,the ,cambridge ,handbooks of           
,liturgical ,study        ,,general     
,,editors3      ,h4 ,b4 ,,sweet1 ,d4,d4 
,j4 ,h4 ,,srawley1 ,d4,d4        ,,the  
,,church ,,year ,,and ,,kalendar        
,,cambridge ,,university ,,press        
,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4        
,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager               
,illustration                           
,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street    
,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4        
,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus           
,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons  
,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and
 ,,co41 ,,ltd4                          
,all rights reserved                    
,illustration3 ,kalendar of             
,peterborough ,psalter 7,march7         
,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge 7,,ms4 
#ab74 ,cent4 xiii4                      
,,the ,,church ,,year ,,and             
,,kalendar                              
,,by                             ,,john 
,,dowden1 ,d4,d41              ,hon4    
,,ll4,d4 7,edinburgh71 late ,bishop of  

,edinburgh                              
,cambridge3                           at
 the ,university ,press                 
#aiaj                                   
,cambridge3                             
,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4    
,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press         
,,note ,,by ,,the ,,editors      ,the   
purpose of ,the ,cambridge ,handbooks of
 ,liturgical ,study is to offer  to     
students who are entering upon the study
 of ,liturgies such help as may  enable 
them to proceed with advantage to the   
use of the larger and more  technical   
works upon the subject which are already
 at their service4    ,the series will  
treat of the history and rationale of   
the several rites  and ceremonies which 
have found a place in ,christian        
worship1 with some  account of the      
ancient liturgical books in which they  
are contained4  ,attention will also be 
called to the importance which          
liturgical forms  possess as expressions
 of ,christian conceptions and beliefs4 

,each volume will provide a list or     
lists of the books in which the study   
of its subject may be pursued1 and will 
contain a table of ,contents and  an    
,index4    ,the editors do not hold     
themselves responsible for the opinions 
expressed  in the several volumes of the
 series4 ,while offering suggestions on 
points of detail1 they have left each   
writer to treat his subject in his  own 
way1 regard being had to the general    
plan and purpose of the series4         
,h4 ,b4 ,s4                             
,j4 ,h4 ,s4          ,the manuscript of 
the present volume was sent to the press
 only a few  weeks before the lamented  
death of the author1 and therefore the  
work  did not receive final revision at 
his hands4 ,in its original draft the   
manuscript contained a somewhat fuller  
discussion of some of the topics        
handled1 e4g4 the work of the mediaeval 
computists1 and such technical  terms as
 #8,sunday ,letters1' #8,epacts1' etc41 
as well as a fuller treatment  of the   

various ,eastern ,kalendars4 ,exigencies
 of space1 however1 and the  scope of   
the present series1 made it necessary   
for the author to curtail  these        
portions of his work1 while suggesting  
books in which the study of  these      
topics may be pursued by the student4   
,the ,editors have endeavoured1  as far 
as possible1 to verify the references   
and to supplement them1  where it seemed
 necessary to do so4 ,in a few cases    
they have added short  additional notes1
 enclosed in brackets1 and bearing an   
indication that  they are the work of   
the ,editors4          ,,contents       
,,page        ,,introduction            
xi        ,a ,,short ,,bibliography     
xxi           ,i4 ,,the #8,,week'       
,,adopted ,,from ,,the ,,jews4 ,the     
,lord's ,day3 early                     
notices4 ,the ,sabbath 7,saturday7      
perhaps not observed by                 
,christians before the fourth century3  
varieties in the              character 
of its observance4 ,the word feria      

applied              to ordinary week   
days3 conjectures as to its origin4     
,wednesdays and ,fridays observed as    
#8stations1' or days              of    
fasting                                 
#a          ,,ii4 ,,days ,,of ,,the     
,,martyrs4 ,local observances at the    
burial places              of ,martyrs4 
,early ,kalendars3 the ,bucherian2 the  
,syrian              7,arian7 ,kalendar2
 the ,kalendar of ,polemius ,silvius2   
the              ,carthaginian4 ,the    
,sacramentary of ,leo2 the ,gregorian   
,sacramentary4 ,all ,saints' ,day2 ,all 
,souls' ,day4 ,the days              of 
,martyrs the dominant feature in early  
,kalendars3 the              ,maccabees 
#ab         ,,iii4 ,,origins ,,of ,,the 
,,feasts ,,of ,,the ,,lord',s ,,nativity
 ,,and ,,the              ,,epiphany4   
,festivals associated with the ,nativity
 in              early ,kalendars       
#bg          ,,iv4 ,,other              
,,commemorations ,,of ,,the ,,lord4 ,the
 ,circumcision2                         

,passiontide1 ,holy ,week2 mimetic      
character of              observances4  
,the ,ascension4 ,the ,transfiguration4 
,pentecost                              
#cg           ,v4 ,,festivals ,,of ,,the
 ,,virgin ,,mary4 ,hypapante 7the       
,purification71              originally 
a festival of the ,lord4 ,the same true 
of the              ,annunciation4 ,the 
,nativity and the ,sleep 7,dormitio7    
of the ,virgin4 ,the ,presentation4 ,the
 ,conception4 ,the              epithet 
#8,immaculate' prefixed to the title in 
#ahed4              ,festivals of the   
,theotokos in the ,east                 
#dg          ,,vi4 ,,festivals ,,of     
,,apostles1 ,,evangelists1 ,,and ,,other
 ,,persons              ,,named ,,in    
,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,st ,peter and 
,st ,paul4              ,st ,peter's    
,chair1--the ,chair at ,antioch4 ,st    
,peter's              ,chains4 ,st      
,andrew4 ,st ,james the ,great4 ,st     
,john3 ,st ,john              before the
 ,latin gate1 a ,western festival4 ,st  

,matthew4              ,st ,luke4 ,st   
,mark4 ,st ,philip and ,st ,james4 ,st  
,simon              and ,st ,jude4 ,st  
,thomas4 ,st ,bartholomew4 ,st ,john the
              ,baptist2 his ,nativity1  
his ,decollation4 ,the ,conversion      
of ,st ,paul4 ,st ,mary ,magdalene4 ,st 
,barnabas4 ,eastern                     
commemorations of the ,seventy disciples
 7apostles74              ,octaves4     
,vigils                                 
#eh         ,,vii4 ,,seasons ,,of       
,,preparation ,,and ,,penitence4        
,advent3 varieties              in its  
observance4 ,lent3 its historical       
development2              varieties as  
to its commencement and its length4     
,other              special times of    
fasting3 the three fasts known in the   
,west as ,quadragesima4 ,rogation days4 
,the ,four ,seasons              7,ember
 ,days74 ,fasts of ,eastern ,churches   
#gf        ,,viii4 ,,western ,,kalendars
 ,,and ,,martyrologies3 ,bede1 ,florus1 
,ado1              ,usuard4 ,old ,irish 

,martyrologies4 ,value of ,kalendars    
towards ascertaining the dates and      
origins of              liturgical      
manuscripts4 ,claves ,festorum4 ,the    
modern              ,roman ,martyrology 
#ic          ,,ix4 ,,easter ,,and ,,the 
,,moveable ,,commemorations4 ,early     
,paschal              controversies4    
,rule as to the full moon after the     
vernal equinox4 ,hippolytus and his     
cycle3 the so-called                    
,cyprianic cycle2 ,dionysius of         
,alexandria4 ,anatolius4                
,the ,council of ,nicaea and the ,easter
 controversy4              ,later       
differences between the computations of 
,rome and              ,alexandria4     
,festal 7or ,paschal7 ,letters of the   
,bishops              of ,alexandria4   
,supputatio ,romana4 ,victorius of      
,aquitaine4 ,dionysius ,exiguus4 ,the   
,nineteen-year ,cycle4              ,the
 ,paschal ,limits4 ,the ,gregorian      
,reform4 ,the adoption              of  
the ,new ,style                         

#ajd           ,x4 ,,the ,,kalendar ,,of
 ,,the ,,orthodox ,,church ,,of ,,the   
,,east4 ,the              ,menologies4  
,i4 ,immoveable ,commemorations4 ,the   
twelve              great primary       
festivals2 the four great secondary     
festivals4 ,the middle class1 greater   
and lesser              festivals4 ,the 
minor festivals1 and subdivisions4      
,explanation of terms used in the ,greek
 ,kalendar4 ,,ii4              ,the     
,cycle of ,sundays1 or ,dominical       
,kalendar                #acc           
,,appendix   ,i4 ,the ,paschal ,question
 in the ,celtic ,churches          #adf 
,,appendix  ,,ii4 ,note on the          
,kalendars of the separated ,churches of
                      the ,east         
#adg        ,,appendix ,,iii4 ,note on  
the history of the ,kalendar of the     
,church                      of ,england
 since the ,reformation                 
#adi        ,,plates        #a4         
,,kalendar ,,of ,,the ,,peterborough    
,,psalter      to face ,title        #b4

 ,,the ,,syriac ,,martyrology           
0     p4 #ae        #c4 ,,kalendar ,,of 
,,the ,,worcester ,,book              0 
p4 #ic        #d4 ,,kalendar ,,of ,,the 
,,durham ,,psalter              0     p4
 #ii          ,,introduction      ,the  
,church's ,year1 as it has been known   
for many centuries throughout           
,christendom1 is characterised1 first1  
by the weekly festival of the  ,lord's  
,day 7a feature which dates from the    
dawn of the ,church's life  and the age 
of the ,apostles7 and1 secondly1 by the 
annual recurrence of  fasts and         
festivals1 of certain days and certain  
seasons of religious  observance4 ,these
 latter emerged1 and came to find places
 in the ,kalendar  at various periods4  
,in order of time the season of the     
,pascha1 the commemoration of the       
death1 and1 subsequently1 of the        
resurrection of the ,saviour1 is the    
first of the annual observances to      
appear in history4 ,again1 at an  early 
date local commemorations of the deaths 

of victims of the great  persecutions   
under the pagan ,emperors were observed 
yearly4 ,and some of  these 7notably    
those who suffered at ,rome7 gradually  
gained positions  in the ,church's ,year
 in regions remote from the places of   
their origin4  ,speaking generally1     
little as it might be thought probable  
beforehand1  it is a fact that martyrs  
of local celebrity emerge in the history
 of  the ,kalendar at an earlier date   
than any but the most eminent of the    
,apostles 7who were also martyrs71 and  
earlier than some of the festivals  of  
the ,lord ,himself4 ,the ,kalendar had  
its origin in the historical events  of 
the martyrdoms4    ,so far the growth of
 the ,kalendar was the outcome of       
natural and  spontaneous feeling4 ,but  
at a later time we have manifest        
indications of  artificial              
constructiveness1 the laboured studies  
of the cloister1 and  the work of       
professional martyrologists and         
,kalendar-makers4 ,to take1  for the    

