,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,old or antiquated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,five ,,classes ,,of ,,invertebral ,,animals ,,described ,,in ,,this ,,volume ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,shells2 ,,containing ,,the ,,classes ,,mollusca1 ,,conchifera1 ,,cirrhipeda1 ,,annulata1 ,,and ,,crustacea4 ,,published ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,of ,,general ,,literature ,,and ,,education1 ,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge4 ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,parker1 ,,west ,,strand4 ,m4,,dccc4,,xxxvii4 ,,to ,,the ,,reader4 ,in describing that portion of the system of ,natural ,history which embraces the ,,vertebral ,,animals1--namely1 the ,mammalia1 the ,birds1 the ,reptiles1 and the ,fishes1--the arrangement of the ,,baron ,,cuvier was adopted4 ,in the present little volume1 as well as in two others that are to follow1 and which1 together1 will comprise the ,,invertebral ,,animals1 the method of ,m4 ,,lamarck will be adhered to4 ,it is true1 that1 since the works of that naturalist were published1 many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken place1 some of which have received the sanction of the highest names2 but still1 as a whole1 ,lamarck's ,system remains unrivalled1 and the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains1 by reference to the works of more recent authors1 in case he has sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject4 ,,contents4 ,page ,introductory ,chapter #i ,class ,,mollusca #ad ,order ,,heteropoda #ae ,the ,glassy ,carinaria #ae ,order ,,cephalopoda #af ,the ,cuttle ,fish #ag ,argonaut #bj ,pearly ,nautilus #bb ,order ,,trachelipoda #bf ,the ,marble ,cone #bg ,porphyry ,olive ,shell #bh ,money ,cowrie #bi ,diadem ,whorl ,shell #ca ,common ,columbella #ca ,music ,harp ,shell #cb ,wide-,mouthed ,purpura #cc ,spotted ,scorpion ,shell #cg ,variegated ,sea-,trumpet #ci ,caniculated ,pear-,shell #dj ,babylonian ,split-,mouth #dj ,marble ,turban-,shell #da ,imperial ,top-,shell #da ,precious ,scalaria #db ,iris ,ear-,shell #dc ,dusty ,neritina #dd ,viviparous ,paludina #dd ,lymna ,stagnalis #de ,horn-shaped ,planorbis #df ,red-mouthed ,bulimus #df ,mummy ,puppet ,shell #dg ,wood ,snail #dg ,order ,,gasteropoda #ea ,the ,red ,slug #ea ,woodlike ,bulla #ec ,nail-shaped ,crepidula #ed ,mediterranean ,umbrella #ed ,clouded ,fissurella #ed ,hungarian ,bonnet ,shell #ee ,scaly ,chiton #ef ,class ,,conchifera #eg ,order ,,unimusculosa #fd ,the ,horse-,foot ,bowl ,shell #fd ,oyster #fe ,great ,comb ,shell #fh ,pearl ,oyster #fi ,hammer ,oyster #gg ,rough ,pinna #gg ,common ,mussel #gi ,giant ,tridacna #ha ,order ,,bimusculosa #hb ,the ,fresh-,water ,mussel #hc ,heart-shaped ,isocardia #hd ,wedge-shaped ,donax #he ,sheath ,solen #he ,date-shaped ,pholas #hg ,ship-,worm #hi ,class ,,cirrhipeda #ia ,order ,,cirrhipeda ,,pedunculata #ib ,the ,smooth ,barnacle #ib ,order ,,cirrhipeda ,,sedentaria #id ,the ,acorn-,shell #id ,class ,,annulata #ig ,order ,,annulata ,,sedentaria #ih ,the ,magnificent ,amphitrite #ih ,order ,,annulata ,,antennata #ajj ,the ,sand-,worm of the ,fishermen #ajj ,blood-coloured ,leodice #ajj ,spinous ,sea-,mouse #ajb ,order ,,annulata ,,apoda #ajb ,the ,common ,earth-,worm #ajc ,medicinal ,leech #ajf ,class ,,crustacea #aae ,order ,,crustacea ,,homobranchi #aae ,the ,crab ,tribe #aag ,land ,crab #abd ,hermit ,crab #abg ,lobster #acj ,river ,cray-,fish #aca ,phosphorescent ,shrimp #acb ,opossum ,shrimp #acd ,order ,,crustacea ,,heterobranchi #acg ,the ,spotted ,squill #acg ,common ,cloportus #ach ,molucca ,crab #adb ,crab-like ,limulus #add ,water ,flea #add ,small ,water ,flea #adg ,hairy ,cypris #adh ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,shells4 ,,introductory ,,chapter4 ,in reviewing the first ,,division of the animal kingdom1 namely1 the vertebral animals1 we cannot fail to have been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual2 but1 beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as these faculties may have appeared1 our pleasure must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed1 which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of animated nature4 ,when contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag1 or the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes1 or when we notice the terrific appearance of the crocodile1 or the elaborate finish and metallic lustre of the scales of fishes1 we are led to expect that equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the different individuals1 and that equal attention has been paid to the various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation2 but when we observe a snail1 or a worm1 and compare their more simple appearance1 and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to consider the organs of motion1 namely1 feet and hands1 we are apt to look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose1 and1 therefore1 less carefully formed than the vertebral animals4 ,how much greater then must be our delight1 when we find them possessed of every power necessary to their state of existence1 as beautifully developed1 and as carefully adapted to their necessities1 as the highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors4 ,nor is their organization to be considered less perfect1 because we are unable to trace it in all its ramifications2 the minute branches of the nerves of the human body are1 not only invisible to the naked eye1 but even to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of the microscope1 but we are certain that they do exist1 from the pain we feel when they are injured4 ,until lately1 the ,infusoria1 those microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances in water1 were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach1 and to be fed by absorption2 but the ingenious experiments of a learned foreigner have proved1 that1 instead of being without a stomach1 they are provided with as many as five or six3 it is true1 that the nerves have not yet been detected1 but we have a right to infer their existence from their effects2 so that these minute creatures1 which we have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs1 are1 in fact1 beautifully formed1 and as perfect in their kind as any other of the ,creator's works4 ,the second ,,division of the objects of natural history1 namely1 the ,,invertebral animals1 which we have now to describe1 are placed by themselves1 on account of their being without an internal skeleton1 consisting of a series of vertebr1 or bones of the back4 ,this distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the ,book of ,animals4 ,they have been separated1 by ,lamarck1 into ,eleven ,,classes1 namely3-- #a4 ,,mollusca1 7soft-bodied animals17 in general covered with a shell2 as1 for instance1 a snail2 or without a shell1 as a slug4 #b4 ,,conchifera1 7shell-bearing animals17 with a shell1 consisting of two valves1 as an oyster or mussel4 #c4 ,,cirrhipeda1 7with feet like cirri1 or hairs47 ,the inhabitant of the acorn-shell1 found on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish1 c41 is an instance of this class4 #d4 ,,annelida1 7with body formed of rings27 of this class the leech and the earth-worm are instances4 #e4 ,,crustacea1 7covered with a hard case17 crabs1 lobsters1 c4 #f4 ,,arachnid1 ,spiders4 #g4 ,,insecta1 ,insects4 ,a perfect insect has always six legs4 #h4 ,,tunicata1 7enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence47 #i4 ,,vermes1 ,worms4 ,with lengthened body without divisions2 for instance1 worms found in the intestines4 #aj4 ,,radiari1 7radiated animals17 with the different parts of which they are formed arranged like rays round one common centre2 as1 for instance1 the ,star-fish4 #aa4 ,,polypi1 7many feet47 ,the animal that forms the ,coral is a ,polypus4 #ab4 ,,infusoria1 7,infusory animals47 ,these are found in infusions of vegetable substances in water1 and are1 in general1 too small to be visible to the naked eye4 ,in the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these ,classes4 ,the ,molluscous animals are1 on account of their organization1 placed first among the invertebral animals1 a few of the species resembling1 in some respects1 the more simply-formed fishes4 ,the systematic arrangement of the ,molluscous animals1 considered not only as regards their shells1 but having reference also to the anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves1 is a modern study4 ,in ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts1 the beauty of the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals4 ,although1 at the first glance1 the inhabitants of shells appear to be beings of a very uninteresting nature1 a due consideration of the valuable properties of many1 and the usefulness of all1 will enable us to perceive1 that1 regarding them merely in an interested point of view1 they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist4 ,in the first place1 the whole of them afford food for the different species of fish1 and other inhabitants of the deep4 ,the ,tyrian dye1 the royal purple of the ancients1 was produced by the inhabitant of a small univalve shell1 of the genus ,purpura4 ,that beautiful ornament in dress1 the oriental pearl1 is the consequence of disease in a species of mussel1 and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal1 is the well-known substance1 mother-of-pearl4 ,a kind of silk is obtained from the beard of the pinna1 which1 in some places1 is made into gloves4 ,as an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster1 the mussel1 scallop1 c41 and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of the subsistence of the natives of the ,south-,sea ,islands1 and the ,negro population in the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,teredo navalis1 or ship-worm1 has1 by its destructive powers1 ruined the noblest vessels1 and rendered useless the timbers1 on which many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security2 on this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history and habits4 ,the barnacle1 which attaches itself to the bottoms of ships1 renders the planks so foul1 as to interfere materially with the rate of sailing of the vessel itself4 ,these are only a few of the useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep4 ,the shell with which a ,molluscous animal is covered1 is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from injury2 this shell is1 in general1 composed of much the same substances as bone2 but the bone of a bird1 or quadruped1 is formed by the agency of the blood1 and the particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid1 and again taken up and restored to the circulation1 a circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell4 ,the shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer1 in the course of the growth of the animal1 and the ridges we perceive on many shells1 point out their periodical increase4 ,illustration3 ,fig #a4 ,fig #b4 ,it will be necessary1 when describing the distinctions between shells of different genera1 to use several terms1 which will1 unless properly defined1 be1 perhaps1 unintelligible to young people4 ,the annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence among the ,mollusca4 ,fig4 #a1 represents a univalve shell2 fig4 #b1 another shell1 of the same division1 cut through the middle1 for the purpose of showing the columella1 or pillar4 ,many shells1 as1 for instance1 the periwinkle1 7,turbo vulgaris17 have what is called an operculum1 7a lid17 which closes the opening1 and protects the inhabitant from injury4 ,in the case of the periwinkle1 this lid is of horny nature1 but1 in many species it is hard and solid1 like the shell itself4 ,,class ,,mollusca4 ,in noticing the animal of a univalve shell1 the part which more readily attracts the attention is the mantle1 which covers the head of the creature1 something like a hood2 it varies much in form and size in different genera4 ,the eyes1 which in the sepia are amazingly large and brilliant1 are very minute in most of the other tribes1 although they are frequently visible1 and would appear1 from their formation1 to be of little use as organs of sight2 indeed1 it is supposed1 that in the snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling4 ,the organs of motion in the ,mollusca1 according to their different form and position1 give names to most of the orders2 these consist of muscular expansions of the body1 by means of which the animal swims or drags itself along the ground4 ,the gills1 or breathing apparatus1 are situated internally1 and communicate with the air or water1 by means of a small canal opening outwardly4 ,the mouth is usually concealed from view when the creature is at rest2 in some1 this organ is furnished with a hard substance1 which supplies the place of teeth1 while1 in others1 it is in the form of a projecting tube4 ,the greatest portion of these creatures are produced in the water1 the tribes that inhabit that element1 exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land4 ,the ,molluscous animals have been separated into the five following ,orders3-- #a4 ,,heteropoda1 7with feet1 or organs of motion1 not uniform in all species47 #b4 ,,cephalopoda1 7with feet1 or organs of motion1 attached to the head47 #c4 ,,trachelipoda1 7with feet1 or organs of motion1 attached to the neck1 near the gills47 #d4 ,,gasteropoda1 7with feet1 or organs of motion1 attached to the stomach47 #e4 ,,pteropoda1 7with feet1 or organs of motion1 like wings47 ,,order ,,heteropoda4 ,the creatures belonging to this order1 says ,lamarck may be considered as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals1 intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the ,cephalopods2 they are all natives of hot climates1 and possess a body of a jelly-like substance1 and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when floating in the water4 ,they do not all possess shells1 and are less known than they otherwise would be1 on account of the great difficulty there is in preserving them4 ,,the ,,glassy ,,carinaria1 7,carinaria vitrea47 ,this singular animal is rarely taken1 on account of its delicate and perishable substance2 it is found in the ,southern ,ocean4 ,it will be seen1 on referring to the engraving1 that the shell which it bears merely covers a portion of its body1 that in which the most material organs of the animal are found1 namely1 the heart and the branchi1 or organs of breathing4 ,these are most curiously placed on the upper part of its body1 projecting from it and protected by a delicately white and transparent shell1 shaped like a little cap1 and of a substance resembling glass4 ,the creature is able to enlarge its body by filling it with water1 and in swimming the back is undermost4 ,the shell1 which seldom exceeds an inch in length1 has been sought after by collectors with great assiduity1 and has1 at times1 fetched as much as ten guineas at a sale2 a perfect specimen is very rarely met with4 ,there is a wax model of one of these shells in the ,british ,museum1 nearly two inches wide4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glassy ,,carinaria1 7,carinaria vitrea47 ,,order ,,cephalopoda4 ,the ,cephalopods have been so named by ,cuvier1 from being furnished with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head4 ,we find among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters2 they differ materially from each other1 and have been separated into three groups2 first1 those without any external shell1 as the ,sepia2 secondly1 the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions1 as the ,argonaut2 and1 thirdly1 those whose shell is divided into numerous chambers1 as the ,nautilus4 ,,the ,,cuttle ,,fish1 7,sepia officinalis47 ,the ,cuttle ,fish1 of which there are many different species1 is a native of all the temperate and tropical seas4 ,its body is1 in general1 of an irregular oval shape1 and of a jelly-like substance1 and usually covered with a coarse skin1 having the appearance of leather4 ,unlike all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone1 the ,sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes1 covered with a hard transparent substance4 ,the ,cuttle ,fish1 figured in the engraving1 is furnished in front with eight arms or feelers1 with which it grapples with its enemy1 or conveys its prey to its mouth4 ,these arms are most curiously constructed1 and afford it ample means of defence2 they possess in themselves a strong muscular power1 and this is materially assisted by numerous cups or suckers1 placed along the whole of their inner surface1 with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in contact with4 ,these feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar power1 of a galvanic nature2 since the pain which they inflict does not cease for a long time after the removal of the animal1 leaving a kind of stinging sensation1 like that produced by nettles1 which remains for many hours1 and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cuttle ,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,beak ,,of ,a ,,cephalopod4 ,the size to which this creature grows has been variously stated2 and1 although evidently exaggerated by some authors1 there can be no doubt that it attains a very considerable magnitude4 ,when attacked in its own element1 it has been known1 even in the seas of temperate latitudes1 capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff4 ,the jaws of all this tribe are1 likewise1 extremely strong1 formed like the beak of a parrot1 and very hard4 ,in addition to these means of defence1 it possesses within its body a bladder1 containing an inky-coloured fluid1 which it has the power of throwing out at will1 and1 by thus discolouring the water1 it escapes the pursuit of its enemies4 ,this inky liquid1 when dried1 forms a very valuable colour1 used by artists1 and called1 after the animal1 ,sepia4 ,the eggs of the female are of an oval form1 and joined to each other in clusters4 ,they are of the size of filberts1 of a black colour1 and commonly known by the name of ,sea ,grapes4 ,they are found attached to sea-weed1 rocks1 and other marine substances4 ,the ,cuttle ,fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock1 while its arms are extended in every direction1 to seize the wanderer that may chance to pass its place of ambush4 ,its appetite is voracious1 and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer4 ,the species figured in the engraving is very common on the ,english coasts1 and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found on the sands2 it is a well-known substance1 and much employed in the manufacture of tooth-powder4 ,this bone1 which1 with the exception of the jaws1 is the only solid part in the ,sepia1 differs in shape in the different species1 but is always somewhat oval in its form1 though varying considerably in texture4 ,,the ,,argonaut1 7,argonauta argo47 ,the tender ,nautilus that steers its prow1 ,the sea-born sailor in its light canoe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,he1 when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep ,the surge1 is safe2 his home is in the deep4 ,he triumphs o'er the armadas of mankind1 ,that shake the world1 but tremble in the wind4 ,the curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has1 from the earliest ages1 excited the admiration of the student in natural history2 and1 at the same time1 its real place in the system has eluded the research of the most acute observers4 ,the animal agrees1 in many points1 with the sepia1 or cuttle fish1 which never possesses a shelly covering1 so that1 had it been found without that beautiful addition1 naturalists would have referred it1 without hesitation1 to that particular division of the dwellers in the deep2 it is1 however1 always met with along with the shell2 and1 although there appears to be no bond of union between the tenant and its dwelling1 still the purposes to which it applies it1 imply1 at any rate1 a long-continued occupancy1 if they do not absolutely point out the ,nautilus as the original architect of the shell4 ,the name ,argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its resemblance1 when floating on the surface of the waves1 to a vessel in full sail1 ,argo being the name of the ship1 which was supposed to have been the first fitted out for commercial adventure4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,argonaut1 ,,or ,,paper ,,nautilus4 ,in calm ,summer days1 these beautiful little creatures may be seen1 in considerable numbers1 steering their little barks on the surface of the waters of the ,mediterranean4 ,the words of the ancient ,roman naturalist1 ,pliny1 give a pleasing description of its habits4 8,among the principal miracles of nature10 says he1 8is the animal called ,nautilos1 or ,pompilos3 it ascends to the surface of the sea1 in a supine posture1 and1 gradually raising itself up1 forces out1 by means of its tube1 all the water from its shell1 in order that it may swim more readily2 then1 throwing back the two foremost arms1 it displays between them a membrane of wonderful tenuity1 which acts as a sail1 while1 with the remaining arms1 it rows itself along1 the tail in the middle acting as a helm to direct its course1 and thus it pursues its voyage2 and1 if alarmed by any appearance of danger1 takes in the water and descends40 ,although the ,argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its shell1 some observations which have been recently made on the ,pearly ,nautilus1 which very nearly resembles it1 have almost proved that such a connexion does really exist4 ,but whether the shell is formed by itself1 or only used to assist the creature in its movements1 the instinct displayed is not the less wonderful1 or worthy of observation4 ,the ,mediterranean1 and warmer parts of the ,atlantic1 abound in these interesting animals1 and one species is also found in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,,the ,,pearly ,,nautilus1 7,nautilus pompilius47 ,the inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after with eagerness by naturalists1 and it is only within these few years that its true nature has been ascertained4 ,we are indebted for this knowledge to the researches of the late ,mr4 ,george ,bennet1 who1 while engaged in a voyage among the ,polynesian ,islands1 captured a specimen containing a living animal1 which was brought to ,england1 and is now deposited in the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons in ,london4 ,the shell of the ,nautilus1 as may be seen by the engraving1 is divided into numerous cells4 ,the use of these cells to the animal we are now describing1 was formerly not well understood1 but they were supposed to be employed1 by their inhabitant1 for the purpose of rising or sinking in the ,water at will4 ,the body of this ,cephalopod1 it will be seen1 only occupies the outer cell of its habitation1 its increased size having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it4 ,if1 as the animal deserted its smaller tenements1 one after the other1 they had been filled1 up with solid matter1 the shell would have become too cumbersome for its owner2 so that we have here another proof of the providing care of the ,creator4 ,we shall describe1 in ,mr4 ,bennet's own words1 the capture of this interesting object4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pearly ,,nautilus1 ,showing the ,animal1 and a ,section of its ,shell4 8,it was on the twenty-fourth of ,august1 #ahbi1 7calm and fine weather1 thermometer at noon #gi17 in the evening1 when the ship ,sophia was lying at anchor1 in ,marakini ,bay1 on the south-west side of the island of ,erromanga1 one of the ,new ,hebrides group1 ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 that something was seen floating on the surface of the water1 at some distance from the ship2 to many it appeared like a small dead tortoise-shell cat1 which would have been such an unusual object in this part of the world1 that the boat1 which was alongside of the ship at the time1 was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the floating object40 8,on approaching near1 it was observed to be the shell-fish1 commonly known by the name of the ,pearly ,nautilus3 it was captured and brought on board2 but the shell was shattered from having been struck with the boat-hook1 in taking it1 as the animal was sinking when the boat approached1 and1 had it not been so damaged1 it would have escaped4 ,i extracted the fish in a perfect state1 which was firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell40 ,the hood has been stated by ,dr4 ,shaw1 as being 8of a pale1 reddish-purple colour1 with deeper sports and variegations10 the colour1 however1 as it appeared in this recent specimen1 was of a dark reddish-brown4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,nautilus2 ,,and ,,the ,,sea-,,pen1 ,,or ,,internal ,,shell ,,of ,,the ,,loligo4 ,although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been brought to this country1 there is but little doubt of its having been frequently taken1 but as the shell was the object of the captors1 and not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless4 ,an office in his ,majesty's ,navy found a ,nautilus in a hole in a reef of rocks1 near an island on the ,eastern coast of ,africa2 the mantle of the fish1 like a thin membrane1 covered the shell1 which was drawn in as soon as it was touched1 and the elegant shell was then displayed4 8,i and others10 says the same informant1 8when it was first seen did not notice it1 regarding the animal1 as the membrane enveloped the shell1 merely as a piece of blubber2 but having touched it by accident1 the membranous covering was drawn in1 and we soon secured our beautiful prize40 ,rumphius1 a ,german naturalist1 appears to have been acquainted with its habits2 he says1 8,when he thus floats upon the water1 he puts out his head1 and all his barbs1 and spreads them on the water1 with the poop of the shell above water3 but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse position1 with his boat above him1 and with his head and barbs upon the ground1 making a tolerably quick progress4 ,he keeps himself chiefly on the ground1 creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen3 but after a storm1 as the weather becomes calm1 they are seen in troops floating on the water1 being driven up by the agitation of the waves4 ,this sailing1 however1 is not of long continuance1 for having taken in all their tentacles1 they upset their boat1 and so return to the bottom40 ,,order ,,trachelipoda4 ,the ,trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve shells1 and are mostly inhabitants of the waters4 ,they form two numerous groups1 the feeders on animal food1 7,zoophagi17 and those that exist on vegetable substances1 7,phytophagi47 ,the animal feeders are well distinguished from the other group1 by