by its incisions the future furrows1 which the share1 reversed1#cea is to open out with its teeth4 ,another kind--the common plough-share--is nothing more than a lever1 furnished with a pointed beak2 while another variety1 which is only used in light1 easy soils1 does not present an edge projecting from the share-beam throughout1 but only a small point at the extremity4 ,in a fourth kind again1 this point is larger and formed with a cutting edge2 by the agency of which implement1 it both cleaves the ground1 and1 with the sharp edges at the sides1 cuts up the weeds by the roots4 ,there has been invented1 at a comparatively recent period1 in that part of ,gaul#ceb known as ,rhtia1 a plough with the addition of two small wheels1 and known by the name of 8plaumorati40#cec ,the extremity of the share in this has the form of a spade3 it is only used1 however1 for sowing in cultivated lands1 and upon soils which are nearly fallow4 ,the broader the plough-share1 the better it is for turning up the clods of earth4 ,immediately after ploughing1 the seed is put into the ground1 and then harrows#ced with long teeth are drawn over it4 ,lands which have been sown in this way require no hoeing1 but two or three pairs of oxen are employed in ploughing4 ,it is a fair estimate to consider that a single yoke of oxen can work forty jugera of land in the year1 where the soil is light1 and thirty where it is stubborn4 ,,chap4 #di4 7#ai47--,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,ploughing4 ,in ploughing1 the most rigid attention should be paid to the oracular precepts given by ,cato#cee on the subject4 8,what is the essence of good tillage8 ,good ploughing4 ,what is the second point8 ,ploughing again4 ,what is the third point8 ,manuring4 ,take care not to make crooked furrows4 ,be careful to plough at the proper time40 ,in warm localities it is necessary to open the ground immediately after the winter solstice1 but where it is cold1 directly after the vernal equinox3 this1 too1 should be done sooner in dry districts than in wet ones1 in a dense soil than a loose one1 in a rich land than a meagre one4 ,in countries where the summers are hot and oppressive1 the soil cretaceous or thin1 it is the best plan to plough between the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox4 ,where1 on the other hand1 the heat is moderate1 with frequent falls of rain1 and the soil rich and full of vegetation1 the ploughing should be done during the prevalence of the heat4 ,a deep1 heavy soil1 again1 should be ploughed in winter2 but one that is very thin and dry1 only just before putting in the seed4 ,tillage1 too1 has its own particular rules#cef--,never touch the ground while it is wet and cloggy2 plough with all your might2 loosen the ground before you begin to plough4 ,this method has its advantages1 for by turning up the clods the roots of the weeds are killed4 ,some persons recommend that in every case the ground should be turned up immediately after the vernal equinox4 ,land that has been ploughed once in spring1 from that circumstance has the name of 8vervactum40#ceg ,this1 too1 is equally necessary in the case of fallow land1 by which term is meant land that is sown only in alternate years4 ,the oxen employed in ploughing should be harnessed as tightly as possible1 to make them plough with their heads up2 attention paid to this point will prevent them from galling the neck4 ,if it is among trees and vines that you are ploughing1 the oxen should be muzzled1 to prevent them from eating off the tender buds4 ,there should be a small bill-hook1 too1 projecting from the plough-tail1 for the purpose of cutting up the roots2 this plan being preferable to that of turning them up with the share1 and so straining the oxen4 ,when ploughing1 finish the furrow at one spell1 and never stop to take breath in the middle4 ,it is a fair day's work to plough one jugerum1 for the first time1 nine inches in depth2 and the second time1 one jugerum and a half--that is to say1 if it is an easy soil4 ,if this1 however1 is not the case1 it will take a day to turn up half a jugerum for the first time1 and a whole jugerum the second2 for ,nature has set limits to the powers of animals even4 ,the furrows should be made1 in every case1 first in a straight line1 and then others should be drawn1 crossing them obliquely4#ceh ,upon a hill-side the furrows are drawn transversely#cei only1 the point of the share inclining upwards at one moment and downwards#cfj at another4 ,man1 too1 is so well fitted for labour1 that he is able to supply the place of the ox even2 at all events1 it is without the aid of that animal that the mountain tribes plough1 having only the hoe to help them4#cfa ,the ploughman1 unless he stoops to his work1 is sure to prevaricate1#cfb a word which has been transferred to the ,forum1 as a censure upon those who transgress--at any rate1 let those be on their guard against it1 where it was first employed4 ,the share should be cleaned every now and then with a stick pointed with a scraper4 ,the ridges that are left between every two furrows1 should not be left in a rough state1 nor should large clods be left protruding from the ground4 ,a field is badly ploughed that stands in need of harrowing after the seed is in2 but the work has been properly done1 when it is impossible to say in which direction the share has gone4 ,it is a good plan1 too1 to leave a channel every now and then1 if the nature of the spot requires it1 by making furrows of a larger size1 to draw off the water into the drains4 7#bj47 ,after the furrows have been gone over again transversely1 the clods are broken1 where there is a necessity for it1 with either the harrow or the rake2#cfc and this operation is repeated after the seed has been put in4 ,this last harrowing is done1 where the usage of the locality will allow of it1 with either a toothed harrow1 or else a plank attached to the plough4 ,this operation of covering in the seed is called 8lirare10 from which is derived the word 8deliratio40#cfd ,virgil1#cfe it is generally thought1 intends to recommend sowing after four ploughings1 in the passage where he says that land will bear the best crop1 which has twice felt the sun and twice the cold4 ,where the soil is dense1 as in most parts of ,italy1 it is a still better plan to go over the ground five times before sowing2 in ,etruria1 they give the land as many as nine ploughings first4 ,the bean1 however1 and the vetch may be sown with no risk1 without turning up the land at all2 which1 of course1 is so much labour saved4 ,we must not here omit to mention still one other method of ploughing1 which the devastations of warfare have suggested in ,italy that lies beyond the ,padus4 ,the ,salassi1#cff when ravaging the territories which lay at the foot of the ,alps1 made an attempt to lay waste the crops of panic and millet that were just appearing above the ground4 ,finding1 however1 that ,nature resisted all their endeavours1 they passed the plough over the ground1 the result of which was that the crops were more abundant than ever2 and this it was that first taught us the method of ploughing in1 expressed by the word 8artrare10 otherwise 8aratrare10 in my opinion the original form4 ,this is done either just as the stem begins to develope itself1 or else when it has put forth as many as two or three leaves4 ,nor must we withhold from the reader a more recent method1 which was discovered the year but one before this1#cfg in the territory of the ,treviri4 ,the crops having been nipped by the extreme severity of the winter1 the people sowed the land over again in the month of ,march1 and had a most abundant harvest4 ,we shall now proceed to a description of the peculiar methods employed in cultivating each description of grain4 ,,chap4 #ej4 7#ba47--,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,harrowing1 ,,stubbing1 ,,and ,,hoeing1 ,,employed ,,for ,,each ,,description ,,of ,,grain4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,harrow4 ,for winter wheat1 spelt1 wheat1 zea1#cfh and barley1 harrow1 hoe and stub upon the days which will be mentioned#cfi in the sequel4 ,a single hand per jugerum will be quite enough for any one of these kinds of grain4 ,the operation of hoeing loosens the ground in spring when it has been hardened and saddened by the rigours of the winter1 and admits the early sun to the interior4 ,in hoeing1 every care must be taken not to go beneath the roots of the corn2 in the case of wheat1 zea1 and barley1 it is best to give a couple of hoeings4 ,stubbing1#cgj when the crop is just beginning to joint1 cleanses it of all noxious weeds1 disengages the roots of the corn1 and liberates the growing blade from the clods4 ,among the leguminous plants1 the chick-pea requires the same treatment that spelt does4 ,the bean requires no stubbing1 being quite able of itself to overpower all weeds2 the lupine1 too1 is harrowed only4 ,millet and panic are both harrowed and hoed2 but this operation is never repeated1 and they do not require stubbing4 ,fenugreek and the kidney-bean require harrowing only4 ,there are some kinds of ground1 the extreme fertility of which obliges the grower to comb down the crops while in the blade--this is done with a sort of harrow#cga armed with pointed iron teeth--and even then he is obliged to depasture cattle upon them4 ,when1 however1 the blade has been thus eaten down1 it stands in need of hoeing to restore it to its former vigour4 ,but in ,bactria1 and at ,cyren in ,africa1 all this trouble has been rendered quite unnecessary by the indulgent benignity of the climate1 and after the seed is in1 the owner has no occasion to return to the field till the time has come for getting in the harvest4 ,in those parts the natural dryness of the soil prevents noxious weeds from springing up1 and1 aided by the night dews alone1 the soil supplies its nutriment to the grain4 ,virgil#cgb recommends that the ground should be left to enjoy repose every other year2 and this1 no doubt1 if the extent of the farm will admit of it1 is the most advantageous plan4 ,if1 however1 circumstances will not allow of it1 spelt should be sown upon the ground that has been first cropped with lupines1 vetches1 or beans2 for all these have a tendency to make the soil more fertile4 ,we ought to remark here more particularly1 that here and there certain plants are sown for the benefit of others1 although1 as already stated in the preceding ,book1#cgc not to repeat the same thing over again1 they are of little value themselves4 ,but it is the nature of each soil that is of the greatest importance4 ,,chap4 #ea4 7#bb47--;,,extreme ,,fertility ,,of ,,soil4 ,there is a city of ,africa1 situate in the midst of the sands as you journey towards the ,syrtes and ,great ,leptis1 ,tacape#cgd by name4 ,the soil there1 which is always well-watered1 enjoys a degree of fertility quite marvellous4 ,through this spot1 which extends about three miles each way1 a spring of water flows--in great abundance it is true--but still1 it is only at certain hours that its waters are distributed among the inhabitants4 ,here1 beneath a palm of enormous size1 grows the olive1 beneath the olive the fig1 beneath the fig1 again1 the pomegranate1 beneath the pomegranate the vine1 and beneath the vine we find sown1 first wheat1 then the leguminous plants1 and after them garden herbs--all in the same year1 and all growing beneath another's shade4 ,four cubits square of this same ground--the cubit#cge being measured with the fingers contracted and not extended--sell at the rate of four denarii4#cgf ,but what is more surprising than all1 is the fact that here the vine bears twice1 and that there are two vintages in the year4 ,indeed1 if the fertility of the soil were not distributed in this way among a multitude of productions1 each crop would perish from its own exuberance3 as it is1 there is no part of the year that there is not some crop or other being gathered in2 and yet1 it is a well-known fact1 that the people do nothing at all to promote this fruitfulness4 ,there are very considerable differences1 too1 in the nature of water1 as employed for the purposes of irrigation4 ,in the province of ,gallia ,narbonensis there is a famous fountain1 ,orge by name2 within it there grow plants which are sought for with such eagerness by the cattle1 that they will plunge over head into the water to get at them2 it is a well ascertained#cgg fact1 however1 that these plants1 though growing in the water1 receive their nutriment only from the rains that fall4 ,it is as well then that every one should be fully acquainted with the nature1 not only of the soil1 but of the water too4 ,,chap4 #eb4 7#bc47--,,the ,,method ,,of ,,sowing ,,more ,,than ,,once ,,in ,,the ,,year4 ,if the soil is of that nature which we have already#cgh spoken of as 8tender10#cgi after a crop of barley has been grown upon it1 millet may be sown1 and after the millet has been got in1 rape4 ,in succession to these1 again1 barley may be put in1 or else wheat1 as in ,campania2 and it will be quite enough1 in such case1 to plough the ground when the seed is sown4 ,there is another rotation again--when the ground has been cropped with spelt1#chj it should lie fallow the four winter months2 after which1 spring beans should be put in1 to keep it occupied till the time comes for cropping it with winter beans4 ,where the soil is too rich1 it may lie fallow one year1 care being taken after sowing it with corn to crop it with the leguminous plants the third year4#cha ,where1 on the other hand1 it is too thin1 the land should lie fallow up to the third year even4 ,some persons recommend that corn should never be sown except in land which has lain fallow the year before4 ,,chap4 #ec4--,,the ,,manuring ,,of ,,land4 ,the proper method of manuring is here a very important subject for consideration--we have already treated of it at some length in the preceding ,book4#chb ,the only point that is universally agreed upon is1 that we must never sow without first manuring the ground2 although in this respect even there are certain rules to be observed4 ,millet1 panic1 rape1 and turnips should never be sown in any but a manured soil4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the land is not manured1 sow wheat there in preference to barley4 ,the same1 too1 with fallow lands2 though in these it is generally recommended that beans should be sown4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that wherever beans are sown1 the land should have been manured at as recent a period as possible4 ,if it is intended to crop ground in autumn1 care must be taken to plough in manure in the month of ,september1 just after rain has fallen4 ,in the same way1 too1 if it is intended to sow in spring1 the manure should be spread in the winter4 ,it is the rule to give eighteen cart-loads of manure to each jugerum1 and to spread it well before ploughing it in1#chc or sowing the seed4#chd ,if this manuring1 however1 is omitted1 it will be requisite to spread the land with aviary dust just before hoeing is commenced4 ,to clear up any doubts with reference to this point1 ,i would here observe that the fair price for a cart-load of manure is one denarius2 where1 too1 sheep furnish one cart-load1 the larger cattle should furnish ten3#che unless this result is obtained1 it is a clear proof that the husbandman has littered his cattle badly4 ,there are some persons who are of opinion that the best method of manuring land is to pen sheep there1 with nets erected to prevent them from straying4 ,if land is not manured1 it will get chilled2 but if1 on the other hand1 it is over-manured1 it becomes burnt up3 it is a much better plan1 too1 to manure little and often than in excess4 ,the warmer the soil is by nature1 the less manure it requires4 ,,chap4 #ed4 7#bd47--;,,how ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,seed4 ,the best seed of all is that which is of the last year's growth4 ,that which is two years old is inferior1 and three the worst of all--beyond that1 it is unproductive4#chf ,the same definite rule which applies to one kind of seed is applicable to them all3 the seed which falls to the bottom#chg on the threshing-floor1 should be reserved for sowing1 for being the most weighty it is the best in quality3 there is no better method1 in fact1 of ascertaining its quality4 ,the grains of those ears which have intervals between the seed should be rejected4 ,the best grain is that which has a reddish hue1#chh and which1 when broken between the teeth1 presents the same#chi colour2 that which has more white within is of inferior quality4 ,it is a well-known fact that some lands require more seed than others1 from which circumstance first arose a superstition that exists among the peasantry2 it is their belief that when the ground demands the seed with greater avidity than usual1 it is famished1 and devours the grain4 ,it is consistent with reason to put in the seed where the soil is humid sooner than elsewhere1 to prevent the grain from rotting in the rain3 on dry spots it should be sown later1 and just before the fall of a shower1 so that it may not have to lie long without germinating and so come to nothing4 ,when the seed is put in early it should be sown thick1 as it is a considerable time before it germinates2 but when it is put in later1 it should be sown thinly1 to prevent it from being suffocated4 ,there is a certain degree of skill1 too1 required in scattering the seed evenly2 to ensure this1 the hand must keep time#cij with the step1 moving always with the right foot4 ,there are certain persons1 also1 who have a secret method#cia of their own1 having been born#cib with a happy hand which imparts fruitfulness to the grain4 ,care should be taken not to sow seed in a warm locality which has been grown in a cold one1 nor should the produce of an early soil be sown in a late one4 ,those who give advice to the contrary have quite misapplied their pains4 ,,chap4 #ee4--,,what ,,quantity ,,of ,,each ,,kind ,,of ,,grain ,,is ,,requisite ,,for ,,sowing ,a ,,jugerum4 #cic ,in a soil of middling quality1 the proper proportion of seed is five modii of wheat or winter-wheat to the jugerum1 ten of spelt or of seed-wheat--that being the name which we have mentioned#cid as being given to one kind of wheat--six of barley1 one-fifth more of beans than of wheat1 twelve of vetches1 three of chick-pease1 chicheling vetches1 and pease1 ten of lupines1 three of lentils--7these last1 however1 it is said1 must be sown with dry manure7--six of fitches1 six of fenugreek1 four of kidney-beans1 twenty of hay grass1#cie and four sextarii of millet and panic4 ,where the soil is rich1 the proportion must be greater1 where it is thin1 less4#cif ,there is another distinction1 too1 to be made2 where the soil is dense1 cretaceous1 or moist1 there should be six modii of wheat or winter-wheat to the jugerum1 but where the land is loose1 dry1 and prolific1 four will be enough4 ,a meagre soil1 too1 if the crop is not very thinly sown1 will produce a diminutive1 empty ear4 ,rich lands give a number of stalks to each grain1 and yield a thick crop from only a light sowing4 ,the result1 then1 is1 that from four to six modii must be sown1 according to the nature of the soil2 though there are some who make it a rule that five modii is the proper proportion for sowing1 neither more nor less1 whether it is a densely-planted locality1 a declivity1 or a thin1 meagre soil4 ,to this subject bears reference an oracular precept which never can be too carefully observed#cig--8;,don't rob the harvest40#cih ,attius1 in his ,praxidicus1#cii has added that the proper time for sowing is1 when the moon is in ,aries1 ,gemini1 ,leo1 ,libra1 and ,aquarius4 ,zoroaster says it should be done when the sun has passed twelve degrees of ,scorpio1 and the moon is in ,taurus4 ,,chap4 #ef4--,,the ,,proper ,,times ,,for ,,sowing4 ,we now come to a subject which has been hitherto deferred by us1 and which requires our most careful attention--the proper times for sowing4 ,this is a question that depends in a very great degree upon the stars2 and ,i shall therefore make it my first care to set forth all the opinions that have been written in reference to the subject4 ,hesiod1 the first writer who has given any precepts upon agriculture1 speaks of one period only for sowing--the setting of the ,vergili3 but then he wrote in ,botia1 a country of ,hellas1 where1 as we have already stated1#djj they are still in the habit of sowing at that period4 ,it is generally agreed by the most correct writers1 that with the earth1 as with the birds and quadrupeds1 there are certain impulses for reproduction2 and the epoch for this is fixed by the ,greeks at the time when the earth is warm and moist4 ,virgil#dja says that wheat and spelt should be sown at the setting of the ,vergili1 barley between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice1 and vetches1#djb kidney-beans1 and lentils at the setting of ,botes3#djc it is of great importance1 therefore1 to ascertain the exact days of the rising and setting of these constellations1 as well as of the others4 ,there are some1 again1 who recommend the sowing to be done before the setting of the ,vergili1 but only in a dry soil1 and in those provinces where the weather is hot2 for the seed1 they say1#djd if put in the ground will keep1 there being no moisture to spoil it1 and within a single day after the next fall of rain1 will make its appearance above ground4 ,others1 again1 are of opinion that sowing should begin about seven days after the setting of the ,vergili1 a period which is mostly followed by rain4 ,some think that cold soils should be sown immediately after the autumnal equinox1 and a warm soil later1 so that the blade may not put forth too luxuriantly before winter4 ,it is universally agreed1 however1 that the sowing should not be done about the period of the winter solstice2 for this very good reason--the winter seeds1 if put in before the winter solstice1 will make their appearance above ground on the seventh day1 whereas1 if they are sown just after it1 they will hardly appear by the fortieth4 ,there are some1 however1 who begin very early1 and have a saying to justify their doing so1 to the effect that if seed sown too early often disappoints1 seed put in too late always does so4 ,on the other hand1 again1 there are some who maintain that it is better to sow in spring than in a bad autumn2 and they say that if they find themselves obliged to sow in spring1 they would choose the period that intervenes between the prevalence of the west winds#dje and the vernal equinox4 ,some persons1 however1 take no notice of the celestial phenomena1 and only regulate their movements by the months4 ,in spring they put in flax1 the oat1 and the poppy1 up to the feast of the ,quinquatria1#djf as we find done at the present day by the people of ,italy beyond the ,padus4 ,there1 too1 they sow beans and winter-wheat in the month of ,november1 and spelt at the end of ,september1 up to the ides of ,october3#djg others1 however1 sow this last after the ides of ,october1 as late as the calends of ,november4#djh ,the persons who do this take no notice1 consequently1 of the phenomena of ,nature1 while others1 again1 lay too much stress upon them1 and hence1 by these refined subtleties and distinctions1 only add to their blindness2 for here are ignorant rustics1 not only dealing with a branch of learning1 but that branch astronomy6 ,it must still1 however1 be admitted that the observation of the heavens plays a very important part in the operations of agriculture2 and ,virgil1#dji we find1 gives it as his advice1 that before any thing else1 we should learn the theory of the winds1 and the revolutions of the stars2 for1 as he says1 the agriculturist1 no less than the mariner1 should regulate his movements thereby4 ,it is an arduous attempt1 and almost beyond all hope of success1 to make an endeavour to introduce the divine science of the heavens to the uninformed mind of the rustic2 still1 however1 with a view to such vast practical results as must be derived from this kind of knowledge1 ,i shall make the attempt4 ,there are some astronomical difficulties1 however1 which have been experienced by the learned even1 that ought to be first submitted for consideration1 in order that the mind may feel some encouragement on abandoning the study of the heavens1 and may be acquainted with facts at least1 even though it is still unable to see into futurity4 ,,chap4 #eg4 7#be47--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,terrestrial ,,days ,,and ,,nights4 ,in the first place1 it is almost an utter impossibility to calculate with a fair degree of accuracy the days of the year and the movements of the sun4 ,to the three hundred and sixty-five days there are still to be added the intercalary days1 the result of the additional quarters of a day and night3 hence it is1 that it is found impossible to ascertain with exactness the proper periods for the appearance of the stars4 ,to this we must add1 too1 a certain degree of uncertainty connected with these matters1 that is universally admitted2 thus1 for instance1 bad and wintry weather will often precede1 by several days1 the proper period for the advent of that season1 a state of things known to the ,greeks as 2#daj while at another time1 it will last longer than usual1 a state of circumstances known as 4#daa ,the effects1 too1 of the changes that take place in the seasons will sometimes be felt later1 and at other times earlier1 upon their reaching the face of the earth2 and we not unfrequently hear the remark made1 upon the return of fine weather1 that the action of such and such a constellation is now completed4#dab ,and then1 again1 as all these phnomena depend upon certain stars1 arranged and regulated in the vault of heaven1 we find intervening1 in accordance with the movements2 of certain stars1 hailstorms and showers1 themselves productive of no slight results1 as we have already observed1#dac and apt to interfere with the anticipated regular recurrence of the seasons4 ,nor are we to suppose that these disappointments fall upon the human race only1 for other animated beings1 as well as ourselves1 are deceived in regard to them1 although endowed with even a greater degree of sagacity upon these points than we are1 from the fact of their very existence depending so materially upon them4 ,hence it is1 that we sometimes see the summer birds killed by too late or too early cold1 and the winter birds by heat coming out of the usual season4 ,it is for this reason1 that ,virgil#dad has recommended us to study the courses of the planets1 and has particularly warned us to watch the passage of the cold star ,saturn4 ,there are some who look upon the appearance of the butterfly as the surest sign of spring1 because of the extreme delicacy of that insect4 ,in this present year1#dae however1 in which ,i am penning these lines1 it has been remarked that the flights of butterflies have been killed three several times1 by as many returns of the cold2 while the foreign birds1 which brought us by the sixth of the calends of ,february#daf every indication of an early spring1 after that had to struggle against a winter of the greatest severity4 ,in treating of these matters1 we have to meet a twofold difficulty3 first of all1 we have to ascertain whether or not the celestial phnomena are regulated by certain laws1 and then we have to seek how to reconcile those laws with apparent facts4 ,we must1 however1 be more particularly careful to take into account the convexity of the earth1 and the differences of situation in the localities upon the face of the globe2 for hence it is1 that the same constellation shows itself to different nations at different times1 the result being1 that its influence is by no means perceptible everywhere at the same moment4 ,this difficulty has been considerably enhanced1 too1 by various authors1 who1 after making their observations in different localities1 and indeed1 in some instances1 in the same locality1 have yet given us varying or contradictory results4 ,there have been three great schools of astronomy1 the ,chaldan1 the gyptian1 and the ,grecian4 ,to these has been added a fourth school1 which was established by the ,dictator ,csar among ourselves1 and to which was entrusted the duty of regulating the year in conformity with the sun's revolution1#dag under the auspices of ,sosigenes1 an astronomer of considerable learning and skill4 ,his theory1 too1 upon the discovery of certain errors1 has since been corrected1 no intercalations having been made for twelve#dah successive years1 upon its being found that the year which before had anticipated the constellations1 was now beginning to fall behind them4 ,even ,sosigenes himself1 too1 though more correct than his predecessors1 has not hesitated to show1 by his continual corrections in the three several treatises which he composed1 that he still entertained great doubts on the subject4 ,the writers1 too1 whose names are inserted at the beginning of this work1#dai have sufficiently revealed the fact of these discrepancies1 the opinions of one being rarely found to agree with those of another4 ,this1 however1 is less surprising in the case of those whose plea is the difference of the localities in which they wrote4 ,but with reference to those who1 though living in the same country1 have still arrived at different results1 we shall here mention one remarkable instance of discrepancy4 ,hesiod--for under his name1 also1 we have a treatise extant on the ,science of the ,stars#dbj--;has stated that the morning setting of the ,vergili takes place at the moment of the autumnal equinox2 whereas ,thales1 we find1 makes it the twenty-fifth day after the equinox1 ,anaximander the twenty-ninth1 and ,euctemon the forty-eighth4 ,as for ourselves1 we shall follow the calculations made by ,julius ,csar1#dba which bear reference more particularly to ,italy2 though at the same time1 we shall set forth the dicta of various other writers1 bearing in mind that we are treating not of an individual country1 but of ,nature considered in her totality4 ,in doing this1 however1 we shall name1 not the writers themselves1 for that would be too lengthy a task1 but the countries in reference to which they speak4 ,the reader must bear in mind1 then1 that for the sake of saving space1 under the head of ,attica1 we include the islands of the ,cyclades as well2 under that of ,macedonia1 ,magnesia and ,thracia2 under that of ,egypt1 ,phnice1 ,cyprus1 and ,cilicia2 under that of ,botia1 ,locris1 ,phocis1 and the adjoining countries2 under that of ,hellespont1 ,chersonesus1 and the contiguous parts as far as ,mount ,athos2 under that of ,ionia1 ,asia#dbb and the islands of ,asia2 under that of ,peloponnesus1 ,achaia1 and the regions lying to the west of it4 ,chalda1 when mentioned1 will signify ,assyria and ,babylonia1 as well4 ,my silence as to ,africa1#dbc ,spain1 and the provinces of ,gaul1 will occasion no surprise1 from the fact that no one has published any observations made upon the stars in those countries4 ,still1 however1 there will be no difficulty in calculating them1 even for these regions as well1 on reference being made to the parallels which have been set forth in the ,sixth ,book4#dbd ,by adopting this course1 an accurate acquaintance may be made with the astronomical relations1 not only of individual nations1 but of cities even as well4 ,by taking the circular parallels which we have there appended to the several portions of the earth respectively1 and applying them to the countries in question1 that are similarly situate1 it will be found that the rising of the heavenly bodies will be the same for all parts within those parallels1 where the shadows projected are of equal length4 ,it is also deserving of remark1 that the seasons have their periodical recurrences1 without any marked difference1 every four years1 in consequence of the influence#dbe of the sun1 and that the characteristics of the seasons are developed in excess every eighth year1 at the revolution of every hundredth moon4 ,,chap4 #eh4--,,the ,,rising ,,and ,,setting ,,of ,,the ,,stars4 ,the whole of this system is based upon the observation of three branches of the heavenly phnomena1 the rising of the constellations1 their setting1 and the regular recurrence of the seasons4 ,these risings and settings may be observed in two different ways3--,the stars are either concealed1 and cease to be seen at the rising of the sun1 or else present themselves to our view at his setting--this last being more generally known by the name of 8emersion0 than of 8rising10 while their disappearance is rather an 8occultation0 than a 8setting40--,considered1 again1 in another point of view1 when upon certain days they begin to appear or disappear1 at the setting or the rising of the sun1 as the case may be1 these are called their morning or their evening settings or risings1 according as each of these phnomena takes place at day-break or twilight4 ,it requires an interval of three quarters of an hour at least before the rising of the sun or after his setting1 for the stars to be visible to us4 ,in addition to this1 there are certain stars which rise and set twice4#dbf ,all that we here state bears reference1 it must be remembered1 to the fixed stars only4 ,,chap4 #ei4--,,the ,,epochs ,,of ,,the ,,seasons4 ,the year is divided into four periods or seasons1 the recurrence of which is indicated by the increase or diminution of the daylight4 ,immediately after the winter solstice the days begin to increase1 and by the time of the vernal equinox1 or in other words1 in ninety days and three hours1 the day is equal in length to the night4 ,after this1 for ninety-four days and twelve hours1 the days continue to increase1 and the nights to diminish in proportion1 up to the summer solstice2 and from that point the days1 though gradually decreasing1 are still in excess of the nights for ninety-two days1 twelve hours1 until the autumnal equinox4 ,at this period the days are of equal length with the nights1 and after it they continue to decrease inversely to the nights until the winter solstice1 a period of eighty-eight days and three hours4 ,in all these calculations1 it must be remembered1 equinoctial#dbg hours are spoken of1 and not those measured arbitrarily in reference to the length of any one day in particular4 ,all these seasons1 too1 commence at the eighth degree of the signs of the ,zodiac4 ,the winter solstice begins at the eighth degree of ,capricorn1 the eighth#dbh day before the calends of ,january1 in general2#dbi the vernal equinox at the eighth degree of ,aries2 the summer solstice1 at the eighth degree of ,cancer2 and the autumnal equinox at the eighth degree of ,libra3 and it is rarely that these days do not respectively give some indication of a change in the weather4 ,these four seasons again1 are subdivided1 each of them1 into two equal parts4 ,thus1 for instance1 between the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox1 the setting of the ,lyre1#dcj on the forty-sixth day1 indicates the beginning of autumn2 between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice1 the morning setting of the ,vergili1 on the forty-fourth day1 denotes the beginning of winter2 between the winter solstice and the vernal equinox1 the prevalence of the west winds on the forty-fifth day1 denotes the commencement of spring2 and between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice1 the morning rising of the ,vergili1 on the forty-eighth day1 announces the commencement of summer4 ,we shall here make seed-time1 or in other words1 the morning setting of the ,vergili1 our starting-point2#dca and shall not interrupt the thread of our explanation by making any mention of the minor constellations1 as such a course would only augment the difficulties that already exist4 ,it is much about this period that the stormy constellation of ,orion departs1 after traversing a large portion of the heavens4#dcb ,,chap4 #fj4--,,the ,,proper ,,time ,,for ,,winter ,,sowing4 ,most persons anticipate the proper time for sowing1 and begin to put in the corn immediately after the eleventh day of the autumnal equinox1 at the rising of the ,crown1 when we may reckon1 almost to a certainty1 upon several days of rainy weather in succession4 ,xenophon#dcc is of opinion1 that sowing should not be commenced until the ,deity has given us the signal for it1 a term by which ,cicero understands the rains that prevail in ,november4 ,the true method to be adopted1 however1 is not to sow until the leaves begin to fall4 ,some persons are of opinion that this takes place at the setting of the ,vergili1 or the third day before the ides of ,november1 as already stated1#dcd and they carefully observe it1 for it is a constellation very easily remarked in the heavens1 and warns us to resume our winter clothes4#dce ,hence it is1 that immediately on its setting1 the approach of winter is expected1 and care is taken by those who are on their guard against the exorbitant charges of the shop-keepers1 to provide themselves with an appropriate dress4 ,if the ,vergili set with cloudy weather1 it forebodes a rainy winter1 and the prices of cloaks#dcf immediately rise2 but if1 on the other hand1 the weather is clear at that period1 a sharp winter is to be expected1 and then the price of garments of other descriptions is sure to go up4 ,but as to the husbandman1 unacquainted as he is with the phnomena of the heavens1 his brambles are to him in place of constellations1 and if he looks at the ground he sees it covered with their leaves4 ,this fall of the leaves1 earlier in one place and later in another1 is a sure criterion of the temperature of the weather2 for there is a great affinity between the effects produced by the weather in this respect1 and the nature of the soil and climate4 ,there is this peculiar advantage1 too1 in the careful observation of these effects1 that they are sure to be perceptible throughout the whole earth1 while at the same time they have certain features which are peculiar to each individual locality4--,a person may perhaps be surprised at this1 who does not bear in mind that the herb pennyroyal1#dcg which is hung up in our larders1 always blossoms on the day of the winter solstice2 so firmly resolved is ,nature that nothing shall remain concealed from us1 and in that spirit has given us the fall of the leaf as the signal for sowing4 ,such is the true method of interpreting all these phnomena1 granted to us by ,nature as a manifestation of her will4 ,it is in this way that she warns us to prepare the ground1 makes us a promise of a manure1 as it were1 in the fall of the leaves1 announces to us that the earth and the productions thereof are thus protected by her against the cold1 and warns us to hasten the operations of agriculture4 ,,chap4 #fa4--,,when ,,to ,,sow ,,the ,,leguminous ,,plants ,,and ,,the ,,poppy4 ,varro#dch has given no other sign but this#dci for our guidance in sowing the bean4 ,some persons are of opinion that it should be sown at full moon1 the lentil between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth day of the moon1 and the vetch on the same days of the moon2 and they assure us that if this is done they will be exempt from the attacks of slugs4 ,some say1 however1 that if wanted for fodder1 they may be sown at these periods1 but if for seed1 in the spring4 ,there is another sign1 more evident still1 supplied us by the marvellous foresight of ,nature1 with reference to which we will give the words employed by ,cicero#ddj himself3 8,the lentisk1 ever green and ever bent ,beneath its fruits1 affords a threefold crop3 ,thrice teeming1 thrice it warns us when to plough40 ,one of the periods here alluded to1 is the same that is now under consideration1 being the appropriate time also for sowing flax and the poppy4#dda ,with reference to this last1 ,cato gives the following advice3 8,burn1 upon land where corn has been grown1 the twigs and branches which are of no use to you1 and when that is done1 sow the poppy there40 ,the wild poppy1 which is of an utility that is quite marvellous1 is boiled in honey as a remedy for diseases in the throat1#ddb while the cultivated kind is a powerful narcotic4 ,thus much in reference to winter sowing4 ,,chap4 #fb4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,in ,,the ,,country ,,in ,,each ,,month ,,respectively4 ,and now1 in order to complete what we may call in some measure an abridgment of the operations of agriculture1 it is as well to add that it will be a good plan at the same period to manure the roots of trees1 and to mould up the vines--a single hand being sufficient for one jugerum4 ,where1 too1 the nature of the locality will allow it1 the vines1 and the trees upon which they are trained1 should be lopped1 and the soil turned up with the mattock for seed plots2 trenches1 too1 should be opened out1 and the water drained from off the fields1 and the presses#ddc should be well washed and put away4 ,never put eggs beneath the hen between the calends of ,november#ddd and the winter solstice3#dde during all the summer and up to the calends of ,november1 you may put thirteen under the hen2 but the number must be smaller in winter1 not less than nine1 however4 ,democritus is of opinion1 that the winter will turn out of the same character#ddf as the weather on the day of the winter solstice and the three succeeding days2 the same too with the summer and the weather at the summer solstice4 ,about the winter solstice1 for about twice seven days mostly1 while the halcyon#ddg is sitting1 the winds are lulled1 and the weather serene2#ddh but in this case1 as in all others1 the influence of the stars must only be judged of by the result1 and we must not expect the changes of the weather1 as if out upon their recognizances1#ddi to make their appearance exactly on certain predetermined days4 ,,chap4 #fc4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,at ,,the ,,winter ,,solstice4 ,be careful never to touch the vine at the winter solstice4 ,hyginus recommends us to strain and even rack-off wine at the seventh day after the winter solstice1 provided the moon is seven days old4 ,about this period1 also1 the cherry-tree1 he says1 should be planted4 ,acorns1 too1 should now be put in soak for the oxen1 a modius for each pair4 ,if given in larger quantities1 this food will prove injurious to their health2 and whenever it is given1 if they are fed with it for less than thirty days in succession1 an attack of scab in the spring1 it is said1 will be sure to make you repent4 ,this1 too1 is the period that we have already assigned#dej for cutting timber--other kinds of work1 again1 may be found for the hours of the night1 which are then so greatly prolonged4 ,there are baskets1 hurdles1 and panniers to be woven1 and wood to be cut for torches3 squared stays#dea for the vine may be prepared1 too1 thirty in the day time1 and if rounded1#deb as many as sixty4 ,in the long hours of the evening1 too1 some five squared stays1 or ten rounded ones may be got ready1 and the same number while the day is breaking4 ,,chap4 #fd4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,between ,,the ,,winter ,,solstice ,,and ,,the ,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,winds4 ,between the winter solstice and the period when the west winds begin to prevail1 the following1 according to ,csar1 are the more important signs afforded by the constellations3 the ,dog sets in the morning1 upon the third#dec day before the calends of ,january2 a day on the evening of which the ,eagle sets to the people of ,attica and the adjoining countries4 ,on the day before#ded the nones of ,january1 according to ,csar's computation1 the ,dolphin rises in the morning1 and on the next day1 the ,lyre1 upon the evening of which the ,arrow sets to the people of ,egypt4 ,upon the sixth#dee day before the ides of ,january1 the ,dolphin sets in the evening1 and ,italy has many days of continuous cold2 the same is the case also when the sun enters ,aquarius1 about the sixteenth#def day before the calends of ,february4 ,on the eighth#deg before the calends of ,february1 the star which ,tubero calls the ,royal ,star#deh sets in the morning in the breast of ,leo1 and in the evening of the day before#dei the nones of ,february1 the ,lyre sets4 ,during the latter days of this period1 whenever the nature of the weather will allow of it1 the ground should be turned up with a double mattock1 for planting the rose and the vine--sixty men to a jugerum4 ,ditches1 too1 should be cleaned out1 or new ones made2 and the time of day-break may be usefully employed in sharpening iron tools1 fitting on handles1 repairing such dolia#dfj as may have been broken1 and rubbing up and cleaning their staves4 ,,chap4 #fe4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,between ,,the ,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,winds ,,and ,,the ,,vernal ,,equinox4 ,between the prevalence of the west winds and the vernal equinox1 the fourteenth day before#dfa the calends of ,march1 according to ,csar1 announces three days of changeable weather2 the same is the case1 too1 with the eighth#dfb before the calends of ,march1 at the first appearance of the swallow1 ,arcturus rising on the evening of the next day4 ,csar has observed1 that the same takes place on the third#dfc before the nones of ,march1 at the rising of ,cancer2 and most authorities say the same with reference to the emersion of the ,vintager4#dfd ,on the eighth#dfe before the ides of ,march1 the northern limb of ,pisces#dff rises1 and on the next day ,orion1 at which period also1 in ,attica1 the ,kite is first seen4 ,csar has noted1 too1 the setting of ,scorpio on the ides of ,march1#dfg a day that was so fatal to him2 and on the fifteenth#dfh before the calends of ,april1 the ,kite appears in ,italy4 ,on the twelfth#dfi before the calends of ,april1 the ,horse sets in the morning4 ,this interval of time is a period of extreme activity for the agriculturist1 and affords him a great number of occupations1 in reference to which1 however1 he is extremely liable to be deceived4 ,he is summoned to the commencement of these labours1 not upon the day on which the west winds ought to begin1 but upon the day on which they really do begin1 to blow4 ,this moment then must be looked for with the most careful attention1 as it is a signal which the ,deity has vouchsafed us in this month1 attended with no doubts or equivocations1 if only looked for with scrupulous care4 ,we have already stated in the ,second ,book1#dgj the quarter in which this wind blows1 and the exact point from which it comes1 and before long we shall have occasion to speak of it again still more in detail4 ,in the mean time1 however1 setting out from the day1 whatever it may happen to be1 on which the west winds begin to prevail 7for it is not always on the seventh before the ides of ,february#dga that they do begin71 whether1 in fact1 they begin to blow before the usual time1 as is the case with an early spring1 or whether after1 which generally happens when the winter is prolonged--there are subjects innumerable to engage the attention of the agriculturist1 and those1 of course1 should be the first attended to1 which will admit of no delay4 ,three month wheat must now be sown1 the vine pruned in the way we have already#dgb described1 the olive carefully attended to1 fruit-trees put in and grafted1 vineyards cleaned and hoed1 seedlings laid out1 and replaced in the nursery by others1 the reed1 the willow1 and the broom planted and lopped1 and the elm1 the poplar1 and the plane planted in manner already mentioned4 ,at this period1 also1 the crops of corn ought to be weeded1#dgc and the winter kinds1 spelt more particularly1 well hoed4 ,in doing this1 there is a certain rule to be observed1 the proper moment being when four blades have made their appearance1 and with the bean this should never be done until three leaves have appeared above ground2 even then1 however1 it is a better plan to clean them only with a slight hoeing1 in preference to digging up the ground--but in no case should they ever be touched the first fifteen days of their blossom4 ,barley must never be hoed except when it is quite dry3 take care1 too1 to have all the pruning done by the vernal equinox4 ,four men will be sufficient for pruning a jugerum of vineyard1 and each hand will be able to train fifteen vines to their trees4#dgd ,at this period1 too1 attention should be paid to the gardens and rose-beds1 subjects which will be separately treated of in succeeding ,books2 due care should be given to ornamental gardening as well4 ,it is now1 too1 the very best time for making ditches4 ,the ground should now be opened for future purposes1 as we find recommended by ,virgil#dge in particular1 in order that the sun may thoroughly warm the clods4 ,it is a piece of even more sound advice1 which recommends us to plough no lands in the middle of spring but those of middling quality2 for if this is done with a rich soil1 weeds will be sure to spring up in the furrows immediately2 and if1 on the other hand1 it is a thin1 meagre land1 as soon as the heat comes on1 it will be dried up1 and so lose all the moisture which should be reserved to nourish the seed when sown4 ,it is a much better plan1 beyond a doubt1 to plough such soils as these in autumn4 ,cato#dgf lays down the following rules for the operations of spring4 8,ditches10 he says1 8should be dug in the seed-plots1 vines should be grafted1 and the elm1 the fig1 the olive1 and other fruit-trees planted in dense and humid soils4 ,such meadows#dgg as are not irrigated1 must be manured in a dry moon1 protected from the western blasts1 and carefully cleaned3 noxious weeds must be rooted up1 fig-trees cleared1 new seed-plots made1 and the old ones dressed3 all this should be done before you begin to hoe the vineyard4 ,when the pear is in blossom1 too1 you should begin to plough1 where it is a meagre gravelly soil4 ,when you have done all this1 you may plough the more heavy1 watery soils1 doing this the last of all40 ,the proper time for ploughing1 then1#dgh is denoted by these two signs1 the earliest fruit of the lentisk#dgi making its appearance1 and the blossoming of the pear4 ,there is a third sign however1 as well1 the flowering of the squill among the bulbous1#dhj and of the narcissus among the garland1 plants4 ,for both the squill and the narcissus1 as well as the lentisk1 flower three times1 denoting by their first flowering the first period for ploughing1 by the second flowering the second1 and by the third flowering the last2 in this way it is that one thing affords hints for another4 ,there is one precaution1 too1 that is by no means the least important among them all1 not to let ivy touch the bean while in blossom2 for at this period the ivy is noxious#dha to it1 and most baneful in its effects4 ,some plants1 again afford certain signs which bear reference more particularly to themselves1 the fig for instance2 when a few leaves only are found shooting from the summit1 like a cup in shape1 then it is more particularly that the fig-tree should be planted4 ,,chap4 #ff4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,after ,,the ,,vernal ,,equinox4 ,the vernal equinox appears to end on the eighth#dhb day before the calends of ,april4 ,between the equinox and the morning rising of the ,vergili1 the calends#dhc of ,april announce1 according to ,csar1 stormy weather4#dhd ,upon the third#dhe before the nones of ,april1 the ,vergili set in the evening in ,attica1 and the day after in ,botia1 but according to ,csar and the ,chaldans1 upon the nones4#dhf ,in ,egypt1 at this time1 ,orion and his ,sword begin to set4 ,according to ,csar1 the setting of ,libra on the sixth before#dhg the ides of ,april announces rain4 ,on the fourteenth before#dhh the calends of ,may1 the ,sucul set to the people of ,egypt in the evening1 a stormy constellation1 and significant of tempests both by land and sea4 ,this constellation sets on the sixteenth#dhi in ,attica1 and on the fifteenth1 according to ,csar1 announcing four days of bad weather in succession3 in ,assyria it sets upon the twelfth#dij before the calends of ,may4 ,this constellation has ordinarily the name of ,parilicium1 from the circumstance that the eleventh#dia before the calends of ,may is observed as the natal day of the ,city of ,rome2 upon this day1 too1 fine weather generally returns1 and gives us a clear sky for our observations4 ,the ,greeks call the ,sucul by the name of 8,hyades10#dib in consequence of the rain and clouds which they bring with them2 while our people1 misled by the resemblance of the ,greek name to another word#dic of theirs1 meaning a 8pig10 have imagined that the constellation receives its name from that word1 and have consequently given it1 in their ignorance1 the name of 8,sucul10 or the 8,little ,pigs40 ,in the calculations made by ,csar1 the eighth#did before the calends of ,may is a day remarked1 and on the seventh#die before the calends1 the constellation of the ,kids rises in ,egypt4 ,on the sixth before#dif the calends1 the ,dog sets in the evening in ,botia and ,attica1 and the ,lyre rises in the morning4 ,on the fifth#dig before the calends of ,may1 ,orion has wholly set to the people of ,assyria1 and on the fourth#dih before the calends the ,dog4 ,on the sixth before#dii the nones of ,may1 the ,sucul rise in the morning1 according to the calculation of ,csar1 and on the eighth before#ejj the ides1 the ,she-goat1 which announces rain4 ,in ,egypt the ,dog sets in the evening of the same day4 ,such are pretty nearly the movements of the constellations up to the sixth before#eja the ides of ,may1 the period of the rising of the ,vergili4 ,in this interval of time1 during the first fifteen days1 the agriculturist must make haste and do all the work for which he has not been able to find time before the vernal equinox2 and he should bear in mind that those who are late in pruning their vines are exposed to jibes and taunts1 in imitation of the note of the bird of passage known to us as the cuckoo4#ejb ,for it is looked upon as a disgrace1 and one that subjects him to well-merited censure1 for that bird1 upon its arrival1 to find him only then pruning his vines4 ,hence it is1 too1 that we find those cutting jokes1#ejc of which our peasantry are the object1 at the beginning of spring4 ,still1 however1 all such jokes are to be looked upon as most abominable1 from the ill omens#ejd they convey4 ,in this way1 then1 we see that1 in agricultural operations1 the most trifling things are construed as so many hints supplied us by ,nature4 ,the latter part of this period is the proper time for sowing panic and millet2 the precise moment1 however1 is just after the barley has ripened4 ,in the case of the very same land1 too1 there is one sign that points in common both to the ripening of the barley and the sowing of panic and millet--the appearance of the glow-worm1 shining in the fields at night4 8,cicindel0#eje is the name given by the country people to these flying stars1 while the ,greeks call them 8lampyrides10--another manifestation of the incredible bounteousness of ,nature4 ,,chap4 #fg4 7#bg47--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,after ,,the ,,rising ,,of ,,the ,,vergili3 ,,hay-,,making4 ,nature had already formed the ,vergili1 a noble group of stars1 in the heavens2 but not content with these1 she has made others as well for the face of the earth1 crying aloud1 as it were3#ejf 8,why contemplate the heavens1 husbandman8 ,why1 rustic1 look up at the stars8 ,do not the nights already afford you a sleep too brief for your fatigues8 ,behold now6 ,i scatter stars amid the grass for your service1 and ,i reveal them to you in the evening1 as you return from your work2 and that you may not disregard them1 ,i call your attention to this marvel4 ,do you not see how the wings of this insect cover a body bright and shining like fire1 and how that body gives out light in the hours of the night even8 ,i have given you plants to point out to you the hours1 and1 that you may not have to turn your eyes from the earth1 even to view the sun1 the heliotropium and the lupine have been made by me to move with his movements4 ,why then still look upwards1 and scan the face of heaven8 ,behold1 here before your very feet are your ,vergili2 upon a certain day do they make their appearance1 and for a certain time do they stay4 ,equally certain1 too1 it is that of that constellation they are the offspring4 ,whoever1 then1 shall put in his summer seeds before they have made their appearance1 will infallibly find himself in the wrong40 ,it is in this interval1 too1 that the little bee comes forth1 and announces that the bean is about to blossom2 for it is the bean in flower that summons it forth4 ,we will here give another sign1 which tells us when the cold is gone2 as soon as ever you see the mulberry#ejg in bud1 you have no occasion to fear any injury from the rigour of the weather4 ,it is the time1 now1 to put in cuttings of the olive1 to clear away between the olive-trees1 and1 in the earlier days of the equinox1 to irrigate the meadows4 ,as soon1 however1 as the grass puts forth a stem1 you must shut off the water from the fields4#ejh ,you must now lop the leafy branches of the vine1 it being the rule that this should be done as soon as the branches have attained four fingers in length2 one labourer will be sufficient for a jugerum4 ,the crops of corn1 too1 should be hoed over again1 an operation which lasts twenty days4 ,it is generally thought1 however1 that it is injurious to both vine and corn to begin hoeing directly after the equinox4 ,this is the proper time1 too1 for washing sheep4 ,after the rising of the ,vergili the more remarkable signs are1 according to ,csar1 the morning rising of ,arcturus1 which takes place on the following day2#eji and the rising of the ,lyre on the third#eaj before the ides of ,may4 ,the ,she-goat sets in the evening of the twelfth before#eaa the calends of ,june1 and in ,attica the ,dog4 ,on the eleventh#eab before the calends of ,june1 according to ,csar1 ,orion's ,sword begins to appear2 and1 according to the same writer1 on the fourth#eac before the nones of ,june the ,eagle rises in the evening1 and in ,assyria as well4 ,on the seventh#ead before the ides of ,june ,arcturus sets in the morning to the people of ,italy1 and on the fourth#eae before the ides the ,dolphin rises in the evening4 ,on the seventeenth#eaf before the calends of ,july ,orion's ,sword rises in ,italy1 and1 four days later1 in ,egypt4 ,on the eleventh#eag before the calends of ,july1 according to ,csar's reckoning1 ,orion's ,sword begins to set2 and the eighth#eah before the calends of ,july1 the longest day in the year1 with the shortest night1 brings us to the summer solstice4 ,in this interval of time the vine should be cleared of its superfluous branches1 and care taken to give an old vine one turning up at the roots1 a young tree two4 ,sheep1 too1 are sheared at this period1 lupines turned up for manuring the land1 the ground dug1 vetches cut for fodder1 and beans gathered in and threshed4 7#bh47 ,about the calends of ,june#eai the meadows are mown2 the cultivation of which1 the one which is the easiest of all1 and requires the smallest outlay1 leads me to enter into some further details relative to it4 ,meadow lands should be selected in a rich1 or else a moist or well-watered1 soil1 and care should be taken to drain the rain-water upon them from the high-road4 ,the best method of ensuring a good crop of grass1 is first to plough the land1 and then to harrow it3 but1 before passing the harrow over it1 the ground should be sprinkled with such seed as may have fallen from the hay in the hay-lofts and mangers4 ,the land should not be watered1 however1 the first year1#ebj nor should cattle be put to graze upon it before the second hay-harvest1 for fear lest the blade should be torn up by the roots1 or be trodden down and stunted in its growth4 ,meadow land will grow old in time1 and it requires to be renovated every now and then1 by sowing upon it a crop of beans1 or else rape or millet1 after which it should be sown the next year with corn1 and then left for hay the third4 ,care1 too1 should be taken1 every time the grass is cut1 to pass the sickle over the ground1 and so cut the aftermath which the mowers have left behind2 for it is a very bad plan to leave any of the grass and let it shed its seed there4 ,the best crop for meadow land is trefoil1#eba and the next best is grass2#ebb nummulus#ebc is the very worst of all1 as it bears a pod which is particularly injurious2 equistis1#ebd too1 which derives its name from its resemblance to horse-hair1 is of a noxious character4 ,the proper time for mowing grass is when the ear begins to shed its blossom and to grow strong3 care must be taken to cut it before it becomes dry and parched4 8,don't mow your hay too late10 says ,cato2#ebe 8but cut it before the seed is ripe40 ,some persons turn the water upon it the day before mowing1 where it is practicable to do so4 ,it is the best plan to cut hay in the night while the dews are falling4#ebf ,in some parts of ,italy the mowing is not done till after harvest4 ,this operation1 too1 was a very expensive one in ancient times4 ,in those days the only whetstones#ebg known were those of ,crete and other places beyond sea1 and they only used oil to sharpen the scythe with4 ,for this purpose the mower moved along1 with a horn1 to hold the oil1 fastened to his thigh4 ,italy has since furnished us with whetstones which are used with water1 and give an edge to the iron quite equal to that imparted by the file2 these water-whetstones1 however1 turn green very quickly4 ,of the scythe#ebh there are two varieties2 the ,italian1#ebi which is considerably shorter than the other1 and can be handled among underwood even2 and the ,gallic1 which makes quicker work#ecj of it1 when employed on extensive domains1 for there they cut the grass in the middle only1 and pass over the shorter blades4 ,the ,italian mowers cut with one hand only4 ,it is a fair day's work for one man to cut a jugerum of grass1 and for another to bind twelve hundred sheaves of four pounds each4 ,when the grass is cut it should be turned towards the sun1 and must never be stacked until it is quite dry4 ,if this last precaution is not carefully taken1 a kind of vapour will be seen arising from the rick in the morning1 and as soon as the sun is up it will ignite to a certainty1 and so be consumed4 ,when the grass has been cut1 the meadow must be irrigated again1 for the purpose of ensuring a crop in the autumn1 known to us as the 8cordum10 or aftermath4 ,at ,interamna in ,umbria the grass is cut four times#eca a-year1 and this although the meadows there are not irrigated1--in most places1 three4 ,after all this has been done1 too1 the pasturage of the land is found no less lucrative than the hay it has produced4 ,this1 however1 is a matter of consideration for those more particularly who rear large herds of cattle1 and every one whose occupation it is to breed beasts of burden1 will have his own opinions upon the subject3 it is found1 however1 the most lucrative of all by those whose business it is to train chariot-horses4 ,,chap4 #fh4--,,the ,,summer ,,solstice4 ,we have already stated#ecb that the summer solstice arrives at the eighth degree of ,cancer1 and upon the eighth day before#ecc the calends of ,july3 this is an important crisis in the year1 and of great interest to the whole earth4 ,up to this period from the time of the winter solstice the days have gone on increasing1 and the sun has continued for six months making his ascension towards the north2 having now surmounted the heights of the heavens1 at this point he reaches the goal1 and after doing so1 commences his return towards the south2 the consequence of which is1 that for the next six months he increases the nights and subtracts from the length of the days4 ,from this period1 then1 it is the proper time to gather in and store away the various crops in succession1 and so make all due preparations for the rigour and severity of the winter4 ,it was only to be expected that ,nature should point out to us the moment of this change by certain signs of an indubitable character2 and she has accordingly placed them beneath the very hands of the agriculturist1 bidding the leaves turn round#ecd upon that day1 and so denote that the luminary has now run its course4 ,and it is not the leaves of trees only that are wild and far remote that do this1 nor have those persons who are on the look-out for these signs to go into devious forests and mountain tracts to seek them4 ,nor yet1 on the other hand1 are they to be seen in the leaves of trees only that are grown in the vicinity of cities or reared by the hand of the ornamental gardener1 although in them they are to be seen as well4 ,nature upon this occasion turns the leaf of the olive which meets us at every step2 she turns the leaf of the linden1 sought by us1 as it is1 for a thousand purposes2 she turns the leaf of the white poplar1 too1 wedded to the vine that grows upon its trunk4 ,and still1 for her1 all this is not enough4 8,you have the elm10 she says1 8reared for the support of the vine1 and the leaf of that ,i will make to turn as well4 ,the leaves of this tree you have to gather for fodder1 the leaves of the vine you prune away4 ,only look upon them1 and there you behold the solstice2#ece they are now pointing towards a quarter of the heavens the reverse of that towards which they looked the day before4 ,the twigs of the withy1 that most lowly of trees1 you employ for tying things without number4 ,you are a head taller than it--,i will make its leaves to turn round as well4 ,why complain1 then1 that you are but a rustic peasant8 ,it shall be no fault of mine if you do not understand the heavens and become acquainted with the movements of the celestial bodies4 ,i will give another sign1 too1 that shall address itself to your ear--only listen for the cooing of the ring-doves2 and beware of supposing that the summer solstice is past1 until you see the wood-pigeon sitting on her eggs40 ,between the summer solstice and the setting of the ,lyre1 on the sixth day before the calends of ,july1#ecf according to ,csar's reckoning1 ,orion rises1 and upon the fourth#ecg before the nones of ,july1 his ,belt rises to the people of ,assyria4 ,upon the morning of the same day1 also1 the scorching constellation of ,procyon rises4 ,this last constellation has no name with the ,romans1 unless1 indeed1 we would consider it as identical with ,canicula1#ech or ,lesser ,dog1 which we find depicted among the stars2 this last is productive of excessive heat1 as we shall shortly have further occasion to state4 ,on the fourth#eci before the nones of ,july1 the ,crown sets in the morning to the people of ,chalda1 and in ,attica1 the whole of ,orion has risen by that day4 ,on the day before#edj the ides of ,july1 the rising of ,orion ends to the ,egyptians also2 on the sixteenth#eda before the calends of ,august1 ,procyon rises to the people of ,assyria1 and1 the day but one after1 of nearly all other countries as well1 indicating a crisis that is universally known among all nations1 and which by us is called the rising of the ,dog-star2 the sun at this period entering the first degree of ,leo4 ,the ,dog-star rises on the twenty-third day after the summer solstice2 the influence of it is felt by both ocean1 and earth1 and even by many of the animals as well1 as stated by us elsewhere on the appropriate occasions4#edb ,no less veneration1 in fact1 is paid to this star1 than to those that are consecrated to certain gods2 it kindles the flames of the sun1 and is one great source of the heats of summer4 ,on the thirteenth#edc day before the calends of ,august1 the ,eagle sets in the morning to the people of ,egypt1 and the breezes that are the precursors of the ,etesian winds1 begin to blow2 these1 according to ,csar1 are first perceived in ,italy1 on the tenth before#edd the calends of ,august4 ,the ,eagle sets in the morning of that day to the people of ,attica1 and on the third before#ede the calends of ,august1 the ,royal ,star in the breast of ,leo rises in the morning1 according to ,csar4 ,on the eighth before#edf the ides of ,august1 one half of ,arcturus has ceased to be visible1 and on the third before#edg the ides the ,lyre1 by its setting1 opens the autumn1--according to ,csar at least2 though a more exact calculation has since shown1 that this takes place on the sixth day before#edh the ides of that month4 ,the time that intervenes between these periods is one that is of primary importance in the cultivation of the vine2 as the constellation of which we have spoken1 under the name of ,canicula1 has now to decide upon the fate of the grape4 ,it is at this period that the grapes are said to be charred1#edi a blight falling upon them which burns them away1 as though red-hot coals had been applied to them4 ,there is no hail that can be compared with this destructive malady1 nor yet any of those tempests1 which have been productive of such scarcity and dearth4 ,for the evil effects of these1 at the very utmost1 are only felt in isolated districts1 while the coal blight1#eej on the other hand1 extends over whole countries1 far and wide4 ,still1 however1 the remedy would not be very difficult1 were it not that men would much rather calumniate ,nature1 than help themselves4 ,it is said that ,democritus1#eea who was the first to comprehend and demonstrate that close affinity which exists between the heavens and the earth1 finding his laborious researches upon that subject slighted by the more opulent of his fellow-citizens1 and presaging the high price of oil1 which was about to result upon the rising of the ,vergili1 7as we have already mentioned1#eeb and shall have to explain more fully hereafter71 bought up all the oil in the country1 which was then at a very low figure1 from the universal expectation of a fine crop of olives2 a proceeding which greatly surprised all who knew that a life of poverty and learned repose was so entirely the object of his aspirations4 ,when1 however1 his motives had been fully justified by the result1 and vast riches had flowed in upon him apace1 he returned all his profits to the disappointed proprietors1 whose avarice had now taught them to repent1 thinking it quite sufficient to have thus proved how easy it was for him to acquire riches whenever he pleased4 ,at a more recent period1 again1 ,sextius1#eec a ,roman philosopher residing at ,athens1 made a similar application of his knowledge4 ,such1 then1 is the utility of science1 the instruction provided by which it shall be my aim1 as clearly and as perspicuously as possible1 to apply to the various occupations of a country life4 ,most writers have said that it is the dew1 scorched by a burning sun1 that is the cause of mildew#eed in corn1 and of coal blight in the vine2 this1 however1 seems to me in a great measure incorrect1 and it is my opinion that all blights result entirely from cold1 and that the sun is productive of no injurious effects whatever4 ,this1 in fact1 will be quite evident1 if only a little attention is paid to the subject2 for we find that the blight makes its appearance at first in the night time only1 and before the sun has shone with any vigour4 ,the natural inference is1 that it depends entirely upon the moon1 and more particularly as such a calamity as this is never known to happen except at the moon's conjunction1 or else at the full moon1 periods at which the influence of that heavenly body is at its greatest height4 ,for at both of these periods1 as already#eee stated by us more than once1 the moon is in reality at the full2 though during her conjunction she throws back to the heavens all the light which she has received from the sun4 ,the difference in the effects produced by the moon at these two periods is very great1 though at the same time equally apparent2 for at the conjunction1 that body is extremely hot in summer1 but cold in winter2 while1 on the other hand1 at the full moon1 the nights are cold in summer1 but warm in winter4 ,the reason of this1 although ,fabianus and the ,greek writers adopt another method of explaining it1 is quite evident4 ,during the moon's conjunction in summer1 she must of necessity move along with the sun in an orbit nearer to the earth1 and so become warmed by the heat which she receives by reason of her closer vicinity to the sun4 ,in winter1 again1 at the time of the conjunction1 she is farther off from us1 the sun being also removed to a greater distance4 ,on the other hand1 again1 when the moon is at the full in summer1 she is more remote from the earth1 and in opposition with the sun2 while1 in winter1 she approaches nearer to us at that period1 by adopting the same orbit as at her conjunction in summer4 ,naturally humid herself1 as often as from her position she is cold1 she congeals to an unlimited extent the dews which fall at that period of the year4 ,,chap4 #fi4--;,,causes ,,of ,,sterility4 ,but we ought always to bear in mind1 more particularly1 that there are two varieties of evils that are inflicted upon the earth by the heavens4 ,the first of these1 known by us under the name of 8tempests10 comprehends hail-storms1 hurricanes and other calamities of a similar nature2 when these take place at the full moon1 they come upon us with additional intensity4 ,these tempests take their rise in certain noxious constellations1 as already stated by us on several occasions1 ,arcturus1 for instance1 ,orion1 and the ,kids4 ,the other evils that are thus inflicted upon us1 supervene with a bright1 clear sky1 and amid the silence of the night1 no one being sensible of them until we have perceived their effects4 ,these dispensations are universal and of a totally different character from those previously mentioned1 and have various names given to them1 sometimes mildew1 sometimes blast1 and sometimes coal blight2 but in all cases sterility is the infallible result4 ,it is of these last that we have now to speak1 entering into details which have not hitherto been treated of by any writer2 and first of all we will explain the causes of them4 7#bi47 ,independently of the moon1 there are two principal causes of these calamities1 which emanate more particularly from two quarters of the heavens of but limited extent4 ,on the one hand1 the ,vergili exercise an especial influence on our harvests1 as it is with their rising that the summer begins1 and with their setting1 the winter2 thus embracing1 in the space of six months1 the harvest1 the vintage1 and the ripening of all the vegetable productions4 ,in addition to this1 there is a circular tract in the heavens1 quite visible to the human eye even1 known as the ,milky ,way4 ,it is the emanations from this1 flowing as it were from the breast1 that supply their milky#eef nutriment to all branches of the vegetable world4 ,two constellations more particularly mark this circular tract1 the ,eagle in the north1 and ,canicula in the south2 of this last1 we have already made mention#eeg in its appropriate place4 ,this circle traverses also ,sagittarius and ,gemini1 and passing through the centre of the sun1 cuts the equinoctial line below1 the constellation of the ,eagle making its appearance at the point of intersection on the one side1 and ,canicula on the other4 ,hence it is that the influences of both these constellations develope themselves upon all cultivated lands2 it being at these points only that the centre of the sun is brought to correspond with that of the earth4 ,if1 then1 at the moments of the rising and the setting of these constellations1 the air1 soft and pure1 transmits these genial and milky emanations to the earth1 the crops will thrive and ripen apace2 but if1 on the other hand1 the moon1 as already#eeh mentioned1 sheds her chilling dews1 the bitterness thereof infuses itself into these milky secretions1 and so kills the vegetation in its birth4 ,the measure of the injury so inflicted on the earth depends1 in each climate1 upon the combination of the one or other of these causes2 and hence it is that it is not felt in equal intensity throughout the whole earth1 nor even precisely at the same moment of time4 ,we have already#eei said that the ,eagle rises in ,italy on the thirteenth day#efj before the calends of ,january1 and the ordinary course of ,nature does not permit us before that period to reckon with any degree of certainty upon the fruits of the earth2 for if the moon should happen to be in conjunction at that time1 it will be a necessary consequence1 that all the winter fruits1 as well as the early ones1 will receive injury more or less4 ,the life led by the ancients was rude and illiterate2 still1 as will be readily seen1 the observations they made were not less remarkable for ingenuity than are the theories of the present day4 ,with them there were three set periods for gathering in the produce of the earth1 and it was in honour of these periods that they instituted the festive days1 known as the ,robigalia1#efa the ,floralia1 and the ,vinalia4 ,the ,robigalia were established by ,numa in the fortieth year of his reign1 and are still celebrated on the seventh day before the calends of ,may1 as it is at this period that mildew#efb mostly makes its first attacks upon the growing corn4 ,varro fixes this crisis at the moment at which the sun enters the tenth degree of ,taurus1 in accordance with the notions that prevailed in his day3 but the real cause is the fact1 that thirty-one#efc days after the vernal equinox1 according to the observations of various nations1 the ,dog-star sets between the seventh and fourth before the calends of ,may1 a constellation baneful in itself1 and to appease which a young dog should first be sacrificed4#efd ,the same people also1 in the year of the ,city #eac1 instituted the ,floralia1 a festival held upon the fourth before#efe the calends of ,may1 in accordance with the oracular injunctions of the ,sibyl1 to secure a favourable season for the blossoms and flowers4 ,varro fixes this day as the time at which the sun enters the fourteenth degree of ,taurus4 ,if there should happen to be a full moon during the four days at this period1 injury to the corn and all the plants that are in blossom1 will be the necessary result4 ,the ,first ,vinalia1 which in ancient times were established on the ninth before#eff the calends of ,may1 for the purpose of tasting#efg the wines1 have no signification whatever in reference to the fruits of the earth1 any more than the festivals already mentioned have in reference to the vine and the olive2 the germination of these last not commencing1 in fact1 till the rising of the ,vergili1 on the ,sixth day before#efh the ides of ,may1 as already mentioned on previous occasions4#efi ,this1 again1 is another period of four days1 which should never be blemished by dews1 as the chilling constellation of ,arcturus1 which sets on the following day1 will be sure to nip the vegetation2 still less ought there to be a full moon at this period4 ,on the fourth before#egj the nones of ,june1 the ,eagle rises again in the evening1 a critical day for the olives and vines in blossom1 if there should happen to be a full moon4 ,for my part1 ,i am of opinion that the eighth#ega before the calends of ,july1 the day of the summer solstice1 must be a critical day1 for a similar reason2 and that the rising of the ,dog-star1 twenty-three days after the summer solstice1 must be so too1 in case the moon is then in conjunction2 for the excessive heat is productive of injurious effects1 and the grape becomes prematurely ripened1 shrivelled1 and tough4 ,again1 if there is a full moon on the fourth before#egb the nones of ,july1 when ,canicula rises to the people of ,egypt1 or at least on the sixteenth before#egc the calends of ,august1 when it rises in ,italy1 it is productive of injurious results4 ,the same is the case1 too1 from the thirteenth day before#egd the calends of ,august1 when the ,eagle sets1 to the tenth before#ege the calends of that month4 ,the ,second ,vinalia1 which are celebrated on the fourteenth#egf before the calends of ,september1 bear no reference to these influences4 ,varro fixes them at the period at which the ,lyre begins its morning setting1 and says that this indicates the beginning of autumn1 the day having been set apart for the purpose of propitiating the weather3 at the present day1 however1 it is observed that the ,lyre sets on the sixth before#egg the ides of ,august4 ,within these periods there are exerted the sterilizing influences of the heavens1 though ,i am far from denying that they may be considerably modified by the nature of the locality1 according as it is cold or hot4 ,still1 however1 it is sufficient for me to have demonstrated the theory2 the modifications of its results depending1 in a great degree1 upon attentive observation4 ,it is beyond all question too1 that either one of these two causes will be always productive of its own peculiar effects1 the full moon1 ,i mean1 or else the moon's conjunction4 ,and here it suggests itself how greatly we ought to admire the bounteous provisions made for us by ,nature2 for1 in the first place1 these calamitous results cannot by any possibility befall us every year1 in consequence of the fixed revolutions of the stars2 nor indeed1 when they do happen1 beyond a few nights in the year1 and it may be easily known beforehand which nights those are likely to be4 ,in order1 too1 that we might not have to apprehend these injuries to vegetation in all the months1 ,nature has so ordained that the times of the moon's conjunction in summer1 and of the full moon in winter1 with the exception of two days only at those respective periods1 are well ascertained1 and that there is no danger to be apprehended on any but the nights of summer1 and those nights the shortest of all2 in the day-time1 on the other hand1 there is nothing to fear4 ,and then1 besides1 these phnomena may be so easily understood1 that the ant even1 that most diminutive of insects1 takes its rest during the moon's conjunction1 but toils on1 and that during the night as well1 when the moon is at the full2 the bird1 too1 called the 8parra0#egh disappears upon the day on which ,sirius rises1 and never reappears until that star has set2 while the witwall1#egi on the other hand1 makes its appearance on the day of the summer solstice4 ,the moon1 however1 is productive of no noxious effects at either of these periods1 except when the nights are clear1 and every movement of the air is lulled2 for so long as clouds prevail1 or the wind is blowing1 the night dews never fall4 ,and then1 besides1 there are certain remedies to counteract these noxious influences4 ,,chap4 #gj4--,,remedies ,,against ,,these ,,noxious ,,influences4 ,when you have reason to fear these influences1 make bonfires in the fields and vineyards of cuttings or heaps of chaff1 or else of the weeds that have been rooted up2 the smoke#ehj will act as a good preservative4 ,the smoke1 too1 of burning chaff will be an effectual protection against the effects of fogs1 when likely to be injurious4 ,some persons recommend that three crabs should be burnt#eha alive among the trees on which the vines are trained1 to prevent these from being attacked by coal blight2 while others say that the flesh of the silurus#ehb should be burnt in a slow fire1 in such a way that the smoke may be dispersed by the wind throughout the vineyard4 ,varro informs us1 that if at the setting of the ,lyre1 which is the beginning of autumn1 a painted grape#ehc is consecrated in the midst of the vineyard1 the bad weather will not be productive of such disastrous results as it otherwise would4 ,archibius#ehd has stated1 in a letter to ,antiochus1 king of ,syria1 that if a bramble-frog#ehe is buried in a new earthen vessel1 in the middle of a corn-field1 there will be no storms to cause injury4 ,,chap4 #ga4--,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,after ,,the ,,summer ,,solstice4 ,the following are the rural occupations for this interval of time--the ground must have another turning up1 and the trees must be cleared about the roots and moulded up1 where the heat of the locality requires it4 ,those plants1 however1 which are in bud must not be spaded at the roots1 except where the soil is particularly rich4 ,the seed-plots1 too1 must be well cleared with the hoe1 the barley-harvest got in1 and the threshing-floor prepared for the harvest with chalk1 as ,cato#ehf tells us1 slackened with amurca of olives2 ,virgil#ehg makes mention of a method still more laborious even4 ,in general1 however1 it is considered sufficient to make it perfectly level1 and then to cover it with a solution of cow-dung#ehh and water2 this being thought sufficient to prevent the dust from rising4 ,,chap4 #gb4 7#cj47--,,the ,,harvest4 ,the mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably4 ,in the vast domains of the provinces of ,gaul a large hollow frame1#ehi armed with teeth and supported on two wheels1 is driven through the standing corn1 the beasts being yoked#eij behind it2 the result being1 that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame4 ,in other countries the stalks are cut with the sickle in the middle1 and the ears are separated by the aid of paddle-forks4#eia ,in some places1 again1 the corn is torn up by the roots2 and it is asserted by those who adopt this plan1 that it is as good as a light turning up for the ground1 whereas1 in reality1 they deprive it of its juices4#eib ,there are differences in other respects also3 in places where they thatch their houses with straw1 they keep the longest haulms for that purpose2 and where hay is scarce1 they employ the straw for litter4 ,the straw of panic is never used for thatching1 and that of millet is mostly burnt2 barley-straw1 however1 is always preserved1 as being the most agreeable of all as a food for oxen4 ,in the ,gallic provinces panic and millet are gathered1 ear by ear1 with the aid of a comb carried in the hand4 ,in some places the corn is beaten out by machines#eic upon the threshing-floor1 in others by the feet of mares1 and in others with flails4 ,the later wheat is cut1 the more prolific#eid it is2 but if it is got in early1 the grain is finer and stronger4 ,the best rule is to cut it before the grain hardens1 and just as it is changing colour3#eie though the oracles on husbandry say that it is better to begin the harvest two days too soon than two days too late4 ,winter and other wheat must be treated exactly the same way both on the threshing-floor and in the granary4 ,spelt1 as it is difficult to be threshed1 should be stored with the chaff on1 being only disengaged of the straw and the beard4 ,many countries make use of chaff#eif for hay2 the smoother and thinner it is1 and the more nearly resembling dust1 the better2 hence it is that the chaff#eig of millet is considered the best1 that of barley being the next best1 and that of wheat the worst of all1 except for beasts that are hard worked4 ,in stony places they break the haulms1 when dry1 with staves1 for the cattle to lie upon3 if there is a deficiency of chaff1 the straw as well is ground for food4 ,the following is the method employed in preparing it3 it is cut early and sprinkled with bay salt1#eih after which it is dried and rolled up in trusses1 and given to the oxen as wanted1 instead of hay4 ,some persons set fire to the stubble in the fields1 a plan that has been greatly extolled by ,virgil3#eii the chief merit of it is that the seed of the weeds is effectually destroyed4 ,the diversity of the methods employed in harvesting mainly depends upon the extent of the crops and the price of labour4 ,,chap4 #gc4--,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,storing ,,corn4 ,connected with this branch of our subject is the method of storing corn4 ,some persons recommend that granaries should be built for the purpose at considerable expense1 the walls being made of brick1 and not less than three#fjj feet thick2 the corn1 they say1 should be let in from above1 the air being carefully excluded1 and no windows allowed4 ,others1 again1 say that the granary should have an aspect in no direction but the north-east or north1 and that the walls should be built without lime1 that substance being extremely injurious#fja to corn2 as to what we find recommended in reference to amurca of olives1 we have already mentioned it on a former#fjb occasion4 ,in some places they build their granaries of wood1 and upon pillars1#fjc thinking it the best plan to leave access for the air on every side1 and from below even4 ,some persons think1 however1 that the grain diminishes in bulk if laid on a floor above the level of the ground1 and that it is liable to ferment beneath a roof of tiles4 ,many persons say1 too1 that the grain should never be stirred up to air#fjd it1 as the weevil is never known to penetrate beyond four fingers in depth2 consequently1 beyond that depth there is no danger4 ,according to ,columella1#fje the west wind is beneficial to grain1 a thing that surprises me1 as that wind is generally a very parching#fjf one4 ,some persons recommend that1 before housing the corn1 a bramble-frog should be hung up by one of the hind legs at the threshold of the granary4 ,to me it appears that the most important precaution of all is to house the grain at the proper time2 for if it is unripe when cut1 and not sufficiently firm1 or if it is got in in a heated state1 it follows of necessity that noxious insects will breed in it4 ,there are several causes which contribute to the preservation of grain2 the outer#fjg coats in some kinds are more numerous1 as in millet1 for instance2 the juices are of an oleaginous nature1#fjh and so supply ample moisture1 as in sesame1 for example2 while in other kinds1 again1 they are naturally bitter1#fji as in the lupine and the chicheling vetch4 ,it is in wheat more particularly that insects breed1 as it is apt to heat from the density of its juices1 and the grain is covered with a thick bran4 ,in barley the chaff is thinner1 and the same is the case with all the leguminous seeds3 it is for this reason that they do not ordinarily breed insects4 ,the bean1 however1 is covered with a coat of a thicker substance2 and hence it is that it ferments4 ,some persons sprinkle wheat1 in order to make it keep the longer1 with amurca#faj of olives1 a quadrantal to a thousand modii3 others1 again1 with powdered ,chalcidian or ,carian chalk1 or with worm-wood4#faa ,there is a certain earth found at ,olynthus1 and at ,cerinthus1 in ,euba1 which prevents grain from spoiling4 ,if garnered in the ear1 grain is hardly ever found to suffer any injury4 ,the best plan1 however1 of preserving grain1 is to lay it up in trenches1 called 8siri10 as they do in ,cappadocia1 ,thracia1 ,spain1 and at 99 99 99 in ,africa4 ,particular care is taken to dig these trenches in a dry soil1 and a layer of chaff is then placed at the bottom2 the grain1 too1 is always stored in the ear4 ,in this case1 if no air is allowed to penetrate to the corn1 we may rest assured that no noxious insects will ever breed in it4 ,varro#fab says1 that wheat1 if thus stored1 will keep as long as fifty years1 and millet a hundred2 and he assures us that beans and other leguminous grain1 if put away in oil jars with a covering of ashes1 will keep for a great length of time4 ,he makes a statement1 also1 to the effect that some beans were preserved in a cavern in ,ambracia from the time of ,king ,pyrrhus until the ,piratical ,war of ,pompeius ,magnus1 a period of about two hundred and twenty years4 ,the chick-pea is the only grain in which no insect will breed while in the granary4 ,some persons place upon the heaps of the leguminous grains pitchers full of vinegar and coated with pitch1 a stratum of ashes being laid beneath2 and they fancy that if this is done1 no injury will happen4 ,some1 again1 store them in vessels which have held salted provisions1 with a coating of plaster on the top1 while other persons are in the habit of sprinkling lentils with vinegar scented with laser1#fac and1 when dry1 giving them a covering of oil4 ,but the most effectual method of all is to get in everything that you would preserve from injury at the time of the moon's conjunction2 and hence it is of the greatest importance to know1 when getting in the harvest1 whether it is for garnering or whether for immediate sale4 ,if cut during the increase of the moon1 grain will increase in size4 ,,chap4 #gd4 7#ca47--,,the ,,vintage1 ,,and ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,autumn4 ,in accordance with the ordinary divisions of the year1 we now come to autumn1 a period which extends from the setting of the ,lyre to the autumnal equinox1 and from that to the setting of the ,vergili and the beginning of winter4 ,in these intervals1 the more important periods are marked by the rising of the ,horse to the people of ,attica1 in the evening of the day before#fad the ides of ,august2 upon which day also the ,dolphin sets in ,egypt1 and1 according to ,csar1 in ,italy4 ,on the eleventh#fae before the calends of ,september1 the star called the ,vintager begins to rise in the morning1 according to ,csar's reckoning1 and to the people of ,assyria3 it announces the ripening of the vintage1 a sure sign of which is the change of colour in the grape4 ,on the fifth#faf before the calends of ,september1 the ,arrow sets in ,assyria1 and the ,etesian winds cease to blow3 on the nones#fag of ,september1 the ,vintager rises in ,egypt1 and in the morning of that day1 ,arcturus rises to the people of ,attica3 on the same morning1 too1 the ,arrow sets4 ,in the fifth before#fah the ides of ,september1 according to ,csar1 the ,she-,goat rises in the evening2 and one half of ,arcturus becomes visible on the day before#fai the ides of ,september1 being portentous#fbj of boisterous weather for five days1 both by land and sea4 ,the theory relative to the effects produced by ,arcturus1 is stated in the following terms3 if showers prevail1 it is said1 at the setting of the ,dolphin1 they will not cease so long as ,arcturus is visible4 ,the departure of the swallows may be looked upon as the sign of the rising of ,arcturus2 for if overtaken by it1 they are sure to perish4 ,on the sixteenth day before#fba the calends of ,october1 the ,ear of ,corn1 which ,virgo holds1 rises to the people of ,egypt in the morning1 and by this day the ,etesian winds have quite ceased to blow4 ,according to ,csar1 this constellation rises on the fourteenth#fbb before the calends1 and it affords its prognostics to the ,assyrians on the thirteenth4 ,on the eleventh before#fbc the calends of ,october1 the point of junction#fbd in ,pisces disappears1 and upon the eighth#fbe is the autumnal equinox4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 and rarely the case1 that ,philippus1 ,callippus1 ,dositheus1 ,parmeniscus1 ,conon1#fbf ,criton1 ,democritus1 and ,eudoxus1 all agree that the ,she-,goat rises in the morning of the fourth before#fbg the calends of ,october1 and on the third#fbh the ,kids4 ,on the sixth day before#fbi the nones of ,october1 the ,crown rises in the morning to the people of ,attica1 and upon the morning of the fifth1#fcj the ,charioteer sets4 ,on the fourth before#fca the nones of ,october1 the ,crown1 according to ,csar's reckoning1 begins to rise1 and on the evening of the day after is the setting of the constellation of the ,kids4 ,on the eighth before#fcb the ides of ,october1 according to ,csar1 the bright star rises that shines in the ,crown1 and on the evening of the sixth before#fcc the ides the ,vergili1 rise4 ,upon the ides#fcd of ,october1 the ,crown has wholly risen4 ,on the seventeenth before#fce the calends of ,november1 the ,sucul rise in the evening1 and on the day before the calends1 according to ,csar's reckoning1 ,arcturus sets1 and the ,sucul#fcf rise with the sun4 ,in the evening of the fourth day before#fcg the nones of ,november1 ,arcturus sets4 ,on the fifth before#fch the ides of ,november1 ,orion's ,sword begins to set2 and on the third#fci before the ides the ,vergili set4 ,in this interval of time1 the rural operations consist in sowing rape and turnips1 upon the days which have been mentioned on a previous occasion4#fdj ,the people in the country are of opinion1 that it is not a good plan to sow rape after the departure of the stork2 but for my own part1 ,i am of opinion that it should be sown after the ,vulcanalia1 and the early kind at the same time as panic4 ,after the setting of the ,lyre1 vetches should be sown1 kidney-beans and hay-grass3 it is generally recommended that this should be done while the moon is in conjunction4 ,this1 too1 is the proper time for gathering in the leaves3 it is fair work for one woodman1 to fill four baskets#fda in the day4 ,if the leaves are gathered while the moon is on the wane1 they will not decay2 they ought not to be dry1 however1 when gathered4 ,the ancients were of opinion1 that the vintage is never ripe before the equinox2 but at the present day ,i find that it is gathered in before that period2 it will be as well1 therefore1 to give the signs and indications by which the proper moment may be exactly ascertained4 ,the rules for getting in the vintage are to the following effect3 ,never gather the grape in a heated state1#fdb or in other words1 when the weather is dry1 and before the rains have fallen2 nor ought it to be gathered when covered with dew1--or in other words1 when dews have fallen during the night1--nor yet before the dews have been dispelled by the sun4 ,commence the vintage when the bearing-shoots begin to recline upon the stem1 or when1 after a grape is removed from the bunch1 the space left empty is not filled up2 this being a sure proof that the berry has ceased to increase in size4 ,it is of the greatest consequence to the grape1 that it should be gathered while the moon is on the increase4 ,each pressing should fill twenty culei1#fdc that being the fair proportion4 ,to fill twenty culei and vats#fdd from twenty jugera of vineyard1 a single press will be enough4 ,in pressing the grape1 some persons use a single press-board1 but it is a better plan to employ two1 however large the single ones may be4 ,it is the length of them that is of the greatest consequence1 and not the thickness3 if wide1 however1 they press the fruit all the better4 ,the ancients used to screw down the press-boards with ropes and leather thongs1 worked by levers4 ,within the last hundred years the ,greek press has been invented1 with thick spiral grooves running down the#fde stem4 ,to this stem there are spokes attached1 which project like the rays of a star1 and by means of which the stem is made to lift a box filled with stones--a method that is very highly approved of4 ,it is only within the last two-and-twenty years1 that a plan has been discovered of employing smaller press-boards1 and a less unwieldy press3 to effect this1 the height has been reduced1 and the stem of the screw placed in the middle1 the whole pressure being concentrated upon broad planks#fdf placed over the grapes1 which are covered also with heavy weights above4 ,this is the proper time for gathering fruit2 the best moment for doing so is when it has begun to fall through ripeness1 and not from the effects of the weather4 ,this is the season1 too1 for extracting the lees of wine1 and for boiling defrutum3#fdg this last must be done on a night when there is no moon1 or if it is a full moon1 in the day-time4 ,at other times of the year1 it must be done either before the moon has risen1 or after it has set4 ,the grapes employed for this purpose should never be gathered from a young vine1 nor yet from a tree that is grown in a marshy spot1 nor should any grapes be used but those that are perfectly ripe3 the liquor1 too1 should never be skimmed with anything but a leaf1#fdh for if the vessel should happen to be touched with wood1 the liquor1 it is generally thought1 will have a burnt and smoky flavour4 ,the proper time for the vintage is between the equinox and the setting of the ,vergili1 a period of forty-four days4 ,it is a saying among the growers1 that to pitch wine-vessels after that day1 in consequence of the coldness of the weather1 is only so much time lost4 ,still1 however1 ,i have seen1 before now persons getting in the vintage on the calends of ,january#fdi even1 in consequence of the want of wine-vessels1 and putting the must into receivers1#fej or else pouring the old wine out of its vessels1 to make room for new liquor of a very doubtful quality4 ,this1 however1 happens not so often in consequence of an over-abundant crop1 as through carelessness1 or else the avarice which leads people to wait for a rise in prices4 ,the method that is adopted by the most economical managers1 is to use the produce supplied by each year1#fea and this1 too1 is found in the end the most lucrative mode of proceeding4 ,as for the other details relative to wines1 they have been discussed at sufficient length already2#feb and it has been stated on a previous occasion1#fec that as soon as the vintage is got in1 the olives should at once be gathered1 with other particulars relative to the olive after the setting of the ,vergili4 ,,chap4 #ge4 7#cb47--,,the ,,revolutions ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,i shall now proceed to add some necessary information relative to the moon1 the winds1 and certain signs and prognostics1 in order that ,i may complete the observations ,i have to make with reference to the sidereal system4 ,virgil#fed has even gone so far1 in imitation of ,democritus1 as to assign certain operations to certain days#fee of the moon2 but my sole object shall be1 as1 indeed1 it has been throughout this work1 to consult that utility which is based upon a knowledge and appreciation of general principles4 ,all vegetable productions are cut1 gathered1 and housed to more advantage while the moon is on the wane than while it is on the increase4 ,manure must never be touched except when the moon is on the wane2 and land must be manured more particularly while the moon is in conjunction1 or else at the first quarter4 ,take care to geld your boars1 bulls1 rams1 and kids1 while the moon is on the wane4 ,put eggs under the hen at a new moon4 ,make your ditches in the night-time1 when the moon is at full4 ,cover up the roots of trees1 while the moon is at full4 ,where the soil is humid1 put in seed at the moon's conjunction1 and during the four days about that period4 ,it is generally recommended1 too1 to give an airing to corn and the leguminous grains1 and to garner them1 towards the end of the moon2 to make seed-plots when the moon is above the horizon2 and to tread out the grape1 to fell timber1 and to do many other things that have been mentioned in their respective places1 when the moon is below it4 ,the observation of the moon1 in general1 as already observed in the ,second ,book1#fef is not so very easy1 but what ,i am about here to state even rustics will be able to comprehend3 so long as the moon is seen in the west1 and during the earlier hours of the night1 she will be on the increase1 and one half of her disk will be perceived2 but when the moon is seen to rise at sunset and opposite to the sun1 so that they are both perceptible at the same moment1 she will be at full4 ,again1 as often as the moon rises in the east1 and does not give her light in the earlier hours of the night1 but shows herself during a portion of the day1 she will be on the wane1 and one half of her only will again be perceptible3 when the moon has ceased to be visible1 she is in conjunction1 a period known to us as 8interlunium40#feg ,during the conjunction1 the moon will be above the horizon the same time as the sun1 for the whole of the first day2 on the second1 she will advance upon the night ten-twelfths of an hour and one-fourth of a twelfth2#feh on the third day1 the same as on the second1 and 99 99 99 so on in succession up to the fifteenth day1 the same proportional parts of an hour being added each day4 ,on the fifteenth day she will be above the horizon all night1 and below it all day4 ,on the sixteenth1 she will remain below the horizon ten-twelfths of an hour1 and one-fourth of a twelfth1 at the first hour of the night1 and so on in the same proportion day after day1 up to the period of her conjunction2 and thus1 the same time which1 by remaining under the horizon1 she withdraws from the first part of the night1 she will add to the end of the night by remaining above the horizon4 ,her revolutions1 too1 will occupy thirty days one month1 and twenty-nine the next1 and so on alternately4 ,such is the theory of the revolutions of the moon4 ,,chap4 #gf4 7#cc47--,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,winds4 ,the theory of the winds#fei is of a somewhat more intricate nature4 ,after observing the quarter in which the sun rises on any given day1 at the sixth#ffj hour of the day take your position in such a manner as to have the point of the sun's rising on your left2 you will then have the south directly facing you1 and the north at your back3 a line drawn through a field in this direction#ffa is called the 8cardinal0#ffb line4 ,the observer must then turn round1 so as to look upon his shadow1 for it will be behind him4 ,having thus changed his position1 so as to bring the point of the sun's rising on that day to the right1 and that of his setting to the left1 it will be the sixth hour of the day1 at the moment when the shadow straight before him is the shortest4 ,through the middle of this shadow1 taken lengthwise1 a furrow must be traced in the ground with a hoe1 or else a line drawn with ashes1 some twenty feet in length1 say2 in the middle of this line1 or1 in other words1 at the tenth foot in it1 a small circle must then be described3 to this circle we may give the name of the 8umbilicus10 or 8navel40 ,that point in the line which lies on the side of the head of the shadow will be the point from which the north wind blows4 ,you who are engaged in pruning trees1 be it your care that the incisions made in the wood do not face this point2 nor should the vine-trees#ffc or the vines have this aspect1 except in the climates of ,africa1#ffd ,cyren1 or ,egypt4 ,when the wind blows1 too1 from this point1 you must never plough1 nor1 in fact1 attempt any other of the operations of which we shall have to make mention4#ffe ,that part of the line which lies between the umbilicus and the feet of the shadow will look towards the south1 and indicate the point from which the south wind#fff blows1 to which1 as already mentioned1#ffg the ,greeks have given the name of ,notus4 ,when the wind comes from this quarter1 you1 husbandman1 must never fell wood or touch the vine4 ,in ,italy this wind is either humid or else of a burning heat1 and in ,africa it is accompanied with intense heat#ffh and fine clear weather4 ,in ,italy the bearing branches should be trained to face this quarter1 but the incisions made in the trees or vines when pruned must never face it4 ,let those be on their guard against this wind upon the four#ffi days at the rising of the ,vergili1 who are engaged in planting the olive1 as well as those who are employed in the operations of grafting or inoculating4 ,it will be as well1 too1 here to give some advice1 in reference to the climate of ,italy1 as to certain precautions to be observed at certain hours of the day4 ,you1 woodman1 must never lop the branches in the middle of the day2 and you1 shepherd1 when you see midday approaching in summer1 and the shadow gradually decreasing1 drive your flocks from out of the sun into some well-shaded spot4 ,when you lead the flocks to pasture in summer1 let them face the west before midday1#fgj and after that time1 the east3 if this precaution is not adopted1 calamitous results will ensue2 the same1 too1 if the flocks are led in winter or spring to pastures covered with dew4 ,nor must you let them feed with their faces to the north1 as already mentioned2#fga for the wind will either close their eyes or else make them bleared1 and they will die of looseness4 ,if you wish to have females1#fgb you should let the dams have their faces towards the north while being covered4 ,,chap4 #gg4 7#cd47--,,the ,,laying ,,out ,,of ,,lands ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,wind4 ,we have already stated#fgc that the umbilicus should be described in the middle of the line4 ,let another line be drawn transversely through the middle of it1 and it will be found to run from due east to due west2 a trench cut through the land in accordance with this line is known by the name of 8decumanus40 ,two other lines must then be traced obliquely across them in the form of the letter ,x1 in such a way as to run exactly from right and left of the northern point to left and right of the southern one4 ,all these lines must pass through the centre of the umbilicus1 and all must be of corresponding length1 and at equal distances4 ,this method should always be adopted in laying out land2 or if it should be found necessary to employ it frequently1 a plan#fgd of it may be made in wood1 sticks of equal length being fixed upon the surface of a small tambour1#fge but perfectly round4 ,in the method which ,i am here explaining1 it is necessary to point out one precaution that must always be observed by those who are unacquainted with the subject4 ,the point that must be verified first of all is the south1 as that is always the same2 but the sun1 it must be remembered1 rises every day at a point in the heavens different to that of his rising on the day before1 so that the east must never be taken as the basis for tracing the lines4 ,having now ascertained the various points of the heavens1 the extremity of the line that is nearest to the north1 but lying to the east of it1 will indicate the solstitial rising1 or1 in other words1 the rising of the sun on the longest day1 as also the point from which the wind ,aquilo#fgf blows1 known to the ,greeks by the name of ,boreas4 ,you should plant all trees and vines facing this point1 but take care never to plough1 or sow corn1 or plant in seed plots1 while this wind is blowing1 for it has the effect of drying up and blasting the roots of the trees while being transplanted4 ,be taught in time--one thing is good for grown trees1 another for them while they are but young4 ,nor have ,i forgotten the fact1 that it is at this point of the heavens that the ,greeks place the wind1 to which they give the name of ,ccias2 ,aristotle1 a man of most extensive learning1 who has assigned to ,ccias this position1 explains that it is in consequence of the convexity of the earth1 that ,aquilo blows in an opposite direction to the wind called ,africus4 ,the agriculturist1 however1 has nothing to fear from ,aquilo1 in respect to the operations before mentioned1 all the year through2 for this wind is softened by the sun in the middle of the summer1 and1 changing its name1 is known by that of ,etesias4#fgg ,when you feel the cold1 then1 be on your guard2 for1 whatever the noxious effects that are attributed to ,aquilo1 the more sensibly will they be felt when the wind blows from due north4 ,in ,asia1 ,greece1 ,spain1 the coasts of ,italy1 ,campania1 and ,apulia1 the trees that support the vines1 as well as the vines themselves1 should have an aspect towards the north-east4 ,if you wish to have male produce1 let the flock feed in such a way1 that this wind may have the opportunity of fecundating the male1 whose office it is to fecundate the females4 ,the wind ,africus1 known to the ,greeks by the name of ,libs1 blows from the south-west1 the opposite point to ,aquilo2 when animals1 after coupling1 turn their heads towards this quarter1#fgh you may be sure that female produce has been conceived4 ,the third#fgi line from the north1 which we have drawn transversely through the shadow1 and called by the name of 8decumanus10 will point due east1 and from this quarter the wind ,subsolanus blows1 by the ,greeks called ,apeliotes4 ,it is to this point that1 in healthy localities1 farm-houses and vineyards are made to look4 ,this wind is accompanied with soft1 gentle showers2 ,favonius1 however1 the wind that blows from due west1 the opposite quarter to it1 is of a drier nature2 by the ,greeks it is known as ,zephyrus4 ,cato has recommended that olive-yards should look due west4 ,it is this wind that begins the spring1 and opens the earth2 it is moderately cool1 but healthy4 ,as soon as it begins to prevail1 it indicates that the time has arrived for pruning the vine1 weeding the corn1 planting trees1 grafting fruit-trees1 and trimming the olive2 for its breezes are productive of the most nutritious effects4 ,the fourth#fhj line from the north1 and the one that lies nearest the south on the eastern side1 will indicate the point of the sun's rising at the winter solstice1 and the wind ,volturnus1 known by the name of ,eurus to the ,greeks4 ,this wind is warm and dry1 and beehives and vineyards1 in the climates of ,italy and the ,gallic provinces1 should face this quarter4 ,directly opposite to ,volturnus1 the wind ,corus blows2 it indicates the point of the sun's setting at the summer solstice1 and lies on the western side next to the north4 ,by the ,greeks it is called ,argestes1 and is one of the very coldest of the winds1 which1 in fact1 is the case with all the winds that blow from the north2 this wind1 too1 brings hailstorms with it1 for which reason it is necessary to be on our guard against it no less than the north4 ,if ,volturnus begins to blow from a clear quarter of the heavens1 it will not last till night2 but if it is ,subsolanus1 it will prevail for the greater part of the night4 ,whatever the wind that may happen to be blowing1 if it is accompanied by heat1 it will be sure to last for several days4 ,the earth announces the approach of ,aquilo1 by drying on a sudden1 while on the approach of ,auster1 the surface becomes moist without any apparent cause4 ,,chap4 #gh4 7#ce47--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,sun4 ,having now explained the theory of the winds1 it seems to me the best plan1 in order to avoid any repetition1 to pass on to the other signs and prognostics that are indicative of a change of weather4 ,i find1 too1 that this is a kind of knowledge that greatly interested ,virgil1#fha for he mentions the fact1 that during the harvest even1 he has often seen the winds engage in a combat that was absolutely ruinous to the improvident agriculturist4 ,there is a tradition1 too1 to the effect that ,democritus1 already mentioned1 when his brother ,damasus was getting in his harvest in extremely hot weather1 entreated him to leave the rest of the crop1 and house with all haste that which had been cut2 and it was only within a very few hours that his prediction was verified by a most violent storm4 ,on the other hand1 it is particularly recommended never to plant reeds except when rain is impending1 and only to sow corn just before a shower2 we shall therefore briefly touch upon the prognostics of this description1 making enquiry more particularly into those among them that have been found the most useful4 ,in the first place1 then1 we will consider those prognostics of the weather which are derived from the sun4#fhb ,if the sun is bright at its rising1 and not burning hot1 it is indicative of fine weather1 but if pale1 it announces wintry weather accompanied with hail4 ,if the sun is bright and clear when it sets1 and if it rises with a similar appearance1 the more assured of fine weather may we feel ourselves4 ,if it is hidden in clouds at its rising1 it is indicative of rain1 and of wind1 when the clouds are of a reddish colour just before sunrise2 if black clouds are intermingled with the red ones1 they betoken rain as well4 ,when the sun's rays at its rising or setting appear to unite1 rainy weather may be looked for4 ,when the clouds are red at sunset1 they give promise#fhc of a fine day on the morrow2 but if1 at the sun's rising1 the clouds are dispersed in various quarters1 some to the south1 and some to the north-east1 even though the heavens in the vicinity of the sun may be bright1 they are significant of rain and wind4 ,if at the sun's rising or setting1 its rays appear contracted1 they announce the approach of a shower4 ,if it rains at sunset1 or if the sun's rays attract the clouds towards them1 it is portentous of stormy weather on the following day4 ,when the sun1 at its rising1 does not emit vivid rays1 although there are no clouds surrounding it1 rain may be expected4 ,if before sunrise the clouds collect into dense masses1 they are portentous of a violent storm2 but if they are repelled from the east and travel westward1 they indicate fine weather4 ,when clouds are seen surrounding the face of the sun1 the less the light they leave1 the more violent the tempest will be3 but if they form a double circle round the sun1 the storm will be a dreadful one4 ,if this takes place at sunrise or sunset1 and the clouds assume a red hue1 the approach of a most violent storm is announced3 and if the clouds hang over the face of the sun without surrounding it1 they presage wind from the quarter from which they are drifting1 and rain as well1 if they come from the south4 ,if1 at its rising1 the sun is surrounded with a circle1 wind may be looked for in the quarter in which the circle breaks2 but if it disappears equally throughout1 it is indicative of fine weather4 ,if the sun at its rising throws out its rays afar through the clouds1 and the middle of its disk is clear1 there will be rain2 and if its rays are seen before it rises1 both rain and wind as well4 ,if a white circle is seen round the sun at its setting1 there will be a slight storm in the night2 but if there is a mist around it1 the storm will be more violent4 ,if the sun is pale at sunset1 there will be wind1 and if there is a dark circle round it1 high winds will arise in the quarter in which the circle breaks4 ,,chap4 #gi4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,moon4 ,the prognostics derived from the moon1 assert their right to occupy our notice in the second place4 ,in ,egypt1 attention is paid1 more particularly1 to the fourth day of the moon4 ,if1 when the moon rises1 she shines with a pure bright light1 it is generally supposed that we shall have fine weather2 but if she is red1 there will be wind1 and if of a swarthy#fhd hue1 rain4 ,if upon the fifth day of the moon her horns are obtuse1 they are always indicative of rain1 but if sharp and erect1 of wind1 and this on the fourth day of the moon more particularly4 ,if her northern horn is pointed and erect1 it portends wind2 and if it is the lower horn that presents this appearance1 the wind will be from the south2 if both of them are erect1 there will be high winds in the night4 ,if upon the fourth day of the moon she is surrounded by a red circle1 it is portentous of wind and rain4 ,in ,varro we find it stated to the following effect3--8,if1 at the fourth day of the moon1 her horns are erect1 there will be great storms at sea1 unless1 indeed1 she has a circlet#fhe around her1 and that circlet unblemished2 for by that sign we are informed that there will be no stormy weather before full moon4 ,if1 at the full moon1 one half of her disk is clear1 it is indicative of fine weather1 but if it is red1 of wind1 and if black1 of rain4 ,if a darkness comes over the face of the moon1 covered with clouds1 in whatever quarter it breaks1 from that quarter wind may be expected4 ,if a twofold circle surrounds the moon1 the storm will be more violent1 and even more so still1 if there are three circles1 or if they are black1 broken1 and disjointed4 ,if the new moon at her rising has the upper horn obscured1 there will be a prevalence of rainy weather1 when she is on the wane2 but if it is the lower horn that is obscured1 there will be rain before full moon2 if1 again1 the moon is darkened in the middle of her disk1 there will be rain when she is at full4 ,if the moon1 when full1 has a circle round her1 it indicates wind from the quarter in the circle which is the brightest2 but if at her rising the horns are obtuse1 they are portentous of a frightful tempest4 ,if1 when the west wind prevails1 the moon does not make her appearance before her fourth day1 there will be a prevalence of stormy weather throughout the month4 ,if on the sixteenth day the moon has a bright1 flaming appearance1 it is a presage of violent tempests40 ,there are eight different epochs of the moon1 or periods at which she makes certain angles of incidence with the sun1 and most persons only notice the prognostics derived from the moon1 according to the places which they occupy between these angles4 ,the periods of these angles are the third day1 the seventh1 the eleventh1 the fifteenth1 the nineteenth1 the twenty-third1 the twenty-seventh1 and that of the conjunction4 ,,chap4 #hj4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,stars4 ,in the third rank must be placed the prognostics derived from the stars4 ,these bodies are sometimes to be seen shooting to and fro2#fhf when this happens1 winds immediately ensue1 in that part of the heavens in which the presage has been afforded4 ,when the heavens are equally bright throughout their whole expanse1 at the periods previously mentioned1#fhg the ensuing autumn will be fine and cool4 ,if the spring and summer have passed not without some rain1 the autumn will be fine and settled1#fhh and there will be but little wind3 when the autumn is fine1 it makes a windy winter4 ,when the brightness of the stars is suddenly obscured1 though without#fhi clouds or fog1 violent tempests may be expected4 ,if numerous stars are seen to shoot1#fij leaving a white track behind them1 they presage wind from that quarter4#fia ,if they follow in quick succession from the same quarter1 the wind will blow steadily1 but if from various quarters of the heavens1 the wind will shift in sudden gusts and squalls4 ,if circles are seen to surround any of the planets1 there will be rain4#fib ,in the constellation of ,cancer1 there are two small stars to be seen1 known as the ,aselli1#fic the small space that lies between them being occupied by a cloudy appearance1 which is known as the ,manger2#fid when this cloud is not visible in a clear sky1 it is a presage of a violent storm4 ,if a fog conceals from our view the one of these stars which lies to the north-east1 there will be high winds from the south2 but if it is the star which lies to the south that is so obscured1 then the wind will be from the north-east4 ,the rainbow1 when double1 indicates the approach#fie of rain2 but if seen after rain1 it gives promise1 though by no means a certain one1 of fine weather4 ,circular clouds around some of the stars are indicative of rain4 ,,chap4 #ha4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,thunder4 ,when1 in summer1 there is more thunder than lightning1 wind may be expected from that quarter2 but if1 on the other hand1 there is not so much thunder as lightning1 there will be a fall of rain4 ,when it lightens in a clear sky1 there will be rain1 and if there is thunder as well1 stormy weather2 but if it lightens from all four quarters of the heavens1 there will be a dreadful tempest4 ,when it lightens from the north-east only1 it portends rain on the following day2 but when from the north1 wind may be expected from that quarter4 ,when it lightens on a clear night from the south1 the west1 or the north-west1 there will be wind and rain from those quarters4 ,thunder#fif in the morning is indicative of wind1 and at midday of rain4 ,,chap4 #hb4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,clouds4 ,when clouds are seen moving in a clear sky1 wind may be expected in the quarter from which they proceed2 but if they accumulate in one spot1 as they approach the sun they will disperse4 ,if the clouds are dispersed by a north-east wind1 it is a presage of high winds1 but if by a wind from the south1 of rain4 ,if at sunset the clouds cover the heavens on either side of the sun1 they are indicative of tempest2 if they are black and lowering in the east1 they threaten rain in the night1 but if in the west1 on the following day4 ,if the clouds spread in large numbers from the east1 like fleeces of wool in appearance1 they indicate a continuance of rain for the next three days4 ,when the clouds settle on the summits of the mountains1#fig there will be stormy weather2 but if the clouds clear away1 it will be fine4 ,when the clouds are white and lowering1 a hailstorm1 generally known as a 8white0#fih tempest1 is close at hand4 ,an isolated cloud1 however small1#fii though seen in a clear sky1 announces wind and storm4 ,,chap4 #hc4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,mists4 ,mists descending from the summits of mountains1 or from the heavens1 or settling in the vallies1#gjj give promise of fine weather4 ,,chap4 #hd4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,fire ,,kindled ,,by ,,man4 ,next to these are the prognostics that are derived from fire kindled upon the earth4#gja ,if the flames are pallid1 and emit a murmuring noise1 they are considered to presage stormy weather2 and fungi upon the burning wick of the lamp are a sign of rain4#gjb ,if the flame is spiral and flickering1 it is an indication of wind1 and the same is the case when the lamp goes out of itself1 or is lighted with difficulty4 ,so1 too1 if the snuff hangs down1 and sparks gather upon it1 or if the burning coals adhere#gjc to vessels taken from off the fire1 or if the fire1 when covered up1 sends out hot embers or emits sparks1 or if the cinders gather into a mass upon the hearth1 or the coals burn bright and glowing4 ,,chap4 #he4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,water4 ,there are certain prognostics1 too1 that may be derived from water4 ,if1 when the sea is calm1 the water ripples in the harbour1 with a hollow1 murmuring noise1 it is a sign of wind1 and if in winter1 of rain as well4 ,if the coasts and shores re-echo while the sea is calm1 a violent tempest may be expected2 and the same when the sea1 though calm1 is heard to roar1 or throws up foam and bubbling spray4 ,if sea pulmones#gjd are to be seen floating on the surface1 they are portentous of stormy weather for many days to come4 ,very frequently1 too1 the sea is seen to swell in silence1 and more so than when ruffled by an ordinary breeze2 this is an indication that the winds are at work within its bosom already4 ,,chap4 #hf4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,tempests ,,themselves4 ,the reverberations1 too1 of the mountains1 and the roaring of the forests1 are indicative of certain phnomena2 and the same is the case when the leaves are seen to quiver1#gje without a breath of wind1 the downy filaments of the poplar or thorn to float in the air1 and feathers to skim along the surface of the water4#gjf ,in champaign countries1 the storm gives notice of its approach by that peculiar muttering#gjg which precedes it2 while the murmuring that is heard in the heavens affords us no doubtful presage of what is to come4 ,,chap4 #hg4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,aquatic ,,animals1 ,,and ,,birds4 ,the animals1 too1 afford us certain presages2 dolphins1 for instance1 sporting in a calm sea1 announce wind in the quarter from which they make their appearance4#gjh ,when they throw up the water in a billowy sea1 they announce the approach of a calm4 ,the loligo1#gji springing out of the water1 shell-fish adhering to various objects1 sea-urchins fastening by their stickles upon the sand1 or else burrowing in it1 are so many indications of stormy weather3 the same1 too1 when frogs#gaj croak more than usual1 or coots#gaa make a chattering in the morning4 ,divers1 too1 and ducks1 when they clean their feathers with the bill1 announce high winds2 which is the case also when the aquatic birds unite in flocks1 cranes make for the interior1 and divers#gab and sea-mews forsake the sea or the creeks4 ,cranes when they fly aloft in silence announce fine weather1 and so does the owlet1#gac when it screeches during a shower2 but if it is heard in fine weather1 it presages a storm4 ,ravens1 too1 when they croak with a sort of gurgling noise and shake their feathers1 give warning of the approach of wind1 if their note is continuous3 but if1 on the other hand1 it is smothered1 and only heard at broken intervals1 we may expect rain1 accompanied with high winds4 ,jackdaws1 when they return late from feeding1 give notice of stormy weather1 and the same with the white birds1#gad when they unite in flocks1 and the land birds1 when they descend with cries to the water and besprinkle themselves1 the crow more particularly4 ,the swallow1#gae too1 when it skims along the surface of the water so near as to ripple it every now and then with its wings1 and the birds that dwell in the trees1 when they hide themselves in their nests1 afford similar indications2 geese1 too1 when they set up a continuous gabbling1#gaf at an unusual time1 and the heron1#gag when it stands moping in the middle of the sands4 ,,chap4 #hh4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,quadrupeds4 ,nor1 indeed1 is it surprising that the aquatic birds1 or any birds1 in fact1 should have a perception of the impending changes of the atmosphere4 ,sheep1 however1 when they skip and frisk with their clumsy gambols1#gah afford us similar prognostics2 oxen1 when they snuff upwards towards the sky1 and lick#gai themselves against the hair2 unclean swine1 when they tear to pieces the trusses of hay that are put for other animals2#gbj bees1 when1 contrary to their natural habits of industry1 they keep close within the hive2 ants1 when they hurry to and fro1 or are seen carrying forth their eggs2 and earthworms1#gba emerging from their holes--all these indicate approaching changes in the weather4 ,,chap4 #hi4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,plants4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that trefoil bristles up1 and its leaves stand erect1 upon the approach of a tempest4 ,,chap4 #ij4--,,prognostics ,,derived ,,from ,,food4 ,at our repasts1 too1 and upon our tables1 when we see the vessels sweat in which the viands are served1 and leave marks upon the side-board1#gbb it is an indication that a dreadful storm is impending4 ,,summary4--,remarkable facts1 narratives1 and observations1 two thousand and sixty4 ,,roman ,,authors ,,quoted4--,massurius ,sabinus1#gbc ,cassius ,hemina1#gbd ,verrius ,flaccus1#gbe ,l4 ,piso1#gbf ,cornelius ,celsus1#gbg ,turranius ,gracilis1#gbh ,d4 ,silanus1#gbi ,m4 ,varro1#gcj ,cato the ,censor1#gca ,scrofa1#gcb the ,sasern1#gcc father and son1 ,domitius ,calvinus1#gcd ,hyginus1#gce ,virgil1#gcf ,trogus1#gcg ,ovid1#gch ,grcinus1#gci ,columella1#gdj ,tubero1#gda ,l4 ,tarutius1#gdb who wrote in ,greek on the ,stars1 ,csar#gdc the ,dictator1 who wrote upon the ,stars1 ,sergius ,paulus1#gdd ,sabinus ,fabianus1#gde ,m4 ,cicero1#gdf ,calpurnius ,bassus1#gdg ,ateius ,capito1#gdh ,mamilius ,sura1#gdi ,attius1#gej who wrote the ,praxidica4 ,,foreign ,,authors ,,quoted4--,hesiod1#gea ,theophrastus1#geb ,aristotle1#gec ,democritus1#ged ,king ,hiero1#gee ,king ,attalus ,philometor1#gef ,king ,archelas1#geg ,archytas1#geh ,xenophon1#gei ,amphilochus#gfj of ,athens1 ,anaxipolis#gfa of ,thasos1 ,aristophanes#gfb of ,miletus1 ,apollodorus#gfc of ,lemnos1 ,antigonus#gfd of ,cym1 ,agathocles#gfe of ,chios1 ,apollonius#gff of ,pergamus1 ,aristander#gfg of ,athens1 ,bacchius#gfh of ,miletus1 ,bion#gfi of ,soli1 ,chreas#ggj of ,athens1 ,christus#gga of ,athens1 ,diodorus#ggb of ,priene1 ,dion#ggc of ,colophon1 ,epigenes#ggd of ,rhodes1 ,euagon#gge of ,thasos1 ,euphronius#ggf of ,athens1 ,androtiou#ggg who wrote on ,agriculture1 schrion#ggh who wrote on ,agriculture1 ,lysimachus#ggi who wrote on ,agriculture1 ,dionysius#ghj who translated ,mago1 ,diophanes#gha who made an ,epitome from ,dionysius1 ,thales1#ghb ,eudoxus1#ghc ,philippus1#ghd ,calippus1#ghe ,dositheus1#ghf ,parmeniscus1#ghg ,meton1#ghh ,criton1#ghi nopides1#gij ,zenon1#gia ,euctemon1#gib ,harpalus1#gic ,hecatus1#gid ,anaximander1#gie ,sosigenes1#gif ,hipparchus1#gig ,aratus1#gih ,zoroaster1#gii ,archibius4#hjj ,,book ,,xix4 ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,cultivation ,,of ,,flax1 ,,and ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,various ,,garden ,,plants4 ,,chap4 #a4--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,flax--,,marvellous ,,facts ,,relative ,,thereto4 ,we have now imparted a knowledge#hja of the constellations and of the seasons1 in a method unattended with difficulty for the most ignorant even1 and free from every doubt2 indeed1 to those who understand these matters aright1 the face of the earth contributes in no less a degree to a due appreciation of the celestial phnomena1 than does the science of astronomy to our improvement in the arts of agriculture4 ,many writers have made it their next care to treat of horticulture2 but1 for my own part1 it does not appear to me altogether advisable to pass on immediately to that subject1 and1 indeed1 ,i am rather surprised to find that some among the learned1 who have either sought the pleasures of knowledge in these pursuits1 or have grounded their celebrity upon them1 have omitted so many particulars in reference thereto2 for no mention do we find in their writings of numerous vegetable productions1 both wild as well as cultivated1 many of which are found1 in ordinary life1 to be of higher value and of more extended use to man than the cereals even4 ,to commence1 then1 with a production which is of an utility that is universally recognized1 and is employed not only upon dry land but upon the seas as well1 we will turn our attention to flax1#hjb a plant which is reproduced from seed1 but which can neither be classed among the cereals nor yet among the garden plants4 ,what department is there to be found of active life in which flax is not employed8 and in what production of the earth are there greater marvels#hjc revealed to us than in this8 ,to think that here is a plant which brings ,egypt in close proximity to ,italy6--so much so1 in fact1 that ,galerius#hjd and ,balbillus1#hje both of them prefects of ,egypt1 made the passage to ,alexandria from the ,straits of ,sicily1 the one in six days1 the other in five6 ,it was only this very last summer1 that ,valerius ,marianus1 a senator of prtorian rank1 reached ,alexandria from ,puteoli in eight days1 and that1 too1 with a very moderate breeze all the time6 ,to think that here is a plant which brings ,gades1 situate near the ,pillars of ,hercules1 within six days of ,ostia1 ,nearer ,spain within three1 the province of ,gallia ,narbonensis within two1 and ,africa within one6--this last passage having been made by ,c4 ,flavius1 when legatus of ,vibius ,crispus1 the proconsul1 and that1 too1 with but little or no wind to favour his passage6 ,what audacity in man6 ,what criminal perverseness6 thus to sow a thing in the ground for the purpose of catching the winds and the tempests1 it being not enough for him1 forsooth1 to be borne upon the waves alone6 ,nay1 still more than this1 sails even that are bigger than the very ships themselves will not suffice for him1 and although it takes a whole tree to make a mast to carry the cross-yards1 above those cross-yards sails upon sails must still be added1 with others swelling at the prow and at the stern as well--so many devices1 in fact1 to challenge death6 ,only to think1 in fine1 that that which moves to and fro1 as it were1 the various countries of the earth1 should spring from a seed so minute1 and make its appearance in a stem so fine1 so little elevated above the surface of the earth6 ,and then1 besides1 it is not in all its native strength that it is employed for the purposes of a tissue2 no1 it must first be rent asunder1 and then tawed and beaten1 till it is reduced to the softness of wool2 indeed1 it is only by such violence done to its nature1 and prompted by the extreme audacity of man1 and#hjf 99 99 99 that it is rendered subservient to his purposes4 ,the inventor of this art has been already mentioned by us on a more appropriate occasion2#hjg not satisfied that his fellow-men should perish upon land1 but anxious that they should meet their end with no sepulchral rites to await them1 there are no execrations#hjh to be found that can equal his demerits6 ,it is only in the preceding ,book#hji that ,i was warning the agriculturist1 as he values the grain that is to form our daily sustenance1 to be on his guard against the storm and the tempest2 and yet1 here we have man sowing with his own hand1 man racking his invention how best to gather1 an object the only aspirations of which upon the deep are the winds of heaven6 ,and then1 too1 as if to let us understand all the better how highly favoured is this instrument of our punishment1 there is no vegetable production that grows with greater facility2#haj and1 to prove to us that it is in despite of ,nature herself that it exists1 it has the property of scorching#haa the ground where it is grown1 and of deteriorating the quality of the very soil itself4 ,,chap4 #b4 7#a47--;,,how ,,flax ,,is ,,sown3 ,,twenty-,,seven ,,principal ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,flax is mostly sown in sandy#hab soils1 and after a single ploughing only4 ,there is no plant that grows more rapidly#hac than this2 sown in spring1#had it is pulled up in summer1 and is1 for this reason as well1 productive of considerable injury to the soil4#hae ,there may be some1 however1 who would forgive ,egypt for growing it1 as it is by its aid that she imports the merchandize of ,arabia and ,india2 but why should the ,gallic provinces base any of their reputation upon this product8#haf ,is it not enough1 forsooth1 for them to be separated by mountains from the sea1 and to have1 upon the side on which they are bounded by the ,ocean1 that void and empty space1 as it is called8#hag ,the ,cadurci1#hah the ,caleti1 the ,ruteni1#hai the ,bituriges1#hbj and the ,morini1#hba those remotest of all mankind1 as it is supposed1 the whole of the ,gallic provinces1 in fact1 are in the habit of weaving sail-cloth2 and at the present day our enemies even1 who dwell beyond the ,rhenus1 have learned to do the same2 indeed1 there is no tissue that is more beautiful in the eyes of their females than linen4 ,i am here reminded of the fact1 that we find it stated by ,m4 ,varro1 that it is a custom peculiar to the family of the ,serrani#hbb for the women never to wear garments of linen4 ,in ,germany it is in caves#hbc deep under-ground that the linen-weavers ply their work2 and the same is the case1 too1 in the ,alian territory1 in ,italy1 between the rivers ,padus and ,ticinus1 the linen of which holds the third rank among the kinds manufactured in ,europe1 that of ,stabis#hbd claiming the first1 and those of ,retovium#hbe and of ,faventia1 in the vicinity of ,alia1 on the milian ,way1 the second1 place in general estimation4 ,the linens of ,faventia are preferred for whiteness to those of ,alia1 which are always un-bleached3 those of ,retovium are remarkable for their extreme fineness1 combined with substance1 and are quite equal in whiteness to the linens of ,faventia2 but they have none of that fine downy nap#hbf upon them1 which is so highly esteemed by some persons1 though equally disliked by others4 ,a thread is made1 too1 from their flax1 of considerable strength1 smoother and more even1 almost1 than the spider's web2 when tested with the teeth1 it emits a sharp1 clear twang2 hence it is1 that it sells at double the price of the other kinds4 ,but it is the province of ,nearer ,spain that produces a linen of the greatest lustre1 an advantage which it owes to the waters of a stream which washes the city of ,tarraco#hbg there4 ,the fineness1 too1 of this linen is quite marvellous1 and here it is that the first manufactories of cambric#hbh were established4 ,from the same province1 too1 of ,spain1 the flax of ,zola#hbi has of late years been introduced into ,italy1 and has been found extremely serviceable for the manufacture of hunting-nets4 ,zola is a city of ,callcia1 in the vicinity of the ,ocean4 ,the flax1 too1 of ,cum1 in ,campania1 has its own peculiar merits in the manufacture of nets for fishing and fowling2 it is employed1 also1 for making hunting-nets4 ,for it is from flax1 in fact1 that we prepare various textures1 destined to be no less insidious to the brute creation than they are to ourselves4 ,it is with toils made from the flax of ,cum that wild boars are taken1 the meshes being proof against their bristles1#hcj equally with the edge of the knife3 before now1 too1 we have seen some of these toils of a fineness so remarkable#hca as to allow of being passed through a man's ring1 running ropes and all1 a single individual being able to carry an amount of nets sufficient to environ a whole forest--a thing which we know to have been done not long ago by ,julius ,lupus1 who died prefect of ,egypt4 ,this1 however1 is nothing very surprising1 but it really is quite wonderful that each of the cords was composed of no less than one hundred and fifty threads4 ,those1 no doubt1 will be astonished at this1 who are not aware that there is preserved in the ,temple of ,minerva1 at ,lindus1 in the ,isle of ,rhodes1 the cuirass of a former king of ,egypt1 ,amasis by name1 each thread employed in the texture of which is composed of three hundred and sixty-five other threads4 ,mucianus1 who was three times consul1 informs us that he saw this curiosity very recently1 though there was but little then remaining of it1 in consequence of the injury it had experienced at the hands of various persons who had tried to verify the fact4 ,italy1 too1 holds the flax of the ,peligni in high esteem1 though it is only employed by fullers2 there is no kind known that is whiter than this1 or which bears a closer resemblance to wool4 ,that grown by the ,cadurci#hcb is held in high estimation for making mattresses2#hcc which1 as well as flock1#hcd are an invention for which we are indebted to the ,gauls3 the ancient usage of ,italy is still kept in remembrance in the word 8stramentum10#hce the name given by us to beds stuffed with straw4 ,the flax of ,egypt1 though the least strong#hcf of all as a tissue1 is that from which the greatest profits are derived4 ,there are four varieties of it1 the ,tanitic1 the ,pelusiac1 the ,butic1 and the ,tentyritic--so called from the various districts in which they are respectively grown4 ,the upper part of ,egypt1 in the vicinity of ,arabia1 produces a shrub1 known by some as 8gossypium10#hcg but by most persons as 8xylon20 hence the name of 8xylina10 given to the tissues that are manufactured from it4 ,the shrub is small1 and bears a fruit1 similar in appearance to a nut with a beard1 and containing in the inside a silky substance1 the down of which is spun into threads4 ,there is no tissue known1 that is superior to those made from this thread1 either for whiteness1 softness1 or dressing3 the most esteemed vestments worn by the priests of ,egypt are made of it4 ,there is a fourth kind of tissue1 known by the name of 8othoninum10 which is made from a kind of marsh-reed1#hch the panicule only being employed for the purpose4 ,in ,asia1 again1 there is a thread made from broom1#hci which is employed in the construction of fishing-nets1 being found to be remarkably durable2 for the purpose of preparing it1 the shrub is steeped in water for ten days4 ,the thiopians1 also1 and the people of ,india1 prepare a kind of thread from a fruit which resembles our apple1 and the ,arabians1 as already#hdj mentioned1 from gourds that grow upon trees4 ,,chap4 #c4--,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,preparing ,,flax4 ,in our part of the world the ripeness of flax is usually ascertained by two signs1 the swelling of the seed1 and its assuming a yellowish tint4 ,it is then pulled up by the roots1 made up into small sheaves that will just fill the hand1 and hung to dry in the sun4 ,it is suspended with the roots upwards the first day1 and then for the five following days the heads of the sheaves are placed1 reclining one against the other1 in such a way that the seed which drops out may fall into the middle4 ,linseed is employed for various medicinal#hda purposes1 and it is used by the country-people of ,italy beyond the ,padus in a certain kind of food1 which is remarkable for its sweetness3 for this long time past1 however1 it has only been in general use for sacrifices offered to the divinities4 ,after the wheat harvest is over1 the stalks of flax are plunged in water that has been warmed in the sun1 and are then submitted to pressure with a weight2 for there is nothing known that is more light and buoyant than this4 ,when the outer coat is loosened1 it is a sign that the stalks have been sufficiently steeped2 after which#hdb they are again turned with the heads downwards1 and left to dry as before in the sun3 when thoroughly dried1 they are beaten with a tow-mallet on a stone4 ,the part that lies nearest to the outer coat is known by the name of 8stuppa20 it is a flax of inferior quality1 and is mostly employed for making the wicks of lamps4 ,this1 however1 requires to be combed out with iron hatchels1 until the whole of the outer skin is removed4 ,the inner part presents numerous varieties of flax1 esteemed respectively in proportion to their whiteness and their softness4 ,spinning flax is held to be an honourable#hdc employment for men even3 the husks1 or outer coats1 are employed for heating furnaces and ovens4 ,there is a certain amount of skill required in hatchelling flax and dressing it3 it is a fair proportion for fifty pounds in the sheaf to yield fifteen pounds of flax combed out4 ,when spun into thread1 it is rendered additionally supple by being soaked in water and then beaten out upon a stone2 and after it is woven into a tissue1 it is again beaten with heavy maces3 indeed1 the more roughly it is treated the better it is4 ,,chap4 #d4--,,linen ,,made ,,of ,,asbestos4 ,there has been invented also a kind of linen which is incombustible by flame4 ,it is generally known as 8live0#hdd linen1 and ,i have seen1 before now1 napkins#hde that were made of it thrown into a blazing fire1 in the room where the guests were at table1 and after the stains were burnt out1 come forth from the flames whiter and cleaner than they could possibly have been rendered by the aid of water4 ,it is from this material that the corpse-cloths of monarchs are made1 to ensure the separation of the ashes of the body from those of the pile4 ,this substance grows#hdf in the deserts of ,india1#hdg scorched by the burning rays of the sun3 here1 where no rain is ever known to fall1 and amid multitudes of deadly serpents1 it becomes habituated to resist the action of fire4 ,rarely to be found1 it presents considerable difficulties in weaving it into a tissue1 in consequence of its shortness2 its colour is naturally red1 and it only becomes white through the agency of fire4 ,by those who find it1 it is sold at prices equal to those given for the finest pearls2 by the ,greeks it is called 8asbestinon10#hdh a name which indicates its peculiar properties4 ,anaxilas#hdi makes a statement to the effect that if a tree is surrounded with linen made of this substance1 the noise of the blows given by the axe will be deadened thereby1 and that the tree may be cut down without their being heard4 ,for these qualities it is that this linen occupies the very highest rank among all the kinds that are known4 ,the next rank is accorded to the tissue known as 8byssus10#hej an article which is held in the very highest estimation by females1 and is produced in the vicinity of ,elis1 in ,achaia4#hea ,i find it stated by some writers that a scruple of this sold formerly at four denarii1 the same rate1 in fact1 as gold4 ,the downy nap of linen1 and more particularly that taken from the sails of sea-going ships1 is very extensively employed for medicinal purposes1 and the ashes of it have the same virtues as spodium4#heb ,among the poppies1 too1#hec there is a variety which imparts a remarkable degree of whiteness to fabrics made of linen4 ,,chap4 #e4--;,,at ,,what ,,period ,,linen ,,was ,,first ,,dyed4 ,attempts1 too1 have even been made to dye linen1 and to make it assume the frivolous colours#hed of our cloths4 ,this was first done in the fleet of ,alexander the ,great1 while sailing upon the river ,indus2 for1 upon one occasion1 during a battle that was being fought1 his generals and captains distinguished their vessels by the various tints of their sails1 and astounded the people on the shores by giving their many colours to the breeze1 as it impelled them on4 ,it was with sails of purple1 too1 that ,cleopatra accompanied ,m4 ,antonius to the battle of ,actium1 and it was by their aid that she