,juliet ,sutherland1 ,charles ,franks and the ,online ,distributed ,proofreading ,team4 ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,and ,,teaching ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,by ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,m,u,r,r,y ,professor of ,elementary ,education in ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,orville ,t4 ,,bright ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,dedicated1 ,,as ,a ,,token ,,of ,,warm ,,affection ,,and ,,professional ,,indebtedness ,,preface ,some seven or eight years ago the question1 of how to teach children to study happened to be included in a list of topics that ,i hastily prepared for discussion with one of my classes4 ,on my later examination of this problem ,i was much surprised1 both at its difficulty and scope1 and also at the extent to which it had been neglected by teachers4 ,ever since that time the two questions1 ,how adults should study1 and ,how children should be taught to study1 have together been my chief hobby4 ,the following ideas are partly the result of reading2 but since there is a meagre quantity of literature bearing on this general theme1 they are largely the result of observation1 experiment1 and discussion with my students4 ,many of the latter will recognize their own contributions in these pages1 for ,i have endeavored to preserve and use every good suggestion that came from them2 and ,i am glad to acknowledge here my indebtedness to them4 ,in addition ,i must express my thanks for valuable criticisms to my colleague1 ,dr4 ,george ,d4 ,strayer1 and also to ,dr4 ,lida ,b4 ,earhart1 whose suggestive monograph on the same general subject has just preceded this publication4 ,,the ,,author4 ,teachers ,college1 ,may #f1aiji4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,present ,,methods ,,of ,,study2 ,,nature ,,of ,,study ,,and ,,its ,,principal ,,factors ,i4 ,,indications ,,that ,,young ,,people ,,do ,,not ,,learn ,,to ,,study ,,properly2 ,,the ,,seriousness ,,of ,,the ,,evil ,,ii4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,study1 ,,and ,,its ,,principal ,,factors ,,part ,,ii ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,factors ,,in ,,study1 ,,and ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,children ,,iii4 ,,provision ,,for ,,specific ,,purposes1 ,,as ,,one ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,iv4 ,,the ,,supplementing ,,of ,,thought1 ,,as ,a ,,second ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,v4 ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,ideas1 ,,as ,a ,,third ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,vi4 ,,judging ,,of ,,the ,,soundness ,,and ,,general ,,worth ,,of ,,statements1 ,,as ,a ,,fourth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,vii4 ,,memorizing1 ,,as ,a ,,fifth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,viii4 ,,the ,,using ,,of ,,ideas1 ,,as ,a ,,sixth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,iv4 ,,provision ,,foe ,a ,,tentative ,,rather ,,than ,a ,,fixed ,,attitude ,,toward ,,knowledge1 ,,as ,a ,,seventh ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,x4 ,,provision ,,for ,,individuality1 ,,as ,,an ,,eighth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,,part ,,iii ,,conclusions ,,xi4 ,,full ,,meaning ,,of ,,study2 ,,relation ,,of ,,study ,,to ,,children ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,school ,,index ,,part ,i ,,present ,,methods ,,of ,,study2 ,,nature ,,of ,,study1 ,,and ,,its ,,principal ,,factors ,,chapter ,i ,,indications ,,that ,,young ,,people ,,do ,,not ,,learn ,,to ,,study ,,properly2 ,,the ,,seriousness ,,of ,,the ,,evil ,no doubt every one can recall peculiar methods of study that he or some one else has at some time followed4 ,during my attendance at high school ,i often studied aloud at home1 along with several other temporary or permanent members of the family4 ,i remember becoming exasperated at times by one of my girl companions4 ,she not only read her history aloud1 but as she read she stopped to repeat each sentence five times with great vigor4 ,although the din interfered with my own work1 ,i could not help but admire her endurance2 for the physical labor of mastering a lesson was certainly equal to that of a good farm hand1 for the same period of time4 ,this way of studying history seemed extremely ridiculous4 ,but the method pursued by myself and several others in beginning algebra at about the same time was not greatly superior4 ,our text-book contained several long sets of problems which were the terror of the class1 and scarcely one of which we were able to solve alone4 ,we had several friends1 however1 who could solve them1 and1 by calling upon them for help1 we obtained the statement for each one4 ,all these statements ,i memorized1 and in that way ,i was able to pass off the subject4 ,a few years later1 when a school principal1 ,i had a fifteen-year-old boy in my school who was intolerably lazy4 ,his ambition was temporarily aroused1 however1 when he bought a new book and began the study of history4 ,he happened to be the first one called upon1 in the first recitation1 and he started off finely4 ,but soon he stopped1 in the middle of a sentence1 and sat down4 ,when ,i asked him what was the matter1 he simply replied that that was as far as he had got4 ,then1 on glancing at the book1 ,i saw that he had been reproducing the text verbatim1 and the last word that he had uttered was the last word on the first page4 ,these few examples suggest the extremes to which young people may go in their methods of study4 ,the first instance might illustrate the muscular method of learning history2 the second1 the memoriter method of reasoning in mathematics4 ,i have never been able to imagine how the boy1 in the third case1 went about his task2 hence1 ,i can suggest no name for his method4 ,while these methods of study are ridiculous1 ,i am not at all sure that they are in a high degree exceptional4 ,collective examples of study ,the most extensive investigation of this subject has been made by ,dr4 ,lida ,b4 ,earhart1,footnote3 ,systematic ,study in the ,elementary ,schools4 ,a popular form of this thesis1 entitled ,teaching ,children to ,study1 is published in the ,riverside ,educational ,monographs4 and the facts that she has collected reveal a woeful ignorance of the whole subject of study4 ,among other tests1 she assigned to eleven- and twelve-year-old children a short selection from a text-book in geography1 with the following directions3 ,here is a lesson from a book such as you use in class4 ,do whatever you think you ought to do in studying this lesson thoroughly1 and then tell 7write down7 the different things you have done in studying it4 ,do not write anything else4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 ,chapter #d4 ,out of #hdb children who took this test1 only fourteen really found1 or stated that they had found1 the subject of the lesson4 ,two others said that they would find it4 ,eighty-eight really found1 or stated that they had found1 the most important parts of the lesson2 twenty-one others1 that they would find them4 ,four verified the statements in the text1 and three others said that they would do that4 ,nine children did nothing2 #aeh did not understand the requirements2 #ajj gave irrelevant answers2 #aai merely thought1 or tried to understand the lesson1 or studied the lesson2 and #cbd simply wrote the facts of the lesson4 ,in other words1 #gaj out of the #hdb sixth- and seventh- grade pupils who took the test gave indefinite and unsatisfactory answers4 ,this number showed that they had no clear knowledge of the principal things to be done in mastering an ordinary text-book lesson in geography4 ,yet the schools to which they belonged were1 beyond doubt1 much above the average in the quality of their instruction4 ,in a later and different test1 in which the children were asked to find the subject of a certain lesson that was given to them1 #cja out of #hbh stated the subject fairly well4 ,the remaining #ebg gave only partial1 or indefinite1 or irrelevant answers4 ,only #cag out of the #hbh were able to discover the most important fact in the lesson4 ,yet determining the subject and the leading facts are among the main things that any one must do in mastering a topic4 ,how they could have been intelligent in their study in the past1 therefore1 is difficult to comprehend4 ,teachers' and parents complaints about methods of study4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to collect proofs that young people do not learn how to study1 because teachers admit the fact very generally4 ,indeed1 it is one of the common subjects of complaint among teachers in the elementary school1 in the high school1 and in the college4 ,all along the line teachers condole with one another over this evil1 college professors placing the blame on the instructors in the high school1 and the latter passing it down to teachers in the elementary school4 ,parents who supervise their children's studies1 or who otherwise know about their habits of work1 observe the same fact with sorrow4 ,it is at least refreshing to find one matter1 in the much- disputed field of education1 on which teachers and parents are well agreed4 ,how about the methods of study among teachers themselves8 ,unless they have learned to study properly1 young people cannot1 of course1 be expected to acquire proper habits from them4 ,method of study among teachers4 ,the most enlightening single experience ,i have ever had on this question came several years ago in connection with a series of lectures on ,primary ,education4 ,a course of such lectures had been arranged for me without my full knowledge1 and ,i was unexpectedly called upon to begin it before a class of some seventy-five teachers4 ,it was necessary to commence speaking without having definitely determined my first point4 ,i had1 however1 a few notes which ,i was attempting to decipher and arrange1 while talking as best ,i could1 when ,i became conscious of a slight clatter from all parts of the room4 ,on looking up ,i found that the noise came from the pencils of my audience1 and they were writing down my first pointless remarks4 ,evidently discrimination in values was not in their program4 ,they call to mind a certain theological student who had been very unsuccessful in taking notes from lectures4 ,in order to prepare himself1 he spent one entire summer studying stenography4 ,even after that1 however1 he was unsuccessful1 because he could not write quite fast enough to take down all that was said4 ,even more mature students often reveal very meager knowledge of methods of study4 ,i once had a class of some thirty persons1 most of whom were men twenty-five to thirty-five years of age1 who were college graduates and experienced teachers4 ,one day ,i asked them1 ,when has a book been read properly8 ,the first reply came from a state university graduate and school superintendent1 in the words1 ,one has read a book properly when one understands what is in it4 ,most of the others assented to this answer4 ,but when they were asked1 ,is a person under any obligations to judge the worth of the thought8 they divided1 some saying yes1 others no4 ,then other questions arose1 and the class as a whole soon appeared to be quite at sea as to the proper method of reading books4 ,perhaps the most interesting thing was the fact that they seemed never to have thought seriously about the matter4 ,fortunately ,dr4 ,earhart has not overlooked teachers' methods of study in her investigations4 ,in a questionnaire that was filled out by #afe teachers1 the latter were requested to state the principal things that ought to be done in thinking about a lesson4 ,this was practically the same test as was given to the #hdb children before mentioned4 ,while at least twenty different things were named by these teachers1 the most frequent one was1 ,finding the most important points4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 ,chapter #e4 ,yet only fifty-five out of the #afe included even this4 ,only twenty-five1 as ,dr4 ,earhart says1 felt1 keenly enough to mention it1 the necessity of finding the main thought or problem4 ,forty admitted that they memorized more often than they did anything else in their studying4 ,strange to say1 a larger percentage of children than of teachers mentioned finding the main thought1 and finding the more important facts1 as two factors in mastering a lesson4 ,water sometimes appears to rise higher than its source4 ,about two-thirds of these #afe teachers ,footnote3 ,ibid41 ,chapter #e4 declared that they had never received any systematic instruction about how to study1 and more than half of the remainder stated that they were taught to memorize in studying4 ,the number who had given any careful instruction on proper methods of study to their own pupils was insignificant4 ,yet these #afe teachers had had unusual training on the whole1 and most of them had taught several years in elementary schools4 ,if teachers are so poorly informed1 and if they are doing so little to instruct their pupils on this subject1 how can the latter be expected to know how to study8 ,the prevailing definition of study4 ,the prevailing definition of study gives further proof of a very meager notion in regard to it4 ,frequently during the last few years ,i have obtained from students in college1 as well as from teachers1 brief statements of their idea of study4 ,fully nine out of every ten have given memorizing as its nearest synonym4 ,it is true that teachers now and then insist that studying should consist of thinking4 ,they even send children to their seats with the direction to think1 think hard4 ,but that does not usually signify much4 ,a certain college student1 when urged to spend not less than an hour and a half on each lesson1 replied1 ,what would ,i do after the first twenty minutes8 ,his idea evidently was that he could read each lesson through and memorize its substance in that time4 ,what more remained to be done8 ,very few teachers1 ,i find1 are fluent in answering his question4 ,in practice1 memorizing constitutes much the greater part of study4 ,the very name recitation suggests this fact4 ,if the school periods are to be spent in reciting1 or reproducing1 what has been learned1 the work of preparation very naturally consists in storing the memory with the facts that are to be required4 ,thinking periods1 as a substitute name for recitation periods1 suggests a radical change1 both in our employment of school time and in our method of preparing lessons4 ,we are not yet prepared for any such change of name4 ,the literature dealing with method of study4 ,consider finally the literature treating of study4 ,certainly there has never been a period when there was a more general interest in education than during the last twenty years1 and the progress that has been made in that time is remarkable4 ,our study of the social view- point1 of child nature1 of apperception1 interest1 induction1 deduction1 correlation1 etc41 has been rapidly revolutionizing the school1 securing a much more sympathetic government of young people1 a new curriculum1 and far more effective methods of instruction4 ,in consequence1 the injuries inflicted by the school are fewer and less often fatal than formerly1 while the benefits are more numerous and more vital4 ,but1 in the vast quantity of valuable educational literature that has been published1 careful searching reveals only two books in ,english1 and none in ,german1 on the ,art of ,study4 ,even these two are ordinary books on teaching1 with an extraordinary title4 ,the subject of memorizing has been well treated in some of our psychologies1 and has received attention in a few of the more recent works on method4 ,various other problems pertaining to study have also1 of course1 been considered more or less1 in the past1 in books on method1 in rhetorics1 and in discussions of selection of reading matter4 ,in addition1 there are a few short but notable essays on study4 ,there have been practically1 however1 only two books that treat mainly of this subject1--the two small volumes by ,dr4 ,earhart1 already mentioned1 which have been very recently published4 ,in the main1 the thoughts on this general subject that have got into print have found expression merely as incidents in the treatment of other themes--coming1 strange to say1 largely from men outside the teaching profession--and are contained in scattered and forgotten sources4 ,thus it is evident not only that children and teachers are little acquainted with proper methods of study1 but that even sources of information on the subject are strangely lacking4 ,the seriousness of such neglect is not to be overestimated4 ,wrong methods of study1 involving much unnecessary friction1 prevent enjoyment of school4 ,this want of enjoyment results in much dawdling of time1 a meager quantity of knowledge1 and a desire to quit school at the first opportunity4 ,the girl who adopted the muscular method of learning history was reasonably bright4 ,but she had to study very hard2 the results achieved in the way of marks often brought tears2 and1 although she attended the high school several years1 she never finished the course4 ,it should not be forgotten that most of those who stop school in the elementary grades leave simply because they want to1 not because they must4 ,want of enjoyment of school is likely to result1 further1 in distaste for intellectual employment in general4 ,yet we know that any person who amounts to much must do considerable thinking1 and must even take pleasure in it4 ,bad methods of study1 therefore1 easily become a serious factor in adult life1 acting as a great barrier to one's growth and general usefulness4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,study1 ,,and ,,its ,,principal ,,factors ,our physical movements ordinarily take place in response to a need of some sort4 ,for instance1 a person wishing to reach a certain point1 to play a certain game1 or to lay the foundations for a house1 makes such movements as are necessary to accomplish the purpose desired4 ,even mere physical exercise grows out of a more or less specific feeling of need4 ,the mental activity called study is likewise called forth in response to specific needs4 ,the ,eskimo1 for example1 compelled to find shelter and having only blocks of ice with which to build1 ingeniously contrives an ice hut4 ,for the sake of obtaining raw materials he studies the habits of the few wild animals about him1 and out of these materials he manages by much invention to secure food1 clothing1 and implements4 ,we ourselves1 having a vastly greater variety of materials at hand1 and also vastly more ideas and ideals1 are much more dependent upon thinking and study4 ,but1 as in the case of the ,eskimo1 this thinking and study arises out of actual conditions1 and from specific wants4 ,it may be that we must contrive ways of earning more money2 or that the arguments for protective tariff seem too inconsistent for comfort2 or that the reports about some of our friends alarm us4 ,the occasions that call forth thought are infinite in number and kind4 ,but the essential fact is that study does not normally take place except under the stimulus or spur of particular conditions1 and of conditions1 too1 that are unsatisfactory4 ,it does not take place even then unless we become conscious of the strained situation1 of the want of harmony between what is and what might be4 ,for ages malarial fever was accepted as a visitation by ,divine ,providence1 or as a natural inconvenience1 like bad weather4 ,people were not disturbed by lack of harmony between what actually was and what might be1 because they did not conceive the possibility of preventing the disease4 ,accordingly they took it as a matter of course1 and made no study of its cause4 ,very recently1 on the other hand1 people have become conscious of the possibility of exterminating malaria4 ,the imagined state has made the real one more and more intolerable2 and1 as this feeling of dissatisfaction has grown more acute1 study of the cause of the disease has grown more intense1 until it has finally been discovered4 ,thus a lively consciousness of the unsatisfactoriness of a situation is the necessary prerequisite to its investigation2 it furnishes the motive for it4 ,it has ever been so in the history of evolution4 ,study has not taken place without stimulus or motive4 ,it has always had the practical task of lifting us out of our difficulties1 either material or spiritual1 and placing us on our feet4 ,in this way it has been merely an instrument--though a most important one--in securing our proper adjustment or adaptation to our environment4,footnote3 ,for discussion of this subject1 see ,studies in ,logical ,theory1 by ,john ,dewey4 ,see1 also1 ,systematic ,study in ,elementary ,schools1 by ,dr4 ,lida ,b4 ,earhart1 ,chapters #a and #b4 ,the variety of response to the demand for study ,after we have become acutely conscious of a misfit somewhere in our experience1 the actual study done to right it varies indefinitely with the individual4 ,the savage follows a hit-and-miss method of investigation1 and really makes his advances by happy guesses rather than by close application4 ,charles ,lamb's ,dissertation on ,roast ,pig furnishes a typical example of such accidents4 ,the average civilized man of the present does only a little better4 ,how seldom1 for instance1 is the diet prescribed for a dyspeptic--whether by himself or by a physician--the result of any intelligent study6 ,the true scientist1 however1 goes at his task in a careful and systematic way4 ,recall1 for instance1 how the cause of yellow fever has been discovered4 ,for years people had attributed the disease to invisible particles which they called fomites4 ,these were supposed to be given off by the sick1 and spread by means of their clothing and other articles used by them4 ,investigation caused this theory to be abandoned4 ,then1 since ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,nott of ,mobile had suggested1 in #ahdh1 that the fever might be carried by the mosquito1 and ,dr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,finlay of ,havana had declared1 in #ahha1 that a mosquito of a certain kind would carry the fever from one patient to another1 this variety of mosquito was assumed by ,dr4 ,walter ,reed1 in #aijj1 to be the source of the disease1 and was subjected to very close investigation by him4 ,several men voluntarily received its bite and contracted the fever4 ,soon1 enough cases were collected to establish the probable correctness of the assumption4 ,the remedy suggested--the utter destruction of this particular kind of mosquito1 including its eggs and larvae--was so efficacious in combating the disease in ,havana in #aija1 and in ,new ,orleans in #aije1 that the theory is now considered established4 ,thus systematic study has relieved us of one of the most dreaded diseases to which mankind has been subject4 ,the principal factors in study ,an extensive study1 like this investigation1 into the cause of yellow fever employs induction very plainly4 ,it also employs deduction extensively1 inasmuch as hypotheses that have been reached more or less inductively have to be widely applied and tested1 and further conclusions have to be drawn from them4 ,such a study1 therefore1 involving both induction and deduction and their numerous short cuts1 contains the essential factors common to the investigation of other topics1 or to study in general2 for different subjects cannot vary greatly when it comes to the general method of their attack4 ,an analysis1 therefore1 which reveals the principal factors in this study is likely to bring to light the main factors of study in general4 #a4 ,the finding of specific purposes1 as one factor in study ,if the search for the cause of yellow fever were traced more fully1 one striking feature discovered would be the fact that the investigation was never aimless4 ,the need of unraveling the mystery was often very pressing1 for we have had three great epidemics of yellow fever in our own country since #agij1 and scientists have been eager to apply themselves to the problem4 ,yet a specific purpose1 in the form of a definite hypothesis of some sort1 was felt to be necessary before the study could proceed intelligently4 ,thus1 during the epidemic of #agic1 the contagiousness of the disease was debated4 ,then the theory of fomites arose1 and underwent investigation4 ,finally1 the spread of the disease through the mosquito was proposed for the solution4 ,and while books of reference were examined and new observations were collected in great number1 such work was not undertaken by the investigators primarily for the sake of increasing their general knowledge1 but with reference to the particular issue at hand4 ,the important question now is1 ,is this1 in general1 the way in which the ordinary student should work8 ,of course1 he is much less mature than the scientist1 and the results that he achieves may have no social value1 in comparison4 ,yet1 should his method be the same8 ,at least1 should his study likewise be under the guidance of specific purposes1 so that these would direct and limit his reading1 observation1 and independent thinking8 ,or would that be too narrow1 indeed1 exactly the wrong way8 ,and1 instead of limiting himself to a collection of such facts as help to answer the few problems that he might be able to set up1 should he be unmindful of particular problems8 ,should he rather be a collector of facts at large1 endeavoring to develop an interest in whatever is true1 simply because it is true8 ,here are two quite different methods of study suggested4 ,probably the latter is by far the more common one among immature students4 ,yet the former is the one that1 in the main1 will be advocated in this book as a factor of serious study4 #b4 ,the supplementing of thought as a second factor in study4 ,dr4 ,reed in this case went far beyond the discoveries of previous investigators4 ,not only did he conceive new tests for old hypotheses1 but he posited new hypotheses1 as well as collected the data that would prove or disprove them4 ,thus1 while he no doubt made much use of previous facts1 he went far beyond that and succeeded in enlarging the confines of knowledge4 ,that is a task that can be accomplished only by the most mature and gifted of men4 ,the ordinary scholar must also be a collector of facts4 ,but he must be content to be a receiver rather than a contributor of knowledge2 that is1 he must occupy himself mainly with the ideas of other persons1 as presented in books or lectures or conversation4 ,even when he takes up the study of nature1 or any other field1 at first hand1 he is generally under the guidance of a teacher or some text4 ,now1 how much1 if anything1 must he add to what is directly presented to him by others8 ,to what extent must he be a producer in that sense8 ,are authors1 at the best1 capable only of suggesting their thought1 leaving much that is incomplete and even hidden from view8 ,and must the student do much supplementing1 even much digging1 or severe thinking of his own1 in order to get at their meaning8 ,or1 do authors--at least the greatest of them--say most1 or all1 that they wish1 and make their meaning plain8 ,and is it1 accordingly1 the duty of the student merely to follow their presentation without enlarging upon it greatly8 ,the view will hereafter be maintained that any good author leaves much of such work for the student to do4 ,any poor author certainly leaves much more4 #c4 ,the organization of facts collected1 as a third factor in study4 ,the scientist would easily lose his way among the many facts that he gathers for examination1 did he not carefully select and bring them into order4 ,he arranges them in groups according to their relations1 recognizing a few as having supreme importance1 subordinating many others to these1 and casting aside many more because of their insignificance4 ,this all constitutes a large part of his study4 ,what duty has the less mature student in regard to organization8 ,should the statements that he receives be put into order by him8 ,are some to be selected as vital1 others to be grouped under these1 and still others to be slighted or even entirely omitted from consideration1 because of their insignificance8 ,and is he to determine all this for himself1 remembering that thorough study requires the neglect of some things as well as the emphasis of others8 ,or do all facts have much the same value1 so that they should receive about equal attention1 as is the case with the multiplication tables8 ,and1 instead of being grouped according to relations and relative values1 should they be studied1 one at a time1 in the order in which they are presented1 with the idea that a topic is mastered when each single statement upon it is understood8 ,or1 if not this1 has the reliable author at least already attended to this whole matter1 making the various relations of facts to one another and their relative values so clear that the student has little work to do but to follow the printed statement8 ,is it even highly unsafe for the latter to assume the responsibility of judging relative values8 ,and would the neglect or skipping of many supposedly little things be more likely to result in careless1 slipshod work than in thoroughness8 #d4 ,the judging of the worth of statements1 as a fourth factor in study ,the scientist in charge of the above-mentioned investigation was1 no doubt1 a modest man4 ,yet he saw fit to question the old assumption that yellow fever was spread by invisible particles called fomites4 ,indeed1 he had the boldness to disprove it4 ,then he disproved1 also1 the assumption that the fever was contagious by contact4 ,after that he set out to test a hypothesis of his own4 ,his attitude toward the results of former investigations was thus skeptically critical4 ,every proposition was to be questioned1 and the evidence of facts1 rather than personal authority or the authority of time1 was the sole final test of validity4 ,what should be the attitude of the young student toward the authorities that he studies8 ,certainly authors are1 as a rule1 more mature and far better informed upon the subjects that they discuss than he1 otherwise he would not be pursuing them4 ,are they still so prone to error that he should be critical toward them8 ,at any rate1 should he set himself up as their judge2 at times condemning some of their statements outright1 or accepting them only in part1--and thus maintain independent views8 ,or would that be the height of presumption on his part8 ,while it is true that all authors are liable to error1 are they much less liable to it in their chosen fields than he1 and can he more safely trust them than himself8 ,and should he1 therefore1 being a learner1 adopt a docile1 passive attitude1 and accept whatever statements are presented8 ,or1 finally1 is neither of these attitudes correct8 ,instead of either condemning or accepting authors1 is it his duty merely to understand and remember what they say8 #e4 ,memorizing1 as a fifth factor in study ,the scientist is greatly dependent upon his memory4 ,so is every one else1 including the young student4 ,what suggestions1 if any1 can be made about the retaining of facts8 ,in particular1 how prominent in study should be the effort to memorize8 ,should memorizing constitute the main part of study--as it so often does--or only a minor part8 ,it is often contrasted with thinking4 ,is such a contrast justified8 ,if so1 should the effort to memorize usually precede the thinking--as is often the order in learning poetry and ,bible verses--or should it follow the thinking8 ,and why8 ,can one greatly strengthen the memory by special exercises for that purpose8 ,finally1 since there are some astonishingly poor ways of memorizing--as was shown in chapter one--there must be some better ways4 ,what1 then1 are the best1 and why8 #f4 ,the using of ideas1 as a sixth factor in study ,does all knowledge1 like this of the scientist1 require contact with the world as its endpoint or goal8 ,and is it the duty of the student to pursue any topic1 whether it be a principle of physics1 or a moral idea1 or a simple story1 until it proves of benefit to some one8 ,in that case1 enough repetition might be necessary to approximate habits--habits of mind and habits of action--for the skill necessary for the successful use of some knowledge cannot otherwise be attained4 ,how1 then1 can habits become best established8 ,or is knowledge something apart from the active world1 ending rather in self8 ,would it be narrowly utilitarian and even foolish to expect that one's learning shall necessarily function in practical life8 ,and should the student rather rest content to acquire knowledge for its own sake1 not bothering--for the present1 at any rate--about actually bringing it to account in any way8 ,the use to which his ideas had to be put gave ,dr4 ,reed an excellent test of their reliability4 ,no doubt he passed through many stages of doubt as he investigated one theory after another4 ,and he could not feel reasonably sure that he was right and had mastered his problem until his final hypothesis had been shown to hold good under varying actual conditions4 ,what test has the ordinary student for knowing when he knows a thing well enough to leave it8 ,he may set up specific purposes to be accomplished1 as has been suggested4 ,yet even these may be only ideas2 what means has he for knowing when they have been attained8 ,it is a long distance from the first approach to an important thought1 to its final assimilation1 and nothing is easier than to stop too soon4 ,if there are any waymarks along the road1 indicating the different stages reached2 particularly1 if there is a recognizable endpoint assuring mastery1 one might avoid many dangerous headers by knowing the fact4 ,or is that particularly what recitations and marks are for8 ,and instead of expecting an independent way of determining when he has mastered a subject1 should the student simply rely upon his teacher to acquaint him with that fact8 #g4 ,the tentative attitude as a seventh factor in study ,investigators of the source of yellow fever previous to ,dr4 ,reed reached conclusions as well as he4 ,but1 in the light of later discovery1 they appear hasty and foolish1 to the extent that they were insisted upon as correct4 ,a large percentage of the so-called discoveries that are made1 even by laboratory experiment1 are later disproved4 ,even in regard to this very valuable work of ,dr4 ,reed and his associates1 one may feel too sure4 ,it is quite possible that future study will materially supplement and modify our present knowledge of the subject4 ,the scientist1 therefore1 may well assume an attitude of doubt toward all the results that he achieves4 ,does the same hold for the young student8 ,is all our knowledge more or less doubtful1 so that we should hold ourselves ready to modify our ideas at any time8 ,and1 remembering the common tendency to become dogmatic and unprogressive on that account1 should the young student1 in particular1 regard some degree of uncertainty about his facts as the ideal state of mind for him to reach8 ,or would such uncertainty too easily undermine his self-confidence and render him vacillating in action8 ,and should firmly fixed ideas1 rather than those that are somewhat uncertain1 be regarded as his goal1 so that the extent to which he feels sure of his knowledge may be taken as one measure of his progress8 ,or can it be that there are two kinds of knowledge8 ,that some facts are true for all time1 and can be learned as absolutely true2 and that others are only probabilities and must be treated as such8 ,in that case1 which is of the former kind1 and which is of the latter8 #h4 ,provision for individuality as an eighth factor in study ,the scientific investigator must determine upon his own hypotheses2 he must collect and organize his data1 must judge their soundness and trace their consequences2 and he must finally decide for himself when he has finished a task4 ,all this requires a high degree of intellectual independence1 which is possible only through a healthy development of individuality1 or of the native self4 ,a normal self giving a certain degree of independence and even a touch of originality to all of his thoughts and actions is essential to the student's proper advance1 as to the work of the scientist4 ,should the student1 therefore1 be taught to believe in and trust himself1 holding his own powers and tendencies in high esteem8 ,should he learn even to ascribe whatever merit he may possess to the qualities that are peculiar to him8 ,and should he1 accordingly1 look upon the ideas and influences of other persons merely as a means--though most valuable--for the development of this self that he holds so sacred8 ,or should he learn to depreciate himself1 to deplore those qualities that distinguish him from others8 ,and should he1 in consequence1 regard the ideas and influences of others as a valuable means of suppressing1 or escaping from1 his native self and of making him like other persons8 ,here are two very different directions in which one may develop4 ,in which direction does human nature most tend8 ,in which direction do educational institutions1 in particular1 exert their influence8 ,does the average student1 for example1 subordinate his teachers and the ideas he acquires to himself8 ,or does he become subordinated to these1 even submerged by them8 ,this is the most important of all the problems concerning study2 indeed1 it is the one in which all the others culminate4 ,the ability of children to study ,the above constitute the principal factors in study4 ,but two other problems are of vital importance for the elementary school4 ,studying is evidently a complex and taxing kind of work4 ,even though the above discussions reveal the main factors in the study of adults1 what light does it throw upon the work of children8 ,is their study to contain these factors also8 ,the first of these two questions1 therefore1 is1 ,can children from six to fourteen years of age really be expected to study8 ,it is not the custom in ,german elementary schools to include independent study periods in the daily program4 ,more than that1 the ,german language does not even permit children to be spoken of as studying4 ,children are recognized as being able to learn 7lernen72 but the foreigner1 who1 in learning ,german1 happens to use the word studiren 7study7 in reference to them1 is corrected with a smile and informed that children can learn but they cannot study4 ,studiren is a term applicable only to a more mature kind of mental work4 ,this may be only a peculiarity of language4 ,but such suggestions should at least lead us to consider this question seriously4 ,if children really cannot study1 what an excuse their teachers have for innumerable failures in this direction6 ,and what sins they have committed in demanding study6 ,but1 then1 when is the proper age for study reached8 ,certainly college students sometimes seem to have failed to attain it4 ,if1 however1 children can study1 to what extent can they do it1 and at how early an age should they begin to try8 ,the method of teaching children how to study ,the second of these two questions relates to the method of teaching children how to study4 ,granted that there are numerous very important factors in study1 what should be done about them8 ,particularly1 assuming that children have some power to study1 what definite instruction can teachers give to them in regard to any one or all of these factors8 ,can it be that1 on account of their youth1 no direct instruction about method of study would be advisable1 that teachers should set a good example of study by their treatment of lessons in class1 and rely only upon the imitative tendency of children for some effect on their habits of work8 ,or should extensive instruction be imparted to them1 as well as to adults1 on this subject8 ,the leading problems in study that have been mentioned will be successively discussed in the chapters following4 ,these two questions1 however1 ,can children study8 and ,if so1 how can they be taught to do it8 will not be treated in chapters separate from the others4 ,each will be dealt with in connection with the above factors1 their consideration immediately following the discussion of each of those factors4 ,while the proper method of study for adults will lead1 much emphasis will fall1 throughout1 upon suggestions for teaching children how to study4 ,some limitations of the term study ,the nature of study cannot be known in full until the character of its component parts has been clearly shown4 ,yet a working definition of the term and some further limitations of it may be in place here4 ,study1 in general1 is the work that is necessary in the assimilation of ideas4 ,much of this work consists in thinking4 ,but study is not synonymous with thinking1 for it also includes other activities1 as mechanical drill1 for example4 ,such drill is often necessary in the mastery of thought4 ,not just any thinking and any drill1 however1 may be counted as study4 ,at least only such thinking and such drill are here included within the term as are integral parts of the mental work that is necessary in the accomplishment of valuable purposes4 ,thinking that is done at random1 and drills that have no object beyond acquaintance with dead facts1 as those upon dates1 lists of words1 and location of places1 for instance1 are unworthy of being considered a part of study4 ,day-dreaming1 giving way to reverie and to casual fancy1 too1 is not to be regarded as study4 ,not because it is not well to indulge in such activity at times1 but because it is not serious enough to be called work4 ,study is systematic work1 and not play4 ,reading for recreation1 further1 is not study4 ,it is certainly very desirable and even necessary1 just as play is4 ,it even partakes of many of the characteristics of true study1 and reaps many of its benefits4 ,no doubt1 too1 the extensive reading that children and youth now do might well partake more fully of the nature of study4 ,it would result in more good and less harm2 for1 beyond a doubt1 much careless reading is injurious to habits of serious study4 ,yet it would be intolerable to attempt to convert pleasure-reading fully into real study4 ,that would mean that we had become too serious4 ,on the whole1 then1 the term study as here used has largely the meaning that is given to it in ordinary speech4 ,yet it is not entirely the same2 the term signifies a purposive and systematic1 and therefore a more limited1 kind of work than much that goes under that name4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,factors ,,in ,,study1 ,,and ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,children ,,chapter ,,iii ,,provision ,,for ,,specific ,,purposes1 ,,as ,,one ,,factor ,,of ,,study ,the habit among eminent men of setting up specific purposes of study4 ,the scientific investigator habitually sets up hypotheses of some sort as guides in his investigations4 ,many distinguished men who are not scientists follow and recommend a somewhat similar method of study4 ,for example1 ,john ,morley1 ,m4,p41 in his ,aspects of ,modern ,study1 ,footnote3 ,page #ga4 says1 ,some great men1--,gibbon was one and ,daniel ,webster was another and the great ,lord ,strafford was a third1--always1 before reading a book1 made a short1 rough analysis of the questions which they expected to be answered in it1 the additions to be made to their knowledge1 and whither it would take them4 ,i have sometimes tried that way of studying1 and guiding attention2 ,i have never done so without advantage1 and ,i commend it to you4 ,says ,gibbon ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,smith's ,gibbon1 p4 #fd41 ,after glancing my eye over the design and order of a new book1 ,i suspended the perusal until ,i had finished the task of self-examination2 till ,i had resolved1 in a solitary walk1 all that ,i knew or believed or had thought on the subject of the whole work or of some particular chapter2 ,i was then qualified to discern how much the author added to my original stock2 and1 if ,i was sometimes satisfied with the agreement1 ,i was sometimes armed by the opposition of our ideas4 ,president ,james ,angell emphasizes a similar thought in the following words3-- ,i would like to recommend to my young friends who desire to profit by the use of this library1 the habit of reading with some system1 and of making brief notes upon the contents of the books they read4 ,if1 for instance1 you are studying the history of some period1 ascertain what works you need to study1 and find such parts of them as concern your theme4 ,do not feel obliged to read the whole of a large treatise1 but select such chapters as touch on the subject in hand and omit the rest for the time4 ,young students often get swamped and lose their way in the ,serbonian bogs of learning1 when they need to explore only a simple and plain pathway to a specific destination4 ,have a purpose and a plan1 and adhere to it in spite of alluring temptations to turn aside into attractive fields that are remote from your subject4,footnote3 ,address at ,dedication of ,ryerson ,public ,library ,building1 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich41 ,oct4 #e1 #aijd4 ,noah ,porter expresses himself even more pointedly in these words3-- ,in reading we do well to propose to ourselves definite ends and purposes4 ,the distinct consciousness of some object at present before us1 imparts a manifold greater interest to the contents of any volume4 ,it imparts to the reader an appropriative power1 a force of affinity1 by which he insensibly and unconsciously attracts to himself all that has a near or even a remote relation to the end for which he reads4 ,anyone is conscious of this who reads a story with the purpose of repeating it to an absent friend2 or an essay or a report1 with the design of using the facts or arguments in a debate2 or a poem1 with the design of reviving its imagery and reciting its finest passages4 ,indeed1 one never learns to read effectively until he learns to read in such a spirit--not always1 indeed1 for a definite end1 yet always with a mind attent to appropriate and retain and turn to the uses of culture1 if not to a more direct application4 ,the private history of every self-made man1 from ,franklin onwards1 attests that they all were uniformly1 not only earnest but select1 in their reading1 and that they selected their books with distinct reference to the purposes for which they used them4 ,indeed1 the reason why self-trained men so often surpass men who are trained by others in the effectiveness and success of their reading1 is that they know for what they read and study1 and have definite aims and wishes in all their dealings with books4 ,footnote3 ,noah ,porter1 ,books and ,reading1 pp4 #da-db4 ,examples of specific purposes ,it is evident from the above that the practice of setting up specific aims for study is not uncommon4 ,some actual examples of such purposes1 however1 may help to make their character plainer4 ,following are a number of examples of a very simple kind3 7#a7 ,to examine the catalogues of several colleges to determine what college one will attend2 7#b7 to read a newspaper with the purpose of telling the news of the day to some friend2 7#c7 to study ,norse myths in order to relate them to children2 7#d7 to investigate the ,english sparrow to find out whether it is a nuisance1 or a valuable friend1 to man2 7#e7 to acquaint one's self with the art and geography of ,italy1 so as to select the most desirable parts for a visit2 7#f7 to learn about ,paris in order to find whether it is fitly called the most beautiful of cities2 7#g7 to study psychology with the object of discovering how to improve one's memory1 or how to overcome certain bad habits2 7#h7 to read ,pestalozzi's biography for the sake of finding what were the main factors that led to his greatness2 7#i7 to examine ,lincoln's ,gettysburg speech with the purpose of convincing others of its excellence4 ,the character of these aims ,well-selected ends of this sort have two characteristics that are worthy of special note4 ,the first pertains to their source4 ,their possible variety is without limit4 ,some may be or an intellectual nature1 as numbers #f1 #h1 and #i among those listed above2 some may aim at utility for the individual1 as numbers #a and #g2 and some may involve service to others1 as numbers #b and #c4 ,but however much they vary1 they find their source within the person concerned4 ,they spring out of his own experience and appeal to him for that reason4 ,one very important measure of their worth is the extent to which they represent an individual desire4 ,the second characteristic pertains to their narrowness and consequent definiteness4 ,they call in each case for an investigation of a relatively small and definite topic4 ,this can be further seen from the following topics in ,biology3 ,what household plants are most desirable8 ,how can these plants be raised8 ,what are their principal enemies1 and how can these best be overcome8 ,whether we be working on one or more of such problems at a time1 they are so specific that we need never be confused as to what we are attempting4 ,the nature of these aims in study can be made still clearer by contrasting them with others that are very common4 ,the harmonious development of all the faculties1 or mental discipline1 for instance1 has long been lauded by educators as one chief purpose in study4 ,agassiz was one such educator1 and in his desire to cultivate the power of observation1 he is said to have set students at work upon the study of fishes without directions1 to struggle as they might4 ,many teachers of science before and since his time have followed a similar method4 ,truth for truth's sake1 or the idea that one should study merely for the sake of knowing1 has often been associated with mental discipline as a worthy end4 ,culture is a third common purpose4 ,each of these aims1 instead of originating in the particular interests of the individual1 is reached by consideration of life as a whole1 and of the final purposes of education4 ,they are too general in nature to recognize individual preferences1 and they are also too general to cause much discrimination in the selection of topics and of particular facts within topics4 ,strange to say1 however1 they have discriminated against the one kind of knowledge that the aforementioned specific aims emphasize as especially desirable4 ,under their exclusive influence1 for example1 students of biology have generally made an extensive study of wild plants and have paid little attention to house plants4 ,such subjects as physics1 fine art1 and biology cannot help but impart much information that relates to man2 but that relationship has generally been the last part reached in the treatment of each topic1 and the part most neglected4 ,under the influence of these general aims any useful purpose1 whether involving service to the individual or to society at large1 has somehow been eschewed or thought too sordid to be worthy of the scholar4 ,the relation of specific purposes to those that are more general ,nevertheless1 these two kinds of aims are not necessarily opposed to each other4 ,if a person can increase his mental power1 or his love of knowledge1 or his culture1 at the same time that he is accomplishing specific purposes1 why should he not do so8 ,the gain is so much the greater4 ,not only are the two kinds not mutually opposed1 but they are really necessary to each other4 ,general purposes when rightly conceived are of the greatest importance as the final goals to be reached by study4 ,but they are too remote of attainment to act as immediate guides4 ,others more detailed must perform that office and mark off the minor steps to be taken in the accomplishment of the larger purposes4 ,thus the narrower purposes are related to the larger ones as means to ends4 ,ways in which specific purposes are valuable #a4 ,as a source of motive power ,specific purposes are necessary in the first place1 because they help to supply motive power both for study and for life in general4 ,proper study requires abundant energy1 for it is hard work2 and young people cannot be expected to engage in it heartily without good reason4 ,in particular1 it requires very close and sustained attention1 which it is most difficult to give4 ,threats and punishments can1 at the best1 secure it only in part2 for young people who thus suffer habitually reserve a portion of their energy to imagine the full meanness of their persecutors and1 not seldom1 to devise ways of getting even4 ,neither can direct exercise of will insure undivided attention4 ,how often have all of us1 conscious that we ought fully to concentrate attention upon some task1 determined to do so in vain4 ,the best single guarantee of close and continuous attention is a deep1 direct interest in the work in hand1 an interest similar in kind to that which children have in play4 ,such interest serves the same purpose with man as steam does in manufacturing1--it is motive power1 and it is as necessary to provide for it in the one case as in the other4 ,broad1 general aims cannot generate this interest1 for abstractions do not arouse enthusiasm4 ,it is the concrete1 the detailed1 that arouses interest1 particularly that detail that is closely related to life4 ,we all remember how1 in the midst of listless reading1 we have sometimes awakened with a start1 when we realized that what we were reading bore directly upon some vital interest4 ,specific purposes of the kind described insure the interest1 and therefore the energy1 necessary for full and sustained attention4 ,for remember1 says ,lowell1 that there is nothing less profitable than scholarship for the mere sake of scholarship1 nor anything more wearisome in the attainment4 ,but the moment you have a definite aim1 attention is quickened1 the mother of memory1 and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an order that is lucid1 because everywhere and always it is in intelligent relation to a central object of constant and growing interest4 ,footnote3 ,lowell1 ,books and ,libraries4 ,if eminent scholars thus value and actually make use of concrete purposes1 certainly immature students1 whose attention is much less trained1 can follow their example with profit4 ,life in general1 as well as study1 requires motive power4 ,energy to do many kinds of things is so important that one's worth depends as much upon it as upon knowledge4 ,indeed1 if there must be some lack in one of these two1 it were probably better that it be in knowledge4 ,a deep many-sided interest is a key also to this broader kind of energy4 ,yet how often is such interest lacking6 ,this lack of interest is seen among high-school students in the selection of subjects for commencement essays2 good subjects are difficult to find because interests are so rare4 ,it is seen among college students in their choice of elective courses2 for they often seem to have no strong interest beyond that of avoiding hard work4 ,it is seen in many college graduates who are roundly developed only in the sense that they are about equally indifferent toward all things4 ,and1 finally1 it is seen in the great number of men and women who1 without ambition1 drift aimlessly through life4 ,well-chosen specific purposes will help materially to remedy these evils1 for there is no dividing line between good study-purposes and good life-purposes4 ,the first must continually merge into the second2 and the interest aroused by the former1 with its consequent energy1 gives assurance of interested and energetic pursuance of the latter4 ,the importance of being rich in unsolved problems is not likely to be overestimated4 ,most well-informed adults who have little push are not lazy by nature2 they have merely failed to fall in love with worthy aims4 ,that is often partly because education has been allowed to mean to them little more than the collecting of facts4 ,if it had included the collection of interesting and valuable purposes as well1 their devotion to proper aims in life might have grown as have their facts2 then their energy might have kept pace with their knowledge4 ,if students1 therefore1 regularly occupy a portion of their study time in thinking out live questions that they hope to have answered by their further study1 and interesting uses that they intend to make of their knowledge1 they are equipping themselves with motive power both for study and for the broader work of life4 #b4 ,as a basis for the selection and organization of facts ,one of the constant dangers in study is that facts will be collected without reference either to their values1 as previously stated1 or to their arrangement4 ,nature study frequently illustrates this danger4 ,for instance1 ,i once witnessed a recitation in which each member of a class of eleven-year-old children was supplied with a dead oak leaf and asked to write a description of it in detail4 ,the entire period was occupied with the task1 and following is a copy of one of the papers1 without its figures4 ,,the ,,oak ,,leaf4 ,greatest length444444444 ,length of the stem4444 ,greatest breadth44444444 ,color of the stem44444 ,number of lobes444444444 ,color of the leaf44444 ,number of indentations44 ,general shape444444444 ,the other papers closely resembled this one4 ,consider the worth of such knowledge6 ,this is one way in which time is wasted in school and college4 ,probably the main reason for the choice of this topic was the fact that the leaves could be easily obtained4 ,but if the teacher had been in the habit of setting up specific aims1 and therefore of asking how such matter would prove valuable in life1 she would have never given this lesson--unless higher authorities had required it4 ,one of my classes of about seventy primary teachers in the study of education once undertook to plan subject-matter in nature study for six-year-old children in ,brooklyn4 ,they agreed that the common house cat would be a fitting topic4 ,and on being asked to state what facts they might teach1 they gave the following sub-topics in almost exactly this order and wording3 the ears2 food and how obtained2 the tongue2 paws1 including cushions2 whiskers2 teeth2 action of tail2 sounds2 sharp hearing2 sense of smell2 cleanliness2 eyes2 looseness of the skin2 quick waking2 size of mouth2 manner of catching prey2 claws2 care of young2 locomotion2 kinds of prey2 enemies2 protection by society for the prevention of cruelty to animals1--twenty-two topics in all4 ,when ,i inquired if they would teach the length of the tail1 or the shape of the head and ears1 or the length and shape of the legs1 or the number of claws or of teeth1 most of them said no with some hesitation1 and some made no reply4 ,when asked what more needed to be done with this list before presenting the subject to the children1 some suggested that those facts pertaining to the head should be grouped together1 likewise those pertaining to the body and those in regard to the extremities4 ,some rejected this suggestion1 but offered no substitute4 ,no general agreement to omit some of the topics in the list was reached1 and most of the class saw no better plan than to present the subject1 cat1 under the twenty-two headings given4 ,although there were college graduates present1 and many capable women1 it was evident that they carried no standard for judging the value of facts or for organizing them4 ,the setting up of specific purposes seemed to offer them the aid that they needed4 ,since this was in ,brooklyn1 where the main relation of cats to children is that of pets1 we took up the study of the animal with the purpose of finding to what extent cats as pets can provide for themselves1 and to what extent1 therefore1 they need to be taken care of1 and how4 ,under these headings the sub-topics given1 with a few omissions and additions1 might be arranged as follows3 ,under first aim3-- ,i4 ,food 7chief thing necessary74 _/,birds #a4 ,kinds of prey444 ,mice ,moles1 etc4 _/,eyes1 that see in dark2 #b4 ,how found44444 structure4 ,sense of smell2 keenness4 ,ears2 keenness4 _/ ,approach2 use of whiskers4 ,quietness of movements2 how so quiet 7padded feet1 loose joints1 manner of walking74 ,action of tail4 #c4 ,how caught44444 ,catching and holding2 ability to spring2 strength of hind legs4 ,fore paws2 used like hands4 ,claws2 shape1 sharpness1 and sheaths4 ,,ii4 ,shelter4 ,use of covering4 ,finding of warm place in coldest weather4 ,under second aim3-- ,i4 ,food 7when prey is wanting74 ,kinds and where obtained3 milk2 scraps from table2 biscuit2 catnip4 ,observe method of drinking4 ,,ii4 ,shelter4 ,how provide shelter4 ,,iii4 ,cleanliness4 ,why washing unnecessary 7cat's face washing2 aversion to getting wet74 ,danger from dampness4 ,need of combing and brushing2 method4 ,,iv4 ,enemies4 ,kinds of insects2 remedies4 ,dogs2 boys and men4 ,proper treatment4 ,value of ,society for ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals2 how to secure its aid4 ,thus a definite purpose1 that is simple1 concrete1 and close to the learner's experience1 can be valuable as a basis for selecting and arranging subject-matter4 ,facts that bear no important relation to this aim1 such as the length of the cat's tail and the shape of its ears1 fall out2 and those that are left1 drop into a series in place of a mere list4 ,as a promise of some practical outcome of study in conduct ,a manufacturer must do more than supply himself with motive power and manufacture a proper quality of goods2 he must also provide for a market4 ,again1 if he makes money1 he is under obligations not to let it lie idle2 if he hoards it1 he is condemned as a miser4 ,he is responsible for turning whatever goods or money he collects to some account4 ,the student1 likewise1 should not be merely a collector of knowledge4 ,the object of study is not merely insight4 ,as ,frederick ,harrison has said1 ,man's business here is to know for the sake of living1 not to live for the sake of knowing4 ,religion that does not express itself in conduct socially useful is not true