having a mouth without jaws1 being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at pleasure1 for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies of other inhabitants of the deep4 ,the animal feeders are also known from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a siphon1 which conveys the water to the gills4 ,the shell also points out to which section its possessor belonged1 from the lower part of its opening being formed either into a sort of canal1 or a groove for the reception of its siphon4 ,they are all marine animals1 and breathe water4 ,the flesh-eating tribes compose five families4 ,,family ,,convoluta1 7rolled up like a scroll47 ,,family ,,columellaria1 7distinguished by a plaited columella47 ,,family ,,purpurifera1 7yielding a purple colour47 ,,family ,,alata1 7winged47 ,,family ,,canalifera 7having a canal at the base of the opening47 ,,family ,,convoluta4 ,the convoluted shells contain but few genera2 but these are very rich in species1 and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of this class4 ,,feeders ,,on ,,animal ,,food1 7,,zoophagi47 ,,the ,,marble ,,cone1 7,conus marmoreus47 ,lamarck notices no less than #aha recent species of the ,cone shell4 ,the ,marbled ,cone figured below1 is found in most of the ,asiatic seas1 and is not uncommon2 it is of a dusky colour1 and covered with angular white spots4 ,the section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner the economy and providence of the ,creator1 so visible in all his works4 ,illustration3 ,voluta diadema4 ,conus marmoreus4 ,columbella mercatoria4 ,it will be seen on referring to the engraving1 that the shell is much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part2 and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft body of its inhabitant4 ,in the course of the growth of the animal the shell is enlarged1 and that part that was external becomes internal1 the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall2 if1 therefore1 the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness1 its weight would become too great for its possessor4 ,to guard against this inconvenience1 and this useless waste of material1 the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its present use1 and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its mansion1 where strength is most required#a4 ,the ,cones1 says ,lamarck1 are the most beautiful of all the univalve shells2 the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable specimens of this family1 whether we look at the regularity of their form or the splendour of their colours4 ,the beauty of many1 but1 above all1 the extreme rarity of others1 have given them a species of celebrity1 and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors4 ,illustration3 ,oliva porphyria4 ,the ,cones are found in the seas of hot climates1 in from ten to twelve fathom water4 ,the animal of the ,cones has the head furnished with two tentacul1 or horns1 with the eyes on the summits2 they only inhabit salt waters4 ,the genus ,oliva is distinguished from the ,cones by the groove or canal which separates the turns of their spire1 and by the wrinkles on the columella4 ,the ,porphyry ,olive is found in the ,south ,american ,seas1 on the ,brazilian coast1 and is the most beautiful and the largest species of the genus2 it is of a flesh colour1 with numerous lines of a reddish brown1 forming angular figures of various forms1 and covered with irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour4 ,its length is nearly four inches4 ,there are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell4 ,,the ,,money ,,cowrie1 7,cypra moneta47 ,the ,money ,cowrie of ,guinea is very common on the ,indian and ,african coasts2 and is used by many of the inhabitants of ,africa as a circulating medium2 it is also employed for the same purpose in ,hindoostan1 particularly at ,calcutta1 where great quantities are obtained from the inhabitants of the ,maldive ,islands in exchange for rice4 ,illustration3 ,cypra moneta4 ,many tons of ,cowries are annually shipped from ,england to ,guinea2 these having been originally brought from the ,maldive ,islands to ,bengal1 and from thence sent into this country4 ,the value of these shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less abundance4 ,in ,bengal1 in general1 from #bjjj to #bdjj are equal in value to a shilling4 ,but in ,africa they are much dearer1 about #bej being valued at a shilling4 ,the ,cowrie shell is found of three different forms1 according to its age4 ,first1 in its extreme youth1 when the shell is extremely imperfect1 and is like a slender one1 without any appearance of the usual characters of the genius4 ,secondly1 when half-grown2 it then begins to assume the form of the perfect shell1 but is extremely slight1 and colourless1 and the point of its spire projects4 ,thirdly1 when perfect2 it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter1 in which its specific colours appear1 and its spire is completely hidden4 ,the second deposit with which the shell is covered1 is secreted by the two membranous wings of the creature's mantle1 which1 in the adult state of the animal1 have rapidly increased and become extremely large1 so much so1 as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell1 while the deposition of the new matter is taking place4 ,lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to prove that1 in addition to the power of completing its shell1 as we have already noticed1 it can1 when its increased size has caused it to require a new habitation1 desert its former shell and form a new one2 from this it happens that the same individual can form successively many shells of different sizes1 so that we find the same species both large and small4 ,when not in search of food1 these animals are found buried in the sand1 at some distance from the sea-shore1 in temperate as well as in hot climates4 ,,family ,,columellaria4 ,this family is distinguished1 from the next in having the columella plaited1 and a notch at its base4 ,it does not include any shells with a plaited columella1 the opening at the base being entirely smooth1 that is1 without a notch4 ,,the ,,diadem ,,whorl ,,shell1 7,voluta diadema47 ,the ,diadem ,whorl ,shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus2 it is marbled with white upon a yellow ground1 but the markings become nearly obliterated by age3 it is as much as seven inches in length1 and is found in the ,asiatic seas4 ,the head of the animal of this shell has two pointed tentacul1 with an eye at the outer base of each4 ,its mouth is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube1 furnished with little hooked teeth2 it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchi1 springing out obliquely behind the head4 ,,the ,,common ,,columbella1 7,columbella mercatoria47 ,the common ,columbella is found in the ,atlantic ,ocean near the island of ,gore1 and in the ,west ,india ,islands2 it is about three quarters of an inch in length4 ,it is a sea-shell1 and is found upon the coast2 it possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot4 ,,family ,,purpurifera4 ,the notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove bent backwards and upwards1 but not properly forming a canal1 all the genera have an operculum4 ,the name ,purpurifera has been given to these ,trachelipodes1 because some of the genera contain in a peculiar reservoir the colouring-matter with which the ,romans1 and other ancient nations1 dyed their beautiful and well-known purple1 which was so much in use before the discovery of cochineal4 ,,the ,,music ,,harp ,,shell1 7,harpa musica47 ,the ,harp shells are found in the ,indian seas1 and in great abundance also in the ,red ,sea4 ,a very curious fact appears in the history of the animal of the ,harp which deserves notice4 ,it was observed a long time back by a ,german naturalist named ,bon1 but had since then been either forgotten or disbelieved3 a recent traveller has confirmed its truth1 although he notices it as a new discovery2 it is as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,harpa musica4 ,the foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two portions2 and one1 namely1 the hinder portion1 can be separated from its body by the animal1 when it finds itself suddenly in danger1 and wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell2 on this account it is without an operculum1 which would evidently be useless1 as it would be lost at the same time as the foot4 ,the ,harps1 says ,lamarck1 are very beautiful shells1 and if they were less common1 would1 on account of their elegant forms and colours1 become valuable in a collection4 ,some species1 however1 are still considered rare4 ,the ,harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell1 and the strings of a harp4 ,the species are not numerous1 not exceeding eight in number4 ,,the ,,wide-,,mouthed ,,purpura1 7,purpura patula47 ,this species of ,purpura is said to be that which was employed by the ,romans in dyeing1 but many others of the same family yield a purple colouring-matter4 ,it is nearly three inches in length1 and is found in the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,mediterranean4 ,the purple colour which this little ,molluscous animal produces1 was discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of ,tyre1 and was thence called the ,tyrian purple4 ,the circumstances which led to the discovery of it are very imperfectly known1 but fiction has supplied the want of historical facts1 and described its origin with sufficient minuteness of detail4 ,according to one account1 the merit of its discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain ,hercules4 ,we are informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the sea-shore1 who was then following the nymph ,tyros1 the animal seized one of the ,purpur lying on the sand1 and breaking the shell with his teeth1 his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice4 ,the nymph having observed the effect1 immediately expressed a strong desire to have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour2 and her lover1 no less anxious to gratify her wishes1 at last succeeded in discovering a method of applying it to cloth4 ,this colour was so highly valued by the ancients1 that it was either consecrated to the worship of the ,deity1 or conceived to be fit only for the garments of royalty4 ,under the ,mosaic dispensation1 the stuffs for the service of the altar and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple4 ,the ,babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols1 and most of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing4 ,pliny informs us that it was used by ,romulus and the succeeding kings of ,rome1 as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the republic4 ,the ,roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their own use1 and denounced the punishment of death against those who should dare to wear it1 although covered with another colour4 ,this absurd and tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the ,tyrian purple to a few individuals1 and1 in a short time1 the knowledge of the process was entirely lost4 ,in the twelfth century1 neither the creature that furnished the dye1 nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded1 were at all known2 and on the revival of learning1 it was even suspected by many1 that the accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour were entirely fabulous4 ,according to ,pliny1 the ,tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out of the largest shells1 in order to possess it in a more pure state1 and to extract it more effectually1 but obtained the colour from the smaller by grinding them in mills4 ,he adds1 that when the ,purpur were caught1 the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out and laid in salt for three days2 and that after a sufficiency of the matter had been collected1 it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over a gentle fire1 the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy impurities4 ,this process lasted ten days1 after which the liquor was tried by dipping wool into it1 and if the colour produced by it was defective1 the boiling was renewed4 ,other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize1 and at other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the ,purpur4 ,among these ,pliny enumerates ,fucus marinus1 or ,archil1 and the ,anchusa tinctoria1 or ,alkanet1 both of which are still used as dyes4 ,by these and other means1 the purple colour was made to assume a variety of shades1 some inclining more to the blue1 and others to the crimson4 ,in modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye2 but the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import4 ,in the year #afhc1 ,mr4 ,william ,cole1 of ,bristol1 being at ,minehead1 was told of a person living at a seaport in ,ireland1 who had made considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson colour1 fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose1 and that this colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish4 ,mr4 ,cole1 being a lover of natural history1 and having his curiosity thus excited1 went in search of these shell-fish1 and1 after trying various kinds without success1 he1 at length1 found considerable quantities of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of ,somersetshire1 and the opposite coasts of ,south ,wales4 ,after many ineffectual endeavours1 he discovered the colouring-matter1 placed in a white vein1 lying transversely in a little furrow1 or cleft1 next to the head of the fish1 8which10 says he1 8must be digged out with the stiff point of a horse-hair pencil1 made short and tapering1 by reason of the viscous clamminess of the white liquor in the vein1 that so by its stiffness it may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to be marked40 ,letters or marks1 made in this way1 with the white liquor in question1 8will presently appear of a pleasant green colour1 and1 if placed in the sun1 will change into the following colours1--that is1 if in ,winter1 about noon1 if in the ,summer1 an hour or two after sunrise1 or so much before setting1 7for in the heat of the day1 in ,summer1 the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce be distinguishable17 next to the first light green will appear a deep green1 and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green1 after which1 in a few minutes more1 it will alter into a watchet blue1 and from that1 in a little time more1 it will be of a purplish red1 after which1 lying an hour or two1 7supposing the sun still shining17 it will be of a very deep purple red1 beyond which the sun can do no more40 8,but the last and most beautiful colour1 after washing in scalding water and soap1 will 7the matter being again exposed to the sun or the wind to dry17 be a much different colour from all those mentioned1 that is1 a fair bright crimson1 or near to the prince's colour1 which afterwards1 notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour1 will continue the same1 if well ordered1 as ,i have found in handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times1 only it will be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing40 ,some years after this1 ,raumur discovered great numbers of a species of buccinum1 on the coast of ,poitou1 and the stones1 round which they had collected1 were covered with small oval masses1 some of which were white1 and others of a yellowish colour2 and1 having squeezed some of them on the sleeves of his shirt1 in about half an hour he found it stained of a fine purple colour1 which he was unable to discharge by washing4 ,in repeating his experiment on his return home1 he found it was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of the sun4 ,the difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these shell-fish1 must always render the use of this dye very limited2 but ,dr4 ,bancroft is of opinion1 that it might still be rendered beneficial in staining or printing fine muslins1 for which purpose but little colouring-matter is required4 ,no substance1 he remarks1 will afford a substantive purple of equal beauty and durability1 and capable of being applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition4 ,,family ,,alata4 ,this family is distinguished1 by having a canal of variable length at the base of its opening1 and by the fact of the right margin of the shell changing its form during the growth of the animal4 ,,the ,,spotted ,,scorpion ,,shell1 7,pterocera scorpio47 ,this curious shell is found in the ,east ,indian seas1 and attains a considerable size1 as much as six inches4 ,in an early age the projecting claws of this shell are very small1 so that its appearance is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced period of its growth4 ,it is known as the ,spotted ,scorpion ,shell1 and is distinguished from other species of the same genus1 by the knotted and granulated appearance of its surface2 the opening of the shell is long and narrow1 and of a dull violet red1 sometimes brownish1 on which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen1 either of a pure white1 or slightly tinged with yellow4 ,illustration3 ,pterocera scorpio4 ,,family ,,canalifera4 ,the shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in having a canal at their base2 but the lip to the right of the opening does not change its form through age4 ,,the ,,variegated ,,sea-,,trumpet1 7,triton variegatum47 ,the ,triton variegatum1 or ,variegated ,sea-,trumpet1 a large and beautiful shell1 sometimes as much as two feet in length1 is found chiefly in the torrid zones1 near the ,asiatic coast4 ,the attendants on the sea-gods of pagan ,rome are frequently represented with this shell applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet4 ,already ,triton1 at his call1 appears ,above the waves2 a ,tyrian robe he wears1 ,and in his hand a crooked trumpet bears4 ,the sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire1 ,and give the waves the signal to retire4 ,his writhen shell he takes1 whose narrow vent ,grows by degrees into a large extent1 ,then gives it breath2 the blast1 with doubling sound1 ,runs the wide circuit of the world around4 ,the sun first heard it1 in his early east1 ,and met the rattling echoes in the west2 ,the waters1 listening to the trumpet's roar1 ,obey the summons1 and forsake the shore4 ,,dryden4 ,illustration3 ,dolium perdix4 ,triton variegatum4 ,pyrula caniculata4 ,,the ,,caniculated ,,pear-,,shell1 7,pyrula caniculata47 ,this shell is found in the ,icy ,sea1 and on the coast of ,canada1 and attains the length of seven inches4 ,the animal of the ,pyrula is at present unknown4 ,there is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the whorls1 which is obliterated in very old specimens4 ,there are as many as eight-and-twenty species of this shell4 ,illustration3 ,turbo marmoratus4 ,pleurotoma babylonia4 ,trochus imperialis4 ,,the ,,babylonian ,,split-,,mouth1 7,pleurotoma babylonia47 ,the ,babylonian ,split-,mouth is found in the ,east ,indies and the ,molucca ,islands1 and is about three inches and a quarter in length4 ,it is said that the animal of this shell1 when in motion1 has its foot separated as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk1 which arises from the centre of the mantle1 which is at this time turned back over the shell4 ,this separation of the foot has the effect of causing the creature to tumble over frequently1 from the great weight it has to support4 ,,vegetable ,,feeders1 7,,phytophagi47 ,those genera of the ,trachelipods which live on vegetable substances have no projecting siphon1 but possess a mouth furnished with jaws2 they are in general land-shells1 and consequently1 the air which they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchi4 ,some of their tribes however1 live in fresh water1 either in running streams or in stagnant pools3 among these1 some breathe water and others air4 ,these last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of breathing1--others again inhabit salt water1 and are unable to exist out of that element4 ,,the ,,marble ,,turban-,,shell1 7,turbo marmoratus47 ,there are as many as thirty or forty species of the ,turban-shell4 ,the ,marble ,turban1 ,turbo marmoratus1 is the largest1 being as much as four inches across2 it is found in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the colour of this shell is of a brownish green1 of greater or less intensity4 ,it is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts1 consisting of a series of white or brownish spots4 ,this is one of those shells whose substance1 after the outer coat is removed1 is of the nature of mother-of-pearl4 ,the ,turbo littoreus 7the ,shore ,turban71 is the well-known periwinkle1 with which our rocky coasts abound4 ,,the ,,imperial ,,top-,,shell1 7,trochus imperialis47 ,these shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to a boy's top4 ,they are all marine shells1 and the apex of their spire is always very sharp-pointed4 ,in some places they are called flat-mouthed snails4 ,the greater number of these shells1 7and the species are very numerous17 are of a beautiful pearly substance1 and many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs2 there are as many as seventy species1--the larger and more elegant are only found in the seas of hot climates4 ,illustration3 ,haliotis iris4 ,scalaria pretiosa4 ,neritina pulligera4 ,,the ,,precious ,,scalaria1 7,scalaria pretiosa47 ,this shell is noted for its rarity1 and for the singular arrangement of its whorls1 which do not touch each other1 and appear as if they were only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned4 ,like the turbans1 the inhabitants of the ,scalari are found on the sea-coast1 on rocks and large stones1 between high and low water mark4 ,the native place of the ,scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain2 ,lamarck1 and several others1 believe it comes from the ,east ,indies1 while others consider it an inhabitant of the ,mediterranean4 ,so great was the rage some years back1 to possess a perfect specimen of this shell1 that as much as twenty or thirty pounds1 and even more1 has been given for a well-preserved specimen4 ,travellers relate that the ,scalari are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of ,amboyna1 and at ,batavia1 where they are used as earrings1 and in forming necklaces4 ,they are1 although rarely1 as much as four inches in length4 ,it is said1 that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the empress ,catherine of ,russia1 still larger2 but the most usual size is from one to two inches in length4 ,a fine specimen of this shell ought to be semi-transparent like porcelain1 of a light brown1 tinged with rose-colour1 and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white4 ,,the ,,iris ,,ear-,,shell1 7,haliotis ,iris47 ,the ,haliotides1 or sea-ears1 are very splendid shells2 the species are numerous1 and some of them are extremely common4 ,the place in the system which this shell ought to occupy1 appears to have caused many doubts in the minds of modern naturalists1 and consequently1 we find it continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of ,lamarck and ,cuvier4 ,when moving from place to place in search of food1 the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight1 the slender tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament the margin of the shell1 gracefully waving in all directions2 these tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes4 ,in the young shell1 the number of perforations is not so great as in an adult1 one being formed at each progressive stage of the creature's growth4 ,sometimes the holes which were first formed become1 by age1 filled up4 ,the proportions of the shell1 also1 vary materially1 so as to render the separation of species very difficult and uncertain4 ,,the ,,dusty ,,neritina1 7,neritina pulligera47 ,this shell is found in the rivers of ,india1 and is about an inch and a quarter in length4 ,all the species of this genus are supposed to inhabit fresh water only4 ,there is a curious fact attached to the history of the ,neritina1 and of a neighbouring genus1 ,nerita1--namely1 that when found in a fossil state1 their colours are always in good preservation4 ,the species1 which are tolerably numerous1 are in general natives of hot climates4 ,,the ,,viviparous ,,paludina1 7,paludina vivipara47 ,the animal of the genus ,paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters3 it takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within the parent shell1 and deposited in the waters perfectly formed4 ,in nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in the earth1 and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period4 ,illustration3 ,planorbis corneus4 ,paludina vivipara4 ,lymna stagnalis4 ,these shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water2 sometimes1 however1 they are met with in brackish water1 at the mouths of rivers4 ,the operculum of the ,paludina is of a strong horny substance4 ,the young1 immediately they are hatched1 attach themselves to the outside of the shell of the mother1 where they remain until they are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water4 ,,lymn,a ,,stagnalis4 ,the ,lymna stagnalis is found in stagnant waters1 particularly narrow ditches1 in great abundance4 ,as it breathes air1 it is necessary for its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the water2 and consequently1 we find these shells floating about in great numbers1 with the body partly out of the shell4 ,the least appearance of danger causes a ,lymna to withdraw the whole of its body into its shelly covering2 and as this increases its specific gravity1 it instantly sinks to the bottom1 where it remains in safety4 ,in order to reach the surface again1 it is obliged to crawl to the side of the ditch1 and when it has reached the level of the water1 it again trusts its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream1 for it has very little power to direct its own course4 ,during the ,winter1 these creatures remain at the bottom1 buried in the mud1 and in a state of torpor4 ,although apparently useless to mankind1 they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds1 and of fishes1 which are extremely fond of them4 ,the species of this shell are not easily decided1 since they bear so great a resemblance to each other4 ,,the ,,horn-,,shaped ,,planorbis1 7,planorbis corneus47 ,the ,planorbis1 although differing in form from the ,lymna1 possesses the same habits1 and is found in the same localities4 ,the jelly-like substance which is frequently found1 in the ,spring of the year1 attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants1 and which is considered by many to be of a poisonous nature1 and looked on as the spawn of toads1 is merely the covering of the ova of this and other inhabitants of fresh-water shells2 and1 although