took to flight3 such being the distinguishing mark of the royal ship4 ,,chap4 #f4--;,,at ,,what ,,period ,,coloured ,,awnings ,,were ,,first ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,theatres4 ,in more recent#hee times linens alone have been employed for the purpose of affording shade in our theatres2 ,q4 ,catulus having been the first who applied them to this use1 on the occasion of the dedication by him of the ,capitol4 ,at a later period1 ,lentulus ,spinther1 it is said1 was the first to spread awnings of fine linen#hef over the theatre1 at the celebration of the ,games in honour of ,apollo4 ,after this1 ,csar1 when ,dictator1 covered with a linen awning the whole of the ,roman ,forum1 as well as the ,sacred ,way1 from his own house as far as the ascent to the ,capitol1 a sight1 it is said1 more wonderful even than the show of gladiators which he then exhibited4 ,at a still later period1 and upon the occasion of no public games1 ,marcellus1 the son of ,octavia1 sister of ,augustus1 during his dileship1 and in the eleventh consulship of his uncle1 on the 99 99 99 day before the calends of ,august1 covered in the ,forum with awnings1 his object being to consult the health of those assembled there for the purposes of litigation--a vast change1 indeed1 from the manners prevalent in the days of ,cato the ,censor1 who expressed a wish that the ,forum was paved with nothing else but sharp pointed stones4 ,awnings have been lately extended1 too1 by the aid of ropes1 over the amphitheatres of the ,emperor ,nero1 dyed azure1 like the heavens1 and bespangled all over with stars4 ,those which are employed by us to cover the inner court#heg of our houses are generally red3 one reason for employing them is to protect the moss that grows there from the rays#heh of the sun4 ,in other respects1 white fabrics of linen have always held the ascendancy in public estimation4 ,linen1 too1 was highly valued as early as the ,trojan war2 for why else should it not have figured as much in battles as it did in shipwrecks8 ,thus ,homer1#hei we find1 bears witness that there were but few among the warriors of those days who fought with cuirasses#hfj on made of linen2 while1 as for the rigging of the ships1 of which that writer speaks1 it is generally supposed by the more learned among the commentators1 that it was made of this material2 for the word 8sparta10#hfa which he employs1 means nothing more than the produce of a seed4 ,,chap4 #g4 7#b47--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,spartum4 ,for the fact is that spartum#hfb did not begin to be employed till many ages after the time of ,homer2 indeed1 not before the first war that the ,carthaginians waged in ,spain4 ,this1 too1 is a plant that grows spontaneously1#hfc and is incapable of being reproduced by sowing1 it being a species of rush1 peculiar to a dry1 arid soil1 a morbid production confined to a single country only2 for in reality it is a curse to the soil1 as there is nothing whatever that can be sown or grown in its vicinity4 ,there is a kind of spartum grown in ,africa1#hfd of a stunted nature1 and quite useless for all practical purposes4 ,it is found in one portion of the province of ,carthage#hfe in ,nearer ,spain1 though not in every part of that2 but wherever it is produced1 the mountains1 even1 are covered all over with it4 ,this material is employed by the country-people there for making#hff their beds2 with it they kindle their fires also1 and prepare their torches2 shoes#hfg also1 and garments for the shepherds1 are made of it4 ,as a food for animals1 it is highly injurious1#hfh with the sole exception of the tender tops of the shoots4 ,when wanted for other uses1 it is pulled up by the roots1 with considerable labour2 the legs of the persons so employed being protected by boots1 and their hands with gloves1 the plant being twisted round levers of bone or holm-oak1 to get it up with the greater facility4 ,at the present day it is gathered in the winter1 even2 but this work is done with the least difficulty between the ides of ,may#hfi and those of ,june1 that being the period at which it is perfectly ripe4 ,,chap4 #h4--,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,preparing ,,spartum4 ,when taken up it is made into sheaves1 and laid in heaps for a couple of days1 while it retains its life and freshness2 on the third day the sheaves are opened out and spread in the sun to dry1 after which it is again made up into sheaves1 and placed under cover4 ,it is then put to soak in sea-water1 this being the best of all for the purpose1 though fresh water will do in case sea-water cannot be procured3 this done1 it is again dried in the sun1 and then moistened afresh4 ,if it is wanted for immediate use1 it is put in a tub and steeped in warm water1 after which it is placed in an upright position to dry3 this being universally admitted to be the most expeditious method of preparing it4 ,to make it ready for use1 it requires to be beaten out4 ,articles made of it are proof1 more particularly1 against the action of fresh or sea-water2 but on dry land1 ropes of hemp are generally preferred4 ,indeed1 we find that spartum receives nutriment even from being under water1 by way of compensation1 as it were1 for the thirst it has had to endure upon its native soil4 ,by nature it is peculiarly well adapted for repairing1 and however old the material may be1 it unites very well with new4 ,the person1 indeed1 who is desirous duly to appreciate this marvellous plant1 has only to consider the numerous uses to which1 in all parts of the world1 it is applied3 from it are made1 the rigging of ships1 various appliances of mechanism employed in building1 and numerous other articles which supply the wants of daily life4 ,to suffice for all these requirements1 we find it growing solely on a tract of ground which lies upon the sea-line of the province of ,new ,carthage1 somewhat less than thirty miles in breadth by one hundred in length4 ,the expense precludes its being transported to any very considerable distance4 ,,chap4 #i4--;,,at ,,what ,,period ,,spartum ,,was ,,first ,,employed4 ,the ,greeks used formerly to employ the rush for making ropes2 so1 at least1 we are led to believe1 from the name#hgj given by them to that plant2 and at a later period they made them1 it is very clear1 from the leaves of the palm1 and the inner bark of the linden-tree4 ,it seems to me very probable1 too1 that it was from them that the ,carthaginians borrowed the first hint for applying spartum to a similar purpose4 ,,chap4 #aj4--,,the ,,bulb ,,eriophorus4 ,theophrastus#hga informs us1 that there is a kind of bulb1 which grows on the banks of rivers1 and which encloses between the outer coat and the portion that is eaten a sort of woolly substance1 of which felt socks1 and other articles of dress1 are made2 but1 in the copies1 those at least which have fallen in my way1 there is no mention made of the country in which it grows1 or of any details in connection with it1 beyond the fact that the name given to it is 8eriophoron40#hgb ,as to spartum1 he makes no#hgc mention of it whatever1 although he has given the history1 with the greatest exactness1 of all the known plants1 three hundred and ninety years before our time--a fact to which ,i have already#hgd alluded on other occasions3 from this it would appear that spartum has come into use since his day4 ,,chap4 #aa4--,,plants ,,which ,,spring ,,up ,,and ,,grow ,,without ,a ,,root--,,plants ,,which ,,grow1 ,,but ,,cannot ,,be ,,reproduced ,,from ,,seed4 ,as we have here made a beginning of treating of the marvels of ,nature1 we shall proceed to examine them in detail2 and among them the very greatest of all1 beyond a doubt1 is the fact that any plant should spring up and grow without a root4 ,such1 for instance1 is the vegetable production known as the truffle2#hge surrounded on every side by earth1 it is connected with it by no fibres1 not so much as a single thread even1 while the spot in which it grows1 presents neither protuberance nor cleft to the view4 ,it is found1 in fact1 in no way adhering to the earth1 but enclosed within an outer coat2 so much so1 indeed1 that though we cannot exactly pronounce it to be composed of earth1 we must conclude that it is nothing else but a callous#hgf concretion of the earth4 ,truffles generally grow in dry1 sandy soils1 and spots that are thickly covered with shrubs2 in size they are often larger than a quince1 and are found to weigh as much#hgg as a pound4 ,there are two kinds of them1 the one full of sand1 and consequently injurious to the teeth1 the other free from sand and all impurities4 ,they are distinguished also by their colour1 which is red or black1 and white within2 those of ,africa#hgh are the most esteemed4 ,whether the truffle grows gradually1 or whether this blemish of the earth--for it can be looked upon as nothing else--at once assumes the globular form and magnitude which it presents when found2 whether1 too1 it is possessed of vitality or not1 are all of them questions1 which1 in my opinion1 are not easy to be solved4 ,it decays and rots in a manner precisely similar to wood4 ,it is known to me as a fact1 that the following circumstance happened to ,lartius ,licinius1 a person of prtorian rank1 while minister of justice1#hgi a few years ago1 at ,carthage in ,spain2 upon biting a truffle1 he found a denarius inside1 which all but broke his fore teeth--an evident proof that the truffle is nothing else but an agglomeration of elementary earth4 ,at all events1 it is quite certain that the truffle belongs to those vegetable productions which spring up spontaneously1 and are incapable of being reproduced from seed4#hhj ,,chap4 #ab4 7#c47--,,misy2 ,,iton2 ,,and ,,geranion4 ,of a similar nature1 too1 is the vegetable production known in the province of ,cyrenaica by the name of 8misy10#hha remarkable for the sweetness of its smell and taste1 but more fleshy than the truffle3 the same1 too1 as to the iton#hhb of the ,thracians1 and the geranion of the ,greeks4 ,,chap4 #ac4--,,particulars ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,truffle4 ,the following peculiarities we find mentioned with reference to the truffle4 ,when there have been showers in autumn1 and frequent thunder-storms1 truffles are produced1 thunder#hhc contributing more particularly to their developement2 they do not1 however1 last beyond a year1 and are considered the most delicate eating when gathered in spring4 ,in some places the formation of them is attributed to water2 as at ,mytilene1#hhd for instance1 where they are never to be found1 it is said1 unless the rivers overflow1 and bring down the seed from ,tiara1 that being the name of a place at which they are produced in the greatest abundance4 ,the finest truffles of ,asia are those found in the neighbourhood of ,lampsacus and ,alopeconnesus2 the best in ,greece are those of the vicinity of ,elis4 ,,chap4 #ad4--,,the ,,pezica4 ,belonging to the mushroom genus1 also1 there is a species1 known to the ,greeks by the name of 8pezica10#hhe which grows without either root or stalk4 ,,chap4 #ae4--,,laserpitium1 ,,laser1 ,,and ,,maspetum4 ,next to these1 laserpitium#hhf claims our notice1 a very remarkable plant1 known to the ,greeks by the name of 8silphion10 and originally a native of the province of ,cyrenaica4 ,the juice of this plant is called 8laser10 and it is greatly in vogue for medicinal as well as other purposes1 being sold at the same rate as silver4 ,for these many years past1 however1 it has not been found in ,cyrenaica1#hhg as the farmers of the revenue who hold the lands there on lease1 have a notion that it is more profitable to depasture flocks of sheep upon them4 ,within the memory of the present generation1 a single stalk#hhh is all that has ever been found there1 and that was sent as a curiosity to the ,emperor ,nero4 ,if it so happen that one of the flock1 while grazing1 meets with a growing shoot#hhi of it1 the fact is easily ascertained by the following signs2 the sheep1 after eating of it1 immediately falls asleep1 while the goat is seized with a fit of sneezing4#hij ,for this long time past1 there has been no other laser imported into this country1 but that produced in either ,persis1 ,media1 or ,armenia1 where it grows in considerable abundance1 though much inferior#hia to that of ,cyrenaica2 and even then it is extensively adulterated with gum1 sacopenium1#hib or pounded beans4 ,i ought the less then to omit the facts1 that in the consulship#hic of ,c4 ,valerius and ,m4 ,herennius1 there was brought to ,rome1 from ,cyren1 for the public service1 thirty pounds' weight of laserpitium1 and that the ,dictator ,csar1 at the beginning of the ,civil ,war1 took from out of the public treasury1 besides gold and silver1 no less than fifteen hundred pounds of laserpitium4 ,we find it stated by the most trustworthy among the ,greek writers1#hid that this plant first made its appearance in the vicinity of the gardens of the ,hesperides and the ,greater ,syrtis1 immediately after the earth had been soaked on a sudden by a shower as black as pitch4 ,this took place seven years before the foundation of the city of ,cyren1 and in the year of ,rome #adc4 ,the virtues of this remarkable fall of rain extended1 it is said1 over no less than four thousand stadia of the ,african territory2 and upon this soil laserpitium began universally to grow1 a plant that is in general wild and stubborn1 and which1 if attempted to be cultivated1 will leave the spot where it has been sown quite desolate and barren4 ,the roots of it are numerous and thick1 the stalk being like that of fennel-giant1 and of similar thickness4 ,the leaves of this plant were known as 8maspetum10 and bore a considerable resemblance to parsley2 the seeds of it were foliaceous1 and the plant shed its leaves every year4 ,they used to feed the cattle there upon it2 at first it purged them1 but afterwards they would grow fat1 the flesh being improved in flavour in a most surprising degree4 ,after the fall of the leaf1 the people themselves were in the habit of eating#hie the stalk1 either roasted or boiled3 from the drastic effects of this diet the body was purged for the first forty days1 all vicious humours being effectually removed4#hif ,the juices of this plant were collected two different ways1 either from the root or from the stalk2 in consequence of which these two varieties of the juice were known by the distinguishing names of 8rhizias0 and 8caulias10#hig the last being of inferior quality to the other1 and very apt to turn putrid4 ,upon the root there was a black bark1 which was extensively employed for the purposes of adulteration4 ,the juice of the plant was received in vessels1 and mixed there with a layer of bran2 after which1 from time to time it was shaken1 till it had reached a proper state of maturity2 indeed1 if this precaution was neglected1 it was apt to turn putrid4 ,the signs that it had come to maturity were its colour1 its dryness1 and the absorption of all humidity4 ,there are some authors1 however1 who state that the root of laserpitium was more than a cubit in length1 and that it presented a tuberosity above the surface of the earth4 ,an incision1 they say1 was made in this tuberosity1 from which a juice would flow1 like milk in appearance2 above the tuberosity grew a stalk1 to which they give the name of 8magydaris20#hih the leaves that grew upon this stalk were of the colour of gold1 and1 falling at the rising of the ,dog-star1 when the south winds begin to prevail1 they acted as seed for the purposes of reproduction4 ,it was from these leaves1 too1 they say1 that laserpitium#hii was produced1 the root and the stalk attaining their full growth in the space of one year4 ,the same writers also state1 that it was the practice to turn up the ground about the plant1 and that it had no such effect as purging the cattle that were fed upon it2 though one result of using it as food was1 that such cattle as were ailing were either cured of their distempers1 or else died immediately upon eating of it1 a thing1 however1 that but rarely happened4 ,the first description1 however1 is found to agree more nearly with the silphium that comes from ,persis4 ,,chap4 #af4--,,magydaris4 ,there is another#ijj variety of this plant1 known as 8magydaris10#ija of a more delicate nature1 less active in its effects1 and destitute of juice4 ,it grows in the countries adjacent to ,syria1#ijb but is not to be found in the regions of ,cyrenaica4 ,there grows also upon ,mount ,parnassus1#ijc in great abundance1 a plant to which some persons give the name of 8laserpitium30 by means of all these varieties1 adulterations are effected of a production that is held in the highest esteem for its salutary qualities and its general usefulness4 ,the chief proofs of its genuineness consist in its colour1 which ought to be slightly red without1 and when broken quite white and transparent within2 the drops of it1 too1 should melt very rapidly on the application of spittle4 ,it is extensively employed for medicinal purposes4#ijd ,,chap4 #ag4--,,madder4 ,there are two other plants also1 which are but little known to any but the herd of the sordid and avaricious1 and this because of the large profits that are derived from them4 ,the first of these is madder1#ije the employment of which is necessary in dyeing wool and leather4 ,the madder of ,italy is the most esteemed1 and that more particularly which is grown in the suburbs of the ,city2 nearly all our provinces1 too1 produce it in great abundance4#ijf ,it grows spontaneously1 but is capable of reproduction by sowing1 much after the same manner as the fitch4 ,the stem1#ijg however1 is prickly1 and articulated1 with five leaves arranged round each joint3 the seed is red4 ,its medicinal properties we shall have occasion to mention in the appropriate place4#ijh ,,chap4 #ah4--,,the ,,radicula4 ,the plant known to us by the name of 8radicula10#iji is the second of these productions4 ,it furnishes a juice that is extensively employed in washing wool1 and it is quite wonderful how greatly it contributes to the whiteness and softness of wool4 ,it may be produced anywhere by cultivation1 but that which grows spontaneously in ,asia and ,syria1#iaj upon rugged1 rocky sites1 is more highly esteemed4 ,that1 however1 which is found beyond the ,euphrates has the highest repute of all4 ,the stalk of it is ferulaceous#iaa and thin1 and is sought by the inhabitants of those countries as an article of food4 ,it is employed also for making unguents1 being boiled up with the other ingredients1 whatever they may happen to be4 ,in leaf it strongly resembles the olive4 ,the ,greeks have given it the name of 8struthion40 ,it blossoms in summer1 and is agreeable to the sight1 but entirely destitute of smell4 ,it is somewhat thorny1 and has a stalk covered with down4 ,it has an extremely diminutive seed1 and a large root1 which is cut up and employed for the purposes already mentioned4 ,,chap4 #ai4 7#d47--,,the ,,pleasures ,,of ,,the ,,garden4 ,having made mention of these productions1 it now remains for us to return to the cultivation of the garden1#iab a subject recommended by its own intrinsic merits to our notice3 for we find that in remote antiquity1 even1 there was nothing looked upon with a greater degree of admiration than the gardens of the ,hesperides1#iac those of the kings ,adonis#iad and ,alcinos1#iae and the ,hanging ,gardens1 whether they were the work of ,semiramis1 or whether of ,cyrus1 king of ,assyria1 a subject of which we shall have to speak in another work4#iaf ,the kings of ,rome cultivated their gardens with their own hands2 indeed1 it was from his garden that ,tarquinius ,superbus#iag sent to his son that cruel and sanguinary message of his4 ,in our laws of the ,twelve ,tables1 we find the word 8villa10 or 8farm10 nowhere mentioned2 it is the word 8hortus0 that is always used with that signification1 while the term 8heredium0 we find employed for 8garden40 ,there are certain religious impressions1 too1 that have been attached to this species of property1#iah and we find that it is in the garden and the ,forum only that statues of satyrs are consecrated1 as a protection against the evil effects#iai of spells and sorcery2 although in ,plautus1 we find the gardens spoken of as being under the tutelage of ,venus4 ,at the present day1 under the general name of gardens1#ibj we have pleasure-grounds situate in the very heart of the ,city1 as well as extensive fields and villas4 ,epicurus1 that connoisseur#iba in the enjoyments of a life of ease1 was the first to lay out a garden at ,athens2#ibb up to his time it had never been thought of1 to dwell in the country in the middle of the town4 ,at ,rome1 on the other hand1 the garden#ibc constituted of itself the poor man's field1 and it was from the garden that the lower classes procured their daily food--an aliment how guiltlessly obtained6 ,but still1 it is a great deal better1 no doubt1#ibd to dive into the abysses of the deep1 and to seek each kind of oyster at the risk and peril of shipwreck1 to go searching for birds beyond the river ,phasis#ibe even1 which1 protected as they are by the terrors invented by fable1#ibf are only rendered all the more precious thereby--to go searching for others1 again1 in ,numidia1#ibg and the very sepulchres of thiopia1#ibh or else to be battling with wild beasts1 and to get eaten one's self while trying to take a prey which another person is to eat6 ,and yet1 by ,hercules6 how little do the productions of the garden cost us in comparison with these6 ,how more than sufficient for every wish and for every want6--were it not1 indeed1 that here1 as in every thing else1 turn which way we will1 we find the same grounds for our wrath and indignation4 ,we really might be content to allow of fruits being grown of the most exquisite quality1 remarkable1 some of them for their flavour1 some for their size1 some1 again1 for the monstrosities of their growth1 morsels all of them forbidden to the poor6#ibi ,we might allow of wines being kept till they are mellowed with age1 or enfeebled by being passed through#icj cloth strainers1 of men1 too1 however prolonged their lives1 never drinking any but a wine that is still older than themselves6 ,we might allow of luxury devising how best to extract the very aroma1 as it were1 and marrow#ica only from grain2 of people1 too1 living upon nothing but the choicest productions of the confectioner1 and upon pastes fashioned in fantastic shapes3 of one kind of bread being prepared for the rich1 and another for the multitude2 of the yearly produce of the field being classified in a descending scale1 till it reaches the humble means of the very lowest classes--but do we not find that these refined distinctions have been extended to the very herbs even1 and that riches have contrived to establish points of dissimilarity in articles of food which ordinarily sell for a single copper coin8#icb ,in this department even1 humble as it is1 we are still destined to find certain productions that are denied to the community at large1 and the very cabbages pampered to such an enormous extent that the poor man's table is not large enough to hold them4 ,asparagus1 by ,nature1 was intended to grow wild1#icc so that each might gather it where he pleased--but1 lo and behold6 we find it in the highest state of cultivation1 and ,ravenna produces heads that weigh as much as three pounds#icd even6 ,alas for the monstrous excess of gluttony6 ,it would be surprising indeed1 for the beasts of the field to be forbidden the thistle for food1 and yet it is a thing forbidden#ice to the lower classes of the community6 ,these refined distinctions1 too1 are extended to the very water even1 and1 thanks to the mighty influence of money1 there are lines of demarcation drawn in the very elements themselves4 ,some persons are for drinking ice1 others for quaffing snow1 and thus is the curse of the mountain steep turned into an appetizing stimulus for the palate6#icf ,cold is carefully treasured up for the summer heats1 and man's invention is racked how best to keep snow freezing in months that are not its own4 ,some again there are who first boil the water1#icg and then bring it to the temperature of winter--indeed1 there is nothing that pleases man in the fashion in which ,nature originally made it4 ,and is it the fact1 then1 that any herb of the garden is reared only for the rich man's table8 ,it is so--but still let no one of the angered populace think of a fresh secession to ,mount ,sacer or ,mount ,aventine2 for to a certainty1 in the long run1 all-powerful money will bring them back to just the same position as they were in when it wrought the severance4 ,for1 by ,hercules6#ich there was not an impost levied at ,rome more grievous than the market-dues1 an impost that aroused the indignation of the populace1 who repeatedly appealed with loud clamours to all the chief men of the state to be relieved from it4 ,at last they were relieved from this heavy tax upon their wares2 and then it was found that there was no tax more lucrative1 more readily collected1 or less obnoxious to the caprices of chance1 than the impost that was levied in exchange for it1 in the shape of a property-tax1 extended to the poorest classes3 for now the very soil itself is their surety that paid the tax will be1 their means are patent to the light of day1 and the superficial extent of their possessions1 whatever the weather may chance to be1 always remains the same4 ,cato1#ici we find1 speaks in high praise of garden cabbages3--indeed1 it was according to their respective methods of garden cultivation that the agriculturists of early times were appreciated1 and it was immediately concluded that it was a sign of a woman being a bad and careless manager of her family1 when the kitchen-garden--for this was looked upon as the woman's department more particularly--was negligently cultivated2 as in such case her only resource was1 of course1 the shambles or the herb-market4 ,but cabbages were not held in such high esteem in those days as now3 indeed1 all dishes were held in disrepute which required something else to help them down1 the great object being to economize oil as much as possible2 and as to the flesh-market1 so much as a wish even to taste its wares was visited with censure and reproach4 ,the chief thing that made them so fond of the garden was the fact that its produce needs no fire and ensures economy in fuel1 and that it offers resources which are always ready and at hand4 ,these articles of food1 which from their peculiar nature we call 8vinegar-diets10#idj were found to be easy of digestion1 by no means apt to blunt and overload the senses1 and to create but little craving for bread as an accompaniment4 ,a portion of them which is still used by us for seasonings1 attests that our forefathers used only to look at home for their resources1 and that no ,indian peppers were in request with them1 or any of those other condiments which we are in the habit of seeking beyond the seas4 ,in former times the lower classes of ,rome1 with their mimic gardens in their windows1 day after day presented the reflex of the country to the eye1 when as yet the multitudes of atrocious burglaries1 almost innumerable1 had not compelled us to shut out all such sights with bars to the passers by4 ,let the garden1 then1 have its due meed of honour1 and let not things1 because they are common1 enjoy for that the less share of our consideration--and the more so1 as we find that from it men of the very highest rank have been content to borrow their surnames even2 thus in the ,valerian family1 for instance1 the ,lactucini have not thought themselves disgraced by taking their name from the lettuce4 ,perhaps1 too1 our labours and research may contribute some slight recommendation to this our subject2 although1 with ,virgil1#ida we are ready to admit how difficult it is1 by language however elevated1 to ennoble a subject that is so humble in itself4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,the ,,laying ,,out ,,of ,,garden ,,ground4 ,there is no doubt that the proper plan is1 to have the gardens adjoining the country-house2 and they should be watered1 more particularly1 by a river running in front of it1 if possible2 or else with water drawn from a well by the aid of a wheel or of pumps1 or by swipes4#idb ,the ground should be opened just as the west winds are beginning to prevail2 fourteen days after which it should be got ready for autumn1 and then before the winter solstice it should have another turning up4 ,it will require eight men to dig a jugerum1 manure being mixed with the earth to a depth of three feet3 the ground1 too1 should be divided into plots or beds with raised and rounded edges1 each of which should have a path dug round it1 by means of which access may be afforded to the gardener and a channel formed for the water needed for irrigation4 ,,chap4 #ba4--,,plants ,,other ,,than ,,grain ,,and ,,shrubs4 ,among the garden plants there are some that recommend themselves by their bulbs1 others by the head1 others by the stalk1 others by the leaf1 others by both3 some1 again1 are valued for their seed1 others for the outer coat1 others for their membranous tissues1 others for their cartilaginous substance1 others for the firmness of their flesh1 and others for the fleshy tunics in which they are enveloped4 ,,chap4 #bb4--,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,twenty ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,plants ,,which ,,grow ,,in ,,gardens--,,the ,,proper ,,methods ,,to ,,be ,,followed ,,in ,,sowing ,,them ,,respectively4 ,of some plants the fruits#idc are in the earth1 of others both in the earth and out of it1 and of others1 again1 out of the earth solely4 ,some of them increase as they lie upon the ground1 gourds and cucumbers1 for instance2 the same products will grow also in a hanging position1 but they are much heavier even then than any of the fruits that grow upon trees4 ,the cucumber1 however1 is composed of cartilage and a fleshy substance1 while the gourd consists of rind and cartilage3 this last is the only vegetable production the outer coat of which becomes of a ligneous nature1 when ripe4 ,radishes1 turnips1 and rape are hidden in the earth1 and so1 too1 are elecampane1#idd skirrets1#ide and parsnips1#idf though in a different manner4 ,there are some plants1 again1 to which we shall give the name of 8ferulaceous10 anise#idg and mallows1 for instance2 indeed1 we find it stated by some writers that in ,arabia#idh the mallow becomes arborescent at the sixth month1 so much so1 in fact1 as to admit of its being used for walking-sticks4 ,we have another instance1 again1 in the mallow-tree of ,mauretania1 which is found at ,lixus1 a city built upon an stuary there2 and at which spot1 it is said1 were formerly the gardens of the ,hesperides1 at a distance of two hundred paces from the ,ocean1 near the shrine of ,hercules1 more ancient1 tradition says1 than the temple at ,gades4 ,this mallow-tree#idi is twenty feet in height1 and of such a thickness that there is not a person in existence who is able with his arms to span its girth4 ,in the class of ferulaceous plants we must include hemp#iej also4 ,there are some plants1 again1 to which we must give the appellation of 8fleshy20#iea such as those spongy#ieb productions which are found growing in damp meadows4 ,as to the fungus1 with a hard1 tough flesh1 we have already#iec made mention of it when speaking of wood and trees2 and of truffles1 which form another variety1 we have but very recently given a description4#ied ,,chap4 #bc4 7#e47--,,vegetables ,,of ,a ,,cartilaginous ,,nature--,,cucumbers4 ,,pepones4 ,the cucumber#iee belongs to the cartilaginous class of plants1 and grows above the ground4 ,it was a wonderful favourite with the ,emperor ,tiberius1 and1 indeed1 he was never without it2 for he had raised beds made in frames upon wheels1 by means of which the cucumbers were moved and exposed to the full heat of the sun2 while1 in winter1 they were withdrawn1 and placed under the protection of frames glazed with mirror-stone4#ief ,we find it stated1 also1 by the ancient ,greek writers1 that the cucumber ought to be propagated from seed that has been steeped#ieg a couple of days in milk and honey1 this method having the effect of rendering them all the sweeter to the taste4 ,the cucumber1 while growing1 may be trained to take any form that may be wished3 in ,italy the cucumbers are green#ieh and very small1 while those grown in some of the provinces are remarkably large1 and of a wax colour or black4#iei ,those of ,africa1 which are also remarkably prolific1 are held in high esteem2 the same1 too1 with the cucumbers of ,msia1 which are by far the largest of all4 ,when the cucumber acquires a very considerable volume1 it is known to us as the 8pepo40#ifj ,cucumbers when eaten remain on the stomach till the following day1 and are very difficult#ifa of digestion2 still1 for all that1 in general they are not considered very unwholesome4 ,by nature they have a wonderful hatred to oil1 and no less affection for water1 and this after they have been cut from the stem even4#ifb ,if water is within a moderate distance of them1 they will creep towards it1 while from oil1 on the other hand1 they will shrink away2 if any obstacle1 too1 should happen to arrest their progress1 or if they are left to hang1 they will grow curved and crooked4 ,of these facts we may be satisfactorily convinced in a single night even1 for if a vessel filled with water is placed at four fingers' distance from a cucumber1 it will be found to have descended to it by the following morning2 but if the same is done with oil1 it will have assumed the curved form of a hook by the next day4 ,if hung in a tube while in blossom1 the cucumber will grow to a most surprising length4#ifc ,it is only of late1 too1 that a cucumber of entirely new shape has been produced in ,campania1 it having just the form of a quince4#ifd ,it was quite by accident1 ,i am told1 that the first one acquired this shape in growing1 and it was from the seed of this that all the others have been reproduced4 ,the name given to this variety is 8melopepo40 ,these last do not grow hanging1 but assume their round shape as they lie on the ground4 ,a thing that is very remarkable in them1 in addition to their shape1 colour1 and smell1 is the fact that1 when ripe1 although they do not hang from the stem1 they separate from it at the stalk4 ,columella#ife has given us a plan of his1 by which we may have cucumbers the whole year round3 the largest bramble-bush that can be procured is transplanted to a warm1 sunny spot1 and then cut down1 about the time of the vernal equinox1 to within a couple of fingers of the ground2 a cucumber-seed is then inserted in the pith of the bramble1 and the roots are well moulded up with fine earth and manure1 to withstand the cold4 ,according to the ,greeks1 there are three kinds of cucumbers1 the ,laconian1 the ,scytalic1 and the ,botian1#iff the ,laconian being the only one among them that is fond#ifg of the water4 ,there are some persons who recommend steeping the seed of the cucumber in the juice of the herb known as the 8culix20#ifh the produce1 they say1 will be sure to grow without seeds4 ,,chap4 #bd4--;,,gourds4 ,gourds resemble the cucumber in nature1 at least in their manner of growing2 they manifest an equal aversion to the winter1 too1 while they require constant watering and manure4 ,both cucumbers and gourds are sown in holes a foot and a half#ifi deep1 between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice1 at the time of the ,parilia#igj more particularly4 ,some persons1 however1 think it better to sow gourds after the calends of ,march1#iga and cucumbers after the nones1#igb and at the time of the ,quinquatria4#igc ,the cucumber and the gourd climb upwards in a precisely similar manner1 their shoots creeping along the rough surface of the walls1 even to the very roof1 so great is their fondness for elevated spots4 ,they have not sufficient strength1 however1 to support themselves without the aid of stays4 ,shooting upwards with the greatest rapidity1 they soon cover with their light shade the arched roofs of the houses and the trellises on which they are trained4 ,from this circumstance it is that we find the gourd classified into two primary kinds1 the roof-gourd1#igd and the common gourd1 which creeps upon the ground4 ,in the first kind1 from a stalk of remarkable thinness is suspended a fruit of considerable weight and volume1 and quite immoveable by the action of the wind4 ,the gourd1 too1 as well as the cucumber1 admits of being lengthened to any extent1 by the aid of osier tubes more particularly4 ,just after the blossom has fallen off1 the plant is introduced into these tubes1 and as it grows it can be made to assume any form that may be wished1 that of a serpent coiled up being the one that is mostly preferred2 if left at liberty to grow as it hangs1 it has been known before now to attain to no less than#ige nine feet in length4 ,the cucumber flowers gradually1 blossom succeeding blossom2 and it adapts itself perfectly well to a dry soil4 ,it is covered with a white down1 which increases in quantity as the plant gains in size4 ,the gourd admits of being applied to more numerous uses than the cucumber even3 the stem is used as an article of food#igf when young1 but at a later period it changes its nature1 and its qualities become totally different3 of late1 gourds have come to be used in baths for jugs and pitchers1 but for this long time past they have been employed as casks#igg for keeping wine4 ,the rind is tender while the fruit is green1 but still it is always scraped off when the gourd is used for food4 ,it admits of being eaten several ways1 and forms a light and wholesome aliment1 and this although it is one of those fruits that are difficult of digestion by the human stomach1 and are apt to swell out those who eat of them4 ,the seeds which lie nearest to the neck of the gourd produce fruit of remarkable#igh length1 and so do those which lie at the lower extremities1 though not at all comparable with the others4 ,those1 on the other hand1 which lie in the middle1 produce gourds of a round shape1 and those on the sides fruit that are thick and short4 ,the seeds are dried by being placed in the shade1 and when wanted for sowing1 are steeped in water first4 ,the longer and thinner the gourd is1 the more agreeable it is to the palate1 and hence it is that those which have been left to grow hanging are reckoned the most wholesome3 these1 too1 have fewer seeds than the others1 the hardness of which is apt to render the fruit less agreeable for eating4 ,those which are intended for keeping seed1 are usually not cut before the winter sets in2 they are then dried in the smoke1 and are extensively employed for preserving#igi garden seeds1 and for making other articles for domestic use4 ,there has been a method discovered1 also1 of preserving the gourd for table1 and the cucumber as well1 till nearly the time when the next year's crop is ripe2 this is done by putting them in brine4 ,we are assured1 too1 that if put in a hole dug in a place well shaded from the sun1 with a layer of sand beneath1 and dry hay and earth on the top of them1 they may be kept green for a very long time4 ,we also find wild#ihj cucumbers and gourds2 and1 indeed1 the same is the case with pretty nearly all the garden plants4 ,these wild varieties1 however1 are only possessed of certain medicinal properties1 and for this reason we shall defer any further mention of them till we come to the ,books appropriated to that subject4 ,,chap4 #be4--,,rape4 ,,turnips4 ,the other plants that are of a cartilaginous nature are concealed1 all of them1 in the earth4 ,in the number of these is the rape1 a subject upon which it would almost appear that we have treated#iha at sufficient length already1 were it not that we think it as well to observe1 that medical men call those which are round 8male10#ihb while those which are larger and more elongated1 are known to them as 8female0 rape3 these last are superior in sweetness1 and better for keeping1 but by successive sowings they are changed into male rape4#ihc ,the same authors1 too1 have distinguished five different varieties of the turnip3#ihd the ,corinthian1 the ,cleonan1 the ,liothasian1 the ,botian1 and the one which they have characterized as peculiarly the 8green10 turnip4 ,the ,corinthian turnip#ihe grows to a very large size1 and the root is all but out of the ground2 indeed1 this is the only kind that1 in growing1 shoots upwards1 and not as the others do1 downwards into the ground4 ,the ,liothasian is known by some persons as the ,thracian turnip2#ihf it is the one that stands extreme cold the best of all4 ,next to it1 the ,botian kind is the sweetest2 it is remarkable1 also1 for the roundness of its shape and its shortness2 while the ,cleonan turnip1#ihg on the other hand1 is of an elongated form4 ,those1 in general1 which have a thin1 smooth leaf1 are the sweetest2 while those1 again1 the leaf of which is rough1 angular1 and prickly1 have a pungent taste4 ,there is a kind of wild turnip1#ihh also1 the leaves of which resemble those of rocket4#ihi ,at ,rome1 the highest rank is given to the turnips of ,amiternum1#iij and those of ,nursia2 after them1 those grown in the neighbourhood of the ,city#iia are held in the next degree of esteem4 ,the other particulars connected with the sowing of the turnip have been already mentioned#iib by us when speaking of the rape4 ,,chap4 #bf4--,,radishes4 ,radishes are composed of an outer coat and a cartilaginous substance1 and in many instances the rind is found to be thicker than the bark of some trees4 ,this plant is remarkable for its pungency1 which increases in proportion to the thickness of the rind3 in some cases1 too1 the surface of it assumes a ligneous nature4 ,radishes are flatulent#iic to a remarkable degree1 and are productive of eructations2 hence it is that they are looked upon as an aliment only fit for low-bred people1#iid and this more particularly if coleworts are eaten directly after them4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they are eaten with green olives1 the eructations produced are not so frequent1 and less offensive4 ,in ,egypt the radish is held in very high esteem1 on account of the abundance of oil#iie that is extracted from the seed4 ,indeed1 the people of that country sow this plant in preference to any other1 whenever they can get the opportunity1 the profits derived from it being larger than those obtained from the cultivation of corn1 and the imposts levied upon it considerably less3 there is no grain known that yields a larger quantity of oil4 ,the ,greeks have distinguished the radish#iif into three different kinds1 according to the characteristic features of the leaves1 there being the crisped leaf1 the smooth leaf1 and the wild radish1 the leaf of which is smooth1 but shorter than that of the others2 it is round also1 grows in great abundance1 and spreads like a shrub4 ,the taste of this last variety is acrid1 and it acts medicinally as a strong purgative4 ,in the first kind1 again1 there are certain differences1 determined by the seed1 for in some varieties the seed is of an inferior quality1 and in others remarkably small3 these defects1 however1 are only found to exist in the kind that has the crisped leaf4 ,our own people1 again1 have found other varieties of the radish3 there is the ,algidan#iig radish1 long and transparent1 so called from the place of its growth3 another1 similar to the rape in form1 is known as the ,syrian radish2 it is pretty nearly the mildest and the most tender of them all1 and is well able to bear the winter4 ,the very best of all1 however1 is the one that has been brought from ,syria1 very recently it would seem1 as we do not find it mentioned by any of our writers3 it lasts the whole of the winter through4 ,in addition to these kinds1 there is another1 a wild variety1 known by the ,greeks as 8agrion10#iih and to the people of ,pontus as 8armon10 while others1 again1 call it 8leuce10#iii and our people 8armoracia20#ajjj it has more leaves1 however1 than root4 ,in testing the quality of the radish1 it is the stem more particularly1 that is looked at2 in those which are acrid to the taste1 for instance1 it is rounder and thicker than in the others1 and grooved with long channels1 while the leaves are more unsightly to the eye1 being angular and covered with prickles4 ,the radish requires to be sown in a loose1 humid soil1 has a great aversion to manure1 and is content with a dressing solely of chaff3 so fond is it of the cold1 that in ,germany it is known to grow as large as an infant in size4#ajja ,for the spring crop1 it is sown immediately after the ides of ,february2#ajjb and then again about the time of the ,vulcanalia1#ajjc this last crop being looked upon as the best3 many persons1 however1 sow radishes in ,march1 ,april1 and ,september4 ,when the plant begins to grow to any size1 it is considered a good plan to cover up the leaves successively1 and to earth up the root as well2 for the part of it which appears above ground is apt to become hard and pithy4 ,aristomachus recommends the leaves to be taken off in winter1 and the roots to be well moulded up1 to prevent the water from accumulating about them2 and he says1 that by using these precautions1 they will be all the finer in summer4 ,some authors have mentioned a plan of making a hole with a dibble1 and covering it at the bottom with a layer of chaff1 six fingers in depth2 upon this layer the seed is put1 and then covered over with manure and earth2 the result of which is1 according to their statement1 that radishes are obtained full as large as the hole so made4 ,it is salt1 however1 that conduces more particularly to their nutriment1 and hence it is that they are often watered with brine2 in ,egypt1 too1 the growers sprinkle nitre#ajjd over them1 the roots being remarkable for their mildness4 ,the salt1 too1 has the similar effect of removing all their pungency1 and when thus treated1 they become very similar in their qualities to radishes that have been boiled3 for when boiled they become sweet and mild1 and eat1 in fact1 just like turnips4 ,medical men recommend raw radishes to be eaten fasting1 with salt1 for the purpose#ajje of collecting the crude humours of the viscera2 and in this way they prepare them for the action of emetics4 ,it is said1 too1 that the juices of this plant are absolutely necessary for the cure of certain diseases of the diaphragm2 for it has been found by experiment1 in ,egypt1 that the phthiriasis#ajjf which attaches itself to the internal parts of the heart1 cannot possibly be eradicated by any other remedy1 the kings of that country having ordered the bodies of the dead to be opened and examined1 for the purpose of enquiring into certain diseases4 ,such1 too1 is the frivolity of the ,greeks1 that1 in the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi1 it is said1 the radish is so greatly preferred to all other articles of diet1 as to be represented there in gold1 the beet in silver1 and the rape in lead4--,you might be very sure that ,manius ,curius was not a native of that country1 the general whom1 as we find stated in our ,annals1 the ambassadors of the ,samnites found busy roasting rape at the fire1 when they came to offer him the gold which he so indignantly refused4 ,moschion1 too1 a ,greek author1 has written a volume on the subject of the radish4 ,these vegetables are considered a very useful article of food during the winter1 but they are at all times very injurious to the teeth1 as they are apt to wear them away2 at all events1 they give a polish to ivory4 ,there is a great antipathy between the radish#ajjg and the vine2 which last will shrink from the radish1 if sown in its vicinity4 ,,chap4 #bg4--,,parsnips4 ,the other kinds which have been classified by us among the cartilaginous plants1 are of a more ligneous nature2 and it is a singular thing1 that they have1 all of them1 a strong flavour4 ,among these1 there is one kind of wild parsnip which grows spontaneously2 by the ,greeks it is known as 8staphylinos40#ajjh ,another kind#ajji of parsnip is grown either from the root transplanted1 or else from seed1 at the beginning of spring or in the autumn2 ,hyginus says that this may be done in ,february1 ,august1 ,september1 and ,october1 the ground being dug to a very considerable depth for the purpose4 ,the parsnip begins to be fit for eating at the end of a year1 but it is still better at the end of two3 it is reckoned more agreeable eating in autumn1 and more particularly if cooked in the saucepan2 even then1 however1 it preserves its strong pungent flavour1 which it is found quite impossible to get rid of4 ,the hibiscum#ajaj differs from the parsnip in being more slender3 it is rejected as a food1 but is found useful for its medicinal properties4 ,there is a fourth kind1#ajaa also1 which bears a similar degree of resemblance to the parsnip2 by our people it is called the 8gallica10 while the ,greeks1 who have distinguished four varieties of it1 give it the name of 8daucus40 ,we shall have further occasion#ajab to mention it among the medicinal plants4 ,,chap4 #bh4--,,the ,,skirret4 ,the skirret1#ajac too1 has had its reputation established by the ,emperor ,tiberius1 who demanded a supply of it every year from ,germany4 ,it is at ,gelduba1#ajad a fortress situate on the banks of the ,rhenus1 that the finest are grown2 from which it would appear that they thrive best in a cold climate4 ,there is a string running through the whole length of the skirret1 and which is drawn out after it is boiled2 but still1 for all this1 a considerable proportion of its natural pungency is retained2 indeed1 when modified by the addition of honied wine1 this is even thought to impart to dishes an additional relish4 ,the larger parsnip has also a similar sting inside1 but only when it is a year old4 ,the proper time for sowing the skirret is in the months of ,february1 ,march1 ,april1 ,august1 ,september1 and ,october4 ,,chap4 #bi4--;,,elecampane4 ,elecampane#ajae is not so elongated as the preceding roots1 but more substantial and more pungent2 eaten by itself it is very injurious to the stomach1 but when mixed with other condiments of a sweet nature1 it is extremely wholesome4 ,there are several methods employed for modifying#ajaf its natural acridity and rendering it agreeable to the palate3 thus1 for instance1 when dried it is reduced to a fine flour1 and then mixed with some sweet liquid or other1 or else it is boiled in vinegar and water1 or kept in soak in it2 it is also steeped in various other ways1 and then mixed with boiled#ajag grape-juice1 or else incorporated with honey or raisins1 or dates with plenty of meat on them4 ,other persons1 again1 have a method of preparing it with quinces1 or else sorbs or plums1 while sometimes the flavour is varied by the addition of pepper or thyme4 ,this plant is particularly good for weakness of the stomach1 and it has acquired a high reputation from the circumstance that ,julia#ajah ,augusta used to eat it daily4 ,the seed of it is quite useless1 as the plant is reproduced1 like the reed1 from eyes extracted from the root4 ,this vegetable1 as well as the skirret and the parsnip1 is sown both in spring and autumn1 a considerable distance being left between the plants2 indeed1 for elecampane1 a space of no less than three feet is required1 as it throws out its shoots to a very considerable distance4#ajai ,skirrets1 however1 are best transplanted4 ,,chap4 #cj4--;,,bulbs1 ,,squills1 ,,and ,,arum4 ,next in affinity to these plants are the bulbs1#ajbj which ,cato1 speaking in high terms of those of ,megara1#ajba recommends most particularly for cultivation4 ,among these bulbs1 the squill1#ajbb we find1 occupies the very highest rank1 although by nature it is medicinal1 and is employed for imparting an additional sharpness to vinegar3#ajbc indeed1 there is no bulb known that grows to a larger size than this1 or is possessed of a greater degree of pungency4 ,there are two varieties of it employed in medicine1 the male squill1 which has white leaves1 and the female squill1 with black#ajbd ones4 ,there is a third kind also1 which is good to eat1 and is known as the ,epimenidian#ajbe squill2 the leaf is narrower than in the other kinds1 and not so rough4 ,all the squills have numerous seeds1 but they come up much more quickly if propagated from the offsets that grow on the sides4 ,to make them attain a still greater size1 the large leaves that grow around them are turned down and covered over with earth2 by which method all the juices are carried to the heads4 ,squills grow spontaneously and in vast numbers in the ,baleares and the island of ,ebusus1 and in the ,spanish provinces4#ajbf ,the philosopher ,pythagoras has written a whole volume on the merits of this plant1 setting forth its various medicinal properties2 of which we shall have occasion to speak more at length in the succeeding ,book4#ajbg ,the other species of bulbs are distinguished by their colour1 size1 and sweetness2 indeed1 there are some that are eaten raw even--those found in the ,tauric ,chersonesus1 for instance4 ,next to these1 the bulbs of ,africa are held in the highest esteem1 and after them those of ,apulia4 ,the ,greeks have distinguished the following varieties3 the bulbine1#ajbh the setanion1#ajbi the opition1#ajcj the cyix1#ajca the leucoion1#ajcb the gilips1#ajcc and the sisyrinchion#ajcd--;in the last there is this remarkable feature1 that the extremities of the roots increase in winter1 but during the spring1 when the violet appears1 they diminish in size and gradually contract1 and then it is that the bulb begins to increase in magnitude4 ,among the varieties of the bulb1 too1 there is the plant known in ,egypt by the name of 8aron40#ajce ,in size it is very nearly as large as the squill1 with a leaf like that of lapathum1 and a straight stalk a couple of cubits in length1 and the thickness of a walking-stick3 the root of it is of a milder nature1 so much so1 indeed1 as to admit of being eaten raw4 ,bulbs are taken up before the spring1 for if not1 they are apt to spoil very quickly4 ,it is a sign that they are ripe when the leaves become dry at the lower extremities4 ,when too old they are held in disesteem2 the same1 too1 with the long and the smaller ones2 those1 on the other hand1 which are red and round are greatly preferred1 as also those of the largest size4 ,in most of them there is a certain degree of pungency in the upper part1 but the middle is sweet4 ,the ancients have stated that bulbs are reproduced from seed only1 but in the champaign country of ,prneste they grow spontaneously1 and they grow to an unlimited extent in the territory of the ,remi4#ajcf ,,chap4 #ca4 7#f47--,,the ,,roots1 ,,flowers1 ,,and ,,leaves ,,of ,,all ,,these ,,plants4 ,,garden ,,plants ,,which ,,lose ,,their ,,leaves4 ,nearly all#ajcg the garden plants have a single#ajch root only1 radishes1 beet1 parsley1 and mallows1 for example2 it is lapathum1 however1 that has the longest root of them all1 it attaining the length of three cubits even4 ,the root of the wild kind is smaller and of a humid nature1 and when up it will keep alive for a considerable period4 ,in some of these plants1 however1 the roots are fibrous1 as we find the case in parsley and mallows1 for instance2 in others1 again1 they are of a ligneous nature1 as in ocimum1 for example2 and in others they are fleshy1 as in beet1 and in saffron even more so4 ,in some1 again1 the root is composed of rind and flesh1 as in the radish and the rape2 while in others it is jointed1 as in hay grass4#ajci ,those plants which have not a straight root throw out immediately a great number of hairy fibres1 orage#ajdj and blite1#ajda for instance3 squills again1 bulbs1 onions1 and garlic never have any but a vertical root4 ,among the plants that grow spontaneously1 there are some which have more numerous roots than leaves1 spalax1#ajdb for example1 pellitory1#ajdc and saffron4#ajdd ,wild thyme1 southernwood1 turnips1 radishes1 mint1 and rue blossom all#ajde at once2 while others1 again1 shed their blossom directly they have begun to flower4 ,ocimum#ajdf blossoms gradually1 beginning at the lower parts1 and hence it is that it is so very long in blossom3 the same is the case1 too1 with the plant known as heliotropium4#ajdg ,in some plants the flower is white1 in others yellow1 and in others purple4 ,the leaves fall first#ajdh from the upper part in wild-marjoram and elecampane1 and in rue#ajdi sometimes1 when it has been injured accidentally4 ,in some plants the leaves are hollow1 the onion and the scallion1#ajej more particularly4 ,,chap4 #cb4--,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,onion4 ,garlic and onions#ajea are invoked by the ,egyptians1#ajeb when taking an oath1 in the number of their deities4 ,the ,greeks have many varieties#ajec of the onion1 the ,sardian onion1 the ,samothracian1 the ,alsidenian1 the setanian1 the schistan1 and the ,ascalonian1#ajed so called from ,ascalon1#ajee a city of ,juda4 ,they have1 all of them1 a pungent smell1 which#ajef draws tears from the eyes1 those of ,cyprus more particularly1 and those of ,cnidos the least of all4 ,in all of them the body is composed of a cartilage of an unctuous#ajeg nature4 ,the variety known as the setanian is the smallest of them all1 with the exception of the ,tusculan#ajeh onion1 but it is sweet to the taste4 ,the schistan#ajei and the ,ascalonian kinds are used for storing4 ,the schistan onion is left during the winter with the leaves on2 in the spring it is stripped of them1 upon which offsets make their appearance at the same divisions as the leaves2 it is to this circumstance that this variety owes its name4 ,taking the hint from this fact1 it is recommended to strip the other kinds of their leaves1 to make them bulb all the better1 instead of running to seed4 ,the ,ascalonian onion is of a peculiar nature1 being barren in some measure in the root2 hence it is that the ,greeks have recommended it to be reproduced from seed1 and not from roots3 the transplanting1 too1 they say1 should be done later in the spring1 at the time the plant germinates1 the result being that it bulbs with all the greater rapidity1 and hastens1 as it were1 to make up for lost time2 great dispatch1 however1 is requisite in taking it up1 for when ripe it rots with the greatest rapidity4 ,if propagated from roots1 it throws out a long stalk1 runs rapidly to seed1 and dies4 ,there are considerable differences1 too1 in the colour of the onion2 the whitest of all are those grown at ,issus and ,sardes4 ,the onions1 too1 of ,crete are held in high esteem1 but there is some doubt whether they are not the same as the ,ascalonian variety2 for when grown from seed they produce a fine bulb1 but when planted they throw out a long stalk and run to seed2 in fact1 they differ from the ,ascalonian kind only in the sweetness of their flavour4 ,among us there are two principal varieties known of the onion2 the scallion1 employed for seasonings1 is one1 known to the ,greeks by the name of 8gethyon10 and by us as the 8pallacana20 it is sown in ,march1 ,april1 and ,may4 ,the other kind is the bulbed or headed#ajfj onion2 it is sown just after the autumnal equinox1 or else after the west winds have begun to prevail4 ,the varieties of this last kind1 ranged according to their relative degrees of pungency1 are the ,african onion1 the ,gallic1 the ,tusculan1 the ,ascalonian1 and the ,amiternian3 the roundest in shape are the best4 ,the red onion1 too1 is more pungent than the white1 the stored than the fresh1 the raw than the cooked1 and the dried than the preserved4 ,the onion of ,amiternum is cultivated in cold1 humid localities1 and is the only one that is reproduced from heads1#ajfa like garlic1 the other kinds being grown from seed4 ,this last kind yields no seed in the ensuing summer1 but a bulb only1 which dries and keeps2 but in the summer after1 the contrary is the case1 for seed is produced1 while the bulb very quickly spoils4 ,hence it is that every year there are two separate sowings1 one of seed for the reproduction of bulbs1 and one of bulbs for the growth of seed2 these onions keep best in chaff4 ,the scallion has hardly any bulb at all1 but a long neck only--hence it is nothing but leaf1 and is often cut down1 like the leek2 for this reason1 too1 like the leek1 it is grown from seed1 and not from plants4 ,in addition to these particulars1 it is recommended that the ground intended for sowing onions should be turned up three times1 care being taken to remove all roots and weeds2 ten pounds of seed is the proper proportion for a jugerum4 ,savory too1 they say1 should be mixed with them1 the onions being all the finer for it2 the ground1 too1 should be stubbed and hoed four times at least1 if not oftener4 ,in ,italy1 the ,ascalonian onion is sown in the month of ,february4 ,the seed of the onion is gathered when it begins to turn black1 and before it becomes dry and shrivelled4 ,,chap4 #cc4--,,the ,,leek4 ,while upon this subject1 it will be as well1 too1 to speak of the leek1#ajfb on account of the affinity which it bears to the plants just mentioned1 and more particularly because cut-leek has recently acquired considerable celebrity from the use made of it by the ,emperor ,nero4 ,that prince1 to improve his voice1#ajfc used to eat leeks and oil every month1 upon stated days1 abstaining from every other kind of food1 and not touching so much as a morsel of bread even4 ,leeks are reproduced from seed1 sown just after the autumnal equinox2 if they are intended for cutting1#ajfd the seed is sown thicker than otherwise4 ,the leeks in the same bed are cut repeatedly1 till it is quite exhausted1 and they are always kept well manured4 ,if they are wanted to bulb before being cut1 when they have grown to some size they are transplanted to another bed1 the extremities of the leaves being snipped off without touching the white part1 and the heads stripped of the outer coats4 ,the ancients were in the habit of placing a stone or potsherd upon the leek1 to make the head grow all the larger1 and the same with the bulbs as well2 but at the present day it is the usual practice to move the fibrous roots gently with the weeding-hook1 so that by being bent they may nourish the plant1 and not withdraw the juices from it4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that1 though the leek stands in need of manure and a rich soil1 it has a particular aversion to water2 and yet its nature depends very much upon the natural properties of the soil4 ,the most esteemed leeks are those grown in ,egypt1 and next to them those of ,ostia and ,aricia4#ajfe ,of the leek for cutting1 there are two varieties3 that with grass-green#ajff leaves and incisions distinctly traced on them1 and the leek with paler and rounder leaves1 the incisions being more lightly marked4 ,there is a story told1 that ,mela1#ajfg a member of the ,equestrian order1 being accused of mal-administration by order of the ,emperor ,tiberius1 swallowed in his despair leek-juice to the amount of three denarii in weight of silver1 and expired upon the spot without the slightest symptom of pain4 ,it is said1 however1 that a larger dose than this is productive of no injurious effects whatever4#ajfh ,,chap4 #cd4--;,,garlic4 ,garlic#ajfi is generally supposed1 in the country more particularly1 to be a good specific#ajgj for numerous maladies4 ,the external coat consists of membranes of remarkable fineness1 which are universally discarded when the vegetable is used2 the inner part being formed by the union of several cloves1 each of which has also a separate coat of its own4 ,the flavour of it is pungent1 and the more numerous the cloves the more pungent it is4 ,like the onion1 it imparts an offensive smell to the breath2 but this is not the case when it is cooked4 ,the various species of garlic are distinguished by the periods at which they ripen3 the early kind becomes fit for use in sixty days4 ,another distinction1 too1 is formed by the relative size of the heads4 ,ulpicum1#ajga also1 generally known to the ,greeks as 8,cyprian garlic10 belongs to this class2 by some persons it is called 8antiscorodon10 and in ,africa more particularly it holds a high rank among the dishes of the rural population2 it is of a larger size than ordinary garlic4 ,when beaten up with oil and vinegar1 it is quite surprising what a quantity of creaming foam is produced4 ,there are some persons who recommend that neither ulpicum nor garlic should be sown on level ground1 but say that they should be planted in little mounds trenched up1 at a distance of three feet apart4 ,between each clove1 they say1 there should be a distance of four fingers left1 and as soon as ever three leaves are visible1 the heads should be hoed2 the oftener they are hoed1 the larger the size they will attain4 ,when they begin to ripen1 the stalks are bent downwards1 and covered over with earth1 a precaution which effectually prevents them from running to leaf4 ,in cold soils1 it is considered better to plant them in spring than in autumn4 ,for the purpose of depriving all these plants of their strong smell1 it is recommended to set them when the moon is below the horizon1 and to take them up when she is in conjunction4 ,independently of these precautions1 we find ,menander1 one of the ,greek writers1 recommending those who have been eating garlic to eat immediately afterwards a root of beet roasted on hot coals2 if this is done1 he says1 the strong smell of the garlic will be effectually neutralized4 ,some persons are of opinion1 that the proper period for planting garlic and ulpicum is between the festival of the ,compitalia#ajgb and that of the ,saturnalia4#ajgc ,garlic1 too1 can be grown from seed1 but it is very slow1 in such case1 in coming to maturity2 for in the first year1 the head attains the size only of that of a leek1 in the second1 it separates into cloves1 and only in the third it arrives at maturity2 there are some1 however1 who think that garlic grown this way is the best4 ,garlic should never be allowed to run to seed1 but the stalk should be twisted1 to promote its growth1 and to make the head attain a larger size4 ,if garlic or onions are wanted to keep some time1 the heads should be dipped in salt water1 made luke-warm2 by doing this1 they will be all the better for keeping1 though quite worthless for reproduction4 ,some persons content themselves with hanging them over burning coals1 and are of opinion that this is quite sufficient to prevent them from sprouting3 for it is a well-known fact1 that both garlic and onions sprout when out of the ground1 and that after throwing out their thin shoots they shrivel away to nothing4 ,some persons are of opinion1 too1 that the best way of keeping garlic is by storing it in chaff4 ,there is a kind#ajgd of garlic that grows spontaneously in the fields1 and is known by the name of 8alum40 ,to preserve the seeds that are sown there from the remorseless ravages of the birds1 this plant is scattered over the ground1 being first boiled1 to prevent it from shooting4 ,as soon as ever they have eaten of it1 the birds become so stupefied as to be taken with the hand even1#ajge and if they remain but a few moments only on the spot1 they fall fast asleep4 ,there is a wild garlic1 too1 generally known as 8bear's0 garlic2#ajgf it has exactly the smell of millet1 with a very small head and large leaves4 ,,chap4 #ce4 7#g47--,,the ,,number ,,of ,,days ,,required ,,for ,,the ,,respective ,,plants ,,to ,,make ,,their ,,appearance ,,above ,,ground4 ,among the garden#ajgg plants which make their appearance most speedily above ground1 are ocimum1 blite1 the turnip1 and rocket2 for they appear above the surface the third day after they are sown4 ,anise1 again1 comes up on the fourth day1 the lettuce on the fifth1 the radish on the sixth1 the cucumber and the gourd on the seventh--the cucumber rather the first of the two--cresses and mustard on the fifth1 beet on the sixth day in summer and the tenth in winter1 orage on the eighth1 onions on the nineteenth or twentieth1 and scallions on the tenth or twelfth4 ,coriander1 again1 is more stubborn in its growth1 cunila and wild marjoram do not appear till after the thirtieth day1 and parsley comes up with the greatest difficulty of all1 for at the very earliest it is forty days before it shows itself1 and in most instances as much as fifty4 ,the age1#ajgh too1 of the seed is of some importance in this respect2 for fresh seed comes up more rapidly in the case of the leek1 the scallion1 the cucumber1 and the gourd1 while in that of parsley1 beet1 cardamum1 cunila1 wild marjoram1 and coriander1 seed that has been kept for some time is the best4 ,there is one remarkable circumstance#ajgi in connection with the seed of beet2 it does not all germinate in the first year1 but some of it in the second1 and some in the third even2 hence it is that a considerable quantity of seed produces only a very moderate crop4 ,some plants produce only in the year in which they are set1 and some1 again1 for successive years1 parsley1 leeks1 and scallions#ajhj for instance2 indeed1 these plants1 when once sown1 retain their fertility1 and produce for many years4 ,,chap4 #cf4--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,seeds4 ,in most plants the seed is round1 in some oblong2 it is broad and foliaceous in some1 orage for instance1 while in others it is narrow and grooved1 as in cummin4 ,there are differences1 also1 in the colour of seeds1 which is either black or white2 while some seeds are woody and hard1 in radishes1 mustard1 and rape1 the seeds are enclosed in pods4 ,in parsley1 coriander1 anise1 fennel1 and cummin1 the seed has no covering at all1 while in blite1 beet1 orage1 and ocimum1 it has an outer coat1 and in the lettuce it is covered with a fine down4 ,there is no seed more prolific than that of ocimum2#ajha it is generally recommended#ajhb to sow it with the utterance of curses and imprecations1 the result being that it grows all the better for it2 the earth1 too1 is rammed down when it is sown1 and prayers offered that the seed may never come up4 ,the seeds which are enveloped in an outer coat1 are dried with considerable difficulty1 that of ocimum more particularly2 hence it is that all these seeds are dried artificially1 their fruitfulness being greatly promoted thereby4 ,plants in general come up better when the seed is sown in heaps than when it is scattered broad-cast3 leeks1 in fact1 and parsley are generally grown by sowing the seed in little bags2#ajhc in the case of parsley1 too1 a hole is made with the dibble1 and a layer of manure inserted4 ,all garden plants grow either from seed or from slips1 and some from both seed and suckers1 such as rue1 wild marjoram1 and ocimum1#ajhd for example--this last being usually cut when it is a palm in height4 ,some kinds1 again1 are reproduced from both seed and root1 as in the case of onions1 garlic1 and bulbs1 and those other plants of which1 though annuals themselves1 the roots retain their vitality4 ,in those plants which grow from the root1 it lives for a considerable time1 and throws out offsets1 as in bulbs1 scallions1 and squills for example4--,others1 again1 throw out offsets1 though not from a bulbous root1 such as parsley and beet1 for instance4 ,when the stalk is cut1 with the exception#ajhe of those which have not a rough stem1 nearly all these plants put forth fresh shoots1 a thing that may be seen in ocimum1#ajhf the radish1#ajhg and the lettuce1#ajhh which are in daily use among us2 indeed1 it is generally thought that the lettuce which is grown from a fresh sprouting1 is the sweetest4 ,the radish1 too1 is more pleasant eating when the leaves have been removed before it has begun to run to stalk4 ,the same is the case1 too1 with rape2 for when the leaves are taken off1 and the roots well covered up with earth1 it grows all the larger for it1 and keeps in good preservation till the ensuing summer4 ,,chap4 #cg4--,,plants ,,of ,,which ,,there ,,is ,,but ,a ,,single ,,kind4 ,,plants ,,of ,,which ,,there ,,are ,,several ,,kinds4 ,of ocimum1 lapathum1 blite1 cresses1 rocket1 orage1 coriander1 and anise respectively1 there is but a single kind1 these plants being the same everywhere1 and no better in one place than in another4 ,it is the general belief that stolen#ajhi rue grows the best1 while1 on the other hand1 bees#ajij that have been stolen will never thrive4 ,wild mint1 cat-mint1 endive1 and pennyroyal1 will grow even without any cultivation4 ,with reference to the plants of which we have already spoken1 or shall have occasion to speak1 there are numerous varieties of many of them1 parsley more particularly4 7#h47 ,as to the kind of parsley#ajia which grows spontaneously in moist localities1 it is known by the name of 8helioselinum20#ajib it has a single leaf#ajic only1 and is not rough at the edges4 ,in dry places1 we find growing the kind known as 8hipposelinum10#ajid consisting of numerous leaves1 similar to helioselinum4 ,a third variety is the oreoselinum1#ajie with leaves like those of hemlock1 and a thin1 fine1 root1 the seed being similar to that of anise1 only somewhat smaller4 ,the differences1 again1 that are found to exist in cultivated parsley1#ajif consist in the comparative density of the leaves1 the crispness or smoothness of their edges1 and the thinness or thickness of the stem1 as the case may be3 in some kinds1 again1 the stem is white1 in others purple1 and in others mottled4 ,,chap4 #ch4--,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,varieties ,,of ,,twenty-,,three ,,garden ,,plants4 ,,the ,,lettuce2 ,,its ,,different ,,varieties4 ,the ,greeks have distinguished three varieties of the lettuce2#ajig the first with a stalk so large1 that small garden gates1#ajih it is said1 have been made of it3 the leaf of this lettuce is somewhat larger than that of the herbaceous1 or green lettuce1 but extremely narrow1 the nutriment seeming to be expended on the other parts of the plant4 ,the second kind is that with a rounded#ajii stalk2 and the third is the low1 squat lettuce1#aajj generally known as the ,laconian lettuce4 ,some persons#aaja have made distinctions in reference to their respective colours1 and the times for sowing them3 the black lettuce is sown in the month of ,january1 the white in ,march1 and the red in ,april2 and they are fit for transplanting1 all of them1 at the end of a couple of months4 ,those1 again1 who have pursued these enquiries even further than this1 have distinguished a still greater number of varieties of them--the purple1 the crisped1 the ,cappadocian1#aajb and the ,greek lettuce1 this last having a longer leaf than the rest1 and a broad stalk3 in addition to which1 there is one with a long1 narrow leaf1 very similar to endive in appearance4 ,the most inferior kind1 however1 of all1 is the one to which the ,greeks1 censuring it for its bitterness1 have given the name of 8picris40#aajc ,there is still another variety1 a kind of white lettuce1 called 8meconis10#aajd a name which it derives from the abundance of milk1 of a narcotic quality1 which it produces2 though1 in fact1 it is generally thought that they are all of them of a soporific tendency4 ,in former times1 this last was the only kind of lettuce that was held in any esteem#aaje in ,italy1 the name 8lactuca0 having been given it on account of the milk#aajf which it contains4 ,the purple kind1 with a very large root1 is generally known as the ,ccilian#aajg lettuce2 while the round one1 with an extremely diminutive root and broad leaves1 is known to some persons as the 8astytis10#aajh and to others as the 8eunychion10 it having the effect1 in a remarkable degree1 of quenching the amorous propensities4 ,indeed1 they are1 all of them1 possessed of cooling and refreshing properties1 for which reason it is1 that they are so highly esteemed in summer2 they have the effect1 also1 of removing from the stomach distaste for food1 and of promoting the appetite4 ,at all events1 we find it stated1 that the late ,emperor ,augustus1 when ill1 was saved on one occasion1#aaji thanks to the skill of his physician1 ,musa1#aaaj by eating lettuces1 a food which the excessive scruples of his former physician1 ,c4 milius1 had forbidden him4 ,at the present day1 however1 lettuces have risen into such high estimation1 that a method has been discovered even of preserving them during the months in which they are out of season1 by keeping them in oxymel4#aaaa ,it is generally supposed1 also1 that lettuces have the effect of making blood4 ,in addition to the above varieties1 there is another kind of lettuce known as the 8goats' lettuce10#aaab of which we shall have occasion to make further mention when we come to the medicinal plants3 at the moment1 too1 that ,i am writing this1 a new species of cultivated lettuce has been introduced1 known as the ,cilician lettuce1 and held in very considerable esteem2 the leaf of it is similar to that of the ,cappadocian lettuce1 except that it is crisped1 and somewhat larger4 ,,chap4 #ci4--;,,endive4 ,endive1 though it cannot exactly be said to be of the same genus as the lettuce1 still cannot be pronounced to belong to any other4#aaac ,it is a plant better able to endure the rigours of the winter than the lettuce1#aaad and possessed of a more acrid taste1 though the flavour of the stalk#aaae is equally agreeable4 ,endive is sown at the beginning of spring1 and transplanted at the end of that season4 ,there is also a kind of spreading#aaaf endive1 known in ,egypt as 8cichorium10#aaag of which we shall have occasion#aaah to speak elsewhere more at length4 ,a method has been discovered of preserving all the thyrsi or leaves of the lettuce in pots1 the object being to have them fresh when wanted for boiling4 ,lettuces may be sown all the year#aaai through in a good soil1 well-watered and carefully manured2#aabj two months being allowed to intervene between sowing and transplanting1 and two more between transplanting and gathering them when ripe4 ,the rule is1 however1 to sow them just after the winter solstice1 and to transplant when the west winds begin to prevail1 or else to sow at this latter period1 and to plant out at the vernal equinox4 ,the white lettuce is the best adapted for standing the rigours of the winter4 ,all the garden plants are fond of moisture2 lettuces thrive1 more particularly1 when well manured1 and endive even more so4 ,indeed1 it is found an excellent plan to plant them out with the roots covered up in manure1 and to keep up the supply1 the earth being cleared away for that purpose4 ,some1 again1 have another method of increasing their size2 they cut them#aaba down when they have reached half a foot in height1 and cover them with fresh swine's dung4 ,it is the general opinion that those lettuces only will admit of being blanched which are produced from white seed2 and even then1 as soon as they begin to grow1 sand from the sea-shore should be spread over them1 care being taken to tie the leaves as soon as ever they begin to come to any size4 ,,chap4 #dj4--;,,beet3 ,,four ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,beet#aabb is the smoothest of all the garden plants4 ,the ,greeks distinguish two kinds of beet1 according to the colour1 the black and the white4 ,the last1 which is the kind generally preferred1 has but very little seed1 and is generally known as the ,sicilian#aabc beet2 just as it is the white lettuce that is held in the highest degree of esteem4 ,our people1 also1 distinguish two varieties of beet1 the spring and the autumn kinds1 so called from the periods of sowing2 although sometimes we find beet sown in ,june even4 ,this is a plant1 too1 that is sometimes transplanted2 and it thrives all the better1 like the lettuce1 if the roots are well covered with manure1 in a moist soil4 ,beet is mostly eaten#aabd with lentils and beans2 it is prepared also in the same way as cabbage1 with mustard more particularly1 the pungency of which relieves its insipidity4 ,medical men are of opinion that beet is a more unwholesome#aabe vegetable than cabbage2 hence it is that ,i never remember seeing it served at table4 ,indeed1 there are some persons who scruple to taste it even1 from a conviction that it is a food suitable only for persons of a robust constitution4 ,beet is a vegetable with twofold characteristics1 partaking of the nature of the cabbage in its leaves and resembling a bulb in the root2 that which grows to the greatest breadth being the most highly esteemed4 ,this plant1 like the lettuce1 is made to grow to head by putting a light weight upon it the moment it begins to assume its proper colour4 ,indeed1 there is no garden plant that grows to a larger head than this1 as it sometimes spreads to a couple of feet in breadth1 the nature of the soil contributing in a very considerable degree to its size3 those found in the territory of ,circeii attain the largest size4 ,some persons#aabf think that the best time for sowing beet is when the pomegranate is in flower1 and are of opinion that it ought to be transplanted as soon as it has thrown out five leaves4 ,there is a singular difference--if indeed it really exists--between the two varieties of beet1 the white kind being remarkable for its purgative qualities1 and the black being equally astringent4 ,when wine in the vat has been deteriorated by assuming a flavour like#aabg that of cabbage1 its original flavour is restored1 it is said1 by plunging beet leaves into it4 ,,chap4 #da--;,,cabbages2 ,,the ,,several ,,varieties ,,of ,,them4 ,cabbage and coleworts1 which at the present day are the most highly esteemed of all the garden vegetables1 were held in little repute1 ,i find1 among the ,greeks2 but ,cato1#aabh on the other hand1 sings the wondrous praises of the cabbage1 the medicinal properties of which we shall duly enlarge#aabi upon when we come to treat of that subject4 ,cato distinguishes three varieties of the cabbage2 the first1 a plant with leaves wide open1 and a large stalk2 a second1 with crisped leaves1 to which he gives the name of 8apiaca20#aacj and a third1 with a thin stalk1 and a smooth1 tender leaf1 which with him ranks the lowest of all4 ,cabbages may be sown the whole year through1 as we find that they are cut at all periods of the year2 the best time1 however1 for sowing them is at the autumnal equinox1 and they are usually transplanted as soon as five leaves are visible4 ,in the ensuing spring after the first cutting1 the plant yields sprouts1 known to us as 8cym40#aaca ,these sprouts1 in fact1 are small shoots thrown out from the main stem1 of a more delicate and tender quality than the cabbage itself4 ,the exquisite palate1 however1 of ,apicius#aacb rejected these sprouts for the table1 and his example was followed by the fastidious ,drusus ,csar2 who did not escape1 however1 the censures of his father1 ,tiberius1 for being so over-nice4 ,after the cym have made their appearance the cabbage throws out its summer and autumn shoots1 and then its winter ones2 after which1 a new crop of cym is produced1 there being no plant so productive as this1 until1 at last1 it is quite exhausted by its extreme fertility4 ,a second time for sowing cabbages is immediately after the vernal equinox1 the plants of this growth being transplanted at the end of spring1 that they may not run up into sprouts before coming to a top3 and a third sowing takes place about the summer solstice1 the transplanting being done in summer if the soil is moist1 but1 if too dry1 in autumn4 ,when moisture and manure are supplied in small quantities1 the flavour of the cabbage is all the more agreeable1 but when they are supplied in greater abundance1 the plants attain a larger size4 ,asses' dung is the best adapted for its growth4 ,the cabbage1 too1 is one of those articles so highly esteemed by epicures2 for which reason it will not be amiss if we speak of it at somewhat greater length4 ,to obtain plants equally remarkable for their size and flavour1 care must be taken first of all to sow the seed in ground that has had a couple of turnings up1 and then to follow up the shoots as they appear above ground by moulding them up1 care being taken to throw up the earth over them as they increase in luxuriance1 and to let nothing but the summit appear above the surface4 ,this kind is known as the ,tritian#aacc cabbage3 in money and labour it costs twice as much as any of the others4 ,the other varieties of the cabbage#aacd are numerous--there is the ,cumanian cabbage1 with leaves that lie close to the ground1 and a wide1 open head2 the ,aricinian#aace cabbage1 too1 of no greater height1 but with more numerous leaves and thinner--this last is looked upon as the most useful of them all1 for beneath nearly all of the leaves there are small shoots thrown out1 peculiar to this variety4 ,the cabbage1 again1 of ,pompeii#aacf is considerably taller1 the stalk1 which is thin at the root1 increasing in thickness as it rises among the leaves1 which are fewer in number and narrower2 the great merit of this cabbage is its remarkable tenderness1 although it is not able to stand the cold4 ,the cabbage of ,bruttium1#aacg on the other hand1 thrives all the better for cold2 the leaves of it are remarkably large1 the stalk thin1 and the flavour pungent4 ,the leaves1 again1 of the ,sabine#aach cabbage are crisped to such a degree as to excite our surprise1 and their thickness is such as to quite exhaust the stem2 in sweetness1 however1 it is said to surpass all the others4 ,there have lately come into fashion the cabbages known as the 8,lacuturres20#aaci they are grown in the valley of ,aricia1 where there was formerly a lake1 now no longer in existence1 and a tower which is still standing4 ,the head of this cabbage is very large1 and the leaves are almost without number1 some of them being round and smooth1 and others long and sinewy2 indeed1 there is no cabbage that runs to a larger head than this1 with the sole exception of the ,tritian variety1 which has a head sometimes as much as a foot in thickness1 and throws out its cym the latest of all4 ,in all kinds of cabbages1 hoar-frost contributes very materially to their sweetness2 but it is apt to be productive of considerable injury1 if care is not taken to protect the pith by cutting them aslant4 ,those plants which are intended for seed are never cut4 ,there is another kind1 again1 that is held in peculiar esteem1 and which never exceeds the height of an herbaceous plant2 it is known by the name of 8halmyridia10#aadj from the circumstance of its growing on the sea-shore#aada only4 ,it will keep green and fresh during a long voyage even1 if care is taken not to let it touch the ground from the moment that it is cut1 but to put it into oil-vessels lately dried1 and then to bung them so as to effectually exclude all air4 ,there are some#aadb who are of opinion1 that the plant will come to maturity all the sooner if some sea-weed is laid at the root when it is transplanted1 or else as much pounded nitre as can be taken up with three fingers2 and others1 again1 sprinkle the leaves with trefoil seed and nitre pounded together4#aadc ,nitre1 too1 preserves the greenness of cabbage when cooked1 a result which is equally ensured by the ,apician mode of boiling1 or in other words1 by steeping the plants in oil and salt before they are cooked4 ,there is a method of grafting vegetables by cutting the shoots and the stalk1 and then inserting in the pith the seed of another plant2 a plan which has been adopted with the wild cucumber even4 ,there is another kind of wild cabbage1 also1 the lapsana1#aadd which has become famous since the triumphs of the late ,emperor ,julius1 in consequence of the songs and jokes of his soldiers more particularly2 for in the alternate lines sung by them1 they used to reproach him for having made them live on lapsana at the siege of ,dyrrhachium1 and to rally him upon the parsimonious scale on which he was in the habit of recompensing their services4 ,the lapsana is nothing more than a wild cyma4#aade ,,chap4 #db4--,,wild ,,and ,,cultivated ,,asparagus4 ,of all the garden plants1 asparagus is the one that requires the most delicate attention in its cultivation4 ,we have already#aadf spoken at considerable length of its origin1 when treating of the wild plants1 and have mentioned that ,cato#aadg recommends it to be grown in reed-beds4 ,there is another kind1 again1 of a more uncultivated nature than the garden asparagus1 but less pungent than corruda2#aadh it grows upon the mountains in different countries1 and the plains of ,upper ,germany are quite full of it1 so much so1 indeed1 that it was a not unhappy remark of ,tiberius ,csar1 that a weed grows there which bears a remarkably strong resemblance to asparagus4 ,that which grows spontaneously upon the island of ,nesis1 off the coast of ,campania1 is looked upon as being by far the best of all4 ,garden asparagus is reproduced from roots1#aadi the fibres of which are exceedingly numerous1 and penetrate to a considerable depth4 ,when it first puts forth its shoots1 it is green2 these in time lengthen out into stalks1 which afterwards throw out streaked branches from the head3 asparagus admits1 also1 of being grown from seed4 ,cato#aaej has treated of no subject with greater care than this1 the last ,chapter of his work being devoted to it1 from which we may conclude that it was quite new to him1 and a subject which had only very recently occupied his attention4 ,he recommends that the ground prepared for it should be a moist or dense soil1 the seed being set at intervals of half a foot every way1 to avoid treading upon the heads2 the seed1 he says1 should be put two or three into each hole1 these being made with the dibble as the line runs--for in his day1 it should be remembered1 asparagus was only grown from seed--this being done about the vernal equinox4 ,it requires1 he adds1 to be abundantly manured1 and to be kept well hoed1 due care being taken not to pull up the young plants along with the weeds4 ,the first year1 he says1 the plants must be protected from the severity of the winter with a covering of straw1 care being taken to uncover them in the spring1 and to hoe and stub up the ground about them4 ,in the spring of the third year1 the plants must be set fire to1 and the earlier the period at which the fire is applied1 the better they will thrive4 ,hence it is1 that as reed-beds#aaea grow all the more rapidly after being fired1 asparagus is found to be a crop remarkably well suited for growing with them4 ,the same author recommends1 however1 that asparagus should not be hoed before the plants have made their appearance above-ground1 for fear of disturbing the roots2 and he says that in gathering the heads1 they should be cut close to the root1 and not broken off at the surface1 a method which is sure to make them run to stalk and die4 ,they should be cut1 he says1 until they are left to run to seed1 and after the seed is ripe1 in spring they must be fired1 care being taken1 as soon as they appear again1 to hoe and manure them as before4 ,after eight or nine years1 he says1 when the plants have become old1 they must be renewed1 after digging and manuring the ground1 by replanting the roots at intervals of a foot1 care being taken to employ sheep's dung more particularly for the purpose1 other kinds of manure being apt to produce weeds4 ,no method of cultivating this plant that has since been tried has been found more eligible than this1 with the sole exception that the seed is now sown about the ides of ,february1 by laying it in heaps in small trenches1 after steeping it a considerable time in manure2 the result of which is that the roots become matted1 and form into spongy tufts1 which are planted out at intervals of a foot after the autumnal equinox1 the plants continuing to be productive so long as ten years even4 ,there is no soil more favourable to the growth of asparagus1 than that of the gardens of ,ravenna4#aaeb ,we have already#aaec spoken of the corruda1 by which term ,i mean the wild asparagus1 by the ,greeks called 8orminos10 or 8myacanthos10 as well as by other names4 ,i find it stated1 that if rams' horns are pounded1 and then buried in the ground1 asparagus will come up4#aaed ,,chap4 #dc4--,,thistles4 ,it really might have been thought that ,i had now given an account of all the vegetable productions that are held in any degree of esteem1 did there not still remain one plant1 the cultivation of which is extremely profitable1 and of which ,i am unable to speak without a certain degree of shame4 ,for it is a well-known fact1 that some small plots of land1 planted with thistles1#aaee in the vicinity of ,great ,carthage and of ,corduba more particularly1 produce a yearly income of six thousand sesterces2#aaef this being the way in which we make the monstrous productions even of the earth subservient to our gluttonous appetites1 and that1 too1 when the very four-footed brutes#aaeg instinctively refuse to touch them4 ,thistles are grown two different ways1 from plants set in autumn1 and from seed sown before the nones of ,march2#aaeh in which latter case they are transplanted before the ides of ,november1#aaei or1 where the site is a cold one1 about the time that the west winds prevail4 ,they are sometimes manured even1 and if#aafj such is the will of heaven1 grow all the better for it4 ,they are preserved1 too1 in a mixture of honey and vinegar1#aafa with the addition of root of laser and cummin--so that a day may not pass without our having thistles at table4#aafb ,,chap4 #dd4--,,other ,,plants ,,that ,,are ,,sown ,,in ,,the ,,garden3 ,,ocimum2 ,,rocket2 ,,and ,,nasturtium4 ,for the remaining plants a brief description will suffice4 ,the best time for sowing ocimum1#aafc it is said1 is at the festival of the ,parilia2#aafd though some say that it may be done in autumn as well1 and recommend1 when it is sown in winter1 to drench the seed thoroughly with vinegar4 ,rocket1#aafe too1 and nasturtium#aaff may be grown with the greatest facility either in summer or winter4 ,rocket1 more particularly1 is able to stand the cold1 and its properties are quite different from those of the lettuce1 as it is a great provocative of lust4 ,hence it is that we are in the habit of mixing these two plants in our dishes1 the excess of cold in the one being compensated by the equal degree of heat in the other4 ,nasturtium has received that name from#aafg the smarting sensation which its pungency causes to the nostrils1 and hence it is that a certain notion of smartness has attached itself to the word1 it having become quite a proverbial saying1 that a sluggish man should eat nasturtium1 to arouse him from his torpidity4 ,in ,arabia1 it is said1 this plant attains a size that is quite marvellous4 ,,chap4 #de4--,,rue4 ,rue1#aafh too1 is generally sown while the west winds prevail1 as well as just after the autumnal equinox4 ,this plant has an extreme aversion to cold1 moisture1 and dung2 it loves dry1 sunny localities1 and a soil more particularly that is rich in brick clay2 it requires to be nourished1 too1 with ashes1 which should be mixed with the seed as well1 as a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars4 ,the ancients held rue in peculiar esteem2 for ,i find that honied wine flavoured with rue was distributed to the people1 in his consulship1#aafi by ,cornelius ,cethegus1 the colleague of ,quintus ,flamininus1 after the closing of the ,comitia4 ,this plant has a great liking#aagj for the fig-tree1 and for that tree only2 indeed1 it never thrives better than when grown beneath that tree4 ,it is generally grown from slips1 the lower end of which is inserted in a perforated#aaga bean1 which holds it fast1 and so nurtures the young plant with its juices4 ,it also reproduces itself2#aagb for the ends of the branches bending downwards1 the moment they reach the ground1 they take root again4 ,ocimum#aagc is of a very similar nature to rue1 except that it dries with greater difficulty4 ,when rue has once gained strength1 there is considerable difficulty in stubbing it1 as it causes itching ulcerations on the hands1 if they are not covered or previously protected by being rubbed with oil4 ,its leaves1 too1 are preserved1 being packed in bundles for keeping4 ,,chap4 #df4--,,parsley4 ,parsley is sown immediately after the vernal equinox1 the seed being lightly beaten#aagd first in a mortar4 ,it is thought that1 by doing this1 the parsley will be all the more crisped1 or else by taking care to beat it down when sown with a roller or the feet4 ,it is a peculiarity of this plant1 that it changes colour3 it has the honour1 in ,achaia1 of forming the wreath of the victors in the sacred contests of the ,nemean ,games4 ,,chap4 #dg4--,,mint4 ,it is at the same season1 too1 that mint#aage is transplanted2 or1 if it has not yet germinated1 the matted tufts of the old roots are used for the purpose4 ,this plant1 too1 is no less fond of a humid soil than parsley2 it is green in summer and turns yellow in winter4 ,there is a wild kind of mint1 known to us as 8mentastrum30#aagf it is reproduced by layers1 like the vine1 or else by planting the branches upside down4 ,it was the sweetness of its smell that caused this plant to change its name among the ,greeks1 its former name with them being 8mintha10 from which the ancient ,romans derived their name#aagg for it2 whereas now1 of late1 it has been called by them 4#aagh ,the mint that is used in the dishes at rustic entertainments pervades the tables far and wide with its agreeable odour4 ,when once planted1 it lasts a considerable length of time2 it bears1 too1 a strong resemblance to pennyroyal1 a property of which is1 as mentioned by us more than once1#aagi to flower when kept in our larders4 ,these other herbs1 mint1 ,i mean1 and catmint1 as well as pennyroyal1 are all kept for use in a similar manner2 but it is cummin#aahj that is the best suited of all the seasoning herbs to squeamish and delicate stomachs4 ,this plant grows on the surface of the soil1 seeming hardly to adhere to it1 and raising itself aloft from the ground3 it ought to be sown in the middle of the summer1 in a crumbly1 warm soil1 more particularly4 ,there is another wild kind#aaha of cummin1 known by some persons as 8rustic10 by others as 8,thebaic0 cummin3 bruised and drunk in water1 it is good for pains in the stomach4 ,the cummin most esteemed in our part of the world is that of ,carpetania1#aahb though elsewhere that of ,africa and thiopia is more highly esteemed2 with some1 indeed1 this last is preferred to that of ,egypt4 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,olusatrum4 ,but it is olusatrum1#aahc more particularly1 that is of so singular a nature1 a plant which by the ,greeks is called 8hipposelinum10#aahd and by others 8smyrnium40 ,this plant is reproduced from a tear-like gum#aahe which exudes from the stem2 it is also grown from the roots as well4 ,those whose business it is to collect the juice of it1 say that it has just the flavour of myrrh2 and1 according to ,theophrastus1#aahf it is obtained by planting myrrh4 ,the ancients recommended that hipposelinum should be grown in uncultivated spots covered with stones1 and in the vicinity of garden walls2 but at the present day it is sown in ground that has been twice turned up1 between the prevalence of the west winds and the autumnal equinox4 ,the caper1#aahg too1 should be sown in dry localities more particularly1 the plot being hollowed out and surrounded with an embankment of stones erected around it3 if this precaution is not taken1 it will spread all over the adjoining land1 and entail sterility upon the soil4 ,the caper blossoms in summer1 and retains its verdure till the setting of the ,vergili2 it thrives the best of all in a sandy soil4 ,as to the bad qualities of the caper which grows in the parts beyond the sea1 we have already#aahh enlarged upon them when speaking of the exotic shrubs4 ,,chap4 #di4--,,the ,,caraway4 ,the caraway#aahi is an exotic plant also1 which derives its name1 8careum10 from the country#aaij in which it was first grown2 it is principally employed for culinary purposes4 ,this plant will grow in any kind of soil1 and requires to be cultivated just the same way as olusatrum2 the most esteemed1 however1 is that which comes from ,caria1 and the next best is that of ,phrygia4 ,,chap4 #ej4--,,lovage4 ,lovage#aaia grows wild in the mountains of ,liguria1 its native country1 but at the present day it is grown everywhere4 ,the cultivated kind is the sweetest of the two1 but is far from powerful2 by some persons it is known as 8panax40 ,crateuas1 a ,greek writer1 gives this name1 however1 to the plant known to us as 8cunila bubula20#aaib and others1 again1 call the conyza#aaic or cunilago1 cunila1 while they call cunila1#aaid properly so called1 by the name of 8thymbra40 ,with us cunila has another appellation1 being generally known as 8satureia10 and reckoned among the seasoning plants4 ,it is usually sown in the month of ,february1 and for utility rivals wild marjoram4 ,these two plants are never used together1 their properties being so extremely similar2 but it is only the wild marjoram of ,egypt that is considered superior to cunila4 ,,chap4 #ea4--;,,dittander4 ,dittander1#aaie too1 was originally an exotic plant3 it is usually sown after the west winds have begun to prevail4 ,as soon as it begins to shoot1 it is cut down close to the ground1 after which it is hoed and manured1 a process which is repeated the succeeding year4 ,after this1 the shoots are fit for use1 if the rigour of the winter has not injured them2 for it is a plant quite unable to withstand any inclemency#aaif of the weather4 ,it grows to the height of a cubit1 and has a leaf like that of the laurel1#aaig but softer2 it is never used except in combination with milk4 ,,chap4 #eb4--;,,gith4 ,gith#aaih is employed by bakers1 dill and anise by cooks and medical men4 ,sacopenium1#aaii so extensively used for adulterating laser1 is also a garden plant1 but is only employed for medicinal purposes4 ,,chap4 #ec4--,,the ,,poppy4 ,there are certain plants which are grown in company#abjj with others1 the poppy1 for instance1 sown with cabbages and purslain1 and rocket with lettuce4 ,of the cultivated poppy#abja there are three kinds1 the first being the white#abjb poppy1 the seed of which1 parched1 and mixed with honey1 used to be served up in the second course at the tables of the ancients2 at the present day1 too1 the country people sprinkle it on the upper crust of their bread1 making it adhere by means of the yolk of eggs1 the under crust being seasoned with parsley and gith to heighten the flavour of the flour4 ,the second kind is the black#abjc poppy1 from which1 upon an incision being made in the stalk1 a milky juice distils2 and the third is that known to the ,greeks by the name of 8rhas20#abjd and by us as the wild poppy4 ,this last grows spontaneously1 but in fields1 more particularly1 which have been sown with barley3 it bears a strong resemblance to rocket1 grows to the height of a cubit1 and bears a red flower1 which quickly fades2 it is to this flower that it is indebted for its ,greek name4#abje ,as to the other kinds of poppies which spring up spontaneously1 we shall have occasion to speak of them when treating of the medicinal plants4#abjf ,that the poppy has always been held in esteem among the ,romans1 we have a proof in the story related of ,tarquinius#abjg ,superbus1 who1 by striking down the tallest poppies in his garden1 surreptitiously conveyed1 unknown to them1 his sanguinary message through the envoys who had been sent by his son4 ,,chap4 #ed4--,,other ,,plants ,,which ,,require ,,to ,,be ,,sown ,,at ,,the ,,autumnal ,,equinox4 ,there are some other plants1 again1 which require to be sown together at the time of the autumnal equinox2 coriander1 for instance1 anise1 orage1 mallows1 lapathum1 chervil1 known to the ,greeks as 8pderos10#abjh and mustard1#abji which has so pungent a flavour1 that it burns like fire1 though at the same time it is remarkably wholesome for the body4 ,this last1 though it will grow without cultivation1 is considerably improved by being transplanted2 though1 on the other hand1 it is extremely difficult to rid the soil of it when once sown there1 the seed when it falls germinating immediately4 ,this seed1 when cooked in the saucepan1#abaj is employed even for making ragouts1 its pungency being rendered imperceptible by boiling2 the leaves1 too1 are boiled just the same way as those of other vegetables4 ,there are three different kinds of mustard1#abaa the first of a thin1 slender form1 the second1 with a leaf like that of the rape1 and the third1 with that of rocket3 the best seed comes from ,egypt4 ,the ,athenians have given mustard the name of 8napy10#abab others1 8thapsi10#abac and others1 again1 8saurion40#abad ,,chap4 #ee4--,,wild ,,thyme2 ,,sisymbrium4 ,most mountains abound with wild thyme and sisymbrium1 those of ,thrace1 for example1 where#abae branches of these wild plants are torn up and brought away for planting4 ,so1 too1 the people of ,sicyon seek for wild thyme on their mountains1 and the ,athenians on the slopes of ,hymettus4 ,sisymbrium1 too1 is planted in a similar manner2 it grows to the greatest perfection upon the walls of wells1 and around fish preserves and ponds4#abaf ,,chap4 #ef4 7#i47--;,,four ,,kinds ,,of ,,ferulaceous ,,plants4 ,,hemp4 ,the other garden plants are of the ferulaceous kind1 such as fennel1 for instance1 very grateful to serpents1 as already stated1#abag and used for numerous seasonings when dried2 thapsia1 too1 which bears a close resemblance to fennel1 and already mentioned by us when speaking#abah of the exotic shrubs4 ,then1 too1 there is hemp1#abai a plant remarkably useful for making ropes1 and usually sown after the west winds have begun to prevail3 the more thickly it is sown1 the thinner are the stalks4 ,the seed is gathered when ripe1 just after the autumnal equinox1 and is dried by the agency of the sun1 the wind1 or smoke4#abbj ,the hemp itself is plucked just after vintage-time1 and is peeled and cleaned by the labourers at night4 ,the best hemp is that of ,alabanda1#abba which is used more particularly for making hunting-nets1 and of which there are three varieties4 ,the hemp which lies nearest the bark or the pith is the least valuable1 while that which lies in the middle1 and hence has the name of 8mesa10 is the most esteemed4 ,the hemp of ,mylasa#abbb occupies the second rank4 ,with reference to the size to which it grows1 that of ,rosea1#abbc in the ,sabine territory1 equals the trees in height4#abbd ,we have already mentioned two kinds of fennel-giant when speaking#abbe of the exotic shrubs3 the seed of it is used in ,italy for food2 the plant1 too1 admits of being preserved1 and1 if stored in earthen pots1 will keep for a whole year4 ,there are two parts of it that are used for this purpose1 the upper stalks and the umbels of the plant4 ,this kind of fennel is sometimes known by the name of 8corymbia10 and the parts preserved are called 8corymbi40 ,,chap4 #eg4 7#aj47--,,the ,,maladies ,,of ,,garden ,,plants4 ,the garden plants1 too1 like the rest of the vegetable productions1 are subject to certain maladies4 ,thus1 for#abbf instance1 ocimum1 when old1 degenerates into wild thyme1 and sisymbrium#abbg into mint1 while the seed of an old cabbage produces rape1 and vice vers4 ,cummin1 too1 if not kept well hoed1 is killed by hmodorum1#abbh1 a plant with a single stalk1 a root similar to a bulb in appearance1 and never found except in a thin1 meagre soil4 ,besides this1 cummin is liable to a peculiar disease of its own1 the scab3#abbi ocimum1 too1 turns pale at the rising of the ,dog-star4 ,all plants1 indeed1 will turn of a yellow complexion on the approach of a woman who has the menstrual discharge#abcj upon her4 ,there are various kinds of insects1#abca too1 that breed upon the garden plants--fleas1 for instance1 upon turnips1 and caterpillars and maggots upon radishes1 as well as lettuces and cabbages2 besides which1 the last two are exposed to the attacks of slugs and snails4 ,the leek1 too1 is infested with peculiar insects of its own2 which may very easily be taken1 however1 by laying dung upon the plants1 the insects being in the habit of burrowing in it4 ,sabinus ,tiro says1 in his book entitled 8,cepurica10#abcb which he dedicated to ,mcenas1 that it is not advisable to touch rue1 cunila1 mint1 or ocimum with any implement of iron4 ,,chap4 #eh4--,,the ,,proper ,,remedies ,,for ,,these ,,maladies4 ,,how ,,ants ,,are ,,best ,,destroyed4 ,,the ,,best ,,remedies ,,against ,,caterpillars ,,and ,,flies4 ,the same author recommends as a remedy against ants1 which are by no means the slightest plague in a garden that is not kept well watered1 to stop up the mouths of their holes with sea-slime or ashes4 ,but the most efficient way of destroying them is with the aid of the plant heliotropium2#abcc some persons1 too1 are of opinion that water in which an unburnt brick has been soaked is injurious to them4 ,the best protection for turnips is to sow a few fitches with them1 and for cabbages chickpeas1 these having the effect of keeping away caterpillars4 ,if1 however1 this precaution should have been omitted1 and the caterpillars have already made their appearance1 the best remedy is to throw upon the vegetables a decoction of wormwood1#abcd or else of house-leek1#abce known to some as 8azom10 a kind of herb already mentioned by us4 ,if cabbage-seed1 before it is sown1 is steeped in the juice of house-leek1 the cabbages1 it is said1 are sure not be attacked by any insect4 ,it is said1 too1 that all caterpillars may be effectually exterminated1 if the skull#abcf of a beast of burden is set up upon a stake in the garden1 care being taken to employ that of a female only4 ,there is a story related1 too1 that a river crab1 hung up in the middle of the garden1 is a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars4 ,again1 there are some persons who are in the habit of touching with slips of blood-red cornel#abcg such plants as they wish to preserve from caterpillars4 ,flies1#abch too1 infest well-watered gardens1 and more particularly so1 if there happen to he any shrubs there2 they may be got rid of1 however1 by burning galbanum4#abci 7#aa47 ,with reference to the deterioration to which seed is subject1#abdj there are some seeds which keep better than others1 such1 for instance1 as that of coriander1 beet1 leeks1 cresses1 mustard1 rocket1 cunila1 nearly all the pungent plants in fact4 ,the seed1 on the other hand1 of orage1 ocimum1 gourds1 and cucumbers1 is not so good for keeping4 ,all the summer seeds1 too1 last longer than the winter ones2 but scallion seed is the very worst for keeping of them all4 ,but of those1 even1 which keep the very longest1 there is none that will keep beyond four years--for sowing#abda purposes1 at least2 for culinary purposes1 they are fit for use beyond that period4 ,,chap4 #ei4--,,what ,,plants ,,are ,,benefitted ,,by ,,salt ,,water4 ,a peculiar remedy for the maladies to which radishes1 beet1 rue1 and cunila are subject1 is salt water1 which has also the additional merit of conducing very materially to their sweetness and fertility4 ,other plants1 again1 are equally benefitted by being watered with fresh water1 the most desirable for the purpose being that which is the coldest and the sweetest to drink3 pond and drain-water1 on the other hand1 are not so good1 as they are apt to carry the seeds of weeds along with them4 ,it is rain1#abdb however1 that forms the principal aliment of plants2 in addition to which1 it kills the insects as they develope themselves upon them4 ,,chap4 #fj4 7#ab47--,,the ,,proper ,,method ,,of ,,watering ,,gardens4 ,the proper times#abdc for watering are the morning and the evening1 to prevent the water from being heated#abdd by the sun2 with the sole exception1 however1 of ocimum1 which requires to be watered at midday2 indeed1 this plant1 it is generally thought1 will grow with additional rapidity1 if it is watered with boiling water when sown4 ,all plants1 when transplanted1 grow all the better and larger for it1 leeks and turnips more particularly4 ,transplanting1 too1 is attended with certain remedial effects1 and acts as a preservative to certain plants1 such as scallions1 for instance1 leeks1 radishes1 parsley1 lettuces1 rape1 and cucumbers4 ,all the wild plants#abde are generally smaller in the leaf and stalk than the cultivated ones1 and have more acrid juices1 cunila1 wild marjoram1 and rue1 for example4 ,indeed1 it is only the lapathum#abdf that is better in a wild state than cultivated3 in its cultivated state it is the same plant that is known to us as the 8rumix10 being the most vigorous#abdg by far of all the plants that are grown2 so much so1 indeed1 that it is said that when it has once taken root1 it will last for ever1 and can never be extirpated from the soil1 more particularly if water happens to be near at hand4 ,its juices1 which are employed only in ptisans1#abdh as an article of food1 have the effect of imparting to them a softer and more exquisite flavour4 ,the wild variety#abdi is employed for many medicinal purposes4 ,so true it is1 that the careful research of man has omitted nothing1 that ,i have even met with a poem1#abej in which ,i find it stated1 that if pellets of goats' dung1 the size of a bean1 are hollowed out1 and the seed of leeks1 rocket1 lettuces1 parsley1 endive1 and cresses is inserted in them1 and then sown1 the plants will thrive in a marvellous degree4 ,plants#abea in a wild state1 it is generally thought1 are more dry and acrid than when cultivated4 ,,chap4 #fa4--,,the ,,juices ,,and ,,flavours ,,of ,,garden ,,herbs4 ,this1 too1 reminds me that ,i ought to make some mention of the difference between the juices and flavours of the garden herbs1 a difference which is more perceptible here than in the fruits even4#abeb ,in cunila1 for instance1 wild marjoram1 cresses1 and mustard1 the flavour is acrid2 in wormwood#abec and centaury1#abed bitter2 in cucumbers1 gourds1 and lettuces1 watery2 and in parsley1 anise1 and fennel1 pungent and odoriferous4 ,the salt flavour is the only one that is not to be found#abee in plants1 with the sole exception1 indeed1 of the chicheling#abef vetch1 though even then it is to be found on the exterior surface only of the plant1 in the form of a kind of dust which settles there4 ,,chap4 #fb4--,,piperitis1 ,,libanotis1 ,,and ,,smyrnium4 ,to come to a full understanding1 too1 both here as elsewhere1 how unfounded are the notions which are generally entertained1 ,i shall take this opportunity of remarking that panax#abeg has the flavour of pepper1 and siliquastrum even more so1 a circumstance to which it owes its name of piperitis3#abeh libanotis1#abei again1 has just the odour of frankincense1 and smyrnium#abfj of myrrh4 ,as to panax1 we have spoken of it at sufficient length already4#abfa ,libanotis grows in a thin1 crumbly soil1 and is generally sown in spots exposed to the falling dews2 the root1 which is just like that of olusatrum1#abfb has a smell in no way differing from that of frankincense2 when a year old1 it is extremely wholesome for the stomach2 some persons give it the name of rosmarinum4#abfc ,smyrnium is a garden herb that grows in similar soils1 and has a root which smells like myrrh3 siliquastrum too1 is grown in a similar manner4 ,other plants1 again1 differ from the preceding ones1 both in smell and taste1 anise#abfd for example2 indeed1 so great is the difference in this respect1 and in their relative virtues1 that not only are the properties of each modified by the other1 but quite neutralized even4 ,it is in this way that our cooks correct the flavour of vinegar in their dishes with parsley1 and our butlers employ the same plant1 enclosed in sachets1 for removing a bad odour in wine4 #abfe,thus far1 then1 we have treated of the garden plants1 viewed as articles of food only2 it remains for us now 7for up to the present we have only spoken of their various methods of cultivation1 with some succinct details relative thereto71 to enlarge upon the more elaborate operations of ,nature in this respect2 it being quite impossible to come to a full understanding as to the true characteristics of each individual plant1 without a knowledge of its medicinal effects1 a sublime and truly mysterious manifestation of the wisdom of the ,deity1 than which nothing can possibly be found of a nature more elevated4 ,it is upon principle that we have thought proper not to enlarge upon the medicinal properties of each plant when treating of it2 for it is a quite different class of persons that is interested in knowing their curative properties1 and there is no doubt that both classes of readers would have been inconvenienced in a very material degree1 if these two points of view had engaged our attention at the same moment4 ,as it is1 each class will have its own portion to refer to1 while those who desire to do so1 will experience no difficulty in uniting them1 with reference to any subject of which we may happen to treat4 ,,summary4--,remarkable facts1 narratives1 and observations1 one thousand one hundred and forty-four4 ,,roman ,,authors ,,quoted4--,maccius ,plautus1#abff ,m4 ,varro1#abfg ,d4 ,silanus1#abfh ,cato the ,censor1#abfi ,hyginus1#abgj ,virgil1#abga ,mucianus1#abgb ,celsus1#abgc ,columella1#abgd ,calpurnius ,bassus1#abge ,mamilius ,sura1#abgf ,sabinus ,tiro1#abgg ,licinius ,macer1#abgh ,quintus ,hirtius1#abgi ,vibius ,rufus1#abhj ,csennius#abha who wrote the ,cepurica1 ,castritius#abhb who wrote on the same subject1 ,firmus#abhc who wrote on the same subject1 ,petrichus#abhd who wrote on the same subject4 ,,foreign ,,authors ,,quoted4--,herodotus1#abhe ,theophrastus1#abhf ,democritus1#abhg ,aristomachus1#abhh ,menander#abhi who wrote the ,biochresta1 ,anaxilus4#abij ,,book ,,xx4 ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,garden ,,plants4 ,,chap4 #a4--;,,introduction4 ,we are now about to enter upon an examination of the greatest of all the operations of ,nature--we are about to discourse to man upon his aliments1#abia and to compel him to admit that he is ignorant by what means he exists4 ,and let no one1 misled by the apparent triviality of the names which we shall have to employ1 regard this subject as one that is frivolous or contemptible3 for we shall here have to set forth the state of peace or of war which exists between the various departments of ,nature1 the hatreds or friendships which are maintained by objects dumb and destitute of sense1 and all1 too1 created--a wonderful subject for our contemplation6--for the sake of man alone4 ,to these states1 known to the ,greeks by the respective appellations 8sympathia0 and 8antipathia10 we are indebted for the first principles#abib of all things2 for hence it is that water has the property of extinguishing fire1 that the sun absorbs water1 that the moon produces it1 and that each of those heavenly bodies is from time to time eclipsed by the other4 ,hence it is1 too1 descending from the contemplation of a loftier sphere1 that the loadstone#abic possesses the property of attracting iron1 and another stone1#abid again1 that of repelling it2 and that the diamond1 that pride of luxury and opulence1 though infrangible by every other object1 and presenting a resistance that cannot be overcome1 is broken asunder by a he-goat's blood#abie--;in addition to numerous other marvels of which we shall have to speak on more appropriate occasions1 equal to this or still more wonderful even4 ,my only request is that pardon may be accorded me for beginning with objects of a more humble nature1 though still so greatly conducive to our health--,i mean the garden plants1 of which ,i shall now proceed to speak4 ,,chap4 #b4 7#a47--,,the ,,wild ,,cucumber2 ,,twenty-,,six ,,remedies4 ,we have already stated#abif that there is a wild cucumber1 considerably smaller than the cultivated one4 ,from this cucumber the medicament known as 8elaterium0 is prepared1 being the juice extracted from the seed4#abig ,to obtain this juice the fruit is cut before it is ripe--indeed1 if this precaution is not taken at an early period1 the seed is apt to spirt#abih out and be productive of danger to the eyes4 ,after it is gathered1 the fruit is kept whole for a night1 and on the following day an incision is made in it with a reed4 ,the seed1 too1 is generally sprinkled with ashes1 with the view of retaining in it as large a quantity of the juice as possible4 ,when the juice is extracted1 it is received in rain water1 where it falls to the bottom2 after which it is thickened in the sun1 and then divided into lozenges1 which are of singular utility to mankind for healing dimness#abii of sight1 diseases of the eyes1 and ulcerations of the eyelids4 ,it is said that if the roots of a vine are touched with this juice1 the grapes of it will be sure never to be attacked by birds4 ,the root1#acjj too1 of the wild cucumber1 boiled in vinegar1 is employed in fomentations for the gout1 and the juice of it is used as a remedy for tooth-ache4 ,dried and mixed with resin1 the root is a cure for impetigo#acja and the skin diseases known as 8psora0#acjb and 8lichen30#acjc it is good1 too1 for imposthumes of the parotid glands and inflammatory tumours1#acjd and restores the natural colour to the skin when a cicatrix has formed4--,the juice of the leaves1 mixed with vinegar1 is used as an injection for the ears1 in cases of deafness4 ,,chap4 #c4--;,,elaterium2 ,,twenty-,,seven ,,remedies4 ,the proper season for making elaterium is the autumn2 and there is no medicament known that will keep longer than this4#acje ,it begins to be fit for use when three years old2 but if it is found desirable to make use of it at an earlier period than this1 the acridity of the lozenges may be modified by putting them with vinegar upon a slow fire1 in a new earthen pot4 ,the older it is the better1 and before now1 as we learn from ,theophrastus1 it has been known to keep#acje so long as two hundred years4 ,even after it has been kept so long as fifty#acjf years1 it retains its property of extinguishing a light2 indeed1 it is the proper way of testing the genuineness of the drug to hold it to the flame and make it scintillate above and below1 before finally extinguishing it4 ,the elaterium which is pale1 smooth1 and slightly bitter1 is superior#acjg to that which has a grass-green appearance and is rough to the touch4 ,it is generally thought that the seed of this plant will facilitate conception if a woman carries it attached to her person1 before it has touched the ground2 and that it has the effect of aiding parturition1 if it is first wrapped in ram's wool1 and then tied round the woman's loins1 without her knowing it1 care being taken to carry it out of the house the instant she is delivered4 ,those persons who magnify the praises of the wild cucumber say that the very best is that of ,arabia1 the next being that of ,arcadia1 and then that of ,cyren3 it bears a resemblance to the heliotropium1#acjh they say1 and the fruit1 about the size of a walnut1 grows between the leaves and branches4 ,the seed1 it is said1 is very similar in appearance to the tail of a scorpion thrown back1 but is of a whitish hue4 ,indeed1 there are some persons who give to this cucumber the name of 8scorpionium10 and say that its seed1 as well as the elaterium1 is remarkably efficacious as a cure for the sting of the scorpion4 ,as a purgative1 the proper dose of either is from half an obolus to an obolus1 according to the strength of the patient1 a larger dose than this being fatal4#acji ,it is in the same proportions1 too1 that it is taken in drink for phthiriasis#acaj and dropsy2 applied externally with honey or old olive oil1 it is used for the cure of quinsy and affections of the trachea4 ,,chap4 #d4 7#b47--,,the ,,anguine ,,or ,,erratic ,,cucumber3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,many authors are of opinion that the wild cucumber is identical with the plant known among us as the 8anguine10 and by some persons as the 8erratic0#acaa cucumber4 ,objects sprinkled with a decoction of this plant will never be touched by mice4 ,the same authors#acab say1 too1 that a decoction of it in vinegar1 externally applied1 gives instantaneous relief in cases of gout and diseases of the joints4 ,as a remedy1 too1 for lumbago1 the seed of it is dried in the sun and pounded1 being given in doses of twenty denarii to half a sextarius of water4 ,mixed with woman's milk and applied as a liniment1 it is a cure for tumours which have suddenly formed4 ,elaterium promotes the menstrual discharge2 but if taken by females when pregnant1 it is productive of abortion4 ,it is good1 also1 for asthma1 and1 injected into the nostrils1 for the jaundice4#acac ,rubbed upon the face in the sun1 it removes freckles#acad and spots upon the skin4 ,,chap4 #e4--,,the ,,cultivated ,,cucumber3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,many persons attribute all these properties to the cultivated cucumber#acae as well1 a plant which even without them would be of very considerable importance1 in a medicinal point of view4 ,a pinch of the seed1 for instance1 in three fingers1 beaten up with cummin and taken in wine1 is extremely beneficial for a cough3 for phrenitis1 also1 doses of it are administered in woman's milk1 and doses of one acetabulum for dysentery4 ,as a remedy for purulent expectorations1 it is taken with an equal quantity of cummin2#acaf and it is used with hydromel for diseases of the liver4 ,taken in sweet wine1 it is a diuretic2 and1 in combination with cummin1#acaf it is used as an injection for affections of the kidneys4 ,,chap4 #f4--,,pepones3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,the fruit known as pepones#acag are a cool and refreshing diet1 and are slightly relaxing to the stomach4 ,applications are used of the pulpy flesh in defluxions or pains of the eyes4 ,the root1 too1 of this plant cures the hard ulcers known to us as 8ceria10 from their resemblance to a honeycomb1 and it acts as an emetic4#acah ,dried and reduced to a powder1 it is given in doses of four oboli in hydromel1 the patient1 immediately after taking it1 being made to walk half a mile4 ,this powder is employed also in cosmetics#acai for smoothing the skin4 ,the rind1 too1 has the effect#acbj of promoting vomiting1 and1 when applied to the face1 of clearing the skin2 a result which is equally produced by an external application of the leaves of all the cultivated cucumbers4 ,these leaves1 mixed with honey1 are employed for the cure of the pustules known as 8epinyctis20#acba steeped in wine1 they are good1 too1 for the bites of dogs and of multipedes1#acbb insects known to the ,greeks by the name of 8seps10#acbc of an elongated form1 with hairy legs1 and noxious to cattle more particularly2 the sting being followed by swelling1 and the wound rapidly putrifying4 ,the smell of the cucumber itself is a restorative#acbd in fainting fits4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that if cucumbers are peeled and then boiled in oil1 vinegar1 and honey1 they are all the more pleasant eating#acbe for it4 ,,chap4 #g4 7#c47--,,the ,,gourd3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,somphus3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,there is found also a wild gourd1 called 8somphos0 by the ,greeks1 empty within 7to which circumstance it owes its name71#acbf and long and thick in shape1 like the finger3 it grows nowhere except upon stony spots4 ,the juice of this gourd1 when chewed1 is very beneficial to the stomach4#acbg ,,chap4 #h4--,,the ,,colocynthis3 ,,ten ,,remedies4 ,there is another variety of the wild gourd1 known as the 8colocynthis30#acbh this kind is full of seeds1 but not so large as the cultivated one4 ,the pale colocynthis is better than those of a grass-green colour4 ,employed by itself when dried1 it acts as a very powerful#acbi purgative2 used as an injection1 it is a remedy for all diseases of the intestines1 the kidneys1 and the loins1 as well as for paralysis4 ,the seed being first removed1 it is boiled down in hydromel to one half2 after which it is used as an injection1 with perfect safety1 in doses of four oboli4 ,it is good1 too1 for the stomach1 taken in pills composed of the dried powder and boiled honey4 ,in jaundice seven seeds of it may be taken with beneficial effects1 with a draught of hydromel immediately after4 ,the pulp of this fruit1 taken with wormwood and salt1 is a remedy for toothache1 and the juice of it1 warmed with vinegar1 has the effect of strengthening loose teeth4 ,rubbed in with oil1 it removes pains of the spine1 loins1 and hips3 in addition to which1 really a marvellous thing to speak of6 the seeds of it1 in even numbers1 attached to the body in a linen cloth1 will cure1 it is said1 the fevers to which the ,greeks have given the name of 8periodic40#accj ,the juice1 too1 of the cultivated gourd#acca shred in pieces1 applied warm1 is good for ear-ache1 and the flesh of the inside1 used without the seed1 for corns on the feet and the suppurations known to the ,greeks as 8apostemata40#accb ,when the pulp and seeds are boiled together1 the decoction is good for strengthening loose teeth1 and for preventing toothache2 wine1 too1 boiled with this plant1 is curative of defluxions of the eyes4 ,the leaves of it1 bruised with fresh cypress-leaves1 or the leaves alone1 boiled in a vessel of potters' clay and beaten up with goose-grease1 and then applied to the part affected1 are an excellent cure for wounds4 ,fresh shavings of the rind are used as a cooling application for gout1 and burning pains in the head1 in infants more particularly2 they are good1 too1 for erysipelas1#accc whether it is the shavings of the rind or the seeds of the plant that are applied to the part affected4 ,the juice of the scrapings1 employed as a liniment with rose-oil and vinegar1 moderates the burning heats of fevers2 and the ashes of the dried fruit applied to burns are efficacious in a most remarkable degree4 ,chrysippus1 the physician1 condemned the use of the gourd as a food3 it is generally agreed1 however1 that it is extremely good#accd for the stomach1 and for ulcerations of the intestines and of the bladder4 ,,chap4 #i4--,,rape2 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,rape1 too1 has its medicinal properties4 ,warmed1 it is used as an application for the cure of chilblains1#acce in addition to which1 it has the effect of protecting the feet from cold4 ,a hot decoction of rape is employed for the cure of cold gout2 and raw rape1 beaten up with salt1 is good for all maladies of the feet4 ,rape-seed1 used as a liniment1 and taken in drink1 with wine1 is said to have a salutary effect#accf against the stings of serpents1 and various narcotic poisons2 and there are many persons who attribute to it the properties of an antidote1 when taken with wine and oil4 ,democritus has entirely repudiated the use of rape as an article of food1 in consequence of the flatulence#accg which it produces2 while ,diocles1 on the other hand1 has greatly extolled it1 and has even gone so far as to say that it acts as an aphrodisiac4#acch ,dionysius1 too1 says the same of rape1 and more particularly if it is seasoned with rocket2#acci he adds1 also1 that roasted1 and then applied with grease1 it is excellent for pains in the joints4 ,,chap4 #aj4--,,wild ,,rape3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,wild rape#acdj is mostly found growing in the fields2 it has a tufted top1 with a white#acda seed1 twice as large as that of the poppy4 ,this plant is often employed for smoothing the skin of the face and the body generally1 meal of fitches1#acdb barley1 wheat1 and lupines1 being mixed with it in equal proportions4 ,the root of the wild rape is applied to no useful purpose whatever4 ,,chap4 #aa4 7#d47--,,turnips2 ,,those ,,known ,,as ,,bunion ,,and ,,bunias3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,the ,greeks distinguish two kinds of turnips1#acdc also1 as employed in medicine4 ,the turnip with angular stalks and a flower like that of anise1 and known by them as 8bunion10#acdd is good for promoting the menstrual discharge in females and for affections#acde of the bladder2 it acts1 also1 as a diuretic4 ,for these purposes1 a decoction of it is taken with hydromel1 or else one drachma of the juice of the plant4#acdf ,the seed1 parched1 and then beaten up1 and taken in warm water1 in doses of four cyathi1 is a good remedy for dysentery2 it will stop the passage of the urine1 however1 if linseed is not taken with it4 ,the other kind of turnip is known by the name of 8bunias10#acdg and bears a considerable resemblance to the radish and the rape united1 the seed of it enjoying the reputation of being a remedy for poisons2 hence it is that we find it employed in antidotes4 ,,chap4 #ab4--,,the ,,wild ,,radish1 ,,or ,,armoracia3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,we have already said1#acdh that there is also a wild radish4#acdi ,the most esteemed is that of ,arcadia1 though it is also found growing in other countries as well4 ,it is only efficacious as a diuretic1 being in other respects of a heating nature4 ,in ,italy1 it is known also by the name of 8armoracia40 ,,chap4 #ac4--,,the ,,cultivated ,,radish3 ,,forty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,the cultivated radish1 too1 in addition to what we have already said#acej of it1 purges the stomach1 attenuates the phlegm1 acts as a diuretic1 and detaches the bilious secretions4 ,a decoction of the rind of radishes in wine1 taken in the morning in doses of three cyathi1 has the effect of breaking and expelling calculi of the bladder4 ,a decoction1 too1 of this rind in vinegar and water1 is employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents4 ,taken fasting in the morning with honey1 radishes are good#acea for a cough4 ,parched radish-seed1 as well as radishes themselves1 chewed1 is useful for pains in the sides4#aceb ,a decoction of the leaves1 taken in drink1 or else the juice of the plant taken in doses of two cyathi1 is an excellent remedy for phthiriasis4 ,pounded radishes1 too1 are employed as a liniment for inflammations#acec under the skin1 and the rind1 mixed with honey1 for bruises of recent date4 ,lethargic persons#aced are recommended to eat them as hot as possible1 and the seed1 parched and then pounded with honey1 will give relief to asthmatic patients4 ,radishes1 too1 are useful as a remedy for poisons1 and are employed to counteract the effects of the sting of the cerastes#acee and the scorpion3 indeed1 after having rubbed the hands with radishes or radish-seed1 we may handle#acef those reptiles with impunity4 ,if a radish is placed upon a scorpion1 it will cause its death4 ,radishes are useful1 too1 in cases of poisoning by fungi#aceg or henbane2 and according to ,nicander1#aceh they are salutary against the effects of bullock's blood1#acei when drunk4 ,the two physicians of the name of ,apollodorus1 prescribe radishes to be given in cases of poisoning by mistletoe2 but whereas ,apollodorus of ,citium recommends radish-seed pounded in water1 ,apollodorus of ,tarentum speaks of the juice4 ,radishes diminish the volume of the spleen1 and are beneficial for maladies of the liver and pains in the loins3 taken1 too1 with vinegar or mustard1 they are good for dropsy and lethargy1 as well as epilepsy#acfj and melancholy4#acfa ,praxagoras recommends that radishes should be given for the iliac passion1 and ,plistonicus for the cliac#acfb disease4 ,radishes are good1 too1 for curing ulcerations of the intestines and suppurations of the thoracic organs1#acfc if eaten with honey4 ,some persons say1 however1 that for this purpose they should be boiled in earth and water2 a decoction which1 according to them1 promotes the menstrual discharge4 ,taken with vinegar or honey1 radishes expel worms from the intestines2 and a decoction of them boiled down to one-third1 taken in wine1 is good for intestinal hernia4#acfd ,employed in this way1 too1 they have the effect of drawing off the superfluous blood4 ,medius recommends them to be given boiled to persons troubled with spitting of blood1 and to women who are suckling1 for the purpose of increasing the milk4 ,hippocrates#acfe recommends females whose hair falls off1 to rub the head with radishes1 and he says that for pains of the uterus1 they should be applied to the navel4 ,radishes have the effect1 too1 of restoring the skin1 when scarred1 to its proper colour2 and the seed1 steeped in water1 and applied topically1 arrests the progress of ulcers known as phagednic4#acff ,democritus regards them1 taken with the food1 as an aphrodisiac2 and it is for this reason1 perhaps1 that some persons have spoken of them as being injurious to the voice4 ,the leaves1 but only those of the long radish1 are said to have the effect of improving the eye-sight4 ,when radishes1 employed as a remedy1 act too powerfully1 it is recommended that hyssop should be given immediately2 there being an antipathy#acfg between these two plants4 ,for dulness of hearing1 too1 radish-juice is injected into the ear4 ,to promote vomiting1 it is extremely beneficial to eat radishes fasting4 ,,chap4 #ad4--,,the ,,parsnip3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,hibiscum1 ,,wild ,,mallow1 ,,or ,,plistolochia3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,the hibiscum1 by some persons known as the wild mallow1#acfh and by others as the 8plistolochia10 bears a strong resemblance to the parsnip2#acfi it is good for ulcerations of the cartilages1 and is employed for the cure of fractured bones4 ,the leaves of it1 taken in water1 relax the stomach2 they have the effect1 also1 of keeping away serpents1 and1 employed as a liniment1 are a cure for the stings of bees1 wasps1 and hornets4 ,the root1 pulled up before sunrise1 and wrapped in wool of the colour known as 8native10#acgj taken from a sheep which has just dropped a ewe lamb1 is employed as a bandage for scrofulous swellings1 even after they have suppurated4 ,some persons are of opinion1 that for this purpose the root should be dug up with an implement of gold1 and that care should be taken not to let it touch the ground4 ,celsus1#acga too1 recommends this root to be boiled in wine1 and applied in cases of gout unattended with swelling4 ,,chap4 #ae4 7#e47--,,the ,,staphylinos1 ,,or ,,wild ,,parsnip3 ,,twenty-,,two ,,remedies4 ,the staphylinos1 or1 as some persons call it1 8erratic#acgb parsnip10 is another kind4 ,the seed#acgc of this plant1 pounded and taken in wine1 reduces swelling of the abdomen1 and alleviates hysterical suffocations and pains1 to such a degree as to restore the uterus to its natural condition4 ,used as a liniment1 also1 with raisin wine1 it is good for pains of the bowels in females2 for men1 too1 beaten up with an equal proportion of bread1 and taken in wine1 it may be found beneficial for similar pains4 ,it is a diuretic also1 and it will arrest the progress of phagednic ulcers1 if applied fresh with honey1 or else dried and sprinkled on them with meal4 ,dieuches recommends the root of it to be given1 with hydromel1 for affections of the liver and spleen1 as also the sides1 loins1 and kidneys2 and ,cleophantus prescribes it for dysentery of long standing4 ,philistio says that it should be boiled in milk1 and for strangury he prescribes four ounces of the root4 ,taken in water1 he recommends it for dropsy1 as well as in cases of opisthotony1#acgd pleurisy1 and epilepsy4 ,persons1 it is said1 who carry this plant about them1 will never be stung by serpents1 and those who have just eaten of it will receive no hurt from them4 ,mixed with axle-grease1#acge it is applied to parts of the body stung by reptiles2 and the leaves of it are eaten as a remedy for indigestion4 ,orpheus has stated that the staphylinos acts as a philtre1#acgf most probably because1 a very-well-established fact1 when employed as a food1 it is an aphrodisiac2 a circumstance which has led some persons to state that it promotes conception4 ,in other respects the cultivated parsnip has similar properties2 though the wild kind is more powerful in its operation1 and that which grows in stony soils more particularly4 ,the seed1 too1 of the cultivated parsnip1 taken in wine1 or vinegar and water1#acgg is salutary for stings inflicted by scorpions4 ,by rubbing the teeth with the root of this plant1 tooth-ache is removed4 ,,chap4 #af4--;,,gingidion3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,the ,syrians devote themselves particularly to the cultivation of the garden1 a circumstance to which we owe the ,greek proverb1 8,there is plenty of vegetables in ,syria40#acgh ,among other vegetables1 that country produces one very similar to the staphylinos1 and known to some persons as 8gingidion10#acgi only that it is smaller than the staphylinos and more bitter1 though it has just the same properties4 ,eaten either raw or boiled1 it is very beneficial to the stomach1 as it entirely absorbs all humours with which it may happen to be surcharged4 ,,chap4 #ag4--,,the ,,skirret3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,the wild#achj skirret1 too1 is very similar to the cultivated kind1#acha and is productive of similar effects4 ,it sharpens#achb the stomach1 and1 taken with vinegar flavoured with silphium1 or with pepper and hydromel1 or else with garum1 it promotes the appetite4 ,according to ,opion1 it is a diuretic1 and acts as an aphrodisiac4#achc ,diocles is also of the same opinion2 in addition to which1 he says that it possesses cordial virtues for convalescents1 and is extremely beneficial after frequent vomitings4 ,heraclides has prescribed it against the effects of mercury1#achd and for occasional impotence1 as also generally for patients when convalescent4 ,hicesius says that skirrets would appear to be prejudicial#ache to the stomach1 because no one is able to eat three of them following2 still1 however1 he looks upon them as beneficial to patients who are just resuming the use of wine4 ,the juice of the cultivated skirret1 taken in goats'-milk1 arrests looseness of the stomach4 ,,chap4 #ah4--,,sile1 ,,or ,,hartwort3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,as the similitude which exists between their ,greek names#achf has caused most persons to mistake the one for the other1 we have thought it as well to give some account here of sile or hartwort1#achg though it is a plant which is very generally known4 ,the best hartwort is that of ,massilia1#achh the seed of it being broad and yellow2 and the next best is that of thiopia1 the seed of which is of a darker hue4 ,the ,cretan hartwort is the most odoriferous of the several kinds4 ,the root of this plant has a pleasant smell2 the seed of it is eaten by vultures1 it is said4#achi ,hartwort is useful to man for inveterate coughs1 ruptures1 and convulsions1 being usually taken in white wine2 it is employed also in cases of opisthotony1 and for diseases of the liver1 as well as for griping pains in the bowels and for strangury1 in doses of two or three spoonfuls at a time4 ,the leaves of this plant are useful also1 and have the effect of aiding parturition--in animals even3 indeed1 it is generally said that roes1#acij when about to bring forth1 are in the habit of eating these leaves in particular4 ,they are topically applied1 also1 in erysipelas2 and either the leaves or the seed1 taken fasting in the morning1 are very beneficial to the digestion4 ,hartwort has the effect1 too1 of arresting looseness in cattle1 either bruised and put into their drink1 or else eaten by them after it has been chewed with salt4 ,when oxen are in a diseased state1 it is beaten up and poured into their food4 ,,chap4 #ai4--;,,elecampane3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,elecampane1#acia too1 chewed fasting1 has the effect of strengthening the teeth1 if1 from the moment that it is plucked1 it is not allowed to touch the ground3 a confection of it is a cure for cough4 ,the juice of the root boiled is an expellent of intestinal tapeworm2 and dried in the shade and reduced to powder1 the root#acib is curative in cases of cough1 convulsions1 flatulency1 and affections of the trachea4 ,it is useful too1 for the bites of venomous animals2 and the leaves steeped in wine are applied topically for pains in the loins4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,onions3 ,,twenty-,,seven ,,remedies4 ,there are no such things in existence as wild onions4 ,the cultivated onion is employed for the cure of dimness#acic of sight1 the patient being made to smell at it till tears come into the eyes3 it is still better even if the eyes are rubbed with the juice4 ,it is said1 too1 that onions are soporific1#acid and that they are a cure for ulcerations of the mouth1 if chewed with bread4 ,fresh onions in vinegar1 applied topically1 or dried onions with wine and honey1 are good for the bites of dogs1 care being taken not to remove the bandage till the end of a couple of days4 ,applied1 too1 in the same way1 they are good for healing excoriations4 ,roasted in hot ashes1 many persons have applied them topically1 with barley meal1 for defluxions of the eyes and ulcerations of the genitals4 ,the juice1 too1 is employed as an ointment for sores of the eyes1 albugo1#acie and argema4#acif ,mixed with honey1 it is used as a liniment for the stings#acig of serpents and all kinds of ulcerous sores4 ,in combination with woman's milk1 it is employed for affections of the ears2 and in cases of singing in the ears and hardness of hearing1 it is injected into those organs with goose-grease or honey4 ,in cases where persons have been suddenly struck dumb1 it has been administered to them to drink1 mixed with water4 ,in cases1 too1 of toothache1 it is sometimes introduced into the mouth as a gargle for the teeth2 it is an excellent remedy also for all kinds of wounds made by animals1 scorpions more particularly4 ,in cases of alopecy#acih and itch-scab1 bruised onions are rubbed on the parts affected3 they are also given boiled to persons afflicted with dysentery or lumbago4 ,onion peelings1 burnt to ashes and mixed with vinegar1 are employed topically for stings of serpents and multipedes4#acii ,in other respects1 there are remarkable differences of opinion among medical men4 ,the more modern writers have stated that onions are good for the thoracic organs and the digestion1 but that they are productive of flatulency and thirst4 ,the school of ,asclepiades maintains that1 used as an aliment1 onions impart a florid#adjj colour to the complexion1 and that1 taken fasting every day1 they are promoters of robustness and health2 that as a diet1 too1 they are good for the stomach by acting upon the spirits1 and have the effect of relaxing the bowels4 ,he says1 too1 that1 employed as a suppository1 onions disperse piles1 and that the juice of them1 taken in combination with juice of fennel1 is wonderfully beneficial in cases of incipient dropsy4 ,it is said1 too1 that the juice1 taken with rue and honey1 is good for quinsy1 and has the effect of dispelling lethargy4#adja ,varro assures us that onions1 pounded with salt and vinegar and then dried1 will never be attacked by worms4#adjb ,,chap4 #ba4 7#f47--;,,cutleek3 ,,thirty-,,two ,,remedies4 ,cutleek#adjc has the effect of stanching bleeding at the nose1 the nostrils being plugged with the plant1 pounded1 or else mixed with nut-galls or mint4 ,the juice of it1 taken with woman's milk1 arrests floodings after a miscarriage2 and it is remedial in cases even of inveterate cough1 and of affections of the chest#adjd and lungs4 ,the leaves1 applied topically1 are employed for the cure of pimples1 burns1 and epinyctis#adje--this last being the name given to an ulcer1 known also as 8syce10#adjf situate in the corner of the eye1 from which there is a continual running3 some persons1 however1 give this name to livid pustules1 which cause great restlessness in the night4 ,other kinds of ulcers1 too1 are treated with leeks beaten up with honey3 used with vinegar1 they are extensively employed also for the bites of wild beasts1 as well as of serpents and other venomous creatures4 ,mixed with goats' gall1 or else honied wine in equal proportions1 they are used for affections of the ears1 and1 combined with woman's milk1 for singing in the ears4 ,in cases of head-ache1 the juice is injected into the nostrils1 or else into the ear at bed-time1 two spoonfuls of juice to one of honey4 ,this juice is taken too with pure wine1#adjg for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 and1 mixed with a semi-sextarius of wine1 for lumbago4 ,the juice1 or the leek itself1 eaten as a food1 is very beneficial to persons troubled with spitting of blood1 phthisis1 or inveterate catarrhs2 in cases also of jaundice or dropsy1 and for nephretic pains1 it is taken in barley-water1 in doses of one acetabulum