purpose of illustration1 an extreme     
case1 it is obvious that the  assignment
 of days in the ,kalendar of the        
,eastern ,church to ,trophimus1         
,sosipater and ,erastus1 ,philemon and  
,archippus1 ,onesimus1 ,agabus1 ,rufus1 
,asyncretus1 ,phlegon1 ,hermas1 the     
woman of ,samaria 7to whom the name     
,photina was given71 and other persons  
whose names occur in the ,new           
,testament1 is the outcome of deliberate
 and elaborate constructiveness4  ,the  
same is true of the days of ,old        
,testament ,patriarchs and ,prophets1   
once1 in a measure1 a feature of        
,western1 as they are still of ,eastern 
,kalendars4 ,but even all the festivals 
of our ,lord1 save the ,pascha1  though 
doubtless suggested by a spontaneous    
feeling of reverence1 could  be assigned
 to particular days of the year only    
after some processes of  investigation  
and inference1 or of conjecture4        
,whether the birthday of  the ,founder  
of the ,christian religion should be    

placed on ,january #f or  on ,december  
#be was a matter of debate and argument4
 ,commentators on the  history of the   
,gospels1 the conjectures of            
interpreters of ,old ,testament         
prophecy1 and such information as might 
be fancied to be derivable from  ancient
 annals1 had of necessity to be         
considered4 ,the assignment of the      
feast of the ,nativity to a particular  
day was a product of the reflective  and
 constructive spirit4    ,it is not     
absolutely impossible that ancient      
tradition1 if not actual  record1 may be
 the source of ,june #bi being assigned 
for the martyrdom  of ,st ,peter and ,st
 ,paul2 but a more probable origin of   
the date is that  it marks the          
translation of relics4 ,certainly the   
days of most of the  ,apostles          
7considered as the days of their        
martyrdoms7 have little or no  support  
from sources that have any claim to be  
regarded as historical4  ,they find     
their places but gradually1 and1 it     

would seem1 as the result  of a resolve 
that none of them should be forgotten4  
,commemorations which mark the          
definition of a dogma1 or which         
originated  in the special emphasis     
given at some particular epoch to       
certain  aspects of popular belief and  
sentiment1 have all appeared at times   
well within the ken of the historical   
student4 ,thus1 #8,orthodoxy ,sunday'   
7the first ,sunday in ,lent7 in the     
,kalendar of the ,greek ,church is but  
little concerned with the controversies 
on the right faith which occupied  the  
great ,councils of the fourth and fifth 
centuries4 ,it commemorates  the triumph
 of the party that secured the use of   
images over the  iconoclasts2 this was  
the #8orthodoxy' which was chiefly      
celebrated2  and we can fix the date of 
the establishment of the festival as    
,a4,d4  #hdb4 ,again1 the commemoration 
of ,all ,souls in the ,west was the     
outcome  of a growing sense of the need 
of prayers and masses on behalf of the  

faithful departed4 ,the ninth century   
shows traces of the observance  of some 
such day2 but it was not till the close 
of the tenth century1  under the special
 impetus supplied by the reported       
visions of a pilgrim  from ,jerusalem1  
who declared that he had seen the       
tortures of the souls  suffering        
purgatorial fire1 that the observance   
made headway4 ,we then  find ,nov4 #b   
assigned for the festival1 which came to
 be gradually and  slowly adopted4 ,the 
feast of ,corpus ,christi1 which now    
figures so largely  in the popular      
devotions of several countries of       
,europe1 and is marked  as a #8double of
 the first class' in the service-books  
of the ,church of  ,rome1 emerges for   
the first time in the thirteenth        
century1 and was not  formally enjoined 
till the fourteenth4 ,the feast of the  
,conception of ,st  ,mary the ,virgin   
seems to have originated in the ,east1  
and to have been  simply a historical   
commemoration1 even as the ,greeks      

commemorate the  conception of ,st ,john
 the ,baptist4 ,the ,eastern tradition  
represents ,anna  as barren and well    
stricken in years1 when1 in answer to   
her prayers  and those of ,joachim her  
spouse1 ,god revealed to them by an     
angel that  they should have a child4   
,this conception was according to the   
,greek  ,menology #8contrary to the laws
 of nature1' like that of the ,baptist4 
,in the ,west the festival of the       
,conception appears at the end of the   
eleventh or beginning of the twelfth    
century4 ,the controversies as to its   
doctrinal significance form part of the 
history of dogma1 and are full  of      
instruction3 but they cannot be         
considered here4 ,up to the year #ahed  
the name of the festival in the         
,kalendars of the authorised            
service-books  of the ,roman ,church was
 simply ,conceptio ,b4 ,mariae          
,virginis4 ,it was as  recently as ,dec4
 #h1 #ahed1 by an ordinance of ,pope    
,pius ,,ix1 that the name  was changed  

into ,immaculata ,conceptio ,b4 ,mariae 
,virginis4 ,it will thus  be seen how   
changes in the ,kalendar illustrate the 
changes and accretions  of dogma1 facts 
which are further exhibited by the      
changes in the rank  and dignity of     
festivals of this kind1 at first only   
tolerated perhaps1  and of local usage1 
but eventually enjoined as of universal 
obligation1  and elevated in the order  
and grade of festal classification4     
,again1  the considerable number of     
festivals of the ,greek and ,russian    
,churches  connected with relics and    
wonder-working icons throws a light on  
the  intellectual standpoint and the    
current beliefs in these ancient        
branches  of the ,catholic ,church4     
,not less instructive in exhibiting the 
extraordinary growth in the  cultus of  
the ,blessed ,virgin in the ,west are   
the inferences which may  be gathered   
from a knowledge of the fact that no    
festival of the ,virgin  was celebrated 
in the ,church of ,rome before the      

seventh century1 when we  compare the   
crowd of festivals1 major and minor1    
devoted to the ,virgin in  the ,roman   
,kalendar of to-day4 ,but considerations
 of this kind are only  incidentally    
touched on in the following pages2 and  
they are referred to  here simply with a
 view to show that the study of the     
,kalendar is not an  enquiry interesting
 merely to dry-as-dust antiquaries1 but 
one which  is intimately connected with 
the study of the history of belief1 and 
is  inwoven with far-reaching issues4   
,in the enquiry into the origins of     
ecclesiastical observances the          
discovery within recent years of early  
documents1 hitherto unknown in  modern  
days1 enforces the obvious thought that 
our conceptions on such  subjects must  
be liable to re-adjustment from time to 
time in the light  of new evidence4     
,until the day comes1 if it ever comes1 
when it can be  said with truth that the
 materials supplied by the early        
manuscripts  of the ,east and ,west have

 been exhausted1 there can be no        
finality4  ,the document discovered some
 ten or twelve years ago1 in which a    
lady  from ,gaul or ,spain1 who had gone
 on pilgrimage to the ,east1 records her
  impressions of religious observances  
which she had witnessed at ,jerusalem   
towards the close of the fourth century1
 has furnished some important  light on 
the subject before us1 as well as on the
 history of ceremonial4  ,in the        
following pages this document is        
referred to as the ,pilgrimage  of      
,silvia 7#8,peregrinatio ,silviae'71    
without prejudice to the question       
relating to the true name of the writer4
 ,the period when the work was  written 
is the important question for our       
purposes2 and those who are  most       
competent to express an opinion consider
 that it belongs to the time  of        
,theodosius the ,great1 and to a date   
between the years #chc and #cid4    ,the
 influence of the early mediaeval       
martyrologists1 ,bede1 ,florus1  ,ado1  

and ,usuard1 upon the mediaeval         
,kalendars1 is unquestionable2 but  the 
relations of their works to one another1
 the variations of the  different       
recensions and the sources from which   
they were drawn1 are  still subjects of 
investigation4 ,in addition to the brief
 notices of the  martyrologists which   
will be found in the following pages1   
the enquirer  who desires further       
information should not fail to study    
with care the  recent treatise of ,dom  
,henri ,quentin1 of ,solesmes1 ,les     
,martyrologes  historiques4    ,of      
necessity a general outline sketch of   
the formation of the ,kalendar  is all  
that can be attempted in the following  
pages4 ,local ,kalendars1  more         
especially1 for most of our readers1    
those of the service-books of  ,england1
 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 present many  
interesting and attractive  features2   
but it has been impossible to deal with 
them in an adequate  manner4 ,some space
 has1 however1 been devoted to the      

consideration of  the ,kalendar and     
,ecclesiastical ,year of the ,orthodox  
,church of the ,east1  including the    
peculiar arrangement of the grouping of 
,sundays2 and brief  notices are given  
of the fasts and festivals of some of   
the separated  ,churches of the ,east4  
,the questions concerning the           
determination of ,easter will form the  
main  trial of the patience of the      
student4    ,the early controversies on 
the ,paschal question are not free from 
obscurity2 and the interests attaching  
to the construction of the various      
systems of cycles1 intended to form a   
perpetual table for the unerring        
determination of the date of ,easter1   
are mainly the interests which  are     
awakened by the history of human        
ingenuity grappling more or less        
successfully with a problem which called
 for astronomical knowledge and         
mathematical skill4 ,religious interests
 are not touched even remotely4         
,profound as are the thoughts and       

emotions which cluster around the       
commemoration of the ,lord's            
,resurrection1 they are quite           
independent of  any considerations      
connected with the age of the moon and  
the date of the  vernal equinox4 ,the   
scheme for a time seriously entertained 
by ,gregory  ,,xiii of making the       
celebration of ,easter to fall on a     
fixed ,sunday1  the same in every year1 
has much to commend it4 ,had it been    
adopted we  should1 at all events1 have 
been spared many practical              
inconveniences1  and the ecclesiastical 
computists would have been saved a vast 
amount of  labour4 ,but we must take    
things as they are4    ,if anyone       
contends that the safest #8,rule for    
finding ,easter' is #8,buy  a penny     
almanack1' ,i give in a ready assent4   
,it has in principle high               
ecclesiastical precedent2 for it was    
exactly the same reasonable plan of     
accepting the determinations of those   
whom one has good reason to think       

competent authorities1 which in ancient 
times made the ,christian world  await  
the pronouncements as to the date of    
,easter which came year by  year from   
the ,patriarchs of ,alexandria in their 
,paschal ,epistles3 while  for the date 
of ,easter in any particular year in the
 distant past1 or  in the future1 there 
are few who will not prefer the ,tables 
supplied in  such works as ,l',art de   
vrifier les ,dates1 or ,mas ,latrie's   
,trsor de  ,chronologie1 to any         
calculations of their own1 based on the 
,golden  ,numbers and ,sunday           
,letters#a4 ,in the present volume the  
limits of space  forbid any detailed    
discussion of the principles involved   
and the methods  employed in the        
determination of ,easter by the         
computists both ancient  and modern4 ,a 
brief historical sketch of the          
successive reforms of the  ,kalendar is 
all that has been found possible4 ,those
 who seek for fuller  information can   
resort to the treatises mentioned above 