religion2 and1 we may add1 education that does not do the same is not true education4 ,it is part of one's work as a student1 therefore1 to plan to turn one's knowledge to some account2 to plan not alone to sell it for money1 but to use it in various ways in daily life4 ,if1 instead of this1 one aims to do nothing but collect facts1 no matter how ardently1 he has the spirit of a bookworm at best and stands on the same plane as the miser4 ,or if1 notwithstanding good intentions1 he leaves the effect of his knowledge on life mainly to accident1 he is grossly careless in regard to the chief object of study4 ,yet the average student regards himself as mainly a collector of facts1 a storehouse of knowledge2 and his teachers also regard him in that light4 ,planning to turn knowledge to some account is not thought to be essential to scholarship4 ,there are1 no doubt1 various reasons for this1 but it is not because an effect on life is not finally desired4 ,the explanation seems to be largely found in a very peculiar theory1 namely1 that the fewer bearings on life a student now concerns himself with1 the more he will somehow ultimately realize2 and if he aims at none in particular1 he will very likely hit most of them4 ,thus aimlessness1 so far as relations of study to life are concerned1 is put at a premium1 and students are directly encouraged to be omnivorous absorbers without further responsibility4 ,meanwhile1 sensible people are convinced of the unsoundness of this theory4 ,how often1 after having read a book from no particular point of view1 one feels it necessary to reexamine it in order to know how it treats some particular topic6 ,the former reading was too defective to meet a special need1 because the very general aim caused the attitude to be general or non-selective4 ,how often do young people who have been taught to have no particular aim in their reading1 have no aim at all1 beyond intellectual dissipation1 the momentary tickle of the thought4 ,thus all particular needs are in danger of being left unsatisfied when no particular need is fixed upon as the object4 ,it is the growing consciousness of the great waste in such study that has changed botany in many places into horticulture and agriculture1 chemistry into the chemistry of the kitchen1 and that has caused portions of many other studies to be approached from the human view- point4 ,this indicates the positive acceptance of specific purposes as guides in study4 ,they are not by any means full guarantees of an outcome of knowledge in conduct1 for they are only the plans by which the student hopes that his knowledge will function4 ,since plans often fail of accomplishment1 these purposes may never be realized4 ,but they give promise of some outcome and form one important step in a series of steps necessary for the fruition of knowledge4 ,by whom and when such purposes should be conceived ,the aims set up by advanced scholars are necessarily an outgrowth of their individual experience and interests4 ,such aims must1 therefore1 vary greatly4 ,for this reason such men must conceive their purposes for themselves2 there is no one who can do it for them4 ,younger students are in much the same situation1 for their aims should also be individual to a large extent4 ,text-books might be of much help if their authors attempted this task with skill4 ,but authors seldom attempt it at all2 and1 even if they do1 they are under the disadvantage of writing for great numbers of persons living in widely different environments4 ,any aims that they propose must necessarily be of a very general character4 ,teachers might again be of much help2 but many of them do not know how1 and many more will not try4 ,the task1 therefore1 falls mainly to the student himself4 ,as to the time of forming in mind these aims1 the experimental scientist necessarily posits some sort of hypothesis in advance of his experiments2 the eminent men before mentioned conceive the questions that they hope to have answered1 in advance of their reading4 ,it is natural that one should fix an aim before doing the work that is necessary for its accomplishment4 ,if these aims are to furnish the motive for close attention and the basis for the selection and organization of facts1 they certainly ought to be determined upon early4 ,the earlier they come1 too1 the greater the likelihood of some practical outcome in conduct2 for the want of such an outcome is very often due to their postponement4 ,on the other hand1 the setting up of desirable ends requires mental vigor1 as well as a wide and well-controlled experience4 ,gibbon's solitary walk 7p4 #ca7 ,would hardly be a pleasure walk for most young people1 even if they had his rich fund of knowledge to draw upon4 ,while it is desirable1 therefore1 to determine early upon one's purposes1 young students will often find it impossible to do this4 ,in such cases they will have to begin studying without such aids4 ,they can at least keep a sharp lookout for suitable purposes1 and can gradually fix upon them as they proceed4 ,in general it should be remembered that the sooner good aims are selected1 the sooner their benefits will be enjoyed4 ,,the ,,fitness ,,of ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,elementary ,,school ,,to ,,select ,,specific ,,purposes ,,of ,,study ,according to custom1 young people are expected to acquire knowledge now and find its uses later4 ,the preceding argument would reverse that order by having them discover their wants first and then study to satisfy them4 ,this is the way in which man has progressed from the beginning--outside of educational institutions--and it seems the normal order4 ,to what extent shall this apply to children8 ,if the fixing of aims is difficult for adult students1 it can be expected to be even more difficult for children of the elementary school age4 ,for their experience1 from which the suggestions for specific purposes must be obtained1 is narrow and their command of it slight4 ,on the other hand1 they are expected to have done a large amount of studying before entering the high school1 much of it alone1 too4 ,and1 after leaving the elementary school1 people will take it for granted that they have already learned how to study4 ,if1 therefore1 the finding of specific purposes is an important factor in proper study1 responsibility for acquiring that ability will fall upon the elementary school4 ,do children need the help of specific aims8 ,the first question to consider is1 ,do children seriously need the help of such aims8 ,they certainly do in one respect1 for they resemble their elders in being afflicted with inattention and unwillingness to exert themselves in study4 ,these are the offenses for which they are most often scolded at school1 and these are their chief faults when they attempt to study alone4 ,there is no doubt also but that the main reason why children improve very little in oral reading during the last three years in the elementary school is their lack of incentive to improve4 ,they feel no great need of enunciating distinctly and of reading with pleasant tones loud enough to be heard by all1 when all present have the same text before them4 ,why should they8 ,good aims make children alert1 just as they do older persons4 ,i remember hearing a ,new ,york teacher in a private school say to her thirteen-year-old children in composition1 one spring day3 ,i expect to spend my vacation at some summer resort2 but ,i have not yet decided what one it shall be4 ,if you have a good place in mind1 ,i should be glad to have you tell me why you like it4 ,it may influence my choice4 ,she was a very popular teacher1 and each pupil longed to have her for a companion during the summer4 ,i never saw a class undertake a composition with more eagerness4 ,in a certain fifth-year class in geography a contest between the boys and girls for the best collection of articles manufactured out of flax resulted in the greatest enthusiasm4 ,the reading or committing to memory of stories with the object of dramatizing them--such as ,the ,children's ,hour1 in the second or third grade--seldom fails to arouse lively interest4 ,for several years the members of the highest two classes in a certain school have collected many of the best cartoons and witticisms4 ,they have also been in the habit of reading the magazines with the object of selecting such articles as might be of special interest to their own families at home1 or to other classes in the school1 or to their classmates1 often defending their selections before the class4 ,their most valuable articles have been classified and catalogued for use in the school2 and their joke-books1 formed out of humorous collections1 have circulated through the school4 ,the effect of the plan in interesting pupils in current literature has been excellent4 ,a certain settlement worker in ,new ,york ,city in charge of a club of fourteen- to eighteen-year-old boys tried to arouse an interest in literature1 using one plan after another without success4 ,finally the class undertook to read ,julius ,caesar with the object of selecting the best parts and acting them out in public4 ,this plan succeeded2 and while the acting was grotesque1 this purpose led to what was probably the most earnest studying that those boys had ever done4 ,the value of definite aims for the conduct of the recitation is now often discussed and much appreciated by teachers4 ,if such aims are so important in class1 with the teacher present1 they are surely not less needed when the child is studying alone4 ,the worth of specific aims for children as a source of energy in general is likewise great4 ,it is a question whether children under three years of age are ever lazy4 ,but certainly within a few years after that age--owing to the bad effect of civilization1 ,rousseau might say--many of them make great progress toward laziness of both body and mind4 ,the possibilities in this direction were once strikingly illustrated in an orphan asylum in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the two hundred children in this asylum had been in the habit of marching to their meals in silence1 eating in silence1 and marching out in silence4 ,they had been trained to the lock step discipline1 until they were quiet and good to a high degree4 ,the old superintendent having resigned on account of age1 an experienced teacher1 who was an enthusiast in education1 succeeded him in that office4 ,feeling depressed by the lack of life among the children1 the latter concluded1 after a few weeks1 to break the routine by taking thirty of the older boys and girls to a circus4 ,but shortly before the appointed day one of these girls proved so refractory that she was told that she could not be allowed to go4 ,to the new superintendent's astonishment1 however1 she did not seem disappointed or angered2 she merely remarked that she had never seen a circus and did not care much to go anyway4 ,shortly afterward he fined several of the children for misconduct4 ,many of them had a few dollars of their own1 received from relatives and other friends4 ,but the fines did not worry them4 ,they were not in the habit of spending money1 having no occasion for it2 all that they needed was food1 clothing1 and shelter1 and these the institution was bound to give4 ,then he deprived certain unruly children of a share in the games4 ,that again failed to cause acute sorrow4 ,in the great city they had little room for play1 and many had not become fond of games4 ,it finally proved difficult to discover anything that they cared for greatly4 ,their discipline had accomplished its object1 until they were usually good simply because they were too dull1 too wanting in ideas and interests to be mischievous4 ,their energy in general was low4 ,here was a demand for specific purposes without limit4 ,one of the first aims that the new superintendent set up1 after making this discovery1 was to inculcate live interests in these children1 a capacity to enjoy the circus1 a love even of money1 a love of games1 of flowers1 of reading1 and of companionship4 ,his means was the fixing of definite and interesting objects to be accomplished from day to day1 and these gradually restored the children to their normal condition4 ,thus all children need the help of specific aims1 and some need it sadly4 ,is it normal to expect children to learn to set up specific aims for themselves8 ,there remains the very important question1 ,are children themselves capable of learning to set up such purposes8 ,or at least would such attempts seem to be normal for them8 ,this question cannot receive a final answer at present1 because children have not been sufficiently tested in this respect4 ,it has so long been the habit in school to collect facts and leave their bearings on life to future accident1 that the force of habit makes it difficult to measure the probabilities in regard to a very different procedure4 ,yet there are some facts that are very encouraging4 ,a large number of the tasks that children undertake outside of school are self imposed1 many of these including much intellectual work4 ,largely as a result of such tasks1 too1 they probably learn at least as much outside of school as they learn in school1 and they learn it better4 ,further1 when called upon in school to do this kind of thinking1 they readily respond4 ,a teacher one day remarked to her class1 ,i have a little girl friend living on the ,hudson ,river1 near ,albany1 who has been ill for many weeks4 ,it occurred to me that you might like to write her some letters that would help her to pass the time more pleasantly4 ,could you do it8 ,yes1 by all means1 was the response4 ,then what will you choose to write about8 said the teacher4 ,one girl soon inquired1 ,do you think that she would like to know how ,i am training my bird to sing8 ,several other interesting topics were suggested4 ,the finding of desirable purposes is not beyond children's abilities4 ,individual examples1 however1 can hardly furnish the best answer to the question at present2 the general nature of children must determine it4 ,if children are leading lives that are rich enough intellectually and morally to furnish numerous occasions to turn their acquisitions to account1 then it would certainly be reasonable to expect them to discover some of these occasions4 ,if1 on the other hand1 their lives are comparatively barren1 it might be unnatural to make such a demand upon them4 ,the feeling is rather common that human experience becomes rich only as the adult period is reached2 that childhood is comparatively barren of needs1 and valuable mainly as a period of storage of knowledge to meet wants that will arise later4 ,yet is this true8 ,by the time the adult state is reached1 one has passed through the principal kinds of experience2 the period of struggle is largely over1 and the results have registered themselves in habits4 ,the adult is to a great extent a bundle of habits4 ,the child1 and the youth in the adolescent age1 on the other hand1 are just going the round of experience for the first few times4 ,they are just forming their judgments as to the values of things about them4 ,their intellectual life is abundant1 as is shown by their innumerable questions4 ,their temptations--such as to become angry1 to fight1 to lie1 to cheat1 and to steal--are more numerous and probably more severe than they will usually be later2 their opportunities to please and help others1 or to offend and hinder1 are without limit2 and their joys and sorrows1 though of briefer duration than later1 are more numerous and often fully as acute4 ,in other words1 they are in the midst of growth1 of habit formation1 both intellectually and morally4 ,theirs is the time of life when1 to a peculiar degree1 they are experimentally related to their environment4 ,why1 then1 should they be taught to look past this period1 to their distant future as the harvest time for their knowledge and powers8 ,the occasions are abundant now for turning facts and abilities to account1 and it is normal to expect them to see many of these opportunities4 ,proper development requires that they be trained to look for them1 instead of looking past them4 ,here is seen the need of one more reform in education4 ,children used to be regarded as lacking value in themselves2 their worth lay in their promise of being men and women2 and if1 owing to ill health1 this promise was very doubtful1 they were put aside4 ,for education they were given that mental pabulum that was considered valuable to the adult2 and their tastes1 habits1 and manners were judged from the same viewpoint4 ,very recently one radical improvement has been effected in this program4 ,as illustrated in the doctrine of apperception1 we have grown to respect the natures of children1 even to accept their instincts1 their native tendencies1 and their experiences as the proper basis for their education4 ,that is a wonderful advance4 ,but we do not yet regard their present experience as furnishing the motive for their education4 ,we need to take one more step and recognize their present lives as the field wherein the knowledge that they acquire shall function4 ,we do this to some extent2 but we lack faith in the abundance of their present experience1 and are always impatiently looking forward to a time when their lives will be rich4 ,in feeding children we have our eyes primarily on the present2 food is given them in order to be assimilated and used now to satisfy present needs2 that is the best way of guaranteeing health for the future4 ,likewise in giving them mental and spiritual food1 our attention should be directed primarily to its present value4 ,it should be given with the purpose of present nourishment1 of satisfying present needs2 other more distant needs will thereby be best served4 ,a few years ago1 when ,i was discussing this topic with a class at ,teachers ,college1 ,i happened to observe a recitation in the ,horace ,mann school in which a class of children was reading ,silas ,marner4 ,they were frequently reproved for their unnaturally harsh voices1 for their monotones1 indistinct enunciation1 and poor grouping of words4 ,in the ,speyer school1 nine blocks north of this school1 ,i had often observed the same defects4 ,at about that time one of my students1 interested in the early history of ,new ,york1 happened to call upon an old woman living in a shanty midway between these two schools4 ,she was an old inhabitant1 and one of the early roadways that the student was hunting had passed near her house4 ,in conversation with the woman he learned that she had had five children1 all of whom had been taken from her some years before1 within a fortnight1 by scarlet fever2 and that since then she had been living alone4 ,when he remarked that she must feel lonesome at times1 tears came to her eyes1 and she replied1 ,sometimes4 ,as he was leaving she thanked him for his call and remarked that she seldom had any visitors2 she added that1 if some one would drop in now and then1 either to talk or to read to her1 she would greatly appreciate it2 her eyes had so failed that she could no longer read for herself4 ,here was an excellent chance to improve the children's reading by enabling them to see that the better their reading the more pleasure could they give to those about them4 ,this seems typical of the present relation between the school and its environing world4 ,while the two need each other sadly1 the school is isolated somewhat like the old- time monastery4 ,the fixing of specific aims for study can aid materially in establishing the normal relation1 and children can certainly contribute to this end by discovering some of these purposes themselves4 ,that is one of the things that they should learn to do4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,find ,,specific ,,aims ,,for ,,their ,,study #a4 ,elimination of subject-matter that has little bearing on life ,the elimination from the curriculum of such subject-matter as has no probable bearing on ordinary mortals is one important step to take in giving children definite aims in their study4 ,there is much of this matter having little excuse for existence beyond the fact that it exercises the mind2 for example3 in arithmetic1 the finding of the ,greatest ,common ,divisor as a separate topic1 the tables for ,apothecaries' weight and ,troy measure1 ,complex and ,compound ,fractions2,footnote3 ,for a more complete list of such topics1 see ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,mathematics in the ,elementary ,school1 ,march1 #aijc1 by ,david ,eugene ,smith and ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry4 in geography1 the location of many unimportant capes1 bays1 capitals and other towns1 rivers and boundaries2 in nature study1 many classifications1 the detailed study of leaves1 and the study of many uncommon wild plants4 ,the teaching of facts that cannot function in the lives of pupils directly encourages the mere collecting habit1 and thus tends to defeat the purpose here proposed4 ,not that we do not wish children to collect facts2 but while acquiring them we want children to carry the responsibility of discovering ways of turning them to account1 and mere collecting tends to dull this sense of responsibility4 #b4 ,the example to be set by the teacher ,by her own method of instruction the teacher can set an example of what she desires from her pupils in the way of concrete aims4 ,for instance3 7a7 during recitation she can occasionally suggest opportunities for the application of knowledge and ability4 ,this is a story that you might tell to other children1 she might say2 or1 ,here is something that you might dramatize4 ,you might talk with your father or mother about this4 ,could you read this aloud to your family8 ,again1 7b7 in the assignment of lessons she might set a definite problem that would bring the school work into direct touch with the outside world4 ,in fine art1 instead of having children make designs for borders1 without any particular use for the design1 she might suggest1 ,find some object or wall surface that needs a border1 and see if you can design one that will be suitable4 ,as a task in arithmetic for a fifth-year class in a small town1 she might assign the problem1 ,to find out as accurately as possible whether or not it pays to keep a cow4 ,finally1 7c7 as part of an examination1 she can ask the class to recall purposes that they have kept in mind in the study of certain topics4 ,by such means the teacher can make clear to a class what is meant by interesting or useful aims of study1 and also impress them with the fact that she feels the need of studying under the guidance of such aims4 #c4 ,the responsibility the children should bear4 ,the teacher need not do a great amount of such work for her class4 ,the children should learn to do it themselves1 and they will not acquire the ability mainly by having some one else do it for them4 ,therefore1 after the children have come to understand the requirement fairly well1 the teacher might occasionally assign a lesson by specifying only the quantity1 as such and such pages1 or such and such topics1 in the geography or history1 with the understanding that the class shall state in the next recitation one or more aims for the lesson2 for example1 if it is the geography of ,russia1 ,how it happens that we hear so often of famines in ,russia1 while we do not hear of them in other parts of ,europe2 or1 if it is the history of ,columbus1 ,for what characteristic is ,columbus to be most admired8 ,again1 ,in what ways has his discovery of ,america proved of benefit to the world8 ,the finding of such problems will then be a part of the study necessary in mastering the lesson4 ,likewise1 during the recitation and without any hint from the teacher1 the children should show that they are carrying the responsibility of establishing relations of the subject-matter with life1 by mentioning further bearings1 or possible uses1 that they discover4 ,review lessons furnish excellent occasions for study of this kind4 ,it is narrow to review lessons only from the point of view of the author4 ,his view-point should be reviewed often enough to become well fixed1 but there should be other view-points taken also4 ,john ,fiske has admirably presented the history of the period immediately following the ,revolution4 ,the title of his book1 ,the ,critical ,period of ,american ,history1 makes us curious from the beginning to know how the period was so critical4 ,this is a fine example of a specific aim governing a whole book4 ,but other aims in review might be1 ,do we owe as much to ,washington during this period as during the war just preceding8 ,or were other men equally or more prominent8 ,how was the establishment of a firm ,union made especially difficult by the want of certain modern inventions8 ,the pupils themselves should develop the power to suggest such questions4 #d4 ,the sources to which children should look for suggestions ,the teacher can teach the children where to look for suggestions in their search for specific purposes4 ,during meals1 three times a day1 interesting topics of conversation are welcome2 indeed1 the dearth of conversation at such times1 owing to lack of something to say1 is often depressing4 ,there is often need of something to unite the family of evenings1 such as a magazine article read aloud1 or a good narrative1 or a discussion of some timely topic4 ,there are social gatherings where the people don't know what to do2 there are recesses at school where there is the same difficulty2 there are neighbors1 brothers and sisters1 and other friends who are more than ready to be entertained1 or instructed1 or helped4 ,yet children often dramatize stories at school1 without ever thinking of doing the same for the entertainment of their family at home4 ,they read good stories without expecting to tell them to any one4 ,they collect good ideas about judging pictures1 without planning to beautify their homes through them4 ,thus the children can be made conscious that there are wants on all sides of them1 and by some study of their environment they can find many aims that will give purpose to their school work4 ,again1 by a review of their past studies1 their reading1 and their experience of various kinds1 they can be reminded of objects that they are desirous of accomplishing4 ,it is1 perhaps1 needless to say that the teacher herself must likewise make a careful study of the home1 street1 and school life of her pupils1 of their study and reading1 if she is to guide them most effectually in their own search for desirable aims4 #e4 ,stocking up with specific aims in advance ,finally1 the teacher can lead her pupils to stock up with specific aims even in advance of their immediate needs4 ,a teacher who visits another school with the desire of getting helpful suggestions would better write down beforehand the various things that she wishes to see4 ,she can afford to spend considerable time and energy upon such a list of points4 ,otherwise1 she is likely to overlook half of the things she was anxious to inquire about4 ,likewise1 children can be taught to jot down in a notebook various problems that they hope to solve1 various wants observed in their environment that they may help to satisfy4 ,children who are much interested in reading1 sometimes without outside suggestion make lists of good books that they have heard of and hope to read4 ,and as they read some1 they add others to their list4 ,keeping this list in mind1 they are on the lookout for any of these books1 and improve the opportunity to read one of them whenever it offers4 ,a similar habit in regard to things one would like to know and do can be cultivated1 so that one will have a rich stock of aims on hand in advance1 and these will help greatly to give purpose to the work later required in the school4 #f4 ,the importance of moderation in demands made upon children4 ,in conclusion1 it may be of importance to add that this kind of instruction can be easily overdone1 and it is better to proceed too slowly than too rapidly4 ,it is a healthy and permanent development that is wanted1 and the teacher should rest satisfied if it is slow4 ,it is by no means feasible to attempt to subordinate all study to specific aims2 we cannot see our way to accomplish that now4 ,but we can do something in that direction4 ,only occasional attempts with the younger children will be in place2 more conscious efforts will be fitting among older pupils4 ,by the time the elementary school is finished1 a fair degree of success in discovering specific aims can be expected4 ,yet1 even if little more than a willingness to take time to try is established1 the gain will be appreciable4 ,when children become interested in a topic1 they are impatient to go on and to keep going on4 ,this continual hurrying forward crowds out reflection4 ,if they learn no more than to pause now and then in order to find some bearings on life1 and thus do some independent thinking1 they are paving the way for the invaluable habit of reflection4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,supplementing ,,of ,,thought1 ,,as ,a ,,second ,,factor ,,of ,,study ,the question here at issue ,in the preceding chapter the importance of studying under the influence of specific purposes was urged4 ,these are such purposes as the student really desires to accomplish by the study of text or of other matter placed before him4 ,since they are not usually included in such matter1 but must be conceived by the student himself1 they constitute a very important kind of supplement to whatever statements may be offered for study4 ,the questions now arise1 ,are other kinds of supplementing also generally necessary8 ,if so1 what is their nature8 ,should they be prominent1 or only a minor part of study8 ,and is there any explanation of the fact that authors are not able to express themselves more fully and plainly8 ,answers to these questions--#a4 ,as suggested by ,bible study4 ,for answers to these questions1 turn first to ,bible study4 ,take for instance a minister's treatment of a ,bible text4 ,selecting a verse or two as his ,answers to theme for a sermon1 he recalls the conditions that called forth the words2 builds the concrete picture by the addition of reasonable detail2 makes comparisons with corresponding views or customs of the present time2 states and answers queries that may arise2 calls attention to the peculiar beauty or force of certain expressions2 draws inferences or corollaries suggested in the text2 and1 finally1 interprets the thought or draws the practical lessons4 ,the words in his text may number less than a dozen1 while those that he utters reach thousands2 and the thoughts that he expresses may be a hundred times the number directly visible in the text4 ,leaving the minister1 take the layman's study of the parable of the ,prodigal ,son4 ,this is the story as related in ,luke #ae3aa-cb3 #aa4 ,and he said1 ,a certain man had two sons3 #ab4 ,and the younger of them said to his father1 ,father1 give me the portion of goods that falleth to me4 ,and he divided unto them his living4 #ac4 ,and not many days after the younger son gathered all together1 and took his journey into a far country1 and there wasted his substance with riotous living4 #ad4 ,and when he had spent all1 there arose a mighty famine in that land2 and he began to be in want4 #ae4 ,and he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country2 and he sent him into his fields to feed swine4 #af4 ,and he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat2 and no man gave unto him #ag4 ,and when he came to himself1 he said1 ,how many hired servants of my father's have bread enough and to spare1 and ,i perish with hunger6 #ah4 ,i will arise and go to my father1 and will say unto him1 ,father1 ,i have sinned against heaven1 and before thee1 #ai4 ,and am no more worthy to be called thy son2 make me as one of thy hired servants4 #bj4 ,and he arose1 and came to his father4 ,but when he was yet a great way off1 his father saw him1 and had compassion1 and ran1 and fell on his neck1 and kissed him4 #ba4 ,and the son said unto him1 ,father1 ,i have sinned against heaven1 and in thy sight1 and am no more worthy to be called thy son4 #bb4 ,but the father said to his servants1 ,bring forth the best robe1 and put it on him2 and put a ring on his hand1 and shoes on his feet4 #bc4 ,and bring hither the fatted calf1 and kill it2 and let us eat and be merry4 #bd4 ,for this my son was dead1 and is alive again2 he was lost1 and is found4 ,and they began to be merry4 #be4 ,now his elder son was in the field2 and as he came and drew nigh to the house1 he heard music and dancing4 #bf4 ,and he called one of the servants and asked what these things meant4 #bg4 ,and he said unto him1 ,thy brother is come2 and thy father hath killed the fatted calf1 because he hath received him safe and sound4 #bh4 ,and he was angry1 and would not go in2 therefore came his father out1 and intreated him4 #bi4 ,and he answering said to his father1 ,lo1 these many years do ,i serve thee1 neither transgressed ,i at any time thy commandment2 and yet thou never gavest me a kid1 that ,i might make merry with my friends2 #cj4 ,but as soon as this thy son was come1 which hath devoured thy living with harlots1 thou hast killed for him the fatted calf4 #ha4 ,and he said unto him1 ,son1 thou art ever with me1 and all that ,i have is thine4 #cb4 ,it was meet that we should make merry and be glad2 for this thy brother was dead1 and is alive again2 and was lost1 and is found4 ,how simple the story6 ,even a child can tell it after very few readings1 and one could soon learn the words by heart4 ,is one then through with it8 ,or has the study then hardly begun8 ,note some of the questions that need to be considered3-- #a4 ,what various thoughts probably induced the young man to leave home8 #b4 ,what pictures of his former life does he call to mind when starving8 ,why did he hesitate about returning8 #c4 ,what were his thoughts and actions as he approached his father2 those also of his father8 #d4 ,what indication of the father's character is given in the fact that he saw his son while yet a great way off8 #e4 ,which is perhaps the most interesting scene8 ,which is least pleasing8 #f4 ,how would the older son have had the father act8 #g4 ,did the father argue at length with the older son8 ,was it in place to argue much about such a matter8 #h4 ,describe the character of the elder son4 ,which of the two is the better8 #i4 ,is the father shown to be at fault in any respect in the training of his sons8 ,if so1 how8 #aj4 ,how do people about us often resemble the elder son8 #aa4 ,is this story told as a warning or as a comfort8 ,how8 ,these are only a few of the many questions that might well be considered4 ,indeed1 whole books could be1 and probably have been1 written upon this one parable4 ,yet neither such questions nor their answers are included in the text4 ,it seems strange that almost none of the great thoughts that should be gathered from the story are themselves included with the narrative4 ,but the same is true in regard to other parts of the ,bible4 ,the conversation between ,jesus and the ,samaritan woman at the well 7,john #d7 is1 perhaps1 the greatest conversation that was ever held4 ,yet one must discover this fact between the lines2 there is no such statement included in the account4 ,evidently both to the minister and to the layman the ,bible contains only the raw materials for thought4 ,it must be supplemented without limit1 if one is to comprehend it and to be nourished by it properly4 #b4 ,as suggested by the study of other literature ,does this same hold with regard to other literature8 ,for answer1 recall to what extent ,shakespeare's dramas are talked over in class1 both in high schools and colleges4 ,but as a type--somewhat extreme1 perhaps--take ,browning's ,,my ,,last ,,duchess ,that's my last ,duchess painted on the wall1 ,looking as if she were alive4 ,i call ,that piece a wonder1 now3 ,fra ,pandolf's hands ,worked busily a day1 and there she stands4 ,will't please you sit and look at her8 ,i said ,fra ,pandolf by design1 for never read ,stranger like you that pictured countenance1 ,the depth and passion of its earnest glance1 ,but to myself they turned 7since none puts by ,the curtain ,i have drawn for you1 but ,i7 ,and seemed as they would ask me1 if they durst1 ,how such a glance came there2 so1 not the first ,are you to turn and ask thus4 ,sir1 't was not ,her husband's presence only1 called that spot ,of joy into the ,duchess' cheek2 perhaps ,fra ,pandolf chanced to say1 ,her mantle laps ,over my lady's wrist too much1 or ,paint ,must never hope to reproduce the faint ,half-flush that dies along her throat3 such stuff ,was courtesy1 she thought1 and cause enough ,for calling up that spot of joy4 ,she had ,a heart--how shall ,i say--too soon made glad1 ,too easily impressed2 she liked whate'er ,she looked on1 and her looks went everywhere4 ,sir1 't was all one6 ,my favor at her breast1 ,the dropping of the daylight in the ,west1 ,the bough of cherries some officious fool ,broke in the orchard for her1 the white mule ,she rode with round the terrace--all and each ,would draw from her alike the approving speech1 ,or blush1 at least4 ,she thanked men1--good6 but thanked ,somehow--,i know not how--as if she ranked ,my gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name ,with anybody's gift4 ,who'd stoop to blame ,this sort of trifling8 ,even had you skill ,in speech--7which ,i have not7--to make your will ,quite clear to such an one1 and say1 ,just this ,or that in you disgusts me2 here you miss1 ,or there exceed the mark--and if she let ,herself be lessoned so1 nor plainly set ,her wits to yours1 forsooth1 and made excuse1 --,e'en then would be some stooping2 and ,i choose ,never to stoop4 ,oh sir1 she smiled1 no doubt1 ,whene'er ,i passed her2 but who passed without ,much the same smile8 ,this grew2 ,i gave commands2 ,then all smiles stopped together4 ,there she stands ,as if alive4 ,will't please you rise8 ,we'll meet ,the company below1 then4 ,i repeat1 ,the ,count your master's known munificence ,is ample warrant that no just pretense ,of mine for dowry will be disallowed2 ,though his fair daughter's self1 as ,i avowed ,at starting1 is my object4 ,nay1 we'll go ,together down1 sir4 ,notice ,neptune1 though1 ,taming a sea-horse1 thought a rarity1 ,which ,claus of ,innsbruck cast in bronze for me6 ,how much the word last in the title of this poem suggests6 ,note how many1 and how different1 are the topics in the last dozen lines4 ,yet there is no paragraphing throughout4 ,the page should show things as they exist in the ,duke's mind1 and he runs from one thought to another as if they were all on the same plane1 and closely related4 ,was there ever a more vain1 heartless1 haughty1 selfish1 bartering gentleman-wretch8 ,note how single short sentences even surprise one by the extent to which they reveal character4 ,whole volumes are included between sentences4 ,one can scarcely read the poem through rapidly2 for it seems necessary to pause here and there to reflect upon and interject statements4 ,there is no doubt about the need of extensive supplementing in the case of adult literature4 ,is that true1 however1 of literature for children8 ,is not this1 on account of the immaturity of children1 necessarily so written as to make such supplementing unnecessary8 ,for a test let us examine ,longfellow's ,the ,children's ,hour1 which is so popular with seven- and eight-year-old boys and girls4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,hour ,between the dark and the daylight1 ,when the night is beginning to lower1 ,comes a pause in the day's occupations1 ,that is known as the ,children's ,hour4 ,i hear in the chamber above me ,the patter of little feet1 ,the sound of a door that is opened1 ,and voices soft and sweet4 ,from my study ,i see in the lamplight1 ,descending the broad hall stair1 ,grave ,alice1 and laughing ,allegra1 ,and ,edith with golden hair4 ,a whisper1 and then a silence3 ,yet ,i know by their merry eyes1 ,they are plotting and planning together ,to take me by surprise4 ,a sudden rush from the stairway1 ,a sudden raid from the hall6 ,by three doors left unguarded ,they enter my castle wall6 ,they climb up into my turret ,o'er the arms and back of my chair2 ,if ,i try to escape1 they surround me2 ,they seem to be everywhere4 ,they almost devour me with kisses ,their arms about me entwine1 ,till ,i think of the ,bishop of ,bingen ,in his ,mouse-,tower on the ,rhine6 ,do you think1 ,o blue-eyed banditti1 ,because you have scaled the wall1 ,such an old moustache as ,i am ,is not a match for you all6 ,i have you fast in my fortress1 ,and will not let you depart1 ,but put you down into the dungeon1 ,in the round tower of my heart4 ,and there will ,i keep you forever1 ,yes1 for ever and a day1 ,till the walls shall crumble to ruin1 ,and molder in dust away6 #a4 ,how would we plan to dramatize this poem8 ,in answering this question1 we must consider how many persons are needed1 what arrangement of rooms and doors1 etc41 will be fitting2 are the last three stanzas to be spoken8 etc4 #b4 ,it seems that here is a family in which an hour is set aside for play4 ,what kind of home must that be8 #c4 ,was this the custom each day8 ,or did it happen only once8 #d4 ,does the father seem to enjoy it8 ,or was it rather an unpleasant time for him8 #e4 ,is there any proof that these were especially attractive children8 7,voices soft and sweet47 #f4 ,which is the best part of the last three stanzas1 in which he tells how much he loves them8 7,meaning of for ever and a day47 #g4 ,do you know any other families that have a time set apart each day for playing together8 ,why are there not more8 #h4 ,does such an arrangement depend on the parents wholly8 ,or could the children help much to bring it about8 ,how8 #i4 ,have you heard the story about the ,bishop of ,bingen in his ,mouse- ,tower on the ,rhine ,river8 #aj4 ,meaning of strange words may be explained in various ways1 perhaps some of them scarcely explained at all4 ,these are some of the questions that could well be considered in this poem4 ,it is true that this selection1 like most adult literature1 is capable of being enjoyed without much addition4 ,but it is not mere enjoyment that is wanted4 ,we are discussing what study is necessary in order to get the full profit4 ,in the case of ,hawthorne's ,wonder-,book and ,tanglewood ,tales1 numerous questions and suggestions need likewise to be interjected4 ,one of the best books for five- to eight- year-old children on the life of ,christ bears the title ,jesus the ,carpenter of ,nazareth4 ,it is an illustrated volume of five hundred pages1 which makes it clear that the original ,bible text has been greatly supplemented4 ,yet it is a pity to read even this book without frequent pausing for additional detail4 ,thus literature1 including even that for young children1 fails to show on the surface all that the reader is expected to see4 ,much of it states only a very small part of this4 ,a piece of literature resembles a painting in this respect4 ,corot's well-known painting1 ,dance of the ,wood ,nymphs1 presents only a few objects1 including a landscape with some trees and some dancing women4 ,yet people love to sit and look at it1 perhaps to examine its detail and enjoy its author's skill1 but also to recall countless memories of the past1 of beautiful woods and pastures1 of happy parties1 of joys1 hopes1 and resolves1 and possibly1 too1 to renew resolves for the future4 ,the very simple scene is thus a source of inspiration1 a stimulus to think or study4 ,a poem accomplishes the same thing4 #c4 ,as stated by ,ruskin ,a warning of the amount of hard work that the student of literature must expect is given by ,ruskin in the following forcible words3 ,and be sure1 also1 if the author is worth anything1 that you will not get at his meaning all at once1--nay1 that at his whole meaning you will not for a long time arrive in any wise4 ,not that he does not say what he means1 and in strong words1 too2 but he cannot say it all1 and what is more strange1 will not1 but in a hidden way1 and in parables1 in order that he may be sure you want it4 ,i cannot quite see the reason of this1 nor analyze the cruel reticence in the breasts of wise men which makes them always hide their deeper thought4 ,they do not give it you by way of help1 but of reward1 and will make themselves sure that you deserve it1 before they allow you to reach it4 ,but it is the same with the physical type of wisdom1 gold4 ,there seems1 to you and me1 no reason why the electric forces of the earth should not carry whatever there is of gold within it at once to the mountain tops1 so that kings and people might know that all the gold they could get was there1 and without any trouble of digging1 or anxiety1 or chance1 or waste of time1 cut it away1 and coin as much as they needed4 ,but ,nature does not manage it so4 ,she puts it in little fissures in the earth1 nobody knows where4 ,you may dig long and find none2 you must dig painfully to find any4 ,and it is just the same with men's best wisdom4 ,when you come to a good book1 you must ask yourself1 ',am ,i inclined to work as an ,australian miner would8 ,are my pickaxes and shovels in good order1 and am ,i in good trim myself1 my sleeves well up to the elbow1 and my breath good1 and my temper8' ,and keeping the figure a little longer444 the metal you are in search of being the author's mind or meaning1 his words are as the rock which you have to crush and smelt in order to get at it4 ,and your pickaxes are your own care1 wit1 and learning2 your smelting furnace is your own thoughtful soul4 ,do not hope to get at any good author's meaning without those tools1 and that fire2 often you will need sharpest1 finest chiseling and patientest fussing before you can gather one grain of the metal4,footnote3 ,sesame and ,lilies #d4 ,as suggested by an examination of text-books ,when we turn from literature to the text-books used in schools and colleges1 we find the need of supplementing greatly increased4 ,writers of literature are at liberty to choose any topic they please1 and to treat it as fully as they will4 ,but writers of text-books are free in neither of these respects4 ,their subjects are determined for them2 it is the history1 for example1 of a given period1 the grammar of the ,english language1 the geography of the earth4 ,and these must be presented briefly enough to be covered by classes within a prescribed time4 ,for these reasons text-books contain far less detail than literature1 and in that sense are much more condensed4 ,they are only the outlines of subjects1 as their titles often directly acknowledge4 ,green's ,history of ,england1 for instance1 which has been extensively used as a college text1 barely touches many topics that are treated at great length elsewhere4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that in our more advanced schools the word text in connection with such books is used in much the same sense as in connection with the ,bible2 a text is that which merely introduces topics by giving the bare outline of facts1 or very condensed statements2 it must be supplemented extensively1 if the facts or thoughts are to be appreciated4 ,how about the texts used in the elementary school8 ,those used in the highest two grades need1 perhaps1 somewhat more supplementing than those in the high school4 ,but in the middle grades this need is still greater4 ,in the more prominent studies calling for text-books1 such as history1 geography1 and ,english language or grammar1 nearly the same topics are treated as in the higher grades1 and in substantially the same manner4 ,but since the younger children are not expected to take as long lessons1--and perhaps1 too1 because they cannot carry as large books1--their texts are made briefer4 ,this is mainly accomplished by leaving out much of the detail that is necessary to make the facts clear and interesting4 ,consequently1 supplementing is an especially important factor of study in these grades4 ,in general1 the briefer the text1 the more filling in is needed4 ,as an illustration1 take the following extract from the first page of ,mc,master's ,child's ,history of the ,united ,states1 often used with ten-year-old pupils4 ,four hundred and fifty years ago the people of western ,europe were getting silks1 perfumes1 shawls1 ivory1 spices1 and jewels from southeastern ,asia1 then called the ,indies4 ,but the ,turks were conquering the countries across which these goods were carried1 and it seemed so likely that the trade would be stopped1 that the merchants began to ask if somebody could not find a new way to the ,indies4 ,the king of ,portugal thought he could1 and began sending his sailors in search of a way around ,africa1 which extended southward1 nobody knew how far4 ,year after year his ships sailed down the west coast1 the last captain going further south than the one before him1 till one of them at last reached the southern end of the continent and entered the ,indian ,ocean4 ,observe a few of the thoughts between the lines that need to be considered3-- #a4 ,six things are here mentioned as brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,it seems odd that some of these should receive mention as among the most important imports4 ,which are they8 ,could any of them have been more important then than now8 ,why8 #b4 ,what were the routes of travel1 by land1 to the ,indies8 7,map47 #c4 ,where did the ,turks live2 and what reasons had they for preventing this trade8 #d4 ,why could not the first ,portuguese captain sail directly to the southern end of ,africa8 ,again1 take the topic desert in geography4 ,the texts usually define a desert as a sandy waste1 often a plain1 that receives too little rain to support much vegetable or animal life4 ,pictures are given showing the character of the plants1 and perhaps the appearance of such a region4 ,beyond that little is usually attempted4 ,in the larger books the danger from sand storms and some other things are included4 ,such treatment needs to be supplemented by numerous questions1 such as the following3-- #a4 ,what animals that are common here are seldom found there1 or not at all8 7,horses1 cows1 etc41 also birds1 flies1 bugs1 etc47 #b4 ,what plants that are common here are not found there8 7,trees1 flowers1 weeds1 etc47 #c4 ,is the weather particularly enjoyable there1 or not8 ,is it desirable to have sunshine all the time8 #d4 ,what about noises of various kinds8 7,silence so oppressive to some people that it becomes intolerable47 #e4 ,what would be some of the pleasures of a walk in the desert8 7,coloring1 change of seasons1 trees along streams1 appearance of any grass47 #f4 ,what about the effect of strong winds on the sand8 #g4 ,imagining that some one has just crossed a desert1 what dangers do you think he has encountered1 and how may he have escaped from them8 ,the extent to which the supplementing should be carried ,from the preceding discussion it is clear not only that no important topic is ever completely presented1 but also that there is scarcely any limit to the extent to which it may be supplemented4 ,men get new thoughts from the same ,bible texts year after year1 and even century after century4 ,how far1 then1 should the supplementing be carried8 ,the maximum limit cannot be fixed1 and there is no need of attempting it4 ,but there is great need of knowing and keeping in mind the minimum limit2 for in the pressure to hurry forward there is grave danger that even this limit will not be reached4 ,what is this minimum limit8 ,briefly stated1 it is this3 ,there should be enough supplementing to render the thought really nourishing1 quickening1 to the learner4 ,in the case of literature that will involve some supplementing2 and in the case of ordinary text-books it will require a good deal more4 ,is this standard met when the child understands and can reproduce in substance the definition of desert8 ,far from it6 ,that definition is as dry and barren as the desert itself2 it tends to deaden rather than quicken4 ,the pupil must go far beyond the mere cold understanding and reproduction of a topic4 ,he must see the thing talked about1 as though in its presence2 he must not only see this vividly1 but he must enter into its spirit1 or feel it2 he must experience or live it4 ,otherwise the desired effect is wanting4 ,this standard furnishes the reason for such detailed questions as are suggested above4 ,the frequency with which stirring events1 grand scenery1 and great thoughts are talked about in class with fair understanding1 but without the least excitement1 is a measure of the failure of the so- called better instruction to come up to this standard4 ,no really good instruction1 any more than good story books1 will leave one cold toward the theme in hand4 ,reasons why authors fail to express their thought more completely ,it must be confessed that this standard calls for a large amount of supplementing4 ,there are meanings of words and phrases to be studied1 references to be looked up1 details to be filled in for the sake of vivid pictures1 illustrations to be furnished out of one's own experience1 inferences or corollaries to be drawn1 questions to be raised and answered1 and finally the bearings on life to be traced4 ,it might seem that authors could do their work better1 and thereby relieve their readers of work4 ,yet these omissions are not to be ascribed to the evil natures of authors1 nor to the superabundance of their thought1 alone4 ,readers would be dissatisfied if all this work were done for them4 ,any one has observed that small children are disappointed if they are not allowed to perform necessary little tasks that lie within their power4 ,also1 they enjoy those toys most that are not too complete1 and that1 therefore1 leave some work for their own imaginations4 ,this quality of childhood is characteristic of youth and of adults4 ,an author would not be forgiven if he stopped in the midst of his discourse to explain a reference4 ,eminent writers1 like ,longfellow1 for example1 are even blamed for attaching the morals to their productions2 and terseness is one of the qualities of literature that is most praised4 ,in other words1 older people1 like children1 love activity4 ,although they at times hate to work1 they do not want authors to presuppose that they are lazy or helpless2 and they resent too much assistance4 ,since1 therefore1 the many omissions in the presentation of thought are in accordance with our own desires1 we would do well to undertake the necessary supplementing without complaint4 ,,the ,,ability ,,of ,,children ,,to ,,supplement ,,thought ,there are several facts indicating that children have the ability to undertake this kind of studying4 ,reasons for assuming that children have this kind of ability #a4 ,their vivid imaginations ,one of the chief powers necessary is a vivid imagination by which concrete situations can be clearly pictured1 and children possess such power to an unusual degree4 ,they see so vividly that they become frightened by the products of their own imaginations4 ,their dolls are so truly personified that mishaps to them easily cause tears1 and their mistreatment by strangers is resented as though personal4 ,adults hardly equal them in this imaginative quality4 #b4 ,their ability to imitate and think1 as shown in conversation ,when children are left alone together they do not lack things to do and say4 ,their minds are active enough to entertain one another as well as adults do1 and not seldom better4 ,in fact1 if they remain natural1 they are often more interesting to adults than other adults are4 ,they reach even profound thoughts with peculiar directness4 ,when ,i was attempting1 one day1 to throw a toy boomerang for some children1 one of the little girls1 observing my want of success1 remarked1 ,i saw a picture of a man throwing one of these things4 ,he stood at the door of his house1 and the boomerang went clear around the house4 ,but ,i suppose that people sometimes make pictures of things that they can't do2 don't they8 #c4 ,the success of development instruction ,the method of teaching called development instruction is based on the desire and ability of children to contribute ideas4 ,that instruction could not succeed as it has succeeded1 if children did not readily conceive thoughts of their own4 ,not only do they answer questions that teachers put in such teaching1 but they also propose many of the questions that should be considered4 ,that method flourishes even in the kindergarten4 ,in the kindergarten circle children often interrupt the leader with germane remarks2 and sometimes it is difficult even to suppress such self-expression4 ,one reason the kindergartner tells her stories1 rather than reads them1 is that she may have her eyes on the children and thus take advantage of their desire to make contributions of thought4 ,the same tendency is shown in the home1 when children want to talk over what their parents or other persons read to them4 ,they fail to respond in this way only when they are afraid1 or when they have attended school long enough to have this tendency partly suppressed4 #d4 ,the character of children's literature ,finally1 the fact that children's literature1 like that for adults1 presupposes much supplementing1 is strong reason for presupposing that ability on their part4 ,any moral lessons that belong to fairy tales must be reached by the children's own thought2 the same usually applies to fables also4 ,hawthorne understood the child mind as few persons have4 ,yet it is astonishing how much ability to supplement seems to have been expected by him4 ,it would be surprising if such experts were mistaken in their estimate of children4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,supplement ,,thought #a4 ,importance of using text-books ,teachers can make use of text-books at least enough to give much practice in supplementing text4 ,text-books are so uncommon in some schools that one might conclude that they had gone out of fashion among good teachers4 ,yet there is certainly nothing in modern educational theory that advises the neglect of books4 ,some teachers may have imagined that development instruction1 to which reference has just been made1 leans that way4 ,but development instruction is of importance rather in the first presentation of some topics4 ,after a topic has been thus developed1 it can well be reviewed and further studied in connection with books4 ,many teachers are neglecting to use texts both to their own detriment and to the serious disadvantage of their pupils4 #b4 ,kind of text to be preferred ,teachers who have liberty in choosing their text-books should select those that contain abundant detail4 ,that means a thick book1 to be sure2 and many teachers are afraid of such books on the ground that they mean long lessons4 ,a thick book may be a poor text2 but a thin one is almost bound to be4 ,the reason is that books are usually made thin at the expense of detail2 and detail is necessary in order to establish the relations between facts1 by which the story form can be secured and a subject be made interesting4 ,without plenty of detail the facts have to be run together1 or listed1 merely as so many things that are true2 they then form only a skeleton1 with all the repulsiveness of a skeleton4 ,such a barren text is barren of suggestions to children for supplementing1 because the ideas are too far apart to indicate what ought to fit in between4 ,the understanding ought to be more common that long lessons are by no means synonymous with hard lessons4 ,the hardest lessons to master are those brief1 colorless presentations that fail to stimulate one to see vividly and to think4 ,many a child who carries a geography text about with him learns most of his geography from his geographical readers1 simply because the writer does not squeeze all the juice out of what he has to say in order to save space4 ,a child can often master five pages in such a book more easily than he can one from the ordinary geography1 and he will remember it longer4 #c4 ,character of the questions to be put ,whatever the text chosen1 the recitation should be so conducted that the emphasis will fall on reflection rather than on mere reproduction4 ,to this end one should avoid putting mainly memory questions1 such as1 ,who was it--8 ,when was it--8 ,why was it--8 ,what is said about--8 ,even the usual request1 ,close the books1 at the beginning of the recitation can often be omitted to advantage4 ,why should not the text- book in history and geography lie open in class1 just as that in literature1 if thinking is the principal object8 ,questions that require supplementing can be proposed by both teacher and pupils4 ,now and then some topic can be assigned for review1 with the understanding that the class1 instead of reproducing the facts1 shall occupy the time in talking them over4 ,the teacher can then listen1 or act as critic4 ,it is a harsh commentary on the quality of instruction if a lesson on ,italy1 or on a presidential administration1 or on a story1 suggests no interesting conversation to a class4 ,occasionally1 as one feature of a lesson1 a class might propose new points of view for the review of some subject4 ,for example1 if the ,western states have been studied in geography1 some of the various ways in which they are of interest to man might be indicated by questions1 thus3 ,what about the ,indians in that region8 ,what pleasure might a sportsman expect there8 ,what sections would be of most interest to the sight-seer8 ,how is the ,united ,states ,government reclaiming the arid lands1 and in what sections8 ,what classes of invalids resort to the ,west1 and to what parts8 ,how do the fruits raised there compare with those further east in quality and appearance8 ,how is farming differently conducted there8 ,in what respects1 if any1 is the ,west more promising than the ,east to a young man starting in life8 ,these are such questions about the ,west as large classes of individuals must put to themselves in practical life2 they are1 then1 fair questions for the pupil in school to put to himself and to answer4 ,by thus considering the various phases