very disagreeable1 certainly not poisonous4 ,,the ,,red-,,mouthed ,,bulimus1 7,bulimus hmastomus47 ,the ,bulimus hmastomus is a most beautiful shell2 it is a native of ,guiana1 and is frequently as much as four inches in length4 ,the most singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of the animal in comparison with its magnitude2 it is said to equal that of a moderate-sized pigeon4 ,illustration3 ,bulimus hmastomus4 ,pupa mummia4 ,,the ,,mummy ,,puppet ,,shell1 7,pupa mummia47 ,the ,pupa mummia is found in the ,antilles2 it takes its name from the singularity of its form1 which very much resembles that of a mummy4 ,the ,pupa is essentially a land-shell1 living among grass1 on stones1 and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun4 ,the greater number of the species1 which are very numerous1 are natives of tropical countries2 there are1 however1 several found in ,germany1 and other parts of the ,continent1 but they are extremely small4 ,,the ,,wood ,,snail1 7,helix nemoralis47 ,the ,snail 7,helix7 is an animal well-known in every part of the globe1 and its species are still extremely numerous1 although many shells which belonged to this tribe1 under the ,linnan arrangement1 have been placed in other divisions4 ,the head of the ,snail is furnished with two pair of tentacula1 or feelers2 these1 unlike similar appendices in other ,mollusca1 are retractile2 that is1 they can be withdrawn into the body at the will of the animal4 ,the use of these tentacula is uncertain4 ,at the top of each of the longest pair we find a black spot2 these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal1 and a celebrated anatomist says1 that he has discovered in them all the component parts of perfect eyes4 ,however this may be1 the animal appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight4 ,some writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages4 ,the uses to which ,snails are applied are not many2 some of the larger kinds1 however1 are1 in some countries1 employed as food4 ,the ,romans1 according to ,pliny1 consumed large quantities1 and considered them in the light of delicacies1 and considerable pains were taken in fattening them for the table4 ,those from ,sicily and the ,balearic ,islands were in great request1 and attained a very large size4 ,some authors say they are still used as food in several parts of the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,helix nemoralis4 ,in ,paris1 ,london1 and many large towns1 great numbers of ,snails are frequently brought to market2 but these are not employed as food1 but used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption1 and other diseases of the chest4 ,it was already known that polypi1 and some species of worms1 could have portions of their body cut off1 and that the parts removed would be afterwards reproduced2 and as these animals had no well distinguished extremities1 such as heads or limbs1 the fact1 although singular1 was not disputed2 but1 when it was asserted by ,spallanzani1 that ,snails1 which have a very well defined series of parts1 could1 after the head was removed1 reproduce that portion of the body1 the scientific world became naturally incredulous1 and numerous experiments were made1 and thousands of ,snails slaughtered1 to ascertain the fact4 ,no one1 however1 for a length of time1 could succeed2--it was then suspected that ,spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head4 ,at length1 it would appear1 from the experiments of ,m4 ,g4 ,tarenne 7an account of which appeared in #ahjh71 that these creatures could actually reproduce a complete head4 ,he gives as a reason of the want of success of others1 the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated ,snails with proper nourishment4 ,the new head1 according to him1 is perfect in about two years after the old head has been removed4 ,m4 ,tarenne says1 that after having cut off the heads of two hundred ,snails1 he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden1 that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them 7how they could eat without their heads he does not say72 at the end of the ,summer he examined all the mutilated ,snails he could find1 and he discovered that they all had a new head1 about the size of a grain of coffee2 they had four small tentacula1 a mouth1 and lips2 at the end of the following ,summer1 the heads were perfectly reproduced1 and like the original head1 with the exception of the skin1 which was more delicate4 8,after this experiment10 says a ,french author1 8we cannot doubt that the entire head of a ,snail can be regenerated after it has been removed2 however1 ,i cannot disguise the fact1 that ,i have a kind of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute40 ,if the advantages bestowed on man by ,snails are not numerous1 the disadvantages1 or rather inconveniences1 produced by them are very considerable2 they are particularly destructive in orchards and kitchen-gardens4 ,on this account1 many methods have been recommended for the purpose of destroying them4 ,although many of these are tolerably successful1 there is no plan more likely to keep the breed of ,snails under1 particularly in enclosed gardens1 than that of early rising and gathering them1 if we may so express ourselves1 while the dew is yet on the grass3 if the shells are then broken1 they become excellent food for poultry4 ,ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander in the garden1 as they do but little damage to the vegetation1 and are great destroyers both of ,snails and slugs4 ,a singular account of the instinct of ,snails is1 perhaps1 worth recording4 ,the garden of a small house1 by the side of one of the roads leading into ,london1 was much infested by a colony of ,snails2 the proprietor of this house1 desirous of getting rid of the pest1 and yet unwilling to kill the ,snails1 collected them1 and threw them unharmed into the road2 but still1 he every morning discovered as many ,snails among his pinks and tulips as he had removed the previous day2 this somewhat puzzled him1 until once1 on leaving his house early1 he perceived the ,snails which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road1 moving1 not in a body1 but each from the spot on which it was thrown1 in a direct line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden1 as if they comprehended the mathematical fact that1 8a straight line is the nearest way from one given point to another40 ,how were these ,snails aware that by moving in that direction1 they should arrive at a green spot8 ,from the road nothing could be visible to them but dust1--from the path1 nothing but the wall in front1--but still1 although the whole of their path was covered with dust1 they proceeded steadily on1 until they had surmounted the wall1 and reached their old quarters4 ,by what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the place of the higher powers of the mind1 and which is imparted with so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature8 ,,order ,,gasteropoda4 ,the ,gasteropods are so called from two ,greek words1 meaning belly and foot1 because the foot1 or organ of motion of the animals of which this order consists1 is attached to the whole of the under part of the creature1 or rather1 the belly or under part is itself the foot1 and is for that purpose broad and flat4 ,the ,gasteropods are also distinguished from the last order by having a straight body1 in no case spiral1 and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body2 in some cases1 the body is completely naked1 and without the protecting covering of any shell whatever4 ,,the ,,red ,,slug1 7,limax rufus47 ,the ,common ,slug is a good example of an individual of this order1 entirely wanting a shell4 ,the ,slugs1 like the snails1 are found in all countries2 they are equally destructive to vegetation1 but as yet have never been used by man for any useful purpose1 if we except the fact of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry4 ,the ,limax rufus1 ,red1 or more properly brown1 ,slug1 for the colour is of a reddish-brown1 varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it impossible to find two specimens of the same colour1 is more commonly found in fields than in gardens4 ,illustration3 ,limax rufus4 ,there are many species of the ,slug2 but they are not well defined1 on account of the variable nature of their colour2 the black and the brown kinds are1 however1 pretty well known3 the black1 in particular1 is very destructive in kitchen-gardens1 and commits great havoc in fields of cabbages and turnips4 ,in one or two species1 the buckler1 or smooth space near the head1 contains a very small oval shell4 ,there is a very singular species of ,slug found in ,teneriffe1 under stones in moist places1 it is not more than an inch and a quarter in length2 it is called ,limax noctiluca1 the night-shining ,slug4 ,the buckler1 in this species1 is very narrow1 and covered with pores1 which exude a kind of viscous substance1 which has the property of shining with a phosphorescent light1 like that of the glow-worm4 ,we may have some idea of the rapid increase of ,slugs1 by a fact mentioned by ,dr4 ,leech1 that two individuals of a small species have laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs2 and these eggs were dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers1 since1 on being placed in a damp situation1 they were afterwards hatched4 ,the following plan of taking and destroying ,slugs was resorted to by a gentleman near ,ipswich4 ,having heard that turnips were employed to entice ,slugs from wheat1 he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight acres to be got together1 and then1 the tops being divided and the apples sliced1 he directed the pieces to be laid separately1 dressing two rows with them1 and omitting two1 alternately1 till the whole field of eight acres was gone over4 ,on the following morning1 he employed two women to examine the tops and slices1 and free them from the ,slugs1 which they threw into a measure3 and when cleared1 they were laid on those rows that had been omitted the day before4 ,it was observed invariably1 that in the rows dressed with the turnips1 no ,slugs were to be found upon the wheat1 or crawling upon the land1 though they abounded upon the turnips2 while1 on the undressed rows1 they were to be seen in great numbers1 both #jaa the wheat and on the ground4 ,the quantity of ,slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel4 ,,the ,,woodlike ,,bulla1 7,bulla lignaria47 ,the animal of the ,bulla is singular1 from possessing-within its stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone2 these give that organ the power of crushing or grinding the food1 forming a kind of gizzard4 ,the bony portion of this stomach is represented in the foreground in the engraving4 ,the ,bulla lignaria is about two inches and a half in length1 and is found in the ,european seas2 ,lamarck mentions as many as eleven species4 ,illustration3 ,bulla lignaria4 ,,the ,,nail-,,shaped ,,crepidula1 7,crepidula unguiformis47 ,the genus ,crepidula takes its name from its hearing some resemblance to a little shoe2 none of the species are found in ,europe4 ,of these there are about six1 but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates4 ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,umbrella1 7,umbrella ,mediterranea47 ,the ,umbrella ,mediterranea1 as its name implies1 is found in the ,mediterranean1 and in the ,gulf of ,tarento4 ,the shell of the ,umbrella is singular1 from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself4 ,,the ,,clouded ,,fissurella1 7,fissurella nimbosa47 ,the ,fissurella nimbosa is found in various and distant parts of the world1--in the north of ,europe1 the western coast of ,africa1 c4 ,it is rather a handsome shell1 which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in length4 ,illustration3 ,umbrella ,crepidula ,fissurella ,mediterranea4 unguiformis4 nimbosa4 ,the ,fissurella very much resembles our limpet1 but differs from it by having a small1 rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell1 affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is discharged1 after having passed over the branchi4 ,,the ,,hungarian ,,bonnet ,,shell1 7,pileopsis ,ungarica47 ,the ,pileopsis ,ungarica is extremely elegant both in its form and markings2 it is of a delicate white1 slightly tinged1 internally1 with rose-colour4 ,the animal attaches itself to rocks1 between high and low water mark1 and very rarely1 if ever1 changes its situation1 unless removed by accident1 when it is driven about by the waves1 until the creature1 being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation1 attaches itself firmly to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,pileopsis ,ungarica4 ,,the ,,scaly ,,chiton1 7,chiton squamosus47 ,the ,chitons differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in the arrangement of their shelly covering1 that they have been placed by different naturalists in various parts of their system4 ,lamarck1 in referring to these animals1 has placed them near the end of the ,mollusca4 ,illustration3 ,chiton squamosus4 8,although10 says ,lamarck1 8when we examine this creature1 and observe the several pieces of which its shell is composed1 attached to the marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them1 it appears not a univalve1 but a multivalve shell2 yet these shelly pieces ought not to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece1 which ,nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct moveable pieces1 to give greater freedom to the animal in its movements40 ,the ,chitons1 like the neighbouring genera1 frequent the rocks between high and low water mark1 but are much more active in their movements4 ,poli1 a learned ,neapolitan1 in describing the anatomy of a ,chiton1 says1 that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is covered with a multitude of teeth1--some simple1 and others with three points1 and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows4 ,,class ,,conchifera4 ,the ,conchifera differ from the ,molluscous animals that bear shells1 in a very great degree2 for1 although the substance of the body is soft1 unlike the ,mollusca it is inarticulate1 always enclosed in a shell of two valves1 without head or eyes1--a mouth1 if it may be so called1 concealed from view1 and without any hard parts1 and the whole body enveloped in a large mantle1 or hood1 formed of two thin lobes1 generally perfectly free1 but at times united in front2 these are the principal distinguishing characters of this class4 ,in earlier systems1 when shells were classed without much reference to the animals that inhabited them1 the only distinction made was the number of pieces of which the shell was formed1 and they were arranged under the heads of univalves1 of one piece1 bivalves1 with two pieces1 and multivalves1 with more than two pieces4 ,this arrangement was inconvenient1 as1 in some cases1 it separated animals that otherwise agreed with each other4 ,with respect to the bivalve shells1 however1 this objection does not hold good1 as they all contain animals belonging to the class ,conchifera4 ,the individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses except that of feeling4 ,their powers of motion have been so well described by ,dr4 ,roget1 in his ,bridgewater ,treatise1 that we cannot do better than extract a portion from that interesting work4 ,illustration3 ,valves of the ,unio ,batava1 with the ,connecting ,ligament4 ,the two valves of the shell of the ,conchifera are united at the back by a hinge-joint1 often very artificially constructed1 having teeth that lock into each other2 and the mechanism of this articulation varies much in different species4 ,the hinge is secured by a substance of great strength4 ,during the life of the animal1 the usual and natural state of its shell is1 that of being kept open for a little distance1 so as to allow of the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment and respiration2 but1 as a security against danger1 it was necessary to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell1 and retaining the valves in a closed state4 ,these actions1 being only occasional1 yet requiring considerable force1 are effected by a muscular power1 for which purpose sometimes one1 sometimes two1 or even a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves1 their fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to that of the other1 and firmly attached to both4 ,they are named1 from their office of bringing the valves towards each other1 the adductor muscles4 ,illustration3 ,section of an ,oyster1 showing the situation of the ,hinge1 ,l41 the ,adductor ,muscle1 ,a1 and the transverse direction of its ,fibres1 with respect to the ,valves4 ,the simple actions of opening and closing the valves1 are capable of being converted into a means of retreating from danger1 or of removing to a more commodious situation1 in the case of those bivalves which are not actually attached to rocks1 or other fixed bodies4 ,diquemarc long ago observed1 that even the ,oyster has some power of locomotion1 by suddenly closing its shell1 and thereby expelling the contained water with a degree of force1 which1 by the reaction of the fluid in the opposite direction1 gives a sensible impulse to the heavy mass4 ,he notices the singular fact1 that ,oysters which are attached to rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide1 always retain within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration1 and that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide2 whereas1 those ,oysters which are taken from greater depths1 where the water never leaves them1 and are afterwards removed to situations where they are exposed to these vicissitudes1 of which they have had no previous experience1 improvidently open their shells after the sea has left them2 and1 by allowing the water to escape1 soon perish4 ,illustration3 ,the ,cardium1 or ,cockle4 ,many bivalve ,mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a leg and foot1 which they employ extensively for progressive motion4 ,in the ,cardium1 or cockle1 this organ is composed of a mass of muscular fibres1 interwoven together in a very complex manner1 and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue2 the effect in both is the same1 namely1 the conferring a power of motion in all possible ways2 thus it may be readily protruded1 retracted1 or inflected at every point4 ,the ,solen1 or razor-shell fish1 has a foot of a cylindrical shape1 tapering at the end1 and much more resembling in its form a tongue than a foot4 ,in some bivalves1 the dilatation of the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism2 the interior of the organ is formed of a spongy texture1 capable of receiving a considerable quantity of water1 which the animal has the power of injecting into it1 and of thus increasing its dimensions4 ,the foot of the ,mytilus edulis1 or common mussel1 can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell1 and applied to any fixed body within that range4 ,by attaching the point to such body1 and retracting the foot1 this animal drags its shell towards it1 and by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed object1 continues slowly to advance4 ,this instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal themselves in the mud or sand1 which its structure is then peculiarly adapted for scooping out4 ,the cockle continually employs its foot for this purpose3 first1 elongating it1 directing its point downwards1 and insinuating it deep into the sand1 and next1 turning up the end1 and forming it into a hook1 by which1 from the resistance of the sand1 it is fixed in its position1 and then the muscles1 which usually retract it1 are thrown into action1 and the whole shell is alternately raised and depressed1 moving on the foot as on a fulcrum4 ,the effect of these exertions is to drag the shell downwards4 ,when the animal is moderately active1 these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute4 ,the apparent progress is at first but small1 the shell1 which was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke1 falling back on its side at the end of it2 but when the shell is buried so far as to be supported on its edge1 it advances more rapidly1 sinking visibly at every stroke1 till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be perceived above the sand4 ,by a process exactly the inverse of this1 that is1 by doubling up the foot1 and pushing with it downwards against the sand below1 the shell may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before protruded the foot4 ,by this process of burrowing1 the animal is enabled quickly to retreat when danger presses1 and when this is past1 it can1 with equal facility1 emerge from its hiding-place4 ,the ,cardium can also advance at the bottom of the sea1 along the surface of the soft earth1 pressing backwards with its foot1 as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against the ground in a contrary direction4 ,it is1 likewise1 by a similar expedient1 that the ,solen forces its way through the sand1 expanding the end of its foot into the form of a club4 ,the ,tellina is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances1 by first folding the foot into a small compass1 and then suddenly extending it1 while the shell is1 at the same time1 closed with a loud snap4 ,the ,pinna1 or marine mussel1 when inhabiting the shores of tempestuous seas1 is furnished1 in addition1 with a singular apparatus for withstanding the fury of the surge1 and securing itself from dangerous collisions1 which might easily destroy the brittle texture of its shell4 ,the object of this apparatus is1 to prepare a great number of threads1 which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks1 and then tightly drawn by the animal1 just as a ship is moored in a convenient station1 to avoid the buffeting of the storm4 ,the foot of this bivalve is cylindrical1 and has1 connected with its base1 a round tendon1 of nearly the same length as itself1 the office of which is to retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it1 and concentrate their power on one point4 ,the threads themselves are composed of a glutinous matter1 prepared by a particular organ4 ,they are not spun by being drawn out of the body1 like the threads of the silkworm1 or of the spider1 but they are cast in a mould1 where they harden1 and acquire a certain consistence before they are employed4 ,this mould is curiously constructed2 there is a deep groove which passes along the foot1 from the root of the tendon to its other extremity1 and the sides of this groove are formed so as to fold and close over it1 thereby converting it into a canal4 ,the glutinous secretion1 which is poured into this canal1 dries into a solid thread2 and1 when it has acquired sufficient tenacity1 the foot is protruded1 and the thread it contains is applied to the object to which it is to be fixed1 its extremity being carefully attached to the solid surface of that object4 ,the canal of the foot is then opened along its whole length1 and the thread1 which adheres by its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot1 is disengaged from the canal4 ,lastly1 the foot is retracted1 and the same operation is repeated4 ,thread after thread is thus formed1 and applied in different directions around the shell4 ,sometimes the attempt fails1 in consequence of some imperfection in the thread2 but the animal1 as if aware of the importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread1 on which its safety depends1 tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed1 by swinging itself round1 so as to put it fully on the stretch2 an action which probably also assists in elongating the thread4 ,when once the threads have been fixed1 the animal does not appear to have the power of catting or breaking them off4 ,the liquid matter1 out of which they are formed1 is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly to the smoothest bodies4 ,it is but slowly produced1 for it appears that no ,pinna is capable of forming more than four1 or at most five threads1 in the course of a day and night4 ,the threads which are formed in haste1 when the animal is disturbed in its operations1 are more slender than those which are constructed at its leisure4 ,in ,sicily1 and other parts of the ,mediterranean1 these threads have been manufactured into gloves1 and other articles1 which resemble silk4 ,the number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this ,class to be divided into two orders3 the ,bimusculosa1 in which there are two pair of muscles to perform this office2 and the ,unimusculosa1 with only one pair4 ,,order ,,unimusculosa4 ,the ,conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles1 are much more limited in number than those which possess two or more2 but they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species1 as1 for instance1 the oyster1 the mussel1 and the animal which produces the oriental pearl4 ,,the ,,horse-,,foot ,,bowl ,,shell1 7,anomia ephippium47 ,the shells of the ,anomi are exceedingly irregular in their form2 like the oysters1 they remain during the whole of their existence attached to one spot1 either on a rock1 or on the shell of some larger inhabitant of the deep4 ,these shells are more frequently found in the same places as the oyster1 and very commonly attached to the shell of the latter2 as an article of food1 the ,anomia is of little or no value4 ,its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of the oyster4 ,the most singular part of its construction consists in the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished1 which1 instead of being attached to the shell1 is fixed to a solid piece of shelly substance1 in the form of a cone with the top cut off2 this operculum1 or lid1 closes a singular opening in one of the valves of the shell itself4 ,the animal adheres to the rock1 or other substance1 by means of this lid1 and is detached with great difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,anomia ephippium4 ,anomia1 a little bowl2 ephippium1 a horse's foot4 ,,the ,,oyster1 7,ostrea edulis47 ,oysters1 like all other creatures that have been destined to become food for man1 are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe2 they are inhabitants of salt waters only1 and are always found in rocky ground1 in no great depth from the surface4 ,oysters generally cast their spat1 or spawn1 in the month of ,may2 when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease1 which the dredgers commonly call cultch4 ,the growth of an ,oyster is tolerably rapid2 three days after the spawn is deposited1 the shell of the young ,oyster may be seen1 nearly a quarter of an inch in width2 in three months it is larger than a shilling1 in six months bigger than a half-crown1 and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size4 ,illustration3 ,ostrea edulis4 ,oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial4 ,the ,greeks1 but more especially the ,romans1 held them in high repute1 attaching1 at the same time1 great importance to the places in which they were found4 ,those from the ,dardanelles1 from ,venice1 and from ,england1 were considered the best1 and the prices paid for them by the luxurious inhabitants of ,rome were enormous4 ,they were transported in large vessels1 and deposited in the ,lucrine ,lake1 where they were fattened for the table4 ,the ,romans1 it seems1 gave a preference to those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour1 nearly black4 ,the ,english ,oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following places3--,wivenhoe1 near ,colchester1 in ,essex1 7the beds here are generally supplied from ,portsmouth27 at ,feversham and ,milton1 in ,kent1 the ,swales of the ,medway1 and at ,tenby1 on the coast of ,wales4 ,in ,scotland1 they are chiefly taken at the island of ,inchkeith1 and at ,preston-pans1 both in the ,firth of ,forth4 ,the fishing for ,oysters is permitted by law1 from the #ast of ,september to the last of ,april inclusive4 ,during the remaining months they are considered unwholesome2 it is a common saying that ,oysters are in season during all the months that have the letter r in them4 ,in ,france1 the chief fishing-station for ,oysters is in the ,bay of ,canal1 between the town of that name and ,mount ,st4 ,michael1 or ,st4 ,malo4 ,the fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge2 this is drawn over the ,oyster-bed by hand-labour1 or by having the rope which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat1 which is then allowed to run before the wind2 frequently1 in the course of a few minutes1 as many as two or three hundred are taken4 ,the ,oysters taken are sent from the ports of ,granville and ,canal1 to different places1 where artificial banks or preserves are established4 ,these banks are not only of use in the preservation of the ,oysters1 but assist materially in their improvement4 ,in fact1 the ,oyster1 when first taken out of the sea1 has frequently a strong muddy taste1 and appears in what we should call bad condition4 ,some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand1 or sometimes even in stone1 near the sea-shore1 and communicating by a narrow tunnel with the sea-water2 the bottom and sides of these tanks are usually strewed with large stones4 ,in ,france great care is bestowed on the management of these preserves2 the ,oysters are placed by hand on the stones1 with the largest shell downwards1 and at times the water is let off1 and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may have collected1 by having large quantities of water poured over them4 ,a fashion existed formerly in ,france of preferring those ,oysters which had a tinge of green1 and great pains were taken to cause this change of colour to take place1 by placing the animals where they could obtain a peculiar kind of green food4 ,,the ,,great ,,comb ,,shell1 7,pecten maximus47 ,this shell1 although it has the name of the ,great ,pecten1 is not the largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs2 it is found in all the ,european seas4 ,the regular nature of the fluting with which it is covered1 and the elegance of its markings1 have brought it much into use among ladies1 who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles of fancy-work2 there are about sixty recent1 and thirty fossil species4 ,illustration3 ,pecten maximus4 ,malleus albus4 ,the power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species of the ,pectens2 it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water1 and even reach the surface1 by moving the two valves of its shell2 but this is a fact not quite established1 as but little is known of its habits4 ,it is sometimes used as an article of food2 but to render it tolerably palatable it requires cooking4 ,in some countries1 the shells of the larger species are used by the poorer classes instead of plates4 ,in ,paris1 the restaurateurs employ them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of mushrooms2 in ,england1 they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters1 and the shell is consequently known as the ,scallop ,shell4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,oyster1 7,meleagrina margaritifera47 ,the animal of this shell1 although popularly called an oyster1 is very different in structure1 bearing greater resemblance1 in some parts of its formation1 to the mussel1 particularly in possessing a byssus1 or beard2 it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found4 ,there are but two known species of the ,meleagrina1 which are chiefly found in the ,persian ,gulf1 and at ,ceylon1 or in some of the seas of ,australasia4 ,the cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other inhabitants of the water1 has been the occasion of considerable dispute1 but it is now pretty well ascertained4 ,the inner portion of the shell of the ,meleagrina is lined with a pearly substance1 which is called mother-of-pearl2 this is formed by an animal deposit1 and is in thin layers4 ,if1 by any accident1 the inner surface of the shell is injured1 so as to cause a fracture of the mother-of-pearl1 the deposit1 in that place1 becomes for the future irregular1 and a bump is gradually formed4 ,accidental circumstances cause this bump to assume various shapes2 sometimes it is oval1 sometimes globular1 and at others pear-shaped4 ,this kind of pearl is always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck1 or footstalk1 and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be traced on the pearl itself4 ,illustration3 ,meleagrina margaritifera4 ,but pearls are at times found loose in the shell2--in this case1 the pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance1 such1 for instance1 as a grain of sand1 and by dissolving the pearl in an acid1 this nucleus can be traced4 ,some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre1 consisting of the remains of a diseased ovum1 or egg1 of the animal4 ,every schoolboy knows the story of ,cleopatra having dissolved a valuable pearl in vinegar1 and afterwards drunk it off1 to show her ridiculous disregard of expense4 ,but the account may reasonably be doubted2 for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl1 it would have been impossible to drink it1 and if it was weak enough to drink1 it would not have dissolved the pearl1 at least not until the lapse of a very considerable time4 ,at the island of ,ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great moment4 ,the following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted4 ,the country round ,aripo1 on the north-western coast of the island of ,ceylon1 is flat1 sandy1 and barren1 presenting nothing to the eye but low brushwood1 chiefly of thorns and prickly pears 7which are the plants that nourish the cochineal insect#b71 and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees4 ,but ,condatchy1 three miles distant1 where1 in general1 nothing is to be seen but a few miserable huts1 and a sandy desert1 becomes1 during the period of the pearl-fishery1 a populous town1 several streets of which extend upwards of a mile in length 7though1 as the houses are only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain1 they are very rudely constructed71 and the scene1 altogether1 resembles a crowded fair on the grandest scale4 ,the people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the various branches of merchandise1 are ,mohammedans1 ,cingalese 7natives of ,ceylon71 and ,hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of ,india4 ,apparently1 however1 from their natural timidity1 none of the ,cingalese are divers1 and scarcely any of them engage in the other active parts of the fishery2 they merely resort hither for the purpose of supplying the markets4 ,about the end of ,october1 in the year preceding a pearl-fishery1 when a short interval of fine weather prevails1 an examination of the banks takes place4 ,a certain number of boats1 under an ,english superintendent1 repair in a body to each bank1 and having1 by frequent diving1 ascertained its situation1 they take from one to two thousand oysters as a specimen4 ,the shells are opened1 and if the pearls collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling1 a good fishery may be expected4 ,the 8banks10 or beds of oysters1 are scattered over a space in the ,gulf of ,manaar1 extending thirty miles from north to south1 and twenty-four from east to west4 ,there are fourteen beds 7not all1 however1 productive71 of which the largest is ten miles long1 and two broad4 ,the depth of water is from three to fifteen fathoms4 ,the pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species1 and of the same form3 in shape not very unlike our common ,english oyster1 but considerably larger1 being from eight to ten inches in circumference4 ,the body of the animal is white1 fleshy1 and glutinous3 the inside of the shell 7the real 8mother-of-pearl107 is even brighter and more beautiful than the pearl itself3 the outside smooth and dark-coloured4 ,the pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy part of the oyster4 ,a single oyster will frequently contain several pearls1 and one is on record1 as having produced one hundred and fifty4 ,sometimes the ,english government of ,ceylon fishes the banks entirely at its own risk2 sometimes1 the boats are let to many speculators3 but1 most frequently1 the light of fishing is sold to one individual1 who sub-lets boats to others4 ,the fishery for the season of the year #ahjd was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than #abj1jjjl4 ,at the beginning of ,march1 the fishery commenced1 and upwards of two hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone4 ,these1 with their crews1 and divers1 and completely equipped with everything necessary to conduct the business of the fishing1 come from different parts of the coast of ,coromandel4 ,after going through various ablutions and incantations1 and other superstitious ceremonies1 the occupants of these boats embark at midnight1 guided by pilots1 and as soon as they reach the banks1 they cast anchor1 and wait the dawn of day4 ,at about seven in the morning1 when the rays of the sun begin to emit some degree of warmth1 the diving commences4 ,a kind of open scaffolding1 formed of oars and other pieces of wood1 is projected from each side of the boat1 and from it the diving-tackle is suspended1 with three stones on one side1 and two on the other4 ,the diving-stone hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot1 and descends about five feet into the water4 ,it is a stone of fifty-six pounds' weight1 of a sugar-loaf shape4 ,the rope passes through a hole in the top of the stone1 above which a strong loop is formed1 resembling a stirrup-iron1 to receive the foot of the diver4 ,the diver wears no clothes1 except a slip of calico round his loins1--swimming in the water1 he takes hold of the rope1 and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup1 on the top of the stone4 ,he remains in this upright position for a little while1 supporting himself by the motion of one arm4 ,then a basket1 formed of a wooden hoop and net-work1 suspended by a rope1 is thrown into the water to him1 and in it he places his other foot4 ,both the ropes of the stone and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand4 ,when he feels himself properly prepared and ready to go down1 he grasps his nostrils with one hand1 to prevent the water from rushing in2 with the other gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone1 and instantly descends3 the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is thrown into the water after him1 at the same moment3 the rope attached to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself4 ,as soon as he touches the bottom1 he disentangles his foot from the stone1 which is immediately drawn up1 and suspended again to the projecting oar in the same manner as before1 to be in readiness for the next diver4 ,the diver1 arrived at the bottom of the sea1 throws himself as much as possible upon his face1 and collects everything he can get hold of into the basket4 ,when he is ready to ascend1 he gives a jerk to the rope1 and the persons in the boat1 who hold the other end of it1 haul it up as speedily as possible4 ,the diver1 at the same time1 free of every incumbrance1 warps up by the rope1 and always gets above water a considerable time before the basket4 ,he generally comes up at a distance from the boat1 and swims about1 or takes hold of an oar or a rope1 until his turn comes to descend again2 but he seldom comes into the boat1 until the labour of the day is over4 ,when a young diver is training to the business1 he descends in the arms of a man completely experienced in the art1 who takes great care of him1 and shows him the manner of proceeding1 and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a single oyster1 a stone1 or a little sand1 merely to show that he has reached the bottom4 ,the length of time during which the divers remain under water1 is rarely much more than a minute and a half2 yet1 in this short period1 in a ground richly clothed with oysters1 an expert man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket4 ,there are two divers attached to each stone1 so that they go down alternately4 ,the men1 after diving1 generally find a small quantity of blood issue from their nose and ears1 which they consider as a favourable symptom1 and perform the operation with greater comfort after the bleeding has commenced4 ,they seem to enjoy the labour as a pleasant pastime1 and never murmur or complain1 unless when the banks contain a scarcity of oysters1 though their labours are continued for six hours4 ,when the day is sufficiently advanced1 the head pilot makes a signal1 and the fleet set sail for the shore4 ,all descriptions of people hasten to the water's edge to welcome their return1 and the crowd1 stir1 and noise1 are then immense4 ,every boat comes to its own station1 and the oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore1 where they are allowed to remain in heaps 7of course1 well guarded7 for ten days1 that time being necessary to render them putrid4 ,when the oysters are sufficiently decayed1 they are thrown into a large vessel1 filled with salt water1 and left there for twelve hours to soften their putrid substance4 ,the oysters are then taken up1 one by one1 the shells broken from one another1 and washed in the water4 ,those shells1 which have pearls adhering to them1 are thrown on one side1 and afterwards handed to clippers1 whose business it is to disengage the pearls from the shells1 with pincers4 ,when all the shells are thrown out1 the slimy substance of the oysters remains1 mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells1 at the bottom of the vessel4 ,the dirty water is lifted out in buckets1 and poured into a sack1 made like a jelly-bag1 so that no pearls can be lost4 ,fresh water being then added from time to time1 and the whole substance in the vessel continually agitated1 the sand and pearls together1 are by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom4 ,as soon as the sand is dry it is sifted2 the large pearls1 being conspicuous1 are easily gathered2 but the separating the small and diminutive 78seed pearls10 as they are called17 is a work of considerable labour4 ,when once separated from the sand1 washed with salt water1 dried1 and rendered perfectly clean1 they are sorted into classes1 according to their sizes1 by being passed through sieves4 ,after this1 a hole is drilled through each pearl2 they are then arranged on strings1 and are fit for the market4 ,pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest times3 they are mentioned in the book of ,job 7xxviii4 #ah17 and are often alluded to by the classical writers4 ,there have been various attempts made to imitate them successfully1 one of the most singular of which1--known to have been practised early in the ,christian era1 on the banks of the ,red ,sea1--is still carried on in ,china4 ,a hole is bored in the shell of the pearl oyster1 a piece of iron-wire inserted1 and the oyster restored to its place3 the animal1 wounded by the point of the wire1 deposits a coat of pearly matter round it3 this gradually hardens1 successive layers are added1 till a pearl of the requisite size is formed1 and the shell is once more brought to land4 ,a plan1 somewhat similar to this1 was employed by ,linnus1 who pierced the shells of the fresh-water mussel1 causing thereby a pearl to be formed at the punctured spot2 and the ,swedish government actually established artificial pearleries1--but these were abandoned after a few years2 for1 although pearls were formed1 they were seldom of sufficient size to be of much value4 ,false pearls are made of hollow glass globules1 the inside of which is covered with a liquid1 called pearl-essence1 and then filled with white wax4 ,this liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which adhere to the scales of the bleak1 7ablette17 and was first applied to this purpose1 early in the last century1 by a ,frenchman of the name of ,jacquin#c4 ,,the ,,hammer ,,oyster1 7,malleus albus47 ,the singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable2 externally its appearance is very rude and irregular1 but1 on the other hand1 the inner surface is equally beautiful1 being covered with the most brilliant mother-of-pearl4 ,the different species of the ,malleus are all marine1 and found in the seas of hot climates1 and the rarity of some causes them to be very valuable1 and much sought after4 ,like the neighbouring genera1 the animal is furnished with a byssus1 or beard1 by which it adheres to the rocks4 ,,the ,,rough ,,pinna1 7,pinna rudis47 ,the ,pinna is a marine shell2 most of the species are large1 and the shells very thin in proportion to their size4 ,that represented in the engraving is found in the ,american seas1 and is sometimes as much as a foot and a half in length2 it is by no means rare4 ,there is a species found in the ,mediterranean1 in about five or six fathoms water1 which is much sought after by the inhabitants of ,sicily and ,calabria1 not only as an article of food1 but also for the sake of its beard1 or byssus1 of which1 in many places1 a kind of cloth is made1 very remarkable for its softness and warmth4 ,the fishermen1 to obtain the ,pinna1 make use of a kind of iron rake1 called a crampe1 with teeth a foot in length2 when the shells are drawn up1 the beards are found to be torn in some part of their substance4 ,if a sufficient length remains attached to the animal1 to render the fibres available for the purpose of spinning1 they are cut off close to the shell3 they are then dried and spun1 and afterwards woven into gloves1 stockings1 caps1 and even garments of much larger size4 ,illustration3 ,pinna rudis4 ,the threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine1 and of equal thickness throughout their whole length1 very strong1 and of a dark morone colour1 which is exceedingly permanent4 ,this curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients2 but at present its manufacture is very limited1 from the great scarcity of the ,pinna1 and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an article as a pair of gloves4 ,but it is supposed1 that if the shells were placed in more favourable circumstances1 in preserves1 c41 they would increase much more rapidly4 ,these shells are found in the seas of all hot climates1 but the ,british shores possess but one species1 the ,pinna lvis of ,donovan2 this is of a horny colour1 clouded with brown1 and attains a considerable size4 ,,the ,,common ,,mussel1 7,mytilus edulis47 ,the ,mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing animals3 they are generally found attached to rocks between high and low water marks4 ,illustration3 ,mytilus edulis4 ,they are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food2 and1 although not equal to the oyster1 make a very palatable dish4 ,the ,mussel1 although usually wholesome1 is at times the cause of severe1 though temporary illness4 ,different reasons have been assigned for this poisonous property1 and many signs have been noted1 by which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be detected1--a yellowness of colour1 an extremely meagre appearance1 partial corruption1 a diseased state of the animal1 a small crab or insect found between the valves of its shell4 ,other observers have ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of the moon2 but1 if we are to believe a ,french physician1 who made many experiments1 all these guesses are wrong2 according to this author1 the ill effects are caused only after the ,mussels have been feeding on the spawn of the star-fish2 this spawn appears to the eye merely a shapeless lump of jelly1 but after a few days it is a living mass of infant star-fish4 ,the time of the year during which this spawn is cast1 is from the end of ,april1 or beginning of ,may1 to the end of ,july1 or beginning of ,august2 from this1 he says1 arises the common observation1 that ,mussels are only poisonous during those months in which the letter r is not found4 ,this spawn1 according to our author1 is so venomous and caustic1 that it causes great pain1 swelling1 and inflammation1 even to the hand1 if handled at this season2 rubbing the part with vinegar is recommended as a cure4 ,small star-fish were rolled up in other food1 and given to dogs and cats1 when the animals suffered severely1 and in the end generally died4 ,in spite1 however1 of all these experiments1 it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been discovered4 ,thus much appears to be certain1 that whenever indigestion occurs after eating ,mussels1 some ill effects are experienced1 but this has seldom1 or very rarely1 taken place when they have been eaten with vinegar1 and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise4 ,when an individual is musselled1 the effects are very alarming2 the body1 head1 and face swell to a frightful extent2 and1 in a few hours1 the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption2 the cure is attempted by means of an emetic1 and afterwards some aromatic drink1 and vinegar and water2 this brings on a profuse perspiration1 which soon relieves the patient4 ,the ,mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait1 for which purpose it is well adapted4 ,in some parts of the ,mediterranean great attention is paid to the multiplication of this animal4 ,at the port of ,tarento1 in the kingdom of ,naples1 they drive into the sand a number of long poles1 to which the spawn of the ,muscle becomes attached4 ,in the following ,august1 when they have attained the size of almonds1 they are taken to the mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf2 here they are left until ,october1 when they are taken back to the sea1 and in the following ,spring they are considered fit to eat4 ,this change from the salt to the fresh water and back again1 is said to improve their flavour and colour4 ,near ,rochelle they are preserved in tanks1 preserves in which the salt water remains at rest4 ,,the ,,giant ,,tridacna1 7,tridacna gigas47 ,the ,tridacna gigas is the largest of the bivalve shells2 it is very thick and close in texture1 and is said to have been found as much as five hundred pounds in weight4 ,in ,catholic countries the shells have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the churches1 and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to form a present to a king2 those in ,st4 ,sulpice1 at ,paris1 were given to ,francis the ,first by the ,republic of ,venice4 ,they have been found in ,india1 as it is related1 of so extreme a size1 that more than one hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single ,tridacna gigas1 but this1 no doubt1 is an exaggeration4 ,these shells adhere to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity1 as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels1 in the task of separating them from the rock4 ,illustration3 ,tridacna gigas4 ,,order ,,bimusculosa1 7,shells with ,two ,pairs of ,muscles47 ,this ,order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells1 all interesting to the naturalist1 from the variety and beauty of their structure1 but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their use as food for mankind1 not but that many are equally wholesome with those belonging to the last order1 but as they possess two or more pairs of muscles1 they are much more capable of moving from place to place1 and1 consequently1 are seldom found in any great quantities in one spot1 and being found1 as they generally are1 in a considerable depth of water1 they are not so easily obtained4 ,,the ,,fresh-,,water ,,mussel1 7,anodonta cygna47 ,although this shell1 and several other species which nearly resemble it1 are known by the trivial name of ,mussel1 the only resemblance between them consists in their outward appearance1 the animals which inhabit the shells being very distinct1 both in organization and in habits4 ,the ,mussels1 as we have already said1 have very little power of moving from place to place1 while1 on the other hand1 the ,anodonta is at times far from being a sluggish animal1 and1 for the purpose of shifting its position1 it avails itself of a very strong and broad muscular foot4 ,the shell of the ,anodonta is sometimes found to contain pearls1 a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are lined with mother-of-pearl4 ,some of the ,scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl1 very large and beautiful1 and which used to bear an extremely high price4 ,a paper in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #afic1 mentions the collection of pearls from this shell1 in the river ,omagh1 ,county ,tyrone1 in ,ireland4 8,the poor people10 he says1 8in the ,summer months1 go into the water1 and some with their toes1 some with wooden tongs1 and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell1 take them up2 and1 although1 by a common estimate1 not above one shell in a hundred may have a pearl1 and of these pearls not above one in a hundred be tolerably clear1 yet a vast number of fair merchantable pearls1 and too good for the apothecary1 are offered for sale by those people every ,summer assizes4 ,some gentlemen of the country make good advantage thereof1 and myself1 whilst there1 saw one pearl bought for #ejl4 that weighed thirty-six carats1 and was valued at #djl4 ,a miller took out a pearl1 which he sold for #dl4 #ajs4 to a man that sold it for #ajl41 who sold it to the late ,lady ,glenanly for #cjl41 with whom ,i saw it in a necklace2 she refused #hjl4 for it from the late ,dutchess of ,ormond40 ,illustration3 ,isocardia cor4 ,anodonta ,cygna4 ,,the ,,heart-,,shaped ,,isocardia1 7,isocardia cor47 ,this shell1 which is very common in the ,mediterranean1 where it goes by the name of the foolscap-shell1 and the bullock's heart shell1 is rare in the ,british seas1 but it is sometimes found on the ,irish coast2 it is the largest ,british bivalve shell4 ,,the ,,wedge-,,shaped ,,donax1 7,donax cuneata47 ,there are nearly thirty species of ,donax1 all extremely beautiful2 that represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks3 it is often met with in collections of ,indian shells4 ,one of these species is found on the ,english coasts1 of a delicate white colour1 and streaked with pink4 ,illustration3 ,donax cuneata4 ,in following the system of ,lamarck1 we are gradually led through various genera to two species figured on the next page1 namely1 the ,tellina1 or earth-shell1 and the ,pandora1 and1 ultimately1 to the ,solen1 or razor-shell4 ,,the ,,sheath ,,solen1 7,solen vagina47 ,the ,solens are singular from the power they possess of burying themselves in the sands on the coast1 sometimes even to the depth of a couple of feet4 ,the foot of the ,solen1 by means of which it is able to penetrate the sand1 is equal to one-half of the length of the shell4 ,their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in which they have formed their hole1 and in again sinking to the bottom4 ,this movement is1 no doubt1 produced by the action of the foot1 which forms itself into a sharp point in its descent1 and when it remounts is enlarged as much as possible1 to form a resting-point1 for the purpose of raising the shell to the surface4 ,it is not supposed that the animal ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord1 although it may possess the power2 but it is certain1 according to the observations of ,raumur1 that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it4 ,the hole it forms for its retreat is always perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,tellina4 ,solen vagina4 ,pandora rostrata4 ,one of these creatures1 being taken out of its retreat1 was laid on the sand2 it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge1 or rather cone1 and1 applying it to the surface of the sand1 slightly raised the farthest end of its shell2 at the next effort the projecting part of the foot was buried in the sand1 and the shell became more elevated2 after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular direction1 and the shell was partly buried in it2 the shell then began to descend1 and that with considerable quickness4 ,the ,solens are used sometimes1 but rarely1 for food2 but in places where they abound1 they are sought after as bait for fishes3 the method of taking them is very singular4 ,having discovered the place of retreat of the creature1 by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its chamber1 the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of salt4 ,although an inhabitant of salt water1 the pure salt produces so irritating an effect on the extremity of its body1 that it quickly mounts to the surface2 the fisherman1 waiting for its appearance1 snatches hastily at it1 and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly1 makes good his capture2 but if not sufficiently active1 and the animal escapes1 the application of fresh salt produces no further effect2 either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt1 or1 which is most likely1 the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up with the inconvenience rather than be taken4 ,in this case1 no other means are left of securing it1 than using an iron instrument to dig it out with4 ,the number of species is upwards of twenty4 ,,the ,,date-,,shaped ,,pholas1 7,pholas dactyloides47 ,these creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the solens1 for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay1 but even in stone and lava4 ,in what manner this is effected has been the subject of much dispute2 it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical1 for their soft body1 and the fragile nature of their shells1 seem an insuperable bar to such a proceeding4 ,some authors have asserted that the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal1 which acts chemically on the stone2 but there are two reasons against this solution of the difficulty2 first1 no acid liquid has been discovered in the living animal1 and1 secondly1 although acid would act upon stone1 it would have no effect whatever on lava4 ,another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their phosphorescence1 which is so bright1 that it has been asserted1 if eaten in the dark without their being cooked1 it appears as if the person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus4 ,illustration3 ,pholas dactyloides4 ,although not used as food in this country1 they are not uncommonly eaten on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 where some large species are found4 ,the species represented in the engraving is found on the ,british coasts1 imbedded in clay2 its shell is of a delicate white1 beautifully carved4 ,the projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the engraving is the long foot of the animal2 on the right hand1 the hole from which a shell has been removed is shown4 ,,the ,,ship-,,worm1 7,teredo navalis47 ,before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully examined1 there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found1 as there is with regard to the operations of the ,pholas2 but subsequent observation shows that the hard parts1 of which the mouth is formed1 are fully equal to the task4 ,illustration3 ,teredo navalis4 ,perhaps we may say1 with propriety1 that this is the only species of the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind4 ,the animal of the ,teredo is a long worm-shaped creature1 dwelling in a tube of a shelly substance1 which it forms for itself in its progress through the wood2 the small pointed shell-like pieces1 to the right in the engraving1 form the jaws of the animal4 ,with the assistance of these it cuts its way into the timber1 and1 at the same time1 lines the excavation it is making with a shelly substance1 which is gradually formed into a tube1 the animal occupying that part which is most deeply sunken in the timber2 in directing its course it generally excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood1 but in some instances it crosses this grain4 ,in ,holland a great part of the country is below the level of high water1 and1 to prevent the irruption of the sea1 immense dykes have been formed along the coast2 these are framed1 on the sea-side1 of large masses of sand1 while to the landward they are strengthened by means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together4 ,these piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this destructive worm1 to such an extent as to endanger their safety1 and had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief1 immense tracts of country would have been laid under water1 and irretrievably lost4 ,,class ,,cirrhipeda4 ,the ,cirrhipeds are well known under the names of ,barnacles and ,acorn-shells1 being found attached to rocks1 ships' bottoms1 and pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time4 ,they also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger ,mollusca1 and on the backs of whales1 tortoises1 c4 ,these creatures1 from their singular formation1 have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of the systematic naturalist1 who1 from their anomalous characters1 was unable to refer them to any part of his system2 and although their true nature1 which has more recently been discovered by a ,british naturalist1 was partially suspected by ,lamarck1 7without1 however1 any definite idea on the subject17 we have still placed them immediately after the ,conchifera1 although1 as we shall presently show1 they ought more properly to be ranged with the ,crustacea1 that is1 the crab and lobster tribes1 and in future systems this no doubt will be the case4 ,after noticing their resemblance in many respects to the ,crustacea1 ,lamarck thus expresses himself4 8,in fact1 when ,i established the ,,class of ,crustacea1 ,i formed the first order of this class1 7the ,cirrhipeds17 under the name of sightless ,crustacea1 but a few years afterwards ,i separated them and placed them at the end of the ,mollusca1 but this was no better4 ,if1 for example1 we consider those characters which furnish their most important organs1 we shall find that the ,cirrhipeds1 without any doubt1 most nearly resemble the ,crustacea1 for they have the same system of nerves1 they have jaws analogous to those of the ,crustacea1 and their tentacula resemble the antenn of the shrimps40 ,to prove that they really were ,crustacea1 was a task that devolved upon a ,british naturalist1 ,i4 ,v4 ,thomson1 ,esq41 a surgeon in his ,majesty's forces4 ,the manner in which this discovery took place1 we shall notice further on4 ,the ,cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers1 or tentacula1 with which they are provided2 the name ,cirrhipeda being derived from two ,latin words1--cirrhus1 hair1 and pes1 the foot2 these appendages1 being figuratively called feet1 although they have1 in reality1 but little relation to that organ of motion4 ,they have been separated into two orders2 namely1 ,cirrhipeda pedunculata1 which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery nature1 as1 for instance1 the ,barnacle1--and ,cirrhipeda sedentaria1 which are fixed directly to the rock1 like the ,acorn-shell4 ,,order ,,cirrhipeda ,,pedunculata4 7,cirrhipeda with a ,footstalk47 ,,the ,,smooth ,,barnacle1 7,anatifa lvis47 ,the curious popular error1 that the ,barnacle contained the young of a species of goose1 which was thence called the ,barnacle ,goose1 has lasted for many ages1 and still prevails among the uneducated1 on the shores of many of the ,european seas4 ,one reason of the continuance of this error in several ,roman ,catholic countries1 is the permission granted by the priest to its members1 to eat this goose on fish-days1 because it is considered1 on account of its supposed watery origin1 to partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl4 ,to show the extent to which an erroneous belief may be carried1 we may quote the following notice sent by ,sir ,robert ,moray to the ,royal ,society1 and printed by them in their ,transactions4 ,he says1 8,the pedicle seems to draw and convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the shell and the little bird within it40 8,in every shell that ,i opened1 ,i found a perfect sea-fowl2 the little bill like that of a goose1 the eyes marked2 the head1 neck1 breast1 wings1 tail1 and feet formed2 the feathers everywhere perfectly shaped1 and blackish-coloured2 and the feet like those of other water-fowl1 to my best remembrance60 8,nor did ,i ever see any of the little birds alive1 nor met with anybody that did2 only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen some as big as their fist660 ,illustration3 ,anatifa lvis4 ,,order ,,cirrhipeda ,,sedentaria1 7,sedentary ,cirrhipeds47 ,,the ,,acorn-,,shell1 7,balanus47 ,mr4 ,thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the ,cirrhipeds in these words4 8,on ,april #bh1 #ahbc1 which the author had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions1 he was returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge1 when1 casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net1 on crossing the ferry at ,passage1 such a capture of marine animals was made1 as furnished a treat which few can ever expect to meet1 and could hardly be excelled for the variety1 rarity1 and interesting nature of the animals taken40 ,after mentioning the names of several very rare species1 he continues 8and others perfectly nondescript1 and incapable of being associated in any of our classifications of the ,crustacea2 of this description is the little animal about to be described4 ,illustration3 ,balanus1 7,the ,acorn-,shell ,barnacle47 8,there is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long1 of a somewhat elliptic form1 moderately compressed1 and of a brownish hue4 ,when in a state of perfect repose1 it resembles a very minute mussel1 and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water in which it is placed4 ,at this time all the members of the animal are withdrawn within the shell1 which appears to be composed of two valves1 united by a hinge along the upper part of the back1 and capable of opening from one end to the other along the front1 to give occasional exit to the legs4 ,the limbs are of two descriptions2 namely1 in front a large and very strong pair1 provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks1 c41 and at the hinder part of the body1 six pair of swimming-members1 so articulated as to act in concert1 and to give a very forcible stroke to the water1 so as to cause the animal1 when swimming1 to advance by a succession of bounds1 after the manner of the water flea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,larva of ,barnacle1 natural size4 #b4 magnified1 seen from above4 #c4 highly magnified1 seen from side2 a1 swimming-members2 b1 front limb1 with sucker4 #d4 ,eye1 much magnified4 #e4 ,perfect ,young ,barnacle1 natural size4 #f4 full grown4 8,the greatest peculiarity1 however1 in the structure of this animal1 is the eyes2 which1 although constantly shielded by the valves of the shell1 are placed on footstalks1 as in the crab and lobster1 in front1 at the sides of the body4 8,some of these curious creatures were collected in the ,spring of #ahbf2 and1 in order to see what changes they might undergo1 were kept in a glass vessel1 covered by such a depth of sea-water1 that they could be examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass2 they were taken on ,may the #ast1 and on the night of the #hth1 the author had the satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their exuvi#d1 and1 wonderful to say1 were firmly adhering to the bottom of the vessel1 and changed into young ,barnacles6 such as are usually seen intermixed with grown specimens1 on rocks and stones1 at this season of the year4 ,the eyes were still perceptible1 although the principal part of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with the exuvi4 ,on the #ajth1 another individual was seen in the act of throwing off its shell1 and attaching itself1 like the others1 to the bottom of the glass40 ,,class ,,annulata4 ,we cannot better describe the ,annulose animals than in the words of ,lamarck2 he calls them1 8,animals with soft bodies1 lengthened1 worm-shaped1 naked1 or inhabiting tubes1 with the body divided into segments1 or at least transverse wrinkles1 often without head1 without eyes1 and without antenn1 unfurnished with articulated limbs1 but the greater number having1 instead1 small protuberances1 bearing spines1 and capable of being retracted at pleasure1 disposed in rows along the sides1 though not continued quite to the extremity of the body1 and assuming various forms4 ,they have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries2 this separates them from the ,worms1 properly so called1 which have white blood4 ,this colour of the blood is a singular fact1 since the animals are much less complex in their organization than the ,mollusca1 which have colourless blood4 ,the ,class of ,annulose animals has been separated into three ,orders1 namely1 ,annulata sedentaria1 which are fixed to other substances2 ,annulata antennata1 possessing antenn1 or feelers2 and ,annulata apoda1 without projecting members answering as feet1 serving solely to attach the animal to rocks1 stones1 c40 ,illustration3 ,shells of various sedentary ,annulose ,animals4 ,,order ,,annulata ,,sedentaria1 7,sedentary ,annulose ,animals47 ,the creatures which form this order are generally found attached to rocks1 shells1 c4 and are usually of small size4 ,the engraving represents a variety of species of these animals4 ,of the genus ,serpula there are many species1 but as it is in general merely the shell that is found in collections1 they are but ill defined2 some of the species are found in almost all climates4 ,the animal of the ,serpula has great power of contracting its body1 but it never leaves its shell or tube2 this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant1 who always occupies the most recently-formed portion of it2 its operculum1 the lid with which it closes the opening of its tube1 is very prettily formed2 it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet1 but of course not perforated1 and it closes the opening with great accuracy4 ,,the ,,magnificent ,,amphitrite1 7,amphitrite magnifica47 ,this beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as yet discovered4 ,it is found in various parts of the coast of ,jamaica1 adhering to1 or rather embedded in1 the rocks4 ,its irritability is exceedingly great1 and on being approached it instantly retreats into its elastic tube2 this tube is of a leathery consistence1 unlike that of the ,serpula4 ,specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them4 ,these1 being put into tubs of sea-water1 may be kept for months in perfect health4 ,that part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an umbrella1 consists of the branchi or organs of breathing2 these are of a yellowish colour1 beautifully marked with pink4 ,the ,amphitrite1 although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube1 is not attached to it1 and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body4 ,illustration3 ,amphitrite magnifica4 ,,order ,,annulata ,,antennata1 7,annulose ,animals possessing ,antenn47 ,,the ,,sand-,,worm ,,of ,,the ,,fishermen1 7,arenicola piscatorium47 ,this ,worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore1 and is much sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes4 ,it is found in all the ,european seas4 ,there appears to be but one species1 but that is met with in great abundance4 ,illustration3 ,arenicola piscatorium4 ,,blood-,,coloured ,,leodice1 7,leodice sanguinea47 ,the antennated ,annulata differ materially from those which are enclosed in a case2 they possess1 in addition to their antenn1 organs of motion1 like the false legs of a caterpillar1 and two or four well-formed eyes2 they are all marine animals1 and altogether they bear a strong resemblance to the scolopendra1 or centipede4 ,illustration3 ,leodice sanguinea4 ,the species represented above was taken on the southern coast of ,devonshire2 it is the largest ,english species1 extending sometimes to the length of fourteen or fifteen inches4 ,when the animal was in a glass of sea-water1 the circulation of the blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body was a curious object1 and appeared to be effected at the will of the animal1 but when it became sickly1 the circulation was slower1 and as soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished4 ,the mouth is large1 and placed beneath1 concealing most formidable jaws1 or complicated fangs1 which were put forward occasionally as the animal became sickly1 or in the agonies of death4 ,the figure beneath the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus4 ,,the ,,spinous ,,sea-,,mouse1 ,,or ,,sea-,,caterpillar1 7,halitha aculeata47 ,the ,sea-,mouse is found in the ,european seas1 and when in its native element is singularly beautiful1 the hair with which it is partially covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock4 ,illustration3 ,halitha aculeata4 ,,order ,,annulata ,,apoda1 7,footless ,annulose ,animals47 ,the greater portion of the ,annulose animals1 namely those already described1 are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of their body1 which assist them in their motions1 and which may1 consequently1 be considered as supplying the place of feet2 but those we have yet to notice have no similar appendages1 and1 therefore1 they are called footless4 ,they are all very lively in their movements1 and live either in moist earth1 or the mud at the bottom of ponds4 ,we find among the footless ,annulata two well-known genera1 namely1 the ,earth-worm and the ,leech4 ,,the ,,common ,,earth-,,worm1 7,lumbricus terrestris47 ,the body of the ,earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow rings1 and along each side are four rows of very small1 short1 silk-like bristles1 of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like4 ,these bristles are placed on the edges of the rings1 and it is by the alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is enabled to move along1 the little bristles acting like hooks1 and so forming various fixed points of resistance or fulcra1 upon which the animal can rest at each movement forwards4 ,the organization of the ,earth-worm is very simple1 the intestinal canal for the food being a simple straight tube1 except in one part of its length1 where a kind of gizzard is found1 which answers the purpose of a stomach4 ,it is supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth4 ,illustration ,the hole1 or burrow1 formed in the earth by the worm1 always has two openings1 one by which it enters1 and by which it throws out the dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation1 and the other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow1 so that the hole made by the animal would be much in this form1 descending at ,a1 and reaching the surface by ,b4 ,it has been said1 that the ,earth-worm1 if divided by the spade or otherwise1 will unite again and live2 the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact1 that1 when divided1 that portion of the animal in which the head is placed may1 perhaps1 survive the mutilation1 and ultimately again become a perfect creature4 ,although worms1 after wet weather1 sadly disfigure our gravel walks1 they are1 at the same time1 useful gardeners1 loosening the earth round the roots of plants1 and thus rendering it more capable of receiving the small fibres of the roots4 ,during the ,winter they penetrate very deeply into the ground1 and remain1 according to ,latreille1 rolled up in a kind of nest1 protected from injury by the discharge of mucus1 which is furnished by the pores of their body4 ,the ,earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with the author of the ,journal of a ,naturalist2 among other remarks1 he observes1 8,there is another creature1 and that a very important one in the operations of nature1 that is surrounded by dangers1 harassed1 pursued incessantly1 and becomes the prey of all2 the common ,earth-worm4 ,this animal1 destined to be the natural manurer of the soil1 and the ready indicator of an approved staple1 consumes on the surface of the ground1 where they soon would be injurious1 the softer parts of decayed vegetable matter1 and conveys into the soil the more woody fibres1 where they moulder and become reduced to a simple nutriment1 fitting for living vegetation4 ,the parts consumed by them are soon returned to the surface1 whence dissolved by frosts1 and scattered by rains1 they circulate again in the plants of the soil1 ,death still producing life4 8,thus eminently serviceable as the ,worm is1 it yet becomes the prey of various orders of the animal creation1 and perhaps is a solitary example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction4 ,the very emmet seizes it when disabled1 and bears it away as its prize4 ,it constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds2 fishes devour it greedily2 the hedgehog eats it2 the mole pursues it unceasingly in the pastures1 along the moist bottoms of ditches1 and burrows after it through the banks of hedges1 to which it retires in dry seasons4 ,secured as the ,worm appears to be by its residence in the earth1 from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element1 yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it1 and prey on it as a natural food1 whenever it falls in their way3 frogs eat it1 and even the great water-beetle ,i have known to seize it1 when the bait of the angler1 and it has been drawn up by the hook4 ,yet notwithstanding this prodigious destruction of the animal1 its increase is fully commensurate to its consumption1 as if ordained the appointed food of all4 8,worms1 generally speaking1 are tender creatures1 and water remaining over their haunts for a few days1 drowns them4 ,they easily become frozen1 when a mortification commences at some part1 which gradually consumes the whole substance1 and we find them on the surface a mass of jelly4 ,their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of approaching cold weather2 but no sooner is the frost out of the ground1 than they approach the surface4 8,earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing the young plants1 immediately after they are transplanted1 into the earth4 ,in the drainage of lands they are of essential service1 penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every direction1 and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist40 ,the author we have already quoted1 after concluding this account of the ,worm1 says1 8,i would advocate the cause of all creatures1 had ,i the privilege of knowing the excellency of them2 not willingly assigning vague and fanciful claims to excite wonder1 or manifesting a base pride by any vaunt of superior observation2 but when we see1 blind as we are1 that all things are formed in justice1 mercy1 truth1 ,i would tell my tale as a man1 glory as a ,christian1 and bless the gracious ,power that permitted me to obtain this knowledge40 ,,the ,,medicinal ,,leech1 7,hirudo medicinalis47 ,the medicinal utility of the ,leech seems1 even in very remote times1 to have been acknowledged by mankind1 and accordingly we find it noticed in the writings of many ancient physicians4 ,it was not simply applied to the cases in which it is at present employed1 but was recommended to be used in many singular ways3 a paste made of the ashes of a burnt leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any part of the body4 ,it was also employed to suck the blood from a wound occasioned by a mad dog1 or any other rabid animal4 ,at present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the body1 for which use it is eminently adapted4 ,there are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures1 but only two have been employed in medicine1 namely1 the ,hirudo medicinalis1 which may be known by having six yellowish lines1 or stri1 on its back1 while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted with black1 but1 as we shall presently see1 these markings are not uniformly found2 and the ,hirudo troctina1 of a brownish colour1 the upper part of the body marked with black spots1 each of which is surrounded with a golden-coloured ring1 the sides of a dingy yellow1 and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots4 ,the first of these species1 the medicinal leech1 is common throughout the whole of ,europe1 but is much more abundant in the ,southern parts2 it is generally about three inches in length4 ,formerly it was very abundant in ,great ,britain1 but the improvements in agriculture1 and the consequent drainage of the land1 together with the great use made of it in medicine1 have of late years rendered it