or in the course  of the volume4 ,the   
chapter on ,easter has for convenience  
been placed near  the conclusion of this
 volume4    ,in dealing with both       
,eastern and ,western ,kalendars the    
student will bear  in mind that only    
comparatively few of the festivals      
affected the life  of the great body of 
the faithful4 ,a very large number of   
festivals were  marked in the services  
of the ,church by certain liturgical    
changes or  additions4 ,many of them had
 their special propria2 others were     
grouped  in classes2 and each class had 
its own special liturgical features4    
,only  comparatively few made themselves
 felt outside the walls of the churches4
  ,some of them carried a cessation from
 servile labour1 or caused the  closing 
of the law courts1 or1 as chiefly in the
 ,greek ,church1 mitigated  in various  
degrees 7according to the dignity of the
 festival7 the rigour  of fasting4 ,the 
distinction between festa chori and     
festa fori is  always worthy of         

observation4 ,a relic of the distinction
 is preserved in  an expression of      
common currency in ,france1 when one    
speaks of a person  as of insignificant 
importance1 ,c'est un saint qu'on ne    
chme pas4    ,although the general scope
 of the following pages is wide in      
intention1  the origins of the ,kalendar
 and the rise of the principal seasons  
and days of observance have chiefly     
attracted the interest of the  writer4  
,later developments are not wholly      
neglected1 but they occupy a            
subordinate place4    ,the enactments of
 civil legislation under the ,christian 
,emperors and  other rulers1 in respect 
to the observance of ,sunday and other  
,christian  holy days1 is an interesting
 field of study2 but it has been        
impossible  to enter upon it here in    
view of the limits of space at our      
disposal4    ,the study of ,kalendars   
brings one into constant contact with   
hagiology1  the acts of martyrs1 and the
 lives of saints4 ,it would however have

 been  obviously vain to deal seriously 
in the present volume with so vast a    
subject1 even in broadest outline4    ,a
 short ,bibliography of some important  
or serviceable works dealing with       
various branches of the subject before  
us is prefixed4          ,a ,,short     
,,bibliography      ,,achelis1 ,h4 ,die 
,martyrologien1 ihre ,geschichte und ihr
 ,werth4 7,berlin1  #aijj47    ,,acta   
,,sanctorvm4 ,of the ,bollandists4 ,this
 vast collection1 of which  the first   
volume appeared in #afdc1 had attained  
by the middle of the  nineteenth        
century1 after various interruptions in 
the labours of the  compilers1 to #ee   
volumes1 folio1 and the work is still in
 process1  having now reached the early 
days of ,november4 ,various ,kalendars  
and ,martyrologies have been printed in 
the work4 ,the ,martyrology of          
,venerable ,bede1 with the additions of 
,florus and others1 will be found  in   
the second volume for ,march2 the       
metrical ,ephemerides of the ,greeks    

and ,russians in the first volume for   
,may2 ,usuard's ,martyrology in the     
sixth and seventh volumes for ,june1 and
 also an abbreviated form of  the       
,hieronymian4 ,the second volume for    
,november contains the ,syriac          
,martyrology of ,dr ,wright edited      
afresh by ,r4 ,graffin with a           
translation  into ,greek by ,duchesne4  
,the same volume contains the           
,hieronymian  ,martyrology edited by ,de
 ,rossi and ,duchesne4    ,,assemanus1  
,,josephus ,,simon4 ,kalendaria         
,ecclesiae ,universae1 in quibus tum  ex
 vetustis marmoribus1 tum ex codicibus1 
tabulis1 parietinis1 pictis1  scriptis  
scalptisve ,sanctorum nomina1 imagines1 
et festi per annum dies  ,ecclesiarum   
,orientis et ,occidentis1 praemissis    
uniuscujusque ,ecclesiae  originibus1   
recensentur1 describuntur1 notisque     
illustrantur4 #dto1 #f  tom4 ,romae1    
#agee4 ,the title raises hopes which are
 not verified4 ,this  work of the       
learned ,syrian1 who for his services to

 sacred erudition was  made ,prefect of 
the ,library of the ,vatican1 was       
planned on a colossal  scale1 but it was
 never completed1 and indeed we may     
truly say only  begun4 ,the six volumes 
which alone remain are wholly concerned 
with the  ,slavonic ,church4 ,the first 
four volumes1 together with a large part
 of  the fifth1 are devoted mainly to   
the history of ,slavonic ,christianity4 
,the concluding part of the fifth and   
the whole of the sixth volume deal  with
 a ,russian ,kalendar1 commencing the   
year1 as in the ,greek ,church1  with #a
 ,september4 ,this is treated very      
fully1 but the work ends here4          
,,baillet1 ,,adrien4 ,les ,vies des     
,saints4 #bnd ,ed4 #aj vols4 #dto4      
#agci4 ,the  ninth volume on the        
moveable feasts abounds in valuable     
information2 and1  generally1 this work 
may be consulted on the history of the  
festivals  with much profit4            
,,bingham1 ,,joseph4 ,origines          
,ecclesiasticae1 or the ,antiquities of 

the  ,christian ,church1 etc4 ,of the   
numerous editions of this important     
work1 which has been by no means        
superseded1 the most serviceable is the 
edition to be found in ,bingham's       
,works1 #i vols4 #hvo4 7#ahdj7 #8with   
the  quotations at length in the        
original languages4' ,the editor is ,j4 
,r4  ,pitman4 ,volume #g contains most  
of what is pertinent to the antiquities 
of  the feasts and fasts of the early   
,church4    ,,binterim1 ,a4 ,j4 ,die    
vorzglichsten ,denkwrdigkeiten der      
,christ-,kathol4  ,kirche4 ,vol4 ,v4    
7,mainz1 #ahbi47    ,,cabrol1 ,,fernand4
 ,dictionnaire d'archologie chrtienne et
 de liturgie4  ,paris1 #aijg 7in process
 of publication74    ,d',,achery1       
,,lucas4 ,spicilegium4 ,tom4 ,,ii4 fol4 
,paris1 #agbc4 ,this contains  the      
,hieronymian ,martyrology2 the metrical 
,martyrology attributed to ,bede2  the  
,martyrology known as ,gellonense 7from 
the monastery at ,gellone1  on the      
borders of the diocese of ,lodve in the 

province of ,narbonne71  assigned to    
about ,a4,d4 #hjd2 the metrical         
,martyrology of ,wandalbert the  deacon1
 of the diocese of ,trves1 about ,a4,d4 
#hej2 and an old ,kalendar  7,a4,d4     
#hbf7 from a manuscript of ,corbie4     
,,duchesne1 ,l4 ,origines du ,culte     
chrtien4 #crd ,ed4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #aijb4 
,there is an ,english translation by ,m4
 ,l4 ,mc,clure1 ,london 7,s4,p4,c4,k471 
#aijc4 ,the merits of ,duchesne are so  
generally recognised that it is         
unnecessary to speak of them here4      
,,grotefend1 ,h4 ,zeitrechnung des      
deutschen ,mittelalters und der         
,neuzeit4  #dto4 #b vols4 ,hanover1     
#ahia1 #ahib-h4 ,besides exhibiting in  
full a large  collection of ,kalendars  
of ,dioceses and ,monastic ,orders1 not 
only of  ,germany1 but also of ,denmark1
 ,scandinavia1 and ,switzerland1 this   
work  contains an index of ,saints      
marking their days in various           
,kalendars1  including certain          
,kalendars of ,england4 ,there is also a

 ,glossary1  explaining both technical  
terms and the words of popular speech   
and  folk-lore in connexion with days   
and seasons4    ,,hampson1 ,r4 ,t4      
,medii vi ,kalendarium1 or dates1       
charters1 and customs  of the middle    
ages1 with ,kalendars from the tenth to 
the fifteenth  century2 and an          
alphabetical digest of obsolete names of
 days3 forming  a ,glossary of the dates
 of the middle ages1 with ,tables and   
other aids  for ascertaining dates4     
#hvo4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,the     
first volume is  mainly occupied with   
#8popular customs and superstitions'2   
but it also  contains reprints of       
various ,anglo-,saxon and early ,english
 ,kalendars4  ,the second volume is     
given over wholly to a useful1 though   
occasionally  somewhat uncritical       
glossary4    ,,hospinian1 ,,rudolph4    
,festa ,christianorum1 hoc est1 ,de     
origine1 progressu1  ceremoniis et      
ritibus festorum dierum ,christianorum  
,liber unus 7folio74  ,tiguri1 #aeic4   

,this is a work of considerable learning
 for its day1  written from the         
standpoint of a ,swiss ,protestant4 ,a  
second edition1  in which replies are   
made to the criticisms of ,cardinal     
,bellarmine and  ,gretser1 appeared1    
also at ,zurich1 and in folio1 in #afab4
    ,,ideler1 ,,ludwig4 ,handbuch der   
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie4 #hvo4 #b vols4 ,berlin1   
#ahbe-bf4 ,ideler was ,royal ,astronomer
  and ,professor in the ,university of  
,berlin4 ,his discussion of the ,easter 
cycles cannot be dispensed with4 ,this  
and his account of the computation  of  
time in the ,christian ,church will be  
found in ,vol4 #b 7pp4 #age-dgj74  ,the 
,gregorian reform is well dealt with4   
,,kellner1 ,k4 ,a4 ,,heinrich4          
,heortology3 a history of the ,christian
  ,festivals from their origin to the   
present day4 ,translated from the       
second ,german edition4 #hvo4 ,london1  
#aijh4 ,dr ,kellner is ,professor of    
,catholic ,theology in the ,university  

of ,bonn4 ,an interesting and useful    
volume1 though occasionally exhibiting1 
as is not unnatural1 marked             
ecclesiastical predilections4 ,it       
contains prefixed a useful bibliography4
    ,,lietzmann1 ,h4 ,die drei ltesten  
,martyrologien4 ,e4 tr4 #hvo4           
,cambridge1  #aijd4 ,this little        
pamphlet of #af pages exhibits          
conveniently the  texts of 7#a7 what is 
variously known as the ,bucherian1 or   
,liberian1  or ,philocalian             
,martyrology1 7#b7 ,the ,martyrology of 
,carthage1 and 7#c7  ,wright's ,syrian  
,martyrology4    ,,maclean1 ,,arthur    
,,john 7,bishop of ,moray74 ,the article
 #8,calendar1  the ,christian' in       
,hastings' ,dictionary of ,christ and   
the ,gospels  admirable1 generally1 for 
the early period4    ,,maclean1 ,,arthur
 ,,john 7,bishop of ,moray74 ,east      
,syrian ,daily ,offices4  ,london1      
#hvo41 #ahid4 ,an appendix deals with   
the ,kalendar of the modern  ,nestorians
 7,assyrian ,christians74    ,,neale1   