of human interest in a subject1 children can get many suggestions for supplementing the text4 #d4 ,different types of reproduction ,the habit of reproducing thought in different ways will also throw different lights on the subject-matter1 and thus offer many supplementary ideas4 ,for example1 dramatizing is valuable in this way4 ,the description1 in the first person1 of one's experiences in crossing the desert is an illustration4 ,i once visited a ,sunday-school class that was studying the life of ,john ,paton1 the noted missionary to the ,new ,hebrides ,islands4 ,the text stated that one of the cannibal chiefs had been converted1 and had asked permission to preach on ,sunday to the other savages4 ,this permission was granted2 but the text did not reproduce the sermon4 ,thereupon several members of the class undertook1 as a part of the next ,sunday's lesson1 to deliver such a sermon as they thought the savage might have given4 ,two of the boys brought hatchets on that ,sunday to represent tomahawks1 which they used as aids in making gestures1 and their five-minute speeches showed a careful study of the whole situation4 ,likewise the experiences of ,columbus might be dramatized1 as1 when asking for help from the king1 or when reasoning with the wise men of ,spain1 or when conversing with his sailors on his first voyage to ,america4,footnote3 ,see the story of ,columbus in ,stevenson's ,children's ,classics in ,dramatic ,form1 ,a ,reader for the ,fourth ,grade4 ,additional suggestions will often be obtained by inquiring1 ,what part of this lesson1 if any1 would you like to represent by drawings8 ,or by paintings8 ,or by constructive work8 ,also1 ,how would you do it8 #e4 ,the danger of the three ,r's and spelling to habits of reflection ,much of what has been said about supplementing ideas finds only slight application to beginning reading1 writing1 spelling1 and number work4 ,the reason is that these subjects1 aiming so largely at mastery of symbols1 call for memory and skill rather than reflection4 ,for this very reason these subjects are in many ways dangerous to proper habits of study1 and the teacher needs to be on her guard against their bad influence4 ,they are so prominent during the first few years of school that children may form their idea of study from them alone1 which they may retain and carry over to other branches4 ,to avoid this danger1 other subjects1 such as literature and nature study1 deserve prominent places in the curriculum from the beginning1 and special care should be exercised to treat them in such a way that this easy kind of reflection is strongly encouraged4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,ideas1 ,,as ,a ,,third ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,a4 ,the different values of facts1 and their grouping into points ,extent to which teachers treat facts as equal in value ,in several branches of knowledge in the primary school it is customary for teachers to attach practically the same importance to different facts4 ,this is the case1 for instance1 in spelling1 where a mistake counts the same1 no matter what word be misspelled4 ,it is largely the case in writing4 ,in beginning reading one word is treated as equal in value to any other1 since in any review list every one is required4 ,in beginning arithmetic this equality of values is emphasized by insistence upon the complete mastery of every one of the combinations in the four fundamental operations4 ,throughout arithmetic1 moreover1 failure to solve any problem is the same as the failure to solve any other1 judged in the light of the marking systems in use4 ,the same tendency is less marked1 but still evident1 in many other subjects1 some of them more advanced4 ,in geography1 teachers seldom recognize any inequality of value in the map questions1 even though a question on the general directions of the principal mountain systems in ,north ,america be followed by a request to locate ,iceland4 ,the facts1 too1 are very often strung along in the text in such a manner that it is next to impossible to distinguish values4 ,here is an example from a well-known text3 ,worcester is a great railroad center1 and is noted for the manufacture of engines and machinery4 ,at ,cambridge is located ,harvard ,university1 the oldest and one of the largest in the country4 ,pall ,river1 ,lowell1 and ,new ,bedford are the great centers of cotton manufacture2 ,lawrence1 of both cotton and wool2 ,lynn1 ,brockton1 and ,haverhill make millions of boots and shoes2 and at ,springfield is a ,united ,states arsenal1 where firearms are made4 ,holyoke has large paper mills4 ,gloucester is a great fishing port4 ,salem has large tanneries4 ,how does this differ from a spelling list1 so far as equality of values is concerned8 ,in nature study all have witnessed the typical lesson where some object1 such as a flowering twig1 for example1 is placed in the hands of every pupil and each one is requested to tell something that he sees4 ,anything that is offered is gratefully accepted4 ,while this particular kind of study is fortunately disappearing1 the common tendency to regard all facts alike is still clearly shown in the case of the topic1 cat1 discussed on page #dj4 ,in literature1 failures are very often condemned alike1 whether they pertain to the meanings of words1 of sentences1 of references1 or of whole chapters4 ,until very recently at least1 even in universities1 it has been common to assign lessons in history textbooks by pages1 and to require that they be recited in the order of the text4 ,the teacher1 or professor even1 in such cases has shown admirable ability to place the burden of the work upon the students by assigning to himself the single onerous task of announcing who shall begin and who shall go on4 ,what recognition is there of varying values of facts in such teaching8 ,the effect of such teaching on method of study ,not all of such instruction is avoidable or even undesirable2 but it is so common that it has a very important effect on method of study4 ,so long as facts are treated as approximately equal in worth1 the learner is bound to picture the field of knowledge as a comparatively level plain composed of a vast aggregation of independent bits4 ,in spelling1 writing1 and beginning reading it is so many hundreds or thousands of words2 in beginning arithmetic it is the various combinations in the four fundamental operations2 in geography it is a long list of statements2 in history it is an endless lot of facts as they happen to come on the page2 in literature it is sentence after sentence4 ,one can get possession of this field1 not by taking the strategic positions1--for under the assumption of equality there are none1--but rather by advancing over it slowly1 mastering one bit at a time4 ,thus the words in beginning reading1 writing1 and spelling are learned and reproduced in all orders1 proving them to be independent little entities4 ,in geography and history1 when the facts are not wormed out of the pupil by questions1 he sees the page before him by his mind's eye1--a fact frequently revealed by the movement of his eyes while reciting1--and attempts to recall each paragraph or statement in its order4 ,in literature he masters his difficulties sentence by sentence1 a method most clearly shown in the case of our greatest classic1 the ,bible1 which is almost universally studied and quoted by verses4 ,thus the unit of progress in study is made the single fact2 the whole of any subject becomes the sum of its details2 and a subject has been supposedly mastered when all these bits have been learned4 ,this might well be called the method of study by driblets4 ,it is probably safe to say that a majority of the young people in the ,united ,states1 including college students1 study largely in this way4 ,while this method of study is bad in numerous ways1 there are three of its faults in particular which need to be considered here4 ,respects in which this method of study is wrong #a4 ,facts1 as a rule1 vary greatly in value ,in the first place1 facts vary indefinitely in value4 ,in parts of a few subjects they do have practically the same worth1 which is1 no doubt1 a source of much misconception about proper methods of study4 ,in spelling1 for instance1 which is probably as important a word as when1 and sea as important as flood4 ,in a list of three hundred carefully selected words for spelling for third-year pupils1 any one word might properly be regarded as equal to any other in worth4 ,this may be said also in regard to a list for writing4 ,much the same is true in regard to a possible list of four hundred words for reading in the first year of school4 ,in arithmetic one would scarcely assert that #d,x#g was more or less important than #i,x#h1 or #h_/b1 or #f-c1 or #db4 ,in other words1 the various combinations in the four fundamental operations are1 again1 all of them essential to every person's knowledge1 and therefore stand on the same plane of worth4 ,to some extent1 therefore1 the three ,r's and spelling are exceptions to an important general rule4 ,yet even in spelling and beginning reading not all words by any means have the same value4 ,children in the third year of school who are reading ,whittier's ,barefoot ,boy ought to be able to recognize and spell the word robin2 perhaps1 also1 woodchuck and tortoise2 but eschewing is not a part of their vocabulary and will not soon be1 and probably the less said about that word by the teacher the better4 ,the moment we turn to other subjects1 facts are found to vary almost infinitely in value1 just as metals do4 ,judged by the space they occupy1 they may appear to be equally important2 but they are not to be judged in this way1 any more than men are4 ,according to their nature1 thoughts or statements are large and small1 or broad and narrow1 or far-reaching and insignificant4 ,a general of an army may be of more consequence to the welfare of a nation than a thousand common soldiers2 so one idea like that of evolution may be worth a full ten thousand like the fact that our neighbor's cat kittened yesterday4 #b4 ,they are dependent upon one another for their worth ,in the second place1 facts can by no means be regarded as independent4 ,as before1 to be sure1 the three ,r's and spelling afford some exception to this rule4 ,in spelling1 writing1 and beginning reading it is important that any one of a large number of words be recognized or reproduced at any time1 without reference to any others4 ,all of these1 together with the combinations in the fundamental operations in arithmetic1 are often called for singly1 and they must1 therefore1 be isolated from any possible series into which they might fall1 and mastered separately4 ,aside from these subjects1 facts are generally dependent upon their relations to one another for their value4 ,taken alone1 they are ineffective fragments of knowledge1 just as a common soldier or an officer in an army is ineffective in battle without definite relations to a multitude of other men4 ,if the first sentences on twenty successive pages in a book were brought together1 they would tell no story4 ,they would be mere scattered fractions of thoughts1 lacking that relation to one another that would give them significance and make them a unit4 ,twenty closely related sentences might1 however1 express a very valuable thought4 ,james ,anthony ,froude1 impressed with this truth and at the same time recalling the prevalent tendency to ignore it1 declares3 ,detached facts on miscellaneous subjects1 as they are taught at a modern school1 are like separate letters of endless alphabets4 ,you may load the mechanical memory with them1 till it becomes a marvel of retentiveness4 ,your young prodigy may amaze examiners and delight inspectors4 ,his achievements may be emblazoned in blue books1 and furnish matter for flattering reports on the excellence of our educational system4 ,and all this while you have been feeding him with chips of granite4 ,but arrange your letters into words1 and each word becomes a thought1 a symbol waking in the mind an image of a real thing4 ,group your words into sentences1 and thought is married to thought1 and the chips of granite become soft bread1 wholesome1 nutritious1 and invigorating4 ,footnote3 ,james ,anthony ,froude1 ,handwork before ,headwork4 ,a very simple illustration is found in the study of the dates for the entrance of our states into the ,union4 ,taken one at a time1 the list is dead4 ,but interest is awakened the moment one discovers that for a long period each ,northern state was matched by one in the ,south1 so that they entered in pairs4 #c4 ,the sum of the details does not equal the whole4 ,finally1 the whole of a subject is not merely the sum of its little facts4 ,you may study each day's history lesson faithfully1 and may retain everything in memory till the book is finished1 and still not know the main things in the book4 ,you may understand and memorize each verse of a chapter in the ,bible until you can almost reproduce the chapter in your sleep1 and still fail to know what the chapter is about4 ,probably some readers of this text who have repeated the ,lord's ,prayer from infancy1 would still need to do some studying before they could tell the two or three leading thoughts in that prayer4 ,an especially good illustration of this fact in my own experience as a teacher has been furnished in connection with the following paragraph1 taken from ,dr4 ,john ,dewey's ,ethical ,principles underlying ,education4 ,information is genuine or educative only in so far as it effects definite images and conceptions of material placed in social life4 ,discipline is genuine and educative only as it represents a reaction of the information into the individual's own powers1 so that he can bring them under control for social ends4 ,culture1 if it is to be genuine and educative1 and not an external polish or factitious varnish1 represents the vital union of information and discipline4 ,it designates the socialization of the individual in his whole outlook upon life and mode of dealing with it4 ,i have had a large number of graduate students who found it very difficult to state the point of this paragraph1 although every sentence is reasonably clear and they are in close sequence4 ,thus the larger thoughts1 instead of being the sum of the details1 are an outgrowth from them1 an interpretation of them2 they are separate and new ideas conceived through insight into the relations that the individual statements bear to one another4 ,the proper unit of progress in study ,from the foregoing we see that some facts are very large1 while others are of little importance1 and that any one statement1 taken separately1 lacks significance4 ,the field of thought1 therefore1 instead of being pictured as a plain1 is to be conceived as a very irregular surface1 with elevations of various heights scattered over it4 ,and just as hills and mountains rest upon and are approached by the lower land about them1 so the larger thoughts are supported and approached by the details that relate to them4 ,a general of an army1 desiring to get possession of a disputed region1 does not plan to take and hold the lower land without the higher points1 nor the higher points without the lower land4 ,on the contrary1 each vantage point with its approaches constitutes1 in his mind1 one division of the field1 one strategic section1 which is to be seized and held4 ,and these divisions or units all taken together constitute the region4 ,so any portion of knowledge that is to be acquired should be divided into suitable units of attack2 one large thought together with its supporting details should constitute one section1 another large thought together with its associated details a second1 etc42 all of these together composing the whole field4 ,in other words1 the student1 instead of making progress in knowledge fact by fact1 should advance by groups of facts4 ,his smallest unit of progress should be a considerable number of ideas so related to one another that they make a whole2 those that are alike in their support of some valuable thought making up a bundle1 and the farther-reaching1 controlling idea itself constituting the band that ties these bits together and preserves their unity4 ,such a unit or1 point1 as it is most often called1 is the basal element in thinking1 just as the family is the basal element in society4 ,the size of such units of advance4 ,such units of advance may vary indefinitely in size2 but the danger is that they will be too small4 ,a minister who reaches his thirteenthly is not likely to be a means of converting many sinners4 ,a debater who makes fifteen points will hardly find his judges enthusiastic in his favor1 no matter how weak his opponents may be4 ,a chapter that contains twenty or thirty paragraphs should not be remembered as having an equal number of points4 ,what is wanted is that the student shall feel the force of the ideas presented1 and a great lot of little points strung together cannot produce a forceful impression4 ,any thought that is worth much must be supported by numerous facts and will require considerable time or space for presentation4 ,a minister can hardly establish a half dozen valuable ideas in one sermon2 he does well if he presents two or three with force2 and he is most likely to make a lasting impression if he confines himself to one4 ,drummond's ,the ,greatest ,thing in the ,world is an example of the possibilities in this direction4 ,accordingly the student1 in reading a chapter or listening to a lecture1 should find the relationships among the smaller portions of the thought that will unify the subject-matter under a very few heads4 ,if several pages or a whole lecture can be reduced to a single point1 it should be done4 ,he should always remember that to the extent that the supporting details are numerous they will have a cumulative effect1 thereby rendering the central thought strong enough to have a permanent influence4 ,the meaning of organization of knowledge1 and its value4 ,such grouping of ideas as has thus far been considered1 although of the greatest importance1 is only the beginning of the organization of knowledge4 ,for thus far only the minimum unit of advance has been under discussion4 ,asone proceeds in the study of a subject these smaller units collect in large numbers1 and they must themselves be subordinated to still broader central thoughts1 according to their nature4 ,this grouping of details1 according to their relationships1 into points1 and of such points under still higher heads1 and so on until a whole subject and even the whole field of knowledge is carefully ordered according to the relationships of its parts1 is what is meant by organization of knowledge4 ,sometimes an entire book is thus organized under a single idea1 ,fiske's ,critical ,period of ,american ,history being an excellent example4 ,in this volume the conditions at the close of the ,revolutionary ,war are vividly described4 ,it is shown that great debts remained unpaid1 that different systems of money caused confusion1 and that civil war was seriously threatened in various quarters4 ,these and other dangers convinced sober men that a firm central government was indispensable4 ,but then1 it was no easy matter to bring such a government into existence2 and it is shown how numerous heroic attempts in this direction barely escaped failure before the constitution was finally adopted4 ,on the whole1 it is safe to say that each paragraph or small number of paragraphs1 while constituting a unit1 is at the same time a necessary part of the chapter to which it belongs2 likewise1 each chapter1 while constituting a unit1 is an integral part of the book as a whole2 and all these parts are so interrelated and complete that the whole book constitutes a unit4 ,observe the advantage of such organization4 ,the period of our history immediately following the ,revolution used to be one of the least interesting of topics4 ,under the title ,the ,period following the ,treaty of ,paris1 or ,the ,period from the ,close of the ,revolutionary ,war to the ,adoption of the ,constitution1 the textbooks attempted nothing more than an enumeration or history of the chief difficulties and struggles of our youthful nation4 ,in some cases1 if ,i remember correctly1 this was designated ,the ,period of ,confusion1 and its description left the reader in a thoroughly confused state of mind4 ,fiske's book was a revelation4 ,what had seemed very complex and confused became here extremely simple2 what had been especially dull became here perhaps the most exciting topic in all our history4 ,and the secret of the advance is found to a large extent in the organization4 ,thus organization is a means of effectiveness in the presentation of knowledge1 as in the use of a library or the conduct of a business4 ,the basis for the organization of knowledge in general4 ,all the facts in ,mr4 ,fiske's book are organized about the stirring question expressed in his title1 i4 e41 how our ship of state barely escaped being wrecked4 ,because this idea is of intense interest to us1 and the entire book bears upon it continually1 the story is read with bated breath4 ,drummond's ,greatest ,thing in the ,world is another excellent example on a smaller scale of ideas centered about a vital human question4 ,thus specific problems of various degrees of breadth1 that are intimately related to man1 can well be taken as the basis for the organization of knowledge in general4 ,classical literature is organized on this basis1 which is called the pedagogical or psychological basis1 and it seems desirable that other fields should also be4 ,yet there are other kinds of organization in which the relation to man is not so plainly1 or not at all1 taken as the controlling idea4 ,for example1 biology is often organized on the basis of the growing complexity of the organism1 the student beginning with the simple1 microscopic cell1 and advancing to the more and more complex forms4 ,formerly1 after the ,linnaean system1 plants were classified according to their similarity of structure4 ,now both plants and animals are often classified on the basis of their manner of adaptation to their environment4 ,thus within the field of science there is what is called the scientific basis of organization4 ,there is also the logical basis of organization of thought1 according to which some most fundamental idea is taken as the beginning of a system1 or the premise1 and other ideas are evolved from this first principle4 ,rousseau attempted to develop his educational doctrine in this way1 starting with the assertion that everything was good as it came from the ,creator1 but that everything degenerated in the hands of man4 ,john ,calvin did the same in his system of theology2 and he reasoned so succinctly from his few premises that any one granting these was almost compelled to accept his entire doctrine4 ,attention is called to these facts here in order to suggest that1 while the scientific and the logical bases of organization are in common use1 neither of them is adequate as the main basis of organization for a young student who is studying a subject for the first time4 ,the reason is that each of them secures a careful ordering of facts only with reference to the relations that those facts bear to one another1 and not with reference to the relation that they bear to man2 and in thus ignoring man they show grave faults4 ,they are indifferent to interest on the part of the learner2 they offer no standard for judging the relative worths of facts to man2 and instead of exerting an influence in the direction of applying knowledge1 they exert some influence in the opposite direction by their indifference to man's view-point4 ,it must be admitted that they are of great assistance in securing thoroughness of comprehension by their revelation of the relations existing among facts1 and also that they classify facts in a convenient way for finding them later2 but they are of greatest use to the advanced student1 who is already supplied with motive and with standards for judging worth1 and who has proper habits of study already formed2 they can well follow but they should not supplant the psychological basis4 ,the student's double task in the organization of ideas4 ,an author's organization of subject-matter is frequently poor4 ,but whether it be poor or good1 some hard work on the part of the student is necessary before the proper grouping of ideas can take place in his own mind4 ,the danger is that there will be practically no arrangement of his thoughts1 as is well illustrated in the following letter from an eight-year-old boy4 ,,dear ,,uncle ,,charlie3 ,will you please buy some of my #bd package of my ,bluine1 if you will please buy one package it will help me a lot4 ,one ,saturday we played ball against the east side and beat twelve to #a4 ,i will get a baseball suit if ,i can sell #bd packages of ,bluine4 ,we had quite a blizzard here to-day4 ,for one package it costs ten cents4 ,when we played ball against the east side we only had #f boys and they had twelve4 ,we have a base ball team1 and ,i am ,captain1 so you see ,i need a suit4 ,gretchen and ,mother are playing backgammon with one dice4 ,i catch sometimes when our real catcher is not there4 ,when he is there ,i play first ,base4 ,your loving nephew1 ,,james4 ,there is one prominent idea in this letter1 touching the sale of ,bluine1 with reasons2 and parts of two others1 concerning the weather and the occupation of mother and sister4 ,the first is the most fully treated2 but1 as might be expected from an eight-year-old child1 no one idea is supported by sufficient detail to round it out and make it strong4 ,in avoiding such defects two things are necessary3 ,first1 the student must decide what points he desires to make4 ,they should be so definitely conceived that they can be easily distinguished from one another and can even be counted4 ,then1 in the second place1 all the details that bear upon a central idea should be collected and presented together in sequence under the point concerned4 ,by this massing of all supporting statements under their proper heads1 overlapping or duplicating is avoided1 and clearness is gained4 ,also1 force is secured by the cumulative effect of intimately related facts1 just as it is secured by the concerted attack by the divisions of an army4 ,even the better students often stop with finding the main thoughts alone4 ,and the temptation to do no more is strong1 since teachers seldom require a forceful presentation of ideas in recitation2 they are thankful to get a halting statement of the principal facts4 ,but the student should remember that he is studying for his own good1 not merely to keep teachers contented2 and he should not deceive himself by his own fluency of speech4 ,he should form the habit of often asking himself1 ,what is my point8 also1 ,what facts have ,i offered for its support1 and have ,i massed them all as ,i should8 ,he must thus form the habit of arranging his ideas into points if he wishes to be pointed4 ,precautions against inaccuracy in the grouping of facts into points4 ,the dangers of inaccuracy in this kind of study are numerous4 ,first the individual statements must be carefully interpreted4 ,a certain very intelligent ten-year-old girl studying arithmetic read the problem1 ,what is the interest on #ejj at six per cent for one year8 ,then1 probably under the influence of some preceding problem1 she found four per cent of the principal1 and added the amount to the principal for her answer1 thus showing two mistakes in reading4 ,perhaps half of the mistakes that children make in the solution of problems is due to such careless reading4 ,a certain fifth-year class in history read a very short paragraph about the three ships that were secured for ,columbus's first voyage1 the paragraph ending with the statement1 ,on board the three ships were exactly ninety men4 ,when they were asked later how many men accompanied ,columbus the common answer was1 ,two hundred and seventy1 since there were ninety men on each ship4 ,these mistakes are typical of those that are common1 even among adults1 as in the reading of examination questions1 for instance4 ,i have more than once asked graduate students in a university to state the one principal thought obtained from the extended study of an article on education1 and have received a paper with a threefold answer1 7a71 7b71 7c74 ,such responses are due to extreme carelessness in reading the questions asked1 as well as to a desire to be obliging and allow an instructor some freedom of choice4 ,thus the meaning of the individual statements that constitute the material out of which larger truths are derived1 must be carefully watched if the final interpretation of an author's thought is to be accurate4 ,the tendency toward error is greater still when it comes to finding the central thought for a portion of text4 ,this was once amusingly illustrated by a class composed only of the principals and high-school teachers in a county institute1 some seventy-five persons in all4 ,the text under discussion was the first chapter of ,professor ,james's well- known book1 ,talks to ,teachers4 ,the title of the chapter is ,psychology and the ,teaching ,art2 and ,professor ,james1 fearing that teachers might be expecting too much from his field1 sets to work to discourage the idea that psychology can be a panacea for all of a teacher's ills4 ,the larger portion of the twelve pages is devoted to this object1 although the explicit statement is made1 on the third page1 that psychology ought certainly to give the teacher radical help4 ,but so little space is given to this declaration that1 in spite of its definiteness and positive character1 the class as a whole reached the conclusion that he was advising teachers not to study psychology at all4 ,in other words1 they had failed to balance up one part of the chapter against the other2 and their failure left them in the ridiculous position of assuming that an author of a book for teachers was dissuading teachers from reading his book4 ,a third and perhaps the most common source of error is found in the particular wording given to the central thought4 ,in order to be perfectly definite and accurate any thought should be expressed in the form of a full statement4 ,it ordinarily takes at least a whole sentence to express a whole thought4 ,but it is very common for students even1 who have formed the habit of thinking by points1 to allow brief headings1 consisting of single words or short phrases1 to represent entire thoughts4 ,although such headings1 on account of their brevity1 may be useful1 they are merely names for the thought1 not statements of the thought itself2 and it means the loosest kind of thinking to stop with them4 ,a mere title1 as a lecture ,about ,russia1 for instance1 designates only the outside limits to which a person confines himself--provided he sticks to his theme4 ,it often tells no more about the substance of the thought within those limits than a man's name tells about his character4 ,it is usually easy to tell what a page is about2 but it usually requires keen thinking to word its principal idea sharply in a full sentence4 ,many students are inaccurate in the interpretation of authors and in their own thinking1 not so much because they lack mental ability as because they lack the energy to continue their thinking to this point of wording the central idea accurately in a full sentence4 ,,the ,,ability ,,of ,,children ,,to ,,group ,,facts ,,into ,,points4 ,the grouping of facts into points requires ability to perceive that some statements are more valuable than others1 without reference to the space that they happen to occupy on the printed page2 it presupposes1 also1 the power to rearrange a stranger's ideas4 ,it is1 therefore1 an aggressive kind of work1 in which even adults often fail to distinguish themselves4 ,can children be expected to assume such responsibility8 ,proofs of such ability4 #a4 ,as shown by children ten years old and younger4 ,proof that any ten-year-old child has already assumed it in a simple way for some years is contained in the following facts3-- #a4 ,long before the school age is reached a child has had much practice in picking out the logical subjects of sentences1 inasmuch as he has learned to comprehend statements made to him4 ,distinguishing the subject of a sentence is the same kind of work as distinguishing the subject of a paragraph or chapter1 only it is simpler4 #b4 ,any six-year-old child has1 likewise1 had much practice in detecting the subject of short conversations1 especially of those of interest to him4 ,if he happens to overhear a conversation between his parent and teacher touching a possible punishment for himself1 he can be trusted to sum it up and get the gist of it all1 even though some of the words do not reach him4 ,that is exactly the kind of thinking required in getting the point of a lecture4 #c4 ,in relating fairy tales and other stories1 during the first years at school1 children easily fall into the habit of relating a part1 or a point1 at a time4 ,and1 if the memory or the courage fails1 the teacher gives help by asking1 ,what will you tell about first8 ,and then8 ,and then8 thus setting them right1 and keeping them so1 by having them divide the story into its principal sections4 #d4 ,in composition1 in the lower and middle grades1 the paragraphing of thought1 first as presented on the printed page1 then as called for in oral recitation and in conversation1 and finally in the child's written form1 is a prominent subject of instruction4 ,no one maintains that such work is unnatural1 or too difficult1 for such young children4 #e4 ,development instruction1 which has already been mentioned as peculiarly successful with young children1 would be impossible if children were unable to appreciate the character of a principal thought1 as the topic or point for discussion1 and of other thoughts as subordinate to it4 #b4 ,as shown in the use of different texts and of reference books4 ,the use of several texts in one subject1 as history1 by one child1 and the use of reference books1--both of which are common above the fifth year of school1--presuppose the ability to study by topics1 and to bring together from various sources the facts that support a principal truth4 #c4 ,as shown by the rapid improvement they can make in such study4 ,finally1 the progress that children can make1 when direct instruction in this matter is given to them1 is good proof of their ability in this direction4 ,for example1 in a geography class composed of ten- year-old children1 ,i once assigned for a lesson the following section from the text-book3-- ,,political ,,divisions4--,you will remember that ,spain was the nation that helped ,columbus make his discovery of ,america4 ,the ,spaniards afterward settled in the southern part of the continent1 and introduced the ,spanish language there4 ,that is still the chief language spoken in ,mexico1 in the southern part of ,north ,america4 ,mexico became independent of ,spain many years ago4 ,other nations also sent explorers and made settlements4 ,among these were the ,english1 who settled chiefly along the ,atlantic coast1 and finally came to own the greater part of the continent north of ,mexico4 ,in time the ,english1 who lived in the central portion of eastern ,north ,america1 waged war against ,england1 and chose ,george ,washington as their leader4 ,on the #dth of ,july1 #aggf1 they declared their independence of ,england1 and finally won it completely4 ,this part became known as the ,united ,states2 but the region to the north1 which ,england was able to keep1 and which she still possesses1 is called ,canada4 ,find each of these countries on the map 7,fig4 #abc74 ,point toward ,canada and ,mexico4 ,besides these three large nations1 several smaller ones occupy ,central ,america1 which lies south of ,mexico4 ,after the children had had time to study it somewhat carefully1 ,i requested them to tell briefly what the section was about4 ,the first three replies were as follows1 in the following order1 and these were not improved on later1 without suggestion3 ,it tells about discovery4 ,it tells about the language in ,mexico4 ,it tells about what are nations4 ,this was their first attempt at such work1 and it met with meager success4 ,the heading in the text seemed to give them no aid whatever1 which was sufficient proof of its unfitness for children4 ,yet within one month1 with some attention given to this matter every day1 ,i found half of the class of twenty to be reasonably safe in picking out the central thought in a page of their text4 ,from all these facts it seems that children are reasonably capable of receiving instruction in regard to the grouping of facts into points4 ,it is evident1 also1 that they need such instruction badly1 if they are to study properly the lessons that are assigned to them4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,group ,,related ,,facts ,,into ,,points #a4 ,the teacher's example4 ,in the first place1 the example of the teacher can be of great influence4 ,any good teacher should do more than ask questions and explain difficult topics4 ,she should now and then talk to her children4 ,particularly general exercises she should give expression to other ideas than those immediately involved in instruction4 ,if at such times her ideas are carefully grouped about one or more central thoughts1 her pupils are likely to feel the roundness and the consequent clearness and force of her points1 and to be ambitious to imitate her style4 ,many an adult1 no doubt1 can recall both the pleasure he experienced in early youth when listening to some speaker who possessed this merit1 and early attempts that he made to imitate such a style4 #b4 ,use of written outlines in development instruction4 ,in development instruction1 in the lower and middle grades in particular1 brief headings representing the main facts reached might be placed on the blackboard1 or written down by each pupil as the facts are established4 ,such writing is of great assistance in keeping the outline in mind4 ,frequently1 even in the lower grades1 review outlines might be required without such visual help4 #c4 ,in connection with the use of text4 7a7 ,finding of the principal thought in paragraphs4 ,a terse statement of the principal thought in each paragraph of some story or other well-organized text is a valuable exercise in determining the relation that the different sentences in a paragraph bear to one another1 and the gist of the whole4 7b7 ,finding where a point begins and ends4 ,pupils might point to the place on the page where the treatment of a certain point begins2 also where it ends4 ,thus they would receive exercise in distinguishing not only the principal thought1 but also the turns in the thought1 and therefore the most suitable stopping places for reflection4 7c7 ,the making of marks1 to indicate relative values4 ,the most valuable statements might well be marked in the text1 some system of marks--as1 for instance1 one1 two1 or three short vertical lines in the margin--being agreed upon to indicate different degrees of worth4 ,it is very common for adults1 particularly very careful students1 thus to mark books that they read4 ,unless one does so1 it is difficult to find again1 or review quickly1 the main ideas4 ,yet one of the especially important things to teach young people in the handling of a book is some way of reviewing quickly the most valuable parts4 ,many persons who would gladly review the few most interesting portions of a book have no way of doing so except by reading the volume through again4 ,that takes so much time that they omit the review altogether4 ,in case the books belong to the school or library1 all such marks may be objectionable4 ,certainly the aimless marking of any book is to be condemned4 ,but thoughtful marking1 with the view of showing relative values1 is likely to increase the amount of reflection on the part of the one who makes the marks4 ,it is likely1 also1 to increase the amount of reflection on the part of the later reader1 for he1 seeing the marks1 is inclined to weigh the thought long enough to decide whether he agrees or disagrees with the previous reader4 ,if1 however1 the objections to such markings are insuperable1 children can at least be encouraged to own some of the books that they use4 ,they ought to be developing a pride in a library of their own1 anyway4 ,if a book is worth reading1 it is worth buying1 says ,ruskin4 ,no book is worth anything which is not worth much2 nor is it serviceable until it has been read and reread1 and loved and loved again1 and marked1 so that you can refer to the passages you want in it1 as a soldier can seize the weapon he needs in an armory1 or a housewife bring the spice she needs from her store4 ,footnote3 ,ruskin's ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,it might be added1 also1 that all the writing thus suggested could be kept on note paper or in note books1 if forbidden to appear in printed books4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that one important object in using books in school is to teach their proper use outside of school4 ,to this end1 books should be used in school in substantially the same way in which they are expected to be used outside4 ,there is often a lack of correspondence between these two methods in various ways4 ,wherever the markings indicating relative values happen to be placed1 they can well be compared in class and the disagreements discussed4 ,this would throw a class into the heart of the subject-matter of a text on their own initiative4 ,if it resulted in spending a whole recitation in a discussion of relative values1 as it frequently would1 it should be remembered that that is the most valuable kind of study4 7d7 ,the selection of marginal headings4 ,if the books used contain no marginal headings1 the pupils might propose some4 ,and if marginal headings are found in some1 proposals for their improvement would be in place1 since such headings are rarely good4 ,for example1 the heading ,political ,divisions1 quoted above1 would be much more definite and significant if changed to ,the ,countries in ,north ,america1 and children could soon learn to make such improvements4 ,headings of chapters1 likewise1 often need rewording in a simpler1 more definite and restrictive way4 7e7 ,the collecting of supports for leading thoughts4 ,choosing some one of the principal thoughts1 the children should have practice in finding the data that support it1 and in presenting such data in good sequence and in an otherwise forceful manner4 7f7 ,stating the leading thoughts in close sequence4 ,as one way of summarizing review lessons the children might enumerate the leading thoughts in close sequence1 giving a careful wording for each in a full statement4 #d4 ,as a preparation for the taking of notes4 ,pupils in the higher grades having to consult reference books frequently1 and to take notes also from discussions and lectures1 should receive careful instruction in note-taking4 ,as preparation for such work1 the teacher might read to the class1 while the latter listen with the object of telling how many and what are the main points4 ,sometimes they might call halt as they realize that a turn is being made and another point is beginning4 ,they should be reminded that the relationships of ideas1 which are indicated by punctuation and paragraphing on the printed page1 are revealed by a reader's or speaker's manner1 as when he makes short pauses between sentences1 or emphasizes an idea by voice or gesture1 or allows his voice to fall at the end of some minor thought1 or turns around1 stops to get a drink1 walks across the floor1 or waits for applause at the close of one of his principal flights4 ,teacher and pupils might all take notes together1 sometimes on principal points1 sometimes only on the supporting data for one such point4 ,then the results might be compared1 and the small amount of writing necessary might be discussed4 ,b4 ,the neglect of relatively unimportant facts or statements ,we have seen that the organization of ideas requires the recognition of some thoughts as central1 and the grouping of various details about them4 ,while it places peculiar emphasis on these controlling facts1 it also recognizes details as an essential part of knowledge4 ,neglect as well as emphasis involved in relative values4 ,a question now arises about the relative values among these details4 ,while they are an essential part of knowledge1 do they themselves vary indefinitely in worth8 ,and while many deserve much attention1 are there many others that may be slighted and even ignored8 ,the first part of this chapter has really dealt with the emphasis that is necessary for some ideas4 ,but emphasis at one point suggests neglect at another point1 for the two terms are correlative4 ,some persons would even assert that neglect is as important an element in proper study as emphasis1 and that the two terms should be in equally good repute4 ,this part of the chapter deals with the neglect that is due in proper study4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a more difficult topic to treat than the preceding4 ,certainly many teachers are afraid to advise young people to neglect parts of their lessons1 lest such suggestion might seem a direct recommendation to be careless4 ,why neglect is scarcely allowable in some subjects4 ,we have seen that1 to a certain extent1 the facts in the three ,r's and spelling have practically the same worth4 ,all of the combinations of simple numbers must be mastered2 likewise all the words in a well- selected list in spelling1 etc4 ,since differences in value are wanting here1 there is no occasion for slighting any part4 ,any neglect in such cases signifies an oversight or a mistake4 ,why neglect is necessary in most subjects4 ,but1 as before1 these subjects to some extent form an exception to the general rule4 ,in most studies neglect of some parts is positively necessary4 ,it has been already shown that no exact number of facts needs to be brought together in order to make up any particular topic or study4 ,besides those directly expressed in print1 there are others immediately suggested2 and the number of possible ideas bearing on a given matter is legion4 ,neglect1 therefore1 becomes not only necessary1 but even prominent1 as a factor in study4 ,one might ask1 ,are not all the statements in a valuable book that one happens to be reading worthy of careful consideration8 ,not necessarily1 by any means4 ,the production of thought parallels the production of grain4 ,an acre of ground1 that yields thirty bushels or eighteen hundred pounds of wheat1 may easily grow two whole tons of straw and chaff4 ,these latter are absolutely necessary to the formation of the wheat kernel2 yet the consumer usually has little use for them2 he gets past them to the grain with the least possible delay1 often throwing these other materials away4 ,likewise1 many things that are necessary in the production of thought are of little use to the consumer4 ,for example1 there are often introductory remarks that have lost their original significance2 there are asides and pleasantries2 there are careful transitions from one thought to another1 to avoid abruptness2 there are usually more or less irrelevant remarks due to the fact that even authors' minds wander now and then2 and there are often some things that seemed important to the author which in no possible way can be of value to the reader4 ,for these reasons1 some things are to be omitted1 if possible1 without being read1 because they are worthless4 ,many details are unworthy of a second thought4 ,many other statements should be cast aside after having been carefully enough examined to make sure that they will not be further needed4 ,not only should some statements and paragraphs be slighted1 but whole chapters as well4 ,similar practice is familiar to all in connection with conversations and discussions2 and books are of the same nature as these1 having the same faults1 though perhaps to a less degree4 ,what the student wants to carry away is valuable thought1 with the details that vitally concern it2 and the space occupied by such thought and its supporting details1 as in the case of the wheat1 is small as compared with the space occupied by the chaff that accompanies them4 ,some books are to be tasted1 says ,bacon1 others to be swallowed1 and some few to be chewed and digested2 that is1 some books are to be read only in part2 others to be read1 but not curiously attentively2 and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention4 ,footnote3 ,bacon's ,essays1 ,of ,studies4 ,if he had added that very many books should not be read at all1 he would have covered the field4 ,as a rule1 therefore1 it is a serious error for a student to distribute his time and energy somewhat equally over a lesson or a chapter or a book4 ,there are times when he should advance rapidly and even skip1 as well as other times when he should ponder carefully and review much4 ,how safety and skill in neglect may be developed4 #a4 ,by proceeding from principal thoughts to details4 ,how can one become safe and skillful in this phase of study8 ,the student must1 of course1 read or listen to statements largely in the order of the author's presentation2 but two opposite courses of procedure are possible1 and much depends upon the choice that is made between them4 ,on the one hand1 one can proceed sentence by sentence1 examining each statement carefully1 looking up new words and references1 supplementing1 tracing the bearings on one's own life1 and doing whatever else is necessary to assimilate each thought4 ,the single sentences can be put together so as to reveal the thoughts of paragraphs2 and the central ideas of paragraphs and chapters can likewise be brought together1 so as to reveal the main thoughts of the work as a whole4 ,thus the general movement may be from the details to the larger features1 and the controlling ideas may be the last to be reached4 ,the ,bible is very commonly studied in this manner1 the verses of a chapter and the chapters of a book being taken one by one in the order given and thoroughly mastered1 and the outline of the whole being the last thing considered4 ,geography and history are also frequently studied in the same way4 ,on the other hand1 while the reader is still obliged to follow the author's order1 he may at the start be mainly on the outlook for the general trend of the thought1 for the principal issues that are raised1 with the principal answers that are offered2 and1 if the work is at all difficult1 he may for the time pass over many obscure little matters1 such as new words1 strange references1 and meaningless statements1 in the sole quest for these larger elements4 ,then1 having determined these tentatively1 he can set to work to examine the details on which they depend1 making the investigation as thorough as he wishes4 ,thus the general movement may be from the principal to the minor thoughts1 and the details may be carefully considered last of all4 ,in accordance with this plan we hear it recommended that the book of ,job be read at a sitting1 or1 in case one's spirit of devotion lacks that degree of endurance1 at two or three sittings4 ,likewise1 ,gray's ,elegy might be read through without pause1 even several times1 before any part is studied in detail2 so1 also1 the drama of ,william ,tell2 one act1 and perhaps the whole of the drama1 of ,julius ,caesar2 any one of ,browning's shorter poems2 and ordinary lessons or chapters in history and geography4 ,while these two courses may finally bring about the same result1 the latter is much the more economical plan1 for the following reason3 ,the individual statements vary greatly in value1 as we have seen1 some requiring only slight attention1 while others must be closely scrutinized4 ,what determines their value is their relation to the leading ideas4 ,the latter are the sole standards of worth1 the sole guides1 in discriminating among them4 ,if1 then1 the student has not found out what the leading ideas are1 what basis of selection has he8 ,how1 then1 is he to know what are the important details and what are the unimportant8 ,what can he do1 then1 more than merely to distribute his energies somewhat equally and blindly over the various statements offered1 until the principal thoughts come to light8 ,only after that will he be in a position to measure relative values and thus to deal with the details intelligently4 ,the first plan1 therefore1 involves a great waste of time4 ,for the same reason that it is economical to go sight-seeing with a guide1 or at least to examine a guidebook before setting out1 it is economical to determine the gist of the thought1 the spirit and substance of the whole1 before giving careful attention to the minor parts4 #b4 ,by keeping the standard of values ever in mind4 ,the student must not only find the central idea as early as possible1 but he must hold it with a firm grip4 ,both of these things require much tenacity of purpose4 ,in following the order of an author's presentation1 considerable detail may have to be traversed before the main thought begins to dawn in the student's mind1 and temptations to forget about the main issue and to become absorbed in these details are ever present4 ,it is on this account that teachers attending teachers' gatherings frequently fail to reach those topics for discussion that have been advertised2 they even fail when printed reports are the avowed subject for conference4 ,after having arrived at their destination with much sacrifice1 they seem often to forget exactly what they came for1 or to be diverted from it with surprising ease4 ,however1 they are not inferior to other adults in this respect4 ,again1 after having settled upon the main idea tentatively1 one must hold it with determination and use it4 ,children often fail to hold a question in mind long enough to give a relevant answer4 ,i once asked a fifth-year class in history1 ,who discovered ,america8 when almost immediately came the response1 ,vespucci sailed along the coast of ,south ,america and named the whole country6 ,or they hold it in mind a moment1 and then confuse it with other things1 or let it go entirely4 ,i asked the class1 ,what is the color of the ,indians8 and received an answer telling about their color and their clothing4 ,at another time ,i inquired1 ,how long has it been since ,america was discovered8 ,one boy replied1 ,two hundred and fifty years1 remembering1 ,i suppose1 that that number had recently been used in class4 ,but the example in subtraction was solved on the blackboard before the class1 and the correct answer1 #dac1 was obtained4 ,once more ,i said1 ,four hundred and thirteen years since what8 ,all were silent for a moment1 having quite forgotten the original question4 ,then came the reply1 ,since--since--,columbus sailed the deep4 ,such carelessness among children sometimes arouses the ire of teachers2 but adults are little better4 ,when a body of them meets for the discussion of a certain question1 the probability is that1 if the first speaker speaks directly to the point1 the second will digress somewhat1 the third will touch the subject only slightly1 and the fourth will talk about a different matter4 ,many a discussion that has started off well leads to much excitement without any one's knowing definitely what the subject of dispute is4 ,it is rarely the case that every page of a paper that is read before teachers bears plainly upon the subject announced4 ,only in parliamentary discussions1 where there is always a definite question before the house1 is it customary for participants to remember the topic and stick to it4 ,this happens then only because it is understood that any one may be called to order at any time1 and for the sake of self-protection each person makes a special effort not to forget4 ,this exceptional caution must become habitual with the student if he is to study effectively4 ,he must look for the principal thought until he finds it2 and1 having found it1 he must nurse it by recalling it every few minutes1 while using it as a basis for determination of values4 ,rapid reading and its method among scholars4 ,that various rates of reading are desirable1 even to the point of skipping over much matter1 is indicated by the way in which some eminent men have studied4 ,for instance1 ,joseph ,cook in his ,hints for ,home ,reading remarks1 ,it is said that ,carlyle reads on an average a dozen books a day4 ,of course he examines them chiefly with his fingers1 and after long practice is able to find at once the jugular vein and carotid artery of any author4 ,likewise1 ,john ,quincy ,adams was said to have 'a carnivorous instinct for the jugular vein' of an argument4 ,footnote3 ,page #hj4 ,rapid reading1 says ,koopman1 ,footnote3 ,koopman1 ,the ,mastery of ,books1 p4 #dg4 is the444 difficult art of skipping needless words and sentences4 ,to recognize them as needless without reading them1 is a feat that would be thought impossible1 if scholars everywhere did not daily perform it4 ,with the turning of a few leaves to pluck out the heart of a book's mystery--this is the high art of reading1 the crowning proof that the reader has attained the mastery of books4 ,the fact that the first and last parts of both paragraphs and chapters very often reveal their leading thought1 is of course a great aid in such rapid reading4 ,is the spirit of induction here opposed8 ,it is pertinent to ask whether this method of study does not oppose the spirit of induction4 ,men like ,carlyle seem to ignore that spirit when they turn quickly to the central ideas or a book and1 after reading these1 cast the work aside4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the minds of such men are so well stocked with information that most1 and sometimes all1 of the author's details may be unnecessary to them2 they are already prepared for the generalization4 ,the ordinary student1 proceeding more slowly1 can also be on the watch at the start for the main issues1 without offending against induction4 ,in so doing he is not necessarily attempting to master the abstractions first2 he may be merely trying to find out what the main questions are1 in order to supply himself with a guide4 ,many an author states his principal problem near the beginning of his treatment1 and then it is easy for the reader or listener to view all the details in its light4 ,but when this is not the case1 the student must go in quest of it in order to get the setting for all the statements1 rather than in order to assimilate it4 ,he must see the whole in some perspective before he can study the parts intelligently4 ,the worth of specific purposes as discussed in pp4 #ca-fj is clearly seen in this connection4 ,relation of such neglect to thoroughness4 #a4 ,a common conception of thoroughness and its influence on practice4 ,it is of vital importance further to inquire what relation such neglect bears to thoroughness in study4 ,the answer depends upon the meaning attached to the word thorough4 ,we often hear it said that ,trifles make perfection1 and perfection is no trifle2 also that thoroughness has to do with details4 ,again1 as a warning against carelessness in little matters1 we are told that-- ,for the want of a nail the shoe was lost4 ,for the want of a shoe the horse was lost4 ,for the want of the horse the rider was lost4 ,for the want of the rider the battle was lost4 ,for the loss of the battle the kingdom was lost4 ,there is certainly a valuable truth in these maxims1 and some people1 therefore1 accept them at their face value4 ,calling to mind that many of the greatest discoveries have hinged on seemingly insignificant facts1 and that the world-renowned ,german scientists are distinguished by infinite pains in regard to details1 they conceive that the student is primarily concerned with trifles4 ,knowing that the dollars will take care of themselves if the dimes are carefully saved1 they reason that knowledge is properly mastered if the little things receive close attention4 ,it becomes their ambition1 therefore1 to let nothing that is little escape them4 ,in this spirit the conscientious student1 largely identifying conscientiousness with thoroughness1 keeps a special watch for little things1 feeling that the smaller an item is the more fully it tests his thoroughness1 and the more meritorious he is if he attends to it4 ,the influence of this notion of thoroughness upon practice has been marked in some schools4 ,and since spelling furnishes excellent material for testing care for details1 that subject has often been given high rank partly for that special reason4 ,i have known one large training school for teachers in which for twenty years and more probably more time and energy on the part of both faculty and students were expended on spelling than on any other single subject4 ,it was unpardonable not to cross the t or dot the i1 not to insert the hyphen or the period4 ,having written a word in spelling1 it was a heinous offense to change it after second thought1 and a dozen misspelled words per term seriously endangered one's diploma at the end of the three-year course4 ,no one can deny great merit to such strenuousness4 ,so definite an aim1 applied to all subjects and relentlessly pursued by a whole faculty1--as was the case in this school1--compelled students to work till they overworked1 and the school was therefore regarded as excellent4 ,yet this conception makes thoroughness a purely quantitative matter2 it accepts thoroughness as meaning throughness or completeness1 signifying the inclusion of everything from beginning to end1 or from cover to cover4 #b4 ,the correct notion of thoroughness4 ,this notion of thoroughness1 however1 is certainly wrong in opposing all neglect2 and the above-quoted maxims show themselves1 in their disregard for relative values1 to be only half truths1 ,in the school just mentioned there was small emphasis of relative worths and of the use of judgment in the choice of objects to receive one's attention4 ,as thoroughness consisted in attention to details1 little things became per se worthy of study1 and comparative worth was on that account