of juice4 ,the same dose1 too1 mixed with honey1 effectually purges the uterus4 ,leeks are eaten1 too1 in cases of poisoning by fungi1#adjh and are applied topically to wounds3 they act also as an aphrodisiac1#adji allay thirst1 and dispel the effects of drunkenness2 but they have the effect of weakening the sight and causing flatulency1 it is said1 though1 at the same time1 they are not injurious to the stomach1 and act as an aperient4 ,leeks impart a remarkable clearness to the voice4#adaj ,,chap4 #bb4--;,,bulbed ,,leek3 ,,thirty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,bulbed leek#adaa produces the same effects as cut-leek1#adab but in a more powerful degree4 ,to persons troubled with spitting of blood1 the juice of it is given1 with powdered nut-galls#adac or frankincense1 or else gum acacia4#adad ,hippocrates1#adae however1 prescribes it without being mixed with anything else1 and expressed himself of opinion that it has the property of opening the uterus when contracted1 and that taken as an aliment by females1 it is a great promoter of fecundity4 ,beaten up and mixed with honey1 it cleanses ulcerous sores4 ,it is good for the cure of coughs1 catarrhs1 and all affections of the lungs and of the trachea1 whether given in the form of a ptisan1 or eaten raw1 the head excepted3 it must be taken1 however1 without bread1 and upon alternate days1 and this even if there should be purulent expectorations4 ,taken in this form1 it greatly improves the voice1 and acts as an aphrodisiac1 and as a promoter of sleep4 ,the heads1 boiled in a couple of waters1 arrest looseness of the bowels1 and fluxes of long standing2 and a decoction of the outer coat acts as a dye upon grey hair4#adaf ,,chap4 #bc4--;,,garlic3 ,,sixty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,garlic#adag has very powerful#adah properties1 and is of great utility to persons on changes of water or locality4 ,the very smell of it drives away serpents and scorpions1 and1 according to what some persons say1 it is a cure for wounds made by every kind of wild beast1 whether taken with the drink or food1 or applied topically4 ,taken in wine1 it is a remedy for the sting of the hmorrhos#adai more particularly1 acting as an emetic4 ,we shall not be surprised too1 that it acts as a powerful remedy for the bite of the shrew-mouse1 when we find that it has the property of neutralizing aconite1 otherwise known as 8pardalianches40#adbj ,it neutralizes henbane1 also1 and cures the bites of dogs1 when applied with honey to the wound4 ,it is taken in drink also for the stings of serpents2 and of its leaves1 mixed with oil1 a most valuable liniment is made for bruises on the body1 even when they have swelled and formed blisters4 ,hippocrates#adba is of opinion also1 that fumigations made with garlic have the effect of bringing away the after-birth2 and he used to employ the ashes of garlic1 mixed with oil1 for the cure of running ulcers of the head4 ,some persons have prescribed boiled garlic for asthmatic patients2 while others1 again1 have given it raw4 ,diocles prescribes it1 in combination with centaury1 for dropsy1 and to be taken in a split fig1 to promote the alvine evacuations3 taken fresh1 however1 in unmixed wine1 with coriander1 it is still more efficacious for that purpose4 ,some persons have given it1 beaten up in milk1 for asthma4 ,praxagoras used to prescribe garlic1 mixed with wine1 for jaundice1 and with oil and pottage for the iliac passion3 he employed it also in a similar form1 as a liniment for scrofulous swellings of the neck4 ,the ancients used to give raw garlic in cases of madness1 and ,diocles administered it boiled for phrenitis4 ,beaten up1 and taken in vinegar and water1 it is very useful as a gargle for quinsy4 ,three heads of garlic1 beaten up in vinegar1 give relief in toothache3 and a similar result is obtained by rinsing the mouth with a decoction of garlic1 and inserting pieces of it in the hollow teeth4 ,juice of garlic is sometimes injected into the ears with goose-grease1#adbb and1 taken in drink1 or similarly injected1 in combination with vinegar and nitre1 it arrests phthiriasis#adbc and porrigo4#adbd ,boiled with milk1 or else beaten up and mixed with soft cheese1 it is a cure for catarrhs4 ,employed in a similar manner1 and taken with pease or beans1 it is good for hoarseness1 but in general it is found to be more serviceable cooked than raw1 and boiled than roasted3 in this last state1 however1 it is more beneficial to the voice4 ,boiled in oxymel1 it has the effect of expelling tape-worm and other intestinal worms2 and a pottage made of it is a cure for tenesmus4 ,a decoction of garlic is applied topically for pains in the temples2 and first boiled and then beaten up with honey1 it is good for blisters4 ,a decoction of it1 with stale grease1 or milk1 is excellent for a cough2 and where persons are troubled with spitting of blood or purulent matter1 it may be roasted in hot ashes1 and taken with honey in equal proportions4 ,for convulsions and ruptures it is administered in combination with salt and oil2 and1 mixed with grease1 it is employed for the cure of suspected tumours4 ,mixed with sulphur and resin1 garlic draws out the humours from fistulous sores1 and employed with pitch1 it will extract an arrow even#adbe from the wound4 ,in cases of leprosy1 lichen1 and eruptions of the skin1 it acts as a detergent1 and effects a cure1 in combination with wild marjoram1 or else reduced to ashes1 and applied as a liniment with oil and garum4#adbf ,it is employed in a similar manner1 too1 for erysipelas2 and1 reduced to ashes1 and mixed with honey1 it restores contused or livid spots on the skin to their proper colour4 ,it is generally believed1 too1 that taken in the food and drink1 garlic is a cure for epilepsy1 and that a clove of it1 taken in astringent wine1 with an obolus' weight of silphium1#adbg will have the effect of dispelling quartan fever4 ,garlic cures coughs also1 and suppurations of the chest1 however violent they may be2 to obtain which result1 another method is followed1 it being boiled with broken beans1 and employed as a diet till the cure is fully effected4 ,it is a soporific also1 and in general imparts to the body an additional ruddiness of colour4 ,garlic acts as an aphrodisiac1 beaten up with fresh coriander1 and taken in pure wine4 ,the inconveniences which result from the use of it1 are dimness of the sight and flatulency2 and if taken in too large quantities1 it does injury to the stomach1 and creates thirst4 ,in addition to these particulars1 mixed with spelt flour1 and given to poultry in their food1 it preserves them from attacks of the pip4#adbh ,beasts of burden1 it is said1 will void their urine all the more easily1 and without any pain1 if the genitals are rubbed with garlic4 ,,chap4 #bd4--,,the ,,lettuce3 ,,forty-,,two ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,goat-,,lettuce3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the first kind of lettuce which grows spontaneously1 is the one that is generally known as 8goat#adbi-lettuce20 thrown into the sea1 this vegetable has the property of instantaneously killing all the fish that come into its vicinity4 ,the milky juice of this lettuce1#adcj left to thicken and then put into vinegar1 is given in doses of two oboli1 with the addition of one cyathus of water1 to patients for dropsy4 ,the stalk and leaves1 bruised and sprinkled with salt1 are used for the cure of wounds of the sinews4 ,pounded with vinegar1 and employed as a gargle in the morning twice a month1 they act as a preventive of tooth-ache4 ,,chap4 #be4--;,c,,sapon3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,isatis3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,the ,,wild ,,lettuce3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,there is a second kind of wild lettuce1 known by the ,greeks is 8csapon40#adca ,the leaves of this lettuce1 applied as a liniment with polenta1#adcb are used for the cure of ulcerous sores4 ,this plant is found growing in the fields4 ,a third kind1 again1 grows in the woods2 the name given to it is 8isatis40#adcc ,the leaves of this last1 beaten up and applied with polenta1 are very useful for the cure of wounds4 ,a fourth kind is used by dyers of wool2 in the leaves it would resemble wild lapathum1 were it not that they are more numerous and darker4 ,this lettuce has the property of stanching blood1 and of healing phagednic sores and putrid spreading ulcers1 as well as tumours before suppuration4 ,both the root as well as the leaves are good1 too1 for erysipelas2 and a decoction of it is drunk for affections of the spleen4 ,such are the properties peculiar to each of these varieties4 ,,chap4 #bf4--;,,hawk-,,weed3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,the properties which are common to all the wild varieties#adcd are whiteness1 a stem sometimes as much as a cubit in length1 and a roughness upon the stalk and leaves4 ,among these plants there is one with round1 short leaves1 known to some persons as 8hieracion20#adce from the circumstance that the hawk tears it open and sprinkles#adcf its eyes with the juice1 and so dispels any dimness of sight of which it is apprehensive4 ,the juice of all these plants is white1 and in its properties resembles that of the poppy4#adcg ,it is collected at harvest-time1 by making incisions in the stalk1 and is kept in new earthen vessels1 being renowned as a remedy for numerous maladies4#adch ,mixed with woman's milk1 it is a cure for all diseases of the eyes1 such as argema for instance1 films on the eyes1 scars and inflammations#adci of all kinds1 and dimness of the sight more particularly4 ,it is applied to the eyes1 too1 in wool1 as a remedy for defluxions of those organs4 ,this juice also purges the bowels1 taken in doses of two oboli in vinegar and water4 ,drunk in wine it is a cure for the stings of serpents1 and the leaves and stalk of the plant are pounded and taken in vinegar4 ,they are employed also as a liniment for wounds1 the sting of the scorpion more particularly2 combined1 too1 with oil and vinegar1 they are similarly applied for the bite of the phalangium4#addj ,they have the effect1 also1 of neutralizing other poisons1 with the exception of those which kill by suffocation or by attacking the bladder1 as also with the exception of white lead4 ,steeped in oxymel1 they are applied to the abdomen for the purpose of drawing out vicious humours of the intestines4 ,the juice is found good1 also1 in cases of retention of the urine4 ,crateuas prescribes it to be given to dropsical patients1 in doses of two oboli1 with vinegar and one cyathus of wine4 ,some persons collect the juice of the cultivated lettuce as well1 but it is not so efficacious#adda as the other4 ,we have already made mention1#addb to some extent1 of the peculiar properties of the cultivated lettuce1 such as promoting sleep1 allaying the sexual passions1 cooling the body when heated1 purging#addc the stomach1 and making blood4 ,in addition to these1 it possesses no few properties besides2 for it has the effect of removing flatulency1 and of dispelling eructations1 while at the same time it promotes the digestion1 without ever being indigestible itself4 ,indeed1 there is no article of diet known that is a greater stimulant to the appetite1 or which tends in a greater degree to modify it2 it being the extent1 either way1 to which it is eaten that promotes these opposite results4 ,in the same way1 too1 lettuces eaten in too large quantities are laxative1 but taken in moderation they are binding4 ,they have the effect1 also1 of attenuating the tough1 viscous1 phlegm1 and1 according to what some persons say1 of sharpening the senses4 ,they are extremely serviceable1 too1 to debilitated stomachs2 for which purpose 99 99#addd oboli of sour sauce#adde is added to them1 the sharpness of which is modified by the application of sweet wine1 to make it of the same strength as vinegar-sauce4#addf ,if1 again1 the phlegm with which the patient is troubled is extremely tough and viscous1 wine of squills or of wormwood is employed2 and if there is any cough perceptible1 hyssop wine is mixed as well4 ,lettuces are given with wild endive for cliac affections1 and for obstructions of the thoracic organs4 ,white lettuces1 too1 are prescribed in large quantities for melancholy and affections of the bladder4 ,praxagoras recommends them for dysentery4 ,lettuces are good1 also1 for recent burns1 before blisters have made their appearance3 in such cases they are applied with salt4 ,they arrest spreading ulcers1 being applied at first with saltpetre1 and afterwards with wine4 ,beaten up1 they are applied topically for erysipelas2 and the stalks1 beaten up with polenta1 and applied with cold water1 are soothing for luxations of the limbs and spasmodic contractions2 used1 too1 with wine and polenta1 they are good for pimples and eruptions4 ,for cholera lettuces have been given1 cooked in the saucepan1 in which case it is those with the largest stalk and bitter that are the best3 some persons administer them1 also1 as an injection1 in milk4 ,these stalks boiled1 are remarkably good1 it is said1 for the stomach3 the summer lettuce1 too1 more particularly1 and the bitter1 milky lettuce1 of which we have already#addg made mention as the 8meconis10 have a soporific effect4 ,this juice1 in combination with woman's milk1 is said to be extremely beneficial to the eyesight1 if applied to the head in good time2 it is a remedy1 too1 for such maladies of the eyes as result from the action of cold4 ,i find other marvellous praises lavished upon the lettuce1 such1 for instance1 as that1 mixed with ,attic honey1 it is no less beneficial for affections of the chest than abrotonum2#addh that the menstrual discharge is promoted in females by using it as a diet2 that the seed1 too1 ,of the cultivated lettuce is administered as a remedy for the stings of scorpions1 and that pounded1 and taken in wine1 it arrests all libidinous dreams and imaginations during sleep2 that water1 too1 which affects#addi the brain will have no injurious effects upon those who eat lettuce4 ,some persons have stated1 however1 that if lettuces are eaten too frequently they will prove injurious to the eyesight4 ,,chap4 #bg4 7#h47--;,,beet3 ,,twenty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,nor are the two varieties of the beet without their remedial properties4#adej ,the root of either white or black beet1 if hung by a string1 fresh-gathered1 and softened with water1 is said to be efficacious for the stings of serpents4 ,white beet1 boiled and eaten with raw garlic1 is taken for tapeworm2 the root1 too1 of the black kind1 similarly boiled in water1 removes porrigo2 indeed1 it is generally stated1 that the black beet is the more efficacious#adea of the two4 ,the juice of black beet is good for inveterate head-aches and vertigo1 and injected into the ears1 it stops singing in those organs4 ,it is a diuretic1 also1 and employed in injections is a cure for dysentery and jaundice4 ,this juice1 used as a liniment1 allays tooth-ache1 and is good for the stings of serpents2 but due care must be taken that it is extracted from this root only4 ,a decoction1 too1 of beet-root is a remedy for chilblains4 ,a liniment of white beet-root applied to the forehead1 arrests defluxions of the eyes1 and mixed with a little alum it is an excellent remedy for erysipelas4 ,beaten up1 and applied without oil1 it is a cure for excoriations4 ,in the same way1 too1 it is good for pimples and eruptions4 ,boiled1 it is applied topically to spreading ulcers1 and in a raw state it is employed in cases of alopecy1 and running ulcers of the head4 ,the juice1 injected with honey into the nostrils1 has the effect of clearing the head4 ,beet-root is boiled with lentils and vinegar1 for the purpose of relaxing the bowels2 if it is boiled1 however1 some time longer1 it will have the effect of arresting fluxes of the stomach and bowels4 ,,chap4 #bh4--,,limonion1 ,,or ,,neuroides3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,there is a wild beet1 too1 known by some persons as 8limonion10#adeb and by others as 8neuroides20 it has leaves much smaller and thinner than the cultivated kind1 and lying closer together4 ,these leaves amount often to eleven#adec in number1 the stalk resembling that of the lily4#aded ,the leaves of this plant are very useful for burns1 and have an astringent taste in the mouth3 the seed1 taken in doses of one acetabulum1 is good for dysentery4 ,it is said that a decoction of beet with the root has the property of taking stains out of cloths and parchment4 ,,chap4 #bi4--;,,endive3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,endive1#adee too1 is not without its medicinal uses4 ,the juice of it1 employed with rose oil and vinegar1 has the effect of allaying headache2 and taken with wine1 it is good for pains in the liver and bladder3 it is used1 also1 topically1 for defluxions of the eyes4 ,the spreading endive has received from some persons among us the name of 8ambula40 ,in ,egypt1 the wild endive is known as 8cichorium10#adef the cultivated kind being called 8seris40 ,this last is smaller than the other1 and the leaves of it more full of veins4 ,,chap4 #cj4--;,,cichorium ,,or ,,chreston1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,pancration1 ,,or ,,ambula3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,wild endive or cichorium has certain refreshing qualities1#adeg used as an aliment4 ,applied by way of liniment1 it disperses abscesses1 and a decoction of it loosens the bowels4 ,it is also very beneficial to the liver1 kidneys1 and stomach4 ,a decoction of it in vinegar has the effect of dispelling the pains of strangury2 and1 taken in honied wine1 it is a cure for the jaundice1 if unattended with fever4 ,it is beneficial1 also1 to the bladder1 and a decoction of it in water promotes the menstrual discharge to such an extent as to bring away the dead ftus even4 ,in addition to these qualities1 the magicians#adeh state that persons who rub themselves with the juice of the entire plant1 mixed with oil1 are sure to find more favour with others1 and to obtain with greater facility anything they may desire4 ,this plant1 in consequence of its numerous salutary virtues1 has been called by some persons 8chreston10#adei and 8pancration0#adfj by others4 ,,chap4 #ca4--;,,hedypno,s3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,there is a sort of wild endive1 too1 with a broader leaf1 known to some persons as 8hedypnos40#adfa ,boiled1 it acts as an astringent upon a relaxed stomach1 and eaten raw1 it is productive of constipation4 ,it is good1 too1 for dysentery1 when eaten with lentils more particularly4 ,this variety1 as well as the preceding one1 is useful for ruptures and spasmodic contractions1 and relieves persons who are suffering from spermatorrha4 ,,chap4 #cb4--,,seris1 ,,three ,,varieties ,,of ,,it3 ,,seven ,,remedies ,,borrowed ,,from ,,it4 ,the vegetable1 too1 called 8seris10#adfb which bears a considerable resemblance to the lettuce1 consists of two kinds4 ,the wild1 which is of a swarthy colour1 and grows in summer1 is the best of the two2 the winter kind1 which is whiter than the other1 being inferior4 ,they are both of them bitter1 but are extremely beneficial to the stomach1 when distressed by humours more particularly4 ,used as food with vinegar1 they are cooling1 and1 employed as a liniment1 they dispel other humours besides those of the stomach4 ,the roots of the wild variety are eaten with polenta for the stomach3 and in cardiac diseases they are applied topically above the left breast4 ,boiled in vinegar1 all these vegetables are good for the gout1 and for patients troubled with spitting of blood or spermatorrha2 the decoction being taken on alternate days4 ,petronius ,diodotus1 who has written a medical ,anthology1#adfc utterly condemns seris1 and employs a multitude of arguments to support his views3 this opinion of his is opposed1 however1 to that of all other writers on the subject4 ,,chap4 #cc4 7#i74--,,the ,,cabbage3 ,,eighty-,,seven ,,remedies4 ,,recipes ,,mentioned ,,by ,,cato4 ,it would be too lengthy a task to enumerate all the praises of the cabbage1 more particularly as the physician ,chrysippus has devoted a whole volume to the subject1 in which its virtues are described in reference to each individual part of the human body4 ,dieuches has done the same1 and ,pythagoras too1 in particular4 ,cato1 too1 has not been more sparing in its praises than the others2 and it will be only right to examine the opinions which he expresses in relation to it1 if for no other purpose than to learn what medicines the ,roman people made use of for six hundred years4 ,the most ancient ,greek writers have distinguished three#adfd varieties of the cabbage3 the curly#adfe cabbage1 to which they have given the name of 8selinodes10#adff from the resemblance of its leaf to that of parsley1 beneficial to the stomach1 and moderately relaxing to the bowels2 the 8helia10 with broad leaves running out from the stalk--a circumstance1 owing to which some persons have given it the name of 8caulodes0--of no use whatever in a medicinal point of view2 and a third1 the name of which is properly 8crambe10 with thinner leaves1 of simple form1 and closely packed1 more bitter than the others1 but extremely efficacious in medicine4#adfg ,cato#adfh esteems the curly cabbage the most highly of all1 and next to it1 the smooth cabbage with large leaves and a thick stalk4 ,he says that it is a good thing for headache1 dimness of the sight1 and dazzling#adfi of the eyes1 the spleen1 stomach1 and thoracic organs1 taken raw in the morning1 in doses of two acetabula1 with oxymel1 coriander1 rue1 mint1 and root of silphium4#adgj ,he says1 too1 that the virtue of it is so great that the very person even who beats up this mixture feels himself all the stronger for it2 for which reason he recommends it to be taken mixed with these condiments1 or1 at all events1 dressed with a sauce compounded of them4 ,for the gout1 too1 and diseases of the joints1 a liniment of it should be used1 he says1 with a little rue and coriander1 a sprinkling of salt1 and some barley meal3 the very water even in which it has been boiled is wonderfully efficacious1 according to him1 for the sinews and joints4 ,for wounds1 either recent or of long standing1 as also for carcinoma1#adga which is incurable by any other mode of treatment1 he recommends fomentations to be made with warm water1 and1 after that1 an application of cabbage1 beaten up1 to the parts affected1 twice a-day4 ,he says1 also1 that fistulas and sprains should be treated in a similar way1 as well as all humours which it may be desirable to bring to a head and disperse2 and he states that this vegetable1 boiled and eaten fasting1 in considerable quantities1 with oil and salt1 has the effect of preventing dreams and wakefulness2 also1 that if1 after one boiling1 it is boiled a second time1 with the addition of oil1 salt1 cummin1 and polenta1 it will relieve gripings#adgb in the stomach2 and that1 if eaten in this way without bread1 it is more beneficial still4 ,among various other particulars1 he says1 that if taken in drink with black wine1 it has the effect of carrying off the bilious secretions2 and he recommends the urine of a person who has been living on a cabbage diet to be preserved1 as1 when warmed1 it is a good remedy for diseases of the sinews4 ,i will1 however1 here give the identical words in which ,cato expresses himself upon this point3 8,if you wash little children with this urine10 says he1 8they will never be weak and puny40 ,he recommends1 also1 the warm juice of cabbage to be injected into the ears1 in combination with wine1 and assures us that it is a capital remedy for deafness3 and he says that the cabbage is a cure for impetigo#adgc without the formation of ulcers4 ,,chap4 #cd4--,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,greeks ,,relative ,,thereto4 ,as we have already given those of ,cato1 it will be as well to set forth the opinions entertained by the ,greek writers on this subject1 only in relation1 however1 to those points upon which he has omitted to touch4 ,they are of opinion that cabbage1 not thoroughly boiled1 carries off the bile1 and has the effect of loosening the bowels2 while1 on the other hand1 if it is boiled twice over1 it will act as an astringent4 ,they say1 too1 that as there is a natural#adgd enmity between it and the vine1 it combats the effects of wine2 that1 if eaten before drinking1 it is sure to prevent#adge drunkenness1 being equally a dispellent of crapulence#adgf if taken after drinking3 that cabbage is a food very beneficial to the eyesight1 and that the juice of it raw is even more so1 if the corners of the eyes are only touched with a mixture of it with ,attic honey4 ,cabbage1 too1 according to the same testimony1 is extremely easy of digestion1#adgg and1 as an aliment1 greatly tends to clear the senses4 ,the school of ,erasistratus proclaims that there is nothing more beneficial to the stomach and the sinews than cabbage2 for which reason1 he says1 it ought to be given to the paralytic and nervous1 as well as to persons affected with spitting of blood4 ,hippocrates prescribes it1 twice boiled1 and eaten with salt1 for dysentery and cliac affections1 as also for tenesmus and diseases of the kidneys2 he is of opinion1 too1 that1 as an aliment1 it increases the quantity of the milk in women who are nursing1 and that it promotes the menstrual discharge4#adgh ,the stalk1 too1 eaten raw1 is efficacious in expelling the dead ftus4 ,apollodorus prescribes the seed or else the juice of the cabbage to be taken in cases of poisoning by fungi2 and ,philistion recommends the juice for persons affected with opisthotony1 in goats'-milk1 with salt and honey4 ,i find1 too1 that persons have been cured of the gout by eating cabbage and drinking a decoction of that plant4 ,this decoction has been given1 also1 to persons afflicted with the cardiac disease and epilepsy1 with the addition of salt2 and it has been administered in white wine1 for affections of the spleen1 for a period of forty days4 ,according to ,philistion1 the juice of the raw root should be given as a gargle to persons afflicted with icterus#adgi or phrenitis1 and for hiccup he prescribes a mixture of it1 in vinegar1 with coriander1 anise1 honey1 and pepper4 ,used as a liniment1 cabbage1 he says1 is beneficial for inflations of the stomach2 and the very water1 even1 in which it has been boiled1 mixed with barley-meal1 is a remedy for the stings of serpents#adhj and foul ulcers of long standing2 a result which is equally effected by a mixture of cabbage-juice with vinegar or fenugreek4 ,it is in this manner1 too1 that some persons employ it topically1 for affections of the joints and for gout4 ,applied topically1 cabbage is a cure for epinyctis1 and all kinds of spreading eruptions on the body1 as also for sudden#adha attacks of dimness2 indeed1 if eaten with vinegar1 it has the effect of curing the last4 ,applied by itself1 it heals contusions and other livid spots2 and mixed with a ball of alum in vinegar1 it is good as a liniment for leprosy and itch-scabs3 used in this way1 too1 it prevents the hair from falling off4 ,epicharmus assures us that1 applied topically1 cabbage is extremely beneficial for diseases of the testes and genitals1 and even better still when employed with bruised beans2 he says1 too1 that it is a cure for convulsions2 that1 in combination with rue1 it is good for the burning heats of fever and maladies of the stomach2 and that1 with rue-seed1 it brings away the after-birth4 ,it is of use1 also1 for the bite of the shrew-mouse4 ,dried cabbage-leaves1 reduced to a powder1 are a cathartic both by vomit and by stool4 ,,chap4 #ce4--;,,cabbage-,,sprouts4 ,in all varieties of the cabbage1 the part most agreeable to the taste is the cyma1#adhb although no use is made of it in medicine1 as it is difficult to digest1 and by no means beneficial to the kidneys4 ,at the same time1 too1 it should not be omitted1 that the water in which it has been boiled1#adhc and which is so highly praised for many purposes1 gives out a very bad smell when poured upon the ground4 ,the ashes of dried cabbage-stalks are generally reckoned among the caustic substances3 mixed with stale grease1 they are employed for sciatica1 and1 used as a liniment1 in the form of a depilatory1 together with silphium#adhd and vinegar1 they prevent hair that has been once removed from growing again4 ,these ashes1 too1 are taken lukewarm in oil1 or else by themselves1 for convulsions1 internal ruptures1 and the effects of falls with violence4 ,and are we to say then that the cabbage is possessed of no evil qualities whatever8 ,certainly not1 for the same authors tell us1 that it is apt to make the breath smell1 and that it is injurious to the teeth and gums4 ,in ,egypt1 too1 it is never eaten1 on account of its extreme bitterness4#adhe ,,chap4 #cf4--,,the ,,wild ,,cabbage3 ,,thirty-,,seven ,,remedies4 ,cato#adhf extols infinitely more highly the properties of wild or erratic cabbage2#adhg so much so1 indeed1 as to affirm that the very powder of it1 dried and collected in a scent-box1 has the property1 on merely smelling at it1 of removing maladies of the nostrils and the bad smells resulting therefrom4 ,some persons call this wild cabbage 8petra30#adhh it has an extreme antipathy to wine1 so much so1 indeed1 that the vine invariably#adhi avoids it1 and if it cannot make its escape1 will be sure to die4 ,this vegetable has leaves of uniform shape1 small1 rounded1 and smooth3 bearing a strong resemblance to the cultivated cabbage1 it is whiter1 and has a more downy#adij leaf4 ,according to ,chrysippus1 this plant is a remedy for flatulency1 melancholy1 and recent wounds1 if applied with honey1 and not taken off before the end of six days3 beaten up in water1 it is good also for scrofula and fistula4 ,other writers1 again1 say that it is an effectual cure for spreading sores on the body1 known as 8nom20 that it has the property1 also1 of removing excrescences1 and of reducing the scars of wounds and sores2 that if chewed raw with honey1 it is a cure for ulcers of the mouth and tonsils2 and that a decoction of it used as a gargle with honey1 is productive of the same effect4 ,they say1 too1 that1 mixed in strong vinegar with alum1 in the proportion of three parts to two of alum1 and then applied as a liniment1 it is a cure for itch scabs and leprous sores of long standing4 ,epicharmus informs us1 that for the bite of a mad dog1 it is quite sufficient to apply it topically to the part affected1 but that if used with silphium and strong vinegar1 it is better still3 he says1 too1 that it will kill a dog1 if given to it with flesh to eat4 ,the seed of this plant1 parched1 is remedial in cases of poisoning1 by the stings of serpents1 eating fungi1 and drinking bulls' blood4 ,the leaves of it1 either boiled and taken in the food or else eaten raw1 or applied with a liniment of sulphur and nitre1 are good for affections of the spleen1 as well as hard tumours of the mamill4 ,in swelling of the uvula1 if the parts affected are only touched with the ashes of the root1 a cure will be the result2 and applied topically with honey1 they are equally beneficial for reducing swellings of the parotid glands1 and curing the stings of serpents4 ,we will add only one more proof of the virtues of the cabbage1 and that a truly marvellous one--in all vessels in which water is boiled1 the incrustations which adhere with such tenacity that it is otherwise impossible to detach them1 will fall off immediately if a cabbage is boiled therein4 ,,chap4 #cg4--,,the ,,lapsana3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,among the wild cabbages1 we find also the lapsana1#adia a plant which grows a foot in height1 has a hairy leaf1 and strongly resembles mustard1 were it not that the blossom is whiter4 ,it is eaten cooked1 and has the property of soothing and gently relaxing the bowels4 ,,chap4 #ch4--,,the ,,sea-,,cabbage3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,sea-cabbage#adib is the most strongly purgative of all these plants4 ,it is cooked1 in consequence of its extreme pungency1 with fat meat1 and is extremely detrimental to the stomach4 ,,chap4 #ci4--,,the ,,squill3 ,,twenty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,in medicine1 we give the name of white squill to the male plant1 and of black#adic to the female3 the whiter the squill1 the better it is for medicinal#adid purposes4 ,the dry coats being first taken off of it1 the remaining part1 or so much of it as retains life1 is cut into pieces1 which are then strung and suspended on a string1 at short distances from each other4 ,after these pieces are thoroughly dried1 they are thrown into a jar of the very strongest vinegar1 suspended in such a way1 however1 as not to touch any portion of the vessel4 ,this is done forty-eight days before the summer solstice4 ,the mouth of the jar is then tightly sealed with plaster2 after which it is placed beneath some tiles which receive the rays of the sun the whole day through4 ,at the end of forty-eight days the vessel is removed1 the squills are taken out of it1 and the vinegar poured into another jar4 ,this vinegar has the effect of sharpening the eyesight1 and1 taken every other day1 is good for pains in the stomach and sides3 the strength of it1 however1 is so great1 that if taken in too large a quantity1 it will for some moments produce all the appearance of death4 ,squills1 too1 if chewed by themselves even1 are good for the gums and teeth2 and taken in vinegar and honey they expel tapeworm and other intestinal worms4 ,put fresh beneath the tongue1 they prevent persons afflicted with dropsy from experiencing thirst4 ,squills are cooked in various ways2 either in a pot with a lining of clay or grease1 which is put into an oven or furnace1 or else cut into pieces and stewed in a saucepan4 ,they are dried also in a raw state1 and then cut into pieces and boiled with vinegar2 in which case1 they are employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents4 ,sometimes1 again1 they are roasted and then cleaned2 after which1 the middle of the bulb is boiled again in water4 ,when thus boiled1 they are used for dropsy1 as a diuretic1 being taken in doses of three oboli1 with oxymel3 they are employed also in a similar manner for affections of the spleen1 and of the stomach1 when it is too weak to digest the food1 provided no ulcerations have made their appearance2 also for gripings of the bowels1 jaundice1 and inveterate cough1 accompanied with asthma4 ,a cataplasm of squill leaves1 taken off at the end of four days1 has the effect of dispersing scrofulous swellings of the neck2 and a decoction of squills in oil1 applied as a liniment1 is a cure for dandriff and running ulcers of the head4 ,squills are boiled with honey also for the table1 with the view of aiding the digestion more particularly2 used in this way1 too1 they act upon the inside as a purgative4 ,boiled with oil1 and then mixed with resin1 they are a cure for chaps on the feet2 and the seed1 mixed with honey1 is applied topically1 for the cure of lumbago4 ,pythagoras says that a squill1 suspended at the threshold of the door1 effectually shuts all access to evil spells and incantations4#adie ,,chap4 #dj4--;,,bulbs3 ,,thirty ,,remedies4 ,bulbs1#adif steeped in vinegar and sulphur1 are good for the cure of wounds in the face2#adig beaten up and used alone1 they are beneficial for contractions of the sinews1 mixed with wine1 for porrigo1 and used with honey1 for the bites of dogs2 in this last case1 however1 ,erasistratus says that they ought to be mixed with pitch4 ,the same author states that1 applied topically with honey1 they stanch the flowing of blood2 other writers say1 however1 that in cases of bleeding at the nose1 coriander and meal should be employed in combination with them4 ,theodorus prescribes bulbs in vinegar for the cure of lichens1 and for eruptions in the head he recommends bulbs mixed with astringent wine1 or an egg beaten up2 he treats defluxions of the eyes also with bulbs1 applied topically1 and uses a similar method for the cure of ophthalmia4 ,the red bulbs more particularly1 will cause spots in the face to disappear1 if rubbed upon them with honey and nitre in the sun2 and applied with wine or boiled cucumber they will remove freckles4 ,used either by themselves1 or as ,damion recommends1 in combination with honied wine1 they are remarkably efficacious for the cure of wounds1 care being taken1 however1 not to remove the application till the end of four days4 ,the same author prescribes them1 too1 for the cure of fractured ears1 and collections of crude humours in the testes4#adih ,for pains in the joints1 bulbs are used with meal2 boiled in wine1 and applied to the abdomen1 they reduce hard swellings of the viscera4 ,in dysentery1 they are given in wine mixed with rain water2 and for convulsions of the intestines they are employed1 in combination with silphium1 in pills the size of a bean3 bruised1 they are employed externally1 for the purpose of checking perspirations4 ,bulbs are good1 too1 for the sinews1 for which reason it is that they are given to paralytic patients4 ,the red bulb1 mixed with honey and salt1 heals sprains of the feet with great rapidity4 ,the bulbs of ,megara#adii act as a strong aphrodisiac1 and garden bulbs1 taken with boiled must or raisin wine1 aid delivery4 ,wild bulbs1 made up into pills with silphium1 effect the cure of wounds and other affections of the intestines4 ,the seed1 too1 of the cultivated kinds is taken in wine as a cure for the bite of the phalangium1#aejj and the bulbs themselves are applied in vinegar for the cure of the stings of serpents4 ,the ancients used to give bulb-seed to persons afflicted with madness1 in drink4 ,the blossom1 beaten up1 removes spots upon the legs1 as well as scorches produced by fire4 ,diocles is of opinion that the sight is impaired by the use of bulbs2 he adds1 too1 that when boiled they are not so wholesome as roasted1 and that1 of whatever nature they may be1 they are difficult of digestion4 ,,chap4 #da4--;,,bulbine2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,bulb ,,emetic4 ,the ,greeks give the name bulbine#aeja to a plant with leaves resembling those of the leek1 and a red bulbous root4 ,this plant1 it is said1 is marvellously good for wounds1 but only when they are of recent date4 ,the bulbous plant known as the 8emetic0 bulb1#aejb from the effects which it produces1 has dark leaves1#aejc and longer than those of the other kinds4 ,,chap4 #db4 7#aj47--;,,garden ,,asparagus2 ,,with ,,the ,,next ,,twenty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,asparagus#aejd is said to be extremely wholesome as an aliment to the stomach4 ,with the addition of cummin1 it dispels flatulency of the stomach and colon2 it sharpens the eyesight also1 acts as a mild aperient upon the stomach1 and1 boiled with wine1 is good for pains in the chest and spine1 and diseases of the intestines4 ,for pains in the loins and kidneys asparagus-seed#aeje is administered in doses of three oboli1 taken with an equal proportion of cummin-seed4 ,it acts as an aphrodisiac1 and is an extremely useful diuretic1 except that it has a tendency to ulcerate the bladder4#aejf ,the root1 also1 pounded and taken in white wine1 is highly extolled by some writers1 as having the effect of disengaging calculi1 and of soothing pains in the loins and kidneys2 there are some persons1 too1 who administer this root with sweet wine for pains in the uterus4 ,boiled in vinegar the root is very beneficial in cases of elephantiasis4 ,it is said that if a person is rubbed with asparagus beaten up in oil1 he will never be stung by bees4 ,,chap4 #dc4--;,,corruda1 ,,libycum1 ,,or ,,orminum4 ,wild asparagus is by some persons called 8corruda10 by others 8libycum10 and by the people of ,attica 8orminus40#aejg ,for all the affections above enumerated it is more efficacious even than the cultivated kind1 that which is white#aejh more particularly4 ,this vegetable has the effect of dispelling the jaundice1 and a decoction of it1 in doses of one hemina1 is recommended as an aphrodisiac2 a similar effect is produced also by a mixture of asparagus seed and dill in doses of three oboli respectively4 ,a decoction of asparagus juice is given also for the stings of serpents2 and the root of it1 mixed with that of marathrum1#aeji is reckoned in the number of the most valuable remedies we are acquainted with4 ,in cases of hmaturia1 ,chrysippus recommends a mixture of asparagus1 parsley1 and cummin seed1 to be given to the patient every five days1 in doses of three oboli1 mixed with two cyathi of wine4 ,he says1 however1 that though employed this way1 it is a good diuretic1 it is bad for dropsy1 and acts as an antaphrodisiac2 and that it is injurious to the bladder1 unless it is boiled first4#aeaj ,he states also1 that if the water in which it is boiled is given to dogs1 it will kill them2#aeaa and that the juice of the root boiled in wine1 kept in the mouth1 is an effectual cure for tooth-ache4 ,,chap4 #dd4 7#aa47--,,parsley2 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,parsley#aeab is held in universal esteem2 for we find sprigs of it swimming in the draughts of milk given us to drink in country-places2 and we know that as a seasoning for sauces1 it is looked upon with peculiar favour4 ,applied to the eyes with honey1 which must also be fomented from time to time with a warm decoction of it1 it has a most marvellous efficacy in cases of defluxion of those organs or of other parts of the body2 as also when beaten up and applied by itself1 or in combination with bread or with polenta4 ,fish1 too1 when found to be in an ailing state in the preserves1 are greatly refreshed by giving them green parsley4 ,as to the opinions entertained upon it among the learned1 there is not a single production dug out of the earth in reference to which a greater diversity exists4 ,parsley is distinguished as male and female3#aeac according to ,chrysippus1 the female plant has a hard leaf and more curled than the other1 a thick stem1 and an acrid1 hot taste4 ,dionysius says1 that the female is darker than the other kind1 has a shorter root1 and engenders small worms4#aead ,both of these writers1 however1 agree in saying that neither kind of parsley should be admitted into the number of our aliments2 indeed1 they look upon it as nothing less than sacrilege to do so1 seeing that parsley is consecrated to the funereal feasts in honour of the dead4 ,they say1 too1 that it is injurious to the eyesight1 that the stalk of the female plant engenders small worms1 for which reason it is that those who eat of it become barren--males as well as females2 and that children suckled by females who live on a parsley diet1 are sure to be epileptic4 ,they agree1 however1 in stating that the male plant is not so injurious in its effects as the female1 and that it is for this reason that it is not absolutely condemned and classed among the forbidden plants4 ,the leaves of it1 employed as a cataplasm1 are used for dispersing hard tumours#aeae in the mamill2 and when boiled in water1 it makes it more agreeable to drink4 ,the juice of the root more particularly1 mixed with wine1 allays the pains of lumbago1 and1 injected into the ears1 it diminishes hardness of hearing4 ,the seed of it acts as a diuretic1 promotes the menstrual discharge1 and brings away the after-birth4 ,bruises and livid spots1 if fomented with a decoction of parsley-seed1 will resume their natural colour4 ,applied topically1 with the white of egg1 or boiled in water1 and then drunk1 it is remedial for affections of the kidneys2 and beaten up in cold water it is a cure for ulcers of the mouth4 ,the seed1 mixed with wine1 or the root1 taken with old wine1 has the effect of breaking calculi in the bladder4 ,the seed1 too1 is given in white wine1 to persons afflicted with the jaundice4 ,,chap4 #de4--;,,apiastrum1 ,,or ,,melissophyllum4 ,hyginus gave the name of 8apiastrum0 to melissophyllum3#aeaf but that which grows in ,sardinia is poisonous1 and universally condemned4 ,i speak here of this plant1 because ,i feel it my duty to place before the reader every object which has been classified1 among the ,greeks1 under the same name4 ,,chap4 #df4--,,olusatrum ,,or ,,hipposelinon3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,,oreoselinon2 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,helioselinon2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,olusatrum1#aeag usually known as hipposelinon1#aeah is particularly repulsive to scorpions4 ,the seed of it1 taken in drink1 is a cure for gripings in the stomach and intestinal complaints1 and a decoction of the seed1 drunk in honied wine1 is curative in cases of dysuria4#aeai ,the root of the plant1 boiled in wine1 expels calculi of the bladder1 and is a cure for lumbago and pains in the sides4 ,taken in drink and applied topically1 it is a cure for the bite of a mad dog1 and the juice of it1 when drunk1 is warming for persons benumbed with cold4 ,some persons make out oreoselinon#aebj to be a fourth species of parsley3 it is a shrub about a palm in height1 with an elongated seed1 bearing a strong resemblance to that of cummin1 and efficacious for the urine and the catamenia4 ,helioselinon#aeba is possessed of peculiar virtues against the bites of spiders3 and oreoselinon is used with wine for promoting the menstrual discharge4 ,,chap4 #dg4 7#ab47--,,petroselinon2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,buselinon2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,another kind again1 which grows in rocky places1 is known by some persons as 8petroselinon30#aebb it is particularly good for abscesses1 taken in doses of two spoonfuls of the juice to one cyathus of juice of horehound1 mixed with three cyathi of warm water4 ,some writers have added buselinon#aebc to the list1 which differs only from the cultivated kind in the shortness of the stalk and the red colour of the root1 the medicinal properties being just the same4 ,taken in drink or applied topically1 it is an excellent remedy for the stings of serpents4 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,ocimum2 ,,thirty-,,five ,,remedies4 ,chrysippus has exclaimed as strongly1 too1 against ocimum#aebd as he has against parsley1 declaring that it is prejudicial to the stomach and the free discharge of the urine1 and is injurious to the sight2 that it produces insanity1 too1 and lethargy1 as well as diseases of the liver2 and that it is for this reason that goats refuse to touch it4 ,hence he comes to the conclusion1 that the use of it ought to be avoided by man4 ,some persons go so far as to say1 that if beaten up1 and then placed beneath a stone1 a scorpion will breed there2#aebe and that if chewed1 and then placed in the sun1 worms will breed in it4 ,the people of ,africa maintain1 too1 that if a person is stung by a scorpion the same day on which he has eaten ocimum1 his life cannot possibly be saved4 ,even more than this1 there are some who assert1 that if a handful of ocimum is beaten up with ten sea or river crabs1 all the scorpions in the vicinity will be attracted to it4 ,diodotus1 too1 in his ,book of ,recipes1#aebf says1 that ocimum1 used as an article of food1 breeds lice4 ,succeeding ages1 again1 have warmly defended this plant2 it has been maintained1 for instance1 that goats do eat it1 that the mind of no one who has eaten of it is at all affected1 and1 that mixed with wine1 with the addition of a little vinegar1 it is a cure for the stings of land scorpions1 and the venom of those found in the sea4 ,experience has proved1 too1 that the smell of this plant in vinegar is good for fainting fits and lethargy1 as well as inflammations2 that employed as a cooling liniment1 with rose oil1 myrtle oil1 or vinegar1 it is good for head-ache2 and that applied topically with wine1 it is beneficial for defluxions of the eyes4 ,it has been found also1 that it is good for the stomach2 that taken with vinegar1 it dispels flatulent eructations2 that applications of it arrest fluxes of the bowels2 that it acts as a diuretic1 and that in this way it is good for jaundice and dropsy1 as well as cholera and looseness of the bowels4 ,hence it is that ,philistio has prescribed it even for cliac affections1 and boiled1 for dysentery4 ,some persons1 too1 though contrary to the opinion of ,plistonicus1 have given it in wine for tenesmus and spitting of blood1 as also for obstructions of the viscera4 ,it is employed1 too1 as a liniment for the mamill1 and has the effect of arresting the secretion of the milk4 ,it is very good also for the ears of infants1 when applied with goose-grease more particularly4 ,the seed of it1 beaten up1 and inhaled into the nostrils1 is provocative of sneezing1 and applied as a liniment to the head1 of running at the nostrils3 taken in the food1 too1 with vinegar1 it purges the uterus4 ,mixed with copperas#aebg it removes warts4 ,it acts1 also1 as an aphrodisiac1 for which reason it is given to horses and asses at the season for covering4 7#ac47 ,wild ocimum has exactly the same properties in every respect1 though in a more active degree4 ,it is particularly good1 too1 for the various affections produced by excessive vomiting1 and for abscesses of the womb4 ,the root1 mixed with wine1 is extremely efficacious for bites inflicted by wild beasts4 ,,chap4 #di4--,,rocket3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the seed of rocket#aebh is remedial for the venom of the scorpion and the shrew-mouse3 it repels1 too1 all parasitical insects which breed on the human body1 and applied to the face1 as a liniment1 with honey1 removes#aebi spots upon the skin4 ,used with vinegar1 too1 it is a cure for freckles2 and mixed with ox-gall it restores the livid marks left by wounds to their natural colour4 ,it is said that if this plant is taken in wine by persons who are about to undergo a flogging1 it will impart a certain degree of insensibility to the body4 ,so agreeable is its flavour as a savouring for food1 that the ,greeks have given it the name of 8euzomon40#aecj ,it is generally thought that rocket1 lightly bruised1 and employed as a fomentation for the eyes1 will restore the sight to its original goodness1 and that it allays coughs in young infants4 ,the root of it1 boiled in water1 has the property of extracting the splinters of broken bones4 ,as to the properties of rocket as an aphrodisiac1 we have mentioned them already4#aeca ,three leaves of wild rocket plucked with the left hand1 beaten up in hydromel1 and then taken in drink1 are productive of a similar effect4 ,,chap4 #ej4--,,nasturtium3 ,,forty-,,two ,,remedies4 ,nasturtium1#aecb on the other hand1 is an antiaphrodisiac2#aecc it has the effect also of sharpening the senses1 as already stated4#aecd ,there are two#aece varieties of this plant3 one of them is purgative1 and1 taken in doses of one denarius to seven of water1 carries off the bilious secretions4 ,applied as a liniment to scrofulous sores1 with bean-meal1 and then covered with a cabbage-leaf1 it is a most excellent remedy4 ,the other kind1 which is darker than the first1 has the effect of carrying off vicious humours of the head1 and sharpening the sight3 taken in vinegar it calms the troubled spirits1 and1 drunk with wine or taken in a fig1 it is good for affections of the spleen2 taken in honey1 too1 fasting daily1 it is good for a cough4 ,the seed of it1 taken in wine1 expels all kinds of intestinal worms1 and with the addition of wild mint1 it acts more efficaciously still4 ,it is good1 too1 for asthma and cough1 in combination with wild marjoram and sweet wine2 and a decoction of it in goats' milk is used for pains in the chest4 ,mixed with pitch it disperses tumours1 and extracts thorns from the body2 and1 employed as a liniment1 with vinegar1 it removes spots upon the body4 ,when used for the cure of carcinoma1 white of eggs is added to it4 ,with vinegar it is employed also as a liniment for affections of the spleen1 and with honey it is found to be very useful for the complaints of infants4 ,sextius adds1 that the smell of burnt nasturtium drives away serpents1 neutralizes the venom of scorpions1 and gives relief in head-ache2 with the addition too1 of mustard1 he says1 it is a cure for alopecy1 and applied to the ears with a fig1 it is a remedy for hardness of hearing4 ,the juice of it1 he says1 if injected into the ears1 will effect the cure of tooth-ache1 and employed with goose-grease it is a remedy for porrigo and ulcerous sores of the head4 ,applied with leaven it brings boils#aecf to a head1 and makes carbuncles suppurate and break3 used with honey1 too1 it is good for cleansing phagednic ulcers4 ,topical applications are made of it1 combined with vinegar and polenta1 in cases of sciatica and lumbago3 it is similarly employed1 too1 for lichens and malformed#aecg nails1 its qualities being naturally caustic4 ,the best nasturtium of all is that of ,babylonia2 the wild#aech variety possesses the same qualities as the cultivated in every respect1 but in a more powerful degree4 ,,chap4 #ea4--,,rue3 ,,eighty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,one of the most active1 however1 of all the medicinal plants1 is rue4#aeci ,the cultivated kind has broader leaves and more numerous branches than the other4 ,wild rue is more violent in its effects1 and more active in every respect4 ,the juice of it is extracted by beating it up1 and moistening it moderately with water2 after which it is kept for use in boxes of ,cyprian copper4 ,given in large doses1 this juice has all the baneful effects of poison1#aedj and that of ,macedonia more particularly1 which grows on the banks of the river ,aliacmon4#aeda ,it is a truly wonderful thing1 but the juice of hemlock has the property of neutralizing its effects4 ,thus do we find one thing acting as the poison of another poison1 for the juice of hemlock is very beneficial1 rubbed upon the hands and face#aedb of persons employed in gathering rue4 ,in other respects1 rue is one of the principal ingredients employed in antidotes1 that of ,galatia more particularly4 ,every species of rue1 employed by itself1 has the effect also of an antidote1 if the leaves are bruised and taken in wine4 ,it is good more particularly in cases of poisoning by wolf'sbane#aedc and mistletoe1 as well as by fungi1 whether administered in the drink or the food4 ,employed in a similar manner1 it is good for the stings of serpents2 so much so1 in fact1 that weasels1#aedd when about to attack them1 take the precaution first of protecting themselves by eating rue4 ,rue is good1 too1 for the injuries by scorpions and spiders1 the stings of bees1 hornets1 and wasps1 the noxious effects produced by cantharides and salamanders1#aede and the bites of mad dogs4 ,the juice is taken in doses of one acetabulum1 in wine2 and the leaves1 beaten up or else chewed1 are applied topically1 with honey and salt1 or boiled with vinegar and pitch4 ,it is said that people rubbed with the juice of rue1 or even having it on their person1 are never attacked by these noxious creatures1 and that serpents are driven away by the stench of burning rue4 ,the most efficacious1 however1 of all1 is the root of wild rue1 taken with wine2 this too1 it is said1 is more beneficial still1 if drunk in the open air4 ,pythagoras has distinguished this plant also into male and female1 the former having smaller leaves than the other1 and of a grass-green colour2 the female plant1 he says1 has leaves of a larger size and a more vivid hue4 ,the same author1 too1 has considered rue to be injurious to the eyes2 but this is an error1 for engravers and painters are in the habit of eating it with bread1 or else nasturtium1 for the benefit of the sight2 wild goats1 too1 eat it for the sight1 they say4 ,many persons have dispersed films on the eyes by rubbing them with a mixture of the juice of rue with ,attic honey1 or the milk of a woman just delivered of a male child3 the same result has been produced also by touching the corners of the eyes with the pure juice of the plant4 ,applied topically1 with polenta1 rue carries off defluxions of the eyes2 and1 taken with wine1 or applied topically with vinegar and rose oil1 it is a cure for head-ache4 ,if1 however1 the pain attacks the whole of the head1#aedf the rue should be applied with barley-meal and vinegar4 ,this plant has the effect also of dispelling crudities1 flatulency1 and inveterate pains of the stomach2 it opens the uterus1 too1 and restores it when displaced2 for which purpose it is applied as a liniment1 with honey1 to the whole of the abdomen and chest4 ,mixed with figs1 and boiled down to one half1 it is administered in wine for dropsy2 and it is taken in a similar manner for pains of the chest1 sides1 and loins1 as well as for coughs1 asthma1 and affections of the lungs1 liver1 and kidneys1 and for shivering fits4 ,persons about to indulge in wine1 take a decoction of the leaves1 to prevent head-ache and surfeit4 ,taken in food1 too1 it is wholesome1 whether eaten raw or boiled1 or used as a confection2 boiled with hyssop1 and taken with wine1 it is good for gripings of the stomach4 ,employed in the same way1 it arrests internal hmorrhage1 and1 applied to the nostrils1 bleeding at the nose3 it is beneficial also to the teeth if rinsed with it4 ,in cases of ear-ache1 this juice is injected into the ears1 care being taken to moderate the dose1 as already stated1 if wild rue is employed4 ,for hardness of hearing1 too1 and singing in the ears1 it is similarly employed in combination with oil of roses1 or oil of laurel1 or else cummin and honey4 ,juice of rue pounded in vinegar1 is applied also to the temples and the region of the brain in persons affected with phrenitis2 some persons1 however1 have added to this mixture wild thyme and laurel leaves1 rubbing the head and neck as well with the liniment4 ,it has been given in vinegar to lethargic patients to smell at1 and a decoction of it is administered for epilepsy1 in doses of four cyathi1 as also just before the attacks in fever of intolerable chills4 ,it is likewise given raw to persons for shivering fits4 ,rue is a provocative#aedg of the urine to bleeding even3 it promotes the menstrual discharge1 also1 and brings away the after-birth1 as well as the dead ftus even1 according to ,hippocrates1#aedh if taken in sweet red wine4 ,the same author1 also1 recommends applications of it1 as well as fumigations1 for affections of the uterus4 ,for cardiac diseases1 ,diocles prescribes applications of rue1 in combination with vinegar1 honey1 and barley-meal3 and for the iliac passion1 he says that it should be mixed with meal1 boiled in oil1 and spread upon the wool of a sheep's fleece4 ,many persons recommend1 for purulent expectorations1 two drachm of dried rue to one and a half of sulphur2 and1 for spitting of blood1 a decoction of three sprigs in wine4 ,it is given also in dysentery1 with cheese1 the rue being first beaten up in wine2 and it has been prescribed1 pounded with bitumen1 as a potion for habitual shortness of breath4 ,for persons suffering from violent falls1 three ounces of the seed is recommended4 ,a pound of oil1 in which rue leaves have been boiled1 added to one sextarius of wine1 forms a liniment for parts of the body which are frost-bitten4 ,if rue really is a diuretic1 as ,hippocrates#aedi thinks1 it is a singular thing that some persons should give it1 as being an anti-diuretic1 for the suppression of incontinence of urine4 ,applied topically1 with honey and alum1 it cures itch-scabs1 and leprous sores2 and1 in combination with nightshade and hogs'-lard1 or beef-suet1 it is good for morphew1 warts1 scrofula1 and maladies of a similar nature4 ,used with vinegar and oil1 or else white lead1 it is good for erysipelas2 and1 applied with vinegar1 for carbuncles4 ,some persons prescribe silphium also as an ingredient in the liniment2 but it is not employed by them for the cure of the pustules known as epinyctis4 ,boiled rue is recommended1 also1 as a cataplasm for swellings of the mamill1 and1 combined with wax1 for eruptions of pituitous matter4#aeej ,it is applied with tender sprigs of laurel1 in cases of defluxion of the testes2 and it exercises so peculiar an effect upon those organs1 that old rue1 it is said1 employed in a liniment1 with axle-grease1 is a cure for hernia4 ,the seed pounded1 and applied with wax1 is remedial also for broken limbs4 ,the root of this plant1 applied topically1 is a cure for effusion of blood in the eyes1 and1 employed as a liniment1 it removes scars or spots on all parts of the body4 ,among the other properties which are attributed to rue1 it is a singular fact1 that1 though it is universally agreed that it is hot by nature1 a bunch of it1 boiled in rose-oil1 with the addition of an ounce of aloes1 has the effect of checking the perspiration in those who rub themselves with it2 and that1 used as an aliment1 it impedes the generative functions4 ,hence it is1 that it is so often given in cases of spermatorrha1 and where persons are subject to lascivious dreams4 ,every precaution should be taken by pregnant women to abstain from rue as an article of diet1 for ,i find it stated that it is productive of fatal results to the ftus4#aeea ,of all the plants that are grown1 rue is the one that is most generally employed for the maladies of cattle1 whether arising from difficulty of respiration1 or from the stings of noxious creatures--in which cases it is injected with wine into the nostrils--or whether they may happen to have swallowed a horse-leech1 under which circumstances it is administered in vinegar4 ,in all other maladies of cattle1 the rue is prepared just as for man in a similar case4 ,,chap4 #eb4 7#ad47--,,wild ,,mint3 ,,twenty ,,remedies4 ,mentastrum1 or wild mint1#aeeb differs from the other kind in the appearance of the leaves1 which have the form of those of ocimum and the colour of pennyroyal2 for which reason1 some persons1 in fact1 give it the name of wild pennyroyal4#aeec ,the leaves of this plant1 chewed and applied topically1 are a cure for elephantiasis2 a discovery which was accidentally made in the time of ,pompeius ,magnus1 by a person affected with this malady covering his face with the leaves for the purpose of neutralizing the bad smell that arose therefrom4 ,these leaves are employed also as a liniment1 and in drink1 with a mixture of salt1 oil1 and vinegar1 for the stings of scorpions2 and1 in doses of two drachm to two cyathi of wine1 for those of scolopendr and serpents4 ,a decoction1 too1 of the juice is given for the sting of the scolopendra4#aeed ,leaves of wild mint are kept1 dried and reduced to a fine powder1 as a remedy for poisons of every description4 ,spread on the ground or burnt1 this plant has the effect of driving away scorpions4 ,taken in drink1 wild mint carries off the lochia in females after parturition2 but1 if taken before1 it is fatal to the ftus1 ,it is extremely efficacious in cases of rupture and convulsions1 and1 though in a somewhat less degree1 for orthopna1#aeee gripings of the bowels1 and cholera3 it is good1 too1 as a topical application for lumbago and gout4 ,the juice of it is injected into the ears for worms breeding there2 it is taken also for jaundice1 and is employed in liniments for scrofulous sores4 ,it prevents#aeef the recurrence of lascivious dreams2 and taken in vinegar1 it expels tape-worm4#aeeg ,for the cure of porrigo1 it is put in vinegar1 and the head is washed with the mixture in the sun4 ,,chap4 #ec4--,,mint3 ,,forty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,the very smell of mint#aeeh reanimates the spirits1 and its flavour gives a remarkable zest to food3 hence it is that it is so generally an ingredient in our sauces4 ,it has the effect of preventing milk from turning sour1 or curdling and thickening2 hence it is that it is so generally put into milk used for drinking1 to prevent any danger of persons being choked#aeei by it in a curdled state4 ,it is administered also for this purpose in water or honied wine4 ,it is generally thought1 too1 that it is in consequence of this property that it impedes generation1 by preventing the seminal fluids from obtaining the requisite consistency4 ,in males as well as females it arrests bleeding1 and it has the property1 with the latter1 of suspending the menstrual discharge4 ,taken in water1 with amylum1#aefj it prevents looseness in cliac complaints4 ,syriation employed this plant for the cure of abscesses of the uterus1 and1 in doses of three oboli1 with honied wine1 for diseases of the liver3 he prescribed it also1 in pottage1 for spitting of blood4 ,it is an admirable remedy for ulcerations of the head in children1 and has the effect equally of drying the trachea when too moist1 and of bracing it when too dry4 ,taken in honied wine and water1 it carries off purulent phlegm4 ,the juice of mint is good for the voice when a person is about to engage in a contest of eloquence1 but only when taken just before4 ,it is employed also with milk as a gargle for swelling of the uvula1 with the addition of rue and coriander4 ,with alum1 too1 it is good for the tonsils of the throat1 and1 mixed with honey1 for roughness of the tongue4 ,employed by itself1 it is a remedy for internal convulsions and affections of the lungs4 ,taken with pomegranate juice1 as ,democrites tells us1 it arrests hiccup and vomiting4 ,the juice of mint fresh gathered1 inhaled1 is a remedy for affections of the nostrils4 ,beaten up and taken in vinegar1 mint is a cure for cholera1 and for internal fluxes of blood3 applied externally1 with polenta1 it is remedial for the iliac passion and tension of the mamill4 ,it is applied1 too1 as a liniment to the temples for head-ache2 and it is taken internally1 as an antidote for the stings of scolopendr1 sea-scorpions1 and serpents4 ,as a liniment it is applied also for defluxions of the eyes1 and all eruptions of the head1 as well as maladies of the rectum4 ,mint is an effectual preventive1 too1 of chafing of the skin1 even if held in the hand only4 ,in combination with honied wine1 it is employed as an injection for the ears4 ,it is said1 too1 that this plant will cure affections of the spleen1 if tasted in the garden nine days consecutively1 without plucking it1 the person who bites it saying at the same moment that he does so for the benefit of the spleen3 and that1 if dried1 and reduced to powder1 a pinch of it with three fingers taken in water1 will cure stomach-ache4#aefa ,sprinkled in this form in drink1 it is said to have the effect of expelling intestinal worms4 ,,chap4 #ed4--,,pennyroyal3 ,,twenty-,,five ,,remedies4 ,pennyroyal#aefb partakes with mint1 in a very considerable degree1 the property#aefc of restoring consciousness in fainting fits2 slips of both plants being kept for the purpose in glass bottles#aefd filled with vinegar4 ,it is for this reason that ,varro has declared that a wreath of pennyroyal is more worthy to grace our chambers#aefe than a chaplet of roses3 indeed1 it is said that1 placed upon the head1 it materially alleviates head-ache4#aeff ,it is generally stated1 too1 that the smell of it alone will protect the head against the injurious effects of cold or heat1 and that it acts as a preventive of thirst2 also1 that persons exposed to the sun1 if they carry a couple of sprigs of pennyroyal behind the ears1 will never be incommoded by the heat4 ,for various pains1 too1 it is employed topically1 mixed with polenta and vinegar4 ,the female#aefg plant is the more efficacious of the two2 it has a purple flower1 that of the male being white4 ,taken in cold water with salt and polenta it arrests nausea1 as well as pains of the chest and abdomen4 ,taken1 too1 in water1 it prevents gnawing pains of the stomach1 and1 with vinegar and polenta1 it arrests vomiting4 ,in combination with salt and vinegar1 and polenta1 it loosens the bowels4 ,taken with boiled honey and nitre1 it is a cure for intestinal complaints4 ,employed with wine it is a diuretic1 and if the wine is the produce of the ,aminean#aefh grape1 it has the additional effect of dispersing calculi of the bladder and removing all internal pains4 ,taken in conjunction with honey and vinegar1 it modifies the menstrual discharge1 and brings away the after-birth1 restores the uterus1 when displaced1 to its natural position1 and expels the dead#aefi ftus4 ,the seed is given to persons to smell at1 who have been suddenly struck dumb1 and is prescribed for epileptic patients in doses of one cyathus1 taken in vinegar4 ,if water is found unwholesome for drinking1 bruised pennyroyal should be sprinkled in it2 taken with wine it modifies acridities#aegj of the body4 ,mixed with salt1 it is employed as a friction for the sinews1 and with honey and vinegar1 in cases of opisthotony4 ,decoctions of it are prescribed as a drink for persons stung by serpents2 and1 beaten up in wine1 it is employed for the stings of scorpions1 that which grows in a dry soil in particular4 ,this plant is looked upon as efficacious also for ulcerations of the mouth1 and for coughs4 ,the blossom of it1 fresh gathered1 and burnt1 kills fleas#aega by its smell4 ,xenocrates1 among the other remedies which he mentions1 says that in tertian fevers1 a sprig of pennyroyal1 wrapped in wool1 should be given to the patient to smell at1 just before the fit comes on1 or else it should be put under the bed-clothes and laid by the patient's side4 ,,chap4 #ee4--,,wild ,,pennyroyal3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,for all the purposes already mentioned1 wild pennyroyal#aegb has exactly the same properties1 but in a still higher degree4 ,it bears a strong resemblance to wild marjoram1#aegc and has a smaller leaf than the cultivated kind3 by some persons it is known as 8dictamnos40#aegd ,when browsed upon by sheep and goats1 it makes them bleat1 for which reason1 some of the ,greeks1 changing a single letter in its name1 have called it 8blechon10#aege instead of 8glechon40 ,this plant is naturally so heating as to blister the parts of the body to which it is applied4 ,for a cough which results from a chill1 it is a good plan for the patient to rub himself with it before taking the bath2 it is similarly employed1 too1 in shivering fits1 just before the attacks come on1 and for convulsions and gripings of the stomach4 ,it is also remarkably good for the gout4 ,to persons afflicted with spasms1 this plant is administered in drink1 in combination with honey and salt2 and it renders expectoration easy in affections of the lungs4#aegf ,taken with salt it is beneficial for the spleen and bladder1 and is curative of asthma and flatulency4 ,a decoction of it is equally as good as the juice3 it restores the uterus when displaced1 and is prescribed for the sting of either the land or the sea scolopendra1 as well as the scorpion4 ,it is particularly good1 too1 for bites inflicted by a human being4 ,the root of it1 newly taken up1 is extremely efficacious for corroding ulcers1 and in a dried state tends to efface the deformities produced by scars4 ,,chap4 #ef4--,,nep3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,nep#aegg has also some affinity in its effects with pennyroyal4 ,boiled down in water to one third1 these plants dispel sudden chills3 they promote the menstrual discharge also in females1 and allay excessive heats in summer4 ,nep possesses certain virtues against the stings of serpents2 at the very smoke and smell of it they will instantly take to flight1 and persons who have to sleep in places where they are apprehensive of them1 will do well to place it beneath them4 ,bruised1 it is employed topically for lacrymal fistulas#aegh of the eye3 fresh gathered and mixed in vinegar with one third part of bread1 it is applied as a liniment for head-ache4 ,the juice of it1 injected into the nostrils1 with the head thrown back1 arrests bleeding at the nose1 and the root has a similar effect4 ,this last is employed also1 with myrtle-seed1 in warm raisin wine1 as a gargle for the cure of quinsy4 ,,chap4 #eg4--;,,cummin3 ,,forty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,,wild ,,cummin3 ,,twenty-,,six ,,remedies4 ,wild cummin is a remarkably slender plant1 consisting of four or five leaves indented like a saw2 like the cultivated#aegi kind1 it is much employed in medicine1 among the stomachic remedies more particularly4 ,bruised and taken with bread1 or else drunk in wine and water1 it dispels phlegm and flatulency1 as well as gripings of the bowels and pains in the intestines4 ,both varieties have the effect1 however1 of producing paleness#aehj in those who drink these mixtures2 at all events1 it is generally stated that the disciples of ,porcius ,latro1#aeha so celebrated among the professors of eloquence1 used to employ this drink for the purpose of imitating the paleness which had been contracted by their master1 through the intensity of his studies3 and that ,julius ,vindex1#aehb in more recent times1 that assertor of our liberties against ,nero1 adopted this method of playing upon#aehc those who were looking out for a place in his will4 ,applied in the form of lozenges1 or fresh with vinegar1 cummin has the effect of arresting bleeding at the nose1 and used by itself1 it is good for defluxions of the eyes4 ,combined with honey1 it is used also for swellings of the eyes4 ,with children of tender age1 it is sufficient to apply it to the abdomen4 ,in cases of jaundice1 it is administered in white wine1 immediately after taking the bath4 7#ae47 ,the cummin of thiopia1#aehd more particularly1 is given in vinegar and water1 or else as an electuary with honey4 ,it is thought1 too1 that the cummin of ,africa has the peculiar property of arresting incontinence of urine4 ,the cultivated plant is given1 parched and beaten up in vinegar1 for affections of the liver1 as also for vertigo4 ,beaten up in sweet wine1 it is taken in cases1 also1 where the urine is too acrid2 and for affections of the uterus1 it is administered in wine1 the leaves of it being employed topically as well1 in layers of wool4 ,parched and beaten up with honey1 it is used as an application for swellings of the testes1 or else with rose oil and wax4 ,for all the purposes above-mentioned1 wild cummin#aehe is more efficacious than cultivated2 as also1 in combination with oil1 for the stings of serpents1 scorpions1 and scolopendr4 ,a pinch of it with three fingers1 taken in wine1 has the effect of arresting vomiting and nausea2 it is used1 too1 both as a drink and a liniment for the colic1 or else it is applied hot1 in dossils of lint1#aehf to the part affected1 bandages being employed to keep it in its place4 ,taken in wine1 it dispels hysterical affections1 the proportions being three drachm of cummin to three cyathi of wine4 ,it is used as an injection1 too1 for the ears1 when affected with tingling and singing1 being mixed for the purpose with veal suet or honey4 ,for contusions1 it is applied as a liniment1 with honey1 raisins1 and vinegar1 and for dark freckles on the skin with vinegar4 ,,chap4 #eh4--;,,ammi3 ,,ten ,,remedies4 ,there is another plant1 which bears a very strong resemblance to cummin1 known to the ,greeks as 8ammi20#aehg some persons are of opinion1 that it is the same as the thiopian cummin4 ,hippocrates gives it#aehh the epithet of 8royal20 no doubt1 because he looks upon it as possessed of greater virtues than ,egyptian cummin4 ,many persons1 however1 consider it to be of a totally different nature from cummin1 as it is so very much thinner1 and of a much whiter colour4 ,still1 it is employed for just the same purposes as cummin1 for we find it used at ,alexandria for putting under loaves of bread1 and forming an ingredient in various sauces4 ,it has the effect of dispelling flatulency and gripings of the bowels1 and of promoting the secretion of the urine and the menstrual discharge4 ,it is employed1 also1 for the cure of bruises1 and to assuage defluxions of the eyes4 ,taken in wine with linseed1 in doses of two drachm1 it is a cure for the stings of scorpions2 and1 used with an equal proportion of myrrh1 it is particularly good for the bite of the cerastes4#aehi ,like cummin1 too1 it imparts paleness of complexion to those who drink of it4 ,used as a fumigation1 with raisins or with resin1 it acts as a purgative upon the uterus4 ,it is said1 too1 that if women smell at this plant during the sexual congress1 the chances of conception will be greatly promoted thereby4 ,,chap4 #ei4--,,the ,,capparis ,,or ,,caper3 ,,eighteen ,,remedies4 ,we have already spoken#aeij of the caper at sufficient length when treating of the exotic plants4 ,the caper which comes#aeia from beyond sea should never be used2 that of ,italy#aeib is not so dangerous4 ,it is said1 that persons who eat this plant daily1 are never attacked by paralysis or pains in the spleen4 ,the root of it1 pounded1 removes white eruptions of the skin1 if rubbed with it in the sun4 ,the bark#aeic of the root1 taken in wine1 in doses of two drachm1 is good for affections of the spleen2 the patient1 however1 must forego the use of the bath4 ,it is said1 too1 that in the course of thirty-five days the whole of the spleen may be discharged under this treatment1 by urine and by stool4 ,the caper is also taken in drink for lumbago and paralysis2 and the seed of it boiled1 and beaten up in vinegar1 or the root chewed1 has a soothing effect in tooth-ache4 ,a decoction of it in oil is employed1 also1 as an injection for ear-ache4 ,the leaves and the root1 fresh out of the ground1 mixed with honey1 are a cure for the ulcers known as phagednic4 ,in the same way1 too1 the root disperses scrofulous swellings2 and a decoction of it in water removes imposthumes of the parotid glands1 and worms4 ,beaten up and mixed with barley-meal1 it is applied topically for pains in the liver2 it is a cure1 also1 for diseases of the bladder4 ,in combination with oxymel1 it is prescribed for tapeworm1 and a decoction of it in vinegar removes ulcerations of the mouth4 ,it is generally agreed among writers that the caper is prejudicial to the stomach4 ,,chap4 #fj4--,,ligusticum1 ,,or ,,lovage3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,ligusticum1#aeid by some persons known as 8panax10 is good for the stomach1 and is curative of convulsions and flatulency4 ,there are persons who give this plant the name of 8cunila bubula20 but1 as we have already#aeie stated1 they are in error in so doing4 ,,chap4 #fa4 7#af47--;,,cunila ,,bubula3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,in addition to garden cunila1#aeif there are numerous other varieties of it employed in medicine4 ,that known to us as 8cunila bubula10 has a very similar seed to that of pennyroyal4 ,this seed1 chewed and applied topically1 is good for wounds3 the plaster1 however1 must not be taken off till the fifth day4 ,for the stings of serpents1 this plant is taken in wine1 and the leaves of it are bruised and applied to the wound2 which is also rubbed with them as a friction4 ,the tortoise1#aeig when about to engage in combat with the serpent1 employs this plant as a preservative against the effects of its sting2 some persons1 for this reason1 have given it the name of 8panacea40#aeih ,it has the effect also of dispersing tumours and maladies of the male organs1 the leaves being dried for the purpose1 or else beaten up fresh and applied to the part affected4 ,for every purpose for which it is employed it combines remarkably well with wine4 ,,chap4 #fb4--;,,cunila ,,gallinacea1 ,,or ,,origanum3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,there is another variety1 again1 known to our people as 8cunila gallinacea10#aeii and to the ,greeks as ,heracleotic origanum4#afjj ,beaten up with salt1 this plant is good for the eyes2 and it is a remedy for cough and affections of the liver4 ,mixed with meal1 and taken as a broth1 with oil and vinegar1 it is good for pains in the side1 and the stings of serpents in particular4 ,,chap4 #fc4--;,,cunilago3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,there is a third species1 also1 known to the ,greeks as 8male cunila10 and to us as 8cunilago40#afja ,this plant has a ftid smell1 a ligneous root1 and a rough leaf4 ,of all the varieties of cunila1 this one1 it is said1 is possessed of the most active properties4 ,if a handful of it is thrown anywhere1 all the beetles in the house1 they say1 will be attracted to it2 and1 taken in vinegar and water1 it is good for the stings of scorpions more particularly4 ,it is stated1 also1 that if a person is rubbed with three leaves of it1 steeped in oil1 it will have the effect of keeping all serpents at a distance4 ,,chap4 #fd4--,,soft ,,cunila3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,libanotis3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,the variety1 on the other hand1 known as soft#afjb cunila1 has a more velvety leaf1 and branches covered with thorns2 when rubbed it has just the smell of honey1 and it adheres to the fingers when touched4 ,there is another kind1 again1 known to us as 8libanotis10#afjc a name which it owes to the resemblance of its smell to that of frankincense4 ,both of these plants1 taken in wine or vinegar1 are antidotes for the stings of serpents4 ,beaten up in water1 also1 and sprinkled about a place1 they kill fleas4#afjd ,,chap4 #fe4--;,,cultivated ,,cunila2 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,mountain ,,cunila2 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,cultivated cunila#afje has also its medicinal uses4 ,the juice of it1 in combination with rose oil1 is good for the ears2 and the plant itself is taken in drink1 to counteract the effects of violent blows4#afjf ,a variety of this plant is the mountain cunila1 similar to wild thyme in appearance1 and particularly efficacious for the stings of serpents4 ,this plant is diuretic1 and promotes the lochial discharge3 it aids the digestion1 too1 in a marvellous degree4 ,both varieties have a tendency to sharpen the appetite1 even when persons are troubled with indigestion1 if taken fasting in drink3 they are good1 too1 for sprains1 and1 taken with barley-meal1 and vinegar and water1 they are extremely useful for stings inflicted by wasps and insects of a similar nature4 ,we shall have occasion to speak of other varieties of libanotis#afjg in their appropriate places4 ,,chap4 #ff4 7#ag47--,,piperitis1 ,,or ,,siliquastrum3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,piperitis1#afjh which we have already mentioned as being called 8siliquastrum10 is taken in drink for epilepsy4 ,castor#afji used to give a description of it to the following effect3 8,the stalk of it is long and red1 with the knots lying close together2 the leaves are similar to those of the laurel1 and the seed is white and slender1 like pepper in taste40 ,he described it also as being beneficial to the gums and teeth1 imparting sweetness to the breath1 and dispelling flatulency4 ,,chap4 #fg4--,,origanum1 ,,onitis1 ,,or ,,prasion3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,origanum1#afaj which1 as we have already stated1 rivals cunila in flavour1 includes many varieties employed in medicine4 ,onitis1#afaa or prasion1#afab is the name given to one of these1 which is not unlike hyssop in appearance3 it is employed more particularly1 with warm water1 for gnawing pains at the stomach1 and for indigestion4 ,taken in white wine it is good for the stings of spiders and scorpions2 and1 applied with vinegar and oil1 in wool1 it is a cure for sprains and bruises4 ,,chap4 #fh4--,,tragoriganum3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,tragoriganum#afac bears a strong resemblance to wild thyme4 ,it is diuretic1 disperses tumours1 and taken in drink is extremely efficacious in cases of poisoning by mistletoe and stings by serpents4 ,it is very good for acid eructations from the stomach1 and for the thoracic organs4 ,it is given also for a cough1 with honey1 as well as for pleurisy and peripneumony4 ,,chap4 #fi4--,,three ,,varieties ,,of ,,heracleotic ,,origanum3 ,,thirty ,,remedies4 ,heraclium1#afad again1 comprehends three varieties2 the first1#afae which is the darkest1 has broader leaves than the others1 and is of a glutinous nature2 the second1#afaf which has leaves of a more slender form1 and not unlike sampsuchum#afag in appearance1 is by some persons called 8prasion10 in preference3 the third#afah is of an intermediate nature between the other two1 but is less efficacious for medicinal purposes than either4 ,but the best kind of all is that of ,crete1 for it has a particularly agreeable smell2 the next best being that of ,smyrna1 which has even a more powerful odour than the last4 ,the ,heracleotic origanum1 however1 known by the name of 8onitis10 is the one that is the most esteemed for taking in drink4 ,origanum1 in general1 is employed for repelling serpents2 and it is given boiled to persons suffering from wounds4 ,taken in drink1 it is diuretic2 and mixed with root of panax1 it is given for the cure of ruptures and convulsions4 ,in combination with figs or hyssop1 it is prescribed for dropsical patients in doses of one acetabulum1 being reduced by boiling to one sixth4 ,it is good also for the itch1#afai prurigo1 and leprosy1 taken just before the bath4 ,the juice of it is injected into the ears with milk2 it being a cure1 also1 for affections of the tonsils and the uvula1 and for ulcers of the head4 ,a decoction of it1 taken with the ashes in wine1 neutralizes poison by opium or gypsum4#afbj ,taken in doses of one acetabulum1 it relaxes the bowels4 ,it is applied as a liniment for bruises and for tooth-ache2 and mixed with honey and nitre1 it imparts whiteness to the teeth4 ,it has the effect1 also1 of stopping bleeding at the nose4 ,a decoction of this plant1 with barley-meal1 is employed for imposthumes of the parotid glands2 and1 beaten up with nut-galls and honey1 it is used for roughness of the trachea3 the leaves of it1 with honey and salt1 are good1 too1 for the spleen4 ,boiled with vinegar and salt1 and taken in small doses1 it attenuates the phlegm1 when very thick and black2 and beaten up with oil1 it is injected into the nostrils for jaundice4 ,when persons are affected with lassitude1 the body is well rubbed with it1 care being taken not to touch the abdomen4 ,used with pitch1 it is a cure for epinyctis1 and1 applied with a roasted fig1 it brings boils to a head4 ,employed with oil and vinegar1 and barley-meal1 it is good for scrofulous swellings2 and applied topically in a fig1 it is a cure for pains in the sides4 ,beaten up1 and applied with vinegar1 it is employed as a liniment for bloody fluxes of the generative organs1 and it accelerates the lochial discharge after child-birth4 ,,chap4 #gj4--;,,dittander3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,dittander#afba is generally considered to rank among the caustic plants4 ,it is owing to this property that it clears the skin of the face1 not1 however1 without excoriating it2 though1 at the same time1 the excoriations are easily healed by employing wax and rose oil4 ,it is owing to this property1 too1 that it always removes1 without difficulty1 leprous sores and itch-scabs1 as well as the scars left by ulcers4 ,it is said1 that in cases of tooth-ache1 if this plant is attached to the arm on the suffering side1 it will have the effect of drawing the pain to it4 ,,chap4 #ga4--;,,gith1 ,,or ,,melanthion3 ,,twenty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,gith#afbb is by some ,greek writers called 8melanthion10#afbc and by others 8melaspermon40#afbd ,that is looked upon as the best which has the most pungent odour and is the darkest in appearance4 ,it is employed as a remedy for wounds made by serpents and scorpions3 ,i find that for this purpose it is applied topically with vinegar and honey1 and that by burning it serpents are kept at a distance4#afbe ,it is taken1 also1 in doses of one drachma for the bites of spiders4 ,beaten up1 and smelt at in a piece of linen cloth1 it is a cure for running at the nostrils2 and1 applied as a liniment with vinegar and injected into the nostrils1 it dispels head-ache4 ,with oil of iris it is good for defluxions and tumours of the eyes1 and a decoction of it with vinegar is a cure for tooth-ache4 ,beaten up and applied topically1 or else chewed1 it is used for ulcers of the mouth1 and combined with vinegar1 it is good for leprous sores and freckles on the skin4 ,taken in drink1 with the addition of nitre1 it is good for hardness of breathing1 and1 employed as a liniment1 for indurations1 tumours of long standing1 and suppurations4 ,taken several days in succession1 it augments the milk in women who are nursing4 ,the juice of this plant is collected#afbf in the same manner as that of henbane2 and1 like it1 if taken in too large doses1 it acts as a poison1 a surprising fact1 seeing that the seed is held in esteem as a most agreeable seasoning for bread4#afbg ,the seed cleanses the eyes also1 acts as a diuretic1 and promotes the menstrual discharge2 and not only this1 but ,i find it stated also1 that if thirty grains only are attached to the body1 in a linen cloth1 it will have the effect of accelerating the after-birth4 ,it is stated1 also1 that beaten up in urine1 it is a cure for corns on the feet2 and that when burnt it kills gnats and flies with the smell4 ,,chap4 #gb4--;,,anise3 ,,sixty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,anise1#afbh too1 one of the comparatively small number of plants that have been commended by ,pythagoras1 is taken in wine1 either raw or boiled1 for the stings of scorpions4 ,both green and dried1 it is held in high repute1 as an ingredient in all seasonings and sauces1 and we find it placed beneath the under-crust of bread4#afbi ,put with bitter-almonds into the cloth strainers#afcj for filtering wine1 it imparts an agreeable flavour to the wine3 it has the effect1 also1 of sweetening the breath1 and removing all bad odours from the mouth1 if chewed in the morning with smyrnion#afca and a little honey1 the mouth being then rinsed with wine4 ,this plant imparts a youthful look#afcb to the features2 and if suspended to the pillow1 so as to be smelt by a person when asleep1 it will prevent all disagreeable dreams4 ,it has the effect of promoting the appetite1 also--for this1 too1 has been made by luxury one of the objects of art1 ever since labour has ceased to stimulate it4 ,it is for these various reasons that it has received the name of 8anicetum10#afcc given to it by some4 ,,chap4 #gc4--,,where ,,the ,,best ,,anise ,,is ,,found3 ,,various ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,this ,,plant4 ,the most esteemed anise is that of ,crete1 and1 next to it1 that of ,egypt4 ,this plant is employed in seasonings to supply the place of lovage2 and the perfume of it1 when burnt and inhaled1 alleviates headache4 ,evenor prescribes an application of the root1 pounded1 for defluxions of the eyes2 and ,iollas employs it in a similar manner1 in combination with saffron and wine1 or else beaten up by itself and mixed with polenta1 for violent defluxions and the extraction of such objects as have got into the eyes3 applied1 too1 as a liniment in water1 it arrests cancer of the nose4 ,mixed with hyssop and oxymel1 and employed as a gargle1 it is a cure for quinsy2 and1 in combination with rose oil1 it is used as an injection for the ears4 ,parched anise purges off phlegm from the chest1 and1 if taken with honey1 it is better still4 ,for a cough1 beat up fifty bitter almonds1 shelled1 in honey1 with one acetabulum of anise4 ,another very easy remedy1 too1 is to mix three drachm of anise with two of poppies and some honey1 a piece the size of a bean being taken three times a-day4 ,its main excellence1 however1 is as a carminative2 hence it is that it is so good for flatulency of the stomach1 griping pains of the intestines1 and cliac affections4 ,a decoction of it1 smelt at and drunk1 arrests hiccup1 and a decoction of the leaves removes indigestion4 ,a decoction of it with parsley1 if applied to the nostrils1 will arrest sneezing4 ,taken in drink1 anise promotes sleep1 disperses calculi of the bladder1 arrests vomiting and swelling of the viscera1 and acts as an excellent pectoral for affections of the chest1 and of the diaphragm1 where the body is tightly laced4 ,it is beneficial1 also1 to pour a decoction of it1 in oil1 upon the head for head-ache4 ,it is generally thought that there is nothing in existence more beneficial to the abdomen and intestines than anise2 for which reason it is given1 parched1 for dysentery and tenesmus4 ,some persons add opium to these ingredients1 and prescribe three pills a-day1 the size of a bean1 with one cyathus of wine4 ,dieuches has employed the juice of this plant for lumbago1 and prescribes the seed of it1 pounded with mint1 for dropsy and cliac affections3 ,evenor recommends the root1 also1 for affections of the kidneys4 ,dalion1 the herbalist1 employed it1 with parsley1 as a cataplasm for women in labour1 as also for pains of the uterus2 and1 for women in labour1 he prescribes a decoction of anise and dill to be taken in drink4 ,it is used as a liniment also in cases of phrenitis1 or else applied fresh gathered and mixed with polenta2 in which form it is used also for infants attacked with epilepsy#afcd or convulsions4 ,pythagoras1 indeed1 assures us that persons1 so long as they hold this plant in the hand1 will never be attacked with epilepsy1 for which reason1 as much of it as possible should be planted near the house2 he says1 too1 that women who inhale the odour of it have a more easy delivery1 it being his advice also1 that1 immediately after they are delivered1 it should be given them to drink1 with a sprinkling of polenta4 ,sosimenes employed this plant1 in combination with vinegar1 for all kinds of indurations1 and for lassitude he prescribes a decoction of it in oil1 with the addition of nitre4 ,the same writer pledges his word to all wayfarers1 that1 if they take aniseed in their drink1 they will be comparatively exempt from fatigue#afce on their journey4 ,heraclides prescribes a pinch of aniseed with three fingers1 for inflations of the stomach1 to be taken with two oboli of castoreum#afcf in honied wine2 and he recommends a similar preparation for inflations of the abdomen and intestines4 ,in cases of orthopna1 he recommends a pinch of aniseed with three fingers1 and the same quantity of henbane1 to be mixed in asses'-milk4 ,it is the advice of many to those who are liable to vomit1#afcg to take1 at dinner1 one acetabulum of aniseed and ten laurel-leaves1 the whole to be beaten up and drunk in water4 ,anise1 chewed and applied warm1 or else taken with castoreum in oxymel1 allays suffocations of the uterus4 ,it also dispels vertigo after child-birth1 taken with a pinch of cucumber seed in three fingers and the same quantity of linseed1 in three cyathi of white wine4 ,tlepolemus has employed a pinch of aniseed and fennel in three fingers1 mixed with vinegar and one cyathus of honey1 for the cure of quartan fever4 ,applied topically with bitter almonds1 aniseed is beneficial for maladies of the joints4 ,there are some persons who look upon it as1 by nature1 an antidote to the venom of the asp4 ,it is a diuretic1 assuages thirst1 and acts as an aphrodisiac4 ,taken in wine1 it promotes a gentle perspiration1 and it has the property of protecting cloth from the ravages of moths4 ,the more recently it has been gathered1 and the darker its colour1 the greater are its virtues3 still1 however1 it is injurious to the stomach1 except when suffering from flatulency4 ,,chap4 #gd4 7#ah47--;,,dill3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,dill#afch acts also as a carminative1 allays gripings of the stomach1 and arrests looseness of the bowels4 ,the roots of this plant are applied topically in water1 or else in wine1 for defluxions of the eyes4 ,the seed of it1 if smelt at while boiling1 will arrest hiccup2 and1 taken in water1 it dispels indigestion4 ,the ashes of it are a remedy for swellings of the uvula2 but the plant itself weakens the eyesight and the generative powers4 ,,chap #ge4--,,sacopenium1 ,,or ,,sagapenon3 ,,thirteen ,,remedies4 ,the sacopenium which grows in ,italy is totally different from that which comes from beyond sea4 ,this last1 in fact1 is similar to gum ammoniac1 and is known as 8sagapenon40#afci #afdj,sacopenium is good for pains of the sides and chest1 for convulsions1 coughs of long standing1 expectorations1 and swellings of the thoracic organs3 it is a cure also for vertigo1 palsy1 opisthotony1 affections of the spleen and loins1 and for shivering fits4 ,for suffocations of the uterus1 this plant is given in vinegar to smell at2 in addition to which1 it is sometimes administered in drink1 or employed as a friction with oil4 ,it is a good antidote1 also1 for medicaments of a noxious nature4 ,,chap4 #gf4--,,the ,,white ,,poppy3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,black ,,poppy3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,sleep4 ,,opium4 ,,remarks ,,in ,,disfavour ,,of ,,the ,,potions ,,known ,,as 8,,anodynes1 ,,febrifuges1 ,,digestives1 ,,and ,c,,liacs40 ,,in ,,what ,,way ,,the ,,juices ,,of ,,these ,,plants ,,are ,,to ,,be ,,collected4 ,we have already#afda stated that there are three varieties of the cultivated poppy1 and1 on the same occasion1 we promised to describe the wild kinds4 ,with reference to the cultivated varieties1 the calyx#afdb of the white#afdc poppy is pounded1 and is taken in wine as a soporific2 the seed of it is a cure1 also1 for elephantiasis4 ,the black#afdd poppy acts as a soporific1 by the juice which exudes from incisions#afde made in the stalk--at the time when the plant is beginning to flower1 ,diagoras says2 but when the blossom has gone off1 according to ,iollas4 ,this is done at the third#afdf hour1 in a clear1 still1 day1 or1 in other words1 when the dew has thoroughly dried upon the poppy4 ,it is recommended to make the incision just beneath the head and calyx of the plant2 this being the only kind1 in fact1 into the head of which the incision is made4 ,this juice1 like that of any other plant1 is received in wool2#afdg or else1 if it is in very minute quantities1 it is scraped off with the thumb nail just as it is from the lettuce1 and so again on the following day1 with the portion that has since dried there4 ,if obtained from the poppy in sufficiently large quantities1 this juice thickens1 after which it is kneaded out into lozenges1 and dried in the shade4 ,this juice is possessed not only of certain soporific qualities1 but1 if taken in too large quantities1 is productive of sleep unto death even3 the name given to it is 8opium40#afdh ,it was in this way1 we learn1 that the father of ,p4 ,licinius ,ccina1 a man of ,prtorian rank1 put an end to his life at ,bavilum#afdi in ,spain1 an incurable malady having rendered existence quite intolerable to him4 ,many other persons1 too1 have ended their lives in a similar way4 ,it is for this reason that opium has been so strongly exclaimed against by ,diagoras and ,erasistratus2 for they have altogether condemned it as a deadly poison1 forbidding it to be used for infusions even1 as being injurious to the sight4 ,andreas says1 in addition to this1 that the only reason why it does not cause instantaneous blindness1 is the fact that they adulterate it at ,alexandria4 ,in later times1 however1 the use of it has not been disapproved of--witness the celebrated preparation known as 8diacodion40#afej ,lozenges are also made of ground poppy-seed1 which are taken in milk as a soporific4#afea ,the seed is employed1 too1 with rose-oil for head-ache2 and1 in combination with that oil1 is injected into the ears for ear-ache4 ,mixed with woman's milk1 this seed is used as a liniment for gout3 the leaves1 too1 are employed in a similar manner4 ,taken in vinegar1 the seed is prescribed as a cure for erysipelas and wounds4 ,for my own part1 however1 ,i do not approve of opium entering into the composition of eye-salves1#afeb and still less of the preparations from it known as febrifuges1#afec digestives1 and cliacs3 the black poppy1 however1 is very generally prescribed1 in wine1 for cliac affections4 ,all the cultivated#afed poppies are larger than the others1 and the form of the head is round4 ,in the wild poppy the head is elongated and small1 but it is possessed of more active#afee properties than the others in every respect4 ,this head is often boiled1 and the decoction of it taken to promote sleep1 the face being fomented also with the water4 ,the best poppies are grown in dry localities1 and where it seldom rains4 ,when the heads and leaves of the poppy are boiled together1 the name given to the decoction is 8meconium20#afef it is much less powerful1 however1 in its effects than opium4 ,the principal test#afeg of the purity of opium is the smell1 which1 when genuine1 is so penetrating as to be quite insupportable4 ,the next best test is that obtained by lighting it at a lamp2 upon which it ought to burn with a clear1 brilliant flame1 and to give out a strong odour when extinguished2 a thing that never happens when opium has been drugged1 for1 in such case1 it lights with the greatest difficulty1 and the flame repeatedly goes out4 ,there is another way of testing its genuineness1 by water2 for1 if it is pure1 it will float like a thin cloud upon the surface1 but1 if adulterated1 it will unite in the form of blisters on the water4 ,but the most surprising thing of all is the fact1 that the sun's heat in summer furnishes a test2 for1 if the drug is pure1 it will sweat and gradually melt1 till it has all the appearance of the juice when fresh gathered4 ,mnesides is of opinion that the best way of preserving opium is to mix henbane seed with it2 others1 again1 recommend that it should be kept with beans4 ,,chap4 #gg4 7#ai47--,,the ,,poppy ,,called ,,rh,,as3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,the poppy which we have#afeh spoken of under the names of 8rhas0 and the 8erratic0 poppy1 forms an intermediate variety between the cultivated and the wild poppy2 for it grows in the fields1 it is true1 but it is self-set nevertheless4 ,some persons eat#afei it1 calyx and all1 immediately after it is gathered4 ,this plant is an extremely powerful purgative3 five heads of it1 boiled in three semi-sextarii of wine1 and taken in drink1 have the effect of producing sleep4 ,,chap4 #gh4--,,the ,,wild ,,poppy ,,called ,,ceratitis1 ,,glaucium1 ,,or ,,paralium3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,there is one variety of wild poppy known as 8ceratitis40#affj ,it is of a black colour1 a cubit in height1 and has a thick root covered with bark1 with a head resembling a small bud1 bent and pointed at the end like a horn4 ,the leaves of this plant are smaller and thinner than those of the other wild poppies1 and the seed1 which is very diminutive1 is ripe at harvest4 ,taken with honied wine1 in doses of half an acetabulum1 the seed acts as a purgative4 ,the leaves1 beaten up in oil1 are a cure for the white#affa specks which form on the eyes of beasts of burden4 ,the root1 boiled down to one half1 in doses of one acetabulum to two sextarii of water1 is prescribed for maladies of the loins and liver1 and the leaves1 employed with honey1 are a cure for carbuncles4 ,some persons give this kind of poppy the name of 8glaucion10 and others of 8paralium10#affb for it grows1 in fact1 in spots exposed to exhalations from the sea1 or else in soils of a nitrous nature4 ,,chap4 #gi4--,,the ,,wild ,,poppy ,,called ,,heraclium1 ,,or ,,aphron3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,,diacodion4 ,there is another kind#affc of wild poppy1 known as 8heraclion0 by some persons1 and as 8aphron0 by others4 ,the leaves of it1 when seen from a distance1 have all the appearance of sparrows2#affd the root lies on the surface of the ground1 and the seed has exactly the colour of foam4#affe ,this plant is used for the purpose of bleaching linen#afff cloths in summer4 ,it is bruised in a mortar for epilepsy1 being given in white wine1 in doses of one acetabulum1 and acting as an emetic4 ,this plant is extremely useful1 also1 for the composition of the medicament known as 8diacodion10#affg and 8arteriace40 ,this preparation is made with one hundred and twenty heads#affh of this or any other kind of wild poppy1 steeped for two days in three sextarii of rain water1 after which they are boiled in it4 ,you must then dry the heads2 which done1 boil them down with honey to one half1 at a slow heat4 ,more recently1 there have been added to the mixture1 six drachm of saffron1 hypocisthis1#affi frankincense1 and gum acacia1 with one sextarius of raisin wine of ,crete4 ,all this1 however1 is only so much ostentation2 for the virtue of this simple and ancient preparation depends solely upon the poppy and the honey4 ,,chap4 #hj4--,,the ,,poppy ,,called ,,tithymalon1 ,,or ,,paralion3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,there is a third kind1 again1 called 8tithymalon20#afgj some persons give it the name of 8mecon10 others of 8paralion40 ,it has a white leaf1 resembling that of flax1 and a head the size of a bean4 ,it is gathered when the vine is in blossom1 and dried in the shade4 ,the seed1 taken in drink1 purges the bowels1 the dose being half an acetabulum1 in honied wine4 ,the head of every species of poppy1 whether green or dry1 used as a fomentation1 assuages defluxions#afga of the eyes4 ,opium1 if taken in pure wine immediately after the sting of a scorpion1 prevents any dangerous results4 ,some persons1 however1 attribute this virtue to the black poppy only1 the head or leaves being beaten up for the purpose4 ,,chap4 #ha4 7#bj47--,,porcillaca ,,or ,,purslain1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,peplis3 ,,twenty-,,five ,,remedies4 ,there is a wild purslain1#afgb too1 called 8peplis10 not much superior in its virtues to the cultivated#afgc kind1 of which such remarkable properties are mentioned4 ,it neutralizes the effects1 it is said1 of poisoned arrows1 and the venom of the serpents known as hmorrhois and prester2#afgd taken with the food and applied to the wound1 it extracts the poison4 ,the juice1 too1 they say1 taken in raisin wine1 is an antidote for henbane4 ,when the plant itself cannot be procured1 the seed of it is found to be equally efficacious4 ,it is a corrective1 also1 of impurities in water2 and beaten up in wine and applied topically1 it is a cure for head-ache and ulcers of the head4 ,chewed in combination with honey1 it is curative of other kinds of sores4 ,it is similarly applied to the region of the brain in infants1 and in cases of umbilical hernia2 as also for defluxions of the eyes1 in persons of all ages1 being applied to the forehead and temples with polenta4 ,if employed as a liniment for the eyes1 milk and honey are added1 and when used for proptosis#afge of the eyes1 the leaves are beaten up with bean-shells4 ,in combination with1 polenta1 salt1 and vinegar1 it is employed as a fomentation for blisters4 ,chewed raw1 purslain reduces ulcerations of the mouth and gum-boils1 and cures tooth-ache2 a decoction of it is good1 too1 for ulcers of the tonsils4 ,some persons have added a little myrrh to it1 when so employed4 ,chewed1 it strengthens such teeth as may happen to be loose1 dispels crudities1 imparts additional strength to the voice1 and allays thirst4 ,used with nut-galls1 linseed1 and honey1 in equal proportions1 it assuages pains in the neck2 and1 combined with honey or ,cimolian#afgf chalk1 it is good for diseases of the mamill4 ,the seed of it1 taken with honey1 is beneficial for asthma4 ,eaten in salads1#afgg this plant is very strengthening to the stomach4 ,in burning fevers1 applications of it are made with polenta2 in addition to which1 if chewed1 it will cool and refresh the intestines4 ,it arrests vomiting1 also1 and for dysentery and abscesses1 it is eaten with vinegar1 or else taken with cummin in drink3 boiled1 it is good for tenesmus4 ,taken either in the food or drink1 it is good for epilepsy2 and1 taken in doses of one acetabulum in boiled wine1#afgh it promotes the menstrual discharge4 ,employed1 also1 as a liniment with salt1 it is used as a remedy for fits of hot gout and erysipelas4 ,the juice of this plant1 taken in drink1 strengthens the kidneys and bladder1 and expels intestinal worms4 ,in conjunction with oil1 it is applied1 with polenta1 to assuage the pain of wounds1 and it softens indurations of the sinews4 ,metrodorus1 who wrote an ,abridgment of ,botany1#afgi says that it should be given after delivery1 to accelerate the lochial discharge4 ,it is also an antaphrodisiac1 and prevents the recurrence of lascivious dreams4 ,one of the principal personages of ,spain1 whose son has been ,prtor1 is in the habit of carrying the root of it1 to my knowledge1 suspended by a string from his neck1 except when he is taking the bath1 for an incurable affection of the uvula2 a precaution by which he has been spared all inconvenience4 ,i have found it stated1 too1 in some authors1 that if the head is rubbed with a liniment of this plant1 there will be no defluxions perceptible the whole year through4 ,it is generally thought1 however1 that purslain weakens the sight4 ,,chap4 #hb4--;,,coriander3 ,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,there is no wild coriander#afhj to be found2 the best1 it is generally agreed1 is that of ,egypt4 ,taken in drink and applied to the wound1 it is a remedy for the sting#afha of one kind of serpent1 known as the amphisbna3#afhb pounded1 it is healing also for other wounds1 as well as for epinyctis and blisters4 ,employed in the same state with honey or raisins1 it disperses all tumours and gatherings1 and1 beaten up in vinegar1 it removes abscesses of an inflammatory nature4 ,some persons recommend three grains of it to be taken for tertian fevers1 just before the fit comes on1 or else in larger quantities1 to be bruised and applied to the forehead4 ,there are others1 again1 who think that it is attended with excellent results1 to put coriander under the pillow before sunrise4 ,while green1 it is possessed of very cooling and refreshing properties4 ,combined with honey or raisins1 it is an excellent remedy for spreading ulcers1 as also for diseases of the testes1 burns1 carbuncles1 and maladies of the ears4 ,applied with woman's milk1 it is good for defluxions of the eyes2 and for fluxes of the belly and intestines1 the seed is taken with water in drink2 it is also taken in drink for cholera1 with rue4 ,coriander seed1 used as a potion with pomegranate juice and oil1 expels worms in the intestines4 ,xenocrates states a very marvellous fact1 if true2 he says1 that if a woman takes one grain of this seed1 the menstrual discharge will be retarded one day1 if two grains1 two days1 and so on1 according to the number of grains taken4 ,marcus ,varro is of opinion1 that if coriander is lightly pounded1 and sprinkled over it with cummin and vinegar1 all kinds of meat may be kept in summer without spoiling4 ,,chap4 #hc4--,,orage3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,orage1#afhc again1 is found both wild and cultivated4 ,pythagoras has accused this plant of producing dropsy1 jaundice1 and paleness of the complexion1 and he says that it is extremely difficult of digestion4 ,he asserts1 also1 to its disparagement1 that every thing that grows near it in the garden is sure to be drooping and languid4 ,diocles and ,dionysius have added a statement1 that it gives birth to numerous diseases1 and that it should never be boiled without changing the water repeatedly2 they say1 too1 that it is prejudicial to the stomach1 and that it is productive of freckles and pimples on the skin4 ,i am at a loss to imagine why ,solo of ,smyrna has stated that this plant is cultivated in ,italy with the greatest difficulty4 ,hippocrates#afhd prescribes it with beet1 as a pessary for affections of the uterus2 and ,lycus of ,neapolis recommends it to be taken in drink1 in cases of poisoning by cantharides4 ,he is of opinion1 also1 that either raw or boiled1 it may be advantageously employed as a liniment for inflammatory swellings1 incipient boils1 and all kinds of indurations2 and that1 mixed with oxymel and nitre1 it is good for erysipelas and gout4 ,this plant1 it is said1 will bring away mal-formed nails1 without producing sores4 ,there are some persons who give orage-seed with honey for jaundice1 and rub the throat and tonsils with it1 nitre being added as well4 ,they employ it1 also1 to purge the bowels1 and use the seed1 boiled1 as an emetic1#afhe either taken by itself1 or in conjunction with mallows or lentils4 ,wild orage is used for dyeing the hair1 as well as the other purposes above enumerated4 ,,chap4 #hd4 7#ba47--,,the ,,mallow ,,called ,,malope3 ,,thirteen ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,mallow ,,called ,,malache3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,the ,,mallow ,,called ,,alth,a1 ,,or ,,plistolochia3 ,,fifty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,both kinds of mallows1#afhf on the other hand1 the cultivated and the wild1 are held in very general esteem4 ,these kinds are subdivided1 each of them1 into two varieties1 according to the size of the leaf4 ,the cultivated mallow with large leaves is known to the ,greeks by the name of 8malope10#afhg the other being called 8malache10#afhh--;from the circumstance1 it is generally thought1 that it relaxes#afhi the bowels4 ,the wild#afij mallow1 again1 with large leaves and white roots1 is called 8altha10 and by some persons1 on account of its salutary properties1 8plistolochia40#afia ,every soil in which mallows are sown1 is rendered all the richer thereby4 ,this plant is possessed of remarkable virtues1#afib as a cure for all kinds of stings1#afic those of scorpions1 wasps1 and similar insects1 as well as the bite of the shrew-mouse1 more particularly2 nay1 what is even more than this1 if a person has been rubbed with oil in which any one of the mallows has been beaten up1 or even if he carries them on his person1 he will never be stung4 ,a leaf of mallow put upon a scorpion1 will strike it with torpor4 ,the mallow is an antidote1 also1 against the poisonous effects of white#afid lead2 and applied raw with saltpetre1 it extracts all kinds of pointed bodies from the flesh4 ,a decoction of it with the root1 taken in drink1 neutralizes the poison of the sea-hare1#afie provided1 as some say1 it is brought off the stomach by vomiting4 ,other marvels are also related in connection with the mallow1 but the most surprising thing of all is1 that if a person takes half a cyathus of the juice of any one of them daily1 he will be exempt from all diseases4#afif ,left to putrefy in wine1 mallows are remedial for running sores of the head1 and1 mixed with honey1 for lichens and ulcerations of the mouth2 a decoction of the root1 too1 is a remedy for dandriff#afig of the head and looseness of the teeth4 ,with the root of the mallow which has a single stem1#afih it is a good plan to prick the parts about a tooth when it aches1 until the pain has ceased4 ,with the addition of human saliva1 the mallow cleanses scrofulous sores1 imposthumes of the parotid glands1 and inflammatory tumours1 without producing a wound4 ,the seed of it1 taken in red wine1 disperses phlegm and relieves nausea2 and the root1 attached to the person with black wool1 is a remedy for affections of the mamill4 ,boiled in milk1 and taken as a pottage1 it cures a cough within five days4 ,sextius ,niger says that mallows are prejudicial to the stomach1 and ,olympias1 the ,theban authoress1 asserts that1 employed with goose-grease1 they are productive of abortion4 ,some persons are of opinion1 that a good handful of the leaves1 taken in oil and wine1 promotes the menstrual discharge4 ,at all events1 it is a well-known fact1 that if the leaves are strewed beneath a woman in labour1 the delivery will be accelerated2 but they must be taken away immediately after the birth1 or prolapsus of the uterus will be the consequence4 ,mallow-juice1 also1 is given to women in labour1 a decoction of it being taken fasting in wine1 in doses of one hemina4 ,mallow seed is attached to the arms of patients suffering from spermatorrha2 and1 so naturally adapted is this plant for the promotion of lustfulness1 that the seed of the kind with a single stem1 sprinkled upon the genitals1 will increase the sexual desire in males to an infinite degree1 according to ,xenocrates2 who says1 too1 that if three roots are attached to the person1 in the vicinity of those parts1 they will be productive of a similar result4 ,the same writer informs us also1 that injections of mallows are good for tenesmus and dysentery1 and for maladies of the rectum even1 if used as a fomentation only4 ,the juice is given warm to patients afflicted with melancholy1 in doses of three cyathi1 and to insane persons#afii in doses of four4 ,one hemina of the decoction is prescribed1 also1 for epilepsy4#agjj ,a warm decoction of the juice is employed1 too1 as a fomentation for calculus1 flatulency1 gripings of the stomach1 and opisthotony4 ,the leaves are boiled1 and applied with oil1 as a poultice for erysipelas and burns1 and raw1 with bread1 to arrest inflammation in wounds4 ,a decoction of mallows is beneficial for affections of the sinews and bladder1 and for gnawing pains of the intestines2 taken1 too1 as an aliment1 or an injection1 they are relaxing to the uterus1 and the decoction1 taken with oil1 facilitates the passage of the urine4#agja ,the root of the altha#agjb is even more efficacious for all the purposes above enumerated1 and for convulsions and ruptures more particularly4 ,boiled in water1 it arrests looseness of the bowels2 and taken in white wine1 it is a cure for scrofulous sores1 imposthumes of the parotid glands1 and inflammations of the mamill4 ,a decoction of the leaves in wine1 applied as a liniment1 disperses inflammatory tumours2 and the leaves1 first dried1 and then boiled in milk1 are a speedy cure for a cough1 however inveterate4 ,hippocrates prescribes a decoction of the root to be drunk by persons wounded or thirsty from loss of blood1 and the plant itself as an application to wounds1 with honey and resin4 ,he also recommends it to be employed in a similar manner for contusions1 sprains1 and tumours of the muscles1 sinews1 and joints1 and prescribes it to be taken in wine for asthma and dysentery4 ,it is a singular thing1 that water in which this root has been put1 thickens when exposed in the open air1 and congeals#agjc like ice4 ,the more recently1 however1 it has been taken up1 the greater are the virtues of the root4#agjd ,,chap4 #he4--,,wild ,,lapathum ,,or ,,oxalis1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,lapathum ,,cantherinum1 ,,or ,,rumex3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,hydrolapathum3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,hippolapathum3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,,oxylapathum3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,lapathum1 too1 has pretty nearly the same properties4 ,there is a wild#agje variety1 known to some as 8oxalis10 very similar in taste to the cultivated kind1 with pointed leaves1 a colour like that of white beet1 and an extremely diminutive root3 our people call it 8rumex10#agjf while others1 again1 give it the name of 8lapathum cantherinum40#agjg ,mixed with axle-grease1 this plant is very efficacious for scrofulous sores4 ,there is another kind1 again1 hardly forming a distinct variety1 known as 8oxylapathon10#agjh which resembles the cultivated kind even more than the last1 though the leaves are more pointed and redder3 it grows only in marshy spots4 ,some authors are found who speak of a 8hydrolapathon10#agji which grows in the water1 they say4 ,there is also another variety1 known as 8hippolapathon10#agaj larger than the cultivated kind1 whiter1 and more compact4 ,the wild varieties of the lapathum are a cure#agaa for the stings of scorpions1 and protect those who carry the plant on their person from being stung4 ,a decoction of the root in vinegar1 employed as a gargle1 is beneficial to the#agab teeth1 and if drunk1 is a cure for jaundice4 ,the seed is curative of the most obstinate maladies of the stomach4#agac ,the root of hippolapathum1 in particular1 has the property of bringing off malformed nails2 and the seed1 taken in wine1 in doses of two drachm1 is a cure for dysentery4 ,the seed of oxylapathum1 washed in rain-water1 with the addition of a piece of gum acacia1 about the size of a lentil1 is good for patients troubled with spitting of blood4#agad ,most excellent lozenges are made of the leaves and root of this plant1 with the addition of nitre and a little incense4 ,when wanted for use1 they are first steeped in vinegar4 ,,chap4 #hf4--;,,cultivated ,,lapathum3 ,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,,bulapathum3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,as to garden lapathum1#agae it is good in liniments on the forehead for defluxions of the eyes4 ,the root of it cures lichens and leprous sores1 and a decoction of it in wine is remedial for scrofulous swellings1 imposthumes of the parotid glands1 and calculus of the bladder4 ,taken in wine it is a cure for affections of the spleen1 and employed as a fomentation1 it is equally good for cliac affections1 dysentery1 and tenesmus4 ,for all these purposes1 the juice of lapathum is found to be even still more efficacious4 ,it acts as a carminative and diuretic1 and dispels films on the eyes3 put into the bath1 or else rubbed upon the body1 without oil1 before taking the bath1 it effectually removes all itching sensations4 ,the root of it1 chewed1 strengthens the teeth1 and a decoction of it in wine arrests#agaf looseness of the stomach3 the leaves1 on the other hand1 relax it4 ,not to omit any particulars1 ,solo has added to the above varieties a bulapathon1#agag which differs only from the others in the length of the root4 ,this root1 taken in wine1 is very beneficial for dysentery4 ,,chap4 #hg4 7#bb47--,,mustard1 ,,the ,,three ,,kinds ,,of ,,it3 ,,forty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,mustard1 of which we have mentioned#agah three different kinds1 when speaking of the garden herbs1 is ranked by ,pythagoras among the very first of those plants the pungency of which mounts upwards2 for there is none to be found more penetrating to the brain and nostrils4 ,pounded with vinegar1 mustard is employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 and it effectually neutralizes the poisonous properties of fungi4 ,to cure an immoderate secretion of phlegm it is kept in the mouth till it melts1 or else it is mixed with hydromel1 and employed as a gargle4 ,mustard is chewed for tooth-ache1 and is taken as a gargle with oxymel for affections of the uvula2 it is very beneficial1 also1 for all maladies of the stomach4 ,taken with the food1 it facilitates expectoration#agai from the lungs3 it is given1 too1 for asthma and epileptic fits1 in combination with cucumber seed4 ,it has the effect of quickening the senses1 and effectually clears the head by sneezing1 relaxes the stomach1 and promotes the menstrual discharge and the urinary secretions3 beaten up with figs and cummin1 in the proportion of one-third of each ingredient1 it is used as an external application for dropsy4 ,mixed with vinegar1 mustard resuscitates by its powerful odour persons who have swooned in fits of epilepsy or lethargy1 as well as females suffering from hysterical suffocations4 ,for the cure of lethargy tordylon is added--that being the name given to the seed of hartwort#agbj--;and if the lethargic sleep should happen to be very profound1 an application of it1 with figs and vinegar1 is made to the legs1 or to the head#agba even4 ,used as an external application1 mustard is a cure for inveterate pains of the chest1 loins1 hips1 shoulders1 and1 in general1 for all deep-seated pains in any part of the body1 raising blisters#agbb by its caustic properties4 ,in cases of extreme indurations of the skin1 the mustard is applied1 to the part without figs2 and a cloth is employed doubled1 where it is apprehended that it may burn too powerfully4 ,it is used also1 combined with red-earth1#agbc for alopecy1 itch-scabs1 leprosy1 phthiriasis1 tetanus1 and opisthotony4 ,they employ it also as a liniment with honey for styes#agbd on the eyelids and films on the eyes4 ,the juices of mustard are extracted in three different ways1 in earthen vessels in which it is left to dry gradually in the sun4 ,from the thin stem of the plant there exudes also a milky juice1#agbe which when thus hardened is remedial for tooth-ache4 ,the seed and root1 after they have been left to steep in must1 are beaten up together in a mortar2 and a good handful of the mixture is taken to strengthen#agbf the throat1 stomach1 eyes1 head1 and all the senses4 ,this mixture is extremely good1 too1 for fits of lassitude in females1 being one of the most wholesome medicines in existence4 ,taken in vinegar1 mustard disperses calculi in the bladder2 and1 in combination with honey and goose-grease1 or else ,cyprian wax1 it is employed as a liniment for livid spots and bruises4 ,from the seed1 first steeped in olive-oil1 and then subjected to pressure1 an oil is extracted1 which is employed for rigidity of the sinews1 and chills and numbness in the loins and hips4 ,,chap4 #hh4--;,,adarca3 ,,forty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,it is said that adarca1 of which we have already made mention#agbg when speaking of the forest-trees1 has a similar nature#agbh to that of mustard1 and is productive of the same effects3 it grows upon the outer coat of reeds1 below the head4 ,,chap4 #hi4--,,marrubium ,,or ,,prasion1 ,,otherwise ,,linostrophon1 ,,philopais1 ,,or ,,philochares3 ,,twenty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,most medical writers have spoken in high terms of marrubium1 or horehound1 as a plant of the very greatest utility4 ,among the ,greeks1 it is called 8prasion0#agbi by some1 by others 8linostrophon10#agcj and by others1 again1 8philopais0#agca or 8philochares30#agcb it is a plant too well known to require any description4#agcc ,the leaves#agcd and seed beaten up1 together1 are good for the stings of serpents1 pains of the chest and side1 and inveterate coughs4 ,the branches1 too1 boiled in water with panic1#agce so as to modify its acridity1 are remarkably useful for persons troubled with spitting#agcf of blood4 ,horehound is applied also1 with grease1 to scrofulous swellings4 ,some persons recommend for a cough1 a pinch of the fresh seed with two fingers1 boiled with a handful of spelt#agcg and a little oil and salt1 the mixture to be taken fasting4 ,others1 again1 regard as quite incomparable for a similar purpose an extract of the juices of horehound and fennel4 ,taking three sextarii of the extract1 they boil it down to two1 and then add one sextarius of honey2 after which they again boil it down to two1 and administer one spoonful of the preparation daily1 in one cyathus of water4 ,beaten up with honey1 horehound is particularly beneficial for affections of the male organs2 employed with vinegar1 it cleanses lichens1 and is very salutary for ruptures1 convulsions1 spasms1 and contractions of the sinews4 ,taken in drink with salt and vinegar1 it relaxes the bowels1 promotes the menstrual discharge1 and accelerates the after-birth4 ,dried1 powdered1 and taken with honey1 it is extremely efficacious for a dry cough1 as also for gangrenes and hang-nails4#agch ,the juice1 too1 taken with honey1 is good for the ears and nostrils3 it is a remedy also for jaundice1 and diminishes the bilious secretions4 ,among the few antidotes#agci for poisons1 it is one of the very best known4 ,the plant itself1 taken with iris and honey1 purges the stomach and promotes expectorations3 it acts1 also1 as a strong diuretic1 though1 at the same time1 care must be taken not to use it when the bladder is ulcerated and the kidneys are affected4 ,it is said1 too1 that the juice of horehound improves the eyesight4 ,castor speaks of two varieties of it1 the black horehound and the white1 which last he considers to be the best4 ,he puts the juice of it into an empty eggshell1 and then mixes the egg with it1 together with honey1 in equal proportions3 this preparation used warm1 he says1 will bring abscesses to a head1 and cleanse and heal them4 ,beaten up1 too1 with stale axle-grease and applied topically1 he says1 horehound is a cure for the bite of a dog4 ,,chap4 #ij4--,,wild ,,thyme3 ,,eighteen ,,remedies4 ,wild thyme1 it is said1 borrows its name1 8serpyllum10 from the fact that it is a creeping#agdj plant1 a property peculiar to the wild kind1 that which grows in rocky places more particularly4 ,the cultivated#agda thyme is not a creeping plant1 but grows upwards1 as much a palm in height4 ,that which springs up spontaneously1 grows the most luxuriantly1 its leaves and branches being whiter than those of the other kinds4 ,thyme is efficacious as a remedy for the stings of serpents1 the cenchris#agdb more particularly2 also for the sting of the scolopendra1 both sea and land1 the leaves and branches being boiled for the purpose in wine4 ,burnt1 it puts to flight all venomous creatures by its smell1 and it is particularly beneficial as an antidote to the venom of marine animals4 ,a decoction of it in vinegar is applied for head-ache1 with rose oil1 to the temples and forehead1 as also for phrenitis and lethargy3 it is given1 too1 in doses of four drachm1 for gripings of the stomach1 strangury1 quinsy1 and fits of vomiting4 ,it is taken in water1 also1 for liver complaints4 ,the leaves are given in doses of four oboli1 in vinegar1 for diseases of the spleen4 ,beaten up in two cyathi of oxymel1 it is used for spitting of blood4 ,,chap4 #ia4--,,sisymbrium ,,or ,,thymbr,,um3 ,,twenty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,wild#agdc sisymbrium1 by some persons called 8thymbrum10 does not grow beyond a foot in height4 ,the kind#agdd which grows in watery places1 is similar to nasturtium1 and they#agde are both of them efficacious for the stings of certain insects1 such as hornets and the like4 ,that which grows in dry localities is odoriferous1 and is employed#agdf for wreaths3 the leaf of it is narrower than in the other kind4 ,they both of them alleviate head-ache1 and defluxions of the eyes1 ,philinus says4 ,some persons1 however1 employ bread in addition2 while others1 again1 use a decoction of the plant by itself in wine4 ,it is a cure1 also1 for epinyctis1 and removes spots on the face in females1 by the end of four days2 for which purpose1 it is applied at night and taken off in the day-time4 ,it arrests vomiting1 hiccup1 gripings1 and fluxes of the stomach1 whether taken with the food1 or the juice extracted and given in drink4 ,this plant1 however1 should never be eaten by pregnant women1 except in cases where the ftus is dead1 for the very application of it is sufficient to produce abortion4 ,taken with wine1 it is diuretic1 and the wild variety expels calculi even4 ,for persons necessitated to sit up awake1 an infusion of it in vinegar is applied as a liniment to the head4 ,,chap4 #ib4--,,linseed3 ,,thirty ,,remedies4 ,linseed#agdg is not only used in combination with other substances1 but1 employed by itself1 it disperses spots on the face in women3 its juice1 too1 is very beneficial to the sight4 ,combined with incense and water1 or else with myrrh and wine1 it is a cure for defluxions of the eyes1 and employed with honey1 grease1 or wax1 for imposthumes of the parotid glands4 ,prepared#agdh like polenta1 it is good for fluxes of the stomach2 and a decoction of it in water and oil1 applied topically with anise1 is prescribed for quinsy4 ,it is sometimes used parched1 also1 to arrest looseness of the bowels1 and applications of it are used1 with vinegar1 for cliac affections and dysentery4 ,it is eaten with raisins1 also1 for pains in the liver1 and excellent electuaries are made of it for the treatment of phthisis4 ,linseed-meal1 with the addition of nitre1 salt1 or ashes1 softens rigidities of the muscles1 sinews1 joints1 and vertebr1 as well as of the membranous tissues of the brain4 ,employed with figs1 linseed-meal ripens abscesses and brings them to a head3 mixed with the root of wild cucumber1 it extracts#agdi all foreign bodies from the flesh1 as well as splinters of broken bones4 ,a decoction of linseed-meal in wine prevents ulcers from spreading1 and mixed with honey1 it is remedial for pituitous eruptions4 ,used with nasturtium1 in equal quantities1 it rectifies#agej malformed nails2 mixed with resin and myrrh1 it cures affections of the testes and hernia1#agea and with water1 gangrenous sores4 ,a decoction of linseed-meal with fenugreek1 in the proportion of one sextarius of each1 in hydromel1 is recommended for pains in the stomach2 and employed as an injection1 with oil or honey1 it is beneficial for dangerous affections of the chest and intestines4 ,,chap4 #ic4--;,,blite3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,blite#ageb seems to be a plant of an inert nature1 without flavour or any pungency whatever2 hence it is that1 in ,menander1 we find husbands giving this name to their wives1 by way of#agec reproach4 ,it is#aged prejudicial to the stomach1 and disturbs the bowels to such a degree1 as to cause cholera in some4 ,it is stated1 however1 that1 taken in wine1 it is good for the stings of scorpions2 and that it is sometimes used as a liniment for corns on the feet1 and1 with oil1 for affections of the spleen and pains in the temples4 ,hippocrates is of opinion1 that if taken with the food1#agee it will arrest the menstrual discharge4 ,,chap4 #id4 7#bc47--,,meum1 ,,and ,,meum ,,athamanticum3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,meum#agef is never cultivated in ,italy except by medical men1 and by very few of those4 ,there are two varieties of it1 the finer kind being known as 8athamanticum10 because1 according to some1 it was first discovered by ,athamas2 or else because1 as others think1 that of the best quality is found upon ,mount ,athamas4#ageg ,the leaf of it is similar to that of dill1 and the stem is sometimes as much as two cubits in length3 the roots1 which run obliquely1 are numerous and mostly black1 though sometimes white3 it is not of so red a hue as the other kind4 ,the root of this plant1 pounded or boiled1 and taken in water1 is diuretic1 and is marvellously efficacious for dispelling flatulency of the stomach4 ,it is good1 too1 for gripings of the bowels and affections of the bladder3 applied with honey to the region of the uterus1 it acts as a diuretic2 and used as a liniment with parsley1 upon the lower regions of the abdomen in infants1 it has a similar effect4 ,,chap4 #ie4--;,,fennel3 ,,twenty-,,two ,,remedies4 ,fennel has been rendered famous by the serpent1 which tastes it1 as already#ageh stated1 when it casts its old skin1 and sharpens its sight with the juice of this plant3 a fact which has led to the conclusion that this juice must be beneficial1 also1 in a high degree to the human sight4 ,fennel-juice is gathered when the stem is swelling with the bud2 after which it is dried in the sun and applied as an ointment with honey4 ,this plant is to be found in all parts of the world4 ,the most esteemed preparation from it1 is that made in ,iberia1 from the tear-like drops which exude#agei from the stalk and the seed fresh-gathered4 ,the juice is extracted1 also1 from incisions made in the root at the first germination of the plant4 ,,chap4 #if4--;,,hippomarathron1 ,,or ,,myrsineum3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,there is1 also1 a wild#agfj variety of fennel1 known by some persons as 8hippomarathron10 and by others as 8myrsineum20 it has a larger leaf and a more acrid taste than the other kind4 ,it is taller1 also1 about the thickness of a walking-stick1 and has a white root3 it grows in warm1 but stony localities4 ,diocles speaks1 too1 of another#agfa variety of hippomarathron1 with a long narrow leaf1 and a seed like that of coriander4 ,the seed of the cultivated fennel is medicinally employed in wine1 for the stings of scorpions and serpents1 and the juice of it1 injected into the ears1 has the effect of destroying small worms that breed there4 ,fennel is employed as an ingredient in nearly all our seasonings1#agfb vinegar#agfc sauces more particularly3 it is placed also beneath the undercrust of bread4 ,the seed1 in fevers even1 acts as an astringent upon a relaxed stomach1 and beaten up with water1 it allays nausea3 it is highly esteemed1 also1 for affections of the lungs and liver4 ,taken in moderate quantities1 it arrests looseness of the bowels1 and acts as a diuretic2 a decoction of it is good for gripings of the stomach1 and taken in drink1 it restores the milk4 ,the root1 taken in a ptisan1#agfd purges the kidneys--an effect which is equally produced by a decoction of the juice or of the seed2 the root is good too1 boiled in wine1 for dropsy and convulsions4 ,the leaves are applied to burning tumours1 with vinegar1 expel calculi of the bladder1 and act as an aphrodisiac4 ,in whatever way it is taken in drink1 fennel has the property of promoting the secretion of the seminal fluids2 and it is extremely beneficial to the generative organs1 whether a decoction of the root in wine is employed as a fomentation1 or whether it is used beaten up in oil4 ,many persons apply fennel with wax to tumours and bruises1 and employ the root1 with the juice of the plant1 or else with honey1 for the bites of dogs1 and with wine for the stings of multipedes4 ,hippomarathron is more efficacious1 in every respect1 than cultivated fennel2#agfe it expels calculi more particularly1 and1 taken with weak wine1 is good for the bladder and irregularities of the menstrual discharge4 ,in this plant1 the seed is more efficacious than the root2 the dose of either of them being a pinch with two fingers1 beaten up1 and mixed with the usual drink4 ,petrichus1 who wrote a work 8,on ,serpents10#agff and ,micton1 who wrote a treatise 8,on#agfg ,botany10 are of opinion that there is nothing in existence of greater efficacy against serpents than hippomarathron3 indeed1 ,nicander#agfh has ranked it by no means among the lowest of antidotes4 ,,chap4 #ig4--;,,hemp3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,hemp originally grew in the forests1#agfi where it is found with a blacker and rougher leaf than in the other#aggj kinds4 ,hempseed1#agga it is said1 renders men impotent3 the juice of this seed will extract worms from the ears1 or any insect which may have entered them1 though at the cost of producing head-ache4 ,the virtues of hemp1 it is said1 are so great1 that an infusion of it in water will cause it to coagulate3#aggb hence it is1 that if taken in water1 it will arrest looseness in beasts of burden4 ,a decoction of the root in water1 relaxes contractions of the joints1 and cures gout and similar maladies4 ,it is applied raw to burns1 but it must be frequently changed1 so as not to let it dry4 ,,chap4 #ih4--;,,fennel-,,giant3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,fennel-giant#aggc has a seed similar to that of dill4 ,that which has a single stem1 bifurcated#aggd at the top1 is generally thought to be the female plant4 ,the stalks of it are eaten boiled2#agge and1 pickled in brine and honey1 they are recommended as particularly beneficial to the stomach2#aggf if taken1 however1 in too large quantities1 they are apt to produce head-ache4 ,the root of it in doses of one denarius to two cyathi of wine1 is used in drink for the stings of serpents1 and the root itself is applied topically for the same purpose1 as also for the cure of gripings of the stomach4 ,taken in oil and vinegar1 it is used as a check for excessive perspirations1 in fevers even4 ,the inspissated juice of fennel-giant1 taken in quantities the size of a bean1 acts as a purgative2#aggg and the pith#aggh of it is good for the uterus1 as well as all the maladies previously mentioned4 ,to arrest hmorrhage1 ten of the seeds are taken in drink1 bruised in wine1 or else with the pith of the plant4 ,there are some persons who think that the seed should be administered for epilepsy1 from the fourth to the seventh day of the moon1 in doses of one spoonful4 ,fennel-giant is naturally so inimical to the murna1 that the very touch of it even will kill that fish4 ,castor was of opinion that the juice of the root is extremely beneficial to the sight4 ,,chap4 #ii4--,,the ,,thistle ,,or ,,scolymos3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,we have already#aggi spoken1 when treating of the garden plants1 of the cultivation of the thistle2 we may as well1 therefore1 not delay to mention its medicinal properties4 ,of wild thistles there are two varieties2 one#aghj of which throws out numerous stalks immediately it leaves the ground1 the other#agha being thicker1 and having but a single stem4 ,they have1 both of them1 a few leaves only1 and covered with prickles1 the head of the plant being protected by thorny points3 the last mentioned1 however1 puts forth in the middle of these points a purple blossom1 which turns white with great rapidity1 and is carried off by the wind2 the ,greeks give it the name of 8scolymos40 ,this plant1 gathered before it blossoms1 and beaten up and subjected to pressure1 produces a juice1 which1 applied to the head1 makes the hair grow again when it has fallen off through alopecy4 ,the root of either kind1 boiled in water1 creates thirst1 it is said1 in those who drink it4 ,it strengthens the stomach also1 and if we are to believe what is said1 has some influence upon the womb in promoting the conception of male offspring3 at all events1 ,glaucias1 who seems to have paid the most attention to the subject1 has written to that effect4 ,the thin juice1 like mastich1 which exudes from these plants1 imparts sweetness to the breath4 ,,chap4 #ajj4 7#bd47--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,theriaca4 ,but as we are now about to leave the garden plants1 we will take this opportunity of describing a very famous preparation extracted from them as an antidote against the stings of all kinds of venomous animals3 it is inscribed in verse#aghb upon a stone in the ,temple of sculapius at ,cos4 ,take two denarii of wild thyme1 and the same quantity of opopanax and meum respectively2 one denarius of trefoil seed2 and of aniseed1 fennel-seed1 ammi1 and parsley1 six denarii respectively1 with twelve denarii of meal of fitches4 ,heat up these ingredients together1 and pass them through a sieve2 after which they must be kneaded with the best wine that can be had1 and then made into lozenges of one victoriatus#aghc each3 one of these is to be given to the patient1 steeped in three cyathi of wine4 ,king ,antiochus#aghd the ,great1 it is said1 employed this theriaca#aghe against all kinds of venomous animals1 the asp excepted4 ,,summary4--,remarkable facts1 narratives1 and observations1 one thousand1 five hundred1 and six4 ,,roman ,,authors ,,quoted4--,cato#aghf the ,censor1 ,m4 ,varro1#aghg ,pompeius ,lenus1#aghh ,c4 ,valgius1#aghi ,hyginus1#agij ,sextius ,niger#agia who wrote in ,greek1 ,julius ,bassus#agib who wrote in ,greek1 ,celsus1#agic ,antonius ,castor4#agid ,,foreign ,,authors ,,quoted4--,democritus1#agie ,theophrastus1#agif ,orpheus1#agig ,menander#agih who wrote the 8,biochresta10 ,pythagoras1#agii ,nicander4#ahjj ,,medical ,,authors ,,quoted4--,chrysippus1#ahja ,diocles1#ahjb ,ophelion1#ahjc ,heraclides1#ahjd ,hicesius1#ahje ,dionysius1#ahjf ,apollodorus#ahjg of ,citium1 ,apollodorus#ahjh of ,tarentum1 ,praxagoras1#ahji1 ,plistonicus1#ahaj ,medius1#ahaa ,dieuches1#ahab ,cleophantus1#ahac ,philistion1#ahad ,asclepiades1#ahae ,crateuas1#ahaf ,petronius ,diodotus1#ahag ,iollas1#ahah ,erasistratus1#ahai ,diagoras1#ahbj ,andreas1#ahba ,mnesides1#ahbb ,epicharmus1#ahbc ,damion1#ahbd ,dalion1#ahbe ,sosimenes1#ahbf ,tlepolemus1#ahbg1 ,metrodorus1#ahbh ,solo1#ahbi ,lycus1#ahcj ,olympias#ahca of ,thebes1 ,philinus1#ahcb ,petrichus1#ahcc ,micton1#ahcd ,glaucias1#ahce ,xenocrates4#ahcf ,,book ,,xxi4 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,flowers1 ,,and ,,those ,,used ,,for ,,chaplets ,,more ,,particularly4 ,,chap4 #a4 7#a47--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,flowers ,,and ,,garlands4 ,cato has recommended that flowers for making chaplets should also be cultivated in the garden2 varieties remarkable for a delicacy which it is quite impossible to express1 inasmuch as no individual can find such facilities for describing them as ,nature does for bestowing on them their numerous tints--,nature1 who here in especial shows herself in a sportive mood1 and takes a delight in the prolific display of her varied productions4 ,the other#ahcg plants she has produced for our use and our nutriment1 and to them accordingly she has granted years and even ages of duration3 but as for the flowers and their perfumes1 she has given them birth for but a day--a mighty lesson to man1 we see1 to teach him that that which in its career is the most beauteous and the most attractive to the eye1 is the very first to fade and die4 ,even the limner's art itself possesses no resources for reproducing the colours of the flowers in all their varied tints and combinations1 whether we view them in groups alternately blending their hues1 or whether arranged in festoons1 each variety by#ahch itself1 now assuming a circular form1 now running obliquely1 and now disposed in a spiral pattern2 or whether1 as we see sometimes1 one wreath is interwoven within another4 ,,chap4 #b4 7#b47--;,,garlands ,,and ,,chaplets4 ,the ancients used chaplets of diminutive size1 called 8struppi20#ahci from which comes our name for a chaplet1 8strophiolum40 ,indeed1 it was only by very slow degrees that this last word#ahdj became generalized1 as the chaplets that were used at sacrifices1 or were granted as the reward of military valour1 asserted their exclusive right to the name of 8corona40 ,as for garlands1 when they came to be made of flowers1 they received the name of 8serta10 from the verb 8sero10#ahda or else from our word 8series40#ahdb ,the use#ahdc of flowers for garlands is not so very ancient1 among the ,greeks even4 ,,chap4 #c4--,,who ,,invented ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,garlands3 ,,when ,,they ,,first ,,received ,,the ,,name ,,of 8,,coroll10 ,,and ,,for ,,what ,,reason4 ,for in early times it was the usage to crown the victors in the sacred contests with branches of trees3 and it was only at a later period1 that they began to vary their tints by the combination#ahdd of flowers1 to heighten the effect in turn by their colour and their smell--an invention due to the ingenuity of the painter ,pausias1 at ,sicyon1#ahde and the garland-maker ,glycera1 a female to whom he was greatly attached1 and whose handiwork was imitated by him in colours4 ,challenging him to a trial of skill1 she would repeatedly vary her designs1 and thus it was in reality a contest between art and ,nature2 a fact which we find attested by pictures of that artist even still in existence1 more particularly the one known as the 8,stephaneplocos10#ahdf in which he has given a likeness of ,glycera herself4 ,this invention1 therefore1 is only to be traced to later than the ,hundredth#ahdg ,olympiad4 ,chaplets of flowers being now the fashion1 it was not long before those came into vogue which are known to us as ,egyptian#ahdh chaplets2 and then the winter chaplets1 made for the time at which ,earth refuses her flowers1 of thin lamin of horn stained various colours4 ,by slow degrees1 too1 the name was introduced at ,rome1 these garlands being known there at first as 8coroll10 a designation given them to express the remarkable delicacy#ahdi of their texture4 ,in more recent times1 again1 when the chaplets presented were made of thin plates#ahej of copper1 gilt or silvered1 they assumed the name of 8corollaria40 ,,chap4 #d4 7#c47--,,who ,,was ,,the ,,first ,,to ,,give ,,chaplets ,,with ,,leaves ,,of ,,silver ,,and ,,gold4 ,,lemnisci3 ,,who ,,was ,,the ,,first ,,to ,,emboss ,,them4 ,crassus ,dives#ahea was the first who gave chaplets with artificial leaves of silver and gold1 at the games celebrated by him4 ,to embellish these chaplets1 and to confer additional honour on them1 lemnisci were added1 in imitation of the ,etruscan chaplets1 which ought properly to have none but lemnisci#aheb made of gold4 ,for a long period these lemnisci were destitute of ornament3#ahec ,p4 ,claudius ,pulcher#ahed was the first who taught us to emboss#ahee them1 and added leaves of tinsel to the lamin#ahef of which the lemniscus was formed4 ,,chap4 #e4--,,the ,,great ,,honour ,,in ,,which ,,chaplets ,,were ,,held ,,by ,,the ,,ancients4 ,chaplets1 however1 