,,john ,,mason4 ,a ,history of the ,holy
 ,eastern ,church4 ,general             
,introduction4 ,london1 #hvo41 #ahej4   
,vol4 ,,ii4 gives information at        
considerable length on the ,kalendars of
 the ,byzantine1 ,russian1 ,armenian1   
and ,ethiopic ,churches4    ,,nilles1   
,,nicolaus4 ,kalendarium ,manuale       
utriusque ,ecclesiae ,orientalis et     
,occidentalis1 academiis clericorum     
accommodatum4 #b tom4 #hvo4 ,oeniponte1 
#ahif1 #ahig4 ,n4 ,nilles1 ,s4,j41      
,professor in the ,university of        
,innsbruck1  deals mainly in these      
volumes with the ecclesiastical year in 
,eastern  ,churches4    ,,quentin1      
,,henri4 ,les ,martyrologes historiques 
du moyen age1 tude sur la  formation du 
,martyrologe romain4 #hvo4 ,paris1      
#aijg4    ,,saxony1 ,,maximilian1       
,,prince ,,of4 ,praelectiones de        
,liturgiis ,orientalibus4  ,tom4 ,i4    
#hvo4 ,friburgi ,brisgoviae1 #aijh4     
,this volume is mainly concerned  with  
the ,kalendars and ,liturgical ,year of 

the ,greek and ,slavonic  ,churches4 ,it
 is lucid and interesting4    ,,seabury1
 ,,samuel1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,theory and ,use 
of the ,church ,calendar in the         
measurement and distribution of ,time2  
being an account of the origin and  use 
of the ,calendar2 of its reformation    
from the ,old to the ,new ,style2  and  
of its adaptation to the use of the     
,english ,church by the ,british        
,parliament under ,george ,,ii4 #hvo4   
,new ,york1 #ahgb4 ,excellent on the    
restricted subject with which it deals4 
,it does not deal with ,christian       
,festivals beyond the question of the   
determination of ,easter1 but is        
largely concerned with matters of       
technical chronology1 the ancient       
cycles1 golden numbers1 epacts1 etc4    
,,smith1 ,,william1 ,,and ,,cheetham1   
,,samuel4 ,a ,dictionary of ,christian  
,antiquities4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahge1  
#ahhj4 ,the articles contributed by     
various scholars1 as was inevitable1    
vary much in merit4 ,those on the       

festivals by the ,rev4 ,robert ,sinker  
are particularly valuable4 ,this work   
is cited in the following pages as ,d4  
,c4 ,a4    ,,wordsworth1 ,,john1 ,bishop
 of ,salisbury4 ,the ,ministry of       
,grace4 ,london1  #hvo41 #aija4 ,this   
learned work1 under a not very          
illuminative title1  discusses1 inter   
alia1 with a thorough knowledge of the  
best and most  recent literature of the 
subject1 the development of the         
,church's fasts  and festivals4 ,it     
stands pre-eminent among ,english works 
dealing with the  subject4    ,,gasquet1
 ,,abbot1 ,,and ,,bishop1 ,,edmund4 ,the
 ,bosworth ,psalter4 ,london1  #aijh4   
,contains valuable information about    
some ,mediaeval ,kalendars1 with        
discussions of them4 ,edd4              
,,chapter ,i    ,,the ,,week      ,the  
,church of ,christ1 founded in ,judaea  
by ,him who1 after the flesh1 was  of   
the family of ,david1 and advanced and  
guided in its earlier years by  leaders 
of ,jewish descent1 could not fail to   

bear traces of its ,hebrew  origin4 ,the
 attitude and trend of minds that had   
been long familiar with  the religious  
polity of the ,hebrews1 and with the    
worship of the ,temple  and the         
,synagogue1 showed themselves in the    
institutions and worship of  the early  
,church4 ,this truth is observable to   
some extent in the ,church's  polity and
 scheme of government1 and even more    
clearly in the methods  and forms of its
 liturgical worship4 ,it is not then to 
be wondered at  that the same influences
 were at work in the ordering of the    
times and  seasons1 the fasts and       
festivals1 of the ,church's year4       
,the ,week and the ,lord's ,day4        
,most potent in affecting the whole     
daily life of ,christendom in all ages  
was the passing on from ,judaism of the 
,week of seven days4 ,inwoven1 as  it   
is1 with the history of our lives1 and  
taken very much as matter of  course1 as
 if it were something like a law of     
nature1 the dominating  influence and   

far reaching effects of this seven-day  
division of time are  seldom fully      
realised4    ,the ,week1 known in the   
,roman world at the time of our ,lord   
only in  connexion with the obscure     
speculations of ,eastern astrology1 or  
as  a feature1 in its ,sabbath1 of the  
lives of the widely-spread ,jewish      
settlers in the great cities of the     
,empire1 had been from remote times     
accepted among various oriental peoples4
 ,it would be outside our province  to  
enquire into its origin1 though much can
 be said in favour of the view  that it 
took its rise out of a rough division   
into four of the lunar  month4 ,but1 so 
far as ,christianity is concerned1 it is
 enough to know  that it was beyond all 
doubt taken over from the religion of   
the ,hebrews4    ,it is not improbable  
that at the outset some of the          
,christian converts  from ,judaism may  
have continued to observe the ,jewish   
,sabbath1 the  seventh or last day of   
the week3 and that attempts were made to

 fasten  its obligations upon ,gentile  
converts is evident from ,st ,paul's    
,epistle  to the ,colossians 7ii4 #af74 
,but it is certain that at an early date
  among ,christians the first day of the
 week was marked by special  religious  
observances4 ,the testimony of the ,acts
 of the ,apostles and the  ,epistles of 
,st ,paul shows us the first day of the 
week as a time for  the assembling of   
,christians for instruction and for     
worship1 when #8the  breaking of bread' 
formed part of the service1 and when    
offerings for  charitable and religious 
purposes might be laid up in store#b4   
,the name  #8the ,lord's day1' applied  
to the first day of the week1 may       
probably be  traced to ,new ,testament  
times4 ,the occurrence of the expression
 in the  ,revelation of ,st ,john 7i4   
#aj7 has been commonly regarded as a    
testimony  to this application#c4    ,in
 the ,epistle of ,barnabas 7tentatively 
assigned by ,bishop ,lightfoot to       
between ,a4,d4 #gj and #gi1 and by      

others to about ,a4,d4 #acj-aca7 we find
 the  passage 7c4 #ae71 #8,we keep the  
eighth day for rejoicing1 in the which  
also  ,jesus rose from the dead4' ,the  
date of the ,teaching of the ,apostles  
is  still reckoned by some scholars as  
sub judice4 ,but1 if it is rightly      
assigned to the first century1 its      
testimony may be cited here4 ,in it is  
the following passage3--#8,on the       
,lord's own day 7   7  gather yourselves
 together and break bread1 and give     
thanks1 first  confessing your          
transgressions1 that your sacrifice may 
be pure' 7c4 #ad74    ,the next         
evidence1 in point of time1 is a passage
 in the ,epistle of  ,ignatius to the   
,magnesians 7cc4 #h1 #i1 #aj71 in which 
the writer dissuades  those to whom he  
wrote from observing sabbaths 7 7  and  
urges them to live #8according to the   
,lord's day 7 7 on  which our life also 
rose through ,him4' ,it is impossible to
 suppose  that in early times the       
,lord's day was held to be a day of     

rest4 ,the  work of the servant and     
labouring class had to be done2 and it  
has been  reasonably conjectured that   
the assemblies of ,christians before    
dawn  were to meet the necessities of   
the situation4 ,lastly1 the passage from
  the ,apology of ,justin ,martyr 7,ap4 
i4 #fg7 is too well known to be  cited  
in full4 ,he describes to the ,emperor  
the character and procedure  of the     
,christian assemblies on #8the day of   
the sun1' which we know from  other     
sources to have been the first day of   
the week4 ,writings of the  ,apostles or
 of the ,prophets were read3 the        
,president of the assembly  instructed  
and exhorted3 bread1 and wine and water 
were consecrated and  distributed to    
those present and sent by the ,deacons  
to the absent3  alms were collected and 
deposited with the ,president for the   
relief of  widows and orphans1 the sick 
and the poor1 prisoners and strangers4  
,later  than ,justin we need not go1 as 
the evidence from all quarters pours in 

abundantly to establish the universal   
observance of #8the first day of the    
week1' #8,sunday1' #8the ,lord's day1'  
as a day for worship and religious      
instruction#d4      ,the ,sabbath       
7,saturday74    ,lack of positive       
evidence prevents us from speaking with 
any certainty  as to whether there was  
among ,christians any recognised and    
approved  observance of ,saturday 7the  
,sabbath7 in the first1 second and third
  centuries4 ,there is no hint of such  
observance in early ,christian          
literature2 and there are passages which
 rather go to discountenance the        
notion#e4    ,duchesne1 whose opinion   
deservedly carries much weight1 comes to
 the  conclusion that the observance of 
,saturday in the fourth century was not 
a survival of an attempt of primitive   
times to effect a conciliation  between 
,jewish and ,christian practices1 but an
 institution of  comparatively late     
date#f4 ,certainly one cannot speak     
confidently of the  existence of        

,saturday as a day of religious         
observance among ,christians  before the
 fourth century4    ,epiphanius#g1 in   
the second half of the fourth century1  
speaks of  synaxes being held in some   
places on the ,sabbath2 from which it   
may  probably be inferred that it was   
not so in his time in ,cyprus4    ,in   
the ,canons of the ,council of ,laodicea
 7which can hardly be placed  earlier   
than about the middle of the fourth     
century1 and is probably  later7 we find
 it enjoined that #8on the ,sabbath the 
,gospels with other  ,scriptures shall  
be read' 7#af72 that #8in ,lent bread   
ought not to be  offered1 save only on  
the ,sabbath and the ,lord's day' 7#di72
 and that #8in  ,lent the feasts of     
martyrs should not be kept1 but that a  
commemoration  of the holy martyrs      
should be made on ,sabbaths and ,lord's 
days' 7#ej74  ,yet it was forbidden #8to
 ,judaize and be idle on the ,sabbath1' 
while1  #8if they can1' ,christians are 
directed to rest on the ,lord's day4    

,the  ,apostolic ,constitutions go      
further2 and1 under the names of ,st    
,peter  and ,st ,paul1 it is enjoined   
that servants should work only five days
  in the week1 and be free from labour  
on the ,sabbath and the ,lord's day     
#8with a view to the teaching of        
godliness' 7viii4 #cc74 ,uncertain as   
are  the date and origin of the         
,constitutions they may be regarded as  
in  some measure reflecting the general 
sentiment in the ,east in the fifth1  or
 possibly the close of the fourth       
century#h4 ,from these testimonies  it  
appears that the ,sabbath was a day of  
special religious observance1  and that 
in the ,east it partook of a festal     
character4 ,falling in  with this way of
 regarding ,saturday we find ,canon #fd 
of the so-called  ,apostolic ,canons 7of
 uncertain date1 but possibly early in  
the fifth  century#i7 declaring1 #8,if  
any cleric be found fasting on the      
,lord's  day1 or on the ,sabbath1 except
 one only that is1 doubtless 8the ,great