of less frequent occurrence4 ,on this account great quantities of leeches are imported2 these chiefly come from ,bourdeaux and ,lisbon4 ,on a moderate calculation1 it appears that1 in ,england1 on an average1 out of every hundred leeches employed1 ninety-nine may be considered of foreign production2 these differ from the ,english leech in being somewhat larger1 and having the under part of a uniform colour1 without spots4 ,some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by the statement1 that in the hospitals of ,paris alone1 #cjj1jjj were employed in one year4 ,the prevailing colour of the medicinal leech appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is found4 ,in ,winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth1 and seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom2 but in the ,summer it appears to delight in shallow pools1 basking1 as it were1 in the warmth of the sun3 but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by the ,summer-heat1 the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable depth4 ,just before a thunder-storm1 leeches appear much agitated1 and rise frequently to the surface of the water2 this1 therefore1 is considered by the leech-gatherers as a favourable time for collecting them4 ,the property by which a leech anticipates thunder1 has induced some persons to employ it as a species of barometer2 for this purpose a leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water1 and the following is supposed to be the result4 ,when the weather is about to be serene and pleasant1 the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel without the least movement2 secondly1 if it is about to rain1 the animal will rise to the surface1 and there remain until the approach of fine weather2 thirdly1 before boisterous weather1 it will appear in a state of great agitation2 fourthly1 on the approach of thunder1 it will remain out of water for several days1 appearing agitated and restless1 and so on4 ,this natural barometer appears to answer tolerably well1 if there is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor1 and if one leech only is employed2 but when several of these creatures are enclosed in the same vessel1 they do not appear to obey the same laws1 and1 consequently1 their movements do not correspond with sufficient accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use4 ,the medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself2 this is not the case with the horse-leech1 which lives entirely on the larv of aquatic insects1 worms1 c41 so that the common idea of the danger of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation4 ,the horse-leech is exceedingly voracious1 not only swallowing worms1 tadpoles1 c41 but even preying upon its own species4 ,sixty-five horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel1 and in five days the number was reduced to fifty-two1 and not a vestige of those that were missing was to be discovered4 ,the usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of cold blood1 was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech1 which1 after swallowing two small leeches of a different species1 disgorged one of the two at the end of three days1 in a living state1 and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a lodging2 but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours1 its more powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that period4 ,a number of this species of leech1 inhabiting the water that supplied a trough in which a tench had been placed1 fixed themselves to different parts of the body of the fish1 and so effectually was the poor tench annoyed1 that it was soon deprived of life4 8,the leeches then tore it 7previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of the body1 by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds17 into such pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach1 and so diligent were they1 that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere skeleton40 ,from these habits it would appear1 that the name of ,hirudo sanguisuga1 7the blood-sucking leech17 has been improperly applied to the horse-leech2 on this account a recent author has suggested the name of ,hirudo vorax1 7the voracious leech17 as being more suitable to its nature4 ,leeches are supposed to be very long-lived2 two were preserved in confinement for eight years before they died1 and the well-ascertained slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a doubt4 ,on the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form of a horse-shoe1 thus-- ,illustration ,these are considered1 by some authors1 to be organs of sight1 or eyes1 while1 on the other hand1 it is stated by others1 that they are merely tubercles4 ,lamarck was of this opinion1 and1 consequently1 in describing their character1 says they are without eyes4 ,the teeth1 or rather piercers1 with which the leech is furnished1 are three in number1 of a hard gristly substance1 and so placed1 with regard to each other1 as to meet in the centre at equal angles2 these piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself2 not by one plunging effort1 but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the surface 7assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips72 in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin1 and there remain as long as the creature retains its hold2 this movement of the piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three minutes after the leech has commenced operation4 ,leeches are at times so scarce and valuable1 that great care has been taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use4 ,the principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels sufficiently large1 keeping the water clear1 and in removing those which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered4 ,leeches1 when applied to the skin1 frequently show little inclination to bite1 and many plans have been resorted to1 to induce them to commence operations1 such as bathing the part with milk1 c42 but these methods may be considered useless1 and the best plan appears to be1 to wash the part clean1 and this is the more necessary when any embrocation has been previously applied2 but the surest way is to puncture the place slightly1 so as to cause the blood to appear4 ,if the little surgeon1 before it is fully gorged1 appears lazy and unwilling to proceed1 it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little cold water4 ,after a leech has fallen off1 it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed2 but as the salt frequently blisters its body1 it has been recommended by ,dr4 ,johnson of ,edinburgh1 from whose work on the ,leech1 we have obtained most of the preceding information1 to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head of the leech instead of salt4 ,the necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has swallowed1 arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of the animal for some months before it could be all digested2 but the most singular thing is1 that1 during the whole of this time1 the blood remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed#e4 ,the stomach of this creature is very curiously formed1 being composed of a number of chambers1 each chamber having a separate connexion with the intestinal canal1 in such a manner that1 at the will of the animal1 the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal1 through a distinct opening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,it was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced from eggs or born alive1 but it is now ascertained that the ova are developed in a singular case1 having some resemblance to the cocoon of a silkworm4 ,the following engraving represents this case1 of its natural size3 fig4 #a1 shows the perfect case or cocoon1 and fig4 #b1 the same opened1 with the young leeches contained within it2 it is said that1 at times1 there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case4 ,this cocoon is formed by the parent animal1 and by it deposited in the mud or clay1 which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits4 ,the fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons1 although only latterly ascertained by naturalists1 was long since well-known to the dealers in leeches on the ,french coast1 who avail themselves of this knowledge of their habits1 to multiply them for the purpose of sale4 8,it was by these means the leech-dealers of ,bretagne1 and particularly in ,finisterre1 replenished the ponds in which they preserved those leeches which were intended for the ,paris market4 8,about the month of ,april or ,may1 according to the nature of the season1 they send out labourers1 provided with spades and baskets1 to the little muddy marshes1 where they are known to exist in abundance4 ,these workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are known to contain cocoons1 which are afterwards deposited in sheets of water previously prepared for their reception2 here the young leeches quit the cocoons1 and are allowed to remain for six months1 when they are removed to larger ponds40 ,while they remain in these ponds1 the cattle and other animals are driven to the water1 for the purpose of allowing the young to feed upon them1 as it is supposed that they grow much more rapidly after having partaken of blood4 ,there is a small species of leech in the island of ,ceylon1 which is more dreaded1 and1 from its great numbers1 produces more evil1 than even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island1 including the terrible hooded snake itself4 ,the largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in length1 and the smallest are minute indeed4 ,this leech is a very active animal2 it moves with great rapidity1 and is even said occasionally to spring4 ,it is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling1 for no sooner does a person stop where leeches abound1 that they appear to crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters4 ,in rainy weather1 it is shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with these creatures1 gorged with blood1 and the blood itself trickling down in streams4 ,it might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping them off2 but they crowd to the attack1 and fasten on more quickly than they can be removed4 ,their bites are much more troublesome than would be imagined1 being very apt to fester and become sores1 and1 in persons of a bad habit of body1 to degenerate into extensive ulcers1 and ultimately cause the loss of a limb1 if not that of life itself4 ,many plans have1 of course1 been resorted to1 to avoid this pest1 such as anointing the legs with tobacco-water1 grease1 c41 but all to very little purpose1 the only successful mode appearing to be1 the enclosing the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons1 fitting very closely to the limb1 a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate4 ,,class ,,crustacea4 ,the arrangement of the ,crustacea in systems of natural history has undergone numerous changes2 they were placed by ,linnus among the insects3--others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders4 ,lamarck was the first who made the ,crustacea an independent ,,class forming two orders1 which he has named after the arrangement of the branchi1 or gills1 by which they breathe1 namely1--the ,crustacea homobranchi1 the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner3 branchi hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass1 covering the body of the animal1 with the exception of the tail2 the mandibles always furnished with feelers1 the eyes placed on footstalks1 the head not distinct from the trunk1 and possessing ten feet to assist them in their movements4 ,secondly1 the ,crustacea heterobranchi1 in which the branchi are external1 in various situations1 but never under the lateral margin of a cuirass2 they are either under the belly or the tail1 adhering to the feet1 or confounded with them3 the eyes are in general fixed1 sedentary1 not on footstalks4 ,,order ,,crustacea ,,homobranchi1 7,shell-,fish with concealed gills47 ,the first of these orders1 the homobranchial ,crustacea1 includes most of the larger kinds of shell-fish1 as1 for instance1 crabs1 lobsters1 and cray-fish2 shrimps and prawns are also in this division4 ,their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order1 and1 according to ,lamarck1 it is among these animals that the last appearance of the organ of hearing is seen1 in tracing the animal kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is apparently less complex4 ,the body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two principal parts1 the body and the tail2 for the head is so intimately united and confounded with the trunk1 as to appear to be merely a portion of it4 ,the two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable supports1 and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception1 on each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head4 ,the antenn1 which are usually four in number1 are placed about this spot2 they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes4 ,the two outermost of these antenn are generally the longest4 ,the branchi1 or organs by which they breathe1 assume a form somewhat pyramidical1 arranged like a series of leaves1 or the web of a feather2 they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side1 and are so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet1 so that each of these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base4 ,the mouth is composed of a fleshy lip1 projecting between the mandibles2 of two hard triangular mandibles1 more or less notched at their extremity1 and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper part2 they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles1 at the root of which is the opening to the stomach3 they have besides two pair of jaws1 like leaves1 the borders of which are fringed1 and six other members1 which ,lamarck calls foot-jaws1 from their bearing some resemblance to legs1 or feet4 ,from this it appears that the parts of the mouth in the ,crustacea form a complicated apparatus1 and accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious1 the ,crabs in particular1 feeding upon any animal substance1 putrid or not1 that may come within their reach4 ,some of the species are well known as articles of food1 but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year4 ,,the ,,crab ,,tribe4 ,the genera of the ,crustacea are so extremely numerous1 and the knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty1 being generally confined to their form and colour1 that we shall limit ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful species4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,zoea ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,crab4 ,the ,crabs are a very numerous tribe1 and contain many singular species1 as far as regards their form1 which assumes an endless variety of curious shapes1 sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant colours2 this more particularly applies to those which are found in the seas of hot climates4 ,the singular little animal represented in the preceding page1 was placed by naturalists among the ,crustacea1 and considered a perfect animal of a distinct species2 it was named ,zoea4 ,mr4 ,thomson1 the experienced naturalist we have already noticed1 was the first to discover the real nature of this little creature4 ,we cannot do better than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the author of this discovery1 showing the reason so little is known respecting these inhabitants of the deep4 8,the sea 7which is the habitation of the greater part of the ,crustacea7 to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body of water1 here and there presenting a solitary whale1 or a vagrant troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals2 the appearance of a fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast expanse of the open ocean1 is regarded1 even by the mariner1 as a kind of phenomenon1 and creates an interest not to be appreciated by those who have not engaged in distant voyages4 ,the fathomless parts of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants with the shores of islands and continents1 or those parts where the bottom is within reach of the sounding-line1 or where the surface is interspersed with fields of ,sargosa#f4 ,on due examination1 however1 we shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety of animals1 either of small size1 or possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible1 or scarcely perceptible1 even when on or near to its surface2 that it should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the surface of our globe1 is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly1 from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from the land1 and the provident care of the ,deity1 which we invariably witness throughout the domain of nature1 to furnish food for all1 even the meanest of his creatures2 the more minute and invisible inmates of the sea1 then1 must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds4 8,few of these marine animals1 except some of the larger and most conspicuous1 have as yet been observed1 so that the investigation of them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist1 and a vast field of exploration1 replete with novelty and interest2 to accomplish this1 however1 he must use the greatest diligence1 seizing every opportunity1 when the way of a ship does not exceed three or four miles per hour1 to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze1 bunting1 or other tolerably close material1 occasionally drawing it up1 and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water1 to ascertain what captures have been made4 ,when a ship goes at a greater rate1 and in stormy weather1 a net of this kind may be appended to the spout of one of the sea-water pumps1 and examined three or four times a day1 or oftener1 according to circumstances40 ,although naturalists were decided in calling the ,zoea a crustaceous animal1 they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system it ought to occupy1 for the different species were so unlike each other3 but it will be no longer a matter of surprise1 when it is known1 that this singular creature is not a perfect animal1 but merely the larva1 or imperfect state of the ,common ,crab4 ,this fact is perfectly new1 and interesting in a double point of view1 not only proving their real nature1 but also that the ,crustacea are not1 as described in most systems1 animals undergoing no metamorphosis1 and on that account to be separated from the insects1 but that they do undergo a metamorphosis1 and that of a most wonderful nature4 ,it was in the ,spring of #ahbb that ,mr4 ,thomson first met with ,zoe1 in the harbour of ,cove1 and that in considerable abundance2 the year following1 at the same season1 one of considerable size occurred2 this was considered a fit object for experiment1 and was carefully supplied with fresh sea-water1 from ,may #adth to ,june #aeth1 when it died in the act of changing its skin4 ,that portion of its new form which it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a great resemblance to the division of the ,crustacea1 in which the crabs and lobsters are placed4 8,this proof10 says the author1 8might be considered incomplete1 if ,i had not had the good fortune to succeed in hatching the ova of the ,common ,crab1 during the month of ,june1 which presented exactly the appearance of the ,zoea taurus40 ,the ,common ,crab1 ,cancer major1 is so well-known1 that any description of its appearance would be useless4 ,one singular part of the history of these creatures is1 the power that is possessed by them1 of changing their shell once in every year2 this power is providentially bestowed upon them1 to enable them to increase in size1 a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible1 from the peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed4 ,the ,crab1 in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about to undergo1 when shifting its shell1 chooses a close and well-secured retreat1 in the cavities of rocks1 or under great stones1 where it creeps in and remains during the operation4 ,the time of the year when this occurs is about the beginning of the ,summer1 at which time their food is in plenty1 and their strength and vigour in the highest perfection4 ,but soon all their activity ceases2 they are seen forsaking the open parts of the deep1 and seeking some retired situation among the rocks1 or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the attacks of their enemies4 ,for some days before their change1 the animal discontinues its usual voraciousness2 it is no longer seen laboriously harrowing up the sand at the bottom1 or fighting with others of its kind1 or hunting its prey2 it lies torpid and motionless1 as if in anxious expectation of the approaching change4 ,just before casting its shell1 it throws itself upon its back1 strikes its claws against each other1 and every limb seems to tremble2 its feelers are agitated1 and the whole body is in violent motion2 it then swells itself in an unusual manner1 and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at its junctures1 particularly at those of the belly1 where it was before seemingly united4 ,it also seems turned inside out2 and its stomach comes away with its shell4 ,after this1 by the same operation1 it disengages itself of its claws1 which burst at the joints2 the animal1 with a tremulous motion1 casting them off1 as a man would kick off a boot that was too big for him4 ,thus1 in a short time1 this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty2 but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several hours motionless4 ,indeed1 so violent and painful is the operation1 that many of them die under it2 and those which survive1 are in such a weakly condition for some time1 that they neither take food1 nor venture from their retreats4 ,immediately after this change1 they have not only the softness1 but the timidity of a worm4 ,every animal of the deep is then a powerful enemy1 which they can neither escape nor oppose2 and this1 in fact1 is the time when the dog-fish1 the cod1 and the ray1 devour them by thousands4 ,but this state of weakness continues for a very short time2 the animal1 in less than two days1 is seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before2 its appetite appears to increase2 and1 strange to behold6 the first object1 it is said1 that tempts its gluttony1 is its own stomach1 which it was lately disengaged from4 ,this it devours with great eagerness4 ,in about forty-eight hours1 in proportion to the animal's strength1 the new shell is perfectly formed1 and as hard as that which was but just thrown aside4 ,previous to the time of moulting or changing their skin1 a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach2 this is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the shell4 ,these stones1 popularly known as crabs' eyes1 were long highly esteemed for their medicinal properties1 but in reality are not superior to so much chalk4 ,when completely equipped in its new dress1 the dimensions of the old shell being compared with those of the new1 it will be found the creature has increased in size nearly one-third1 and it appears wonderful how the old shell could have contained it4 ,many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb1 or a portion of one1 if by any accident it has been lost4 ,this faculty of reproduction is possessed by the ,crab in great perfection2 but it has also a surprising power in itself1 voluntarily to break off its own legs and claws4 ,it seems this takes place when any serious injury1 by bruising1 has happened to any of its members4 ,after it has received the hurt it bleeds1 and gives signs of pain1 by moving the wounded limb from side to side1 but afterwards holds it quite still1 in a direct and natural position1 without touching any part of its body or its other legs with it4 ,then1 on a sudden1 with a gentle crack1 the wounded part of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured2 this appears to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs1 than in the case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers4 ,when the leg has dropped off1 a mucus1 or jelly1 is discharged on the remaining part of the joint next the body1 which1 as a natural styptic1 instantly stops the bleeding2 this gradually hardens and grows callous1 becoming a new leg in miniature1 which at every change of the creature's shell increases rapidly in size4 ,crabs are naturally very quarrelsome1 and with their claws fight and kill each other2 and if by chance any of their limbs should be so bruised1 as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking off its claws1 the protecting jelly is not produced1 and the animal bleeds to death4 ,an experiment was made to give some idea of the tenacious disposition of this creature1 by obliging a ,crab1 with one of its great claws1 to lay hold of one of its smaller ones2 the silly creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor1 but exerted its strength1 and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg1 which bled freely2 but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off its limb in the usual manner1--still1 however1 holding fast for a length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away4 ,the curious shuffling walk of the ,crab is well known1 but it does not1 as it is said1 walk exactly backwards4 ,,the ,,land ,,crab1 7,gecarcinus ruricola47 ,although nearly all the ,crab tribe are inhabitants of the water1 there is a species found in the ,west ,indies1 a native of the ,bahama ,islands1 whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class1 and highly curious in themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,land ,,crab1 7,gecarcinus ruricola47 ,land ,crabs do not1 like most other crustaceous animals1 live near salt water1 but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year in holes in the ground1 hollow trunks of trees1 and other places of the same description1 and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands1 many miles from the sea-shore2 but1 although they make these places their usual haunt1 it is necessary for them1 once a year1 to repair to the sea1 for the purpose of depositing their spawn4 ,they prepare for their annual migration about the month of ,april or ,may1 and1 having mustered in immense numbers1 the procession sets forward1 with all the regularity of an army1 under the guidance of an experienced commander4 ,their destination being the sea1 they instinctively move in a direct line to the nearest coast2 no obstacle which they can possibly surmount will induce them to turn from their course2 for if even a house stands in their way1 they endeavour to scale