were always held in a high degree of estimation1 those even which were acquired at the public games4 ,for it was the usage of the citizens to go down in person to take part in the contests of the ,circus1 and to send their slaves and horses thither as well4 ,hence it is that we find it thus written in the laws of the ,twelve ,tables3 8,if any person has gained a chaplet himself1 or by his money1#aheg let the same be given to him as the reward of his prowess40 ,there is no doubt that by the words 8gained by his money10 the laws meant a chaplet which had been gained by his slaves or horses4 ,well then1 what was the honour acquired thereby8 ,it was the right secured by the victor1 for himself and for his parents1 after death1 to be crowned without fail1 while the body was laid out in the house1#aheh and on its being carried#ahei to the tomb4 ,on other occasions1 chaplets were not indiscriminately worn1 not even those which had been won in the games4 ,,chap4 #f4--,,the ,,severity ,,of ,,the ,,ancients ,,in ,,reference ,,to ,,chaplets4 ,indeed the rules upon this point were remarkably severe4 ,l4 ,fulvius1 a banker1#ahfj having been accused1 at the time of the ,second ,punic ,war1 of looking down from the balcony#ahfa of his house upon the ,forum1 with a chaplet of roses upon his head1 was imprisoned by order of the ,senate1 and was not liberated before the war was brought to a close4 ,p4 ,munatius1 having placed upon his head a chaplet of flowers taken from the statue of ,marsyas1#ahfb was condemned by the ,triumviri to be put in chains4 ,upon his making appeal to the tribunes of the people1 they refused to intercede in his behalf--a very different state of things to that at ,athens1 where the young men1#ahfc in their drunken revelry1 were in the habit1 before midday1 of making their way into the very schools of the philosophers even4 ,among ourselves1 no such instance of a similar licentiousness is to be found1 unless1 indeed1 in the case of the daughter#ahfd of the late ,emperor ,augustus1 who1 in her nocturnal debaucheries1 placed a chaplet on the statue#ahfe of ,marsyas1 conduct deeply deplored in the letters of that god4#ahff ,,chap4 #g4--;,a ,,citizen ,,decked ,,with ,,flowers ,,by ,,the ,,roman ,,people4 ,scipio is the only person that ever received from the ,roman people the honour of being decked with flowers4 ,this ,scipio received the surname of ,serapio1#ahfg from his remarkable resemblance to a certain person of that name who dealt in pigs4 ,he died in his tribuneship1 greatly beloved by the people1 and in every way worthy of the family of the ,africani4 ,the property he left was not sufficient to pay the expenses of his burial2 upon which the people made a subscription and contracted#ahfh for his funeral1 flowers being scattered upon the body from every possible quarter#ahfi as it was borne along4 ,,chap4 #h4--,,plaited ,,chaplets4 ,,needle-,,work ,,chaplets4 ,,nard-,,leaf ,,chaplets4 ,,silken ,,chaplets4 ,in those days1 too1 chaplets were employed in honour of the gods1 the ,lares1 public as well as domestic1 the sepulchres1#ahgj and the ,manes4 ,the highest place1 however1 in public estimation1 was held by the plaited chaplet2 such as we find used by the ,salii in their sacred rites1 and at the solemnization of their yearly#ahga banquets4 ,in later times1 the rose chaplet has been adopted1 and luxury arose at last to such a pitch that a chaplet was held in no esteem at all if it did not consist entirely of leaves sown together with the needle4 ,more recently1 again1 they have been imported from ,india1 or from nations beyond the countries of ,india4 ,but it is looked upon as the most refined of all1 to present chaplets made of nard leaves1 or else of silk of many colours steeped in unguents4 ,such is the pitch to which the luxuriousness of our women has at last arrived6 ,,chap4 #i4--;,,authors ,,who ,,have ,,written ,,on ,,flowers4 ,,an ,,anecdote ,,relative ,,to ,,queen ,,cleopatra ,,and ,,chaplets4 ,among the ,greeks1 the physicians ,mnesitheus and ,callimachus have written separate treatises on the subject of chaplets1 making mention of such flowers as are injurious to the head4#ahgb ,for1 in fact1 the health is here concerned to some extent1 as it is at the moments of carousal and gaiety in particular that penetrating odours steal insidiously upon the brain--witness an instance in the wicked cunning displayed upon one occasion by ,cleopatra4 ,at the time when preparations were making for the battle that was eventually fought at ,actium1 ,antonius held the queen in such extreme distrust as to be in dread of her very attentions even1 and would not so much as touch his food1 unless another person had tasted it first4 ,upon this1 the queen1 it is said1 wishing to amuse herself with his fears1 had the extremities of the flowers in a chaplet dipped in poison1 and then placed it upon her head4#ahgc ,after a time1 as the hilarity increased apace1 she challenged ,antonius to swallow the chaplets1 mixed up with their drink4 ,who1 under such circumstances as these1 could have apprehended treachery8 ,accordingly1 the leaves were stripped from off the chaplet1 and thrown into the cup4 ,just as ,antonius was on the very point of drinking1 she arrested his arm with her hand4--8,behold1 ,marcus ,antonius10 said she1 8the woman against whom you are so careful to take these new precautions of yours in employing your tasters6 ,and would then1 if ,i could exist without you1 either means or opportunity of effecting my purpose be wanting to me80 ,saying this1 she ordered a man to be brought from prison1 and made him drink off the potion2 he did so1 and fell dead#ahgd upon the spot4 ,besides the two authors above-mentioned1 ,theophrastus1#ahge among the ,greeks1 has written on the subject of flowers4 ,some of our own writers also have given the title of 8,anthologica0 to their works1 but no one1 to my knowledge at least1 has treated expressly#ahgf of flowers4 ,in fact1 we ourselves have no intention here of discussing the mode of wearing chaplets1 for that would be frivolous#ahgg indeed2 but shall proceed to state such particulars in relation to flowers as shall appear to us deserving of remark4 ,,chap4 #aj4 7#d47--,,the ,,rose3 ,,twelve ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,the people of our country were acquainted with but very few garland flowers among the garden plants1 and those few hardly any but the violet and the rose4 ,the plant which bears the rose is1 properly speaking1 more of a thorn than a shrub--indeed1 we sometimes find it growing on a bramble#ahgh even2 the flower having1 even then1 a pleasant smell1 though by no means penetrating4 ,the flower in all roses is originally enclosed in a bud1#ahgi with a grained surface within1 which gradually swells1 and assumes the form of a green pointed cone1 similar to our alabaster#ahhj unguent boxes in shape4 ,gradually acquiring a ruddy tint1 this bud opens little by little1 until at last it comes into full blow1 developing the calyx1 and embracing the yellow-pointed filaments which stand erect in the centre of it4 ,the employment of the rose in chaplets is1 so to say1 the least#ahha use that is made of it4 ,the flower is steeped in oil1 a practice which has prevailed from the times of the ,trojan war1 as ,homer#ahhb bears witness2 in addition to which1 it now forms an ingredient in our unguents1 as mentioned on a previous occasion4#ahhc ,it is employed also by itself for certain medicinal purposes1 and is used in plasters and eye-salves#ahhd for its penetrating qualities3 it is used1 also1 to perfume the delicacies of our banquets1 and is never attended with any noxious results4 ,the most esteemed kinds of rose among us are those of ,prneste#ahhe and ,campania4#ahhf ,some persons have added to these varieties the rose of ,miletus1#ahhg the flower of which is an extremely brilliant red1 and has never more than a dozen petals4 ,the next to it is the rose of ,trachyn1#ahhh not so red as the last1 and then that of ,alabanda1#ahhi with whitish petals1 but not so highly esteemed4 ,the least esteemed of all1 however1 is the thorn rose1#ahij the petals of which are numerous1 but extremely small4 ,the essential points of difference in the rose are the number#ahia of the petals1 the comparative number#ahib of thorns on the stem1 the colour1 and the smell4 ,the number of the petals1 which is never less than five1 goes on increasing in amount1 till we find one variety with as many as a hundred1 and thence known as the 8centifolia30#ahic in ,italy1 it is to be found in ,campania1 and in ,greece1 in the vicinity of ,philippi1 though this last is not the place of its natural#ahid growth4 ,mount ,pangeus1#ahie in the same vicinity1 produces a rose with numerous petals of diminutive size3 the people of those parts are in the habit of transplanting it1 a method which greatly tends to improve its growth4 ,this kind1 however1 is not remarkable for its smell1 nor yet is the rose which has a very large or very broad petal3 indeed1 we may state in a few words1 that the best proof of the perfume of the flower is the comparative roughness of the calyx4#ahif ,cpio1 who lived in the reign of the ,emperor ,tiberius1 asserts that the centifolia is never employed for chaplets1 except at the extreme#ahig points of union as it were1 being remarkable neither for its smell#ahih nor its beauty4 ,there is another variety of rose1 too1 called the 8,grecian0 rose by our people1 and 8lychnis0#ahii by the ,greeks3 it grows nowhere except in humid soils1 and has never more than five petals3 it does not exceed the violet in size1 and is destitute of smell4 ,there is another kind1 again1 known to us as the 8,grcula0#aijj the petals of which are tightly rolled together1 and which never open except when pressed in the hand1 it having always the appearance1 in fact1 of being in bud3 the petals of it are remarkably large4 ,another kind1 again1 springs from a stem like that of the mallow1 the leaves being similar to those of the olive--the name given to it is 8macetum40#aija ,there is the rose of autumn1 too1 known to us as the 8coroniola10#aijb which is of a middle size1 between the varieties just mentioned4 ,all these kinds1 however1 are destitute of smell1 with the exception of the coroniola1 and the one which grows on the bramble3#aijc so extended is the scope for fictitious#aijd productions6 ,and1 indeed1 the genuine rose1 for the most part1 is indebted for its qualities to the nature of the soil4 ,that of ,cyren#aije is the most odoriferous of all1 and hence it is that the unguents of that place are so remarkably fine3 at ,carthage1 again1 in ,spain1 there are early#aijf roses throughout all the winter4 ,the temperature1 too1 of the climate is not without its influence3 for in some years we find the roses much less odoriferous than in others2 in addition to which1 their smell is always more powerful when grown in dry soils#aijg than in humid ones4 ,the rose does not admit of being planted in either a rich or an argillaceous soil1 nor yet on irrigated land2 being contented with a thin1 light earth1 and more particularly attached to ground on which old building rubbish has been laid4 ,the rose of ,campania is early1 that of ,miletus late1 but it is the rose of ,prneste that goes off the very latest of all4 ,for the rose1 the ground is generally dug to a greater depth than it is for corn1 but not so deep as for the vine4 ,it grows but very slowly#aijh from the seed1 which is found in the calyx beneath the petals of the flower1 covered with a sort of down2 hence it is that the method of grafting is usually the one preferred1 or else propagation from the eyes of the root1 as in the reed4#aiji ,one kind is grafted1 which bears a pale flower1 with thorny branches of a remarkable length2 it belongs to the quinquefolia variety1 being one of the ,greek roses4#aiaj ,all roses are improved by being pruned and cauterized2 transplanting1 too1 makes them grow1 like the vine1 all the better1 and with the greatest rapidity4 ,the slips are cut some four fingers in length or more1 and are planted immediately after the setting of the ,vergili2 then1 while the west winds are prevalent1 they are transplanted at intervals of a foot1 the earth being frequently turned up about them4 ,persons whose object it is to grow early roses1 make a hole a foot in width about the root1 and pour warm water into it1 at the period when the buds are beginning to put forth4#aiaa ,,chap4 #aa4 7#e47--,,the ,,lily3 ,,four ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,the lily holds the next highest rank after the rose1 and has a certain affinity#aiab with it in respect of its unguent and the oil extracted from it1 which is known to us as 8lirinon40#aiac ,blended1 too1 with roses1 the lily#aiad produces a remarkably fine effect2 for it begins to make its appearance1 in fact1 just as the rose is in the very middle of its season4 ,there is no flower that grows to a greater height than the lily1 sometimes1 indeed1 as much as three cubits2 the head of it being always drooping1 as though the neck of the flower were unable to support its weight4 ,the whiteness of the lily is quite remarkable1 the petals being striated on the exterior2 the flower is narrow at the base1 and gradually expanding in shape like a tapering#aiae cup with the edges curving outwards1 the fine pistils of the flower1 and the stamens with their anther of a saffron colour1 standing erect in the middle4#aiaf ,hence the perfume of the lily1 as well as its colour1 is two-fold1 there being one for the petals and another for the stamens4 ,the difference1 however1 between them is but very small1 and when the flower is employed for making lily unguents and oils1 the petals are never rejected4 ,there is a flower1 not unlike the lily1 produced by the plant known to us as the 8convolvulus40#aiag ,it grows among shrubs1 is totally destitute of smell1 and has not the yellow anther of the lily within3 only vying with it in its whiteness1 it would almost appear to be the rough sketch#aiah made by ,nature when she was learning how to make the lily4 ,the white lily is propagated in all the various ways which are employed for the cultivation of the rose1#aiai as also by means of a certain tearlike gum#aibj which belongs to it1 similarly to hipposelinum#aiba in fact3 indeed1 there is no plant that is more prolific than this1 a single root often giving birth to as many as fifty bulbs4#aibb ,there is1 also1 a red lily1 known by the name of 8crinon0#aibc to the ,greeks1 though there are some authors who call the flower of it 8cynorrodon40#aibd ,the most esteemed are those of ,antiochia and ,laodicea in ,syria1 and next to them that of ,phaselis4#aibe ,to the fourth rank belongs the flower that grows in ,italy4 ,,chap4 #ab4--,,the ,,narcissus3 ,,three ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,there is a purple#aibf lily1 too1 which sometimes has a double stem2 it differs only from the other lilies in having a more fleshy root and a bulb of larger size1 but undivided3#aibg the name given to it is 8narcissus40#aibh ,a second variety of this lily has a white flower1 with a purple corolla4 ,there is also this difference between the ordinary lily and the narcissus1 that in the latter the leaves spring from the root of the plant4 ,the finest are those which grow on the mountains of ,lycia4 ,a third variety is similar to the others in every respect1 except that the corolla of the plant is green4 ,they are all of them late#aibi flowers3 indeed1 they only bloom after the setting of ,arcturus1#aicj and at the time of the autumnal equinox4 ,,chap4 #ac4--;,,how ,,seed ,,is ,,stained ,,to ,,produce ,,tinted ,,flowers4 ,there has been invented#aica also a method of tinting the lily1 thanks to the taste of mankind for monstrous productions4 ,the dried stalks#aicb of the lily are tied together in the month of ,july1 and hung up in the smoke3 then1 in the following ,march1 when the small knots#aicc are beginning to disclose themselves1 the stalks are left to steep in the lees of black or ,greek wine1 in order that they may contract its colour1 and are then planted out in small trenches1 some semi-sextarii of wine-lees being poured around them4 ,by this method purple lilies are obtained1 it being a very remarkable thing that we should be able to dye a plant to such a degree as to make it produce a coloured flower4 ,,chap4 #ad4 7#f47--;,,how ,,the ,,several ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,violet ,,are ,,respectively ,,produced1 ,,grown1 ,,and ,,cultivated4 ,,the ,,three ,,different ,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,violet4 ,,the ,,five ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,yellow ,,violet4 ,next after the roses and the lilies1 the violet is held in the highest esteem3 of this there are several varieties1 the purple1#aicd the yellow1 and the white1 all of them reproduced from plants1 like the cabbage4 ,the purple violet1 which springs up spontaneously in sunny spots1 with a thin1 meagre soil1 has larger petals than the others1 springing immediately from the root1 which is of a fleshy substance4 ,this violet has a name1 too1 distinct from the other wild kinds1 being called 8ion10#aice and from it the ianthine#aicf cloth takes its name4 ,among the cultivated kinds1 the yellow#aicg violet is held in the greatest esteem4 ,the ,tusculan violet1 and that known as the 8marine0#aich violet1 have petals somewhat broader than the others1 but not so odoriferous2 the ,calatian#aici violet1 too1 which has a smaller leaf1 is entirely destitute of smell4 ,this last is a present to us from the autumn1 the others from the spring4 ,,chap4 #ae4--,,the ,,caltha4 ,,the ,,scopa ,,regia4 ,next to it comes the caltha1 the flowers of which are of similar colour and size2#aidj in the number of its petals1 however1 it surpasses the marine violet1 the petals of which are never more than five in number4 ,the marine violet is surpassed1 too1 by the other in smell2 that of the caltha being very powerful4 ,the smell1 too1 is no less powerful in the plant known as the 8scopa regia20#aida but there it is the leaves of the plant1 and not the flowers1 that are odoriferous4 ,,chap4 #af4--,,the ,,bacchar4 ,,the ,,combretum4 ,,asarum4 ,the bacchar1#aidb too1 by some persons known as 8field nard10 is odoriferous in the root only4 ,in former times1 it was the practice to make unguents of this root1 as we learn from the poet ,aristophanes1 a writer of the ,ancient ,comedy2 from which circumstance some persons have erroneously given the name of 8exotic0#aidc to the plant4 ,the smell of it strongly resembles that of cinnamomum2 and the plant grows in thin soils1 which are free from all humidity4 ,the name of 8combretum0#aidd is given to a plant that bears a very strong resemblance to it1 the leaves of which taper to the fineness of threads2 in height1 however1 it is taller than the bacchar4 ,these are the only#aide 99 99 99 99 ,the error1 however1 ought to be corrected1 on the part of those who have bestowed upon the bacchar the name of 8field nard20 for that in reality is the surname given to another plant1 known to the ,greeks as 8asaron10 the description and features of which we have already#aidf mentioned1 when speaking of the different varieties of nard4 ,i find1 too1 that the name of 8asaron0 has been given to this plant1 from the circumstance of its never#aidg being employed in the composition of chaplets4 ,,chap4 #ag4--,,saffron3 ,,in ,,what ,,places ,,it ,,grows ,,best4 ,,what ,,flowers ,,were ,,known ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,trojan ,,war4 ,the wild saffron#aidh is the best2 indeed1 in ,italy it is of no use whatever to attempt to propagate it1 the produce of a whole bed of saffron being boiled down to a single scruple2 it is reproduced by offsets from the bulb4 ,the cultivated saffron is larger1 finer1 and better looking than the other kinds1 but has much less efficacy4 ,this plant is everywhere degenerating1#aidi and is far from prolific at ,cyren even1 a place where the flowers are always of the very finest quality4 ,the most esteemed saffron1 however1 is that of ,cilicia1 and there of ,mount ,corycus in particular2 next comes the saffron of ,mount ,olympus1 in ,lycia1 and then of ,centuripa1 in ,sicily2 some persons1 however1 have given the second rank to the ,phlegran#aiej saffron4 ,there is nothing so much adulterated#aiea as saffron3 the best proof of its goodness is when it snaps under pressure by the fingers1 as though it were friable2#aieb for when it is moist1 a state which it owes to being adulterated1 it is limp1 and will not snap asunder4 ,another way of testing it1 again1 is to apply it with the hand to the face1 upon which1 if good1 it will be found to be slightly caustic to the face and eyes4 ,there is a peculiar kind1 too1 of cultivated saffron1 which is in general extremely mild1 being only of middling#aiec quality2 the name given to it is 8dialeucon40#aied ,the saffron of ,cyrenaica1 again1 is faulty in the opposite extreme2 for it is darker than any other kind1 and is apt to spoil very quickly4 ,the best saffron everywhere is that which is of the most unctuous quality1 and the filaments of which are the shortest2 the worst being that which emits a musty smell4 ,mucianus informs us that in ,lycia1 at the end of seven or eight years1 the saffron is transplanted into a piece of ground which has been prepared for the purpose1 and that in this way it is prevented from degenerating4 ,it is never#aiee used for chaplets1 being a plant with an extremely narrow leaf1 as fine almost as a hair2 but it combines remarkably well with wine1 sweet wine in particular4 ,reduced to a powder1 it is used to perfume#aief the theatres4 ,saffron blossoms about the setting of the ,vergili1 for a few days#aieg only1 the leaf expelling the flower4 ,it is verdant#aieh at the time of the winter solstice1 and then it is that they gather it2 it is usually dried in the shade1 and if in winter1 all the better4 ,the root of this plant is fleshy1 and more long-lived#aiei than that of the other bulbous plants4 ,it loves to be beaten and trodden#aifj under foot1 and in fact1 the worse it is treated the better it thrives3 hence it is1 that it grows so vigorously by the side of foot-paths and fountains4 7#g47 ,saffron was already held in high esteem in the time of the ,trojan ,war2 at all events1 ,homer1#aifa we find1 makes mention of these three flowers1 the lotus1#aifb the saffron1 and the hyacinth4 ,,chap4 #ah4--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,odours4 ,all the odoriferous#aifc substances1 and consequently the plants1 differ from one another in their colour1 smell1 and juices4 ,it is but rarely#aifd that the taste of an odoriferous substance is not bitter2 while sweet substances1 on the other hand1 are but rarely odoriferous4 ,thus it is1 too1 that wine is more odoriferous than must1 and all the wild plants more so than the cultivated ones4#aife ,some flowers have a sweet smell at a distance1 the edge of which is taken off when they come nearer2 such is the case with the violet1 for instance4 ,the rose1 when fresh gathered1 has a more powerful smell at a distance1 and dried1#aiff when brought nearer4 ,all plants have a more penetrating odour1 also1 in spring#aifg and in the morning2 as the hour of midday approaches1 the scent becomes gradually weakened4#aifh ,the flowers1 too1 of young plants are less odoriferous than those of old ones2 but it is at mid-age#aifi that the odour is most penetrating in them all4 ,the rose and the crocus#aigj have a more powerful smell when gathered in fine weather1 and all plants are more powerfully scented in hot climates than in cold ones4 ,in ,egypt1 however1 the flowers are far from odoriferous1 owing to the dews and exhalations with which the air is charged1 in consequence of the extended surface of the river4 ,some plants have an agreeable1 though at the same time extremely powerful smell2 some1 again1 while green1 have no#aiga smell at all1 owing to the excess of moisture1 the buceros for example1 which is the same as fenugreek4#aigb ,not all flowers which have a penetrating odour are destitute of juices1 the violet1 the rose1 and the crocus1 for example2 those1 on the other hand1 which have a penetrating odour1 but are destitute of juices1 have all of them a very powerful smell1 as we find the case with the two varieties#aigc of the lily4 ,the abrotonum#aigd and the amaracus#aige have a pungent smell4 ,in some plants1 it is the flower only that is sweet1 the other parts being inodorous1 the violet and the rose1 for example4 ,among the garden plants1 the most odoriferous are the dry ones1 such as rue1 mint1 and parsley1 as also those which grow on dry soils4 ,some fruits become more odoriferous the older they are1 the quince1 for example1 which has also a stronger smell when gathered than while upon the tree4 ,some plants1 again1 have no smell but when broken asunder1 or when bruised1 and others only when they are stripped of their bark4 ,certain vegetable substances1 too1 only give out a smell when subjected to the action of fire1 such as frankincense and myrrh1 for example4 ,all flowers are more bitter to the taste when bruised than when left untouched4#aigf ,some plants preserve their smell a longer time when dried1 the melilote1 for example2 others1 again1 make the place itself more odoriferous where they grow1 the iris#aigg for instance1 which will even render the whole of a tree odoriferous1 the roots of which it may happen to have touched4 ,the hesperis#aigh has a more powerful odour at night1 a property to which it owes its name4 ,among the animals1 we find none that are odoriferous1 unless1 indeed1 we are inclined to put faith in what has been said about the panther4#aigi ,,chap4 #ai4--,,the ,,iris4 ,there is still another distinction1 which ought not to be omitted1--the fact1 that many of the odoriferous plants never#aihj enter into the composition of garlands1 the iris#aiha and the saliunca1 for example1 although1 both of them1 of a most exquisite odour4 ,in the iris1 it is the root#aihb only that is held in esteem1 it being extensively employed in perfumery and medicine4 ,the iris of the finest quality is that found in ,illyricum1#aihc and in that country1 even1 not in the maritime parts of it1 but in the forests on the banks of the river ,drilon#aihd and near ,narona4 ,the next best is that of ,macedonia1#aihe the plant being extremely elongated1 white1 and thin4 ,the iris of ,africa#aihf occupies the third rank1 being the largest of them all1 and of an extremely bitter taste4 ,the iris of ,illyricum comprehends two varieties--one of which is the raphanitis1 so called from its resemblance to the radish1#aihg of a somewhat red colour1 and superior#aihh in quality to the other1 which is known as the 8rhizotomus40 ,the best kind of iris is that which produces sneezing#aihi when handled4 ,the stem of this plant is a cubit in length1 and erect1 the flower being of various colours1 like the rainbow1 to which circumstance it is indebted for its name4 ,the iris1 too1 of ,pisidia#aiij is far from being held in disesteem4 ,persons#aiia who intend taking up the iris1 drench the ground about it some three months before with hydromel1 as though a sort of atonement offered to appease the earth2 with the point of a sword1 too1 they trace three circles round it1 and the moment they gather it1 they lift it up towards the heavens4 ,the iris is a plant of a caustic nature1 and when handled1 it causes blisters like burns to rise4 ,it is a point particularly recommended1 that those who gather it should be in a state of chastity4 ,the root1 not only when dried1#aiib but while still in the ground1 is very quickly attacked by worms4 ,in former times1 it was ,leucas and ,elis that supplied us with the best oil#aiic of iris1 for there it has long been cultivated2 at the present day1 however1 the best comes from ,pamphylia1 though that of ,cilicia and the northern climates is held in high esteem4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,the ,,saliunca4 ,the saliunca#aiid has a rather short leaf1 which does not admit of its being plaited for garlands1 and numerous roots1 by which it is held together2 being more of a herb than a flower1 and so closely matted and tangled that it would almost appear to have been pressed together with the hand--in short1 it is a turf#aiie of a peculiar nature4 ,this plant grows in ,pannonia and the sunny regions of ,noricum and the ,alps1 as also the vicinity of the city of ,eporedia2#aiif the smell being so remarkably sweet that the crops of it have been of late quite as profitable as the working of a mine4 ,this plant is particularly valued for the pleasant smell it imparts to clothes among which it is kept4 ,,chap4 #ba4--,,the ,,polium1 ,,or ,,teuthrion4 ,it is the same1 too1 with the polium1#aiig a herb employed for a similar purpose among the ,greeks1 and highly extolled by ,musus and ,hesiod1 who assert that it is useful for every purpose1 and more particularly for the acquisition of fame and honour2#aiih indeed1 it is a truly marvellous production1 if it is the fact1 as they state1 that its leaves are white in the morning1 a purple at midday1 and azure#aiii at sunset4 ,there are two varieties of it1 the field polium1 which is larger1 and the wild1#bjjj which is more diminutive4 ,some persons give it the name of 8teuthrion40#bjja ,the leaves resemble the white hairs of a human being2 they take their rise immediately from the root1 and never exceed a palm in height4 ,,chap4 #bb4 7#h47--;,,fabrics ,,which ,,rival ,,the ,,colours ,,of ,,flowers4 ,we have now said enough on the subject of the odoriferous flowers2 in relation to which1 luxury not only glories in having vanquished ,nature in the composition of unguents1 but has even gone so far as to challenge1 in her fabrics1 those flowers which are more particularly recommended by the beauty of their tints4 ,i remark that the following are the three principal#bjjb colours2 the red1 that of the kermes#bjjc for instance1 which1 beginning in the tints of the rose1 reflects1 when viewed#bjjd sideways and held up to the light1 the shades that are found in the ,tyrian purple1#bjje and the colours of the dibapha#bjjf and ,laconian cloths3 the amethystine colour1 which is borrowed from the violet1 and to which1 bordering as it does on the purple1 we have given the name of 8ianthinum0#bjjg--;it must1 however1 be remembered1 that we here give a general name to a colour which is subdivided into numerous tints#bjjh--;and a third1 properly known as the 8conchyliated0 colour1 but which comprehends a variety of shades1 such1 for instance1 as the tints of the heliotropium1 and others of a deeper colour1 the hues of the mallow1 inclining to a full purple1 and the colours of the late#bjji violet2 this last being the most vivid1 in fact1 of all the conchyliated tints4 ,the rival colours being now set side by side1 ,nature and luxury may enter the lists1 to vie for the mastery4 ,i find it stated that1 in the most ancient times1 yellow was held in the highest esteem1 but was reserved exclusively for the nuptial veils#bjaj of females2 for which reason it is perhaps that we do not find it included among the principal colours1 those being used in common by males and females3 indeed1 it is the circumstance of their being used by both sexes in common that gives them their rank as principal colours4 ,,chap4 #bc4--,,the ,,amaranth4 ,there is no doubt that all the efforts of art are surpassed by the amaranth1#bjaa which is1 to speak correctly1 rather a purple ear#bjab than a flower1 and1 at the same time1 quite inodorous4 ,it is a marvellous feature in this plant1 that it takes a delight in being gathered2 indeed1 the more it is plucked1 the better it grows4 ,it comes into flower in the month of ,august1 and lasts throughout the autumn4 ,the finest of all is the amaranth of ,alexandria1 which is generally gathered for keeping2 for it is a really marvellous#bjac fact1 that when all the other flowers have gone out1 the amaranth1 upon being dipped in water1 comes to life again3 it is used also for making winter chaplets4 ,the peculiar quality of the amaranth is sufficiently indicated by its name1 it having been so called from the circumstance that it never fades4#bjad ,,chap4 #bd4--,,the ,,cyanos3 ,,the ,,holochrysos4 ,the name1#bjae too1 of the cyanos#bjaf indicates its colour1 and so does that of the holochrysos4#bjag ,none of these flowers were in use in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 for the authors1 we find1 who flourished at a period immediately after his decease1 have made not the slightest mention of them2 from which circumstance it is very clear that they only came into fashion at a later period4 ,still1 however1 who can entertain any doubt that they were first introduced by the ,greeks1 from the fact that ,italy has only their ,greek names by which to designate them8 ,,chap4 #be4--,,the ,,petilium3 ,,the ,,bellio4 ,but1 by ,hercules6 it is ,italy herself that has given its name to the petilium1#bjah an autumnal flower1 which springs up in the vicinity of thorny brakes1 and recommends itself solely by its colour1 which is that of the wild rose4 ,the petals of it are small1 and five in number2 and it is a remarkable circumstance in this plant1 that the head of it droops at first1 and it is only after it becomes erect that the petals make their appearance1 forming a small corolla of various colours1 enclosing a yellow seed4 ,the bellio1#bjai too1 is a yellow flower1 formed of#bjbj fifty-five filaments circularly arranged1 in the shape of a chaplet4 ,these are1 both of them1 meadow flowers1 which are mostly of no use whatever1 and consequently without names3 even the flowers just mentioned are known sometimes by one name1 and sometimes by another4 ,,chap4 #bf4--,,the ,,chrysocome1 ,,or ,,chrysitis4 ,the chrysocome1#bjba or chrysitis1 has no ,latin appellation3 it is a palm in height1 the flowers forming clusters of a golden colour4 ,the root of it is black1 and it has a taste both rough and sweet3 it is found growing in stony and umbrageous spots4 ,,chap4 #bg4 7#i47--,,shrubs1 ,,the ,,blossoms ,,of ,,which ,,are ,,used ,,for ,,chaplets4 ,having thus passed in review nearly all the best-known colours1 we must now give our attention to the chaplets which are pleasing merely on account of the variety of their materials4 ,of such chaplets there are two kinds1 one composed of flowers1 the other of leaves4 ,the flowers so employed1 ,i may say1 are those of broom#bjbb--the yellow blossom gathered from it--the rhododendron1#bjbc and the jujube1#bjbd also known as the tree of ,cappadocia1 which bears an odoriferous flower similar to that of the olive4 ,among the brambles1 too1 we find the cyclaminum growing1 of which we shall have to speak more at length on a future occasion3#bjbe its flower1 which reflects the hues of the purple of ,coloss1#bjbf is used as an ingredient in chaplets4 ,,chap4 #bh4--,,shrubs1 ,,the ,,leaves ,,of ,,which ,,are ,,used ,,for ,,chaplets4 ,the leaves1 also1 of smilax and ivy are employed in chaplets2 indeed1 the clusters of these plants are held in the very highest esteem for this purpose3 we have already#bjbg spoken of them at sufficient length when treating of the shrubs4 ,there are also other kinds of shrubs1 which can only be indicated by their ,greek names1 little attention having been paid by the framers of our language to this branch of nomenclature4 ,most of them grow in foreign countries1 it is true2 but still1 it is our duty to make some mention of them1 as it is of ,nature in general that we are speaking1 and not of ,italy in particular4 ,,chap4 #bi4--,,the ,,melothron1 ,,spir,a1 ,,and ,,origanum4 ,,the ,,cneorum ,,or ,,cassia2 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,,the ,,melissophyllum ,,or ,,melitt,,na4 ,,the ,,melilote1 ,,otherwise ,,known ,,as ,,campanian ,,garland4 ,thus it is1 that we find employed for chaplets1 the leaves of the melothron1#bjbh spira1#bjbi origanum1#bjcj cneorum1#bjca by ,hyginus called 8cassia10 conyza or cunilago1#bjcb melissophyllon or apiastrum1#bjcc and melilote1 known to us by the name of 8,campanian#bjcd garland10 the best kind of melilote#bjce in ,italy being that of ,campania1 in ,greece that of ,cape ,sunium1 and next to that the produce of ,chalcidice and ,crete3 but wherever this plant grows it is only to be found in rugged and wild localities4 ,the name 8sertula0 or 8garland10 which it bears1 sufficiently proves that this plant was formerly much used in the composition of chaplets4 ,the smell1 as well as the flower1 closely resembles that of saffron1 though the stem itself is white2 the shorter and more fleshy the leaves1 the more highly it is esteemed4 ,,chap4 #cj4--,,three ,,varieties ,,of ,,trefoil3 ,,the ,,myophonum4 ,the leaves of trefoil also are employed for making chaplets4 ,there are three varieties3 the first being called by the ,greeks sometimes 8minyanthes10#bjcf and sometimes 8asphaltion20 the leaves of it1 which the garland-makers employ1 are larger than those of the other kinds4 ,the second variety1 known as the 8oxytriphyllon10#bjcg has a pointed leaf2 and the third has the smallest leaf of them all4 ,among these plants there are some which have a tough1 sinewy stem1 such as marathron1#bjch for instance1 hippomarathron1#bjci and the myophonum4#bjdj ,the umbels1 too1 of fennel-giant and the purple flowers#bjda of the ivy are employed for this purpose2 as also another kind of ivy very similar to the wild rose1#bjdb the colour only of which is attractive1 the flower being quite inodorous4 ,there are also two#bjdc varieties used of the cneorum1 the black and the white1 this last being odoriferous3 they are both of them provided with branches1 and they blossom after the autumnal equinox4#bjdd 7#aj47 ,there are the same number of varieties1 also1 of origanum employed in making chaplets1 one of which is destitute of seed1 the other1 which is also odoriferous1 being known as the ,cretan#bjde origanum4 ,,chap4 #ca4--,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,thyme4 ,,plants ,,produced ,,from ,,blossoms ,,and ,,not ,,from ,,seed4 ,there are also as many varieties of thyme#bjdf employed1 the one white1 the other dark3#bjdg it flowers about the summer solstice1 when the bees cull from it4 ,from this plant a sort of augury is derived1 as to how the honey is likely to turn out3 for the bee-keepers have reason to look for a large crop when the thyme blossoms in considerable abundance4 ,thyme receives great injury from showers of rain1 and is very apt to shed its blossom4 ,the seed of thyme is so minute#bjdh as to be imperceptible1 and yet that of origanum1 which is also extremely minute1 does not escape the sight4 ,but what matters it that ,nature has thus concealed it from our view8 ,for we have reason to conclude that it exists in the flower itself2 which1 when sown in the ground1 gives birth to the plant--what is there1 in fact1 that the industry of man has left untried8 ,the honey of ,attica is generally looked upon as the best in all the world2 for which reason it is that the thyme of that country has been transplanted1 being reproduced1 as already stated1 with the greatest difficulty1 from the blossom4 ,but there is also another peculiarity in the nature of the thyme of ,attica1 which has greatly tended to frustrate these attempts--it will never live except in the vicinity of breezes from the sea4 ,in former times1 it was the general belief that this is the case with all kinds of thyme1 and that this is the reason why it does not grow in ,arcadia3#bjdi at a period when it was universally supposed1 too1 that the olive never grows beyond three hundred stadia#bjej from the sea4 ,but1 at the present day1 we know for certain that in the province of ,gallia ,narbonensis the ,stony ,plains#bjea are quite overgrown with thyme2 this being1 in fact1 the only source of revenue to those parts1 thousands of sheep#bjeb being brought thither from distant countries to browse upon the plant4 ,,chap4 #cb4--;,,conyza4 ,there are two varieties of conyza1 also1 employed in making chaplets1 the male#bjec plant and the female4 ,the difference consists in the leaves1 those of the female plant being thinner1 more tapering1 and narrower1 and those of the male being of an imbricated shape1 the plant having a greater number of branches4 ,the blossom1 too1 of the male plant is more vivid than that of the female3 in both kinds it is late in making its appearance1 not till after the rising of ,arcturus4 ,the smell of the male conyza is more powerful than that of the female plant3 the latter1 however1 is of a more penetrating nature1 for which reason it is that the female plant is held in higher esteem for the treatment of the bites of animals4 ,the leaves of the female plant have exactly the smell of honey2 and the root of the male has received the name of 8libanotis0 from some3 we have already made mention#bjed of it on a previous occasion4 ,,chap4 #cc4--,,the ,,flower ,,of ,,jove4 ,,the ,,hemerocalles4 ,,the ,,helenium4 ,,the ,,phlox4 ,,plants ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,branches ,,and ,,roots ,,are ,,odoriferous4 ,of the following plants1 too1 it is only the leaves that are employed for chaplets--the flower of ,jove1#bjee the amaracus1 the hemerocalles1#bjef the abrotonum1 the helenium1#bjeg sisymbrium1#bjeh and wild thyme1 all of them ligneous plants1 growing in a manner similar to the rose4 ,the flower of ,jove is pleasing only for its colours1 being quite inodorous2 which is the case also with the plant known by the ,greek name of 8phlox40#bjei ,all the plants1 too1 which we have just mentioned are odoriferous1 both in the branches and the leaves1 with the sole exception of wild thyme4#bjfj ,the helenium is said to have had its origin in the tears of ,helen1 and hence it is that the kind grown in the island of ,helena#bjfa is so highly esteemed4 ,it is a shrub which throws out its tiny branches along the ground1 some nine inches in length1 with a leaf very similar to that of wild thyme4 ,,chap4 #cd4--,,the ,,abrotonum4 ,,the ,,adonium3 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,,plants ,,which ,,reproduce ,,themselves4 ,,the ,,leucanthemum4 ,the flower of the abrotonum1#bjfb which makes its appearance in summer1 has a powerful but agreeable smell2 it is of a bright golden colour4 ,left to range at large1 it reproduces itself by layers from the tops of the branches3 but when it is propagated by the hand of man1 it is better to grow it from the seed than from the roots or slips1 though even from the seed it is not grown without considerable trouble4 ,the young plants are transplanted in summer1 which is the case also with the adonium4#bjfc ,they are both of them plants of a very chilly nature1 though1 at the same time1 they are apt to receive injury if too much exposed to the sun3 when1 however1 they have gained sufficient strength1 they throw out branches like those of rue4 ,the leucanthemum#bjfd has a similar smell to that of the abrotonum3 it is a foliated plant1 with a white flower4 ,,chap4 #ce4 7#aa47--,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,amaracus4 ,diocles1 the physician1 and the people of ,sicily have given the name of 8amaracus0 to the plant known in ,egypt and ,syria as sampsuchum4#bjfe ,it is reproduced two ways1 from seed and from cuttings1 being more long-lived than the preceding plants1 and possessed of a more agreeable smell4 ,the amaracus1 like the abrotonum1 has a great abundance of seed1 but while the abrotonum has a single root1 which penetrates deep into the ground1 those of the other plant adhere but lightly to the surface of the earth4 ,those of the other plants which love the shade1 water1 and manure1 are generally set at the beginning of autumn1 and even1 in some localities1 in spring4 ,,chap4 #cf4--,,the ,,nyctegreton1 ,,chenomyche1 ,,or ,,nyctalops4 ,democritus has regarded the nyctegreton#bjff as one of the most singular of plants4 ,according to that author1 it is of a dark red colour1 has leaves like those of a thorn1 and creeps upon the ground4 ,he says that it grows in ,gedrosia#bjfg more particularly1 and that it is taken up by the roots immediately after the vernal equinox1 and dried in the moonlight for thirty days2 after which preparation it emits light by night4 ,he states also1 that the ,magi and the kings of ,parthia employ this plant in their ceremonies when they make a vow to perform an undertaking2 that another name given to it is 8chenomyche10#bjfh from the circumstance that1 at the very sight of it1 geese will manifest the greatest alarm2 and that by some persons1 again1 it is known as the 8nyctalops10#bjfi from the light which it emits at a considerable distance by night4 ,,chap4 #cg4--,,where ,,the ,,melilote ,,is ,,found4 ,the melilote#bjgj is found growing everywhere1 though that of ,attica is held in the highest esteem4 ,in all countries1 however1 it is preferred when fresh gathered2 that too1 the colour of which is not white1 but approaches as nearly as possible to the colour of saffron4 ,in ,italy1 however1 it is the white kind that is the most odoriferous4 ,,chap4 #ch4--,,the ,,succession ,,in ,,which ,,flowers ,,blossom3 ,,the ,,spring ,,flowers4 ,,the ,,violet4 ,,the ,,chaplet ,,anemone4 ,,the ,,nanthe4 ,,the ,,melanion4 ,,the ,,helichrysos4 ,,the ,,gladiolus4 ,,the ,,hyacinth4 ,the first of the flowers that announce the approach of spring is the white#bjga violet2 indeed1 in warm localities1 it is seen peeping out in the winter even4 ,next to it comes the violet known as the ion1 and the purple violet2 then the flame-coloured flower1 the name of which is phlox1#bjgb but only the wild one4 ,the cyclaminum#bjgc blossoms twice a year1 in spring and autumn1 standing equally in awe as it does of summer and of winter4 ,the narcissus and the lily1 in the parts beyond sea1 are a little later than the preceding plants3 but in ,italy1 as we have already#bjgd stated1 they are in blossom with the rose4 ,in ,greece1 too1 the anemone#bjge blooms even later2 it is the flower of a wild bulb1 and is altogether different from the one#bjgf which we shall have occasion to mention among the medicinal plants4 ,next1 after these1 come the nanthe1#bjgg the melanion1#bjgh and1 among the wild plants1 the helichrysos2#bjgi then1 another kind of anemone1 known as the 8limonia10#bjhj and after that the gladiolus1#bjha accompanied by the hyacinth4 ,last of all1 among the spring flowers1 is the rose1 which1 with the exception indeed of the cultivated kinds1 is also the first to fade4 ,among the others1 the flowers which last the longest1 are the hyacinth1 the white violet1 and the nanthe2 but to make this last keep any time in flower1 it is necessary to gather it repeatedly1 to prevent it from running to seed4 ,the nanthe grows in warm localities1 and has exactly the smell of the vine when in blossom1 to which circumstance it is indebted for its name4 ,there are two fabulous stories attached to the hyacinth2#bjhb according to one of them1 it bears the impress of the grief#bjhc which ,apollo felt for the youth#bjhd whom he had so tenderly loved2 and we learn from the other1 that it derives its name from the blood#bjhe of ,ajax1 the veins being so arranged in the flower as to form the ,greek letters inscribed upon it4 ,the helichrysos has a flower resembling gold in appearance1 a small leaf1 and a fine1 slender1 but hard1 stem4 ,according to the ,magi1 the person who crowns himself with a chaplet composed of this flower1 and takes his unguents from a box of gold1 of the kind generally known as 8apyron10#bjhf will be sure to secure esteem and glory among his fellowmen4 ,such are the flowers of spring4 ,,chap4 #ci4--,,the ,,summer ,,flowers--,,the ,,lychnis3 ,,the ,,tiphyon4 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,pothos4 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,orsinum4 ,,the ,,vincapervinca ,,or ,,cham,,daphne--,a ,,plant ,,which ,,is ,,an ,,ever-,,green4 ,the summer flowers come next1 the lychnis#bjhg the flower of ,jove1 and another kind of lily1#bjhh as also the tiphyon#bjhi and the amaracus1 surnamed that of ,phrygia4 ,put the most remarkable flower of all is the pothos1#bjij of which there are two varieties1 one with the flower of the hyacinth1#bjia and another with a white flower1 which is generally found growing about graves1 and is better able to stand bad weather4 ,the iris1#bjib also1 blossoms in summer4 ,all these flowers pass away1 however1 and fade2 upon which others assume their places in autumn1 a third kind of lily1#bjic for instance1 saffron1 and two varieties of the orsinum#bjid--one of them inodorous and the other scented--making their appearance1 all of them1 as soon as the first autumnal showers fall4 ,the garland-makers employ the flowers of the thorn#bjie even for making chaplets2 the tender shoots1 too1 of the white thorn are sometimes preserved as a choice morsel#bjif to tempt the palate4 ,such is the succession of the summer flowers in the parts beyond sea3 in ,italy1 the violet is succeeded by the rose1 the lily comes on while the rose is still in flower1 the cyanus#bjig succeeds the rose1 and the amaranth the cyanus4 ,as to the vincapervinca1#bjih it is an evergreen1 the branches from which run out like so many strings1 the leaves surrounding the stem at each of the knots3 though more generally used for the purposes of ornamental gardening1 it is sometimes employed in chaplets when there is a deficiency of other flowers4 ,from the ,greeks this plant has received the name of 8chamdaphne40 ,,chap4 #dj4--,,the ,,duration ,,of ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,flowers4 ,at the very utmost1 the white#bjii violet never lasts longer than three years3 should it exceed that period1 it is sure to degenerate4 ,the rose-tree will last so long as five years without being pruned or cauterized1#bajj methods by which it is made to grow young again4 ,we have already stated#baja that the nature of the soil is of the very greatest importance2 for in ,egypt1 we find1 all these plants are perfectly inodorous1 and it is only the myrtle that has any particular smell4 ,in some countries1 too1 the germination of all the plants precedes that in other parts of the world by so long a period as two months even4 ,the rose-beds should be well spaded immediately after the west winds begin to prevail1 and1 a second time1 at the summer solstice3 every care1 however1 should be paid1 between these two periods1 to keeping the ground well raked and cleaned4 ,,chap4 #da4 7#ab47--,,plants ,,which ,,should ,,be ,,sown ,,among ,,flowers ,,for ,,bees4 ,,the ,,cerintha4 ,bees and beehives1 too1 are a subject extremely well suited to a description of gardens and garland plants1 while1 at the same time1 where they are successfully managed1 they are a source1 without any great outlay1 of very considerable profit4 ,for bees1 then1 the following plants should be grown--thyme1 apiastrum1 the rose1 the various violets1 the lily1 the cytisus1 the bean1 the fitch1 cunila1 the poppy1 conyza1#bajb cassia1 the melilote1 melissophyllum1#bajc and the cerintha4#bajd ,this last is a plant with a white leaf1 bent inwards1 the stem of it being a cubit in height1 with a flower at the top presenting a concavity full of a juice like honey4 ,bees are remarkably fond of the flowers of these plants1 as also the blossoms of mustard1 a thing that is somewhat surprising1 seeing that it is a well-known fact that they will not so much as touch the blossoms of the olive3 for which reason1 it will be as well to keep that tree at a distance from them4#baje ,there are other trees1 again1 which should be planted as near the hives as possible1 as they attract the swarm when it first wings its flight1 and so prevent the bees from wandering to any considerable distance4 ,,chap4 #db4--,,the ,,maladies ,,of ,,bees1 ,,and ,,the ,,remedies ,,for ,,them4 ,the greatest care1 too1 should be taken to keep the cornel#bajf at a distance from the hives2 for if the bees once taste the blossoms of it1 they will speedily die of flux and looseness4 ,the best remedy in such case is to give them sorb apples beaten up with honey1 or else human urine or that of oxen1 or pomegranate seeds moistened with ,aminean#bajg wine4 ,it is a very good plan1 too1 to plant broom about the hives1 the bees being extremely fond of the blossoms4 ,,chap4 #dc4--,,the ,,food ,,of ,,bees4 ,in relation to the food of bees1 ,i have ascertained a very singular fact1 and one that well deserves to be mentioned4 ,there is a village1 called ,hostilia1 on the banks of the river ,padus3 the inhabitants of it1 when food#bajh fails the bees in their vicinity1 place the hives in boats and convey them some five miles up the river in the night4 ,in the morning the bees go forth to feed1 and then return to the boats2 their locality being changed from day to day1 until at last1 as the boats sink deeper and deeper in the water1 it is ascertained that the hives are full1 upon which they are taken home1 and the honey is withdrawn4 7#ac47 ,in ,spain1 too1 for the same purpose1 they have the hives carried from place to place on the backs of mules4 ,,chap4 #dd4--,,poisoned ,,honey1 ,,and ,,the ,,remedies ,,to ,,be ,,employed ,,by ,,those ,,who ,,have ,,eaten ,,of ,,it4 ,indeed1 the food of bees is of the very greatest importance1 as it is owing to this that we meet with poisonous#baji honey even4 ,at ,heraclia#baaj in ,pontus1 the honey is extremely pernicious in certain years1 though it is the same bees that make it at other times4 ,authors1 however1 have not informed us from what flowers this honey is extracted2 we shall1 therefore1 take this opportunity of stating what we have ascertained upon the subject4 ,there is a certain plant which1 from the circumstance that it proves fatal to beasts of burden1 and to goats in particular1 has obtained the name of 8golethron10#baaa and the blossoms of which1 steeped in the rains of a wet spring1 contract most noxious properties4 ,hence it is that it is not every year that these dangerous results are experienced4 ,the following are the signs of the honey being#baab poisonous3 it never thickens1 the colour is redder than usual1 and it emits a peculiar smell which immediately produces sneezing2 while1 at the same time1 it is more weighty than a similar quantity of good honey4 ,persons1 when they have eaten of it1 throw themselves on the ground to cool the body1 which is bathed with a profuse perspiration4 ,there are numerous remedies1 of which we shall have occasion to speak in a more appropriate place2#baac but as it will be as well to mention some of them on the present occasion1 by way of being provided for such insidious accidents1 ,i will here state that old honied wine is good1 mixed with the finest honey and rue2 salt meats1 also1 taken repeatedly in small quantities1 and as often brought up again4 ,it is a well-known fact that dogs1 after tasting the excretions of persons suffering from these attacks1 have been attacked with similar symptoms1 and have experienced the same kind of pains4 ,still1 however1 it is equally well ascertained1 that honied wine prepared from this honey1 when old1 is altogether innoxious2 and that there is nothing better than this honey1 mixed with costus1#baad for softening the skin of females1 or1 combined with aloes1 for the treatment of bruises4 ,,chap4 #de4--,,maddening ,,honey4 ,in the country of the ,sanni1 in the same part of ,pontus1 there is another kind of honey1 which1 from the madness it produces1 has received the name of 8mnomenon40#baae ,this evil effect is generally attributed to the flowers of the rhododendron1#baaf with which the woods there abound2 and that people1 though it pays a tribute to the ,romans in wax1 derives no profit whatever from its honey1 in consequence of these dangerous properties4 ,in ,persis1 too1 and in ,gtulia1 a district of ,mauritania ,csariensis1 bordering on the country of the ,masssyli1 there are poisonous honeycombs found2 and some1 too1 only partly so1#baag one of the most insidious things that possibly could happen1 were it not that the livid colour of the honey gives timely notice of its noxious qualities4 ,what can we suppose to have possibly been the intention of ,nature in thus laying these traps in our way1 giving us honey that is poisonous in some years and good in others1 poisonous in some parts of the combs and not in others1 and that1 too1 the produce in all cases of the self-same bees8 ,it was not enough1 forsooth1 to have produced a substance in which poison might be administered without the slightest difficulty1 but must she herself administer it as well in the honey1 to fall in the way of so many animated beings8 ,what1 in fact1 can have been her motive1 except to render mankind a little more cautious and somewhat less greedy8 ,and has she not provided the very bees1 too1 with pointed weapons1 and those weapons poisoned to boot8 ,so it is1 and ,i shall1 therefore1 without delay1 set forth the remedies to counteract the effects of their stings4 ,it will be found a very excellent plan to foment the part stung with the juice of mallows#baah or of ivy leaves1 or else for the person who has been stung to take these juices in drink4 ,it is a very astonishing thing1 however1 that the insects which thus carry these poisons in their mouths and secrete them1 should never die themselves in consequence2 unless it is that ,nature1 that mistress of all things1 has given to bees the same immunity from the effects of poison which she has granted against the attacks of serpents to the ,psylli#baai and the ,marsi among men4 ,,chap4 #df4 7#ad47--;,,honey ,,that ,,flies ,,will ,,not ,,touch4 ,another marvellous fact1 again1 connected with honey in ,crete4 ,upon ,mount ,carina in that island1 which is nine miles in circuit1 there is not a fly to be found1 and the honey that is made there no fly will touch4#babj ,it is by this circumstance that honey said to have come from that district is usually tested1 it being highly prized for medicinal preparations4 ,,chap4 #dg4--;,,beehives1 ,,and ,,the ,,attention ,,which ,,should ,,be ,,paid ,,to ,,them4 ,the hives ought to have an aspect due east1#baba but never looking towards the north-east or the west4 ,the best hives are those made of bark1 the next best those of fennel-giant1 and the next of osier3 many persons1 too1 have them made of mirror-stone1#babb for the purpose of watching#babc the bees at work within4 ,it is the best plan to anoint the hives all over with cow-dung4 ,the lid of the hive should be made to slide from behind1 so as to admit of being shut to within1 in case the hive should prove too large or their labours unproductive2 for1 if this is not done1 the bees are apt to become discouraged and abandon their work4 ,the slide may then be gradually withdrawn1 the increase of space being imperceptible to the bees as the work progresses4 ,in winter1 too1 the hives should be covered with straw1 and subjected to repeated fumigations1 with burnt cow-dung more particularly4 ,as this is of kindred#babd origin with the bees1 the smoke produced by it is particularly beneficial in killing all such insects as may happen to breed there1 such as spiders1 for instance1 moths1#babe and wood-worms2#babf while1 at the same time1 it stimulates the bees themselves to increased activity4 ,in fact1 there is little difficulty in getting rid of the spiders1 but to destroy the moths1 which are a much greater plague1 a night must be chosen in spring1 just when the mallow is ripening1 there being no moon1 but a clear sky3 flambeaux are then lighted before the hives1 upon which the moths precipitate themselves in swarms into the flame4 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,that ,,bees ,,are ,,sensible ,,of ,,hunger4 ,if it is found that the bees are in want of aliment1 it will be a good plan to place at the entrance of the hive raisins or dried figs beaten up1#babg as also carded wool soaked in raisin wine1 boiled#babh must1 or hydromel1 and sometimes even the raw#babi flesh of poultry4 ,in certain summers1 too1 when long-continued drought has deprived them of the nutriment which they usually derive from flowers1 similar food must be provided for them4 ,when the honey is taken1 the outlets of the hive should be well rubbed with melissophyllum or broom1#bacj beaten up1 or else the middle of it should be encircled with bands of white vine1 to prevent the bees from taking to flight4 ,it is recommended1 too1 that the honey-pots and combs should be washed with water3 this water1 boiled1 it is said1 will make an extremely wholesome vinegar4#baca ,,chap4 #di4--,,the ,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,wax4 ,,the ,,best ,,kinds ,,of ,,wax4 ,,punic ,,wax4 ,wax is made#bacb from the honeycombs after the honey has been extracted4 ,for this purpose1 they are first cleaned with water1 and then dried three days in the shade3 on the fourth day they are melted on the fire in a new earthen vessel1 with sufficient water to cover them1 after which the liquor is strained off in a wicker basket4#bacc ,the wax is then boiled again with the same water and in the same pot1 and poured into vessels of cold water1 the interior of which has been well rubbed with honey4 ,the best wax is that known as ,punic#bacd wax1 the next best being that of a remarkably yellow colour1 with the smell of honey4 ,this last comes from ,pontus1 and1 to my surprise1 it is in no way affected by the poisonous honey which it has contained4#bace ,the next in quality is the ,cretan wax1 which contains the largest proportion of propolis1#bacf a substance of which we have previously made mention when treating of bees4 ,next to these varieties comes the ,corsican wax1 which1 being the produce of the box-tree1 is generally thought to be possessed of certain medicinal properties4 ,the ,punic wax is prepared in the following manner3 yellow wax is first blanched in the open air1 after which it is boiled in water from the open sea1 with the addition of some nitre4#bacg ,the flower of the wax1 or1 in other words1 the whitest part of it1 is then skimmed off with spoons1 and poured into a vessel containing a little cold water4 ,after this1 it is again boiled in sea-water by itself1 which done1 the vessel is left to cool4 ,when this operation has been three times repeated1 the wax is left in the open air upon a mat of rushes1 to dry in the light of the sun and moon2 for while the latter adds to its whiteness1 the sun helps to dry#bach it4 ,in order1 however1 that it may not melt1 it is the practice to cover it with a linen cloth3 if1 when it has been thus refined1 it is boiled once more1 the result is a wax of the greatest possible whiteness4 ,punic wax is considered the best for all medicinal preparations4 ,wax is made black by the addition of ashes of papyrus1 and a red colour is given to it by the admixture of alkanet2 indeed1 by the employment of various pigments1 it is made to assume various tints1 in which state it is used for making models1#baci and for other purposes without number1 among which we may mention varnishing walls#badj and armour1 to protect them from the air4 ,we have given the other particulars relative to bees and honey1 when speaking#bada of the nature of those insects4 ,we have now stated pretty nearly all that we have to say on the subject of the pleasure garden4 ,,chap4 #ej4 7#ae47--,,plants ,,which ,,grow ,,spontaneously3 ,,the ,,use ,,made ,,of ,,them ,,by ,,various ,,nations1 ,,their ,,nature1 ,,and ,,remarkable ,,facts ,,connected ,,with ,,them4 ,,the ,,strawberry1 ,,the ,,tamnus1 ,,and ,,the ,,butcher',s ,,broom4 ,,the ,,batis1 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,it4 ,,the ,,meadow ,,parsnip4 ,,the ,,hop4 ,we now come to the plants which grow spontaneously1 and which are employed as an aliment by most nations1 the people of ,egypt in particular1 where they abound in such vast quantities1 that1 extremely prolific as that country is in corn1 it is perhaps the only one that could subsist without it3 so abundant are its resources in the various kinds of food to be obtained from plants4 ,in ,italy1 however1 we are acquainted with but very few of them2 those few being the strawberry1#badb the tamnus1#badc the butcher's broom1#badd the sea#bade batis1 and the garden batis1#badf known by some persons as ,gallic asparagus2 in addition to which we may mention the meadow parsnip#badg and the hop1#badh which may be rather termed amusements for the botanist than articles of food4 ,,chap4 #ea4--,,the ,,colocasia4 ,but the plant of this nature that is the most famous in ,egypt is the colocasia1#badi known as the 8cyamos0#baej to some4 ,it is gathered in the river ,nilus1 and the stalk of it1 boiled1 separates#baea into fine filaments when chewed1 like those of the spider's web4 ,the head1#baeb protruding from among the leaves1 is very remarkable2 and the leaves1 which are extremely large1 even when compared with those of trees1 are very similar to those of the plant found in our rivers1 and known by the name of 8personata40#baec ,so much do the people of that country take advantage of the bounteousness displayed by their river1 that they are in the habit of plaiting#baed the leaves of the colocasia with such skill as to make vessels of various shapes1 which they are extremely fond of using for drinking vessels4 ,at the present day1 however1 this plant is cultivated in ,italy4#baee ,,chap4 #eb4--,,the ,,cichorium4 ,,the ,,anthalium ,,or ,,anticellium1 ,,or ,,anthyllum4 ,,the ,,tum4 ,,the ,,arachidna4 ,,the ,,aracos4 ,,the ,,candryala4 ,,the ,,hypoch,,ris4 ,,the ,,caucalis4 ,,the ,,anthriscum4 ,,the ,,scandix4 ,,the ,,tragopogon4 ,,the ,,parthenium ,,or ,,leucanthes1 ,,amaracus1 ,,perdicium1 ,,or ,,muralis4 ,,the ,,trychnum ,,or ,,strychnum1 ,,halicacabum1 ,,callias1 ,,dorycnion1 ,,manicon1 ,,peritton1 ,,neuras1 ,,morio1 ,,or ,,moly4 ,,the ,,corchorus4 ,,the ,,aphace4 ,,the ,,acynopos4 ,,the ,,epipetron4 ,,plants ,,which ,,never ,,flower4 ,,plants ,,which ,,are ,,always ,,in ,,flower4 ,in ,egypt1 next to the colocasia1 it is the cichorium that is held in the highest esteem1 a plant which we have already spoken#baef of under the name of wild endive4#baeg ,it springs up after the rising of the ,vergili1 and the various portions of it blossom in succession3 the root is supple1 and hence is used for making withes even4 ,the anthalium#baeh grows at a greater distance#baei from the river2 the fruit of it is round1#bafj and about the size of a medlar1 but without either kernel or rind2 the leaves of the plant are similar to those of the cyperus4 ,the people there eat the fruit of it cooked upon the fire1 as also of the tum1#bafa a plant which has a few leaves only1 and those extremely diminutive1 though the root is large in proportion4#bafb ,the arachidna1#bafc again1 and the aracos have numerous branchy roots1 but neither leaves nor any herbaceous parts1 nor1 indeed1 anything that makes its appearance above ground4 ,the other plants that are commonly eaten in ,egypt are the chondrylla1#bafd the hypochris1#bafe the caucalis1#baff the anthriscum1#bafg the scandix1 the come1 by some persons known as the tragopogon1#bafh with leaves very similar to those of saffron1 the parthenium1#bafi the trychnum1#bagj and the corchorus2#baga with the aphace#bagb and acynopos1#bagc which make their appearance at the equinox4 ,there is a plant also1 called the epipetron1#bagd which never blossoms2#bage while the aphace1 on the other hand1 as its flowers die1 from time to time puts forth fresh ones1 and remains#bagf in blossom throughout the winter and the spring1 until the following summer4 ,,chap4 #ec4--;,,four ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,cnecos4 ,the ,egyptians have many other plants also1 of little note2 but they speak in the highest terms of the cnecos2#bagg a plant unknown to ,italy1 and which the ,egyptians hold in esteem1 not as an article of food1 but for the oil it produces1 and which is extracted from the seed4 ,the principal varieties are the wild and the cultivated kinds2 of the wild variety1 again1 there are two sorts1 one of which is less prickly#bagh than the other1 but with a similar stem1 only more upright3 hence it is that in former times females used it for distaffs1 from which circumstance it has received the name of 8atractylis0#bagi from some2 the seed of it is white1 large1 and bitter4 ,the other variety#bahj is more prickly1 and has a more sinewy stem1 which may be said almost to creep upon the ground2 the seed is small4 ,the cnecos belongs to the thorny plants3 indeed1 it will be as well to make some classification of them4 ,,chap4 #ed4--,,plants ,,of ,a ,,prickly ,,nature3 ,,the ,,erynge1 ,,the ,,glycyrriza1 ,,the ,,tribulus1 ,,the ,,anonis1 ,,the ,,pheos ,,or ,,st,,be1 ,,and ,,the ,,hippophaes4 ,for some plants1 in fact1 are thorny1 while others1 again1 are destitute of prickles3 the species of thorny plants are very numerous4 ,the asparagus#baha and the scorpio#bahb are essentially thorny plants1 having no leaves at all upon them4 ,some plants1 again1 that are prickly have leaves as well1 such as the thistle1 for instance1 the erynge1#bahc the glycyrriza1#bahd and the nettle2#bahe all these plants being provided with leaves that prick or sting4 ,some plants have thorns at the base of their leaves1 the tribulus#bahf and the anonis#bahg for instance2 others1 again1 have thorns1 not on the leaves but on the stem1 the pheos#bahh for example1 known as the stbe to some4 ,the hippophas#bahi has thorns at the joints2 the tribulus presents the peculiarity of bearing a fruit that is thorny4 ,,chap4 #ee4--;,,four ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,nettle4 ,,the ,,lamium ,,and ,,the ,,scorpio4 ,but of all these plants1 it is the nettle that is the best known to us1 the calyces#baij of the blossoms of which produce a purple down3 it frequently exceeds two cubits even in height4#baia ,there are numerous varieties of this plant2 the wild nettle1 known also as the female nettle1 does not inflict so bad a sting as the others4 ,among the several varieties of the wild nettle1 the one known as the dog#baib-nettle1 stings the worst1 the stem of it even possessing that property2 the leaves of the nettle are indented at the edge4 ,there is one kind also1 which emits a smell1 known as the ,herculanean#baic nettle4 ,the seed of all the nettles is copious1 and black4 ,it is a singular fact that1 though possessed of no spinous points1 the down#baid of the nettle is of a noxious nature1 and that1 though ever so lightly touched1 it will immediately produce an itching sensation1 and raise a blister on the flesh similar in appearance to a burn3 the well-known remedy for it is olive oil4 ,the stinging property of the nettle does not belong to the plant at the earliest period of its growth1 but only developes itself under the influence of the sun4 ,the plant first begins to grow in the spring1 at which period it is by no means a disagreeable food2#baie indeed1 it has become quite a religious observance to employ it as such1 under the impression that it is a preventive from diseases the whole year through4 ,the root1 too1 of the wild nettle1 has the effect of rendering all meat more tender that is boiled with it4#baif ,the kind that is innoxious and destitute of all stinging properties1 is known as the 8lamium40#baig ,of the scorpio#baih we shall have occasion to speak when treating of the medicinal plants4 ,,chap4 #ef4 7#af74--,,the ,,carduus1 ,,the ,,acorna1 ,,the ,,phonos1 ,,the ,,leucacanthos1 ,,the ,,chalceos1 ,,the ,,cnecos1 ,,the ,,polyacanthos1 ,,the ,,onopyxos1 ,,the ,,helxine1 ,,the ,,scolymos1 ,,the ,,cham,,leon1 ,,the ,,tetralix1 ,,and ,,acanthice ,,mastiche4 ,the carduus#baii has leaves and a stem covered with a prickly down2 the same is the case1 too1 with the acorna1#bbjj the leucacanthos1#bbja the chalceos1#bbjb the cnecos1#bbjc the polyacanthos1#bbjd the onopyxos1#bbje the helxine1#bbjf and the scolymos2#bbjg the chamleon1#bbjh however1 has no prickles upon the leaves4 ,there is1 however1 this difference among these plants1 that some of them have numerous stems and branches1 such as the carduus1 for instance2 while others1 again1 have a single stem and no branches1 the cnecos1 for example4 ,some1 again1 such as the erynge1#bbji are prickly at the head only2 and some blossom in the summer1 the tetralix and the helxine1 for instance4 ,the scolymos blossoms late1 and remains a considerable period in flower3 the acorna being distinguished only for its red colour and its unctuous juice4 ,the atractylis would be similar in every respect to the last1 were it not that it is somewhat whiter1 and produces a juice the colour of blood1 a circumstance to which it owes the name of 8phonos10#bbaj given to it by some4 ,the smell of this plant is powerful1 and the seed only ripens at a late period1 and never before autumn1 although the same may be said of all the prickly plants1 in fact4 ,all of them are capable1 however1 of being reproduced from either seed or root4 ,the scolymos1 which belongs to the thistle#bbaa genus1 differs from the rest of them in the circumstance that the root of it is boiled and eaten4 ,it is a singular fact that this genus of plants bears blossoms1 buds1 and fruit the whole of the summer through1 without any interruption3 when the leaf is dried1 the prickles lose their pungency4 ,the helxine is a plant but rarely seen1 and in some countries only4 ,it throws out leaves at the root1 from the middle of which there is a protuberance in the shape of an apple1 covered with leaves of its own3 the head of it contains a thick juice of a sweet flavour1 the name given to which is 8acanthice mastiche40#bbab ,,chap4 #eg4--,,the ,,cactos2 ,,the ,,pternix1 ,,pappus1 ,,and ,,ascalias4 ,the cactos1#bbac too1 is a plant that grows only in ,sicily1 having peculiar characteristics of its own3 the root throws out stalks which creep along the ground1 the leaves being broad and thorny4 ,the name given to these stalks is 8cactos10 and they are not disliked as an article of food1#bbad even when old4 ,the plant1 however1 has one stem which grows upright1 and is known by the name of 8pternix20 it has the same sweet flavour as the other parts1 though it will not keep4 ,the seed of it is covered with a kind of down1 known as 8pappus30#bbae when this is removed1 as well as the rind#bbaf of the fruit1 it is tender1 and like the pith of the palm3 the name given to it is 8ascalias40 ,,chap4 #eh4--,,the ,,tribulus3 ,,the ,,anonis4 ,the tribulus#bbag grows nowhere except in marshy places3 though held in abomination elsewhere1#bbah it is employed on the banks of the ,nilus and ,strymon as an article of food4 ,it always bends towards the water1 and has a leaf like that of the elm1 with a long stalk4 ,in other parts of the world there are two varieties of this plant2 the one#bbai with leaves like those of the chicheling vetch1 the other with leaves protected by prickles4 ,this last variety blossoms also at a later period than the other1 and is mostly found in the hedge-rows about farm-houses4 ,the seed of it is black1 rounder than that of the other1 and enclosed in pods3 that of the other variety bears a resemblance to sand4 ,among the prickly plants there is also another kind1 known as the 8anonis30#bbbj indeed1 it has thorns upon the branches1 to which leaves are attached similar to those of rue1 the stem being entirely covered also with leaves1 in form resembling a garland4 ,it comes up in land that has been newly ploughed1 being highly prejudicial to the corn1 and long-lived in the extreme4 ,,chap4 #ei4--,,plants ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,stems3 ,,the ,,coronopus1 ,,the ,,anchusa1 ,,the ,,anthemis1 ,,the ,,phyllanthes1 ,,the ,,crepis1 ,,and ,,the ,,lotus4 ,some1 again1 among the prickly plants have a stem which creeps along the ground1 that1 for instance1 known as the 8coronopus40#bbba ,on the other hand1 the anchusa1#bbbb the root of which is employed for dyeing wood and wax1 has an upright stem2 which is the case also with some of the plants that are prickly in a less degree1 the anthemis1#bbbc for example1 the phyllanthes1#bbbd the anemone1 and the aphace3#bbbe the crepis1#bbbf again1 and the lotus1#bbbg have a foliated stem4 ,,chap4 #fj4--,,plants ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,leaves4 ,,plants ,,which ,,never ,,lose ,,their ,,leaves3 ,,plants ,,which ,,blossom ,a ,,little ,,at ,a ,,time3 ,,the ,,heliotropium ,,and ,,the ,,adiantum1 ,,the ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,which ,,will ,,be ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,following ,,book4 ,the leaves of plants1 as well as those of trees1 differ from one another in the length of the footstalk1 and in the breadth or narrowness of the leaf1 and the angles and indentations perceptible on its edge4 ,other differences are also constituted in respect of their smell and blossom4 ,the blossom remains on longer in some of those plants which flower only a little at a time1 such as the ocimum1#bbbh the heliotropium1#bbbi the aphace1 and the onochilis1#bbcj for example4 7#ag47 ,many of these plants1 the same as certain among the trees1 never lose their leaves1 the heliotropium1#bbca the adiantum#bbcb and the polium1#bbcc for instance4 ,,chap4 #fa4--,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,eared ,,plants3 ,,the ,,stanyops2 ,,the ,,alopecuros2 ,,the ,,stelephuros1 ,,ortyx1 ,,or ,,plantago2 ,,the ,,thryallis4 ,the eared#bbcd plants form another variety3 among them we find the cynops1#bbce the alopecuros1#bbcf the stelephuros1#bbcg also known to some persons as the ortyx1#bbch and to others as the plantago1 of which last we shall have occasion#bbci to speak more at length among the medicinal plants1 and the thryallis4#bbdj ,the alopecuros1 among these1 has a soft ear and a thick down1 not unlike a fox's tail in fact1 to which resemblance it owes its name4 ,the plant most like#bbda it is the stelephuros1 were it not that it blossoms only a little at a time4 ,in the cichorium and similar plants1 the leaves are near the ground1 the buds springing from the root just after the rising of the ,vergili4#bbdb ,,chap4 #fb--,,the ,,perdicium4 ,,the ,,ornithogale4 ,it is not in ,egypt only that the perdicium#bbdc is eaten2 it owes its name to the partridge1#bbdd which bird is extremely fond of digging it up4 ,the roots of it are thick and very numerous3 and so1 too1 with the ornithogale1#bbde which has a tender white stalk1 and a root half a foot in thickness1 bulbous1 soft1 and provided with three or four other offsets attached to it4 ,it is generally used boiled in pottage4#bbdf ,,chap4 #fc4--,,plants ,,which ,,only ,,make ,,their ,,appearance ,,at ,,the ,,end ,,of ,a ,,year4 ,,plants ,,which ,,begin ,,to ,,blossom ,,at ,,the ,,top4 ,,plants ,,which ,,begin ,,to ,,blossom ,,at ,,the ,,lower ,,part4 ,it is a remarkable thing that the herb lotus#bbdg and the gilops#bbdh never make their appearance above ground till the end of a year after the seed has been sown4 ,the anthemis1#bbdi too1 offers the singular peculiarity that it begins to blossom at the top1 while in all the other plants which flower gradually1 it is at the lower part that the blossom first makes its appearance4 ,,chap4 #fd4--,,the ,,lappa1 ,a ,,plant ,,which ,,produces ,,within ,,itself4 ,,the ,,opuntia1 ,,which ,,throws ,,out ,a ,,root ,,from ,,the ,,leaf4 ,in the lappa1#bbej too1 which clings so tenaciously1 there is this remarkable peculiarity1 that within it there grows a flower1 which does not make its appearance1 but remains concealed and there produces the seed1 like those among the animals which produce within themselves4 ,in the vicinity of ,opus there grows a plant#bbea which is very pleasant eating to man1 and the leaf of which1 a most singular thing1 gives birth to a root by means of which it reproduces itself4 ,,chap4 #fe4--,,the ,,iasione4 ,,the ,,chondrylla4 ,,the ,,picris1 ,,which ,,remains ,,in ,,flower ,,the ,,whole ,,year ,,through4 ,the iasione#bbeb has a single leaf only1 but that so folded and involved1 as to have all the appearance of being several in number4 ,the chondrylla#bbec is bitter1 and the juice of the root is of an acrid taste4 ,the aphace1 too1 is bitter1 and so is the plant called 8picris10#bbed which also remains in flower the whole year through3 it is to this bitterness that it is indebted for its name4#bbee ,,chap4 #ff4--,,plants ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,blossom ,,makes ,,its ,,appearance ,,before ,,the ,,stem4 ,,plants ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,stem ,,appears ,,before ,,the ,,blossom4 ,,plants ,,which ,,blossom ,,three ,,times ,,in ,,the ,,year4 ,the peculiarities also of the squill and saffron deserve remark2 for while all other plants put forth their leaves first1 and then a round stem1 these show the stem before the leaf makes its appearance3 in the saffron1 however1 the blossom is protruded by the stem1 but in the squill it is the stem that first makes its appearance1 and then the flower emerges from it4 ,this plant blossoms three times in the year1 indicating thereby1 as previously stated1#bbef the three seasons for ploughing4 ,,chap4 #fg4--,,the ,,cypiros4 ,,the ,,thesion4 ,some authors reckon among the bulbs the root of the cypiros1 or gladiolus2#bbeg it is a pleasant food1 and when boiled and kneaded up with bread1 makes it more agreeable to the taste1 and at the same time more weighty4 ,not unlike it in appearance is the plant known to us as the 8thesion10#bbeh but it is of an acrid flavour4 ,,chap4 #fh4--,,the ,,asphodel1 ,,or ,,royal ,,spear4 ,,the ,,anthericus ,,or ,,albucus4 ,other plants of the bulbous kind differ in the leaf3 that of the asphodel#bbei is long and narrow1 that of the squill broad and supple1 and the form of that of the gladiolus is bespoken by its name4#bbfj ,the asphodel is used as an article of food1 the seed of it being parched1 and the bulb roasted2#bbfa this last1 however1 should be cooked in hot ashes1 and then eaten with salt and oil4 ,it is beaten up also with figs1 and forms1 as ,hesiod assures us1 a very delicate dish4 ,it is said1 too1 that the asphodel1 planted before the doors of a farm-house1 will act as a preservative against the effects of noxious spells4 ,homer1#bbfb too1 makes mention of the asphodel4 ,the bulbs of it are like moderately-sized turnips1 and there is no plant the root of which has more of them1 as many as eighty bulbs being often grouped together4 ,theophrastus1 and nearly all the ,greek writers1 with ,pythagoras at the head of them1 have given the name of 8anthericos0 to its stem1 which is one cubit1 and often two1 in length1 the leaves being very similar to those of the wild leek2 it is to the root1 or in other words1 the bulbs1 that they have given the name of asphodel4 ,the people of our country call this plant#bbfc 8albucus10 and they give the name of 8royal#bbfd spear0 to the asphodel the stem of which bears berries1#bbfe thus distinguishing two#bbff varieties of it4 ,the albucus has a stalk a cubit in length1 large1 naked1 and smooth1 in reference to which1 ,mago recommends that it should be cut at the end of ,march and the beginning of ,april1 the period at which it blossoms1 and before the seed has begun to swell2 he says1 too1 that the stalks should be split1 and exposed on the fourth day in the sun1 after which1 when dry1 they should be made up into bundles4 ,the same author states1 also1 that the ,greeks give the name of 8pistana0 to the aquatic plant known to us as the 8sagitta20#bbfg and he recommends that it should be stripped of its bark1 and dried in a mild sun1 between the ides of ,may#bbfh and the end of ,october4 ,he says1 too1 that it is usual to cut down to the root1 throughout all the month of ,july1 the variety of the gladiolus called 8cypiros10 which is a marsh-plant also1 and at the end of three days to dry it in the sun1 until it turns white2 but that care must be taken every day to carry it under cover before sunset1 the night dews being very injurious to marsh plants when cut4 ,,chap4 #fi4 7#ah47--,,six ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,rush3 ,,four ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,cypiros4 ,mago has likewise given similar recommendations as to the rush known to us as the 8mariscus10#bbfi and which is so extensively employed for weaving mats4 ,he says that it should be gathered in the month of ,june1 up to the middle of ,july1 and for drying it he gives the same precepts that have been already#bbgj mentioned1 in the appropriate place1 when speaking of sedge4 ,he describes a second kind1 also1 which ,i find is generally called the 8marine0 rush1 and is known to the ,greeks as the 8oxyschnos40#bbga ,generally speaking1 there are three varieties of this last rush3 the pointed rush1 which is barren1 and by the ,greeks is called the male rush and the 8oxys30#bbgb the female rush1#bbgc which bears a black seed1 and is called the 8melancranis10#bbgd thicker and more bushy than the preceding one3 and a third kind1 called the 8holoschnus10#bbge which is larger still4 ,of these varieties1 the melancranis grows separately from the others1 but the oxys and the holoschnus will grow upon the self-same clod4 ,the holoschnus is the most useful for all kinds of basket-work1 being of a particularly supple and fleshy nature2 it bears a fruit1 which resembles eggs attached to one another4 ,the rush1 again1 which we have spoken of as the male rush1#bbgf is reproduced from itself1 the summit of it being bent down into the earth2 the melancranis1 however1 is propagated from seed4 ,beyond this1 the roots of all the varieties of the rush die every year4 ,the rush is in general use for making kipes#bbgg for sea-fishing1 the more light and elegant kinds of basket-work1 and the wicks of lamps1 for which last purpose the pith is more particularly employed4#bbgh ,in the vicinity of the maritime ,alps1 the rushes grow to such a vast size1 that when split they measure nearly an inch in diameter2 while in ,egypt1 on the other hand1 they are so extremely fine1 that the people there make sieves of them1 for which1 indeed1 there can be nothing better4 ,some authors1 again1 distinguish another kind of rush1 of a triangular shape1 to which they give the name of cyperos1#bbgi though many persons make no distinction between it and the 8cypiros10 in consequence of the resemblance of the names2 for our own part1 however1 we shall observe the distinction4 ,the cypiros1 as we have already#bbhj stated1 is identical with the gladiolus1 a plant with a bulbous root1 the most esteemed being those grown in the ,isle of ,crete1 the next best those of ,naxos1 and the next those of ,phnicia4 ,the cypiros of ,crete is white1 with an odour strongly resembling that of nard2 the produce of ,naxos has a more pungent smell1 that of ,phnicia but little odour of any kind1 and that of gypt none at all2 for it grows in that country as well4 ,this plant disperses hard tumours of the body--for we shall here begin to speak of the remedies derived from the various flowers and odoriferous plants1 they being1 all of them1 of very considerable utility in medicine4 ,as to the cypiros1 then1 ,i shall follow ,apollodorus1 who forbids it to be taken in drink1 though at the same time he admits that it is extremely useful for calculi of the bladder1 and recommends it in fomentations for the face4 ,he entertains no doubt1 however1 that it is productive of abortion1 and he mentions1 as a remarkable fact1 that the barbarians1#bbha by inhaling the fumes of this plant at the mouth1 thereby diminish the volume of the spleen4 ,they never go out of the house1 he says1 till they have inhaled these fumes1 through the agency of which they daily become stronger and stronger1 and more robust4 ,he states1 also1 that the cypiros1 employed as a liniment with oil1 is an undoubted remedy for chafing of the skin1 and offensive odours of the arm-pits4 ,,chap4 #gj4--,,the ,,cyperos3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,cyperis4 ,,the ,,cypira4 ,the cyperos1 as we have just stated1 is a rush of angular shape1 white near the ground1 and black and solid at the top4 ,the lower leaves are more slender than those of the leek1 and those at the top are small1 with the seed of the plant lying between them4 ,the root resembles a black olive1#bbhb and when it is of an oblong shape1 the plant is known as the 8cyperis10#bbhc being employed in medicine to a great extent4 ,the cyperos most highly esteemed is that of the vicinity of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,hammon1 the next best being that of ,rhodes1 the next that of ,ther1 and the worst of all that of ,egypt1 a circumstance which tends greatly to add to the misunderstanding on the subject1 as that country produces the cypiros as well3 but the cypiros which grows there is extremely hard1 and has hardly any smell at all1 while all the other#bbhd varieties of it have an odour strongly resembling that of nard4 ,there is also an ,indian plant1 called the 8cypira10#bbhe of a totally different character1 and similar to ginger in appearance2 when chewed1 it has exactly the flavour of saffron4 ,the cyperos1 employed medicinally1 is possessed of certain depilatory properties4 ,it is used in liniments for hang-nails and ulcerous sores of the genitals and of all parts of the body which are of a humid nature1 ulcers of the mouth1 for instance4 ,the root of it is a very efficacious remedy for the stings of serpents and scorpions4 ,taken in drink1 it removes obstructions of the uterus1 but if employed in too large doses1 it is liable to cause prolapsus of that organ4 ,it acts also as a diuretic1 and expels calculi of the bladder2 properties which render it extremely useful in dropsy4 ,it is employed topically1 also1 for serpiginous ulcers1 those of the throat more particularly1 being usually applied with wine or vinegar4 ,,chap4 #ga4--,,the ,,holosch,,nus4 ,the root of the rush1 boiled down to one third in three hemin of water1 is a cure for cough2 the seed of it1 parched and taken in water1 arrests looseness of the bowels and the menstrual discharge1 though at the same time it causes headache4 ,the name given to this rush is holoschnus2 the parts of it nearest the root are chewed1 as a cure for the bites of spiders4 ,i find mention made1 also1 of one other kind of rush1 the name of which is 8euripice20#bbhf the seed1 they say1 is narcotic1 but the greatest care is necessary1 not to throw the patient into a lethargy4 ,,chap4 #gb4--,,ten ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,sweet-,,scented ,,rush1 ,,or ,,teuchites4 ,we will also take this opportunity of mentioning the medicinal properties of the sweet-scented rush1 which is found in ,cle-,syria1 as already stated by us in the appropriate place4#bbhg ,the most esteemed kind1 however1 is that which grows in the country of the ,nabati1 and is known as the 8teuchites20#bbhh the next best being the produce of ,babylonia1 and the very worst that of ,africa1 which is entirely destitute of smell4 ,this rush is round1 and when applied to the tongue1 has a pungent1 vinous flavour4 ,the genuine kind1 when rubbed1 gives out an odour like that of the rose1 and when broken asunder it is red within4 ,it dispels flatulency1 and hence it is very good for the stomach1 and for persons when vomiting the bile or blood4 ,it arrests hiccup also1 promotes eructations1 acts as a diuretic1 and is curative of affections of the bladder4 ,a decoction of it is used for female complaints2 and in cases of opisthotony1 it is applied in plasters with dry resin1 these being highly valued for their warming properties4 ,,chap4 #gc4--,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,flowers ,,before ,,mentioned3 ,,thirty-,,two ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,rose4 ,the rose is of an astringent and refreshing nature4 ,for medicinal purposes the petals1 the flowers1 and the heads are used4 ,those portions of the petals which are quite white are known as the unglets4#bbhi ,in the flower there is the seed1 as distinguished from the filaments1 and in the head there is the bud1#bbij as well as the calyx4 ,the petals are dried1 or else the juice is extracted from them1 by one of the three following methods3 ,either the leaves are employed whole for the purpose1 the unglets not being removed--for these are the parts1 in fact1 that contain the most juice--or else the unglets are first taken off and the residue is then macerated with oil or wine1 in glass vessels placed in the sun4 ,some persons add salt as well1 and others alkanet1#bbia or else aspalathus or sweet-scented rush2 as it is1 when thus prepared1 a very valuable remedy for diseases of the uterus and for dysentery4 ,according to the third process1 the unglets are removed from the petals1 and pounded1 after which they are subjected to pressure in a coarse linen cloth1 the juice being received in a copper vessel2 it is then boiled on a slow fire1 until it has acquired the consistence of honey2 for this purpose1 however1 the most odoriferous of the petals should be selected4 7#ai47 ,we have already stated1#bbib when speaking of the various kinds of wines1 how rose wine is made4 ,rose juice is much used in injections for the ears1 and as a gargle for ulcerations of the mouth1 and for the gums and tonsils2 it is employed also for the stomach1 maladies of the uterus1 diseases of the rectum1 and for head-ache4 ,in fevers1 it is used1 either by itself or in combination with vinegar1 as a remedy for sleeplessness and nausea4 ,the petals1 charred1 are used as a cosmetic for the eyebrows2#bbic and the thighs1 when chafed1 are rubbed with them dried2 reduced to powder1 too1 they are soothing for defluxions of the eyes4 ,the flower of the rose is soporific1 and taken in oxycrate it arrests fluxes in females1 the white flux in particular2 also spitting of blood1 and pains in the stomach1 if taken in three cyathi of wine1 in sufficient quantity to flavour it4 ,as to the seed of the rose1 the best is that which is of a saffron colour1 and not more than a year old2 it should be dried1 too1 in the shade4 ,the black seed is worthless4 ,in cases of tooth-ache1 the seed is employed in the form of a liniment2 it acts also as a diuretic1 and is used as a topical application for the stomach1 as also in cases of erysipelas which are not inveterate3 inhaled at the nostrils1 it has the effect of clearing the brain4 ,the heads of roses1 taken in drink1 arrest looseness of the bowels and hmorrhage4 ,the unglets of the rose are wholesome in cases of defluxion of the eyes2 but the rose is very apt to taint all ulcerous sores of the eyes1 if it is not applied at the very beginning of the defluxion1 dried1 and in combination with bread4 ,the petals1 too1 taken internally1 are extremely wholesome for gnawing pains of the stomach1 and for maladies of the abdomen or intestines2 as also for the thoracic organs1 if applied externally even3 they are preserved1 too1 for eating1 in a similar manner to lapathum4 ,great care must be taken in drying rose-leaves1 as they are apt to turn mouldy very quickly4 ,the petals1 too1 from which the juice has been extracted1 may be put to some use when dried3 powders1#bbid for instance1 may be made from them1 for the purpose of checking the perspiration4 ,these powders are sprinkled on the body1 upon leaving the bath1 and are left to dry on it1 after which they are washed off with cold water4 ,the little excrescences#bbie of the wild rose1 mixed with bears'-grease1#bbif are a good remedy for alopecy4 ,,chap4 #gd4--,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,lily4 ,the roots of the lily#bbig ennoble that flower in manifold ways by their utility in a medicinal point of view4 ,taken in wine1 they are good for the stings of serpents1 and in cases of poisoning by fungi4 ,for corns on the feet1 they are applied boiled in wine1 not being taken off before the end of three days4 ,a decoction of them with grease or oil1 has the effect of making the hair grow again upon burns4 ,taken with honied wine1 they carry off corrupt blood by stool2 they are good1 also1 for the spleen and for hernia1 and act as an emmenagogue4 ,boiled in wine and applied with honey1 they are curative of wounds of the sinews4 ,they are good1 too1 for lichens1 leprous sores1 and scurf upon the face1 and they efface wrinkles of the body4 ,the petals of the lily are boiled in vinegar1 and applied1 in combination with polium1#bbih to wounds2 if it should happen1 however1 to be a wound of the testes1 it is the best plan to apply the other ingredients with henbane and wheat-meal4 ,lily-seed is applied in cases of erysipelas1 and the flowers and leaves are used as a cataplasm for inveterate ulcers4 ,the juice which is extracted from the flower is called 8honey0#bbii by some persons1 and 8syrium0 by others2 it is employed as an emollient for the uterus1 and is also used for the purpose of promoting perspirations1 and for bringing suppurations to a head4 ,,chap4 #ge4--,,sixteen ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,narcissus4 ,two varieties of the narcissus are employed in medicine1 the one with a purple#bcjj flower1 and the herbaceous narcissus4#bcja ,this last is injurious to the stomach1 and hence it is that it acts both as an emetic and as a purgative3 it is prejudicial1 also1 to the sinews1 and produces dull1 heavy pains in the head3 hence it is that it has received its name1 from 8narce10#bcjb and not from the youth ,narcissus1 mentioned in fable4 ,the roots of both kinds of narcissus have a flavour resembling that of wine mixed with honey4 ,this plant is very useful1 applied to burns with a little honey1 as also to other kinds of wounds1 and sprains4 ,applied topically1 too1 with honey and oatmeal1 it is good for tumours1 and it is similarly employed for the extraction of foreign substances from the body4 ,beaten up in polenta and oil it effects the cure of contusions and blows inflicted by stones2 and1 mixed with meal1 it effectually cleanses wounds1 and speedily removes black morphews from the skin4 ,of this flower oil of narcissus is made1 good for softening indurations of the skin1 and for warming parts of the body that have been frost-bitten4 ,it is very beneficial1 also1 for the ears1 but is very apt to produce head-ache4 ,,chap4 #gf4--,,seventeen ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,violet4 ,there are both wild and cultivated violets4#bcjc ,the purple violet is of a cooling nature3 for inflammations they are applied to the stomach in the burning heats1 and for pains in the head they are applied to the forehead4 ,violets1 in particular1 are used for defluxions of the eyes1 prolapsus of the fundament and uterus1 and suppurations4 ,worn in chaplets upon the head1 or even smelt at1 they dispel the fumes of wine and head-ache2 and1 taken in water1 they are a cure for quinsy4 ,the purple violet1 taken in water1 is a remedy for epilepsy1 in children more particularly3 violet seed is good for the stings of scorpions4 ,on the other hand1 the flower of the white violet opens suppurations1 and the plant itself disperses them4 ,both the white and the yellow violet check the menstrual discharge1 and act as diuretics4 ,when fresh gathered1 they have less virtue1 and hence it is that they are mostly used dry1 after being kept a year4 ,the yellow violet1 taken in doses of half a cyathus to three cyathi of water1 promotes the catamenia2 and the roots of it1 applied with vinegar1 assuage affections of the spleen1 as also the gout4 ,mixed with myrrh and saffron1 they are good for inflammation of the eyes4 ,the leaves1 applied with honey1 cleanse ulcerous sores of the head1 and1 combined with cerate1#bcjd they are good for chaps of the fundament and other moist parts of the body4 ,employed with vinegar1 they effect the cure of abscesses4 ,,chap4 #gg4--,,seventeen ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,bacchar4 ,,one ,,remedy ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,combretum4 ,the bacchar that is used in medicine is by some of our writers called the 8perpressa40 ,it is very useful for the stings of serpents1 head-ache and burning heats in the head1 and for defluxions of the eyes4 ,it is applied topically for swellings of the mamill after delivery1 as also incipient fistulas#bcje of the eyes1 and erysipelas2 the smell of it induces sleep4 ,it is found very beneficial to administer a decoction of the root for spasms1 falls with violence1 convulsions1 and asthma4 ,for an inveterate cough1 three or four roots of this plant are boiled down to one-third2 this decoction acting also as a purgative for women after miscarriage1 and removing stitch in the side1 and calculi of the bladder4 ,drying powders#bcjf for perspiration are prepared also from this plant2 and it is laid among garments for the smell4#bcjg ,the combretum which we have spoken#bcjh of as resembling the bacchar1 beaten up with axle-grease1 is a marvellous cure for wounds4 ,,chap4 #gh4--;,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,asarum4 ,it is generally stated that asarum#bcji is good for affections of the liver1 taken in doses of one ounce to a semisextarius of honied wine mixed with water4 ,it purges the bowels like hellebore1 and is good for dropsy and affections of the thoracic organs and uterus1 as also for jaundice4 ,when mixed with must1 it makes a wine with strongly diuretic qualities4 ,it is taken up as soon as it begins to put forth its leaves1 and is dried in the shade4 ,it is apt however to turn mouldy very speedily4 ,,chap4 #gi4 7#bj47--;,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,gallic ,,nard4 ,some authors1 as we have already#bcaj stated1 having given the name of 8field nard0 to the root of the bacchar1 we will here mention the medicinal properties of ,gallic nard1 of which we have#bcaa already spoken1 when treating of the foreign trees1 deferring further notice of it till the present occasion4 ,in doses of two drachm1 taken in wine1 it is good for the stings of serpents2 and taken in water or in wine it is employed for inflations of the colon1 maladies of the liver or kidneys1 and suffusions of the gall4 ,employed by itself or in combination with wormwood it is good for dropsy4 ,it has the property1 also1 of arresting excessive discharges of the catamenia4 ,,chap4 #hj4--;,,four ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,plant ,,called 8,,phu40 ,the root of the plant which we have mentioned in the same place under the name of 8phu10#bcab is given in drink1 either bruised or boiled1 in cases of hysterical suffocation1 and for pains of the chest or sides4 ,it acts as an emmenagogue1 and is generally taken in wine4 ,,chap4 #ha4--,,twenty ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,saffron4 ,saffron does not blend well with honey1 or1 indeed1 with any sweet substance1 though very readily with wine or water3 it is extremely useful in medicine1 and is generally kept in horn boxes4 ,applied with egg it disperses all kinds of inflammation1 those of the eyes in particular3 it is employed also for hysterical suffocations1 and for ulcerations of the stomach1 chest1 kidneys1 liver1 lungs1 and bladder4 ,it is particularly useful also in cases of inflammation of those parts1 and for cough and pleurisy4 ,it likewise removes itching#bcac sensations1 and acts as a diuretic4 ,persons who have used the precaution of first taking saffron in drink will never experience surfeit or head-ache1 and will be proof against inebriation4 ,chaplets too1 made of saffron1 and worn on the head1 tend to dispel the fumes of wine4 ,the flower of it is employed topically with ,cimolian#bcad chalk for erysipelas4 ,it is used also in the composition of numerous other medicaments4 ,,chap4 #hb4--,,syrian ,,crocomagna3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,there is also an eye-salve#bcae which is indebted to this plant for its name4 ,the lees#bcaf of the extract of saffron1 employed in the saffron unguent known as 8crocomagma10 have their own peculiar utility in cases of cataract and strangury4 ,these lees are of a more warming nature than saffron itself2 the best kind is that which1 when put into the mouth1 stains the teeth and saliva the colour of saffron4 ,,chap4 #hc4--;,,forty-,,one ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,iris3 ,,two ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,saliunca4 ,the red iris is better than the white one4 ,it is very beneficial to attach this plant to the bodies of infants more particularly when they are cutting their teeth1 or are suffering from cough2 it is equally good1 too1 to inject a few drops of it when children are suffering from tape-worm4 ,the other properties of it differ but very little from those of honey4 ,it cleanses ulcerous sores of the head1 and inveterate abscesses more particularly4 ,taken in doses of two drachm with honey1 it relaxes the bowels2 and an infusion of it is good for cough1 gripings of the stomach1 and flatulency3 taken with vinegar1 too1 it cures affections of the spleen4 ,mixed with oxycrate it is good for the bites of serpents and spiders1 and1 in doses of two drachm with bread or water1 it is employed for the cure of the stings of scorpions4 ,it is applied also topically with oil to the bites of dogs1 and to parts that are excoriated3 employed in a similar manner1 too1 it is good for pains in the sinews1 and in combination with resin it is used as a liniment for lumbago and sciatica4 ,the properties of this plant are of a warming nature4 ,inhaled at the nostrils1 it produces sneezing and cleanses the brain1 and in cases of head-ache it is applied topically in combination with the quince or the strutheum4#bcag ,it dispels the fumes of wine also1 and difficulties of breathing#bcah and taken in doses of two oboli it acts as an emetic3 applied as a plaster with honey1 it extracts splinters of broken bones4 ,powdered iris is employed also for whitlows1 and1 mixed with wine1 for corns and warts1 in which case it is left for three days on the part affected4 ,chewed1 it is a corrective of bad breath and offensive exhalations of the arm-pits1 and the juice of it softens all kinds of indurations of the body4 ,this plant acts as a soporific1 but it wastes the seminal fluids3 it is used also for the treatment of chaps of the fundament and condylomata1 and it heals all sorts of excrescences on the body4 ,some persons give the name of 8xyris0#bcai to the wild iris4 ,this plant disperses scrofulous sores1 as well as tumours and inguinal swellings2 but it is generally recommended that when wanted for these purposes it should be pulled up with the left hand1 the party gathering it mentioning the name of the patient and of the disease for which it is intended to be employed4 ,while speaking of this subject1 ,i will take the opportunity of disclosing the criminal practices of some herbalists--they keep back a portion of the iris1 and of some other plants as well1 the plantago for instance1 and1 if they think that they have not been sufficiently well paid and wish to be employed a second time1 bury the part they have kept back in the same place2 their object being1 ,i suppose1#bcbj to revive the malady which has just been cured4 ,the root of the saliunca#bcba boiled in wine1 arrests vomiting and strengthens the stomach4 ,,chap4 #hd4--;,,eighteen ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,polium4 ,those persons1 according to ,musus and ,hesiod1 who are desirous of gaining honour and glory1 should rub the body all over with polium1#bcbb and handle and cultivate it as much as possible4 ,they say1 too1 that it should be kept about the person as an antidote to poison1 and that to keep serpents away it should be strewed beneath the bed1 burnt1 or else carried on the person2 decoctions of it in wine1 either fresh-gathered or dried1 should be used too as a liniment for the body4 ,medical men prescribe it in vinegar for affections of the spleen1 and in wine for the jaundice2 a decoction of it in wine is recommended also for incipient dropsy2 and in this way too1 it is employed as a liniment for wounds4 ,this plant has the effect of bringing away the after-birth and the dead ftus1 and of dispelling pains in various parts of the body3 it empties the bladder also1 and is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes4 ,indeed1 there is no plant known that better deserves to form an ingredient in the medicament known to us as the 8alexipharmacon30#bcbc though there are some who say that it is injurious to the stomach and is apt to stuff the head1 and that it produces abortion--assertions which#bcbd others1 again1 totally deny4 ,there is a superstitious observance also1 to the effect that1 for cataract1 it ought to be attached to the neck the moment it is found1 every precaution being taken not to let it touch the ground4 ,the same persons state too that the leaves of it are similar to those of thyme1 except that they are softer and more white and downy4 ,beaten up with wild rue in rain water1 it is said to assuage the pain of the sting of the asp2 it is quite as astringent too as the flower#bcbe of the pomegranate1 and as efficacious for closing wounds and preventing them from spreading4 ,,chap4 #he4--,,three ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,holochrysos4 ,,six ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,chrysocome4 ,the holochrysos1#bcbf taken in wine1 is a cure for strangury1 and it is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes4 ,mixed with burnt lees of wine and polenta1 it is curative of lichens4 ,the root of the chrysocome#bcbg is warming and astringent2 it is taken in drink for affections of the liver and lungs1 and a decoction of it in hydromel is good for pains of the uterus4 ,it acts as an emmenagogue also1 and1 administered raw1 draws off the water in dropsy4 ,,chap4 #hf4--,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,melissophyllum4 ,if the bee-hives are rubbed all over with melissophyllum#bcbh or melittna1 the bees will never desert them2 for there is no flower in which they take greater delight4 ,if branches#bcbi of this plant are used1 the bees may be kept within bounds without any difficulty4 ,it is an excellent remedy1 also1 for the stings of bees1 wasps1 and similar insects1 as also for wounds made by spiders and scorpions2 it is used1 too1 for hysterical suffocations1 in combination with nitre1 and for gripings of the bowels1 with wine4 ,the leaves of it are employed topically for scrofulous sores1 and1 in combination with salt1 for maladies of the fundament4 ,a decoction of the juice promotes the menstrual discharge1 dispels inflammations1 and heals ulcerous sores3 it is good1 too1 for diseases of the joints and the bites of dogs1 and is beneficial in cases of inveterate dysentery1 and for cliac affections1 hardness of breathing1 diseases of the spleen1 and ulcerations of the thoracic organs4 ,for films on the eyes1 it is considered a most excellent plan to anoint them with the juice of this plant mixed with honey4 ,,chap4 #hg4--,,thirteen ,,remedies ,,derived ,,prom ,,the ,,melilote4 ,the melilote1#bccj again1 applied with the yolk of an egg1 or else linseed1 effects the cure of diseases of the eyes4 ,it assuages pains1 too1 in the jaws and head1 applied with rose oil2 and1 employed with raisin wine1 it is good for pains in the ears1 and all kinds of swellings or eruptions on the hands4 ,a decoction of it in wine1 or else the plant itself beaten up raw1 is good for pains in the stomach4 ,it is equally beneficial1 too1 for maladies of the uterus2 and for diseases of the testes1 prolapsus of the fundament1 and all other diseases of those parts1 a decoction is made of it1 fresh-gathered1 in water or in raisin wine4 ,with the addition of rose oil1 it is used as a liniment for carcinoma4 ,boiled in sweet wine1 it is particularly useful for the treatment of the ulcers known as 8melicerides40#bcca ,,chap4 #hh4 7#ba47--;,,four ,,remedies ,,derived ,,prom ,,trefoil4 ,the trefoil1#bccb ,i know1 is generally looked upon as being particularly good for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 the seed being taken in doses of twenty grains1 with either wine or oxycrate2 or else the leaves and the plant itself are boiled together1 and a decoction made of them2 indeed1 it is stated1 that a serpent is never to be seen among trefoil4 ,celebrated authors1 too1 ,i find1 have asserted that twenty-five grains of the seed of the kind of trefoil which we have#bccc spoken of as the 8minyanthes10 are a sufficient antidote for all kinds of poisons3 in addition to which1 there are numerous other remedial virtues ascribed to it4 ,but these notions1 in my opinion1 are counterbalanced by the authority of a writer of the very highest repute3 for we find the poet ,sophocles asserting that the trefoil is a venomous plant4 ,simus1 too1 the physician1 maintains that a decoction of it1 or the juice1 poured upon the human body1 is productive of burning sensations similar to those experienced by persons when they have been stung by a serpent and have trefoil applied to the wound4 ,it is my opinion1 then1 that trefoil should never be used in any other capacity than as a counter-poison2 for it is not improbable that the venom of this plant has a natural antipathy to all other kinds of poisons1 a phnomenon which has been observed in many other cases as well4 ,i find it stated1 also1 that the seed of the trefoil with an extremely diminutive leaf1 applied in washes to the face1 is extremely beneficial for preserving the freshness of the skin in females4 ,,chap4 #hi4--,,twenty-,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,thyme4 ,thyme#bccd should be gathered while it is in flower1 and dried in the shade4 ,there are two kinds of thyme3 the white thyme with a ligneous root1 which grows upon declivities1 and is the most esteemed of the two1 and another variety1 which is of a darker colour1 and bears a swarthy flower4 ,they are1 both of them1 considered to be extremely beneficial to the sight1 whether used as an article of food or as a medicament1 and to be good for inveterate coughs4 ,used as an electuary1 with vinegar and salt1 they facilitate expectoration1 and taken with honey1 they prevent the blood from coagulating4 ,applied externally with mustard1 they dispel chronic fluxes of the fauces1 as well as various affections of the stomach and bowels4 ,still1 however1 these plants must be used in moderation1 as they are of a heating nature1 for which reason it is that they act so astringently upon the bowels4 ,in cases of ulceration of the intestines1 the dose should be one denarius of thyme to one sextarius of oxymel2 the same proportions1 too1 should be taken for pains in the sides1 between the shoulder-blades1 or in the thoracic organs4 ,taken with oxymel1 these plants are used for the cure of intestinal diseases1 and a similar draught is administered in cases of alienation of the senses and melancholy4 ,thyme is given also for epilepsy1 when the fits come on1 the smell of it reviving the patient2 it is said1 too1 that epileptic persons should sleep upon soft thyme4 ,it is good1 also1 for hardness of breathing1 and for asthma and obstructions of the catamenia4 ,a decoction of thyme in water1 boiled down to one-third1 brings away the dead ftus1 and it is given to males with oxymel1 as a remedy for flatulency1 and in cases of swelling of the abdomen or testes and of pains in the bladder4 ,applied with wine1 it removes tumours and fluxes1 and1 in combination with vinegar1 callosities and warts4 ,mixed with wine1 it is used as an external application for sciatica2 and1 beaten up with oil and sprinkled upon wool1 it is employed for diseases of the joints1 and for sprains4 ,it is applied1 also1 to burns1 mixed with hogs' lard4 ,for maladies of the joints of recent date1 thyme is administered in drink1 in doses of three oboli to three cyathi of oxymel4 ,for loss of appetite1 it is given1 beaten up with salt4 ,,chap4 #ij4--;,,four ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,hemerocalles4 ,the hemerocalles#bcce has a soft1 pale green leaf1 with an odoriferous1 bulbous root4 ,this root1 applied with honey to the abdomen1 draws off the aqueous humours and all corrupt blood4 ,the leaves of it are applied for defluxions of the eyes1 and for pains in the mamill1 after childbirth4 ,,chap4 #ia4--;,,five ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,helenium4 ,the helenium1 which springs1 as we have already#bccf stated1 from the tears of ,helena1 is generally thought to have been produced for improving the appearance1 and to maintain unimpaired the freshness of the skin in females1 both of the face and of other parts of the body4 ,besides this1 it is generally supposed that the use of it confers additional graces on the person1 and ensures universal attraction4 ,they say1 too1 that1 taken with wine1 it promotes gaiety of spirit1 having1 in fact1 a similar effect to the nepenthes1 which has been so much vaunted by ,homer1#bccg as producing forgetfulness of all sorrow4 ,the juice of this plant is remarkably sweet1 and the root of it1 taken fasting in water1 is good for hardness of breathing2 it is white within1 and sweet4 ,an infusion of it is taken in wine for the stings of serpents2 and the plant1 bruised1 it is said1 will kill mice4 ,,chap4 #ib4--,,twenty-,,two ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,abrotonum4 ,we find two varieties of abrotonum#bcch mentioned1 the field1 and the mountain kind2 this last1 it is generally understood1 is the female plant1 the other the male4 ,they are both of them bitter1 like wormwood4 ,that of ,sicily is the most esteemed1 and next to it1 that of ,galatia4 ,the leaves of it are sometimes employed1 but it is the seed that possesses the most warming properties2 hence it is1 that it is so beneficial for maladies of the sinews1#bcci for cough1 hardness of breathing1 convulsions1 ruptures1 lumbago1 and strangury4 ,several handfuls of this plant are boiled down to one-third1 and the decoction of it1 in doses of four cyathi1 is administered in drink4 ,the seed is given1 pounded1 in water1 in doses of one drachma2 it is very good for affections of the uterus4 ,mixed with barley-meal1 this plant brings tumours to a head1 and boiled with quinces1 it is employed as a liniment for inflammations of the eyes4 ,it keeps away serpents1 and for their stings it is either taken in wine1 or else employed in combination with it as a liniment4 ,it is extremely efficacious1 also1 for the stings of those noxious insects by which shivering fits and chills are produced1 such as the scorpion and the spider called 8phalangium10#bcdj for example2 taken in a potion1 it is good for other kinds of poison1 as also for shivering fits1 however produced1 and for the extraction of foreign substances adhering to the flesh2 it has the effect1 also1 of expelling intestinal worms4 ,it is stated that a sprig of this plant1 if put beneath the pillow1 will act as an aphrodisiac1 and that it is of the very greatest efficacy against all those charms and spells by which impotence is produced4 ,,chap4 #ic4 7#bb47--,,one ,,remedy ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,leucanthemum4 ,,nine ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,amaracus4 ,the leucanthemum1#bcda mixed with two-thirds of vinegar1 is curative of asthma4 ,the sampsuchum or amaracus1#bcdb--that of ,cyprus being the most highly esteemed1 and possessed of the finest smell--is a remedy for the stings of scorpions1 applied to the wound with vinegar and salt4 ,used as a pessary1 too1 it is very beneficial in cases of menstrual derangement2 but when taken in drink1 its properties are not so powerfully developed4 ,used with polenta1 it heals defluxions of the eyes2 and the juice of it1 boiled1 dispels gripings of the stomach4 ,it is useful1 too1 for strangury and dropsy2 and in a dry state1 it promotes sneezing4 ,there is an oil extracted from it1 known as 8sampsuchinum10 or 8amaracinum10 which is very good for warming and softening the sinews2 it has a warming effect1 also1 upon the uterus4 ,the leaves are good for bruises1 beaten up with honey1 and1 mixed with wax1 for sprains4 ,,chap4 #id4 7#bc47--,,ten ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,anemone ,,or ,,phrenion4 ,we have as yet spoken#bcdc only of the anemone used for making chaplets2 we will now proceed to describe those kinds which are employed for medicinal purposes4 ,some persons give the name of 8phrenion0 to this plant3 there are two species of it2 one of which is wild1#bcdd and the other grows on cultivated#bcde spots2 though they are1 both of them1 attached to a sandy soil4 ,of the cultivated anemone there are numerous varieties2 some1 and these are the most abundant1 have a scarlet flower1 while others1 again1 have a flower that is purple or else milk-white4 ,the leaves of all these three kinds bear a strong resemblance to parsley1 and it is not often that they exceed half a foot in height1 the head being very similar to that of asparagus4 ,the flower never opens1 except while the wind is blowing1 a circumstance to which it owes its name4#bcdf ,the wild anemone is larger than the cultivated one1 and has broader leaves1 with a scarlet flower4 ,some persons erroneously take the wild anemone to be the same as the argemone1#bcdg while others1 again1 identify it with the poppy which we have mentioned#bcdh under the name of 8rhas30 there is1 however1 a great difference between them1 as these two other plants blossom later than the anemone1 nor does the anemone possess a juice or a calyx like theirs2 besides which1 it terminates in a head like that of asparagus4 ,the various kinds of anemone are good for pains and inflammations of the head1 diseases of the uterus1 and stoppage of the milk in females2 taken1 too1 in a ptisan1 or applied as a pessary in wool1 they promote the menstrual discharge4 ,the root1 chewed1 has a tendency to bring away the phlegm1 and is a cure for tooth-ache3 a decoction of it is good1 too1 for defluxions of the eyes1#bcdi and effaces the scars left by wounds4 ,the ,magi have attributed many very wonderful properties to these plants3 they recommend it to be gathered at the earliest moment in the year that it is seen1 and certain words to be repeated1 to the effect that it is being gathered as a remedy for tertian and quartan fevers2 after which the flower must be wrapped up in red cloth and kept in the shade1 in order to be attached to the person when wanted4 ,the root of the anemone with a scarlet flower1 beaten up and applied to the body of any animated being1#bcej produces an ulcer there by the agency of its acrid qualities2 hence it is that it is so much employed as a detergent for ulcerous sores4 ,,chap4 #ie4 7#bd47--,,six ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,nanthe4 ,the nanthe#bcea is a plant which is found growing upon rocks1 has the leaf of the parsnip1 and a large root with numerous fibres4 ,the stalk of it and the leaves1 taken with honey and black wine1 facilitate delivery and bring away the after-birth3 taken with honey1 also1 they are a cure for cough1 and act as a powerful diuretic4 ,the root of this plant is curative of diseases of the bladder4 ,,chap4 #if4 7#be47--;,,eleven ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,helichrysos4 ,the helichrysos is by some persons called the 8chrysanthemon40#bceb ,it has small1 white branches1 with leaves of a whitish colour1 similar to those of the abrotonum4 ,the clusters1 disposed around it1 and glistening like gold in the rays of the sun1 are never known to fade2 hence it is that they make chaplets of it for the gods1 a custom which was most faithfully observed by ,ptolemus1 the king of ,egypt4 ,this plant grows in shrubberies3 taken in wine1 it acts as a diuretic and emmenagogue1 and1 in combination with honey1 it is employed topically for burns4 ,it is taken also in potions for the stings of serpents1 and for pains in the loins2 and1 with honied wine1 it removes coagulated blood in the abdominal regions and the bladder4 ,the leaves of it1 beaten up and taken in doses of three oboli1 in white wine1 arrest the menstrual discharge when in excess4 ,the smell of this plant is far from disagreeable1 and hence it is kept with clothes1 to protect them from the attacks of vermin4 ,,chap4 #ig4 7#bf47--;,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,hyacinth4 ,the hyacinth#bcec grows in ,gaul more particularly1 where it is employed for the dye called 8hysginum40#bced ,the root of it is bulbous1 and is well known among the dealers in slaves3 applied to the body1 with sweet wine1 it retards the signs of puberty1#bcee and prevents them from developing themselves4 ,it is curative1 also1 of gripings of the stomach1 and of the bites of spiders1 and it acts as a diuretic4 ,the seed is administered1 with abrotonum1 for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 and for jaundice4 ,,chap4 #ih4--,,seven ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,lychnis4 ,the seed of the lychnis1#bcef too1 which is just the colour of fire1 is beaten up and taken in drink for the stings of serpents1 scorpions1 hornets1 and other insects of similar nature3 the wild variety1 however1 is prejudicial to the stomach4 ,it acts as a laxative to the bowels2 and1 taken in doses of two drachm1 is remarkably efficacious for carrying off the bile4 ,so extremely baneful is it to scorpions1 that if they so much as see it1 they are struck with torpor4 ,the people of ,asia call the root of it 8bolites10 and they say that if it is attached to the body it will effectually disperse albugo4#bceg ,,chap4 #ii4 7#bg47--;,,four ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,vincapervinca4 ,the vincapervinca1#bceh too1 or chamdaphne1#bcei is dried and pounded1 and given to dropsical patients in water1 in doses of one spoonful2 a method of treatment which speedily draws off the water4 ,a decoction of it1 in ashes1 with a sprinkling of wine1 has the effect of drying tumours3 the juice1 too1 is employed as a remedy for diseases of the ears4 ,applied to the regions of the stomach1 this plant is said to be remarkably good for diarrha4 ,,chap4 #ajj4--,,three ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,butcher',s ,,broom4 ,a decoction of the root of butcher's broom#bcfj is recommended to be taken every other day for calculus in the bladder1 strangury1 and bloody urine4 ,the root1 however1 should be taken up one day1 and boiled the next1 the proportion of it being one sextarius to two cyathi of wine4 ,some persons beat up the root raw1 and take it in water3 it is generally considered1 too1 that there is nothing in existence more beneficial to the male organs than the young stalks of the plant1 beaten up and used with vinegar4 ,,chap4 #aja4--,,two ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,batis4 ,the batis1#bcfa too1 relaxes the bowels1 and1 beaten up raw1 it is employed topically for the gout4 ,the people of ,egypt cultivate the acinos1#bcfb too1 both as an article of food and for making chaplets4 ,this plant would be the same thing as ocimum1 were it not that the leaves and branches of it are rougher1 and that it has a powerful smell4 ,it promotes the catamenia1 and acts as a diuretic4 ,,chap4 #ajb4 7#bh47--,,two ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,colocasia4 ,the colocasia1#bcfc according to ,glaucias1 softens the acridity of humours of the body1 and is beneficial to the stomach4 ,,chap4 #ajc4 7#bi47--,,six ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,anthyllium ,,or ,,anthyllum4 ,the people of ,egypt eat the anthalium1#bcfd but ,i cannot find that they make any other use of it2 but there is another plant called the 8anthyllium10#bcfe or1 by some persons1 the 8anthyllum10 of which there are two kinds3 one1 similar in its leaves and branches to the lentil1 a palm in height1 growing in sandy soils exposed to the sun1 and of a somewhat saltish taste2 the other1 bearing a strong resemblance to the champitys1#bcff but smaller and more downy1 with a purple flower1 a strong smell1 and growing in stony spots4 ,the first kind1 mixed with rose-oil and applied with milk1 is extremely good for affections of the uterus and all kinds of sores3 it is taken as a potion for strangury and gravel in the kidneys1 in doses of three drachm4 ,the other kind is taken in drink1 with oxymel1 in doses of four drachm1 for indurations of the uterus1 gripings of the bowels1 and epilepsy4 ,,chap4 #ajd4 7#cj47--;,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,parthenium1 ,,leucanthes1 ,,or ,,amaracus4 ,the parthenium#bcfg is by some persons called the 8leucanthes10 and by others the 8amaracus40 ,celsus1 among the ,latin writers1 gives it the names of 8perdicium0#bcfh and 8muralis40 ,it grows in the hedge-rows of gardens1 and has the smell of an apple1 with a bitter taste4 ,with the decoction of it1 fomentations are made for maladies of the fundament1 and for inflammations and indurations of the uterus3 dried and applied with honey and vinegar1 it carries off black bile1 for which reason it is considered good for vertigo and calculus in the bladder4 ,it is employed as a liniment1 also1 for erysipelas1 and1 mixed with stale axle-grease1 for scrofulous sores4 ,for tertian fevers the ,magi recommend that it should be taken up with the left hand1 it being mentioned at the time for whom it is gathered1 care being also taken not to look back while doing so3 a leaf of it should be laid beneath the patient's tongue1 after which it must be eaten in a cyathus of water4 ,,chap4 #aje4 7#ca47--;,,eight ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,trychnum ,,or ,,strychnum1 ,,halicacabum1 ,,callias1 ,,dorcynion1 ,,manicon1 ,,neuras1 ,,morio1 ,,or ,,moly4 ,the trychnon#bcfi is by some called 8strychnon20 ,i only wish that the garland-makers of ,egypt would never use this plant in making their chaplets1 being deceived as they are by the resemblance in the leaves of both kinds to those of ivy4 ,one of these kinds1 bearing scarlet berries with a stone1 enclosed in follicules1 is by some persons called the 8halicacabum10#bcgj by others the 8callion10 and by the people of our country1 the 8vesicaria10 from the circumstance of its being highly beneficial to the bladder#bcga and in cases of calculus4 ,the trychnon is more of a woody shrub than a herb1 with large follicules1 broad and turbinated1 and a large berry within1 which ripens in the month of ,november4 ,a third#bcgb kind1 again1 has a leaf resembling that of ocimum--but it is not my intention to give an exact description of it1 as ,i am here speaking of remedies1 and not of poisons2 for a few drops of the juice1 in fact1 are quite sufficient to produce insanity4 ,the ,greek writers1 however1 have even turned this property into matter for jesting2 for1 according to them1 taken in doses of one drachma1 this plant is productive of delusive and prurient fancies1 and of vain1 fantastic visions1 which vividly present all the appearance of reality3 they say1 too1 that if the dose is doubled1 it will produce downright madness1 and that any further addition to it1 will result in instant death4 ,this is the same plant which the more well-meaning writers have called in their innocence 8dorycnion10#bcgc from the circumstance that weapons used in battle are poisoned with it--for it grows everywhere--while others1 again1 who have treated of it more at length1#bcgd have given it the surname of 8manicon40#bcge ,those1 on the other hand1 who have iniquitously concealed its real qualities1 give it the name of 8erythron0 or 8neuras10 and others 8perisson0--details1 however1 which need not be entered into more fully1 except for the purpose of putting persons upon their guard4 ,there is another kind1 again1 also called 8halicacabum10 which possesses narcotic qualities1 and is productive of death even more speedily than opium3 by some persons it is called 8morio10 and by others 8moly40#bcgf ,it has1 however1 been highly extolled by ,diocles and ,evenor1 and1 indeed1 ,timaristus has gone so far as to sing its praises in verse4 ,with a wonderful obliviousness of remedies really harmless1 they tell us1 forsooth1 that it is an instantaneous remedy for loose teeth to rinse them with halicacabum steeped in wine3 but at the same time they add the qualification that it must not be kept in the mouth too long1 or else delirium will be the result4 ,this1 however1 is pointing out remedies with a vengeance1 the employment of which will be attended with worse results than the malady itself4 ,there is a third kind#bcgg of halicacabum1 that is esteemed as an article of food2 but even though the flavour of it may be preferred to garden plants1 and although ,xenocrates assures us that there is no bodily malady for which the trychnos is not highly beneficial1 they are none of them so valuable as to make me think it proper to speak more at length upon the subject1 more particularly as there are so many other remedies1 which are unattended with danger4 ,persons who wish to pass themselves off for true prophets1 and who know too well how to impose upon the superstitions of others1 take the root of the halicacabum in drink4 ,the remedy against this poison--and it is with much greater pleasure that ,i state it--is to drink large quantities of honied wine made hot4 ,i must not omit the fact1 too1 that this plant is naturally so baneful to the asp1 that when the root is placed near that reptile1 the very animal which kills others by striking them with torpor1 is struck with torpor itself2 hence it is1 that1 beaten up with oil1 it is used as a cure for the sting of the asp4 ,,chap4 #ajf4--,,six ,,medicines ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,corchorus4 ,the corchorus#bcgh is a plant which is used at ,alexandria as an article of food3 the leaves of it are rolled up1 one upon the other1 like those of the mulberry1 and it is wholesome1 it is said1 for the viscera1 and in cases of alopecy1 being good also for the removal of freckles4 ,i find it stated also1 that it cures the scab in cattle very rapidly3 and1 according to ,nicander1#bcgi it is a remedy for the stings of serpents1 if gathered before it blossoms4 ,,chap4 #ajg4--,,three ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,cnecos4 ,there would be no necessity to speak at any length of the cnecos or atractylis1#bchj an ,egyptian plant1 were it not for the fact that it offers a most efficacious remedy for the stings of venomous animals1 as also in cases of poisoning by fungi4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that persons1 when stung by the scorpion1 are not sensible of any painful effects so long as they hold this plant in their hand4 ,,chap4 #ajh4 7#cc47--,,one ,,remedy ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,pesoluta4 ,the ,egyptians also cultivate the pesoluta#bcha in their gardens1 for chaplets4 ,there are two kinds of this plant1 the male and the female3 either of them1 it is said1 placed beneath the person1 when in bed1 acts as an antaphrodisiac1 upon the male sex more particularly4 ,,chap4 #aji4 7#cd47--;,,an ,,explanation ,,of ,,greek ,,terms ,,relative ,,to ,,weights ,,and ,,measures4 ,as we have occasion to make use of ,greek names very frequently when speaking of weights and measures1#bchb ,i shall here subjoin1 once for all1 some explanation of them4 ,the ,attic drachma--for it is generally the ,attic reckoning that medical men employ--is much the same in weight as the silver denarius1 and is equivalent to six oboli1 the obolus being ten chalci2 the cyathus is equal in weight to ten drachm4 ,when the measure of an acetabulum is spoken of1 it is the same as one fourth part of a hemina1 or fifteen drachm in weight4 ,the ,greek mna1 or1 as we more generally call it1 8mina10 equals one hundred ,attic drachm in weight4 ,,summary4--,remedies1 narratives1 and observations1 seven hundred and thirty4 ,,roman ,,authors ,,quoted4--,cato the ,censor1#bchc ,m4 ,varro1#bchd ,antias1#bche ,cpio1#bchf ,vestinus1#bchg ,vibius ,rufus1#bchh ,hyginus1#bchi ,pomponius ,mela1#bcij ,pompeius ,lenus1#bcia ,cornelius ,celsus1#bcib ,calpurnius ,bassus1#bcic ,c4 ,valgius1#bcid ,licinius ,macer1#bcie ,sextius ,niger#bcif who wrote in ,greek1 ,julius ,bassus#bcig who wrote in ,greek1 ,antonius ,castor4#bcih ,,foreign ,,authors ,,quoted4--,theophrastus1#bcii ,democritus1#bdjj ,orpheus1#bdja ,pythagoras1#bdjb ,mago1#bdjc ,menander#bdjd who wrote the ,biochresta1 ,nicander1#bdje ,homer1 ,hesiod1#bdjf ,musus1#bdjg ,sophocles1#bdjh ,anaxilas4#bdji ,,medical ,,authors ,,quoted4--,mnesitheus#bdaj who wrote on ,chaplets1 ,callimachus#bdaa who wrote on ,chaplets1 ,phanias#bdab the physician1 ,simus1#bdac ,timaristus1#bdad ,hippocrates1#bdae ,chrysippus1#bdaf ,diocles1#bdag ,ophelion1#bdah ,heraclides1#bdai ,hicesius1#bdbj ,dionysius1#bdba ,apollodorus#bdbb of ,citium1 ,apollodorus#bdbc of ,tarentum1 ,praxagoras1#bdbd ,plistonicus1#bdbe ,medius1#bdbf ,dieuches1#bdbg ,cleophantus1#bdbh ,philistio1#bdbi ,asclepiades1#bdcj ,crateuas1#bdca ,petronius ,diodotus1#bdcb ,iollas1#bdcc ,erasistratus1#bdcd ,diagoras1#bdce ,andreas1#bdcf ,mnesides1#bdcg ,epicharmus1#bdch ,damion1#bdci ,dalion1#bddj ,sosimenes1#bdda ,tlepolemus1#bddb ,metrodorus1#bddc ,solo1#bddd ,lycus1#bdde ,olympias#bddf of ,thebes1 ,philinus1#bddg ,petrichus1#bddh ,micton1#bddi ,glaucias1#bdej ,xenocrates4#bdea ,,book ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,properties ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,fruits4 ,,chap4 #a4--,,the ,,properties ,,of ,,plants4 ,nature and the earth might have well filled the measure of our admiration1 if we had nothing else to do but to consider the properties enumerated in the preceding ,book1 and the numerous varieties of plants that we find created for the wants or the enjoyment of mankind4 ,and yet1 how much is there still left for us to describe1 and how many discoveries of a still more astonishing nature6 ,the greater part1 in fact1 of the plants there mentioned recommend themselves to us by their taste1 their fragrance1 or their beauty1 and so invite us to make repeated trials of their virtues3 but1 on the other hand1 the properties of those which remain to be described1 furnish us with abundant proof that nothing has been created by ,nature without some purpose to fulfil1 unrevealed to us though it may be4 ,,chap4 #b4 7#a47--,,plants ,,used ,,by ,,nations ,,for ,,the ,,adornment ,,of ,,the ,,person4 ,i remark1 in the first place1 that there are some foreign nations which1 in obedience to long-established usage1 employ certain plants for the embellishment of the person4 ,that1 among some barbarous peoples1 the females#bdeb stain the face by means of various plants1 there can be little doubt1 and among the ,daci and the ,sarmat we find the men even marking#bdec their bodies4 ,there is a plant in ,gaul1 similar to the plantago in appearance1 and known there by the name of 8glastum30#bded with it both matrons and girls#bdee among the people of ,britain are in the habit of staining the body all over1 when taking part in the performance of certain sacred rites2 rivalling hereby the swarthy hue of the thiopians1 they go in a state of nature4 ,,chap4 #c4 7#b47--;,,employment ,,of ,,plants ,,for ,,dyeing4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,terms ,,sagmen1 ,,verbena1 ,,and ,,clarigatio4 ,we know1 too1 that from plants are extracted admirable colours for dyeing2 and1 not to mention the berries#bdef of ,galatia1#bdeg ,africa1 and ,lusitania1 which furnish the coccus1 a dye reserved for the military costume#bdeh of our generals1 the people of ,gaul beyond the ,alps produce the ,tyrian colours1 the conchyliated1#bdei and all the other hues1 by the agency of plants#bdfj alone4 ,they have not there to seek the murex at the bottom of the sea1 or to expose themselves to be the prey of the monsters of the deep1 while tearing it from their jaws1 nor have they to go searching in depths to which no anchor has penetrated--and all this for the purpose of finding the means whereby some mother of a family may appear more charming in the eyes of her paramour1 or the seducer may make himself more captivating to the wife of another man4 ,standing on dry land1 the people there gather in their dyes just as we do our crops of corn--though one great fault in them is1 that they wash#bdfa out2 were it not for which1 luxury would have the means of bedecking itself with far greater magnificence1 or1 at all events1 at the price of far less danger4 ,it is not my purpose1 however1 here to enter further into these details1 nor shall ,i make the attempt1 by substituting resources attended with fewer risks1 to circumscribe luxury within the limits of frugality2 though1 at the same time1 ,i shall have to speak on another occasion how that vegetable productions are employed for staining stone and imparting their colours to walls4#bdfb ,still1 however1 ,i should not have omitted to enlarge upon the art of dyeing1 had ,i found that it had ever been looked upon as forming one of our liberal#bdfc arts4 ,meantime1 ,i shall be actuated by higher considerations1 and shall proceed to show in what esteem we are bound to hold the mute#bdfd plants even1 or in other words1 the plants of little note4 ,for1 indeed1 the authors and founders of the ,roman sway have derived from these very plants even almost boundless results2 as it was these same plants1 and no others1 that afforded them the 8sagmen10#bdfe employed in seasons of public calamity1 and the 8verbena0 of our sacred rites and embassies4 ,these two names1 no doubt1 originally signified the same thing1--a green turf torn up from the citadel with the earth attached to it2 and hence1 when envoys were dispatched to the enemy for the purpose of clarigation1 or1 in other words1 with the object of clearly#bdff demanding restitution of property that had been carried off1 one of these officers was always known as the 8verbenarius40#bdfg ,,chap4 #d4 7#c47--,,the ,,grass ,,crown3 ,,how ,,rarely ,,it ,,has ,,been ,,awarded4 ,of all the crowns with which1 in the days of its majesty1 the all-sovereign people1 the ruler of the earth1 recompensed the valour of its citizens1 there was none attended with higher glory than the crown of grass4#bdfh ,the crowns#bdfi bedecked with gems of gold1 the vallar1 mural1 rostrate1 civic1 and triumphal crowns1 were1 all of them1 inferior to this3 great1 indeed1 was the difference between them1 and far in the background were they thrown by it4 ,as to all the rest1 a single individual could confer them1 a general or commander on his soldiers for instance1 or1 as on some occasions1 on his colleague3 the senate1 too1 exempt from the cares and anxieties of war1 and the people in the enjoyment of repose1 could award them1 together with the honours of a triumph4 7#d47 ,but as for the crown of grass1 it was never conferred except at a crisis of extreme desperation1 never voted except by the acclamation of the whole army1 and never to any one but to him who had been its preserver4 ,other crowns were awarded by the generals to the soldiers1 this alone by the soldiers1 and to the general4 ,this crown is known also as the 8obsidional0 crown1 from the circumstance of a beleaguered army being delivered1 and so preserved from fearful disaster4 ,if we are to regard as a glorious and a hallowed reward the civic crown1 presented for preserving the life of a single citizen1 and him1 perhaps1 of the very humblest rank1 what1 pray1 ought to be thought of a whole army being saved1 and indebted for its preservation to the valour of a single individual8 ,the crown thus presented was made of green grass1#bdgj gathered on the spot where the troops so rescued had been beleaguered4 ,indeed1 in early times1 it was the usual token of victory for the vanquished to present to the conqueror a handful of grass2 signifying thereby that they surrendered#bdga their native soil1 the land that had nurtured them1 and the very right even there to be interred--a usage which1 to my own knowledge1 still exists among the nations of ,germany4#bdgb ,,chap4 #e4 7#e47--,,the ,,only ,,persons ,,that ,,have ,,been ,,presented ,,with ,,this ,,crown4 ,l4 ,siccius ,dentatus#bdgc was presented with this crown but once1 though he gained as many as fourteen civic crowns1 and fought one hundred and twenty battles1 in all of which he was victorious--so rarely is it that an army has to thank a single individual only for its preservation6 ,some generals1 however1 have been presented with more than one of these crowns1 ,p4 ,decius ,mus1#bdgd the military tribune1 for example1 who received one from his own army1 and another from the troops which he had rescued#bdge when surrounded4 ,he testified by an act of devoutness in what high esteem he held such an honour as this1 for1 adorned with these insignia1 he sacrificed a white ox to ,mars1 together with one hundred red oxen1 which had been presented to him by the beleaguered troops as the recompense of his valour3 it was this same ,decius1 who afterwards1 when consul1 with ,imperiosus#bdgf for his colleague1 devoted his life to secure victory to his fellow-citizens4 ,this crown was presented also by the senate and people of ,rome--a distinction than which ,i know of nothing in existence more glorious--to that same ,fabius#bdgg who restored the fortunes of ,rome by avoiding a battle2 not1 however1 on the occasion when he preserved the master of the horse#bdgh and his army2 for then it was deemed preferable by those who were indebted to him for their preservation to present him with a crown under a new title1 that of 8father40 ,the crown of grass was1 however1 awarded to him1 with that unanimity which ,i have mentioned1 after ,hannibal had been expelled from ,italy2 being the only crown1 in fact1 that has hitherto been placed upon the head of a citizen by the hands of the state itself1 and1 another remarkable distinction1 the only one that has ever been conferred by the whole of ,italy united4 ,,chap4 #f4 7#f47--,,the ,,only ,,centurion ,,that ,,has ,,been ,,thus ,,honoured4 ,in addition to the persons already mentioned1 the honour of this crown has been awarded to ,m4 ,calpurnius ,flamma1#bdgi then a military tribune in ,sicily2 but up to the present time it has been given to a single centurion only1 ,cneius ,petreius ,atinas1 during the war with the ,cimbri4 ,this soldier1 while acting as primipilus#bdhj under ,catulus1 on finding all retreat for his legion cut off by the enemy1 harangued the troops1 and after slaying his tribune who hesitated to cut a way through the encampment of the enemy1 brought away the legion in safety4 ,i find it stated also by some authors1 that1 in addition to this honour1 this same ,petreius1 clad in the prtexta1 offered sacrifice at the altar1 to the sound of the pipe1#bdha in presence of the then consuls1#bdhb ,marius and ,catulus4 ,the ,dictator ,sylla has also stated in his memoirs1 that when legatus in the ,marsic ,war he was presented with this crown by the army1 at ,nola2 an event which he caused to be commemorated in a painting at his ,tusculan villa1 which afterwards became the property of ,cicero4 ,if there is any truth in this statement1 ,i can only say that it renders his memory all the more execrable1 and that1 by his proscriptions1 with his own hand he tore this crown from his brow1 for few indeed were the citizens whom he thus preserved1 in comparison with those he slaughtered at a later period4 ,and let him even add to this high honour his proud surname of 8,felix10#bdhc if he will2 all the glories of this crown he surrendered to ,sertorius1 from the moment that he put his proscribed fellow-citizens in a stage of siege throughout the whole world4 ,varro1 too1 relates that ,scipio milianus was awarded the obsidional crown in ,africa1 under the consul ,manilius1#bdhd for the preservation of three cohorts1 by bringing as many to their rescue2 an event commemorated by an inscription upon the base of the statue erected in honour of him by the now deified ,emperor ,augustus1 in the ,forum which bears his name4 ,augustus himself was also presented by the senate with the obsidional crown1 upon the ides#bdhe of ,september1 in the consulship#bdhf of ,m4 ,cicero the ,younger1 the civic crown being looked upon as not commensurate with his deserts4 ,beyond these1 ,i do not find any one mentioned as having been rewarded with this honour4 ,,chap4 #g4--,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,other ,,chaplet ,,plants4 ,no plant#bdhg in particular was employed in the composition of this crown1 such only being used as were found growing on the spot so imperilled2 and thus did they become the means1 however humble and unnoted themselves1 of conferring high honour and renown4 ,all this1 however1 is but little known among us at the present day2 a fact which ,i am the less surprised at1 when ,i reflect that those plants even are treated with the same indifference1 the purpose of which it is to preserve our health1 to allay our bodily pains1 and to repel the advances of death6 ,and who is there that would not visit with censure1 and justly visit1 the manners of the present day8 ,luxury and effeminacy have augmented the price at which we live1 