  ,sabbath10 or ,easter ,eve1 let him be
 deprived1 and1 if he be a layman1  let 
him be segregated#aj4' ,the ,apostolic  
,constitutions emphasise the  position  
of the ,sabbath by the exhortation that 
,christians should #8gather  together   
especially on the ,sabbath1 and on the  
,lord's day1 the day of the             
,resurrection' 7ii4 #ei72 and again1    
#8,keep the ,sabbath and the ,lord's day
  as feasts1 for the one is the         
commemoration of the ,creation1 the     
other  of the ,resurrection' 7vii4 #bc74
 ,we find also that one of the canons of
  ,laodicea referred to above is in     
substance re-enacted at a much later    
date by the ,council in ,trullo 7,a4,d4 
#fib7 in this form1 that except on the  
,sabbath1 the ,lord's day1 and the      
,feast of the ,annunciation1 the        
,liturgy  of the ,pre-sanctified should 
be said on all days in ,lent 7c4 #eb74  
,in the city of ,alexandria in the time 
of the historian ,socrates the          
,eucharist was not celebrated on        

,saturday2 but other parts of ,egypt    
followed the general practice of the    
,east4 ,socrates says that ,rome agreed 
with ,alexandria in this respect#aa4    
,it is certain that very commonly1      
though not universally1 in the ,east    
the ,sabbath was regarded as possessing 
the features of a weekly festival  7with
 a eucharistic celebration7 second in   
importance only to the ,lord's  day4    
,and ,gregory of ,nyssa says1 #8,if thou
 hast despised the ,sabbath1 with  what 
face wilt thou dare to behold the       
,lord's day4444 ,they are sister  days' 
7de ,castigatione1 ,migne1 ,p4,g4 xlvi4 
#cji74    ,in the ,west we find also    
that the ,sabbath was a day of special  
religious  observance2 but there was a  
variety of local usage in regard to the 
mode of its observance4 ,at ,rome the   
,sabbath was a fast-day in the time  of 
,st ,augustine#ab2 and the same is true 
of some other places2 but the  majority 
of the ,western ,churches1 like the     
,east1 did not so regard it4  ,in ,north

 ,africa there was a variety of         
practice1 some places observed  the day 
as a fast1 others as a feast4 ,at ,milan
 the day was not treated as  a fast2 and
 ,st ,ambrose1 in reply to a question   
put by ,augustine at the  instance of   
his mother ,monnica1 stated that he     
regarded the matter as one  of local    
discipline1 and gave the sensible rule  
to do in such matters at  ,rome as the  
,romans do#ac4 ,in the early part of the
 fourth century the  ,spanish ,council  
of ,elvira corrected the error that     
every ,sabbath should  be observed as a 
fast#ad4    ,as to the origin of the    
,saturday fast we are left almost wholly
 to  conjecture4 ,it has been supposed  
by some to be an exhibition of          
antagonism to ,judaism1 which regarded  
the ,sabbath as a festival2 while       
others consider that it is a            
continuation of the ,friday fast1 as a  
kind  of preparatory vigil of the       
,lord's day4 ,it is outside our scope to
 go  into this question4    ,a relic of 

the ancient position of distinction     
occupied by ,saturday may  perhaps be   
found in the persistence of the name    
#8,sabbatum' in the ,western            
service-books4 ,abstinence 7from flesh7 
continued1 #8de mandate ecclesiae1'  on 
,saturdays in the ,roman ,church4 ,for  
,roman ,catholics in ,england it  ceased
 in #ahcj by authority of ,pope ,pius   
,,viii4        ,this seems a convenient 
place for saying something as to        
the use of the word ,feria in           
ecclesiastical language to              
designate an ordinary week-day4 ,the    
names most commonly      given to the   
days of the week in the service-books   
and other      ecclesiastical records   
are #8,dies ,dominica' 7rarely          
#8,dominicus'7      for the ,lord's     
,day1 or ,sunday2 #8,feria ,,ii' for    
,monday2 #8,feria      ,,iii' for       
,tuesday1 and so on to ,saturday which  
7with rare      exceptions7 is not      
,feria ,,vii but #8,sabbatum4'          
,why the ordinary week-day is called    

#8,feria1' when in classical      ,latin
 #8feriae' was used for #8days of rest1'
 #8holidays1'      #8festivals1' is a   
question that cannot be answered with   
any confidence4 ,a conjecture which     
seems open to various      objections1  
though it has found supporters1 is as   
follows3 all      the days of ,easter   
week were holidays1 #8feriatae'2 and1   
this      being the first week of the   
ecclesiastical year1 the other          
weeks followed the mode of naming the   
days which had been used      in regard 
to the first week4 ,a fatal objection to
 this theory1      for which the        
authority of ,st ,jerome has been       
claimed1 is      that we find #8feria'  
used1 as in ,tertullian1 for an ordinary
      week-day long before we have any  
reason to think that there was      any 
ordinance for the observance of the     
whole of ,easter week by      a         
cessation from labour#ae4               
,another conjecture1 presented however  
with too much confidence1      is that  

put forward on the authority of ,isidore
 of ,seville#af      by the learned     
,henri de ,valois 7,valesius74 ,he      
alleges that the      ancient           
,christians1 receiving1 as they did1 the
 week of seven      days from the ,jews1
 imitated the ,jewish practice1 which   
used      the expression #8the second of
 the ,sabbath1' #8the third of the      
,sabbath1' and so on for the days of the
 week3 that #8,feria'      means a day  
of rest1 in effect the same as          
#8,sabbath1' and that      in this way  
the #8second ,feria' and #8third        
,feria1' etc41 came to      be used for 
the second and third days of the        
week#ag4        ,the astrological names 
for the days of the week1 as of the     
,sun1      of the ,moon1 of ,mars1 of   
,mercury1 etc41 were generally avoided  
by ,christians2 but they are not wholly 
unknown in ,christian      writers1 and 
sometimes appear even in ,christian     
epitaphs4        ,in the ecclesiastical 
records of the ,greeks the first day of 

the week is #8the ,lord's day'2 and the 
seventh1 the ,sabbath1      as in the   
,west4 ,but ,friday is ,parasceve 771 a 
name which in the ,latin ,church is     
confined to one ,friday in      the     
year1 the ,friday of the ,lord's        
,passion1 which day in the      ,eastern
 ,church is known as #8the ,great       
,parasceve4' ,with these      exceptions
 the days of the week are #8the second1'
 #8the third1'      #8the fourth1' etc41
 the word #8day' being understood4      
,it is worth recording that among the   
,portuguese the current      names for  
the week-days are3 segunda feira1 tera  
feira1      etc4      ,wednesday and    
,friday4    ,long prior to any clear    
evidence for the special observance     
among  ,christians of the last day of   
the week we find testimonies to a       
religious  character attaching to the   
fourth and sixth days4    ,the devout   
,jews were accustomed to observe a fast 
twice a week1 on the  second and fifth  
days1 ,monday and ,thursday#ah2 and     

these days1 together  with the          
,christian fasts substituted for them1  
are referred to in the  ,teaching of the
 ,apostles 7#h71 #8,let not your        
fastings be with the  hypocrites1 for   
they fast on the second and fifth day of
 the week2 but  do ye keep your fast on 
the fourth and parasceve 7the sixth74'  
,in the  ,shepherd of ,hermas we find   
the writer relating that he was fasting 
and  holding a station#ai4 ,and this    
peculiar term is applied by ,tertullian 
to fasts 7whether partial or entire we  
need not here discuss7 observed on  the 
fourth and sixth days of the week#bj4   
,clement of ,alexandria1 though  not    
using the word station1 speaks of fasts 
being held on the fourth  day of the    
week and on the parasceve#ba4    ,at a  
much later date than the authorities    
cited above we find the  ,apostolic     
,canons decreeing under severe penalties
 that1 unless for  reasons of bodily    
infirmity1 not only the clergy but the  
laity must fast  on the fourth day of   

the week and on the sixth 7parasceve74  
,and the  rule of fasting on ,wednesdays
 and ,fridays still obtains in the      
,eastern  ,church#bb4    ,these two days
 were marked by the assembling of       
,christians for  worship4 ,but the      
character of the service was not        
everywhere the same4  ,duchesne#bc has  
exhibited the facts thus3 ,in ,africa in
 the time of  ,tertullian the ,eucharist
 was celebrated1 and it was so at       
,jerusalem  towards the close of the    
fourth century4 ,in the ,church of      
,alexandria the  ,eucharist was not     
celebrated on these days2 but the       
,scriptures were read  and interpreted4 
,and in this matter1 as in many others1 
the ,church at  ,rome probably agreed   
with ,alexandria4 ,it is certain1 at    
least as regards  ,friday1 that the     
mysteries were not publicly celebrated  
on these days at  ,rome about the       
beginning of the fifth century4 ,the    
observance of ,friday  as a day of      
abstinence is still of obligation in the

 ,west4          ,,chapter ,,ii         
,,days ,,of ,,the ,,martyrs      ,we now
 pass from features of every week to    
days and seasons of yearly  occurrence4 
,in point of time the celebrations      
connected with the ,pascha are the      
earliest to emerge of sacred days       
observed annually by the whole ,church4 
,but for reasons of convenience it has  
been thought better to defer  the       
consideration of the difficult questions
 relating to the ,easter  controversies 
till the origin of the days of ,martyrs 
and ,saints has been  dealt with4       
,the ,kalendar in some of its later     
stages exhibits a highly artificial     
elaboration4 ,but in its beginnings it  
was1 to a large extent1 the outcome  of 
a natural and spontaneous feeling which 
could not fail to remember in  various  
localities the cruel deaths of men and  
women who had suffered  for the ,faith  
with courage and constancy in such      
places1 or their  neighbourhoods4 ,the  
origins of the ,kalendar show in various

 churches1  widely separated1 the       
natural desire to commemorate their own 
local  martyrs on the days on which they
 had actually suffered4    ,as regards  
the order of time there is ample reason 
to convince us that  the commemorations 
of martyrs were features of ,church life
 much earlier  than those of ,st ,mary  
the ,virgin1 of most of the ,apostles1  
and even of  many of the festivals of   
the ,lord ,himself4    ,the marks of    
antiquity that characterise generally   
the older ,kalendars  and ,martyrologies
 are 7#a7 the comparative paucity of    
entries1 7#b7 the  fewness of festivals 
of the ,virgin1 7#c7 the fewness of     
saints who were  not martyrs1 7#d7 the  
absence of the title #8saint1' and 7#e7 
the absence of  feasts in ,lent4        
,again1 the local character of the      
observance of the days of martyrs is  a 
marked feature of the earlier records   
which illustrate the subject4  ,now and 
then the name of some martyr of         
pre-eminent distinction in other  lands 