overlooked4 ,but1 as we have seen1 there is no hope of mastering all the ideas connected with any topic1 so that the student must be reconciled to the exercise of judgment in making selection4 ,this choice must be exercised1 too1 among the details themselves2 it is not confined to a selection of the large thoughts in distinction from the details4 ,details vary infinitely among themselves in value2 some1 like the horseshoe nail1 easily bear a vital relation to large results2 others1 like the use of a hyphen in a word1 in all probability bear no important relation to anything4 ,those that have this vital relation are essential and need careful attention2 the others are non-essential and deserve for that reason to be neglected4 ,in other words1 thoroughness is a qualitative rather than a quantitative matter2 it is qualitative because it involves careful selection in accordance with the nature and relation of the details4 ,the student1 to whom thoroughness is a question of allness needs mental endurance as a chief virtue2 the real student1 on the other hand1 requires constant exercise of judgment4 ,in brief1 the proper kind of thoroughness calls for a good degree of good sense4 ,the thoroughness that is here advocated implies no underestimate of little things2 it only condemns want of discrimination among them4 ,even the painstaking ,german scientist is no devotee to all things that are little4 ,carrying on his investigation with reference to some definite problem1 he is concerned only with such details as are closely related to it4 ,if he is uncertain just what so-called little things do relate to it1--as has been the case1 for instance1 in the investigation of the cause of yellow fever1--he carefully investigates one thing after another4 ,but in so doing he discriminates very sharply among details1 throwing many aside without hesitation1 briefly examining some1 and finally settling on certain ones for exhaustive study4 ,it is only those little things that are thus related to something of real value that deserve attention4 ,the mathematician is a stickler for little things4 ,he insists that figures should be plainly made1 and that #a #a should never be allowed to equal #c4 ,he is wholly in the right1 because the slightest error in reading a number1 in placing a decimal point1 or in finding a sum must vitiate the whole result4 ,little things of that sort are called little1 but they are in reality big4 ,it is unfortunate that such matters are often called trifles1 for a trifle is usually supposed to be something that is of very little account2 the name thus misleads4 ,such details are essential2 other details are non-essential4 ,it would be well if people would more generally divide details into these two classes1 and apply the term trifles only to the latter sort4 ,by neglecting non-essentials one could find more time for the details that are essential4 ,neglect of some things1 therefore1 instead of being opposed to thoroughness1 is a direct and necessary means to it4 ,one cannot deny that this notion of thoroughness has its dangers1 for it places the responsibility upon the student of using his own judgment4 ,that is always dangerous4 ,if the student lacks earnestness1 or insight1 or balance1 he is bound to make mistakes4 ,he is likely to make them anyway2 and he may merely pick and choose according to comfort or whim1 and do the most desultory1 careless studying4 ,it would be easier for him to look out for all the little things than to discriminate among them1 for intelligent selection requires more real thinking4 ,the dangers in these conceptions1 and the conclusion4 #a4 ,the danger in this conception of thoroughness4 ,on the other hand1 it should be remembered that neglect of details in general has not been advocated2 it is only a judicious selection among them4 ,and such selection calls for no more energy or ability than selection among larger facts4 ,if we can trust students at all to distinguish values among the larger thoughts--as every one knows that we must--there is the same reason for trusting them to distinguish the relative worths of details4 #b4 ,the danger in the alternative plan4 ,the dangers of the alternative plan should also be borne in mind4 ,suppose that a capable student is taught to let no trifles escape him4 ,the danger then is that1 to the extent that he is earnest1 he will fall in love with little things1 until his vision for larger things becomes clouded4 ,he may always be intending to pass beyond these to the larger issues2 but he is in danger of failing so regularly that he will come in time to value details in themselves1 not for what they lead to2 the details become the large things1 and the really large matters are forgotten4 ,a former professor in a large normal school illustrated this tendency exactly4 ,at sixty years of age he was an unusually well-informed1 cultured man1 but he had developed a mania for little things4 ,he had charge of the practice department1 and each fall term it was customary to receive applications from about two hundred students for the practice teaching for that term4 ,each applicant filled out a blank1 giving his name1 age1 preferred study to teach1 preferred age of children1 and experience in teaching4 ,these papers had to be briefly examined2 then at four o'clock in the afternoon of the same first day all these applicants were to be called together in one group for instructions about their teaching4 ,by this arrangement the practice teaching could be started off very promptly4 ,on one occasion in the writer's knowledge1 however1 this gentleman could not resist the temptation to blue-pencil every mistake in spelling1 punctuation1 grammar1 etc41 that he could find in this entire set of papers1 which must have occupied nearly two hours4 ,meanwhile1 this task was so hugely absorbing1 he entirely forgot to notify the two hundred applicants that they were wanted at four o'clock1 and thus one day out of a year of less than two hundred was largely lost for the practice teaching4 ,the main fault of half of the good teachers in the elementary schools to-day is over-conscientiousness about little things4 ,believing that every mistake in written work should be corrected1 that the blackboard should be kept thoroughly clean1 that each day's lessons should be carefully planned1 that1 in short1 every little duty should be well performed1 they putter away at such tasks until there is no time left for much larger duties1 such as physical exercise1 sociability1 and general reading4 ,as a result they become habitually tired1 unsympathetic1 and narrow1 and therefore schoolish4 ,it is a strange commentary on education when conscientiousness means particular care for little things1 as it very often does among teachers4 ,it is desirable that a teacher prepare each day's lessons in full1 and that she do a hundred other things each day1 as well4 ,but when she cannot do all these--and she never can--it is highly important that she apportion her time according to relative values2 for instance1 it is far better that she omit some of her preparation of lessons for the sake of recreation1 if recreation would otherwise be omitted4 ,people are unfitted for the work of life until they view it in fair perspective4 ,one of the important objects of abundant and broad educational theory for teachers is to help them preserve the proper balance between large and small things2 and1 owing to the common tendency to neglect the larger things for the smaller1 one of the prominent duties of school principals and supervisors is to remind both teachers and students of the larger values in life in general and in study in particular4 #c4 ,the conclusion4 ,it is evident that grave dangers are at hand1 whether one slights some details or attempts to master them all4 ,but no matter what the dangers are1 there is one right thing for the student to do1 that is1 to develop the habit of weighing worths1 of sensing the relative values of the facts that he meets4 ,good judgment consists largely in the proper appreciation of relative values2 and since that is one of the very prominent factors in successful living1 as well as in study1 it is one of the most important abilities for the student to cultivate4 ,not only the equal valuation of all details1 but the treatment of various rules and virtues as absolute1 is likewise directly hostile to this habit of mind4 ,young people who are taught to be always economical1 or always punctual1 or always regular1 are thereby tempted to substitute thoughtless obedience for exercise of judgment4 ,it is not always wise to be saving4 ,a certain college boy owned three pairs of gloves2 one pair was so old and soiled that it was suitable only for use in the care of the furnace2 the other two pairs were quite new4 ,however1 having been taught to be always saving1 he wore the old pair to college during much of his senior year1 and saved the other two4 ,he was true to his early teaching at the expense of good sense4 ,there are few circumstances in life that can be properly treated by rule of thumb4 ,good judgment is called for at every turn2 and the habit of considering relative values in regard to all affairs is one that the student should constantly cultivate1 no matter what dangers have to be encountered4 ,,ability ,,of ,,children ,,to ,,neglect ,,unimportant ,,details ,this ability is so intimately related to the ability that is necessary in grouping related facts that the one can hardly exist without the other4 ,yet it is well to observe what a demand there is for neglect in ordinary school work1 and how this demand is met by children4 ,mistakes in beginning reading are very common1 such as saying a for an1 the for thu1 not pausing for a comma1 leaving out a word1 putting in a word1 etc4 ,when fairy tales are related1 slight omissions1 mistakes in grammar1 too frequent use of and1 etc4 are to be expected4 ,in the pupil's board work1 penmanship1 and written composition minor errors are innumerable4 ,what is to be done with all these8 ,certainly many of them must be entirely passed over1 or more important things will never be reached4 ,in their literature and in their reference books many little difficulties are met with that must likewise be overlooked4 ,take for instance the following typical paragraph from ,hawthorne's ,gorgon's ,head3 ,well1 then1 continued the king1 still with a cunning smile on his lips1 ,i have a little adventure to propose to you2 and1 as you are a brave and enterprising youth1 you will doubtless look upon it as a great piece of good luck to have so rare an opportunity of distinguishing yourself4 ,you must know1 my good ,perseus1 ,i think of getting married to the beautiful ,princess ,hippodamia2 and it is customary1 on these occasions1 to make the bride a present of some far-fetched and elegant curiosity4 ,i have been a little perplexed1 ,i must honestly confess1 where to obtain anything likely to please a princess of her exquisite taste4 ,but1 this morning1 ,i flatter myself1 ,i have thought of precisely the article4 ,here is an adult's vocabulary1 as well as an adult's ideas1 with perhaps a dozen new words1 and anything like mathematical thoroughness in the study of this paragraph would destroy its attractiveness4 ,it is well for teachers to consider what would be a thorough treatment of such a section4 ,encyclopedias and other reference works also present many strange words and difficult paragraphs that children cannot stop to examine with care4 ,in their ordinary school work1 therefore1 children find many details that must be overlooked2 the more important things cannot be accomplished unless these less important ones are ignored4 ,it would be strange if children were quite incapable of doing what is so plainly required of them4 ,it is true that they can be taught to reach the extreme of foolishness in the insignificance of the details that they mention4 ,but it is also true that a fair amount of wise guidance will lead them to exercise good judgment in their selection4 ,in other words1 thoroughness as a relative and qualitative matter1 rather than only quantitative1 can be appreciated by them4 ,any teacher who has tested them carefully in this respect is likely to agree to this assertion4 ,it is as natural for a lot of children to condemn the mention of useless detail1 because of its waste of time1 as it is for them to condemn selfish or immoral conduct4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,neglect ,,relatively ,,unimportant ,,details #a4 ,placing responsibility upon children4 ,the responsibility of deciding what shall be neglected should very often be left with the children1 no matter how many mistakes and how much loss of time it may temporarily cause4 ,criticisms and suggestions from the teacher would be in place later4 ,many parents as well as teachers refuse to place this responsibility upon children for fear of the mistakes that they will make4 ,on account of this fear they make it as nearly as possible unnecessary for children to judge freely1 by giving them arbitrary rules to follow1 or by directing them exactly what they shall do each moment4 ,this cultivates poor judgment by depriving children of the very practice that will make their judgments reliable2 it prevents the school requirements from corresponding to those in life outside4 ,confidence in the general and growing good sense of children is a presupposition in the sensible parent and teacher4 ,having such confidence1 their mission is to let these young people alone much of the time2 to direct1 not to control the selections that they make1 assuming the role of advisers and critics but not dictators4 ,this training toward independent judgment should begin even in the first year of school4 ,if ,johnny raises his hand in beginning reading to state that ,mary said a for the1 the teacher need not either accept or reject the criticism4 ,she may merely turn to the whole class and ask whether that is a helpful correction to make4 ,a similar course may be pursued with many corrections and suggestions in later years4 ,in this way a class sense of what is fitting or valuable in the way of neglect can be developed4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that children cannot judge the worth of details without a basis of some sort4 ,unless1 therefore1 they helplessly rely upon the direction of the teacher in each case1 they must be taught what the reading or other subject is for4 ,they must gradually get a fair idea1 for instance1 of what good reading is1 and realize that it includes pleasant tones1 a careful grouping of words1 much inflection of voice1 and clear enunciation of final consonants4 ,as they become acquainted with this standard in reading1 they will readily learn to overlook such details as have little to do with its attainment4 ,it is true that it saves much time for the teacher herself to determine what shall or shall not receive attention1 or at least for her to accept or reject a child's suggestion dogmatically1 rather than to allow him or the whole class to pass upon its worth4 ,also1 the constant demand for more facts tempts teachers to save time in this way4 ,but again1 it behooves the teacher as well as the pupil to use judgment1 and not sacrifice one of the main objects of an education in order to save some time4 #b4 ,class study of printed articles4 ,children who use reference works might now and then study an encyclopedic article together merely to see what parts should be slighted4 ,when looking for a certain fact they will discover1 from the way the paragraphs begin1 that one paragraph after another can be discarded without being read in full4 ,in the same spirit newspapers might be studied by the older children1 to determine from the headings what articles need not be read at all1 what ones in a cursory manner1 and what ones carefully1 if any4 ,similar study of some magazines might be in place4 ,it is a duty of the school thus to accustom pupils to proper methods of reading common kinds of printed matter4 #c4 ,reduction of reproductions4 ,pupils might occasionally be asked to reproduce a story or any other line of thought as fully as they wish4 ,suppose that it occupies six pages4 ,then they might be requested to reduce it to three pages1 and perhaps1 finally1 to one page1 eliminating each time what is of least importance4 ,such an exercise compels a very careful study of relative values4 #d4 ,holding and carrying a point4 ,having decided upon a definite problem for consideration1 all grades of learners might be held responsible for detecting beginning wanderings of thought4 ,they might accustom themselves to the responsibility of rising to a point of order at such times1 stating the main question and asking the suspected person to show the relevancy of his remarks4 ,there is no reason why the teacher should carry this responsibility alone2 indeed1 it is an imposition on the children1 checking their growth in judgment and power of initiative4 ,again1 at times students in all grades might be allowed full freedom1 in order to show how quickly they will engage in discussion1 and even become excited1 with no definite question before them4 ,they may not realize their error1 however1 until asked to state what they are considering4 ,it should be remembered that the question at issue may be as much neglected in the reading of books as in participation in discussion2 on this account the method of reading might be tested in a similar manner4 #e4 ,encouragement of different rates of reading4 ,finally1 varying rates of reading should be encouraged1 according to the nature of the subject matter4 ,while some books should be perused very slowly and thoughtfully1 others should be covered as rapidly as possible4 ,in the case of many novels1 for instance1 the ideas are so simple that they can be comprehended as rapidly as the words can be scanned4 ,many persons1 however1 can read only as fast as they can pronounce the words4 ,they follow an established series of associations3 first1 the word is observed2 this image calls up its sound2 the sound then recalls the meaning4 ,thus the order is sight1 sound1 meaning4 ,that is a roundabout way of arriving at the meaning of a page and is usually learned in childhood4 ,it explains why many an educated adult can read very little faster silently than aloud4 ,some adults read fast simply by skimming over the less important parts1 which is often justified4 ,some1 however1 save time by associating the form of a word directly with its meaning1 leaving the sound out of consideration4 ,then by running the eye along rapidly they double and treble the ordinary rate of advance4 ,it is said that ,lord ,macaulay read silently about as rapidly as a person ordinarily thumbs the pages2 and he must have seen the individual words1 because his remarkable memory often enabled him to reproduce the text verbatim4 ,the slow-reading adult can1 by practice1 learn to take in a whole line or more almost at a glance1 in place of three or four words1 and can thus increase his rate of advance4 ,but habit is so powerful that the rapid eye-movement necessary in rapid reading1 together with the direct association of the form of a word with its meaning1 should be learned in childhood4 ,to this end1 children should often be timed in their reading1 being allowed only a few seconds or minutes to cover a certain amount4 ,some exercises might be given them1 too1 so as to accustom them to taking in a considerable number of words at a glance4 ,meanwhile1 however1 pains should be taken to avoid the impression that rapid reading is always in place4 ,matter that requires much reflection1 like the ,bible for example1 may well be read slowly4 ,it is not merely rapid reading1 but varying rates according to need1 that the teacher should encourage4 ,there is no expectation that children will learn to handle books as ,carlyle did4 ,but they should be guided by the same general principles1 and should form practical acquaintance with these principles while in school4 ,ordinarily there is a striking contrast between the use of books in school and outside1 and the different rates of reading in the two places afford a striking illustration4 ,text in school is taken up in a gingerly fashion1 scarcely enough of it being assigned for one lesson to get the child interested4 ,then this is reviewed over and over until any interest that may originally have been excited is long since destroyed4 ,thoroughness is aimed at1 at the expense of life4 ,in independent reading outside of school the opposite course is pursued4 ,in the reaction from the school influence children revel in their freedom to do the things that their teachers forbid1 and they accordingly go racing through their volumes4 ,both methods are at fault4 ,the school handling of books is intolerably slow2 that outside is likely to be too rapid4 ,in general1 the method of using books in school should more closely resemble that desired elsewhere4 ,the school method is the first to be reformed4 ,it is seldom wise to be so thorough in the treatment of a text as to kill it for the learner4 ,as a rule longer textbook lessons should be assigned in the elementary school1 and less attention should be given to the minor facts4 ,then1 if necessary1 the same general field should be covered from another point of view1 through another text4 ,this change of method is already largely realized in our beginning reading1 and partly realized in several other subjects4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,judging ,,of ,,the ,,soundness ,,and ,,general ,,worth ,,of ,,statements1 ,,as ,a ,,fourth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,we have already seen that proper study places much responsibility upon the student4 ,instead of allowing him to be an aimless collector of facts1 it requires him to discover specific purposes that the facts may serve4 ,with such purposes in mind he must supplement authors' statements in numerous ways1 and also pass judgment on their relative values4 ,this all requires much aggressiveness4 ,the problem here4 ,a problem now confronts us that suggests even greater aggressiveness4 ,the statements that one hears or finds in print are often somewhat exaggerated1 or distorted1 or grossly incorrect1 or they may be entirely true4 ,who is to pass judgment upon their quality8 ,has the young student any proper basis for carrying that responsibility8 ,pressing nature of this problem4 #a4 ,in reading newspapers and magazines4 ,this problem is forced upon one when reading newspapers1 particularly during political campaigns4 ,one paper lauds a candidate as a great administrator1 while another condemns him as a doctrinaire4 ,one advocates protective tariff and the gold standard1 while another urges revenue tariff only and free silver4 ,among the news columns one article predicts war1 while another discerns signs of peace4 ,russia is at one time pictured as moving fast toward complete anarchy1 while at another time she is shown to be making important political advances4 ,the ,japanese are praised for their high standards of life1 and are again condemned for their immorality4 ,magazine articles show disagreements just as striking4 ,public men1 political policies1 corporations1 and religious beliefs are approved or condemned according to the individual writer4 ,what1 then1 is the proper attitude for the reader8 ,is he to regard one authority as about as good as another1 or is he himself to distinguish among them and judge each according to the evidence that is offered8 #b4 ,in the use of books4 ,d',aubigne's ,history of the ,reformation is an extremely interesting work2 but it treats the ,reformation from the ,protestant view-point1 and is on that account unacceptable to ,catholics4 ,the history of our ,civil ,war presents one series of facts when written by a northerner2 a very different series when written by a southerner2 and a still different one when written by an ,englishman4 ,shall the student of either of these periods adopt the views of the author that he happens to be reading8 ,or shall he assume a view-point of his own8 ,or shall he do neither8 ,carlyle and ,ruskin indulge in much exaggeration1 relying on striking statements for increased effect4 ,shakespeare possibly intended to present an exaggerated type of the ,jew in the character of ,shylock4 ,shall the student recognize exaggeration as such8 ,or shall he take all statements literally8 ,or shall he avoid doing either1 preserving an inactive mind8 ,in his work on ,education1 ,herbert ,spencer states that acquirement of every kind has two values--value as knowledge and value as discipline4 ,besides its use for guidance in conduct1 the acquisition of each order of facts has also its use as mental exercise4 ,many students of education would assert that one very important value of knowledge is here overlooked1 i4 e41 its power to inspire and energize1 a value that literature possesses to a high degree4 ,assuming that they are correct1 dare the young student pass such a criticism8 ,or would such a critical attitude on his part toward a high authority be impertinent8 ,the first paragraph in ,rousseau's ,emile runs as follows3 ,coming from the hand of the ,author of all things1 everything is good2 in the hands of man everything degenerates4 ,man obliges one soil to nourish the productions of another1 one tree to bear the fruits of another2 he mingles and confounds climates1 elements1 seasons2 he mutilates his dog1 his horse1 his slave4 ,he overturns everything1 disfigures everything2 he loves deformity1 monsters2 he desires that nothing should be as ,nature made it1 not even man himself4 ,to please him man must be broken in like a horse2 man must be adapted to man's own fashion1 like a tree in his garden4 ,at the bottom of the first page of the translation of ,emile by ,miss ,worthington is a note by ,jules ,steeg1 ,depute1 ,paris1 bearing on the above first paragraph and running as follows3 ,it is useless to enlarge upon the absurdity of this theory1 and upon the flagrant contradiction into which ,rousseau allows himself to fall4 ,if he is right1 man ought to be left without education1 and the earth without cultivation4 ,this would not be even the savage state4 ,but want of space forbids us to pause at each like statement of our author1 who at once busies himself in nullifying it4 ,opposing statements like these are certainly enough to place the student in a dilemma4 ,proper attitude of the student toward authorities4 ,here are contradictions in political and religious beliefs and news items2 very different interpretations of historical events2 exaggerations bordering on misrepresentations2 and evident omissions and absurdities on the part of educational philosophers4 ,the weather bureau represents ,old ,reliability herself1 in comparison with authors4 ,what attitude shall the adult student assume toward such contradictory and faulty statements8 ,shall he regard himself as only a follower1 taking each presentation of thought at its face value1 sitting humbly at the feet of supposed specialists1 and carefully preserving in memory as many of their principal opinions and conclusions as possible8 ,shall he assume the position of a mere receiver and collector8 ,that is manifestly impossible1 for that would mean an ego divided a thousand times4 ,it would prevent the final using of knowledge by the learner1 instead of directing its use wisely2 for the many opposing ideas and cross purposes would nullify one another4 ,besides that1 wise application requires far more than a good memory as a guide1 since memory takes no account of the adaptations always required by new conditions4 ,whether he likes it or not1 the student cannot escape the responsibility of determining for himself the fairness and general reliability of the newspapers and magazines that he reads2 he must expect bias in historians1 and must measure the extent of it as well as he can by studying their biographies and by observing their care in regard to data and logic2 he must scrutinize very critically the ideas of the world's greatest essayists and dramatists4 ,if a philosopher1 like ,rousseau1 offers brilliant truths on one page1 and equally brilliant perversions of truth on the next page1 the student must ponder often and long in order to keep his bearings2 and if footnotes attempt to point out some of these absurdities1 he must decide for himself whether ,rousseau or the commentator shows the superior wisdom4 ,above all1 says ,koopman1 he the student must make sure how far he can trust the author4 ,footnote3 ,koopman1 ,the ,mastery of ,books1 p4 #dg4 ,read not to contradict and confute1 nor to believe and take for granted1 nor to find talk and discourse1 but to weigh and consider1 says ,bacon4 ,footnote3 ,bacon's ,essays ,of ,studies4 ,every book we read may be made a round in the ever-lengthening ladder by which we climb to knowledge and to that temperance and serenity of mind which1 as it is the ripest fruit of wisdom1 is also the sweetest4 ,but this can only be if we read such books as make us think1 and read them in such a way as helps them to do so1 that is1 by endeavoring to judge them1 and thus to make them an exercise rather than a relaxation of the mind4 ,desultory reading except as conscious pastime1 hebetates the brain and slackens the bow string of ,will4 ,footnote3 ,lowell1 ,books and ,libraries4 ,the student1 therefore1 must set himself up as judge of whatever ideas appear before him4 ,they are up for trial on their soundness and worth2 he must uncover their merits and defects1 and pass judgment on their general value4 ,if he is hasty and careless1 he suffers the penalty of bad judgment2 and if he refrains from judging at all1 he becomes one who does not know his own mind1 a weakling4 ,who reads ,incessantly1 and to his reading brings not ,a spirit and judgment equal or superior ,uncertain and unsettled still remains1 ,deep versed in books and shallow in himself4 ,footnote3 ,milton1 ,paradise ,regained1 ,book #d1 line #cbb4 ,the necessity of this attitude in the acceptance as well as in the rejection of ideas4 ,the need of such an attitude may be granted when the rejection of ideas is necessary4 ,but there are many works that have been tried for ages and found undoubtedly excellent4 ,there are many men1 also1 who are acknowledged authorities in their specialties4 ,in the case of such books and men1 where little if any negative criticism is to be expected1 cannot the student set out merely to enjoy the merits and not bother about the defects8 ,can he not1 therefore1 abandon the critical attitude and accept outright what is offered8 ,that depends on how much is involved in real acceptance4 ,a wise young woman who rejects a suitor does so for reasons of some sort2 her reasons should certainly not be less clear if she accepts him2 on the contrary1 they are more likely to have been investigated with care4 ,the rejection of a lover is1 then1 no more positive thing1 involves no more intelligence and emotion1 than his acceptance4 ,again1 a competent supervisor of instruction who accepts as good some recitation that he has observed1 does so on the basis of specific points of merit that he has seen4 ,otherwise his acceptance is only flattery and is unacceptable to an earnest teacher4 ,so1 in general1 the acceptance of any line of thought or action presupposes a consciousness of certain merits4 ,intelligent acceptance is thoughtful or critical4 ,there is a common idea that acceptance is far more easy and far less aggressive than negative criticism4 ,the contrary1 however1 is probably true4 ,the former idea is due to the fact that much acceptance1 as of political and religious doctrine1 for example1 is only nominal or verbal2 it is not intelligent or critical enough to be genuine4 ,any one can find fault1 it is often declared2 but the recognition of merit requires special insight4 ,rejection1 therefore1 is no more aggressive or positive than acceptance2 and if one of these calls for a more critical attitude and more mental energy than the other1 it is probably the latter4 ,relation of the critical attitude to sympathy and respect4 ,what is the relation of this critical attitude to sympathy for an author8 ,one of the essential conditions in the proper study of a book is that it be approached with an open1 sympathetic mind4 ,one must look at the world through the author's eyes in order to understand and appreciate what he says1 and that is possible only when one feels high respect for him and is in close sympathy with him4 ,to this end1 it may be well at times for the student to annihilate his own personality1 as ,ruskin advises1 so as to lose himself in another's thought4 ,if the critical attitude were incompatible with such respect and sympathy1 its value might well be questioned4 ,but that is not the case4 ,a sensible parent who is in closest sympathy with a child finds no great difficulty in seeing its defects and even in administering punishment for them4 ,there are parents and teachers who cannot thus combine real sympathy with the critical attitude2 but they are too weak and foolish to rear children4 ,helpful friendships among adults1 also1 are not based upon blind admiration2 they presuppose ability to discern faults and even courage now and then to mention them4 ,one cannot be a true scholar without making a similar combination4 ,the unquestioning frame of mind that allows a sympathetic approach to an author marks one stage in study2 but this must be followed by the critical attitude before the study is complete4 ,that the two attitudes are not incompatible is well stated by ,porter in the following words3 ,we should read with an independent judgment and a critical spirit4 ,it does not follow1 because we should treat an author with confidence and respect1 that we are to accept all his opinions and may not revise his conclusions and arguments by our own4 ,indeed1 we shall best evince our respect for his thoughts by subjecting them to our own revision4 ,footnote3 ,noah ,porter1 ,books and ,reading1 p4 #eb4 ,how daily life requires similar independence of judgment4 ,while the demand thus made upon the scholar seems great1 there is nothing surprising about it2 for the scholar's relation to an author is substantially the same as that of any adult to other persons with whom he has dealings4 ,if you go to a store to purchase a pair of rubbers1 you cannot surrender yourself complacently to any clerk who happens to wait upon you4 ,he is very likely to be satisfied to sell you rubbers that are too long or too short1 too wide or too narrow1 or at least not of the shape of your shoes4 ,or he may want to sell you storm rubbers when you prefer low ones4 ,unless1 therefore1 you carry a standard in mind and reject whatever fails to meet it1 you are very likely to buy rubbers that won't be satisfactory4 ,the same is true if you go to a tailor for clothing2 unless you know him to be unusually reliable1 it is not enough for him to tell you that a coat fits2 you must test the statement by your own observation4 ,some years ago a house that ,i occupied in ,new ,york ,city became infested with rats1 and1 wanting to reach the kitchen from the cellar1 they gnawed an inch hole through a lead drain pipe from the laundry tubs1 that lay in their way4 ,the hole was behind a cupboard in the kitchen1 very close to the wall1 and not easy to reach4 ,if clean clothing was to be had1 the pipe had to be fixed2 but when a plumber was called in1 he stated that a carpenter would be needed to remove the cupboard1 and again to replace it after the work was completed4 ,the pipe having the hole1 he added1 would need to be taken out1 and1 as it was one arm of a larger pipe that had two other branches1 the pipe with the three arms would have to be removed and another put in its place4 ,the entire work was estimated to cost about fifteen dollars4 ,as that seemed a large amount to invest in a rat hole1 another plumber was consulted2 but he made substantially the same report4 ,still not being satisfied1 ,i went to a hardware store and asked1 ,have you a man who can solder a thin metal plate over a small hole in a lead pipe8 ,the hole is about an inch in diameter and somewhat difficult to reach2 but the work can be done by any one who knows his business4 ,the merchant said that he had such a man4 ,the man was sent over2 he did the work in a few minutes1 and the bill was seventy-five cents4 ,plumbers are probably as honest and capable in their lines as most classes of workmen2 but many persons have learned to their sorrow not to place themselves as clay in their hands4 ,a man who builds a house should keep more than half an eye on his architect1 otherwise the house is likely to cause numerous lifelong regrets4 ,even one's physician is not to be implicitly obeyed on all occasions4 ,if a patient knows that quinine acts as a poison upon him1 as it does upon some persons1 he must refuse to take it4 ,also1 if a physician gives too much medicine1 as physicians have been known to do1 one must discover the fact for himself1 or his alimentary canal may suffer4 ,such men are merely types of the many persons who surround us and help us to live2 we must be judges of the conduct of each of them toward us1 if we wish to be healthy and happy4 ,must we1 then1 pass upon everything2 and is no person to be fully trusted8 ,how can any one find time for the exercise of so much wisdom8 ,and what are specialists for8 ,certainly many1 many things must be taken for granted4 ,when you board a train1 you cannot make sure that the trainmen are all qualified for their positions and that all parts of the train and of the track are in proper condition4 ,if1 however1 you choose a poorly managed road1 in place of a well-managed one1 you are more likely to be killed on the journey4 ,in other words1 while many things must be assumed1 the responsibility of determining what they shall be rests with you1 and you suffer the penalty of any bad selection4 ,your own judgment is still your guide4 ,many persons must likewise be trusted4 ,but who shall they be1 and to what extent8 ,the objects of choice have now been merely shifted from things to human beings1 and independent judgment must still be exercised the same as before4 ,the difficulty is fully as great1 too4 ,says ,holmes1 ,we have all to assume a standard of judgment in our own minds1 either of things or persons4 ,a man who is willing to take another's opinion has to exercise his judgment in the choice of whom to follow1 which is often as nice a matter as to judge of things for one's self4 ,footnote3 ,holmes1 ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table4 ,reasons for the use of independent judgment may be found in lack of knowledge on the part of others1 or of skill1 or of judgment1 or of energy1 or of honesty4 ,but there is a more fundamental reason than either incompetence or dishonesty1 and it is found in the peculiar circumstances of each person4 ,the point of view of an architect is not the same as that of the owner of a house4 ,every one hundred dollars added to the cost of a building rejoices the architect's heart because it increases his income4 ,on the other hand1 every hundred dollars thus added tends to produce depression in the owner's mind4 ,similarly1 the point of view of any specialist or friend is different from yours2 it can never be fully your own4 ,just because no one can look at your affairs from your own point of view1 no one is fully qualified to judge them for you1 and you must rely upon yourself4 ,the people with whom we trade1 therefore1 the specialists and friends to whom we go1 like the authors that the student consults1 are all related to us merely as advisers4 ,no one of them is fitted to tell us exactly what to do1 and the proper attitude toward them all is that of friendly suspicion4 ,greatness of each person's responsibility for judging4 ,this conception of each person's relation to ideas and to the world at large places his judgment on a high plane4 ,whether he will or not1 every man is intellectually a sovereign whose own judgment in the decision of all his affairs is his court of last resort4 ,this is a grave responsibility1 indeed2 and it is no wonder that many shrink from it4 ,yet what better state can be conceived8 ,this responsibility proves the dignity of manhood2 it is the price of being a man4 ,fairly good judgment1 exercised independently of everybody1 is one essential condition of self-direction and of leadership of others4 ,the importance of good judgment is often emphasized2 and the reason for it is here evident1 since it must guide us at every turn4 ,the reason for education of judgment is also evident4 ,every person is bound to make many mistakes2 but he will make far fewer when his ability to judge has been properly trained4 ,the utter inadequacy of instruction that aims mainly at acquisition of facts is likewise evident2 for the exercise of judgment involves the use or adaptation of knowledge to particular conditions1 and the mere possession of facts bears little relation to this ability4 ,the basis that every student has for judging worth4 ,it may seem presumptuous for a young student of education to pass judgment upon the greatest writers on education that the world has produced1 such as ,spencer and ,rousseau4 ,certainly the opinions of such great men are far more valuable and reliable1 on the whole1 than those of an immature student4 ,the architect's knowledge of building1 likewise1 is superior to that or a novice in that line4 ,granted1 therefore1 that no one person is in a position to judge for another1 what right1 what basis has this other1 particularly the inexperienced person1 to judge any and every sort of affairs for himself8 ,he has basis enough4 ,speaking of the value of expert knowledge1 ,aristotle says3 ,moreover1 there are some artists whose works are judged of solely1 or in the best manner1 not by themselves but by those who do not possess the art2 for example1 the knowledge of the house is not limited to the builder2 the user1 or1 in other words1 the master of the house will even be a better judge than the builder1 just as the pilot will judge better of a rudder than the carpenter1 and the guest will judge better of a feast than the cook4 ,footnote3 ,aristotle1 ,politics 7,jowett71 p4 #hh4 ,the reason that the non-expert can thus sometimes even surpass the expert himself in judging of the latter's work is found in the fact that the non-expert as well as the specialist has had much valuable experience bearing on the specialist's line4 ,a very important truth is here suggested concerning the student4 ,nothing that one is fitted to study is wholly new or strange to him4 ,any person must have had experiences that parallel an author's thought in order to understand that author4 ,for1 according to the principle of apperception1 intimately related past experience is the sole basis for the comprehension of new facts4 ,values are no newer or stranger to the student than other phases of experience4 ,the student's related past1 therefore1 furnishes as good a basis for judging soundness or worth as it does for getting at meanings4 ,when1 for instance1 he reads ,spencer's statement that acquisition of every kind has two values1--value as knowledge and value as discipline--he can verify each use out of his own life4 ,he can determine for himself that the assertion holds4 ,on the other hand1 he can quite likely recall how he has sometimes been aroused and stirred to new effort by things that he has read2 and he may1 in consequence1 question whether ,spencer has not here overlooked one great value of knowledge4 ,again1 when the student is told by ,rousseau that in the hands of man everything degenerates1 he can1 no doubt1 justify the assertion to some extent by recalling observed instances of such degeneration4 ,but1 in addition1 when he recalls what he has observed and read about the wonderful advance made by man toward a higher civilization1 and realizes that ,rousseau is denying that there has been an advance1 he is in a position to consider whether ,rousseau is mainly in the right or mainly in the wrong4 ,it is true that the student may be wrong in his conclusions2 also that1 even though he be often right1 he may become a confirmed fault- finder4 ,but that is not discouraging1 for he is surrounded with dangers4 ,the essential fact remains that1 just as his past related experience furnishes a fair basis for understanding the meaning of what he hears and reads1 so1 also1 it furnishes a fair basis for estimating its value4 ,,ability ,,of ,,children ,,to ,,judge ,,values ,a conception of child nature that denies such ability4 ,many persons who agree to the necessity of independent judgment on the part of adults may demur at the idea of placing similar responsibility upon children4 ,are not children normally uncritical and imitative or passive8 they say4 ,and if we teach them to judge and criticise freely1 are they not very likely to develop priggishness that will result in immodesty and disrespect for others8 ,memory1 says ,john ,henry ,newman1 is one of the first developed of the mental faculties2 a boy's business1 when he goes to school1 is to learn1 that is1 to store up things in his memory4 ,for some years his intellect is little more than an instrument for taking in facts1 or a receptacle for storing them2 he welcomes them as fast as they come to him2 he lives on what is without2 he has his eyes ever about him2 he has a lively susceptibility of impressions2 he imbibes information of every kind2 and little does he make his own in the true sense of the word1 living rather upon his neighbors all around him4 ,he has opinions1 religious1 political1 literary1 and1 for a boy1 is very positive in them and sure about them2 but he gets them from his schoolfellows1 or his masters1 or his parents1 as the case may be4 ,such as he is in his other relations1 such also is he in his school exercises2 his mind is observant1 sharp1 ready1 retentive2 he is almost passive in the acquisition of knowledge4 ,i say this is no disparagement of the idea of a clever boy4 ,geography1 chronology1 history1 language1 natural history1 he heaps up the matter of these studies as treasures for a future day4 ,it is the seven years of plenty with him2 he gathers in by handfuls1 like the ,egyptians1 without counting2 and though1 as time goes on1 there is exercise for his argumentative powers in the elements of mathematics1 and for his taste in the poets and orators1 still while at school1 or at least till quite the last years of his time1 he acquires and little more2 and when he is leaving for the university he is mainly the creature of foreign influences and circumstances1 and made up of accidents1 homogeneous or not as the case may be4 ,footnote3 ,john ,henry ,newman1 ,scope and ,nature of ,university ,education1 ,discourse ,v4 ,this view of childhood is somewhat common2 and according to it children are almost exclusively receptive1 any active exercise of judgment scarcely beginning before college entrance4 ,extent of such ability4 #a4 as evidenced by individual examples of children's judgments4 ,let us see to what extent this view holds when examined in the light of children's actual conduct4 ,a first-grade pupil who had attended the kindergarten the previous year remarked to his former kindergarten teacher1 ,i wish ,i was back in the kindergarten4 ,why8 said the kindergartner4 ,because1 said he1 we did hard things in the kindergarten last year4 ,then he added confidentially1 ,you know our teacher was in the fourth grade last year4 ,she used to come in to see us when we were playing1 and she thinks we can't do anything else4 ,why1 the things she gives us to do are dead easy4 ,his teacher herself afterward admitted that his criticism was just4 ,a small boy1 being asked if he went to ,sunday school1 replied ,yes4 ,have you a good teacher8 was the next question2 to which came the response1 ,yes1 pretty good2 good for a ,sunday school4 ,she would not be much good for day school4 ,wasn't he probably right8 ,a five-year-old boy was taken to ,sunday school for the first time by his nurse4 ,there the chief topic of instruction happened to be eternal punishment4 ,on the way home he was not altogether good1 and the nurse1 in the spirit of the day's lesson1 assured him that he would go to the bad place when he died1 and would burn there always4 ,when he entered the house he hurried1 sobbing1 to his mother and declared vehemently3 ,nurse says ,i'll go to the bad place when ,i die1 and that ,i'll burn there always4 ,i won't burn always2 ,i know ,i won't6 ,i may burn a little bit4 ,but ,i'm bad only part of the time2 ,i am good part of the time2 and ,i know ,i won't burn always4 ,his reasoning on theology was as sound as that of many a preacher4 ,i was standing near a second-year class in reading one day when ,i overheard a boy say ,nonsense6 to himself1 after reading a section4 ,i agreed with him too fully to offer any reproof4 ,an eight-year-old girl said to her mother1 ,may ,i iron my apron8 ,i ironed a pillowcase4 ,did ,sarah the maid say that you ironed it well8 asked the mother4 ,no1 she didn't say anything1 was the response4 ,but ,i know that ,i ironed it well4 ,is that an entirely passive attitude8 ,rebecca had spent six years in the public schools of two large cities when she entered the seventh grade of the ,state ,normal ,school4 ,she had been called a quiet child1 nervous and timid1 by different teachers4 ,after a very few days in the new school1 however1 she volunteered this expression of her thoughts3 ,i didn't think the ,normal ,school would be anything like that4 ,it's very different from the public schools4 ,there only the teacher has opinions and she does all the talking2 but in the ,normal ,school the children can have opinions1 and they can express them1 and ,i like it4 ,any one who has had close contact with children knows that they have a remarkably keen sense of the justice or injustice of punishments inflicted upon them4 ,as a rule1 ,i would rather trust their judgment of their teachers than their parents' judgment1 although it is true that parents form such judgment largely from hearing remarks from their children4 ,children are reasonably reliable1 also1 in judging one another's conduct1 which they are prone to do4 ,such facts as these indicate that it is quite natural for children--even very young ones--to pass judgment of some kind on things about them1 and that their judgments are fairly sound4 ,they are hardly to be called merely passive receivers of ideas1 mildly agreeing with the people about them4 #b4 ,as evidenced by the requirements of the school4 ,the school plainly assumes the presence of this ability by the requirements that it makes of children4 ,one of the common questions in the combination of forms and colors1 even in the kindergarten1 is1 ,how do you like that8 ,in instruction in fine art throughout the grades their judgment as to what is most beautiful is continually appealed to4 ,the judging of one another's compositions and other school products is a common task for pupils4 ,in connection with fairy tales six-year-olds are frequently asked what they think of the story4 ,many say1 ,it is beautiful2 but now and then a bold spirit declares1 ,i don't like it4 ,children are expected to judge the quality of literature1 distinguishing with ease between what is literal and what is imaginative1 or figurative1 or humorous4 ,when they read that the rope with which the powerful ,fenris-,wolf was bound was made out of such things as the sound of a cat's footsteps1 the roots of the mountains1 the breath of a fish and the sinews of a bear1 and nothing could break it1 ,footnote3 ,hamilton ,mabie's ,norse ,myths1 p4 #aff4 they are not deceived2 they only smile4 ,now and then they make mistakes2 but in general such stories as ,through the ,looking-,glass and the ,uncle ,remus stories do not overtax their power to interpret conditions4 ,what literature or history is there for children that omits the passing of moral judgments8 ,cinderella is approved of for her goodness1 ,william ,tell for his independence1 ,columbus for his boldness2 ,cinderella's sisters are condemned for their selfishness1 and ,gessler for his meanness4 ,without such exercise of judgment these two studies would miss one of their main benefits4 ,the data that must be collected in nature study and history for the proof of statements give much practice in the weighing of evidence2 and the self- government that is now so common1 in various degrees1 in good schools is supposed to be based upon a reasonable ability to weigh out justice4 ,thus the method both of instruction and of government in our better schools presupposes the ability on the part of pupils to judge worth2 and the better teachers have considered it so important that they have constantly striven to develop it through instruction1 just as sensible parents have placed upon their children some of the responsibility of buying their own clothing1 doing the marketing1 and planning work at home1 in order to cultivate the power to make wise choice4 ,if the ability to judge were really wanting in children1 our supposedly best methods of teaching and governing them would need to be abandoned4 #c4 ,as evidenced by requirements of child life4 ,the best proof that children possess this ability is that they can scarcely get on without it4 ,several years ago1 when ,i reached ,indianapolis on a journey1 ,i gave my bag to a boy ten or eleven years of age to carry to my hotel4 ,while we were walking along together another boy stopped him and drew him to one side4 ,i observed that they were having a serious conversation1 and when we soon proceeded further ,i inquired what the trouble was4 ,that boy1 said he1 wants me to divvy up with him4 ,what do you mean by that8 said ,i4 ,he wants me to give him half of the money that ,i am to get from you for carrying this bag1 was the reply4 ,but1 ,i responded indignantly1 he has not helped you at all4 ,why1 then1 should he receive anything8 ,he shouldn't1 came the answer2 but he belongs to a crowd of fellows1 and he told me that if ,i didn't divvy up with them they would pound the life out of me4 ,i pondered for some time1 but ,i gave no advice4 ,what advice should have been given8 ,this is a striking ease2 but it only illustrates very forcibly that children are not merely sleeping1 and eating what is given to them1 like cattle and sheep4 ,like adults they are surrounded with human beings and are leading moral lives4 ,at home1 in school1 on the street1 a hundred times a day they must size up people and situations and decide what is best to do4 ,if they are weak in such decisions1 they are regarded as weak in general2 and if very weak1 other persons must assume responsibility for them and tote them through life4 ,on the other hand1 if they are strong1 they are classed as sensible persons1 and they get on well4 ,children distinguish themselves as balanced and sensible1 just as adults do1 simply because they are wise in measuring values4 ,those persons who regard childhood as almost solely a period for receiving knowledge1 seem to think that active life really begins only when one becomes of age4 ,the fact is1 it begins from eighteen to twenty-one years sooner than that2 and throughout all those earlier years one has nearly as great a variety of trials1 and trials usually of greater intensity for the moment1 than adults have4 ,in the midst of so much need1 it would be strange1 indeed1 if one were endowed with no power1 called judgment1 to cope with difficult situations1 if one had only the power to collect facts4 ,that would leave us too helpless2 it certainly would not be adaptation to environment1 or normal evolution4 ,in conclusion1 therefore1 those who deny a fair degree of sound judgment to children deny what seems a marked natural tendency of childhood2 they pass a sweeping criticism upon what is now supposed to be the best method of instructing and governing children2 and1 finally1 they deny to the child the one power that can make his knowledge usable and insure his adaptation to his environment4 ,self- reliance1 which parents and teachers strive for so much1 becomes then impossible among children1 for self-reliance is nothing more than independent direction of self1 made possible by power to judge conditions4 ,certainly most persons are unwilling to take this position in regard to the nature of childhood4 ,they will agree that a twelve- year-old boy1 sitting for an hour in the presence of the ,president of the ,united ,states and hearing him converse freely1 without forming judgments about him1 and many fairly accurate ones too1 would be an abnormality4 ,danger of priggishness4 ,what about the threatened priggishness and related evils that may result when the responsibility for passing judgment frequently is laid upon children8 ,certainly a modest sense of one's own merit and proper respect for others are highly desirable qualities4 ,these qualities1 however1 are not greatly endangered by the exercise of intellectual independence1 for it is little related to immodesty and impertinence4 ,a few years ago when many distinguished scientists celebrated in ,berlin the discovery of the ,roentgen rays1 ,mr4 ,roentgen himself was not present4 ,although he had possessed boldness enough to enlarge the confines of knowledge1 he lacked the courage to face the men who had met to do him honor1 and he telegraphed his regrets4 ,st4 ,paul1 ,erasmus1 and ,melanchthon were1 intellectually1 among the most independent of men2 but ,st4 ,paul possessed the humility of the true ,christian1 and both ,erasmus and ,melanchthon were extremely modest4 ,pestalozzi was once sent by his government as a member of a commission to interview ,napoleon4 ,on his return from ,paris he was asked whether he saw ,napoleon4 ,no1 said he1 ,i did not see ,napoleon1 and ,napoleon did not see me4 ,recognizing the greatness of a real educator1 he took away the breath of his friends by ranking himself alongside ,napoleon as a truly great man4 ,yet he was one of the most modest1 childlike men that the world has ever known4 ,these examples show that the keenest1 boldest of analysts and critics may yet be the humblest of men4 ,self-reliance is the more common name for similar independence among children2 and it is no more nearly related to priggishness in their case than in the case of adults4 ,the five-year-old child will often reject statements from his parents1 even though he have the greatest respect and love for them4 ,it is only natural for him to do so when assertions that he hears do not tally with his own experience2 and he will retain such boldness throughout life unless made subservient by bad education4 ,there is some danger1 however1 that the cultivation of this independence may make one a chronic fault-finder4 ,it should not be forgotten1 therefore1 that judging means approving as well as condemning1 and in case of children probably much more of the former than of the latter4 ,in addition1 care should be taken that children shall pass judgment only on matters lying fairly within their experience1 and shall recognize the need1 too1 of giving good reasons for their conclusions4 ,if these precautions be taken1 the danger of priggishness is reduced to the minimum4 ,what danger remains can afford to be risked2 for independent judgment is the very basis of scholarship among adults1 and mental submissiveness in childhood is not the best preparation for it4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,independent ,,judgment ,,among ,,children #a4 ,placing responsibility upon children at school4 ,responsibilities that require exercise of judgment should be placed upon children throughout the school1 from the kindergarten on4 ,scarcely a recitation need pass without opportunities of this kind4 ,for example1 children can determine the correctness of answers to questions put in class1 can weigh the relative merits and the efficiency of tasks performed1 can propose suitable ways of illustrating topics1 such as lumbering1 irrigation1 mining1 etc4 ,the wisdom of plans for preserving order in the school1 for decorating the building1 and for improving the school in other respects can also be submitted to their judgment4 ,it is by the exercise of judgment in many ways that young people will become judicious in numerous directions4 ,it is not difficult for any teacher to do some work of this kind1 but it is difficult to be consistent in it4 ,many teachers who are zealous in cultivating independent judgment a part of the time1 undermine this influence at other times by arbitrary decisions or by a personality so overpowering that it allows no free scope to the child's personality4 #b4 ,study of responsibilities borne at home4 ,some study of the responsibilities that different children bear at home may prove very profitable4 ,while some carry much responsibility there1 others are given no option as to when they shall start to school each day1 or how they shall dress1 or who shall buy their clothes1 or how they shall spend money4 ,thus they are allowed no opportunity to decide things for themselves or to develop independent judgment4 ,interviews with individual parents1 and parents' meetings1 may prove very fruitful along this line4 #c4 ,consideration of the use to be made of advice4 ,in order to teach the nature of self-reliance and the scope of its exercise1 the use to be made of the advice of friends should be a topic for occasional discussion4 ,many a young man and woman hesitates to ask the advice of others for fear that they may be offended if the advice given is not followed4 ,they are justified1 too1 for many persons are offended in this way4 ,the propriety of rejecting advice should be far more generally understood than it is4 ,then children1 as well as young men and women1 would seek it much oftener1 to their lasting benefit4 #d4 ,examples of combinations of modesty with independence4 ,since modesty should be cultivated along with independent judgment1 examples of distinguished men and women who have combined these two qualities should now and then be considered4 #e4 ,observation of habits of pupils in use of judgment4 ,it is well to mark out for special attention such pupils as seem to be untrue to their own experience in judging1 or such as seem to lack the energy to use it as a basis of judgment4 ,for example1 