and never was life more hankered after1 or worse cared#bdhh for1 than it is at present4 ,this1 however1 we look upon as the business of others1 forsooth2 other persons must see to it1 without our troubling ourselves to request them1 and the physicians must exercise the necessary providence in our behalves4#bdhi ,as for ourselves1 we go on enjoying our pleasures1 and are content to live--a thing that in my opinion reflects the highest possible disgrace--by putting faith in others4#bdij ,nay1 even more than this1 we ourselves are held in derision by many1 for undertaking these researches1 and are charged with busying ourselves with mere frivolities6 ,it is some solace1 however1 in the prosecution of these our boundless labours1 to have ,nature as our sharer in this contempt3 ,nature who1 as we will prove beyond a doubt1 has never failed in coming to the assistance of man1 and has implanted#bdia remedies for our use in the most despised even of the vegetable productions1 medicaments in plants which repel us with their thorns4 ,it is of these1 in fact1 that it remains for us now to speak1 as next in succession to those which we have mentioned in the preceding ,book2 and here we cannot sufficiently admire1 and1 indeed1 adore1#bdib the wondrous providence displayed by ,nature4 ,she had given us1 as already#bdic shewn1 plants soft to the touch1 and agreeable to the palate2 in the flowers she had painted the remedies for our diseases with her varied tints1 and1 while commingling the useful with the delicious1 had attracted our attention by means of the pleasures of the eye4 ,here1 however1 she has devised another class of plants1 bristling and repulsive to the sight1 and dangerous to the touch2 so much so1 indeed1 that we fancy we all but hear the voice of her who made them as she reveals to us her motives for so doing4 ,it is her wish1 she says1 that no ravening cattle may browse upon them1 that no wanton hand may tear them up1 that no heedless footstep may tread them down1 that no bird1 perching there1 may break them3 and in thus fortifying them with thorns1 and arming them with weapons1 it has been her grand object to save and protect the remedies which they afford to man4 ,thus we see1 the very qualities even which we hold in such aversion1 have been devised by ,nature for the benefit and advantage of mankind4 ,,chap4 #h4 7#g47--,,the ,,erynge ,,or ,,eryngium4 ,in the first rank of the plants armed with prickles1 the erynge#bdid or eryngion stands pre-eminent1 a vegetable production held in high esteem as an antidote formed for the poison of serpents and all venomous substances4 ,for stings and bites of this nature1 the root is taken in wine in doses of one drachma1 or if1 as generally is the case1 the wound is attended with fever1 in water4 ,it is employed also1 in the form of a liniment1 for wounds1 and is found to be particularly efficacious for those inflicted by water-snakes or frogs4 ,the physician ,heraclides states it as his opinion that1 boiled in goose-broth1 it is a more valuable remedy than any other known1 for aconite#bdie and other poisons4#bdif ,apollodorus recommends that1 in cases of poisoning1 it should be boiled with a frog1 and other authorities1 in water only4 ,it is a hardy plant1 having much the appearance of a shrub1 with prickly leaves and a jointed stem2 it grows a cubit or more in height4 ,sometimes it is found of a whitish colour1 and sometimes black1#bdig the root of it being odoriferous4 ,it is cultivated in gardens1 but it is frequently to be found growing#bdih spontaneously in rugged and craggy localities4 ,it grows1 too1 on the sea-shore1 in which case it is tougher and darker than usual1 the leaf resembling that of parsley4#bdii ,,chap4 #i4 7#h47--,,the ,,eryngium1 ,,called ,,centum ,,capita3 ,,thirty ,,remedies4 ,the white variety of the eryngium is known in our language as the 8centum capita40#bejj ,it has all the properties above-mentioned1 and the ,greeks employ both the stalk and the root as an article of food1#beja either boiled or raw4 ,there are some marvellous facts related in connexion with this plant2 the root#bejb of it1 it is said1 bears a strong resemblance to the organs of either sex2 it is but rarely found1 but if a root resembling the male organs should happen to fall in the way of a man1 it will ensure him woman's love2 hence it is that ,phaon the ,lesbian was so passionately beloved#bejc by ,sappho4 ,upon this subject1 too1 there have been numerous other reveries1 not only on the part of the ,magi1 but of ,pythagorean philosophers even as well4 ,so far as its medicinal properties are concerned1 in addition to those already mentioned1 this plant1 taken in hydromel1 is good for flatulency1 gripings of the bowels1 diseases of the heart1 stomach1 liver1 and thoracic organs1 and1 taken in oxycrate1 for affections of the spleen4 ,mixed with hydromel1 it is recommended also for diseases of the kidneys1 strangury1 opisthotony1 spasms1 lumbago1 dropsy1 epilepsy1 suppression or excess of the catamenia1 and all maladies of the uterus4 ,applied with honey1 it extracts foreign substances from the body1 and1 with salted axle-grease and cerate1 it disperses scrofulous sores1 imposthumes of the parotid glands1 inflamed tumours1 denudations of the bones1 and fractures4 ,taken before drinking1 it prevents the fumes of wine from rising to the head1 and it arrests looseness of the bowels4 ,some of our authors have recommended that this plant should be gathered at the period of the summer solstice1 and that it should be applied1 in combination with rain water1 for all kinds of maladies of the neck4 ,they say too1 that1 attached as an amulet to the person1 it is a cure for albugo4#bejd ,,chap4 #aj4 7#i47--,,the ,,acanos2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,there are some authors1 too1 who make the acanos#beje to be a species of eryngium4 ,it is a thorny plant1 stunted1 and spreading1 with prickles of a considerable size4 ,applied topically1 they say1 it arrests hmorrhage in a most remarkable degree4 ,,chap4 #aa4--,,the ,,glycyrrhiza ,,or ,,adipsos3 ,,fifteen ,,remedies4 ,other authors1 again1 have erroneously taken the glycyrrhiza#bejf to be a kind of eryngium3 it will1 therefore1 be as well to take this opportunity of making some further mention of it4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that this is one of the thorny plants1 the leaves of it being covered with prickles1#bejg substantial1 and viscous and gummy to the touch3 it has much the appearance of a shrub1 is a couple of cubits in height1 and bears a flower like that of the hyacinth1 and a fruit the size of the little round balls#bejh of the plane4 ,the best kind is that grown in ,cilicia1 and the next best that of ,pontus2 the root of it is sweet1 and this is the only part that is used4 ,it is gathered at the setting of the ,vergili1#beji the root of it being long1 like that of the vine4#beaj ,that which is yellow1 the colour of boxwood in fact1 is superior to the darker kind1 and the flexible is better than the brittle4 ,boiled down to one-third1 it is employed for pessaries2 but1 for general purposes1 a decoction is made of it of the consistency of honey4 ,sometimes1 also1 it is used pounded1 and it is in this form that it is applied as a liniment for wounds and all affections of the throat4 ,the juice#beaa of it is also very good for the voice1 for which purpose it is thickened and then placed beneath the tongue3 it is good1 too1 for the chest and liver4 ,we have already stated#beab that this plant has the effect of allaying hunger and thirst3 hence it is that some authors have given it the name of 8adipsos10#beac and have prescribed it for dropsical patients1 to allay thirst4 ,it is for this reason1 too1 that it is chewed as a stomatic1#bead and that the powder of it is often sprinkled on ulcerous sores of the mouth and films#beae on the eyes3 it heals1 too1 excrescences#beaf of the bladder1 pains in the kidneys1 condylomata1#beag and ulcerous sores of the genitals4 ,some persons have given it in potions for quartan fevers1 the doses being two drachm1 mixed with pepper in one hemina of water4 ,chewed1 and applied to wounds1 it arrests hmorrhage3#beah some authors have asserted1 also1 that it expels calculi of the bladder4 ,,chap4 #ab4 7#aj47--,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,tribulus2 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,of the two#beai kinds of tribulus1 the one is a garden plant1 the other grows in rivers only4 ,there is a juice extracted from them which is employed for diseases of the eyes1 it being of a cool and refreshing nature1 and1 consequently1 useful for inflammations and abscesses4 ,used with honey1 this juice is curative of spontaneous ulcerations1 those of the mouth in particular2 it is good also for affections of the tonsils4 ,taken in a potion1 it breaks calculi of the bladder4 ,the ,thracians who dwell on the banks of the river ,strymon feed their horses#bebj on the leaves of the tribulus1 and employ the kernels as an article of food1 making of them a very agreeable kind of bread1 which acts astringently#beba upon the bowels4 ,the root1 if gathered by persons in a state of chastity and purity1#bebb disperses scrofulous sores3 and the seed1 used as an amulet1 allays the pains attendant upon varicose veins3 pounded and mixed with water1 it destroys fleas4 ,,chap4 #ac4 7#aa47--,,the ,,st,,be ,,or ,,pheos4 ,the stbe1#bebc by some persons known as the 8pheos10 boiled in wine1 is particularly good for the cure of suppurations of the ears1 and for extravasations of blood in the eyes from the effects of a blow4 ,it is employed also in injections for hmorrhage and dysentery4 ,,chap4 #ad4 7#ab47--,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,hippophaes3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,the hippophaes#bebd grows in sandy soils1 and on the sea-shore4 ,it is a plant with white thorns1 and covered with clusters1 like the ivy1 the berries being white1 and partly red4 ,the root of it is full of a juice which is either used by itself1 or else is made up into lozenges with meal of fitches3 taken in doses of one obolus1 it carries off bile1 and it is extremely beneficial if used with honied wine4 ,there is another#bebe hippophaes1 without either stalk or flowers1 and consisting only of diminutive leaves3 the juice of this also is wonderfully useful for dropsy4 ,these plants would appear1 too1 to be remarkably well adapted to the constitution of the horse1 as it can be for no other reason than this that they have received their name4#bebf ,for1 in fact1 there are certain plants which have been created as remedies for the diseases of animals1 the ,divinity being bounteously lavish of his succours and resources2 so much so1 indeed1 that we cannot sufficiently admire the wisdom with which he has arranged them according to the classes of animated beings which they are to serve1 the causes which give rise to their various maladies1 and the times at which they are likely to be in requisition3 hence it is that there is no class of beings1 no season1 and1 so to speak1 no day1 that is without its remedy4 ,,chap4 #ae4 7#ac47--,,the ,,nettle3 ,,sixty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,what plant can there possibly be that is more an object of our aversion than the nettle8#bebg ,and yet1 in addition to the oil which we have already mentioned#bebh as being extracted from it in ,egypt1 it abounds in medicinal properties4 ,the seed of it1 according to ,nicander1 is an antidote to the poison of hemlock1#bebi of fungi1 and of quicksilver4#becj ,apollodorus prescribes it1 too1 taken in the broth of a boiled tortoise1#beca for the bite of the salamander1#becb and as an antidote for the poison of henbane1 serpents1 and scorpions4 ,the stinging pungency even of the nettle has its uses2 for1 by its contact1 it braces the uvula1 and effects the cure of prolapsus of the uterus1 and of procidence of the anus in infants4 ,by touching the legs of persons in a lethargy1 and the forehead more particularly1 with nettles1 they are awakened4#becc ,applied with salt1 the nettle is used to heal the bites of dogs1 and beaten up and applied topically1 it arrests bleeding#becd at the nostrils1 the root in particular4 ,mixed with salt1 also1 it is employed for the cure of cancers and foul ulcers2 and1 applied in a similar manner1 it cures sprains and inflamed tumours1 as well as imposthumes of the parotid glands and denudations of the bones4 ,the seed of it1 taken with boiled must1 dispels hysterical suffocations1 and1 applied topically1 it arrests mucous discharges of the nostrils4 ,taken with hydromel1 after dinner1 in doses of two oboli1 the seed produces a gentle vomit2#bece and a dose of one obolus1 taken in wine1 has the effect of dispelling lassitude4 ,the seed is prescribed also1 parched1 and in doses of one acetabulum1 for affections of the uterus2 and1 taken in boiled#becf must1 it is a remedy for flatulency of the stomach4 ,taken in an electuary1 with honey1 it gives relief in hardness of breathing1 and clears the chest by expectoration3 applied with linseed1 it is a cure for pains in the side1 with the addition of some hyssop and a little pepper4 ,the seed is employed also in the form of a liniment for affections of the spleen1 and1 parched and taken with the food1 it acts as a laxative in constipation of the bowels4 ,hippocrates#becg says that the seed1 taken in drink1 acts as a purgative upon the uterus2 and that taken1 parched1 with sweet wine1 in doses of one acetabulum1 or applied externally with juice of mallows1 it alleviates pains in that organ4 ,he states also that1 used with hydromel and salt1 it expels intestinal worms1 and that a liniment made of the seed will restore the hair when falling off4 ,many persons1 too1 employ the seed topically1 with old oil1 for diseases of the joints1 and for gout1 or else the leaves beaten up with bears'-grease3 the root1 too1 pounded in vinegar1 is no less useful for the same purposes1 as also for affections of the spleen4 ,boiled in wine1 and applied with stale axle-grease and salt1 the root disperses inflamed tumours1 and1 dried1 it is used as a depilatory4 ,phanias1 the physician1 has enlarged upon the praises of the nettle1 and he assures us that1 taken with the food1 either boiled or preserved1 it is extremely beneficial for affections of the trachea1 cough1 fluxes of the bowels1 stomachic complaints1 inflamed tumours1 imposthumes of the parotid glands1 and chilblains2 that1 taken with oil1 it acts as a sudorific2 and that1 boiled with shell-fish1 it relaxes the bowels4 ,he says1 too1 that taken with a ptisan1#bech it facilitates expectoration and acts as an emmenagogue1 and that1 applied with salt1 it prevents ulcers from spreading4 ,the juice of the nettle is also used3 applied to the forehead1 it arrests bleeding at the nose1 taken in drink it acts as a diuretic and breaks calculi in the bladder1 and1 used as a gargle1 it braces the uvula when relaxed4 ,nettle-seed should be gathered at harvest-time3 that of ,alexandria is the most highly esteemed4 ,for all these different purposes the milder and more tender plants are the best1 the wild nettle#beci in particular3 this last1 taken in wine1 has the additional property of removing leprous spots on the face4 ,when animals refuse to couple1 it is recommended to rub the sexual organs with nettles4#bedj ,,chap4 #af4 7#ad47--,,the ,,lamium3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,the variety of nettle1 too1 which we have already#beda spoken of under the name of 8lamium10#bedb the most innoxious of them all1 the leaves not having the property of stinging1 is used for the cure of bruises and contusions1 with a sprinkling#bedc of salt1 as also for burns and scrofulous sores1 tumours1 gout1 and wounds4 ,the middle of the leaf is white1 and is used for the cure of erysipelas4 ,some of our authors have distinguished the various species of this plant according to their respective seasons2 thus1 for instance1 the root of the autumn nettle1 they say1 carried on the person as an amulet1 is a cure for tertian fevers1 if due care is taken1 when pulling up the root1 to mention the patient's name1 and to state who he is and who are his parents4 ,they say1 too1 that this plant is productive of similar results in quartan fever3 and they pretend that the root of the nettle1 with the addition of salt1 will extract foreign substances from the body2 and that the leaves1 mixed with stale axle-grease1 will disperse scrofulous sores1 or if they suppurate1 cauterize them and cause them to fill up with new flesh4 ,,chap4 #ag4 7#ae47--,,the ,,scorpio1 ,,two ,,kinds ,,of ,,it3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,the scorpio#bedd has received its appellation from the animal of that name1 in consequence of the resemblance of its seeds to a scorpion's tail4 ,the leaves of it are few in number1 and it is efficacious for the sting#bede of the animal from which it derives its name4 ,there is also another plant#bedf known by the same name1 and possessed of similar properties2 it is destitute of leaves1 has a stem like that of asparagus1#bedg and a sharp point at the top1 to which it owes its appellation4 ,,chap4 #ah4 7#af47--,,the ,,leucacantha1 ,,phyllos1 ,,ischias1 ,,or ,,polygonatos3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the leucacantha1#bedh known also as the phyllos1 ischias1 or polygonatos1#bedi has a root like that of the cypirus1 which1 when chewed1 has the effect of curing#beej tooth-ache2 as also pains in the sides and loins1 according to ,hicesius1 the seed or juice being taken in drink1 in doses of eight drachm4--,this plant is employed also for the cure of ruptures and convulsions4 ,,chap4 #ai4 7#ag74--,,the ,,helxine3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the helxine#beea is called by some1 8perdicium10 from the circumstance of its forming the principal food of partridges4#beeb ,other persons1 however1 give it the name of 8sideritis10 and to some it is known as 8parthenium40 ,it has leaves1 the shape of which is a mixture of those of the plantago and the marrubium2#beec the stalks are slight and closely packed1 and are of a light red colour4 ,the seeds1 enclosed in heads resembling those of the lappa1#beed adhere to the clothes1 a circumstance1 it is said1 to which it owes its name#beee of 8helxine40 ,we have already stated in the preceding ,book#beef what are the characteristics of the plant properly so called4 ,the one of which we are now speaking is used for dyeing#beeg wool1 and is employed for the cure of erysipelas1 tumours1 all kinds of abscesses1 and burns4 ,the juice of it1 taken in doses of one cyathus with white lead1 is a cure for inflamed tumours1 incipient swellings of the throat1 and inveterate coughs4#beeh ,it is good1 too1 for all maladies of the humid parts of the body1 the tonsillary glands1 for instance2 and1 in combination with rose oil1 it is useful for varicose veins4 ,it is employed topically for the gout1 with goat suet and ,cyprian wax4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,the ,,perdicium1 ,,parthenium1 ,,urceolaris1 ,,or ,,astercum3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,the perdicium or parthenium#beei--;for#befj the sideritis is1 in reality1 a different plant--is known to the people of our country as the herb urceolaris1#befa and to some persons as the 8astercum40 ,the leaf of it is similar to that of ocimum1 but darker1 and it is found growing on tiled roofs and walls4 ,beaten up with a sprinkling of salt1 it has all the medicinal properties of the lamium1#befb and is used in a similar manner4 ,the juice of it1 taken warm1 is good1 too1 for suppurated abscesses2 but for the cure of convulsions1 ruptures1 bruises1 and the effects of falls from a height1 or of the overturning of vehicles1 it is possessed of singular virtues4 ,a slave1 who was held in high esteem by ,pericles1#befc the ruler of the ,athenians1 being engaged upon the buildings of a temple in the citadel1 while creeping along the top of the roof1 happened to fall2 from the effects of which he was relieved1 it is said1 by this plant1 the virtues whereof had been disclosed to ,pericles by ,minerva in a dream4 ,hence it is that it was first called 8parthenium10#befd and was consecrated to that goddess4 ,it is this slave of whom there is a famous statue in molten bronze1 well known as the ,splanchnoptes4#befe ,,chap4 #ba4 7#ah47--,,the ,,cham,,leon1 ,,ixias1 ,,ulophonon1 ,,or ,,cynozolon2 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,it3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the chamleon#beff is spoken of as the 8ixias10 by some authors4 ,there are two species of this plant2 the white kind has a rougher leaf than the other1 and creeps along the ground1 erecting its prickles like the quills of a hedgehog2 the root of it is sweet1 and the odour very powerful4 ,in some places it secretes1 just as they say incense#befg is produced1 a white viscous substance beneath the axils of the leaves1 about the rising of the ,dog-star more particularly4 ,to this viscous nature it owes its name of 8ixias20#befh females#befi make use of it as a substitute for mastich4 ,as to its name of 8chamleon10#begj that is given to it from the varying tints of the leaves2 for it changes its colours1 in fact1 just according to the soil1 being black in one place1 green in another1 blue in a third1 yellow elsewhere1 and of various other colours as well4 ,a decoction of the root of the white chamleon is employed for the cure#bega of dropsy1 being taken in doses of one drachma in raisin wine4 ,this decoction1 taken in doses of one acetabulum1 in astringent wine1 with some sprigs of origanum in it1 has the effect of expelling intestinal worms3 it is good1 too1 as a diuretic4 ,mixed with polenta1 the juice of it will kill dogs and swine2 with the addition of water and oil1 it will attract mice to it and destroy#begb them1 unless they immediately drink water to counteract its effects4 ,some persons recommend the root of it to be kept1 cut in small pieces1 and suspended from the ceiling2 when wanted1 it must be boiled and taken with the food1 for the cure of those fluxes to which the ,greeks have given the name of 8rheumatismi40#begc ,in reference to the dark kind1 some writers say that the one which bears a purple flower is the male1 and that with a violet flower1 the female4 ,they grow together1 upon a stem1 a cubit in length1 and a finger in thickness4 ,the root of these plants1 boiled with sulphur and bitumen1 is employed for the cure of lichens2 and they are chewed1 or a decoction of them made in vinegar1 to fasten loose teeth4 ,the juice of them is employed for the cure of scab in animals1 and it has the property of killing ticks upon dogs4 ,upon steers it takes effect like a sort of quinsy2 from which circumstance it has received the name of 8ulophonon0#begd from some1 as also that of cynozolon#bege from its offensive smell4 ,these plants produce also a viscus1 which is a most excellent remedy for ulcers4 ,the roots of all the different kinds are an antidote to the sting of the scorpion4 ,,chap4 #bb4 7#ai47--,,the ,,coronopus4 ,the coronopus#begf is an elongated plant1 with fissures in the leaves4 ,it is sometimes cultivated1 as the root1 roasted in hot ashes1 is found to be an excellent remedy for cliac complaints4 ,,chap4 #bc4 7#bj47--,,the ,,anchusa3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,the root of the anchusa1#begg too1 is made use of1 a plant a finger in thickness4 ,it is split into leaves like the papyrus1 and when touched it stains the hands the colour of blood2 it is used for imparting rich colours to wool4 ,applied with cerate it heals ulcerous sores1 those of aged people in particular3 it is employed also for the cure of burns4 ,it is insoluble in water1 but dissolves in oil1 this being1 in fact1 the test of its genuineness4 ,it is administered also1 in doses of one drachma1 in wine1 for nephretic pains1 or else1 if there is fever1 in a decoction of balanus2#begh it is employed in a similar manner1 also1 for affections of the liver and spleen1 and for enlarged secretions of the bile4 ,applied with vinegar1 it is used for the cure of leprosy and the removal of freckles4 ,the leaves1 beaten up with honey and meal1 are applied topically for sprains2 and taken in honied wine1 in doses of two drachm1 they arrest looseness of the bowels4#begi ,a decoction of the root in water1 it is said1 kills fleas4 ,,chap4 #bd4--,,the ,,pseudoanchusa1 ,,echis1 ,,or ,,doris3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,there is another plant1 similar to the preceding one1 and hence known as the 8pseudoanchusa10#behj though by some it is called 8echis10#beha or 8doris10 as well as by many other names4 ,it is more downy than the other plant1 however1 and not so substantial2 the leaves1 too1 are thinner1 and more drooping4 ,the root of it1 treated with oil1 does not give out any red juice1 a sign by which it is distinguished from the genuine anchusa4 ,the leaves of this plant1 or the seed1 taken in drink1 are extremely efficacious for the stings of serpents2 the leaves1 too1 are applied topically to the wound2 and the powerful smell of them will keep serpents at a distance4 ,a preparation of this plant is taken1 also1 as a potion1 for affections of the vertebr4 ,the ,magi recommend that the leaves of it should be plucked with the left hand1 it being mentioned at the same time for whom they are being gathered3 after which1 they are to be worn as an amulet1 attached to the person1 for the cure of tertian fevers4#behb ,,chap4 #be4 7#ba47--,,the ,,onochilon1 ,,archebion1 ,,onochelis1 ,,rhexia1 ,,or ,,enchrysa3 ,,thirty ,,remedies4 ,there is another plant1 too1 the proper name of which is 8onochilon10#behc but which some people call 8anchusa10 others 8archebion10 and others1 again1 8onochelis10 or 8rhexia10 and1 more universally1 8enchrysa40 ,this plant has a diminutive stem1 a purple flower1 rough leaves and branches1 and a root the colour of blood at harvest-time1 though dark and swarthy at other times4 ,it grows in sandy soils1 and is extremely efficacious for the stings of serpents1 vipers in particular1 the roots or leaves of it being taken indifferently with the food1 or in the drink4 ,it developes its virtues at harvest-time1 more especially3 the leaves of it1 when bruised1 have just the smell of a cucumber4 ,this plant is prescribed1 in doses of three cyathi1 for prolapsus of the uterus1 and1 taken with hyssop1 it expels tape-worms4 ,for pains in the liver or kidneys1 it is taken in hydromel1 if the patient shows symptoms of fever1 but if not1 in wine4 ,with the root of it a liniment is made1 for the removal of freckles and leprous sores2 and it is asserted that persons who carry this root about them will never be attacked by serpents4 ,there is another#behd plant1 again1 very similar to this1 with a red flower1 and somewhat smaller4 ,it is applied to the same uses as the other2 it is asserted1 too1 that if it is chewed1 and then spit out upon a serpent1 it will cause its instantaneous death4 ,,chap4 #bf4--,,the ,,anthemis1 ,,leucanthemis1 ,,leucanthemum1 ,,cham,,melum1 ,,or ,,melanthium2 ,,three ,,varieties ,,of ,,it3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,the anthemis has been highly extolled by ,asclepiades4 ,some persons call it 8leucanthemis10#behe some leucanthemum1 others1 again1 8eranthemis10#behf from its flowering in spring1 and others 8chammelon10#behg because it has a smell like that of an apple3 sometimes1 too1 it is called 8melanthion40#behh ,there are three varieties of this plant1 which only differ from one another in the flower2 they do not exceed a palm in height1 and they bear small blossoms like those of rue1 white1 yellow1#behi or purple4 ,this plant is mostly found in thin1 poor soils1 or growing near foot-paths4 ,it is usually gathered in spring1 and put by for the purpose of making chaplets4 ,at the same season1 too1 medical men pound the leaves1 and make them up into lozenges1 the same being done with the flowers also1 and the root4 ,all the parts of this plant are administered together1 in doses of one drachma1 for the stings of serpents of all kinds4 ,taken in drink1 too1 they bring away the dead ftus1 act as an emmenagogue and diuretic1 and disperse calculi of the bladder4 ,the anthemis is employed1 also1 for the cure of flatulency1 affections of the liver1 excessive secretions of the bile1 and fistulas of the eye2 chewed1 it heals running sores4 ,of all the different varieties1 the one that is most efficacious for the treatment of calculi is that with the purple flower1#beij the leaves and stem#beia of which are somewhat larger than those of the other kinds4 ,some persons1 and with strict propriety1 give to this last the name of 8eranthemis40 ,,chap4 #bg4--,,the ,,lotus ,,plant3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,those who think that the lotus is nothing but a tree only1 can easily be refuted1 if upon the authority of ,homer#beib only2 for that poet names the lotus first of all among the herbs which grow to administer to the pleasures of the gods4 ,the leaves of this plant1#beic mixed with honey1 disperse the marks of sores1 argema1#beid and films upon the eyes4 ,,chap4 #bh4--,,the ,,lotometra3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,the lotometra#beie is a cultivated lotus2 with the seed of it1 which resembles millet1 the shepherds in ,egypt make a coarse bread1 which they mostly knead with water or milk4 ,it is said1 however1 that there is nothing lighter or more wholesome than this bread1 so long as it is eaten warm2 but that when it gets cold1 it becomes heavy and more difficult of digestion4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that persons who use it as a diet are never attacked by dysentery1 tenesmus1 or other affections of the bowels2 hence it is1 that this plant is reckoned among the remedies for that class of diseases4 ,,chap4 #bi4--,,the ,,heliotropium1 ,,helioscopium1 ,,or ,,verrucaria3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,heliotropium1 ,,tricoccum1 ,,or ,,scorpiuron3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,we have spoken more than once#beif of the marvels of the heliotropium1 which turns#beig with the sun1 in cloudy weather even1 so great is its sympathy with that luminary4 ,at night1 as though in regret1 it closes its blue flower4 ,there are two species of heliotropium1 the tricoccum#beih and the helioscopium1#beii the latter being the taller of the two1 though they neither of them exceed half#bfjj a foot in height4 ,the helioscopium throws out branches from the root1 and the seed of it1 enclosed in follicules1#bfja is gathered at harvest-time4 ,it grows nowhere but in a rich soil1 a highly-cultivated one more particularly2 the tricoccum1 on the other hand1 is to be found growing everywhere4 ,i find it stated1 that the helioscopium1 boiled1 is considered an agreeable food1 and that taken in milk1 it is gently laxative#bfjb to the bowels2 while1 again1 a decoction of it1 taken as a potion1 acts as a most effectual purgative4 ,the juice of this plant is collected in summer1 at the sixth#bfjc hour of the day2 it is usually mixed with wine1 which makes#bfjd it keep all the better4 ,combined with rose-oil1 it alleviates head-ache4 ,the juice extracted from the leaves1 combined with salt1 removes warts2 from which circumstance our people have given this plant the name of 8verrucaria10#bfje although1 from its various properties1 it fully merits a better name4 ,for1 taken in wine or hydromel1 it is an antidote to the venom of serpents and scorpions1#bfjf as ,apollophanes and ,apollodorus state4 ,the leaves1 too1 employed topically1 are a cure for the cerebral affections of infants1 known as 8siriasis10#bfjg as also for convulsions1 even when they are epileptic4 ,it is very wholesome1 too1 to gargle the mouth with a decoction of this plant4 ,taken in drink1 it expels tapeworm and gravel1 and1 with the addition of cummin1 it will disperse calculi4 ,a decoction of the plant with the root1 mixed with the leaves and some suet of a he-goat1 is applied topically for the cure of gout4 ,the other kind1 which we have spoken#bfjh of as being called the 8tricoccum10 and which also bears the name of 8scorpiuron10#bfji has leaves that are not only smaller than those of the other kind1 but droop downwards towards the ground3 the seed of it resembles a scorpion's tail1 to which1 in fact1 it owes its latter appellation4 ,it is of great efficacy for injuries received from all kinds of venomous insects and the spider known as the 8phalangium10 but more particularly for the stings of scorpions1 if applied topically4#bfaj ,those who carry it about their person are never stung by a scorpion1 and it is said that if a circle is traced on the ground around a scorpion with a sprig of this plant1 the animal will never move out of it1 and that if a scorpion is covered with it1 or even sprinkled with the water in which it has been steeped1 it will die that instant4 ,four grains of the seed1 taken in drink1 are said to be a cure for the quartan fever1 and three for the tertian2 a similar effect being produced by carrying the plant three times round the patient1 and then laying it under his head4 ,the seed1 too1 acts as an aphrodisiac1 and1 applied with honey1 it disperses inflamed tumours4 ,this kind of heliotropium1 as well as the other1 extracts warts radically1#bfaa and excrescences of the anus4 ,applied topically1 the seed draws off corrupt blood from the vertebr and loins2 and a similar effect is produced by taking a decoction of it in chicken broth1 or with beet and lentils4 ,the husks#bfab of the seed restore the natural colour to lividities of the skin4 ,according to the ,magi1 the patient himself should make four knots in the heliotropium for a quartan1 and three for a tertian fever1 at the same time offering a prayer that he may recover to untie them1 the plant being left in the ground meanwhile4 ,,chap4 #cj4--,,the ,,adiantum1 ,,callitrichos1 ,,trichomanes1 ,,polytrichos1 ,,or ,,saxifragum2 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,it3 ,,twenty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,equally marvellous1 too1 in other respects1 is the adiantum2#bfac it is green in summer1 never dies in the winter1 manifests an aversion to water1 and1 when sprinkled with water or dipped in it1 has all the appearance of having been dried1 so great is its antipathy to moisture2 a circumstance to which it owes the name of 8adiantum10#bfad given to it by the ,greeks4 ,in other respects1 it is a shrub which might be well employed in ornamental gardening4#bfae ,some persons give it the name of 8callitrichos10#bfaf and others of 8polytrichos10 both of them bearing reference to its property of imparting colour to the hair4 ,for this purpose1 a decoction of it is made in wine with parsley-seed1 large quantities of oil being added1 if it is desired to make the hair thick and curly as well3 it has also the property of preventing the hair from coming off4 ,there are two kinds of this plant1 one being whiter than the other1 which last is swarthy and more stunted4 ,it is the larger kind that is known as the 8polytrichos10 or1 as some call it1 the 8trichomanes40 ,both plants have tiny branches of a bright black colour1 and leaves like those of fern1 the lower ones being rough and tawny1 and all of them lying close together and attached to footstalks arranged on either side of the stem3 of root1 so to say1 there is nothing4#bfag ,this plant frequents umbrageous rocks1 walls sprinkled with the spray of running water1 grottoes of fountains more particularly1 and crags surrounded with streamlets1 a fact that is all the more remarkable in a plant which derives no benefit from water4 ,the adiantum is of singular efficacy in expelling and breaking calculi of the bladder1 the dark kind in particular2 and it is for this reason1 in my opinion1 rather than because it grows upon stones1 that it has received from the people of our country its name of 8saxifragum40#bfah ,it is taken in wine1 the usual dose being a pinch of it in three fingers4 ,both these plants are diuretics1 and act as an antidote to the venom of serpents and spiders3 a decoction of them in wine arrests looseness of the bowels4 ,a wreath of them1 worn on the head1 alleviates head-ache4 ,for the bite of the scolopendra they are applied topically1 but they must be removed every now and then1 to prevent them from cauterizing the flesh3#bfai they are employed in a similar manner also for alopecy4#bfbj ,they disperse scrofulous sores1 scurf on the face1 and running ulcers of the head4 ,a decoction of them is useful also for asthma1 affections of the liver and spleen1 enlarged secretions of the gall1 and dropsy4 ,in combination with wormwood1 they form a liniment for strangury and affections of the kidneys2 they have the effect also of bringing away the after-birth1 and act as an emmenagogue4 ,taken with vinegar or juice of bramble-berries1 they arrest hmorrhage4 ,combined with rose-oil they are employed as a liniment for excoriations on infants1 the parts affected being first fomented with wine4 ,the leaves1 steeped in the urine of a youth who has not arrived at puberty1 and beaten up with saltpetre1 compose a liniment which1 it is said1 prevents wrinkles from forming on the abdomen in females4 ,it is a general belief that partridges and cocks are rendered more pugnacious if this plant is mixed with their food2 and it is looked upon as particularly beneficial for cattle4 ,,chap4 #ca4 7#bb47--,,the ,,picris2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,the ,,thesion2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,the picris#bfba derives its name from its intense bitterness1 as we have previously stated4 ,the leaf of it is round2 it is remarkably efficacious for the removal of warts4 ,the thesium1#bfbb too1 has a bitterness not unlike it3 it is a powerful purgative1 for which purpose it is employed bruised in water4 ,,chap4 #cb4--,,the ,,asphodel2 ,,fifty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,the asphodel#bfbc is one of the most celebrated of all the plants1 so much so1 indeed1 that by some persons it has been called 8heroum40#bfbd ,hesiod has mentioned the fact of its growing in rivers1 and ,dionysius distinguishes it into male and female4#bfbe ,it has been observed that the bulbs of it1 boiled with a ptisan1 are remarkably good for consumption and phthisis1#bfbf and that bread in which they have been kneaded up with the meal1 is extremely wholesome4 ,nicander#bfbg recommends also1 for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 either the stalk1 which we have already#bfbh spoken of under the name of 8anthericus10 or else the seed or bulbs1 to be taken in wine1 in doses of three drachm2 and he says that these should be strewed beneath the bed1 if there is any apprehension of their presence4 ,the asphodel is prescribed also for wounds inflicted by marine animals of a venomous nature1 and the bite of the land scolopendra4 ,it is quite wonderful how the snails1 in ,campania1 seek the stalk of this plant1 and dry it by extracting the inside4 ,the leaves1 too1 are applied with wine to wounds made by venomous animals1 and the bulbs are beaten up with polenta and similarly used for affections of the sinews and joints4 ,it is also a very good plan to rub lichens with them chopped up and mixed with vinegar1 and to apply them in water to putrid sores1 as also to inflammations of the testes or mamill4 ,boiled in lees of wine1 and applied in a linen pledget1 they are used for the cure of defluxions of the eyes4 ,whatever the malady may happen to be1 it is generally in a boiled#bfbi state that the bulbs are employed2 but for foul ulcers of the legs and for chaps upon any part of the body1 they are dried and reduced to powder4 ,the bulbs are usually gathered in autumn1#bfcj a period when their medicinal properties are most fully developed4 ,the juice extracted from them pounded1 or else a decoction of them1 is good1 mixed with honey1 for pains in the body3 it is employed also with dried iris and a little salt by those who wish to impart an agreeable odour to the person4 ,the leaves are used for the cure of the various maladies above mentioned1 as also1 boiled in wine1 for scrofulous sores1 inflamed tumours1 and ulcers of the face4 ,the ashes of the root are a remedy for alopecy and chaps on the feet2 and an extract of the root1 boiled in oil1 is good for burns and chilblains4 ,it is injected also into the ears for deafness1 and1 for tooth-ache1 it is poured into the ear opposite to the part affected4 ,a moderate dose of the root1 taken in drink1 acts as a diuretic and emmenagogue2 it is good also for pains in the sides1 ruptures1 convulsions1 and coughs1 in doses of one drachma1 taken in wine4 ,chewed1 the root promotes vomiting1 but the seed1 taken internally1 disorders the bowels4 ,chrysermus used to employ a decoction of the root1 in wine1 for imposthumes of the parotid glands2 and he has prescribed it1 in combination with cachrys1#bfca in wine1 for the cure of scrofulous sores4 ,some persons say that if1 after applying the root to the sores1 a part of it is hung up in the smoke to dry1 and not taken down till the end of four days1 the sores will gradually dry up with this portion of the root4 ,sophocles#bfcb used to employ it both ways1 boiled and raw1 for the cure of gout2 and he prescribes it1 boiled in oil1 for chilblains1 and1 in vinegar1 for jaundice and dropsy4 ,it has been stated1 also1 that1 used as a friction with wine and honey1 or taken in drink1 it acts as an aphrodisiac4 ,xenocrates assures us1 too1 that a decoction of the root in vinegar removes lichens1 itch-scabs1 and leprous sores2 and that a decoction of it1 with henbane and tar1 has a similar effect1 and is good also for the removal of bad odours#bfcc of the armpits and thighs3 he states1 also1 that if the head is well rubbed with the root1 being first shaved1 the hair will curl all the better for it4 ,simus prescribes a decoction of it1 in wine1 to be taken for calculi in the kidneys2 and ,hippocrates recommends the seed for obstructions of the spleen4 ,the root1 or else a decoction of it1 applied topically1 restores the hair in beasts of burden1 where it has been lost by ulcerations or scab4 ,it has the effect1 too1 of driving away rats and mice1 and of exterminating them1 if placed before their holes4 ,,chap4 #cc4--,,the ,,halimon3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,some authors have thought that it is the asphodel that is called 8halimon0 by ,hesiod1 an opinion which appears to me ill-founded2 halimon#bfcd being the name of a distinct plant1 which has been the occasion of no few mistakes committed by writers4 ,according to some1 it is a tufted shrub1 white1 destitute of thorns1 and with leaves like those of the olive1 only softer2 which eaten boiled1 are an agreeable food4 ,the root1 they say1 taken in doses of one drachma in hydromel1 allays gripings of the bowels1 and is a cure for ruptures and convulsions4 ,others1 again1 pronounce it to be a vegetable growing near the sea-shore1#bfce of a salt taste--to which1 in fact1 it owes its name--with leaves somewhat round but elongated1 and much esteemed as an article of food4 ,they say1 too1 that there are two species of it1 the wild and the cultivated1#bfcf and that1 mixed with bread1 they are good1 both of them1 for dysentery1 even if ulceration should have supervened1 and are useful for stomachic affections1 in combination with vinegar4 ,they state1 also1 that this plant is applied raw to ulcers of long standing1 and that it modifies the inflammation of recent wounds1 and the pain attendant upon sprains of the feet and affections of the bladder4 ,the wild halimon1 they tell us1 has thinner leaves than the other1 but is more effectual as a medicament in all the above cases1 as also for the cure of itch1 whether in man or beast4 ,the root1 too1 according to them1 employed as a friction1 renders the skin more clear1 and the teeth whiter2 and they assert that if the seed of it is put beneath the tongue1 no thirst will be experienced4 ,they state1 also1 that this kind is eaten as well as the other1 and that they are1 both of them1 preserved4 ,crateuas has spoken of a third#bfcg kind also1 with longer leaves than the others1 and more hairy3 it has the smell of the cypress1 he says1 and grows beneath the ivy more particularly4 ,he states that this plant is extremely good for opisthotony and contractions of the sinews1 taken in doses of three oboli to one sextarius of water4 ,,chap4 #cd4--,,the ,,acanthus1 ,p,,deros1 ,,or ,,melamphyllos3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,the acanthus#bfch is a plant that grows in cities1 and is used in ornamental gardening4 ,it has a broad1 long leaf1 and is used as a covering for the margins of ornamental waters and of parterres in gardens4#bfci ,there are two varieties of it2 the one that is thorny#bfdj and crisped is the shorter of the two2 the other1 which is smooth1#bfda is by some persons called 8pderos10#bfdb and by others 8melamphyllos40#bfdc ,the root of this last is remarkably good for burns and sprains2 and1 boiled with the food1 a ptisan more particularly1 it is equally good for ruptures1 spasms1 and patients who are in apprehension of phthisis4 ,the root is also beaten up and applied warm for hot gout4 ,,chap4 #ce4--,,the ,,bupleuron3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,the bupleuron#bfdd is reckoned by the ,greeks in the number of the leguminous plants which grow spontaneously4 ,the stem of it is a cubit in height1 the leaves are long and numerous1 and the head resembles that of dill4 ,it has been extolled as an aliment by ,hippocrates1 and for its medicinal properties by ,glaucon and ,nicander4 ,the seed of it is good for the stings of serpents2 and the leaves1 or else the juice1 applied as a liniment with wine1 bring away the after-birth4 ,the leaves1 also1 in combination with salt and wine1 are applied to scrofulous sores4 ,the root is prescribed in wine for the stings of serpents1 and as a diuretic4 ,,chap4 #cf4--,,the ,,buprestis3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,with a remarkable degree of inconsistency1 the ,greek writers1 while praising the buprestis#bfde as an aliment1 point out certain antidotes#bfdf to it1 as though it were a poison4 ,the very name1 however1 proves to a certainty that it is poisonous to cattle1 and it is generally admitted that1 on tasting it1 they burst#bfdg asunder3 we shall1 therefore1 say no more about it4 ,is there any reason1 in fact1 why1 when we are speaking of the materials employed in making our grass crowns1 we should describe a poison8 or really ought we to enlarge upon it only to please the libidinous fancies of those who imagine that there is not a more powerful aphrodisiac in existence than this1 when taken in drink8 ,,chap4 #cg4--,,the ,,elaphoboscon3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,the elaphoboscon#bfdh is a ferulaceous plant1 articulated1 and about a finger in thickness4 ,the seed of it is like that of dill1 hanging in umbels resembling those of hart-wort in appearance1 but not bitter4 ,the leaves are very like those of olusatrum4#bfdi ,this plant1 too1 is highly spoken of as an article of food2 in addition to which1 it is preserved and kept as a diuretic#bfej and for the purpose of assuaging pains in the sides1 curing ruptures and convulsions1 and dispelling flatulency and colic4 ,it is used1 too1 for the cure of wounds inflicted by serpents and all kinds of animals that sting2 so much so1 indeed1 that1 as the story goes1 stags1 by eating of it1 fortify themselves against the attacks of serpents4 ,the root1 too1 applied topically1 with the addition of nitre1 is a cure for fistula1 but1 when wanted for this purpose1 it must be dried first1 so as to retain none of the juice2 though1 on the other hand1 this juice does not at all impair its efficacy as an antidote to the poison of serpents4 ,,chap4 #ch4--,,the ,,scandix3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,anthriscum3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,the scandix1#bfea too1 is reckoned by the ,greeks in the number of the wild vegetables1 as we learn from ,opion and ,erasistratus4 ,boiled1 it arrests#bfeb looseness of the bowels2 and the seed of it1 administered with vinegar1 immediately stops hiccup4 ,it is employed topically for burns1 and acts as a diuretic2 a decoction of it is good1 too1 for affections of the stomach1 liver1 kidneys1 and bladder4 ,it is this plant that furnished ,aristophanes with his joke#bfec against the poet ,euripides1 that his mother used to sell not real vegetables1 but only scandix4 ,the anthriscum#bfed would be exactly the same plant as the scandix1 if its leaves were somewhat thinner and more odoriferous4 ,its principal virtue is that it reinvigorates the body when exhausted by sexual excesses1 and acts as a stimulant upon the enfeebled powers of old age4 ,it arrests leucorrha in females4 ,,chap4 #ci4--,,the ,,iasione3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the iasione1#bfee which is also looked upon as a wild vegetable1 is a creeping plant1 full of a milky juice3 it bears a white flower1 the name given to which is 8concilium40 ,the chief recommendation of this plant1 too1 is that it acts as an aphrodisiac4 ,eaten with the food1 raw1 in vinegar1 it promotes the secretion of the milk in nursing women4 ,it is salutary also for patients who are apprehensive of phthisis2 and1 applied to the head of infants1 it makes the hair grow1 and renders the scalp more firm4 ,,chap4 #dj4--,,the ,,caucalis3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the caucalis1#bfef too1 is an edible plant4 ,it resembles fennel in appearance1 and has a short stem with a white flower2#bfeg it is usually considered a good cordial4#bfeh ,the juice1 too1 of this plant is taken as a potion1 being particularly recommended as a stomachic1 a diuretic1 an expellent of calculi and gravel1 and for the cure of irritations of the bladder4 ,it has the effect1 also1 of attenuating morbid secretions#bfei of the spleen1 liver1 and kidneys4 ,the seed of it acts as an emmenagogue1 and dispels the bilious secretions after child-birth3 it is prescribed also1 for males1 in cases of seminal weakness4 ,chrysippus is of opinion that this plant promotes conception2 for which purpose it is taken by women in wine1 fasting4 ,it is employed in the form of a liniment1 for wounds inflicted by marine animals of a venomous nature1 at least we find it so stated by ,petrichus in his poem4#bffj ,,chap4 #da4--,,the ,,sium3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,among these plants there is reckoned also the sium3#bffa it grows in the water1 has a leaf broader than that of parsley1 thicker1 and of a more swarthy colour1 bears a considerable quantity of seed1 and has the taste of nasturtium4 ,it is an active diuretic1 is very good for the kidneys and spleen1 and acts as an emmenagogue1 either eaten by itself as an aliment1#bffb or taken in the form of a decoction2 the seed of it is taken in wine1 in doses of two drachm4 ,it disperses calculi in the bladder1 and neutralizes the action of water which tends to their formation4 ,used in the form of an injection1 it is good for dysentery1 and applied topically1 for the removal of freckles4 ,it is applied by females1 at night1 for the removal of spots on the face1 a result which it produces almost instantaneously4 ,it has the effect also of assuaging hernia1 and is good for the scab in horses4 ,,chap4 #db4--,,the ,,sillybum4 ,the sillybum#bffc resembles the white chamleon1 and is a plant quite as prickly4 ,in ,cilicia1 ,syria1 and ,phnicia1 the countries where it grows1 it is not thought worth while to boil it1 the cooking of it being so extremely troublesome1 it is said4 ,it is of no use whatever in medicine4 ,,chap4 #dc4--,,the ,,scolymos ,,or ,,limonia3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,the scolymos1#bffd too1 is used as an aliment#bffe in the ,east1 where it has also the name of 8limonia40#bfff ,this is a shrub-like plant1 which never exceeds a cubit in height1 with tufted leaves and a black root1 but sweet4 ,eratosthenes speaks highly of it as a diet used by the poor4 ,it is said to possess diuretic properties in a very high degree1 and to heal lichens and leprous sores1 applied with vinegar4 ,taken in wine it acts as an aphrodisiac1 according to the testimony of ,hesiod#bffg and ,alcus2 who have stated in their writings1 that while it is in blossom1 the song of the grasshopper is louder than at other times1 women more inflamed with desire1 and men less inclined to amorous intercourse2 and that it is by a kind of foresight on the part of ,nature that this powerful stimulant is then in its greatest perfection4 ,the root1 too1 used without the pith1 corrects the noisome odour of the armpits1 in doses of one ounce to two hemin of ,falernian wine2 the mixture being boiled down to one third1 and taken fasting after the bath1 as also after meals1 a cyathus at a time4 ,it is a remarkable thing1 but ,xenocrates assures us that he has ascertained it experimentally1 that these bad odours are carried off by the urine4 ,,chap4 #dd4--,,the ,,sonchos2 ,,two ,,varieties3 ,,fifteen ,,remedies4 ,the sonchos1#bffh too1 is edible--at least1 it was this that1 according to ,callimachus1 ,hecale#bffi set before ,theseus4 ,there are two kinds1 the white#bfgj and the black3#bfga they are1 both of them1 similar to the lettuce1 except that they are prickly1 with a stem a cubit in height1 angular1 and hollow within2 when broken1 the stem gives out an abundance of milky juice4 ,the white kind1 which derives its colour from the milk it contains1 is good for hardness of breathing1 if eaten dressed with seasoning like the lettuce4 ,erasistratus says that it carries off calculi by the urine1 and that1 chewed1 it is a corrective of bad breath4 ,the juice of it1 taken warm in doses of three cyathi1 with white wine and oil1 facilitates delivery1 but the patient must be careful to walk about immediately after drinking it3 it is also given in broth4 ,a decoction of the stalk renders the milk more abundant in nursing women1 and improves the complexion of the infants suckled by them2 it is also remarkably beneficial for females when the milk coagulates4 ,the juice of it is used as an injection for the ears1 and is taken warm in doses of one cyathus1 for strangury1 as also for gnawing pains of the stomach1 with cucumber seed and pine nuts4 ,it is employed topically for abscesses of the rectum1 and is taken in drink for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 the root also being applied to the wounds4 ,the root1 boiled in oil1 with the rind of a pomegranate1 is a remedy for diseases of the ears--all these remedies1 however1 be it remembered1 are derived from the white kind4 ,as to the black sonchos1 ,cleemporus forbids it to be eaten1 as being productive of diseases1 but at the same time he approves of the use of the white4 ,agathocles1 however1 goes so far as to assert that the juice of the black kind is an antidote for poisoning by bulls' blood2 and1 indeed1 it is generally agreed that the black sonchos has certain refreshing properties2 for which reason cataplasms of it may be advantageously applied with polenta4 ,zeno recommends the root of the white kind for strangury4 ,,chap4 #de4--,,the ,,condrion ,,or ,,chondrylla3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,the condrion1#bfgb or chondrylla1 has leaves1 eaten away1 as it were1 at the edges1 and similar to those of endive1 a stalk less than a foot in length and full of a bitter juice1 and a root resembling that of the bean1 and occasionally very ramified4 ,it produces1 near the surface of the earth1 a sort of mastich1#bfgc in a tubercular form1 the size of a bean2 this mastich1 it is said1 employed as a pessary1 promotes the menstrual discharge4 ,this plant1 pounded whole with the roots1 is divided into lozenges1 which are employed for the stings of serpents1 and probably with good effect2 for field mice1 it is said1 when injured by those reptiles1 are in the habit of eating this plant4 ,a decoction of it in wine arrests looseness of the bowels1 and makes a most excellent substitute for gum1 as a bandoline for the eye-lashes1#bfgd even when the hairs are most stubborn4 ,dorotheus says1 in his poems1 that it is extremely good for the stomach and the digestive organs4 ,some persons1 however1 have been of opinion that it is unwholesome for females1 bad for the eyesight1 and productive of impotence in the male sex4 ,,chap4 #df4--,,mushrooms3 ,,peculiarities ,,of ,,their ,,growth4 ,among those vegetable productions which are eaten with risk1 ,i shall1 with good reason1 include mushrooms2#bfge a very dainty food1 it is true1 but deservedly held in disesteem since the notorious crime committed by ,agrippina1 who1 through their agency1 poisoned her husband1 the ,emperor ,claudius1 and at the same moment1 in the person of his son ,nero1 inflicted another poisonous curse upon the whole world1 herself#bfgf in particular4 ,some of the poisonous mushrooms are easily known1 being of a rank1 unwholesome look1 light red without and livid within1 with the clefts#bfgg considerably enlarged1 and a pale1 sickly margin to the head4#bfgh ,these characteristics1 however1 are not presented by others of the poisonous kinds2 but being dry to all appearance and strongly resembling the genuine ones1 they present white spots upon the head1 on the surface of the outer coat4 ,the earth1 in fact1 first produces the uterus#bfgi or receptacle for the mushroom1 and then the mushroom within1 like the yolk in the egg4 ,nor is this envelope less conducive to the nutrition of the young mushroom than is the albumen of the egg to that of the chicken4 ,bursting forth from the envelope at the moment of its first appearance1 as it gradually increases it becomes transformed into a substantial stalk2 it is but very rarely1 too1 that we find two growing from a single foot-stalk4 ,the generative#bfhj principle of the mushroom is in the slime and the fermenting juices of the damp earth1 or of the roots of most of the glandiferous trees4 ,it appears at first in the shape of a sort of viscous foam1 and then assumes a more substantial but membranous form1 after which1 as already stated1 the young mushroom appears4 ,in general1 these plants are of a pernicious nature1 and the use of them should be altogether rejected2 for if by chance they should happen to grow near a hob-nail1#bfha a piece of rusty iron1 or a bit of rotten cloth1 they will immediately imbibe all these foreign emanations and flavours1 and transform them into poison4 ,who1 in fact1 is able to distinguish them1 except those who dwell in the country1 or the persons#bfhb that are in the habit of gathering them8 ,there are other circumstances1 too1 which render them noxious2 if they grow near the hole of a serpent1#bfhc for instance1 or if they should happen to have been breathed upon by one when just beginning to open2 being all the more disposed to imbibe the venom from their natural affinity to poisonous substances4 ,it will therefore be as well to be on our guard during the season at which the serpents have not as yet retired to their holes for the winter4 ,the best sign to know this by is a multitude of herbs1 of trees1 and of shrubs1 which remain green from the time that these reptiles leave their holes till their return2 indeed1 the ash alone will be quite sufficient for the purpose1 the leaves of it never coming out after the serpents have made their appearance1 or beginning to fall before they have retired to their holes4 ,the entire existence of the mushroom1 from its birth to its death1 is never more than seven days4#bfhd ,,chap4 #dg4 7#bc47--;,,fungi2 ,,signs ,,by ,,which ,,the ,,venomous ,,kinds ,,may ,,be ,,recognized3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,fungi are of a more humid nature than the last1 and are divided into numerous kinds1 all of which are derived solely from the pituitous humours#bfhe of trees4 ,the safest are those1 the flesh of which is red1#bfhf the colour being more pronounced than that of the mushroom4 ,the next best are the white#bfhg ones1 the stems of which have a head very similar to the apex#bfhh worn by the ,flamens2 and a third kind are the suilli1#bfhi very conveniently adapted for poisoning4 ,indeed1 it is but very recently that they have carried off whole families1 and all the guests at a banquet2 ,annus ,serenus1#bfij for instance1 the prefect of ,nero's guard1 together with all the tribunes and centurions4 ,what great pleasure1 then1 can there be in partaking of a dish of so doubtful#bfia a character as this8 ,some persons have classified these fungi according to the trees to which they are indebted for their formation1 the fig1 for instance1 the fennel-giant1 and the gummiferous trees2 those belonging to the beech1 the robur1 and the cypress1 not being edible1 as already mentioned4#bfib ,but who is there to give us a guarantee when they come to market1 that these distinctions have been observed8 ,all the poisonous fungi are of a livid colour2 and the degree of similarity borne by the sap of the tree itself to that of the fig will afford an additional indication whether they are venomous or not4 ,we have already mentioned#bfic various remedies for the poison of fungi1 and shall have occasion to make mention of others2 but in the mean time1 it will be as well to observe that they themselves also have some medicinal#bfid uses4 ,glaucias is of opinion that mushrooms are good for the stomach4 ,the suilli are dried and strung upon a rush1 as we see done with those brought from ,bithynia4 ,they are employed as a remedy for the fluxes known as 8rheumatismi10#bfie and for excrescences of the fundament1 which they diminish and gradually consume4 ,they are used1 also1 for freckles and spots on women's faces4 ,a wash1 too1 is made of them1 as is done with lead1#bfif for maladies of the eyes4 ,steeped in water1 they are applied topically to foul ulcers1 eruptions of the head1 and bites inflicted by dogs4 ,i would here also give some general directions for the cooking of mushrooms1 as this is the only article of food that the voluptuaries of the present day are in the habit of dressing with their own hands1 and so feeding upon it in anticipation1 being provided with amber-handled#bfig knives and silver plates and dishes for the purpose4 ,those fungi may be looked upon as bad which become hard in cooking2 while those1 on the other hand1 are comparatively innoxious1 which admit of being thoroughly boiled1 with the addition of some nitre4 ,they will be all the safer if they are boiled with some meat or the stalks of pears3 it is a very good plan1 too1 to eat pears directly after them4 ,vinegar1 too1 being of a nature diametrically opposed to them1 neutralizes#bfih their dangerous qualities4 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,silphium3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,all these productions owe their origin to rain1#bfii and by rain is silphium produced4 ,it originally came from ,cyren1 as already#bgjj stated3 at the present day1 it is mostly imported from ,syria1 the produce of which country1 though better than that of ,media1 is inferior to the ,parthian kind4 ,as already observed1#bgja the silphium of ,cyren no longer exists4 ,it is of considerable use in medicine1 the leaves of it being employed to purge the uterus1 and as an expellent of the dead ftus2 for which purposes a decoction of them is made in white aromatic wine1 and taken in doses of one acetabulum1 immediately after the bath4 ,the root of it is good for irritations of the trachea1 and is employed topically for extravasated blood2 but1 used as an aliment1 it is difficult of digestion1 being productive of flatulency and eructations3 it is injurious1 also1 to the urinary secretions4 ,combined with wine and oil1 it is extremely good for bruises1 and1 with wax1 for the cure of scrofulous sores4 ,repeated fumigations with the root cause excrescences of the anus to subside4 ,,chap4 #di4--,,laser3 ,,thirty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,laser1 a juice which distils from silphium1 as we have already#bgjb stated1 and reckoned among the most precious gifts presented to us by ,nature1 is made use of in numerous medicinal preparations4 ,employed by itself1 it warms and revives persons benumbed with cold1 and1 taken in drink1 it alleviates affections of the sinews4 ,it is given to females in wine1 and is used with soft wool as a pessary to promote the menstrual discharge4 ,mixed with wax1 it extracts corns on the feet1 after they have been first loosened with the knife3 a piece of it1 the size of a chick-pea1 melted in water1 acts as a diuretic4 ,andreas assures us that1 taken in considerable doses even1 it is never productive of flatulency1 and that it greatly promotes the digestion1 both in aged people and females2 he says1 too1 that it is better used in winter than in summer1 and that even then1 it is best suited for those whose beverage is water3 but due care must be taken that there is no internal ulceration4 ,taken with the food1 it is very refreshing for patients just recovering from an illness2 indeed1 if it is used at the proper time1 it has all the virtues of a desiccatory1#bgjc though it is more wholesome for persons who are in the habit of using it than for those who do not ordinarily employ it4 ,as to external maladies1 the undoubted virtues of this medicament are universally acknowledged3 taken in drink1 it has the effect1 also1 of neutralizing the venom of serpents and of poisoned weapons1 and1 applied with water1 it is in general use for the cure of wounds4 ,in combination with oil1 it is only used as a liniment for the stings of scorpions1 and with barley-meal or dried figs1 for the cure of ulcers that have not come to a head4 ,it is applied topically1 also1 to carbuncles1 with rue or honey1 or else by itself1 with some viscous substance to make it adhere2 for the bites of dogs1 also1 it is similarly employed4 ,a decoction of it in vinegar1 with pomegranate rind1 is used for excrescences#bgjd of the fundament1 and1 mixed with nitre1 for the corns commonly known as 8morticini40#bgje ,in cases of alopecy which have been first treated with nitre1 it makes the hair grow again1 applied with wine and saffron1 or else pepper or mouse-dung and vinegar4 ,for chilblains1 fomentations are made of it with wine1 or liniments with oil2 as also for callosities and indurations4 ,for corns on the feet1 if pared first1 it is particularly useful1 as also as a preservative against the effects of bad water1 and of unhealthy climates or weather4 ,it is prescribed for cough1 too1 affections of the uvula1 jaundice of long standing1 dropsy1 and hoarseness1 having the effect of instantly clearing the throat and restoring the voice4 ,diluted in oxycrate1 and applied with a sponge1 it assuages the pains in gout4 ,it is given also in broth#bgjf to patients suffering from pleurisy1 when about to take wine2 and it is prescribed for convulsions and opisthotony1 in pills about as large as a chick-pea1 coated with wax4 ,for quinsy1 it is used as a gargle1 and to patients troubled with asthma or inveterate cough1 it is given with leeks in vinegar2 it is prescribed1 also1 with vinegar1 after drinking butter-milk4#bgjg ,it is recommended with wine for consumptive affections of the viscera and epilepsy1 and with hydromel for paralysis of the tongue2 with a decoction of honey1 it forms a liniment for sciatica and lumbago4 ,for my own part1 ,i should not recommend1#bgjh what some authors advise1 to insert a pill of laser1 covered with wax1 in a hollow tooth1 for tooth-ache2 being warned to the contrary by a remarkable case of a man1 who1 after doing so1 threw himself headlong from the top of a house4 ,besides1 it is a well-known fact1 that if it is rubbed on the muzzle of a bull1 it irritates him to an extraordinary degree2 and that if it is mixed with wine1 it will cause serpents to burst--those reptiles being extremely fond of wine4 ,in addition to this1 ,i should not advise any one to rub the gums with ,attic honey1 although that practice is recommended by some4 ,it would be an endless task to enumerate all the uses to which laser is put1 in combination with other substances2 and the more so1 as it is only our object to treat of simple remedies1 it being these in which ,nature displays her resources4 ,in the compound remedies1 too1 we often find our judgment deceived1 and quite at fault1 from our comparative inattention to the sympathy or antipathy which naturally exists between the ingredients employed--on this subject1 however1 we shall have to enlarge on a future occasion4#bgji ,,chap4 #ej4 7#bd47--,,propolis3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,honey would be held in no less esteem than laser1 were it not for the fact that nearly every country produces it4#bgaj ,laser is the production of ,nature herself2 but1 for the formation of honey1 she has created an insect1 as already described4#bgaa ,the uses to which honey is put are quite innumerable1 if we only consider the vast number of compositions in which it forms an ingredient4 ,first of all1 there is the propolis1#bgab which we find in the hives1 as already#bgac mentioned4 ,this substance has the property of extracting stings and all foreign bodies from the flesh1 dispersing tumours1 ripening indurations1 allaying pains of the sinews1 and cicatrizing ulcers of the most obstinate nature4 ,as to honey itself1 it is of so peculiar a nature1 that it prevents putrefaction#bgad from supervening1 by reason of its sweetness solely1 and not any inherent acridity1 its natural properties being altogether different from those of salt4 ,it is employed with the greatest success for affections#bgae of the throat and tonsils1 for quinsy and all ailments of the mouth1 as also in fever1 when the tongue is parched4 ,decoctions of it are used also for peripneumony and pleurisy1 for wounds inflicted by serpents1 and for the poison of fungi4 ,for paralysis1 it is prescribed in honied wine1 though that liquor also has its own peculiar virtues4 ,honey is used with rose-oil1 as an injection for the ears2 it has the effect also of exterminating nits and foul vermin of the head4 ,it is the best plan always to skim it before using it4 ,still1 however1 honey has a tendency to inflate#bgaf the stomach2 it increases the bilious secretions also1 produces qualmishness1 and1 according to some1 if employed by itself1 is injurious#bgag to the sight3 though1 on the other hand1 there are persons who recommend ulcerations at the corners of the eyes to be touched with honey4 ,as to the elementary principles of honey1 the different varieties of it1 the countries where it is found1 and its characteristic features1 we have enlarged upon them on previous occasions3 first1#bgah when treating of the nature of bees1 and secondly1 when speaking#bgai of that of flowers2 the plan of this work compelling us to separate subjects which ought properly to be united1 if we would arrive at a thorough knowledge of the operations of ,nature4 ,,chap4 #ea4--,,the ,,various ,,influences ,,of ,,different ,,aliments ,,upon ,,the ,,disposition4 ,while speaking of the uses of honey1 we ought also to treat of the properties of hydromel4#bgbj ,there are two kinds of hydromel1 one of which is prepared at the moment1 and taken while fresh1#bgba the other being kept to ripen4 ,the first1 which is made of skimmed honey1 is an extremely wholesome beverage for invalids who take nothing but a light diet1 such as strained alica for instance3 it reinvigorates the body1 is soothing to the mouth and stomach1 and by its refreshing properties allays feverish heats4 ,i find it stated1#bgbb too1 by some authors1 that to relax the bowels it should be taken cold1 and that it is particularly well-suited for persons of a chilly temperament1 or of a weak and pusillanimous#bgbc constitution1 such as the ,greeks1 for instance1 call 8micropsychi40 ,for there is a theory1#bgbd remarkable for its extreme ingenuity1 first established by ,plato1 according to which the primary atoms of bodies1 as they happen to be smooth or rough1 angular or round1 are more or less adapted to the various temperaments of individuals3 and hence it is1 that the same substances are not universally sweet or bitter to all4 ,so1 when affected with lassitude or thirst1 we are more prone to anger than at other times4#bgbe ,these asperities1 however1 of the disposition1 or rather ,i should say of the mind1#bgbf are capable of being modified by the sweeter beverages2 as they tend to lubricate the passages for the respiration1 and to mollify the channels1 the work of inhalation and exhalation being thereby unimpeded by any rigidities4 ,every person must be sensible of this experimentally1 in his own case3 there is no one in whom anger1 affliction1 sadness1 and all the emotions of the mind may not1 in some degree1 be modified by diet4 ,it will therefore be worth our while to observe what aliments they are which exercise a physical effect1 not only upon the body1 but the disposition as well4 ,,chap4 #eb4--;,,hydromel3 ,,eighteen ,,remedies4 ,hydromel is recommended1 too1 as very good for a cough3 taken warm1 it promotes vomiting4 ,with the addition of oil it counteracts the poison of white lead2#bgbg of henbane1 also1 and of the halicacabum1 as already stated1#bgbh if taken in milk1 asses' milk in particular4 ,it is used as an injection for diseases of the ears1 and in cases of fistula of the generative organs4 ,with crumb of bread it is applied as a poultice to the uterus1 as also to tumours suddenly formed1 sprains1 and all affections which require soothing applications4 ,the more recent writers have condemned the use of fermented hydromel1 as being not so harmless as water1 and less strengthening than wine4 ,after it has been kept a considerable time1 it becomes transformed into a wine1#bgbi which1 it is universally agreed1 is extremely prejudicial to the stomach1 and injurious to the nerves4#bgcj ,,chap4 #ec4--;,,honied ,,wine3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,as to honied#bgca wine1 that is always the best which has been made with old wine3 honey1 too1 incorporates with it very readily1 which is never the case with sweet#bgcb wine4 ,when made with astringent wine1 it does not clog the stomach1 nor has it that effect when the honey has been boiled3 in this last case1 too1 it causes less flatulency1 an inconvenience generally incidental to this beverage4 ,it acts as a stimulant also upon a failing appetite2 taken cold it relaxes the bowels1 but used warm it acts astringently1 in most cases1 at least4 ,it has a tendency also to make flesh4 ,many persons have attained an extreme old age1 by taking bread soaked in honied wine1 and no other diet--the famous instance of ,pollio ,romilius1 for example4 ,this man was more than one hundred years old when the late ,emperor ,augustus1 who was then his host1#bgcc asked him by what means in particular he had retained such remarkable vigour of mind and body4--8,honied wine within1 oil without10#bgcd was his answer4 ,according to ,varro1 the jaundice has the name of 8royal disease0#bgce given to it1 because its cure is effected with honied wine4#bgcf ,,chap4 #ed4--,,melitites3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,we have already described how melitites#bgcg is prepared1 of must and honey1 when speaking on the subject of wines4 ,it is1 ,i think1 some ages1 however1 since this kind of beverage was made1 so extremely productive as it was found to be of flatulency4 ,it used1 however1 to be given in fever1 to relieve inveterate costiveness of the bowels1 as also for gout and affections of the sinews4 ,it was prescribed also for females who were not in the habit of taking wine4 ,,chap4 #ee4--,,wax3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,to an account of honey1 that of wax is naturally appended1 of the origin1 qualities1 and different kinds of which1 we have previously made mention#bgch on the appropriate occasions4 ,every kind of wax is emollient and warming1 and tends to the formation of new flesh2 fresh wax is1 however1 the best4 ,it is given in broth to persons troubled with dysentery1 and the combs themselves are sometimes used in a pottage made of parched alica4 ,wax counteracts the bad effects#bgci of milk2 and ten pills of wax1 the size of a grain of millet1 will prevent milk from coagulating in the stomach4 ,for swellings in the groin1 it is found beneficial to apply a plaster of white wax to the pubes4 ,,chap4 #ef4--,,remarks ,,in ,,disparagement ,,of ,,medicinal ,,compositions4 ,as to the different uses to which wax is applied1 in combination with other substances in medicine1 we could no more make an enumeration of them than we could of all the other ingredients which form part of our medicinal compositions4 ,these preparations1 as we have already#bgdj observed1 are the results of human invention4 ,cerates1 poultices1#bgda plasters1 eye-salves1 antidotes1--none of these have been formed by ,nature1 that parent and divine framer of the universe2 they are merely the inventions of the laboratory1 or rather1 to say the truth1 of human avarice4#bgdb ,the works of ,nature are brought into existence complete and perfect in every respect1 her ingredients being but few in number1 selected as they are from a due appreciation of cause and effect1 and not from mere guesswork2 thus1 for instance1 if a dry substance is wanted to assume a liquefied form1 a liquid1 of course1 must be employed as a vehicle1 while liquids1 on the other hand1 must be united with a dry substance to render them consistent4 ,but as for man1 when he pretends1 with balance in#bgdc hand1 to unite and combine the various elementary substances1 he employs himself not merely upon guesswork1 but proves himself guilty of downright impudence4 ,it is not my intention to touch upon the medicaments afforded by the drugs of ,india1 or ,arabia and other foreign climates3 ,i have no liking for drugs that come from so great a distance2#bgdd they are not produced for us1 no1 nor yet for the natives of those countries1 or else they would not be so ready to sell them to us4 ,let people buy them if they please1 as ingredients in perfumes1 unguents1 and other appliances of luxury2 let them buy them as adjuncts to their superstitions even1 if incense and costus we must have to propitiate the gods2 but as to health1 we can enjoy that blessing without their assistance1 as we can easily prove--the greater reason then has luxury to blush at its excesses4 ,,chap4 #eg4--,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,grain4 ,,siligo3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,wheat3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,chaff3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,spelt3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,bran3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,olyra1 ,,or ,,arinca3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,having now described the remedies derived from flowers1 both those which enter into the composition of garlands1 and the ordinary garden ones1 as well as from the vegetable productions1 how could we possibly omit those which are derived from the cereals8 7#be47 ,it will be only proper then1 to make some mention of these as well4 ,in the first place1 however1 let us remark that it is a fact universally acknowledged1 that it is the most intelligent of the animated beings that derive their subsistence from grain4 ,the grain of siligo#bgde highly roasted and pounded in ,aminean#bgdf wine1 applied to the eyes1 heals defluxions of those organs2#bgdg and the grain of wheat1 parched on a plate of iron1 is an instantaneous remedy for frost-bite in various parts of the body4 ,wheat-meal1 boiled in vinegar1 is good for contractions of the sinews1 and bran1#bgdh mixed with rose-oil1 dried figs1 and myxa#bgdi plums boiled down together1 forms an excellent gargle#bgej for the tonsillary glands and throat4 ,sextus ,pomponius1 who had a son prtor1 and who was himself the first citizen of ,nearer ,spain1 was on one occasion attacked with gout1 while superintending the winnowing in his granaries2 upon which1 he immediately thrust his legs1 to above the knees1 in a heap of wheat4 ,he found himself relieved1 the swelling in the legs subsided in a most surprising degree1 and from that time he always employed this remedy3 indeed1 the action of grain in masses is so extremely powerful as to cause the entire evaporation of the liquor in a cask4 ,men of experience in these matters recommend warm chaff of wheat or barley1 as an application for hernia1 and fomentations with the water in which it has been boiled4 ,in the grain known#bgea as spelt1 there is a small worm found1 similar in appearance to the teredo3#bgeb if this is put with wax into the hollow of carious teeth1 they will come out1 it is said1 or1 indeed1 if the teeth are only rubbed with it4 ,another name given to olyra1 as already#bgec mentioned1 is 8arinca30 with a decoction of it a medicament is made1 known in ,egypt as 8athera10 and extremely good for infants4 ,for adult persons it is employed in the form of a liniment4 ,,chap4 #eh4--,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,meal3 ,,twenty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,barley#bged-meal1 raw or boiled1 disperses1 softens1 or ripens gatherings and inflammatory tumours2 and for other purposes a decoction of it is made in hydromel1 or with dried figs4 ,if required for pains in the liver1 it must be boiled with oxycrate in wine4 ,when it is a matter of doubt whether an abscess should be made to suppurate or be dispersed1 it is a better plan to boil the meal in vinegar1 or lees of vinegar1 or else with a decoction of quinces or pears4 ,for the bite of the millepede1#bgee it is employed with honey1 and for the stings of serpents1 and to prevent suppurations1 with vinegar4 ,to promote suppuration1 it should be used with oxycrate1 with the addition of ,gallic resin4 ,for gatherings1 also1 that have come to a head1 and ulcers of long standing1 it must be employed in combination with resin1 and for indurations1 with pigeons' dung1 dried figs1 or ashes4 ,for inflammation of the tendons1 or of the intestines and sides1 or for pains in the male organs and denudations of the bones1 it is used with poppies1 or melilote2 and for scrofulous sores1 it is used with pitch and oil1 mixed with the urine of a youth who has not reached the years of puberty4 ,it is employed also with fenugreek for tumours of the thoracic organs1 and in fevers1 with honey1 or stale grease4 ,for suppurations1 however1 wheat-meal is much more soothing2#bgef it is applied topically also for affections of the sinews1 mixed with the juice of henbane1 and for the cure of freckles1 with vinegar and honey4 ,the meal of zea1#bgeg from which1 as already#bgeh stated1 an alica is made1 appears to be more efficacious than that of barley even2 but that of the three month#bgei kind is the most emollient4 ,it is applied warm1 in red wine1 to the stings of scorpions1 as also for affections of the trachea1 and spitting of blood3 for coughs1 it is employed in combination with goat suet or butter4 ,the meal of fenugreek1#bgfj however1 is the most soothing of them all3 boiled with wine and nitre1 it heals running ulcers1 eruptions on the body1 and diseases of the feet and mamill4 ,the meal of ra#bgfa is more detergent than the other kinds1 for inveterate ulcers and gangrenes3 in combination with radishes1 salt1 and vinegar1 it heals lichens1 and with virgin sulphur1 leprosy3 for head-ache1 it is applied to the forehead with goose-grease4 ,boiled in wine1 with pigeons' dung and linseed1 it ripens inflamed tumours and scrofulous sores4 ,,chap4 #ei4--,,polenta3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,of the various kinds of polenta we have already treated sufficiently#bgfb at length1 when speaking of the places where it is made4 ,it differs from barley meal1 in being parched1 a process which renders it more wholesome for the stomach4 ,it arrests looseness of the bowels1 and heals inflammatory eruptions2 and it is employed as a liniment for the eyes1 and for head-ache1 combined with mint or some other refreshing herb4 ,it is used in a similar manner also for chilblains and wounds inflicted by serpents2 and with wine1 for burns4 ,it has the effect also of checking pustular eruptions4 ,,chap4 #fj4--;,,fine ,,flour3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,,puls3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,meal ,,used ,,for ,,pasting ,,papyrus3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,the flour#bgfc of bolted meal1 kneaded into a paste1 has the property of drawing#bgfd out the humours of the body3 hence it is applied to bruises gorged with blood1 to extract the corrupt matter1 even to soaking the bandages#bgfe employed3 used with boiled must1 it is still more efficacious4 ,it is used as an application also for callosities of the feet and corns2 boiled with old oil and pitch1 and applied as hot as possible1 it cures condylomata and all other maladies of the fundament in a most surprising manner4 ,puls#bgff is a very feeding diet4 ,the meal#bgfg used for pasting the sheets of papyrus is given warm to patients for spitting of blood1 and is found to be an effectual cure4 ,,chap4 #fa4--;,,alica3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,alica is quite a ,roman invention1 and not a very ancient one3 for otherwise#bgfh the ,greeks would never have written in such high terms of the praises of ptisan in preference4 ,i do not think that it was yet in use in the days of ,pompeius ,magnus1 a circumstance which will explain why hardly any mention has been made of it in the works of the school of ,asclepiades4 ,that it is a most excellent preparation no one can have a doubt1 whether it is used strained in hydromel1 or whether it is boiled and taken in the form of broth or puls4 ,to arrest flux of the bowels1 it is first parched and then boiled with honeycomb1 as already mentioned3#bgfi but it is more particularly useful when there is a tendency to phthisis after a long illness1 the proper proportions being three cyathi of it to one sextarius of water4 ,this mixture is boiled till all the water has gone off by evaporation1 after which one sextarius of sheep' or goats' milk is added3 it is then taken by the patient daily1 and after a time some honey is added4 ,by this kind of nutriment a deep decline may be cured4 ,,chap4 #fb4--,,millet3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,millet#bggj arrests looseness of the bowels and dispels gripings of the stomach1 for which purposes it is first parched4 ,for pains in the sinews1 and of various other descriptions1 it is applied hot1 in a bag1 to the part affected4 ,indeed1 there is no better topical application known1 as it is extremely light and emollient1 and retains heat for a very long time3 hence it is that it is so much employed in all those cases in which the application of heat is necessary4 ,the meal of it1 mixed with tar1 is applied to wounds inflicted by serpents and millepedes4 ,,chap4 #fc4--,,panic3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,diocles1 the physician1 has given to panic#bgga the name of 8honey of corn40#bggb ,it has the same properties as millet1 and1 taken in wine1 it is good for dysentery4 ,in a similar manner1 too1 it is applied to such parts of the body as require to be treated with heat4 ,boiled in goats'-milk1 and taken twice a-day1 it arrests looseness of the bowels2 and1 used in a similar manner1 it is very good for gripings of the stomach4 ,,chap4 #fd4--,,sesame3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,,sesamoides3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,anticyricum3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,sesame1#bggc pounded and taken in wine1 arrests vomiting3 it is applied also topically to inflammations of the ears1 and burns4 ,it has a similar effect even while in the blade2 and in that state1 a decoction of it in wine is used as a liniment for the eyes4 ,as an aliment it is injurious to the stomach1 and imparts a bad odour to the breath4 ,it is an antidote to the bite of the spotted lizard1 and heals the cancerous sore known as 8cacoethes40#bggd ,the oil made from it1 as already#bgge mentioned1 is good for the ears4 ,sesamodes#bggf owes its name to its resemblance to sesame2 the grain#bggg of it1 however1 is bitter1 and the leaf more diminutive3 it is found growing in sandy soils4 ,taken in water1 it carries off bile1 and1 with the seed1 a liniment is made for erysipelas3 it disperses inflamed swellings also4 ,besides this1 there is another#bggh sesamodes1 which grows at ,anticyra1 and1 for that reason1 is known by some as 8anticyricon40 ,in other respects1 it is similar to the plant erigeron1 of which we shall have to speak#bggi on a future occasion2 but the seed of it is like that of sesame4 ,it is given in sweet wine as an evacuant1 in doses of a pinch in three fingers1 mixed with an obolus and a half of white hellebore2 this preparation being employed principally as a purgative1 in cases of insanity1 melancholy1 epilepsy1 and gout4 ,taken alone1 in doses of one drachma1 it purges by stool4 ,,chap4 #fe4--;,,barley3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,,mouse-,,barley1 ,,by ,,the ,,greeks ,,called ,,ph,,nice3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,the whitest barley is the best4 ,boiled#bghj in rain-water1 the pulp of it is divided into lozenges1 which are used in injections for ulcerations of the intestines and the uterus4 ,the ashes of barley are applied to burns1 to bones denuded of the flesh1 to purulent eruptions1 and to the bite of the shrew-mouse3 sprinkled with salt and honey they impart whiteness to the teeth1 and sweetness to the breath4 ,it is alleged that persons who are in the habit of eating barley-bread are never troubled with gout in the feet3 they say1 too1 that if a person takes nine grains of barley1 and traces three times round a boil1 with each of them in the left hand1 and then throws them all into the fire1 he will experience an immediate cure4 ,there is another plant1 too1 known as 8phnice0 by the ,greeks1 and as 8mouse-barley0#bgha by us3 pounded and taken in wine1 it acts remarkably well as an emmenagogue4 ,,chap4 #ff4--,,ptisan3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,to ptisan1#bghb which is a preparation of barley1 ,hippocrates#bghc has devoted a whole treatise2 praises1 however1 which at the present day are all transferred to 8alica10 being1 as it is1 a much more wholesome preparation4 ,hippocrates1 however1 recommends it as a pottage1 for the comparative ease with which1 from its lubricous nature1 it is swallowed2 as also1 because it allays thirst1 never swells in the stomach1 passes easily through the intestines1 and is the only food that admits of being given twice a-day in fever1 at least to patients who are in the habit of taking two meals--so opposed is his method to that of those physicians who are for famishing their patients4 ,he forbids it to be given1 however1 without being first strained2 for no part1 he says1 of the ptisan1 except the water1#bghd should be used4 ,he says1 too1 that it must never be taken while the feet are cold1 and1 indeed1 that no drink of any kind should be taken then4 ,with wheat a more viscous kind of ptisan is made1 which is found to be still more efficacious for ulcerations of the trachea4 ,,chap4 #fg4--;,,amylum3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,,oats3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,amylum#bghe weakens the eyesight1#bghf and is bad for the throat1 whatever opinions may be held to the contrary4 ,it has the effect also of arresting looseness of the bowels1 and curing defluxions and ulcerations of the eyes1 as also pustules and congestions of the blood4 ,it mollifies indurations of the eyelids1 and is given with egg to persons when they vomit blood4 ,for pains of the bladder1 half an ounce of it is prescribed with an egg1 and as much raisin wine as three egg-shells will hold1 the mixture to be made lukewarm and taken immediately after the bath4 ,oatmeal1 boiled in vinegar1 removes moles4 ,,chap4 #fh4--;,,bread3 ,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,bread1#bghg too1 which forms our ordinary nutriment1 possesses medicinal properties1 almost without number4 ,applied with water and oil1 or else rose-oil1 it softens abscesses2 and1 with hydromel1 it is remarkably soothing for indurations4 ,it is prescribed with wine to produce delitescence1 or when a defluxion requires to be checked2 or1 if additional activity is required1 with vinegar4 ,it is employed also for the morbid defluxions of rheum1 known to the ,greeks as 8rheumatismi10 and for bruises and sprains4 ,for all these purposes1 however1 bread made with leaven1 and known as 8autopyrus10#bghh is the best4 ,it is applied also to whitlows1 in vinegar1 and to callosities of the feet4 ,stale bread1 or sailors'-bread1#bghi beaten up and baked again1 arrests looseness of the bowels4 ,for persons who wish to improve the voice1 dry bread is very good1 taken fasting2 it is useful also as a preservative against catarrhs4 ,the bread called 8sitanius10 and which is made of three-month#bgij wheat1 applied with honey1 is a very efficient cure for contusions of the face and scaly eruptions4 ,white bread1 steeped in hot or cold water1 furnishes a very light and wholesome aliment for patients4 ,soaked in wine1 it is applied as a poultice for swellings of the eyes1 and used in a similar manner1 or with the addition of dried myrtle1 it is good for pustules on the head4 ,persons troubled with palsy are recommended to take bread soaked in water1 fasting1 immediately after the bath4 ,burnt bread modifies the close smell of bedrooms1 and1 used in the strainers1#bgia it neutralizes bad odours in wine4 ,,chap4 #fi4--;,,beans3 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,beans1#bgib too1 furnish us with some remedies4 ,parched whole1 and thrown hot into strong vinegar1 they are a cure for gripings of the bowels4 ,bruised1 and boiled with garlic1 they are taken with the daily food for inveterate coughs1 and for suppurations of the chest4 ,chewed by a person fasting1 they are applied topically to ripen boils1 or to disperse them2 and1 boiled in wine1 they are employed for swellings of the testes and diseases of the genitals4 ,bean-meal1 boiled in vinegar1 ripens tumours and breaks them1 and heals contusions and burns4 ,m4 ,varro assures us that beans are very good for the voice4 ,the ashes of bean stalks and shells1 with stale hogs'-lard1 are good for sciatica and inveterate pains of the sinews4 ,the husks1 too1 boiled down1 by themselves1 to one-third1 arrest looseness of the bowels4 ,,chap4 #gj4--,,lentils3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,those lentils#bgic are the best which boil the most easily1 and those in particular which absorb the most water4 ,they injure the eye-sight1#bgid no doubt1 and inflate the stomach2 but taken with the food1 they act astringently upon the bowels1 more particularly if they are thoroughly boiled in rain-water3 if1 on the other hand1 they are lightly boiled1 they are laxative4#bgie ,they break purulent ulcers1 and they cleanse and cicatrize ulcerations of the mouth4 ,applied topically1 they allay all kinds of abscesses1 when ulcerated and chapped more particularly2 with melilote or quinces they are applied to defluxions of the eyes1 and with polenta they are employed topically for suppurations4 ,a decoction of them is used for ulcerations of the mouth and genitals1 and1 with rose-oil or quinces1 for diseases of the fundament4 ,for affections which demand a more active remedy1 they are used with pomegranate rind1 and the addition of a little honey2 to prevent the composition from drying too quickly1 beet leaves are added4 ,they are applied topically1 also1 to scrofulous sores1 and to tumours1 whether ripe or only coming to a head1 being thoroughly boiled first in vinegar4 ,mixed with hydromel they are employed for the cure of chaps1 and with pomegranate rind for gangrenes4 ,with polenta they are used for gout1 for diseases of the uterus and kidneys1 for chilblains1 and for ulcerations which cicatrize with difficulty4 ,for a disordered stomach1 thirty grains should be eaten4 ,for cholera1#bgif however1 and dysentery1 it is the best plan to boil the lentils in three waters1 in which case they should always be parched first1 and then pounded as fine as possible1 either by themselves1 or else with quinces1 pears1 myrtle1 wild endive1 black beet1 or plantago4 ,lentils are bad for the lungs1 head-ache1 all nervous affections1 and bile1 and are very apt to cause restlessness at night4 ,they are useful1 however1 for pustules1 erysipelas1 and affections of the mamill1 boiled in sea-water2 and1 applied with vinegar1 they disperse indurations and scrofulous sores4 ,as a stomachic1 they are mixed1 like polenta1 with the drink given to patients4 ,parboiled in water1 and then pounded and bolted through a sieve to disengage the bran1 they are good for burns1 care being taken to add a little honey as they heal3 they are boiled1 also1 with oxycrate for diseases of the throat4#bgig ,there is a marsh-lentil#bgih also1 which grows spontaneously in stagnant waters4 ,it is of a cooling nature1 for which reason it is employed topically for abscesses1 and for gout in particular1 either by itself or with polenta4 ,its glutinous properties render it a good medicine for intestinal hernia4 ,,chap4 #ga4--,,the ,,elelisphacos1 ,,sphacos1 ,,or ,,salvia3 ,,thirteen ,,remedies4 ,the plant called by the ,greeks 8elelisphacos10#bgii or 8sphacos10 is a species of wild lentil1 lighter than the cultivated one1 and with a leaf1 smaller1 drier1 and more odoriferous4 ,there is also another#bhjj kind of it1 of a wilder nature1 and possessed of a powerful smell1 the other one being milder4 ,it#bhja has leaves the shape of a quince1 but white and smaller3 they are generally boiled with the branches4 ,this plant acts as an emmenagogue and a diuretic3 and it affords a remedy for wounds inflicted by the sting-ray1#bhjb having the property of benumbing the part affected4 ,it is taken in drink with wormwood for dysentery3 employed with wine it accelerates the catamenia when retarded1 a decoction of it having the effect of arresting them when in excess3 the plant1 applied by itself1 stanches the blood of wounds4 ,it is a cure1 too1 for the stings of serpents1 and a decoction of it in wine allays prurigo of the testes4 ,our herbalists of the present day take for the 8elelisphacos0 of the ,greeks the 8salvia0#bhjc of the ,latins1 a plant similar in appearance to mint1 white and aromatic4 ,applied externally1 it expels the dead ftus1 as also worms which breed in ulcers and in the ears4 ,,chap4 #gb4--,,the ,,chickpea ,,and ,,the ,,chicheling ,,vetch3 ,,twenty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,there is a wild chickpea also1 which resembles in its leaf the cultivated kind1#bhjd and has a powerful smell4 ,taken in considerable quantities1 it relaxes the bowels1 and produces griping pains and flatulency2 parched1 however1 it is looked upon as more wholesome4 ,the chicheling vetch1#bhje again1 acts more beneficially upon the bowels4 ,the meal of both kinds heals running sores of the head--that of the wild sort being the more efficacious of the two--as also epilepsy1 swellings of the liver1 and stings inflicted by serpents4 ,it acts as an emmenagogue and a diuretic1 used in the grain more particularly1 and it is a cure for lichens1 inflammations of the testes1 jaundice1 and dropsy4 ,all these kinds1 however1 exercise an injurious effect upon ulcerations of the bladder and kidneys3 but in combination with honey they are very good for gangrenous sores1 and the cancer known as 8cacoethes40 ,the following is a method adopted for the cure of all kinds of warts3 on the first day of the moon1 each wart must be touched with a single chickpea1 after which1 the party must tie up the pease in a linen cloth1 and throw it behind him2 by adopting this plan1 it is thought1 the warts will be made to disappear4 ,our authors recommend the plant known as the 8arietinum0#bhjf to be boiled in water with salt1 and two cyathi of the decoction to be taken for strangury4 ,employed in a similar manner1 it expels calculi1 and cures jaundice4 ,the water in which the leaves and stalks of this plant have been boiled1 applied as a fomentation as hot as possible1 allays gout in the feet1 an effect equally produced by the plant itself1 beaten up and applied warm4 ,a decoction of the columbine#bhjg chickpea1 it is thought1 moderates the shivering fits in tertian or quartan fevers2 and the black kind1 beaten up with half a nut-gall1 and applied with raisin wine1 is a cure for ulcers of the eyes4 ,,chap4 #gc4--,,the ,,fitch3 ,,twenty ,,remedies4 ,in speaking of the fitch1#bhjh we have mentioned certain properties belonging to it2 and1 indeed1 the ancients have attributed to it no fewer virtues than they have to the cabbage4 ,for the stings of serpents1 it is employed with vinegar2 as also for bites inflicted by crocodiles and human beings4 ,if a person eats of it1 fasting1 every day1 according to authors of the very highest authority1 the spleen will gradually diminish4 ,the meal of it removes spots on the face and other parts of the body4 ,it prevents ulcers from spreading also1 and is extremely efficacious for affections of the mamill3 mixed with wine1 it makes carbuncles break4 ,parched1 and taken with a piece of honey the size of a hazel nut1 it cures dysuria1 flatulency1 affections of the liver1 tenesmus1 and that state of the body in which no nourishment is derived from the food1 generally known as 8atrophy40 ,for cutaneous eruptions1 plasters are made of it boiled with honey1 being left to remain four days on the part affected4 ,applied with honey1 it prevents inflamed tumours from suppurating4 ,a decoction of it1 employed as a fomentation1 cures chilblains and prurigo2 and it is thought by some1 that if it is taken daily1 fasting1 it will improve the complexion of all parts of the body4 ,used as an aliment1 this pulse is far from wholesome1#bhji being apt to produce vomiting1 disorder the bowels1 and stuff the head and stomach4 ,it weakens the knees also2 but the effects of it may be modified by keeping it in soak for several days1 in which case it is remarkably beneficial for oxen and beasts of burden4 ,the pods of it1 beaten up green with the stalks and leaves1 before they harden1 stain the hair black4 ,,chap4 #gd4--,,lupines3 ,,thirty-,,five ,,remedies4 ,there are wild lupines1#bhaj also1 inferior in every respect to the cultivated kinds1 except in their bitterness4 ,of all the alimentary substances1 there are none which are less heavy or more useful#bhaa than dried lupines4 ,their bitterness is considerably modified by cooking them on hot ashes1 or steeping them in hot water4 ,employed frequently as an article of food1 they impart freshness to the colour2 the bitter lupine1 too1 is good for the sting of the asp4 ,dried lupines1 stripped of the husk and pounded1 are applied in a linen cloth to black ulcers1 in which they make new flesh3 boiled in vinegar1 they disperse scrofulous sores and imposthumes of the parotid glands4 ,a decoction of them1 with rue and pepper1 is given in fever even1 as an expellent of intestinal worms1#bhab to patients under thirty years of age4 ,for children1 also1 they are applied to the stomach as a vermifuge1 the patient fasting in the meantime3 and1 according to another mode of treatment1 they are parched and taken in boiled must or in honey4 ,lupines have the effect of stimulating the appetite1 and of dispelling nausea4 ,the meal of them1 kneaded up with vinegar1 and applied in the bath1 removes pimples and prurigo2 employed alone1 it dries up ulcerous sores4 ,it cures bruises also1 and1 used with polenta1 allays inflammations4 ,the wild lupine is found to be the most efficacious for debility of the hips and loins4 ,a decoction of them1 used as a fomentation1 removes freckles and improves the skin2 and lupines1 either wild or cultivated1 boiled down to the consistency of honey1 are a cure for black eruptions and leprosy4 ,an application of cultivated lupines causes carbuncles to break1 and reduces inflamed tumours and scrofulous sores1 or else brings them to a head3 boiled in vinegar1 they restore the flesh when cicatrized to its proper colour4 ,thoroughly boiled in rain-water1 the decoction of them furnishes a detersive medicine1 of which fomentations are made for gangrenes1 purulent eruptions1 and running ulcers4 ,this decoction is very good1 taken in drink1 for affections of the spleen1 and with honey1 for retardations of the catamenia4 ,beaten up raw1 with dried figs1 lupines are applied externally to the spleen4 ,a decoction of the root acts as a diuretic4 ,the herb chamleon1#bhac also1 is boiled with lupines1 and the water of it strained off1 to be used as a potion for cattle4 ,lupines boiled in amurca1#bhad or a decoction of them mixed with amurca1 heals the itch in beasts4 ,the smoke of lupines kills#bhae gnats4 ,,chap4 #ge4--;,,irio1 ,,or ,,erysimum1 ,,by ,,the ,,gauls ,,called ,,vela3 ,,fifteen ,,remedies4 ,when treating of the cereals1 we have already stated#bhaf that the irio1 which strongly resembles sesame1 is also called 8erysimon0 by the ,greeks3 the ,gauls give it the name of 8vela40 ,it is a branchy plant1 with leaves like those of rocket1 but a little narrower1 and a seed similar to that of nasturtium4 ,with honey1 it is extremely good for cough and purulent expectorations3 it is given1 also1 for jaundice and affections of the loins1 pleurisy1 gripings of the bowels1 and cliac affections1 and is used in liniments for imposthumes of the parotid glands and carcinomatous affections4 ,employed with water1 or with honey1 it is useful for inflammations of the testes1 and is extremely beneficial for the diseases of infants4 ,mixed with honey and figs1 it is good for affections of the fundament and diseases of the joints2 and taken in drink1 it is an excellent antidote to poisons4 ,it is used1 also1 for asthma1#bhag and with stale axle-grease for fistulas2 but it must not be allowed to touch the interior of them4 ,,chap4 #gf4--;,,horminum3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,horminum resembles cummin1 as already stated1#bhah in its seed2 but in other respects1 it is like the leek4#bhai ,it grows to some nine inches in height1 and there are two varieties of it4 ,in one of these the seed is oblong1 and darker than that of the other1 and the plant itself is in request as an aphrodisiac1 and for the cure of argema and albugo in the eyes3 of the other kind the seed is whiter1 and of a rounder form4 ,both kinds1 pounded and applied with water1 are used for the extraction of thorns from the body4 ,the leaves1 steeped in vinegar1 disperse tumours1 either used by themselves1 or in combination with honey2 they are employed1 also1 to disperse boils1 before they have come to a head1 and other collections of acrid humours4 ,,chap4 #gg4--;,,darnel3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,even more than this--the very plants which are the bane of the corn-field are not without their medicinal uses4 ,darnel#bhbj has received from ,virgil#bhba the epithet of 8unhappy20 and yet1 ground and boiled with vinegar1 it is used as an application for the cure of impetigo1 which is the more speedily effected the oftener the application is renewed4 ,it is employed1 also1 with oxymel1 for the cure of gout and other painful diseases4 ,the following is the mode of treatment3 for one sextarius of vinegar1 two ounces of honey is the right proportion2 three sextarii having been thus prepared1 two sextarii of darnel meal are boiled down in it to a proper consistency1 the mixture being applied warm to the part affected4 ,this meal1 too1 is used for the extraction of splinters of broken bones4 ,,chap4 #gh4--,,the ,,plant ,,miliaria3 ,,one ,,remedy4 8,miliaria0#bhbb is the name given to a plant which kills millet3 this plant1 it is said1 is a cure for gout in beasts of burden1 beaten up and administered in wine1 with the aid of a horn4 ,,chap4 #gi4--;,,bromos3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,bromos#bhbc is the seed also of a plant which bears an ear4 ,it is a kind of oat which grows among corn1 to which it is injurious2 the leaves and stalk of it resemble those of wheat1 and at the extremity it bears seeds1 hanging down1 something like small locusts#bhbd in appearance4 ,the seed of this plant is useful for plasters1 like barley and other grain of a similar nature4 ,a decoction of it is good for coughs4 ,,chap4 #hj4--,,orobanche1 ,,or ,,cynomorion3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,we have mentioned#bhbe orobanche as the name of a plant which kills the fitch and other leguminous plants4 ,some persons have called it 8cynomorion10 from the resemblance which it bears to the genitals of a dog4 ,the stem of it is leafless1 thick1 and red4 ,it is eaten either raw1 or boiled in the saucepan1 while young and tender4 ,,chap4 #ha4--,,remedies ,,for ,,injuries ,,inflicted ,,by ,,insects ,,which ,,breed ,,among ,,leguminous ,,plants4 ,there are some venomous insects also1 of the solipuga#bhbf kind1 which breed upon leguminous plants1 and which1 by stinging the hands1 endanger life4 ,for these stings all those remedies are efficacious which have been mentioned for the bite of the spider and the phalangium4#bhbg ,such1 then1 are the medicinal properties for which the cereals are employed4 ,,chap4 #hb4--,,the ,,use ,,made ,,of ,,the ,,yeast ,,of ,,zythum4 ,different beverages1 too1 are made from the cereals1 zythum in ,egypt1 clia and cerea in ,spain1 cervesia#bhbh and numerous liquors in ,gaul and other provinces4 ,the yeast#bhbi of all of these is used by women as a cosmetic for the face4--,but as we are now speaking of beverages1 it will be the best plan to pass on to the various uses of wine1 and to make a beginning with the vine of our account of the medicinal properties of the trees4 ,,summary4--,remedies1 narratives1 and observations1 nine hundred and six4 ,,authors ,,quoted4--,all those mentioned in the preceding ,book2 and1 in addition to them1 ,chrysermus1#bhcj ,eratosthenes1#bhca and ,alcus4#bhcb ,,book ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,remedies ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,cultivated ,,trees4 ,,chap4 #a4 7#a47--;,,introduction4 ,we have now set forth the various properties1 medicinal or otherwise1 as well of the cereals as of the other productions which lie upon#bhcc the surface of the earth1 for the purpose either of serving us for food1 or for the gratification of our senses with their flowers or perfumes4 ,in the trees1 however1 ,pomona has entered the lists with them1 and has imparted certain medicinal properties to the fruits as they hang4 ,not content with protecting and nourishing1 under the shadow of the trees1 the various plants which we have#bhcd already described1 she would even appear to be indignant1 as it were1 at the thought that we should derive more succour from those productions which are further removed from the canopy of heaven1 and which have only come into use in times comparatively recent4 ,for she bids man bear in mind that it was the fruits of the trees which formed his first nourishment1 and that it was these which first led him to look upwards towards the heavens3 and not only this1 but she reminds him1 too1 that even still it is quite possible for him to derive his aliment from the trees1 without being indebted to grain for his subsistence4 ,,chap4 #b4--,,the ,,vine4 ,but1 by ,hercules6 it is the vine more particularly to which she has accorded these medicinal properties1 as though she were not contented with her generosity in providing it with such delicious flavours1 and perfumes1 and essences1 in its omphacium1 its nanthe1 and its massaris1 preparations upon which we have already#bhce enlarged4 8,it is to me10 she says1 8that man is indebted for the greater part of his enjoyments1 it is ,i that produce for him the flowing wine and the trickling oil1 it is ,i that ripen the date and other fruits in numbers so varied2 and all this1 not insisting1 like the earth1 on their purchase at the cost of fatigues and labours4 ,no necessity do ,i create for ploughing with the aid of oxen1 for beating out upon the threshing-floor1 or for bruising under the millstone1 and all in order that man may earn his food at some indefinite time by this vast expenditure of toil4 ,as for me1 all my gifts are presented to him ready prepared3 for no anxieties or fatigues do they call1 but1 on the contrary1 they offer themselves spontaneously1 and even fall to the ground1 if man should be too indolent to reach them as they hang40 ,vying even with herself1 ,pomona has done still more for our practical advantage than for the mere gratification of our pleasures and caprices4 ,,chap4 #c4--,,the ,,leaves ,,and ,,shoots ,,of ,,the ,,vine3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 #bhcf ,the leaves and shoots of the vine1 employed with polenta1 allay head-ache and reduce inflammations3#bhcg the leaves1 too1 applied by themselves with cold water1 are good for burning pains in the stomach2 and1 used with barley-meal1 are excellent applications for diseases of the joints4 ,the shoots1 beaten up and applied1 have the property of drying up all kinds of running tumours1 and the juice extracted from them is used as an injection for the cure of dysentery4 ,the tears of the vine1 which would appear to be a sort of gum1 will heal leprous sores1 lichens1 and itch-scabs1 if treated first with nitre3 used with oil1 and applied frequently to superfluous hairs1 they act as a depilatory1 those more particularly which exude from the vine when burnt in a green state3 this last liquid has the effect1 too1 of removing warts4 ,an infusion of the shoots in water1 taken in drink1 is good for persons troubled with spitting of blood1 and for the fainting fits which sometimes ensue upon conception4 ,the bark of the vine and the dried leaves arrest the flowing of blood from wounds1 and make the sores cicatrize more rapidly4 ,the juice of the white vine1#bhch extracted from it while green1 effectually removes cutaneous#bhci eruptions4 ,the ashes#bhdj of the cuttings of vines1 and of the husks of the grapes1 applied with vinegar1 are curative of condylomata and diseases of the fundament2 as also of sprains1 burns1 and swellings of the spleen1 applied with rose-oil1 rue1 and vinegar4 ,used with wine1 but without oil1 they make a fomentation for erysipelas and parts of the body which are chafed2 they act as a depilatory also4#bhda ,for affections of the spleen the ashes of vine-cuttings1 moistened with vinegar1 are administered in drink1 being taken in doses of two cyathi in warm water2 after which the patient must take due care to lie upon the side in which the spleen is situate4 ,the tendrils1 too1 which the vine throws out as it climbs1 beaten up in water and drunk1 have the effect of arresting habitual vomiting4 ,the ashes of the vine1 used with stale axle-grease1 are good for tumours1 act as a detergent upon fistulas1 and speedily effect a radical cure2 the same1 too1 with pains and contractions of the sinews1 occasioned by cold4 ,applied with oil1 they are useful for contusions1 and with vinegar and nitre1 for fleshy excrescences upon the bones3 in combination with oil1 they are good1 too1 for wounds inflicted by scorpions and dogs4 ,the ashes of the bark1 employed by themselves1 restore the hair to such parts of the body as have suffered from the action of fire4 ,,chap4 #d4--,,omphacium ,,extracted ,,from ,,the ,,vine3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,we have already#bhdb mentioned1 when speaking of the composition of unguents1 how omphacium is made from the grape1 when it is just beginning to form3 we shall now proceed to speak of its medicinal properties4 ,omphacium heals ulcerations of the humid parts of the body1 such as the mouth1 tonsillary glands1 and generative organs1 for example2 it is very good1 too1 for the sight1 for rough spots upon the eyelids1 ulcers at the corners of the eyes1 films upon the eyes1 running sores on all parts of the body1 cicatrizations#bhdc slow in forming1 and purulent discharges from the ears4 ,the powerful action of omphacium is modified by the admixture of honey or raisin wine4 ,it is very useful1 too1 for dysentery1 spitting of blood1 and quinsy4 ,,chap4 #e4--,,nanthe3 ,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,next to omphacium comes nanthe1 a product of the wild vine1 described by us already#bhdd when treating of the unguents4 ,the most esteemed kind is that of ,syria1 the produce of the white vine#bhde in the vicinity of the mountains of ,antiochia and ,laodicea in particular4 ,being of a cooling1 astringent nature1 it is used for sprinkling upon sores1 and is employed as a topical application for diseases of the stomach4 ,it acts also as a diuretic1 and is good for maladies of the liver1 head-ache1 dysentery1 cliac affections1 and attacks of cholera3 for nausea1 it is taken in doses of one obolus in vinegar4 ,it acts as a desiccative upon running eruptions of the head1 and is extremely efficacious for maladies of the humid parts of the body2 hence it is that it is employed1 with honey and saffron1 for ulcers of the mouth1 and for diseases of the generative organs and the fundament4 ,it arrests looseness of the bowels1 and heals eruptions of the eyelids and runnings at the eyes3 taken with wine1 it cures derangements of the stomach1 and with cold water1 spitting of blood4 ,the ashes of nanthe are highly esteemed as an ingredient in eye-salves1 and as a detergent for ulcers1 whitlows1 and hang-nails2#bhdf to obtain these ashes1 it is put into an oven1 and left there till the bread is thoroughly baked4 ,as to massaris1#bhdg it is used as a perfume only4 ,the renown attached to all these preparations is due solely to the innate greediness of mankind1 which has racked its invention to gather the productions of the earth before they have arrived at maturity4 ,,chap4 #f4--;,,grapes1 ,,fresh ,,gathered4 ,as to grapes when allowed to gain maturity1 the black ones have more marked properties#bhdh than the others2 and hence it is1 that the wine made from them is not so agreeable4 ,the white grapes1 on the other hand1 are sweeter1 for1 being transparent1 the air penetrates them with greater facility4 ,grapes fresh gathered are productive of flatulency1 and disturb the stomach and bowels2 hence it is that they are avoided in fevers1 in large quantities more particularly4 ,indeed1 they are very apt to produce oppression of the head1 and to bring on the malady known as lethargy4#bhdi ,grapes which have been gathered1 and left to hang for some time1 are much less#bhej injurious1 the exposure to the air rendering them beneficial even to the stomach1 and refreshing to the patient1 as they are slightly cooling1 and tend to remove nausea and qualmishness4 ,,chap4 #g4--,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,preserved ,,grapes3 ,,eleven ,,remedies4 ,grapes which have been preserved in wine or in must are trying to the head4 ,next to the grapes which have been left to hang in the air1 are those which have been kept in chaff2 but as to those which have been preserved among grape husks1 they are injurious#bhea to the head1 the bladder1 and the stomach1 though at the same time they arrest looseness of the bowels1 and are extremely good for patients troubled with spitting of blood4 ,when preserved in must1 they are worse even in their effects than when kept among husks2 boiled#bheb must1 too1 renders them injurious to the stomach4 ,it is the opinion of medical writers1 that grapes kept#bhec in rain-water are the most wholesome of all1 even though they are by no means agreeable eating2 for the benefit of them is particularly experienced in burning pains of the stomach1 biliousness arising from a disordered liver1 vomiting of bile1 and attacks of cholera1 as also dropsy and burning fevers4 ,grapes kept in earthen pots sharpen the taste1 the stomach1 and the appetite2 it is thought1 however1 that they are rendered a little heavy#bhed by the exhalations from the husks with which they are covered4#bhee ,if vine-blossoms are given to poultry1 mixed with their food1 they will never touch the grapes4#bhef ,,chap4 #h4--;,,cuttings ,,of ,,the ,,vine3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,such cuttings of the vine as have borne grapes1 have an astringent effect1 when they are preserved in earthen#bheg pots1 more particularly4 ,,chap4 #i4--;,,grape-,,stones3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,grape-stones1 also1 have a similar#bheh property2 it is through them that wine is so apt to produce head-ache4 ,parched and then pounded1 they are beneficial for the stomach2 and this powder is sprinkled1 like polenta1 in the beverage of patients suffering from dysentery1 cliac affections1 and derangements of the stomach4 ,a decoction of them is useful1 also1 as a fomentation for itch-scabs and prurigo4 ,,chap4 #aj4--;,,grape-,,husks3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,grape-husks1 used by themselves1 are less injurious to the head and bladder than grape-stones are3 beaten up with salt1 they form an excellent liniment for inflammations of the mamill4 ,a decoction of them1 taken in drink1 or employed as a fomentation1 is good for inveterate dysentery1 and cliac affections4 ,,chap4 #aa4--,,the ,,grapes ,,of ,,the ,,theriaca3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the grape of the theriaca1 of which we have already made mention#bhei on the appropriate occasion1 is eaten by way of antidote to the stings of serpents4 ,it is recommended1 too1 to eat the young shoots of this tree1 and to apply them topically4 ,the wine and vinegar made from these grapes are productive of a similar salutary effect4#bhfj ,,chap4 #ab4--,,raisins1 ,,or ,,astaphis3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,raisins1 the name given to which is 8astaphis10 would be injurious to the stomach1 abdomen1 and intestines1 were it not for the stones within them1 which act as a corrective4#bhfa ,when the stones are removed1 raisins1 it is thought1 are beneficial to the bladder1 and good for cough3#bhfb in the last case1 the raisin of the white grape is considered the best4 ,raisins are good also for the trachea and the kidneys1 and the wine made from them is particularly efficacious for the sting of the serpent called hmorrhos4#bhfc ,in combination with meal of cummin or coriander1 they are employed topically for inflammations of the testes4 ,for carbuncles and diseases of the joints1 the stones are removed1 and the raisins are pounded with rue2 if used for ulcers1 the sores must be first fomented with wine4 ,used with the stones1 raisins are a cure for epinyctis1 honeycomb ulcers1#bhfd and dysentery2 and for gangrenes they are applied topically with radish rind and honey1 being first boiled in oil4 ,they are used with panax1#bhfe for gout and loose nails2 and they are sometimes eaten by themselves1 in combination with pepper1 for the purpose of cleansing the mouth and clearing the brain4 ,,chap4 #ac4--,,the ,,astaphisagria1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,staphis ,,or ,,taminia3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the wild astaphis1 otherwise called staphis1#bhff is by some persons erroneously called 8uva taminia20#bhfg for it is altogether a distinct plant from the other4 ,it has a black1 upright stem1 with leaves resembling those of the labrusca1#bhfh and bears what we may call a pod1#bhfi rather than a grape1 green1 similar to a chick-pea in appearance1 and enclosing a kernel of triangular form4 ,the fruit of it ripens with the vintage and turns black1 while the berries of the taminia1#bhgj as is well known1 are red2 this last1 too1 as we are aware1 grows only in shaded spots1 while the wild astaphis1 on the other hand1 loves a site that is exposed to the sun4 ,i would not recommend any one to use the kernels#bhga of the wild astaphis as a purgative1 as it is very doubtful whether they might not choke the patient2 nor would ,i advise them to be employed for the purpose of attenuating the phlegm1 as they are extremely irritating to the throat4 ,beaten up1 however1 and applied topically1 they kill vermin#bhgb in the head and other parts of the body1 more particularly if they are used with sandarach2 they are very useful1 too1 for itch-scabs and prurigo4 ,a decoction of the kernels is made with vinegar1 for the cure of tooth-ache1 diseases of the ears1 cicatrices#bhgc that are slow in healing1 and running sores4 ,the blossoms of the plant are beaten up and taken in wine for stings#bhgd inflicted by serpents2 but1 as to the seed1 ,i would strongly recommend its rejection1 on account of its extremely pungent properties4 ,some persons give to this plant the name of 8pituitaria10#bhge and use it as a common application for stings inflicted by serpents4 ,,chap4 #ad4--,,the ,,labrusca1 ,,or ,,wild ,,vine3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,the labrusca1 too1 produces an nanthe1 which has been described at sufficient length already3#bhgf by the ,greeks the labrusca is known as the wild vine4#bhgg ,the leaves of it are thick and of a whitish colour1 the stem is jointed1 and the bark full of fissures3 it bears grapes of a scarlet#bhgh hue1 like the coccus1 which are made use of by females for the purpose of improving the complexion1 and removing spots upon the face4 ,pounded with the leaves and the juice extracted from the tree1 these grapes are usefully employed for the treatment of lumbago and sciatica4 ,a decoction of the root#bhgi in water1 taken in two cyathi of ,coan wine1 promotes an alvine evacuation of aqueous secretions2 for which reason it is prescribed for dropsy4 ,i am inclined to think that this is the plant that is commonly known as the 8uva taminia20#bhhj it is in great request as an amulet1 and is employed1 though as a gargle only1 in cases of spitting blood2 for which purpose1 salt1 thyme1 and oxymel are added to it1 care being taken not to swallow any of the mixture4 ,it is generally looked upon as unsafe to employ it as a purgative4 ,,chap4 #ae4--,,the ,,salicastrum3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,there is another plant1#bhha similar to the labrusca1 but found growing in willow-beds2 for which reason it is known by a distinct name1 though the uses to which it is applied are just the same4 ,the name given to it is 8salicastrum20 beaten up with oxymel1 it displays marvellous efficacy in the removal of itch-scab and prurigo in men and cattle4 ,,chap4 #af4--,,the ,,white ,,vine1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,ampeloleuce1 ,,staphyle1 ,,melothron1 ,,psilotrum1 ,,archezostis1 ,,cedrostis1 ,,or ,,madon3 ,,thirty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,the white vine#bhhb is known to the ,greeks by the various names of ampeloleuce1 staphyle1 melothron1 psilotrum1 archezostis1 cedrostis1 and madon4 ,the twigs of this tree are jointed1 thin1 and climbing1 with considerable interstices between the knots4#bhhc ,the leaves1 attached to the numerous shoots1 and about the size of an ivy leaf1 are jagged at the edges1 like that of the vine4 ,the root of it is large and white1 and very like a radish#bhhd at first2 from it issue several stems1 similar to asparagus in appearance4 ,these stems1 eaten boiled1 are both purgative and diuretic4 ,the leaves1 too1 as well as the stems1 are possessed of caustic#bhhe properties2 for which reason they are employed topically with salt1 for phagednic sores1 gangrenes1 and putrid ulcers of the legs4 ,the fruit of the tree is in the form of grapes thinly scattered1 the juice of which is red at first1 and afterwards of a saffron colour4 ,this fruit#bhhf is well known to curriers1 who are in the habit of using it in preparing leather4 ,it is employed also in the form of a liniment for itch-scabs and leprous spots2 and a decoction of it with wheat1 taken in drink1 increases the milk in women when nursing4 ,the root of this tree1 so renowned for the numerous medicinal purposes to which it is applied1 is pounded and taken in wine1 in doses of two drachm1 for the cure of stings inflicted by serpents3#bhhg it has the effect1 also1 of removing spots upon the face1 moles and freckles1 as well as scars and bruises3 a decoction of it in oil is productive of a similar effect4 ,a decoction of it is given to drink for epilepsy1#bhhh and to persons troubled with a disordered mind or suffering from vertigo1 the dose being one drachma daily1 for a whole year3 taken in larger quantities1 it is apt sometimes to disorder#bhhi the senses4 ,it is possessed1 also1 of one very remarkable property1 applied with water in the same manner as bryonia1 of extracting splintered bones1 for which reason it is known to some persons by the name of white bryonia3 the other kind1 however1 which is black1 is found to answer the purpose better1 in combination with honey and frankincense4 ,the white vine disperses incipient suppurations1 ripens them when they are inveterate1 and acts as a detergent3 it operates also as an emmenagogue and diuretic4 ,an electuary is prepared from it for asthma and pains in the sides1 as also for convulsions and ruptures4 ,taken in drink for thirty days together1 in doses of three oboli1 it has the effect of reducing the spleen2 and it is used1 in combination with figs1 for the cure of hangnails#bhij on the fingers4 ,applied with wine1 it brings away the after-birth1 and1 taken in hydromel1 in doses of one drachma1 it carries off phlegm4 ,the juice of the root should be extracted before the fruit ripens2 applied either by itself or with meal of fitches1 it imparts an improved complexion and a certain degree of suppleness to the skin3 it has the effect also of repelling serpents4 ,the root itself1 too1 beaten up with a pulpy fig1 will remove wrinkles on the body1 if the person using it takes care to walk a couple of stadia immediately after the application2 otherwise it would leave marks upon the skin1 unless1 indeed1 it were washed off immediately with cold water4 ,the black vine1 too1 is better for this purpose than the white one1 as the latter is very apt to be productive of itching4 ,,chap4 #ag4--,,the ,,black ,,vine1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,bryona1 ,,chironia1 ,,gyn,,canthe1 ,,or ,,apronia3 ,,thirty-,,five ,,remedies4 ,for there is also a black vine1 properly known as the 8bryonia10#bhia though by some persons it is called the 8chironia10 and by others the 8gyncanthe10 or 8apronia40 ,it differs only from the one previously mentioned in its colour1 which1 as already stated1#bhib is black4 ,the shoots of this tree1 which resemble asparagus in appearance1 are preferred by ,diocles for eating to real asparagus1#bhic as a diuretic and for its property of reducing the spleen4 ,it is found growing in shrubberies or reed-beds more particularly4 ,the root of it1 which is black outside1 and of the colour of box within1 is even more efficacious for the extraction of splintered bones than the plant last mentioned2 in addition to which1 it has the property of being a specific for excoriations of the neck in cattle4 ,it is said1 too1 that if a person plants it around a farm1 it will be sure to keep hawks away1 and to preserve the poultry-yard#bhid in perfect safety4 ,attached to the ankles1 it tends to disperse the blood1 congested or otherwise1 which may have settled in those parts of the body1 whether in human beings or in beasts of burden4 ,thus much with reference to the various species of vines4 ,,chap4 #ah4--,,must3 ,,fifteen ,,remedies4 ,the various kinds of must#bhie have different properties2 some of them being black1 some white1 and others of intermediate shades of colour4 ,there is a difference1 too1 between the kinds of must from which wine is made1 and those from which raisin wine is prepared4 ,the various degrees of care and attention on the part of the maker1 render the differences that already exist1 quite innumerable2 we shall therefore content ourselves with taking a general view only of their medicinal uses4 ,every kind of must is unwholesome to the stomach1 but of a soothing nature to the venous system4 ,taken off at a draught1 immediately after the bath1 must is fatal#bhif in its effects4 ,it acts as an antidote#bhig to cantharides and stings inflicted by serpents1 those of the hmorrhois and the salamandra#bhih in particular4 ,it is productive of head-ache1 and is prejudicial to the throat1 but it is good for the kidneys1 liver1 and inner coat of the bladder1 by reason of its lubricating properties4 ,it is particularly effectual also in cases of injuries inflicted by the insect known as the 8buprestis40#bhii ,taken with oil as a vomit1 it neutralizes the bad effects of opium1#bijj milk that has curdled upon the stomach1 hemlock1 dorycnium1#bija and other poisons4#bijb ,for all these purposes1 however1 white must is not so efficacious1 while must prepared from raisins of the sun has a more pleasant flavour1 and is productive of a less degree of oppression to the head4 ,,chap4 #ai4--,,particulars ,,relative ,,to ,,wine4 ,we have already#bijc described the various kinds of wine1 the numerous differences which exist between them1 and most of the properties which each kind possesses4 ,there is no subject that presents greater difficulties than this1 or1 indeed1 a more varied field for discussion1 it being extremely difficult to pronounce whether wine is more generally injurious in its effects1 or beneficial4 ,and then1 in addition to this1 how very uncertain is it1 whether1 the moment we have drunk it1 it will be productive of salutary results1 or turn out no better than so much poison6 ,however1 it is only with reference to its medicinal properties1 that we are now about to speak of it4 ,asclepiades has composed a whole treatise 7which has thence received its name#bijd7 on the proper methods of administering wine2 and the number of commentators who have since written on this treatise1 is almost innumerable4 ,for my own part1 with all that gravity which becomes a ,roman1 and one zealous for the furtherance of liberal pursuits1 ,i shall enter into a careful examination of this subject1 not1 indeed1 in the character of a physician1 but as a careful investigator of the effects which wine is likely to produce upon the health of mankind4 ,to treat1 however1 of the medicinal properties of each individual kind1 would be a labour without end1 and quite inexhaustible2 the more so1 as the opinions of medical men are so entirely at variance upon the subject4 ,,chap4 #bj4--,,the ,,surrentine ,,wines3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,alban ,,wines3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,falernian ,,wines3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,our ancestors set the highest value upon the wines of ,surrentum2#bije but at a later period the preference was given to the ,alban1 or the ,falernian wines4 ,more recently1 again1 other varieties of wine have come into fashion1 quite in accordance with that most unreasonable mode of proceeding1 according to which1 each person1 as he finds a wine most to his taste1 extols it as superior to all others4 ,suppose1 now1 that all persons were quite agreed as to the superiority of some particular kind of wine1 how small a proportion of mankind would be enabled to make use of it6 ,as it is1 even the rich never drink it in an unsophisticated state2 the morals of the age being such1 that it is the name only of a vintage that is sold1 the wines being adulterated the very moment they enter the vat4 ,hence it is1 by ,hercules6--a thing truly astounding--that1 in reality1 a wine is more innoxious in its effects1 in proportion as it enjoys a less extended renown4 ,the three kinds1 however1 of which we have made mention1 appear to have maintained1 with the least diminution1 their ancient repute4 ,the ,falernian wine1 if a person should be desirous to know the marked characteristics of wines according to age1 is injurious to the health1 either too new or too old2 at fifteen years it begins to be of medium age4 ,falernian wine of this age1 taken cold1 is good for the stomach1 but not when taken warm4 ,for an inveterate cough and for quartan fevers1 it is a good plan to drink it neat1 fasting4 ,there is no wine that quickens the action of the venous system so much as this2 it acts astringently upon the bowels1 and is feeding to the body4 ,it has been thought1 however1 that this wine is productive of injury to the sight1 and that it is far from beneficial to the nerves#bijf and the bladder4 ,the ,alban wines are more salutary to the nervous system1 but the sweet kinds are not so beneficial to the stomach4 ,the rough wines of ,alba are even better than those of ,falernum1 but they do not promote the digestion so well1 and have a slight tendency to overload the stomach4 ,as to the ,surrentine wines1 they have no such effect upon the stomach1 nor are they at all trying to the head2 they have the property also of arresting defluxions of the stomach and intestines4 ,the ,ccuban wines are no longer grown4 ,,chap4 #ba4--,,the ,,setine ,,wines2 ,,one ,,observation ,,upon ,,them4 ,,the ,,statan ,,wines2 ,,one ,,observation ,,upon ,,them4 ,,the ,,signian ,,wines2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,among the wines1 however1 which still exist1 those of ,setia#bijg promote the digestion1 having more strength than the ,surrentine wines1 and more roughness than those of ,alba4 ,the wines of ,falernum are not so powerful4 ,those of ,stata are but very little inferior in quality to the wines already mentioned4 ,it is universally agreed that the wines of ,signia are extremely beneficial in cases of derangement of the bowels4 ,,chap4 #bb4--,,other ,,wines3 ,,sixty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,as to the other wines1 they may be spoken of in general terms4 ,by the use of wine1 the human vigour1 blood1 and complexion are improved4 ,it is wine that makes up for all the difference between the middle or temperate zone1 and those which lie on either side of it1 the juice of the vine conferring as much vigour and robustness upon the inhabitants of our part of the earth as the rigorousness#bijh of the climate does upon the people there4 ,milk1 used as a beverage1 strengthens1 the bones1 liquids extracted from the cereals nourish the sinews1 and water imparts nutriment to the flesh3 hence it is that persons who confine themselves to these several liquids as a beverage1 are of a less ruddy complexion than the wine-drinker1 less robust1 and less able to endure fatigue4 ,by the use of wine in moderation the sinews are strengthened1 but taken in excess it proves injurious to them2 the same1 too1 with the eyes4 ,wine refreshes the stomach1 sharpens the appetite1 takes off the keen edge of sorrows and anxieties1 warms the body1 acts beneficially as a diuretic1 and invites sleep4 ,in addition to these properties1 it arrests vomiting1 and we find that pledgets of wool1 soaked in wine1 and applied to abscesses1 are extremely beneficial4 ,according to ,asclepiades1 the virtues possessed by wine are hardly equalled by the majestic attributes of the gods themselves4 ,old wine bears admixture with a larger quantity of water1 and acts more powerfully as a diuretic1 though at the same time it is less effectual for quenching thirst4 ,sweet wine1 again1 is less inebriating1 but stays longer on the stomach1 while rough wine is more easy of digestion4 ,the wine that becomes mellow with the greatest rapidity is the lightest1 and that which becomes sweeter the older it is1 is not so injurious to the nerves4 ,wines that are rich and black1#biji are not so beneficial to the stomach2 but1 at the same time1 they are more feeding to the body4 ,thin-bodied rough wines are not so feeding1 but are more wholesome to the stomach1 and pass off more speedily by urine1 though they are all the more liable to fly to the head2 a remark which will apply1 once for all1 to liquids of every kind4 ,wine that has been mellowed by the agency of smoke is extremely unwholesome--a fraudulent method of preparation that has been invented in the wine-lofts#biaj of the retail dealers4 ,at the present day1 however1 this plan is adopted in private families even1 when it is wished to give the appearance of maturity to wines that have become carious4#biaa ,indeed1 this term carious has been used very appositely by the ancients with reference to wines2 for we find that in the case of wood even1 smoke exercises a caustic effect upon the carious parts1 and eats them away2 and yet we1 on the other hand1 persuade ourselves that an adventitious age may be imparted to wines by the bitter twang derived from smoke6#biab ,those wines which are extremely pale1 become more wholesome the older they are4 ,the more generous#biac a wine is1 the thicker it becomes with age2 while1 at the same time1 it contracts a bitter flavour1 which is far from exercising a beneficial effect upon the health4 ,to season another wine1 that is not so old1 with this1 is nothing less than to make an unwholesome preparation4 ,the more of its own natural flavour#biad a wine possesses1 the more wholesome it is2 and the best age for a wine is that which naturally belongs to it1 a medium age being the one that is the most generally esteemed4 ,,chap4 #bc4--,,sixty-,,one ,,observations ,,relative ,,to ,,wine4 ,persons whose wish it is to make flesh1 or to keep the bowels relaxed1 will do well to drink while taking their food4 ,those1 on the other hand1 who wish to reduce themselves1 or prevent the bowels from being relaxed1 should abstain from drinking while taking their meals1 and drink but a very little only when they have done eating4 ,to drink wine fasting is a fashion of recent introduction#biae only1 and an extremely bad one for persons engaged in matters of importance1 and requiring a continued application of the mental faculties4 ,wine1 no doubt1 was taken fasting in ancient times1 but then it was as a preparative for sleep and repose from worldly cares2 and it is for this reason that1 in ,homer1#biaf we find ,helen presenting it to the guests before the repast4 ,it is upon this fact1 too1 that the common proverb is founded1 which says that 8wisdom is obscured by wine40#biag ,it is to wine that we men are indebted for being the only animated beings that drink without being thirsty4 ,when drinking wine1 it is a very good plan to take a draught of water every now and then2 and to take one long draught of it at the last1 cold water taken internally having the effect of instantaneously dispelling inebriation4 ,it is strongly recommended by ,hesiod#biah to drink undiluted wine#biai for twenty days before the rising of the ,dog-star1 and as many after4 ,pure wine1 too1 acts as an antidote to hemlock1 coriander1#bibj henbane1 mistletoe1 opium1 mercury1 as also to stings inflicted by bees1 wasps1 hornets1 the phalangium1 serpents1 and scorpions2 all kinds of poison1 in fact1 which are of a cold nature1 the venom of the hmorrhois and the prester1#biba in particular1 and the noxious effects of fungi4 ,undiluted wine is good1 too1 in cases of flatulency1 gnawing pains in the thoracic organs1 excessive vomitings at the stomach1 fluxes of the bowels and intestines1 dysentery1 excessive perspirations after prolonged fits of coughing1 and defluxions of various kinds4 ,in the cardiac#bibb disease1 it is a good plan to apply a sponge soaked in neat wine to the left breast3 in all these cases1 however1 old white wine is the best4 ,a fomentation of hot wine applied to the genitals of beasts of burden is found to be very beneficial2 and1 introduced into the mouth1 with the aid of a horn1 it has the effect of removing all sensations of fatigue4#bibc ,it is asserted that in apes1 and other quadrupeds with toes1 the growth will be impeded if they are accustomed to drink undiluted wine4#bibd ,,chap4 #bd4--;,,in ,,what ,,maladies ,,wine ,,should ,,be ,,administered2 ,,how ,,it ,,should ,,be ,,administered1 ,,and ,,at ,,what ,,times4 ,we shall now proceed to speak of wine in relation to its medicinal uses4 ,the wines of ,campania#bibe which have the least body1 are the most wholesome beverage for persons of rank and station2 and for the lower classes#bibf the best kind of wine is that which is the most pleasant to the person who drinks it1 provided he is in robust health4 ,for persons of all ranks1 however1 the most serviceable wine is that the strength of which has been reduced by the strainer2#bibg for we must bear in mind that wine is nothing else but juice of grapes which has acquired strength by the process of fermentation4 ,a mixture of numerous kinds of wine is universally bad1 and the most wholesome wine of all is that to which no ingredient has been added when in a state of must2 indeed1 it is still better if the vessels even in which it is kept have never been pitched4#bibh ,as to wines which have been treated with marble1 gypsum1 or lime1#bibi where is the man1 however robust he may be1 that has not stood in dread of them8 ,wines which have been prepared with sea-water#bicj are particularly injurious to the stomach1 nerves1 and bladder4 ,those which have been seasoned with resin are generally looked upon as beneficial to a cold stomach1 but are considered unsuitable where there is a tendency to vomit3 the same1 too1 with must1 boiled grape-juice1#bica and raisin wine4 ,new wines seasoned with resin are good for no one1 being productive of vertigo and head-ache3 hence it is that the name of 8crapula0#bicb has been given equally to new resined wines1 and to the surfeit and head-ache which they produce4 ,the wines above mentioned#bicc by name1 are good for cough and catarrh1 as also for cliac affections1 dysentery1 and the catamenia4 ,those wines of this sort which are red#bicd or black1#bice are more astringent and more heating than the others4 ,wines which have been seasoned with pitch only1 are not so injurious2 but at the same time we must bear in mind that pitch is neither more nor less than resin liquefied#bicf by the action of fire4 ,these pitched wines are of a heating nature1 promote the digestion1 and act as a purgative2 they are good1 also1 for the chest and the bowels1 for pains in the uterus1 if there are no signs of fever1 for inveterate fluxes1 ulcerations1 ruptures1 spasms1 suppurated abscesses1 debility of the sinews1 flatulency1 cough1 asthma1 and sprains1 in which last case they are applied in uncleansed wool4 ,for all these purposes the wine is preferred which has naturally the flavour of pitch1#bicg and is thence known as 8picatum30 it is generally agreed1 however1 that the produce of the vine called 8helvennaca10#bich if taken in too large a quantity1 is trying to the head4 ,in reference to the treatment of fever1 it is well known that wine should never be given1 unless the patient is an aged person1 or the symptoms are beginning to abate4 ,in cases of acute fever1 wine must never be given1 under any circumstance1 except when there is an evident remission of the attack1 and more particularly if this takes place in the night1 for then the danger is diminished by one half1 there being the probability of the patient sleeping off the effects of the wine4 ,it is equally forbidden1 also1 to females just after delivery or a miscarriage1 and to patients suffering from over-indulgence of the sexual passions2 nor should it be given in cases of head-ache1 of maladies in which the attacks are attended with chills at the extremities1 of fever accompanied with cough1 of tremulousness#bici in the sinews1 of pains in the fauces1 or where the disease is found to concentrate itself in the iliac regions4 ,wine is strictly forbidden1 too1 in cases of induration of the thoracic organs1 violent throbbings of the veins1 opisthotony1 tetanus1 asthma1 and hardness of breathing attended with fever4 ,wine is far from beneficial for a patient1 when the eyes are fixed and rigid1 and when the eyelids are immoveable1 or else relaxed and heavy2 in cases1 too1 where1 with an incessant nictation1 the eyes are more than usually brilliant1 or where the eyelids refuse to close--the same1 too1 if that symptom should occur in sleep--or where the eyes are suffused with blood1 or congealed matter makes its appearance in the corners of those organs4 ,the same rule should be observed1 also1 when the tongue is heavy and swollen1 or when there is an impediment from time to time in the speech1 when the urine is passed with difficulty1 or when a person has been seized with a sudden fright1 with spasms1 or recurrent fits of torpor1 or experiences seminal discharges during sleep4 ,,chap4 #be4--,,ninety-,,one ,,observations ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,wine4 ,it is a well-ascertained fact1 that in the cardiac#bidj disease the only resource is wine4 ,according to some authorities1 however1 wine should only be given when the attacks come on1 while others1 again1 are of opinion1 that it must only be administered between the attacks2 it being the object with the former to arrest the profuse perspirations1 while the latter base their practice on an impression that it may be given with more safety at a moment when the malady has diminished in intensity2 and this ,i find is the opinion entertained by most people4 ,in all cases1 wine must only be administered just after taking food1 never after sleep1 and under no circumstances after any other kind of drink1 or in other words1 only when the patient is thirsty2 in no case whatever should it be given1 except at the very last extremity4 ,wine is better suited to males than to females1 to aged people than to youths1 to youths than to children1 and to persons who are used to it than to those who are not in the habit of taking it2 winter1 too1 is a better time for using it than summer4 ,as to the quantity to be prescribed1 and the proportion of water to be mixed with it1 that depends entirely upon the strength of the wine2 it is generally thought1 however1 that the best proportions are one cyathus of wine and two of water4 ,if1 however1 there is a derangement of the stomach1 and if the food does not pass downward1 the wine must be given in a larger proportion4 ,,chap4 #bf4--;,,artificial ,,wines4 ,among the artificial wines1 the preparation of which we have#bida described1 there are some which1#bidb ,i think1 are no longer made2 in addition to which1 it would be a mere loss of time to enlarge upon their medicinal effects1 having expatiated elsewhere upon the properties of the various elements of which they are composed4 ,and then1 besides1 the conceits of the medical men in relation to these wines have really passed all bounds2 they pretend1 for instance1 that a wine extracted from turnips#bidc is good for recruiting the exhausted strength1 after exercises in arms or on horseback2 and1 not to speak of other preparations1 they attribute a similar effect to wine of juniper4#bidd ,who is there1 too1 that would think of looking1 upon wormwood wine#bide as superior in its effects to wormwood itself8 ,i shall pass in silence the rest of these preparations1 and among them palm wine1#bidf which is injurious to the head1 and is beneficial only as a laxative to the bowels1 and as a cure for spitting of blood4 ,we cannot1 however1 look upon the liquor which we have spoken of#bidg under the name of 8bion10 as being an artificial wine2 for the whole art of making it consists merely in the employment of grapes before they have arrived at maturity4 ,this preparation is extremely good for a deranged stomach or an imperfect digestion1 as also for pregnancy1 fainting fits1 paralysis1 fits of trembling1 vertigo1 gripings of the bowels1 and sciatica4 ,it is said1 too1 that in times of pestilence1 and for persons on a long journey1 this liquid forms a beverage of remarkable efficacy4 ,,chap4 #bg4--,,vinegar3 ,,twenty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,wine1 even when it has lost its vinous properties1 still retains some medicinal virtues4 ,vinegar possesses cooling properties in the very highest degree1 and is no less efficacious as a resolvent2 it has the property1 too1 of effervescing1#bidh when poured upon the ground4 ,we have frequently had occasion1 and shall again have occasion1 to mention the various medicinal compositions in which it forms an ingredient4 ,taken by itself1 it dispels nausea and arrests hiccup1 and if smelt at1 it will prevent sneezing3 retained in the mouth1 it prevents a person from being inconvenienced by the heat#bidi of the bath4 ,it is used as a beverage also1 in combination with water1#biej and employed as a gargle1 it is found by many to be very wholesome to the stomach1 particularly convalescents and persons suffering from sun-stroke2 used as a fomentation1 too1 this mixture is extremely beneficial to the eyes4 ,vinegar is used remedially when a leech has been swallowed2#biea and it has the property of healing leprous sores1#bieb scorbutic eruptions1 running ulcers1 wounds inflicted by dogs1 scorpions1 and scolopendr1 and the bite of the shrew-mouse4 ,it is good1 too1 as a preventive of the itching sensations produced by the venom of all stinging animals1 and as an antidote to the bite of the millepede4 ,applied warm in a sponge1 in the proportion of three sextarii to two ounces of sulphur or a bunch of hyssop1 vinegar is a remedy for maladies of the fundament4 ,to arrest the hmorrhage which ensues upon the operation#biec of lithotomy1 and1 indeed1 all other operations of a similar nature1 it is usual to apply vinegar in a sponge1 and at the same time to administer it internally in doses of two cyathi1 the very strongest possible being employed4 ,vinegar has the effect also of dissolving coagulated blood2 for the cure of lichens1 it is used both internally and externally4 ,used as an injection1 it arrests looseness of the bowels and fluxes of the intestines2 it is similarly employed1 too1 for procidence of the rectum and uterus4 ,vinegar acts as a cure for inveterate coughs1 defluxions of the throat1 hardness of breathing1 and looseness of the teeth3 but it acts injuriously upon the bladder and the sinews1 when relaxed4 ,medical men were for a long time in ignorance how beneficial vinegar is for the sting of the asp2 for it was only recently that a man1 while carrying a bladder#bied of vinegar1 happening to be stung by an asp upon which he trod1 found to his surprise that whenever he put down the bladder he felt the sting1 but that when he took it up again1 he seemed as though he had never been hurt2 a circumstance which at once suggested to him the remedial properties of the vinegar1 upon drinking some of which he experienced a cure4 ,it is with vinegar1 too1 and nothing else1 that persons rinse the mouth after sucking the poison from a wound4 ,this liquid1 in fact1 exercises a predominance not only upon various articles of food1 but upon many other substances as well4 ,poured upon rocks in considerable quantities1 it has the effect of splitting#biee them1 when the action of fire alone has been unable to produce any effect thereon4 ,as a seasoning1 too1 there is no kind that is more agreeable than vinegar1 or that has a greater tendency to heighten the flavour of food4 ,when it is employed for this purpose1 its extreme tartness is modified with burnt bread or wine1 or else it is heightened by the addition of pepper1 and of laser2#bief in all cases1 too1 salt modifies its strength4 ,while speaking of vinegar1 we must not omit to mention a very remarkable case in connexion with it3 in the latter years of his life1 ,m4 ,agrippa was dreadfully afflicted with gout1 so much so1 in fact1 that he was quite unable to endure the torments to which he was subjected4 ,upon this1 guided by the ominous advice of one of his medical attendants1 though unknown to ,augustus1 at the moment of an extremely severe attack he plunged his legs into hot vinegar1 content to purchase exemption from such cruel torments as he suffered1 if even at the price of all use and sensation in those limbs1 99 99 99 99 994#bieg ,,chap4 #bh4 7#b47--,,squill ,,vinegar3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,squill vinegar is the more esteemed1 the older it is4 ,in addition to the properties which we have already#bieh mentioned1 it is useful in cases where the food turns sour upon the stomach1 a mere taste of it being sufficient to act as a corrective4 ,it is good1 too1 when persons are seized with vomiting1 while fasting1 having the effect of indurating the passages of the throat and stomach4 ,it is a corrective1 also1 of bad breath1 strengthens the teeth and gums1 and improves the complexion4 ,used as a gargle1 squill vinegar remedies hardness of hearing1 and opens the passages of the ears1 while at the same time it tends to improve the sight4 ,it is very good1 too1 for epilepsy1 melancholy1 vertigo1 hysterical suffocations1 blows1 falls with violence1 and extravasations of blood in consequence1 as also for debility of the sinews1 and diseases of the kidneys4 ,in cases of internal ulceration1 however1 the use of it must be avoided4 ,,chap4 #bi4--,,oxymeli3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,the following1 as we learn from ,dieuches1 was the manner in which oxymeli#biei was prepared by the ancients4 ,in a cauldron they used to put ten min of honey1 five hemin of old vinegar1 a pound and a quarter of sea-salt1 and five sextarii of rain-water2 the mixture was then boiled together till it had simmered some ten times1 after which it was poured off1 and put by for keeping4 ,asclepiades1 however1 condemned this preparation1 and put an end to the use of it1 though before his time it used to be given in fevers even4 ,still1 however1 it is generally admitted that it was useful for the cure of stings inflicted by the serpent known as the 8seps0#bifj and that it acted as an antidote to opium#bifa and mistletoe4 ,it was usefully employed also1 warm1 as a gargle for quinsy and maladies of the ears1 and for affections of the mouth and throat2 for all these purposes1 however1 at the present day1 oxalme is employed1 the best kind of which is made with salt and fresh vinegar4 ,,chap4 #cj4--,,sapa3 ,,seven ,,remedies4 ,sapa#bifb has a close affinity with wine1 being nothing else but must boiled down to one third3 that which is prepared from white must is the best4 ,it is used medicinally in cases of injuries inflicted by cantharides1 the buprestis1#bifc the pine caterpillars known as pityocamp1#bifd salamanders1 and all venomous bites and stings4 ,taken with onions it has the effect of bringing away the dead ftus and the after-birth4 ,according to ,fabianus1 it acts as a poison1 if taken by a person fasting1 immediately after the bath4#bife ,,chap4 #ca4--,,lees ,,of ,,wine3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,next in the natural order come the lees of these several liquids4 ,the lees of#biff wine are so extremely powerful as to prove fatal to persons on descending into the vats4#bifg ,the proper precaution for preventing this1 is to let down a light first1 which so long as it refuses to burn1 is significant of danger4 ,wine-lees1 in an unrinsed#bifh state1 form an ingredient in several medicinal preparations3 with an equal proportion of iris1#bifi a liniment is prepared from them for purulent eruptions2 and1 either moist or dried1 they are used for stings inflicted by the phalangium1 and for inflammations#bigj of the testes1 mamill1 or other parts of the body4 ,a decoction of wine-lees is prepared1 too1 with barley-meal and powdered frankincense2 after which it is first parched and then dried4 ,the test of its being properly boiled1 is its imparting1 when cold1 a burning sensation to the tongue4 ,when left exposed to the air1 wine-lees very rapidly lose their virtues2 which1 on the other hand1 are greatly heightened by the action of fire4 ,wine-lees are very useful1 too1 boiled with figs1 for the cure of lichens and cutaneous eruptions2 they are applied also in a similar manner to leprous sores and running ulcers4 ,taken in drink1 they act as an antidote to the poison of fungi1 and more particularly if they are undiluted2 boiled and then rinsed1 they are used in preparations for the eyes4 ,they are employed also topically for diseases of the testes and generative organs1 and are taken in wine for strangury4 ,when wine-lees have lost their strength1 they are still useful for cleansing the body and scouring clothes1 in which case they act as a substitute for gum acacia4#biga ,,chap4 #cb4--,,lees ,,of ,,vinegar3 ,,seventeen ,,remedies4 ,the lees of vinegar1#bigb as a matter of course1 considering the material from which they are derived1 are much more acrid than those of wine1 and more caustic in their effects4 ,this substance prevents the increase of suppuration1 and1 employed topically1 is good for the stomach1 intestines1 and regions of the abdomen4 ,it has the property also of arresting fluxes of those parts1 and the catamenia when in excess2 it disperses inflamed tumours which have not come to a head1 and is a cure for quinsy4 ,applied with wax1 it is curative of erysipelas4 ,it reduces swellings of the mamill when gorged with milk1 and removes malformed nails4 ,employed with polenta1 it is very efficacious for the cure of stings inflicted by the serpent called cerastes2#bigc and in combination with melanthium1#bigd it heals bites inflicted by crocodiles and dogs4 ,vinegar lees1 too1 by being subjected to the action of fire1 acquire additional strength4#bige ,mixed in this state with oil of mastich1 and applied to the hair1 they turn#bigf it red in a single night4 ,applied with water in linen1 as a pessary1 they act as a detergent upon the uterus4 ,,chap4 #cc4--,,lees ,,of ,,sapa3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the lees#bigg of sapa are used for the cure of burns1 it being the best plan to employ with them the down that grows on the reed2 a decoction too1 of these lees1 is good for the cure of an inveterate cough4 ,they are boiled also in a saucepan with salt and grease as an ointment for tumours of the jaws and neck4 ,,chap4 #cd4 7#c47--,,the ,,leaves ,,of ,,the ,,olive3 ,,twenty-,,three ,,remedies4 ,the next rank1 after the vine1 clearly belongs to the olive4 ,the leaves of the olive-tree are astringent1#bigh detergent1 and binding in the highest degree4 ,chewed and applied to sores1 they are of a healing nature2 and applied topically with oil1 they are good for head-ache4 ,a decoction of them with honey makes a good liniment for such parts of the body as have been subjected to cauterization1 as also for inflammations of the gums1 whitlows1 and foul and putrid ulcers3 combined with honey1 they arrest discharges of blood from the nervous#bigi parts of the a body4 ,the juice of olive leaves is efficacious for carbuncular ulcers and pustules about the eyes1 and for procidence of the pupil2 hence it is much employed in the composition of eye-salves1 having the additional property of healing inveterate runnings of the eyes1 and ulcerations of the eyelids4 ,this juice is extracted by pouring wine and rain-water upon the leaves1 and then pounding them2 after which the pulp is dried and divided into lozenges4 ,used with wool1 as a pessary1 this preparation arrests menstruation when in excess1 and is very useful for the treatment of purulent sores1 condylomata1 erysipelas1 spreading ulcers1 and epinyctis4 ,,chap4 #ce4--,,the ,,blossom ,,of ,,the ,,olive3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,the blossom1#bihj too1 of the olive-tree possesses similar properties4 ,the young branches are burnt when just beginning to blossom1 and of the ashes a substitute for spodium#biha is made1 upon which wine is poured1 and it is then burnt afresh4 ,to suppurations and inflamed tumours these ashes are applied1 or else the leaves1 beaten up with honey2 for the eyes1 they are used with polenta4 ,the juice which exudes#bihb from the wood1 when burnt in a green state1 heals lichens1 scaly eruptions1 and running ulcers4 ,as to the juice#bihc which exudes naturally from the olive-tree1 and more particularly that of thiopia1 we cannot be sufficiently surprised that authors should have been found to recommend it as an application for tooth-ache1 and to tell us at the same time that it is a poison1 and even that we must have recourse to the wild olive for it4 ,the bark of the roots of the olive1 as young and tender a tree as possible being selected1 scraped and taken every now and then in honey1 is good#bihd for patients suffering from spitting of blood and purulent expectorations4 ,the ashes of the tree itself1 mixed with axle-grease1 are useful for the cure of tumours1 and heal fistulas by the extraction of the vicious humours which they contain4 ,,chap4 #cf4--,,white ,,olives3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,,black ,,olives3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,white olives are wholesome for the upper regions of the stomach1 but not so good for the bowels4 ,eaten by themselves1 habitually as a diet1 quite fresh and before they are preserved1 they are remarkably serviceable1 having the effect of curing gravel1#bihe and of strengthening the teeth when worn or loosened by the use of meat4 ,black olives1 on the other hand1 are not so wholesome for the upper regions of the stomach1 but are better for the bowels2 they are not good1 however1 for the head or for the eyes4 ,both kinds1 pounded and applied topically1 are good for the cure of burns1 but the black olive is sometimes chewed first1 and instantly applied to the sore1 for the purpose of preventing blisters from forming4 ,colymbades#bihf act as a detergent for foul ulcers1 but they are bad for persons suffering from strangury4 ,,chap4 #cg4--;,,amurca ,,of ,,olives3 ,,twenty-,,one ,,remedies4 ,as to the amurca of olives1 we might appear to have said enough on the subject already1#bihg taking ,cato as our guide2 it remains1 however1 to speak of the medicinal uses of this substance4 ,it is extremely serviceable as a strengthener of the gums1#bihh and for the cure of ulcers of the mouth2 it has the effect1 also1 of strengthening loose teeth in the sockets1 and an application of it is good for erysipelas and spreading ulcers4 ,for chilblains1 the amurca of the black olive is the best1 as also as a fomentation for infants2 that of the white olive is used1 with wool1 as a pessary for affections of the uterus4 ,of both kinds1 however1 the amurca is much more serviceable when boiled2 this being done in a vessel of ,cyprian copper1 to the consistency of honey4 ,thus prepared1 it is used1 according to the necessities of the case1 with either vinegar1 old wine1 or honied wine1 for the treatment of maladies of the mouth1 teeth1 and ears1 and for running ulcers1#bihi diseases of the generative organs1 and chaps on various parts of the body4 ,it is employed topically1 for the cure of wounds1 in a linen pledget1 and for sprains1 in wool3 as a medicament1 it is of great utility1 more particularly when old1 as in such case it effects the cure of fistula4#biij ,it is used as an injection for ulcerations of the fundament1 the generative organs1 and the uterus1 and is employed topically for incipient gout and diseases of the joints4 ,boiled down again1 with omphacium1#biia to the consistency of honey1 it extracts decayed teeth2 and1 in combination with a decoction of lupines and the plant chamleon1#biib it is a marvellous cure for itch in beasts of burden4#biic ,fomentations of amurca in a raw state#biid are extremely good for gout4 ,,chap4 #ch4 7#d47--,,the ,,leaves ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,olive3 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,the leaves of the wild olive are possessed of similar properties4 ,the spodium#biie that is made by burning the young branches is of remarkable efficacy for arresting fluxes2 it allays inflammations of the eyes also1 acts as a detergent upon ulcerous sores1 makes the flesh grow on wounds from which it has been removed1 and acts gently as a caustic upon fleshy excrescences1 drying them up and making them cicatrize4 ,the rest of its properties are similar to those of the cultivated olive4 ,there is1 however1 one peculiarity in it2 the leaves1 boiled with honey1 are given in doses of a spoonful for spitting of blood4#biif ,the oil1 too1 of the wild olive is more acrid1 and possesses greater energy than that of the cultivated olive2 hence it is that it is usual to rinse the mouth with it for the purpose of strengthening the teeth4#biig ,the leaves1 too1 are applied topically1 with wine1 to whitlows1 carbuncles1 and all kinds of gatherings2 and1 with honey1 to sores which require a detergent4 ,both a decoction of the leaves and the natural juices of the wild olive form ingredients in medicaments for the eyes2 and the latter are found useful as an injection for the ears1 in the case of purulent discharges even4 ,from the blossom of the wild olive a liniment is prepared for condylomata and epinyctis3 it is applied also to the abdomen1 with barley-meal1 for fluxes1 and to the head1 with oil1 for head-ache4 ,in cases where the scalp becomes detached from the cranium1 the young branches1 boiled and applied with honey1 have a healing effect4 ,these branches1 too1 when arrived at maturity1 taken with the food1 arrest diarrha3 parched and beaten up with honey1 they act as a detergent upon corroding sores1 and bring carbuncles to a head and dispers them4 ,,chap4 #ci4--,,omphacium3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,as to olive oil1 we have abundantly treated of its nature and elements already4#biih ,it now remains to speak of the medicinal properties of the various kinds of oil4 ,the most useful of all is omphacium1#biii and next to that1 green oil2#cjjj in addition to which1 we may remark that oil ought to be as fresh as possible1 except in cases where old oil is absolutely required4 ,for medicinal purposes1 too1 oil should be extremely fluid1 have an agreeable smell1 and be free from#cjja all taste1 just the converse1 in fact1 of the property which we look for in food4 ,omphacium is good for the gums1 and if kept from time to time in the mouth1 there is nothing better as a preservative of the whiteness of the teeth4 ,it checks profuse perspirations4 ,,chap4 #dj4--,,oil ,,of ,,nanthe3 ,,twenty-,,eight ,,remedies4 ,oil of nanthe#cjjb has just the same properties as oil of roses4 ,like oil in general1 it makes the body supple1 and imparts to it strength and vigour2 it is injurious to the stomach1 promotes the increase of ulcers1 irritates the fauces1 and deadens the effect of all poisons1 white-lead and gypsum in particular1 if taken in hydromel or a decoction of dried figs4 ,taken with water1 it is good as an antidote to the effects of opium1 and to injuries inflicted by cantharides1 the buprestis1 the salamandra1 and the pine caterpillar4#cjjc ,taken pure as an emetic1 it is highly esteemed as an antidote in all the before-mentioned cases4 ,it is also a refreshing remedy for extreme lassitude1 and for fits of shivering from cold4 ,taken warm1 in doses of six cyathi1 and more particularly when boiled with rue1#cjjd it relieves gripings of the stomach and expels intestinal worms1 ,taken in doses of one hemina with wine and warm water1 or else with barley water1#cjje it acts as a purgative upon the bowels4 ,it is useful1 also1 in the composition of plasters for wounds1 and it cleanses the complexion of the face4 ,injected into the nostrils of oxen1 till it produces eructation1 it cures attacks of flatulency4 ,when old it is of a more warming nature than when new1 and acts more energetically as a sudorific1 and as a resolvent for indurations4 ,it is very efficacious#cjjf in cases of lethargy1 and more particularly in the decline of the disease4 ,mixed with an equal proportion of honey which has not been smoked1#cjjg it contributes in some degree to the improvement of the sight4 ,it is a remedy1 also for head-ache2 and1 in combination with water1 for the burning attacks in fevers4 ,if old oil should happen not to be at hand1 the new oil is boiled to act as a substitute for it4 ,,chap4 #da4--;,,castor ,,oil3 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,castor#cjjh oil1 taken with an equal quantity of warm water1 acts as a purgative#cjji upon the bowels4 ,it is said1 too1 that as a purgative this oil acts more particularly upon the regions of the diaphragm4#cjaj ,it is very useful for diseases of the joints1 all kinds of indurations1 affections of the uterus and ears1 and for burns3 employed with the ashes of the murex1#cjaa it heals itch-scabs and inflammations of the fundament4 ,it improves the complexion also1 and by its fertilizing tendencies promotes the growth of the hair4 ,the cicus1 or seed from which this oil is made1 no animal will touch2 and from these grape-like seeds#cjab wicks are made1#cjac which burn with a peculiar brilliancy2 the light1 however1 that is produced by the oil is very dim1 in consequence of its extreme thickness4 ,the leaves are applied topically with vinegar for erysipelas1 and fresh-gathered1 they are used by themselves for diseases of the mamill and defluxions2 a decoction of them in wine1 with polenta and saffron1 is good for inflammations of various kinds4 ,boiled by themselves1 and applied to the face for three successive days1 they improve the complexion4 ,,chap4 #db4--,,oil ,,of ,,almonds3 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,oil of almonds is of a purgative and emollient nature2 it effaces wrinkles on the skin1 improves the complexion1 and1 in combination with honey1 removes spots on the face4 ,a decoction of it with oil of roses1 honey1 and pomegranate rind1 is good for the ears1 and exterminates the small worms that breed there2 it has the effect also1 of dispelling hardness of hearing1 recurrent tinglings and singing in the ears1 and is curative of head-ache and pains in the eyes4 ,used with wax1 it cures boils1 and scorches by exposure to the sun2#cjad in combination with wine it heals running ulcers and scaly eruptions1 and with melilote1 condylomatous swellings4 ,applied by itself to the head1 it invites sleep4#cjae ,,chap4 #dc4--,,oil ,,of ,,laurel3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,as to oil of laurel1#cjaf the fresher and greener it is1 the more valuable are its properties4 ,it is of a heating nature1 and is consequently applied1 warm1 in a pomegranate rind1 for paralysis1 spasms1 sciatica1 bruises1 head-ache1 catarrhs of long standing1 and diseases of the ears4 ,,chap4 #dd4--,,oil ,,of ,,myrtle3 ,,twenty ,,remedies4 ,oil of myrtle has similar properties4#cjag ,it is of an astringent and indurative nature2 mixed with the scoria of copper1 and wax1 it cures diseases of the gums1 tooth-ache1 dysentery1 ulcerations of the uterus1 affections of the bladder1 inveterate or running ulcers1 eruptions1 and burns4 ,it exercises a healing effect also1 upon excoriations1 scaly eruptions1 chaps1 condylomata1 and sprains1 and it neutralizes offensive odours of the body4 ,this oil is an antidote#cjah to cantharides1 the buprestis1 and other dangerous poisons of a corrosive nature4 ,,chap4 #de4--,,oil ,,of ,,cham,,myrsine ,,or ,,oxymyrsine2 ,,oil ,,of ,,cypress2 ,,oil ,,of ,,citrus2 ,,oil ,,of ,,walnuts2 ,,oil ,,of ,,cnidium2 ,,oil ,,of ,,mastich2 ,,oil ,,of ,,balanus2 ,,various ,,remedies4 ,oil of chammyrsine1 or oxymyrsine1#cjai possesses similar properties4 ,oil of cypress#cjbj also1 produces the same effects as oil of myrtle1 and the same as to oil of citrus4#cjba ,oil of walnuts1 which we have previously mentioned#cjbb as being called 8caryinon10 is good for alopecy1 and is injected into the ears for the cure of hardness of hearing4 ,used as a liniment1 it relieves head-ache2 but in other respects it is of an inert nature and disagreeable taste2 indeed1 if part only of one of the kernels should happen to be decayed1 the whole making is spoilt4 ,the oil extracted from the grain of ,cnidos#cjbc has similar properties to castor#cjbd oil4 ,oil of mastich#cjbe is very useful as an ingredient in the medicinal preparation known as 8acopum20#cjbf indeed it would be fully as efficacious as oil of roses1 were it not found to be somewhat too styptic in its effects4 ,it is employed in cases of too profuse perspiration1 and for the cure of pimples produced thereby4 ,it is extremely efficacious also for itch in beasts of burden4 ,oil of balanus#cjbg removes spots on the skin1 boils1 freckles1 and maladies of the gums4#cjbh ,,chap4 #df4--,,the ,,cyprus1 ,,and ,,the ,,oil ,,extracted ,,from ,,it2 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,,gleucinum3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,we have already enlarged#cjbi upon the nature of the cyprus1 and the method of preparing oil of cyprus4 ,this oil is naturally warming1 and relaxes the sinews4 ,the leaves of the tree are used as an application to the stomach1#cjcj and the juice of them is applied in a pessary for irritations of the uterus4 ,fresh gathered and chewed1 the leaves are applied to running ulcers of the head1 ulcerations of the mouth1 gatherings1 and condylomatous sores4 ,a decoction of the leaves is very useful also for burns and sprains4 ,beaten up and applied with the juice of the strutheum1#cjca they turn the hair red4 ,the blossoms1 applied to the head with vinegar1 relieve head-ache1 and the ashes of them1 burnt in a pot of raw earth1 are curative of corrosive sores and putrid ulcers1 either employed by themselves1 or in combination with honey4 ,the odour#cjcb exhaled by these blossoms induces sleep4 ,the oil called 8gleucinum0#cjcc has certain astringent and refreshing properties similar to those of oil of nanthe4 ,,chap4 #dg4--,,oil ,,of ,,balsamum3 ,,fifteen ,,remedies4 ,the oil of balsamum is by far the most valuable of them all1 as already stated#cjcd by us1 when treating of the unguents4 ,it is extremely efficacious for the venom of all kinds of serpents1 is very beneficial to the eyesight1 disperses films upon the eyes1 assuages hardness of breathing1 and acts emolliently upon all kinds of gatherings and indurations4 ,it has the effect1 also1 of preventing the blood from coagulating1 acts as a detergent upon ulcers1 and is remarkably beneficial for diseases of the ears1 head-ache1 trembling1#cjce spasms1 and ruptures4 ,taken in milk1 it is an antidote to the poison of aconite1 and used as a liniment upon the access of the shivering fits in fevers1 it modifies their violence4 ,still1 however1 it should be used but sparingly1 as it is of a very caustic nature1 and1 if not employed in moderation1 is apt to augment the malady4 ,,chap4 #dh4--,,malobathrum3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,we have already#cjcf spoken1 also1 of the nature of malobathrum1 and the various kinds of it4 ,it acts as a diuretic1 and1 sprinkled in wine upon the eyes1 it is used very advantageously for defluxions of those organs4 ,it is applied also to the forehead1 for the purpose of promoting sleep2 but it acts with still greater efficacy1 if the nostrils are rubbed with it1 or if it is taken in water4 ,the leaves1 placed beneath the tongue1 impart a sweetness to the mouth and breath1 and put among clothes1 they produce a similar effect4 ,,chap4 #di4--,,oil ,,of ,,henbane3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,oil ,,of ,,lupines3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,oil ,,of ,,narcissus3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,oil ,,of ,,radishes3 ,,five ,,remedies4 ,,oil ,,of ,,sesame3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,oil ,,of ,,lilies3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,,oil ,,of ,,selga3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,oil ,,of ,,iguvium3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,oil of henbane#cjcg is of an emollient nature1 but it is bad for the nerves2 taken in drink1 it disturbs the brain4 ,therminum1#cjch or oil of lupines1 is emollient1 and very similar to oil of roses in its effects4 ,as to oil of narcissus1 we have already#cjci spoken of it when describing that flower4 ,oil of radishes1#cjdj cures phthiriasis#cjda contracted in a long illness1 and removes roughness of the skin upon the face4 ,oil of sesame is curative of pains in the ears1 spreading ulcers1 and the cancer#cjdb known as 8cacoethes40 ,oil of lilies1 which we have previously#cjdc mentioned as being called oil of ,phaselis and oil of ,syria1 is extremely good for the kidneys and for promoting perspiration1 as also as an emollient for the uterus1 and as tending to bring internal tumours to a head4 ,as to oil of ,selga1 we have already#cjdd spoken of it as being strengthening to the tendons2 which is the case1 also1 with the herbaceous#cjde oil which the people of ,iguvium#cjdf sell1 on the ,flaminian ,way4 ,,chap4 #ej4--;,,el,,omeli3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,oil ,,of ,,pitch3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,elomeli1 which1 as we have already#cjdg stated1 exudes from the olive-trees of ,syria1 has a flavour like that of honey1 but not without a certain nauseous taste4 ,it relaxes the bowels1 and carries off the bilious secretions more particularly1 if taken in doses of two cyathi1 in a semisextarius of water4 ,after drinking it1 the patient falls into a torpor1 and requires to be aroused every now and then4 ,persons1 when about to drink for a wager1 are in the habit of taking#cjdh a cyathus of it1 by way of prelude4 ,oil of pitch#cjdi is employed for the cure of cough1 and of itch in cattle4 ,,chap4 #ea4--,,the ,,palm3 ,,nine ,,remedies4 ,next in rank after the vine and the olive comes the palm4 ,dates fresh-gathered have an inebriating#cjej effect1 and are productive of head-ache2 when dried1 they are not so injurious4 ,it would appear1 too1 that they are not wholesome to the stomach2 they have an irritating#cjea effect on coughs1 but are very nourishing to the body4 ,the ancients used to give a decoction of them to patients1 as a substitute for hydromel1 with the view of recruiting the strength and allaying thirst1 the ,thebac date being held in preference for the purpose4 ,dates are very useful1 too1 for persons troubled with spitting of blood1 when taken in the food more particularly4 ,the dates called caryot1#cjeb in combination with quinces1 wax1 and saffron1 are applied topically for affections of the stomach1 bladder1 abdomen1 and intestines3 they are good for bruises also4 ,date-stones1#cjec burnt in a new earthen vessel1 produce an ash which1 when rinsed1 is employed as a substitute for spodium1#cjed and is used as an ingredient in eye-salves1 and1 with the addition of nard1 in washes for the eye-brows4#cjee ,,chap4 #eb4 7#e47--,,the ,,palm ,,which ,,produces ,,myrobalanum3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,of the palm which produces myrobalanum1#cjef the most esteemed kind is that grown in ,egypt2#cjeg the dates of which1 unlike those of the other kinds1 are without stones4 ,used with astringent wine1 they arrest#cjeh diarrha and the catamenia1 and promote the cicatrization of wounds4 ,,chap4 #ec4--,,the ,,palm ,,called ,,elate3 ,,sixteen ,,remedies4 ,the palm called 8elate10#cjei or 8spathe10 furnishes its buds1 leaves1 and bark for medicinal purposes4 ,the leaves are applied to the thoracic regions1 stomach1 and liver1 and to spreading ulcers1 but they are adverse to cicatrization4 ,the bark#cjfj of the tree1 while tender1 mixed with wax and resin1 heals itch-scab in the course of twenty days3 a decoction1 also1 is made of it for diseases of the testes4 ,used as a fumigation1 it turns the hair black1 and brings away the ftus4 ,it is given in drink1 also1 for diseases of the kidneys1 bladder1 and thoracic organs2 but it acts injuriously upon the head and nerves4 ,the decoction of this bark has the effect1 also1 of arresting fluxes of the uterus and the bowels3 the ashes of it are used with white wine for griping pains in the stomach1 and form a very efficacious remedy for affections of the uterus4 ,,chap4 #ed4 7#f47--,,remedies ,,derived ,,prom ,,the ,,blossoms1 ,,leaves1 ,,fruit1 ,,branches1 ,,bark1 ,,juices1 ,,wood1 ,,roots1 ,,and ,,ashes ,,of ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,trees4 ,,six ,,observations ,,upon ,,apples4 ,,twenty-,,two ,,observations ,,upon ,,quinces4 ,,one ,,observation ,,upon ,,struthea4 ,we next come to the medicinal properties of the various kinds of apples4 ,the spring fruits1 of this nature are sour and unwholesome#cjfa to the stomach1 disturb the bowels1 contract the bladder1 and act injuriously upon the nerves2 when cooked1 however1 they are of a more harmless nature4 ,quinces are more pleasant eating when cooked2 still however1 eaten raw1 provided they are ripe1 they are very useful#cjfb for spitting of blood1 dysentery1 cholera1 and cliac affections2 indeed1 they are not of the same efficacy when cooked1 as they then lose the astringent properties which belong to their juice4 ,they are applied also to the breast in the burning attacks of fever1 and1 in spite of what has been stated above1 they are occasionally boiled in rain-water for the various purposes before-mentioned4 ,for pains in the stomach they are applied#cjfc like a cerate1 either raw or boiled4 ,the down upon them heals#cjfd carbuncles4 ,boiled in wine1 and applied with wax1 they restore the hair1 when it has been lost by alopecy4 ,a conserve of raw quinces in honey relaxes the bowels3 and they add very materially to the sweetness of the honey1 and render it more wholesome to the stomach4 ,boiled quinces preserved in honey are beaten up with a decoction of rose-leaves1 and are taken as food by some for the cure of affections of the stomach4 ,the juice of raw quinces is very good1 also1 for the spleen1 hardness of breathing1 dropsy1 affections of the mamill1 condylomata1 and varicose veins4 ,the blossoms1 either fresh or dried1 are useful for inflammations of the eyes1 spitting of blood1 and irregularities of the catamenia4 ,by beating them up with sweet wine1 a soothing sirop is prepared1 which is very beneficial for cliac affections and diseases of the liver3 with a decoction of them a fomentation is made for procidence of the uterus and intestines4 ,from quinces an oil is also extracted1 which we have spoken of under the name of 8melinum30#cjfe in order to make it1 the fruit must not have been grown in a damp soil2 hence it is that the quinces which come from ,sicily are so highly esteemed for the purpose2 while1 on the other hand1 the strutheum1#cjff though of a kindred kind1 is not so good4 ,a circle#cjfg is traced round the root of this tree1 and the root itself is then pulled up with the left hand1 care being taken by the person who does so to state at the same moment the object for which it is so pulled up1 and for whom4 ,worn as an amulet1 this root is a cure for scrofula4 ,,chap4 #ee4--,,the ,,sweet ,,apples ,,called ,,melimela3 ,,six ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,,sour ,,apples3 ,,four ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,the apples known as 8melimela10#cjfh and the other sweet apples1 relax the stomach and bowels1 but are productive of heat and thirst1#cjfi though they do not act injuriously upon the nervous system4 ,the orbiculata#cjgj arrest diarrha and vomiting1 and act as a diuretic4 ,wild apples resemble the sour apples of spring1 and act astringently upon the bowels3 indeed1 for this purpose they should always be used before they are ripe4 ,,chap4 #ef4--;,,citrons3 ,,five ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,citrons1#cjga either the pulp of them or the pips1 are taken in wine as an antidote to poisons4 ,a decoction of citrons1 or the juice extracted from them1 is used as a gargle to impart sweetness to the breath4#cjgb ,the pips of this fruit are recommended for pregnant women to chew when affected with qualmishness4 ,citrons are good1 also1 for a weak stomach1 but it is not easy to eat them except with vinegar4#cjgc ,,chap4 #eg4--,,punic ,,apples ,,or ,,pomegranates3 ,,twenty-,,six ,,remedies4 ,it would be a mere loss of time to recapitulate the nine#cjgd different varieties of the pomegranate4 ,the sweet pomegranates1 or1 in other words1 those known by the name of 8apyrena10#cjge are generally considered to be injurious to the stomach2 they are productive1 also1 of flatulency1 and are bad for the teeth and gums4 ,the kind which closely resembles the last in flavour1 and which we have spoken of as the 8vinous0 pomegranate1 has very diminutive pips1 and is thought to be somewhat more wholesome than the others4 ,they have an astringent effect upon the stomach and bowels1 provided they are taken in moderation1 and not to satiety2 but even these1 or1 indeed1 any other kind1 should never be given in fevers1 as neither the substance nor the juice of the fruit acts otherwise than injuriously under those circumstances4 ,they should1 also1 be equally#cjgf abstained from in cases of vomiting and bilious evacuations4 ,in this fruit ,nature has revealed to us a grape1 and1 so to say1 not must1 but a wine ready made1 both grape and wine being enclosed in a tougher skin4#cjgg ,the rind of the sour pomegranate is employed for many purposes4 ,it is in very common use with curriers for tanning#cjgh leather1 from which circumstance it has received the name of 8malicorium40#cjgi ,medical men assure us that the rind is diuretic1 and that1 boiled with nut-galls in vinegar1 it strengthens loose teeth in the sockets4 ,it is prescribed also for pregnant women when suffering from qualmishness1 the flavour of it quickening the ftus4 ,a pomegranate is cut1 and left to soak in rain-water for some three days2 after which the infusion is given cold to persons suffering from cliac affections and spitting of blood4 ,,chap4 #eh4--,,the ,,composition ,,called ,,stomatice3 ,,fourteen ,,remedies4 ,with the sour pomegranate a medicament is made1 which is known as 8stomatice10 and is extremely good for affections of the mouth1 nostrils1 and ears1 dimness of sight1 films upon the eyes1#cjhj diseases of the generative organs1 corrosive sores called 8nom10 and fleshy excrescences in ulcers2 it is useful1 also1 as an antidote to the venom of the sea-hare4#cjha ,the following is the method of making it3 the rind is taken off the fruit1 and the pips are pounded1 after which the juice is boiled down to one-third1 and then mixed with saffron1 split alum1#cjhb myrrh1 and ,attic honey1 the proportions being half a pound of each4 ,some persons have another way of making it3 a number of sour pomegranates are pounded1 after which the juice is boiled down in a new cauldron to the consistency of honey4 ,this composition is used for various affections of the generative organs and fundament1 and1 indeed1 all those diseases which are treated with lycium4#cjhc ,it is employed1 also1 for the cure of purulent discharges from the ears1 incipient defluxions of the eyes1 and red spots upon the hands4 ,branches of the pomegranate have the effect of repelling the attacks of serpents4#cjhd ,pomegranate rind1 boiled in wine and applied1 is a cure for chilblains4 ,a pomegranate1 boiled down to one-third in three hemin of wine1 is a cure for griping pains in the bowels and for tape-worm4#cjhe ,a pomegranate1 put in a new earthen pot tightly covered and burnt in a furnace1 and then pounded and taken in wine1 arrests looseness of the bowels1 and dispels griping pains in the stomach4 ,,chap4 #ei4--;,,cytinus3 ,,eight ,,remedies4 ,the ,greeks have given the name of cytinus#cjhf to the first germs of this tree when it is just beginning to blossom4 ,these germs have a singular property1 which has been remarked by many4 ,if a person1 after taking off everything that is fastened upon the body1 his girdle1 for instance1 shoes1 and even his ring1 plucks one of them with two fingers of the left hand1 the thumb1 namely1 and the fourth finger1 and1 after rubbing it gently round his eyes1 puts it into his mouth and swallows#cjhg it without letting it touch his teeth1 he will experience1 it is said1 no malady of the eyes throughout all the year4 ,these germs1 dried and pounded1 check the growth of fleshy excrescences2 they are good also for the gums and teeth2 and if the teeth are loose a decoction of the germs will strengthen them4 ,the young pomegranates#cjhh themselves are beaten up and applied as a liniment to spreading or putrid sores2 they are used also for inflammations of the eyes and intestines1 and nearly all the purposes for which pomegranate-rind is used4 ,they are remedial also for the stings of scorpions4 ,,chap4 #fj4--;,,balaustium3 ,,twelve ,,remedies4 ,we cannot sufficiently admire the care and diligence displayed by the ancients1 who1 in their enquiries into every subject1 have left nothing untried4 ,within the cytinus1 before the pomegranate itself makes its appearance1 there are diminutive flowers1 the name given to which1 as already#cjhi stated1 is 8balaustium40#cjij ,these blossoms1 even1 have not escaped their enquiries2 it having been ascertained by them that they are an excellent remedy for stings inflicted by the scorpion4 ,taken in drink1 they arrest the catamenia1 and are curative of ulcers of the mouth1 tonsillary glands1 and uvula1 as also of spitting of blood1 derangement of the stomach and bowels1 diseases of the generative organs1 and running sores in all parts of the body4 ,the ancients also dried these blossoms1 to try their efficacy in that state1 and made the discovery that1 pulverized1 they cure patients suffering from dysentery when at the very point of death even1 and that they arrest looseness of the bowels4 ,they have not disdained1 too1 to make trial of the pips of the pomegranate3 parched and then pounded1 these pips are good for the stomach1 sprinkled in the food or drink4 ,to arrest looseness of the bowels1 they are taken in rain-water4 ,a decoction of the juices of the root1 in doses of one victoriatus1#cjia exterminates tape-worm2#cjib and the root itself1 boiled down in water to a thick consistency1 is employed for the same purposes as lycium4#cjic ,,chap4 #fa4--,,the ,,wild ,,pomegranate4 ,there is a tree1 also1 which is called the wild pomegranate1#cjid on account of its strong resemblance to the cultivated pomegranate4 ,the roots of it have a red bark1 which taken in wine in doses of one denarius1 promotes sleep4 ,the seed of it taken in drink is curative of dropsy4 ,gnats are kept at a distance by the smoke of burnt pomegranate rind4 ,,chap4 #fb4 7#g47--,,pears3 ,,twelve ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,all kinds of pears1 as an aliment1 are indigestible1#cjie to persons in robust health1 even2 but to invalids they are forbidden as rigidly as wine4 ,boiled1 however1 they are remarkably agreeable and wholesome1 those of ,crustumium#cjif in particular4 ,all kinds of pears1 too1 boiled with honey1 are wholesome to the stomach4 ,cataplasms of a resolvent nature are made with pears1 and a decoction of them is used to disperse indurations4 ,they are efficacious1 also1 in cases of poisoning#cjig by mushrooms and fungi1 as much by reason of their heaviness1 as by the neutralizing effects of their juice4 ,the wild pear ripens but very slowly4 ,cut in slices and hung in the air to dry1 it arrests looseness of the bowels1 an effect which is equally produced by a decoction of it taken in drink2 in which case the leaves also are boiled up together with the fruit4 ,the ashes of pear-tree wood are even more efficacious#cjih as an antidote to the poison of fungi4 ,a load of apples or pears1 however small1 is singularly fatiguing#cjii to beasts of burden2 the best plan to counteract this1 they say1 is to give the animals some to eat1 or at least to shew them the fruit before starting4 ,,chap4 #fc4--;,,figs3 ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,eleven ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,the milky juice of the fig-tree possesses kindred properties with vinegar2#cajj hence it is1 that1 like rennet1 it curdles milk4 ,this juice is collected before the fruit ripens1 and dried in the shade2 being used with yolk of egg as a liniment1 or else in drink1 with amylum1#caja to bring ulcers to a head and break them1 and for the purposes of an emmenagogue4 ,with meal of fenugreek and vinegar1 it is applied topically for gout2 it acts also as a depilatory1#cajb heals eruptions of the eyelids1 lichens and itch-scabs1 and relaxes the bowels4 ,the milk of the fig-tree is naturally curative of the stings of hornets1 wasps1 and similar insects1 and is remarkably useful for wounds inflicted by scorpions4 ,mixed with axle-grease it removes warts4 ,with the leaves and figs still green an application is made for scrofulous#cajc and other sores of a nature which requires emollients or resolvents4 ,the leaves1 too1 used by themselves1 are productive of a similar effect4 ,in addition to this1 they are employed for other purposes1 as a friction for lichens1 for example1 for alopecy1 and other diseases which require caustic applications4 ,the young shoots of the branches are used as an application to the skin in cases of bites inflicted by dogs4 ,with honey they are applied to the ulcers known as honeycomb ulcers2#cajd mixed with the leaves of wild poppies they extract#caje splinters of bones2 and the leaves beaten up in vinegar are a cure for bites inflicted by dogs4 ,the young white shoots of the black#cajf fig are applied topically1 with wax1 to boils1 and bites inflicted by the shrew-mouse3 and the ashes of their leaves are used for the cure of gangrenes and the reduction of fleshy excrescences4 ,ripe figs are diuretic and laxative2 they promote the perspiration1 and bring out pimples2 hence it is that they are unwholesome in autumn1 the perspirations which they excite being always attended with shivering4 ,they are injurious also to the stomach1 though for a short time only2 and it is generally thought that they spoil the voice4 ,the figs which are the last to ripen are more wholesome than the first1 but those which are drugged#cajg for the purpose of ripening them are never wholesome4 ,this fruit invigorates the young1 and improves the health of the aged and retards the formation of wrinkles2 it allays thirst1 and is of a cooling nature1 for which reason it should never be declined in those fevers of an astringent tendency which are known as 8stegn40 ,dried figs are injurious to the stomach1#cajh but are beneficial in a marvellous degree to the throat and fauces4 ,they are of a warming nature1 are productive of thirst1 and relax the bowels1 but are unwholesome in stomachic complaints and fluxes of the bowels4 ,in all cases they are beneficial for the bladder1 hardness of breathing1 and asthma1 as also for diseases of the liver1 kidneys1 and spleen4 ,they are nourishing and invigorating1 for which reason1 the athletes in former times used them as food3 ,pythagoras1 the gymnast1 being the first who introduced among them a flesh diet4#caji ,figs are extremely useful for patients recovering from a long illness1 and for persons suffering from epilepsy or dropsy4 ,they are applied topically also in all cases where sores require to be brought to a head1 or dispersed2 and they are still more efficacious when mixed with lime or nitre4 ,boiled with hyssop they act as a purgative on the pectoral organs1 carry off the phlegm1 and cure inveterate coughs3 boiled with wine they heal maladies of the fundament1 and tumours of the jaws4 ,a decoction of them is applied also to boils1 inflamed tumours1 and imposthumes of the parotid glands4 ,this decoction1 too1 is found very useful as a fomentation for disorders incident to females4 ,boiled with fenugreek1#caaj figs are very useful in cases of pleurisy and peripneumony4 ,a decoction of them with rue is good for griping pains in the bowels2 in combination with verdigris1#caaa they are used for ulcers of the legs and imposthumes of the parotid glands2 with pomegranates1 for hang-nails2#caab and with wax1 for burns and chilblains4 ,boiled in wine1 with wormwood and barley-meal1 they are employed for dropsy4 ,eaten with nitre1 they relax the bowels2 and beaten up with salt they are applied to stings inflicted by scorpions4 ,boiled in wine1 and applied topically1 they bring carbuncles to a head4 ,in cases of carcinoma1 unattended with ulceration1 it is a singularly good plan to apply to the part the pulpiest fig that can be procured2 the same1 too1 with phagednic sores4 ,as to the ashes of the fig1 those of no tree known are of a more acrid character1#caac being of a detergent and astringent nature1 and tending to make new flesh and to promote the cicatrization of wounds4 ,they are also taken in drink1 for the purpose of dissolving coagulated blood1 as also for bruises1 falls with violence1 ruptures1 convulsions 99 99 99 99 in one cyathus respectively of water and oil4 ,they are administered also for tetanus and spasms1 and are used either in a potion1 or as an injection for cliac affections and dysentery4 ,employed as a liniment with oil1 they have a warming effect2 and kneaded into a paste with wax and rose-oil1 they heal burns1 leaving the slightest scar only4 ,applied in oil1 as a liniment1 they are a cure for weakness of sight1 and are used as a dentifrice in diseases of the teeth4 ,it is said1 too1 that if a patient draws downward a branch of a fig-tree1 and turns up his head and bites off some knot or other of it1 without being seen by any one1 and then wears it in a leather bag suspended by a string from his neck1 it is a certain cure for scrofulous sores and imposthumes of the parotid glands4 ,the bark of this tree1 beaten up with oil1 cures ulcerations of the abdomen4 ,green figs1 applied raw1 with the addition of nitre and meal1 remove warts and wens4#caad ,the ashes of the suckers which spring from the roots are used as a substitute for spodium4#caae ,burnt over a second time and incorporated with white lead1 they are divided into cakes which are used for the cure of ulcerations of the eyes and eruptions4 ,,chap4 #fd4--,,the ,,wild ,,fig3 ,,forty-,,two ,,observations ,,upon ,,it4 ,the wild fig1 again1 is even more efficacious in its properties than the cultivated one4 ,it has not so large a proportion of milky juice as the other3 a slip of it put into milk has the effect of curdling it and turning it into cheese4 ,this juice1 collected and indurated by being subjected to pressure1 imparts a fine flavor#caaf to meat1 being steeped in vinegar for the purpose1 and then rubbed upon it4 ,it is used also as an ingredient in blisters1 and taken internally it relaxes the bowels4 ,used with amylum1#caag it opens the passages of the uterus1 and combined with the yolk of an egg it acts as an emmenagogue4 ,mixed with meal of fenugreek it is applied topically for gout1 and is used for the dispersion of leprous sores1 itch-scabs1 lichens1 and freckles3 it is an antidote also to the stings of venomous animals1 and to the bites of dogs4 ,applied to the teeth in wool1 or introduced into the cavity of a carious tooth1 this juice cures tooth-ache4#caah ,the young shoots and the leaves1 mixed with meal of fitches1 act as an antidote to the poison of marine animals1 wine being added to the preparation4 ,in boiling beef a great saving of fire-wood may be effected1 by putting some of these shoots in the pot4#caai ,the figs in a green state1 applied topically1 soften and disperse scrofulous sores and all kinds of gatherings1 and the leaves1 to a certain extent1 have a similar effect4 ,the softer leaves are applied with vinegar for the cure of running ulcers1 epinyctis1 and scaly eruptions4 ,with the leaves1 mixed with honey1 honeycomb ulcers#cabj are treated1 and wounds inflicted by dogs2 the leaves are applied1 too1 fresh1 with wine1 to phagednic sores4 ,in combination with poppy-leaves1 they extract splintered bones4 ,wild figs1 in a green state1 employed as a fumigation1 dispel flatulency2 and an infusion of them1 used as a potion1 combats the deleterious effects of bullocks' blood1 white-lead1 and coagulated milk1 taken internally4 ,boiled in water1 and employed as a cataplasm1 they cure imposthumes of the parotid glands4 ,the shoots1 or the green figs1 gathered as young as possible1 are taken in wine for stings inflicted by scorpions4 ,the milky juice is also poured into the wound1 and the leaves are applied to it3 the bite of the shrew-mouse is treated in a similar manner4 ,the ashes of the young branches are curative of relaxations of the uvula2 and the ashes of the tree itself1 mixed with honey1 have the effect of healing chaps4 ,a decoction of the root1 boiled in wine1 is good for tooth-ache4 ,the winter wild fig1 boiled in vinegar and pounded1 is a cure for impetigo3 the branches are first barked for the purpose and then scraped2 these scrapings1 which are as fine as sawdust1 being applied topically to the parts affected4 ,there is also one medicinal property of a marvellous nature attributed to the wild fig3 if a youth who has not arrived at puberty breaks off a branch1 and then with his teeth tears off the bark swelling with the sap1 the pith of this branch1 we are assured1 attached as an amulet to the person before sunrise1 will prevent the formation of scrofulous sores4 ,a branch of this tree1 attached to the neck of a bull1 however furious1 exercises such a marvellous effect upon him as to restrain his ferocity1#caba and render him quite immoveable4 ,,chap4 #fe4--,,the ,,herb ,,erineon3 ,,three ,,remedies4 ,it will be as well to speak here1 in consequence of the similarity of name1#cabb of the herb which is known to the ,greeks as the 8erineon40 ,this plant#cabc is a palm in height1 and has mostly five small stems3 in appearance it resembles ocimum1 and bears a white flower1 with a small1 black1 seed4 ,beaten up with ,attic honey1 it is a cure for defluxions of the eyes4 ,in whatever way it is gathered1 it yields a considerable abundance of sweet1 milky1 juice4 ,with the addition of a little nitre1 this plant is extremely useful for pains in the ears4 ,the leaves of it have the property of neutralizing poisons4 ,,chap4 #ff4--,,plums3 ,,four ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,the leaves#cabd of the plum1 boiled in wine1 are useful for the tonsillary glands1 the gums1 and the uvula1 the mouth being rinsed with the decoction every now and then4 ,as for the fruit itself1 it is relaxing#cabe to the bowels2 but it is not very wholesome to the stomach1 though its bad effects are little more than momentary4 ,,chap4 #fg4--,,peaches3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,peaches1 again1 are more wholesome than plums2 and the same is the case with the juice of the fruit1 extracted1 and taken in either wine or vinegar4 ,indeed1 what known fruit is there that is more wholesome as an aliment than this8 ,there is none1 in fact1 that has a less powerful smell1#cabf or a greater abundance of juice1 though it has a tendency to create thirst4#cabg ,the leaves of it1 beaten up and applied topically1 arrest hmorrhage3 the kernels1 mixed with oil and vinegar1 are used as a liniment for head-ache4#cabh ,,chap4 #fh4--,,wild ,,plums3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,the fruit of the wild plum1 or the bark of the root1#cabi boiled down to one-third in one hemina of astringent wine1 arrests looseness of the bowels and griping pains in the stomach3 the proper dose of the decoction is one cyathus4 ,,chap4 #fi4--,,the ,,lichen ,,on ,,plum-,,trees3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,upon the bark of the wild and cultivated plums we find an excrescence#cacj growing1 known to the ,greeks by the name of 8lichen30 it is remarkably good for chaps and condylomatous swellings4 ,,chap4 #gj4--,,mulberries3 ,,thirty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,in ,egypt and in the ,isle of ,cyprus there are1 as already stated1#caca mulberry-trees of a peculiar kind1 being of a nature that is truly marvellous2 for1 if the outer bark is peeled off1 they emit a great abundance of juice2 but if a deeper incision is made1 they are found to be quite dry4#cacb ,this juice is an antidote to the venom of serpents1 is good for dysentery1 disperses inflamed tumours and all kinds of gatherings1 heals wounds1 and allays both head-ache and ear-ache3 it is taken in drink for affections of the spleen1 and is used as a liniment for the same purpose1 as also for fits of shivering4 ,this juice1 however1 very soon breeds worms4 ,among ourselves1 too1 the juice which exudes from the mulberry-tree is employed for an equal number of purposes3 taken in wine1 it neutralizes the noxious effects of aconite#cacc and the venom of spiders1 relaxes the bowels1 and expels tapeworm and other animals which breed in the intestines2#cacd the bark of the tree1 pounded1 has also a similar effect4 ,the leaves1 boiled in rain-water with the bark of the black fig and the vine1 are used for dyeing the hair4 ,the juice of the fruit has a laxative effect immediately upon the bowels1 though the fruit itself1 for the moment1 acts beneficially upon the stomach1 being of a refreshing nature1 but productive of thirst4 ,if no other food is taken upon them1 mulberries#cace are of a swelling tendency4 ,the juice of unripe mulberries acts astringently upon the bowels4 ,the marvels which are presented by this tree1 and of which we have made some mention#cacf when describing it1 would almost appear to belong to a creature gifted with animation4 ,,chap4 #ga4--,,the ,,medicament ,,called ,,stomatice1 ,,arteriace1 ,,or ,,panchrestos3 ,,four ,,remedies4 ,from the fruit of the mulberry a medicament is prepared1 called 8panchrestos10#cacg 8stomatice10 or 8arteriace30 the following is the method employed4 ,three sextarii of the juice are reduced1 at a slow heat1 to the consistency of honey2 two denarii of dried omphacium#cach or one of myrrh1 with one denarius of saffron1 are then added1 the whole being beaten up together and mixed with the decoction4 ,there is no medicament known that is more soothing than this1 for affections of the mouth1 the trachea1 the uvula1 and the stomach4 ,there is also another mode of preparing it3 two sextarii of mulberry juice and one of ,attic honey are boiled down in the manner above stated4 ,there are some other marvellous properties1 also1 which are mentioned in reference to this tree4 ,when the tree is in bud1 and before the appearance of the leaves1 the germs of the fruit must be gathered with the left hand--the ,greeks give them the name of 8ricini40#caci ,these germs1 worn as an amulet before they have touched the ground1 have the effect of arresting hmorrhage1 whether proceeding from a wound1 from the mouth1 from the nostrils1 or from piles2 for which purposes they are1 accordingly1 put away and kept4 ,similar virtues are attributed to a branch just beginning to bear1 broken off at full moon1 provided also it has not touched the ground3 this branch1 it is said1 attached to the arm1 is peculiarly efficacious for the suppression of the catamenia when in excess4 ,the same effect is produced1 it is said1 when the woman herself pulls it off1 whatever time it may happen to be1 care being taken not to let it touch the ground1 and to wear it attached to the body4 ,the leaves of the mulberry-tree beaten up fresh1 or a decoction of them dried1 are applied topically for stings inflicted by serpents3 an infusion of them1 taken in drink1 is equally efficacious for that purpose4 ,the juice extracted from the bark of the root1 taken in wine or oxycrate1 counteracts the venom of the scorpion4 ,we must also give some account of the method of preparing this medicament employed by the ancients3 extracting the juice from the fruit1 both ripe and unripe1 they mixed it together1 and then boiled it down in a copper vessel to the consistency of honey4 ,some persons were in the habit of adding myrrh and cypress1 and then left it to harden in the sun1 mixing it with a spatula three times a-day4 ,such was their receipt for the stomatice1 which was also employed by them to promote the cicatrization of wounds4 ,there was another method1 also1 of dealing with the juice of this fruit3 extracting the juice1 they used the dried fruit with various articles of food1#cadj as tending to heighten the flavour2 and they were in the habit of employing it medicinally#cada for corroding ulcers1 pituitous expectorations1 and all cases in which astringents were required for the viscera4 ,they used it also for the purpose of cleaning#cadb the teeth4 ,a third mode of employing the juices of this tree is to boil down the leaves and root1 the decoction being used1 with oil1#cadc as a liniment for the cure of burns4 ,the leaves are also applied by themselves for the same purpose4 ,an incision made in the root at harvest-time1 supplies a juice that is extremely useful for tooth-ache1 gatherings1 and suppurations2 it acts1 also1 as a purgative upon the bowels4 ,mulberry-leaves1 macerated in urine1 remove the hair from hides4 ,,chap4 #gb4--;,,cherries3 ,,five ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,cherries are relaxing to the bowels and unwholesome#cadd to the stomach2 in a dried state1 however1 they are astringent and diuretic4#cade ,i find it stated by some authors1 that if cherries are taken early in the morning covered with dew1 the kernels being eaten with them1 the bowels will be so strongly acted upon as to effect a cure for gout in the feet4 ,,chap4 #gc4--,,medlars3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,,sorbs3 ,,two ,,remedies4 ,medlars1 the setania#cadf excepted1 which has pretty nearly the same properties as the apple1 act astringently upon the stomach and arrest looseness of the bowels4 ,the same is the case1 too1 with dried sorbs2#cadg but when eaten fresh1 they are beneficial to the stomach1 and are good for fluxes of the bowels4 ,,chap4 #gd4 7#h47--,,pine-,,nuts3 ,,thirteen ,,remedies4 ,pine-nuts1#cadh with the resin in them1 are slightly bruised1 and then boiled down in water to one-half1 the proportion of water being one sextarius to each nut4 ,this decoction1 taken in doses of two cyathi1 is used for the cure of spitting of blood4 ,the bark of the tree1 boiled in wine1 is given for griping pains in the bowels4 ,the kernels of the pine-nut allay thirst1 and assuage acridities and gnawing pains in the stomach2 they tend also to neutralize vicious humours in that region1 recruit the strength1 and are salutary to the kidneys and the bladder4 ,they would seem1 however1 to exercise an irritating effect#cadi upon the fauces1 and to increase cough4 ,taken in water1 wine1 raisin wine1 or a decoction of dates1 they carry off bile4 ,for gnawing pains in the stomach of extreme violence1 they are mixed with cucumber-seed and juice of purslain2 they are employed1 too1 in a similar manner for ulcerations of the bladder and kidneys1#caej having a diuretic effect4 ,,chap4 #ge4--;,,almonds3 ,,twenty-,,nine ,,remedies4 ,a decoction of the root of the bitter almond#caea clears the complexion1 and gives the face a brighter colour4#caeb ,bitter almonds are provocative of sleep1#caec and sharpen the appetite2 they act1 also1 as a diuretic and as an emmenagogue4 ,they are used topically for head-ache1 when there is fever more particularly4 ,should the head-ache proceed from inebriation1#caed they are applied with vinegar1 rose-oil1 and one sextarius of water4 ,used in combination with amylum#caee and mint1 they arrest hmorrhage4 ,they are useful1 also1 for lethargy and epilepsy1 and the head is anointed with them for the cure of epinyctis4 ,in combination with wine1 they heal putrid ulcers of an inveterate nature1 and1 with honey1 bites inflicted by dogs4#caef ,they are employed1 also1 for the cure of scaly eruptions of the face1 the parts affected being fomented first4 ,taken in water1 or1 as is often done1 in an electuary1 with resin of terebinth1#caeg they remove pains in the liver and kidneys2 used with raisin wine1 they are good for calculus and strangury4 ,bruised in hydromel1 they are useful for cleansing the skin2 and taken in an electuary with the addition of a small proportion of elelisphacus1#caeh they are good for diseases of the liver1 cough1 and colic1 a piece about the size of a hazel-nut being taken in honey4 ,it is said that if five bitter almonds are taken by a person before sitting down to drink1 he will be proof against inebriation2#caei and that foxes1 if they eat bitter almonds1#cafj will be sure to die immediately1 if they cannot find water to lap4 ,as to sweet almonds1 their remedial properties are not#cafa so extensive2 still1 however1 they are of a purgative nature1 and are diuretic4 ,eaten fresh1 they are difficult#cafb of digestion4 ,,chap4 #gf4--;,,greek ,,nuts3 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,greek nuts1#cafc taken in vinegar with wormwood seed1 are said to be a cure for jaundice4 ,used alone1 they are employed topically for the treatment of diseases of the fundament1 and condylomata in particular1 as also cough and spitting of blood4 ,,chap4 #gg4--,,walnuts3 ,,twenty-,,four ,,remedies4 ,,the ,,mithridatic ,,antidote4 ,walnuts#cafd have received their name in ,greek from being oppressive#cafe to the head2 for1 in fact1 the emanations#caff from the tree itself and the leaves penetrate to the brain4 ,the kernels1 also1 have a similar effect when eaten1 though not in so marked a degree4 ,when fresh gathered1 they are most agreeable eating2 for when dry1 they are more oleaginous1 unwholesome to the stomach1 difficult of digestion1 productive of head-ache1 and bad for cough1#cafg or for a person when about to take an emetic fasting3 they are good in cases of tenesmus only1 as they carry off the pituitous humours of the body4 ,eaten beforehand1 they deaden the effects of poison1 and1 employed with rue and oil1 they are a cure for quinsy4 ,they act as a corrective1 also1 to onions1 and modify their flavour4 ,they are applied to inflammations of the ears1 with a little honey1 and with rue they are used for affections of the mamill1 and for sprains4 ,with onions1 salt1 and honey1 they are applied to bites inflicted by dogs or human beings4 ,walnut-shells are used for cauterizing#cafh carious teeth2 and with these shells1 burnt and then beaten up in oil or wine1 the heads of infants are anointed1 they having a tendency to make the hair grow2 hence they are used in a similar manner for alopecy also4 ,these nuts1 eaten in considerable numbers1 act as an expellent upon tapeworm4#cafi ,walnuts1 when very old1 are#cagj curative of gangrenous sores and carbuncles1 of bruises also4 ,green walnut-shells#caga are employed for the cure of lichens and dysentery1 and the leaves are beaten up with vinegar as an application for ear-ache4#cagb ,after the defeat of that mighty monarch1 ,mithridates1 ,cneius ,pompeius found in his private cabinet a recipe for an antidote in his own hand-writing2 it was to the following effect3#cagc--,take two dried walnuts1 two figs1 and twenty leaves of rue2 pound them all together1 with the addition of a grain of salt2 if a person takes this mixture fasting1 he will be proof against all poisons for that day4#cagd ,walnut kernels1 chewed by a man fasting1 and applied to the wound1 effect an instantaneous cure1 it is said1 of bites inflicted by a mad dog4 ,,chap4 #gh4--;,,hazel-,,nuts3 ,,three ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,,pistachio-,,nuts3 ,,eight ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,,chesnuts3 ,,five ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,hazel-nuts#cage are productive of head-ache1 and flatulency of the stomach2 they contribute1 however1 to the increase of flesh more than would be imagined4 ,parched1 they are remedial for catarrhs1 and beaten up and taken with hydromel1#cagf they are good for an inveterate cough4 ,some persons add grains of pepper1#cagg and others take them in raisin wine4 ,pistachio-nuts#cagh have the same properties1 and are productive of the same effects1 as pine-nuts2 in addition to which1 they are used as an antidote to the venom#cagi of serpents1 eaten or taken in drink4 ,chesnuts#cahj have a powerful effect in arresting fluxes of the stomach and intestines1 are relaxing to the bowels1 are beneficial in cases of spitting of blood1 and have a tendency to make flesh4#caha ,,chap4 #gi4--;,,carobs3 ,,five ,,observations ,,upon ,,them4 ,,the ,,cornel2 ,,one ,,remedy4 ,,the ,,fruit ,,of ,,the ,,arbutus4 ,fresh carobs#cahb are unwholesome to the stomach1 and relaxing to the bowels2#cahc in a dried state1 however1 they are astringent1 and are much more beneficial to the stomach2 they are diuretic also4 ,for pains in the stomach1 persons boil three ,syrian carobs#cahd with one sextarius of water1 down to one-half1 and drink the decoction4 ,the juices which exude from the branches of the cornel#cahe are received on a plate of red-hot iron#cahf without it touching the wood2 the rust of which is applied for the cure of incipient lichens4 ,the arbutus or unedo#cahg bears a fruit that is difficult of digestion1 and injurious to the stomach4 ,,chap4 #hj4--,,the ,,laurel2 ,,sixty-,,nine ,,observations ,,upon ,,it4 ,all parts of the laurel1 both the leaves1 bark1 and berries1 are of a warming#cahh nature2 and a decoction of them1 the leaves in particular1 is very useful for affections of the bladder and uterus4#cahi ,the leaves1 applied topically1 neutralize the poison of wasps1 bees1 and hornets1 as also that of serpents1 the seps1#caij dipsas1#caia and viper1 in particular4 ,boiled in oil1 they promote the catamenia2 and the more tender of the leaves beaten up with polenta1 are used for inflammations of the eyes1 with rue for inflammations of the testes1 and with rose-oil1 or oil of iris1#caib for head-ache4 ,three leaves1 chewed and swallowed for three days in succession1 are a cure for cough1 and beaten up with honey1 for asthma4 ,the bark of the root is dangerous to pregnant women2 the root itself disperses calculi1 and taken in doses of three oboli in aromatic wine1 it acts beneficially on the liver4 ,the leaves1 taken in drink1 act as an emetic2#caic and the berries1 pounded and applied as a pessary1 or else taken in drink1 promote menstruation4 ,two of the berries with the skin removed1 taken in wine1 are a cure for inveterate cough and hardness of breathing2 if1 however1 this is accompanied with fever1 they are given in water1 or else in an electuary with raisin wine1 or boiled in hydromel4 ,employed in a similar manner1 they are good for phthisis1 and for all defluxions of the chest1 as they have the effect of detaching the phlegm and bringing it off4 ,for stings inflicted by scorpions1 four laurel-berries are taken in wine4 ,applied with oil1 they are a cure for epinyctis1 freckles1 running sores1 ulcers of the mouth1 and scaly eruptions4 ,the juice of the berries is curative of porrigo and phthiriasis2 and for pains in the ears1 or hardness of hearing1 it is injected into those organs with old wine and oil of roses4 ,all venomous creatures fly at the approach of persons who have been anointed with this juice3 taken in drink1 the juice of the small-leaved#caid laurel in particular1 it is good for stings inflicted by them4 ,the berries1#caie used with wine1 neutralize the venom of serpents1 scorpions1 and spiders2 they are applied also1 topically1 with oil and vinegar1 in diseases of the spleen and liver1 and with honey to gangrenous sores4 ,in cases of lassitude and shivering fits1 it is a very good plan to rub the body with juice of laurel-berries mixed with nitre4 ,some persons are of opinion that delivery is accelerated by taking laurel-root to the amount of one acetabulum1 in water1 and that1 used fresh1 it is better than dried4 ,it is recommended by some authorities1 to take ten of the berries in drink1 for the sting of the scorpion2 and in cases of relaxation of the uvula1 to boil a quarter of a pound of the berries1 or leaves1 in three sextarii of water1 down to one third1 the decoction being used warm1 as a gargle4 ,for head-ache1 also1 it is recommended to bruise an uneven number of the berries in oil1 the mixture being warmed for use4 ,the leaves of the ,delphic laurel#caif bruised and applied to the nostrils from time to time1 are a preservative#caig against contagion in pestilence1 and more particularly if they are burnt4 ,the oil of the#caih ,delphic laurel is employed in the preparation of cerates and the medicinal composition known as 8acopum10#caii and is used for fits of shivering occasioned by cold1 for the relaxation of the sinews1 and for the cure of pains in the side and the cold attacks in fevers4#cbjj ,warmed in the rind of a pomegranate1 it is applied topically for the cure of ear-ache4 ,a decoction of the leaves boiled down in water to one third1 used as a gargle1 braces the uvula1 and taken in drink allays pains in the bowels and intestines4 ,the more tender leaves1 bruised in wine and applied at night1 are a cure for pimples and prurigo4 ,the other varieties of the laurel possess properties which are nearly analogous4 ,the root of the laurel of ,alexandria1#cbja or of ,mount ,ida1#cbjb accelerates delivery1 being administered in doses of three denarii to three cyathi of sweet wine2 it acts also as an emmenagogue1 and brings away the after-birth4 ,taken in drink in a similar manner1 the wild laurel1 known as 8daphnoides0 and by the other names which we have mentioned1#cbjc is productive of beneficial effects4 ,the leaves of it1 either fresh or dried1 taken in doses of three drachm1 in hydromel with salt1 act as a purgative#cbjd upon the bowels4 ,the wood1 chewed1 brings off phlegm1 and the leaves act as an 8emetic20 they are unwholesome1 however1 to the stomach4 ,the berries1 too1 are sometimes taken1 fifteen in number1 as a purgative4 ,,chap4 #ha4--,,myrtle2 ,,sixty ,,observations ,,upon ,,it4 ,the white#cbje cultivated myrtle is employed for fewer medicinal purposes than the black one4#cbjf ,the berries#cbjg of it are good for spitting of blood1 and taken in wine1 they neutralize the poison of fungi4 ,they impart an agreeable smell#cbjh to the breath1 even when eaten the day before2 thus1 for instance1 in ,menander we find the ,synaristos#cbji eating them4 ,they are taken also for dysentery1#cbaj in doses of one denarius1 in wine3 and they are employed lukewarm1 in wine1 for the cure of obstinate ulcers on the extremities4 ,mixed with polenta1 they are employed topically in ophthalmia1 and for the cardiac disease#cbaa they are applied to the left breast4 ,for stings inflicted by scorpions1 diseases of the bladder1 head-ache1 and fistulas of the eye before suppuration1 they are similarly employed2 and for tumours and pituitous eruptions1 the kernels are first removed and the berries are then pounded in old wine4 ,the juice of the berries#cbab acts astringently upon the bowels1 and is diuretic3 mixed with cerate it is applied topically to blisters1 pituitous eruptions1 and wounds inflicted by the phalangium2 it imparts a black tint1#cbac also1 to the hair4 ,the oil of this myrtle is of a more soothing nature than the juice1 and the wine#cbad which is extracted from it1 and which possesses the property of never inebriating1 is even more so4 ,this wine1 used when old1 acts astringently upon the stomach and bowels1 cures griping pains in those regions1 and dispels nausea4 ,the dried leaves1 powdered and sprinkled upon the body1 check profuse perspirations1 in fever even2 they are good1 too1 used as a fomentation1 for cliac affections1 procidence of the uterus1 diseases of the fundament1 running ulcers1 erysipelas1 loss of the hair1 scaly and other eruptions1 and burns4 ,this powder is used as an ingredient1 also1 in the plasters known as 8lipar20#cbae and for the same reason the oil of the leaves is used for a similar purpose1 being extremely efficacious as an application to the humid parts of the body1 the mouth and the uterus1 for example4 ,the leaves themselves1 beaten up with wine1 neutralize#cbaf the bad effects of fungi2 and they are employed1 in combination with wax1 for diseases of the joints1 and gatherings4 ,a decoction of them1 in wine1 is taken for dysentery and dropsy4 ,dried and reduced to powder1 they are sprinkled upon ulcers and hmorrhages4 ,they are useful1 also1 for the removal of freckles1 and for the cure of hang-nails1#cbag whitlows1 condylomata1 affections of the testes1 and sordid ulcers4 ,in combination with cerate1 they are used for burns4 ,for purulent discharges from the ears1 the ashes of the leaves are employed1 as well as the juice and the decoction3 the ashes are also used in the composition of antidotes4 ,for a similar purpose the blossoms are stripped from off the young branches1 which are burnt in a furnace1 and then pounded in wine4 ,the ashes of the leaves1 too1 are used for the cure of burns4 ,to prevent ulcerations from causing swellings in the inguinal glands1 it will suffice for the patient to carry#cbah a sprig of myrtle about him which has never touched the ground or any implement of iron4 ,,chap4 #hb4--,,myrtidanum3 ,,thirteen ,,remedies4 ,we have already described the manner in which myrtidanum#cbai is made4 ,applied in a pessary1 or as a fomentation or liniment1 it is good for affections of the uterus1 being much more efficacious than the bark of the tree1 or the leaves and seed4 ,there is a juice also extracted from the more tender leaves1 which are pounded in a mortar for the purpose1 astringent wine1 or1 according to one method1 rain-water1 being poured upon them a little at a time4 ,this extract is used for the cure of ulcers of the mouth1 the fundament1 the uterus1 and the abdomen4 ,it is employed1 also1 for dyeing the hair black1 the suppression of exudations at the arm-pits1#cbbj the removal of freckles1 and other purposes in which astringents are required4 ,,chap4 #hc4--,,the ,,wild ,,myrtle1 ,,otherwise ,,called ,,oxymyrsine1 ,,or ,,cham,,myrsine1 ,,and ,,the ,,ruscus3 ,,six ,,remedies4 ,the wild myrtle1 oxymyrsine1#cbba or chammyrsine1 differs from the cultivated myrtle in the redness of its berries and its diminutive height4 ,the root of it is held in high esteem2 a decoction of it1 in wine1 is taken for pains in the kidneys and strangury1 more particularly when the urine is thick and fetid4 ,pounded in wine1 it is employed for the cure of jaundice1 and as a purgative for the uterus4 ,the same method is adopted1 also1 with the young shoots1 which are sometimes roasted in hot ashes and eaten as a substitute for asparagus4#cbbb ,the berries1 taken with wine1 or oil and vinegar1 break calculi#cbbc of the bladder3 beaten up with rose-oil and vinegar1 they allay head-ache4 ,taken in drink1 they are curative of jaundice4 ,castor calls the wild myrtle with prickly leaves1 or oxymyrsine1 from which brooms are made1 by the name of 8ruscus0#cbbd--the medicinal properties of it are just the same4 ,thus much1 then1 with reference to the medicinal properties of the cultivated trees2 let us now pass on to the wild ones4 ,,summary4--,remedies1 narratives1 and observations1 nine hundred and eighteen4 ,,roman ,,authors ,,quoted4--,c4 ,valgius1#cbbe ,pompeius ,lenus1#cbbf ,sextius ,niger#cbbg who wrote in ,greek1 ,julius ,bassus#cbbh who wrote in ,greek1 ,antonius ,castor1#cbbi ,m4 ,varro1#cbcj ,cornelius ,celsus1#cbca ,fabianus4#cbcb ,,foreign ,,authors ,,quoted4--,theophrastus1#cbcc ,democritus1#cbcd ,orpheus1#cbce ,pythagoras1#cbcf ,mago1#cbcg ,menander#cbch who wrote the 8,biochresta10 ,nicander1#cbci ,homer1 ,hesiod1#cbdj ,musus1#cbda ,sophocles1#cbdb ,anaxilas4#cbdc ,,medical ,,authors ,,quoted4--,mnesitheus1#cbdd ,callimachus1#cbde ,phanias#cbdf the physician1 ,timaristus1#cbdg ,simus1#cbdh ,hippocrates1#cbdi ,chrysippus1#cbej ,diocles1#cbea ,ophelion1#cbeb ,heraclides1#cbec ,hicesius1#cbed ,dionysius1#cbee ,apollodorus#cbef of ,citium1 ,apollodorus#cbeg of ,tarentum1 ,plistonicus1#cbeh ,medius1#cbei ,dieuches1#cbfj ,cleophantus1#cbfa ,philistion1#cbfb ,asclepiades1#cbfc ,crateuas1#cbfd ,petronius ,diodotus1#cbfe ,iollas1#cbff ,erasistratus1#cbfg ,diagoras1#cbfh ,andreas1#cbfi ,mnesides1#cbgj ,epicharmus1#cbga ,damion1#cbgb ,dalion1#cbgc ,sosimenes1#cbgd ,tlepolemus1#cbge ,metrodorus1#cbgf ,solo1#cbgg ,lycus1#cbgh ,olympias#cbgi of ,thebes1 ,philinus1#cbhj ,petrichus1#cbha ,micton1#cbhb ,glaucias1#cbhc ,xenocrates4#cbhd ,,footnotes3 #a ,in ,b4 ii4 c4 #fc4 #b ,of course this is only mere declamation2 it is not probable that the animals have any notion at all of sharpening the weapons that nature has given2 in addition to which1 this mode of sharpening them against hard substances would only wear away the enamel1 and ultimately destroy them4 ,the acts of animals in a moment of rage or frenzy have evidently been mistaken here for the dictates of instinct1 or even a superior intelligence4 #c ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #be1 and ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #gf4 #d ,in ,b4 viii4 c4 #cf4 #da1 #db4 ,the works of the ancients1 ,fe remarks1 are full of these puerilities4 #e ,this sentiment is not at all akin to the melancholy view which our author takes of mankind at the beginning of ,b4 vii4 and in other parts of this work4 ,it is not improbable that his censures here are levelled against some who had endeavoured to impede him in the progress of his work4 #f 8,arvorum sacerdotes10 the priests of the fields4 #g ,or foster-mother4 ,it has been suggested that the ,rogations of the ,roman church may have possibly originated in the ,ambarvalia1 or ceremonial presided over by the ,arval priesthood4 #h ,made of salt and the meal or flour of spelt4 ,salt was the emblem of wisdom1 friendship1 and other virtues4 #i ,this1 ,fe observes1 is not the case with any kind of wheat2 with manioc1 which has an acrid principle1 the process may be necessary1 in order to make it fit for food4 #aj ,or ,feast of the ,furnace or ,oven4 ,see ,ovid's ,fasti1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #e-be4 #aa ,called the ,terminalia4 ,see ,ovid's ,fasti1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #fda1 et seq4 #ab ,tertullian1 ,de ,spect4 i4 #af1 calls this goddess by the name of ,sessia4 #ac ,clius ,rhodiginus1 ,turnebus1 and ,vossius1 conjecture that the name of this goddess1 who might only be named in the field1 was ,tutelina4 ,hardouin thinks that it was ,segesta1 here mentioned4 #ad ,four ,roman feet in width1 and #abj in length4 #ae ,quartarius4 #af 8,faba10 a bean2 8,lens10 a lentil2 and 8,cicer10 a chick-pea4 #ag ,a 8bubus10 from 8oxen40 ,caius ,junius ,bubulcus was twice ,consul1 and once ,master of the ,horse4 #ah 8,farreum0 was a form of marriage1 in which certain words were used1 in presence of ten witnesses1 and were accompanied by a certain religious ceremony1 in which 8panis farreus0 was employed2 hence this form of marriage was called 8confarreatio40 #ai ,farreum4 #bj ,de ,re ,rust4 ,preface4 #ba ,see ,b4 xxxiii4 c4 #ac4 #bb ,st4 ,augustin1 ,de ,civ4 ,dei41 mentions a goddess1 ,bubona1 the tutelar divinity of oxen4 ,nothing seems to be known of these games4 #bc ,see ,b4 xxxiii4 c4 #ac4 ,macrobius says that it was ,janus4 #bd ,table vii4 s4 #b4 #be ,on the 8,nundin10 or ninth-day holiday3 similar to our market-days4 ,according to our mode of reckoning1 it was every eighth day4 #bf ,from 8ador10 the old name for 8spelt30 because corn was the chief reward given to the conqueror1 and his temples were graced with a wreath of corn4 #bg ,in the first place1 it is difficult to see what there is in this passage to admire1 or 8wonder at10 if that is the meaning of 8admiror20 and then1 besides1 it has no connection with the context4 ,the text is probably in a defective state4 #bh ,see c4 #fi of this ,book4 #bi 8,vagina40 ,the meaning of this word here has not been exactly ascertained4 ,it has been suggested that the first period alludes to the appearance of the stalk from its sheath of leaves1 and the second to the formation of the ear4 #cj ,a4,u4,c4 #bih4 #ca ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #aa4 ,a4,u4,c4 #cag4 #cb ,nundinis4 #cc ,on the road to ,ostia4 ,it was said to have received its name from the ,horatii and ,curiatii4 #cd ,a4,u4,c4 #cde4 #ce ,a4,u4,c4 #eej4 ,he alludes to the introduction of ,cybele1 from ,pessinus in ,galatia1 in the ,second ,punic war4 #cf ,a4,u4,c4 #fjd4 ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #f4 #cg ,manius ,curius ,dentatus1 ,consul ,a4,u4,c4 #dfd4 #ch ,a4,u4,c4 #dig4 #ci ,from 8sero10 to sow4 ,see the neid1 ,b4 vi4 l4 #hdd1 where this circumstance is alluded to4 #dj 8,prata ,quintia40 ,hardouin says that in his time this spot was still called ,i ,prati3 it lay beyond the ,tiber1 between the vineyard of the ,medici and the castle of ,sant ,angelo4 #da ,he alludes to the twofold meaning of the word 8coli10 8to be tilled10 or 8to receive homage from40 #db 8,ergastulorum40 ,the 8,ergastula0 were places of punishment attached to the country houses of the wealthy1 for the chastisement of refractory slaves1 who were usually made to work in chains4 #dc ,in the ,first ,book1 as originally written4 ,this list of writers is appended in the present ,translation to each respective ,book4 #dd ,this is probably written in humble imitation of the splendid exordium of the ,georgics of ,virgil4 #de ,de ,re ,rust4 ,preface4 #df ,fe remarks1 that we still recruit our armies mostly from the agricultural class4 #dg ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #a4 #dh ,quoted by ,columella1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 i4 #d4 ,the sad fate of ,regulus is known to all readers of ,roman history4 #di ,from ,columella1 ,b4 i4 c4 #c4 #ej ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #a4 #ea ,it is still thought so in ,france1 ,fe says1 and nothing has tended more than this notion to the depreciation of the prices of wine4 #eb ,hence the usual ,latin name1 8prata40 #ec 8,si sat bene40 ,cicero1 ,de ,officiis1 ,b4 ii4 n4 #hh1 gives this anecdote somewhat more at length4 #ed ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #b4 #ee 8,alien insani frui40 ,we have a saying to a similar effect3 8,fools build houses1 and wise men buy them40 #ef 8,frons domini plus prodest quam occipitium40 ,see ,cato1 ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #d2 also ,phdrus1 ,b4 iv4 ,fab4 #ai4 #eg ,cato1 c4 #c4 ,varro and ,columella give the same advice4 #eh ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #i4 #ei ,sylla the ,fortunate1 the implacable enemy of ,marius4 #fj ,because1 though the last comer1 he had obtained the best site in the locality4 #fa ,od4 v4 #dfi4 ,if the river has a bed of sand and high banks1 it is really advantageous than otherwise4 #fb ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #fc ,not to be found in his works which have come down to us4 #fd ,prunus spinosa of ,linnus4 #fe ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cj2 probably one of the genus ,allium sphrocephalum of ,linnus4 #ff 8,herba pratensis40 ,it is not known with certainty to what plant he alludes4 ,fe suggests that it may be the ,poa pratensis1 or else a phleum1 alopecurus1 or dactylis4 ,all the plants here mentioned by ,pliny will thrive in a calcareous soil1 and their presence1 as ,fe remarks1 is of bad augury4 #fg ,he alludes to the famous maxim in the ,georgics1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #dab3-- ----,laudato ingentia rura1 ,exiguum colito---- 8,praise a large farm1 cultivate a small one40 #fh ,by introducing slovenly cultivation4 #fi ,that small part of it known to the ,romans4 ,hardouin says that the province of ,zeugitana is alluded to1 mentioned in ,b4 v4 c4 #c4 #gj ,and reside on the farm4 #ga ,villicus4 #gb ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #e4 #gc ,a4,u4,c4 #gcg4 #gd ,probably because it entailed too great an expense4 ,it may have been deeply mortgaged3 otherwise it is not clear why the heir refused to take it1 as he might have sold a part4 #ge ,he means to say that it is so much labour lost1 as it will take care of itself2 but this is hardly in accordance with his numerous directions given in ,b4 xv4 ,virgil1 ,geor4 ,b4 ii4 #dba1 et seq41 speaks of the olive as requiring no attention when it has once taken root4 #gf ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #gg ,in throwing away money and labour upon land that does not require it4 #gh ,virgil1 ,georg4 ,i4 #bfh1 et seq41 speaks of the work that might be done on feast days--making hedges1 for instance1 irrigating land1 catching birds1 washing sheep1 and burning weeds4 #gi 8,ne famili male sit40 #hj ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #ha ,the ,pteris aquilina1 or female fern4 ,no such juices drop from it as here mentioned by ,pliny1 ,fe says4 #hb ,a superstition quite unworthy of our author2 and the same with respect to that mentioned in the next line4 #hc ,sub-soil drainage is now universally employed1 with the agency of draining-tiles1 made for the purpose4 #hd ,the flower of the lupine could not possibly produce any such effect2 and the juice of cicuta1 or hemlock1 in only a very trifling degree4 #he ,this word answers to the ,latin 8frumenta10 which indicates all those kinds of corn from which bread was prepared by the ancients4 #hf ,see c4 #ei of this ,book4 #hg ,triticum hibernum of ,linnus1 similar to the 8siligo0 mentioned in the sequel4 ,winter wheat was greatly cultivated in ,apulia4 #hh 8,far40 ,this name is often used in the classics1 to signify corn in general2 but in the more restricted sense in which it is here employed1 it is 8,triticum dicoccum10 the 8,zea0 of the ,greeks4 ,it consists of two varieties1 the single grained1 the ,triticum monococcum of ,linnus1 and the double-grained1 the ,triticum spelta of ,linnus1 which is still called 8farra0 in ,friuli4 #hi ,hordeum sativum of ,linnus4 #ij ,see c4 #ff of this ,book4 #ia ,panicum ,italicum of ,linnus4 #ib ,panicum miliaceum of ,linnus4 ,this was probably one of the first grains from which bread was made4 #ic ,the ,sesamum orientale of ,linnus4 ,it is no longer cultivated in ,europe1 though formerly it was much used in ,greece4 #id ,it is very doubtful if this is the same as clary1 the ,salvia horminum of ,linnus1 as that is one of the ,labiat1 whereas here1 most probably1 a leguminous plant is spoken of4 #ie ,it has been asserted that this is identical with the ,sisymbrium polyceratium of ,linnus1 rock-gentle1 rock-gallant1 or winter-cress4 ,fe1 however1 is strongly of opinion that it can only be looked for in the ,sisymbrium irio of ,linnus4 #if ,ervum lens of ,linnus4 #ig ,the ,cicer arietinum of naturalists1 the ,garbanzo of the ,spaniards4 ,it abounds in the south of ,europe and in ,india4 #ih ,a variety of spelt was called by this name2 but it was more generally applied to a kind of flummery1 pottage or gruel4 #ii ,hence our word 8forage40 #ajj ,lupinus hirsutus and pilosus of ,linnus4 #aja ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 viii4 c4 #b4 #ajb ,all this1 of course1 depends upon numerous circumstances4 #ajc ,this is certainly the fact1 as ,fe says1 but it is the same with all the graminea4 #ajd ,a characteristic of the ,panicum miliaceum in particular4 #aje ,or porridge2 8puls40 #ajf ,it has been suggested that this was maize1 but that is indigenous to ,south ,america4 ,fe has little doubt that it is the ,holcus sorgho of ,linnus1 the 8,indian millet10 that is meant4 #ajg ,from the ,greek 4 ,the stalk and husk of the sorgho is covered with a fine down4 ,the reading 8cornis0 has been adopted4 #ajh ,this is considered by ,fe to be very improbable4 #aji ,in reality these vary1 according to the rapidity of the growth4 #aaj ,strictly speaking1 spelt has seven4 #aaa,this depends upon the time when it is sown1 and numerous other circumstances4 #aab ,strictly speaking1 he is right2 but still there is a swelling in the stalk1 to be perceived at the points where the leaves take their rise4 #aac ,this is incorrect2 they all of them throw out leaves from the root4 #aad ,the same as the 8,ervum0 probably1 the fitch1 orobus1 or bitter vetch4 #aae ,not so with the pea1 as known to us4 #aaf ,this is only true at the end of the season1 and when the plant is dying4 #aag ,these annuals lose their leaves only that have articulations on the stem2 otherwise they die outright at the fall of the leaf4 #aah ,if by 8tunica0 he means the husk of chaff1 which surrounds the grain1 the assertion is contrary to the fact1 in relation to barley and the oat4 #aai ,only another name1 ,fe thinks1 for the ,triticum hibernum1 or winter-wheat4 ,spelt or zea has been suggested1 as also the white barley of the south of ,europe2 see c4 #bj4 #abj ,egyptian wheat1 or rather what is called mummy-wheat1 is bearded equally to barley4 #aba ,siligo4 #abb ,before grinding4 #abc ,oats and rye excepted4 #abd ,here the word 8far0 means 8a meal10 or 8flour10 a substitute for that of 8far10 or 8spelt40 #abe ,triticum monococcum1 according to some4 ,fe identifies it with the ,triticum spelta of ,linnus4 #abf ,a variety1 probably1 of the ,triticum hibernum of ,linnus1 with white grains2 the white-wheat of the ,french1 from which the ancient ,gauls made their malt2 hence the ,french word 8brasser10 to 8brew40 #abg ,from ,theophrastus1 ,de ,causis1 ,b4 iv4 #abh ,that of the ,ukraine and its vicinity1 which is still held in high esteem4 #abi ,panis militaris4 #acj ,to the modius of wheat4 #aca ,he alludes to beer1 or sweet-wort4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bi4 #acb ,he alludes to yeast4 ,see ,b4 xxii1 c4 #hb4 #acc ,this assertion1 from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 viii4 c4 #d1 is not based on truth4 ,it is possible that he may allude in reality to some other gramineous plant4 #acd ,trimestre4 #ace ,bimestre4 #acf ,columella 7,b4 ii4 c4 #f7 does not state to this effect2 on the contrary1 he speaks of the existence of a three months' wheat2 but he asserts1 and with justice1 that wheat sown in the autumn is better than that sown in ,march4 #acg ,if he alludes here to what ,theophrastus says1 his assertion is simply that1 in ,bactria1 the grains are as large as an olive-stone4 #ach ,there is no wild barley in ,india at the present day4 #aci ,porridge1 or fermenty4 #adj ,oryza sativa of ,linnus4 #ada ,like our rice-milk1 probably4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bf4 #adb ,they are not carnose or fleshy1 but thin1 and similar to those of the reed4 #adc ,on the contrary1 it is tough and fibrous4 #add ,the barley was1 originally1 the prize given to the victor in the ,eleusinian games4 #ade ,or 8barley-fed40 #adf ,the of the ,greeks4 #adg ,this1 as ,fe observes1 would tend to give it a very disagreeable flavour4 #adh 8,acetabulum40 #adi ,similar to our pearl barley1 probably4 #aej 8,anguli40 ,dalechamps interprets this as two rows of grain2 but ,fe thinks that it signifies angles1 and points4 ,the ,polygonum fagopyrum of ,linnus1 he says1 buck-wheat1 or black-wheat1 has an angular grain1 but he doubts whether that can possibly be the grain here alluded to4 #aea ,there is no barley without a beard2 it is clearly a variety of wheat that is alluded to4 #aeb ,triticum spelta of ,linnus4 #aec 8,semen10 the same as zea1 or spelt4 #aed ,siligo4 #aee 4 #aef ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #hg4 ,this 8amylum0 seems somewhat to resemble our starch4 #aeg ,the ,hordeum distichum of ,linnus4 #aeh ,hordeum hexastichum of ,linnus4 ,the ,hordeum vulgare1 or common barley1 has but four rows4 #aei ,these varieties are not known at the present day1 and ,fe questions if they ever existed4 ,there is a black barley found in ,germany1 the ,hordeum nigrum of ,willdenow4 #afj ,a calcareous soil is the best adapted for barley4 #afa ,nova ,carthago1 or ,new ,carthage4 #afb ,this fallacious opinion is shared with ,galen1 ,de ,facult4 ,anim4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #aa4 #afc ,siligo4 #afd ,triticum4 #afe ,the ,triticum dicoccum1 or spelt4 #aff ,probably rye4 ,see the next ,chapter4 #afg ,semen4 #afh ,in c4 #bj1 also in c4 #bi4 ,this grain1 which was in reality a kind of spelt1 received its name probably from having been the first cultivated4 #afi ,il4 ii4 c4 #edh3 8the land that produces zea40 #agj ,not 1 from 8living40 #aga ,merely1 as ,fe says1 from the faulty method employed in its preparation1 as starch has1 in all cases1 the same physical appearance4 #agb ,in c4 #ag of this ,book4 #agc ,in c4 #c of this ,book4 #agd 8,puls10 like our porridge4 #age ,any food that was originally eaten with 8puls10 and afterwards with bread1 was so called1 such as meat1 vegetables1 c4 #agf 8,offam40 ,this word1 which in the later writers signifies a 8cake10 originally meant a hardened lump of porridge4 #agg ,pulte fritill4 #agh 8,siligo40 ,there are numerous contradictions in ,pliny with reference to this plant1 but it is now pretty generally agreed that it is the ,triticum hibernum of ,linnus3 the 8froment tousselle0 of the ,french4 ,it was formerly the more general opinion that it was identical with spelt2 but that cannot be the case1 as spelt is red1 and siligo is described as white4 #agi 8,sine virtute40 ,it is doubtful what is the meaning of this4 #ahj ,sine pondere4 #aha ,in other places he says1 most unaccountably1 that wheat 8degenerates into siligo40 #ahb ,as to this practice1 see c4 #bi4 #ahc 8,quam vocant castratam40 #ahd ,from this account1 it would appear that there were twenty-four sextarii to the modius2 but the account in general is very contradictory4 #ahe ,salt water is rarely used for this purpose in modern times4 ,see this passage discussed in ,beckmann on ,inventions1 ,bohn's ,ed4 vol4 i4 p4 #afd4 #ahf 8,artopticio40 ,see c4 #bg of this ,book4 #ahg ,without tin1 probably2 or the tin bread may have been baked before the fire1 similar to the method adopted at the present day with the ,american ovens4 #ahh 8,similago40 ,founders still use meal occasionally for making moulds2 it is also employed in making paper4 #ahi ,the mention of 8hundreds0 here is evidently faulty1 unless the other part of the passage is corrupt4 ,fe suggests twenty-two and twenty-seven4 #aij ,but above we find him stating that 8secundarius10 8seconds0 flour1 and 8cibarius10 or 8coarse10 meal1 are the same thing4 ,his contradictions cannot apparently be reconciled4 #aia ,the whole of this passage1 as ,brotier remarks1 is evidently corrupt4 #aib ,fe has no doubt that this was siligo1 or winter-wheat1 in a very high state of cultivation4 #aic ,il4 v4 l4 #aie4 #aid ,there are still some varieties both of winter-wheat and spelt that have the beard4 #aie ,it is generally thought that this is the oat1 the ,avena sativa of ,linnus1 while some have suggested rice4 ,fe thinks that by the name1 some exotic gramineous plant is meant4 #aif ,probably a variety of spelt1 as ,sprengel conjectures1 from ,galen and other writers4 ,see c4 #af of this ,book4 #aig ,fe thinks that it is the grain of the ,festuca fluitans of ,linnus that is here alluded to1 and identifies it with the 8ulva palustris0 of ,virgil1 ,geor4 iii4 #agd4 #aih ,the ,latin word 8degener0 cannot here mean 8degenerate10 in our sense of the word1 but must merely imply a change of nature in the plant4 #aii ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #bjj ,we know of no such fruitfulness as this in the wheat of ,europe4 ,fifteen-fold1 as ,fe remarks1 is the utmost amount of produce that can be anticipated4 #bja ,fe mentions instances of #aej1 #ib1 and #fc stalks arising from a single grain2 but all these fall far short of the marvels here mentioned by ,pliny4 #bjb ,the ,triticum compositum of ,linnus2 supposed to have originally come from ,egypt or ,barbary4 #bjc 8,centigranium40 ,probably the same as the last4 #bjd ,in c4 #aj of this ,book4 #bje ,see c4 #aj4 #bjf ,pinguius4 #bjg ,already mentioned in c4 #aj4 #bjh ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #dg2 and ,b4 xx4 c4 #eg4 #bji ,this would rather grate the grain than pound it1 as ,beckmann observes4 ,see his ,hist4 ,inv41 vol4 i4 pp4 #adg and #afd1 ,bohn's ,ed41 where the meaning of this passage has been commented upon4 ,gesner1 also1 in his ,lexicon ,rusticum1 has endeavoured to explain it4 #baj ,ruido4 #baa ,it is surprising to find the ,romans1 not only kneading their bread with sea-water1 but putting in it pounded bricks1 chalk1 and sand6 #bab ,beard chaff2 so called1 probably1 from the sharpness of the points1 like needles 7acus74 #bac ,see ,b4 xxxiii4 c4 #c2 where he says1 that a fire lighted with this chaff1 fuses gold more speedily than one made with maple wood4 #bad ,the ,tartars still employ millet as one of their principal articles of food4 ,they also extract a kind of wine from it4 #bae ,virgil alludes to this1 ,georg4 iii4 #dfc4 #baf ,panic is still employed more than any other grain in the south of ,france4 #bag ,or grape-juice4 ,this must have tended to affect the taste of the bread4 #bah ,ervum4 #bai 8,cicercula40 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #gb4 #bbj ,this remark is founded upon just notions4 #bba ,ostrearius4 #bbb ,from 1 and 1 bread and cake4 #bbc ,from 1 to hasten4 ,a sort of crumpet1 probably4 #bbd ,furnaceus4 #bbe ,artopticeus4 #bbf 8,clibanis40 ,the clibanus was a portable oven or mould1 broader at the bottom than the top4 #bbg ,aquaticus4 #bbh ,see cc4 #aj and #bi of this ,book4 #bbi ,it would appear to be somewhat similar to our rusks4 #bcj ,which ended ,a4,u4,c4 #ehf4 #bca ,a4 ii4 s4 #i1 l4 #d4 8,ego hinc artoptam ex proxumo utendam peto40 ,it is thought by some commentators1 that the word used by ,pliny here was1 in reality1 8,artoptasia10 a female baker2 and that he alludes to a passage in the ,aulularia1 which has now perished4 #bcb ,which in ,pliny's time signified 8baker40 #bcc ,the ,stipa tenacissima of ,linnus1 ,fe says2 or else the ,lygeum spartum of ,linnus4 #bcd ,as to the cereal so called1 see c4 #aj of this ,book4 #bce ,or perfumed oils4 #bcf ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #i4 ,a volcanic district4 #bcg ,in c4 #bj of this ,book4 #bch ,grain from which the husk is removed4 #bci ,a sub-carbonate of lime2 it is still known in those parts of ,campania1 and is called 8lumera40 #bdj ,teneritatem4 #bda ,from the ,greek1 meaning 8white earth40 #bdb ,fe enquires1 and with good reason1 how the ,african mixture accommodated itself to the stomachs of those who ate it4 #bdc ,residue4 #bdd ,seconds4 #bde ,sieve flour4 #bdf ,a porridge or pap1 made of ground grain4 ,it is mentioned by ,cato1 c4 #hf4 #bdg ,the ,faba vulgaris of the modern naturalists4 ,it is supposed to have originally come from ,persia4 #bdh ,it is said that this mixture is still employed in the ,valais and in ,savoy4 #bdi ,fabata4 #bej ,beans were used in ancient times1 in place of balls or pebbles1 in voting by ballot4 ,hence it has been suggested that ,pythagoras1 in recommending his disciples to abstain from beans1 meant to advise them to have nothing to do with politics4 #bea ,the sacrifices offered to the ,manes or spirits of deceased relations4 ,see ,ovid's ,fasti1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #efe4 #beb 8,brought home40 ,the bean was offered up1 to ensure good luck4 #bec ,didymus1 in the ,geoponica1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #cc1 repeats this absurdity4 #bed ,georg4 i4 #bae4 #bee ,this notion still prevails1 and the bean1 while in blossom1 is dug into the ground to manure it1 both in ,england and ,france4 #bef ,it does not appear1 however1 that this was done with the view of digging in the beans4 #beg ,or ,bean ,islands4 ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #bg4 #beh ,the ,nympha nelumbo of ,linnus is alluded to1 but it is no longer to be found in ,egypt4 ,pliny is supposed to derive this from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aj1 but his translation is not exactly correct4 #bei ,pisum sativum of ,linnus4 #bfj ,meaning a wart or pimple on the face4 #bfa ,cicer arietinum of the botanists4 #bfb 8,gigni cum salsilagine40 ,it abounds in ,india1 and while blossoming1 it distils a corrosive acid1 which corrodes the shoes of those who tread upon it4 #bfc ,there are still the red and the white kinds1 the large and the small4 #bfd ,cicercula3 the ,lathyrus sativus of ,linnus4 ,it is difficult to cook and hard of digestion4 ,see c4 #bf4 #bfe ,this must be said in reference to some of the pease when in a dried state4 #bff ,a variety of the ,phaseolus vulgaris of ,linnus3 the 8haricot0 of the ,french4 ,the ,french bean and the scarlet-runner are cooked in a similar manner among us4 #bfg #aeth of ,october4 #bfh #ast of ,november4 #bfi ,the ,napo-brassica of ,linnus4 ,the turnip cabbage1 or rape-colewort4 #bgj ,this taste1 it is most probable1 is nowhere in existence at the present day4 #bga ,this is not by any means an exaggeration4 #bgb ,acrimonia4 #bgc ,these coloured varieties1 ,fe says1 belong rather to the ,brassica oleracea1 than to the ,brassica rapa4 ,it is not improbable1 from the structure of this passage1 that ,pliny means to say that the colours are artificially produced4 #bgd ,in reality1 belonging to the ,crucifera1 the rape is hermaphroditical4 #bge ,wild horse-radish1 which is divided into two varieties1 the ,raphanus raphanistrum of ,linnus1 and the ,cochlearia ,armoracia1 may possibly be meant1 but their roots bear no resemblance to the radish4 #bgf ,an enormous price1 apparently4 #bgg ,the ,brassica napus of ,linnus4 #bgh #ast of ,march4 #bgi ,the ,neptunalia and the ,vulcanalia2 #bcrd of ,july and #bcrd of ,august4 #bhj ,in consequence of the brittleness of the pod4 #bha ,this is an exaggeration of certain phnomena observed in the leaves of all leguminous plants4 #bhb ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #f4 #bhc 8,ex are40 ,this reading is favoured by the text of ,columella4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aj1 who says the same4 ,but 8ex arvo10 from the field1 i4 e4 the 8moment it is gathered0--seems preferable1 as being more consistent with the context1 #bhd ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 viii4 c4 #a4 #aa1 c4 #bhe ,it is still thought that the lupine enriches the soil in which it grows4 #bhf ,marcellus ,empiricus says1 that boiled lupine meal1 spread as a plaster1 and laid on the abdomen1 will destroy intestinal worms4 #bhg ,vicia sativa of ,linnus4 #bhh ,or orobus1 the ,ervum ervilia of ,linnus4 #bhi ,it is thought by many that the ervum is unwholesome1 being productive of muscular weakness4 ,the blade of it is said to act as a poison on pigs4 ,however1 we find the farina1 or meal1 extolled by some persons for its medicinal qualities2 and if we are to trust to the advertisements in the newspapers1 it is rising rapidly in esteem4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #gc4 #bij ,from ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aa4 #bia ,trigonella fnum ,grcum of ,linnus4 #bib 8,scarificatio40 #bic ,probably the ,secale cereale of ,linnus1 cultivated rye4 #bid ,it is now held in high esteem in many parts of ,europe4 #bie ,rye has no bitterness1 and this assertion has led some to doubt if it is identical with the 8secale0 of ,pliny4 #bif ,perhaps identical with the ,vicia cracca of ,linnus4 #big ,in c4 #ed and #fj1 and elsewhere4 ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #ce4 #bih ,probably1 fitches4 #bii ,fe suggests that this may be the ,avena sterilis1 or else the ,avena fatua of ,linnus4 #cjj ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 i4 c4 #ca4 #cja 8,medica10 in ,latin1 a kind of clover1 the ,medicago sativa of ,linnus4 #cjb ,fe is inclined to doubt this4 #cjc ,pliny exaggerates here3 ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aa1 says1 only 8ten30 a field1 however1 sown with it will last1 with a fresh sowing1 as long as twenty years4 #cjd ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dg4 #cje ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aa1 says ,april4 #cjf ,by the aid of careful watering1 as many as eight to fourteen cuttings are obtained in the year1 in ,italy and ,spain4 ,in the north of ,europe there is but one crop4 #cjg ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dg4 #cjh ,he borrows this notion of the oat being wheat in a diseased state1 from ,theophrastus4 ,singularly enough1 it was adopted by the learned ,buffon4 #cji ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 viii4 c4 #aj4 #caj ,this but rarely happens in our climates1 as ,fe remarks4 #caa ,the grains are sometimes1 though rarely1 found devoured on the stalk1 by a kind of larv4 #cab ,some coleopterous insect1 probably1 now unknown1 and not the ,cantharis vesicatoria1 or 8,spanish fly10 as some have imagined4 ,dioscorides and ,athenus state to the same effect as ,pliny4 #cac ,the proper influence of the humidity of the earth would naturally be impeded by a coating of these substances4 #cad ,this plant has not been identified2 but none of the gramineous plants are noxious to cattle1 with the exception of the seed of darnel4 #cae ,lolium temulentum of ,linnus4 #caf ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eh4 #cag 8,carduus40 ,a general term1 probably including the genera ,centaurea 7the prickly kinds71 ,serratula1 ,carduus1 and ,cnicus4 ,the ,centaurea solstitialis is the thistle most commonly found in the south of ,europe4 #cah ,gallium ,aparine of ,linnus4 #cai ,barley1 wheat1 oats1 and millet have1 each its own 8rubigo0 or mildew1 known to modern botany as uredo4 #cbj ,the ,erineum vitis of botanists4 #cba ,this rarely happens except through the violence of wind or rain4 #cbb ,see c4 #cb of this ,book4 #cbc ,the ,cuscuta ,europa1 probably1 of ,linnus2 one of the ,convolvuli4 #cbd 8ra40 ,it is generally considered to be the same with darnel1 though ,pliny probably looked upon them as different4 #cbe ,the gilops ovata1 probably1 of ,linnus4 ,dalechamps and ,hardouin identify it with the barren oat1 the ,avena sterilis of ,linnus4 #cbf ,to the ,greek 1 or battle-axe4 ,it is probably the ,biserrula pelecina of ,linnus1 though the ,astragalus hamosus and the ,coronilla securidaca of ,linnus have been suggested4 #cbg ,pliny has here committed a singular error in translating from ,theophrastus1 de ,causis1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #ad1 who only says that a cold wind in the vicinity of ,philippi makes the beans difficult to cook or boil1 4 ,from this word he has coined two imaginary plants1 the 8ateramon10 and the 8teramon40 ,hardouin defends ,pliny1 by suggesting that he has borrowed the passage from another source1 while ,fe doubts if he really understood the ,greek language4 #cbh ,more probably one of the ,coleoptera4 ,he borrows from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,anim4 ,b4 viii4 c4 #aj4 #cbi ,this will only prevent the young plants from becoming a prey to snails and slugs4 #ccj ,this plan is attended with no good results4 #cca ,georg4 i4 #aic4 ,it is generally said that if seed is steeped in a solution of nitre1 and more particularly hydrochloric acid1 it will germinate with accelerated rapidity2 the produce1 however1 is no finer than at other times4 #ccb 8,fract40 ,perhaps1 more properly 8crushed0 #ccc ,the odour of cypress1 or savin1 ,fe thinks1 might possibly keep away noxious insects4 #ccd ,the 8always living10 or perennial plant1 our 8house-leek10 the ,sedum acre of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ajb4 #cce 8,little finger10 from the shape of the leaves4 #ccf ,he must have allowed himself to be imposed upon in this case4 #ccg ,fe thinks that this may possibly be efficacious against the attacks of rats1 as the author of the ,geoponica1 ,b4 x41 states4 #cch ,virgil1 ,georg1 i4 #aaa1 recommends the same plan1 and it is still followed by agriculturists4 ,it is not without its inconveniences1 however4 #cci ,this is not consistent with truth1 for no fresh ear will assume its place4 #cdj ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #f4 #cda ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #cd4 #cdb 8,ador40 ,see c4 #aj of this ,book4 #cdc ,from ,varro2 ,de ,re ,rust4 i4 #bc4 #cdd ,a4,u4,c4 #eec4 #cde ,there is nothing wonderful in a few grains of corn germinating in the cleft of a tree4 #cdf ,in ,b4 v4 c4 #aj4 #cdg ,first of ,april4 #cdh ,i4 e4 ,egypt ,proper1 the ,delta1 or ,lower ,egypt1 ,thebais being in ,upper ,egypt4 #cdi ,the overflow of these rivers is by no means to be compared with that of the ,nile4 #cej ,fe remarks1 that the plough here described differs but little from that used in some provinces of ,france4 #cea ,resupinus4 #ceb ,gallia ,togata4 ,rhtia is the modern country of the ,grisons4 #cec ,according to ,goropius ,becanus1 from plograt1 the ancient ,gallic for a plough-wheel4 ,hardouin thinks that it is from the ,latin 8plaustra rati20 and ,poinsinet derives it from the ,belgic ploum1 a plough1 and rat1 or radt1 a wheel4 #ced 8,crates20 probably made of hurdles2 see ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #ie4 #cee ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #fa4 #cef ,these rules are borrowed mostly from ,varro1 ,b4 i4 c4 #ai1 and ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #d4 #ceg 8,vere actum0 8worked in spring40 #ceh ,virgil says the same1 ,georg4 i4 #i4 #cei ,crosswise1 or horizontally4 #cfj ,zig-zag1 apparently4 #cfa ,a rude foreshadowing of the spade husbandry so highly spoken of at the present day4 #cfb 8,prevaricare10 8to make a balk10 as we call it1 to make a tortuous furrow1 diverging from the straight line4 #cfc ,he probably means the heavy 8rastrum10 or rake1 mentioned by ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #afd4 ,it is impossible to say what was the shape of this heavy rake1 or how it was used4 ,light1 or hand rakes were in common use as well4 #cfd 8,a gong crooked20 hence its meaning of1 folly1 dotage1 or madness4 #cfe ,georg4 i4 #dg4 ,servius seems to understand it that the furrow should be untouched for two days and two nights before it is gone over again4 #cff ,fe declines to give credit to this story4 #cfg ,a4,u4,c4 #hcj4 #cfh 8,semen10 8seed-wheat10 a variety only of spelt4 #cfi ,in c4 #fe of this ,book4 #cgj ,runcatio4 #cga ,crates4 #cgb ,georg4 i4 #ga4 #cgc ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #g4 #cgd ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #c1 and ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ej4 ,it is also mentioned by ,ptolemy and ,procopius4 ,it was situate evidently in an oasis4 #cge ,or arm's length from the elbow4 #cgf ,he surely does not mention this as an extravagant price1 more especially when he has so recently spoken 7in c4 #cd7 of rape selling at a sesterce per pound4 #cgg ,how was this ascertained8 ,fe seems to think that it is the ,festuca fluitans of ,linnus that is alluded to1 it being eagerly sought by cattle4 #cgh ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #cgi ,tenerum4 #chj ,adoreum4 #cha 8,tertio0 may possibly mean the 8third time10 i4 e4 for every third crop4 #chb ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #f4 #chc 8,ares0 seems to be a preferable reading to 8arescat10 8before it dries40 #chd ,schneider1 upon ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ae1 would reject these words1 and they certainly appear out of place4 #che ,poinsinet would supply here 8tricenis diebus10 8in thirty days10 from ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ae4 #chf 8,sterile40 ,this is not necessarily the case1 as we know with reference to what is called mummy wheat1 the seed of which has been recovered at different times from the ,egyptian tombs4 #chg ,the threshing floor was made with an elevation in the middle1 and the sides on an incline1 to the bottom of which the largest grains would be the most likely to fall4 #chh 8,far0 or spelt is of a red hue in the exterior4 #chi ,this appearance is no longer to be observed1 if1 indeed1 ,pliny is correct3 all kinds of corn are white in the interior of the grain4 #cij ,hand-sowing is called by the ,french1 8semer la vole40 #cia ,this occult or mysterious method of which ,pliny speaks1 consists solely of what we should call a 8happy knack10 which some men have of sowing more evenly than others4 #cib ,sors genialis atque fecunda est4 #cic ,this ,chapter is mostly from ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #i4 #cid ,in c4 #ai of this ,book4 #cie ,probably the mixture called 8farrago0 in c4 #aj and c4 #da4 #cif ,upon this point the modern agriculturists are by no means agreed4 #cig ,from ,cato1 ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #e4 #cih 8,segetem ne defrudes40 ,the former editions mostly read 8defruges10 in which case the meaning would be1 8don't exhaust the land40 #cii ,this passage of ,attius is lost1 but ,hermann supposes his words to have run thus3-- ----serere1 cum est ,luna in ,ariete1 ,geminis1 ,leone1 ,libra1 ,aquario4 #djj ,in c4 #h of this ,book4 #dja ,georg4 i4 #bjh4 #djb ,georg4 i4 #bbg4 #djc ,see c4 #gd of this ,book4 #djd ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #h4 #dje ,favonius4 ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #dg4 #djf ,the five days' festival in honour of ,minerva4 ,it begins on the fourteenth before the calends of ,april1 or on the nineteenth of ,march4 ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #bjh1 says that flax and the poppy should be sown in autumn4 #djg ,fifteenth of ,october4 #djh ,first of ,november4 #dji ,georg4 i4 #bjd4 #daj 8,to be an early winter40 #daa 8,to be a long winter40 #dab ,confectum sidus4 #dac ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #b4 #dad ,georg4 i4 #cce4 #dae ,a4,u4,c4 #hcj4 #daf ,twenty-seventh of ,january4 #dag ,ad solis cursum4 #dah ,soon after the corrections made by order of ,julius ,csar1 the ,pontifices mistook the proper method of intercalation1 by making it every third year instead of the fourth2 the consequence of which was1 that ,augustus was obliged to correct the results of their error by omitting the intercalary day for twelve years4 #dai ,he most probably refers to the list of writers originally appended to the ,first ,book2 but which in the present ,translation is distributed at the end of each ,book4 ,for the list of astronomical writers here referred to1 see the end of the present ,book4 #dbj ,or 4 ,it is now lost4 #dba ,in his work mentioned at the end of this ,book4 ,it is now lost4 #dbb ,i4 e4 ,asia ,minor4 #dbc ,i4 e4 the north-west parts of ,africa4 #dbd ,see c4 #ci of that ,book4 #dbe 8,ratione solis40 ,this theory of the succession of changes every four years1 was promulgated by ,eudoxus4 ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #dh4 #dbf ,see c4 #fi1 as to ,arcturus and ,aquila4 #dbg ,he speaks of ,equinoctial hours1 these being in all cases of the same length1 in contradistinction to the ,temporal1 or ,unequal hours1 which with the ,romans were a twelfth part of the ,natural day1 from sunrise to sunset1 and of course were continually varying4 #dbh ,twenty-fifth of ,december4 #dbi ,fere4 #dcj ,in this ,translation1 the names of the ,constellations are given in ,english1 except in the case of the signs of the ,zodiac1 which are universally known by their ,latin appellations4 #dca ,he begins in c4 #fd1 at the winter solstice1 and omits the period between the eleventh of ,november and the winter solstice altogether1 so far as the mention of individual days4 #dcb 8,cum sidus vehemens ,orionis iisdem diebus longo decedat spatio40 ,this passage is apparently unintelligible1 if considered1 as ,sillig reads it1 as dependent on the preceding one4 #dcc ,in his conomica4 #dcd ,in ,b4 ii4 c4 #dg4 #dce 8,vestis institor est40 ,this passage is probably imperfect4 #dcf 8,lacernarum40 #dcg 8,puleium40 ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #da4 #dch ,de ,re ,rust4 i4 #cd4 #dci ,the setting of the ,vergili4 #ddj ,de ,divinat4 ,b4 i4 c4 #ae4 ,they are a translation from ,aratus4 #dda ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #ch4 ,pliny has said above1 that flax and the poppy should be sown in the spring4 #ddb ,the ,papaver ,rhas of ,linnus is still used for affections of the throat4 #ddc ,for the grape and the olive4 #ddd ,first of ,november4 #dde ,in the more northern climates this is never done till the spring4 #ddf ,this is merely imaginary4 #ddg ,or king-fisher4 ,it was a general belief that this bird incubated on the surface of the ocean4 #ddh ,hence the expression1 8,halcyon days40 #ddi ,vadimonia4 #dej ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #gd4 #dea 8,ridicas40 #deb 8,palos40 #dec ,thirtieth of ,december4 ,according to the ,roman reckoning1 the third day would be the day but one before4 #ded ,fourth of ,january4 #dee ,eighth of ,january4 #def ,seventeenth of ,january4 #deg ,twenty-fifth of ,january4 #deh 8,regia ,stella40 #dei ,fourth of ,february4 #dfj ,or wine-vats2 by the use of the word 8laminas10 he seems to be speaking not of the ordinary earthen dolia1 but the wooden ones used in ,gaul and the north of ,italy4 #dfa ,sixteenth of ,february4 #dfb ,twenty-second of ,february4 #dfc ,fifth of ,march4 #dfd ,on the fifth of ,march1 ,ovid says1 ,fasti1 iii4 l4 #djg4 ,columella makes it rise on the sixth of the nones1 or the second of ,march4 #dfe ,eighth of ,march4 #dff ,or1 more literally1 the 8,northern ,fish40 #dfg ,fifteenth of ,march1 the day on which he was assassinated1 in accordance1 it is said1 with the prophecy of a diviner1 who had warned him to beware of the ides of ,march4 #dfh ,eighteenth of ,march4 #dfi ,twenty-first of ,march4 #dgj ,in c4 #df and c4 #dg4 #dga ,seventh of ,february4 #dgb ,in ,b4 xvii4 c4 #ce4 #dgc ,fe approves of this method of weeding before the corn is in ear4 #dgd ,in a day1 probably4 #dge ,georg4 i4 #fc4 #dgf ,de ,re ,rust4 #dj4 #dgg ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #h4 #dgh ,alluding to his quotation from ,cicero in c4 #fa4 #dgi ,or mastich4 #dhj ,see c4 #g of this ,book4 #dha ,it is not known whence he derived this unfounded notion4 #dhb ,twenty-fifth of ,march4 #dhc ,first of ,april4 #dhd ,this passage is omitted in the original1 but was probably left out by inadvertence4 #dhe ,third of ,april4 #dhf ,fifth of ,april4 #dhg ,eighth of ,april4 #dhh ,eighteenth of ,april4 #dhi ,sixteenth of ,april4 #dij ,twentieth of ,april4 #dia ,twenty-first of ,april4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bd4 #dib ,from 1 to rain4 #dic 8,sus10 a pig4 #did ,twenty-fourth of ,april4 #die ,twenty-fifth of ,april4 #dif ,twenty-sixth of ,april4 #dig ,twenty-seventh of ,april4 #dih ,twenty-eighth of ,april4 #dii ,second of ,may4 #ejj ,eighth of ,may4 #eja ,tenth of ,may4 #ejb 8,cuculus40 ,sec ,b4 x4 c4 #aa4 #ejc 8,petulanti vales40 ,perhaps 8indecent10 or 8wanton jokes30 at least1 ,hardouin thinks so4 #ejd ,by causing quarrels1 probably4 #eje ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #cd4 #ejf ,a quotation from some unknown poet1 ,sillig thinks4 #ejg ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #da4 #ejh ,see ,virgil1 ,ecl4 iii4 l4 #aaa4 #eji ,eleventh of ,may4 #eaj ,thirteenth of ,may4 #eaa ,twenty-first of ,may4 #eab ,twenty-second of ,may4 #eac ,second of ,june4 #ead ,seventh of ,june4 #eae ,tenth of ,june4 #eaf ,fifteenth of ,june4 #eag ,twenty-first of ,june4 #eah ,twenty-fourth of ,june4 #eai ,first of ,june4 #ebj ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ah4 #eba ,the varieties now known as ,trifolium pratense1 ,trifolium rubens and ,trifolium repens4 #ebb 8,gramen40 ,under this head1 as ,fe says1 he probably includes the gramineous plants1 known as ,alopecurus1 ,phleum1 ,poa1 ,festuca1 c4 #ebc ,probably the ,lysimachia nummularia of ,linnus1 which has a tendency to corrode the lips of the sheep that pasture on it4 #ebd ,known to us as 8horse-tail20 varieties of which are the ,equisetum fluviatile and the ,equisetum palustre of ,linnus4 #ebe ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #ec4 #ebf ,see ,virgil's ,georg4 i4 #bhi4 #ebg ,as to whetstones1 for further information1 see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #dg4 #ebh ,the word 8falx10 8sickle0 or 8scythe10 is used here as denoting an implement for mowing1 and not reaping4 #ebi ,similar in shape to our sickle1 or reaping hook1 no doubt4 #ecj 8,majoris compendii40 ,similar to our reaping-hook1 also4 ,fe thinks that the former was similar to the 8faux faucille10 or false sickle1 the latter to the common sickle of the ,french4 #eca ,fe says that this is the case in some parts of ,france4 #ecb ,in c4 #ei of this ,book4 #ecc ,twenty-fourth of ,june4 ,see the last ,chapter4 #ecd ,on this subject see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #cf4 ,see also ,varro1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 i4 c4 #df1 and ,aulus ,gellius1 ,b4 ix4 c4 #g4 #ece 8,tenes ,sidus40 #ecf ,twenty-sixth of ,june4 #ecg ,fourth of ,july4 #ech ,there is some confusion1 apparently1 here4 ,canicula1 ,syrius1 or the ,dog-star1 belongs to the ,constellation ,canis ,major2 while ,canis ,minor a ,constellation which contains the star ,procyon1 78the forerunner of the ,dog107 precedes it4 #eci ,fourth of ,july4 #edj ,fourteenth of ,july4 #eda ,seventeenth of ,july4 #edb ,b4 ii4 c4 #dj1 and ,b4 xix4 c4 #be4 #edc ,twentieth of ,july4 #edd ,twenty-third of ,july4 #ede ,thirtieth of ,july4 #edf ,sixth of ,august4 #edg ,eleventh of ,august4 #edh ,eighth of ,august4 #edi ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #cg4 #eej ,carbunculus4 #eea ,cicero4 ,de ,div41 ,b4 ii4 #bja1 ,aristotle1 ,polit4 ,b4 i4 c4 #g1 and ,diogenes ,laertius tell this story of ,thales the philosopher2 ,pliny being the only one that applies it to ,democritus4 #eeb ,in the last ,chapter4 ,this passage is corrupt4 #eec ,mentioned by ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ei4 #eed ,it was reserved for the latter part of the last century to discover that mildew operated on vegetation through the medium of minute1 parasitical fungi4 ,it is mostly attributed to defects in the light or the atmosphere1 or else humidity in excess4 ,see c4 #dd of this ,book4 #eee ,in ,b4 ii4 c4 #f1 for instance4 #eef ,an onomatic prejudice1 as ,fe says1 solely founded on the peculiarity of the name4 #eeg ,in the preceding ,chapter4 #eeh ,in the preceding ,chapter4 #eei ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #db4 #efj ,twentieth of ,december4 #efa ,or festival in honour of ,robigo1 the ,goddess of mildew1 on the twenty-fifth of ,april4 ,see ,ovid's ,fasti1 ,b4 iv4 l4 #ijg1 et seq4 #efb ,robigo4 #efc 8,nineteen0 is the proper number4 #efd 8,et cui proccidere caniculam necesse est40 ,the real meaning of this passage would seem to be1--8,before which1 as a matter of course1 ,canicula must set40 ,but if so1 ,pliny is in error1 for ,canicula1 or ,procyon1 sets heliacally after the ,dog-star1 though it rises before it4 ,hardouin observes1 that it is abundantly proved from the ancient writers that it was the custom to sacrifice a puppy to ,sirius1 or the ,dog-star1 at the ,robigalia4 ,as ,littr justly remarks1 it would almost appear that ,pliny intended1 by his ambiguous language1 to lead his readers into error4 #efe ,twenty-eighth of ,april4 ,the festival of ,flora4 #eff ,twenty-third of ,april4 ,this was the first1 or ,urban ,vinalia3 the second1 or ,rustic ,vinalia1 were held on the nineteenth of ,august4 #efg ,the same as the ,greek 1 or 8opening of the ,casks40 #efh ,tenth of ,may4 #efi ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #db1 and in c4 #ff of this ,book4 #egj ,second of ,june4 #ega ,twenty-fourth of ,june4 #egb ,fourth of ,july4 #egc ,seventeenth of ,july4 #egd ,twentieth of ,july4 #ege ,twenty-third of ,july4 #egf ,nineteenth of ,august4 #egg ,eighth of ,august4 #egh ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #de1 and c4 #ej4 ,the popinjay1 lapwing1 and tit-mouse have been suggested4 #egi ,virio4 ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #de4 #ehj ,columella1 ,de ,arborib4 c4 #ac1 gives similar advice4 #eha ,this absurd practice is mentioned in the ,geoponica1 ,b4 v4 c4 #ca4 #ehb ,as to this fish1 see ,b4 ix4 c4 #ag4 #ehc 8,uva picta40 ,this absurdity does not seem to be found in any of ,varro's works that have come down to us4 #ehd ,nothing whatever is known of him or his works2 and1 as ,fe says1 apparently the loss is little to be regretted4 #ehe ,rubeta rana4 #ehf ,de ,re ,rust4 #abi4 ,cato1 however1 does not mention chalk1 but ,virgil 7,georg4 i4 #agh7 does4 ,poinsinet thinks that this is a 8lapsus memori0 in ,pliny1 but ,fe suggests that there may have been an omission by the copyists4 #ehg ,see the last ,note4 ,he recommends that it should be turned up with the hand1 rammed down with 8tenacious chalk10 and levelled with a large roller4 #ehh ,both cow-dung and marc of olives are still employed in some parts of ,france1 in preparing the threshing floor4 #ehi ,palladius gives a long description of this contrivance1 which seems to have been pushed forward by the ox2 the teeth1 which were sharp at the edge and fine at the point1 catching the ears and tearing them off4 ,but1 as ,fe says1 the use of it must have been very disadvantageous1 in consequence of the unequal height of the stalks4 ,the straw1 too1 was sacrificed by the employment of it4 #eij ,in contrarium juncto4 #eia 8,merges40 ,supposed to be the same as the 8batillum0 of ,varro4 ,its form is unknown1 and1 indeed1 the manner in which it was used4 ,it is not improbable that it was a fork1 sharp at the edge1 and similar to an open pair of scissars1 with which the heads of corn were driven off1 as it were2 this1 however1 is only a mere conjecture4 ,by the use of 8atque10 it would almost appear that the 8merges0 was employed after the sickle had been used2 but it is more probable that he refers to two different methods of gathering the ears of corn4 #eib ,the roots and the stubble are1 in reality1 as good as a manure to the land4 #eic ,called 8tribulum20 a threshing-machine moved by oxen4 ,varro1 ,de ,re ,rust4 i4 #eb1 gives a description of it4 ,fe says that it is still used in some parts of ,europe4 #eid ,on the contrary1 ,fe says1 the risk is greater from the depredations of birds1 and the chance of the grain falling out in cutting1 and gathering in4 ,spelt and rye may be left much longer than wheat or oats4 #eie ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 i41 gives the same advice4 #eif 8,palea0 seems here to mean 8chaff20 though ,fe understands it as meaning straw4 #eig ,the chaff of millet1 and not the straw1 must evidently be intended here1 for he says above that the straw--8culmus0--of millet is generally burnt4 #eih ,muria dura4 #eii ,georg4 i4 #hd1 et seq4 ,fe says that ,virgil has good reason for his commendations1 as it is a most excellent plan4 #fjj ,palladius1 i4 #ai1 says two feet4 #fja ,on account of the damp4 ,columella1 however1 recommends a mixture of sand1 lime1 and marc of olives for the floor2 ,b4 i4 c4 #f4 #fjb ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #h4 #fjc ,this is still done in the ,valais1 and has the great merit of preserving the corn from house and field-mice4 #fjd 8,ventilare40 ,on the contrary1 the weevil penetrates deep1 and does not keep near the surface4 #fje ,de ,re ,rust4 ii4 #ba4 #fjf ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #dh4 #fjg ,those keep the best1 ,fe says1 which have a farinaceous perisperm4 ,millet has but one coat4 #fjh ,this1 in reality1 would tend to make them turn rancid all the sooner4 #fji ,and so repel the attacks of insects4 #faj ,this would not only spoil the flavour1 but absolutely injure the corn as well4 #faa ,this also1 if practised to any extent1 would infallibly spoil the grain4 #fab ,de ,re ,rust4 i4 #eg4 #fac ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae3 also ,columella1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aj4 #fad ,twelfth of ,august4 #fae ,twenty-second of ,august4 #faf ,twenty-eighth of ,august4 #fag ,fifth of ,september4 #fah ,ninth of ,september4 #fai ,twelfth of ,september4 #fbj ,see the ,rudens of ,plautus1 ,prol4 l4 #fi4 #fba ,sixteenth of ,september4 #fbb ,eighteenth of ,september4 #fbc ,twenty-first of ,september4 #fbd ,commissura4 #fbe ,twenty-fourth of ,september4 #fbf ,mentioned by ,virgil1 ,eccl4 iii4 l4 #ch1 and by ,propertius1 ,eleg4 iv4 #a4 #fbg ,twenty-eighth of ,september4 #fbh ,twenty-ninth of ,september4 #fbi ,second of ,october4 #fcj ,third of ,october4 #fca ,fourth of ,october4 #fcb ,eighth of ,october4 #fcc ,tenth of ,october4 #fcd ,fifteenth of ,october4 #fce ,sixteenth of ,october4 #fcf ,or ,hyades1 see c4 #ff4 #fcg ,second of ,november4 #fch ,ninth of ,november4 #fci ,eleventh of ,november4 #fdj ,in c4 #ce of this ,book4 #fda 8,frondarias fiscinas40 ,these must have been baskets of a very large size4 ,the leaves were used for fodder4 #fdb ,this1 ,fe says1 is diametrically opposite to the modern practice4 #fdc ,the 8culeus10 it is supposed1 was of the same measure of capacity as the 8dolium10 and held twenty amphor4 ,the 8pressura10 or 8pressing10 was probably the utmost quantity that the pressing vat would hold at one time4 #fdd 8,lacus40 #fde 8,mali rugis per cocleas bullantibus40 ,the whole of this passage is full of difficulties4 #fdf 8,tympana30 literally1 8drums40 #fdg ,grape juice boiled down to one half2 see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #i4 #fdh ,virgil mentions this in the ,georgics1 ,b4 i4 #bie4 ,of course1 it is nothing but an absurd superstition4 #fdi ,first of ,january4 #fej ,piscinis4 #fea ,i4 e4 before getting in the next year's crop4 ,of course1 he alludes only to wines of an inferior class1 used for domestic consumption4 #feb ,in ,b4 xiv4 #fec ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #c4 #fed ,georg4 i4 #bgf4 #fee ,in contradistinction to the two periods of full moon1 and change of the moon1 the only epochs in reference to it noticed by ,pliny4 #fef ,in ,chapters #f1 #g1 #h and #aa4 #feg ,or 8between moons40 ,the 8change of the moon10 as we call it4 #feh #ea-a_/d minutes4 #fei ,many of his statements are drawn from ,aristotle's ,treatise1 8,de ,mundo40 #ffj ,our mid-day4 #ffa ,from due north to due south4 #ffb ,cardo4 #ffc 8,arbusta40 ,the trees on which the vines were trained4 #ffd ,i4 e4 the north-west of ,africa2 the ,roman province so called4 #ffe ,in the next ,chapter4 #fff ,ventus ,auster4 #ffg ,in ,b4 ii4 c4 #df4 #ffh ,incendia4 #ffi ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #b4 #fgj ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #ge4 #fga ,he seems to be in error here1 as he has nowhere made mention of this4 #fgb ,aristotle1 on the other hand1 and ,columella1 ,b4 vii4 c4 #c1 say 8males40 ,see also ,b4 viii4 c4 #gb1 where males are mentioned in connection with the north-wind4 ,also the next ,chapter in this ,book4 #fgc ,in the last ,chapter4 #fgd ,very similar to our compass1 but describing only eight points of the wind1 instead of thirty-two4 #fge 8,tympanum10 a drum1 similar in shape to our tambourines or else kettle-drums4 #fgf ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #df4 #fgg ,or the 8summer0 wind4 #fgh ,africus1 or south-west4 #fgi ,or1 according to our mode of expression1 the 8second10 or 8next but one40 #fhj ,or1 as we say1 the 8third40 #fha ,georg4 i4 #cac1 et seq4 8,spe ego1 quum flavis messorem induceret arvis ,agricola1 et fragili jam stringeret hordea culmo1 omnia ventorum concurrere prlia vidi40 #fhb ,see the ,treatise of ,theophrastus on the ,prognostics of the ,weather4 #fhc ,this1 ,fe observes1 is confirmed by experience4 ,aratus1 as translated by ,avienus1 states to a similar effect4 #fhd ,so ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #dbg4 #fhe ,coronam4 #fhf ,see ,b4 ii4 c4 #f and c4 #cf4 #fhg ,in c4 #ei of this ,book4 #fhh 8,densum40 ,fe says that this is in general confirmed by experience4 #fhi ,this results1 ,fe says1 from the presence of thin1 aqueous vapours1 which portend a change in the atmosphere4 #fij ,fe attributes this phnomenon to hydrosulphuric gas1 ignited in the air by an electric spark4 ,the notion that these meteors are stars1 was prevalent to a very recent period4 #fia ,to which they proceed4 #fib ,this1 ,fe says1 is confirmed by experience4 #fic ,or 8,little ,asses40 #fid ,prsepia4 #fie ,this1 as ,fe remarks1 is consistent with experience4 #fif ,this1 ,fe remarks1 appears to be consistent with general experience4 #fig ,theophrastus states to a similar effect1 and it is confirmed by the experience of those who live in mountainous countries4 #fih ,we still hear of the 8white squalls0 of the ,mediterranean4 #fii 8#8,behold1 there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea1 like a man's hand4'----,and it came to pass in the meanwhile1 that the heaven was black with clouds and wind1 and there was a great rain40--#a ,kings1 xviii4 #dd1 #de4 #gjj ,the truth of this1 ,fe says1 he has personally experienced in the vallies of the ,alps4 #gja ,terreni ignes4 #gjb ,this1 and the other phnomena here mentioned1 result1 as ,fe says1 from the hygrometric state of the air4 ,virgil mentions this appearance on the wick of the lamp1 ,georg4 i4 #cib4 #gjc ,fe thinks that this indicates fine weather rather than rain1 as showing a pure state of the atmosphere4 #gjd ,sea 8lungs40 ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #ga4 #gje ,ludentia4 #gjf ,virgil mentions these indications1 ,georg4 i4 #cfh-i4 #gjg 8,suus fragor40 ,the winds1 ,fe remarks1 however violent they may be1 make no noise unless they meet with an obstacle which arrests their onward progress4 #gjh ,theophrastus1 ,cicero1 and ,plutarch state to a similar effect2 and it is corroborated by the experience of most mariners4 #gji ,the ink-fish2 ,sepia loligo of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #ba4 #gaj ,virgil says the same1 ,georg4 i4 #cgh4 #gaa 8,fulic40 ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #fa1 and ,b4 xi4 c4 #dd4 #gab ,virgil says the same of the diver1 or didapper1 ,georg4 i4 #cfa2 and ,lucan ,pharsalia1 v4 #eec4 #gac ,both ,theophrastus and lian mention this4 #gad ,it is not known what bird is here alluded to1 but ,fe is probably right in suggesting a sort of sea-mew1 or gull4 #gae ,this is still considered a prognostic of rain4 ,fe says that the swallow descends thus near to the surface to catch the insects on the wing which are now disabled from rising by the hygrometric state of the atmosphere4 #gaf ,this is confirmed by experience4 #gag ,on the contrary1 ,lucan says 7,pharsalia1 ,b4 v4 l4 #edi71 that on the approach of rain1 the heron soars in the upper regions of the air2 and ,virgil says the same1 ,georg4 i4 #cfd4 #gah ,indecor lascivi4 #gai ,fe suggests that they probably do this to diminish the electric fluid with which the air is charged4 #gbj ,alienos sibi manipulos4 #gba ,this is confirmed by common experience4 #gbb 8,repositoriis40 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ac1 and ,b4 xxx4 c4 #di4 #gbc ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #gbd ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #gbe ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gbf ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gbg ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #gbh ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gbi ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #gcj ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gca ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gcb ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #gcc ,see end of ,b4 x4 #gcd ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #gce ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gcf ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #gcg ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #gch ,a native of ,sulmo1 in the country of the ,peligni1 and one of the greatest poets of the ,augustan age4 ,it is most probable that his 8,fasti0 was extensively consulted by ,pliny in the compilation of the present ,book4 ,six ,books of the ,fasti have come down to us1 but the remaining six have perished1 if1 indeed1 they were ever written1 which has been doubted by many of the learned4 #gci ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #gdj ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gda ,see end of ,b4 ii4 ,it is supposed that there were several writers of this name1 but it is impossible to say with certainty which of them is the one here referred to4 ,it is probable1 however1 that it is either ,l4 lius ,tubero1 the friend of ,cicero1 or else ,q4 lius ,tubero1 his son1 that is alluded to4 #gdb ,l4 ,tarutius ,firmianus1 a mathematician and astronomer1 and a friend and contemporary of ,cicero and ,m4 ,varro4 ,at the request of the latter1 he took the horoscope of ,romulus4 ,it is generally supposed that he was of ,etruscan descent4 #gdc ,the founder of the imperial dignity at ,rome4 ,his ,commentaries are the only work written by him that has come down to us4 ,his treatise on the ,stars1 which ,pliny frequently quotes throughout this ,book1 was probably written under the inspection of the astronomer1 ,sosigenes4 #gdd ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gde ,nothing is known of this writer4 ,it has been suggested1 however1 that he may have been the same person as ,papirius ,fabianus1 mentioned at the end of ,b4 ii4 #gdf ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #gdg ,see end of ,b4 xvi4 #gdh ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gdi ,see end of ,b x4 #gej ,l4 ,accius1 or ,attius1 an early ,roman tragic poet1 and the son of a freedman1 born about ,b4,c4 #agj4 ,his tragedies were chiefly imitations from the ,greek4 ,he is highly praised by ,cicero4 ,the 8,praxidica0 here mentioned1 is probably the same as the 8,pragmatica0 spoken of by ,aulus ,gellius1 ,b4 xx4 c4 #c4 ,only some fragments of his ,tragedies are left4 #gea ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #geb ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #gec ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #ged ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gee ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gef ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #geg ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #geh ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gei ,see end of ,b4 iv4 #gfj ,sec end of ,b4 viii4 #gfa ,see end of ,b4 ix4 #gfb ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfc ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfd ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfe ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gff ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfg ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfh ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gfi ,see end of ,b4 vi4 #ggj ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #gga ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #ggb ,see end of ,b4 xv4 #ggc ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ggd ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gge ,see end of ,b4 x4 #ggf ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ggg ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ggh ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ggi ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ghj ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #gha ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ghb ,of ,miletus1 the most ancient of the ,greek philosophers1 and the founder of the ,ionian school of ,philosophy4 ,he is said to have written upon the ,solstice and the ,equinox1 and a work on ,astronomy1 in verse1 was also attributed to him4 ,it is1 however1 more generally believed1 that he left no written works behind him1 and that those attributed to him were forgeries4 #ghc ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #ghd ,an astronomer of ,medama1 or ,medma1 in ,magna ,grcia1 and a disciple of ,plato4 ,he is said to have written a treatise on the winds1 and ,plutarch states that he demonstrated the figure of the moon4 #ghe ,an astronomer of ,cyzicus1 and a friend of ,aristotle1 whom he assisted in completing the discoveries of ,eudoxus4 ,he invented the cycle of seventy-six years1 called after him the ,calippic4 #ghf ,of ,colonus1 a geometrician1 to whom ,archimedes dedicated his works on the sphere and cylinder1 and on spirals4 #ghg ,a grammarian1 who is supposed to have written a commentary on ,aratus4 ,varro1 ,de ,ling4 ,lat4 x4 #aj1 speaks of him as making the distinctive characteristics of words to be eight in number4 #ghh ,a famous astronomer of ,athens1 to whom the discovery of the cycle of nineteen years has been attributed4 #ghi ,there were several learned men of this name1 but it appears impossible to say which of them is the one here alluded to2 probably it is either the ,pythagorean philosopher of g1 who wrote on ,predestination1 or else the historian1 a native of ,pieria in ,macedonia4 ,there was also an astronomer of this name1 a native of ,naxos1 and a friend of ,eudoxus of ,cnidos4 #gij ,a famous astronomer1 a native of ,chios4 ,he is said to have claimed the discovery of the obliquity of the ,ecliptic4 #gia ,probably ,zenon of ,elea1 one of the most famous philosophers of antiquity4 ,all of his works had perished at a very early period4 #gib ,an ,athenian astronomer1 the friend and assistant of ,meton1 about #dcj ,b4,c4 #gic ,an astronomer mentioned by ,censorinus1 as having corrected the intercalation of ,cleostratus4 ,nothing further appears to be known of him4 #gid ,for ,hecatus of ,miletus1 see ,b4 iv4 ,for ,hecatus of ,abdera1 see ,b4 vi4 #gie ,see end of ,b4 iv4 #gif ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gig ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #gih ,a native of ,soli1 or else ,tarsus1 in ,cilicia4 ,he was the author of two ,greek astronomical poems which have come down to us4 ,he flourished about ,b4,c4 #bgj4 #gii ,nothing can be said of him with any degree of historical certainty4 ,by the ,persians he was called ,zerdusht1 and was said to have been the founder of the ,magian religion4 ,there were several works in ,greek bearing his name1 but which1 no doubt1 were