finds its way into the lists2 but it    
remains generally true that  in each    
place the martyrs and saints of that    
place and its neighbourhood  form the   
great body of those commemorated4 ,and  
in addition to the  natural feeling that
 prompted the remembrance of those more 
particularly  associated with a         
particular place1 the fact that the     
commemorations were  originally observed
 by religious services in cemeteries1 at
 the tombs  or burial places of the     
martyrs1 tended at first to             
discountenance the  commemoration of the
 martyrs of other places whose story was
 known only  by report1 whether written 
or oral4    ,the day of a martyr's death
 was by an exercise of the triumphant   
faith  of the ,church known as his      
birthday 7natale1 or dies natalis1 or   
natalitia74 ,it was regarded as the day 
of his entrance into a new and  better  
world4 ,the expression occurs in its    
,greek form as early as the  letter of  
the ,church of ,smyrna concerning the   

martyrdom of ,polycarp 7c4  #ah74       
,there can be no doubt that at an early 
date records were kept of the  day of   
the death of martyrs4 ,cyprian required 
that even the death-days  of those who  
died in prison for the faith should be  
communicated to him  with a view to his 
offering an oblation on that day 7,ep4  
xii4 7xxxvii47  #b74 ,it is in this way 
probably that the earliest ,kalendars of
 the ,church  originated4               
,illustration3 ,ancient ,syriac         
,martyrology1 written ,a ,d4 #dab       
7,brit4 ,mus4 ,or4 ,add4 #abaej1 fol4   
#beb v1 ll4 #a-bj1 col4 #a47 ,the  plate
 shows the entries from ,st ,stephen's  
,day to ,epiphany4    ,we purpose       
dealing more particularly with the early
 ,roman ,kalendars4  ,the earliest      
martyrology that has survived is        
contained in a ,roman  record           
transcribed in ,a4,d4 #ced4 ,it is      
known1 sometimes as the ,liberian       
,martyrology 7from the name of          
,liberius1 who was bishop of ,rome at   

the time71 sometimes as the ,bucherian  
,martyrology1 from the name  of the     
scholar who first made it known to the  
learned world#bd1 and  not uncommonly as
 the ,philocalian1 from the name of the 
scribe4 ,it  presents many interesting1 
and some perplexing features1 which     
cannot be  dealt with here4 ,we must    
content ourselves with noticing that1   
besides  recording1 as in a serviceable 
almanack1 several pagan festivals1 it   
marks the days of the month of the      
burials 7depositiones7 of the  bishops  
of ,rome from ,a4,d4 #bed to ,a4,d4     
#ced1 and also the burial-days of       
martyrs1 twenty-five in number4 ,in both
 lists the cemeteries at ,rome  where   
the burials took place are noted4 ,but  
there are also entered three            
ecclesiastical commemorations which do  
not mark entombments1 7#a7 #8viij  ,kal4
 ,jan4 7,dec4 #be7 ,natus ,christus in  
,bethleem ,judeae'2 7#b7 #8viij ,kal4   
,mart4 7,feb4 #bb7 ,natale 7sic7 ,petri 
de ,cathedra'2 7#c7 #8,nonis ,martii    

7,march #g7 ,perpetuae et ,felicitatis  
,africae#be4' ,the appearance of ,st    
,perpetua and ,st ,felicitas in a       
characteristically ,roman document is a 
striking testimony to the fame of these 
two ,african sufferers for the          
,faith#bf4 ,the use of the word natale  
in connexion with ,st ,peter's  chair   
not improbably marks the dedication of a
 church2 and1 at all events  at a later 
period1 the word seems sometimes used as
 equivalent simply to  a festival1 or   
perhaps a festival marking an origin or 
beginning--as1 for  example1 ,natale    
,calicis1 of which something will be    
said hereafter 7p4  #dj74 ,easter could 
not appear in the ,kalendar properly    
so-called2 but the  document contains   
cycles for the calculation of ,easter1  
and a list of the  days on which it     
would fall from ,a4,d4 #cab to ,a4,d4   
#dab4    ,early ,kalendars would be of  
much value in our enquiries2 but they   
are  few in number4 ,the following three
 deserve notice4 7#a7 ,the ,syrian      

,martyrology first published by ,dr ,w4 
,wright in the ,journal of ,sacred      
,literature 7,oct4 #ahff74 ,it was      
written in ,a4,d4 #daa-ab1 but          
represents  an original of perhaps about
 ,a4,d4 #chj4 ,it is ,arian in origin1  
and has  elements that show connexions  
with ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 and         
,nicomedia2  and its range of martyrs is
 much wider than that of other early    
documents  of the kind4 ,yet of ,western
 martyrs we find only in ,africa        
,perpetua and  ,satornilos and ten other
 martyrs#bg 7,march #g7 and #8,akistus  
78,xystus ,,ii7  bishop of ,rome' 7,aug4
 #a74 ,we find ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul 
on ,dec4 #bh2 ,st  ,john and ,st ,james 
on ,dec4 #bg2 and #8,st ,stephen1       
apostle' on the #bfth#bh4  7#b7 ,the    
,kalendar of ,polemius ,silvius1 bishop 
of ,sedunum1 in the upper  valley of the
 ,rhone 7,a4,d4 #ddh74 ,it contains the 
birthdays of the ,emperors  and some of 
the more eminent of the heathen         
festivals1 such as the  ,lupercalia and 

,caristia1 but with a view1 apparently1 
of supplanting them  by ,christian      
commemorations4 ,the ,christian         
festivals recorded are few  in number1  
those of our ,lord being ,christmas1    
,epiphany1 and the fixed  dates1 ,march 
#be for the ,crucifixion1 and ,march #bg
 for the ,resurrection4  ,there are only
 six saints' days4 ,the depositio of    
,peter and ,paul on  ,feb4 #bb2         
,vincent1 ,lawrence1 ,hippolytus1       
,stephen1 and the ,maccabees on  their  
usual days4 ,other features of interest 
must be passed over#bi4  7#c7 ,the      
,carthaginian ,kalendar#cj has been     
assigned as probably about  ,a4,d4      
#ejjca4 ,it is thus described by ,bishop
 ,j4 ,wordsworth1 #8,it has1 in  the    
,eastern manner1 no entries between     
,february #af and ,april #ai1 i4e4      
during ,lent4 ,its ,saints are mostly   
local1 but some twenty are ,roman1  and 
a few other ,italian1 ,sicilian1 and    
,spanish4 ,it also marks ,,ss4 ,john    
,baptist 7,june #bd71 ,maccabees1 ,luke 

,oct4 #ac1 ,andrew1 ,christmas1 ,stephen
  ,dec4 #bf1 ,john ,baptist probably an 
error of the pen for ,john the          
,evangelist and ,james 7,dec4 #bg7 #8the
 ,apostle whom ,herod slew'1 ,infants   
,dec4 #bh and ,epiphany sanctum         
,epefania#cb4' ,it may be added that    
this ,kalendar marks the depositiones of
 seven bishops of ,carthage1 not        
martyrs1 whose anniversaries were kept4 
,in one of the ,african ,councils of the
 fourth century it was enacted  that the
 ,acts of the martyrs should be read in 
the church on their  anniversaries4 ,but
 ,rome was slow in adopting this        
practice#cc4    ,it will be seen that as
 time went on the strictly local        
character  of the martyrs commemorated  
was invaded by a desire to record the   
famous sufferers of other parts of the  
,christian world4 ,rome1 with its       
characteristic conservatism in matters  
liturgical1 seems to have been  slower  
than other places to yield to this      
impulse4 ,at ,hippo we find  ,augustine 

commemorating1 beside local martyrs1 the
 ,roman ,lawrence and  ,agnes1 the      
,spanish ,vincent and ,fructuosus1 and  
the ,milanese ,protasius and  ,gervasius
 whose bones 7as was believed7 had been 
recently discovered4 ,he  also          
commemorated the ,maccabees1 ,st        
,stephen1 and both the ,nativity and    
,decollation of the ,baptist4 ,on the   
other hand in the laudatory sermons     
that have come down to us we find       
,chrysostom at ,antioch commemorating   
only the saints of ,antioch1 and ,basil1
 at ,caesarea in ,cappadocia1 only      
those of his own country4    ,the       
,sacramentary1 which is called after    
,pope ,leo 7,a4,d4 #ddj-dfa71 shows     
signs of a somewhat later date2 but it  
is unquestionably a ,roman book2  and   
the ,kalendar which we can construct    
from it represents the ,kalendar  of    
,rome as it was not later than about the
 middle of the sixth century4  ,it gives
 us the following days2 but it must be  
observed that the months  of ,january1  

,february1 ,march1 and part of ,april   
are unfortunately  missing#cd4          
,the first is ,april #ad1 ,tiburtius 7a 
,roman martyr74 ,there follow           
#8,paschal time'3 ,april #bc1 ,george   
7,eastern78#ce2 ,dedication      of the 
,basilica of ,st ,peter1 the ,apostle2  
the ,ascension of the      ,lord2 the   
day before ,pentecost2 the ,sunday of   
,pentecost2 the      fast of the fourth 
month2 ,june #bd1 natale of ,st ,john   
,baptist2      ,june #bf1 natale of     
,,ss4 ,john and ,paul 7two ,romans1     
brothers1      martyrs under ,julian72  
,june #bi1 natale of the ,apostles      
,peter      and ,paul 7at ,rome72 ,july 
#aj1 natale of seven martyrs who are    
named 7all at ,rome2 and the cemeteries 
where their bodies      rest are named72
 ,aug4 #ccf1 natale of ,st ,stephen     
7bishop of      ,rome and martyr1 more  
commonly commemorated on ,aug4 #b72     
,aug4      #f1 natale of ,st ,xystus and
 of ,felicissimus and ,agapitus 7all    
martyrs at ,rome72 ,aug4 #aj1 natale of 