its walls1 in which they sometimes succeed2 and should a window remain open1 they are not unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper4 ,if1 however1 a large river crosses their track1 they continue to follow its course without attempting to cross it4 ,it is said1 that they are commonly divided into three battalions1 of which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males1 who1 like pioneers1 march forward to clear the route4 ,they are often obliged to halt for want of rain1 and go into the most convenient encampment till the weather changes4 ,the main body consists of females1 who never leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time2 they then descend in regular order1 formed into columns of the breadth of fifty paces1 and three miles in length1 and so close that they almost cover the ground4 ,three or four days after this1 the rear-guard follows1 a straggling undisciplined tribe1 consisting of males and females1 but neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties4 ,the night is their chief time of proceeding4 ,when terrified1 they march back in a confused manner1 holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly1 to intimidate their enemies4 ,their general food consists of vegetables2 but if any of their companions should become maimed1 and unable to proceed1 they are greedily devoured by the rest4 ,after a march of two1 and sometimes three months1 in this manner1 they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast2 they immediately enter the water1 and after the waves have washed over them several times1 retire to holes in the rocks1 and other hiding-places1 where they remain until the period of spawning4 ,they then once more seek the water1 and1 shaking off their eggs1 leave them to the chance of being hatched1 or devoured by tribes of hungry fish1 who have already repaired to the spot in countless shoals1 in expectation of their annual treat4 ,the eggs that escape are hatched under the sand2 and1 soon after1 millions at a time of the little ,crabs are seen quitting the shore1 and slowly travelling up to the mountains4 ,the old ones1 however1 are not so active to return3 they have become so feeble and lean1 that they can hardly crawl about4 ,most of them1 therefore1 are obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover2 making holes in the earth1 into which they creep1 and cover themselves up with leaves and dirt2 here they throw off their old shells1 and continue almost without motion for about six days1 during which time they become so fat1 as to be considered delicious food4 ,in about six weeks1 the new shell has become tolerably hard1 and the creatures may be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts4 ,in some of the sugar-islands1 it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the food of the negroes1 who are extremely dexterous in their mode of seizing them1 so as to avoid their nippers4 ,,the ,,hermit1 ,,or ,,soldier ,,crab1 7,pagurus bernhardus47 ,this singular species of ,crab has obtained its name from its habit of remaining1 as it were1 secluded1 in any empty shell1 or hole of a rock1 it may fancy4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hermit ,,crab1 7,pagurus bernhardus47 ,the hinder part of its body1 particularly the tail1 being constantly secure from injury1 has its covering reduced to almost a membranous state1 while the tail1 which assists the other species in swimming1 is almost obliterated2 but in those which have chosen a shell for their hermitage1 some hook-like appendages are observed1 which enable them to maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling4 ,when the body has grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal1 it is obliged to seek another of a larger size4 ,the numerous combats they enter into when seeking a new dwelling1 have caused this animal to receive the additional name of the ,soldier ,crab4 8,the ,soldier when about to seek a new habitation1 is still seen10 says an amusing writer1 8in its own shell1 which it appears to have considerably outgrown2 for a part of the naked body is seen at the mouth of it1 which the habitation is too small to hide4 ,a shell1 therefore1 is to be found1 large enough to cover the whole body2 and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy4 ,to answer both these ends is no easy matter1 nor the attainment of a slight inquiry4 ,the little ,soldier is seen busily parading the shore1 along that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave2 still1 however1 dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail1 unwilling to part with one shell1 even though a troublesome appendage1 till it can find another more convenient4 ,it is seen stopping at one shell1 turning it and passing it by1 going on to another1 contemplating that for a while1 and then slipping its tail from its old habitation1 to try on a new4 ,this1 also1 is found to be inconvenient2 and it quickly returns to its old shell again4 ,in this manner1 it frequently changes1 till at last it finds one light1 roomy1 and commodious3 to this it adheres1 though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the body of the animal1 claws and all40 ,yet it is not till after many trials1 and many combats also1 that the ,soldier is thus completely equipped2 for there is often a contest between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell1 for which they are rivals4 ,they both endeavour to take possession2 they strike with their claws2 they bite each other1 till the weakest is obliged to yield1 by giving up the object of dispute4 ,it is then that the victor takes possession1 and parades in his new conquest three or four times back and forward1 upon the strand1 before his envious antagonist4 ,when this animal is taken1 it sends forth a feeble cry1 endeavouring to seize the enemy with its nippers2 which if it fasten upon1 it will sooner die than quit the grasp4 ,the wound is very painful1 and not easily cured4 ,on the ,english coasts the ,hermit ,crab is generally found in the shell of the whelk1 or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle2 they not unfrequently1 however1 remain in some cranny of a rock1 or under the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles1 in the interstices of which they hide themselves4 ,the ancients were well acquainted with the ,soldier ,crab1 as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets3 ,the ,soldier ,crabs unarmed by nature1 left ,helpless1 and weak1 grow strong by harmless theft4 ,fearful they crawl1 and look with panting wish ,for the cast crust of some new-covered fish2 ,or such as empty lie1 and deck the shore1 ,whose first and rightful owners are no more4 ,they make glad seizure of the vacant room1 ,and count the borrowed shell their native home2 ,screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case1 ,and boldly herd with the crustaceous race4 ,but when they larger grow they fill the place1 ,and find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space1 ,compelled1 they quit the roof they loved before1 ,and busy search around the pebbly shore1 ,till a commodious roomy seat be found1 ,such as the larger shell-fish living owned4 ,oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage1 ,and long for the disputed shell engage2 ,the strongest here the doubtful prize possess1 ,power gives the right1 and all the claim confess4 ,,the ,,lobster1 7,astacus europa47 ,the well-known and delicious shell-fish1 the ,lobster1 is found in great abundance in all the northern parts of ,europe4 ,the north of ,scotland is famous for the ,lobster1 but it is still more plentiful on the coast of ,norway4 ,the crab is more frequently found in shallow water1 but the ,lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth4 ,the methods of taking ,lobsters are various1--the most usual is by means of what are called ,lobster-pots2 these are a sort of trap1 formed of twigs1 and baited with garbage2 they are made like a wire mouse-trap1 so that when the ,lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning4 ,these pots are fastened to a cord1 and sunk in the sea1 their place being marked by a buoy4 ,another method of taking them is by means of a kind of bag-net1 baited with animal substances4 ,this fishery is only carried on in the night4 ,they are brought in vast quantities to the ,london market from the ,orkneys and from the ,norway coast4 ,lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder1 or any other sudden shock2 the consequence of which is1 that in their fright1 they frequently cast their claws4 ,this also often happens when the poor creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot4 ,as these animals frequent clear water1 their habits have been more noticed than those of the crab4 ,their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious4 ,in general1 the pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs1 while the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge2 holding1 then1 its food in the knobbed claw1 it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the other4 ,their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and lively1 and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird4 ,their colour1 when in their native element1 is not black as might be imagined1 but a beautiful deep blue4 ,a whimsical idea of the horror ,lobsters are said to have of pigs1 seems to have prevailed in some parts of the ,continent4 ,it is said that in ,brandenburgh1 where the fishery is very abundant1 the wagoners who transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night1 to prevent swine from passing the wagon1 for if one only was to go by1 they say1 not a single ,lobster would be alive in the morning6 ,,the ,,river ,,cray-,,fish1 7,potamobius fluviatilis47 ,the fresh-water ,cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in appearance1 but is considerably broader in its proportions4 ,it is commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers1 inhabiting the banks1 in which it burrows1 and feeding on any animal substance that may happen to come in its way4 ,the ,cray-fish is taken in various ways1 sometimes by the hand1 which is thrust into the holes in which they burrow4 ,another method is thus described3-- ,procure a dozen little rods1 about five feet in length1 and the thickness of the thumb1--split them at the smallest end1 and by way of bait1 place a frog1 or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft2 take then the rods by their thickest end1 and hold the bait at the entrance of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be2 if they are there1 they will generally come out to seize the bait4 ,as soon as you perceive them1 hold a small landing-net underneath1 and raise the bait suddenly1 and the ,cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait1 or will fall back into the net4 ,another method noticed1 consists in first burying a dead cat1 or a hare1 in a dunghill1 for eight days1 and then placing it in the midst of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles1 which is thrown into the water1 in the place frequented by the ,cray-fish4 ,after it has remained there a few hours it may be drawn up1 when the shell-fish will be found partaking of their delicate fare1 and the tangled bush will effectually prevent their escape4 ,,the ,,phosphorescent ,,shrimp4 ,the luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to all who have been a voyage by sea2 and it has been ascertained1 that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants of the deep4 ,among these1 the little animal1 figured above1 is very frequently met with4 ,illustration3 ,,noctiluca ,,banksii magnified4 ,the line above shows the natural length4 ,the light of this creature1 which is very brilliant1 appears to issue from every part of the body2 but in another crustaceous animal1 found by ,captain ,tuckey1 in the ,gulf of ,guinea1 the luminous property resided in the brain1 which1 when the animal was at rest1 resembled a most brilliant amethyst1 about the size of a large pinhead2 from this there started1 when it moved1 flashes of a brilliant silvery light4 ,the author we have lately quoted1 says1-- 8,meditating upon this subject1 ,i think it not improbable1 that the ,deity1 who has done nothing in vain1 and whose omniscience extends to every epoch1 foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the trackless ocean1 and explore the most distant regions of our planet1 has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy1 and of diminishing the number of his dangers2 especially1 if we consider that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season1--is vivid in proportion to the darkness1 disappearing even before the feeble light of the moon1--and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea1 so that1 during the prevalence of storms1 it greatly diminishes the dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon1 and the stars1 throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty1 and at all times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken rocks1 shoals1 and unknown coasts1 by the phosphorescent1 or snowy appearance which it gives to the breakers1 so as to render them visible at a considerable distance40 ,,the ,,opossum ,,shrimp1 7,mysis chamleon47 ,this small species of ,shrimp1 although it has much the same outward appearance as the common shrimp1 except that it is considerably smaller1 is1 when duly examined1 one of the most singularly-formed creatures of the class to which it belongs4 ,it is found in tolerable abundance along the ,british coasts1 but the northern seas literally swarm with them2 there1 in spite of their small size1 they are destined to become the food of the stupendous whale1 whose enormous mouth encloses myriads at a time4 ,illustration3 ,mysis chamleon4 ,the ,opossum ,shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have been called fissipeds1 7split-feet17 on account of each of their feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length2 the inner limb being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey1 and the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is essential to the organs of breathing1 which are1 as it were1 wrapped round the base of each limb1 and fully exposed to the action of the element4 ,in the other ,crustacea1 which they most nearly approach1 such as shrimps1 prawns1 c41 there is a single row of five feet on each side3 but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four rows of feet1 each containing eight1 so that in all1 the number of feet amounts to as many as thirty-two1--sixteen adapted for swimming1 and sixteen for seizing their prey4 ,in consequence of this organization1 the ,shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom1 while the present genus frequent the surface4 ,the most singular portion of their formation1 and that to which they are indebted for a name1 is a kind of pouch which the female possesses1 fixed beneath the body1 and formed of two concave pieces of shell2 this pouch1 which is very capacious1 considering the size of the animal1 is destined to receive the eggs1 which are deposited in it1 enveloped in a kind of jelly-like substance1 most probably forming the food of the young when first hatched4 ,as fast as the young assume the lengthened form of the perfect animals1 they are found to arrange themselves in this pouch closely and regularly side by side1 with their heads towards the breast of the mother4 ,after this manner they lie closely compacted together1 and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement1 easily observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch1 and the large size and blackness of their eyes4 ,the males of the ,opossum ,shrimp are not so numerous as the females1 and are without the singular pouch we have described4 ,we have already noticed the fact of these ,shrimps being the food of the ,greenland whale1 in the northern seas1 but in these climates they serve as food for herrings4 ,it is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals that we see the perfection of the ,divine ,artist4 ,nature's greater productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished master-pieces1 and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still continue to bring new parts and touches into view4 ,if1 for instance1 after observing one of their members with the naked eye1 which has informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one piece1 we employ a magnifying glass with a low power1 the same part appears jointed1 or composed of several pieces articulated together4 ,employing a higher magnifier1 it appears fringed with long hairs1 which1 on further scrutiny1 seem to be themselves fringed with hairs still more minute2 many of these minute parts also1 are evidently jointed1 and perform sensible motions4 ,but what idea can we form of the various muscles which put these parts in movement1 of the nerves which actuate them1 and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment necessary for growth and support1 and which we know1 from comparison with other creatures1 they must possess6 ,the ,opossum ,shrimps1 we have seen1 are the prey of the larger inhabitants of the deep2 but they1 in their turn1 destroy others that are smaller than themselves1--seizing upon every animal substance they are able to manage that comes within their reach1 and1 if placed in a vessel of sea-water by themselves1 devouring each other4 ,the species represented in the engraving has been called the ,mysis chamleon1 from its colour varying according to the substances on which it feeds1 through all the gradations of gray1 black1 brown1 and pink4 ,,order ,,crustacea ,,heterobranchi4 7,crustacea with ,organs of ,breathing variously placed1 never concealed47 ,the ,crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other than those which are arranged in the last order1 and consequently we find among them some very singular in their outward formation4 ,few of the species appear to be used as food by mankind1 but they constitute a great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the water4 ,they are at times used by fishermen as bait4 ,many of them are very minute1 and form most excellent objects for the microscope4 ,they have been divided into several sections1 according to their outward form2 but as so little is known of their habits1 we shall confine ourselves to a description of some of the best known4 ,,the ,,spotted ,,squill1 7,squilla maculata47 ,the ,squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present order4 ,it is the only genus of the heterobranchial ,crustacea in which the eyes are placed on footstalks2 the head1 instead of being distinct1 appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet4 ,it has been called the ,sea ,mantis1 from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that name1 on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its foot-jaws are armed4 ,the species shown in the engraving is found in the ,indian ,seas2 it is the largest of the genus4 ,the shell with which these creatures are covered has very little consistence1 more resembling hardened skin than shell4 ,they frequent the sandy bottom of the sea4 ,illustration3 ,squilla maculata4 ,there is a small species which is found in fresh water1 in which the young1 after the eggs are hatched1 remain for some time in shelter under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered4 ,,the ,,common ,,cloportus1 7,cloportus ascellus47 ,this animal is very common upon old walls and under stones4 ,it is somewhat like the wood-louse1 but more flat2 it is essentially a dweller on the land1 but it cannot exist except in damp places1 where the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchi pliable2 it belongs to a group of small ,crustacea known by the name ,oniscus4 ,some1 as we see in the present instance1 frequent the land1 but the greater portion inhabit the water4 ,illustration3 ,cloportus ascellus4 7,fig4 #a1 much magnified2 fig4 #b1 natural size47 ,among those which inhabit the latter element1 there is a minute species which is very injurious to timber4 ,it excavates a cylindrical hole for its dwelling1 and increases in number so rapidly1 that in a few years timber which is covered with water is rendered useless4 ,the temporary wood-work used during the time the ,bell-,rock ,lighthouse was in the course of erection1 was destroyed1 to a great extent1 by this little creature4 ,when the wood had been under water for three years1 beams ten inches square were reduced to seven inches2 at the rate of one inch a year4 ,another species1 ,cymothoa1 attaches itself to the backs of different species of fishes1 living upon the juices of their body4 ,a crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the fifth volume of the ,american ,philosophical ,transactions2 it is accompanied by engravings which we have copied1 but the animal is not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular species2 by this account it appears that1 instead of attaching itself to the body of the fish1 the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the roof of the mouth4 ,the author thus describes it4 ,illustration3 ,head of ,alewife4 ,part of lower jaw removed to show the insect4 ,illustration3 ,the insect seen from above4 8,among the fish that at this early season of the year 7,february7 resort to the waters of ,york ,river1 in ,virginia1 the ,alewife1 the ,oldwife1 called also the ,bay ,alewife1 arrives in very considerable shoals1 and in some seasons their number is almost incredible4 ,they are fully of the size of a large herring1 and are principally distinguished from the herring by a bay or red spot1 above the gill-fin4 ,they are1 when caught from ,march to ,may1 full-roed and fat1 and at least as good a fish for the table as the herring4 8,in this season1 each of these ,alewifes carries in her mouth an insect about two inches long1 hanging with its back downwards1 and firmly holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate4 8,it is with difficulty it can be separated1 and never1 perhaps1 without injury to the jaws of the fish4 ,the fishermen1 therefore1 consider the insect as essential to the life of the fish2 for when it is taken out1 and the fish is again thrown into the water1 he is incapable of swimming1 and soon dies4 ,i endeavoured in numerous instances to preserve both the insect and the fish from injury1 but was always obliged1 either to destroy the one or injure the other4 8,i have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and lively state4 ,as soon as he was set free from my grasp1 he immediately scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his position4 ,in every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and unpleasant to handle1 and it seemed that1 whether he had obtained his post by force or favour2 whether he be a traveller or constant resident1 or what else may be his business where he is found1 he certainly fares sumptuously every day4 8,the fish whose mouth he inhabits1 comes about the same time with the shad into the rivers of ,virginia from the ocean1 and continues to travel upwards from the beginning of ,march to the middle of ,may4 ,as long as they are caught on their passage up the river1 they are found fat and fall of roe4 ,every fish which ,i saw had the ,oniscus in his mouth1 and ,i was assured1 not only by the more ignorant fishermen1 but by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself with fishing1 that in forty years' observation he had never seen a ,bay ,alewife without the louse40 ,the ,oniscus itself1 as the author states1 is not without its enemies1 many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their body1 and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads4 ,,the ,,molucca ,,crab1 7,polyphemus gigas47 ,why the singular creature here represented should have the name ,polyphemus given to it1 is hard to guess4 ,polyphemus1 as every schoolboy knows1 was the fabled giant overcome by ,ulysses1 who is represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead2 whereas1 this creature has two eyes and one horn4 ,it is interesting from its being so nearly allied to many very minute species4 ,the ,polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet2 there are but two species1 which only differ from each other in the shape of their buckler4 ,that we have represented is found in the ,indian ,ocean1 and has been called the ,molucca ,crab4 ,the tail1 or rather the horn1 of the ,polyphemus1 is greatly dreaded by the fishermen1 from the idea that its wound is venomous4 ,the natives employ it to point their arrows1 and as they are in the habit of poisoning the points of these weapons1 it is most likely from this circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated1 for there is no other ground for the belief4 ,illustration3 ,polyphemus gigas4 ,during the night-time they lie half out of the water1 and are then very easily taken1 as they appear to take but little notice of anything until their danger becomes imminent4 ,it is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for food1 but the eggs1 which are very numerous1 are reckoned a delicacy4 ,these ,crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a considerable distance over the wet sands1--but if incommoded by the sun1 they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element4 ,when walking1 none of their legs are visible4 ,most authors say that1 if this ,crab is laid on its back1 it must inevitably perish1 unless the waters return in time1 but one observer asserts that it has the power of righting itself with the assistance of its tail4 ,,the ,,crab-,,like ,,limulus1 7,limulus cancriformis47 ,the ,limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water1 marshes1 c42 they are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers2 their principal food in the ,spring appears to be tadpoles4 ,illustration3 ,limulus cancriformis4 7,natural size47 8,this genus10 says ,lamarck1 8is almost isolated among the group in which it is placed4 ,its body is covered with a great horny buckler1 very thin1 and made of a single piece1 of a roundish oval form4 ,the head is confounded with the trunk1 and the antenn are very short4 ,they possess three eyes1 two in front1 and one1 very small1 further back4 ,their legs are very numerous1--the two in front1 much the largest1 spread out in the form of oars1 and furnished at their extremity with silky articulated bristles40 ,,the ,,water ,,flea1 7,cyclops quadricornis47 ,there are as many as twelve known species of the ,water ,flea4 ,that represented in the engraving is extremely common1 and forms a most interesting object for the microscope4 ,we have availed ourselves of ,mr4 ,pritchard's popular description of this curious creature4 8,the ,author of ,nature1 to whom all things are alike easy of execution1 as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility1 and that no part of creation1 however minute1 is beneath his consideration1 has