many eleven- and twelve-year-old children in their study of ,excelsior feel that the young man very rashly exposed himself and merited his death4 ,yet some of these will suppress this judgment1 and even praise him as a noble youth1 in order to please their teacher1 or because they think that that is what they ought to say4 ,they lack the boldness to be honest with themselves4 ,again1 very many young people fail to think far enough to weigh and consider4 ,they stop short with the concrete narrative1 failing to judge whether the story is reasonable1 whether the characters are representative1 whether the moral is sound1 etc4 ,thus they omit a portion of the thinking that should be expected of them4 ,whether they are wanting in mental energy or do not realize that this is one of the important parts of study1 they should be taken in hand4 ,right habits of mind are even more important than knowledge4 #f4 ,reports of merits of printed matter1 with discussion4 ,as one means of overcoming the defect just mentioned1 different children1 or different committees of a class1 might examine the same newspapers1 magazines1 articles in reference books1 etc41 and then report on their merits independently of one another1 giving their reasons4 ,the discussions that would be likely to follow as the result of disagreements would be of the highest value4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,memorizing1 ,,as ,a ,,fifth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,all the intellectual value for us of a state of mind depends on our after-memory of it1 says ,professor ,james4 ,footnote3 ,william ,james's ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fdd4 ,importance of memory4 ,in other words1 there would be little object importance in reading1 or reflection1 or travel1 or in experience in general1 if such experience could not later be recalled so as to be further enjoyed and used4 ,want of reference thus far to memory does not1 therefore1 signify any lack of appreciation of its worth4 ,no time is likely to come when a low estimate will be placed upon memory4 ,usual prominence of memorizing as a factor in study1 and the result4 ,how prominent memorizing should be1 however1 is a question of great importance4 ,the four factors of study that have now been considered are the finding of specific aims1 the supplementing of the thought of authors1 the organizing of ideas1 and the judging of their general worth4 ,these four activities together constitute a large part of what is called thinking4 ,memorizing--meaning thereby1 in contrast to thinking1 the conscious effort to impress ideas upon the mind so that they can be reproduced--has usually been a more prominent part of study than all these four combined4 ,the ,jesuits1 for example1 who were leaders in education for two hundred years1 made repetition the mother of studies1 and it is still so prominent1 even among adults1 that the average student regards memorizing as the nearest synonym for the term studying4 ,repetition1 or drill1 however1 is far from an inspiring kind of employment4 ,it involves nothing new or refreshing2 it is mere hammering1 that makes no claim upon involuntary attention4 ,when it is so prominent1 therefore1 it stultifies the mind1 starving and discouraging the student and defeating the main purpose of study4 ,reasons for such prominence4 ,if the work of memorizing is so uninteresting and even injurious1 why is it made so prominent8 ,there are probably numerous reasons2 but only three will here be considered4 ,in the first place1 memorizing is more superficial than real thinking1 and people generally prefer to be somewhat superficial and mechanical4 ,it takes energy to dig into things1 and1 being rather lazy1 we are very often content to remain on the outside of them4 ,children show in many little ways how natural it is to be mechanical4 ,for instance1 rather than think the ideas adverb and present active participle1 they will recognize words ending in ly as adverbs1 and those ending in ing as present active participles4 ,they will class words as prepositions or conjunctions by memorizing the entire list of each1 rather than by thinking the relations that these parts of speech express4 ,young men and women1 likewise1 will memorize demonstrations in geometry rather than reason them out1 and will memorize other people's opinions rather than attempt to think for themselves4 ,even though it is often really easier to rely upon one's own power to think than upon memory1 it takes some depth of nature to recognize the fact and act accordingly4 ,teachers show this tendency as plainly as students4 ,in preparing lesson plans1 for example1 very few will get beyond what is mechanical and formal4 ,the reason that recitations are so largely memory tests1 too1 is that teachers put mere memory questions more easily than they put questions that provoke thought4 ,it is1 therefore1 a well- established natural trait that is back of so much mechanical memorizing4 ,a second reason for the prominence of memorizing is found in the desire to strengthen the memory through its exercise4 ,we know that the arm may be developed by the lifting of weights1 so that it will be stronger for lifting anything that comes in its way4 ,so it has long been a common belief that memory1 as a faculty of the mind1 could be developed by any kind of exercise so as to be stronger for all kinds of recall4 ,many words in spelling1 many dates in history1 many places in geography1 many facts in grammar and even in the more advanced studies1 have been learned rather because they were supposed to develop memory than for any other reason4 ,thus the desire of strengthening memory has considerably increased the amount of memorizing4 ,the belief that memorizing normally precedes thinking rather than follows it1 is a third very important reason for the prominence of memorizing4 ,the most important part of every ,mussulman's training1 says ,batzel1 is to learn the ,koran1 by which must be understood learning it by heart1 for it would be wrong to wish to understand the ,koran till one knew it by heart4 ,footnote3 ,batzel1 ,the ,history of ,mankind1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bah4 ,we hold no conscientious scruples against understanding statements before attempting to memorize them2 but one might think that we did1 for our practice in memorizing ,scripture generally corresponds to that of the ,mussulman in learning the ,koran4 ,i venture to affirm1 also1 that the average student habitually begins the study of his lessons by memorizing1 with the expectation of doing whatever thinking is necessary later4 ,the average teacher conducts recitations in the same manner4 ,there is the defense for this practice1 too1 in the fact that it seems logical to get the raw materials for reflection into our possession before trying to reflect upon them4 ,the result1 however1 is that a surprisingly small amount of thinking is done2 for the memorizing requires so much time and energy that1 in spite of good intentions1 the thinking is postponed for a more convenient season until it constitutes an insignificant part of study1 while memorizing1 the drudgery of study becomes its main factor4 ,how this prominence may be reduced4 ,if it is possible to reduce the prominence of mechanical memorizing1 it is highly desirable to do so1 for it is unreasonable to defeat the ends of education in the attempt to educate4 ,let us see how this may be accomplished4 #a4 ,by providing more motivation4 ,there is no complete cure for our tendency toward the superficial and mechanical1 due to mental laziness2 the defect is too deep4 ,yet to the extent that we increase our motive for effort a cure is found4 ,live purposes give force2 they make one earnest enough to fix the whole attention upon a task1 and to determine to get at the heart of it2 they deepen one's nature4 ,full concentration of attention1 due to interest and exercise of will power1 is one of the chief conditions of rapid memorizing4 ,some of the ways in which such purposes may be supplied have already been discussed in ,chapter ,,iii4 #b4 ,by abandoning attempts to strengthen the general power of memory4 ,in the second place1 we can afford to abandon all attempts to develop the general power of memory4 ,the power of various crude materials to retain impressions that are made upon them varies greatly according to their nature4 ,jelly1 for instance1 has little such power2 sand has little more2 clay possesses it in a higher degree1 and stone in a far higher still4 ,but whatever persistence of impressions a given lot of any one of these materials may possess1 it can never be changed1 it is a fixed quantity4 ,the same holds in regard to the brain matter4 ,some men have brains that retain almost everything4 ,professor ,james tells1 ,footnote3 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ffj4 for instance1 of a ,pennsylvania farmer who could remember the day of the week on which any date had fallen for forty-two years past1 and also the kind of weather at the time4 ,he tells further of an acquaintance who remembered the old addresses of numerous ,new ,york ,city friends1 addresses that the friends had long since moved from and forgotten2 nothing that this man had ever heard or read seemed to escape him4 ,other persons1 on the other hand1 possess little power to retain names1 dates1 quotations1 and scattered facts2 their desultory memory1 as it is called1 is very poor4 ,but whatever native retentive power any particular brain happens to have1 can never be altered4 ,the general persistence of impressions of each person is a physiological or physical power depending on the nature of his brain matter1 and it is invariable4 ,no amount of culture would seem capable of modifying a man's general retentiveness1 ,footnote3 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ffc4 says ,james4 ,again1 ,there can be no improvement of the general or elementary faculty of memory4 ,footnote3 ,talks to ,teachers1 p4 #abc4 ,our desultory memories1 in other words1 are given to us once for all4 ,it is commonly supposed1 on the contrary1 that persons who memorize a great deal1 such as actors1 greatly strengthen their general memory in that way4 ,i have carefully questioned several mature actors on the point1 says ,james1 and all have denied that the practice of learning parts has made any such difference as is alleged4 ,footnote3 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ffd4 ,actors certainly do increase their ability to memorize certain kinds of subject-matter4 ,any one who has much practice in learning lists of names1 even1 is likely to increase his ability for that and similar tasks1 just as one who learns to play tennis well is aided thereby in playing baseball4 ,the reason for such improvement1 however1 is found largely1 if not wholly1 in improvement in one's method of work1 as will be made clear later1 rather than in any increase in general retentive power4 ,while the question of improving the memory is somewhat in dispute1 ,footnote3 ,see ,educational ,review for ,june1 #aijh4 and some psychologists assert that any kind of memorizing will have some effect on all other kinds1 it is safe to say that mere exercise of memory is1 for all practical purposes1 useless as a means of strengthening general memory4 ,only those things1 therefore1 should be memorized that are intrinsically worthy of being reproduced4 #c4 ,by improving the method of memorizing4 ,even though a person's native retentive power cannot be improved1 the skill with which he uses whatever power he has can be increased4 ,men who lift pianos find the work very difficult at first2 but soon it becomes reasonably easy4 ,the greater ease is not due to any marked increase in strength1 but rather to increased skill in using strength4 ,it is due to improvement in method2 they learn how4 ,so it may be with memorizing4 ,a large portion of such work is usually awkward1 consisting of repetitions that consume much time and energy4 ,but it is possible so to improve the method that memory tasks will occupy comparatively little time4 ,how facts are recalled4 ,before discussing ways in which the method of memorizing can be improved1 it is necessary to consider how facts are recalled4 ,impressions are not stored away in the brain1 and afterward recalled1 in an isolated state1 or independently of one another4 ,on the contrary1 they are more or less intimately related as they are learned1 and recall always takes place through association of some sort4 ,whatever appears in the mind must be introduced2 and1 when introduced1 it is as the associate of something already there4 ,footnote3 ,james's ,talks to ,teachers1 p4 #aah4 ,the breakfast ,i ate this morning recalls the persons who sat around the table2 memory of one of those persons reminds me of a task that ,i was to attend to to-day2 that task suggests the fact that ,i must also go to the bank to get some money1 etc4 ,thus every fact that is recalled is marshaled forth by the aid of some other that is connected with it1 and which acts as the cue to it4 ,this is so fully true that there is even the possibility of tracing our sequence of ideas backward step by step as far as we wish4 ,the laws of association govern1 in fact1 all the trains of our thinking which are not interrupted by sensations breaking on us from without1 says ,james4 ,footnote3 ,ibid4 ,how method of memorizing may be improved4 ,since any idea is recalled through its connection with other ideas1 the greater the number and the closeness of such relations1 the better chance it stands to be reproduced4 ,improvement in one's method of memorizing1 in other words1 must consist mainly in increasing the number and closeness of associations among facts4 ,a list of unrelated words is extremely difficult to remember2 every additional relation furnishes a new approach to any fact2 and1 the closer this relation1 the more likely it is to cause the reproduction4 #a4 ,by more of less mechanical association4 ,even the simplest associations1 that are largely mechanical1 may be important aids to memory4 ,for example1 it is much easier to learn the telephone number #abcf by remembering that the sum of the first three numbers forms the fourth than by memorizing each figure separately4 ,teacher is a word whose spelling often causes trouble2 but when teach is associated with each1 which is seldom misspelled1 the difficulty is removed4 ,there and their are two words whose spelling is a source of much confusion2 but it is overcome when there is associated with where and here1 and their with her1 your1 our1 etc4 ,sight1 site1 and cite are still worse stumbling-blocks in spelling2 but the difficulty is largely overcome when sight is firmly associated with light and night1 site with situation1 and cite with recite4 ,the association of the sound of a word with its meaning is an important help in remembering the meanings of some words1 as rasping1 for example4 ,professor ,james1 ,i believe1 tells of some one who forgot his umbrella so often that he practiced associating umbrella with doorway until the two ideas were almost inseparable4 ,then1 whenever he passed through a doorway on his way out of doors1 he was reminded to take his umbrella along4 ,while there might be some disadvantages in this particular association1 it forcibly suggests the value of association in general4 ,the various mnemonic systems that have been so widely advertised have usually been nothing more than plans for the mechanical association of facts4 ,sometimes1 to be sure1 it has been more difficult to remember the system than to memorize the facts themselves2 yet they1 too1 give witness to the value of association4 ,i once asked a thirteen-year-old girl1 in a history class1 when ,eli ,whitney lived4 ,she gave the exact month and day1 but failed to recall either the year or the part of the century1 or even the century4 ,her answer showed plainly that her method of study was doubly wrong2 for she not only offended against relative values in learning the month and day while forgetting the century1 but she revealed no tendency to associate ,whitney's invention with any particular period of history4 ,even cross-questioning brought no such tendency to light4 ,she was depending on mere retentiveness to hold dates in mind4 ,the habit of memorizing facts in this disconnected way is common among adults as well as children1 and as a remedy against it the student should form the habit of frequently asking himself the question1 ,with what am ,i associating this fact or idea8 ,in contrast with associations that are more or less mechanical1 there are vital associations that are possible in all studies containing rich subject-matter4 #b4 ,by close thought association4 7#a7 ,through attention to the outline4 ,early association of the principal ideas1 or early recognition of the outline of thought1 is perhaps the most important of these4 ,one can proceed sentence by sentence1 or bit by bit1 in memorizing as in thinking1 adding one such fragment after another until the whole is learned4 ,but the early recognition of the main ideas in their proper sequence is far superior4 ,these essentials give peculiar control over the details by grouping them in an orderly manner and furnishing their cue so that the whole is more easily memorized4 ,this is true even in the case of verbal memorizing1 as is evidenced by a certain minister quoted by ,professor ,james4 ,as for memory1 mine has improved year by year1 except when in ill-health1 like a gymnast's muscle4 ,before twenty it took three or four days to commit an hour-long sermon2 after twenty1 two days1 one day1 one-half day1 and now one slow analytic1 very attentive or adhesive reading does it4 ,but memory seems to me the most physical of intellectual powers4 ,bodily ease and freshness have much to do with it4 ,then there is great difference of facility in method4 ,i used to commit sentence by sentence4 ,now ,i take the idea of the whole1 then its leading divisions1 then its subdivisions1 then its sentences4 ,footnote3 ,james1 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ffh4 ,thus early attention to organization is a large factor in memorizing1 as in study that aims principally at comprehension of the thought4 ,where good organization is wanting1--as in tracing lessons in geography1 and other mere tests of facts1--this aid to memorizing is lacking1 and one must depend more upon brute memory power4 ,on the other hand1 where the portions of one's knowledge have become so closely interrelated and so well organized that they form a well-knit system of thought1 one's ability to remember may be surprising4 ,spencer and ,darwin were examples of men whose ideas were thus organized4 ,neither of them possessed phenomenal memories to start with2 but their observations so generally found a group of close relations to sustain them1 and these groups were associated with one another in such a close and orderly way1 that the outline of the whole could be easily surveyed1 and any fact could be quickly reproduced1 just as any book can be speedily found in a well-organized library4 ,thus1 as we grow older1 if the organization of our knowledge is improving1 the power of reproducing it will likewise be increasing4 7#b7 ,through comparisons4 ,comparisons are another means of establishing valuable thought connections4 ,study by topics1 also1 furnishes special opportunity for comparisons4 ,it is generally better1 says ,james ,baldwin1 to learn what different writers have thought and said concerning that matter of which you are making a special study4 ,not many books are to be read hastily through4 ,footnote3 ,james ,baldwin1 ,the ,book ,lover1 p4 #dc4 ,koopman likewise declares1 ,a single trial will prove to any student the superiority1 in interest1 of the topical and comparative over the chronological and consecutive method of studying history4 ,footnote3 ,koopman1 ,mastery of ,books1 p4 #dc4 ,again1 ,the student who has not known the pleasure of reading all the works of an author1 as a study in personality1 has a great source of enjoyment still before him4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 p4 #dd4 ,many persons have the feeling that it is a moral duty1 after having begun a book1 to read it through4 ,here is the recommendation that our reading for a time converge to one point2 that we find1 for example1 what several psychologies have to say on one topic1 such as memory1 rather than read one psychology from cover to cover4 ,the value of comparison for thoroughness has already been emphasized4 ,its value from the view-point of memory is great1 not only because it insures more lasting impressions due to increased interest1 as just suggested1 but also because each new comparison1 while reviewing1 also establishes new and closer associations among old ideas4 ,memorizing of ,kipling's ,seal ,lullaby4 ,according to the above1 we can best memorize by establishing whatever associations seem interesting and reasonable4 ,take1 for instance1 ,kipling's ,seal ,lullaby3-- ,oh6 ,hush thee1 my baby1 the night is behind us1 ,and black are the waters that sparkled so green4 ,the moon1 o'er the combers1 looks downward to find us ,at rest in the hollows that rustle between4 ,where billow meets billow1 there soft be thy pillow2 ,ah1 weary wee flipperling1 curl at thy ease6 ,the storm shall not wake thee1 nor shark overtake thee1 ,asleep in the arms of the slow-swinging seas4 ,the music of the rhythm leads one to read it aloud from time to time4 ,the first two lines are an announcement of bedtime2 the next three tell where the resting place is1 and the last three give assurance of safety--that is the outline4 ,any one has often observed how black the waters become as night approaches1 and the picture is vividly recalled as the first couplet is read4 ,combers is almost a strange word1 but its use makes its meaning reasonably clear4 ,is there a cradle of some sort8 ,and a good pillow1 too8 ,is there any tenderness indicated on the part of the mother8 ,any pet names applied8 ,what dangers might cause uneasiness8 ,which is the most beautiful part8 ,what lullabies of our childhood does this recall8 ,how does this one compare in beauty with ,rock-a-bye-baby8 ,let us sing each1 in order to judge4 ,what marked contrast is there between the two1 in the latter part8 ,i first ran across this lullaby in company with two friends1 to each of whom it was entirely new4 ,it appealed to us so strongly that we read it aloud several times and talked it over4 ,we considered some questions such as the above1 and compared it with ,rock-a-bye-baby1 disagreeing somewhat in our opinions4 ,when we left it1 each of us nearly or quite knew it by heart1 although we had scarcely thought of trying to memorize it4 ,in this way the association of ideas with one another1 particularly with things that have been long cherished1 is a very valuable aid to memory4 ,where the fault in cramming lies4 ,to some persons this method of memorizing through association of ideas will seem very slow4 ,it must be acknowledged that there is a more rapid way1 called cramming4 ,every mature student has found that1 under great pressure1 he can commit to memory the substance of thought1 and even the words1 for an astonishing amount of matter4 ,the difficulty is1 however1 that it will hold only up to a certain hour1 the hour after examination1 for example2 then it goes so rapidly that one can fairly feel it slipping away4 ,such rapid memorizing is a witness to the value of very close attention in study2 but the rapid escape is testimony to the necessity of a closer association of facts4 ,owing to undue haste the ideas are crowded into the memory without becoming intimately related1 or tied together1 in numerous ways4 ,then1 when some part is forgotten1 as is sure to happen1 the other parts1 being unrelated to it1 offer no cue for its reproduction4 ,thus one part after another is lost2 and1 even though the ideas are closely related by nature1 the lack of appreciation of such relationship on the part of the student allows the whole to escape as rapidly as mere lists of facts4 ,to be firmly remembered1 either a great amount of drill is necessary1 or else the ideas must be assimilated1 and assimilation cannot be hurried in this manner4 ,the principal means of making mechanical memorization less prominent4 ,the ordinary plan of study1 by which memorizing precedes thinking1 results1 as we have seen1 in crowding out thinking by leaving little time and energy for it4 ,memorizing thus becomes a substitute for thinking1 and makes study an extremely dull task4 ,this is an inversion1 however1 of the true order4 ,if thinking is made to precede conscious attempts to memorize1 the nourishing character of study is assured1 and direct attempts at memorizing become largely unnecessary1 because most of the memorizing has already been accomplished unconsciously4 ,in other words1 memorizing then becomes a by-product of thinking1 instead of a substitute for it4 ,we often regret the prominence of memorizing in study1 and here is probably the principal means of reducing it4 ,there will be less of it1 to the extent that we do more thinking2 and there will be far more thinking if we put thinking first in time1 thereby making it first in importance4 ,i once saw ,kipling's ,seal ,lullaby presented to seven-year-old children4 ,the teacher read it aloud from the blackboard1 then the class read it4 ,then the class set to work to memorize it1 a line or two at a time4 ,this was a good example of bad method1 for adults as well as for children4 ,if they had planned first to enjoy the poem by trying to read it several times aloud with expression1 by talking it over1 illustrating it and singing it1 the memorizing would have taken care of itself4 ,as it was1 their teacher's haste to have it learned1 amounted to a direct advocacy of the principle of cramming2 for they were attempting to memorize through force rather than through association of ideas4 ,one reason older students practice cramming to such an extent is that they have never been fully taught a better method2 the schools have never fully stood for a better method of memorizing4 ,so long as memorizing is put first in time1 and therefore in importance1 those persons who have quick memories will be held up as the ideal students1 whether they have higher abilities or not4 ,quick memories1 however1 are poor educators indeed unless they are coupled with unusual earnestness and energy4 ,with all classes of students1 therefore1 the thinking should habitually precede attempts to memorize4 ,examples of improvement in memory through closer attention and better method4 ,from all that has been said1 it is plain that how to memorize is closely bound up with the question when to memorize4 ,we are now ready to appreciate the statement that good memorizing is really good thinking1 and that improvement in memory is mainly improvement in attention and in method of thinking4 ,this is in general true1 even in spite of some opinions to the contrary4 ,thurlow ,weed1 the journalist and politician1 for example1 greatly increased his ability to remember1 and attributed the improvement to an increase in his general power of memory1 due to its exercise4 ,he relates his experience in the following words3-- ,my memory was a sieve4 ,i could remember nothing4 ,dates1 names1 appointments1 faces--everything escaped me4 ,i said to my wife1 ,catherine1 ,i shall never make a successful politician1 for ,i cannot remember1 and that is a prime necessity of politicians4 ,my wife told me ,i must train my memory4 ,so1 when ,i came home that night1 ,i sat down and spent fifteen minutes trying silently to recall with accuracy the principal events of the day4 ,i could remember but little at first2 now ,i remember that ,i could not then recall what ,i had for breakfast4 ,after a few days' practice ,i found ,i could recall more4 ,events came back to me more minutely1 more accurately1 and more vividly than at first4 ,after a fortnight or so of this1 ,catherine said1 ,why don't you relate to me the events of the day1 instead of recalling them to yourself8 ,it would be interesting1 and my interest in it would be a stimulus to you4 ,having great respect for my wife's opinion1 ,i began a habit of oral confession1 as it were1 which was continued for almost fifty years4 ,every night1 the last thing before retiring1 ,i told her everything ,i could remember that had happened to me1 or about me1 during the day1 ,i generally recalled the dishes ,i had had for breakfast1 dinner1 and tea2 the people ,i had seen1 and what they had said2 the editorials ,i had written for my paper1 giving her a brief abstract of them4 ,i mentioned all the letters ,i had sent and received1 and the very language used1 as nearly as possible2 when ,i had walked or ridden--,i told her everything that had come within my observation4 ,i found ,i could say my lessons better and better every year1 and instead of the practice growing irksome1 it became a pleasure to go over again the events of the day4 ,i am indebted to this discipline for a memory of somewhat unusual tenacity1 and ,i recommend the practice to all who wish to store up facts1 or expect to have much to do with influencing men4 ,footnote3 ,quoted by ,james1 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ffe4 ,professor ,james comments on this experience as follows3-- ,i do not doubt that ,mr4 ,weed's practical command of his past experiences was much greater after fifty years of this heroic drill than it would have been without it4 ,expecting to give his account in the evening1 he attended better to each incident of the day1 named and conceived it differently1 set his mind upon it1 and in the evening went over it again4 ,he did more thinking about it1 and it stayed with him in consequence4 ,but ,i venture to affirm pretty confidently444 that the same matter1 casually attended to and not thought about1 would have stuck in his memory no better at the end than at the beginning of his years of heroic self-discipline4 ,he had acquired a better method of noting and recording his experiences1 but his physiological retentiveness was probably not a bit improved4 ,footnote3 ,james1 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fff4 ,again1 as to the memorizing of facts by actors1 ,professor ,james says3-- ,what it has done for them is to improve their power of studying a part systematically4 ,their mind is now full of precedents in the way of intonation1 emphasis1 gesticulation2 the new words awaken distinct suggestions and decisions2 are caught up1 in fact1 into a preexisting network1 like the merchant's prices or the athlete's store of records1 and are recollected easier1 although the mere native tenacity is not a whit improved1 and is usually1 in fact1 impaired by age4 ,it is a case of better remembering by better thinking4 ,similarly when schoolboys improve by practice in ease of learning by heart1 the improvement will1 ,i am sure1 be always found to reside in the mode of study of the particular piece 7due to the greater interest1 the greater suggestiveness1 the generic similarity with other pieces1 the more sustained attention1 etc41 etc47 and not at all to any enhancement of the brute retentive power4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 p4 #ffd4 ,the prominence of drill4 ,it still remains to consider the extent to which mere repetition or drill should be prominent4 ,some help toward an answer may be found in certain recent investigations into the value of drill1 and in certain recent improvements in method4 ,spelling1 arithmetic1 and language being the subjects that have required the largest amount of drill1 these will be the principal studies here considered4 ,dr4 ,o4 ,p4 ,cornman in his ,spelling in the ,elementary ,school recounts some very interesting investigations into the value of drill in that subject4 ,in two schools1 each containing the usual eight grades1 the use of the spelling book and home lessons in the subject were abandoned for a period of three years4 ,at the same time the period which had been devoted to studying and reciting in spelling in school was omitted from the school program1 making the mastery of spelling entirely an incidental matter4 ,the results thus obtained were then compared with the results previously obtained in spelling in those two schools1 and also in a number of other schools that devoted from ten to fifty minutes daily to spelling4 ,the conclusion reached was that the spelling drill as at present administered throughout the country adds little or nothing to the effectiveness of the mere incidental teaching of spelling2 ,footnote3 ,cornman1 ,spelling in the ,elementary ,school1 p4 #ff4 or1 again1 that it is of so little importance as to be practically negligible4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 p4 #fe4 ,this result may have been due to a considerable extent to poor texts in spelling and to the ineffective methods of drilling used4 ,a large portion of the time spent on arithmetic in the first six grades is usually occupied with drill4 ,some schools devote a full fifth of their time to this study1 thus making the drill in arithmetic very prominent4 ,it is commonly supposed that so much repetition greatly improves the results4 ,yet1 according to investigations undertaken by ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,stone1 a large amount of time spent on arithmetic is no guarantee of a high degree of efficiency4 ,if one were to choose at random among the schools with more than the median time given to arithmetic1 the chances are that he would get a school with an inferior product2 and1 conversely1 if one were to choose among the schools with less than the median time cost1 the chances are about equal that he would get a school with a superior product in arithmetic4 ,footnote3 ,stone1 ,arithmetical ,abilities3 ,some ,factors ,determining ,them1 p4 #fb4 ,such conclusions as these give ground for suspicion of any very large amount of drill1 even in these drill subjects2 it involves too much waste4 ,one important reason for the waste is the fact that drills usually are uninteresting or lack motive1 and on that account attention lags1 until one learns slowly or not at all4 ,it is true that one can and ought to will to do certain necessary things4 ,but even adults are so made that an act of will insures close attention for only a moment at a time1 then attention lags again2 sustained attention is assured only when the work undertaken is subordinated to some real interest1 so that attention is involuntary4 ,recent advances in method of studying language offer further suggestions in regard to the advisable prominence of drill4 ,in the study of modern languages1 for example1 it used to be the custom to depend largely upon drill for the mastery of a vocabulary1 and of the forms of the verbs1 nouns1 and other parts of speech4 ,likewise in teaching children to read ,english it was customary for much drill on new words to precede the actual use of such words in reading4 ,now much more rapid progress is effected both in modern languages and in our vernacular by greatly increasing the amount of matter read and decreasing1 correspondingly1 the quantity of drill4 ,the suggestion1 therefore1 is here made that not only the extensive drills of former times involve much waste1 but also that they are probably unnecessary4 ,further than that1 since a closer and more abundant association of facts has already eliminated a large amount of drill1 it may be expected that the good work of elimination will go on much farther4 ,very extensive drills in the future1 therefore1 do not promise to be a recommendation for the teacher who is responsible for employing them2 they will be the resort of those persons who lack the energy or ability to do a higher kind of work1 that is1 to think4 ,we need not congratulate ourselves1 however1 that drills will ever disappear entirely2 some drill1 like some punishments for children1 will probably always be in place1 and a considerable amount is still necessary4 ,we must expect a fair amount because we shall probably never be bright enough to make the associations of ideas fully take the place of review by drill4 ,in particular it must be remembered that those portions of our knowledge that we expect to use daily must become second nature to us1 or be reduced to habit2 that means that many facts must become familiar enough to be reproduced instantly without effort4 ,that is the case1 for example1 with the multiplication table4 ,thoughtful association is only a good beginning in the formation of habits2 repetition also has a very important place1 which must be continued until the knowledge stands at our command without thinking4 ,,the ,,ability ,,of ,,children ,,to ,,memorize ,,by ,,thinking ,the crucial question4 ,no one doubts the ability of children to memorize2 that is the one thing that they have always been known to be able to do4 ,one argument for teaching them foreign languages as well as many things unintelligible to them now1 but possibly useful later1 is that they can learn them so easily4 ,that is the ground also1 on which much verbatim memorizing of literature and ,scripture1 that they could not hope soon to appreciate1 has been required of them4 ,the crucial question in this connection1 therefore1 is not1 ,can children memorize8 but rather1 ,are they capable of more than mechanical memorizing1 or learning by rote8 ,can they think well enough to memorize largely through association of ideas1 like older persons8 ,children's ability to memorize by thinking4 ,the answer to this question has already been practically given4 ,it has been shown that children can conceive specific purposes2 can supplement the thought of authors2 can measure the relative importance of facts well enough to establish fair organization among them2 and can judge the soundness and general worth of statements4 ,they not only can do these things1 but they normally do do them2 their present daily lives constantly call for these several kinds of mental activity4 ,these several factors1 however1 largely compose the activity of associating ideas with one another1 or of thinking4 ,children can1 therefore1 memorize through thinking1 just as naturally as adults can4 ,the desirable prominence of such memorizing in childhood4 ,while very extensive drills are perhaps generally recognized as questionable in the case of adult students1 there is a tendency to regard them as entirely proper in childhood4 ,and the helplessness of children--in spite of frequent little rebellions on their part--prevents the establishment of a contrary conviction4 ,we admit that a considerable amount of drill is guaranteed to children through the three ,r's and spelling1 whether any one approves of it or not4 ,but what about much beyond this minimum8 ,shall the teacher willingly increase the amount by neglecting possible associations within those four subjects1 and also by requiring much memorizing of literature and facts in other subjects that cannot be appreciated at the time8 ,or shall she regard the close association of ideas as the normal activity of children and a great quantity of drill and rote learning as at least verging on the abnormal and the unhealthy8 ,these are questions of great importance in the instruction of children4 ,it seems safe to affirm that1 in general1 there are the same reasons for regarding drill and thoughtless memorizing as an evil--though to some extent a necessary one--in childhood as in adult life4 ,indeed1 if there be any difference1 the evil is probably greater in childhood1 for drill furnishes no nourishment to childhood1 while that is peculiarly the period of growth1 when abundance of nourishment is most important4 ,granted that the ability of children to memorize things that do not brighten the eye is striking1 it must be remembered that their mental and moral growth in numerous directions is also striking4 ,it is far more important that their spiritual welfare as a whole be provided for--as live ideas lying within their sphere of experience can be made to provide for it--than that they starve themselves now for the sake of storing up material for the future4 ,the latter plan shows a very low estimate of child-nature1 and a misapprehension of the relation of the present to the future4 ,aside from this1 it is in the elementary school that children must mainly acquire their permanent habits of study2 the methods of work there acquired will not be made over on entering the high school or college4 ,if they there become accustomed to beginning their lessons by memorizing1 and to memorizing words without appreciating their import1 the chances are good that they will have the same habits later4 ,why not1 if there is anything in habit8 ,at least1 they will have much to overcome if they reform4 ,on the other hand1 if they there begin the mastery of lessons by studying the thought1 and memorize largely through the association of ideas1 they are likely to continue that plan later4 ,by thus becoming thoughtful in regard to childish matters1 they give best promise of being thoughtful on larger subjects later4 ,in all these remarks there is no intention of making philosophers out of children2 but there is a feeling of the necessity of preserving and developing their live-mindedness4 ,opposition to this feeling indicates that children are not expected to do much thinking even in their own sphere of experience4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,memorize ,,properly ,other things being equal1 the depth and hence the permanence of impressions varies as the degree of attention varies4 ,for example1 if a child's whole attention is given to a name1 or a date1 or the spelling of a word1 he may retain it in memory after having heard it only once2 otherwise it may have to be repeated several times4 #a4 ,need of concentration of attention1 and method of securing it4 ,children1 however1 easily fall into the securing it4 habit of dividing their attention between work and play1 so that half of their time is wasted2 yet they labor under the impression that there is much virtue merely in spending time on lessons4 ,divided attention is not confined to children1 either4 ,it is frequently observed that announcements made before large schools are never understood rightly by all1 simply because there are always some who are thinking partly of something else4 ,a certain professor of ,english in one of our large universities has for years been in the habit of dictating the following directions1 with illustrations1 to his students beginning composition3 ,fold the paper lengthwise from right to left1 leaving the single edge to your right hand4 ,endorse on the first three lines4 ,do not use abbreviations in writing the date4 ,omit all punctuation1 or1 if you punctuate1 use commas at ends of lines and after date of month4 ,in classes ranging from forty to seventy-five persons1 as many as #ij per cent have failed to follow these directions4 ,what better proof is needed of common laxness of attention8 ,to remedy this evil among children teachers would do well to refer much less to the time spent in study and much more to the kind of attention given4 ,more than that can be done4 ,children are often directed to pay close attention1 or to concentrate their attention fully1 sometimes without comprehending the meaning of the command1 and more often without knowing what steps to take in order to obey4 ,both difficulties can be partially overcome by fixing time limits to tasks1 even in the lower grades4 ,for example1 two minutes can be announced as the limit for reading a half page in the second reader4 ,under that stimulus the children will do their best2 and when they have undergone several such tests successfully1 reference to these tests will explain what is meant by close attention2 reference to their successes also will instill confidence that they know how to give close attention1 for they can do again what they have already frequently done4 ,the dawdling that is so common among children is partly due to lack of an ideal1 and such time limits should be resorted to somewhat frequently in order to keep the ideal fresh in mind1 as well as to cultivate confidence that the ideal can be realized4 ,military governments often obtain undivided attention to a remarkable degree1 showing that attention is a thing that can be cultivated in some directions4 ,similar determination to secure it should be exercised in the school1 only the pressure applied should be of a different kind4 #b4 ,danger of cramming and its avoidance4 ,college students are not the only ones who gulp down facts1 hold them undigested for a few hours1 and then disgorge them4 ,many children study largely in this way in preparation for their daily recitations1 as is shown by the fact that they retain facts a very short time1 even though they seem to know each day's lessons4 ,it is true in spelling1 for example1 and in geography and history4 ,it is true likewise in verbatim memorizing of poetry and ,bible verses on ,sunday mornings4 ,the general remedy for this evil is found in the requirement that ideas be associated1 and as far as possible enjoyed1 before any special attempt is made to memorize4 ,this is most difficult in spelling2 but some associations are possible there1 as suggested 7p4 #afh74 ,it is comparatively easy in geography and history1 after children have received some instruction as to method4 ,it is impossible in verbatim memorizing of literature1 if selections are made that are far beyond children's appreciation4 ,but there is no need of such selections2 there are plenty of poems and ,bible verses that can be at least partly understood and really enjoyed by very young people1 and it is that kind that should be chosen4 ,naturally the thinking that is thus required cannot be expected in large amount from the younger children1 for they will feel and enjoy much more than they can analyze4 ,also1 it should1 perhaps1 be expected very little in memorizing that is entirely voluntary1 as when a poem is learned by some child simply because he likes it4 ,but memorizing that is a part of school work1 and therefore a part of serious study1 should be undertaken in this way1 because it is the right way4 ,the number of associations1 too1 is not so important as the method of study that the child gradually adopts4 #c4 ,ways of leading children to memorize through thinking in study periods4 ,how children study in preparation for the recitation will depend upon how the recitation itself is conducted1 upon what is first called for there and what is most emphasized4 ,the reason that memorizing constitutes the main part of study1 not only in the elementary school1 but in the high school and the college1 is that reproduction has been the principal thing required in the recitations all along the line4 ,it is the character of the recitation1 therefore1 that must first be changed4 ,the questions that are considered in the recitation are the factor of greatest influence4 ,if the children find that the teacher's questions usually begin with what1 or where1 or when1 thereby merely calling for direct reproduction of the substance of text1 she may talk ever so much about right methods of study1 but they will memorize before thinking and without thinking4 ,very many of the questions should test not so much knowledge of the text as the pupil's way of treating the text4 ,the spirit of the teacher's usual general question should be1 ,how have you associated or related these facts8 ,and some of her detailed questions might well be3 ,what object do you see in studying this topic8 ,what statements here need filling out1 and how have you done it8 ,what are the most important ideas here8 ,or the most beautiful8 ,how do these statements remind you of others that you already know8 ,have you found any of these statements questionable8 ,and1 if so1 how8 ,thus the conduct of the recitation will show the kinds of questions that must be expected4 ,gradually the teacher should refrain from putting the questions herself and leave that to the pupils4 ,that becomes very important as they mature2 for how otherwise will they learn to study alone8 ,the questions should include higher forms of comparison far more than is customary4 ,much of the study of geography1 for example1 should consist of the comparison of countries with one another4 ,poems should be compared and grouped4 ,the ,children's ,hour1 ,snow-,bound1 ,evangeline1 and the parable of the ,prodigal ,son taken together reveal a conception of home life that is not obtained by the study of literary selections in an isolated way4 ,so ,burke's three addresses1 ,on ,taxation1 in #aggd1 ,on ,conciliation1 in #agge1 and ,letters to the ,sheriffs of ,bristol1 in #aggg1 throw light on one another and form a unit4 ,such comparisons continually review original facts1 and in that way eliminate much customary drill4 ,preparation for such comparison in the study period properly puts mere memorizing far in the background4 ,the cross lights that different studies throw upon one another through careful correlation--as when literature and history deal with the same topic--are valuable in a similar manner and should be included in the questions that are considered4 ,finally1 when the text is so intolerably dull that it discourages reflection1 instead of stimulating it1--as is not seldom the case1--it very often lies within the teacher's power to accomplish her objects mainly by the use of other books that are supplementary and for reference4 ,this she should do without hesitation4 ,much routine drill on geography text1 for instance1 can be avoided by using geographical readers4 ,pointed questions1 of course1 would be in control here as in other cases4 ,these various thought questions1 coming from teacher and pupils1 should not be reserved until toward the close of the recitation1 to be put then if any time is left4 ,that defeats their object4 ,they should occupy the time from the beginning of the period2 it is the memory questions that should follow1 if there is time and if they are needed4 ,the order in time for the thinking and the special attempt to memorize is one of the most vital matters1 and it is highly important that the recitation itself stand for the order that is expected in private study4 #d4 ,conditions for the best kind of drill4 ,while it is the sign of a weak mind to give great prominence to drill1 some drill is unavoidable4 ,there are two conditions that must be fulfilled in order to secure the best kind4 ,one is that sufficient motive be provided to secure very close attention4 ,the use of motor activity may be an important aid in this direction1 as when children are allowed to walk about and point in locating places in geography1 to dramatize in reproducing literature1 and to use sand and clay in representation of various kinds4 ,emulation is a powerful motive1 but has so many dangers that it should be used sparingly4 ,the cooperative spirit is the kind that the school should cultivate1 and heated competition does not readily lead to cooperation4 ,there is1 however1 much profit and no danger in making comparisons among one's own products4 ,the teacher herself may be one of the most potent factors securing close attention4 ,if she has force and has cultivated the friendship of her pupils until they are anxious to please her1 her appeals to their own wills will not be in vain4 ,if1 in addition1 her skill in handling a class inspires confidence1 she can do much toward conducting her class through drills without waste of time4 ,very many drills are failures mainly because the teacher is a poor manager1 not knowing how to distribute materials quietly and quickly and to assign and supervise work so that all are kept busy4 ,the strong personality1 however1 has its dangers1 also1 for it may carry children through drills instead of letting them carry themselves4 ,in the main1 unless children furnish their own steam when they work with a teacher1 they will have little steam to do work when left to themselves4 ,the healthiest provision for motive in drills is found in the recognition of a given drill as a necessary step toward the accomplishment of some already greatly desired end4 ,a child will willingly practice mixing colors in order to obtain a certain shade1 if he is much interested in painting a certain kind of calendar4 ,and he will gladly drill upon the rendering of a poem1 if he is anxious to surprise his mother with it on her birthday4 ,such subordination of uninteresting tasks to larger purposes is highly educative1 and no one has found the limit to which it can be carried4 ,the second condition of successful drills is that they be short4 ,even under the most favorable circumstances children cannot long remain alert on subject-matter that lacks intrinsic interest4 ,in brief1 therefore1 drills to be effective must be made sharp by the presence of motive1 and must be short4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,using ,,of ,,ideas1 ,,as ,a ,,sixth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,the indefiniteness of the endpoint of study4 ,the student has accomplished much when he has discovered some of the closer relations that a topic bears to life2 when he has supplemented the thought of the author2 when he has determined the relative importance of different parts and given them a corresponding organization2 when he has passed judgment on their soundness and general worth2 and when1 finally1 he has gone through whatever drill is necessary to fix the ideas firmly in his memory4 ,is he then through with a topic1 or is more work to be done8 ,digestion of food is likewise a long process1 the food having to be acted upon in various ways in the mouth1 the stomach1 and the intestines4 ,but with food there is always a certain end to be reached1 called assimilation1 which is the actual changing of its nutriment into the solids and liquids of our bodies4 ,is there a similarly definite end to be reached in the study process8 ,it must be admitted that while we can define this end somewhat sharply in words1 it is very difficult to know when it has been actually reached4 ,many a business man has felt convinced that he understood a certain business project perfectly1 until the outcome has proved the contrary4 ,business failures are largely due to such deception4 ,even highly educated men are often surprised at their want of mastery of questions that they had supposed to be fully within their grasp4 ,socrates spent much of his time bringing such surprises to the promising but overconfident young men of ,athens4 ,robert ,y4 ,hayne1 the distinguished champion of nullification1 no doubt experienced such a surprise when ,webster delivered his great speech on that subject4 ,the actual mastery of subjects is perhaps never complete2 it is only relative4 ,even a child may have as good a grasp of one subject as a philosopher has of another1 and each may be deceived in regard to the extent of his understanding4 ,the common ignorance as to how much study is necessary for the mastery of knowledge is suggested by the common ignorance as to how much work is necessary for the assimilation of food4 ,it takes from three to five hours for food that has been eaten to get beyond the stomach1 and people ordinarily assume that the assimilative process is pretty well completed by that time4 ,the fact is1 however1 that it is then only well begun2 for it requires from ten to twelve hours to dispose fully of a meal1 and most of the work of digestion takes place after the food leaves the stomach4 ,while the assimilation of knowledge is what the student is supposed to aim at1 how much that involves is even less understood4 ,importance of as great definiteness in the endpoint as possible4 ,in the digestion of food our organisms provide for themselves1 so that we do not need to worry greatly over some ignorance of the process4 ,but our responsibility in the assimilation of knowledge is much greater1 for that does not go on uninterruptedly even while we sleep2 it will be carried only so far as we have the energy and insight to take it4 ,that being the case1 it is very easy for one to stop too soon in the study of a topic4 ,for instance1 when a lesson in history has been only memorized1 the digestive process has been carried little further than physical digestion has been taken when food reaches the stomach4 ,that is1 it is barely begun4 ,yet very many young people stop near this point1 and they sometimes even take credit to themselves for getting so far4 ,we might add comprehension of the thought to the work of memorizing and still be far from the end4 ,we can have comprehended and memorized the ,beatitudes1 for example1 and be as free from any effect from them as the proverbial duck's back is from the effect of water4 ,we can pass good examinations in psychology and logic with the same absence of influence4 ,that certainly does not signify assimilation4 ,assimilation means the spiritual nourishment that is received by making new thought homogeneous with one's own thought1 by making it an integral part of one's self4 ,remembering how young people generally study1 it seems probable that many of them spend a large part of their time providing for nourishment that they never get4 ,they do a lot of hard work collecting the raw materials of knowledge without working them over so as to reap either the pleasure or the profit intended4 ,here is where some of the waste in education lies4 ,it is highly important1 therefore1 that the student reach as definite as possible a conception of the endpoint to be attained in study4 ,although the meaning of assimilation may not be perfectly clear1 a few of its characteristics at least may be distinguished1 so that we can feel some certainty as to how far we have got in the process1 and have some notion as to how much more must be done in order to reach the approximate goal4 ,the endpoint accepted in mastery of the useful arts4 ,study of the useful arts1 such as the various trades1 consists of two distinct parts4 ,on the one hand1 facts must be mastered that pertain to the nature of materials1 to methods of using implements or tools1 and to plans tor construction4 ,in cabinet-making1 for example1 the qualities of woods and paints1 the rules for using the saw1 plane1 and chisel1 and the various ideas governing designs for household furniture must all receive attention4 ,in other words1 a considerable body of theory must be acquired4 ,on the other hand1 this theory must find application under particular conditions2 a table must be made out of certain materials1 with certain tools1 according to a certain design4 ,this also involves much thinking2 but1 in addition to all that1 there is execution of theory1 called doing or practice4 ,there is1 further1 a definite relation between these two parts1 for the theory is merely a means to an end4 ,what is wanted is a good product1 and the theory is valuable to the extent that it affects the product4 ,the useful arts1 as studies1 stand1 therefore1 both for theory and for the application or use of theory1 and the latter is the goal4 ,no one thinks of pursuing any one of the trades without including the use of his knowledge in practice as the culminating part of his work4 ,to what extent should other branches of knowledge resemble the useful arts in their combination of knowledge with the use of knowledge8 ,should the use of ideas be their goal8 ,the answer must depend upon one's conception of the purpose of life in general and1 therefore1 of education4 ,the endpoint in the study of other subjects4 ,abilities of various kinds in the animal world find their purpose not in themselves but in adaptation to environment4 ,fear on the part of the rabbit1 for instance1 increases its speed in running1 and in that way protects its life4 ,the bear's strength aids in repelling its enemies1 and the intelligence of both animals finds its purpose both in protection against enemies and in finding food4 ,living1 in the case of animals1 thus means getting on1 and any ability1 whether physical or intellectual1 is of importance to the extent that it makes such getting on successful4 ,the endpoint among animals1 then1 is the use of their powers in effecting adaptation to their environment4 ,man's environment is far broader than that of animals1 being moral and spiritual as well as physical4 ,but his relation to it is substantially the same2 for his success is likewise measured by the degree of adaptation accomplished4 ,human abilities are not mainly valuable in themselves1 but rather as means in securing fuller adaptation1 complete living2 that is1 they are valuable for their use4 ,the end to be attained in education is in full harmony with this idea4 ,the object of education most emphasized in recent years is efficiency1 which means power to accomplish4 ,it presupposes a good degree of intelligence1 the more the better1 but it goes beyond that2 for an efficient person is one who does things4 ,knowledge without the ability to apply or use it leaves one theoretical1 which1 is a term of reproach4 ,the various subjects of instruction recognize the necessity of use very plainly4 ,painting and music1 for example1 contain1 each1 a large body of theory4 ,they also include an abundance of practice1 a practice1 too1 that centers in the betterment of man's condition4 ,literature deals largely with ideals1 presenting the theory of living4 ,but this theory is valuable chiefly as a guide to conduct4 ,the student of literature who professes admiration for its ideas without applying them to himself has derived only a small part of the benefit from it that he should4 ,literature is like religion in this respect4 ,the latter emphasizes the worth of insight into divine truth and of faith in ,god2 but both this insight and faith are to find their fruitage in conduct4 ,pure religion and undefiled before ,god and the ,father is this1 says the apostle1 to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction1 and to keep himself unspotted from the world4 ,footnote3 ,james #a1 #bg4 ,similarly1 a study of philosophy that does not end in affecting our own philosophy of life1 and thereby our conduct1 has been unsuccessful1 even though examinations have been successfully passed4 ,pure science is knowledge that has been proved and properly organized2 