forgeries of a later age than that usually assigned to him4 #hjj ,he is mentioned in c4 #gj of this ,book1 as writing a letter to ,antiochus1 king of ,syria2 but nothing further seems to be known of him4 #hja ,more particularly in ,b4 xvii4 cc4 #b and #c1 and ,b4 xviii4 cc4 #eg-ge4 #hjb ,the ,linum usitatissimum of ,linnus4 #hjc ,what would he have said to the application of the powers of steam1 and the electric telegraph8 #hjd ,possibly ,galerius ,trachalus1 ,consul ,a4,d4 #fh1 a relation of ,galeria ,fundana1 the wife of the ,emperor ,vitellius4 #hje ,governor of ,egypt in the reign of ,nero1 ,a4,d4 #ee4 ,he is mentioned by ,seneca1 ,qust4 ,nat4 ,b4 iv4 c4 #b1 and is supposed to have written a work on ,egypt and his journeys in that country4 #hjf ,or1 as ,sillig suggests1 8after ill treatment such as this1 that it arrives at the sea40 ,the passage is evidently defective4 #hjg ,in ,b4 vii4 c4 #eg4 ,he alludes to ,ddalus4 #hjh ,he probably has in view here the imprecation uttered by ,horace3-- 8,illi robur1 et s triplex ,circa pectus erat1 qui fragilem truci ,commisit pelago ratem40--,odes1 i4 #c4 ,at the present day hemp forms a material part in the manufacture of sails4 ,in addition to flax1 the ancients employed broom1 rushes1 leather1 and various skins of animals for the purpose4 #hji ,in c4 #gf4 #haj ,on the contrary1 as ,fe observes1 the cultivation of flax is attended with the greatest difficulties4 #haa ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #g4 ,virgil says1 ,georg4 i4 #gg1 8,urit enim lini campum seges0--but in the sense1 as ,fe remarks1 of exhausting1 not scorching the soil4 #hab ,a light soil1 and well manured1 is usually employed for the purpose4 ,columella1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #aj1 recommends a rich1 moist soil4 ,it is sown in ,march or ,april1 and is gathered1 according to the season1 from ,june to ,september4 #hac ,though rapid in its growth1 there are many vegetable productions that grow more rapidly4 #had ,this was the time for sowing it with the ,romans1 though in some countries1 at the present day1 it is sown so late as the autumn4 #hae ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #gb1 he has spoken of this method of gathering vegetable productions as injurious to the soil1 by withdrawing its natural juices4 #haf 8,censentur hoc reditu80 ,there is little doubt that the ,gauls1 like their ,german neighbours1 cultivated flax for the purposes of female dress1 and not mainly for the manufacture of sails4 #hag 8,quod vocant inane40 ,he implies that the boundless space of ocean on the ,western coasts of ,gaul was useless for any purposes of navigation4 #hah ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #cc4 #hai ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #cc4 #hbj ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #dh4 #hba ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #ca4 #hbb ,a family of the ,atilia gens4 #hbc ,it was1 and is still to some extent1 a prevalent opinion1 that the humidity of caves under-ground is favourable to the manufacture of tissues of hemp and flax4 #hbd ,in ,spain4 ,sec ,b4 i4 c4 #a1 and ,b4 iii4 c4 #d4 #hbe ,cluvier takes this place to be the same with ,litubium in ,liguria1 mentioned by ,livy1 ,b4 xxxii4 #hbf 8,lanugo40 ,this is not generally looked upon as a merit in linen1 at the present day4 #hbg ,now ,tarragona4 ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #d4 #hbh 8,carbasus40 ,this was probably the ,spanish name originally for fine flax1 and hence came to signify the cambrics1 or fine linen tissues made of it4 ,it seems1 however1 to have afterwards been extended to all kinds of linen tissues1 as we find the name given indifferently to linen garments1 sail-cloth1 and awnings for the theatres4 #hbi ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #d4 #hcj 8,stas ceu per ferri aciem vincunt40 ,this passage is probably in a mutilated state4 #hca ,there must either be some corruption in the text1 or else ,pliny must have been mistaken4 ,nets such as these could have been of no possible use in taking a wild boar4 #hcb ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #cc4 ,now ,querci1 the chief town of which is ,cahors4 #hcc 8,culcit40 #hcd 8,tomenta40 #hce ,exactly corresponding to our 8paillasse10 a 8bed of straw40 #hcf ,this is doubtful1 though at the same time it is a well-known fact that the ,egyptian flax grows to the greatest size4 ,hasselquist speaks of it attaining a height of fifteen feet4 #hcg ,our cotton1 the ,gossypium arboreum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #ba4 ,the terms xylon1 byssus1 and gossypium1 must be regarded as synonymous1 being applied sometimes to the plant1 sometimes to the raw cotton1 and sometimes to the tissues made from it4 ,gossypium was probably the barbarous name of the cotton tree1 and byssus perhaps a corruption of its ,hebrew name4 #hch ,probably the ,arundo donax of modern botanists4 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ff4 #hci ,fe says1 that the people of ,pisa1 at the present day1 soak the stalks of broom1 and extract therefrom a thread1 of which cords and coarse stuffs are made4 #hdj ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ba4 ,he seems there to speak of the cotton-tree1 though ,fe suggests that he may possibly allude to the 8,bombax pentandrum0 of ,linnus4 #hda ,it is the mucilage of the perisperm that is so useful in medicine4 ,as an article of food1 the farina of linseed is held in no esteem whatever4 ,in times of scarcity1 attempts have been made to mix it with flour or meal1 but the result has been found to be heavy and indigestible1 and has caused1 it is said1 the death even of those who have eaten of it in considerable quantities4 #hdb ,there are various other methods employed of dressing flax at the present day2 but they are all of them long and tedious4 #hdc ,and not feminine or servile4 #hdd 8,vivum40 #hde ,he evidently considers asbestus1 or amianthus1 to be a vegetable1 and not a mineral production4 ,it is1 in reality1 a mineral1 with long flexible filaments1 of a silky appearance1 and is composed of silica1 magnesia1 and lime4 ,the wicks of the inextinguishable lamps of the middle ages1 the existence of which was an article of general belief1 were said to be made of asbestus4 ,paper and lace1 even1 have been made of it in modern times4 #hdf 8,nascitur40 ,in the year #agjb there was found near the ,nvian ,gate1 at ,rome1 a funereal urn1 in which there was a skull1 calcined bones1 and other ashes1 enclosed in a cloth of asbestus1 of a marvellous length4 ,it is still preserved in the ,vatican4 #hdg ,on the contrary1 it is found in the ,higher ,alps in the vicinity of the ,glaciers1 in ,scotland1 and in ,siberia1 even4 #hdh ,signifying 8inextinguishable10 from 1 8not10 and 1 8to extinguish40 ,see ,b4 xxxvii4 c4 #ed4 #hdi ,see end of this ,book4 #hej ,he evidently alludes to cotton fabrics under this name4 ,see ,note #hcg to c4 #b of this ,book4 #hea ,pausanias1 in his ,eliaca1 goes so far as to say1 that byssus was found only in ,elis1 and nowhere else4 ,judging from the variable temperature of the climate1 it is very doubtful1 ,fe says1 if cotton was grown there at all4 ,arrian1 ,apollonius1 and ,philostratus say that the tree which produced the byssus had the leaves of the willow1 and the shape of the poplar1 characteristics which certainly do not apply to the cotton-tree4 #heb ,impure oxide of metals1 collected from the chimneys of smelting-houses4 ,fe says that ,pliny on this occasion is right4 #hec ,in ,b4 xx4 c4 #gi1 he speaks of the 8heraclion0 poppy1 supposed by some of the commentators to be identical with the one mentioned here4 #hed 8,vestium insaniam40 #hee 8,postea40 ,sillig would reject this word1 as being a corruption1 and not consistent with fact1 ,catulus having lived before the time of ,cleopatra4 ,he suggests that the reading should be 8,populo ,romano ea in theatris spectanti umbram fecere40 8,linen1 too1 has provided a shade for the ,roman people1 when viewing the spectacles of the theatre40 ,lucretius1 ,b4 iv4 l4 #gc1 et seq41 speaks of these awnings as being red1 yellow1 and iron grey4 #hef 8,carbasina40 ,cambric4 #heg ,the cavdium is generally supposed to have been the same as the 8atrium10 the large inner apartment1 roofed over1 with the exception of an opening in the middle1 which was called the 8compluvium10 or 8impluvium10 over which the awning here mentioned was stretched4 ,here the master of the house received his visitors and clients4 #heh ,white would be much preferable to red for this purpose4 #hei ,il4 ii4 ll4 #ebi and #hcj4 #hfj ,il4 viii4 l4 #fc4 #hfa ,il4 ii4 l4 #ace4 ,see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #dj4 #hfb ,the ,stipa tenacissima of ,linnus2 a kind of broom1 called 8,esparto0 by the ,spaniards4 #hfc ,although1 as ,fe says1 this is still the fact1 it is a plant which would readily admit of cultivation4 ,varro1 however1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 i4 c4 #bc1 speaks of it in conjunction with hemp1 flax1 and rushes1 as being sown4 #hfd ,this kind1 ,fe thinks1 may possibly have been identical with the ,spartum ,lygeum of ,linnus1 false esparto1 or alvarde4 #hfe ,at the present day it is only in the provinces on the ,mediterranean that spartum is found2 the other provinces producing nothing but alvarde4 #hff ,it is still used in the southern parts of ,spain for the same purposes4 #hfg ,the shoes now made of it are known as 8espartenas0 and 8alpargatas40 #hfh ,it is not dangerous in itself1 but is too tough to be a favourite article of food with cattle4 #hfi ,fifteenth of ,may and thirteenth of ,june4 #hgj ,the same word1 1 signifying both a 8rush0 and a 8rope40 #hga ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #ac4 ,athenus1 ,b4 ii41 mentions it also4 #hgb ,fe is at a loss to identify this plant1 but considers it quite clear that it is not the same with the ,eriophorum augustifolium of ,linnus1 a cyperaceous plant1 of which the characteristics are totally different4 ,dodonus1 however1 was inclined to consider them identical4 #hgc ,on the contrary1 ,theophrastus does mention it1 in the ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 i4 c4 #h1 and speaks of it as having a bark composed of several tunics or membranes4 #hgd ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #ac1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #a4 #hge 8,tuber40 ,the ,tuber cibarium of ,linnus1 the black truffle2 and probably the grey truffle1 the ,tuber griseum4 #hgf ,this callous secretion of the earth1 or corticle1 is1 as ,fe says1 a sort of hymenium1 formed of vesicles1 which1 as they develope themselves1 are found to contain diminutive truffles4 ,pliny is wrong in saying that the truffle forms neither cleft nor protuberance1 as the exact contrary is the fact4 #hgg ,haller speaks of truffles weighing as much as fourteen pounds4 ,valmont de ,bomare speaks of a truffle commonly found in ,savoy1 which attains the weight of a pound4 #hgh ,those of ,africa are in general similar to those found in ,europe1 but there is one peculiar to that country1 possibly the same that is mentioned in the following ,chapter under the name of 8misy40 #hgi 8,jura reddenti40 #hhj ,it is really propagated by spores1 included in sinuous chambers in the interior2 but1 notwithstanding the attempts that have been made1 it has never yet been cultivated with any degree of success4 ,in c4 #ac1 ,pliny seems to recognize the possibility of its multiplication by germs1 where he says that its formation is attributed by some to water4 #hha ,fe takes this to be the ,tuber niveum of ,desfontaines1 the snow-white truffle4 ,it is globular and somewhat piriform1 grows to the size of a walnut1 and sometimes of an orange1 and is said to be most delicate eating4 #hhb ,these truffles or morels do not appear to have been identified4 #hhc ,juvenal alludes to this absurd notion1 ,sat4 v4 l4 #aaf4 8,the long wished-for thunder will provide a more ample repast40 #hhd ,theophrastus1 as quoted by ,athenus1 ,b4 ii4 speaks of this4 #hhe 8,peziza0 was a name given by the ancients to a kind of cupuliform mushroom2 in which1 however1 we cannot recognize the 8pezica0 of ,pliny4 ,some writers think that this was the same as the lycoperdon and geastrum of botanists1 our puff-ball3 while others take it to be the morel1 the ,morchella esculenta1 ,sprengel in the number4 ,fe is inclined to be of opinion that an edible mushroom is meant1 but is quite at a loss to identify it4 #hhf ,possibly the ,ferula asaftida of ,linnus2 or1 according to some1 the ,thapsia silphium of ,viviani1 ,flor4 ,lib4 ,it was a plant common1 according to ancient writers1 to ,syria1 ,armenia1 ,media1 and ,libya2 but it was the produce of this last country1 probably1 that afforded the juice or gum resin here mentioned as 8laser10 and so highly esteemed by the ancients1 as forming a component part of their perfumes4 ,fe is inclined to think that the ,laserpitium here spoken of was the ,thapsia silphium1 and to reject the more general opinion that it is identical with the ,ferula asaftida4 ,pliny has probably caused some confusion by blending the description of other writers with that given by ,theophrastus1 each having in view a different plant4 ,indeed1 whatever the ,laserpitium or ,silphium of other countries may have been1 it is not improbable that the odoriferous plant of ,cyrenaica was not identical with the ,ferula asaftida of ,linnus4 ,the foliage of the ,thapsia silphium is exactly similar to that of the ,laserpitium as depicted on medals of ,cyrenaica1 still extant4 ,we learn from ,littr1 that ,dr4 ,guyon showed1 in #ahdb1 to the ,acadmie des ,sciences1 a plant which the ,arabs of ,algeria employ as a purgative1 and which they call bonnefa4 ,it is the ,thapsia ,garganica of ,desfontaines1 and is considered by ,guyon to be identical with the ,silphium of the ancients4 #hhg ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #dh4 ,in the 8,rudens0 of ,plautus1 the scene of which is near ,cyrene1 frequent allusion is made to the growth of laserpitium there1 and the preparation and export of the resin1 as forming the staple article of commerce4 #hhh ,scribonius ,largus1 who lived in the time of ,tiberius1 speaks of using in a prescription laser of ,cyrenaica1 8if it can be met with20 8si poterit inveniri40 #hhi 8,in spem nascentis40 #hij ,fe remarks that ,pliny has not found this absurd story in any of the works from which he has compiled his account1 but that it is entirely his own4 #hia ,this was probably the ,ferula asaftida of ,linnus4 #hib ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ge4 #hic ,a4,u4,c4 #ffa4 #hid ,fe remarks1 that if ,pliny here alludes to ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #c1 he has mistaken his meaning4 #hie ,this1 as ,fe says1 could hardly apply to the ,ferula asaftida of ,linnus1 the stalk of it being extremely acrid1 and the juice fetid in the highest degree4 #hif 8,vitia his omnibus40 ,the reading here is probably corrupt4 #hig 8,root-juice10 and 8stalk-juice40 #hih ,poinsinet fancies that this name means 8staff of the ,magi40 #hii ,or 8laser10 these names being indifferently applied to the gum-resin4 #ijj ,the whole of this paragraph has been borrowed from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 iii4 #ija ,sprengel takes this to be the ,laserpitium ferulaceum of ,linnus1 but ,fe thinks it is more than doubtful if the identity can be established4 #ijb ,from ,theophrastus4 ,dioscorides says1 on the other hand1 that it grows in ,libya4 #ijc ,from ,littr we learn that ,m4 ,fraas has suggested that the ,magydaris and ,laserpitium are possibly the ,ferula ,tingitana1 and the ,ptychotis verticillata of ,decandolle1 which last he has found upon high mountains in the lower region of pines1 on ,mount ,parnassus1 among others4 #ijd ,see ,b4 xxii4 cc4 #dh1 #di4 #ije ,the ,rubia tinctorum of ,linnus4 #ijf ,dioscorides speaks of the madder of ,ravenna as being the most esteemed4 ,it is much cultivated at the present day in the ,south of ,france1 ,holland1 and the ,levant4 ,that of ,lille enjoys a high reputation4 #ijg ,it is covered with bristly hairs1 or rather1 fine1 hooked teeth4 ,there is1 however1 no resemblance whatever between it and ervilia or orobus1 the fitch4 #ijh ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #ef4 #iji ,or 8little root20 though1 in reality1 as ,pliny says1 it had a large root4 ,some writers have supposed1 that by this name is meant the ,reseda luteola of ,linnus1 the 8dyer's weed0 of the moderns2 but neither ,pliny nor any of the ,greek writers mention the ,radicula as being used for dyeing4 ,some1 again1 identify it with the ,gypsophila struthium of ,linnus1 without sufficient warranty1 however1 as ,fe thinks4 #iaj ,the ,gypsophila struthium grows in ,spain1 and possibly1 ,fe says1 in other countries4 ,linnus has 8pretended10 he says1 that the ,spaniards still employ the root and stalk of the ,gypsophila for the same purposes as the ancients did the same parts of the ,radicula4 ,he himself1 however1 though long resident in ,spain1 had never observed such to be the fact4 #iaa ,this description1 ,fe says1 does not correspond with that of the ,gypsophila struthium1 the stalk of which does not at all resemble that of the ferulaceous plants1 and the leaf is quite different in appearance from that of the olive4 #iab ,as ,fe observes1 by the word 8hortus0 the ,romans understood solely the 8vegetable0 or 8kitchen-garden20 the pleasure garden being generally denominated 8horti40 #iac ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #a4 #iad ,a fabulous king of ,phnicia1 probably1 whose story was afterwards transferred1 with considerable embellishments1 to the ,grecian mythology4 ,adonis is supposed to have been identical with the ,thammuz of ,scripture1 mentioned by ,ezekiel1 viii4 #ad1 where he speaks of the 8women weeping for ,thammuz40 ,hardouin considers him to have been a ,syrian deity1 identical with the ,moon4 #iae ,celebrated by ,homer1 ,od4 ,b4 vi4 and xiii4 #iaf 8,alio volumine40 ,as no further mention is made by ,pliny of the ,hanging ,gardens of ,babylon1 it is most probable that he contemplated giving a description of them in another work1 an intention which he did not live to realize4 #iag ,see further on this subject1 c4 #ec of the present ,book4 #iah ,the reading1 8quam rem10 seems preferable to 8quam ob rem10 adopted by ,sillig4 #iai 8,effascinationes40 ,the effects of the evil eye4 #ibj 8,hortorum40 8,pleasure-gardens40 #iba 8,otii magister40 #ibb ,for the purpose of teaching philosophy there4 #ibc 8,hortus40 ,the 8kitchen-garden40 #ibd ,ironically said4 #ibe ,he alludes to the pheasant4 ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #fg4 #ibf ,he alludes to ,colchis1 the country of ,medea1 the scene of the exploits of ,jason and the ,argonauts1 and the land of prodigies and fable4 #ibg ,see ,b4 x4 cc4 #ch and #fg4 ,he alludes to 8meleagrides10 or ,guinea-fowls4 #ibh ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #cg4 ,he alludes to the birds called 8,memnonides40 #ibi ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #a4 #icj ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh4 #ica ,he alludes to the finest and most delicate kinds of wheaten flour4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bi4 #icb 8,uno asse40 #icc ,as 8corruda10 or 8wild asparagus40 ,the ,brassica capitata alba of ,c4 ,bauhin1 or white cabbage1 sometimes attains a weight of ten or twelve pounds4 #icd ,this is an exaggeration1 probably4 #ice ,he alludes to the artichoke1 or ,cinara cardunculus of the botanists1 which bears some resemblance to the common thistle4 #icf ,martial and ,aulus ,gellius speak of ice and snow drinks4 ,the latter must have been very injurious to the stomach4 #icg ,see ,b4 xxxi4 c4 #bc4 #ich ,in this corrupt and otherwise unintelligible passage1 we have adopted the proposed emendations of ,sillig1 who is of opinion that it bears reference to the abolition of the market-dues1 or 8portorium10 by ,augustus ,csar1 and the substitution of a property tax of one twentieth of the land1 a method of taxation which inflicted greater hardships than the former one1 as it was assessed according to the superficies1 not the produce of the land4 ,his proposed emendations of the text are as follows3 8mox enim certe quabit eos pecunia quos pecunia separaverit4 ,itaque----ac minore fortun jure1 quam cum hereditate datur pensio ea pauperum2 his in solo sponsor est10 c4 #ici ,de ,re ,rust4 cc4 #aef1 #aeg4 ,he speaks of it as being eaten either boiled or raw1 but in the latter case with vinegar4 ,fe thinks that even then it would make a very acrid and indigestible diet4 #idj 8,acetaria40 ,salads4 #ida ,he alludes1 no doubt1 to the words of ,virgil1 in ,georg4 iv4 l4 #f4 8,in tenui labor1 at tenuis non ,gloria----0 though in that instance the poet is speaking of bees4 #idb 8,tollenonum haustu40 ,these would be used in the case of well-water2 they are still to be seen occasionally in this country1 and are very common on the continent4 ,the wheel is also used for drawing well-water1 and is frequently employed in ,barbary and ,spain4 #idc ,by the word 8fructus0 he no doubt means the edible parts solely1 the leaf1 stalk1 or root1 as the case may be4 #idd ,fe is surprised to find elecampane figuring among the garden vegetables4 ,it has a powerful odour1 is bitter1 and promotes expectoration4 ,though not used as a vegetable it is still used as a preserve1 or sweetmeat1 mixed with sugar4 ,see further on it in c4 #bi of this ,book4 #ide ,see c4 #bh of this ,book4 #idf ,see c4 #bg of this ,book4 #idg ,fe remarks that this juxtaposition of anise and mallows betokens the most complete ignorance of botany on the part of our author2 there being few plants which differ more essentially4 ,the field-mallow1 or ,malva silvestris of ,linnus1 or perhaps several varieties of it1 are here referred to4 ,the anise will be further mentioned in c4 #gd of this ,book4 #idh ,fe suggests that the plant here mentioned may have been an annual1 probably the ,lavatorea arborea of botanists1 or some kindred species4 ,in a few months it is known to attain a height of ten feet or more4 #idi ,in ,fe's opinion this tree cannot have belonged to the family of ,malvace2 the ,adansonia and some other exotics of the family1 with which ,pliny undoubtedly was not acquainted1 being the only ones that attain these gigantic proportions4 #iej ,there is no resemblance between mallows and hemp1 any more than there is between mallows and anise4 #iea 8,carnosa40 #ieb ,hardouin thinks that he alludes to the ,conferva1 or river sponge1 again mentioned in ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #de4 ,fe1 however1 dissents from that opinion4 #iec ,in ,b4 xvi4 cc4 #aa and #ac1 and in cc4 #ab and #ad of the present ,book4 #ied ,in c4 #aa of the present ,book4 #iee ,the ,cucumis sativus of ,linnus4 #ief 8,lapis specularis40 ,see ,b4 xxxvi4 c4 #de4 ,columella1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c1 speaks of this mode of ripening cucumber1 and the fondness of the ,emperor ,tiberius for them4 #ieg ,theophrastus and ,columella say the same of the cucumber1 and ,palladius of the melon1 but there is no ground1 probably1 for the belief4 ,in very recent times1 however1 ,fe says1 it was the usage to steep the seeds of the melon in milk4 ,this liquid1 in common with any other1 would have the effect of softening the exterior integuments1 and thereby facilitating the germination1 but no more4 #ieh ,still known as the 8green0 or 8gherkin0 cucumber1 and much used1 when young1 for pickling4 #iei ,probably in the sense of a very dark green1 for black cucumbers are a thing unheard of4 #ifj ,he is evidently speaking of the pompion1 or pumpkin1 the ,cucurbita pepo of ,linnus3 quite distinct from the cucumber4 #ifa ,cucumbers are not difficult of digestion to the extent that ,pliny would have us to believe4 #ifb ,as ,fe says1 it is a loss of time to combat such absurd prejudices as these4 #ifc ,this is conformable with modern experience4 #ifd ,fe says that this is the melon1 the ,cucumis melo of ,linnus4 #ife ,b4 xi4 c4 #c4 ,columella professes to borrow it from the people of ,mendes in ,egypt4 #iff ,theophrastus enumerates these varieties1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d4 #ifg ,theophrastus only says that the ,laconian cucumber thrives better with watering than the others4 #ifh ,it is impossible to identify this plant1 as no ancient writer has given any description of it3 it has been suggested1 however1 that it may have been the ,plantago ,psyllium1 or else the ,inula pulicaria of ,linnus4 ,of course there is no truth in the story here told of the effects of its juice upon the cucumber4 #ifi ,this depth would probably have the effect of retarding1 or else utterly impeding1 the growth of the plant4 #igj ,see c4 #dd of this ,book4 ,the ,parilia was a festival celebrated on the nineteenth of ,april1 the anniversary of the foundation of ,rome4 #iga ,first of ,march4 #igb ,seventh of ,march4 #igc ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ef4 #igd ,the 8camerarium10 and the 8plebeium40 ,the former1 ,fe thinks1 is the ,cucurbita longior of ,dodonus and ,j4 ,bauhin1 the long gourd1 and other varieties probably of the calabash gourd1 the ,cucurbita leucantha of ,duchesne4 ,the latter is probably the ,cucurbita pepo and its varieties4 ,fe thinks that the name 8cucurbita10 as employed by ,pliny1 extends not only to the gourd1 but the citrul or small pumpkin as well4 #ige ,as ,fe says1 he must be speaking of the fruit here1 and not the plant1 which attains a far greater length than nine feet4 #igf ,the young shoots of the gourd1 ,fe says1 would afford an insipid food1 with but little nutriment4 #igg ,the varieties thus employed1 ,fe says1 must have been the ,cucurbita lagenaria of ,linnus1 and the ,cucurbita latior of ,dodonus4 #igh ,this is not the fact4 ,the seed produces fruit similar to that from which it was taken1 and no more4 #igi ,the trumpet gourd1 the ,cucurbita longior of ,dodoneus1 is still employed1 ,fe says1 by gardeners for this purpose4 #ihj ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #b4 #iha ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cd4 #ihb ,though borrowed from ,theophrastus and the ,greek school1 this distinction is absurd and unfounded4 #ihc ,it is not the fact that the seed of the round kind1 after repeated sowings1 will produce long roots4 ,pliny1 however1 has probably miscopied ,theophrastus1 who says1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d1 that this transformation takes place when the seed is sown very thick4 ,this assertion1 however1 is no more founded on truth than that of ,pliny4 #ihd ,also from ,theophrastus1 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d1 though that author is speaking of radishes1 1 and not turnips4 #ihe ,properly radish4 #ihf ,properly radish4 #ihg ,radish4 #ihh ,properly radish4 #ihi ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #di4 ,fe queries whether this radish may not be the ,raphanus raphanistrum of botanists4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cd4 #iij ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ce4 #iia 8,nostratibus40 ,poinsinet would render this1 8,those of my native country10 i4 e4 the parts beyond the ,padus4 ,as ,pliny resided at ,rome during the latter part of his life1 there can be little doubt but that he alludes to the vicinity of ,rome4 #iib ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cd4 #iic ,this property extends to most of the ,crucifer4 #iid 8,cibus illiberalis40 #iie ,the variety ,oleifera of the ,raphanus sativus is still cultivated extensively in ,egypt and ,nubia for the extraction of the oil4 ,the variety ,oleifera of the ,brassica napus is also greatly cultivated in ,egypt4 ,fe suggests that ,pliny may possibly confound these two plants under the one name of 8raphanus40 ,it is worthy of remark1 too1 that the ,colza oil1 so much used in ,france and ,belgium for burning in lamps1 is expressed from the seed of the ,brassica oleracea1 a species of cabbage4 #iif ,the ,raphanus sativus of ,linnus4 ,this passage1 however1 down to 8crisped leaf10 properly applies to the cabbage1 and not the radish1 ,pliny having copied the ,greek1 and taken the word 1 properly 8cabbage10 to mean 8radish20 which in the later ,greek writers it sometimes does1 though not in this instance4 #iig ,mount ,algidus was near ,tusculum1 fifteen miles from ,rome4 ,its coldness contributed greatly to the goodness of its radishes4 #iih ,or 8wild40 ,fe suggests that this is the ,raphanus rusticanus of ,lobellius1 the ,cochlearia ,armoracia of ,linnus1 the wild radish1 or horse-radish4 #iii ,or 8white40 ,from the extreme whiteness of the roots4 #ajjj ,probably meaning1 8radish of ,armorica40 #ajja ,fe suggests that he is here speaking of the beet-root1 in reality a native of the north of ,europe4 #ajjb ,thirteenth of ,february4 #ajjc ,the festival of ,vulcan1 beginning on the twenty-third of ,august1 and lasting eight days4 #ajjd ,a natural production1 the carbonate of sodium of the chemists1 known from time immemorial by the name of 8natron40 ,see ,b4 xxx4 c4 #df2 from which passage it would appear that it was generally employed for watering the leguminous plants4 #ajje ,dioscorides recommends these puerilities with the cabbage1 and not the radish2 though ,celsus gives similar instructions with reference to the radish4 #ajjf ,it was a general belief with the ancients that the phthiriasis1 or morbus pediculosus1 has its seat in the heart4 ,it was supposed also that the juice of the radish was able1 by reason of its supposed subtlety1 to penetrate the coats of that organ4 #ajjg ,this is said by other ancient authors1 in reference to the cabbage and the vine4 ,see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 i4 #ajjh ,there is some doubt as to the identity of this plant1 but ,fe1 after examining the question1 comes to the conclusion that it is the ,daucus ,carota1 or else ,mauritanicus of ,linnus1 the common carrot1 or that of ,mauritania4 ,sprengel takes it to be either this last or the ,daucus guttatus1 a plant commonly found in ,greece4 #ajji ,the ,pastinaca sativa of ,linnus1 or common parsnip4 #ajaj ,the marsh-mallow1 probably1 the ,altha officinalis of ,linnus4 #ajaa ,the carrot4 ,the ,daucus ,carota of ,linnus4 #ajab ,in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #fd4 #ajac 8,siser40 ,the ,sium sisarum of ,linnus4 ,see also ,b4 xx4 c4 #ag4 ,it is said to have been originally a native of ,china4 #ajad ,it is supposed that this is the same with ,gelb1 near ,neuss1 in ,germany1 mentioned by ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ,b4 iv4 cc4 #bf1 #cb4 #ajae ,the ,inula ,helenium of ,linnus4 ,its ,english name is derived from ,inula campana1 that under which it is so highly recommended in the precepts of the ,school of ,health at ,salerno4 ,see also ,b4 xx4 c4 #ai4 ,at the present day it is universally rejected as an article of food in any shape4 #ajaf ,the ,school of ,salerno says that it may be preserved by being pickled in brine1 or else in the juice of rue1 which1 as ,fe remarks1 would produce neither more nor less than a veritable poison4 ,the modern ,pharmacopias give the receipt of a conserve of elecampane1 which1 however1 is no longer used4 #ajag 8,defrutum40 ,must1 boiled down to one half4 #ajah ,the daughter of ,augustus ,csar4 #ajai ,the same account nearly is given in ,columella1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c4 #ajbj ,under this general name were included1 probably1 garlic1 scallions1 chives1 and some kinds of onions2 but it is quite impossible to identify the ancient 8bulbus0 more closely than this4 #ajba ,it has been suggested that this was probably the onion1 the ,allium cepa of ,linnus4 #ajbb ,the ,scilla maritima of ,linnus1 the sea-squill4 #ajbc ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ci4 ,he might have added that it renders vinegar both an emetic1 and a violent purgative4 #ajbd ,the leaves are in all cases green1 and no other colour2 but in one kind the squam1 or bracted leaves1 are white1 and in another1 red4 #ajbe ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #aa1 gives it this name4 ,as none of the sea-squills can be eaten with impunity1 ,fe is inclined to doubt if this really was a squill4 #ajbf ,they still abound in those places4 ,the ,spanish coasts on the ,mediterranean1 ,fe says1 as well as the vicinity of ,gibraltar1 are covered with them4 #ajbg ,in c4 #ci4 #ajbh ,fe thinks that this may be the ,muscaria botryodes of ,miller1 ,dict4 ,no4 ,i4 ,see also ,b4 xx4 c4 #da4 #ajbi ,a variety1 probably1 of the common onion1 the ,allium cepa of ,linnus4 #ajcj ,some variety of the genus ,allium1 ,fe thinks4 #ajca ,fe queries whether this may not be some cyperaceous plant with a bulbous root4 #ajcb ,a white bulb1 if we may judge from the name4 ,the whole of this passage is from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #aa4 #ajcc ,this has not been identified4 ,the old reading was 8gilops10 a name now given to a kind of grass4 #ajcd ,the ,iris sisyrinchium of ,linnus4 #ajce ,the ,arum colocasia of ,linnus1 held in great esteem by the ancient ,egyptians as a vegetable4 ,the root is not a bulb1 but tubercular1 and the leaf bears no resemblance to that of the ,lapathum1 dock or sorrel4 ,it was sometimes known by the name of 8lotus40 #ajcf ,in ,gaul4 ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #ca4 #ajcg ,this passage1 and indeed nearly the whole of the ,chapter1 is borrowed from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 i4 c4 #i4 #ajch ,fe thinks that by the expression 1 ,theophrastus means a root that strikes vertically1 instead of spreading4 #ajci ,gramen4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fg1 and ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #aah4 #ajdj ,atriplex4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #hc4 #ajda ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ic4 #ajdb ,poinsinet suggests that this may mean the 8mole-plant10 being the ,greek for 8mole40 #ajdc 8,perdicium40 ,see ,b4 xxii4 cc4 #ai1 #bj4 #ajdd 8,crocus40 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ag1 et seq4 #ajde ,this is not the fact4 ,all these assertions are from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #c4 #ajdf ,fe thinks that the ocimum of ,pliny is not the basil of the moderns1 the ,ocimum basilicum of the naturalists4 ,the account1 however1 here given would very well apply to basil4 #ajdg ,the ,heliotropium ,europum of botany4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ai4 #ajdh ,these assertions1 ,fe says1 are not consistent with modern experience4 #ajdi ,see c4 #de of this ,book4 #ajej 8,gethyum40 ,the ,allium schnoprasum1 probably1 of botany1 the ciboul or scallion4 #ajea ,the ,allium cepa of ,linnus4 #ajeb ,the inhabitants of ,pelusium1 more particularly1 were devoted to the worship of the onion4 ,they held it1 in common with garlic1 in great aversion as an article of food4 ,at ,pelusium there was a temple also in which the sea-squill was worshipped4 #ajec ,with some little variation1 from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d4 #ajed ,supposed to be identical with the ,allium ,ascalonicum of ,linnus1 the chalotte4 ,pliny is the only writer who mentions the ,alsidenian onion4 #ajee ,to the ,ascalonian onion1 the scallion1 or ciboul1 owes its ,english name4 #ajef ,owing to the acetic acid which the bulb contains1 and which acts on the membranes of the eye4 #ajeg 8,pinguitudinis40 #ajeh ,fe queries whether the early white onion of ,florence1 the smallest now known among the cultivated kinds1 may not possibly be identical with the setanian1 or else the ,tusculan1 variety4 #ajei ,from 1 to 8divide0 or 8tear off40 #ajfj 8,capitata40 #ajfa ,for this reason1 ,fe is inclined to regard it as a variety either of garlic1 ,allium sativum1 or of the chalotte1 ,allium ,ascalonicum of ,linnus4 #ajfb ,the ,allium porrum of ,linnus4 #ajfc ,this prejudice in favour of the leek1 as ,fe remarks1 still exists4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether its mucilage has any beneficial effect upon the voice4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ba4 #ajfd ,fe says1 that it is a practice with many gardeners1 more harmful than beneficial1 to cut the leaves of the leek as it grows1 their object being to increase the size of the stalk4 #ajfe ,martial1 ,b4 xiii4 ,epig4 #ai1 mentions the leeks of ,aricia4 #ajff ,fe thinks that this may be the wild leek1 which is commonly found as a weed in ,spain4 #ajfg ,m4 ,annus ,mela1 the brother of ,l4 ,seneca the philosopher1 and the father of the poet ,lucan4 #ajfh ,though ,pliny would seem inclined1 as ,fe says1 to credit this story1 the juice of the leek is in reality quite harmless4 #ajfi ,the ,allium sativum of ,linnus4 ,it was much eaten by the ,roman soldiers and sailors1 and by the field labourers4 ,it is in reference to this vegetable1 8more noxious than hemlock10 that ,horace exclaims-- 8,o dura messorum ilia60 #ajgj ,it was thought to have the property of neutralizing the venom of serpents2 and though persons who had just eaten of it were not allowed to enter the ,temple of the ,mother of the ,gods1 it was prescribed to those who wished to be purified and absolved from crimes4 ,it is still held in considerable esteem in the south of ,europe1 where1 by the lower classes1 great medicinal virtues are ascribed to it4 #ajga ,theophrastus says1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d1 that this is the largest of all the varieties of garlic4 #ajgb ,second of ,may4 #ajgc ,seventeenth of ,december4 #ajgd ,the ,allium oleraceum of ,linnus4 #ajge ,fe refuses credence to this story4 #ajgf 8,ursinum40 ,the ,allium ursinum of ,linnus4 ,instead1 however1 of having the comparatively mild smell of millet1 its odour is powerful2 so much so1 as to impart a strong flavour to the milk of the cows that eat of it4 ,it is very common1 ,fe says1 in nearly every part of ,france4 #ajgg ,the whole nearly of this ,chapter is borrowed from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 cc4 #a and #b4 ,it must be borne in mind that what the ,romans called the 8third0 day would with us be the 8second10 and so on2 as in reckoning1 they included the day reckoned from1 as well as the day reckoned to4 #ajgh ,fe remarks1 that most of the observations made in this ,chapter are well founded4 #ajgi ,this statement1 ,fe remarks1 is entirely a fiction1 it being impossible for seed to acquire1 the second year1 a faculty of germinating which it has not had in the first4 #ajhj ,this is true1 but1 as ,fe observes1 the instances might be greatly extended4 #ajha ,fe says that basil1 the ,ocimum basilicum of ,linnus1 is not meant here1 nor yet the leguminous plant that was known to the ,romans by that name4 #ajhb ,a singular superstition truly6 ,theophrastus says the same in relation to cummin seed4 #ajhc ,this is not done at the present day4 #ajhd ,this can hardly be our basil1 the ,ocimum basilicum1 for that plant is an annual4 #ajhe ,fe suggests that ,pliny may have intended here to except the ,monocotyledons1 for otherwise his assertion would be false4 #ajhf ,this1 ,fe says1 cannot be basil1 for when cut it will not shoot again4 #ajhg ,the radish is not mentioned in the parallel passage by ,theophrastus4 #ajhh ,the lettuce1 as ,fe remarks1 will not shoot again when cut down4 #ajhi ,this puerility1 ,fe observes1 runs counter to the more moral adage1 that 8stolen goods never prosper40 #ajij ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ae4 #ajia ,this variety1 ,fe says1 is the ,apium graveolens of ,linnus4 #ajib ,or marsh-parsley4 #ajic ,pliny has mistranslated1 or rather misread1 the passage of ,theophrastus1 who says1 ,b4 vii4 c4 #f1 that this kind of parsley is 1 8thinly covered with leaves10 and not 1 8having a single leaf40 ,palladius 7,in ,aprili47 translates it1 8molli folio10 8with a soft leaf20 but1 though ,fe commends this version1 it is not correct4 #ajid ,or 8horse-parsley40 ,hardouin takes this to be ,macedonian parsley1 the ,bubon ,macedonicum of ,linnus4 ,fe1 following ,c4 ,bauhin and ,sprengel1 is inclined to identify it with ,macerona1 the ,smyrnium olusatrum of ,linnus4 #ajie ,or 8mountain-parsley40 ,probably the ,athamanta oreoselinum of ,linnus4 ,some commentators1 however1 take it to be the ,laserpitium formosum of ,wilidenow4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,selinum oreoselinum of ,linnus4 #ajif ,the ,apium petroselinum1 probably1 of ,linnus4 #ajig ,the ,lactuca sativa of ,linnus4 ,this account of the ,greek varieties is from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d4 #ajih ,this1 no doubt1 is fabulous1 and on a par with the ,greek tradition that ,adonis concealed himself under the leaves of a lettuce1 when he was attacked and killed by the wild boar4 ,the ,coss1 or ,roman1 lettuce1 as ,fe remarks1 is the largest of all1 and that never exceeds fifteen to twenty inches in height1 leaves1 stalk and all4 #ajii ,this would seem not to be a distinct variety1 as the rounded stalk is a characteristic of them all4 #aajj 8,sessile40 ,a cabbage-lettuce1 probably2 though ,hardouin dissents from that opinion4 #aaja ,columella more particularly4 ,there are still varieties known respectively as the black1 brown1 white1 purple1 red1 and blood-red lettuce4 #aajb ,martial1 ,b4 v4 ,epig4 #gi1 gives to this lettuce the epithet of 8vile40 #aajc ,it has been suggested that this may have been wild endive1 the ,cichoreum intubus of botanists4 #aajd ,or 8poppy-lettuce40 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #bf4 ,the ,lactuca virosa1 probably1 of modern botany1 the milky juice of which strongly resembles opium in its effects4 #aaje ,for its medicinal qualities1 most probably4 #aajf 8,lac40 #aajg ,so called1 ,columella informs us1 from ,ccilius ,metellus1 ,consul ,a4,u4,c4 #ejc4 #aajh ,meaning 8antaphrodisiac40 ,the other name has a kindred meaning4 #aaji ,a4,u4,c4 #gca4 #aaaj ,antonius ,musa4 ,for this service he received a large sum of money1 and the permission to wear a gold ring1 and a statue was erected by public subscription in honour of him1 near that of sculapius4 ,he is supposed to be the person described by ,virgil in the neid1 ,b1 xii4 l4 #cij1 et seq41 under the name of ,iapis4 ,see ,b4 xxix4 c4 #e of this work4 #aaaa ,vinegar and honey2 a mixture very ill-adapted1 as ,fe observes1 to preserve either the medicinal or alimentary properties of the lettuce4 #aaab 8,caprina lactuca40 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #bd4 #aaac ,endive1 in fact1 belongs to the same family as the lettuce4 #aaad ,this is not the case2 unless1 indeed1 under the name 8lactuca10 ,pliny would include several plants1 that in reality are not lettuces4 #aaae ,the stalk1 in fact1 is more intensely bitter than the leaves4 #aaaf 8,erraticum40 ,wild endive4 #aaag ,from which comes the ,french 8chicore10 and our 8chicory10 or 8succory40 #aaah ,in ,b4 xx4 c4 #bi1 and ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eb4 #aaai ,the usual times for sowing the lettuce are before winter and after ,february4 #aabj ,an excess of manure is injurious to the lettuce4 #aaba ,as already stated in a previous ,note 7p4 #agi71 lettuces when cut down will not grow again1 with the exception of a few worthless lateral branches4 #aabb ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #d4 #aabc ,not the ,beta sicla of modern botany1 ,fe thinks4 ,the black beet of the ancients would be one of the dark purple kinds4 #aabd ,it was only the leaf of beet1 and not the root1 that was eaten by the ancients4 ,from ,martial1 ,b4 xiii4 ,epig4 #aj1 we learn that the leaves were preserved in a mixture of wine and pepper4 #aabe ,though not positively unwholesome1 the leaves would form an insipid dish1 that would not agree with all stomachs4 ,galen says that it cannot be eaten in great quantities with impunity1 but ,diphilus the physician1 as quoted by ,athenus1 ,b4 ix4 c4 #c1 says the reverse4 ,some ,,mss4 read here 8innocentiorem10 8more harmless40 #aabf ,columella says the same1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c4 #aabg ,fe would seem to render this1 8when wine has been spoiled by cabbage leaves being mixed with it40 #aabh ,de ,re ,rust4 cc4 #aef1 #aeg4 #aabi ,in ,b4 xx4 c4 #cc4 #aacj ,or 8parsley0 cabbage1 so called from its crisped leaves3 the curled colewort1 or ,brassica viridis crispa of ,c4 ,bauhin4 #aaca ,the same as our ,brussels sprouts4 ,columella1 however1 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c1 and ,b4 xii4 c4 #g1 speaks of the ,brassica cyma as a distinct variety of cabbage4 #aacb ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #gg4 #aacc ,the ,brassica oleracea capitata of ,lamarck1 and its varieties4 #aacd ,the ordinary cabbage1 or ,brassica oleracea of ,linnus4 #aace ,a variety1 ,fe thinks1 of the ,lacuturrian cabbage4 #aacf ,the ,brassica oleracea botrytis of ,linnus1 the cauliflower4 #aacg ,or ,calabrian cabbage3 it has not been identified4 #aach ,the ,brassica oleracea ,sabellica of ,linnus1 or fringed cabbage4 #aaci ,or 8,lake-towers40 ,the turnip-cabbage or rape-colewort1 the ,brassica oleracea gongyloides of ,linnus4 #aadj ,generally thought to be the ,crambe maritima of botanists1 sea-cabbage1 or sea-kale4 ,some1 however1 take it to be the ,convolvulus soldanella of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ch4 #aada ,from 1 the 8sea40 #aadb ,he alludes to the statement made by ,columella1 probably1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c4 #aadc ,fe remarks1 that probably we here find the first germs of the practice which resulted in the making of sour-krout 7sauer-kraut74 ,dalechamps censures ,pliny for the mention of trefoil here1 the passage which he has translated speaking not of that plant1 but of the trefoil or three-leaved cabbage4 #aadd ,the same as the 8chara10 probably1 mentioned by ,csar1 ,bell4 ,civ4 ,b4 iii4 ,hardouin thinks that it is the common parsnip1 while ,clusius and ,cuvier would identify it with the ,crambe ,tatarica of ,hungary1 the roots of which are eaten in time of scarcity at the present day4 ,fe suggests that it may belong to the ,brassica napo-brassica of ,linnus1 the rape-colewort4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #cg4 #aade ,or cabbage-sprout4 #aadf ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fg4 ,the ,asparagus officinalis of ,linnus4 #aadg ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #afa4 #aadh ,or wild sperage4 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fg2 also ,b4 xx4 c4 #dc4 #aadi 8,spongiis40 ,fe is at a loss to know why the name 8spongia0 should have been given to the roots of asparagus4 ,probably1 as ,facciolati says1 from their growing close and matted together4 ,see the end of this ,chapter4 #aaej ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #afa4 #aaea ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #dg4 #aaeb ,on the contrary1 ,martial says that the asparagus of ,ravenna was no better than so much wild asparagus4 #aaec ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fg4 ,see also c4 #ai of this ,book4 #aaed ,dioscorides mentions this absurdity1 but refuses to credit it4 #aaee ,probably the artichoke1 the ,cinara scolymus of ,linnus4 ,see further on this subject1 ,b4 xx4 c4 #ii4 #aaef ,about #bd sterling4 8,sestertia0 has been suggested1 which would make the sum a thousand times as much4 #aaeg ,the ass1 of course1 excepted1 which is fond of thistles4 #aaeh ,seventh of ,march4 #aaei ,thirteenth of ,november4 #aafj 8,si ,ds placet40 #aafa ,oxymel4 #aafb ,this is evidently said contemptuously4 #aafc ,see further as to the identity of this plant1 ,b4 xx4 c4 #dh4 #aafd ,twenty-second of ,april4 #aafe ,brassica eruca of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #di4 #aaff ,cresses1 or nosesmart1 the ,lepidium sativum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ej4 #aafg 8,quod nasum torqueat40 #aafh ,the ,ruta graveolens of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ea4 ,this offensive herb1 though looked upon by the ,romans as a vegetable1 is now only regarded as an active medicament of almost poisonous qualities4 #aafi ,a4,u4,c4 #dba4 #aagj ,it so happens that it thrives best on the same soil as the fig-tree4 #aaga ,this practice has no beneficial effect whatever4 #aagb ,this is not the fact2 for its branches never come in contact with the ground4 #aagc ,pliny has derived the greater part of this ,chapter from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #e1 and ,columella1 ,b4 xi4 c4 #c4 #aagd ,for the purpose of separating the seeds1 which are slightly joined together2 and of disengaging a portion of the perisperm4 ,at the present day this is not done1 for fear of bursting the kernel of the seed4 #aage ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ec4 #aagf ,called by the ,greeks 1 according to ,apuleius4 #aagg ,or 8,mentha40 #aagh 8,sweet-smelling40 #aagi 8,spius40 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fj4 #aahj ,the ,cuminum cyminum of botanists4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #eg4 #aaha ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #eg4 #aahb ,in ,hispania ,tarraconensis4 ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #d4 #aahc ,or 8black-herb30 the herb ,alexander1 the ,smyrnium olusatrum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #df4 #aahd 8,horse-parsley40 #aahe ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #ad1 and ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ad4 #aahf ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #a4 ,this story originated1 no doubt1 in the fancied resemblance of its smell to that of myrrh4 #aahg ,the ,capparis spinosa of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dd1 also ,b4 xx4 c4 #ei4 #aahh ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dd4 #aahi ,the ,carum carvi of ,linnus4 #aaij ,caria1 in ,asia ,minor4 #aaia ,the ,ligusticum levisticum of ,linnus4 #aaib 8,ox cunila40 ,one of the ,labiat1 probably2 but whether one of the ,satureia or of the ,thymbra is not known4 ,see ,b4 xx4 cc4 #fj1 #fa4 #aaic ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cb4 #aaid ,scribonius ,largus gives this name to savory1 the ,satureia hortensis of ,linnus4 ,the whole of this passage is very confused1 and its meaning is by no means clear4 #aaie ,the ,lepidium sativum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #gj4 #aaif ,it is an annual1 in fact4 #aaig ,its leaf has no resemblance whatever to that of the laurel4 #aaih ,the ,nigella sativa of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ga4 #aaii ,or sagapenum4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ge4 ,it is mentioned also in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ef1 as being used for adulterating galbanum4 ,as to laser1 see c4 #ae of the present ,book4 #abjj ,this practice1 as ,fe remarks1 is not followed2 and indeed1 unless it is intended to transplant them1 it would be attended with injurious results to the young plants4 #abja ,as to the poppy1 for further particulars see ,b4 xx4 c4 #gf and the ,note4 #abjb ,the variety ,album of the ,papaver somniferum of modern botanists4 #abjc ,the variety ,nigrum of the ,papaver somniferum4 ,the white poppy has also a milky juice4 #abjd ,the ,papaver rhas of modern botanists1 the corn-poppy1 or wild poppy4 ,the seed of the poppy does not partake of the qualities of its capsular envelope1 and at the present day it is extensively employed in the ,south of ,europe for sprinkling over pastry4 #abje 8,rhas10 the 8crimson10 or 8pomegranate0 poppy4 #abjf ,see ,b4 xx4 cc4 #gf-gi4 #abjg ,see c4 #ag of this ,book1 also ,ovid's ,fasti1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #gjc1 et seq4 #abjh 8,lad's love40 #abji ,black mustard1 ,fe thinks4 #abaj ,he can hardly mean a pottage made of boiled mustard-seed alone1 as ,fe seems to think4 ,if so1 however1 ,fe no doubt is right in thinking that it would be intolerable to a modern palate4 #abaa ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #hg4 #abab ,perhaps a corruption of its ,greek name1 4 #abac ,hardouin suggests 8thlaspi40 #abad ,its bite being as sharp as the venom of the 8saurus10 or lizard4 #abae ,hardouin1 from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #g1 suggests a reading1 8whence the streams bring down branches of them torn off1 and so plant them40 #abaf ,the plants4 ,fe says1 that we find in these localities1 are nearly always ferns1 or else ,marchantia1 or mosses of the genus ,hypnum4 ,fe queries whether one of these may not have been the sisymbrium of ,pliny4 ,water-cresses1 again1 have been suggested4 #abag ,in ,b4 viii4 c4 #da4 ,the ,anthum fniculum of ,linnus4 #abah ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #db4 #abai ,the ,cannabis sativa of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ig4 #abbj ,hemp-seed is never smoke-dried now4 #abba ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #bi4 ,the same hemp is mentioned as being used for making hunting-nets1 by ,gratius1 in the ,cynegeticon4 #abbb ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #bi4 #abbc ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #ag1 and ,b4 xvii4 c4 #c4 #abbd ,this1 as ,fe says1 is no doubt erroneous4 ,it is seldom known to attain a couple of inches in circumference4 #abbe ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #db4 #abbf ,these absurd notions are borrowed from ,theophrastus1 ,de ,causis1 c4 #h4 #abbg ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ia4 #abbh ,or1 according to some readings1 8limodorum10 a parasitical plant1 probably the ,lathra phelypea of ,sprengel4 ,fe suggests that this plant may be the ,polygonum convolvulus of ,linnus1 or else one of the ,cuscut1 or a variety of ,orobanche4 #abbi 8,scabies40 ,a fungous excrescence1 ,fe thinks1 now known as 8puccinia10 or 8uredo40 #abcj ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #dg4 ,fe says that he has met with persons1 in their sound senses1 who obstinately defend the notion here mentioned by ,pliny4 #abca ,see ,theophrastus4 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #e4 ,many of these insects1 however1 do not breed upon the plants1 but are only attracted to them4 #abcb 8,book on ,gardening40 #abcc ,the ,heliotropium ,europum of botanists4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bi4 #abcd ,this may possibly1 ,fe says1 be efficacious against some insects4 #abce ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #de4 #abcf ,a mere puerility1 of course1 though it is very possible that the insects may collect in it1 and so be more easily taken4 ,garden-pots1 on sticks1 are still employed for this purpose4 #abcg ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #cj4 #abch 8,culices10 including both flies and gnats1 probably4 #abci ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #ef4 #abdj ,an almost literal translation of ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #f4 #abda ,this is certainly not true with reference to the leguminous and gramineous plants4 ,it is pretty generally known as a fact1 that wheat has germinated after being buried in the earth two thousand years3 mummy-wheat1 at the present day1 is almost universally known4 #abdb ,rain-water1 if collected in cisterns1 and exposed to the heat of the sun1 is the most beneficial of all2 rain has the effect also of killing numerous insects which have bred in the previous drought4 #abdc ,from ,theophrastus1 ,b4 vii4 c4 #e4 ,evening is generally preferred to morning for this purpose2 the evaporation not being so quick1 and the plant profiting more from the water4 #abdd ,it should1 however1 be of a middling temperature1 and warmed to some extent by the rays of the sun4 #abde ,these statements are consistent with modern experience4 #abdf ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #he4 #abdg ,he says this probably in reference partly to the large leaves which characterize the varieties of dock4 #abdh ,dishes made of rice or barley4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ac4 #abdi ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #he4 #abej ,he does not give the name of the poet1 but1 as ,fe says1 we do not experience any great loss thereby4 #abea ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #f4 #abeb ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #cb4 #abec 8,absinthium40 ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #bh4 #abed ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #cj4 #abee ,fe remarks1 that though rarely to be met with1 the salt flavour is still to be found in the vegetable kingdom4 #abef ,the 8cicercula10 or ,lathyrus sativus of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cb4 #abeg ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #eg4 #abeh ,or pepper-wort4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ff4 #abei ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ed4 #abfj ,the same1 probably1 as olusatrum4 ,see cc4 #cg and #dh of this ,book1 and ,b4 xx4 c4 #df3 also ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #aji4 #abfa ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #eg4 #abfb ,see c4 #dh of this ,book4 #abfc ,rosemary1 or 8sea-dew40 #abfd ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #gd4 #abfe ,fe suggests1 though apparently without any good reason1 that this paragraph1 to the end of the ,book1 is an interpolation of the copyists4 #abff ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #abfg ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #abfh ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #abfi ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #abgj ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #abga ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #abgb ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #abgc ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #abgd ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #abge ,see end of ,b4 xvi4 #abgf ,see end of ,b4 x4 #abgg ,beyond the mention made of this writer in c4 #eg1 nothing whatever is known of him4 #abgh ,c4 ,licinius ,macer1 a ,roman annalist and orator1 born about ,b4,c4 #aaj4 ,upon being impeached by ,cicero1 he committed suicide4 ,he wrote a ,history or ,annals of ,rome1 which are frequently referred to by ,livy and ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus4 #abgi ,nothing whatever appears to be known of this writer4 #abhj ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #abha ,nothing whatever is known relative to this writer on ,horticulture4 #abhb ,nothing certain is known of him2 but it has been suggested that he may have been the father of the rhetorician ,castritius1 so often mentioned by ,aulus ,gellius1 and who lived in the time of the ,emperor ,adrian4 #abhc ,nothing whatever is known relative to this writer4 #abhd ,the author of a ,greek poem on venomous serpents1 mentioned in ,b4 xx4 c4 #if1 and ,b4 xxii4 c4 #dj1 and by the ,scholiast on the ,theriaca of ,nicander4 #abhe ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #abhf ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #abhg ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #abhh ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #abhi ,nothing whatever is known of him4 ,his ,book seems to have been a compendium of 8,things useful to life40 #abij ,a physician and ,pythagorean philosopher1 born at one of the cities called ,larissa1 but which1 is now unknown4 ,he was banished by the ,emperor ,augustus1 ,b4,c4 #bh1 on the charge of practising magic1 a charge probably based on his superior skill in natural philosophy4 ,he is frequently mentioned by ,pliny in the course of this work4 #abia ,fe remarks1 that the commencement of this exordium is contrary to truth1 and that ,pliny appears to forget that in the ,eighteenth ,book he has treated1 at very considerable length1 of the various cereals1 the art of preparing bread1 pottages1 ptisans1 c4 ,he suggests1 that the author may have originally intended to place the ,eighteenth ,book after the present one1 and that on changing his plan he may have neglected to alter the present passage4 ,from his mention1 however1 of man's 8ignorance by what means lie exists10 it is not improbable that he may have considered that the nutritive qualities of plants are really based upon their medicinal virtues1 a point of view little regarded by the majority of mankind in his time1 but considered by ,pliny to be the true key to a just appreciation of their utility4 #abib 8,quibus cuncta constant40 ,see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #a4 #abic ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #db4 #abid ,the 8theamedes40 ,see ,b4 xxxvi4 c4 #be4 #abie ,pliny is the only author who makes mention of this singularly absurd notion4 #abif ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #bd3 so1 too1 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aed4 ,the wild cucumber of ,pliny1 as ,fe observes1 is in reality not a cucumber1 but a totally different plant1 the ,cucumis silvestris asininus of ,c4 ,bauhin1 the ,momordica elaterium of ,linnus1 or squirting cucumber4 #abig ,elaterium1 ,fe says1 is not extracted from the seed1 but is the juice of the fruit itself1 as ,pliny1 contradicting himself1 elsewhere informs us4 ,theophrastus commits the same error1 which ,dioscorides does not2 and it is not improbable that ,pliny has copied from two sources the method of making it4 #abih ,meaning the juice and seed combined1 probably4 ,fe thinks that it is to this the medicament owes its name1 from 1 to 8drive0 or 8impel40 ,it is much more probable1 however1 that the medicine was so called from its strong purgative powers2 for1 as ,galen tells us1 was a name given to purgative medicines in general4 #abii ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aed1 states to this effect4 ,fe remarks that1 singularly enough1 most of the antiophthalmics used by the ancients1 were composed of acrid and almost corrosive medicaments1 quite in opposition to the sounder notions entertained on the subject by the moderns4 #acjj ,dioscorides says the same2 and much the same statements are made by ,celsus1 ,apuleius1 ,marcellus ,empiricus1 and ,plinius ,valerianus4 ,the different parts of the plant1 dried1 have but very feeble properties1 ,fe says4 #acja ,a sort of tetter or ring-worm4 ,celsus enumerates four varieties4 #acjb ,itch-scab1 probably4 #acjc ,a disease of the skin1 in which the scab assumes the form almost of a lichen or moss4 #acjd 8,panos40 8,panus0 was the name given to a wide-spreading1 but not deeply-seated1 tumour1 the surface of which presented a blistered appearance4 #acje ,fe says that this is not the fact1 as it speedily deteriorates by keeping4 #acjf ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #aj4 #acjg ,fe acknowledges the truth of this observation1 that of a green colour containing feculent matter1 and showing that the juice is not pure4 #acjh ,in reality there is no such resemblance whatever4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bi4 #acji ,fe says that this is an exaggerated account of the properties of the wild cucumber1 as it would require a very considerable dose to cause death4 #acaj ,the ,morbus pedicularis1 or 8lousy disease40 #acaa ,this has been identified by some writers1 ,fe says1 with the ,cucumis flexuosus of ,linnus2 but1 as he observes1 that plant comes originally from ,india1 and it is more than probable that it was not known by the ancients2 in addition to which1 it is possessed of no medicinal properties whatever4 ,he looks upon it as an indigenous plant not identified4 #acab ,so ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aed4 #acac 8,morbus regius20 literally1 the 8royal disease40 #acad 8,lentigo40 #acae ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bc4 ,it is but little appreciated for its medicinal properties by the moderns4 ,emulsions are sometimes made of the seeds1 which are of an oily nature4 ,fe says that the ,french ladies esteem pommade of cucumber as an excellent cosmetic2 which is1 however1 an erroneous notion4 #acaf ,the combination of cummin with cucumber seed is in opposition1 ,fe remarks1 with their medicinal properties1 the one being soothing1 and the other moderately exciting4 #acag ,as to the several varieties of the pumpkin or gourd1 known under this name1 see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bd4 #acah ,dioscorides states to the same effect1 and1 as ,fe thinks1 with a probability of being correct4 #acai 8,smegmata40 #acbj ,this assertion1 ,fe says1 is utterly untrue4 #acba ,from 1 8upon10 and 1 8night40 ,these are red or whitish pustules1 accompanied with sharp pains1 which appear on the skin at night1 and disappear in the day-time4 ,see c4 #ba4 #acbb ,or 8many-legs40 ,see ,b4 xxix4 c4 #ci4 ,probably one of our millepedes or centipedes3 though ,fe suggests that it may have been a large caterpillar4 #acbc ,from 1 8to rot40 #acbd ,this1 ,fe says1 is untrue3 but it is hard to say on what grounds he himself asserts that the smell of the cucumber is faint1 and almost nauseous4 #acbe ,this1 probably1 is not conformable to modern notions on the subject4 #acbf ,from the ,greek 1 porous1 spongy1 or hollow4 #acbg ,it is supposed by some naturalists that this gourd is the variety ,pyxidaris of the ,cucurbita pepo of ,linnus1 the ,colocynthis amara of ,c4 ,bauhin4 ,fe remarks1 however1 that this designation is arbitrary2 as this plant never grows wild in ,europe1 and its pulp is so bitter1 that instead of proving beneficial to the stomach1 it would cause vomiting4 ,from the fact of its comparison to the human finger1 he doubts if it really was one of the ,cucurbit at all4 #acbh ,the ,cucumis colocynthus of ,linnus1 or ,coloquintida1 so remarkable for its bitterness4 #acbi ,it is an extremely drastic1 and indeed violent purgative4 #accj ,recurring at stated times4 ,the absurdity of this statement does not require discussion4 #acca ,the cultivated cucumber1 ,fe says4 #accb ,or 8aposthumes10 a kind of abscess1 probably4 #accc 8,ignis sacer10 literally 8sacred fire40 ,it is sometimes called 8,st4 ,anthony's fire40 ,celsus1 in describing it1 distinguishes it1 however1 from erysipelas1 and divides it into two kinds4 #accd ,on the contrary1 ,fe says1 the pulp of the gourd is tough and leathery1 extremely insipid1 and destitute of any salutary qualities4 #acce ,a decoction of rape or turnips is still recommended for chilblains at the present day4 ,fe remarks that ground mustard is much preferable4 #accf ,this1 as ,fe remarks1 he says of nearly all the vegetable productions known4 #accg ,it is only suited as an aliment to a strong stomach1 and it is owing to the property here mentioned that the ,school of ,salerno says1-- ,ventum spe capis1 si tu vis vivere rapis4 and ,rapa juvat stomachum1 novit producere ventum4 #acch ,dioscorides and ,galen say the same1 but this property is not recognized in modern times4 #acci 8,eruca30 a plant itself of a very stimulating nature4 #acdj ,the ,brassica napus1 var4 of ,linnus1 the ,brassica asperifolia1 var4 of ,decandolles1 the 8navette0 of the ,french4 ,an oil is extracted from the seed1 very similar to the ,colza oil1 extracted from the ,brassica oleracea4 #acda ,it is in reality of a blackish hue without1 and white within4 #acdb ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #gc4 ,dioscorides speaks of the use of the wild rape for this purpose1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ace4 #acdc ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ce1 and ,b4 xix4 c4 #be4 #acdd ,dalechamps remarks that ,pliny here confounds the bunion with the bunias2 the first of which1 as ,fe says1 is an umbellifera1 either the ,bunium bulbocastanum of ,linnus1 or the ,peucedanum silaus of ,linnus1 and the second is the ,brassica napo-brassica of ,linnus4 ,dioscorides says that the stalks of the bunion are quadrangular4 ,m4 ,fraas thinks that the bunion is the ,bunium pumilum of modern ,botany1 and says that the ,bunium bulbocastanum1 usually supposed to be the bunion of ,dioscorides1 is a stranger to ,greece4 #acde ,these properties1 ,fe says1 are not to be found in the ,bunium bulbocastanum of modern botanists4 #acdf ,sillig is of opinion that there is an hiatus here in the text1 and that the meaning is that a drachma of the juice is taken with something else3 honey possibly1 he suggests4 #acdg ,the ,brassica napo-brassica of ,linnus4 #acdh ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bf4 #acdi ,the ,cochlearia ,armoracia of ,linnus4 #acej ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #bf4 #acea ,fe says that the medicinal properties recognized by the moderns in the several varieties of the ,raphanus sativus are1 that their action is slightly stimulating when eaten raw1 and that boiled and eaten with sugar they are soothing1 and act as a pectoral4 #aceb 8,lagonoponon40 ,nearly all these asserted virtues of the radish1 ,fe says1 are illusory4 #acec 8,phlegmoni40 ,stagnation of the blood1 with heat1 redness1 swelling1 and pain4 #aced 8,veternosi40 ,fe says that1 rigorously speaking1 8veternus0 was that state of somnolency which is the prelude to apoplexy4 #acee ,the ,coluber cerastes of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #ce4 #acef ,poinsinet warns us not to place too implicit faith in this assertion4 #aceg ,dioscorides says the same1 but the assertion is quite destitute of truth4 #aceh ,nicander1 in his 8,alexipharmaca10 ll4 #dcj and #ebg1 says that the cabbage1 not the radish1 is good for poisoning by fungi and henbane2 and in l4 #cjj he states that the cabbage is similarly beneficial against the effects of bullock's blood4 ,pliny has probably fallen into the error by confounding 1 the 8cabbage10 with 1 the 8radish40 #acei ,themistocles is said to have killed himself by taking hot bullock's blood4 ,it is1 however1 very doubtful4 #acfj 8,morbus comitialis0--literally the 8comitial disease40 ,epilepsy it is said1 was so called because1 if any person was seized with it at the 8,comitia0 or public assemblies of the ,roman people1 it was the custom to adjourn the meeting to another day4 #acfa ,from 1 8black10 and 1 8bile40 ,melancholy1 or bad spirits1 was so called from a notion that it was owing to a predominance of an imaginary secretion called by the ancients 8black bile40 #acfb ,the cliac flux1 ,fe says1 is symptomatic of chronic enteritis2 and is a species of diarrha1 in which the chyme is voided without undergoing any change in passing through the intestines4 #acfc 8,prcordiorum40 #acfd 8,enterocele40 #acfe ,de ,morb4 ,mulier4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #fg4 #acff ,eating or corroding ulcers4 #acfg ,hippocrates1 ,de ,dit1 ,b4 ii4 cc4 #be1 #bf1 says that radishes are of a cold1 and hyssop of a warm1 nature4 #acfh 8,moloche agria40 #acfi ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bg4 #acgj ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #gc4 #acga ,de ,remed4 ,b4 iv4 c4 #bd4 ,the parsnip is a stimulating plant1 and it is not without reason1 ,fe says1 that ,celsus recommends it for this purpose4 #acgb ,or 8wild40 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bg4 #acgc ,this seed1 ,fe says1 is an energetic excitant1 and certainly would not be found suitable for any of the purposes here mentioned by ,pliny2 though equally recommended for them by ,galen1 ,dioscorides1 and in ,athenus4 #acgd ,tetanus1 or contraction of the muscles1 in which the head is twisted round or stretched backwards4 #acge 8,axungia20 properly swine's grease1 with which the axle-trees of chariots were rubbed4 ,see ,b4 xxviii4 c4 #i4 #acgf ,diphilus of ,siphnos1 as quoted in ,athenus1 ,b4 ix4 c4 #c1 states that the ancients employed this plant as a philtre1 for which reason it was called by some persons 4 #acgg 8,posca40 ,this was the ordinary drink of the lower classes at ,rome1 as also the soldiers when on service1 and the slaves4 8,oxycrate0 is the scientific name sometimes given to vinegar and water4 #acgh 4 ,similar to our proverb1 probably1 8,there is more corn in ,egypt40 #acgi ,the ,daucus visnaga of ,linnus1 the ,daucus gingidium of ,sprengel1 the ,visnagha1 or ,bisnagha of other botanists4 ,it is also known as the 8wild carrot10 or 8,french carrot40 #achj ,or 8erratic40 #acha ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bh4 #achb ,the root and seed1 ,fe observes1 really are stimulants3 there is no perceptible difference between the wild and cultivated plants4 ,for silphium1 see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #achc ,fe thinks that it may be so in a slight degree4 #achd ,pliny often speaks of persons having swallowed quicksilver1 but never lets us know under what circumstances4 ,as ,fe remarks1 it could not be accidentally2 nor yet1 on the other hand1 could it have been done purposely1 with the object of committing suicide1 it not being an active poison4 ,he concludes that it must have been taken medicinally1 and that part of it becoming absorbed in the system1 other remedies were resorted to1 to counteract its noxious effects4 #ache 8,inutile10 and not 8utile10 is evidently the correct reading here4 #achf the 8skirret10 and 1 1 or 1 8hart-wort40 #achg ,the ,seseli tortuosum of ,linnus4 #achh ,or ,marseilles3 the ,seseli tortuosum4 ,fe says that there is great confusion relative to the supposed varieties of this plant4 ,the ,bupleurum fruticosum1 or ,seseli of thiopia1 has leaves smaller than those of ivy1 and resembling the leaves of honeysuckle4 ,that of ,peloponnesus1 the ,ligusticum austriacum1 has a leaf similar to that of hemlock1 but larger and thicker2 and the ,seseli of ,crete1 some species of the genus ,tordylium1 is a small plant which throws out shoots in large quantities4 ,all these1 he says1 are so far different plants1 that it is quite impossible to unite them with any degree of certainty under one concordance4 ,indeed1 he thinks it very possible that they do not all belong to the genus ,seseli of modern botanists4 #achi ,it is clear that ,pliny hesitates to believe this story1 and it is hardly necessary to remark how utterly foreign this is to the habits of carnivorous birds4 #acij ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #ej4 ,an absurd story4 #acia ,the ,inula ,helenium of botanists4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bi4 #acib ,modern notions1 ,fe says1 do not agree with those of the ancients on the subject of elecampane4 ,the root owes the energy of its action to the camphor which it contains4 #acic ,this notion of the virtues of the onion is quite erroneous1 though it still prevails to a considerable degree4 ,hippocrates1 however1 ,dioscorides1 and ,galen1 like ,pliny1 attribute this property to the onion4 #acid ,this1 ,fe says1 is not the fact4 #acie ,a disease of the eye1 by which the cornea contracts a whiteness4 #acif ,a white speck within the black of the eye4 #acig ,it is of no use whatever for such a purpose4 #acih ,fox evil1 or scurf1 or scaldhead3 a disease which causes the hair to fall off the body4 ,it derives its name from the ,greek 1 a 8fox10 from the circumstance that they were supposed to be peculiarly affected with a similar disease4 #acii ,or millepedes4 ,see c4 #f of this ,book4 #adjj ,so the school of ,salerno says-- ,non modicum sanas ,asclepius asserit illas1 ,prsertim stomacho1 pulchrumque creare colorem4 #adja ,this is not the case4 #adjb 8,vermiculis40 ,small worms or maggots4 #adjc 8,porrum sectivum40 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cc4 #adjd ,fe thinks that boiled leeks may possibly1 with some justice1 be ranked among the pectorals4 #adje ,this1 as ,pliny himself here remarks1 is a different disease from that previously mentioned in c4 #f of this ,book4 #adjf ,from the ,greek 1 8a fig40 #adjg 8,merum40 #adjh ,they would be of no utility whatever4 #adji ,this is an unfounded statement1 ,fe says4 #adaj ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cc4 ,aristotle1 ,sotion1 and ,dioscorides state to the same effect4 #adaa 8,porrum capitatum40 #adab ,there is no difference now recognized between these two kinds of leeks1 so far as their medicinal effects are concerned4 #adac ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #i4 #adad ,i4 e4 gum arabic4 ,for an account of the ,acacia ,nilotica1 see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #ai4 #adae ,de ,morb4 ,mul4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #hi1 and ,de ,steril4 c4 #ac4 #adaf ,this is not the fact4 #adag ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cd4 #adah ,fe says that the action of garlic is so powerful1 that it is one of the most energetic vermifuges known2 but at the same time it is so strong an excitant1 that it is very liable to cause worse evils than the presence even of worms4 #adai ,this serpent is described by ,lucan1 in the 8,pharsalia10 ,b4 ix4 l4 #gjh1 et seq41 where a fearful account is given of the effects of its sting4 ,nicander1 in his 8,theriaca10 informs us that those bitten by the hmorrhos die with the blood flowing from the nose and ears1 whence its name4 #adbj ,pard or panther-strangle4 ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #b4 ,the juice of garlic has no such effect as here stated4 #adba ,de ,morb4 ,mul4 ,b4 i4 c4 #gd4 #adbb ,see ,b4 xxix4 c4 #ci4 #adbc ,the ,morbus pedicularis4 ,from the frequent mention of it1 ,fe says1 it would seem to have been very prevalent in ancient times2 whereas now1 it is but rarely known4 #adbd ,a disease of the skin2 supposed by some to be the same as ringworm4 ,the word is employed in modern medicine to signify skin diseases in general1 such as itch1 lichen1 scaldhead1 ringworm1 c4 #adbe ,pintianus suggests 8hirudines10 8leeches10 and not 8arundines10 arrows4 ,the latter reading is supported1 however1 by ,plinius ,valerianus and ,m4 ,empiricus4 #adbf ,an expensive kind of fish-sauce3 for some further account of it see ,b4 ix4 c4 #cj4 #adbg ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #adbh ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #gh4 #adbi 8,caprina40 ,see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ci4 #adcj ,fe is of opinion that this in reality is not a lettuce1 but that ,pliny has been led1 by the milky juice which it contains1 to that conclusion4 ,in ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ci1 he calls it 8tithymalum40 ,hardouin conjectures it to have been the spurge1 or ,euphorbia lathyris of ,linnus1 the juice of which is a violent drastic2 and ,fe is of opinion that it must have been one of the ,euphorbiace4 ,at the same time1 he says1 powerful as their properties are1 we cannot believe that they exercise the destructive effects on fish here stated4 #adca ,fe thinks that this plant may be looked for among the varieties of the ,sonchus or the ,hieracium1 which belong to the same family as the lettuce4 #adcb ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ad4 #adcc ,fe thinks that this is the ,isatis tinctoria of ,linnus in a wild state1 and ,littr suggests that the one next mentioned is the same plant1 cultivated4 ,fe says1 however1 that this plant1 employed in dyeing wool1 does not contain any milky juice1 a fact which should have cautioned ,pliny against classing it among the ,lactuc4 #adcd ,of the lettuce1 evidently4 ,fe says1 who would recognise a lettuce1 with its green leaves1 and smooth stalk and leaves1 under this description8 ,still1 it is by no means an inaccurate description of the wild lettuce4 #adce 8,hawk-weed10 from the ,greek 1 8a hawk40 ,under this name are included1 ,fe thinks1 the varieties of the genus ,crepis4 #adcf ,apuleius1 ,metam4 c4 #cj1 says this of the eagle1 when preparing to soar aloft4 #adcg ,this is in some degree true of the juices of the wild lettuces1 in a medicinal point of view2 but it must be remembered that he has enumerated the ,isatis among them1 which in reality has no milky juice at all4 #adch 8,lactucarium10 or the inspissated milky juice of the garden lettuce1 is still used occasionally as a substitute for opium1 having slightly anodyne properties1 but1 as ,fe remarks1 all that ,pliny says here of its effects is erroneous4 #adci 8,adustiones20 8burns10 perhaps4 #addj ,a kind of spider4 ,see ,b4 xi4 cc4 #bd1 #bh1 #bi4 #adda ,this is consistent with modern experience1 as to the medicinal effects of the cultivated plants in general4 #addb ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ch4 #addc ,the lettuce is not a purgative1 nor has it the property here ascribed to it1 of making blood4 #addd ,sillig is probably correct in his belief that there is a lacuna here4 #adde 8,oxypori40 #addf 8,ad intinctum aceti40 #addg ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ch2 the 8opium0 or 8poppy lettuce10 the ,lactuca silvestris of modern botany1 the soporific properties of which are superior to those of the cultivated kinds4 #addh ,or southern-wood4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cd4 #addi ,see ,b4 xxxi4 cc4 #aa and #ab4 #adej ,there are few plants1 ,fe says1 which are so utterly destitute of all remedial properties as the beet4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #dj4 #adea ,fe says that the leaves of beet are not at all efficacious except as applications for inflammations of the body4 #adeb ,dioscorides merely says that the leaves of the limonion are similar to those of beet1 but he does not state that it is a kind of wild beet4 #adec ,dioscorides says 8ten or more40 #aded ,fe is inclined to identify the 8limonium10 or 8meadow-plant10 with the ,statice limonium of ,linnus2 but looks upon its identification as very doubtful4 ,fuchs1 ,tragus1 and ,lonicerus1 have identified it with the ,pyrola rotundifolia2 but that is not a meadow plant1 it growing only in the woods4 ,others1 again1 have suggested the ,senecio doria1 or 8water trefoil40 #adee ,divided by naturalists into wild chicory or endive1 the ,cichorium intybus of ,linnus1 and cultivated endive1 the ,cichorium endivia of ,linnus4 ,the name 8endive0 comes from the ,arabian 8hindeb20 but whether that was derived from the ,latin 8intubum10 or vice vers1 is uncertain4 ,the two kinds above mentioned1 are subdivided1 ,fe says1 into two varieties1 the cultivated and the wild4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ci4 #adef ,the foundation of the ,greek name1 1 and the ,arabic 8,schikhrieh40 #adeg ,the medicinal properties of endive vary1 according as it is employed wild or cultivated1 and according to the part employed4 ,the leaves are more bitter than the stalk1 but not so much so as the root4 ,the juice of all the varieties is very similar1 probably1 to that of the lettuce2 but1 as ,fe says1 little use has been made of it in modern times4 #adeh ,or else1 8,magi40 #adei ,the 8useful40 #adfj 8,the all-powerful40 #adfa ,the ,cichorium luteum of ,c4 ,bauhin1 the ,leontodon palustre of ,linnus3 known to us as the 8dandelion10 or by a coarser name4 #adfb ,the kind known as garden endive1 the ,cichorium endivia of ,linnus4 #adfc 8,anthologumena40 #adfd ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #da4 #adfe 8,crispam40 #adff 8,parsley-like40 #adfg ,the only use now made of the cabbage1 in a medicinal point of view1 is the extraction from the red cabbage1 which is rich in saccharine matter1 of a pectoral1 and the employment of the round cabbage1 in the form of sour-krout1 as an antiscorbutic4 ,the great majority of the statements as to the virtues of the cabbage1 though supported by ,cato1 and in a great measure by ,hippocrates1 are utterly fallacious4 #adfh ,de ,re ,rust4 #aeg4 #adfi 8,scintillationibus40 #adgj ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #adga ,or cancer4 #adgb ,cato1 ,de ,re ,rust41 #aef1 #aeg4 #adgc ,see ,note #acja to c4 #b of this ,book4 #adgd ,this absurd notion of antipathy is carried so far by the author of the ,geoponica1 ,b4 v4 c4 #aa1 that he states that if wine is thrown on cabbage while on the fire1 it will never be thoroughly boiled4 #adge ,fe remarks1 that this fact would surely have engaged the attention of the moderns1 if there had been any truth in the statement4 #adgf 8,crapulam discuti40 8,crapula0 was that state1 after drinking1 colloquially known at the present day as 8seediness40 #adgg ,the contrary is in reality the case1 it being a diet only suitable to strong stomachs4 #adgh ,de ,morb4 ,mulier4 ,b4 i4 cc4 #gc and #gd4 ,de ,nat4 ,mulier4 #bi and #ca4 #adgi ,the jaundice4 #adhj ,fe is inclined to account for the numerous antidotes and remedies mentioned for the stings of serpents1 by supposing that the stings themselves of many of them were not really venomous1 but only supposed to be so4 #adha 8,repuntinas caligines40 #adhb 8,sprout10 or 8,brussels sprout40 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #da4 #adhc ,he is probably speaking of cabbage-water in general4 #adhd ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #adhe ,this bitter or pungent cabbage1 ,fe suggests1 did not1 probably1 belong to the genus ,brassica4 #adhf ,de ,re ,rust4 c4 #aeg4 #adhg ,fe is of opinion that ,pliny has here confused the description of two different plants2 and that1 intending to describe the ,brassica arvensis of modern botany1 he has superadded a description of the 8,crambe agria10 mentioned by ,dioscorides1 which appears to be identical with the ,crambe maritima1 or ,brassica marina1 the 8sea-cabbage0 of the ancients 7see c4 #ch471 the ,convolvulus soldanella of modern botany4 #adhh ,or 8rock-cabbage10 a name given more properly to the ,convolvulus soldanella4 #adhi ,see c4 #cd1 and ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #a4 #adij ,a description1 really1 of the ,convolvulus soldanella4 #adia ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #da4 #adib ,the ,convolvulus soldanella of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks3 not one of the ,crucifer1 but belonging to the ,convolvulace4 #adic ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cj4 #adid ,the squill is still regarded in medicine as one of the most energetic of all the vegetable productions1 as a diuretic1 an expectorant1 and1 in large doses1 an emetic4 ,squill vinegar is still the form in which it is usually administered4 ,columella gives a somewhat different account of the mode of preparing it4 #adie ,theocritus says that the squill effectually protects statues and tombs from outrages being committed upon them2 and it was so customary to plant them about the graves1 that it became a proverbial saying1 8,he is frantic enough to pluck squills from a grave40 ,theophrastus states that squills were employed in certain expiatory ceremonials4 #adif ,as to the identification of the 8bulbs10 see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cj4 ,the wild bulbs1 ,fe is of opinion1 are probably the ,nigrum allium or ,moly of modern ,botany2 and the ,allium schnoprasum belongs1 in his opinion1 to the cultivated bulbs4 #adig ,supposing1 ,fe says1 that the ,bulbi of the ancients belonged to the genus ,allium or garlic of modern ,botany1 we may conclude that in a medicinal point of view1 they were of an exciting nature1 powerful vermifuges1 and slightly blistering when applied topically4 ,the other statements here made1 as to their medicinal qualities1 are not consistent with modern experience4 #adih ,testium pituitas4 #adii ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cj4 ,athenus1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #bf1 attributes a similar property to the bulbs of ,megara4 #aejj ,see ,b4 xi4 cc4 #bd1 #bh4 #aeja ,the ,hyacinthus botryoides of ,linnus1 most probably4 #aejb 8,bulbus vomitorius40 ,the ,narcissus jonquilla of ,linnus1 the 8emetic jonquil40 ,the bulb of the ,spanish jonquil acts as a strong emetic4 #aejc ,dioscorides says1 more correctly1 a black outer coat or peeling4 #aejd ,asparagus is recognized in modern times1 as exercising a strong action on the kidneys4 ,fe says1 that according to ,dr4 ,broussais1 it is a sedative to palpitations of the heart1 an assertion1 the truth of which1 he says1 his own experience has confirmed4 ,the root is also looked upon as diuretic4 #aeje ,asparagus seed is not used in modern pharmacy1 and it is very doubtful if it possesses any virtues at all4 #aejf ,fe says that there is no truth in this assertion4 #aejg ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #db3 the ,asparagus tenuifolius of ,linnus1 the wild asparagus1 or ,corruda of the ,south of ,france4 #aejh ,fe says that in the ,south of ,europe there is a kind1 known to botanists as white asparagus1 with a prickly stem3 he suggests that it may possibly be the same as that here spoken of4 #aeji ,or fennel4 ,fe says that1 till very recently1 the roots of asparagus and of fennel were combined in medicine1 forming part of the five 8major aperitive0 roots4 ,the sirop of the five aperitive roots is still used1 he says1 in medicine4 #aeaj ,chrysippus and ,dioscorides were of opinion1 that a decoction of asparagus root causes sterility in women2 a false notion1 which1 as ,fe remarks1 prevailed very generally in ,greece4 #aeaa ,this is not consistent with fact4 #aeab ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cg4 ,parsley1 though possessed of marked properties1 is but little employed in medicine4 ,what ,pliny here states respecting it1 ,fe says1 is a tissue of fables3 but it is still used for the cure of sores1 and even as an ophthalmic4 #aeac ,this distinction1 ,fe says1 cannot be admitted4 #aead ,or maggots4 #aeae ,this belief in its efficacy1 ,fe says1 still exists4 #aeaf ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #hf3 this is the ,melissa officinalis of ,linnus1 or balm-gentle1 from which the bees gather honey1 quite a different plant to apiastrum or wild parsley4 ,the ,sardinian plant here mentioned1 is probably the same as the ,ranunculus1 mentioned in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #aji1 where its identification will be further discussed4 #aeag ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #dh4 #aeah ,or 8horse parsley40 #aeai ,or strangury4 ,no medicinal use is made of this plant in modern times4 #aebj ,or 8mountain parsley10 see ,b4 xix4 c4 #dh4 #aeba ,or 8marsh-parsley10 see ,b4 xix4 c4 #cg4 ,it is possessed of certain energetic properties1 more appreciated by the ancient physicians than in modern pharmacy4 #aebb 8,rock-parsley30 from this name comes our word 8parsley40 ,it is not clearly known to what variety of parsley he refers under this name4 #aebc ,or 8ox-parsley40 ,c4 ,bauhin identifies this with the ,petroselinum ,creticum or ,agriopastinaca of ,crete2 but1 as ,fe remarks1 it is not clear to which of the ,umbellifer he refers under that name4 #aebd ,the ,ocimum basilicum of ,linnus1 according to most commentators3 though ,fe is not of that opinion1 it being originally from ,india1 and never found in a wild state4 ,from what ,varro says1 ,de ,re ,rust4 ,b4 i4 c4 #ca1 he thinks that it must be sought among the leguminous plants1 the genus ,hedysarum1 ,lathyrus1 or ,medicago4 ,he remarks also1 that ,pliny is the more to be censured for the absurdities contained in this ,chapter1 as the preceding writers had only mentioned them to ridicule them4 #aebe ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #ea4 #aebf 8,in ,empericis40 #aebg 8,atramento sutorio40 #aebh ,the ,brassica eruca of ,linnus4 #aebi ,none of the numerous remedies mentioned by ,pliny for removing spots on the skin1 are at all efficacious1 in ,fe's opinion4 #aecj 8,good for sauces40 #aeca ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #dd4 #aecb ,the ,lepidium sativum of ,linnus1 cresses or nose-smart4 #aecc ,this opinion is corroborated by ,dioscorides1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ahe1 and confirmed by the author of the ,geoponica1 ,b4 xii4 c4 #bg4 ,fe inclines to the opinion of ,dioscorides1 and states that is highly antiscorbutic4 #aecd ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #dd4 #aece ,the two varieties1 the white and the black1 are no longer distinguished4 ,the only variety now recognized1 ,fe says1 is that with crisped leaves4 #aecf 8,furunculos40 ,gangrenous sores1 probably4 #aecg 8,unguibus scabris10 i4 e4 for the removal of malformed nails1 with the view to the improvement of their appearance4 #aech ,the ,lepidium ,iberis of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #aeci ,the ,ruta graveolens of ,linnus4 ,the ,romans1 singularly enough1 valued this offensive plant as a condiment for their dishes1 and a seasoning for their wines4--,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ai3 and at the present day even1 it is admired for its smell1 ,fe says1 by the ladies of ,naples4 ,the ,italians use it also for their salads4 ,its smell is thought to prevent infection1 for which reason it is still used1 in country-places1 at funerals1 and is placed before prisoners when tried criminally1 for the prevention1 it is said1 of gaol fever4 #aedj ,it is not the rue that has this effect1 so much as the salts of copper which are formed4 #aeda ,fe thinks it not likely that the rue grown here was at all superior to that of other localities4 #aedb ,this word1 omitted in the text1 is supplied from ,dioscorides4 #aedc ,or aconite4 ,there is no truth whatever in these assertions1 that rue has the effect of neutralizing the effects of hemlock1 henbane1 or poisonous fungi4 ,boerrhave says that he employed rue successfully in cases of hysteria and epilepsy2 and it is an opinion which originated with ,hippocrates1 and is still pretty generally entertained1 that it promotes the catamenia4 #aedd ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #dj4 #aede ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #hf4 #aedf 8,si vero sit cephala40 #aedg ,dioscorides says however1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #eb1 that it arrests incontinence of the urine4 ,see below4 #aedh ,de ,morb4 ,mul4 ,b4 i4 c4 #abh4 #aedi ,de ,dita1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #bf4 #aeej 8,pituit eruptionibus40 #aeea ,this prejudice1 ,fe says1 still survives4 #aeeb ,the ,menta silvestris of ,linnus2 though ,clusius was of opinion that it is the ,nepeta tuberosa of ,linnus4 #aeec 8,silvestre puleium40 #aeed ,galen and ,dioscorides say the same2 but it is not the fact2 the leaves being of no utility whatever4 #aeee ,difficulty of breathing1 unless the neck is kept in a straight position4 #aeef ,fe is inclined to think exactly the contrary4 #aeeg ,its properties as a vermifuge are contested4 #aeeh ,according to ancient fable1 ,mintha1 the daughter of ,cocytus1 and beloved by ,pluto1 was changed by ,proserpine into this plant3 it was generally employed also in the mysteries of the ,greeks4 ,it is the ,mentha sativa of ,linnus4 #aeei ,fe says that this passage alone would prove pretty clearly that ,pliny had no idea of the existence of the gastric juices4 #aefj ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ag1 and ,b4 xxii4 c4 #fg4 #aefa ,it is only in this case and the next1 ,fe says1 that modern experience agrees with our author as to the efficacy of mint4 #aefb ,the ,menta pulegium of ,linnus4 #aefc ,its medicinal properties are similar to those of mint2 which is a good stomachic1 and is useful for hysterical and hypochondriac affections1 as well as head-ache4 ,we may therefore know how far to appreciate the medicinal virtues ascribed by ,pliny to these plants4 #aefd 8,ampullas40 #aefe 8,cubiculis30 8sleeping-chambers40 ,it was very generally the practice among the ancients to keep odoriferous plants in their bed-rooms2 a dangerous practice1 now held in pretty general disesteem4 #aeff ,strong odours1 as ,fe remarks1 are not generally beneficial for head-ache4 #aefg ,dioscorides makes no such distinction1 and botanically speaking1 as ,fe observes1 this distinction is faulty4 #aefh ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #e4 #aefi 8,defunctos partus0 is certainly a better reading than 8defunctis partus0 though the latter is the one adopted by ,sillig4 #aegj 8,salsitudines40 ,hardouin is probably right in his conjecture1 that the correct reading is 8lassitudines10 8lassitude40 #aega 8,pulices40 ,it is to this belief1 no doubt1 that it owes its ,latin name 8pulegium10 and its ,english appellation1 8flea-bane40 #aegb ,it differs in no respect whatever from the cultivated kind1 except that the leaves of the latter are somewhat larger4 #aegc ,or origanum4 #aegd ,whence our name 8dittany40 #aege ,the 8bleating plant20 from 1 8to bleat40 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 ii4 c4 #cf1 says the same of cultivated pennyroyal4 #aegf 8,pulmonum vitia exscreabilia facit40 #aegg ,or 8catmint20 the variety 8longifolia10 ,fe thinks1 of the ,menta silvestris of ,linnus2 or else the ,melissa altissima of ,sibthorp4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,thymus ,barrelieri1 the ,melissa ,cretica of ,linnus4 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #db1 identifies the 8,calamintha0 of the ,greeks with the ,nepeta of the ,romans4 ,the medicinal properties of ,nep1 or catmint1 are the same as those of the other mints4 #aegh 8gilopiis40 #aegi ,cummin is the ,cuminum cyminum of ,linnus4 ,the seed only is used1 and that but rarely1 for medicinal purposes1 being a strong excitant and a carminative4 ,in ,germany1 and ,turkey1 and other parts of the ,east1 cummin-seed is esteemed as a condiment4 #aehj ,horace1 ,b4 i4 ,epist4 #ai1 says the same2 but in reality cummin produces no such effect4 #aeha ,m4 ,porcius ,latro1 a celebrated rhetorician of the reign of ,augustus1 a ,spaniard by birth1 and a friend and contemporary of the elder ,seneca4 ,his school was one of the most frequented at ,rome1 and he numbered among his scholars the poet ,ovid4 ,he died ,b4,c4 #d4 #aehb ,the son of a ,roman senator1 but descended from a noble family in ,aquitanian ,gaul4 ,when proprtor of ,gallia ,celtica1 he headed a revolt against ,nero2 but being opposed by ,virginius ,rufus1 he slew himself at the town of ,vesontio1 now ,besanon4 #aehc 8,captationi0 is suggested by ,sillig as a preferable reading to 8captatione10 which last would imply that it was ,vindex himself who sought a place by this artifice1 in the wills of others4 #aehd ,there would be but little difference1 ,fe observes1 between this and the cummin of other countries1 as it is a plant in which little change is effected by cultivation4 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #gi1 says that the cummin of thiopia 7by ,hippocrates called 8royal cummin07 has a sweeter smell than the other kinds4 #aehe ,fe is inclined to identify wild cummin1 from the description of it given by ,dioscorides1 with the ,delphinium consolida of ,linnus2 but at the same time1 he says1 it is impossible to speak positively on the subject4 #aehf 8,penicillis40 #aehg ,the ,ammi ,copticum of modern botany4 #aehh ,the thiopian cummin1 namely1 which ,pliny himself seems inclined to confound with ammi4 #aehi ,or 8horned0 serpent4 ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #ce1 and ,b4 xi4 c4 #de4 #aeij ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dd4 #aeia ,it is not improbable that under this name he alludes to the carpels of some kind of ,euphorbiacea1 which bear a resemblance to the fruit of the caper4 ,indeed1 there is one variety of the ,euphorbia with an acrid juice1 known in this country by the name of the 8caper-plant40 #aeib ,the ,capparis spinosa1 probably1 on which the capers used in our sauces are grown4 #aeic ,until recently1 the bark was employed in the ,materia ,medica1 as a diuretic3 it is now no longer used4 #aeid ,or ,lovage4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej4 #aeie ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej1 where he states that ,crateuas has given to the wild ,ligusticum the name of ,cunila bubula1 or 8ox cunila40 #aeif ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej4 #aeig ,see ,b4 viii4 cc4 #da and #dd4 #aeih ,universal remedy1 or 8all-heal40 #aeii ,or 8,poultry cunila30 the ,origanum ,heracleoticum of ,linnus4 #afjj ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ab4 #afja ,an ,umbellifera1 ,fe says1 of the modern genus ,conyza4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cb4 #afjb ,fe is of opinion that ,pliny has here confounded 8cunila0 with 8conyza10 and that he means the of ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #acf1 the of ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #b1 supposed to be the ,inula pulicaria of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cb4 #afjc ,a variety of ,conyza4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cb4 #afjd ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #acf1 says the same of the 1 or 8small conyza40 #afje ,the ,satureia thymbra of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej4 #afjf 8,ictus10 possibly 8stings40 #afjg ,see the preceding ,chapter3 also ,b4 xix4 c4 #fb1 and ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cb4 #afjh ,perhaps ,indian pepper1 the ,capsicum annuum of ,botany4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #fb4 #afji ,for some account of ,castor1 the botanist1 see the end of this ,book4 #afaj ,or ,wild ,marjoram4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej4 #afaa ,so called1 ,nicander says1 from being sought with avidity by the ass1 4 ,it is the ,origanum onites of ,linnus4 #afab ,the ,prasion1 or 8green plant10 mentioned by ,hippocrates and ,theophrastus1 is not identical1 ,fe says1 with the ,origanum onitis1 it being the ,marrubium ,creticum1 or peregrinum of modern botanists4 ,to add to the confusion of these names1 we find ,pliny stating1 in c4 #fi1 that the name of 8prasion0 was given also by the ,greeks to his second species of ,heraclium1 and that of 8onitis0 to the ,heraclium ,heracleoticum4 #afac ,or 8,goat's origanum30 the ,thymus tragoriganum of ,linnus4 ,dioscorides mentions two kinds of tragoriganum1 one of which has been supposed by ,clusius to be the ,thymus mastichina of ,linnus1 and the other the ,stachys glutinosa of ,linnus2 ,zanoni being the first author who promulgated this opinion2 from which ,fe1 however1 dissents4 #afad ,or ,heracleotic origanum3 see c4 #fb of this ,book4 ,pliny here confounds several distinct plants1 and1 as ,fe observes1 the whole account is in hopeless confusion4 #afae ,probably the ,origanum ,heracleoticum of ,linnus1 mentioned in c4 #fb4 #afaf ,the ,marrubium ,creticum1 or peregrinum1 probably1 a variety of horehound4 ,see c4 #fg4 #afag ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #afah ,the ,origanum onites of ,linnus1 probably4 ,see c4 #fg4 #afai ,fe says that a strong infusion of pepperwort has been used in ,france for the itch1 with successful results4 #afbj ,sulphate of lime1 which1 as ,fe remarks1 though insoluble1 does not act as a poison1 but causes a derangement of the digestive functions4 ,the wines of the ,romans were extensively treated with this substance1 and we have seen in ,b4 xviii4 that it was used as an ingredient in their bread4 #afba ,dittander1 or pepperwort3 the ,lepidium latifolium of ,linnus4 #afbb ,or fennel-flower3 the ,nigella sativa of ,linnus4 ,fe suggests that its name1 8gith10 is from the ancient ,egyptian4 #afbc 8,black flower40 #afbd 8,black seed40 #afbe ,it is no longer used in medicine1 but it is esteemed as a seasoning in the ,east4 ,all that ,pliny states as to its medicinal properties1 ,fe considers to be erroneous4 ,the action of the seed is irritating1 and reduced to powder1 it causes sneezing4 #afbf ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ag4 #afbg ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #eb4 #afbh ,the ,pimpinella anisum of ,linnus4 #afbi ,it is still used in some countries as a seasoning with which bread and pastry are powdered4 #afcj ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh4 #afca ,see ,b4 xix4 cc4 #dh and #fb3 also ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #ig4 #afcb ,this and the next statement are utterly fabulous4 #afcc 8,unconquerable10 from the ,greek 1 8not10 and 1 8to conquer40 ,fe thinks that the word is a diminutive of 8anisum10 which1 according to some persons1 is a derivative from 8anysun10 the ,arabic name of the plant4 ,dioscorides gives the name 8anicetum0 to dill1 and not to anise4 #afcd ,a mere fable1 as ,fe remarks4 #afce ,a fiction1 without any foundation in truth4 #afcf ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #dg1 and ,b4 xxxii4 cc4 #ac1 #bc1 #bd1 and #bh4 #afcg ,fe evidently mistakes the meaning of this passage1 and censures ,pliny for speaking of anise as an emetic4 ,on the contrary1 he here prescribes it to counteract vomiting1 and he has previously stated1 in this ,chapter1 that it arrests vomiting4 #afch ,the ,anethum graveolens of ,linnus3 originally a native of the hot climates4 ,its properties are very similar to those of anise4 #afci ,or ,sagapenum4 ,this is a fetid gum-resin1 imported from ,persia and ,alexandria1 and supposed1 though without sufficient proof1 ,fe says1 to be the produce of the ,ferula ,persica4 ,it is occasionally used in medicine as a stimulating expectorant4 ,in odour it somewhat resembles assaftida1 only it is much weaker4 ,galen speaks of it as the produce of a ,ferula4 ,it acts also as a purgative and a vermifuge4 #afdj ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #ef1 and ,b4 xix4 c4 #eb4 ,some writers have supposed1 but apparently without any sufficient authority1 that this is the ,ferula communis of ,linnus4 ,fe is of opinion that one of the ,umbellifer is meant4 #afda ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ec4 #afdb ,it is probable1 ,fe says1 that ,pliny does not intend here to speak of the calyx as understood by modern botanists1 but the corolla of the plant4 ,the calyx disappears immediately after the plant has blossomed2 and is never employed by medical men at the present day1 who confine themselves to the heads or capsules4 #afdc ,the variety ,album of the ,papaver somniferum4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ec4 #afdd ,the variety ,a4 nigrum of the ,papaver somniferum of ,decandolle4 #afde ,the incisions are made in the capsules1 and towards the upper part of the peduncle4 ,the account given by ,pliny1 ,fe remarks1 differs but little from that by ,kmpfer1 in the early part of last century4 #afdf ,nine in the morning4 #afdg ,this plan1 ,fe thinks1 would not be attended with advantage4 #afdh ,a name1 probably1 of ,eastern origin1 and now universally employed4 #afdi 8,bilbilis0 has been suggested4 #afej ,syrop of white poppies was1 till recently1 known as sirop of diacodium4 ,opium is now universally regarded as one of the most important ingredients of the ,materia ,medica4 #afea ,poppy-seed1 in reality1 is not possessed of any soporific qualities whatever4 ,this discovery1 however1 was only made in the latter part of the last century1 by the ,french chemist1 ,rosier4 #afeb 8,collyriis40 #afec 8,lexipyretos10 8pepticas10 and 8cliacas0--,greek appellations4 #afed ,the type of the cultivated poppy is the ,papaver somniferum of ,linnus4 #afee ,this1 ,fe says1 is a matter of doubt4 #afef ,from 1 a 8poppy40 ,tournefort has described this kind of opium obtained by decoction2 it is held in little esteem4 #afeg ,fe remarks1 that this account of the tests of opium is correct in the extreme4 #afeh ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ec4 ,the ,papaver rhas of ,linnus3 the field poppy1 corn poppy1 or corn rose4 #afei ,theophrastus says that it has just the taste of wild endive4 ,fe remarks that the peasants of ,treves eat the leaves of this poppy while young4 #affj ,the ,glaucium ,corniculatum of ,persoon2 the horned poppy1 or glaucium4 ,this1 ,fe remarks1 is not a poppy in reality1 but a species of the genus ,chelidonium4 ,the juice is an irritating poison1 and the seed is said to act as an emetic4 #affa 8,argema40 #affb 8,by the sea-shore40 #affc ,not a poppy1 but the ,euphorbia esula of ,linnus1 a spurge4 ,the milky juice found in the stalk and leaves have caused it to be classed among the poppies1 as other varieties of ,euphorbiace appear to have been1 among the wild lettuces4 #affd ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #ca1 compares this plant with the ,struthium--7see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ah74 ,pliny1 or his scribes1 have supposed him to be speaking of the 1 or 8sparrow0--hence the present mistake4 ,the ,struthium itself has received that name from the resemblance which its flower bears to a bird with the wings expanded4 #affe ,hence its name1 8aphron40 #afff ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #d4 ,pliny has here mistaken a passage of ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #ca2 where he attributes this quality to the ,struthium1 and not the ,heraclium4 #affg ,see c4 #gf of this ,book4 ,it is difficult to conjecture how one of the ,euphorbiace1 a powerful drastic1 could enter into the composition of a soothing preparation1 such as the diacodion is said to have been4 #affh 8,capitibus40 ,as ,fe remarks1 the capsules of ,euphorbia bear no resemblance whatever to the heads of the poppy4 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #fg1 similarly confounds these two plants4 #affi ,see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ca4 #afgj ,see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #da4 ,probably the ,euphorbia paralias of ,linnus1 or ,sea euphorbia4 ,its medicinal properties are similar to those of the ,euphorbia esula above mentioned4 #afga ,the fructiferous heads of the ,euphorbiace1 thus employed1 would1 as ,fe remarks1 be productive of most disastrous results4 #afgb ,the ,euphorbia peplis of ,linnus4 #afgc ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #dj4 ,by ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #afe1 all these virtues are attributed exclusively to the cultivated purslain4 ,indeed1 there is no analogy between the properties of the two plants2 though neither of them is possessed of the wonderful virtues as antidotes here mentioned1 and they would only increase the sufferings of asthmatic patients4 #afgd ,as to this serpent1 see ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 l4 #gbb1 et seq4 #afge ,a kind of spreading tumour1 which1 according to ,scribonius ,largus1 would appear as if about to force the eye out of the socket4 ,fe remarks1 that this malady is no longer known4 #afgf ,see ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #eg4 #afgg 8,acetariis40 #afgh 8,sapa40 ,grape-juice1 boiled down to one third4 #afgi 4 #afhj ,the ,coriandrum sativum of ,linnus4 ,at the present day1 wild coriander is commonly found in ,italy1 on uncultivated soils4 ,it may have been naturalized1 however1 ,fe thinks1 since the time of ,pliny4 #afha ,nicander says also1 that it is a cure for the stings of serpents and scorpions1 but there is no truth in the assertion4 #afhb ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #ce4 #afhc ,the ,atriplex hortensis of ,linnus4 ,fe thinks that the wild atriplex of ,pliny is some kind of ,chenopodium1 which it is now impossible to identify4 ,orage is more of an aliment than a medicament4 ,applied externally1 it is soothing and emollient4 #afhd ,de ,morb4 ,mulier4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #eg4 #afhe ,it would not have this effect4 ,the statements here given relative to the virtues of orage are1 in general1 considered to be correct4 #afhf ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #bb4 #afhg ,the ,malva silvestris of ,linnus1 or wild mallow4 #afhh ,the ,malva rotundifolia of ,linnus1 or round-leaved mallow4 #afhi ,from 1 to 8soften10 or 8relax40 #afij ,these wild varieties are the same in every respect as the cultivated kinds2 their essential characteristics not being changed by cultivation4 ,see further as to the ,altha or marsh mallow1 at the latter end of this ,chapter4 #afia ,the meaning of this name appears to be unknown4 8,pistolochia0 is a not uncommon reading4 #afib ,mallows were commonly used as a vegetable by the ancients2 and are so in ,china and the south of ,france1 at the present day4 ,the mucilaginous principle which they contain renders them emollient and pectoral2 they are also slightly laxative4 #afic ,the only benefit resulting from the application of mallows would be the reduction of the inflammation2 the plant having no efficacy whatever in neutralizing the venom4 #afid ,sub-carbonate of lead4 ,the mallow would have little or no effect in such a case4 #afie ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #gb1 and ,b4 xxxii4 c4 #c4 #afif ,the same was said in the middle ages1 of the virtues of sage1 and in more recent times of the ,panax quinquefolium1 the ,ginseng of the ,chinese4 #afig ,q4 ,serenus ,sammonicus speaks of the accumulation of dandriff in the hair to such a degree as to form a noxious malady4 ,he also mentions the present remedy for it4 #afih ,some commentators have supposed this to be the ,alcea rosa of ,linnus2 but ,fe considers this opinion to be quite unfounded4 #afii ,it would be of no use whatever in such cases1 ,fe says4 #agjj ,without any good results1 ,fe says4 #agja 8,permeatus suaves facit40 ,we can only make a vague guess at the meaning2 as the passage is1 most probably1 corrupt4 #agjb ,the ,altha officinalis of ,linnus1 or marsh-mallow4 ,the medicinal properties are similar to those of the other varieties of the mallow4 #agjc ,it is the fact1 that water1 in which mallows are steeped1 owing to the mucilage of the root1 assumes the appearance of milk4 #agjd ,fe says that this milky appearance of the water does not depend on the freshness of the root2 as it is only the aqueous particles that are dried up1 the mucilage preserving its chemical properties in their original integrity4 #agje ,the ,rumex acetosella of ,linnus1 or small sorrel4 #agjf ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #fj4 #agjg 8,horse ,lapathum40 #agjh ,or 8,lapathum with pointed leaves20 the ,rumex acutus of ,linnus4 #agji ,or 8water lapathum20 the ,rumex aquaticus of ,linnus4 #agaj ,or 8horse lapathum20 the ,rumex patientia of ,linnus3 or dock1 as ,fe thinks3 though1 according to ,sprengel1 the cultivated lapathum was identical with that plant4 #agaa ,the medicinal properties of the lapathum vary according to the parts of the plant employed4 ,the leaves and stalks of the acid kinds of ,rumex are refreshing1 and slightly diuretic and laxative4 ,the action of those which are not acid is sudorific1 antiherpetic1 and depurative4 #agab ,fe says that it would be of no benefit whatever for tooth-ache4 #agac ,it is not possessed of any stomachic properties1 ,fe remarks4 #agad ,it would be of no utility in such a case1 ,fe says4 #agae ,supposed by ,fe to be the same as the wild lapathum of the last ,chapter1 the ,rumex acetosella of ,linnus2 small sorrel4 #agaf ,fe remarks that no part of lapathum is naturally astringent4 #agag ,or 8ox lapathum40 ,fe considers this to be identical with the 8hippolapathon0 of the last ,chapter4 #agah ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ed4 ,fe identifies these three varieties of mustard as follows2 the slender-stemmed mustard of ,pliny he identifies with the ,sinapis alba of ,linnus1 mustard with white seeds4 ,the mustard mentioned as having the leaves of rape he considers to be the same as the ,sinapis nigra of ,linnus1 mustard with black seed2 and that with the leaf of the rocket he identifies with the ,sinapis erucodes of ,linnus1 the ,eruca silvestris of ,gessner1 or rocket-leaved mustard4 #agai ,in reality1 mustard is injurious for all affections of the chest and throat4 #agbj 8,seseli40 #agba ,a sinapism applied to the head1 ,fe remarks1 in cases of cerebral congestion1 would very soon cause death4 #agbb ,mustard poultices are used extensively at the present day for blisters on the chest4 #agbc 8,rubrica40 #agbd 8,scabras genas40 #agbe ,this is not the fact2 no juice flows from the stem which is capable of becoming concrete4 #agbf ,as a tonic1 mustard-seed is commonly taken whole at the present day4 #agbg ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ff4 ,in ,b4 xxxii4 c4 #eb1 we shall find ,pliny speaking of this substance under the name of 8,calamochnus40 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 v4 c4 #acg1 speaks of adarca as growing in ,cappadocia1 and as being a salt substance which adheres to reeds in time of drought4 #agbh ,this1 ,fe says1 cannot possibly be the fact1 whatever adarca may really have been4 #agbi ,the 8grass-green0 plant4 #agcj ,the 8twisted flax0 plant4 #agca 8,lad's-love40 #agcb 8,love and grace10 apparently4 #agcc ,there are two kinds of prasion mentioned by ,dioscorides1 and by ,pliny at the end of the present ,chapter1 one of which ,fe is inclined to identify with the ,ballota nigra of ,linnus1 the fetid ballota2 and the other with the ,marrubium vulgare of ,linnus1 the white horehound4 ,bochart conjectures that the word 8marrubium0 had a ,punic origin1 but ,linnus thinks that it comes from 8,maria urbs10 the 8,city of the ,marshes10 situate on ,lake ,fucinus1 in ,italy4 #agcd ,though much used in ancient times1 horehound is but little employed in medicine at the present day3 though its medicinal value1 ,fe thinks1 is very considerable4 ,candied horehound is employed to some extent in this country1 as a pectoral4 #agce ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #be4 #agcf ,its medicinal properties1 as recognized in modern times1 are in most respects dissimilar to those mentioned by ,pliny4 #agcg 8,far40 #agch 8,pterygia40 8,pterygium0 is also a peculiar disease of the eye4 #agci 8,inter pauca40 ,he has mentioned1 however1 a vast number of so-called antidotes or remedies4 ,it is just possible that he may mean1 8,there are few antidotes like it for efficacy40 #agdj 8,a serpendo30 the ,thymus serpyllum of ,linnus4 #agda ,the ,thymus zygis of ,linnus3 the ,serpyllum folio thymi of ,c4 ,bauhin4 ,dioscorides says that it is the cultivated thyme that is a creeping plant4 #agdb ,see ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 l4 #gab1 et seq4 #agdc ,the ,sisymbrion menta of ,gerard2 the ,menta hirsuta of ,decandolle1 prickly mint4 ,sprengel1 however1 takes it to be the ,menta silvestris of modern ,botany4 #agdd ,the ,sisymbrion nasturtium of ,linnus4 #agde ,apparently the ,sisymbrium just mentioned1 and the ,nasturtium4 #agdf ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ,b4 iv4 l4 #hfi1 speaks of ,sisymbrium as being esteemed by the ,roman ladies for its agreeable smell4 #agdg ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #a4 ,the rich mucilage of linseed makes it extremely valuable1 in a medicinal point of view1 for poultices4 ,this mucilage is found in the perisperm more particularly2 the kernel containing a fixed oil1 which is extremely valuable for numerous purposes4 ,the account given by ,pliny and the other ancient writers of the medicinal uses of linseed1 is1 in general1 correct4 #agdh 8,inspersum10 sprinkled with boiling water2 like oatmeal for porridge1 probably4 #agdi ,it would be of no use whatever for such a purpose1 ,fe says4 #agej 8,emendat40 ,by bringing them off1 probably4 #agea ,it would be of no utility for hernia1 ,fe says1 or for the cure of gangrenous sores4 #ageb ,the ,blitum capitatum of ,linnus4 #agec ,hence1 too1 the ,latin word 8bliteus10 meaning 8insipid10 8senseless10 or 8worthless40 #aged ,this is not the case1 it being as innocuous as it is insipid4 ,applied topically1 the leaves are emollient4 #agee ,there is no foundation1 ,fe says1 for this opinion4 #agef ,the thusa meum of ,linnus2 our ,spignel1 or ,baldmoney1 the ,athamanta ,matthioli of ,wulf4 ,by some authorities it is called ,feniculum ,alpinum perenne4 ,it is possessed of exciting properties1 and is no longer used in medicine4 #ageg ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #h4 #ageh ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #da4 ,this plant is the ,anethum feniculum of ,linnus4 ,the seed and roots are still used in medicine1 being sudorific1 diuretic1 and aperitive4 #agei ,this resinous juice of fennel is no longer employed1 or indeed known1 ,fe says1 to the curious4 #agfj 8,horse marathrum30 the ,cachrys ,libanotis of ,linnus1 probably4 #agfa ,the ,seseli tortuosum of ,linnus1 probably4 #agfb ,it is sometimes used at the present day for condiments1 as a substitute for anise4 ,pliny's account of its medicinal virtues1 ,fe says1 is replete with errors4 #agfc 8,oxyporis30 perhaps 8salad-dressings40 #agfd ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ac4 #agfe ,their properties1 ,fe says1 are very similar4 #agff 8,ophiaca40 #agfg 8,rhizotomumena40 #agfh ,theriaca1 l4 #eif4 et seq4 #agfi ,the wild hemp of ,pliny is the ,altha cannabina of ,linnus3 the hemp marsh-mallow4 #aggj ,the cultivated hemp is the ,cannabis sativa of ,linnus4 #agga ,he is speaking of the hemp marsh-mallow here1 and not the real hemp2 though at the same time he mingles with his statement several facts which are stated by ,dioscorides with reference to the genuine hemp4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ef4 #aggb ,this is evidently stated in reference to the hemp-mallow4 #aggc ,for an account of the ,ferula1 see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #db4 #aggd ,an accidental circumstance1 ,fe says1 and no distinctive mark of sex or species4 #agge ,fe thinks that ,pliny's meaning is1 that it is eaten as a confection1 similar to those of angelica and parsley stalks at the present day4 ,that1 however1 would hardly appear to be the sense of the passage4 ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ef1 he speaks of it being dried and used as a seasoning4 #aggf ,fennel-giant is considered to be a good stomachic4 #aggg ,this1 ,fe thinks1 is probably the fact4 #aggh ,the pith1 in reality1 of the ,umbellifer1 is insipid and inert4 #aggi ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #dc4 #aghj ,this1 ,fe considers to be the ,cinara carduncellus of ,linnus1 artichoke thistle1 or ,cardonette of ,provence4 #agha ,the ,cinara scolymus of ,linnus probably1 our artichoke1 which the ancients do not appear to have eaten4 ,both the thistle and the artichoke are now no longer employed in medicine4 #aghb ,galen gives these lines1 sixteen in number1 in his work ,de ,antidot4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #ad2 the proportions1 however1 differ from those given by ,pliny4 #aghc ,half a denarius2 the weight being so called from the coin which was stamped with the image of the ,goddess of ,victory4 ,see ,b4 xxxiii4 c4 #ac4 #aghd ,antiochus ,,ii41 the father of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 #aghe ,or 8antidote40 ,in this term has originated our word 8treacle10 in the ,elizabethan age spelt 8triacle40 ,the medicinal virtues of this composition were believed in1 ,fe remarks1 so recently as the latter half of the last century4 ,the most celebrated1 however1 of all the 8theriac0 of the ancients1 was the 8,theriaca ,andromachi10 invented by ,andromachus1 the physician of the ,emperor ,nero1 and very similar to that composed by ,mithridates1 king of ,pontus1 and by means of which he was rendered proof1 it is said1 against all poisons4 ,see a very learned and interesting account of the ,theriac of the ancients1 by ,dr4 ,greenhill1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4 ,his articles 8,pharmaceutica10 and 8,therapeutica10 will also be found well worth attention by the reader of ,pliny4 #aghf ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #aghg ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #aghh ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #aghi ,he is also mentioned in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #b1 as having commenced a treatise on ,medicinal ,plants1 which he did not live to complete4 ,it is not improbable that he is the same ,valgius that is mentioned in high terms by ,horace1 ,b4 i4 ,sat4 #aj4 #agij ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #agia ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #agib ,supposed by some to be the same with the ,bassus ,tullius mentioned by ancient writers as the friend of ,niger1 possibly the ,sextius ,niger here mentioned4 #agic ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #agid ,he lived at ,rome1 in the first century of the ,christian era1 and possessed a botanical garden1 probably the earliest mentioned4 ,he lived more than a hundred years1 in perfect health both of body and mind4 ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #e4 #agie ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #agif ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #agig ,a mystic personage of the early ,grecian ,mythology1 under whose name many spurious works were circulated4 ,pliny says4 ,b4 xxv4 c4 #b1 that he was the first who wrote with any degree of attention on the subject of ,plants4 #agih ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #agii ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #ahjj ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #ahja ,probably ,chrysippus of ,cnidos1 a pupil of ,eudoxus and ,philistion1 father of ,chrysippus1 the physician to ,ptolemy ,soter1 and tutor to ,erasistratus4 ,others1 again1 think that the work 8on the ,cabbage10 mentioned by ,pliny in c4 #cc1 was written by another ,chrysippus1 a pupil of ,erasistratus1 in the third century ,b4,c4 #ahjb ,a native of ,carystus1 in ,euba1 who lived in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,he belonged to the medical sect of the ,dogmatici1 and wrote several medical works1 of which the titles only and a few fragments remain4 #ahjc ,of this writer nothing whatever is known4 #ahjd ,for ,heraclides of ,heraclea1 see end of ,b4 xii42 for ,heraclides of ,pontus1 see end of ,b4 iv42 and for ,heraclides of ,tarentum1 see end of ,b4 xii4 ,they were all physicians4 #ahje ,see end of ,b4 xv4 #ahjf ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #ahjg ,it was probably this personage1 or the one next mentioned1 who wrote to ,ptolemy1 one of the kings of ,egypt1 giving him directions as to what wines he should drink4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #i4 ,a person of this name wrote a work on ,ointments and ,chaplets1 quoted by ,athenus1 and another on ,venomous ,animals1 quoted by the same author4 ,this last is probably the work referred to by ,pliny1 ,b4 xxi4 cc4 #ae1 #bi1 c4 ,it has been suggested also1 that the proper reading here is 8,apollonius0 of ,citium1 a pupil of ,zopyrus1 a physician of ,alexandria4 #ahjh ,see the preceding ,note4 #ahji ,a celebrated physician1 a native of the island of ,cos4 ,he belonged to the medical sect of the ,dogmatici1 and flourished probably in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,he was more particularly celebrated for his comparatively accurate knowledge of anatomy4 ,the titles only and a few fragments of his works survive4 #ahaj ,a pupil of ,praxagoras4 ,he appears to have written a work on ,anatomy1 quoted more than once by ,galen4 #ahaa ,a pupil of ,chrysippus of ,cnidos1 and who lived probably in the fourth and third centuries ,b4,c4 ,galen speaks of him as being held in great repute among the ,greeks4 #ahab ,he flourished in the fourth century ,b4,c41 and belonged to the medical sect of the ,dogmatici4 ,he wrote some medical works1 of which nothing but a few fragments remain4 #ahac ,he lived probably about the beginning of the third century ,b4,c41 as he was the tutor of ,antigenes and ,mnemon4 ,he seems to have been famous for his medicinal prescriptions of wine1 and the quantities of cold water which he gave to his patients4 #ahad ,born either in ,sicily or at ,locri ,epizephyrii1 in ,italy4 ,he is supposed to have lived in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,by some persons he was thought to have been one of the founders of the sect of the ,empirici4 ,he wrote works on ,materia ,medica and ,cookery1 and is several times quoted by ,pliny and ,galen4 #ahae ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #ahaf ,a ,greek herbalist1 who lived about the beginning of the first century ,b4,c4 ,he is mentioned by ,galen as one of the most eminent writers on ,materia ,medica4 ,another physician of the same name is supposed to have lived in the time of ,hippocrates4 #ahag ,a ,greek physician1 supposed to have lived in or before the first century ,b4,c4 ,dioscorides and ,saint ,epiphanius speak of ,petronius and ,diodotus1 making them different persons2 and it is not improbable that the true reading in c4 #cb of this ,book1 is 8,petronius et ,diodotus40 #ahah ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #ahai ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #ahbj ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #ahba ,it is probable that there were several ,greek physicians of this name2 but the only one of whom anything certain is known is the physician to ,ptolemy ,philopater1 king of ,egypt1 in whose tent he was killed by ,theodotus1 the tolian1 ,b4,c4 #bag4 ,he was probably the first writer on hydrophobia4 ,eratosthenes is said to have accused him of plagiarism4 #ahbb ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #ahbc ,it is doubtful if the person of this name to whom ,pliny attributes a work on the ,cabbage1 in cc4 #cd and #cf of this ,book1 was the same individual as ,epicharmus of ,cos1 the ,comic poet1 born ,b4,c4 #edj4 ,it has been suggested that the botanical writer was a different personage1 the brother of the ,comic poet ,demologus4 #ahbd ,possibly the same person as the ,damon mentioned at the end of ,b4 vii4 ,he is mentioned in c4 #dj of this ,book1 and in ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #abj1 and wrote a work on the ,onion4 #ahbe ,see end of ,b4 vi4 #ahbf ,beyond the mention made of him in c4 #gc of this ,book1 nothing whatever is known relative to this writer4 #ahbg ,beyond the mention made of him in c4 #gc1 nothing is known of him4 ,some read 8,theopolemus40 #ahbh ,probably ,metrodorus of ,chos1 a philosopher1 who flourished about ,b4,c4 #ccj1 and professed the doctrine of the ,sceptics4 ,cicero1 ,acad4 ii4 #bc1 #gc1 gives a translation of the first sentence of his work 8,on ,nature40 #ahbi ,a physician of ,smyrna4 ,he is called ,solon the ,dietetic1 by ,galen2 but nothing further seems to be known of his history4 #ahcj ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #ahca ,a ,theban authoress1 who wrote on ,medicine2 mentioned also by ,plinius ,valerianus1 the physician1 and ,pollux4 #ahcb ,a ,greek physician1 a native of ,cos1 the reputed founder of the sect of the ,empirici4 ,he probably lived in the third century ,b4,c4 ,from ,athenus we learn that he wrote a work on ,botany4 ,a parallel has been drawn between ,philinus and the late ,dr4 ,hahnemann1 by ,f4 ,f4 ,brisken1 ,berlin1 #ahcd4 #ahcc ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #ahcd ,the ,scholiast on ,nicander mentions a treatise on ,botany written by a person of this name3 and a work of his on ,medicine is mentioned by ,labbe as existing in manuscript in the ,library at ,florence4 #ahce ,a ,greek physician of this name belonging to the sect of the ,empirici1 lived probably in the third or second century ,b4,c4 ,galen mentions him as one of the earliest commentators on the works of ,hippocrates4 ,it is uncertain1 however1 whether he is the person so often quoted by ,pliny4 #ahcf ,a physician of ,aphrodisias1 in ,cilicia1 who lived in the reign of ,tiberius4 ,he wrote some pharmaceutical works1 and is censured by ,galen for his disgusting remedies1 such as human brains1 flesh1 urine1 liver1 excrements1 c4 ,there is a short essay by him still in existence1 on the ,aliments derived from the ,aquatic ,animals4 #ahcg ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #a4 #ahch 8,sive privatis generum funiculis in orbem1 in obliquum1 in ambitum2 qudam coron per coronas currunt40 ,as we know but little of the forms of the garlands and chaplets of the ancients1 the exact translation of this passage is very doubtful4 #ahci ,according to ,boettiger1 the word 8struppus0 means a string arranged as a fillet or diadem4 #ahdj ,fe makes the word 8vocabulum0 apply to 8corona10 and not to 8struppus20 but the passage will hardly admit of that rendering4 #ahda 8,to bind0 or 8join together40 #ahdb ,a 8connected line10 from the verb 8sero40 #ahdc ,by 8quod10 ,hardouin takes ,pliny to mean1 the use of the word 1 among the ,greeks1 corresponding with the ,latin word 8sertum40 #ahdd ,these chaplets1 we learn from ,festus1 were called 8pancarpi40 ,the olive1 oak1 laurel1 and myrtle1 were the trees first used for chaplets4 #ahde ,see ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #dj4 #ahdf ,the 8,chaplet-weaver40 ,see ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #dj4 #ahdg ,b4,c4 #chj4 #ahdh ,from ,athenus1 ,b4 xv4 c4 #b1 et seq41 we learn that the ,egyptian chaplets were made of ivy1 narcissus1 pomegranate blossoms1 c4 #ahdi 8,corolla10 being the diminutive of 8corona40 #ahej ,or tinsel4 #ahea ,the 8,rich40 #aheb ,ribbons or streamers4 #ahec 8,puri40 #ahed ,consul1 ,a4,u4,c4 #egj4 #ahee ,or 8engrave10 8clare40 ,he is probably speaking here of golden lemnisci4 #ahef 8,philyr40 ,this was properly the inner bark of the linden-tree2 but it is not improbable that thin plates of metal were also so called1 from the resemblance4 ,the passage1 however1 admits of various modes of explanation4 #aheg 8,pecuni40 ,fe compares this usage with the employment of jockies at horse-races in ,england and ,france4 #aheh 8,intus positus esset40 #ahei 8,foris ferretur40 #ahfj ,or 8money-changer10 8argentarius40 #ahfa 8,e pergul su40 ,scaliger thinks that the 8pergula0 was a part of a house built out into the street1 while1 according to ,ernesti1 it was a little room in the upper part of a house4 ,in ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #cf1 it clearly means a room on the ground-floor4 #ahfb ,in the ,fora of ancient cities there was frequently a statue of this mythological personage1 with one hand erect1 in token1 ,servius says 7on ,b4 iv4 l4 #eh of the neid71 of the freedom of the state1 ,marsyas having been the minister of ,bacchus1 the god of liberty4 ,his statue in the ,forum of ,rome was the place of assembly for the courtesans of that city1 who used to crown it with chaplets of flowers4 ,see also ,horace i4 ,sat4 #f4 l4 #abj2 ,juvenal1 ,sat4 #i4 l4 #a and #b2 and ,martial1 ii4 ,ep4 #fd4 l4 #g4 #ahfc ,cujacius thinks that ,pliny has in view here ,polemon of ,athens1 who when a young man1 in his drunken revelry1 burst into the school of ,xenocrates1 the philosopher1 with his fellow-revellers1 wearing his festive garland on his head4 ,being arrested1 however1 by the discourse1 he stopped to listen1 and at length1 tearing off the garland1 determined to enter on a more abstemious course of life4 ,becoming an ardent disciple of ,xenocrates1 he ultimately succeeded him at the head of the school4 ,the passage as given in the text1 from its apparent incompleteness1 would appear to be in a mutilated state4 #ahfd ,julia4 ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #df4 #ahfe ,thus acknowledging herself to be no better than a common courtesan4 #ahff 8,illius dei40 #ahfg ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #aj4 #ahfh 8,funus elocavit40 #ahfi 8,e prospectu omni40 8,from every look-out30 i4 e4 from the roofs1 doors1 and windows4 #ahgj ,this usage is still observed in the immortelles1 laid on the tombs of departed friends1 in ,catholic countries on the continent4 ,tibullus alludes to it1 ,b4 ii4 ,el4 #d3 8,atque aliquis senior veteres veneratus amores1 ,annua constructo serta dabit tumulo40 #ahga ,at the conclusion of the festival of ,mars on the #ast of ,march1 and for several successive days4 ,these entertainments were celebrated in the ,temple of that god1 and were proverbial for their excellence4 #ahgb ,it is a well-known fact1 as ,fe remarks1 that the smell of flowers is productive1 in some persons1 of head-ache1 nausea1 and vertigo4 ,he states also that persons have been known to meet their death from sleeping all night in the midst of odoriferous flowers4 #ahgc 8,ipsaque capiti imposita40 ,holland and ,ajasson render this as though ,cleopatra placed the garland on ,antony's head1 and not her own4 ,littr agrees with the translation here adopted4 #ahgd ,fe remarks that we know of no poisons1 hydrocyanic or prussic acid excepted1 so instantaneous in their effects as this2 and that it is very doubtful if they were acquainted with that poison4 #ahge ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 cc4 #f1 #g4 #ahgf 8,persecutus est40 #ahgg ,a characteristic1 it would appear1 of the greater part of the information already given in this ,book4 #ahgh ,he alludes to the wild rose or eglantine4 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ga4 #ahgi 8,granoso cortice40 #ahhj ,boxes of a pyramidal shape4 ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #ef4 #ahha ,still1 even for that purpose the rose was very extensively used4 ,one ancient author states that1 even in the middle of winter1 the more luxurious ,romans were not satisfied without roses swimming in their ,falernian wine2 and we find ,horace repeatedly alluding to the chaplets of roses worn by the guests at banquets4 ,hence probably arose the expression1 8,under the rose40 ,fe is evidently mistaken in thinking that ,pliny implies here1 that it was but rarely used in chaplets4 #ahhb ,il4 xxiii4 l4 #ahf4 #ahhc ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 #ahhd 8,collyriis40 #ahhe ,clusius was of opinion that this was the ,provence rose1 the ,rosa ,gallica of ,linnus4 #ahhf ,the same rose1 probably1 of which ,virgil says1 ,georg4 ,b4 iv4 l4 #aai1 8,biferique rosaria ,psti0--8,and the rose-beds of ,pstum1 that bear twice in the year40 ,it has been suggested that it is identical with the ,rosa alba vulgaris major of ,bauhin1 the ,rosa alba of ,decandolle3 but1 as ,fe says1 it is very questionable if this is correct1 this white rose blossoming but once a year4 #ahhg ,a simple variety of the ,rosa ,gallica of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #ahhh ,see ,b4 iv4 c4 #ad4 ,according to ,j4 ,bauhin1 this is the pale1 flesh-coloured rose1 called the 8rose of ,france10--the 8,rosa rubello flore1 majore1 pleno1 incarnata vulgo40 ,others1 again1 take it to be the ,damascus rose4 #ahhi ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #bi4 ,a variety of the white rose1 ,fe thinks1 the determination of which must be sought among the ,eglantines4 #ahij 8,spiniola40 ,a variety belonging to or approaching the ,eglantine in all probability4 ,fe makes mention here of a kind called the ,rosa myriacantha by ,decandolle 7the 8thousand-thorn rose071 which is found in great abundance in the south of ,europe1 and other parts of it4 #ahia ,fe remarks on this passage1 that the beauty of the flower and the number of the petals are always in an inverse proportion to the number of thorns1 which disappear successively the more carefully the plant is cultivated4 #ahib ,this is most probably the meaning of 8,asperitate1 levore40 #ahic ,still known as the 8,rosa centifolia40 ,its petals sometimes exceed three hundred in number2 and it is the most esteemed of all for its fragrant smell4 #ahid 8,non su terr proventu40 #ahie ,this rose is mentioned also by ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #f4 ,from the description that ,pliny gives of it1 ,fe is inclined to think that it is some variety of the ,rosa rubrifolia1 which is often found in mountainous localities4 #ahif ,this assertion is borrowed from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #f4 ,fe remarks that there is no truth in it4 ,it is not improbable1 however1 that the word 8cortex0 here may mean1 not the calyx1 but the bark of the stem1 in reference to its exemption from thorns4 ,the of ,theophrastus would seem to admit of that rendering4 ,see ,note #ahia above4 #ahig 8,extremas velut ad cardines40 #ahih ,this is not the case with the ,rosa centifolia of modern botany4 ,see ,note #ahic above4 ,it is not improbable1 however1 that the reading is 8probabilis10 and that this passage belongs to the next sentence4 #ahii ,the ,lychnis1 ,fe remarks1 is erroneously classed by ,pliny among the roses4 ,it is generally agreed among naturalists that it is the garden flower1 the ,agrostemma coronaria of ,linnus2 which1 however1 does not grow in humid soils1 but in steep1 rocky places4 #aijj ,or 8small ,greek0 rose4 ,some commentators have identified it with the ,rosa silvestris1 odorata1 flore albo of ,c4 ,bauhin1 a wild white rose4 #aija ,sillig thinks that this may mean the 8,macedonian0 rose4 ,another reading is 8moscheuton40 ,fe says that it is not a rose at all1 but one of the ,malvace belonging to the genus ,alca2 one variety of which is called the ,alca rosa4 #aijb ,or 8little chaplet40 ,possibly a variety of the ,eglantine1 the ,rosa canina or dog-rose1 ,fe suggests4 #aijc ,the ,eglantine4 #aijd ,this seems to be the meaning of 8tot modis adulteratur30 the roses without smell appearing to him to be not genuine roses4 #aije ,the ,rosa ,damascena of ,miller1 ,fe thinks1 our ,damascus rose4 #aijf ,the earliest rose in ,france and ,spain1 ,fe says1 is the 8pompon10 the variety ,pompona of the ,rosa centifolia4 #aijg ,this is consistent with modern experience4 #aijh ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #f4 ,the rose is but very rarely reproduced from seed4 #aiji ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fg1 and ,b4 xvii4 c4 #cc4 #aiaj ,previously mentioned in this ,chapter4 ,the meaning of this passage1 however1 is extremely doubtful4 8,unum genus inseritur pallid1 spinos1 longissimis virgis1 quinquifoli1 qu ,grcis altera est40 #aiaa ,if the water was only lukewarm1 ,fe says1 it would be of no use1 and if hotter1 the speedy death of the tree would be the result4 #aiab 8,qudam cognatione40 ,he alludes to a maceration of the petals of the rose and lily in oil4 ,the aroma of the lily1 ,fe says1 has not been fixed by any method yet found4 #aiac ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 #aiad ,the ,lilium candidum of ,linnus4 ,fe remarks that the 8,lilium0 of the ,romans and the of the ,greeks is evidently derived from the laleh of the ,persians4 #aiae 8,calathi40 ,the 8calathus0 was a work-basket of tapering shape2 it was also used for carrying fruits and flowers1 ,ovid1 ,art4 ,am4 ii4 #bfd4 ,cups1 too1 for wine were called by this name1 ,virg4 ,ecl4 v4 #ga4 #aiaf ,as this passage has been somewhat amplified in the translation1 it will perhaps be as well to insert it3 8,resupinis per ambitum labris1 tenuique pilo et staminum stantibus in medio crocis40 #aiag ,the ,convolvulus spium of modern botany2 the only resemblance in which to the lily is in the colour1 it being totally different in every other respect4 #aiah 8,rudimentum40 ,she must have set to work in a very roundabout way1 ,fe thinks1 and one in which it would be quite impossible for a naturalist to follow her4 #aiai ,the white lily is reproduced from the offsets of the bulbs2 and1 as ,fe justly remarks1 it is highly absurd to compare the mode of cultivation with that of the rose1 which is propagated from slips4 #aibj ,this absurd notion is derived from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ii4 c4 #b1 and ,b4 vi4 c4 #f4 #aiba ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #dh4 #aibb ,the root really consists of certain fine fibres1 to which the bulbs1 or rather cloves or offsets1 are attached4 #aibc ,judging from what ,theocritus says1 in his #ceth ,idyl1 the 8crinon0 would appear to have been a white lily4 ,sprengel1 however1 takes the red lily of ,pliny to be the scarlet lily1 the ,lilium ,chalcedonicum of ,linnus4 #aibd ,or 8dog-rose30 name now given to one of the wild roses4 #aibe ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #i4 #aibf ,fe remarks1 that it is singular that ,pliny1 as also ,virgil1 ,ecl4 v4 l4 #ch1 should have given the epithet 8purpureus0 to the ,narcissus4 ,it is owing1 ,fe says1 to the red nectary of the flower1 which is also bordered with a very bright red4 #aibg ,into cloves or offsets4 #aibh ,the ,narcissus poeticus of ,linnus4 ,pliny gives the origin of its name in c4 #ge of this ,book4 #aibi ,though supported by ,theophrastus1 this assertion is quite erroneous4 ,in ,france1 even1 ,fe says1 the ,narcissus poeticus blossoms at the end of ,april1 and sooner1 probably1 in the climates of ,greece and ,italy4 #aicj ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #gf4 ,it is just possible that ,pliny and ,theophrastus may be speaking of the ,narcissus scrotinus of ,linnus1 which is found in great abundance in the southern provinces of ,naples1 and is undoubtedly the flower alluded to by ,virgil in the words1 8,nec sera comantem ,narcissum10 ,georg4 iv4 ll4 #abb1 #abc4 #aica ,fe remarks1 that the extravagant proceeding here described by ,pliny with a seriousness that is perfectly ridiculous1 does not merit any discussion4 #aicb ,when detached from the bulb1 the stem of the lily will infallibly die4 #aicc 8,nudantibus se nodulis40 ,there are no such knots in the lily1 as ,fe remarks4 #aicd ,the ,viola odorata of ,linnus4 #aice ,the ,greek name4 #aicf 8,ianthina vestis10 violet-coloured4 #aicg ,desfontaines identifies this with the ,cheiranthus ,cheiri2 but ,fe says that there is little doubt that it belongs to the ,viola tricolor herbensis 7pansy1 or heart's-ease71 in the petals of which the yellow predominates1 and the type of which is the field violet1 or ,viola arvensis1 the flowers of which are extremely small1 and entirely yellow4 #aich ,this has been identified with the ,cheiranthus incanus1 the ,cheiranthus tricuspidatus of the shores of the ,mediterranean1 the ,hesperis maritima of ,linnus2 also1 by some commentators1 with the ,campanula ,medium of ,linnus4 #aici ,so called1 according to ,pintianus and ,salmasius1 from ,calatia1 a town of ,italy4 ,fe adopts the reading 8,calathiana10 and considers it to have received that name from its resemblance to the ,caltha mentioned in the next ,chapter4 ,dalechamps identifies it with the ,digitalis purpurea2 ,gessner1 ,dodonus1 and ,thalius1 with the ,gentiana pneumonanthe1 others with the ,gentiana ciliata and ,pannonica1 and ,sprengel with the ,gentiana verna of ,linnus4 ,fe admits himself totally at a loss on the subject4 #aidj 8,concolori amplitudine40 ,gronovius1 with considerable justice1 expresses himself at a loss as to the exact meaning of these words4 ,if ,sprengel and ,salmasius are right in their conjectures that the ,caltha of ,pliny and ,virgil is the marigold1 our ,calendula officinalis1 the passage cannot mean that the flower of it is of the same size and colour with any variety of the violet mentioned in the preceding ,chapter4 ,from the description given of it by ,dioscorides1 it is more than probable that the ,caltha of the ancients is not the marigold1 and ,hardouin is probably right in his conjecture that ,pliny intends to describe a variety of the violet under the name4 ,fe is at a loss as to its identification4 #aida ,or 8royal broom40 ,sprengel thinks that this is the ,chenopodium scoparia1 a plant common in ,greece and ,italy2 and ,fe is inclined to coincide with that opinion1 though1 as he says1 there are numerous other plants with odoriferous leaves and pliant shoots1 as its name1 broom1 would seem to imply4 ,other writers would identify it with a ,sideritis1 and others1 again1 with an ,achilla4 #aidb ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #bf4 ,fe is inclined to coincide with ,ruellius1 and to identify this with the ,digitalis purpurea1 clown's spikenard1 or our ,lady's gloves4 ,the only strong objection to this is the fact that the root of the digitalis has a very faint but disagreeable smell1 and not at all like that of cinnamon4 ,but then1 as ,fe says1 we have no positive proof that the 8cinnamomum0 of the ancients is identical with our cinnamon4 ,see ,vol4 iii4 p4 #ach4 ,sprengel takes the 8bacchar0 of ,virgil to be the ,valeriana ,celtica1 and the 8baccharis0 of the ,greeks to be the ,gnaphalium sanguineum1 a plant of ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,the bacchar has been also identified with the ,asperula odorata of ,linnus1 the ,geum urbanum of ,linnus 7the root of which has the smell of cloves71 the ,inula ,vaillantii1 the ,salvia ,sclarea1 and many other plants4 #aidc 8,barbaricam40 ,everything that was not indigenous to the territory of ,rome1 was 8barbarum10 or 8barbaricum40 #aidd ,csalpinus says that this is a rushy plant1 called1 in ,tuscany1 ,herba luziola2 but ,fe is quite at a loss for its identification4 #aide ,sillig is most probably right in his surmise that there is an hiatus here4 #aidf ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #bg4 ,asarum ,europum1 or foal-foot4 #aidg ,probably meaning that it comes from 1 8not10 and 1 8to adorn40 #aidh ,or ,crocus1 the ,crocus sativus of ,linnus1 from the prepared stigmata of which the saffron of commerce is made4 ,it is still found growing wild on the mountains in the vicinity of ,athens1 and is extensively cultivated in many parts of ,europe4 #aidi 8,degenerans ubique40 ,judging from what he states below1 he may possibly mean1 if grown repeatedly on the same soil4 #aiej ,he may allude either to the city of ,phlegra of ,macedonia1 or to the ,phlegran ,plains in ,campania1 which were remarkable for their fertility4 ,virgil speaks of the saffron of ,mount ,tmolus in ,cilicia4 #aiea ,it is very extensively adulterated with the petals of the marigold1 as also the ,carthamus tinctorius1 safflower1 or bastard saffron4 #aieb ,this is the case2 for when it is brittle it shows that it has not been adulterated with water1 to add to its weight4 #aiec ,perhaps the reading here1 8,cum sit in medio candidum10 is preferable2 8because it is white in the middle40 #aied 8,white throughout40 #aiee ,he contradicts himself here2 for in c4 #gi of this ,book1 he says that chaplets of saffron are good for dispelling the fumes of wine4 #aief 8,ad theatra replenda40 ,it was the custom to discharge saffron-water over the theatres with pipes1 and sometimes the saffron was mixed with wine for the purpose4 ,it was discharged through pipes of very minute bore1 so that it fell upon the spectators in the form of the finest dust4 ,see ,lucretius1 ,b4 ii4 l4 #daf2 ,lucan1 ,phars4 ix4 l4 #hjh-haj2 and ,seneca1 ,epist4 #ib4 #aieg ,it flowers so rapidly1 in fact1 that it is difficult to avoid the loss of a part of the harvest4 #aieh ,the whole of this passage is from ,theophrastus1 ,de ,odorib4 #aiei ,this statement1 though borrowed from ,theophrastus1 is not consistent with fact4 ,the root of saffron is not more long-lived than any other bulbs of the ,liliace4 #aifj ,because1 ,dalechamps says1 all the juices are thereby thrown back into the root1 which consequently bears a stronger flower the next year4 #aifa ,il4 xiv4 l4 #cdh4 #aifb see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cb4 #aifc ,all these statements as to the odours of various substances1 are from ,theophrastus1 ,de ,causis1 ,b4 vi4 c4 #bb4 #aifd ,he does not say1 however1 that it is but rarely that a bitter substance is not odoriferous2 a sense in which ,fe seems to have understood him1 as he says1 8,this assertion is not true in general1 and there are numerous exceptions2 for instance1 quassia wood1 which is inodorous and yet intensely bitter40 ,the essential oil1 he remarks1 elaborated in the tissue of the corolla1 is the ordinary source of the emanations of the flower4 #aife ,fe remarks that cultivation gives to plants a softer and more aqueous consistency1 which is consequently injurious to the developement of the essential oil4 #aiff ,theophrastus1 from whom this is borrowed1 might have said with more justice1 ,fe remarks1 that certain roses have more odour when dried than when fresh gathered4 ,such is the case1 he says1 with the ,provence rose4 ,fresh roses1 however1 have a more pronounced smell1 the nearer they are to the olfactory organs4 #aifg ,this is by no means invariably the case3 in fact1 the smell of most odoriferous plants is most powerful in summer4 #aifh ,because the essential oils evaporate more rapidly4 #aifi ,with ,littr1 we adopt the reading 8tate10 8mid-age10 and not 8state10 8midsummer10 for although the assertion would be in general correct1 ,pliny would contradict the statement just made1 that all plants have a more penetrating odour in spring4 ,this reading is supported also by the text of ,theophrastus4 #aigj ,or saffron4 #aiga ,this is a just observation1 but the instances might be greatly extended1 as ,fe says4 #aigb ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ci4 #aigc ,the white lily and the red lily4 ,see c4 #aa of this ,book4 #aigd ,as to the ,abrotonum1 see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b1 and c4 #cd of this ,book4 #aige ,see c4 #ce of this ,book4 #aigf ,or in other words1 the interior of the petals has a more bitter flavour than that of the exterior surface4 #aigg ,pliny makes a mistake here1 in copying from ,theophrastus4 ,de ,causis1 ,b4 vi4 c4 #be4 ,that author is speaking not of the flower1 but of the rainbow1 under the name of 8iris40 ,pliny has himself made a similar statement as to the rainbow1 in ,b4 xii4 c4 #eb1 which he would appear here to have forgotten4 #aigh ,the ,cheiranthus tristis of ,linnus1 or sad gilliflower1 ,fe thinks4 #aigi ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #bc4 ,pliny did not know of the existence of the musk-deer1 the ,muschus moschiferus of ,eastern ,asia3 and he seems not to have thought of the civet1 7if1 indeed1 it was known to him7 the fox1 the weasel1 and the polecat1 the exhalations from which have a peculiar smell4 ,the same1 too1 with the urine of the panther and other animals of the genus ,felis4 #aihj ,for some superstitious reason1 in all probability4 ,pliny mentions below1 the formalities with which this plant ought to be gathered4 #aiha ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 ,the ancient type of this plant1 our iris1 sword-lily1 or flower-de-luce1 was probably the ,iris ,florentina or ,florentine iris of modern botany4 #aihb ,at the present day1 too1 it is the root of the plant that is the most important part of it4 #aihc ,the ,iris ,florentina1 probably1 of ,linnus4 #aihd ,mentioned by ,nicander1 ,theriaca1 l4 #dc4 #aihe ,probably a variety only of the preceding kind4 #aihf ,the most common varieties in ,africa are the ,iris alata of ,lamarck1 ,i4 ,mauritanica of ,clusius1 ,i4 juncea1 and ,i4 stylosa of ,desfontaines4 #aihg 8,raphanus40 ,c4 ,bauhin identifies the ,rhaphanitis with the ,iris biflora1 and the ,rhizotomus with the ,iris angustifolia prunum redolens4 #aihh ,see c4 #ch of this ,book4 #aihi ,no kind of iris1 ,fe says1 fresh or dried1 whole or powdered1 is productive of this effect4 #aiij ,very similar1 probably1 to that of ,illyria4 #aiia ,all these superstitions are from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #i4 #aiib ,this1 ,fe says1 is quite consistent with modern experience4 #aiic 8,irinum40 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 #aiid ,probably the ,valeriana ,celtica of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #bg1 where it is mentioned as ,gallic nard4 #aiie 8,cspes40 #aiif ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #ba4 #aiig ,probably the ,teucrium polium of ,linnus2 the herb poley1 or poley-mountain4 #aiih ,by those who carry it on their person4 #aiii ,this marvel is related by ,dioscorides in reference to the ,tripolium1 and not the ,polium4 #bjjj ,the ,teucrium montanum1 probably1 of ,linnus4 #bjja ,this name belongs1 properly1 to the wild or mountain ,polium4 #bjjb 8,principales40 ,the meaning of this term is explained at the end of this ,chapter4 ,red1 yellow1 and blue--or else1 red1 green1 and violet1 are probably the primary colours of light4 #bjjc ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #fe1 and ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ab4 ,he alludes to the ,coccus ilicis of ,linnus4 #bjjd ,see ,b4 xxxvii4 c4 #dj1 as to the meaning of the word 8,suspectus40 ,this passage1 however1 as ,sillig remarks1 is hopelessly corrupt4 #bjje ,see ,b4 ix4 cc4 #fj1 #fc4 #bjjf 8,doubly-dyed10 or 8twice dipped10 in purple4 ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #fc4 ,littr remarks here that1 according to ,doctor ,bizio1 it was the ,murex brandaris that produced the ,tyrian purple1 and the ,murex trunculus the amethystine purple4 #bjjg ,or 8violet-colour40 ,see ,b4 xxxvii4 c4 #dj4 #bjjh ,for further information on these tints1 see ,b4 ix4 cc4 #fd1 #fe4 #bjji ,belonging1 probably1 ,fe thinks1 to the ,crucifer of the genera ,hesperis and ,cheiranthus4 #bjaj 8,flammeis0 ,the 8flammeum10 or flame-coloured veil of the bride1 was of a bright yellow1 or rather orange-colour1 perhaps4 #bjaa ,the ,celosia cristata of ,linnus4 #bjab 8,spica40 ,the moderns have been enabled to equal the velvety appearance of the amaranth in the tints imparted by them to their velvets4 ,the ,italians call it the 8velvet-flower40 #bjac ,the real fact is1 that the amaranth1 being naturally a dry flower1 and having little humidity to lose1 keeps better than most others4 #bjad ,from the ,greek 1 8not10 and 1 8to fade40 #bjae ,being the ,greek for 8blue0 or 8azure40 #bjaf ,the ,centaurea cyanus of ,linnus2 our blue-bell4 #bjag ,meaning 8all gold40 ,it has been identified with the ,gnaphalium stchas of ,linnus1 the immortelle of the ,french1 which forms the ingredient for their funereal chaplets4 #bjah ,sprengel says that this is the ,geum rivale of ,linnus2 but then the ,geum is a spring1 and not an autumn flower1 its blossoms bear no resemblance to those of the eglantine1 and its seeds are not yellow4 #bjai ,generally supposed to be the ,chrysanthemum segetum1 or golden daisy4 #bjbj 8,pastillicantibus quinquagenis quinis barbulis coronatur40 ,pliny is unusually verbose here4 #bjba 8,golden locks10 or 8gold plant20 probably the ,chrysocoma linosyris of ,linnus2 though the name appears to have been given to numerous plants4 #bjbb ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fi1 ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fe1 ,b4 xix4 c4 #b1 ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #dj2 also c4 #db of the present ,book4 #bjbc ,the ,nerium oleander of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #cc1 and ,b4 xxiv4 cc4 #dg1 #di4 #bjbd ,as to the ,zizyphum1 or jujube1 see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ad4 ,the flower1 as ,pliny says1 is not unlike that of the olive2 but ,fe remarks1 that it may at the present day as justly be called the tree of ,provence or of ,italy1 as in ancient times 8the tree of ,cappadocia40 #bjbe ,b4 xxv4 c4 #fg4 #bjbf ,see ,b4 v4 c4 #da4 #bjbg ,see ,b4 xvi4 cc4 #fb and #fc1 and ,b4 xxiv4 cc4 #dg and #di4 #bjbh ,or ,vitis alba1 8white vine10 the ,bryonia dioica of modern botany4 ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #af4 #bjbi ,the ,spira salicifolia of ,linnus1 or meadowsweet4 #bjcj ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #fg1 and c4 #cj of this ,book4 #bjca ,the ,daphne ,cnidium of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #ce2 also ,b4 xii4 c4 #dc4 ,it is altogether different from the ,laurus cassia1 or genuine cassia4 #bjcb ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #fc4 #bjcc ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #de4 #bjcd 8,sertula ,camapana40 #bjce ,most probably1 ,fe thinks1 the ,trifolium ,melilotus officinalis1 a clover1 or trefoil4 #bjcf ,the ,psoranthea bituminosa of ,linnus4 ,it is found on declivities near the sea-coast1 in the south of ,europe4 #bjcg 8,pointed trefoil40 ,pliny has probably committed an error here1 as ,dioscorides makes oxyphyllum1 minyanthes1 and asphaltium to be different names of the same variety4 ,sprengel1 however1 identifies this pointed trefoil with the ,trifolium ,italicum of ,linnus4 #bjch ,the ,anethum fniculum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #da1 ,b4 xx4 c4 #ie1 and ,b4 xxx4 c4 #i4 #bjci ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #if4 #bjdj ,the 8mouse-killer40 ,probably the ,aconitum napellus of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #b4 #bjda ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fb4 #bjdb ,fe remarks1 that there is no such ivy in existence2 he agrees with ,dalechamps in the opinion that ,pliny has confounded 1 8ivy10 with 1 the 8rock-rose40 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #fb4 #bjdc ,the ,daphne ,cnidium and the ,daphne ,cneorum of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #ce1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #bjdd ,in reality1 they blossom in ,april and ,may1 and mostly a second time in autumn as well1 the ,daphne ,cneorum in particular4 #bjde ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #fi4 #bjdf ,under the head 8,thymus10 ,fe thinks that both the ,satureia capitata of ,linnus1 headed savory1 and the ,thymus vulgaris1 and ,thymus zygis of ,linnus 7varieties of thyme71 should be included4 #bjdg ,fe thinks that in the expression 8nigricans10 he may allude to the deep red of the stalk of some kinds of thyme1 more particularly at the end of summer4 ,it is the ,thymus zigis that has a white1 downy stem4 #bjdh ,from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #b1 and ,de ,causis1 ,b4 i4 c4 #e4 ,fe suggests1 that the seed1 lying at the bottom of the calyx1 may have escaped notice1 and that in reality1 when the ancients imagined they were sowing the blossoms1 they were putting the seed in the earth4 ,that1 in fact1 seems to agree with the view which ,pliny takes of the matter4 #bjdi ,which lies in the interior of the ,peloponnesus4 #bjej ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #a4 #bjea 8,lapidei ,campi40 ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #e4 #bjeb ,similar to our practice of depasturing sheep on ,dartmoor and other favourite moors and downs4 #bjec ,fe takes this to be the ,inula viscosa of ,desfontaines1 and identifies the other kind with the ,inula pulicaria of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 cc4 #fc1 #fd4 #bjed ,b4 xx4 c4 #fd4 #bjee ,supposed to be the same as the ,agrostemma coronaria of ,linnus4 #bjef ,sprengel identifies it with the ,pancratium maritimum of ,linnus4 ,as described by ,dioscorides1 however1 ,fe takes it to be the ,lilium ,martagon1 or ,turk's-cap lily4 ,see c4 #ij of this ,book4 #bjeg ,this is different from the ,helenium of the ,greeks1 the ,inula ,helenium of ,linnus1 mentioned in ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,teucrium ,creticum of ,linnus1 the ,cretan germander4 #bjeh ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ia4 #bjei 8,flame40 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,agrostemma coronaria of ,linnus1 making the flower of ,jove to be the ,agrostemma flos ,jovis4 #bjfj ,fe remarks1 that if this is our ,thymus serpyllum1 this exception is inexact4 #bjfa ,for two islands of this name1 see ,b4 iv4 c4 #bj1 and c4 #bc4 #bjfb ,the female ,abrotonum is identified with the ,santolina chamcyparissus of ,linnus3 the little-cypress ,santoline4 ,the male is the ,artemisia abrotonum of ,linnus1 our southern-wood4 #bjfc ,pliny has probably committed an error here in transcribing from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #g1 who1 when speaking of the abrotonum1 says1 8,it is transplanted in earthen pots1 in the way employed for the gardens of ,adonis10 these gardens being moveable parterres1 laid out in pots or vases4 ,we cannot agree with ,hardouin1 who looks upon the ,adonium as a variety of the ,abrotonum1 and censures ,salmasius for accusing ,pliny of committing an error here4 #bjfd ,the 8,white flower40 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bf4 #bjfe ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 ,the sampsuchum1 or amaracus1 is generally thought to be the sweet marjoram1 or ,origanum marjorana of ,linnus4 ,but ,fe identifies it with the ,origanum majoranoides of ,willdenow1 our organy1 wild or false marjoram4 #bjff ,the 8night-watcher40 ,according to ,sprengel1 this is the ,csalpina pulcherrima of ,linnus4 ,but1 as ,fe says1 that is entirely an ,indian plant1 and has only been introduced but very recently into ,europe4 ,hardouin identifies it with a plant called 8lunaria0 by the naturalists of his day1 which shines1 he says1 with the moon at night4 #bjfg ,the ,csalpina pulcherrima is not to be found in or near ,gedrosia 7in ancient ,persia71 but solely on the shores of the ,bay of ,bengal4 #bjfh ,from 8geese0 and a 8corner20 because geese run into a corner on seeing it4 #bjfi ,as to the meaning of this word1 see ,b4 xxviii4 c4 #dg4 #bjgj ,see c4 #bi of this ,book4 #bjga ,this has been thought to be the ,cheiranthus incanus1 ,cheiranthus annus1 and ,leucoium vernum of modern botany2 but ,fe is of opinion that it is next to impossible to identify it4 ,see c4 #ad of this ,book4 #bjgb ,see c4 #cc of this ,book4 #bjgc ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #fg4 #bjgd ,in c4 #aa of this ,book4 ,there is no late variety of the lily known at the present day4 #bjge ,or 8wind flower30 the ,anemone coronaria of ,linnus4 #bjgf ,a ranunculus4 ,see c4 #id of this ,book4 #bjgg ,or 8vine-blossom40 ,see c4 #ie of this ,book4 #bjgh ,or 8black violet10 mentioned by ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #g4 ,pliny may probably mean the purple violet1 mentioned by him in c4 #ad of this ,book4 8,melanthium0 is another reading4 #bjgi ,not improbably the same as the 8holochrysos10 mentioned in c4 #bd of this ,book4 #bjhj 8,meadow0 anemone4 #bjha 8,the little sword40 ,see c4 #fg of this ,book4 #bjhb ,there have been conflicting opinions as to the identification of the hyacinth of the ancients4 ,linnus identifies it with the ,delphinium ,ajacis3 ,sprengel and ,salmasius with the ,gladiolus communis3 ,sibthorp with the ,gladiolus communis triphyllos3 ,dodonus and ,porta the ,lilium bulbiferum3 and ,martyn and ,fe the ,lilium ,martagon of ,linnus1 the ,turk's-cap lily4 ,from what ,pliny says in cc4 #ci and #ig of this ,book1 and in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #hj1 it is pretty clear that under the name of hyacinth he has confused the characteristics of two different plants4 ,the hyacinth1 too1 of ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #e1 is a different plant1 ,fe remarks1 being the ,hyacinthus comosus of modern botanists4 #bjhc ,the ,greek 1 8,alas60 which the ancients fancied they saw impressed on the leaves4 #bjhd ,see ,ovid's ,met4 ,b4 x4 l4 #afb-bbj4 #bjhe ,see ,ovid's ,met4 ,b4 xiii4 l4 #cig1 et seq4 #bjhf 8,unsullied by fire40 #bjhg ,or 8light0 flower3 the ,agrostemma coronaria of ,linnus4 #bjhh ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #g1 mentions the 8cerinthus0 next after the flower of ,jove3 ,pliny seems to have taken it for a kind of lily4 ,this flower has not been identified4 #bjhi ,sprengel takes this to be the ,lavandula spica1 or ,lavender4 #bjij ,hardouin identifies this with the ,lychnis ,chalcedonica1 or ,cross of ,jerusalem1 with which opinion ,fe seems inclined to coincide4 ,other commentators incline to the opinion that it is the ,jasminum fruticans1 a plant in which1 beyond its smell1 there is nothing at all remarkable4 ,the exotic monocotyledon1 known as the 8,pothos10 has no connection with the plant here mentioned4 #bjia ,this1 according to some1 is the ,lychnis ,chalcedonica1 the next being the ,jasminum fruticans4 #bjib ,as known to us1 all the varieties of the iris blossom in spring4 #bjic ,the purple lily1 ,fe thinks4 #bjid ,if this is the correct reading1 which is very doubtful1 this plant is unknown4 ,m4 ,jan has suggested that ,pliny1 in copying from ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #g1 has read by mistake for 1 8mountainous10 the original meaning being1 8,two varieties of saffron1 one of them growing on the mountains1 the other cultivated20 and this last word being rendered by ,pliny 8hebes10 translated above as meaning 8inodorous40 #bjie ,the ,acanthus1 probably4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #cd1 and ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #ff4 #bjif ,forskhal speaks of an acanthus in ,arabia1 the leaves of which are eaten raw4 ,fe thinks1 that these shoots might be eaten without any inconvenience1 but doubts if they would make such a tempting morsel as ,pliny describes4 #bjig ,or blue-bell4 #bjih ,linnus and other authorities identify this with the ,clematis of ,dioscorides1 the ,vinca major and minor of modern botany1 our periwinkle4 ,fe1 however1 is inclined to identify it with the ,chamdaphne1 or ground-laurel of ,b4 xv4 c4 #ci1 the ,ruscus racemosus of ,linnus4 #bjii ,see c4 #ch of this ,book4 #bajj ,this method of cultivation1 also mentioned by ,theophrastus1 is never employed in modern horticulture4 #baja ,in c4 #aj of this ,book4 #bajb ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ej4 #bajc 8,honey-leaf40 ,the ,melissa officinalis of ,linnus3 our balm-gentle4 ,it is the same as the 8apiastrum10 though ,pliny has erroneously made them distinct plants4 #bajd 8,wax-flower40 ,the ,cerinthe major of ,linnus3 the greater honeywort4 #baje ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #h4 ,on the contrary1 ,virgil says1 ,georg4 iv4 l4 #bj1 that a wild olive-tree should be planted near the hives1 to protect them with its shade4 ,varro says also1 ,de ,re ,rust4 iii4 #af1 that the bee extracts honey from the olive-tree2 but according to ,aristotle1 ,hist4 ,anim4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #fd1 it is from the leaf1 and not the flower of that tree that the honey is extracted4 #bajf ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ca4 ,fe is inclined to doubt the correctness of the assertion here made by ,pliny4 #bajg ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #e4 ,the remedies for the diseases of bees in modern times are of a very similar nature1 but attention is equally paid to the proper ventilation of the hives4 #bajh ,this plan is still adopted on the river ,po1 the ancient ,padus1 as also at ,beauce1 in the south of ,france1 where the hives are carried from place to place upon carts4 ,in the north of ,england it is the practice to carry the hives to the moors in autumn4 #baji ,this has been doubted by ,spielmann1 but it is nevertheless the truth2 the nature of the sugar secreted by the glands of the nectary1 being analogous to that of the plant which furnishes it4 ,the honey gathered from aconite in ,switzerland has been known to produce vertigo and even delirium4 ,dr4 ,barton also gives a similar account of the effects of the poisonous honey collected from the ,kalmia latifolia in ,pennsylvania2 and ,geoffroi ,saint ,hilaire says that1 having eaten in ,brazil some honey prepared by a wasp called 8lecheguana10 his life was put in very considerable danger thereby4 ,xenophon also speaks of the effects of the intoxicating or maddening honey upon some of the ,ten ,thousand in their retreat4 #baaj ,the rhododendrons and rose laurels1 ,fe says1 which are so numerous in these parts1 render the fact here stated extremely probable4 #baaa 8,goats' death40 ,fe says that this is the ,rhododendron ,ponticum of ,linnus4 ,desfontaines identifies it with the ,azalea ,pontica of modern botany4 #baab ,in reality1 there are no visible signs by which to detect that the honey is poisonous4 #baac ,b4 xxix4 c4 #ca4 #baad ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #be4 #baae 1 8maddening40 #baaf ,the golethron of the preceding ,chapter1 ,fe thinks4 ,if so1 the word rhododendron1 he says1 would apply to two plants1 the ,nerion oleander or rose laurel 7see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #cc71 and the ,rhododendron ,ponticum4 #baag ,fe refuses to credit this3 but still such a thing might accidentally happen4 #baah ,these asserted remedies would be of no use whatever1 ,fe says4 #baai ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #b4 #babj ,fe seems to take it for granted that ,pliny is speaking here of honey made by other insects than bees2 but such does not appear to be the case4 #baba ,fe remarks here that ,pliny is right1 and that ,columella and ,palladius are wrong1 who would have the hives to look due north4 #babb ,lapis specularis3 a sort of talc1 probably4 ,see ,b4 iii4 c4 #d4 ,b4 ix4 c4 #ef4 ,b4 xv4 c4 #a4 ,b4 xix4 c4 #bc1 and ,b4 xxxvi4 c4 #de4 #babc ,in ,b4 ix4 c4 #af1 he mentions hives made of horn for this purpose4 ,glass hives are now made for the purpose1 but the moisture which adheres to the interior of the glass prevents the operations of the bees from being watched with any degree of nicety4 #babd 8,cognatum hoc40 ,he probably alludes to the notion entertained by the ancients that bees might be reproduced from the putrefied entrails of an ox1 as wasps from those of a horse4 ,see the story of ,aristus in ,b4 iv4 of ,virgil's ,georgics4 #babe ,or butterflies--8papiliones40 #babf 8,teredines40 #babg ,honeycombs and rough wax are placed in the hive1 when the bees are in want of aliment2 also honey and sugar-sirop4 #babh 8,defrutum30 grape-juice boiled down to one-half4 #babi ,fe is at a loss to know how this could be of any service as an aliment to bees4 #bacj ,a mere puerility1 ,fe says4 #baca ,but extremely weak1 no doubt2 for after boiling1 the hydromel must be subjected1 first to vinous1 and then to acetous1 fermentation4 #bacb ,the method here described differs but little from that employed at the present day4 #bacc 8,sporta40 #bacd ,or ,carthaginian4 #bace ,in reality1 the wax has properties totally different from those of the honey1 and it is not always gathered from the same plants4 #bacf ,a kind of bee-glue4 ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #f4 #bacg ,neither the nitre nor the salt1 ,fe says1 would be of the slightest utility4 #bach ,by causing the aqueous particles that may remain in it1 to evaporate4 #baci ,or 8likenesses0--8similitudines40 ,waxen profiles seem to have been the favourite likenesses with the ,romans3 ,see the ,asinaria of ,plautus1 ,a4 iv4 sc4 i4 l4 #ai1 in which one of these portraits is clearly alluded to4 ,also ,ovid1 ,heroid4 xiii4 l4 #aeb1 and ,remed4 ,amor4 l4 #gbc4 ,the 8imagines0 also1 or busts of their ancestors1 which were kept in their 8atria10 were made of wax4 #badj ,to protect the paintings1 probably1 with which the walls were decorated4 #bada ,in ,b4 xi4 #badb ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bh4 #badc ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #ag4 ,according to some authorities1 it is supposed to be the ,delphinium staphis agria of ,linnus2 but ,fe and ,desfontaines identify it with the ,tamus communis of ,linnus1 ,our ,lady's seal4 #badd ,the ,ruscus aculeatus of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #hc4 #bade ,in ,b4 xxii4 c4 #cc1 this plant is called 8halimon40 ,some authors identify it with the ,atriplex halymus1 and others1 again1 with the ,crithmum maritimum of ,linnus4 ,see also ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ej4 #badf ,identified by some commentators with the ,portulaca sativa or ,portulaca oleracea of ,linnus4 #badg 8,pastinaca pratensis40 ,fe and ,desfontaines are undecided whether this is the ,daucus carota of ,linnus1 the common carrot1 or the ,pastinaca sativa1 the cultivated parsnip4 #badh 8,lupus salictarius10 the 8willow wolf10 literally2 the ,humulus lupulus of ,linnus4 ,it probably took its ,latin name from the tenacity with which it clung to willows and osiers4 #badi ,the ,arum colocasia of ,linnus4 #baej ,the 8bean40 ,not1 however1 the ,egyptian bean1 which is the ,nympha nelumbo of ,linnus1 the ,nelumbum speciosum of ,willdenow4 #baea ,these filaments are mentioned also by ,martial1 ,epig41 ,b4 viii4 ,ep4 #cc1 and ,b4 xiii4 ,ep4 #eg4 ,but according to ,desfontaines1 this description applies to the stalks of the ,nympha lotos1 and not of the ,arum colocasia4 #baeb 8,thyrsus40 #baec ,desfontaines has identified this with the ,arctium lappa of botanists2 but that is a land plant1 and this1 ,pliny says1 grows in the rivers1 if the reading here is correct1 it cannot be the plant of the same name mentioned in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #eh4 #baed ,this applies1 ,desfontaines says1 to the ,nympha nelumbo4 #baee ,here he returns1 according to ,desfontaines1 to the ,arum colocasia4 #baef ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #bi4 #baeg 8,intubum erraticum40 #baeh ,the ,cyperus ,esculentus of ,linnus4 #baei ,theophrastus1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aj1 says that it grows in the sandy soil in the vicinity of the river4 #bafj ,it is similar in appearance to the papyrus1 and its tubercles are oblong1 or round and fleshy1 with an agreeable flavour4 #bafa ,the ,arachis hypoga of ,linnus1 the earth pistachio4 #bafb ,the root is not large2 but the fruit is so close to the earth that ,pliny may have confounded it with the real root of the plant4 #bafc ,sprengel identifies this with the ,lathyrus amphicarpos1 and the aracos with the ,lathyrus tuberosus1 varieties of the chicheling vetch4 ,columna thinks that this last was the arachidna4 ,fe says that the data are altogether insufficient to enable us to form an opinion4 #bafd ,the ,chondrylla juncea of ,linnus1 according to ,fe2 but ,desfontaines identifies it with the ,lactuca perennis4 #bafe ,desfontaines identifies it with the ,hyoseris lucida4 ,fe says that the opinion is equally as difficult to combat as to support4 #baff ,fe identifies it with the ,caucalis grandiflora of ,linnus1 a native of ,greece4 ,desfontaines mentions the ,caucalis ,orientalis1 an ,eastern plant4 #bafg ,for this and the ,scandix1 see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ch4 #bafh ,a chicoraceous plant3 the ,tragopogon crocifolius of ,linnus4 #bafi ,see c4 #ajd of this ,book4 #bagj ,see cc4 #ce and #aje of this ,book4 #baga ,the ,corchorus olitorius of ,linnus3 still cultivated in ,egypt4 #bagb ,identified by some1 but it is doubtful if with any good reason1 with the ,leontodon taraxacum of ,linnus3 our dandelion4 #bagc ,the reading is doubtful1 and it does not appear to have been identified4 #bagd ,or 8stone-plant30 identified with the ,sedum anacampseros of ,linnus3 a variety of house-leek4 #bage ,on the contrary1 it has a purple flower4 #bagf ,it is this1 probably1 that has caused it to be identified with the ,leontodon taraxacum4 #bagg ,the ,carthamus tinctorius of ,linnus1 or bastard saffron4 ,the seed of it is a powerful purgative to man1 but has no effect on birds3 it is much used for feeding parrots1 hence one of its names1 8parrot-seed40 #bagh ,identified by ,fe with the ,atractylis of ,dioscorides1 the ,carthamus mitissimus of ,linnus2 the ,carduncellus mitissimus of ,decandolle4 #bagi ,from 1 8a distaff40 #bahj ,the ,centaurea lanata of ,decandolle1 the ,centaurea benedicta of ,linnus4 #baha ,the ,asparagus aphylla of ,linnus3 the leafless asparagus4 #bahb ,the ,spartium scorpius of ,linnus3 scorpion-grass1 or scorpion-wort4 #bahc ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #h4 #bahd ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #aa4 ,the 8sweet-root20 our liquorice4 ,the ,glycyrrhiza echinata of ,linnus bears a prickly fruit2 it is of this1 ,fe thinks1 that ,pliny speaks here4 #bahe ,fe remarks1 that though the leaf of the nettle is furnished with numerous stings1 or rather prickly hairs1 it is quite wrong to look upon them as thorns1 which ,pliny1 in the present instance1 7though not in the next ,chapter7 appears to do4 ,genuine thorns1 he remarks1 are abortive branches1 which1 of course1 cannot be said of the fine hairs springing from the nerves of the leaf4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ae4 #bahf ,supposed to be the ,tribulus terrestris of ,linneus1 a species of thistle3 the leaves of this plant1 however1 are not provided1 ,fe remarks1 with thorns at their base1 the fruit alone being spinous4 ,see c4 #eh of this ,book4 #bahg ,see c4 #eh of this ,book4 #bahh ,the ,poterium spinosum of botanists4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ac4 #bahi ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ac4 ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vi4 c4 #e1 identifies this plant with the ,stbe just mentioned4 #baij 8,acetabulis40 ,fe complains of the use of this term 7meaning a 8small cup07 in relation to the calyces of the nettle2 such not being in reality their form4 #baia ,probably in allusion to the ,urtica dioica1 which grows to a greater height than the ,urtica urens4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ae4 #baib 8,canina40 ,a variety1 probably1 of the ,urtica urens1 the nettle1 with the exception of the ,urtica pilifera1 which has the most stinging properties of all those found in ,europe1 and the leaves of which are the most deeply indented4 #baic ,this has not been identified4 ,they are all of them either inodorous1 or else possessed of a faint1 disagreeable smell4 #baid ,this 8lanugo10 or down1 as he calls it1 consists of a fine elongated tube of cellular tissue1 seated upon a gland of similar tissue4 ,in this gland a poisonous fluid is secreted1 and when any pressure is made upon the gland1 the fluid passes upwards in the tube4 ,the nettle of the ,east1 known as the ,devil's ,leaf1 is of so poisonous a quality as to produce death4 #baie ,in some parts of the north of ,england and of ,scotland the young plant of the ,urtica dioica is eaten as greens1 and is far from a disagreeable dish1 strongly resembling spinach4 ,it is also reckoned a very wholesome diet1 and is taken habitually in the spring1 under the impression that it purifies the blood4 ,this notion1 we see from the context1 is as old as the time of the ,romans4 #baif ,dalechamps speaks of it as the custom in his time to wrap up fish and game in nettles1 under the impression that they would keep the longer for it4 #baig ,the dead nettle1 or blind nettle4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #af4 #baih ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ag4 #baii ,he probably means the thistle1 but possibly the artichoke1 under this name4 ,see ,b4 xix4 cc4 #ai and #dc1 and ,b4 xx4 c4 #ii4 #bbjj ,this is probably the same with the second variety of the 8,cnecos10 mentioned above in c4 #ec1 the ,centaurea lanata1 or benedicta4 #bbja ,probably the ,carduus leucographus of ,linnus4 #bbjb ,according to ,dalechamps1 this is the ,echinops ritro of modern botany4 #bbjc ,see c4 #ic of this ,book4 #bbjd 8,many thorns40 ,according to ,dalechamps1 this is the ,carduus spinosissimus angustifolius vulgaris of ,c4 ,bauhin1 the ,cirsium spinosissimum of ,linnus4 #bbje ,identified by ,dalechamps with the ,onopordon ,illyricum1 or ,acanthium of modern botany4 #bbjf ,the ,acarna gummifera of modern botanists1 the flowers of which yield a kind of gum with an agreeable smell4 ,it is quite a different plant from ,wall pellitory1 mentioned in ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ai1 under this name4 #bbjg ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ii1 and ,b4 xxii4 c4 #dc4 #bbjh ,the black chamleon is identified by ,fe with the ,brotera corymbosa of ,willdenow3 the white variety1 mentioned in ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ba1 with the ,acarna gummifera of ,willdenow1 the ,helxine above mentioned4 ,desfontaines identifies it with the ,carlina acaulis4 #bbji ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #h4 #bbaj ,the ,greek for 8blood0 or 8slaughter40 #bbaa 8,carduus40 #bbab 8,thorn mastich10 or 8resin40 #bbac ,this is not the ,cactus of modern botany1 a plant mentioned in the sequel under the name of 8,opuntia10 but probably the ,cinara carduncellus4 ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ii4 #bbad ,theophrastus says1 that when peeled they have a somewhat bitter flavour1 and are kept pickled in brine4 #bbae ,this name is now given by naturalists to the calyx of ,composit1 which exists in the rudimentary condition of a membranous coronet1 or of downy hairs1 like silk4 #bbaf 8,cortex40 #bbag ,the ,trapa natans of ,linnus1 or water chesnut1 a prickly marsh plant of ,europe and ,asia4 ,hence our word 8caltrop40 #bbah 8,dira res alibi40 #bbai ,these two plants have no affinity whatever with the one just mentioned4 ,the first of these so-called varieties is the ,tribulus terrestris of ,linnus2 and the second is identified by ,fe1 though with some doubt1 with the ,fagonia ,cretica of ,linnus4 #bbbj ,the ,ononis antiquorum of ,linnus1 the ,cammock1 or rest-harrow4 #bbba ,the ,cochlearia coronopus4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bb4 #bbbb ,the ,anchusa tinctoria1 probably1 or dyers' alkanet4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bc4 #bbbc ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bf4 #bbbd ,it has not been identified with any degree of certainty3 the ,centaurea nigra and the ,campanula rapunculus have been named4 #bbbe ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #ba3 also c4 #eb of this ,book4 ,the name appears to have been given to both the ,leontodon taraxacum and the ,lathyras aphaca of modern botany4 #bbbf ,theophrastus has ,picris in the parallel passage1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 vii4 c4 #i1 the ,helminthia echioides of ,linnus4 ,if 8,crepis0 is the correct reading1 that plant has not been identified4 #bbbg ,the herbaceous kinds are no doubt those alluded to4 #bbbh ,see ,b4 xix4 cc4 #ca1 #cf1 and #dd2 and ,b4 xx4 c4 #dh4 ,the ocimum of the ,greeks has been identified by some with the ,ocimum basilicum of ,linnus1 our basil4 ,that of the ,romans seems to have been a name given to one or more varieties of leguminous plants of the vetch kind4 #bbbi ,the ,heliotropium ,europum4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bi4 #bbcj ,this plant has not been identified1 but ,fe is inclined1 from what ,dioscorides says1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #bd1 to identify it with either the ,lithospermum fruticosum1 or else the ,anchusa ,italica of ,linnus4 #bbca ,this is not the case1 if this plant is identical with the ,heliotropium ,europum1 that being an annual4 #bbcb ,the ,adiantum ,capillus ,veneris of ,linnus1 or the ,asplenium trichomanes of ,linnus4 8,venus hair1 or coriander maiden hair2 others name it to be well fern40--,t4 ,cooper4 ,the leaves of these plants last the whole of their lives4 #bbcc ,the ,teuerium polium of ,linneus1 our poley2 the leaves of which are remarkably long-lived4 #bbcd 8,spicat40 #bbce ,fe is in doubt whether to identify it with the ,plantago cynops of the south of ,europe1 and the banks of the ,rhine4 #bbcf 8,foxtail40 ,according to ,dalechamps1 it is the ,saccharum cylindricum1 the ,lagurus of ,linnus2 but ,fe expresses his doubts as to their identity4 #bbcg ,fe inclines to think that it may be the ,secale villosum of ,linnus2 though the more recent commentators identify it with the ,plantago angustifolia4 ,the ,saccharum ,ravenn has been suggested4 #bbch ,or 8quail40 #bbci ,in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ci4 #bbdj ,hardouin takes this to be our pimpernel1 the ,sanguisorba officinalis of ,linneus4 ,sprengel inclines to the ,verbascum lychnitis of ,linnus4 #bbda 8,proxuma40 #bbdb ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ff4 #bbdc ,supposed by most commentators to be the ,parietaria officinalis of ,linnus2 ,wall pellitory or parietary4 ,some1 however1 have suggested the ,polygonum maritimum1 or the ,polygonum divaricatum of ,linnus4 ,fe expresses doubts as to its identity1 but remarks that the modern ,greek name of pellitory is 8perdikaki40 ,see c4 #ajd of this ,book1 and ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bj4 #bbdd 8,perdix10 the ,greek name4 #bbde ,probably the ,ornithogalum umbellatum of ,linnus4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,ornithogalum natans3 but that variety is not found in ,greece1 while the other is4 #bbdf 8,puls0 #bbdg ,probably the ,melilotus crulea of ,linnus1 ,fe says4 ,desfontaines mentions the ,melilotus ,cretica or ,italica4 #bbdh ,the ,avena fatua or sterilis2 the barren oat4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #dd4 #bbdi ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bf4 #bbej ,the ,gallium aparine of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #dd4 #bbea ,the ,opuntia4 ,the ,cactus ,opuntia of ,linnus2 the cactus1 or ,indian fig4 #bbeb ,perhaps the ,convolvulus sepium of ,linnus2 though ,fe dissents from that opinion4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ci4 #bbec ,see c4 #eb of this ,book4 #bbed ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ca4 #bbee ,from the ,greek 4 #bbef ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fe4 #bbeg 8,little sword30 the ,gladiolus communis of ,linnus4 ,see the remarks on the hyacinthus of the ancients in the ,notes to c4 #ch of this ,book4 #bbeh ,sprengel says that it is the ,thesium linophyllum of modern botany2 an opinion at which ,fe expresses his surprise4 ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ca4 #bbei ,the ,asphodelus ramosus of ,linnus4 #bbfj 8,little sword40 #bbfa ,it is no longer employed as an article of food4 #bbfb ,od4 xi4 #eci1 and xxiv4 #ac4 #bbfc ,it is difficult to say to what 8illud0 refers1 if1 indeed1 it is the correct reading4 #bbfd 8,hastula regia40 #bbfe 8,caulis acinosi40 #bbff ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #cb4 #bbfg 8,arrow40 ,the ,sagittaria sagittifolia of ,linnus2 our arrow-head1 or adder's tongue4 #bbfh #aeth of ,may4 #bbfi ,the ,schnus mariscus of ,linnus4 #bbgj ,pliny is guilty of a lapsus memori here1 for he has nowhere given any such advice on the subject4 ,hardouin refers to ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fg1 but erroneously1 for there he is speaking of hay1 not 8ulva0 or sedge4 #bbga ,the 8sharp rush40 ,the ,juncus acutus of ,linnus2 the pointed bulrush4 #bbgb ,the 8pointed0 rush4 ,the ,schnus mucronatus of ,linnus4 #bbgc ,a variety1 ,fe says1 of the ,schnus nigricans of ,linnus1 the black bulrush4 #bbgd ,the 8black head40 #bbge ,the ,scirpus holoschnus of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #bbgf ,none of the rushes1 ,fe remarks1 are barren2 and when the head is inserted in the ground1 it is neither more nor less than a sowing of the seed4 ,hardouin remarks1 however1 that by the word 8cacumine10 the bulbous root of the rush is meant1 and not the point of the stem4 #bbgg 8,nass40 ,baskets with a narrow mouth4 #bbgh ,it has descended in our time to the more humble rushlight2 and even that is fast 8going out40 #bbgi ,fe identifies it with the ,cyperus longus and ,cyperus rotundus of ,linnus1 the odoriferous or round souchet4 #bbhj ,in c4 #fg of this ,book4 ,the bulb1 however1 of the gladiolus is inodorous2 for which reason ,fe is inclined to think that ,pliny1 with all his care1 is describing a cyperus1 perhaps the ,cyperus esculentus4 #bbha ,it would be curious to know who these barbarians were1 who thus smoked cypirus as we do tobacco4 ,fe queries whether they were ,germans or ,gauls1 people of ,asia or of ,africa4 #bbhb ,this applies more particularly1 ,fe thinks1 to the ,cyperus rotundus of ,linnus4 #bbhc ,the ,cyperus longus of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #bbhd ,sillig finds a difficulty here which does not seem to exist4 ,it is pretty clear that 8cteris0 refers to the other varieties of the cypiros1 mentioned in the preceding ,chapter4 #bbhe ,it has not been identified4 #bbhf ,mentioned also by ,dioscorides4 ,it has not been identified4 #bbhg ,b4 xii4 c4 #dh4 #bbhh ,dioscorides says that it grows in ,babylonia4 ,it is a variety1 no doubt1 of the ,andropogon schnanthus4 #bbhi 8,ungues10 8nails20 in allusion to the white part of the finger-nails4 #bbij 8,cortex40 #bbia 8,anchusam40 #bbib ,in ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ai4 #bbic 8,in calliblepharum40 #bbid 8,diapasmata40 #bbie 8,pilul40 ,he alludes to the galls produced by an insect of the ,cynips kind1 and known as 8bedeguar40 ,they are astringent1 but no longer employed in medicine4 #bbif ,the efficacy of bears'-grease for promoting the growth of the hair was believed in1 we find1 so early as ,pliny's time4 #bbig ,see c4 #aa of this ,book4 ,the bulbs of the lily contain a mucilage1 and roasted or boiled they are sometimes employed1 ,fe says1 to bring inflammations to a head4 ,employed internally1 he thinks that they would be of no use whatever1 and there is nothing in their composition1 he says which would induce one to think that they might be employed to advantage in most of the cases mentioned by ,pliny4 #bbih ,or 8,poley40 ,see c4 #ba of this ,book4 #bbii 8,mel40 #bcjj ,see c4 #ab of this ,book4 #bcja ,the ,narcissus pseudo-narcissus of ,linnus1 the meadow narcissus1 or daffodil4 ,the epithet 8herbaceous10 ,fe says1 applies1 not to the flower1 but to the leaves1 which are larger and greener than in the other kinds4 #bcjb 8,torpor10 or 8lethargy40 #bcjc ,see c4 #ad of this ,book4 #bcjd ,an ointment made of wax and oil4 #bcje 8gilopiis40 #bcjf 8,diapasmata40 #bcjg ,this1 as ,fe remarks1 can hardly apply to the ,digitalis purpurea of ,linnus1 with which he has identified it1 the smell of which is disagreeable rather than otherwise4 #bcjh ,in c4 #af of this ,book4 #bcji ,the ,asarum ,europum of ,linnus2 our foalfoot4 ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #bg4 #bcaj ,in c4 #af of this ,book4 #bcaa ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #bf4 #bcab ,b4 xii4 c4 #bf4 ,either the ,valeriana ,italica1 ,fe says1 or the ,valeriana ,dioscoridis of ,sibthorpe4 ,the ,valeriana phu and the ,valeriana officinalis of ,linnus have been suggested by some commentators4 #bcac ,or 8prurigo40 #bcad ,see ,b4 xxxv4 cc4 #ah and #eg4 #bcae 8,collyrium40 ,saffron is still the base of certain eye-salves4 #bcaf ,formed1 most probably1 of all the insoluble substances contained in the oil employed in making the 8unguentum crocinum40 #bcag ,a small kind of quince4 ,see ,b4 xv4 cc4 #aj and #ad4 #bcah 8,orthopna40 #bcai ,the ,iris ftidissima of ,linnus4 ,it grows near ,constantinople1 and the smell of it is so like that of roast meat1 that it is commonly called1 ,fe says1 the 8leg of mutton iris40 #bcbj 8,credo40 ,it does not exactly appear that ,pliny puts faith in this superstition1 as ,fe and ,desfontaines seem to think2 but he merely hazards a supposition as to what are the intentions of these avaricious herbalists4 #bcba ,see c4 #bj of this ,book4 #bcbb ,see c4 #ba of this ,book4 ,fe remarks1 that in reality it possesses none of the qualities that are attributed to it4 #bcbc ,the 8protection against poisons40 #bcbd ,we have adopted ,sillig's emendation of this passage2 the words 8aiunt1 quod alii0 being evidently required by the context4 #bcbe 8,cytinus0 appears to be a preferable reading here to 8cyanus10 the 8blue-bell40 #bcbf ,see c4 #bd of this ,book4 ,its medicinal properties1 ,fe says1 are next to nothing4 #bcbg ,see c4 #bf of this ,book4 ,if it is the ,chrysocoma linosyris1 it has no peculiar medicinal properties1 ,fe says4 ,all these statements are found in ,dioscorides4 #bcbh ,sec ,b4 xx4 c4 #de1 and c4 #da of this ,book4 ,it is a plant of somewhat stimulating properties1 and may possibly be useful1 ,fe thinks1 for nervous affections4 #bcbi 8,scopis40 ,he may possibly mean small brooms made of the sprigs of the plant4 #bccj ,see c4 #bi of this ,book4 ,the melilote is possessed of no peculiar energy1 but decoctions of it are sometimes employed as a lotion4 #bcca ,sores 8resembling a honey-comb40 #bccb ,see c4 #cj of this ,book4 #bccc ,in c4 #cj of this ,book4 #bccd ,see c4 #ca of this ,book4 ,thyme yields an essential oil1 possessed of stimulating properties4 ,most of the assertions here made as to its virtues are quite unfounded4 #bcce ,see c4 #cc of this ,book4 ,the ,pancratium maritimum1 if that plant is identical with it1 is but little used1 but has a marked action1 ,fe says1 upon the human frame4 #bccf ,in c4 #cc of this ,book4 #bccg ,od4 iv4 l4 #bba4 ,this has been supposed by many commentators to have been opium4 ,the origin of the word is 1 8not10 and 1 8grief20 and1 as ,fe says1 it would seem to indicate rather a composition than a plant4 ,saffron1 mandragore1 nightshade1 and even tea and coffee1 have been suggested by the active imaginations of various writers4 ,fe is of opinion that it is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusion1 but inclines to the belief that either the poppy or a preparation from it1 is meant4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 it is a singular fact1 that1 as ,dr4 ,paris remarks 7in his ,pharmacologia71 the ,nepenthes of ,homer was obtained from ,thebes in ,egypt1 and that tincture of opium1 or laudanum1 has received the name of 8,thebaic tincture40 ,gorrus1 in his 8,definitiones ,medic10 thinks that the herb alluded to is the ,inula ,campania1 or ,elecampane1 which was also said to have derived its name of 8,helenium0 from ,helen4 ,dr4 ,greenhill1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,antiquities1 inclines to the opinion that it was opium4 ,see the article 8,pharmaceutica40 #bcch ,see c4 #cd of this ,book4 ,both of the plants mentioned share the medicinal properties of wormwood1 being stimulants1 tonics1 anthelmintics1 and febrifuges4 ,it would be dangerous1 however1 ,fe says1 to administer them in most of the cases mentioned by ,pliny1 nor would they be good for strangury1 or affections of the chest4 #bcci 8,nervis40 ,pliny had no knowledge1 probably1 of the nervous system2 but ,fe seems to think that such is his meaning here4 ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #hh4 #bcdj ,see ,b4 xi4 cc4 #bd1 #bh1 and #bi4 #bcda ,see c4 #cd of this ,book2 also ,b4 xxii4 c4 #bf4 #bcdb ,see c4 #ce of this ,book4 #bcdc ,in c4 #ch of this ,book4 #bcdd ,the ,anemone coronaria of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #bcde ,probably the ,adonis stivalis of ,linnus1 a ranunculus4 ,these plants are of an acrid1 irritating nature1 and rank at the present day among the vegetable poisons4 #bcdf ,the 8wind-flower10 from the ,greek 1 8wind40 #bcdg ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #bf4 #bcdh ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ec4 #bcdi ,as ,fe remarks1 it would be very dangerous to use it4 #bcej 8,cuique animalium40 #bcea ,the nanthe pimpinellifolia of ,linnus4 ,if taken internally1 ,fe says1 it would tend to aggravate the disease so treated1 in a very high degree4 #bceb ,see c4 #ch4 ,also ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ee4 #bcec ,see c4 #ch of this ,book2 also ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ca4 #bced ,from the herb 8hysge10 used for dyeing a deep red4 ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #fe1 and ,b4 xxi4 c4 #cf4 ,no such colour1 ,fe says1 can be obtained from the petals of either the ,lilium ,martagon or the ,gladiolus communis1 with which it has been identified4 #bcee ,it has no such effect2 and the slave-dealers certainly lost their pains in cosmetizing their slaves with it1 their object being to make them look younger than they really were1 and not older1 as ,hardouin seems to think4 #bcef ,see c4 #aj of this ,book4 #bceg ,white specks in the pupil of the eye1 or whiteness of the cornea4 #bceh ,see c4 #ci of this ,book4 #bcei 8,ground-laurel40 #bcfj ,see c4 #ej1 and ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #hc4 ,the medicinal properties of this plant are not developed to any great extent2 but it was thought till lately1 ,fe says1 to be an excellent diuretic4 #bcfa ,see c4 #di and ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ej4 #bcfb ,the ,thymus acinos of ,linnus4 #bcfc ,see c4 #ea of this ,book4 ,it is an alimentary plant1 but eaten raw1 it is possessed of some acridity4 #bcfd ,the ,cyperus esculentus of ,linnus1 the esculent souchet4 #bcfe ,the two varieties are identified with the ,cressa ,cretica and the ,teucrium iva of ,linnus4 ,the latter plant is said to be a sudorific4 #bcff ,see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #ec4 #bcfg ,the ,matricaria parthenium of ,linnus4 ,see c4 #eb4 #bcfh ,de ,re ,med4 ii4 #cc4 ,it must not be confounded with the plant of that name mentioned in c4 #fb of this ,book4 #bcfi ,the ,solanum nigrum of ,linnus1 or black night-shade4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ajh4 #bcgj ,the ,physalis alkekengi of ,linnus2 red night-shade1 alkekengi1 or winter cherry4 ,fe remarks1 that the varieties of this plant in ,egypt are very numerous1 and that in many places1 till very recently1 it was employed as an article of food4 #bcga 8,vesica40 #bcgb ,the ,solanum villosum of ,lamarck4 #bcgc ,from 1 a 8spear40 #bcgd 8,apertius10 as suggested by ,sillig1 is a preferable reading to 8parcius40 #bcge ,from 1 8madness40 #bcgf ,the ,physalis somnifera of ,linnus1 the somniferous nightshade4 #bcgg ,the ,solanum melongena of ,linnus4 #bcgh ,the ,corchorus olitorius of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ib4 #bcgi ,theriaca1 p4 #dd4 #bchj ,see c4 #ec of this ,book4 #bcha ,it has not been identified4 ,dalechamps1 without any proof1 identifies it with the ,tussilago petasites of modern botany4 #bchb ,see the ,introduction to ,vol4 ,,iii4 #bchc ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #bchd ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #bche ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #bchf ,a writer on flowers and chaplets1 in the time of ,tiberius4 ,nothing whatever beyond this seems to be known of him4 #bchg ,c4 ,julius ,atticus ,vestinus1 or1 according to some authorities1 ,m4 ,atticus ,vestinus4 ,he was consul ,a4,d4 #fe2 and1 though innocent1 was put to death by ,nero's order1 for alleged participation in the conspiracy of ,piso4 #bchh ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #bchi ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #bcij ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #bcia ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #bcib ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #bcic ,see end of ,b4 xvi4 #bcid ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bcie ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #bcif ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bcig ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bcih ,see end of ,b4 xx4 ,see also ,b4 xxv4 c4 #e4 #bcii ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #bdjj ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #bdja ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdjb ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #bdjc ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #bdjd ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #bdje ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #bdjf ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #bdjg ,an alleged disciple of ,orpheus1 and probably as fabulous a personage4 ,many works1 now lost1 passed under his name4 #bdjh ,one of the most celebrated of the ,greek tragic writers2 born ,b4,c4 #die4 ,of his #abg tragedies1 only seven have come down to us4 #bdji ,a ,pythagorean philosopher1 a native of one of the cities called ,larissa4 ,being accused of magical practices1 he was banished from the city of ,rome by the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,the explanation of these charges is1 that he probably possessed a superior knowledge of natural philosophy4 ,see ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ie4 ,b4 xxviii4 c4 #di4 ,b4 xxxii4 c4 #eb1 and ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #ej4 #bdaj ,a physician1 a native of ,athens in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,he is supposed to have belonged to the sect of the ,dogmatici1 and was greatly celebrated for his classification of diseases4 ,he wrote on diet and drink1 among other subjects4 #bdaa ,probably the same writer that is mentioned at the end of ,b4 iv42 or1 possibly1 a physician of that name1 who was a disciple of ,herophilus1 and lived about the second century ,b4,c4 #bdab ,a distinguished ,peripatetic philosopher of ,eresos in ,lesbos1 a disciple of ,aristotle1 and a contemporary of ,theophrastus4 #bdac ,of this writer1 nothing whatever is known1 beyond the mention made of him in c4 #hh of this ,book1 and in ,b4 xxii4 c4 #cb4 #bdad ,nothing whatever is known relative to this writer4 #bdae ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #bdaf ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdag ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdah ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdai ,for ,heraclides of ,pontus1 see end of ,b4 iv4 ,for ,heraclides of ,tarentum1 see end of ,b4 xii4 #bdbj ,see end of ,b4 xv4 #bdba ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bdbb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbc ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbd ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbe ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbf ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbg ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbh ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdbi ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdcj ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #bdca ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdcb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdcc ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bdcd ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #bdce ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bdcf ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdcg ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bdch ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdci ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddj ,see end of ,b4 vi4 #bdda ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddc ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddd ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdde ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #bddf ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddg ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bddh ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #bddi ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdej ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdea ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #bdeb ,fe remarks1 that at the present day1 in all savage nations in which tatooing is practised1 the men display more taste and care in the operation than is shewn by the females4 ,there is little doubt that it is the art of tatooing the body1 or in other words1 first puncturing it and then rubbing in various colours1 that is here spoken of by ,pliny4 #bdec 8,inscribunt40 8,writing upon10 or 8tatooing10 evidently4 #bded ,our 8woad10 the ,isatis tinctoria of ,linnus1 which imparts a blue colour4 ,the root of this ,celtic woad is probably 8glas10 8blue10 whence also our word 8glass20 and it is not improbable that the name of glass was given to it from the blue tints which it presented4 ,julius ,csar and ,pomponius ,mela translate this word 8glastum10 by the ,latin 8vitrum10 8glass40 #bdee 8,conjuges nurusque40 ,csar says that all the people in ,britain were in the habit of staining the body with woad1 to add to the horror of their appearance in battle4 ,pomponius ,mela expresses himself as uncertain for what purpose it was done1 whether it was to add to their beauty1 or for some other reasons to him unknown4 #bdef 8,granis40 ,what the ancients took to be a vegetable substance1 is now known to be an insect1 the kermes of the ,quercus coccifera4 #bdeg ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #fc4 #bdeh 8,paludamentis40 ,the 8paludamentum0 was the cloak worn by a ,roman general when in command1 his principal officers1 and personal attendants4 ,it was open in front1 reached to the knees or thereabout1 and hung over the shoulders1 being fastened across the chest by a clasp4 ,it was commonly white or purple4 #bdei ,for an account of all these colours see ,b4 ix4 cc4 #fj-fe4 #bdfj ,the vaccinium for instance4 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ca4 #bdfa ,fe thinks that the art of dyeing with alkanet and madder may be here alluded to4 #bdfb ,see ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #a4 #bdfc ,the 8good10 8ingenuous10 or 8liberal0 arts were those which might be practised by free men without loss of dignity4 ,pliny is somewhat inconsistent here1 for he makes no scruple at enlarging upon the art of medicine1 which among the ,romans was properly not a liberal1 but a servile1 art4 #bdfd 8,surdis40 #bdfe ,festus says the 8verben10 or pure herbs1 were called 8sagmina10 because they were taken from a sacred 7sacer7 place4 ,it is more generally supposed that 8sagmen0 comes from 8sancio10 8to render inviolable10 the person of the bearer being looked upon as inviolable4 #bdff 8,clare40 #bdfg ,or bearer of the 8verbena40 ,see further on this subject in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #ei4 #bdfh 8,corona graminea40 #bdfi ,for a description of these various crowns1 see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #c4 #bdgj ,sometimes also1 weeds1 or wild flowers4 #bdga ,see ,servius on the neid1 ,b4 viii4 l4 #abh4 #bdgb ,no doubt1 the old ,english custom of delivering seisin by presenting a turf1 originated in this4 #bdgc ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #bi4 #bdgd ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #e4 #bdge ,in the ,samnite war4 ,he died ,b4,c4 #cdj4 #bdgf ,titus ,manlius ,torquatus ,imperiosus1 consul ,a4,u4,c4 #dad4 ,it was he who put his own son to death for engaging the enemy against orders4 #bdgg ,q4 ,fabius ,maximus1 surnamed ,cunctator1 for his skill in avoiding an engagement with ,hannibal1 and so wearing out the ,carthaginian troops4 #bdgh ,q4 ,minutius1 the ,magister ,equitum4 #bdgi ,see ,livy1 ,b4 xxii4 #bdhj ,the primipilus was the first centurion of the first maniple of the triarii2 also called 8primus centurionum40 #bdha 8,ad tibicinem40 #bdhb ,a4,u4,c4 #feb4 #bdhc ,the 8,fortunate40 #bdhd ,a4,u4,c4 #fje4 #bdhe #acth of ,september4 #bdhf ,a4,u4,c4 #gbc4 #bdhg ,hence we may conclude that the word 8gramen0 signified not only 8grass10 but any plant in general4 #bdhh ,by reason of the luxury and sensuality universally prevalent4 #bdhi ,this is said in bitter irony4 #bdij ,trusting to the good faith and research of the physician4 #bdia 8,inseruisse40 #bdib 8,amplecti40 #bdic ,in the ,twentieth ,book4 #bdid ,it has been thought by some that this is the ,scolymus maculatus of ,linnus2 the spotted yellow thistle4 ,but the more general opinion is that it is the eringo1 or ,eryngium campestre of ,linnus4 ,it derives its name from the ,greek 1 from its asserted property of dispelling flatulent eructations4 ,it is possessed in reality of few medicinal properties1 and is only used occasionally1 at the present day1 as a diuretic4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ef4 #bdie ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #b4 #bdif ,by the word 8toxica10 ,poinsinet would understand1 not poisons in general1 but the venom of the toad1 which was called1 he says1 in the ,celtic and ,celto-,scythic languages1 toussac and tossa4 ,fe ridicules the notion4 #bdig ,or rather1 ,fe says1 deep blue4 ,he identifies this with the ,eryngium cyaneum of ,linnus1 the eringo1 with a blue flower4 #bdih ,this1 as well as the next1 is identical1 probably1 with the ,eryngium maritimum of ,linnus2 our sea-holly4 ,the species found in ,greece1 in addition to the above1 are the ,eryngium tricuspidatum1 multifidum1 and parviflorum4 #bdii ,pliny probably makes a mistake here1 and reads 1 8parsley10 for 1 a 8thistle40 ,dalechamps is of this opinion1 from an examination of the leaf2 and ,brotier adopts it4 #bejj ,or 8hundred heads10 the ordinary ,eryngium campestre of ,linnus4 ,it is still called panicaut a cent ttes1 by the ,french4 #beja ,it is no longer used for this purpose2 but ,fe is of opinion that it owes its ,french name of 8panicaut10 from having been used in former times as a substitute for bread--pain4 #bejb ,it is not improbable that this plant is the same as the mandrake of ,genesis1 c4 xxx4 #ad2 which is said to have borne some resemblance to the human figure1 and is spoken of by the commentators as male and female4 #bejc ,the root contains a small quantity of essential oil1 with stimulating properties2 and this fact1 ,fe thinks1 would1 to a certain extent1 explain this story of ,sappho4 ,it is not improbable that it was for these properties that it was valued by the rival wives of ,jacob4 #bejd ,white specks in the eye4 #beje ,sprengel identifies this with the ,onopordum acanthium2 but ,fe thinks that if it belongs to the ,onopordum at all1 it is more likely to be the ,onopordum acaulton1 or the ,o4 ,grcum4 #bejf ,or 8sweet-root10 our liquorice2 the ,glycyrrhiza glabra of ,linnus4 ,in reality1 ,fe remarks1 there is no resemblance whatever between it and the ,eryngium1 no kind of liquorice being prickly4 #bejg 8,echinatis20 literally1 8like a hedge-hog40 ,pliny1 it is supposed1 read here erroneously in the ,greek text1 7from which ,dioscorides has also borrowed7 8like a hedge-hog10 for 8like those of the lentisk40 #bejh 8,pilularum40 #beji ,or ,pleiades4 #beaj ,dioscorides compares the root1 with less exactness1 with that of gentian4 #beaa ,the same preparation that is known to us as ,spanish liquorice or ,spanish juice4 #beab ,in ,b4 xi4 c4 #aai4 ,it certainly has the effect of palling the appetite1 but in many people it has the effect of creating thirst instead of allaying it4 ,fe thinks that from the fecula and sugar that it contains1 it may possibly be nourishing1 and he states that it is the basis of a favourite liquor in the great cities of ,france4 ,spanish liquorice water is used in ,england1 but only by school-boys1 as a matter of taste1 and by patients as a matter of necessity4 #beac ,the ,greek for 8without thirst40 #bead ,or 8mouth medicine40 ,beyond being a bechic1 or cough-medicine1 it has no medicinal properties whatever4 #beae 8,pterygiis40 ,the word 8pterygia0 has been previously used as meaning a sort of hang-nail1 or1 perhaps1 whitlow4 #beaf 8,scabiem40 #beag ,swellings of the anus more particularly4 #beah ,it has in reality no such effect4 #beai ,probably the ,fagonia ,cretica and the ,trapa natans of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eh4 ,the first1 ,fe remarks1 is a native of ,candia1 the ancient ,crete1 and a stranger to the climates of ,greece and ,italy4 ,this may account for ,pliny calling it a garden plant4 #bebj ,this is said4 ,fe remarks1 in reference to the ,trapa natans1 the seed of which is rich in fecula1 and very nutritious4 #beba 8,contrahat ventrem40 ,it would not act1 ,fe says1 as an astringent1 but would have the effect of imparting nutriment in a very high degree1 without overloading the stomach4 #bebb ,a harmless1 or1 perhaps1 beneficial1 superstition4 #bebc ,the synonym of this plant is probably unknown4 ,dalechamps identifies it with the ,sagittaria sagittifolia1 ,c4 ,bauhin with the ,centaurea calcitrapa1 and ,clusius1 ,belli1 and ,sprengel1 with the ,poterium spinosum4 ,none of these plants1 however1 are prickly and aquatic1 characteristics1 according to ,theophrastus1 of the ,stbe3 ,hist4 ,plant4 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aa4 ,fe considers its identification next to impossible4 #bebd ,probably the ,hippophas rhamnoides of ,linnus4 ,this1 however1 ,fe says1 has no milky juice1 but a dry1 tough1 ligneous root4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,euphorbia spinosa of ,linnus1 on account of its milky juice2 but that plant1 as ,fe remarks1 does not bear berries1 properly so called1 and the fruit is yellow and prickly4 #bebe ,see ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #ff4 ,it is identified by ,fe with the ,carduus stellatus or ,centaurea calcitrapa of ,linnus1 the common star-thistle4 #bebf ,as compounds of 1 a 8horse40 ,hardouin1 however1 thinks that the names and have another origin1 and that they are compounds of 1 8lustre10--from the brilliancy which they were said to impart to cloths--and 1 in an augmentative sense1 meaning 8great lustre40 #bebg ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ee4 ,only two species of the nettle1 ,fe remarks1 were known to the ancients1 the ,urtica urens and the ,u4 dioica2 and these have been confounded by ,pliny and other writers4 #bebh ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,the ,urtica urens has no oleaginous principles1 and the oil of nettles1 as ,fe says1 must have been a medicinal composition1 the properties of which are more than hypothetical4 ,the plant boiled1 he remarks1 can have no medicinal properties whatever1 and it is with justice excluded from the modern ,materia ,medica4 ,it is1 however1 still employed by some few practitioners1 and the leaves are used1 in some cases1 to restore the vital action1 by means of urtication4 #bebi 8,cicut40 #becj ,mercury1 as already mentioned in a previous ,note1 is not poisonous4 #beca 8,testudinis40 ,he may1 possibly1 mean a turtle4 #becb ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #hf4 #becc ,the process of 8urtication10 alluded to in ,note #bebh4 #becd ,fe considers this extremely doubtful4 #bece ,an abominable refinement 7if we may use the term7 in gluttony1 which would appear to have been practised among the ,romans2 though ,fe thinks it possible that such a practice may have been considered advisable in the medical treatment of certain maladies4 ,be this as it may1 the system of using vomits has prevailed to some extent in this country1 and during the present century1 too1 among persons in the fashionable world1 when expected to play their part at several entertainments in one evening4 #becf 8,sapa40 ,grape-juice boiled down to one-third4 #becg ,de ,morb4 ,mul4 text4 #dg4 #bech ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ac4 #beci ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ee4 #bedj ,see ,hippocrates1 ,hippiatr4 #beda ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ee4 #bedb ,the ,lamium maculatum of ,linnus3 dead nettle1 or archangel4 ,the same as the ,leuce1 mentioned in ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #gg4 #bedc 8,cum mic salis40 #bedd ,the ,spartium scorpius of ,linnus1 or the ,scorpiurus sulcata of ,linnus3 scorpion-grass1 or scorpion-wort4 #bede ,its properties are entirely inert1 and it has no such virtues as those here mentioned4 ,as ,fe remarks1 we might be quite sure1 however1 from the form of the seeds1 that this property would be ascribed to it in the ,materia ,medica of the ancients4 #bedf ,supposed to be the ,salsola tragus of ,linnus1 kali1 or glass-wort4 #bedg ,not the ,asparagus officinalis1 ,fe says1 but the ,asparagus acutifolius1 the stem of which is somewhat prickly4 #bedh ,see ,b4 xxi4 cc4 #ef and #ajd1 in which last ,chapter it is called 8leucanthes40 ,desfontaines suggests that it may be either the ,carduus leucographus1 or the ,cnicum ,casabon4 #bedi ,literally1 8many-cornered40 8,leucacantha0 means 8whitethorn10 and 8,leucanthes0 8white-flowered40 #beej ,fe thinks this very improbable4 #beea ,it must not be confounded1 ,fe says1 with the ,helxine1 a tuberous root1 mentioned in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ef4 ,he thinks also that ,pliny is in error in giving it the name of 8,perdicium10 which may possibly have been a synonym of the other ,helxine4 ,fe comes to the conclusion that the ,perdicium of ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fb1 if not the same as the ,helxine of c4 #ef1 cannot be identified2 that the ,helxine of ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ef1 is the ,acarna gummifera2 and that the ,helxine here mentioned is identical with the ,perdicium of this and the next ,chapter1 being the ,parietaria officinalis of ,linnus1 parietary or wall pellitory4 ,the confusion has probably arisen from the similarity of the name of the 1 the plant mentioned in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ef1 and the 1 the ,helxine of the present ,chapter4 #beeb 8,perdices40 ,as stated in the last ,note1 the name has probably been given in error to the ,helxine or pellitory4 #beec ,or horehound4 #beed ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fd4 #beee ,from 1 to 8drag40 #beef ,in c4 #ef4 ,properly the 8,ixine40 ,see ,note #beea above4 #beeg ,pellitory possesses no colouring properties whatever4 #beeh ,it has no medicinal virtues beyond acting1 possibly1 in some degree1 as a diuretic4 #beei ,the ,parthenium of ,celsus1 mentioned by ,pliny in ,b4 xxi4 #ajd1 is not identical with this ,perdicium 7though there also he gives it that name71 but is the ,matricaria ,parthenium of ,linnus1 a different plant4 ,see ,notes to c4 #ai4 ,b4 xxii #befj ,in reference to what was said at the beginning of the preceding ,chapter4 #befa ,or 8pitcher plant40 #befb ,see c4 #af of this ,book4 #befc ,plutarch1 in his life of ,pericles1 tells the same story about the slave1 but does not speak of the appearance of ,minerva4 ,he relates a story1 however1 of her appearance to ,sylla1 pointing out a spot near the ,acropolis1 where the ,parthenium grew4 #befd ,or 8,virgin0 plant1 ,minerva being called 8,parthenos10 the 8virgin40 #befe ,one who 8cooks entrails40 ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 cc4 #ai and #ca4 #beff ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ef4 ,the white is identified with the ,acarna gummifera of ,linnus1 the dark or black with the ,brotera corymbosa of ,linnus4 #befg ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #cc4 #befh ,viscus4 #befi ,olivier states 7,voyage dans l',empire ,ottoman1 i4 #cab7 that the women in the isles of ,naxos and ,scio still chew this glutinous substance1 in the same manner that mastich is used in other places4 #begj ,fe is inclined to doubt this1 and thinks that1 as it is a creeping plant1 the name may have been derived from 1 8on the ground40 #bega ,theophrastus1 ,galen1 and ,dioscorides state to the same effect1 and ,fe thinks it possible it may possess a certain degree of activity4 #begb ,fe says that it possesses no such poisonous properties4 #begc ,rheum1 or catarrhs4 #begd ,from 1 8dreadful death10 a name which1 ,fe observes1 it does not merit1 its properties not being poisonous4 #bege ,from 8smell of a dog40 ,this is a more justifiable appellation1 as the smell of it is very disagreeable4 #begf ,the ,cochlearia coronopus of ,linnus1 crow's-foot1 or buck's-horn plantain4 #begg ,the ,anchusa tinctoria of ,linnus1 alkanet1 orcanet1 or dyers' bugloss4 #begh ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #df4 #begi ,this plant is no longer used for medicinal purposes2 but ,fe thinks that1 as the leaves in all probability contain nitrate of potash1 they may have diuretic properties4 #behj ,the ,anchusa ,italica of ,linnus1 according to ,fe1 false alkanet1 or wild bugloss4 ,though resembling the genuine plant in its external features1 it has no colouring properties4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,lithospermum fruticosum of ,linnus1 a plant1 as ,fe remarks1 very different in its appearance from the genuine alkanet4 #beha ,in erroneously giving it this name1 ,fe remarks that ,pliny has confounded the pseudoanchusa with the of the ,greeks1 the ,echium rubrum of ,linnus1 and has attributed to it the characteristics of the latter plant4 #behb ,fe remarks1 that all that ,pliny says of the medicinal properties of this plant does not merit the honour of a discussion4 #behc ,fe identifies it with the ,echium ,creticum of ,linnus4 ,desfontaines takes it to be the ,anchusa tinctoria of ,linnus4 ,fe is of opinion that the name really given to this plant was 8enchrysa10 and not 8anchusa40 #behd ,the ,lithospermum fruticosum of ,linnus2 cromill1 or stone-crap4 #behe ,fe1 adopting the opinion of ,sibthorpe1 thinks that under these names ,pliny is speaking of several varieties of the ,anthemis1 or camomile1 and he identifies them as follows3 the ,leucanthemis1 or white camomile1 he considers to be the same as the ,anthemis ,chia of ,linnus2 the ,eranthemis to be the ,anthemis rosea of ,sibthorpe2 the ,melanthion to be the ,anthemis tinctoria1 or dyers' camomile of ,sibthorpe3 and the ,chammelon to be the ,matricaria chamomilla of ,linnus1 the common camomile4 ,sprengel differs from these opinions as to the identification of the several varieties4 #behf 8,spring flower40 #behg 8,ground apple40 #behh 8,black flower40 #behi 8,malinis10 apple-colour4 #beij ,see ,note #behe4 #beia 8,fruticis40 ,the camomile is still extensively used in medicine for fomentations1 and the decoction of it is highly esteemed1 taken fasting1 as a tonic4 #beib ,il4 xiv4 #cdg4 #beic ,the ,melilotus officinalis of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cb1 and the ,notes4 #beid ,white specks in the black of the eye1 with a red tinge4 #beie ,or 8,mother of the ,lotus20 the ,nympha lotus of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cb4 8,ex loto sata0 may probably mean that it springs from the seed of the lotus1 in which case1 as ,fe remarks1 it must be identified with the ,lotus4 #beif ,b4 xviii4 c4 #fg1 and ,b4 xix4 c4 #eh4 #beig ,this apparent marvel is owing to the necessity of light to certain flowers for the purposes of fecundation1 while those which open at night require more moisture than light for their reproduction4 #beih ,or 8three-grained10 probably1 ,fe says1 from the three cells in the capsule4 ,he identifies this plant with the ,croton tinctorium of ,linnus1 the turnsole1 or sun-flower4 #beii ,fe identifies it with the ,heliotropium ,europum of ,linnus1 the heliotrope1 or verrucaria4 ,the ,heliotropium of ,ovid and other poets1 with a violet or blue flower1 is1 no doubt1 a different plant1 and is identified by ,sprengel1 ,desfontaines1 and ,fe with the ,hesperis matronalis of ,linnus1 rocket or julian1 or1 as we not inaptly call it1 from its pleasant smell1 cherry-pie4 ,pliny speaks of his ,heliotropium as having a 8blue flower10 cruleum4 ,this is probably an error on his part1 and it is supposed by commentators that he read in the ,greek text 1 8somewhat purple10 by mistake for 1 8somewhat red10 as we find it4 #bfjj ,as known at the present day1 they grow to a much greater height than this4 #bfja ,this1 ,fe remarks1 cannot apply to either the ,heliotropium ,europum or the ,croton tinctorium4 ,he thinks it not improbable that ,pliny may have named one plant1 and given a description of another4 #bfjb ,the ,heliotropium ,europum1 ,fe says1 has no medicinal properties4 #bfjc ,midday1 namely4 #bfjd 8,sic firmior40 #bfje ,the 8wart plant20 from 8verruca10 a 8wart40 #bfjf ,this notion arose probably1 ,fe thinks1 from the clusters of its flowers resembling the tail of a scorpion in appearance4 #bfjg ,probably an inflammation of the membranes of the brain4 #bfjh ,at the beginning of this ,chapter4 #bfji 8,scorpion's tail40 ,dioscorides gives this name to the ,helioscopium1 or great ,heliotropium4 #bfaj ,fe is surprised that no mention is made of its colouring properties1 it being extremely rich in the colouring principle1 and having been much used in former times for dyeing purposes4 #bfaa ,this notion1 ,fe says1 was long attached to the ,heliotropium ,europum1 and to it1 it is indebted for its present name of 8verrucaria40 #bfab 8,cortex seminis40 #bfac ,fe identifies it with the ,asplenium trichomanes of ,linnus1 spleen-wort1 or ceterach4 ,the ,adiantum of ,hippocrates and other ,greek writers1 he takes to be the ,adiantum capillus ,veneris of ,linnus1 ,venus' hair1 or maiden hair4 ,though ,pliny would seem not to have been acquainted with the latter plant1 he ascribes to the first one many of its properties and characteristics1 deriving his information1 probably1 from a writer who was acquainted with both4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fj4 #bfad ,from 1 8not10 and 1 8to wet40 ,this is owing1 ,fe remarks1 to the coat of waxen enamel or varnish with which the leaves are provided4 ,the same is the case also with the leaf of the cabbage and other plants4 #bfae ,the ,asplenium trichomanes1 ,fe says1 would not admit of being clipped for ornamental gardening4 #bfaf 8,fine hair10 and 8thick hair40 ,these names originated more probably in the appearance of the plant than in any effects it may have produced as a dye for the hair4 #bfag ,on the contrary1 ,fe says1 the root is composed of numerous fibres4 #bfah 8,stone-breaking40 #bfai ,fe is of opinion that they possess no such property4 #bfbj ,loss of the hair4 #bfba ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fe4 ,the ,picris asplenioides of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks1 though ,sprengel identifies it with the ,helminthia echioides of ,linnus2 but the leaves of that plant are not round4 #bfbb ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fg4 #bfbc ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fh4 #bfbd 8,plant of the heroes40 #bfbe ,mere varieties of the plant1 so called with reference1 probably1 to the relative energy of their properties4 #bfbf ,regarded in a medicinal point of view the bulb of the asphodel possesses some emollient properties1 and nothing more4 ,as an application to sores and abscesses it may reduce the inflammation1 and being rich in mucilage1 the pulp may form a nourishing food4 ,all the other statements as to its medicinal properties are1 as ,fe remarks1 quite fabulous4 #bfbg ,theriaca1 p4 #ci4 #bfbh ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fh4 #bfbi ,this practice1 as ,fe remarks1 was based on sound principles1 the acrid properties of the bulbs being removed by boiling4 #bfcj ,most medicinal roots are gathered at this period1 their properties being1 as ,pliny says1 most fully developed in the autumn4 #bfca ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #aa4 #bfcb ,other readings are ,diocles1 ,socles1 and ,socrates4 ,if 8,sophocles0 is the correct reading1 all memorials of this physician have perished1 beyond the mention made of him by ,clius ,aurelianus1 ,chron4 c4 i4 #bfcc 8,vitia40 #bfcd ,the ,atriplex halimus of ,linnus1 sea orach4 ,belon says that it is found in great abundance in ,candia1 the ancient ,crete1 where it is known as 8halimatia10 and the tops of the stalks are used as food4 #bfce ,hence its name1 1 from 1 the 8sea10 and not1 as ,pliny says1 from its salt taste4 #bfcf 8,mitius40 ,fe says that if this word means 8cultivated10 the plant mentioned cannot be the ,atriplex halimus2 in which case he is inclined to identify it with the ,atriplex portulacoides of ,linnus2 the leaves and young stalks of which1 preserved in vinegar1 have an agreeable taste4 #bfcg ,some other plant1 probably1 ,fe thinks4 #bfch ,as to the ,acanthus or thorn1 in a more general sense1 see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #ff1 and the ,notes4 #bfci ,pliny the ,younger speaks of the ,acanthus being used for a similar purpose1 ,epist4 ,b4 v4 ,ep4 #f4 #bfdj ,the ,acanthus spinosus of ,linnus4 #bfda ,the ,acanthus mollis of ,linnus2 the brankursine4 #bfdb 8,lad's love40 #bfdc 8,black-leafed40 ,fe thinks it probable that this name may have been given to the variety 8niger10 of ,miller1 which grows in great abundance in ,sicily and ,italy4 #bfdd 8,bull's side10 apparently4 ,fe says that the identification of this plant is quite uncertain2 the ,buplevrum rigidum of ,linnus1 the ,buplevrum ,baldense of ,willdenow1 and the ,ammi majus of ,linnus1 having been suggested4 ,the first1 he thinks1 could never have been used as a vegetable1 and the second is only found on ,mount ,baldo in ,carniola1 and in ,croatia4 ,though the ,ammi majus is more than a cubit in height1 and could never have been used as a vegetable1 he looks upon it as the most likely of the three4 ,the seeds of it were formerly used as a carminative4 #bfde ,sprengel and ,desfontaines consider it to be the ,buplevrum rotundifolium3 but ,fe is of a contrary opinion1 and thinks that it is impossible to identify it4 #bfdf ,though ,hardouin attempts to defend him1 it is more than probable that it is ,pliny himself who is in error here2 and that he has confounded the plant ,buprestis with the insect of that name1 which belongs to the class of ,cantharides1 and received its name 7burn-cow7 from its fatal effects when eaten by cattle4 #bfdg ,see ,b4 xxx4 c4 #aj4 #bfdh 8,stag's food40 ,fe adopts the opinion of ,sprengel and ,sibthorpe1 that this is the ,pastinaca sativa of ,linnus1 the cultivated parsnip4 ,desfontaines identifies it with the ,sium sisarum2 but1 as ,fe says1 that plant is but rarely found in ,greece4 #bfdi ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ah4 ,for the olusatrum1 see ,b4 xx4 c4 #df4 #bfej ,the parsnip is no longer employed for its medicinal properties2 but for a long time1 the seed was looked upon as a diuretic and febrifuge4 ,the root contains a considerable quantity of saccharine matter4 #bfea ,sprengel identifies it with the ,chrophyllum sativum of ,linnus1 the scandix cerifolium1 our common chervil2 but ,fe considers it to be the same as the ,scandix pecten ,veneris of ,linnus1 the ,venus' comb chervil4 ,pliny has mentioned a 8scandix0 also in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eb1 but erroneously1 ,fe thinks4 #bfeb ,it is not used for any medicinal purposes at the present day4 #bfec ,acharn4 ,a4 ii4 sc4 #d3 8,get some scandix from your mother1 and give it me40 ,the same joke also appears in the 8,equites20 and ,a4 ,gellius1 ,b4 xv4 c4 #bj1 says that ,theopompus speaks of the mother of ,euripides as having been a greengrocer4 #bfed ,fe identifies it with the ,anthriscus odoratus of ,linnus1 the cultivated chervil4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eb4 #bfee ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #fe4 #bfef ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #eb4 #bfeg ,this is the ,caucalis grandiflora of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks4 #bfeh 8,medicine for the heart40 ,all these statements as to its medicinal properties1 are quite erroneous1 ,fe says4 #bfei 8,pituitas40 #bffj ,on ,antidotes for the stings of serpents4 ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #bffa ,the ,sium angustifolium has been named1 but ,fe prefers identifying it with the ,sium latifolium of ,linnus1 water-parsley4 #bffb ,fe says that at the present day it is held in suspicion as an article of food1 and that it is said to produce madness in ruminating animals4 ,he thinks it not improbable that ,pliny here attributes to it some of the properties which in reality belong to cresses4 #bffc ,see ,b4 xxvi4 c4 #be4 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,carduus marianus of ,linnus4 ,fe inclines1 however1 to the belief that it is the ,sonchus palustris of ,linnus2 the marsh sow-thistle4 #bffd ,sprengel identifies it with the ,scolymus maculatus of ,linnus1 but ,fe prefers the ,scolymus ,hispanicus of ,linnus1 the ,spanish thistle4 #bffe ,fe says that the ,scolymus grandiflorus is still eaten in ,barbary4 #bfff ,the 8meadow-plant40 #bffg ,works and ,days1 l4 #ehb4 #bffh ,the ,sonchus oleraceus of ,linnus1 the common sow-thistle4 #bffi ,a poor old woman1 who hospitably entertained ,theseus when on his expedition for the purpose of slaying the ,marathonian bull4 ,theseus instituted a sacrifice at ,athens in honour of her4 ,see ,ovid1 ,remed4 ,am4 l4 #gdg1 and ,callim4 ,fragm4 #dj4 #bfgj ,the ,sonchus arvensis of ,linnus1 the field sow-thistle4 #bfga ,the ,sonchus oleraceus asper of ,linnus1 the prickly-leafed sow-thistle4 ,these plants are eaten as a salad in some countries4 ,they possess but little energy in a medicinal point of view1 but they are cooling and slightly laxative4 ,the marvels here related by ,pliny1 ,fe says1 are entirely fabulous4 #bfgb ,sibthorpe thinks that this is the ,chondrilla ramosissima of ,linnus2 but ,fe identifies it with the ,chondrilla juncea of ,linnus4 ,the ,lactuca perennis has also been suggested4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 cc4 #eb and #fe4 #bfgc ,in the ,isle of ,lemnos1 at the present day1 a milky juice is extracted from the root of the ,chondrilla juncea4 #bfgd ,to keep the hairs in their proper place4 #bfge 8,boleti40 #bfgf ,she having been put to death by him4 #bfgg 8,rimosa stria40 #bfgh ,this description would apply to many of the fungi known as toadstools at the present day4 #bfgi ,a true description1 ,fe says1 of the agaric oronge1 or the laseras mushroom4 #bfhj ,the true origin of fungi has not been discovered till a comparatively recent period1 since the days of ,linnus even4 ,it is now known that they are propagated by microscopic granules which are lodged in particular receptacles1 or else by a dissolution and dispersion of their filamentous tissues4 #bfha 8,clavus caligaris40 ,a nail of a caliga1 or military boot4 ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #dd1 and ,b4 ix4 c4 #cc4 #bfhb ,the peasants1 ,fe says1 who are in the habit of gathering them1 may probably be better trusted than the most learned authors that have written on the subject4 ,he thinks it the best plan1 however1 to avoid all risks1 by confining ourselves to the use of the common field mushroom1 the morel1 and one or two other well-known kinds4 #bfhc ,a prejudice entirely without foundation1 ,fe remarks4 #bfhd ,fe says that from this it is evident that ,pliny understands only the stalk mushrooms under the name of 8boleti20 the fungi which adhere to trees living more years1 many of them1 than ,pliny mentions days4 #bfhe 8,ex pituita40 ,fe thinks that under the name of 8boleti10 ,pliny means exclusively agaries or mushrooms of the division ,amanites1 which contains both the best and the most noxious kinds--the oronge for instance1 and the false oronge4 #bfhf ,the ,agaricus campestris of ,linnus1 ,fe thinks1 our common field mushroom1 or1 possibly1 the ,agaricus deliciosus of ,linnus4 #bfhg ,the ,agaricus procerus of ,schfer1 probably1 the tall columelle1 ,fe thinks4 #bfhh ,a cap worn by the ,flamen2 or chief-priest1 of a somewhat conical shape2 very similar in form to the ,russian helmet of the present day4 #bfhi 8,swine mushrooms40 ,fe suggests that this may be the ,boletus edulis of ,bulliard4 #bfij ,a valued friend of the philosopher ,seneca1 as we learn from ,tacitus1 and ,seneca's ,epistles1 ,ep4 #fc4 #bfia ,see ,martial's ,epigrams1 ,b4 i4 ,ep4 #ba4 #bfib ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #aa4 ,in that passage1 however1 the pine is mentioned1 and not the beech4 #bfic ,in ,b4 xx4 c4 #ac1 et passim4 #bfid ,fe says that the fungi are but little used in modern medicine3 the white bolet1 he says1 or larch bolet1 is sometimes employed as a purgative1 and some ,german writers have spoken in praise of the ,boletus suaveolens of ,bulliard as a remedy for pulmonary phthisis4 ,the agaric known as amadue1 or ,german tinder1 is also employed in surgery4 ,fe remarks that all that ,pliny says as to the medicinal properties of mushrooms and fungi is more or less hazardous4 #bfie ,rheums1 or catarrhs4 #bfif ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #ej4 #bfig 8,sucinis novaculis40 ,this may possibly mean 8knives of amber20 and it is not improbable that the use of amber may have been thought a means of detecting the poisonous qualities of fungi4 #bfih ,this1 as ,fe remarks1 is the case4 ,all kinds of fungi1 too1 it is said1 may be eaten with impunity1 if first boiled in salt water4 #bfii ,in reality1 rain only facilitates their developement4 #bgjj ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #bgja ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 #bgjb ,in ,b4 xix4 c4 #ae4 ,asaftida1 ,fe says1 if it bears any relation to the laser of the ancients1 had till very recently the reputation of being an emmenagogue1 a hydragogue1 a vermifuge1 and a purgative4 ,applied topically1 too1 it is emollient1 and is used for the cure of corns and tumours4 ,whatever ,laser may have been1 there is little doubt that much that is here stated by ,pliny is either fabulous or erroneous4 #bgjc 8,cauterium40 #bgjd ,what ,pliny here says of ,laser1 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #id1 says of the root of ,silphium4 #bgje 8,dead0 corns4 #bgjf ,or pottage--8,in sorbitione40 #bgjg ,probably to prevent it turning sour on the stomach4 #bgjh ,dioscorides1 however1 gives this advice1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #id4 #bgji ,in c4 #ef of this ,book4 #bgaj ,it is this1 in fact1 combined with its utility1 that ought to cause it to be so highly esteemed4 #bgaa ,in ,b4 xi4 c4 #d1 et seq4 #bgab ,bee-bread1 or bee-glue4 #bgac ,in ,b4 xi4 c4 #f4 ,it is a vegetable substance1 ,fe says1 not elaborated by the bees4 ,it is still employed in medicine1 he says1 for resolutive fumigations4 #bgad ,the ,babylonians employed it for the purpose of embalming4 #bgae ,it is of an emollient nature1 and is preferred to sugar for sweetening liquids1 in a multitude of instances4 #bgaf ,fe denies this2 but there is no doubt that honey has this tendency with some persons4 #bgag ,fe says that this is not the case4 #bgah ,in ,b4 xi4 c4 #ac4 #bgai ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #dd4 #bgbj 8,aqua mulsa40 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bj1 where it is described as ,hydromeli1 or ,melicraton4 #bgba ,fe says that this must have been a wholesome beverage1 but that it would cease to be so after undergoing fermentation4 ,in the description of its uses there are some errors1 ,fe says1 combined with some rational observations4 #bgbb ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bi2 also c4 #fa of this ,book4 #bgbc ,this seems to be the meaning of 8prparci0 here1 though it generally signifies 8niggardly10 or 8sordid40 #bgbd ,fe combats this theory at considerable length2 but there can be little doubt that the same substance has not the same taste to all individuals4 #bgbe ,seneca makes a similar observation1 ,de ,ir1 ,b4 iii4 c4 #aj4 #bgbf 8,animi seu potius anim40 #bgbg ,it is the oil1 ,fe says1 and not the hydromel1 that combats the effects of the white lead1 a subcarbonate of lead4 #bgbh ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #aje4 #bgbi ,mead1 or metheglin4 #bgcj ,this is1 perhaps1 the meaning of 8nervis0 here1 but it is very doubtful4 ,see ,note #cab1 in p4 #gg of ,vol4 ,,iii4 #bgca 8,mulsum40 #bgcb 8,dulci40 ,fe thinks1 but erroneously1 that by this word he means 8must10 or grape-juice1 and combats the assertion4 ,honied wine1 he says1 is used at the present day 7in ,france1 of course17 as a popular cure for recent wounds and inveterate ulcers4 ,as a beverage1 it was very highly esteemed by the ancients4 ,see ,b4 vii4 c4 #ed4 #bgcc 8,hospes40 ,it may possibly mean his 8guest10 but the other is more probable4 #bgcd 8,intus mulso1 foris oleo40 ,the people of ,corsica were famous for being long-lived1 which was attributed to their extensive use of honey4 #bgce 8,regius morbus40 #bgcf ,honied wine being considered so noble a beverage1 ,celsus says1 that 8during its cure1 the patient must be kept to his chamber1 and the mind must be kept cheerful1 with gaiety and pastimes1 for which reason it is called the #8royal disease1'0 ,b4 iii4 c4 #bd4 ,in the text ,pliny calls it 8arquatorum morbus10 the 8disease of the bow-like10 if we may be allowed the term4 ,the origin of this term1 according to ,scribonius ,largus1 is the word 8arcus10 the rainbow1 from a fancied resemblance of the colour of the skin1 when affected with jaundice1 to the green tints of the rainbow4 #bgcg ,in ,b4 xiv4 c4 #aa4 #bgch ,in ,b4 xi4 c4 #h1 and ,b4 xxi4 c4 #di4 #bgci ,when it curdles on the stomach4 #bgdj ,in c4 #di of this ,book4 #bgda 8,malagmata40 #bgdb ,fe1 at some length1 and with considerable justice1 combats this assertion2 though at the same time he remarks that ,pliny is right in calling the attention of the medical world to the use of simple substances4 #bgdc 8,scripulatim0--8,by scruples40 #bgdd ,he forgets that many of them could only be produced by the agency of an ,eastern sun4 #bgde ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bj4 #bgdf ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #e4 #bgdg ,fe says that it can have no such effect4 #bgdh ,the bran of wheat1 ,fe says1 is of a soothing nature1 and that of barley slightly astringent4 #bgdi ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ab1 and ,b4 xvii4 c4 #ad4 #bgej ,the only truth in this statement1 ,fe says1 is1 that wheat bran makes a good gargle4 #bgea ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ai4 #bgeb ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #hj4 ,this insect1 or weevil1 ,fe says1 is the ,calandra granaria4 ,it strongly resembles the worm or maggot found in nuts4 ,it can be of no efficacy whatever for the removal of carious teeth4 #bgec ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bj4 #bged ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ac4 #bgee ,or multipede4 ,for these purposes1 as ,fe says1 it is of no use whatever4 #bgef ,it is no better1 ,fe says1 than rye or barley-meal4 #bgeg ,see ,b4 xviii4 cc4 #ai1 #bi4 #bgeh ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bi4 #bgei 8,trimestris40 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ab4 #bgfj ,fe remarks1 that this meal is still valued for its maturative properties4 #bgfa ,hair-grass1 probably1 or darnel4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #dd4 #bgfb ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ad4 ,injections of meal are still employed1 ,fe says1 for diarrha4 #bgfc ,the flour of the grain called 8far10 ,fe thinks4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #aj4 #bgfd ,this statement is probably founded upon the notion that corn has the property of attracting liquids1 even when enclosed in vessels4 #bgfe ,a paste of this kind1 if applied to a recent wound1 would have the effect of preventing cicatrization1 and giving free access to the flow of blood4 #bgff ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ai4 #bgfg ,or 8flour40 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #bf4 #bgfh ,fe remarks1 that the ,greeks were acquainted with alica1 to which they gave the name of 2 indeed1 ,galen expressly states that it was well known in the days of ,hippocrates1 who says that it is more nourishing than ptisan4 ,festus says that alica is so called1 8quod alit10 because it nourishes the body4--,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bi4 #bgfi ,in c4 #ee of this ,book4 #bggj ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bd4 #bgga ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #be4 #bggb 8,mel frugum40 #bggc ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bb4 ,it is still used in medicine in ,egypt1 and as a cosmetic4 #bggd ,or 8bad habit40 #bgge ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,see also ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #di4 ,fe thinks it not unlikely that oil of sesame might have this effect4 ,the people of ,egypt still look upon this grain as an antophthalmic1 but1 as ,fe says1 without any good reason4 #bggf 8,like sesame40 #bggg ,sprengel has identified this plant1 the 8smaller0 ,sesamoides of ,dioscorides1 with the ,astragalus sesameus of ,linnus1 or else with the ,reseda canescens4 ,other naturalists have mentioned the ,catananche crulea of ,linnus1 the ,passerina hirsuta of ,linnus1 and the ,passerina polygalofolia of ,lapeyrouse4 ,fe is of opinion that it has not been identified4 #bggh ,altogether a different plant2 ,sprengel identifies it with the ,reseda ,mediterranea1 but ,fe dissents from that opinion1 and is inclined to agree with the opinion of ,dalechamps1 that it is the ,daphne ,tartonraira of ,linnus1 which is a strong purgative4 #bggi ,in ,b4 xxv c4 #ajf4 #bghj ,fe remarks that this ,chapter includes a number of gross prejudices which it is not worth while to examine or contradict4 #bgha 8,hordeum murinum40 ,anguillara1 ,matthioli1 and ,sprengel identify it with the ,lolium perenne of ,linnus2 but1 as ,fe says1 it is clear that ,pliny had in view the modern ,hordeum murinum1 mouse-barley4 #bghb ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ae4 #bghc ,at the present day1 as ,fe says1 oatmeal is preferred to barley-meal4 #bghd ,being our 8barley-water10 in fact4 #bghe ,our 8starch0 probably4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ag4 #bghf ,a prejudice1 ,fe says1 which is totally without foundation4 #bghg ,bread1 as made at the present day1 is but little used in modern medicine1 beyond being the basis of many kinds of poultices4 ,a decoction of bread with laudanum1 is known in medicine1 ,fe says1 as the 8white decoction40 #bghh 8,unseparated from the bran40 #bghi ,probably like the military bread1 made of the coarsest meal1 and unfermented4 #bgij ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ab4 #bgia 8,saccos40 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh4 #bgib ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cj4 ,bean meal is but little used in modern medicine1 but most that ,pliny here says is probably well founded2 with the exception1 however1 of his statement as to its employment for diseases of the chest4 #bgic ,most of the properties here ascribed to the lentil1 ,fe says1 are quite illusory4 #bgid ,this1 ,fe remarks1 is not the fact4 #bgie ,this statement1 ,fe thinks1 is probably conformable with truth4 #bgif ,fe remarks1 that we must not confound the cholera of the ancients with the ,indian cholera1 our cholera morbus4 ,celsus describes the cholera with great exactness1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aa4 #bgig ,they would be of no benefit1 ,fe thinks1 in such a case4 #bgih ,it bears no relation whatever to the lentil1 not being a leguminous plant4 ,fe would include under this head the ,lemna minor1 the ,lemna gibba1 and the ,lemna polyrrhiza of modern botany1 all being found together in the same stagnant water4 #bgii ,fe remarks1 that ,pliny is clearly speaking of two essentially different plants under this name2 the first1 he thinks1 may very probably be the ,ervum tetraspermum of ,linnus4 #bhjj ,this1 ,fe thinks1 is the ,salvia officinalis of ,linnus1 our common sage1 which has no affinity whatever with the lentil4 #bhja ,sprengel thinks that he is speaking here of the ,salvia triloba of ,linnus4 #bhjb ,the ,trygon pastinaca of ,linnus4 #bhjc 8,sage10 the plant1 no doubt1 that he has been describing4 #bhjd ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cb4 ,fe thinks that the wild cicer is identical with our cultivated one1 the ,cicer rietinum4 #bhje ,see ,b4 xviii4 cc4 #bf and #cb4 #bhjf ,or 8ram's head0 cicer2 from its fancied resemblance to it3 the name is still given to the cultivated plant4 #bhjg ,or 8pigeon0 cicer4 ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #cb4 ,fe thinks it probable that this plant may be a variety of the ,ervum4 #bhjh ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ch4 ,the ,ervum ervilia of ,linnus2 it is no longer employed in medicine4 #bhji ,fe says that this is the case1 and that the use of it is said to produce a marked debility4 #bhaj ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #aj4 #bhaa ,fe remarks that it is surprising to find the ancients setting so much value on the lupine1 a plant that is bitter and almost nauseous1 difficult to boil1 and bad of digestion4 #bhab ,it must be the rue1 ,fe says1 that acts as the vermifuge4 #bhac ,see c4 #bd of this ,book4 #bhad ,lees of olive oil4 #bhae ,this is not the fact4 #bhaf ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bb4 ,racine1 in his letters to ,boileau1 speaks of a chorister of ,notre ,dame1 who recovered his voice by the aid of this plant4 #bhag ,it is still used1 ,fe says1 for coughs4 #bhah ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #bb4 #bhai ,dioscorides says1 horehound4 ,the ,horminum1 apparently1 has not been identified4 #bhbj ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #dd4 ,darnel acts upon the brain to such an extent as to produce symptoms like those of drunkenness2 to which property it is indebted for its ,french name of ivraie4 ,it is no longer used in medicine4 #bhba ,georg4 i4 #aec2 8,infelix lolium1 et steriles dominantur aven40 #bhbb ,fe identifies this plant with the ,cuscuta ,europa of ,linnus4 ,sprengel takes it to be the ,panicum verticillatum of ,linnus4 #bhbc ,the ,avena sativa of ,linnus2 the cultivated oat1 and not the ,greek oat of ,b4 xviii4 c4 #db4 #bhbd ,the term 8locusta0 has been borrowed by botanists to characterize the fructification of gramineous plants4 #bhbe ,in ,b4 xviii4 c4 #dd4 ,the present1 ,fe thinks1 is a different plant from the ,cuscuta ,europa1 and he identifies it with the ,orobanche caryophyllacea of ,smith1 or else the ,orobanche ramosa of ,linnus4 ,the ,orobanche is so called from its choking 77 the orobus or ervum4 ,it is also found to be injurious to beans1 trefoil1 and hemp4 ,in ,italy1 the stalks are eaten as a substitute for asparagus4 #bhbf ,see ,b4 viii4 c4 #dc4 #bhbg ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #ie1 and ,b4 xi4 cc4 #bd1 #bh4 #bhbh ,as to the beers of the ancients1 see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bi4 ,very few particulars are known of them2 but we learn from the ,talmud1 where it is called zeitham1 that zythum was an ,egyptian beverage made of barley1 wild saffron1 and salt1 in equal parts4 ,in the ,mishna1 the ,jews are enjoined not to use it during the ,passover4 #bhbi 8,spuma20 literally1 8foam40 #bhcj ,a physician who lived1 probably1 at the end of the second or the beginning of the first century ,b4,c41 as he was one of the tutors of ,heraclides of ,erythr4 ,his definition of the pulse has been preserved by ,galen1 ,de ,differ4 ,puls4 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aj1 and an anecdote of him is mentioned by ,sextus ,empiricus4 #bhca ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #bhcb ,a native of ,mytilene1 in the island of ,lesbos1 the earliest of the olian lyric poets4 ,he flourished at the latter end of the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,of his ,odes only a few fragments1 with some ,epigrams1 have come down to us4 #bhcc ,in contradistinction to the fruits which hang from trees4 #bhcd ,see ,b4 xvii4 c4 #ah4 #bhce ,in ,b4 xii4 cc4 #fj and #fa4 #bhcf ,all this passage is found in ,dioscorides1 ,b4 v4 c4 #a1 who probably borrowed it from the same sources as our author4 #bhcg ,fe remarks1 that all the statements here made as to the medicinal properties of the vine are entirely unfounded1 except that with reference to the bark of the vine3 as it contains a small quantity of tannin1 it might possibly1 in certain cases1 arrest hmorrhage4 #bhch ,this cannot be the bryony1 ,fe says1 but simply a variety of the grape vine with white fruit4 ,see further in c4 #e of this ,book4 #bhci 8,impetigines40 #bhdj ,alkaline ashes1 which would differ but very little1 ,fe says1 from those of other vegetable productions4 #bhda ,this statement as to the caustic properties of the ashes is based upon truth4 #bhdb ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #fj4 #bhdc ,saracenus1 upon ,dioscorides1 ,b4 v4 c4 #f1 thinks that ,pliny1 in copying from the ,greek1 has made a mistake here1 and that he has taken 1 the 8gums10 for 1 a 8cicatrix20 the corresponding passage in ,dioscorides being 1 8flaccidity10 or 8humidity of the gums40 #bhdd ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #fa4 ,see also ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b1 ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ah1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 nanthe1 or vine-blossom1 possesses no active medicinal properties1 and the statements made here by ,pliny are in all probability unfounded4 #bhde ,not the white vine1 or ,bryonia alba of modern botany1 but probably some variety of the cultivated vine with white fruit4 ,the flower of the bryony is inodorous1 and would be of no utility in the composition of perfumes4 #bhdf 8,pterygia40 #bhdg ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fa4 ,it was prepared from vine-blossoms gathered in ,africa4 #bhdh ,this remark is founded1 in a great measure1 upon fact4 ,the skin of the black grape contains a colouring principle in considerable abundance1 and a small proportion of tannin2 that of the white grape possesses no colouring principle1 but a considerable quantity of tannin4 ,the white grape contains more saccharine matter than the black one1 and they are both of them of a laxative nature4 #bhdi ,littr remarks1 that under the name of 8lethargus10 a febrile malady is probably meant1 which belongs probably to the class of pseudo-continuous fevers4 #bhej ,fe thinks that in reality there can be little or no difference in their effects1 but that1 being eaten in larger quantities at the vintage than afterwards1 it stands to reason that the result will be different4 #bhea ,the fermentation1 producing a certain amount of alcohol1 would naturally produce this result4 #bheb 8,sapa30 must boiled down to one-third4 #bhec ,this1 as ,fe remarks1 is quite impossible2 grapes put in rain-water would spoil immediately1 and become totally unfit to eat4 #bhed ,by the transformation1 namely1 of the juices into alcohol4 #bhee ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #c4 #bhef ,a notion quite unfounded1 as ,fe remarks4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ah4 #bheg ,a prejudice equally destitute of foundation4 #bheh ,grape-stones have an astringent effect1 and ,fe states that in modern times an oil is extracted from them of an agreeable flavour1 and applicable to many economical purposes4 ,they are no longer used in medicine4 #bhei ,in ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bb4 #bhfj ,hence the name 8theriaca10 from 1 a 8wild animal10 and 1 8to cure40 #bhfa ,by reason1 probably1 of their astringent properties4 #bhfb ,though no longer used medicinally1 they are still considered to be good pectorals4 #bhfc ,see ,b4 xx4 cc4 #bc and #ha4 #bhfd 8,ceria20 known in modern medicine as 8favus40 #bhfe ,the ,pastinaca opopanax of ,linnus4 ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #eg4 #bhff ,identified with the ,delphinium staphis agria of ,linnus4 #bhfg 8,taminian grape40 #bhfh ,or wild vine4 #bhfi ,the fruit is formed of three oblong capsules1 containing a triangular seed of black brown colour1 about the size of a kidney bean4 #bhgj ,this is not the white vine or bryony1 mentioned in c4 #af of this ,book1 but the ,tamus communis of ,linnus4 #bhga ,the seeds1 which are remarkably pungent and powerful in their effects1 are only used1 at the present day1 in medicinal preparations for cattle4 #bhgb ,this is still done at the present day2 to which it is indebted for its ,french name l'herbe pediculaire1 or louse-plant4 #bhgc ,pliny seems again to have fallen into the error of mistaking 1 the 8gums0 for 1 a 8cicatrix20 the corresponding passage in ,dioscorides1 ,b4 iv4 c4 #aef1 being 8defluxions of the gums40 #bhgd ,they would be of no use whatever1 ,fe says1 for such a purpose4 #bhge ,as tending to carry off 8pituita10 or phlegm4 #bhgf ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #fa4 #bhgg 8,ampelos agria40 ,fe observes1 that this ,chapter is full of errors1 ,pliny beginning by speaking of the wild vine1 the variety ,labrusca of the ,vitis vinifera of ,linnus1 and then proceeding to describe what is really the ,bryonia dioica of modern botany1 and applying its characteristics to the wild vine1 or labrusca4 #bhgh ,this is not the case with the wild vine4 #bhgi ,the root of the wild vine is not of a purgative nature4 #bhhj ,as already stated1 this is not identical with the wild vine1 but is the ,tamus communis of ,linnus4 #bhha ,the ,solanum dulcamara of modern botany has been suggested2 though there is but little resemblance between the leaves of that variety of nightshade and those of the wild vine4 #bhhb ,the ,bryonia alba of ,linnus2 the bryony1 white vine1 or white jalap4 #bhhc ,this description1 ,fe says1 is pretty correct1 and the account of its properties sufficiently exact4 ,it is a violent poison1 and is no longer used in medicine4 #bhhd ,it is still called by the ,french navet du diable1 or devil's turnip4 #bhhe 8,exulcerant corpus40 ,our author1 ,fe says1 may here be taxed with some exaggeration4 #bhhf ,the fruit is no longer used for this purpose4 #bhhg ,it is a matter of extreme doubt if there is any foundation for this statement4 #bhhh ,it would be productive of no good effect in such case1 nor1 indeed1 in most of the cases here mentioned4 #bhhi 8,purgat0 is the reading given by ,sillig2 but1 judging from the corresponding passage in ,dioscorides1 1 8turbat10 or 8conturbat10 is the proper reading4 #bhij 8,pterygiis40 #bhia ,this is in reality not the modern bryony1 or white vine1 but the ,tamus communis of ,linnus1 the black vine1 or taminier of the ,french1 the uva taminia1 probably1 of ,chapter #ac4 #bhib ,in the last ,chapter4 #bhic ,the shoots of the ,tamus communis are still eaten in ,tuscany as a substitute for asparagus1 to which1 however1 they are inferior in quality4 ,it is there known by the name of tamaro4 #bhid ,an absurdity1 as ,fe remarks1 not worthy of discussion4 ,the same1 too1 as to the next assertion4 #bhie ,of course there are as many varieties of must1 or grape-juice1 as there are of wines4 ,must is of a purgative and emollient nature1 but is no longer employed in medicine4 #bhif ,see c4 #cj of this ,book4 ,of course there is little or no truth in this assertion4 #bhig ,in reality it has no such effect4 #bhih ,see ,b4 x4 c4 #hf4 #bhii ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #cf1 and ,b4 xxx4 c4 #aj4 #bijj ,in cases of poisoning by opium or hemlock1 the use of it1 ,fe says1 would be prejudicial4 #bija ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #aje4 #bijb 8,toxica40 #bijc ,in ,b4 xiv4 cc4 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,it is impossible1 with any degree of accuracy1 to discuss the properties of these various wines1 as they no longer exist4 #bijd 8,cognominatum0 appears to be a better reading than 8cognominatus10 which ,sillig has adopted2 as it is much more probable that the work received its name from the subject than that the writer did4 #bije ,all these wines are described in ,b4 xiv4 #bijf 8,nervis40 ,as to the meaning of this word1 see ,b4 xi4 c4 #hh4 #bijg ,these wines also are described in ,b4 xiv4 #bijh 8,feritas40 #biji ,the colour of our ,port4 #biaj 8,apothecis40 #biaa 8,cariem trahunt40 #biab ,while the ancients thought that the cariousness or results of old age were removed by the agency of smoke4 #biac ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #f4 #biad 8,saliva40 #biae ,in the time of the ,emperor ,tiberius4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh4 #biaf ,odyssey1 ,b4 iv4 l4 #bai1 et seq4 #biag 8,sapientiam vino obumbrari40 #biah ,works and ,days1 l4 #eid4 #biai 8,merum40 #bibj ,it is surprising1 as ,fe says1 to find coriander enumerated among the poisons4 ,mistletoe1 too1 and mercury are neither of them poisons4 ,as to hemlock1 see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #g4 #biba ,see ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 ll4 #gbb1 #gia4 #bibb ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ga4 #bibc ,this method is still employed with race-horses4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh4 #bibd ,it is still a very prevalent notion that the growth of dogs is stunted by giving them raw spirits4 #bibe ,the wines of ,surrentum and ,stata were ,campanian wines4 #bibf 8,volgo40 #bibg 8,sacco40 ,a strainer of linen cloth4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bh1 and ,b4 xix4 c4 #ai4 ,while it diminished the strength1 however1 it was considered to injure the flavour4 #bibh ,in that case1 ,fe says1 they would differ but little from the wines of the present day4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #be4 #bibi ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #bd4 #bicj ,see ,b4 xiv4 cc4 #i1 #aj4 #bica 8,sapa40 #bicb ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #be4 #bicc ,surrentine1 ,alban1 ,falernian1 c4 #bicd ,the colour of ,tent and ,burgundy4 #bice ,the colour of ,port4 #bicf ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #be4 #bicg ,see ,b4 xiv4 cc4 #c1 #d4 #bich ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #d3 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bbg4 #bici 8,tremore nervorum20 perhaps 8nervousness40 #bidj ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ga4 ,there is little doubt that generous wine promotes the rapid circulation of the blood4 #bida ,in ,b4 xiv4 cc4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj4 #bidb ,in accordance with the suggestion of ,sillig1 we insert 8sunt qu10 otherwise the passage is defective4 #bidc ,this would be a vigorous liquor1 ,fe thinks1 and a good tonic2 similar1 in fact1 to the modern antiscorbutic wines4 #bidd ,fe queries whether this was made from the fermented berries1 or from an infusion of them in wine4 ,in the former case it would bear some slight resemblance to our gin4 #bide 8,apsinthites40 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ai4 #bidf ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #i4 #bidg ,in ,b4 xiv4 c4 #aj4 #bidh ,the vinegar of the present day does not appear to have any such property4 #bidi ,celsus says the same thing1 ,b4 i4 c4 #c4 #biej 8,posca10 or vinegar and water1 sometimes mixed with eggs1 was the common drink of the lower classes at ,rome1 and of the soldiers when on service4 #biea ,there is little doubt that it would be advantageous to employ vinegar in such a case2 the animal would be compelled to withdraw its hold1 and vomiting would be facilitated4 ,strong salt and water1 ,fe thinks1 would be still more efficacious4 #bieb ,it would be of no use whatever1 ,fe thinks1 in any of these cases4 #biec ,an operation which1 though known to the ,greeks and ,romans1 appears to have been completely lost sight of in the middle ages4 #bied ,or leather bag1 8utrem40 #biee ,see ,b4 xxx4 c4 #ba4 ,from ,livy and ,plutarch we learn that ,hannibal employed this method of splitting the rocks when making his way across the ,alps4 ,fe1 at considerable length1 disputes the credibility of this account1 and thinks it only a wonderful story invented by the ,romans to account for their defeat by ,hannibal4 #bief ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #e4 #bieg ,sillig has little doubt that this passage is incomplete1 and that the end of it should be to the effect1 8the result of which was1 that he was effectually cured40 ,a very similar story is related of ,servius ,clodius1 a ,roman knight1 in ,b4 xxv4 c4 #g4 #bieh ,in ,b4 xx4 c4 #ci4 ,it is still employed in medicine2 but the statements here made1 as ,fe says1 do not merit a serious discussion4 #biei ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ba4 ,the modern oxymel1 as ,fe remarks1 consists of honey dissolved in white vinegar1 and bears no resemblance to the monstrous composition here described1 and which no stomach1 he says1 could possibly support4 #bifj ,see ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 ll4 #gbc1 #ggf4 #bifa ,fe thinks that there may be some foundation for this statement1 as vinegar acts efficaciously as a remedy to the effects of narcotic poisons4 ,mistletoe1 as already stated1 is not a poison4 #bifb ,grape-juice boiled down to one-third4 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #aa4 #bifc ,see c4 #ah of this ,book4 ,the account here given of the medicinal properties of sapa is altogether unfounded4 #bifd ,a worm that grows in the pine-tree1 the ,phalna bombyx pityocampa of ,linnus4 #bife ,a mere absurdity1 of course4 ,see c4 #ah of this ,book4 #biff ,the lees of wine are charged with sub-tartarate of potash1 a quantity of colouring matter more or less1 and a small proportion of wine4 ,they are no longer used in medicine4 ,under the term 8fx vini10 ,pliny includes the pulp or husks of grapes after the must has been expressed4 #bifg ,in consequence of the carbonic gas disengaged before the fermentation is finished1 asphyxia being the result4 #bifh ,by the use of this term he evidently means grape husks4 #bifi ,or flower-de-luce4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 cc4 #ai1 #hc4 #bigj ,wine-lees would only have the effect of increasing the inflammation4 #biga ,see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #fg4 #bigb ,their properties are similar to those of wine-lees1 but they are no longer used in medicine4 ,the statements here made by our author1 ,fe remarks1 are entirely fabulous4 #bigc ,or horned serpent4 ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #de4 #bigd ,see ,b4 xx4 c4 #ga4 #bige ,this1 as ,fe observes1 is probably the case4 #bigf ,it must be remembered that red hair was greatly admired by the ,romans4 #bigg ,the thicker parts of boiled grape-juice4 ,these lees have no affinity with those of wine or vinegar4 #bigh ,they are rich in tannin and gallic acid1 and ,fe states that they have been proposed as a substitute for quinine4 ,the statements here made by ,pliny1 he says1 in reference to their properties1 are hypothetical4 #bigi 8,nervosis40 #bihj ,no medicinal use is now made of it1 but its properties would be very similar to those of the leaves4 #biha ,impure metallic oxide4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #d1 and ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #eb4 ,the ashes of the branches would be an impure sub-carbonate of potass1 which would act1 ,fe says1 as a powerful irritant4 #bihb ,a sort of pyroligneous acid1 which would have the noxious effect of throwing inward the eruptions4 #bihc ,this juice or tear 7lacrima7 ,fe thinks to be the same with the ,enhmon1 mentioned in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ch2 the properties of which are quite inactive1 though ,dioscorides1 ,b4 i4 c4 #aci1 speaks of it as a poison4 #bihd ,probably in consequence of the tannin and gallic acid1 which it contains in great abundance4 #bihe ,fe says that all these statements as to the medicinal properties of olives are false4 #bihf ,or preserved olives4 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #d4 #bihg ,b4 xv4 c4 #h4 #bihh ,fe thinks that it would exercise quite a contrary effect4 ,marc of olives is no longer used in medicine4 #bihi ,it would produce no good effect in the treatment of ulcers4 #biij ,fe remarks that it would have no such effect4 #biia ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fj4 #biib ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ba4 #biic ,fe thinks that it might prove useful in this case4 #biid ,unboiled4 #biie ,see c4 #ce4 ,there is no analogy1 ,fe says1 between marc of olives and the leaves of the wild olive4 #biif ,this is hardly a peculiarity1 for he has said already that the cultivated olive is employed with honey to arrest the flow of blood4 #biig ,the tannin which it contains in great abundance may possibly have this effect4 #biih ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #b4 #biii ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fj4 #cjjj ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fj4 ,an inferior kind of omphacium4 #cjja 8,non mordeat40 ,probably in the sense of 8have no pungency40 #cjjb ,or 8nanthinum40 ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fa1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjjc ,see c4 #cj of this ,book4 #cjjd ,fe remarks1 that a modern physician would dread to administer such a dose1 rue being a very dangerous plant in its effects4 ,he also remarks that it is doubtful whether ,pliny is speaking throughout this ,chapter of olive oil or of oil of nanthe2 and such is the fact1 though most probably the latter is intended to be spoken of4 #cjje 8,ptisan succo40 #cjjf ,fe thinks that it can have no such efficacy1 whether it be olive oil or oil of nanthe that is the subject of discussion4 #cjjg 8,acapni40 ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ae4 #cjjh 8,oleum cicinum40 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjji ,it is still used in medicine for the same purpose4 #cjaj 8,prcordia20 either the diaphragm1 or the parts above it1 such as the heart and chest4 #cjaa ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #eb4 #cjab ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjac ,fe is at a loss to know how these wicks could have been made3 most probably1 however1 the seeds were beaten up into a pulp for the purpose4 ,the oil is still used for lamps in some countries1 though1 as ,pliny says1 in consequence of its extreme thickness1 the light it gives is not good4 #cjad 8,a sole ustis40 ,not coup de soleil1 or 8sun-stroke10 as ,littr renders it4 ,oil of almonds is still a favourite ingredient in cosmetics4 #cjae ,there is no truth1 ,fe says1 in this assertion4 #cjaf ,fixed oil of laurel contains a certain proportion of volatile oil1 to which it is indebted for the excellence of its smell4 ,it is still used as a liniment for rheumatic pains and other affections4 #cjag ,as prepared by the ancients1 it has no analogous properties with oil of laurel4 ,myrtle oil is no longer used in medicine4 #cjah ,such is not the case4 #cjai ,the wild myrtle1 or little holly4 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,the oil would be inodorous1 and not possessed1 as ,pliny says1 of properties similar to those of oil of myrtle4 #cjbj ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,fe thinks that it may have possibly been prepared from a decoction of leaves of cypress4 #cjba ,see ,b4 xiii4 cc4 #a4 #bi1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjbb ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,oil of walnuts is used but little in medicine at the present day1 but it is employed for numerous other purposes4 #cjbc 8,granum ,cnidium40 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjbd ,it would only resemble castor oil in its drastic properties2 the latter is a fixed natural oil1 the former an artificial one4 #cjbe ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,an oil is still extracted in ,italy from the fruit of the ,pistacia lentiscus2 but it is no longer used in medicine4 #cjbf ,from the ,greek 1 8relieving weariness40 #cjbg ,or 8ben40 ,see ,b4 xii c4 #df1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 ,oil of ben is still made1 but it has no such effects as those mentioned by our author4 #cjbh ,pliny appears to have made the same error here in compiling from the ,greek1 as he has done in ,chapters #d and #ac1 in mistaking the ,greek word signifying 8scars10 for that meaning 8gums40 #cjbi ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ea1 and ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjcj ,the cyprus1 or henna1 is but little known in ,europe3 but it is employed for many purposes in the ,east4 ,the leaves1 which have a powerful smell1 are used for the purpose of dyeing and staining various parts of the body4 #cjca ,pliny has most probably committed an error here in mentioning the 8strutheum10 or sparrow-quince2 for the corresponding passage in ,dioscorides1 ,b4 i4 c4 #abd1 speaks of the 8struthion10 the ,gypsophila struthium of ,linnus1 or possibly1 as ,littr thinks1 the ,saponaria officinalis4 ,see ,b4 xix4 c4 #ah4 #cjcb ,this1 ,fe thinks1 may probably be the case4 #cjcc ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjcd ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ed4 ,balm of ,mecca1 ,fe says1 possesses properties little different from the turpentines extracted from the ,conifer4 #cjce 8,tremulis40 #cjcf ,in ,b4 xii4 c4 #ei4 ,whatever malobathrum may have been1 this was an artificial oil1 no doubt4 #cjcg 8,hyoscyaminum40 ,a fixed oil with narcotic properties1 and most probably1 highly dangerous in its effects4 #cjch ,from the ,greek 1 a lupine4 #cjci ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ge4 #cjdj ,a fixed oil1 charged with a small proportion of essential oil4 #cjda ,fe is of opinion that applied to the body it would exterminate vermin4 #cjdb ,malignant cancer4 #cjdc ,in ,b4 xxi4 c4 #aa4 #cjdd ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjde ,similar1 probably1 to the narcotic oil1 or baume tranquille of the ,french4 #cjdf ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjdg ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjdh ,probably because its oleaginous properties would tend to prevent imbibition and absorption1 while its narcotic qualities would in some degree neutralize the strength of the wine4 ,almonds have a somewhat similar effect4 #cjdi 8,pissinum40 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #g4 #cjej ,this is not the fact4 #cjea ,on the contrary1 they are used at the present day as a pectoral2 and many so-called pectoral sirops are prepared from them4 #cjeb ,see ,b4 vi4 c4 #cg1 and ,b4 xiii4 c4 #i4 #cjec ,they have no properties1 when burnt1 to distinguish them from the ashes of other vegetables4 #cjed ,impure metallic oxide4 #cjee 8,calliblephara40 #cjef ,see ,b4 xii4 cc4 #df1 #dg4 #cjeg ,fe is of opinion that this is not the 8myrobalanum0 of ,b4 xii4 c4 #df1 the behen or ben nut1 but the phnicobalanus of c4 #dg in that ,book2 and1 indeed1 there can be little doubt that ,pliny has committed an error here in substituting one for the other4 #cjeh 8,ciet10 8promote10 is the reading adopted by ,sillig1 but 8sistit0 is supported by the parallel passage in ,dioscorides4 #cjei ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fb1 and the ,note1 in reference to the mistake which ,pliny appears to have committed in reference to this term4 #cjfj ,in reality1 it is quite inert4 #cjfa ,in consequence of the malic and tartaric acid which they contain4 #cjfb ,quinces are of an astringent nature2 and an astringent sirop1 ,fe says1 is still prepared from them4 #cjfc ,they are no longer used for this purpose4 #cjfd ,fe observes that it has no such effect4 #cjfe ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 #cjff ,or 8sparrow-quince40 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #aj4 #cjfg ,he states this so gravely1 that he would almost appear to believe it4 #cjfh 8,honey apples40 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ae1 where this apple is also called the 8musteum40 #cjfi ,a purgative sirop of apples1 causing thirst1 was made by the ancients1 the receipt for which was attributed to ,king ,sapor4 #cjgj ,or 8round0 apples4 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ae4 #cjga ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #g4 #cjgb ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ae1 and ,b4 xii4 c4 #g4 #cjgc ,as ,fe says1 this observation is quite unaccountable4 ,he queries whether a sweet fruit may not possibly be meant1 the sweet lime1 for instance1 the flavour of which is very sickly1 and would require to be heightened by the assistance of an acid4 #cjgd ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cd2 where1 however1 he has only distinguished them according to their flavour1 sweet1 vinous1 c4 #cjge 8,without pips40 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cd4 #cjgf ,this and the previous precaution given1 ,fe considers to be mere puerilities4 #cjgg ,than that of the ordinary grape1 probably4 #cjgh ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cd4 #cjgi ,the 8leather apple10 apparently4 ,it is more probable1 as ,hardouin says1 that it was so called from the toughness of the rind4 #cjhj 8,pterygiis40 #cjha ,see ,b4 ix4 c4 #gb1 and ,b4 xxxii4 c4 #c4 #cjhb 8,alumen scissum40 ,see ,b4 xxxi4 c4 #ci1 and ,b4 xxxv4 c4 #eb4 #cjhc ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #ae1 and ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #gg4 #cjhd ,an absurd notion1 without any apparent foundation4 #cjhe ,all vegetable productions rich in tannin are thought to possess the property of acting as a vermifuge4 #cjhf ,the calyx of the blossom of the pomegranate4 ,its properties are remarkably astringent4 #cjhg ,this would be nearly an impossibility1 as the calyx is hard and coriaceous1 and of considerable size4 ,nothing1 however1 is allowed to stand in the way of superstition4 #cjhh 8,ipsa corpuscula40 ,the exact meaning of this expression is somewhat doubtful3 ,hardouin takes it to be the lower part of the cytinus4 #cjhi ,in ,b4 xiii4 c4 #cd4 #cjij ,the corolla of the flower4 ,dioscorides1 ,b4 i4 c4 #aeb1 makes the 8balaustium0 to be the blossom of the wild pomegranate1 and the 8cytinus0 to be that of the cultivated fruit4 ,theophrastus1 however1 and ,galen1 give the same account of the cytinus as ,pliny4 ,holland has this quaint marginal ,note on the passage3 8,here is ,pliny out of the way20 not improbably in reference to the statement of ,dioscorides4 #cjia ,or ,quinarius4 ,see ,introduction to ,vol4 ,,iii4 #cjib ,these statements1 ,fe says1 are quite unfounded4 #cjic ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #ae1 and ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #gg4 #cjid ,fe thinks that there is no doubt that this was really the pomegranate1 left to grow wild4 ,dalechamps and ,fe suggest that1 misled by the resemblance of the ,greek names1 ,pliny has here attributed to the wild pomegranate the properties attributed to the red poppy1 or corn poppy4 ,hardouin1 however1 is not of that opinion1 and thinks that the mention of the roots of the plant proves that ,pliny has not committed any error here2 as in ,b4 xx4 c4 #gg1 he has attributed the narcotic effects of the poppy to the head only4 #cjie ,this depends considerably1 as ,fe says1 upon the kind of pear4 #cjif ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #af4 #cjig ,there is no truth whatever in this statement4 #cjih ,they are equally inefficacious for the purpose1 #cjii ,see ,b4 xxiv4 c4 #a4 ,an absurdity1 upon which ,fe has uselessly expended a dozen lines of indignation4 #cajj ,in reality it has no affinity with vinegar or any other acid1 and the fact that it curdles milk is no proof whatever that such is the case4 #caja ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ag4 #cajb ,being of a caustic nature1 it might have this effect1 ,fe thinks4 ,it is1 however1 no longer employed in medicine4 ,he is also of opinion that the juice of the fig-tree might be useful in making cheese4 #cajc ,here1 also1 the caustic nature of their juices might render them useful4 #cajd 8,ceria30 now known in surgery as 8favus40 #caje ,this and the next statement are equally untrue4 #cajf ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ai4 #cajg 8,medicat40 ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #ea4 #cajh ,they produce heart-burn and flatulency4 #caji 8,ad carnes eos transtulit40 ,dalechamps takes this to mean 8showed them that the flesh was increased by eating figs40 ,this ,pythagoras was probably the ,samian pugilist who gained a victory in ,ol4 #dh4 #caaj ,this herb is rich in mucilage1 and of a soothing nature4 #caaa 8ris flore40 #caab 8,pterygiis40 #caac ,this is the case1 as they are remarkably rich in alkaline salts4 ,the assertion1 however1 as to their properties1 is1 as ,fe says1 hypothetical4 #caad 8,thymos40 #caae ,metallic ashes1 or dross4 ,see ,b4 xxxiv4 c4 #eb4 #caaf 8,suavitatem40 ,fe is justly at a loss to understand how this could be4 ,it is doubtful whether ,pliny does not mean that by the use of this substance meat was kept fresh4 #caag ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ag4 #caah ,fe thinks that1 owing to its acridity1 it may possibly have this effect4 #caai ,there is probably no foundation for this statement4 #cabj ,favus4 #caba ,plutarch1 ,sympos4 ii4 #g1 tells the same absurd story4 #cabb ,to 8erineon10 the ,greek for wild fig4 #cabc ,supposed to be the ,campanula rapunculus of ,linnus1 the rampion2 though ,fe expresses some doubts4 ,guilandin has suggested the ,hieracium ,sabaudum of ,linnus1 an opinion which ,fe thinks not altogether destitute of probability4 #cabd ,the leaves of this tree contain a large proportion of tannin1 to which they owe their astringent properties4 #cabe ,prunes1 the produce of the plum-tree1 called the plum of ,saint ,julien1 are still used as a purgative4 #cabf ,a most singular assertion1 as ,fe says1 and one that universal experience proves to be unfounded4 #cabg ,on the contrary1 it quenches thirst4 #cabh ,fe thinks that1 owing to the hydro-cyanic acid which the kernels contain1 there may possibly be some foundation for this statement of their curative effects4 #cabi ,both the root and the fruit are of an astringent nature4 ,from this fruit an extract is prepared1 ,fe says1 rich in tannin1 and called in ,france ,acacia nostras1 from its resemblance to the juice of the ,egyptian ,acacia4 #cacj 8,limus40 ,fe thinks that this may possibly be the ,evernia prunastri of modern botany4 ,it has been suggested1 however1 that ,pliny has committed an error here1 and that in copying from the ,greek source he has mistaken the author's mention of the cure of lichens by the gum of the plum-tree1 for an account of a lichen which grows on the tree4 ,such1 in fact1 is the statement of ,dioscorides in ,b4 i4 c4 #agd1 though he does not mention chaps and condylomata4 #caca ,in ,b4 xiii4 cc1 #ad1 #ae1 where he calls it a fig-tree4 ,he alludes to the sycamore4 #cacb ,see ,b4 xvi4 c4 #gb4 #cacc ,this statement is entirely unfounded4 #cacd ,considering that the leaves and bark are rich in tannin and gallic acid1 it might be worth while to ascertain if there is any truth in this assertion4 #cace ,but ,horace says1 ,sat4 ,b4 ii4 s4 #d1 l4 #bb1 that mulberries are remarkably wholesome as a dessert4 #cacf ,in ,b4 xvi4 c4 #da4 #cacg 8,all-healing10 8mouth-medicine10 and 8medicine for the trachea40 #cach ,see ,b4 xii4 c4 #fj4 ,a rob1 or sirop of mulberries is prepared for much the same purposes at the present day1 but without the omphacium1 myrrh1 or saffron4 ,an 8arteriace0 is also mentioned in ,b4 xx4 c4 #gi4 #caci ,hermolas ,barbarus is possibly right in suggesting 8cytini10 which name has been previously mentioned in connection with the calyx of the pomegranate4 #cadj ,from the account given by ,dioscorides1 ,b4 i4 c4 #aha1 this appears to he the meaning of the passage1 which is very elliptically expressed1 if1 indeed1 it is not imperfect4 #cada ,in a powdered state1 probably1 as mentioned by ,dioscorides4 #cadb ,the use of the word 8conluebant0 would almost make it appear that he is speaking of a liquid4 #cadc ,the juice 7if1 indeed1 ,pliny intends to specify it as an ingredient7 will not1 as ,fe remarks1 combine with oil4 ,dioscorides says1 ,b4 i4 c4 #ahj1 that the leaves are bruised and applied with oil to burns4 #cadd ,black cherries1 ,fe says1 bigaroons1 and others1 with a firm flesh1 are the most unwholesome4 ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #cj4 #cade ,this property4 ,fe says1 is attributed by some1 in modern times1 not to the flesh1 or pericarpus of the cherry1 but to the stalks of the fruit4 #cadf ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bb4 #cadg ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bc4 #cadh ,they are no longer used in medicine1 ,fe says1 but the buds of the pine and fir1 the properties of which are analogous1 are still used1 though not in cases of hmoptysis4 #cadi ,in a rancid state particularly1 they would have this effect4 #caej ,fe thinks that the mixture might be useful in these cases4 #caea ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bd4 #caeb 8,hilariorem40 ,at the present day it is not a decoction of the root1 but the fixed oil of the kernels1 that is used as a cosmetic2 for which purpose it is used with oil of sweet almonds and wax4 #caec ,their narcotic effect is owing to the prussic1 or hydro-cyanic1 acid which they contain4 #caed ,almonds were a favourite food with the monks in the middle ages2 not improbably because they tended to dispel the fumes of wine4 ,almond milk1 similar to our custard1 was a standing dish at their 8charities0 and anniversaries4 #caee ,see ,b4 xviii4 c4 #ag4 #caef ,they would be of no use whatever in these cases4 #caeg ,otherwise turpentine4 #caeh ,see ,b4 xxii4 c4 #ga4 #caei ,see ,note #caed above4 ,plutarch tells us that ,drusus1 the brother of ,tiberius1 one of the greatest drinkers of his time1 used almonds for this purpose4 ,fe will not believe that they have any such preventive effect4 #cafj ,almonds will kill small animals1 birds1 for instance4 #cafa ,they are much more used in modern medicine than bitter almonds4 #cafb ,there is some ground1 ,fe says1 for this assertion4 #cafc ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bd1 where ,pliny expresses himself at a loss as to their identification4 #cafd ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bd4 #cafe 1 from 1 8heaviness10 or 1 the 8head40 ,see ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #caf4 #caff ,a mere prejudice1 no doubt4 #cafg ,the rancidity of the oil which they contain1 renders them irritating to the throat and stomach4 #cafh ,fe remarks1 that it is difficult to see how this could be done4 #cafi ,this statement1 as ,fe remarks1 is quite unfounded4 #cagj ,this assertion is also entirely imaginary4 #caga 8,cortex juglandium40 ,fe says that by this term is meant1 not the green outer shell1 husk1 or pericarpus of the walnut1 but the bark of the tree4 #cagb ,this asserted use of them has not been verified by modern experience4 #cagc ,the various receipts for the preparation of this ,mithridate or antidote differ very widely2 and1 indeed1 the probability is1 as ,dr4 ,heberden says1 that ,mithridates was as much a stranger to his own antidote1 as modern physicians have since been to the medicines daily advertised under their names4 ,mithridates is said to have so fortified himself against all noxious drugs and poisons1 that none would produce any effect when he attempted to destroy himself--a mere fable1 no doubt4 #cagd ,this1 we are told by ,galen1 was regularly done by the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,de ,antid4 ,b4 i4 c4 i4 #cage ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bd4 #cagf ,an emulsion of them fresh1 with honey1 might be useful1 ,fe thinks1 in such a case4 #cagg ,either of these additions would certainly neutralize the good effects of the emulsion4 ,the addition of raisin wine1 however1 is recommended by ,dioscorides4 #cagh ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #aj4 #cagi ,they are of no efficacy whatever for such a purpose4 #cahj ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #be4 ,they are no longer used in medicine1 and1 as ,fe says1 it is extremely doubtful if they possess any of the properties here attributed to them4 #caha ,they are still looked upon as very nourishing1 as1 indeed1 is the case with all the feculent fruits4 #cahb ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bf4 #cahc ,they are productive of colic and diarrha4 #cahd ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #af4 #cahe ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ca4 #cahf ,the juice of the sap would1 to all appearance1 produce an acetate or oxide of iron4 #cahg ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #bh4 #cahh ,all parts of the laurel1 the berries in particular1 are impregnated with an essential oil with a powerful odour and of an exciting nature4 ,upon this volatile principle1 and nothing else1 the whole of its medicinal properties are based4 #cahi ,this assertion1 ,fe says1 is no better than fabulous4 #caij ,see ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 ll4 #gbc1 #ggf4 #caia ,see the ,pharsalia1 ,b4 ix4 l4 #gai4 #caib 8,irino40 ,see ,b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 #caic ,this assertion1 ,fe says1 is untrue4 #caid ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ci4 #caie ,all these statements as to the properties of the berries1 ,fe says1 are hypothetical and more than doubtful4 #caif ,the ,laurus nobilis of modern botany4 #caig ,a statement1 ,fe says1 that is altogether illusory4 #caih ,of the berries1 ,fe thinks4 #caii ,see c4 #de of this ,book2 also ,b4 xxvii4 c4 #ac4 #cbjj ,fe thinks that this oil1 in conjunction with adipose substances1 might be useful for the treatment of rheumatic affections4 #cbja ,the ,ruscus hypophyllum of ,linnus4 ,it is quite inodorous1 ,fe says1 and has no analogous properties whatever with the next-mentioned plant4 #cbjb ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #ci4 #cbjc ,in ,b4 xv4 c4 #ci4 #cbjd ,the peasantry of ,france1 ,fe says1 still use as a purgative the berries of the ,daphne mezereum1 and of the ,daphne laureola2 and in ,aragon and ,catalonia1 the leaves of the ,thymelea are used for a similar purpose4 ,the employment of them1 however1 is not unattended with danger4 #cbje ,a variety with white berries1 but which variety it appears impossible to say4 #cbjf ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #cg4 #cbjg ,the leaves and berries are bitter1 and rich in volatile oil4 #cbjh ,this is consistent with fact4 #cbji ,a work of some kind1 7perhaps a play1 if the comic writer1 ,menander1 is the person alluded to7 the title of which means 8the ,women ,dining together40 ,hardouin1 with justice1 ridicules the notion of ,ortelius that this is the name of some place or town4 #cbaj ,the astringency communicated by the tannin which they contain would probably make them useful for dysentery2 if at the same time1 as ,fe says1 they are not too exciting1 by reason of their essential oil4 #cbaa ,see ,b4 xi4 c4 #ga4 #cbab 8,succus seminis40 ,sillig has 8succus feminis10 apparently a misprint--the only one that has been met with thus far in his elaborate edition4 #cbac ,it might change the colour of the hair1 but for a short time only4 #cbad ,see ,b4 xv4 c4 #cg4 #cbae ,cerates1 or adipose or oleaginous plasters4 #cbaf ,in reality they have no such effect4 #cbag 8,pterygia40 #cbah ,fe says here--8,pliny terminates1 by a credulity quite unworthy of him1 a ,chapter1 full of false or exaggerated assertions1 relative to the properties of the myrtle40 #cbai ,or 8myrtle-wine40 ,see ,b4 xiv4 c4 #ai2 also ,b4 xv4 c4 #ce4 #cbbj 8,alarum perfusiones40 #cbba ,see ,b4 xv4 cc4 #g1 #cg3 the ,ruscus aculeatus of ,linnus1 or little holly of the ,french1 belonging to the ,asparagea1 and not the myrtles4 #cbbb ,being of the same family1 of course there is a great resemblance4 #cbbc ,in reality they have no such lithotriptic nature1 ,fe says4 #cbbd ,a kindred plant with the one already mentioned by our author3 it is still used for making brooms in some parts of ,europe4 #cbbe ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbbf ,see end of ,b4 xiv4 #cbbg ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbbh ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbbi ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbcj ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #cbca ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #cbcb ,for ,fabianus ,papirius1 see end of ,b4 ii2 for ,fabianus ,sabinus1 see end of ,b4 xviii4 #cbcc ,see end of ,b4 iii4 #cbcd ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #cbce ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbcf ,see end of ,b4 ii4 #cbcg ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #cbch ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #cbci ,see end of ,b4 viii4 #cbdj ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #cbda ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdb ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdc ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdd ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbde ,see end of ,b4 iv4 #cbdf ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdg ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdh ,see end of ,b4 xxi4 #cbdi ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #cbej ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbea ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbeb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbec ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbed ,see end of ,b4 xv4 #cbee ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbef ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbeg ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbeh ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbei ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbfj ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbfa ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbfb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbfc ,see end of ,b4 vii4 #cbfd ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbfe ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbff ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbfg ,see end of ,b4 xi4 #cbfh ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbfi ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgj ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbga ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgc ,see end of ,b4 vi4 #cbgd ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbge ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgf ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgg ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbgh ,see end of ,b4 xii4 #cbgi ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbhj ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbha ,see end of ,b4 xix4 #cbhb ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbhc ,see end of ,b4 xx4 #cbhd ,see end of ,b4 xx4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,j4 ,,billing1 ,,printer ,,and ,,stereotyper1 ,,woking1 ,,surrey4 ,transcriber's ,notes3-- ,the spelling1 hyphenation1 punctuation and accentuation are as the original1 except for apparent typographical errors which have been silently corrected4 ,the footnotes for each of the six volumes have been renumbered1 the references to notes in other volumes have been changed accordingly4 ,footnote #bcfi in the original incorrectly reads3-- ,the ,solanum nigrum of ,linnus1 or black night-shade4 ,see ,b4 xxiii4 c4 #ajh4 ,this has been changed to3-- ,the ,solanum nigrum of ,linnus1 or black night-shade4 ,see ,b4 xxi4 c4 #ajh4