conferred on these animals1 that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision1 more elegance and variety of form1 more richness in their colouring1 and more beauty and exquisite finishing1 than on the whale or the elephant1 which mainly excite our admiration1 by the magnitude of the mass of living matter they present to us4 ,illustration3 ,cyclops quadricornis4 7,fig4 #a1 highly magnified2 fig4 #b1 natural size47 8,these little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the year1 near the surface of the water2 they are1 however1 most abundant in ,july and ,august4 ,i have collected great numbers of them on a warm day in the latter month1 with a small cloth net1 immersing it about an inch below the surface4 ,they are mostly colourless in ponds covered with herbage1 but in small collections of rain water1 on a loamy soil1 are of a fine rich colour4 8,the body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly plates1 which overlap each other1 and admit both of a lateral and vertical motion between them4 ,their ends do not meet on the side1 but have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the organs of respiration4 ,the rostrum1 or beak1 is short and pointed3 it is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head4 ,a little above the beak1 a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell1 of a dark crimson colour1 nearly approaching to blackness4 ,the true form of this organ it is difficult to determine4 ,mr4 ,baker gives it the shape of two kidney-beans placed parallel to each other1 and united at their lowest extremities4 ,when viewed laterally1 it appears round1 while in some other positions it is square40 ,the eggs are curiously placed in two bags1 presenting an appearance similar to clusters of grapes1 and of considerable magnitude1 compared with the size of the animal4 ,these egg-bags are seen in the engraving1 7which represents a female17 projecting from each side of the hinder portion of the shell4 ,the centre of each egg is of a deep opaque colour1 which in some specimens is green1 in others red4 ,the young of the ,cyclops1 when first excluded from the egg1 are extremely minute1 and so different from the mother1 that ,mller has described them as forming two distinct genera4 ,,the ,,small ,,water ,,flea1 7,cyclops minutus47 ,this species of the ,water ,flea differs from the last1 in having its body divided into a greater number of segments2 it is also much smaller2 it is equally active with that last described1 but its form renders it more graceful in its motions4 8,these little creatures10 says ,mr4 ,pritchard1 8seem to possess great discernment and cunning2 for1 if approached1 they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside1 in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked2 but when a fit opportunity occurs1 they suddenly bend the body1 and spring away with a kind of vaulting leap40 ,illustration3 ,cyclops minutus1 much magnified4 ,they inhabit the various species of conferv1 and may often be met with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed1 growing on the surface of the water4 ,they are most numerous in ,april and ,may1 and disappear as the heat of the season increases4 ,they will not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation1 and require1 therefore1 to be kept for observation in a large vessel of clean water4 ,they are easily caught after a shower of rain1 on the under surface of the duckweed1 by taking out a little with a basin or cloth net4 ,when found1 they appear busily engaged in search of prey1 moving about with great activity1 and examining every portion of the plant in the most scrutinizing manner4 ,in this pursuit the body is not bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving1 but is kept in a straight crawling position4 ,their natural length is about the three hundredth part of an inch4 ,the female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the eggs2 in this there is but one1 and that is placed on the under part of the animal near the tail4 ,,the ,,hairy ,,cypris1 7,cypris pubera47 ,these singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water3 they are very small1 and1 at first sight1 appear like a bivalve shell4 ,the animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case1 opens and shuts it at will2 when it does this1 it throws out from one end of the shell numerous whitish hair-like members2 it is by moving these that it is enabled to swim with considerable celerity1 and it never stops until it meets with some object on which it can rest4 ,its two antenn1 which issue from the fore part of the shell1 are long1 very flexible1 and bent backwards2 their articulations are numerous1 which gives them great freedom of motion4 ,the movements of these antenn contribute materially to the swimming powers of the creature4 ,at the place where the head is united to the body1 a small black point is seen1--this is the eye of the animal4 ,illustration3 ,cypris pubera4 7,fig4 #a1 highly magnified2 fig4 #b1 natural size47 ,the ,cypris changes its shell like the rest of the ,crustacea2 it is found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing4 ,sometimes they are so numerous1 that the water appears covered with them2 they are more usually found in ,spring and ,autumn than at any other part of the year2 from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course of the year4 ,the drying up of marshes during the ,summer heats1 destroys immense numbers every season4 ,it appears1 however1 from observation1 that in this case1 some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in the mud1 where they hermetically close their shells1 and remain in a kind of dormant state1 until rain or other causes have again filled the marshes with water4 ,a species nearly allied to this1 the ,artemia ,salina1 the ,lymington shrimp1 or brine-worm1 is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans1 which is so strongly impregnated with salt1 as to destroy any other ,crustaceous animal4 ,myriads of these animalcul are to be found in the salterns at ,lymington1 in the open tanks or reservoirs1 where the brine is deposited previous to boiling4 ,a pint of this brine contains about a quarter of a pound of salt4 ,these tanks are called clearers1 as the liquor becomes clear in them1 an effect which the workmen attribute1 in some degree1 to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm1 or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food2 but this is mere conjecture4 ,so strongly persuaded1 however1 are the workmen of this fact1 that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms from another saltern if they do not appear at their own4 ,they increase astonishingly in the course of a few days4 ,it is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans1 where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the ,summer1 and which are emptied every fortnight2 but only in the pits and reservoirs1 where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans1 and where some of the liquor constantly remains1 when it becomes much diluted with rain water4 ,from ,october till ,may1 7during which time the manufacture is at a stand17 a few only of the worms are visible2 but at the approach of ,summer1 young ones appear in great numbers4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,parker1 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,lane4 ,,list ,,no4 #a4 ,,approved ,,books ,,for ,,schools ,,and ,,families4 ,those to which a 99 is prefixed1 are published under the ,direction of the ,committee of ,general ,literature and ,education of the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 99 ,,english ,,grammar4 ,by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,,russell1 late ,head ,master of ,charter-,house ,school4 #as4 #f;d4 ,no language can be more simple and intelligible than that in which the ,rules of this ,grammar are expressed4 ,the construction of ,sentences1 and the force of the ,prepositions and ,conjunctions1 are illustrated by examples4 ,emphasis is treated very perspicuously2 and the ,grammar closes with most useful ,questions on the ,rules4 ,a ,,practical ,,introduction to ,,english ,,composition2 adapted to the education of both sexes1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,edwards1 ,m4,a41 one of the ,masters of ,king's ,college ,school1 ,london4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,in addition to other pursuits and studies1 the cultivation of a knowledge of ,english ,literature is daily gaining ground4 ,this1 it must be acknowledged1 is very desirable1 but it is assuredly of great importance1 that it should be upon a plan which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind4 99 ,,the ,,class ,,reading ,,book2 adapted for ,schools1 and particularly designed to furnish ,youth with ,practical ,information on a variety of ,interesting ,subjects4 ,by ,,george ,,ludlow1 one of the ,masters of ,christ's ,hospital4 #cs4 ,this work consists of nearly ,two ,hundred ,reading ,lessons1 adapted either for classes or individuals4 ,they are selected with a view to the communication of popular but sound information1 on various branches of knowledge1 and there is a department consisting of carefully selected ,poems4 ,,abbott',s ,,reader2 a ,series of ,familiar ,pieces1 in ,prose and ,verse1 calculated to produce a ,moral ,influence on the ,hearts and ,lives of ,young ,persons4 ,by the ,authors of ,,the ,,young ,,christian2 ,,the ,,corner-,,stone2 ,,the ,,teacher1 c4 #cs4 ,the design of this ,,reader is1 to exert a direct and powerful moral influence upon the hearts of children2 such an influence as shall make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time1 obedient and affectionate to their parents1 kind towards their playmates1 and upright and honest in their intercourse with others4 ,the compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and morality1 of whatever name4 99 ,,arithmetic ,,taught ,,by ,,questions4 #as4 #f;d4 ,the principal novelty of this ,arithmetic consists in the ,,questions1 by which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself4 ,at the same time1 it is thought that many ,teachers may profit by the facilities which the questioning affords1 and learn to ground those whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote4 99 ,a ,,first ,,book on ,,geometry1 including ,plane and ,solid ,geometry1 and an ,introduction to ,trigonometry4 #as4 #f;d4 ,in this work will1 it is believed1 be found all the essential ,propositions of ,plane and ,solid ,geometry4 ,the method of demonstration which has been followed is that of ,euclid2 but1 throughout1 an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater simplicity1 and thus to render it more generally available4 ,,the ,,figures ,,of ,,euclid2 with ,,questions1 and a ,,praxis of ,,geometrical ,,exercises4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,edwards1 ,m4,a41 of ,king's ,college ,school1 ,london4 #cs4 99 ,,outlines of ,,geography4 ,by ,g4 ,,hogarth4 #aj;d4 ,a comprehensive ,manual of the leading facts in this branch of ,education1 carefully condensed from the best sources4 ,it contains ,tables of the ,situations and ,heights of the principal ,mountains1 and of the ,lengths of the principal ,rivers1 a ,map of the ,world1 ,five other ,maps1 and ,four ,plates of ,costumes4 99 ,,outlines of the ,,history of ,,england4 ,by ,,george ,,hogarth4 #as4 #c;d4 ,the leading events of ,english ,history are related with simplicity1 and their connexion traced with clearness4 ,the narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events2 and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the gradual formation of the ,british system of government4 ,the work is illustrated with many ,engravings of ,costumes1 ,views1 c4 99 ,,outlines of ,,roman ,,history4 ,by ,,george ,,hogarth4 #aj;d4 ,a complete and popular epitome of the ,history of the ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,it is embellished with a handsome ,print of a ,roman ,triumph1 and numerous ,figures of ,costumes1 c4 ,,outlines of ,,grecian ,,history4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,barton ,,bouchier1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,,maps and ,,views4 #as4 99 ,,outlines of ,,sacred ,,history2 from the ,creation of the ,world to the ,destruction of ,jerusalem4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the design of this ,work is to afford a condensed view of the ,history of both the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 together with a brief account of the ,jewish ,history in the interval between the ,babylonish ,captivity and the ,birth of ,christ1 and in the period between ,christ's ,ascension and the fulfilment of his awful ,prophecy of the ,destruction of ,jerusalem and the ,dispersion of the ,jews4 ,a ,,manual of ,,ancient ,,geography1 in which the ,modern ,names of ,places are attached to the ,ancient1 and the ,words marked with their proper quantities4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,william ,,hildyard1 ,m4,a4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,geography and ,chronology are1 as it has been quaintly but truly remarked1 the eyes of ,history1 and the ,editor's experience in teaching 7which has not been small17 has convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar with the division of countries1 and the relative situation of places1 if ever they are expected to read the classic authors1 especially the historians1 with advantage4 99 ,,outlines of ,,astronomy4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,g4 ,,hall1 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,math41 ,king's ,coll41 ,london4 #aj;d4 ,an elementary ,work1 intended to instruct1 in the sublime facts of ,astronomy1 those who are unacquainted with mathematical reasoning2 and to explain to them1 in familiar language1 the principal phenomena of the ,heavens4 ,the ,lessons are illustrated by numerous ,engravings4 99 ,,the ,,elements of ,,botany4 ,new ,edition1 with many ,cuts4 #bs4 ,the principles of this beautiful and important science are explained in a clear and simple manner1 so as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy4 ,the book is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants1 c41 and the examples1 when possible1 are selected from our own wild flowers1 or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields1 and they are cited by their familiar names4 ,a ,glossary of most of the terms usually employed is subjoined1 and an alphabetical ,list of the most useful ,plants1 with their botanical names1 c4 99 ,,manual of ,,instruction in ,,vocal ,,music1 chiefly with a view to ,psalmody4 ,by ,,john ,,turner1 ,esq4 #ds4 ,the author offers this work not as an experiment now for the first time to be tried1 but as the result of long experience4 ,though chiefly designed for the use of children collected in large numbers1 it may1 with equal advantage1 be adopted in smaller assemblages1 and in the domestic circle3 and may also be rendered serviceable to adults4 ,,easy ,,lessons ,,in ,,mechanics2 with ,familiar ,illustrations1 showing the practical ,application of the various ,mechanical ,principles4 #cs4 99 ,,on the ,,education and ,,treatment of ,,children4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3--,on the means of developing the ,bodily ,senses in ,infancy2 ,early ,development of the ,affections2 ,early ,cultivation of the ,intellect2 ,management in ,childhood2 ,amusements and ,employments2 ,sunday2 ,views of ,death2 ,supernatural ,appearances2 ,politeness2 ,dress2 ,gentility2 ,management during the ,teens2 ,views of ,matrimony4 99 ,,instructions for ,,teaching ,,arithmetic to ,,little ,,children4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,v4 ,,short1 ,b4,d4 #f;d4 99 ,a ,,little ,,reading ,,book for ,,young ,,children4 ,with many ,cuts4 #d;d4 ,,scripture ,,hymns ,,in ,,prose4 ,with ,cuts4 #f;d4 ,the experience of some persons inclines them to prefer compositions in prose1 to those in verse1 for the exercise of the infant memory4 ,there is at least no disadvantage in having a choice of both4 99 ,a ,,colliery ,,tale1 or ,,village ,,distress4 #d;d4 ,the object of this little narrative is1 by ,god's help1 to draw some profit from a recent calamity1 which1 in its immediate pressure upon the limited community through which it extended1 has been most awfully severe4 99 ,,village ,,annals2 or1 the ,story of ,,hetty ,,jones4 #i;d4 ,i have written this story in the simplest style1 for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood2 as in all the little publications of this kind ,i have hitherto met with1 the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the classes for whom they are designed4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,pretty ,,lessons for ,,good ,,children2 to which are added1 ,,easy ,,lessons in ,,latin4 #bs4 ,the design of this little work is1 by means of easy rhymes1 to attract the attention of young children1 and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral sentiments which they would not otherwise remember2 for1 8,what will a child learn sooner than a song80 ,,easy ,,poetry ,,for ,,children4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,simple ,,stories ,,for ,,young ,,children4 ,by a ,,lady4 ,with ,cuts4 #as4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,verse-,,book ,,of ,,devotion4 ,with ,cuts4 #as4 ,,songs for ,,children4 ,with ,,engravings4 #d;d4 ,in this little book you'll find1 ,lessons for the infant mind2 ,truth conveyed in easy verse1 ,which the nursling may rehearse1 ,and thus be led1 by simple lays1 ,to walk with ,god1 and sing his praise4 ,,reading ,,lessons from the ,books of ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes2 with ,questions and ,answers upon them4 #d;d4 ,,daily ,,readings from the ,,psalms4 #f;d4 ,,familiar ,,lectures to ,,children2 in which the ,,important ,,truths of the ,,gospel are engagingly set forth4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,hobart ,,caunter1 ,b4,d4 #bs4 ,,faith ,,and ,,practice2 or1 ,the ,application of ,christian ,principles to the ,practical ,duties of ,life4 ,fourth ,edition1 improved4 #as4 ,,the ,,rite of ,,confirmation ,,explained4 ,by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,i4 ,,eyre1 ,m4,a4 #f;d4 ,,confirmation4 ,an ,,address from a ,,clergyman to his ,,parishioners4 #b;d4 ,a ,,few ,,words ,,on ,,the ,,sin ,,of ,,lying4 ,by ,a ,,layman4 #c;d4 99 ,,easy ,,lessons on ,,money ,,matters1 for the ,use of ,young ,people4 #as4 ,in this little book1 care has been taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language1 that1 it is hoped1 these ,,lessons will be found easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in point of education2 and there are few subjects on which it is1 for all classes of people1 more important to inculcate correct principles1 and to guard against specious fallacies4 99 ,,persian ,,stories2 illustrative of ,,eastern ,,manners and ,,customs4 #as4 ,and1 99 ,,persian ,,fables1 for ,young and ,old4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,keene1 ,m4,a4 #as4 ,,five ,,hundred ,,charades1 from ,history1 ,geography1 and ,biography4 ,third ,edition1 revised and improved4 #as4 #f;d4 99 ,,insects and their ,,habitations4 ,a ,book for ,children4 #as4 ,we may learn many useful lessons from the ,history of ,insects2 and1 by observing their habits1 we shall find that they set us an example of various good qualities4 99 ,the ,,book of ,,animals4 99 ,the ,,book of ,,fishes4 99 ,the ,,book of ,,birds4 99 ,the ,,book of ,,reptiles4 99 ,the ,,book of ,,shells4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 each4 ,the nature1 habits1 and uses of the ,animals described1 are presented in a correct1 though simple and attractive form1 and the little volumes will be found useful additions to the books for young persons1 and acceptable introductions to works of a higher class4 ,,the ,,student',s ,,manual ,,of ,,ancient ,,history2 containing ,accounts of the ,,political ,,condition1 ,,geographical ,,situation1 and ,,social ,,state of the principal ,,nations ,,of ,,antiquity2 carefully digested from the ,ancient ,writers1 and illustrated by the ,discoveries of ,modern ,scholars and ,travellers4 ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,r4,a4,s4 #ajs4 #f;d4 99 ,,the ,,family ,,history ,,of ,,england1 by the ,rev4 ,,george ,,robert ,,gleig1 ,m4,a41 with a series of ,,pictorial ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,costumes1 ,,architecture1 ,,shipping1 c41 of the successive periods of ,british ,history4 ,in ,eighteen ,parts1 at #as4 each1 or in ,three ,volumes1 #fs4 #f;d4 each4 ,a ,,popular ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,reformation1 in ,,germany1 ,,switzerland1 and ,,great ,,britain2 and of its chief ,promoters1 ,opposers1 and ,victims4 ,by ,,thomas ,,fox4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,church2 from ,,the ,,ascension ,,of ,,jesus ,,christ ,,to ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,constantine4 ,by the late ,dr4 ,,burton4 ,second ,edition1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,early ,,christians2 their ,,manners and ,,customs1 ,,trials and ,,sufferings4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,pridden1 ,m4,a4 #ds4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,crusaders2 by ,,thomas ,,keightley1 ,esq4 ,two ,volumes1 with ,engravings4 #aas4 ,,history ,,of ,,mohammedanism1 and the ,,principal ,,mohammedan ,,sects4 ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,r4,a4,s41 c4 #es4 #f;d4 ,,lives ,,of ,,eminent ,,christians4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,hone1 ,m4,a41 ,rector of ,hales ,owen4 ,volumes ,i4 and ,,ii41 with ,portraits1 #ds4 #f;d4 each4 99 ,,readings ,,in ,,english ,,prose ,,literature2 containing choice ,specimens of the ,works of the best ,english ,writers2 with ,,essays ,,on ,,english ,,literature4 #ds4 #f;d4 99 ,,readings ,,in ,,poetry2 ,selections from the ,works of the best ,english ,poets2 with ,specimens of the ,american ,poets2 ,notices of the ,writers2 and ,notes4 #ds4 #f;d4 99 ,,readings ,,in ,,biography2 a ,selection of the ,lives of the most ,eminent ,men of all ,nations4 #ds4 #f;d4 99 ,,readings ,,in ,,science2 being familiar ,,explanations of ,appearances and ,principles in ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,with many ,engravings4 #es4 ,,ventouillac',s ,,rudiments of the ,,french ,,language2 or1 ,,first ,,french ,,reading ,,book4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised and ,corrected by ,f4 ,j4 ,,wattez1 ,first ,assistant ,french ,master in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,livre ,,de ,,classe2 with ,,english ,,notes1 by the late ,l4 ,t4 ,,ventouillac1 ,professor of ,french ,literature in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 #es4 ,,french ,,poetry2 with ,,english ,,notes1 by the late ,l4 ,t4 ,,ventouillac1 ,professor of ,french ,literature in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 #bs4 ,,le ,,bouquet ,,litteraire4 ,recueil de ,beauts ,religieuses et ,morales1 de divers ,auteurs4 ,par feu ,l4 ,t4 ,,ventouillac1 ,professeur de ,littrature ,franaise au ,collge ,royale ,londres4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,brasseur',s ,,exercises on ,,french ,,phraseology2 with a ,lexicon of ,,idiomatic ,,verbs4 ,by the ,french ,professor of ,king's ,college1 ,london4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,,french ,,school ,,classics4 ,edited and ,abridged by ,,marin ,,de ,,la ,,voye1 ,french ,master in the ,east ,india ,college1 at ,addiscombe4 ,while the necessity of introducing the best standard ,french works into our schools and families is universally acknowledged1 serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of placing the writings of some among the ,french authors in the hands of ,christian youth4 ,in order to remove all difficulties on this subject1 the ,editor has been induced to undertake a careful ,abridgment of such works as are in most general use2 and he has made it his object to extract from the original every word and sentence relating either to religion1 politics1 or philosophical speculation1 respecting which ,christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of opinion4 ,a purified text of the best ,french ,classical ,works is1 therefore1 now offered for the use of young persons of both sexes1 in a state which1 it is trusted1 will be found altogether unobjectionable4 ,,telemaque4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,pierre ,,le ,,grand4 #bs4 ,,voyages ,,de ,,cyrus4 #bs4 ,,charles ,,xii4 #bs4 ,,belisaire4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,gil ,,blas ,,desantillane4 ,in the ,press4 ,six ,volumes1 at #bs4 each1 with ,wood-,cuts1 99 ,,the ,,instructor2 ,,or1 ,,progressive ,,lessons ,,in ,,general ,,knowledge ,a ,,series ,,of ,,elementary ,,books1 ,,especially ,,adapted ,,for ,,schools ,,and ,,families4 ,under the general title of ,,the ,,instructor1 is comprised a series of little books1 by means of which children may be led through a progressive course of ,exercises in various branches of ,elementary ,knowledge4 ,these books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell common words1 and read easy lessons4--,the object of the work is not only to furnish reading lessons1 but also to carry the pupil forward1--to impart information1 and exercise the mind4 ,the first ,six ,volumes1 in ,thirty-six ,numbers1 contain the following subjects1 with numerous ,engravings3 ,,volume ,i4 7or in ,nos4 #a to #f47 ,,tales and ,,conversations on ,familiar ,subjects4 ,,volume ,,ii4 7or in ,nos4 #g to #ab47 ,the ,,house4 ,,materials used in ,,building4 ,,furniture4 ,,food and ,,clothing4 ,,volume ,,iii4 7or in ,nos4 #ac to #ah47 ,the ,,universe4 ,the ,,three ,,kingdoms of ,,nature4 ,,the ,,human ,,form4 ,,lessons on ,,health4 ,,volume ,,iv4 7or in ,nos4 #ai to #bd47 ,the ,,calendar2 ,the ,year1 ,months1 ,weeks1 ,days4 ,the ,,seasons4 ,,appearances of ,,nature4 ,,volume ,v4 7or in ,nos4 #be to #cj47 ,,descriptive ,,geography3 ,the various ,divisions of the ,world2 their ,people and ,productions2 with ,,maps4 ,,volume ,,vi4 7or in ,nos4 #ca to #cf47 ,,ancient ,,history4 ,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,parker1 ,,publisher1 ,,west ,,strand4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by nature in the formation of a shell1 as noticed in the introductory chapter4 #b ,the insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared4 #c ,see ,book of ,fishes1 p4 #ea4 #d ,the skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation4 #e ,it has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of its food1 that 8,those persons do not consider that blood is the most favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature2 and ,i would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves1 if1 immediately after eating a hearty dinner1 any person was to give them a violent emetic40 #f ,a kind of sea-weed1 7,fucus natans47