,st ,lawrence 7,rome72 ,aug4      #ac1  
natale of ,,ss4 ,hippolytus and         
,pontianus 7,romans72 ,aug4      #cj1   
natale of ,adauctus and ,felix 7at      
,rome72 ,sept4 #ad1 natale      of ,,ss4
 ,cornelius and ,cyprian 7the former    
bishop of ,rome1 the      latter bishop 
of ,carthage1 his contemporary72 ,sept4 
#af1 natale      of ,st ,euphemia 7at   
,rome72 ,fast of the seventh month2     
,sept4      #cj1 natale 7sic7 of the    
basilica of the ,angel in ,salaria      
7on the ,via ,salaria3 evidently for the
 foundation or the      dedication of a 
church at ,rome1 probably under the name
 of ,st      ,michael72 ,depositio of   
,st ,silvester 7bishop of ,rome1 no     
date3      in the ,bucherian            
,martyrology it is at ,dec4 #ca72 ,nov4 
#h 7or      #i71 natale of the four     
crowned saints 7all at ,rome72 ,nov4    
#bb1      natale of ,st ,caecilia       
7,roman martyr72 ,nov4 #bc1 natale of   
,,ss4      ,clement and ,felicitas 7both
 ,roman martyrs72 ,nov4 #bd1 natale     

of ,,ss4 ,chrysogonus and ,gregorius    
7the first1 a ,roman martyr1      the   
second1 uncertain#cg72 ,nov4 #cj1 natale
 of ,st ,andrew1      ,apostle2 ,dec4   
#be1 natale of the ,lord2 and of the    
martyrs1      ,pastor1 ,basilius1       
,jovianus1 ,victorinus1 ,eugenia1       
,felicitas1 and      ,anastasia         
7,eugenia was perhaps the ,roman lady   
martyred with      ,agape2 ,anastasia   
was of ,roman origin1 though she        
suffered death      in ,illyria3 her    
name appears in the canon of the ,roman 
mass4      ,the persons intended by the 
other names are more uncertain72        
,dec4 #bg1 natale of ,st ,john1         
,evangelist2 ,dec4 #bh1 natale of the   
,innocents4    ,it has been thought well
 to give in full this list1 defective   
though it  is 7as lacking the opening   
months of the year74 ,it exhibits indeed
 a  large preponderance of celebrations 
of local interest2 but there are  clear 
indications that already the martyrs of 
other places than ,rome are  securing   

themselves positions in the ,roman      
,kalendar4    ,the collection of masses 
and other liturgical offices known as   
the  ,gelasian ,sacramentary are not    
without interest in illustrating the    
development of the ,kalendar1 more      
particularly among the ,franks4 ,but we 
pass on to consider the features of the 
distinctively ,roman service book1      
which1 by a somewhat misleading name1   
has been called the ,gregorian          
,sacramentary4 ,in its present form     
7though it contains many ancient        
elements7 it is probably not earlier    
than the close of the eighth  century4  
,omitting notices of moveable days1 and 
exhibiting the dates  by the days of the
 month in our modern fashion1 the       
,kalendar runs as  follows#ch1 some     
remarks being added within marks of     
parenthesis4        ,january4 #a4       
,octava ,domini 7the octave of          
,christmas74 #f4      ,epiphania 7called
 in the older ,roman ,kalendar          
#8,theophania1' as      by the ,greeks74

 #ad4 ,st ,felix #8in ,pincis' 7on the  
,pincian74 #af4      ,st ,marcellus1    
,pope4 #ah4 ,st ,prisca 7at ,rome74 #bj4
 ,,ss4 ,fabian and      ,sebastian 7both
 at ,rome74 #ba4 ,st ,agnes 7at         
,rome7#ci4 #bb4 ,st      ,vincent       
7,spain74 #bh4 ,second of ,st ,agnes    
7,octave74        ,february4 #b4        
,ypapante1 or ,purification of ,st      
,mary4 #e4 ,st      ,agatha 7,sicily3 a 
church at ,rome dedicated to her74 #ad4 
,st      ,valentine 7presbyter at       
,rome74        ,march4 #ab4 ,st         
,gregory1 ,pope4 #be4 ,annunciation of  
,st ,mary4        ,april4 #ad4 ,,ss4    
,tiburtius and ,valerian 7at ,rome74    
#bc4 ,st      ,george 7,eastern3 church 
#8in ,velabro' at ,rome74 #bh4 ,st      
,vitalis      7of ,ravenna3 a church at 
,rome74        ,may4 #a4 ,,ss4 ,philip  
and ,james1 ,apostles4 #c4 ,,ss4        
,alexander1      ,eventius and          
,theodulus 7,pope1 and two presbyters at
 ,rome74 #f4      ,natale of ,st ,john  
before the ,latin gate 7,rome74 #aj4    

,,ss4 ,gordian      and ,epimachus 7both
 at ,rome74 #ab4 ,st ,pancratius 7at    
,rome1 where      a church was dedicated
 to him74 #ac4 ,natale of ,st ,mary #8ad
      ,martyres' 7dedication of the     
,pantheon at ,rome by ,boniface ,,iv74  
#be4 ,st ,urban1 ,pope4        ,june4   
#a4 ,dedication of the ,basilica of ,st 
,nicomedes 7at      ,rome74 #b4 ,,ss4   
,marcellinus and ,peter 7at ,rome3 a    
church in their      honour is said to  
have been erected by the ,emperor       
,constantine      on the ,via           
,lavicana74 #ah4 ,,ss4 ,marcus and      
,marcellianus 7both at      ,rome74 #ai4
 ,,ss4 ,protasius and ,gervasius        
7,milan74 #bd4 ,natale of      ,st ,john
 ,baptist4 #bf4 ,,ss4 ,john and ,paul   
7two brothers at ,rome74      #bh4 ,st  
,leo1 ,pope4 #bi4 ,natale of ,,ss4      
,peter and ,paul1 ,apostles             
7,rome74 #cj4 ,natale of ,st ,paul 7the 
,apostle74        ,july4 #b4 ,,ss4      
,processus and ,martinianus 7legendary  
soldier-martyrs at ,rome74 #aj4 ,natale 

of the ,seven ,brethren      7at ,rome74
 #bi4 ,,ss4 ,felix1 ,simplicius1        
,faustinus and ,beatrix      7,pope     
,felix ,,ii2 the others commemorated at 
,rome on the ,via      ,portuensis74    
#cj4 ,,ss4 ,abdon and ,sennen 7martyrs  
at ,rome74        ,august4 #a4 ,st      
,peter #8in ,vincula' 7more commonly    
#8ad ,vincula'3      it is probable that
 the date marks the dedication of a     
church      at ,rome74 #b4 ,st ,stephen1
 bishop 7of ,rome74 #e4 ,,ss4 ,xystus1  
bishop1 ,felicissimus and ,agapitus 7all
 of ,rome74 #h4 ,st ,cyriacus           
7deacon1 at ,rome3 perhaps marks the    
date of his translation      by ,pope   
,marcellus74 #aj4 ,natale of ,st        
,lawrence 7,rome74 #aa4 ,st             
,tiburtius 7martyred outside ,rome on   
the ,via ,lavicana74 #ac4 ,st           
,hippolytus 7martyr according to the    
legend at ,rome74 #ad4 ,st              
,eusebius1 presbyter 7at ,rome74 #ae4   
,assumption of ,st ,mary4 #ag4      ,st 
,agapitus 7at ,praeneste74 #bb4 ,st     

,timotheus 7martyr at ,rome74      #bh4 
,st ,hermes 7at ,rome74 #bi4 ,st ,sabina
 7virgin-martyr at ,rome74      #cj4    
,,ss4 ,felix and ,adauctus 7both at     
,rome74        ,september4 #h4 ,nativity
 of ,st ,mary4 #aa4 ,,ss4 ,protus and   
,hyacinthus 7both at ,rome74 #ad4 ,,ss4 
,cornelius and ,cyprian3      also      
,exaltation of ,holy ,cross 7,cornelius1
 ,pope1 ,cyprian of      ,carthage74    
#ae4 ,natale of ,st ,nicomedes          
7presbyter martyr      at ,rome74 #af4  
,natale of ,st ,euphemia1 and of ,,ss4  
,lucia and      ,geminianus 7all at     
,rome74 #bg4 ,,ss4 ,cosmas and ,damian  
7,eastern74      #bi4 ,dedication of the
 ,basilica of the ,holy ,angel ,michael4
        ,october4 #g4 ,natale of ,st    
,marcus1 ,pope4 #ad4 ,natale of ,st     
,callistus1 ,pope4        ,november4 #a4
 ,st ,caesarius 7an ,african deacon     
martyred in      ,campania74 #h4 ,the   
four crowned saints 7at ,rome74 #i4     
,natale of      ,st ,theodorus 7,asia   
,minor74 #aa4 ,natale of ,st ,menna3    

likewise ,st      ,martin1 bishop       
7,menna1 ,asia ,minor3 ,martin of       
,tours74 #bb4 ,st      ,caecilia        
7,roman74 #bc4 ,st ,clement3 likewise   
,st ,felicitas 7both      ,roman74 #bd4 
,st ,chrysogonus 7,roman74 #bi4 ,st     
,saturninus 7a ,roman1      martyred at 
,toulouse74 #cj4 ,st ,andrew1 ,apostle4 
,december4 #ac4 ,st ,lucia 7,syracuse74 
#be4 ,nativity of the ,lord4      #bf4  
,natale of ,st ,stephen4 #bg4 ,st ,john1
 ,evangelist4 #bh4 ,holy                
,innocents4 #ca4 ,st ,silvester1 ,pope4 
,when we examine these lists we find    
7#a7 the principal festivals of  the    
,lord1 of ,his ,mother1 and of ,his     
,apostles placed as they are still      
noted in the ,kalendar4 ,it may be      
observed that ,jan4 #a is not styled    
the ,circumcision2 and there is no      
reference to the ,circumcision in the   
collect4 ,in the mass for the ,epiphany 
the leading of the ,gentiles by a  star 
and the gifts of the ,magi are the      
prominent features4 ,the use of the     

name ,ypapante as the first name for the
 ,purification 7,feb4 #b7 suggests  the 
,eastern origin of the festival4 ,we    
find 7#b7 the great majority of  the    
saints recorded to be ,roman martyrs--or
 of martyrs connected with  ,rome1      
either in fact or by legend2 but 7#c7   
there are a few famous martyrs  from    
other regions of the world1 as ,st      
,george1 ,st ,vincent1 ,,ss4 ,cosmas    
and ,damian1 and ,st ,lucy1 of ,dec4    
#ac4 ,and ,martin of ,tours has a place4
 ,we  also find that some of the        
obscurer saints of the earlier list     
disappear4  ,frequent pilgrimages to the
 ,east1 together with the interchange of
  literary correspondence between the   
churches1 are sufficient to account  for
 the appearance of the ,oriental        
martyrs4 ,the leading features of  the  
,western ,kalendar1 as it prevailed in  
the mediaeval period1 and has  subsisted
 to the present day1 are already        
apparent4    ,it will be seen that ,all 
,saints does not appear on ,nov4 #a2 and

 yet it  was certainly observed in many 
churches in ,england1 ,france1 and      
,germany  during the eighth century4 ,it
 is placed at ,nov4 #a in the ,metrical 
,martyrology attributed to ,bede1 who   
died in ,a4,d4 #gce4 ,though therefore  
this ,martyrology1 as we now possess it1
 shows signs of having been  re-handled1
 it seems hazardous to attribute the    
origin of the festival1  as is done by  
some1 to the dedication of a church at  
,rome #8in honorem  ,omnium ,sanctorum' 
by ,pope ,gregory ,,iii 7,a4,d4         
#gca-gda74    ,much obscurity attends   
the origin of ,all ,souls' ,day4 ,it    
would seem that  ,amalarius of ,metz1   
early in the ninth century1 had inserted
 in his  ,kalendar an anniversary       
commemoration of all the departed1 and  
this was  probably 7as the context      
suggests7 immediately after ,all        
,saints' ,day2 but  the practice of     
observing the day did not at once become
 general1 and the  earliest clear       
testimony to ,nov4 #b does not emerge   

till the end of the  tenth century1 when
 ,odilo1 abbot of ,clugny1 stimulated by
 a vision of the  sufferings of souls in
 purgatory1 reported to him by a pilgrim
 returning  from ,jerusalem1 enjoined on
 the monastic churches subject to       
,clugny the  observance of ,nov4 #b4    
,the practice rapidly spread4    ,the   
dominant influence of the ,roman ,church
 in ,europe carried eventually  the main
 features of the ,roman ,kalendar into  
all regions of the ,west4 ,in  early    
times at ,rome the anniversary of a     
martyr was ordinarily kept1 not  in the 
various churches of the city and        
suburbs1 but at the particular  cemetery
 or catacomb where he was buried1 or at 
the tomb within some  church which had  
been erected over the place where his   
remains rested4  ,outside the walls1 and
 at various distances along the great   
roads that  led from the city1 most of  
these commemorations were celebrated4   
,as  ,m4 ,batiffol has put it1 with     
substantial correctness1 #8the old      