and it is highly desirable that specialists devote their lives to its further development4 ,the main reason1 however1 is that its applications may finally be more abundant2 and science used for the purpose of education must recognize the relation of such knowledge to man as one of its integral and prominent parts4 ,so long as efficiency is the recognized purpose of education1 there is little excuse for a young person's studying science apart from its applications1 or pure science4 ,there is some profit in it1 but there is more profit in something better4 ,that kind of study should be left to the specialist4 ,much has been said in times past about art for art's sake1 science for the sake of science1 and knowledge for the sake of knowledge2 but these are vague expressions that will excite little interest so long as the worth of a man is determined by what comes out of him1 by the service he renders1 rather than by what enters in4 ,other branches of knowledge used for educative purposes1 therefore1 resemble the useful arts in the recognition of their bearings on man1 their actual use as the goal in their study4 ,why the using of knowledge as an endpoint in study needs emphasis4 ,it might be unnecessary to emphasize this matter were it not that this conception of study has been reached only after long development and is still actively opposed4 ,the old ,greeks stood for a very different idea4 ,to ,plato1 the use of the intellect for practical purposes was subordinate and almost disgraceful4 ,the summation of existence was to be found in reflection1 and the ambition of the educated man was to escape from the concrete world1 in order to live in the world of abstract truth4 ,many of the monks of the ,middle ,ages resembled the ancient ,greeks in this regard1 desiring to separate themselves as completely as possible from society for the sake of the contemplation of spiritual matters4 ,reflection1 contemplation1 was thus not a means to an end but an end in itself1 and the thinker or dreamer1 rather than the efficient man1 was the ideally educated person4 ,that goal is now condemned for its extreme selfishness2 we want men and women as citizens who are glad to identify themselves with their fellow beings and ambitious for efficient service among them1 not those who conscientiously ignore the world4 ,yet there are still plain tendencies in this direction1 as is seen in the fact that an education that is liberal and cultural is often contrasted with one that is useful as being of a higher order4 ,that alone is liberal education1 says ,cardinal ,newman1 which stands on its own pretensions1 which is independent of sequel1 expects no complement1 refuses to be informed 7as it is called7 by any end or absorbed into any art1 in order duly to present itself to our contemplation4 ,footnote3 ,scope and ,nature of ,university ,education1 p4 #ace4 ,liberal education is something which is desirable1 though nothing come of it2 worth possessing for what it is1 and not merely for what it does4 ,art for art's sake1 rather than art for man's sake1 would thus represent the true spirit of a liberal college course1 in the estimation of this author2 the admission of service to mankind as a prominent purpose1 particularly as its goal1 would deprive it of its liberal character1 and in the same degree expose it to condemnation4 ,that is strange doctrine indeed4 ,liberal is originally a term opposed to narrow and restricted1 and a liberal education might properly be contrasted with the very narrow bread-and-butter kind that aims at the mastery of art without theory4 ,but how the restriction caused by the presence of worthy specific purposes of a thousand kinds is inimical to the broadening effects of study and to its general value is difficult to comprehend4 ,the hypothesis guiding a scientific investigation narrows the work only enough to give it point1 and a well-chosen particular aim will have the same effect on any study4 ,further than that1 the consciousness in advance that any conclusions reached must be tested by actual conditions has only a good influence by nerving us to do our best2 and the actual test is of value in informing us as to the degree of soundness of our ideas4 ,all persons must be shocked by the misfit between what they supposed to be true and what they find by trial to be fact1 before they will waken up and do their best thinking4 ,the superabundance of advice that bachelor uncles and maiden aunts offer in regard to the rearing of children is due to the fact that their theory has not been refined by practice4 ,it is the direct contact with the world in the use of knowledge that reveals the latter's real significance and that converts it into experience2 and it is only the knowledge that becomes experience that really counts in education4 ,again1 in arguing the question of allowing normal schools to grant degrees1 a certain well-known educator declares3 ,where ability to exercise a practical art is concerned1 degrees are or should be valueless4 ,they should be restricted merely to the position of evidences of culture4 ,for this reason normal schools should not grant degrees4 ,footnote3 ,year ,book of ,national ,society for ,scientific ,study of ,education1 #aije1 p4 #ic4 ,our better normal schools--which are the only kind that might be expected to grant degrees--give instruction in literature1 history1 geography1 fine art1 etc41 the same as the degree-conferring colleges4 ,to these subjects the normal school adds the history of education and the principles of education1 which are presumably harmless so long as they are not applied1 and they usually are not4 ,there remain then the subjects that involve practice1 such as special method courses1 applied psychology and practice teaching2 these must be the baneful studies4 ,the good four- year normal school course presumably requires as much thinking and other strenuous work as that of the college4 ,but the presence of the last group of subjects signifies that this study is to culminate in the use of knowledge2 and there's the rub4 ,it is this latter fact that vitiates the course and precludes the cultural effect that a college course insures4 ,if this is a proper interpretation1 it is1 indeed1 strange doctrine4 ,one can understand how carpentry might not have as great a cultural effect as literature2 but one would think that1 if the untested and therefore half-digested thoughts of literature have a certain cultural effect1 the same thoughts might have a fuller refining influence if their meaning and force were more fully realized in the way their use in life might secure their realization2 and one would think that the same might hold in regard to any subject4 ,the difficulty is that there are two opposing notions of culture4 ,on the one hand there are persons who conceive culture to be a refinement that is directly endangered by contact with the realities of life1 for instance by participation in local politics and other social contests1 and by such practice of charity as must be accompanied by physical exertion and bad smells4 ,culture is1 to them1 the name for that serenity and loftiness of mind that can be attained and preserved only by keeping a safe distance from the madding crowd2 and the cultured man is pictured by them as sitting in a comfortable chair1 preferably with a book in his hand1 and rapt in meditation on lofty themes4 ,on the other hand there are those who conceive that culture--if more than a veneer--is a refinement that can be attained only by direct participation in social life4 ,such contact with the world may bring embarrassment1 temptation1 and failure1 as well as their opposites2 but all of these1 instead of debasing1 are the very experiences that purify and make gentle2 they are the fire without which the refining process could not take place4 ,culture means to these people the ennobling effect of such actual struggles upon a person's whole outlook on life and upon his way in general of conducting himself2 and the cultured man is pictured by them as in action1 even with his sleeves rolled up1 engaged in the accomplishment of high purposes4 ,culture is so valuable a quality that each person must determine for himself which of these two conceptions of it is sound1 before he can decide whether the using of knowledge is worthy of being made the goal in study or not4 ,breadth of meaning of the term use4 ,in declaring that the using of knowledge is the proper endpoint in study1 it is important that the breadth of meaning of the term use be held in mind4 ,the application of knowledge in earning a livelihood covers only a small part of what is included4 ,a man is using his knowledge when he is getting inspiration from poetry that he has memorized1 or drawing new conclusions from previously acquired facts4 ,he is using it1 further1 when he entertains his family with it1 or by its means makes himself otherwise agreeable to them4 ,he is using it when it is made to count in the rearing of children1 or in the performance of the manifold duties of membership in a community1 or in worshiping ,god4 ,in short1 it is being used when its content is turned to account in the accomplishment of purposes1 whatever they be1 or is made to function in one's daily adaptation to physical1 moral1 and religious environment4 ,states in the assimilation of knowledge4 ,the student should continually carry in mind the fact that facility in the use of knowledge is the end of his study1 and the only reliable proof of mental assimilation4 ,it is a long road1 however1 to this goal1 and any clearly marked stages that must be passed through in reaching it should be well known1 since they will help the student greatly to keep his bearings and preserve his courage4 ,here are given a few such stages4 #a4 ,collection of crude materials4 ,first1 under the influence of as full a sympathy with the author as possible1 one obtains a fair comprehension of the thought4 ,much supplementing may be necessary to this end1 as well as careful consideration of relative values4 ,this may require one or several perusals of the thought1 according to the difficulty of the subject and to individual ability4 ,proof of comprehension may be given by the expression of the thought in one's own words1 either from memory or with the book open4 ,such study is a comparatively passive kind of work1 calling for subordination of the student to the author1 and amounts to little more than a collection of the crude materials of knowledge4 ,the corresponding stage in the assimilation of food would be1 perhaps1 its preparation and mastication4 #b4 ,selection and reorganization of the profitable portion of these materials4 ,what am ,i getting from this author8 or ,what profit is this material bringing me8 is the principal consideration in the second stage4 ,with the thought of profit uppermost in mind1 the student recalls or further defines any specific purposes of the study that may have occurred to him2 under their guidance he casts aside as non-essential much of what is presented1 and centers his attention on those ideas that seem to have real value for him4 ,these he further re-words1 in order to determine their very essence1 and also carefully weighs4 ,in addition he reorganizes them1 unless their original organization appears to him peculiarly fitting4 ,the self must enter so fully1 in true assimilation1 that neither the author's wording nor his organization is likely to prove satisfying4 ,one will seldom quote another's words or follow his order of treatment when presenting a topic that has been really digested4 ,not seldom the last point made by an author will become the first in the student's mind1 showing how radical the reorganization may be4 ,this step1 requiring much discrimination and exercise of judgment from the learner's own view-point---thereby entirely subordinating the author to the student--requires a high degree of independence4 ,it might be called the profit-drawing stage1 or the stage in which the part that promises profit is extracted4 ,the corresponding step in the assimilation of food is what is technically called digestion1 which is the separation of the nutritious from the waste elements1 or the conversion of food into chyme1 preparatory to assimilation4 #c4 ,translation of this portion into experience4 ,even after a person has determined what portion of the crude materials can be of value to him and has reorganized it in a satisfactory manner1 it may still seem somewhat strange to him1-another person's thought rather than his own4 ,this is an indication that more work must be done1 for assimilation of knowledge1 like assimilation of food1 requires the full identity of the nourishing matter with the self4 ,a thought is not a thought1 says ,dr4 ,dewey1 unless it is one's own4 ,footnote3 ,school and ,society1 p4 #ff4 ,the student may thus far have reached nothing more than a consciousness of facts by themselves1 while consciousness of them as a part of the self is a much more advanced stage4 ,in order to reach this last point the student may find it necessary to review the thought a number of times in various ways1 stating the pertinent questions and their answers4 ,he may also practice making the main points with force1 using them either under imagined or under actual conditions4 ,in such a manner they are tossed about1 overhauled1 and restated1 until a much closer and more abundant association of the ideas with one another and with the past experience of the learner is secured2 he warms up to them until he welds them to himself4 ,as a result a sense of ownership of the knowledge is finally established1 a condition in which one largely loses consciousness of the original wording and1 perhaps1 even of the original source of the thought4 ,the ideas now seem simple and their control easy1 and one enjoys the feeling of increased strength due to real nourishment received4 ,the feeling of ownership is fully justified1 too1 for1 no matter where the thought may have originated1 it has been worked over until it has been given a new color and has received one's own stamp1 the stamp of self4 ,this is the step in which the profitable matter extracted from the crude materials is translated into the learner's own experience2 it corresponds to that part of food assimilation in which the nutritious portion of our food1 secured through digestion1 is made over into the bone1 tissue1 and muscle of the body4 #d4 ,formation of habit4 ,while these steps overlap more or less1 each represents a distinct advance4 ,study of many topics may be allowed to stop at this point1 although it should be understood that assimilation is perhaps never complete1 and that the appreciation of a great thought1 together with the ability to use it1 may continue to grow from year to year4 ,on that account one should expect to review from time to time1 by use and otherwise1 the valuable experiences that have already been mastered through study4 ,certain portions of knowledge1 however1 cannot be left as properly under our control when they have been translated into experience as described4 ,study has thus far brought the student only to the ability to use his knowledge with fair ease consciously1 and extensive portions of knowledge have to be used quite unconsciously2 they must not only become truly ours but they must become second nature to us4 ,in all the trades1 for example1 the many facts about the use of materials and tools1 etc41 must be applied without thinking before skill is attained4 ,the same holds in the fine arts4 ,in grammar1 knowledge of the rules must be carried over into habit before one's speech is safely grammatical4 ,knowledge of the political and moral truths contained in history and literature must likewise be converted into habit before proper conduct is assured4 ,in learning how to study one must fall into the habit of associating ideas1 weighing values1 and carrying points1 unconsciously1 before the subject is properly mastered4 ,ninety-nine hundredths1 or1 possibly1 nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual1 says ,professor ,james1 from our rising in the morning to our lying down each night4 ,our dressing and undressing1 our eating and drinking1 our greetings and partings1 our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede1 nay1 even most of the forms of our common speech1 are things of a type so fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions4 ,footnote3 ,james1 ,talks to ,teachers1 p4 #fe4 ,professor ,james is here referring mainly to motor activity2 but habit is evidently a large factor in all phases of life2 and1 while many of the valuable thoughts assimilated by study probably do not need to be applied unconsciously1 it is safe to say that prominent portions of most branches of knowledge must be converted into habit1 or become second nature1 before we can be said to have reached the desirable endpoint in their pursuit4 ,the extent of this last advance1 in which experience becomes habit1 is indicated by the wide difference that exists between using a correct form of speech consciously and using it unconsciously1 for even years of trial may intervene between the two4 ,repetition by use1 under as nearly natural conditions as possible1 must be the principal means of getting through this fourth step4 ,but such practice should be influenced by certain very important precautions stated by ,professor ,james4 ,he has in mind primarily the formation of moral habits in his suggestions1 but they apply in large measure also to the formation of other habits4 #a4 ,in the acquisition of a new habit1 or the leaving off of an old one1 we must take care to launch ourselves with as strong and decided an initiative as possible4 ,accumulate all the possible circumstances which shall reinforce the right motives2 put yourself assiduously in conditions that encourage the new way2 make engagements incompatible with the old2 take a public pledge1 if the case allows2 in short1 envelop your resolution with every aid you know4 #b4 ,never suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely rooted in your life4 ,each lapse is like the letting fall of a ball of string which one is carefully winding up2 a single slip undoes more than a great many turns will wind again4 #c4 ,seize the very first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make1 and on every emotional prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain4 ,it is not in the moment of their forming but in the moment of their producing motor effects1 that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain4 ,footnote3 ,james1 ,talks to ,teachers1 pp4 #fg-gj4 ,see also ,james1 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chapter ,,iv1 ,habit4 ,the time and labor necessary in real assimilation of knowledge4 ,it is evident that real assimilation of knowledge is a very complex process1 requiring a great amount of time and labor4 ,and be assured1 also1 says ,ruskin1 if the author is worth anything1 you will not get at his meaning all at once--nay1 that at his whole meaning you will not for a long time arrive1 in any wise4 ,footnote3 ,ruskin1 ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,ruskin is here doubtless referring mainly to insight into the thought2 but1 as has been shown1 a point is not assimilated when one merely sees it clearly2 insight into an idea usually precedes experience or ownership of it by a long interval2 and the latter generally precedes habit by another long period4 ,we are familiar with these facts as applied to mechanical subject- matter1 such as the multiplication tables and forms of discourse4 ,we recognize that we must come back to these over and over again if we are to obtain automatic control over them4 ,yet we act as though there was ground for assuming that the more fertile ideas1 which are to be reduced to habits of thought and conduct1 require less energy and patience4 ,there is no justification for any such assumption2 it would seem more reasonable to expect to devote more time to the latter1 rather than less4 ,probably not much knowledge acquired either in school or college is carried through the three or four stages named above2 but it is also true that comparatively little of that knowledge becomes a source of power1 and it is safe to assume that the one fact is at least part explanation of the other4 ,it is highly important1 therefore1 that the student become early reconciled to the fact that the real mastery of knowledge is a long and laborious process4 ,,children',s ,,capacity ,,to ,,include ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,knowledge ,,as ,a ,,factor ,,in ,,their ,,study ,the natural tendency to carry ideas into execution4 ,one of the most attractive baits that can be offered to a discontented1 restless child is to propose that he do something2 and having received such a proposal1 his impatience over delay in its execution shows how closely his nature links doing with thinking and planning4 ,the games of children call for comparatively little study2 yet children's desire to be acting is so dominant that they can scarcely wait to learn the rules before beginning to play4 ,an eight- year-old girl who had been studying at home with her mother complained to a friend1 ,mother doesn't have me do anything6 ,she has had me read and spell and learn arithmetic1 and that's all4 ,it is partly because we have come to appreciate1 in recent years1 this pressing need of doing1 that we have been reforming the elementary school by introducing manual training1 cooking1 and sewing4 ,one of the early surprises and disappointments of children produced by adults is the failure of the latter to carry into practice plans that they have been heard to make1 and ideals that they have professed to admire4 ,having set up specific aims1 such as were suggested in ,chapter ,,iii1 children expect to realize them in practice1 because instinct tells them that the value of theory is found in its application4 ,that is the reason that they so often inquire1 ,what is the use of it8 in connection with their study at school1 and that they disapprove so heartily of any project that won't work4 ,value of this tendency in education4 ,living means substantially the same thing with children as with adults4 ,they have the same general environment as adults2 they study the same large fields of knowledge2 and they likewise find the object of education in efficiency4 ,there are the same reasons1 therefore1 as in the case of more mature students1 for making the using of knowledge the aim of their study4 ,the prospect of applying knowledge is a source of motive for all grades of learners4 ,i have never seen a class more attentive to every detail of its procedure than were a certain group of girls who felt under obligations to eat the strawberry jam that they were making at school4 ,furthermore1 the actual doing of the things imagined is a great clarifier of thought for children1 as is shown in the very extensive use that the school makes of motor activity in numerous studies1 and particularly of dramatizing in literature and history4 ,it is also the most natural test of the practicability of the plans of children1 and on that account a means of developing their soundness of judgment4 ,this is well illustrated by a certain six-year-old girl who was making a doll's dress4 ,after working in a very absorbed way for a time she impatiently exclaimed1 ,i won't have any lace in my sleeves6 ,why not8 asked one of her playmates4 ',cause ,i can't see any way to put it on1 was the reply4 ,one of the chief reasons why the experience of children outside of school is so educative is the fact that their ideas and plans are thus continually corrected by trial4 ,briefly1 therefore1 it is normal for children to carry ideas into execution1 and there is the same need of it as in the case of adults4 ,it might be added that the peculiar ease with which children form habits furnishes a special reason why the conversion of ideas into habits should constitute a very important part of their study4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,children ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,using ,,of ,,knowledge ,a ,,part ,,of ,,their ,,study #a4 ,special recognition of those facts that should be translated into habit4 ,while all of one's knowledge should become familiar enough to form experience1 some of it should be worked over until it is translated into habit4 ,facts of this latter kind should be clearly distinguished from others1 in order that they may receive the special attention due them4 ,the moral truths of literature and history belong plainly to this group4 ,but there are many others1 such1 for instance1 as the picturing of places upon the earth's surface rather than upon maps2 the association of places with their latitudes2 in the case of such a live problem as protective tariff1 the association of the main facts in its history2 the association of our leading transportation routes with the progress of our country2 looking to the evidence in considering the value of statements2 and the accurate and pointed wording of questions and answers4 ,the habits that should be insisted upon in arithmetic are pretty well agreed upon1 such as neatness of written work1 accuracy of oral and written statements1 the statement of a problem in one's own words1 in case the meaning is at all doubtful1 and the use of the approximate answer as a guide in finding the exact answer4 ,but only when the great importance of such procedures is definitely recognized are they likely to receive the attention necessary to convert them into habits4 ,if accuracy of statement were recognized as one of the very valuable habits to be acquired in literature and geography1 as well as in arithmetic1 much more effort would probably be put forth to establish that habit in those studies4 ,rules for thinking and for the expression of thought that should result in habits1 like the rules of grammar1 pervade all the studies1 but until this fact is better established1 and until the principal habits to be expected from each study are more clearly defined1 somewhat as in arithmetic1 there will be much wasted effort in study because important parts of the work will not be carried to completion4 #b4 ,studying for one's own benefit4 ,the average good student scarcely gets beyond the first of the four stages of study outlined1 i4 e41 the collection of the crude materials of knowledge4 ,one very important reason tor this is that he fixes his eyes too intently upon his teacher in the preparation of his lessons2 he studies to satisfy her rather than himself1 as though somehow the school was established for her benefit4 ,this subordination to the teacher is shown in the attitude toward marks2 many a college student1 even1 waits helplessly until he can learn his mark before he knows whether or not he has done well2 he seems to lack any conviction of his own about the matter4 ,the student who feels responsibility primarily to himself1 and therefore bothers little about marks1 is rare4 ,yet the selection of that portion of the subject-matter that promises profit1 and its conversion into experience1 presuppose the ability to subordinate both author and teacher to the self1 indeed to forget about both4 ,no teacher can direct a student just what to select1 or inform him when it has become experience with him2 the real student must have a self big enough to carry that responsibility alone4 ,weakness in this respect manifests itself very early4 ,many a child is so absorbed in his teacher as not to know when he knows a thing until the teacher's approval is given4 ,in some schools probably half of the pupils ten to twelve years of age fall into such a halting1 apologetic frame of mind1 that they would scarcely risk a meal on the accuracy of any statement that they make4 ,in comparison1 the boy who won't study1 who plays hookey on warm spring days in spite of his teacher's warnings1 and who otherwise defies his teacher1 is to be admired2 he is preserving his individuality1 his most important possession4 ,it is largely the teacher's fault if children show no power to discriminate the values of facts to themselves1 and to determine when they know a thing4 ,they will not always show wisdom in their selections1 and will not always be right when they feel sure4 ,a good degree of reliability in these respects is something that has to be acquired by long training4 ,but the spirit of self-reliance is a child's birthright1 and if it is lacking in his study it is because his nature has been undermined4 ,teachers1 therefore1 should take great pains to avoid a dogmatic manner toward children2 they should impress upon them the fact that they are primarily responsible to themselves in their study1 and that teachers are only advisers or assistants in intellectual matters1 and not masters4 ,no doubt many a college student finds it next to impossible to accomplish the second and third stages in study here outlined1 simply because he finds no individual self within him to satisfy2 it has been so long and so fully subordinated to others that it has become dwarfed1 or has lost its native power to react2 on that account independent selection is difficult and the sense of ownership is weak4 #c4 ,means of influencing pupils to use their knowledge4 7#a74 ,the recitation4 ,the principal means on which the teacher must rely for influencing children to include the using of knowledge as a part of their study1 is the recitation4 ,since at least most of the recitation period is necessarily spent in talking1 it might at first seem that it could accomplish little in the way of applying what one learns4 ,but when it is remembered that perhaps the main use of knowledge is found in conversation and discussion1 the situation need not seem so hopeless4 ,the great thing1 then1 is to see that the talk of the class room takes place under as natural conditions as serious conversation and discussion elsewhere1 thus duplicating real life4 ,we know that children may spell words correctly in lists that they will miss in writing letters1 and that they can solve problems in arithmetic correctly in school that seem quite beyond them when accidentally met as actual problems outside4 ,such facts emphasize the truth that only actual life secures a full and normal test of knowledge1 and1 therefore1 that the recitation secures it only to the extent that it duplicates life4 ,here is seen a fundamental weakness of the customary recitation4 ,it tests only the presence of facts in the minds of pupils1 while the outside world tests their ability to use these facts1 which is another and far more difficult matter1 requiring true assimilation4 ,not merely that2 but the customary recitation makes a sympathetic teacher the center of activity1 she putting most of the questions1 interpreting the answers1 foreknowing what the children are trying to say1 and deciding all issues4 ,the children are not expected to offer ideas that are new to any one present1 and they even acknowledge responsibility only to the teacher1 looking toward her1 addressing their statements to her1 and usually endeavoring only to make her hear4 ,all this holds largely in college recitations as well as elsewhere1--in case the students have the privilege of doing anything beyond listening to teachers there4 ,this is an extremely unnatural situation and an inadequate test1 as is indicated by the fact that the replies to the teacher's questions seldom convey clear meaning to strangers present4 ,such recitations secure far less individuality of thought and far less directness and force in its expression than is acceptable anywhere outside of the academic atmosphere4 ,the special importance of having the school periods duplicate life conditions is seen in the fact that the character of the recitation determines the character of the preparation for it4 ,both the child and the more mature student will ordinarily go only so far in preparation as is necessary in order to meet the demands made upon them in class4 ,if1 therefore1 the recitation does nothing more than give a weak test of the presence of facts1 the preparation will include little selection and reorganization of facts and little effort to translate them into experience4 ,how1 then1 should the customary recitation be modified8 ,let the young people come together much of the time for the same purpose that they have in serious conversation outside2 i4e41 not to rehearse or recite1 but to talk over earnestly points that are worth talking over4 ,with an assigned topic for a lesson1 and with a teacher present as adviser and critic1 let them compare their conceptions of what seem to them the principal facts1 supplementing1 rejecting1 and selecting what seems to them fit4 ,the relationship that they would bear toward one another might be the same as in any social gathering2 but since it would be real work and not entertainment that they were attempting1 attention would be centered on a definite subject and remarks would be more pointed4 ,while the teacher would preserve order in the usual fashion1 and might often come to their aid by correcting and advising1 responsibility for taking the initiative and for making fair progress would rest primarily upon the children1 so that they would be adopting an attitude and a method that could be directly transferred to the home and elsewhere4 ,this is the ideal that ,dr4 ,dewey urges in his ,school and ,society when he says3 ,the recitation becomes a social meeting place2 it is to the school what the spontaneous conversation is at home1 except that it is more organized1 following definite lines4 ,the recitation becomes the social clearing house1 where experiences and ideas are exchanged and subjected to criticism1 where misconceptions are corrected1 and new lines of thought and inquiry are set up4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,john ,dewey1 ,school and ,society1 p4 #fe4 ,the recitation then becomes a period where children talk before the teacher rather than to her2 and in questioning and answering one another in a natural way they not only learn pointedness in thinking1 but they increase and test their knowledge by using it4 ,thus they give witness to the truth of ,bacon's words3 ,whosoever hath his mind fraught with many thoughts1 his wits and understanding do clarify and break up in the communicating and discoursing with another2 he tosseth his thoughts more easily2 he marshalleth them more orderly2 he seeth how they look when they are turned into words2 finally1 he waxeth wiser than himself2 and that more by an hour's discourse than by a day's meditation4444,a man were better relate himself to a statue or picture1 than to suffer his thoughts to pass in smother4 ,footnote3 ,bacon's ,essays1 ,of ,friendship4 ,when many of the school periods are occupied in this way1 the lessons are not likely to be prepared with the teacher first in mind2 what the others will say1 what they will accept and reject and enjoy1 as well as what one can one's self present and maintain1 will chiefly occupy the attention4 ,the child will then be selective in his study1 having a view-point of his own2 and he may even practice the forcible presentation of his ideas in the privacy of his study--before a statue or picture if need be4 ,moreover1 with the use of his knowledge in prospect1 he will cease to rely weakly upon his teacher to tell him whether or not he knows1 because he will carry his own standard4 ,there is no reason for assuming that all recitations should be spent in this manner1 nor1 perhaps1 half of them2 and they would not prove highly successful without training on the part of both teachers and pupils4 ,but such a method of procedure should be common1 and it should be fundamental to other study4 ,in fact1 it has succeeded admirably where tried by intelligent teachers4 7#b74 ,the school and home life of the pupil4 ,while the recitation can furnish occasion1 in the way described1 for the first use of knowledge1 its use must be carried much further before a fair degree of assimilation can be assured4 ,for this purpose the community life of the school1 including the conduct of the children toward one another in the schoolroom and on the playground1 may be of great value4 ,a teacher of six-year-old children can1 by close observation1 find many ways in which the morals contained in fairy tales that she tells will apply to their daily lives1 and with skill she can draw their attention to the fact in a helpful manner4 ,so1 any teacher who is earnest and observant of the thought1 speech1 and general conduct of her pupils can find numerous needs for the ideas that have been presented in class4 ,the community life of a school is not very much narrower than that of any ordinary social community1 such as a village2 and certainly in a village the uses of knowledge are without limit1 if one will only find them4 ,if1 in addition to a close watch of the school life1 the teacher finds energy to study the home life of her pupils1 even to visit them in their homes1 so as to become acquainted with their parents and their home conditions1 she can gather many more suggestions for the application of school knowledge4 ,if she then makes mention of such uses at fitting times1 and also as a part of examinations calls upon pupils to report on uses actually made of facts learned1 she can both secure much real use of knowledge acquired at school and at the same time cultivate responsibility for its further use4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,provision ,,for ,a ,,tentative ,,rathee ,,than ,a ,,fixed ,,attitude ,,toward ,,knowledge1 ,,as ,a ,,seventh ,,factor ,,in ,,study4 ,a fixed attitude toward facts and conclusions is harmful in several ways4 ,the following incidents suggest how greatly it interferes with the usefulness of knowledge4 ,reasons why a fixed attitude toward ideas is undesirable4 #a4 ,it interferes with the usefulness of knowledge4 ,a certain man living in one of the suburbs of ,greater ,new ,york was commissioned by his wife to buy some flannel for her at one of the large department stores in the city4 ,she knew exactly what she wanted1 for she had already purchased some of the goods at this store4 ,so she gave her husband a sample1 with the explicit directions1 emphasized1 that the new piece should be of exactly the same quality1 with white edges1 and one yard wide4 ,on arriving at the right counter1 the man delivered his sample and gave his order4 ,but1 after some searching1 the clerk said1 ,the exact thing that you want has all been sold2 but ,i have here just the right piece1 throwing down a bolt1 except that it is slightly coarser4 ,could you take that8 ,recalling his wife's instructions1 the man replied1 ,no1 somewhat doubtfully4 ,after more searching the clerk said1 ,well1 ,i have here a piece of just the desired quality1 and one yard wide1 only it has red edges4 ,could you not use that8 and he threw another bolt down on the counter4 ,again1 remembering the emphasis on the directions received1 the man responded weakly1 ,no1 ,i think not4 ,finally1 after further search1 the clerk produced a third bolt1 with the remark1 ,this will probably suit you4 ,it is the exact quality that you want1 and has white edges4 ,the only objection is that it is not quite a yard wide4 ,can you not take it8 ,when for a third time the hesitating response came1 ,i think not1 the clerk turned away with an expression of disgust for his customer1 mingled with sorrow and pity4 ,although the man had done his best1 he did not feel sure of his wife's approval on his return home4 ,when she asked for his purchase he stated that he had failed to make it1 and explained the circumstances4 ,well1 she replied1 but why didn't you use your own judgment and take one of the other pieces8 ,to which he responded1 ,i understood that ,i was not expected to use any judgment4 ,you strongly emphasized the fact that you wanted material exactly like the sample1 with white edges and just one yard wide4 ,you told me nothing about what was to be made out of the goods4 ,how1 then1 was ,i in a position to do anything more than to follow your exact directions8 ,that ended the discussion2 but the need of less fixedness in instructions given was strongly impressed upon the husband1 and a similar need in the following of instructions was equally impressed upon the wife4 ,they were thus agreed as to the desirableness of some adaptability in one's ideas4 ,a certain class of girls was learning to make ,french cream candy1 and the recipe for the same1 namely1 #a cup of sugar1 #a_/c cup of water1 #a salt-spoon of cream of tartar4 was placed on the board for them to follow4 ,after reading the recipe and listening to some directions from the teacher1 including special emphasis on accuracy of measurements1 the class set to work and produced some candy that even the visitors were glad to eat4 ,the recipe seemed so simple that one of the visitors a few days later proposed to his little daughter that they make some ,french cream candy at home4 ,they measured out a cup of sugar and one-third of a cup of water2 but there was a halt when it was discovered that there was no salt-spoon in the house4 ,the man's wife came to their rescue1 however1 by giving them some idea of the size of such a spoon4 ,then it was found that they had no cream of tartar4 ,on further consultation with the wife it was learned for the first time that the object of cream of tartar was to prevent too quick granulation1 and that probably some other acid-like substance1 such as vinegar or lemon juice1 might do just as well4 ,so a small amount of vinegar was used instead1 and reasonably good candy was produced4 ,in a later attempt the exact amount of water necessary to a cup of sugar had been forgotten1 and too much water was used2 but by boiling the mixture longer1 excellent candy was made4 ,as a result of these experiments it was found that only enough water was needed to dissolve the sugar1 and that any one of several other things would do as well as cream of tartar to prevent granulation4 ,without this knowledge there would be many a family which1 either on account of bad memory of proportions or of want of certain materials1 could make no use of the recipe4 ,such knowledge secured some adaptability or flexibility in the directions1 thereby greatly extending their use4 ,one of the common objections to preparing lesson plans for teaching is that they can seldom be followed4 ,more than that1 it is declared1 children have such a disappointing way of doing and saying the unexpected1 that a carefully memorized lesson plan is likely to hinder the teacher in adapting herself to her pupils1 and on that account may do more harm than good4 ,these objections contain much truth2 and if preparing a lesson plan means mapping out only one fixed procedure1 they may be entirely valid4 ,that is not1 however1 what such preparation should signify4 ,one of the principal objects of making one plan is to think out others1 that may be followed or not as occasion demands4 ,that kind of preparation1 instead of tying a teacher's hands1 keeps her superior to any fixed course and gives freedom to deal skillfully with almost any kind of response4 ,these examples may be sufficient to show that a fixed attitude toward directions and plans1 or toward knowledge in general1 is a serious barrier to its application4 ,the conditions are always changing1 and one's ideas must be capable of corresponding modification if their full use is to be enjoyed4 #b4 ,it is opposed to progress4 ,our attitude toward knowledge is intimately related also to the progress that we make2 a fixed state of mind precludes reflection about one's course by precluding a feeling of its need4 ,men frequently show blindness to new truth4 ,boss politicians count upon from eighty to eighty-five per cent of all voters standing pat and voting according to party1 no matter what facts may be discovered against one candidate and in favor of another4 ,this fact is what gives the bosses their security4 ,it was thought to be a wonderful sign of progress a few years ago when sixty thousand out of six hundred thousand voters in a certain election in ,massachusetts ignored party lines and voted according to the merits of the candidate4 ,one reason that we have so many mediaeval educational institutions is that persons in control have so many fixed ideas4 ,there are few colleges and universities to- day1 for instance1 in which courses that prepare young women for home- keeping1 such as domestic science and domestic art1 receive credit toward a degree4 ,progressive changes in any line are conditioned upon sensitiveness toward changing circumstances and new ideas1 and a fixed attitude is directly opposed to such responsiveness4 #c4 ,it is opposed to peace and happiness4 ,history is full of instances of the extent to which intolerance resulting from fixed convictions may carry people4 ,innumerable murders and many wars1 entailing untold suffering1 have found their principal cause in religious bigotry4 ,educational and political bigotry are likewise sources of much bad feeling and unhappiness4 ,family disputes1 as between father and son1 are in large measure due to too great fixedness of views and opinions2 and much of the discontent of old age is found in the inability of old people to abandon their old-fashioned notions1 so as to adjust themselves to new conditions and enjoy them4 ,a fixed attitude toward ideas is1 therefore1 far from an unmixed virtue2 it seriously limits the usefulness of knowledge2 it greatly checks progress2 and it strongly opposes peace and happiness4 #d4 ,it finds little justification in the nature of knowledge4 ,finally1 a fixed attitude toward ideas finds little justification in the nature of knowledge4 ,if supposed facts were always true1 and if they were always truly understood1 a fixed state of mind toward them might still find justification2 but that is far from the case4 ,probably some things are true for all time1 such1 for example1 as the facts of the multiplication table1 propositions in geometry1 and some of the laws of physics4 ,but perfect reliability is attached to very little of our knowledge4 ,some of the fundamental propositions in the exact sciences of physics and chemistry are only hypotheses1 that have undergone extensive modification in recent years4 ,political opinions are subject to constant change4 ,sixty years ago the secret ballot was feared as one of the worst of evils1 lest voters might then wreak awful vengeance upon those in authority2 now its desirability is unquestioned4 ,so many new ideas have become established in recent years about the nature of childhood1 the aims of the school1 and even the use of school buildings1 that education is a radically different field from what it was only twenty years ago4 ,in the same way1 facts in all lines are ever undergoing modification1 and evolution prophesies such modification through all time to come4 ,even our statements of scientific law1 instead of being final1 only express man's interpretation of unvarying phenomena of nature1 and are subject to error1 like all other work of man4 ,huxley declares that the day-fly has better grounds for calling a thunder storm supernatural than has man1 with his experience of an infinitesimal fraction of duration1 to say that the most astonishing event that can be imagined is beyond the scope of natural causes4 ,footnote3 ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,life of ,hume1 p4 #acb4 ,even within the field of science1 therefore1 we can never feel sure that the last word has been said1 and the best established conclusions may have to submit to correction4 ,turning from the better established fields of knowledge to such other facts as influence daily life1 we find them to be remarkably uncertain4 ,the facts about the weather1 that guide the farmer1 for instance1 are only beginning to be fully known1 and consequent miscalculations in the planning and the care of crops are without limit4 ,in ordering goods only six months in advance1 the merchant must be controlled by probabilities1 many of which are only narrowly distinguishable from guesses4 ,the facts that establish friendships are frequently still less tangible1 blind feelings of affinity and faith alone being not seldom the basis of the attraction4 ,thus our so-called knowledge ranges all the way from ideas that possess a very high degree of probability to those that are a product of faith and hope1 the greater portion of them approaching the latter4 ,more than that1 even in cases where the statements of principles1 as in physics and ethics1 seem thoroughly reliable1 the variety of their application is so great and any individual's horizon is so narrow1 that errors in their application to concrete cases must be very common4 ,correct theory about any matter by no means carries with it the correct application of that theory1 as every one finds out sooner or later4 ,it follows1 then1 that the highest wisdom represents only a rough approximation to the truth1 and that ordinary facts are more nearly hypotheses than certainties4 ,since1 therefore1 so few ideas are fully reliable and unalterably fixed1 a settled attitude toward them is undesirable1 not only because it is opposed to utility1 growth1 and happiness1 but because it finds no warrant in the real nature of knowledge4 ,the proper attitude toward knowledge4 ,what1 then1 is the proper attitude toward knowledge8 ,while one should not be ultra-conservative1 as though everything were finally settled1 neither should one be ultra-radical1 as though nothing were established2 bigotry and skepticism are alike to be condemned4 ,the ideal state of mind is illustrated by leaders in industrial pursuits1 like manufacturing4 ,they confidently make the fullest possible use of existing knowledge pertaining to their business1 including the latest inventions1 while they keep a very careful lookout for further improvements4 ,that is1 they preserve an unprejudiced1 open mind toward both the old and the new4 ,it is just such a tentative attitude toward knowledge that all people should cultivate4 ,so much of the old is defective1 and so much new truth may come to light at any moment1 that the fair1 judicial mind is always in demand1 a mind that is ever ready for new adjustments and that weighs and decides solely according to evidence4 ,colonel ,f4 ,w4 ,parker used to declare that the grandest discovery of the nineteenth century was the suspended judgment4 ,yet this attitude is one that has long been insisted upon as essential to the scientist2 indeed1 it is most generally called the scientific attitude4 ,it is strange1 however1 that those fields in which facts are best established should be the ones in which the importance of a tentative attitude is most emphasized4 ,one would think that its worth for the non-scientific man would be far greater1 for the facts that he hears about people and things1 which guide him daily1 are far less reliable1 and his consequent necessity of changing his views is much more frequent4 ,the relation of this attitude to energetic action4 ,while a tentative attitude toward knowledge may be of great importance for the scientist or theoretical student1 may it not be even harmful to the ordinary person8 ,force or energy is one of the chief requirements in the world of action2 and if a person becomes much impressed with the unreliability of his ideas1 as seems necessary in the cultivation of a tentative attitude1 may he not come finally to lack decision and energy8 ,certainly we now and then see examples of indecision and half-hearted action1 due at least in part to appreciation of opposing points of view and to consequent uncertainty of conclusions4 ,there may be such a danger2 but it is1 on the whole1 to be courted rather than avoided2 for1 while examples of indecision are sometimes seen1 examples of too decided convictions and of excessive energy in pushing them are far more common4 ,it is not mere action that is wanted1 but safe action4 ,force must be under the guidance of reason if it is to be free from danger1 and reason is hardly possible without an interested but impartial attitude toward evidence4 ,possibly the energy of educators would be at least temporarily increased if they formulated and subscribed to definite educational creeds2 but the partiality that would thus be encouraged would soon lead to strife and wasted effort4 ,a tentative attitude undoubtedly does limit activity somewhat1 but only as good judgment limits it1 for it is one of the leading factors in such judgment4 ,it tends to eliminate misguided effort1 and to check other action until its object is found to be worthy4 ,each of these effects is highly desirable4 ,on the other hand1 there is no reason why it should be expected to diminish energy after favorable judgment on a project has been passed4 ,it does not imply indifference or any lack of devotion2 it merely favors the subordination of enthusiasm to insight1 and delays expression of the former till the latter has given lief4 ,the result is likely to be greater and better sustained effort than otherwise1 because the tested excellence of the cause must be a source of inspiration and will help to carry one through discouraging intervals4 ,washington and ,lincoln were both distinguished for freedom from blind prejudices and corresponding openness to the influence of new ideas2 but they were also distinguished for uncommon energy and firmness in the pursuit of their main purposes4 ,a tentative attitude toward ideas is1 therefore1 a real aid to energetic action in all but unworthy and doubtful causes2 in these cases it is a very desirable hindrance4 ,footnote3 ,for a valuable discussion of this general topic1 see ,j4 ,w1 ,jenks' ,citizenship and the ,schools1 particularly ,chapter ,i4 ,,how ,,this ,,matter ,,concerns ,,children ,a receptive state of mind is supposed to be one of the peculiar merits of children4 ,indeed1 they are so sympathetic with any view that the last presentation that they happen to hear in regard to a disputed matter is likely to be the one that they accept4 ,it might seem1 therefore1 that there is no need of emphasizing the importance of open-mindedness as a factor in their education4 ,that is far from the case1 however4 ,children are peculiarly open-minded toward many things2 but it is mainly those that they have had no previous opportunity to learn about4 ,it is hard to take sides on a matter that you have never heard of4 ,but the test of an impartial mind is found in those matters that are already somewhat familiar1 so that one has already had some temptation to choose a side4 ,note how children act in such cases4 ,how readily they declare allegiance to the political party of their fathers and shout with all the vehemence of stand-patters6 ,how stubbornly they insist upon their teacher's method of solving problems in arithmetic when their parents undertake to assist them by showing a better way6 ,they are nearly as intolerant as their parents on such occasions4 ,how hastily they take sides in disputes among friends6 ,and how very frequently their impatience with the statements and opinions of their companions gets them into quarrels and fights6 ,when we recall the great variety of decisions that they reach in daily life1 and the impulsiveness with which many of them are made and supported1 it becomes evident that precautions against prejudice and intolerance are not at all out of place in their education4 ,the need is emphasized1 too1 when we realize that many persons adopt inflexible views on so great a number of disputed questions1 that they show signs of becoming old fogies quite early in life4 ,old fogyism begins at an earlier age than we think1 says ,professor ,james4 ,i am almost afraid to say so1 but ,i believe that in the majority of human beings it begins at about twenty-five4 ,footnote3 ,talks to ,teachers1 p4 #afj4 ,if instances of intolerance become numerous enough to begin to class a majority of us as old fogies at this age1 certainly many tendencies toward a fixed state of mind must appear and need treatment at a much earlier age4 ,the matter is of special importance with young children1 owing to the nature of the school curriculum during the early years of school4 ,beginning reading1 writing1 and spelling are systems of conventional signs1 where authority and not reason decides what is right4 ,arithmetic1 also1 consists of absolutely definite1 indisputable facts4 ,thus the facts in the three ,r's and spelling1 which make up most of the curriculum in the majority of schools for the earlier years1 show no flexibility whatever4 ,they must be learned as fixed things1 and they tend to give the impression that the definiteness and finality belonging to them are to be expected in all subjects4 ,this impression is strengthened1 too1 rather than destroyed1 by the behavior of average parents4 ,the conditions are1 therefore1 very favorable for the development of snap judgments and fixed attitudes among children1 unless such influences are counteracted by very careful training4 ,,specific ,,suggestions ,,fob ,,cultivating ,a ,,tentative ,,attitude ,,among ,,both ,,children ,,and ,,more ,,mature ,,students #a4 ,acquaintance with a variety of views4 ,university students preparing for supervision of instruction often observe recitations together1 with the object of discussing their merits and defects4 ,no matter how carefully they may have analyzed a recitation1 it is interesting1 when they come to compare conclusions1 to observe how their view-points vary1 how many things each person has overlooked1 and how widely their judgments at first differ4 ,many a student who has pursued such a course of study has reached the conviction that no one person is capable of discovering all the important factors in thirty minutes of instruction1 and that his own conclusions are probably faulty in numerous serious respects4 ,this impression in regard to the fallibility of individual judgment has a wholesome effect on any tendency to be too positive and fixed1 while it directly engenders respect for other people's opinions4 ,frequent discussion of questions in class1 even among younger children1 can have a similar influence1 as can also the use of reference works and different texts on a subject4 ,the young student should come to regard acquaintance with varying views as necessary to the formation of a reliable opinion on any topic and of sound judgment in general4 ,that conviction will compel him to keep on the lookout for new light4 ,says ,john ,stuart ,mill3 ,the whole strength and value1 then1 of human judgment1 depending on the one property that it can be set right when it is wrong1 reliance can be placed on it only when the means of setting it right are kept constantly at hand4 ,in the case of any person whose judgment is really deserving of confidence1 how has it become so8 ,because he has kept his mind open to criticism of his opinion and conduct4 ,because it has been his practice to listen to all that could be said against him2 to profit by as much of it as was just1 and expound to himself1 and on occasion to others1 the fallacy of what was fallacious4 ,because he has felt that the only way in which a human being can make some approach to knowing the whole of a subject1 is by hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion1 and studying all modes in which it can be looked at by every variety of mind4 ,no wise man ever acquired his wisdom in any mode but this2 nor is it the nature of human intellect to become wise in any other manner4 ,footnote3 ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,on ,liberty1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #b4 ,slowness in passing judgment4 ,a second means by which a student may be kept from too positive and fixed an attitude is by being trained to feel satisfied that many a clearly stated problem that has arisen with him cannot be definitely and finally answered at the present time1 and perhaps not at all4 ,slowness in passing judgment may usually be urged with propriety4 ,even the mere attempts to reply to a query should occasionally be checked in class when it is evident that they are hasty4 ,some answers should be delayed even several days1 the time meanwhile being occupied with the collection of data4 ,too many difficult questions are answered at a sitting1 with meager reflection and investigation1 as though final answers in general could be obtained easily and quickly4 ,there are some problems also that should not be answered at all2 not because they are not valuable1 but because their solutions cannot yet be understood by the student1 or are as yet impossible4 ,the consciousness that knowledge is too difficult1 or is positively wanting here and there1 destroys overconfidence in the completeness of one's attainments and awakens the need of further study4 ,one of the principal values of many a recitation1 in any grade of work1 should consist in the unsolved problems that have been worded4 #c4 ,cultivation of sympathy4 ,a good measure of kindly feeling in one's make-up is1 perhaps1 the greatest single remedy against a too static condition of ideas4 ,feeling seems to have a double function in making one open and plastic4 ,a kindly attitude toward new ideas is necessary before they can be viewed long enough to have their value tested4 ,we must be positively friendly1 or willing to see worth1 before we can see it4 ,sympathy thus secures a hearing for new ideas4 ,it was because the ,jews lacked this feeling and consequent willingness1 that ,jesus condemned them for seeing not1 though they had eyes1 and for hearing not1 though they had ears4 ,feeling is also a condition of the appreciation of new thought after it has once secured a hearing4 ,by a sort of intuition the significance of a fact is often felt long before the intellect has furnished proof of its value1 the power of feeling supplying motive in this way for the intellect to do its work4 ,and1 again1 until the conclusions formed by the intellect have reached the feelings1 they exert little influence upon one's ways of thinking and acting4 ,cold sermons have little effect on most persons1 even though1 their logic forces assent to them4 ,appreciation of worth thus greatly depends upon one's capacity of feeling4 ,considerable warmth of heart or mellowness of nature due to sympathy is1 therefore1 an important factor in rendering one willing to listen to new ideas and to be influenced by them4 ,without much feeling1 a man is likely to be narrow and unyielding4 ,gradgrind1 in ,dickens's ,hard ,times1 is a shining example of this type4 ,in his excessive devotion to hard facts his emotional nature atrophied1 until the many valuable cues or suggestions about the conduct of his business and the training of his children that a kindlier nature would have caught from the events occurring about him1 failed to affect him1 and on that account he went to smash4 ,he admirably illustrates in a negative way ,carlyle's striking statement that never wise head yet was without warm heart1 and he throws light on the profoundness of ,saint ,paul's meaning when he said1 ,love is444never conceited444but has full sympathy with truth4 ,without an abundance of affection a man is self-centered1 a selfish aristocrat4 ,sympathy or love allows the ideas of others to be lifted to a plane on a level with his own and thus helps greatly toward his tolerance and receptiveness4 ,it is true that the scientist urges the elimination of all personal feeling in his investigations4 ,he wants to be as purely intellectual as possible1 in order to see things as they are1 while personal bias tends to color facts and to that extent to vitiate them4 ,it is chiefly1 however1 prejudice of all sorts in testing and judging truth that he is anxious to avoid1 rather than any feeling of unalloyed interest in it4 ,a certain warmth of feeling is necessary for its comprehension as well as its evaluation4 ,the biologist1 for instance1 must be in close sympathy with birds in order to understand them1 just as a mother must be in close sympathy with her child in order to understand him4 ,it would scarcely be worth while to include these thoughts were we not able to preserve and increase our capacity of feeling1 in kind and degree1 just as we can preserve and increase our knowledge4 ,it is partly with this object that we have so broad a curriculum1 even in the primary school1 including music1 painting1 and literature1 as well as other subjects4 ,literature certainly possesses great value for developing broad sympathy2 it is at least a question if literary men do not exhibit less prejudice toward new ideas than scientists1 although so much emphasis is placed upon induction1 and judgment according to evidence1 in the training of the latter that they might be expected to be especially open-minded4 ,in addition to broad study1 we can take pains not to study too much1 that is1 not so much as to crowd out the emotional life4 ,insight is only one of several large factors in a good education1 and the ambitious student is always in danger of becoming too exclusively intellectual for the highest scholarship4 ,the true relation of insight to feeling is well illustrated in ,lincoln's life1 when in the midst of the most serious and pressing problems he took time for jesting and humorous tales4 ,in spite of condemnation by his subordinates for levity1 he had excellent grounds for such conduct2 for not only was relaxation secured in this manner--which was important enough--but his own natural warmth of sympathy was also restored1 which was of greatest value in weighing the worth of suggestions and events4 ,humor is an important aid to any serious person in preserving balance2 a good laugh restores perspective4 ,while it is the duty of the more mature student to cultivate for himself a many-sided emotional life1 even at the expense of some knowledge1 it is the duty of teachers of children in particular to give them material help in this direction4 ,there are few schools that do not emphasize learning to the neglect of feeling4 ,the teacher can help first of all by avoiding setting a coldly intellectual example4 ,in addition she can study the conduct of children with the object of correcting their narrowness4 ,many a child who isolates himself from conversation and play at recess is growing one-sided1 whether he spends the time in doing nothing or in studying4 ,he should be influenced to enjoy play and social life1 just as he should be influenced to study1 and it is the teacher's task to single out such cases and restore them to their normal condition4 #d4 ,subordination of authority to reason4 ,young people can learn to distinguish between authority on the one hand and evidence or reason on the other1 and to subordinate the former to the latter1 thus allowing conclusions to be based chiefly on facts rather than on persons4 ,the assertion of authority over children1 requiring blind obedience on their part in matters of discipline1 is very common4 ,similar assertion of authority over both children and adults in intellectual matters is also common4 ,the authority of custom1 for instance1 as represented in the teacher1 is dominant in beginning reading1 writing1 spelling1 and in language in general4 ,in many advanced subjects1 also1 students are accustomed to accept many statements as true simply because the instructors declare them to be4 7#a7 ,the two bases of conclusions4 ,some subjects1 however1 to a peculiar degree eliminate authority1 basing conclusions mainly on reason4 ,mathematics affords an example4 ,personal authority sinks so completely out of sight here that even a child can dare sometimes to correct the teacher4 ,while the majority of studies lie between the extremes represented by literature and mathematics1 it is safe to say that conclusions generally can be based upon reasons that are fairly within the understanding and the reach of young people1 if it seems desirable4 7#b7 ,inferiority of authority to reason4 ,blind obedience is of doubtful value in the discipline of children1 because it is so unintelligent2 it is well called blind4 ,blind submission to authority in intellectual matters1 on the part of either children or adults1 is no less objectionable4 ,it is not any person's mere assertion that makes a thing true1 but evidence of some sort2 and evidence is likewise usually necessary to make it interesting and comprehensible4 ,the artificiality of the authority of a teacher as the main support for conclusions is plainly seen in the fact that there is no substitute for it outside of and after school and college4 ,its evil influence is also evident from the fact that persons accustomed to rely much upon it easily come to overlook evidence to the extent of blindly jumping to conclusions4 ,and1 having formed their opinions independently of reason1 they cannot be easily influenced2 for an attitude that has not been reached rationally is not likely to be modified rationally4 ,submission to authority easily ends in the most extreme dogmatism4 7#c7 ,the tendency of authority to usurp the place of reason4 ,there is a strong tendency1 however1 for authority to usurp the place of reason4 ,in penmanship1 for example1 the teacher often dictates the proper position of the body1 instead of acquainting the child with the reasons for it4 ,the rules for composition are usually dogmatically presented1 in spite of the fact that there are plain reasons back of most of them4 ,if1 for instance1 a sentence did not begin with some large mark1 such as a capital1 and end with some other plainly seen mark1 it would be difficult to distinguish one sentence from another1 so as to read4 ,statements in geography were long based on authority1 like those in grammar2 in fact1 only very recently has the causal idea become prominent in geography4 ,high-school students of physics very generally want to know what the teacher wishes them to see in an experiment before feeling sure what they do see2 and college students of politics1 rather than depend upon the evidence itself1 are inclined to learn the political views of their professors as the means of finding out what they themselves think4 ,there are good reasons for this tendency to base conclusions upon authority4 ,it takes much more knowledge of a subject and much greater skill in its presentation to make the reasons for facts clear4 ,furthermore1 it requires a good degree of energy and moral courage on the part of teachers to decline the compliment that young people confer upon them in preferring to trust them rather than evidence2 and it also requires a good degree of energy on the part of students to rely upon their own study of facts4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 if the average teacher makes himself the main authority for the statements that he makes in class1 and if the average student readily accepts his authority4 ,that is the easier way to get through a day4 7#d7 ,how this tendency may be combated4 ,as the first step in combating this tendency1 both teachers and students must decide how highly they value a scientific method of arriving at conclusions4 ,heretofore our interest in conclusions as valuable information has been so great that the method of reaching them has been neglected2 it mattered little how much prejudice or blind acceptance of authority was connected with them1 so long as they were understood and remembered4 ,if such neglect has been wrong1 and if a habit of basing opinions on carefully selected facts is approximately as important as knowledge itself1--as is probably true1--then we have found sufficient motive for serious effort toward reform4 ,the next step is to make the words premises1 evidence1 proof1 as prominent in study as the word conclusions4 ,in reasoning1 says ex- ,president ,eliot1 the selection of the premises is the all-important part of the process4444,the main reason for the painfully slow progress of the human race is to be found in the inability of the great mass of people to establish correctly the premises of an argument4444,every school ought to give direct instruction in fact- determining and truth-seeking2 and the difficulties of these processes ought to be plainly and incessantly pointed out4 ,footnote3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,the ,school1 ,november1 #aijc1 p4 #ehd4 ,some college studies1 as physics1 for instance1 might be taught primarily for the sake of method rather than subject-matter1 and all college subjects1 so far as possible1 should emphasize the value of the right method of study4 ,but scientifically trained college students1 with their snap judgments in fields outside of their specialties1 give convincing proof that emphasis on method in one or a few studies taken up so late in life cannot inculcate the general habit of mind desired4 ,such training must begin much earlier1 must in fact extend throughout the whole period of study1 as ,dr4 ,eliot suggests4 ,teachers in the elementary school in particular must assume responsibility for developing a scientific habit of thinking1 just as they assume responsibility for correct speech1 and must insist upon the one in every subject as they do upon the other4 #e4 ,the referring of disagreements of view to large facts or principles4 ,the tendency to dogmatize can be further overcome if disagreements of view are habitually referred for decision to large facts or principles4 ,suppose that a dispute has arisen as to when phonics should be introduced in beginning reading1 and how prominent it should be made4 ,a1 wishing to teach children to read as soon and as rapidly as possible1 would drill upon lists of phonetic words and upon sentences composed only of such words1 no matter how artificial they might be4 ,b1 considering other things more important in beginning school life than learning to read1 strongly opposes any extensive and systematic use of phonics4 ,reiteration of views1 and even the customary proofs of success by trial1 may avail nothing4 ,but reiteration may lead to derogatory remarks1 when each becomes impressed with the stubbornness and meanness of the other4 ,suppose1 however1 that ,b1 remembering that details of method are determined by large principles1 runs back to his largest controlling idea in beginning reading1 the need of live minds or of lively thought on the part of the children4 ,suppose that he shows that extensive use of phonics during the first year of school means the use of words without meaning1 a tendency that is marked in prayers and greetings and that has to be actively combated throughout school and college life4 ,suppose that he shows1 further1 that the main progress of the best primers and readers in the last twenty years has been in opposition to this tendency and in the direction of interesting thought1 and that good expression of thought rather than the mere pronouncing of words is the chief element in good reading4 ,a large principle thus brought to bear is likely to accomplish one of three things3 7a7 it may lead to full agreement2 7b7 or it may itself be agreed upon1 while the details are still objects of dispute4 ,but in that case the large thought1 having put the details in proper perspective1 prevents unpleasant conflict by revealing their comparative littleness4 ,also1 agreement on the large point convinces each disputant of the other's partial sanity1 at least1 and thus preserves harmony2 7c7 or1 finally1 the principle itself may become an object of dispute4 ,even then the largeness of the idea places the discussion on a high plane1 and the disputants1 impressed with the dignified1 impersonal character of the thought1 are disinclined to personalities4 ,this value of a principle is often illustrated in the work of criticising young teachers4 ,let the critic condemn with authority one feature of a recitation after another1 making free use of the pronoun ,i1 and the young teacher criticised is likely to glare at him in rising wrath4 ,but let the critic omit the show of authority entirely1 even the use of ,i1 merely offering the reasons for certain objections1 particularly some broad principle of method whose relation to the matter in hand is perfectly plain1 and harmony is almost bound to prevail1 no matter how complete the condemnation may be4 ,thus people will bear with one another1 either agreeing or agreeing to disagree1 so long as discussions center about principles2 but without this condition intolerance and ill feeling easily manifest themselves4 #f4 ,the delaying of judgment till the evidence has been considered4 ,having granted the need of relying on reasons1 and large ones1 rather than on authority1 the habit can be inculcated of delaying judgment until the evidence has been considered4 ,it might seem superfluous to add this suggestion1 did it not frequently happen that people get the cart before the horse in this manner4 ,for example1 it is common for debaters to choose sides as soon as a question is agreed upon1 and to do their studying afterward4 ,then1 having committed themselves to one side1 they study and argue in order to win rather than to get light4 ,it being regarded as ridiculous for partisans to be on both sides of a question at once1--even though one's convictions often place one there1--they ignore strong opposing arguments1 bolster up their own weak assertions by fluency of speech and a bold manner1 and try to substitute witticisms for thought1 when thought is lacking4 ,while such efforts increase knowledge1 they pit personality against personality in such a way that the ego rather than truth becomes the main object of interest1 and on that account their influence as a whole is extremely injurious4 ,that kind of discussion is not honest1 and its spirit is far removed from that of the true scientist4 ,young people should avoid taking sides1 at least at the beginning of their study of a problem1 and probably discussion should take the place of debating4 ,at any rate1 the single point1 rather than the whole question1 might form the unit of debate4 ,they should be taught to argue on both sides of a question1 according to belief1 just as frank persons do in conversation1 to recognize the strength of opposing arguments1 and to confess their own weak points4 ,then they would be making truth their aim1 rather than victory4 ,such discussions are much more typical of life than ordinary debates2 and if the latter seem necessary as a preparation for some professions--which is deplorable1 if true--one should wait to acquire such ability until professional training begins4 #g4 ,avoidance of too positive forms of speech4 ,aside from debates1 people are often tempted to commit themselves too positively in regard to facts by too positive forms of speech4 ,we so often hear ,i know in place of ,i suspect or ,i surmise2 and the speaker1 having committed himself almost before he knows it1 repeats the assertion to make himself more sure1 meanwhile wondering how sure he is4 ,benjamin ,franklin speaks in his autobiography of having acquired the habit of expressing himself in terms of modest diffidence1 never using1 he says1 when ,i advance anything that may possibly be disputed1 the words certainly1 undoubtedly1 or any others that give the air of positiveness to an opinion2 but rather say1 ',i conceive or apprehend a thing to be so-or-so'2 ',it appears to me1' or ',i should not think it so-or-so1 for such-and-such reasons'2 or ',i imagine it to be so'2 or ',it is so1 if ,i am not mistaken4' ,this habit1 ,i believe1 has been of great advantage to me1 when ,i have had occasion to inculcate my opinions1 and persuade men into measures that ,i have been from time to time engaged in promoting4 ,and1 as the chief ends of conversation are to inform or be informed1 to please or persuade1 ,i wish well-meaning and sensible men would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive1 assuming manner1 that seldom fails to disgust1 tends to create opposition1 and to defeat most of those purposes for which speech was given to us4 ,footnote3,autobiography1 p4 #ba1 of edition of ,cassell ,co4 ,franklin is here considering intemperate forms of speech from the point of view of others4 ,but they have a corresponding bad effect on the speaker1 making him more dogmatic the more he indulges in them1 until he loses the power to be tolerant of other persons4 ,discussion and conversation should be conscientiously utilized by the student for the practice of intellectual honesty1 of sincerity with himself1 for such sincerity lies at the very foundation of true scholarship4 ,,chapter ,x ,,provision ,,for ,,individuality1 ,,as ,,an ,,eighth ,,factor ,,in ,,study ,the change in appreciation of the self4 ,there was a time when people seemed to take pride in self- depreciation4 ,believing in total depravity1 they were suspicious of all natural tendencies1 and the crushing out of strong desires seemed no evil4 ,obedience to ,another's will was the one supreme virtue1 and the killing of human nature1 the annihilation of self1 was the condition of its attainment4 ,footnote3 ,see ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,on ,liberty1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,but the watchwords of modern education--self-activity1 self- expression1 self-development1 self-reliance1 self-control--indicate a very different attitude now4 ,the emphasis here placed on self recognizes it as the center of virtue2 and the suffixes1 activity1 expression1 etc41 declare the unfolding of instincts and other native powers1 up to the point of independence1 to be a great desideratum in education4 ,these watchwords signify that the constitution of an infant1 like that of a young plant1 fixes a certain goal within broad limits for it to reach1 the narrower limits being left to be determined by social ideals4 ,they signify further that this goal can be reached only by the unfolding of inner powers1 and that the purpose of the educator1 like that of the gardener1 is not to create but merely to furnish the food and environment most favorable to growth4 ,in brief1 the object of education must be attained by quickening to the utmost1 rather than by annihilating1 the self4 ,this conception holds good1 too1 for every human being1 in spite of the infinite variety of individuals4 ,for1 according to the doctrine of interest1 which is a term ultimately related to these other terms and equally emphasized with them1 only that spiritual food can be expected to be truly assimilated by any person which appeals to his peculiar nature2 all else fails of real nourishment1 no matter how much drill may be given to it4 ,thus the sovereignty of every individual is recognized4 ,psychologically speaking1 there are no saints among us to set the standard for others4 ,each person is worthy of exercising his own choice1 of having his own way2 indeed1 he must exercise this privilege if he is to act rightly4 ,causes of this change4 ,what respect we have come to have for ourselves6 ,have we1 then1 put off corruption and become perfect8 ,and is the millennium at hand8 ,far from it4 ,we have merely discovered the method by which we can become good2 and1 stated briefly1 it is that every one must be true to himself1 or must be himself4 ,it is not strange that1 in this age of scientific investigation1 we have come to know more about our own natures than we did two hundred years ago4 ,and the knowledge gained touches two great questions3 first1 the original character of the infant mind2 and second1 its method of advance4 ,as to the former1 we are now convinced that the child is originally endowed with certain impulses and instincts1 or with certain instinctive tendencies1 such as fear1 love1 curiosity1 imitation1 pride1 constructiveness1 appreciation of beauty1 and conversational power1 ,footnote3 ,see ,james1 ,talks to ,teachers1 ,chapter ,,vii2 also ,dewey1 ,school and ,society1 ,chapter ,,ii4 and that these constitute the foundation or starting point for all educational endeavor4 ,as to the latter1 progress takes place by the unfolding of these instinctive tendencies1 by their development rather than by their repression4 ,further than that1 since everybody is unlike everybody else in his native impulses1 and since his environment likewise varies1 every person must expect to differ from all others1 more or less1 in knowledge1 desires1 and actions4 ,corruption may be as common as formerly1 perhaps more so1 requiring more vigorous restrictions than ever2 but the proper way for any one to advance is to use the peculiar talents for good with which nature has endowed him1 in the peculiar way fitting to himself4 ,he may not do everything he likes2 but whatever he does do must be an outgrowth of his own past1 in harmony with himself and therefore an expression of himself1 if it is to prove effective4 ,the value of individuality in ,english composition4 ,this truth is often illustrated in the government of children4 ,a young teacher who attempts to govern a class in just the same way as the principal does it1 thus relying upon imitation1 is doomed to failure4 ,pupils quickly detect the lack of native force1 of genuineness1 in such a teacher1 and lose respect on that account4 ,but the vital character of this thought is best illustrated in ,english composition4 ,it has long been recognized that merit in that field is present to the extent that one gives expression to one's own ideas1 and is lacking to the extent that the ideas are borrowed4 ,whatever is to be fresh and valuable must bear the peculiar stamp of the author presenting it4 ,the reason for this is that only through self-expression is a natural product obtained4 ,so long as ,i am consciously imitating another1 or am unconsciously so warped by him as to ignore my own nature and experience1 ,i am sounding a false note4 ,what another thinks1 no matter how good it may be1 cannot properly represent me1 and coming from me as mine1 the want of harmony injures4 ,i am in that case merely pretending1 and the outcome is faulty because it is a sham4 ,i might much better give expression to my own ideas1 remembering ,wendell ,phillips's assertion that any man who is thoroughly interested in himself is interesting to other people4 ,real interest in self 7which is a very different thing from egotism7 implies honesty with self and consequent freedom from subjection to another4 ,then naturalness1 which borders closely on originality and is the first guarantee of excellence1 is assured4 ,naturalness is assured1 too1 in my expression of other people's ideas1 provided these have become my own property by right of true assimilation4 ,in that case they have received my own stamp1 so that ,i am still offering something at first hand4 ,the virility of even this kind of thought is well illustrated in the following composition by a twelve-year-old boy3-- ,the ,chinese and ,japanese may look alike in appearance2 but they are not one bit alike4 ,once upon a time they both were the most civilized people in the world4 ,then ,confucius came in and told them that they should learn no more and do exactly what their ancestors did4 ,both countries believed in this for a long time4 ,then the ,united ,states butted in and told them of their danger2 they said that they were going backward instead of forward1 and would be conquered by another nation if they did not pick up4 ,the ,chinese would not listen to this and said the ,united ,states had no right to interfere4 ,but ,japan thought there was some truth in this1 and so the ,united ,states sent over machines1 built factories1 laid railroad tracks1 etc4 ,the result is that ,japan is winning the war she is fighting with ,russia4 ,how composition typifies life in general4 ,english composition is perhaps the best single test of the general healthfulness of school instruction1 and it typifies life in general4 ,the pretended appreciation of an author1 an affected manner1 insincerity in the profession of friendship and religion1 anything that admits a deceitful1 artificial element is pernicious in composition as well as in life4 ,whatever is good must be true4 ,in consequence1 no matter how extensively persons differ from one another1 the first essential to the highest efficiency of each is fidelity to his own nature4 ,we hear a great deal about self-made men1 men who have wrested success from a stubborn world without the help of the schools4 ,they are examples of those who are guided from within rather than from without4 ,but every man1 so far as he is a man1 is self-made4 ,he has had to use his own observation to see2 his own reason and judgment to foresee2 his own discrimination to decide2 and his own firmness to stand by his decisions4 ,footnote3 ,see ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,on ,liberty1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,his adaptation to his environment has been self-accomplished1 and the first condition of its success has been a noble self-respect4 ,trust in self is a prerequisite to ability to do1--we must believe that we can1 before we can1--and obedience to inner promptings is a necessary antecedent to such trust4 ,it was true wisdom that led ,polonius to close his blessing on ,laertes with the advice1 ,this above all3 ,to thine own self be true2 and it must follow1 as the night the day1 thou canst not then be false to any man4 ,character itself is deeply involved4 ,as ,mill says3 ,a person whose desires and impulses are his own--are the expression of his own nature1 as it has been developed and modified by his own culture--is said to have character4 ,one whose desires and impulses are not his own1 has no character1 no more than a steam engine has a character4 ,footnote3 ,ibid4 ,necessity of accepting the self as it is4 ,accordingly1 it behooves every one to accept himself as he is4 ,no doubt every one at times becomes dissatisfied with himself even to the point of despair4 ,feeling his own weakness1 and seeing the many superior qualities of persons about him1 he thinks how much more successful he might be if only he were some other person1 and envy takes possession of him4 ,but there is a time in every man's education1 says ,emerson1 when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance2 that imitation is suicide2 that he must take himself for better for worse as his portion2 that1 though the wide universe is full of good1 no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on that plot of ground 7himself7 which is given to him to till4 ,footnote3 ,emerson1 essay on ,self-reliance4 ,and this conviction must not be accompanied with self-reproach4 ,any one who habitually feels ashamed of himself is shorn of power to do his proper work in the world4 ,the nature and rightfulness of the desired contentment with self and of proper self-confidence are suggested by ,emerson in the words3 ,what pretty oracles nature yields us on this text in the face and behavior of children1 babes1 and even brutes4444,their mind being whole1 their eye is as yet unconquered1 and when we look in their faces1 we are disconcerted4 ,infancy conforms to nobody2 all conform to it2 so that one babe commonly makes four or five out of the adults who prattle and play to it4 ,so ,god has armed youth and puberty and manhood no less with its own piquancy and charm1 and made it enviable and gracious and its claims not to be put by1 if it will stand by itself4444,the nonchalance of boys who are sure of a dinner and would disdain1 as much as a lord1 to do or say aught to conciliate one1 is the healthy attitude of human nature4 ,footnote3 ,ibid4 ,is such individuality conducive to social cooperation8 ,but are such unconquered1 unconciliatory minds desirable where social cooperation is a necessity1 as in present society8 ,are not those persons preferable as citizens who readily put by their claims and conform8 ,not by any means6 ,it might be that wisdom would declare the supposed claim unfounded1 and that energy to combat it1 rather than willingness to conform to it1 is wanted4 ,though yielding is often a virtue1 unintelligent conformity is weakness4 ,intelligent and vigorous reaction of the individual against all claims for conformity1 sufficient to judge them1 is a prerequisite even to actual conformity1 and it is only a well-developed individuality that is capable of such reaction4 ,even military discipline1 which represents the extreme in its demand for slavish mass action1 greatly values individual independence4 ,soldiers often become isolated from their superiors in the midst of combat1 and are left to act on their own initiative1 sometimes deciding the fate of battles by their resourcefulness4 ,it is partly appreciation of the worth of individuality in all walks of life that has spurred the ,european nations to educate the masses in recent years4 ,ordinary social life makes a constant demand for individual judgment and self-reliance4 ,a high average of ability and character is required for the maintenance of our democratic society2 but that average can be attained only when the persons who compose society individually attain that average1 that is1 when their individuality is highly developed4 ,why it is necessary to emphasize the importance of individuality here4 ,summarizing the preceding discussion1 we see that the ideal man is not one who is afraid1 ashamed1 and servile1 but one who believes in himself and dares realize himself rather than imitate others1 one1 in short1 who lives naturally and honestly4 ,he possesses a personality commanding enough to produce self-respect1 and an individuality bold enough to mark his thoughts and actions as his own4 ,why is it necessary to emphasize this matter so much1 particularly with reference to young people8 ,in our country1 where the children are so often charged with overboldness1 and where commercial individualism seriously threatens society1 is there real danger that the intellectual self may be neglected and that individuality may consequently be lacking8 #a4 ,vigor of the reaction required in proper study4 ,remembering that method of study is our theme1 let us first recall the degree of vigor necessary in providing for the elements of study that have been named4 ,then let us consider some of the ways in which students show unnaturalness and a tendency toward self-suppression4 ,a person must stand somewhat firmly upon his own feet in order to set up for himself such specific aims1 as guides for study1 as have been urged in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the supplementing of an author's statements is not so difficult1 although one must be able to see around and beyond him1 in order to realize what additions are advisable4 ,the appreciation of relative worths1 particularly the recognition of the organizing ideas in the treatment of a subject1 is a task that requires a high degree of self-reliance4 ,judging of the soundness and general worth of thoughts is certainly not any easier4 ,any one can memorize2 but to memorize in the proper way requires all the ability just referred to4 ,the using of knowledge1 involving the selection of the more promising part and its application until it becomes a part of the self and even habitual1 is impossible without a high degree of mental vigor4 ,finally1 the precautions to be taken in order to preserve a tolerant attitude presuppose a personality moved by purposes far higher than those of the average person4 ,altogether1 therefore1 proper study is impossible without a self that is energetic and firm4 ,it should be noted1 too1 how little the mere quantity of knowledge that one has happened to collect counts4 ,it is not so much learning as individuality that is required to meet these demands2 on that account the child can study just as truly1 within his sphere of experience1 as can the adult4 #b4 ,failure to assert the simplest rights in class4 ,now let us consider the evidences of unnaturalness and of want of the boldness necessary for real study4 ,in both school and college1 when members of the class ignore their mates by addressing only the instructor1 often speaking too low to be heard by others present1 there is usually little complaint4 ,although each person is a direct loser1 he seems reconciled to such neglect4 ,very many young people lack the courage to ask questions in order to understand a point2 and even when asked if they understand and if they do not wish to put some questions1 they still are too timid to respond2 not seldom they declare that they understand when they know that they do not4 ,teachers attending teachers' institutes are as bad as children in this respect4 ,such conduct is not due to any desire to deceive1 but to self-depreciation2 it is more agreeable to prevaricate than to assert one's self4 #c4 ,subservience to authority4 ,the mere desire to please a teacher influences pupils of all ages to watch the teacher's expressions and gestures and to answer what is wanted1 rather than what is sincerely thought4 ,in ,sunday school1 in particular1 children can scarcely be got to give sincere answers2 they are so eager to please that they say what they think they ought to think1 rather than what they really think4 ,undue respect for professors often has an overpowering influence on university students4 ,the writer has known of several instances where students of good ability have almost lost the power to proceed with an argument1 on the unexpected discovery that their view was opposed to that of some instructor4 ,the subservience to books is as striking as that to teachers4 ,the history lesson of a certain class of eleven-year-old children contained the following paragraph on the appearance of the ,indians3 ,when the first white men came to our shores1 they found the country inhabited by the people ,columbus had named ,indians4 ,they had copper- colored skin1 coarse1 jet-black hair1 high cheek bones1 thick lips1 small eyes1 and no whiskers4 ,the children had considerable difficulty in reproducing the substance of this paragraph1 attempting it several times4 ,the writer1 who was observing the class1 remembered1 however1 having seen an ,indian exhibition only a few weeks before1 which included ,indian men1 squaws1 boys and girls1 and even papooses1 and which this same class had visited in a body4 ,after three rather unsuccessful attempts to relate the contents of the paragraph1 the class were reminded of their visit to the ,indians1 and were then asked to tell how they looked4 ,forgetting about the text1 they had no difficulty in doing this1 for they were speaking out of their own experience4 ,subjects like geography and grammar likewise frequently contain facts that pupils have long known2 yet in school there is such an undue respect for print that many children dare not subordinate such matter to their own experience1 and for that reason they have the same difficulty with it as though it were new4 ,it is rare for even the college student to assert his independence of both teacher and book4 ,one of the greatest surprises that the writer received in a two years' college course was produced in a rhetoric class4 ,the students were ordinarily assigned about twenty pages of advance text per day1 which was reproduced in the recitation4 ,on one occasion a student who was called upon did very well until he was interrupted by the professor in charge on account of an omitted topic4 ,the professor gave the cue1 but obtained no response2 then1 since the student usually knew his lesson1 the professor exercised a special degree of patience and tried twice more to start him off4 ,failing1 however1 he impatiently asked1 ,why didn't you tell about so and so8 ,why1 replied the student1 ,i did remember something about that2 but ,i didn't think that it was worth talking about4 ,in the estimation of the entire class that man deserved a medal1 and the writer still thinks so4 ,there is subject-matter in most text-books that students are called upon to memorize which they feel is not worth reproduction1 and they are often right2 but most college students are as still as mice when it comes to declaring the fact4 ,their timidity in purely intellectual matters is equaled only by their boldness in playing pranks that require mere physical courage4 ,subservience to mere custom is as common as that to teacher and to print4 ,if certain pictures or musical selections have come to be generally admired1 few persons to whom they fail to appeal have the courage to acknowledge the fact4 ,there is much pretended enjoyment in art galleries4 ,the rate of progress acquiesced in by students is often greater than fidelity to self will allow4 ,the amount of text and the number of references assigned frequently leave no possible time for reflection1 although reflection is the sole means by which the self can react on ideas so as truly to assimilate them4 ,not seldom both teachers and students are conscious of this fact and even lament it1 yet they continue in the same course4 ,the result is that the average student learns to disregard his own questions1 doubts1 and suggestions1 and is smothered by his studies4 ,only the exceptional nature rebels1 as in case of the rhetoric1 and follows his own gait1 even in opposition to the teacher4 #d4 ,the abnormal lack of initiative in class4 ,in order to test the power of initiative of young people in study1 the writer once selected a class of twenty children1 ranging from ten to twelve years of age1 who were doing the work of the fifth school year4 ,they were only average pupils in home advantages and native ability4 ,but the school to which they belonged1 being the practice department of a training college for teachers1 undoubtedly allowed a greater degree of freedom to the individual and possessed more merits than the ordinary public school4 ,nine of the children had attended this particular school from the beginning1 and several of the others had gone there one or more years2 and every one of the five different teachers that the class had had1 had been a graduate of a state normal school1 or of a teachers' college1 or of both4 ,here1 if anywhere1 one might expect a good degree of independence on the part of the pupils4 ,also1 the writer had been personally acquainted with the class from the beginning1 so that they felt reasonably at home with him when he took charge of them in geography and history4 ,after spending two thirty-minute periods with them on successive days1 considering various review questions in geography1 the writer1 acting as teacher1 assigned them the following lesson of map questions in the text- book3-- ,here is a relief map of the continent on which we live4 ,what great highland do you find in the ,west8 ,in the ,east8 ,in what direction does each extend8 ,which is the broader and higher8 ,where is the lowest land between these two highlands8 ,trace the ,mississippi ,river4 ,name some of its largest tributaries1 etc4 ,this lesson was to be studied in class aloud2 that is1 the writer was not to do any teaching or give any help2 he was to assume as nearly as possible the attitude of a listener1 doing nothing more than call upon some one now and then to go on or to do what ought to be done next4 ,the children were to do all that was necessary to dispose of the questions properly1 even to the extent of correcting one another freely4 ,with this understanding a girl was called on to begin4 ,she arose and read1 ,here is a relief map of the continent on which we live4 ,what great highland do you find in the ,west8 ,in the ,east8 ,then she stopped1 and stood staring at the book4 ,she may have needed to inquire the meaning of relief2 or she may have been in doubt whether or not she should turn to the relief map opposite1 which was small1 or to the better map two pages further over2 or to the wall map hanging1 rolled up1 in front of the class4 ,but1 although she was not noticeably embarrassed1 she did none of these things4 ,she waited to be told just what to do1 and she waited patiently--until aid from the teacher arrived4 ,in response to the next question1 ,in what direction does each highland extend8 the two great highlands1 the ,rockies and the ,appalachians1 were described as parallel2 and the pupil was passing to the next question without objections from any source1 when the teacher again had to interfere4 ,the boy who was called upon for the third question1 ,which is the broader and higher8 stepped to the wall map and pointed out the ,rockies4 ,but1 as no one asked why they were supposed to be broader and higher1 the teacher suggested that question himself4 ,some one gave the correct reason for considering them the broader2 but by that time the entire class had forgotten that there was a second part to the question1 and were passing on when they were reminded by the teacher of the omitted part4 ,in response to the fourth question1 calling for the location of the lowest land between these two highlands1 four or five stepped to the map in succession1 showing wide disagreement4 ,yet no one asked any one else ,why8 or proposed any way of settling the dispute1 or even evinced any responsibility for finding one4 ,they would have proceeded to the next question had they not again been halted by the teacher4 ,in tracing the ,mississippi ,river1 only about one-half of it was pointed out2 i4e41 from ,cairo southward4 ,but no one entered complaint1 and the next question was actually read before the teacher requested more accurate work4 ,the girl called on to name some of its largest tributaries stood silent4 ,possibly the word tributaries puzzled her2 but she lacked the force necessary to make a request for help4 ,she seemed to be waiting for the teacher to ask her if she didn't need to ask some one else for the definition4 ,so the teacher complied and the definition was given4 ,but then all failed for a time to answer the original question1 apparently because they could not break it into its two parts1 first tracing the principal tributaries on the map1 then finding the names attached to them4 ,these responses are representative of the writer's earlier experiences with these children4 ,although they were not frightened1 and plainly understood that they were to go anywhere in the room1 and were to do or say anything that was necessary1 they almost invariably waited to be told when to step to the board2 when an answer was wrong2 when something had been overlooked or forgotten2 when the pointer should be taken up or laid aside2 and when they were through with a question4 ,between three and four recitation periods of thirty-five minutes each were consumed1 before they were able to do all that was necessary in answering the extremely simple questions above1 with a half-dozen more1 without help4 ,their frequent smiles of chagrin1 too1 proved beyond question that they were fully in earnest in their efforts4 ,this helplessness was not exhibited on the first few days either4 ,it was their custom to wait for assistance and directions--even to sit down--and it was a custom so well established that five weeks of daily work with them in history and geography1 with the avowed object of breaking it up1 only barely began a reform4 ,other children1 as a rule1 would scarcely do better4 ,but these are cases of children4 ,would not a class in a normal school or a college show greater capacity for leadership8 ,not often4 ,of course they possess greater mental power2 but the subject-matter with which they are struggling is more difficult4 ,any teacher of such a class who unexpectedly eliminates himself from a recitation by silence1 and who asks the students to provide a substitute from within themselves for his part of the work1 is likely to feel disappointed over the result4 ,who will assert that such lack of initiative is natural8 #e4 ,the evil effects of such suppression4 ,how docile young people are1 after all1 in intellectual matters6 ,they lack the courage to resent neglect in class1 to acknowledge that they do not understand1 and to ask questions2 they lose their initiative and even independent power to think1 when in the presence of teachers2 and they ignore their own experience in favor of print4 ,they are so bent on satisfying others that they suppress their own inner promptings4 ,in doing this they seem to confuse moral with intellectual qualities1 acting as though the sacrifice of self in study was equally virtuous with its sacrifice in a moral way4 ,yet listen to ,emerson's warning3-- ,books 7and he might have said teachers7 are the best of things well used2 abused1 among the worst4 ,what is the right use8 ,they are for nothing but to inspire4 ,i had better never see a book than to be warped by its attraction clean out of my own orbit1 and made a satellite instead of a system4 ,the one thing in the world1 of value1 is the active soul4 ,this every man is entitled to2 this every man contains within him1 although in almost all men obstructed1 and as yet unborn4444,undoubtedly there is a right way of reading1 so it be sternly subordinated4 ,man ,thinking must not be subdued by his instruments4 ,footnote3 ,the ,american ,scholar4 ,the evil in a young student's being subdued by his instruments is that he is made artificial and dependent1 and thereby ceases to be a whole unit4 ,the artificiality is often shown in the voice4 ,many schools1 owing to the restraint that their pupils are allowed to feel1 are guilty of establishing a special recitation voice1 distinguished from that ordinarily used in conversation by its different pitch1 and often amusingly distinguished1 too1 when some interruption during recitation causes a question about outside or home matters to be answered in the natural way4 ,many educated adults have suffered so much in this respect that they cannot read in natural tones4 ,the dependence1 further1 is shown in any attempt to produce thought4 ,when a student has formed the habit of collecting and valuing the ideas of others1 rather than his own1 the self becomes dwarfed from neglect and buried under the mass of borrowed thought4 ,he may then pass good examinations1 but he cannot think4 ,distrust of self has become so deep-rooted that he instinctively looks away from himself to books and friends for ideas2 and anything that he produces cannot be good1 because it is not a true expression of self4 ,this is the class of people that ,mill describes in the words1 ,they like in crowds2 they exercise choice only among things commonly done2 peculiarity of taste1 eccentricity of conduct1 are shunned equally with crimes2 until1 by dint of not following their own nature1 they have no nature to follow2 their human capacities are withered and starved2 they become incapable of any strong wishes or native pleasures1 and are generally without either opinions or feelings of home growth1 or properly their own4 ,footnote3 ,on ,liberty1 ,chapter ,,iii ,such people cannot perform the hard tasks required in study1 because they have lost their native power to react on the ideas presented4 ,the evil is most serious with young children because of their youth4 ,many of them1 while making good progress in the three ,r's1 outgrow their tendency to ask questions and to raise objections1 in other words lose their mental boldness or originality1 by the time they have attended school four years4 ,but all along1 from the kindergarten to the college1 there is almost a likelihood that the self will be undermined while acquiring knowledge1 and that1 in consequence1 one will become permanently weakened while supposedly being educated4 ,in this respect it is dangerous to attend a school of any grade4 ,why individuality is so difficult to preserve and develop4 ,familiar as the voice of the mind is to each1 says ,emerson1 the highest merit we ascribe to ,moses1 ,plato1 and ,milton is that they set at naught books and tradition1 and spoke not what men1 but what they1 thought4 ,footnote3 ,essay of ,self-reliance4 ,it is evidently exceptional for one's thoughts and actions to be quite fully one's own4 ,in matters of dress hosts of persons would rather be fashionable than comfortable2 and in matters of the intellect subordination to others is even more common4 ,one great reason for this is that people do not know how to be true to themselves2 they do not comprehend themselves well enough for that4 ,know thyself was a dictum of ,socrates that should precede the command ,be true to thyself1 because it is a prerequisite to it4 ,but if it takes a literary genius to reveal our thoughts to us1 as it often does1 certainly the average person will not discover his own characteristics alone4 ,even with firm intentions he will merely grope about1 and from blindness and want of skill will stifle a good portion of his own nature4 ,on the other hand1 if he goes to school1 whatever peculiarities he may possess are liable to suppression through the teacher and the curriculum1 the two chief agencies of the school4 ,for the average elementary teacher is not greatly concerned about preserving and developing individuality1 and the average high-school teacher or college professor still less4 ,indeed1 many teachers are convinced that there is too much of it already1 as shown in the discipline1 and insist upon as much uniformity as possible1 because it is less troublesome4 ,when it comes to the curriculum1 the commonly recognized purpose of instruction is acquisition of knowledge rather than development of self4 ,but if a student sets out to amass as much information as possible1 he is almost sure to be covered up by his collection2 and1 even if he proceeds slowly enough to admire and try to imitate the good that he finds in his spiritual inheritance and present environment1 he is in no less danger of being mastered by his instruments4 ,thus it happens that while self-expression should be one of the great purposes of the school1 annihilation of self is a common outcome4 ,the positive character of provision for individuality as a factor in study4 ,it follows from the preceding that provision for individuality is a very positive factor in study1 one requiring much time and energy and on which all the others that have been mentioned are dependent4 ,a person must have the courage to assert his rights in intellectual matters1 must believe in the worth of his own past1 and must not allow his regard for others to weaken his trust in self4 ,all this requires a high degree of self-respect1 which can be attained only by careful cultivation4 ,as he comes more and more in contact with the ideas1 desires1 deeds1 and examples of other persons1 and the demand for conformity grows more pressing1 he must reserve special time and energy for studying his own powers and tastes and for discovering his own thoughts about the many subjects of study in which he engages4 ,in the study of many a poem1 for example1 more time will be required to determine his own attitude toward it1 to find himself in regard to it1 than to understand its meaning4 ,remembering that one purpose of education is development of the self1 he must ever be on his guard against being warped out of shape by others1 and must therefore offer a certain normal resistance to everything that is presented to him4 ,to preserve and develop one's self thus normally1 it is safe to say that any student should have as much esteem for himself1 intellectually1 as for others1 and should spend at least as much time and energy upon himself in finding out what he himself thinks and feels1 as upon others4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,fob ,,preserving ,,and ,,developing ,,individuality ,the value of tolerance on the part of teachers1 as discussed in the preceding chapter1 is plainly seen in this connection4 ,unless a teacher's manner toward a pupil indicates a high degree of respect1 the pupil's respect for himself is in danger of being weakened4 ,a sarcastic attitude is even worse than a dogmatic one2 beyond doubt1 the proper self-esteem of many a young person has been permanently undermined by his teacher's sharp tongue2 sarcasm is the extreme of intolerance4 #a4 ,the relation between teachers and students4 ,there should be a clearer understanding1 too1 about the function of teachers in general4 ,many instructors give the impression that educational institutions exist for their benefit1 rather than for the good of their students2 and from the start the latter are forced into the position of suppliants4 ,if questions are asked1 impatience is shown2 and if objections to statements are raised1 impertinence is charged4 ,such treatment tends to cow the average student and thus to limit his power to react upon ideas4 ,while teachers may be real authorities in subject-matter1 they can never be anything more than assistants in the self-development of their students4 ,they should more openly assume this subordinate position1 placing the primary responsibility upon the learner2 they would then be less likely to subordinate the inner growth of the student1 which it is their highest function to aid1 to the mere acquisition of knowledge4 ,if1 however1 teachers practically compel subservience by an arrogant manner1 or by the assignment of lessons much too long for one's normal rate of advance1 or by the assignment of subject-matter that seems to have no possible value1 what should the student do8 ,should he smother his own desires and opinions in the attempt to satisfy his teacher8 ,rarely1 if ever2 he will not grow inwardly by suppressing the self4 ,on the contrary1 when he feels himself in serious restraint1 he should frankly state his grievances1 and the teacher1 even though a college professor1 should receive and ponder such statements seriously1 remembering that one reason he is paid a salary is that he shall exercise skill in adapting himself to the psychological condition of his students4 ,if these frank statements evoke no friendly response1 then protest may be in place1 and sometimes revolt1 just as when political liberty is assailed4 ,of course1 a good degree of patience and tolerance should always be exercised toward one's teacher2 but there is need of more moral courage among young people to meet the disapproval of teachers and their punishments in the form of scoldings and low marks4 ,many a college student unresistingly submits to a sarcastic1 dictatorial teacher when he ought to show resentment and stand on his rights4 ,resistance to teaching authority may be just as vital a part of study as the rejection of the conclusions of an author4 ,until such ideas are more generally practiced1 a normal1 vigorous self1 which is the first factor in scholarship1 is in danger4 ,intellectual liberty is not less important than political liberty1 and often worth a fight4 ,it is odd that much blood has been shed for the attainment of political and religious freedom1 while the tyranny of mind over mind1 which is exceedingly common in the class room1 has scarcely been recognized as a serious evil4 ,it can be accounted for only by the fact that both teachers and parents have been more interested in the quantity of knowledge acquired than in the inner growth of learners4 #b4 ,recognition of individual characteristics4 ,every person has many peculiarities that are important factors in his study and that should be noted by all concerned with great care4 ,for example1 aside from the desirable rate of advance for each person1 which has already been mentioned1 a student maybe eye-minded1 or ear- minded1 or motor-minded4 ,that is1 he may be peculiarly dependent upon his eyes1 needing to see a statement in print rather than to hear it read1 and inclined to visualize or image even the most abstract thought4 ,or he may learn best through the ear1 wanting to hear statements read1 rather than see them4 ,or he may be peculiarly dependent on motor activity1 preferring to write his spelling lesson1 rather than to see the words only or to spell them orally2 such a person will need to gesticulate freely1 to imitate movements and act out scenes1 rather than see or hear only verbal descriptions4 ,some persons are naturally regular and systematic in their work1 following a definite program each day and arranging facts as well as furniture in an orderly way4 ,others are pained by regularity and system1 and find it impossible to reform themselves4 ,they can work well only when they feel like it1 and therefore by spurts4 ,some do their best thinking under the stimulus of discussion and opposition1 others are disturbed by such conditions and can think best in private4 ,some are especially devoted to facts1 being scientifically minded and interested in the objects about them4 ,others are idea-lovers1 caring little for the concrete world of nature1 but attracted to literature1 history1 and music4 ,others1 still1 are particularly strong in execution1 rarely considering theory apart from practice4,footnote3 ,see ,president ,hadley's article in ,harper's ,magazine1 ,june1 #aije4 ,some of the peculiarities that we discover in ourselves are weaknesses that should be discouraged and combated to the utmost2 others require more or less modification4 ,but there is no choice concerning most of them2 their sum constitutes our nature1 and we must accept them4 ,they are our original capital1 our source of strength on which all increase of strength must be grafted4 ,and we should become well acquainted with them1 just as the engineer should know the properties of steam4 ,full acquaintance is impossible1 and even approximate knowledge of the extent of one's powers cannot be reached1 until one has become deeply interested in some project and loaded with responsibility in regard to it4 ,but by humbly and diligently observing one's better tendencies1 and by giving full expression to them1 one may attain a fair degree of self-knowledge4 ,one of the special duties of teachers and parents is to come to the assistance of young people in such study1 helping them to recognize their strong and weak points and to understand themselves without getting discouraged or excited4 ,if we fail to enjoy a book or musical concert that arouses the enthusiasm of others1 we may well admit the fact to ourselves1 and perhaps to others1 with neither pride nor shame1 but as a fact4 ,such facts reveal us to ourselves1 and should be noted with the consciousness that1 if strength is not found in one direction1 it is likely to be discovered in some other4 #c4 ,responsibility for initiative4 ,it is obvious from preceding statements that both children and older students must become far more accustomed to taking the initiative during instruction1 if they are to take it in private study4 ,the way to prepare for leadership1 whether of self or of others1 is to undertake such leadership under wise guidance4 ,there are two degrees of responsibility in recitation that are somewhat common4 ,suppose1 for example1 that a class in manual training is to make a tile out of clay1 to be placed under a coffee pot4 ,after proposing this task the teacher 7#a7 might further state that the tile must be six inches square and one-half inch thick2 that it must have a level surface2 that a ball of clay of a certain size will be needed in order to make a tile of the desired size2 that it must be pressed into shape mainly by the use of the thumbs2 that careful measuring will be necessary to secure the proper dimensions2 that square corners can be obtained by placing some square-cornered object directly over the corners of the tile1 for comparison2 and that a level surface can best be obtained by sighting carefully across the surface1 so as to detect any irregularities4 ,after these and perhaps other instructions have been given by the teacher1 the children may be directed to begin work4 ,or1 after the task has been proposed1 the teacher 7#b7 might simply ask the main questions that need to be considered1 letting the pupils find the solutions for the same as far as possible4 ,for example3 ,how large should the tile be made8 ,what should be its shape8 ,what kind of surface must it have8 ,how must the clay be worked into the desired shape8 ,how make sure of the dimensions8 ,of square corners8 ,of a level surface8 ,the first plan shows practically the lecture method in operation4 ,the teacher presents all of the ideas1 and the children have the position of listeners or followers4 ,that method places the minimum degree of responsibility upon pupils1 the responsibility for attention1 and is quite common in the poorer schools and in colleges4 ,the second plan allows the children to join actively with the teacher in producing the ideas involved in the solution of the problem4 ,it shows the development method in operation1 which places much more responsibility upon the class4 ,but the teacher even here takes practically all of the initial steps4 ,she is the one who breaks the large problem up into its parts2 who determines the wording of the questions and the order in which they shall be considered4 ,the children follow her cue2 they are subject to her constant direction1 and merely make response to her specific biddings4 ,the reaching of new thought by them under such immediate stimulus and suggestion involves responsibility for thinking1 to be sure1 but very little responsibility for the initial thinking or for initiative4 ,neither of these methods1 therefore1 plainly develops the power of self- direction4 ,training in the exercise of initiative is provided1 not when young people are following some other person's plan and answering some other person's questions1 but when they are obliged to conceive their own plans and their own questions4 ,here is the crux of the whole matter4 ,some other method1 therefore1 is desirable1 and it is not difficult to find4 ,after the making of the tile has been proposed1 the teacher might simply ask1 ,how will you plan this piece of work8 leaving the conception of the main questions1 together with the answers1 as far as possible to the children4 ,they would know that a certain size would need to be determined upon1 fixed by the size of a coffee pot2 that the shape would have to be considered1 the round or square form being chosen according to personal preference and ease of making2 that the thickness would be a factor1 it being important that the tile be thin enough to be reasonably light1 but thick enough not to break easily or to let heat through2 that a level surface is desirable1 both for the sake of beauty and utility2 and that some way must be found for pressing the clay into shape4 ,all of these ideas lie within their personal experience and therefore call only for common knowledge and common sense4 ,all or most of this part of the plan1 including the correction of any misstatements1 could be made by the children with little or no help from the teacher4 ,where their knowledge is more limited1 however1 she should come to their aid1 either telling or developing1 as the case required4 ,for instance1 she might possibly tell outright how much clay each would probably need1 also how the clay should be pressed into shape2 and develop the method of making sure of proper dimensions1 of square corners 7or of roundness7 and of a level surface4 ,this task in manual training is typical of lessons in general4 ,in their mastery there is always a procedure of some sort to be followed1 and now and then1 at least1 this procedure lies in whole or in part so fully within the class experience that they should have the responsibility of mapping it out4 ,sometimes in the lower grades such work might occupy a whole recitation period2 again1 only a few minutes4 ,as the experience increases1 this responsibility should increase1 so that the higher grades should often show children stating the main questions to be considered in their lessons1 without help1 just as they have long been in the habit of stating the main steps to be taken in individual problems in arithmetic without aid4 ,in very many recitations children should have responsibility for rejecting some of the answers and for accepting others4 ,the writer is acquainted with one eighth-year class in which not only all this is done1 but the children frequently determine their own lesson assignments1 reporting in class what home work was attempted the previous evening and how it was done4 ,these reports are then subjected to general criticism and suggestion4 ,if such practices become successfully established in the elementary school1 they will have to be adopted higher up1 for very shame if for no other reason4 #d4 ,past experience as the principal source of new ideas4 7#a7 ,illustrations4 ,socrates was one of the most fertile thinkers that ever lived2 yet he scarcely traveled beyond the walls of ,athens1 and was accused of always talking about the most commonplace objects1 such as brass founders and leather cutters and skin dressers4 ,he clearly illustrates the fact that fertility of thought bears little relation to one's quantity of learning1 but depends rather upon the use made of such very simple raw material as any ordinary person possesses4 ,the ,children's ,hour as discussed on pages #fi-gj show how one's past may be used in the production of thought4 ,the poem tells of an hour set aside by the family for play4 ,the fact that we know this to be a very rare thing prompts the questions1 ,was it customary in this family1 or did it happen only once8 ,the fact that many fathers would be bored by such an hour suggests the query1 ,did this father really enjoy it8 ,the fact that the custom is so uncommon raises the further inquiry1 ,was there any special merit among these children that led to it8 ,also1 ,why is the custom not more common8 ,and1 since some one must take the lead in establishing such an hour1 the query follows1 ,can children themselves accomplish anything in this direction8 ,thus facts that are well known lead to new ideas4 ,no matter what we hear or read1 or what topic is given to us to ponder1 thoughts additional to those directly presented are likely to be reached by reference to past related experience4 ,that one should look to past experience as an almost unlimited source of new thought is one of the most important truths for any person to bear in mind who is endeavoring to learn to think4 7#b7 ,the common neglect of experience4 ,it is very common1 however1 for persons who are rich in experience touching some subject that they are studying to fail almost entirely to use it4 ,this was once well illustrated by about twenty young women who were specializing in domestic science4 ,at their own suggestion1 they prepared written plans for teaching how to bake sweet potatoes2 the writer was to correct these and discuss them with the class4 ,but after carefully examining all the papers and finding remarkably few facts included1 he asked the class what was really necessary1 after all1 in the baking of sweet potatoes1 beyond putting them1 clean1 into a hot oven and taking them out when done4 ,he requested them to enumerate the facts that really needed to be taught4 ,after perhaps two minutes of meditation they sheepishly admitted that there was really very little to present on the topic1 and that they had carefully written out plans only because plans were expected1 and they wanted some practice4 ,since it was subject-matter1 rather than method1 that was needed1 the discussion was then directed to the facts involved in baking the potatoes4 ,a dispute soon arose when one remarked1 ,you should never cut a sweet potato1 others inquiring what should then be done with those that were partly unsound1 and how potatoes of very different sizes could be baked together4 ,numerous other questions were considered1 as follows3-- ,what is the best way to clean them8 ,is it best to allow them to lie long in water8 ,should the oven be very hot1 or is a slow heat preferable8 ,should anything be done with them while baking8 ,how can they be protected against burning8 ,how much time is necessary for the baking8 ,or will it vary8 ,if so1 why8 ,how tell when they are done8 ,is it necessary to take them out and strike them with the palm of the hand1 breaking them slightly8 ,how get them out without burning one's self8 ,since one cookbook says that we want dry and mealy potatoes and another states that they should be moist and sweet1 which is right8 ,also1 what different steps should be taken to secure each kind8 ,some persons parboil the potatoes before baking them4 ,is that desirable8 ,what about the advisability of baking them with butter1 sugar1 and salt8 ,are there other ways of baking them8 ,what changes does the heat effect in the potato8 ,should they be served immediately8 ,or1 if guests are not prompt1 is there any way of keeping them in good condition8 ,most of these questions arose for the first time in the discussion1 not having been referred to in any of the plans4 ,yet1 no doubt1 all the members of the class had baked sweet potatoes many times1 had read cookbooks as often as novels1 and--since they were not altogether young--had scores of times been called upon to eat potatoes that were not clean1 or were unsound1 or not done1 or were tasteless1 or burnt1 or soggy1 or cold4 ,therefore1 probably not one of the questions was entirely new to any one of the students1 so that the raw material for thought was present in abundance and even very close at hand4 7#c7 ,reasons for such neglect4 ,why1 then1 did they so neglect their past8 ,above all1 why should two minutes of reflection on the subject mark their limit8 ,for1 having given to themselves the signal tor all stray ideas on the baking of sweet potatoes to assemble1 their manner indicated no hope of further returns after the expiration of that brief period4 ,a partial answer is that they did not know where to look for ideas4 ,but an additional answer is that they did not know how to look to their past1 and they accordingly lacked confidence4 ,indeed1 they knew that they could not think1 so what was the use of wasting more than two minutes for the sake of appearances8 ,it does require some knowledge and confidence to think out a subject in view of one's experience4 ,when we are somewhat familiar with a subject1 some ideas in regard to it may come very readily1 so that the first few minutes of reflection may be easily spent and fairly rewarded4 ,but the ability really to think is tested after this period4 ,then we must know how to overhaul our past and must have faith that we will get something from it4 ,we must search our experience through and through1 viewing it from one point and then another in the keen lookout for suggestions4 ,and we must know that many of the best thoughts1 probably most of them1 do not come1 like a flash1 fully into being1 but find their beginnings in dim feelings1 in faint intuitions1 that need to be encouraged and coaxed before they can be surely felt and defined4 ,the writer's experience in the observation of recitations with graduate students has often illustrated this fact4 ,not seldom a recitation has been observed that has apparently pleased most of the observers1 but that has produced only an uncomfortable feeling on his part4 ,at the close of the recitation he had no more definite ideas about its merits than his students2 but he was conscious of this feeling of discomfort produced1 and knew that if he followed it up he would probably arrive at some important thoughts4 ,occasionally his main points in an extended discussion of a recitation have been reached in this way4 ,usually he has found afterward that his students have had the same feeling as he2 but they were scarcely conscious of the fact1 and1 even if conscious1 they failed to realize its worth as a source of suggestion4 ,thus vague premonitions furnish the clew to much of the best thought4 ,very often one of the chief differences between a thinker and one who cannot think lies in the attention given to premonitory feelings of pleasure1 discomfort1 doubt1 suspicion1 etc42 the latter ignores such1 while the former1 when he lacks clear ideas1 or all ideas1 even shakes himself to discover how he feels1 and patiently labors to define his feelings and trace them to their source4 7#d7 ,how confidence in the value of one's past may be developed4 ,but how dependent such study is upon self-confidence6 ,unless we have faith in the richness of our own experience1 and belief that a careful inspection of it will be rewarded1 we lack the courage and patience necessary for success4 ,how can such confidence be cultivated8 ,mainly by cultivating the habit of turning first to self when reflective thought is required4 ,it is presupposed that we must consult the library and the world about us for raw facts of various kinds1 for historical events1 scientific data1 views of men1 descriptions1 etc42 but when our own thought is wanted on a topic with which we are somewhat familiar1 and on which we are supposed to have some ideas1 let us form the habit of turning to ourselves first2 to others as helps later4 ,if other authorities are consulted first1 there is danger that the first impressions1 the first thoughts1 of the student will never come to light2 the ideas of others will hide these and become their substitutes1 thereby engendering distrust in self4 ,but by giving attention first to self1 by giving it the first chance1 its contributions can be recognized2 that encourages it to grow and attain vigor1 so that1 when outside helps are later consulted1 it can react upon them and maintain itself4 ,every young person should do enough thinking on a subject1 before attempting to find what others think about it1 to have something to oppose to these others1 as a basis of judgment4 ,that will keep the self upper-most and cultivate the confidence desired4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we wait until we have found what others think1 before attempting to find what we think1 others will do our thinking for us1 and we will ever be suffering from the timidity that ,emerson laments in the words3-- ,a man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within1 more than the luster of the firmament of bards and sages4 ,yet he dismisses without notice his thought1 because it is his4 ,in every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts2 they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty4 ,great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this4 ,they teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good- humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side4 ,else to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the tune1 and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another4 ,footnote3 ,emerson1 essay on ,self-reliance4 ,,part ,,iii ,,conclusions ,,chapter ,,xi ,,full ,,meaning ,,of ,,study3 ,,relation ,,of ,,study ,,to ,,children ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,school ,the meaning of study4 ,true or logical study is not aimless mental activity or a passive reception of ideas only for the sake of having them4 ,it is the vigorous application of the mind to a subject for the satisfaction of a felt need4 ,instead of being aimless1 every portion of effort put forth is an organic step toward the accomplishment of a specific purpose2 instead of being passive1 it requires the reaction of the self upon the ideas presented1 until they are supplemented1 organized1 and tentatively judged1 so that they are held well in memory4 ,the study of a subject has not reached its end until the guiding purpose has been accomplished and the knowledge has been so assimilated that it has been used in a normal way and has become experience4 ,and1 finally1 since the danger of submergence of self among so much foreign thought is so great1 it is not complete--at least for young students--until precautions for the preservation of individuality have been included4 ,the common notion that study should consist of thinking is1 therefore1 quite right4 ,in ,hints for ,home ,reading 7p4 #ea7 ,henry ,ward ,beecher says of himself3 ,reading with me incites to reflection instantly4 ,i cannot separate the origination of ideas from the reception of ideas2 the consequence is1 as ,i read ,i always begin to think in various directions1 and that makes my reading slow2 and that being the origin of it psychologically1 it has grown into such a habit that1 if ,i read a novel even1 ,i read slowly4 ,later he advises 7p4 #ie71 ,never give more time to reading a book than to reflecting upon its contents4 ,in criticism of the customary haste in reading1 on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,gorschen declares3 ,honestly1 ,i must say1 ,i believe that a vast number of readers do not allow what ,i may call the frenzied current of their eyes1 as they read1 to be stopped by even a moment of calm reflection or thought4 ,footnote3 ,aspects of ,modern ,study1 by ,right ,honorable ,g4,j4 ,gorschen1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,m4,p41 p4 #ci4 ,real assimilation of ideas has to be slow2 and while some reading1 owing to the simplicity of subject- matter1 should be as rapid as the eye can travel1 the rate at which ground is usually covered is too great to make assimilation possible4 ,the eight factors of study that have been treated are not to be regarded as separate stages of advance that must follow one another tandem fashion4 ,the principal stages through which the learner passes are only four in number as outlined in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,yet some of the eight factors necessarily follow others4 ,for example1 the conception of the specific aim should1 if possible1 come first1 while memorizing should usually come late1 partly if not wholly as the by-product of thinking2 and the actual using of knowledge should come last4 ,on the other hand1 provision for a tentative attitude and for individuality should be made frequently throughout one's study4 ,several of these factors1 therefore1 may be in evidence in any one of the four chief stages of advance described4 ,the ability of children to learn to study4 ,we have seen that children possess the ability to undertake the kind of work required by each of the several factors of study4 ,in fact1 outside of school1 they are continually applying their minds in the meeting of specific needs1 as adults are1 thereby employing most1 if not all1 these factors4 ,there is1 accordingly1 no fundamental difference between their study and that of adults1 although the relative prominence of the various phases may vary somewhat2 in other words1 these factors of study are general principles like the principles of teaching1 and likewise applicable to all ages4 ,no assertion is here made that children know intuitively how to do this systematic kind of studying2 they merely have the qualities of mind and the experience prerequisite to rational study1 and are therefore in a position to receive instruction on the subject with profit4 ,why young people have not been learning to study properly alone4 ,every one recognizes the fact that young people1 as a rule1 have not been learning to study properly alone4 ,there are two reasons for this1 which deserve very careful consideration4 ,one is that the difference between studying with a teacher and studying alone has been overlooked4 ,it has been assumed that the two were practically identical1 so that the one was full preparation for the other1 while in fact there is a very striking difference between them4 ,consider what happens in class instruction1 and then how independent study differs from it4 ,when a young person sets to work to master a lesson with the aid of a teacher there is a question of how much two persons can accomplish together4 ,one of the two is mature1 more or less informed in general1 more or less versed in the principles of study1 and more or less skilled in their application4 ,the other is immature1 and only under favorable circumstances fully willing to apply himself4 #a4 ,the difference between studying alone and with a teach has been overlooked4 ,as they ordinarily work1 their relation to each other is well defined4 ,in case text has been assigned1 the teacher asks various questions1 pushes the pupil against difficulties1 points out crucial thoughts1 calls a halt here and there for review and drill1 supplies motive for attention by reprimanding or praising or pummeling1 as the case may be1 and not seldom becomes flushed in the face from exertion4 ,in the case of development instruction in which1 without the help of a text1 the thought is slowly unfolded by means of question and answer1 the teacher is the recognized master of the discussion4 ,she usually selects the general topic1 breaks it into its parts1 and then concentrates her abilities on her questions1 endeavoring to make them short enough not to require too sustained attention1 simple enough to be reasonably easy1 and attractive enough to be sure bait4 ,in short1 she exerts herself to the utmost to conceive questions of just the right size and quality2 and1 if she is very skillful1 her morsels of knowledge will prove so enticing that they will be swallowed and digested without pain1 and perhaps without conscious effort4 ,in case lecturing is the method followed1 the teacher is still more plainly the sole producer of thought1 it being the mission of the student to listen1 comprehend1 and retain4 ,in each of these cases the teacher is the acknowledged leader4 ,her personality1 as represented by voice1 gesture1 and manner1 is drawn upon for stimulus2 she gives directions1 puts the questions1 and makes the corrections1 or sees that they are made4 ,if she is accounted a good teacher1 she is probably more active than her pupils and grows tired first4 ,now1 suppose that the teacher drops out and leaves the young person to attack a similar lesson alone4 ,how is the situation changed8 ,the purpose in the former case was the assimilation of the facts in the lesson by the pupil4 ,that is still the purpose4 ,there is1 therefore1 no change in that respect4 ,the method employed in the former case may be assumed to be as fully in accord with the laws of the pupil's mind as the teacher could make it4 ,in short1 the topic under consideration had to be carefully broken into its parts1 and various keen questions touching the meaning and value of each had to be conceived in order that they might be considered and answered4 ,the same mind is still present to be ministered to1 so that1 so far as possible1 substantially the same method must be followed4 ,there is1 therefore1 no important change in this respect4 ,the purpose and the method in general being the same1 it is clear that the two situations duplicate each other to a large extent4 ,the same quantity of work must be done1 and in practically the same way4 ,but there is a very striking difference4 ,when the two studied together1 the teacher not only did a part of the work1 but she was the leader2 the pupil was a follower1 doing only the subordinate part4 ,now1 being alone1 he must do the principal part1 in addition to the other4 ,he must divide his topic into parts1 and conceive all the questions that are worthy of attention2 in brief1 he must determine the course of procedure himself1 or take the initiative4 ,herein is found the great difference between studying with a teacher and studying alone1 and it is a fundamental one4 ,capacity for self- direction or initiation is not necessary in the usual class instruction2 but it becomes indispensable the moment one undertakes independent study4 7#a7 ,the nature and importance of initiative by the pupil4 ,this capacity is not simply a matter of knowledge4 ,one person may know much more than another about the factors involved in a proposed project1 and still be inferior to the other in ability to plan its execution4 ,it is not simply a matter of boldness1 either1 nor of energy1 although both of these1 as well as knowledge1 are necessary elements4 ,it signifies1 in the main1 rather a certain power of invention1 or a resourcefulness in planning work1 a resourcefulness that is sure to be exercised1 however1 only in case the other factors just mentioned are also present4 ,power of initiative is the key to proper study4 ,if different lessons were mastered in exactly the same manner1 it might not be important4 ,but that is not the case1 for every new lesson brings a new situation4 ,experienced teachers know that one year of instruction in a certain study does not free them from the necessity of extensive preparation1 if required to teach the same subject a second year4 ,the discovery of this fact is one of the serious disappointments of young teachers4 ,the same holds in study4 ,every new lesson1 every new book1 must be mastered in a way peculiar to itself2 each affords a new test of resourcefulness4 ,thus the exercise of initiative is a constant and very important factor in all independent study4 7#b7 ,why power of initiative cannot be acquired through imitation4 ,power of initiative might still prove no source of difficulty1 if it were something that could be acquired mainly by imitation4 ,but there is the rub the case of the geography class mentioned on page #beh shows conclusively that the natural tendency of young people to imitate the example of initiative set by their teachers gives very little guarantee of the exercise of similar initiative on their part when studying alone4 ,and there are plain reasons for this4 ,in the first place1 there is the widest difference between seeing and doing1 between theory and practice in general1 so that one may observe an action and still fail utterly to duplicate it4 ,that is very common4 ,but1 in addition1 the power of initiative1 being really the ability to originate or start1 calls for a good degree of originality and1 therefore1 lies largely outside the field of imitation4 ,in the second place1 the long- continued following of a leader1 instead of fitting one to lead1 may directly unfit one for that responsibility4 ,in the case of the geography class it had been the leader who had determined how each lesson should be attacked2 who had exercised resourcefulness in meeting unexpected obstacles2 who had assumed responsibility for deciding what the crucial questions were1 and when the answers were correct and complete2 and who had supplied the energy that made things go4 ,under these circumstances1 could it be expected that these children1 in their teacher's absence1 would exhibit these same qualities8 ,hardly4 ,one does not learn to make an independent plan1 to show resourcefulness1 to carry responsibility1 and to supply motive for effort--in brief1 to take the initiative--by having some one else perform these tasks for one4 ,in other words1 dependence is not the preparation for independence4 ,indeed1 great skill on the part of a teacher in these respects almost precludes such skill on the part of pupils4 ,if allowed prominence year after year1 it so undermines self- reliance that one's helplessness when alone is greatly increased4 ,the children of the geography class had had nearly five years of training in leaning on some one else1 so that it was extremely difficult to make them stand alone4 ,they were like common soldiers especially trained to obey their officers1 yet expected to maintain their former efficiency when suddenly left without officers4 ,they were even more helpless in the school-room1 in the presence of a leader1 than outside4 ,by overlooking the difference between studying with a leader and alone1 therefore1 the teacher overlooks initiative1 and in consequence she not only fails to develop that power1 but she may easily undermine it by accustoming pupils to dependence upon her4 ,here is one of the reasons why young people have not been learning to study properly by themselves4 #b4 ,some of the factors of study have also been overlooked by teachers4 7#a7 ,examples4 ,a second reason is that some of the factors of study themselves have long been neglected or overlooked by teachers1 as was stated in a general way in ,chapter ,i4 ,it is not customary1 for example1 for teachers to set up specific objects in their instruction1 which shall furnish motive and be guides in study4 ,indeed1 it is rare except among some primary teachers4 ,while the supplementing of text is somewhat common in some subjects1 such as literature1 any clear notion as to what should be understood by thoroughness is rare indeed2 and consequently the whole matter of relative values and of organization is poorly comprehended4 ,children1 and even older students1 are not infrequently reprimanded for presuming to judge the merits of subject- matter1 a fact that plainly indicates how little the importance of passing on the general worth of ideas is appreciated4 ,manual training and a few kindred branches recognize the actual using of ideas as their endpoint2 but no one will assert that they are regarded as types of other subjects in that respect4 ,any one will admit that special provision for the development of a tentative attitude toward facts is very exceptional2 and students are so commonly submerged by their studies1 that there is hardly need to affirm that conscious provision for the preservation and development of individuality is rare4 ,memorizing is the only universally recognized factor in study2 and the supplementing of the author ranks next to it4 ,whether1 aside from these two1 any or all of the other factors receive attention1 depends upon the individual teacher2 as a rule they are sadly neglected1 or omitted outright from consideration4 ,this being true1 it is uncommon for students to carry their study through the three or four stages necessary in the proper assimilation of knowledge 7see p4 #bjc71 because these stages are accomplished only by doing the work involved in these several factors4 ,very little knowledge1 for instance1 is carried over into habit1 the fourth stage4 ,the four fundamental operations in arithmetic and a few facts in composition and grammar are shining exceptions4 ,very few teachers have ever even asked themselves what portions of their different subjects of instruction should result in habits2 whatever habits become actually established1 therefore1 are a matter of accident rather than of intelligent planning by teachers4 ,every student reaches the third stage of assimilation with some of his knowledge2 that is1 he overhauls it until it is translated into his own experience4 ,but what a small proportion of all that he learns becomes welded to him1 by the warmth of his feeling for it1 so that he forgets where it was obtained and feels it to be his own6 ,almost any college student can name whole courses that he pursued1 to which he never warmed up appreciably4 ,how small this amount is1 is suggested by the small quantity that is carried even through the second stage1 where the pupil or student boldly subordinates both author and teacher to himself and asks what profit he is getting2 where he casts aside as non-essential much of what is presented1 and centers his attention on what seems of real value to him1 to weigh and perhaps reorganize it4 ,many a student never consciously reaches this stage1 and might be afraid to let his teacher know the fact if he did4 ,certainly many a teacher would regard any exercise of choice by the student1 in the subject-matter assigned1 as an act of impertinence4 ,evidently most study does not carry assimilation beyond the first stage1 in which the crude materials of knowledge are merely collected4 ,and this not because young people are lazy and disobedient1 but because they are practically taught to stop there by their teachers4 ,they tell the truth when1 recalling practice1 they almost universally declare that studying is mainly memorizing2 and ,helen ,keller's complaint that she had to study so much that she did not have time to think1 expresses a very common experience4 ,even if there were no difficulty in regard to initiative1 therefore1 proper methods of study could not be acquired through imitation1 because instruction does not set up a model of study that is worthy of imitation4 ,beyond doubt1 the method of instruction would duplicate the method of study if each were right1 and thus an example might be put before the student for him to follow4 ,but there is no such example at present1 and while students are upbraided for not studying properly1 they are furnished no means of learning the right way4 7#b7 ,why the factors in study have been so neglected by teachers4 ,the reason for this strange neglect of the factors in study is probably due principally to the exaggerated importance of the teacher4 ,believing in the maxim ,as is the teacher1 so is the school1 we have placed the center of gravity of the school in the teacher4 ,the tendency of the 7normal7 training school1 says ,president ,millis1 is to make the teacher self-conscious1 concerned about her own performance1 about whether she did this or that in the approved way1 whether her voice was properly modulated1 whether she utilized illustrative and supplementary material in due proportion1 whether she followed copy faithfully1 whether she got standardized results4 ,the tendency of supervision is to produce the same attitude of the teacher4 ,the success of the teacher is graded on her scholarship1 her culture1 her standardized attainments1 her questioning1 her care of the property1 her attitude toward the community and the system1 her sympathy with the supervisor's notions--in short1 her pedagogical ability1 which is now made a large factor in determining her ration of bread and butter1 is measured by her performance and her personal charms4 ,footnote3 ,president ,w4,a4 ,millis1 ,training ,pupils in the ,art of ,study1 ,the ,educator-,journal1 ,oct41 #aijh4 ,books dealing with education show the same trend4 ,there are hundreds of volumes on method2 but they almost invariably tell about what the teacher should do1 that is1 they center in the teacher1 not in the pupil4 ,no wonder that teachers come to regard themselves as the whole thing1 and sometimes act as though educational institutions existed principally for their benefit4 ,this exaggeration of the teacher's function has led the teacher habitually to picture the learner in the presence of a helper2 and with that thought1 it has hardly seemed necessary to ask whether or not the learner should set up specific aims as guiding motives in study2 the teacher would furnish those herself in class1 and perhaps project her influence outside overnight by threats if required4 ,it has hardly seemed necessary to inquire how the learner would know when his work was finished1 or to what extent he should pass judgment on thoughts presented1 for her questions and other tests would insure proper thoroughness1 and her presence would check unfitting boldness in judging4 ,it has hardly seemed necessary to consider how far he should proceed in the mastery of a topic1 or how he should avoid being dogmatic1 for she would let him know when the endpoint was reached--if he did not stop too soon of his own accord--and she would reprove too positive an attitude4 ,finally1 it has hardly seemed necessary to enumerate the various ways in which he might protect his individuality1 because such protection has always been regarded as one of the teacher's prominent duties1 and she would offer it as occasion demanded4 ,thus1 with aid for the pupil always near at hand1 the need of careful investigation into the problems of private study and how they should be met has not been felt by teachers to be pressing4 ,but the teacher herself has been at least something of a student while teaching2 and she may have made an extensive study of the learning process as treated under apperception1 attention1 induction1 and deduction1 interest1 etc4 ,how1 then1 has she escaped a close acquaintance with the principal factors in study8 ,the answer is that as a teacher she has always thought of herself as giving aid1 and has never felt the need of examining into her own method of study4 ,why should she1 if she has never been conscious of any particular weakness in that respect8 ,in short1 she has been too much absorbed in herself to analyze the problems of independent study to be undertaken by her pupils1 and yet not enough absorbed in herself to investigate her own study4 ,her psychology and pedagogy have not been valueless by any means2 but1 lacking the imagination to picture her pupils at work alone1 and the sympathy to feel their confusion at such times1 she has not been prompted to make an examination of the requirements they should meet when separated from her4 ,like many persons in other fields1 she has been too much interested in the results to consider the process itself4 ,she in this case represents high-school and college teachers even more than those in the grades4 ,this1 at least in part1 explains why the method of individual study has been so neglected4 ,changes necessary before young people will learn how to study4 #a4 ,placing the center of gravity of the school in the learner4 ,the first change to be made1 in order that young people may learn how to study1 is to place the center of gravity of the school where it belongs--in the learner4 ,the great question of method1 then1 becomes1 ,how shall one learn8 ,not1 first of all1 with the aid of the teacher1 but alone4 ,what are the main tasks that should be performed in private study1 and how should they be accomplished8 ,these questions give the right point of view by centering attention in the pupil1 and for that reason they are the first questions that teachers and books on method should consider4 ,every one will commend the insight of the mother who said to an instructor1 ,if you will teach my boy how to prepare his lessons1 ,i will attend to his reciting4 ,if lessons are properly prepared1 the testing of knowledge will be simple4 ,the problem of independent study having reached some solution1 how to come to the aid of the independent student1 or how to impart knowledge1 follows as a narrower and subordinate question4 ,if the former has been adequately treated1 the latter will introduce few new psychological points1 because a full treatment of method of study will require a careful consideration of apperception1 induction and deduction1 interest1 association of ideas1 attention1 etc4 ,above all1 it will give a new conception of the meaning and scope of self- activity4 ,teaching will then call mainly for a review of such topics1 although from a different and very important view-point4 #b4 ,modifying the subject-matter of the recitation4 ,method of study will then become a large subject for regular instruction4 ,even in the kindergarten and the first years of school it will receive some attention1 for that is the time when children begin to acquire good mental habits or to fall into pernicious ones4 ,without making so young pupils fully conscious that they are learning to study1 the teacher will lead them to move their eyes rapidly over the printed page1 so as to read simple stories quickly in silence1 and with good expression orally4 ,this is already done by good teachers4 ,she will accustom them to responsibility for discovering the bearings of observations in nature-study1 of stories1 work in color1 etc41 on their home lives1 and thus pave the way for collecting knowledge under guidance of definite aims4 ,she will cultivate in them the power to fill out the author's picture1 until situations are more vividly seen and felt than now4 ,she will require them to think and talk more sharply by points1 and to use judgment in neglecting really unimportant details1 training their consciences to allow such neglect1 if such training is needed4 ,she will encourage them to pass judgment on the merits of facts that they learn1 while influencing them not to feel too sure4 ,she will see that they do whatever thinking is to be done on poems and other matter that is to be memorized before the memorizing itself is undertaken1 so that the important habit of memorizing through thought1 rather than without it1 shall begin to be firmly fixed4 ,she will lead them to understand that they are not through with the study of topics until the ideas have been used in some way1 perhaps many times4 ,and1 particularly1 she will put forth effort to keep them natural in whatever they do and say1 reasonably contented with their abilities1 and self-reliant4 ,while most of such instruction will be incidental1 a portion of many a recitation will be directly occupied in this way4 ,by the time the fifth year of school has been reached the principal facts concerning each of the prominent factors of study can be talked about freely1 as so much definitely understood knowledge1 and the children can be expected to apply them in their various studies4 ,many a whole recitation can be spent in supplementing authors' statements1 in determining principal thoughts1 and in doing many other things suggested in the preceding pages1 the teacher directly emphasizing such things as essential parts of proper study1 and requiring them in the preparation of lessons4 ,many a whole recitation1 also1 may be occupied in discussing how lessons have been prepared1 the teacher not seldom presenting her own way in detail and allowing her pupils to compare theirs with it4 ,abstract theory about method of study will thus be avoided4 ,perhaps1 most of all1 the teacher will fix upon the second stage of study 7p4 #bjd7 as the crucial point in method1 in which the children select what seems of real value to them and let the rest go4 ,of course they will often err1 and then it will devolve upon the teacher to show the value of what they have rejected4 ,if she cannot do that1 either her mind or the curriculum will need to be improved4 ,while this seems a grave responsibility to place upon pupils of the elementary school1 ,it must be remembered that they should know how to study by the time they complete that course2 and they cannot possibly learn how1 without dealing boldly with values1--the values of facts in comparison with one another1 or relative values1 and their values to the self1 or general values4 ,we have long wanted young people to know how to study1 without allowing them choice among ideas1 that is1 without placing them in the conditions that would permit it4 ,the fact that during the later years of the elementary school children must choose almost daily outside of school between good and bad literature as presented in books1 periodicals1 and newspapers1 and that they actually select and reject freely in their own reading1 shows how normal it is to do such work in school1 and how important it is to make it prominent4 ,method of study will then have precedence over other aims of the school1 even ranking above the acquisition of other knowledge4 ,possibly as much as one-fourth of all the school time might be devoted primarily to this problem1 although within that period much subject- matter in the studies would also be mastered4 ,while children completing the curriculum of the elementary school might then be well enough acquainted with the general principles of study1 in their practical applications1 to stop the customary complaints of teachers and parents in that regard1 method of study would still be far from mastered4 ,for1 besides the general principles1 there are special principles peculiar to each branch of knowledge1 just as there are both general and special methods of teaching4 ,proper study of arithmetic1 for example1 does not fully include the method of studying algebra1 to say nothing of grammar2 neither does the method in algebra duplicate that in geometry2 nor the method in ,english1 that in ,latin2 nor the method in ,latin that in ,french4 ,as each new branch is begun1 therefore1 two or three weeks might need to be spent primarily in considering how it should be studied1 and now and then1 later1 an hour should be occupied in the same way4 ,topics in learning to study that are too broad for the limits of any particular branch would need to be taught from time to time4 ,for instance1 the use of the table of contents1 or of the index of a book1 of the library catalogue1 of encyclopedias and other reference works1 should become familiar in the elementary school1 as well as some facts about taking and preserving notes4 ,in high school and college further systematic instruction would be needed on the finding of articles and books treating of certain topics1 on the keeping of notes1 possibly to the extent of establishing a card catalogue for them1 and on the general use of a library4 ,some attention to methods of study would be in place1 therefore1 even in college4 ,on the whole1 the content of the regular school period would be considerably modified4 ,study periods1 both supervised and independent1 devoted either to method of study or to subject-matter1 would be far more common2 and1 while the reproduction of facts would still be necessary1 it need not be the dominant feature of the school2 for improved methods of study1 or better thinking1 would render much of the mere testing of the presence of facts1 such as we now have1 superfluous4 ,study periods1 or1 preferably1 thinking periods1 as the name in the regular school program1 would then be recognized as more fitting than recitation2 the latter is a belittling name4 #c4 ,modifying the method of the recitation4 ,finally1 in order that initiative1 good judgment1 and even skill1 may be acquired in applying the principles of study1 young people must do a much larger part of the work in class than has been customary4 ,president ,millis's statements are again eminently sound1 when he declares3 ,it is what the pupil can do1 not what the teacher can do1 that counts4 ,he may be fascinated by the brilliant performances of his teacher1 he may be pulled and pushed about under a skillful cross- examination1 he may manipulate apparatus1 he may see the wheels go round and round1 and come out of it all with little actual gain of power to do things for himself or for others4 ,there is more than a little danger that we have carried the refinements of teaching to the extreme of defeating its proper ends4444,a college professor of my acquaintance was criticised by a student for carrying the ball too much in class6 ,no coach ever built up a winning team by carrying the ball himself4 ,the pupil must be active4 ,he must carry the ball4 ,he must ask and answer questions4 ,he must make as well as solve problems4 ,he must be in the game himself1 if he is to learn to play the game4 ,he must be independently productive4 ,he must learn to do things for himself1 in a way which he has adopted for himself4 ,footnote3 ,ibid ,children and older students1 therefore1 must become accustomed to taking the initiative and doing the other work of study in class1 if they are to do these things outside4 ,one day when reading ,hawthorne's story of ,the ,gorgon's ,head with a fourth-year class1 the writer stopped at an interesting point and asked1 ,do you ever stop to talk over what you read8 ,or do you always 'go on' and 'keep going on'8 ,we always go right on1 replied several4 ,we sometimes stop1 said a few1 among whom was ,eddie4 ,very well1 said ,i1 let us stop here a moment to talk4 ,what have you to say1 ,eddie8 ,o1 we don't talk2 the teacher does the talking1 said he1 with a most nonchalant air4 ,what likelihood was there that that class1 after their four years of school training1 would show a fair degree of independence in their study of literature1 if their teacher were suddenly struck dumb8 ,it is a matter of rather frequent remark that children accustomed to lively participation in class discussion under a skillful teacher too often experience a disappointing relapse the moment the teacher absents herself4 ,the peculiar stimulus being gone1 they not only fail to rise to the occasion by conceiving such questions as she might ask2 but even after the questions are put1 they are overcome by a strange mental lassitude and make little response4 ,the stimulus to work must come from within rather than from without1 if one's state is to be healthy4 ,furthermore1 just as the children must do a larger part of the work in class1 the teacher must do less4 ,one follows as a consequence of the other4 ,the old-fashioned country school neglected its pupils so much that knowledge was poorly digested4 ,the modern school very naturally proposes to correct that evil4 ,accordingly1 the good teacher of to- day lives very close to her children4 ,in many a school she does not leave them to themselves five minutes in a whole day4 ,with her keen eye she detects their very state of mind1 and by the sharpest of questions reveals their slightest error4 ,as a result1 their knowledge is much more thorough than it used to be1 more of it is acquired1 and it is acquired with less effort4 ,but1 meanwhile1 new evils have crept in4 ,the teacher1 in spite of her better preparation1 is working harder than ever1 much too hard4 ,she does more thinking in class than any one of her pupils1 and more talking than all of them put together4 ,at the same time1 she is undermining their independence4 ,the old-fashioned school1 by leaving the pupil alone a good share of the time1 threw him upon his own resources enough to develop a fair degree of self-reliance4 ,it possessed the merit at least of not preventing the exercise of independence4 ,the modern school1 by providing a helper close at hand every moment1 tends in the opposite direction4 ,the gain on the whole is questionable4 ,the good of the old must be preserved while the added good of the new is realized4 ,the wise teacher of the future1 therefore1 will do more for her children than lead them to learn rapidly and thoroughly2 she will endeavor to develop their self-reliance and judgment in study and in other matters just as far as possible4 ,for this end she will1 more often than at present1 plan to act merely as chairman of discussion1 rather than as leader of it and an active participant in it4 ,she will induce her pupils to study aloud before her1 particularly to take such initial steps as lie plainly within their power4 ,she will offer suggestions from time to time1 but not to the extent of depriving them of responsibility for determining the main questions and answering them4 ,the longer she instructs a class1 the less talking she will do1 because they1 having grown more resourceful and independent1 will be able to do it themselves1 it being one of her objects to show them how they can get along without her4 ,she will prove most useful when she is least needed4 ,but her presence will still be necessary1 for1 while she will no longer have to prod them every moment by questions1 her testing will always be important1 and her greater maturity of knowledge will render her suggestions and criticisms always valuable4 ,the art of teaching will then consist not only in ability to present ideas but also in ability to keep still4 ,that is by no means a small task4 ,under many circumstances it is not difficult to hold one's tongue4 ,but when a teacher is confronted by a class in which every one has the duty of saying something1 it is either painful or ridiculous if no one says anything4 ,it is then that the poor teacher is obliged to talk much in order to keep things going4 ,the really good teacher is the one who understands the secret of delegating responsibility to her pupils1 and not the least of her rewards is the fact that she is allowed to rest her voice4 ,home study ,the first condition to be met in regard to home study is to assign only such work as the pupils are known by the teacher to be able to do rightly1 and without too great physical strain4 ,with the attention to method of study that has been urged1 this condition can be easily met4 ,that means1 however1 that many a topic cannot be assigned for the home as it is approached1 for it will first require some consideration at school4 ,thus the home study of a lesson will very often follow rather than precede its study at school4 ,the assignment of lessons merely by pages is now often decried1 and justly1 because it leaves the child so utterly without a guide as to method4 ,but1 when method of study has been properly taught1 such an assignment would often be fitting4 ,the responsibility would then fall upon the pupil of determining what it was good for1 of selecting and reorganizing the principal parts1 etc42 but he could meet that responsibility because he would understand what things he was to do and would know how to do them4 ,parents should not be expected to take a hand in teaching their children how to study1 for that is altogether too large a task1 and involves too much special preparation4 ,if they observe that a child does not know how1 they would better leave him alone1 directing him to apply to his teacher for instruction4 ,parents are more bent upon obtaining results and getting rid of their children--so far as school work is concerned--than are teachers1 so that the duties assigned to them should be few and of a simple character4 ,there are some important things for parents to do1 however4 ,they should take pains to provide proper physical surroundings for home study1 including quiet1 proper light and temperature4 ,they should exert an influence in the direction of regular hours1 of a short period of relaxation immediately before and after meals and before bedtime1 and of some variety of occupation during the longer periods of study1 so that fatigue may be avoided4 ,in addition1 they should stimulate their children by bringing pressure to bear on the lazy ones1 by hearing lessons now and then1 and1 above all1 by asking questions that call for a review of facts as well as for their use in conversation4 ,they may give some help2 but1 if they do1 they should by all means avoid falling into disputes about method4 ,the child is right in preferring to do a thing in the teacher's way1 for it is to the teacher that he is finally responsible2 and parents ought to be broad enough to try to follow the teacher's plan4 ,they can help their children most by showing concern for them1 really inspecting their written work instead of merely pretending to1 and otherwise manifesting genuine interest in their tasks4 ,are children capable of the initiative necessary for independent study8 ,two questions remain to be considered1 the first of which pertains to initiative4 ,if independent study requires that one practically duplicate the work of the teacher by teaching one's self1 can children in the elementary school be expected to study alone1 or can they even be trained to it8 ,much power of initiative is rare even among adults4 ,much of the instruction of teachers themselves is poor owing to a lack of independent thinking4 ,what success1 then1 can come to children when they are sent off to study their lessons in private8 ,in reply1 it is safe to say that they can be so trained1 provided they have some native capacity for self-reliance that can be used as a basis for such training4 ,and that they have such capacity can scarcely be questioned4 ,in their choice and leadership of games and other play2 in their plans for constructive work2 in their serious tasks set by themselves at home2 in their selection of topics for conversation and even in the turns that their remarks take1 children plainly show power of initiative4 ,intelligent parents recognize this fact1 and they not infrequently take successful measures to cultivate this power4 ,kindergartners also recognize it4 ,indeed1 they expect children who are little more than infants to propose suitable tasks1 together with the method of their execution1 in the kindergarten1 and to carry the responsibility of leadership in the conversation of the circle and in the games4 ,the resourcefulness of a ten-year-old boy was recently suggested in a certain class in composition4 ,the subject that they were writing on was ,mining in the ,far ,west1 and spelling was a serious obstacle for one youth1 as it was for most of his mates4 ,finally1 with apparent innocence1 he asked his teacher if he might not describe his experiences as a miner in the miner's own dialect4 ,on receiving her consent he gloried in his freedom by misspelling nearly every word that he used4 ,evidently1 latent power of self-direction is one of the native tendencies of childhood4 ,the statement may be ventured1 also1 that while the field of experience of children is very different from that of adults1 the exercise of initiative within that field is as common among children as it is among adults within their own field4 ,there is1 therefore1 a good basis in children for assuming the initiative4 ,but it is only a basis4 ,unless this native tendency toward self-direction is carefully developed in connection with the studies in school1 from year to year1 it will of course prove inadequate to the demands of proper study4 ,and that very often happens4 ,in spite of the fact that schools exist for the sake of education1 there is many a school whose pupils show a peculiar school helplessness2 that is1 they are capable of less initiative in connection with their school tasks than they commonly exhibit in the accomplishment of other tasks4 ,in its quest for knowledge the school may thus easily prove inferior to the street and the average home in the development of this extremely valuable power4 ,on the other hand1 if children's native capacity for taking initiative has been carefully developed1 well-selected subjects of study need make no excessive demands upon them4 ,the topics to be considered will be found so nearly within their experience that their ability to study alone will be taxed only to a normal degree4 ,children1 therefore1 can be expected to exercise the initiative that is necessary for independent study from year to year1 provided their teachers from year to year do their duty in developing that power4 ,is there time for teaching how to study8 ,finally1 even though children be capable of learning to study alone1 is there time for such instruction1 particularly if it is to be the primary object throughout possibly a quarter of the elementary-school time1 and during a considerable time later8 ,is not the curriculum already full enough1 indeed full to completion8 ,while it is true that it has begun to be reduced by the selection of only such matter as bears a plain relation to our lives1 as can be understood by the learner1 and as constitutes some part of a large topic1 when such reduction has been completed there may still remain twice as much as ought to be taught4 ,shall we1 then1 even while making these eliminations1 make additions that may more than equal them8 ,the addition here proposed is not so alarming4 ,for a long time some of our university departments of physics have aimed rather to teach the scientific method in laboratory investigations than to impart a knowledge of the facts in physics2 and some of our departments of practical politics have been more concerned about the method of investigating political problems than about the conclusions reached concerning them4 ,in such cases the acceptance of proper method as the primary purpose has not precluded the acquisition of much subject- matter1 for the method has been taught through the subject-matter4 ,the same would hold in teaching proper method of study4 ,but1 aside from that1 attention to proper method of study will result in greatly reducing1 rather than in increasing1 the work of both teacher and pupil1 and in two ways4 ,first1 it will reduce the quantity of subject-matter4 ,it is strange that1 in spite of the hue and cry of teachers and superintendents against overcrowding in the elementary school1 they are really the ones who make out the course of study1 and there are no persons back of them requiring them to include a large amount4 ,beyond a minimum portion of the three ,r's1 spelling1 and geography1 which are required by society1 almost anything and everything could be omitted if they greatly desired it4 ,but they have forced young people to study in much the same way as they themselves visit ,european countries1 straining to get a bird's-eye view of everything1 and settling on nothing long enough to know it intimately and to enjoy it deeply4 ,they justify ,herbert ,spencer's remark to the effect that he would have known no more than a great many other persons1 if he had read as many books as they had4 ,the difficulty has been that teachers1 with the center of gravity of the school within themselves1 have lacked a standard for determining their pupils' normal rate of advance4 ,the curriculum that they have outlined has been merely the sum of those things that they have deemed good1 that they would like to have the children know2 and the children have been set to work to consume all these good things1 just like gourmands4 ,with the center of gravity in the child1 however1 and with the proper method of study in the lead1 the learner's real power of assimilation becomes the standard for his rate of advance4 ,and1 since assimilation is a very slow process1 including much discrimination among ideas as well as their use1 comparatively few topics can be undertaken4 ,appreciation of proper study then makes extensive eliminations so evidently necessary that they become compulsory4 ,so long as we did not look closely at the minds of children1 and they seemed to thrive physically1 we have lacked proof that they were surfeiting2 attention to study reveals the fact too plainly for it to be ignored4 ,it is not merely the teacher1 either1 that will be emboldened to cast aside subject-matter4 ,the pupil himself1 under the influence of specific purposes1 a clear notion of thoroughness1 and his own conception of values1 will quickly pass over many of the facts that are assigned in his lessons4 ,if he pays little attention to a full half of any school text that possesses literary merit1 he will probably not be far in the wrong4 ,for perspective is essential in all presentation of thought1 and there are usually as many things in the background1 necessary and yet to be ignored1 as there are in the foreground4 ,besides reducing the amount of matter to be studied1 proper method of studying will further relieve both teacher and pupil from overwork by eliminating much friction in the process of study4 ,the want of axle grease on a wagon does not increase the actual weight of a ton of coal1 but it makes the pulling a lot harder2 likewise1 awkward methods of study do not increase the curriculum in fact1 but they do in effect1 by making progress slower and more taxing4 ,there are hosts of young people who are willing and are trying to be studious1 who do not know how4 ,they1 as well as the lazy ones1 have to be dragged along by their teachers1 and it is this dragging more than the thinking that exhausts them all4 ,it is the discouragement resulting from this condition that drives many pupils out of school and many teachers into matrimony4 ,while numerous things compete with it as a source of waste in education1 unnecessary friction in method of study is probably the greatest source of waste2 and it is as foolish to ignore the fact longer as it would be for a manufacturer to refuse to oil and repair his machinery4 ,there is no question1 therefore1 about the advisability of taking time to teach proper method of study4 ,in spite of helpful reductions in the curriculum from other sources1 we must look to proper method of study as the principal means by which work for both the teacher and the pupil will be made lighter1 more effective1 and more enjoyable4