,roman  ,sanctorale is the ,sanctorale  
of the cemeteries#dj4' ,it is a striking
  and impressive illustration of the    
looking of the ,western peoples to ,rome
  for guidance in matters of religion   
that even obscure saints buried in  the 
cemeteries of the neighbourhood of the  
,apostolic ,see now have places  in the 
religious commemorations of all the     
remotest ,churches of the ,roman        
obedience4    ,the study of the origins 
of the ,kalendar of the city of ,rome   
illustrates  the general proposition    
that the martyrdoms of a particular city
 or  district form the main feature of  
each local ,kalendar4 ,to enter into    
detail in respect to the early          
,kalendars of the other provinces and   
dioceses of ,europe1 even when the      
scanty evidence surviving makes the     
enquiry possible1 is too large a task to
 be attempted here4    ,the account of  
the commemorations of the early martyrs 
may be brought  to a close by calling   
attention to a festival of general and  

perhaps  universal observance before the
 fifth century--the festival of the     
pre-,christian martyrs1 the seven       
,maccabees1 on ,aug4 #a4 ,it was not    
unnatural in the age of persecution1 or 
when the memories of the great          
persecutions were still fresh1 to fasten
 upon the ,old ,testament story  of     
heroic constancy4 ,after the ,feast of  
,st ,peter's ,chains in the ,west1  and 
the ,procession of the ,holy ,cross in  
the ,east had displaced it from a       
position of primary importance1 it was  
not wholly forgotten2 and even now  in  
both ,east and ,west in a subsidiary    
manner the memory of the ,maccabees  is 
still preserved in the services of the  
,church on ,aug4 #a4 ,chrysostom  speaks
 of the celebration being attended in   
his day by a great concourse  of the    
faithful1 and we possess three homilies 
of his for the festival4  ,augustine    
shows us that the festival was observed 
in ,africa in his  time1 and mentions   
that there was a church called after the

 ,maccabees  at ,antioch1 a city named1 
he makes a point to inform us1 after    
their  persecutor1 ,antiochus           
,epiphanes4 ,there are still extant     
sermons for the  festival preached by   
,gregory ,nazianzen1 and1 at a later    
date1 by ,pope ,leo  the ,great4        
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,lord',s      
,,nativity3 ,,the ,,epiphany3 ,,the     
,,festivals ,,which ,,in ,,early ,,times
  ,,followed ,,immediately ,,on ,,the   
,,nativity      ,it is certain that the 
assigning of the birth of the ,lord to  
,dec4 #be  appears first in the ,west2  
and it is not till the last quarter of  
the  fourth century that we find it     
becoming established in some parts of   
the ,east4 ,st ,chrysostom in a homily  
delivered in ,a4,d4 #chf distinctly     
relates that it was about ten years     
earlier the festival of ,dec4 #be came  
to be observed at ,antioch1 and that the
 festival had been observed in  the     
,west from early times 77#da4 ,at       
,constantinople the festival  was kept  

on ,dec4 #be1 apparently for the first  
time1 in ,a4,d4 #cgi or #chj2  and about
 the same time it appears in            
,cappadocia1 as we learn from the       
funeral oration on ,basil the ,great    
pronounced by his brother1 ,gregory of  
,nyssa4 ,at ,alexandria this date was   
adopted before ,a4,d4 #dcb4 ,at         
,jerusalem1  however1 the ,nativity was 
observed on ,jan4 #f not only in the    
time of the  ,pilgrimage of #8,silvia1' 
but1 if we may credit the ,egyptian monk
 ,cosmas  ,indicopleustes1 even as late 
as at the middle of the sixth century4  
,this  writer relates that the people of
 ,jerusalem1 arguing from ,luke iii4 #bc
  7where1 as he interprets the passage1 
,jesus is said to be beginning to  be   
thirty years of age at ,his baptism7    
celebrated the ,nativity together  with 
the ,baptism on ,jan4 #fdb4    ,but when
 did the observance of ,dec4 #be make   
its appearance in the ,west8  ,it must  
have been a well-marked festival at     
,rome when it appeared in  the          

,bucherian ,kalendar in ,a4,d4 #ccf 7see
 p4 #ae74 ,and about one hundred  years 
earlier 7as we learn from his           
commentaries on ,daniel7 ,hippolytus    
was led to infer1 partly from a belief  
7however it originated7 that  the       
,incarnation took place at the          
,passover1 and partly by a process of   
calculation with the help of his cycle1 
that the actual ,incarnation  took place
 on ,march #be in the year of the world 
#eejj 7or ,b4,c4 #c71 and  consequently 
the ,nativity on ,dec4 #bedc4    ,the   
,bishop of ,salisbury 7,j4 ,wordsworth7 
offers an ingenious conjecture  which   
may possibly point to the early ,eastern
 practice of commemorating  the         
,nativity on ,jan4 #f having originated 
in a similar way4 ,sozomen1 the         
historian1 writing in the fifth century1
 states that the ,montanists  always    
celebrated the pascha on the eighth day 
before the ,ides of ,april  7i4e4 ,april
 #f71 if it fell on a ,sunday1 otherwise
 on the following  ,sunday 7,h4,e4 vii4 

#ah74 ,the ,bishop thinks that the      
belief that ,april #f  was the proper   
day of the pascha #8may probably have   
been an opinion quite  unconnected with 
their the ,montanists' sect4' ,but he   
rightly admits  that #8actual facts are 
not yet forthcoming#dd4'    ,conjectures
 of this kind1 though at present        
unsupported1 are well worth             
remembering1 if for no other reason1    
because students of early ,christian    
literature are thus put on the alert to 
note any testimonies which make  for1 or
 else go to invalidate1 the suggestion  
offered4 ,i may add that the  ,montanist
 notion1 as recorded by ,sozomen1 that  
the creation of the sun  in the heavens 
took place on ,april #f1 is of a kind   
that would well fall  in1 among fanciful
 speculators1 with the notion that the  
,incarnation also  took place on the    
same day#de4    ,why this time of the   
year1 late in ,december or early in     
,january1 was  assigned for the         
,nativity is a question which it is not 

possible  to answer with confidence4 ,it
 is conceivable that the insecure and   
blundering argument alleged1 among      
others1 by ,chrysostom may have had     
weight4 ,he supposes that ,zacharias1   
the father of the ,baptist1 was the     
,high ,priest1 and that he had entered  
the ,holy of ,holies on the day of      
,atonement when the angel appeared to   
him4 ,the day of ,atonement was in      
,september4 ,six months later 7,luke i4 
#bf7 the ,annunciation was made to ,st  
,mary2 and after nine months the        
,saviour was born4    ,by others it has 
been suggested that the festival of     
,christmas on ,dec4  #be did not        
originate in any such calculations2 but 
was suggested by the  pagan festival    
,natalis ,solis ,invicti marked at that 
day4 ,the solstice  was passed4 ,the sun
 was entering on its new increases4     
#8,the ,light of the  world1' #8the ,sun
 of righteousness' was to take the place
 of the sun-god  in the heavens#df4     
,the ,theophany1 or ,epiphany 7,jan4    

#f71 is1 like its name1 as              
characteristically ,eastern in its      
origin as the feast of the ,nativity    
7,dec4 #be7 is ,western2 but when it    
passed into the ,west it was in thought1
  either at the outset or certainly     
soon1 separated from the ,nativity2 and 
eventually1 while the baptism of ,christ
 was not ignored1 the main stress  of   
liturgical allusion was on the visit of 
the ,magi1 so that the festival  is not 
uncommonly designated simply as the     
feast of the ,three ,kings4 ,in  the    
,east the dominant thought is the       
manifestation of ,christ's divinity  at 
his baptism3 and in the ,basilian       
,menology the day is simply named #8,the
  ,baptism of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4'
 ,and it is to this connexion1 baptism  
among the ,greeks being known as        
#8illumination1' that has been          
attributed  another name for the day1   
#8the lights' 7 7#dg4    ,it is not     
improbable that the feast of the        
,epiphany made its way to the  ,west1   

through the churches of ,southern ,gaul1
 whose affinities with the  ,east are   
recognised facts of history4 ,at all    
events it is in connexion  with ,gaul   
that we find the first reference to the 
,epiphany in the ,west4  ,the pagan     
historian ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 in his
 account of the ,emperor  ,julian in    
,a4,d4 #cfa visiting a ,christian church
 at ,vienne1 says that  it happened on  
the day in the month of ,january which  
,christians call  #8,epiphania' 7,hist4 
xxi4 #b74    ,the ,epiphany was observed
 in the ,african ,church by the orthodox
 in the  time of ,augustine1 but he     
tells us that the ,donatists did not    
observe  it1 #8because they love not    
unity1 nor do they communicate with the 
,eastern ,church4' ,the latter          
expression falls in with the supposition
 that  the ,west derived the festival   
from the ,east4 ,in the ancient         
,kalendar  called the ,kalendar of      
,carthage 7unfortunately of uncertain   
date7 we  find at ,jan4 #f the entry    

#8,sanctum ,epefania' 7sic74 ,in ,spain1
 as we  learn from the canons of the    
,council of ,saragossa 7can4 #d71 the   
festival  was recognised as a           
considerable commemoration before ,a4,d4
 #chj4 ,for  ,rome1 we have to note the 
silence of the ,bucherian ,kalendar2 but
 for  the fifth century we have the     
testimony of ,pope ,leo1 and we possess 
no  fewer than eight sermons of his upon
 the festival of the ,epiphany2 in      
these the manifestation of ,christ to   
the ,magi is the truth upon which  he   
chiefly enlarges4 ,elsewhere in the     
,west we have references to other       
manifestations of the ,deity of ,christ1
 as at ,his baptism1 and ,his first     
miracle at ,cana4 ,but generally1 as in 
the ,east the baptism1 so in the  ,west 
the manifestation to the ,gentiles is   
the leading note of preachers  or       
theologians#dh4    ,among the ,armenians
 the ,epiphany is reckoned one of the   
five chief  festivals3 it is preceded by
 a week's fast1 and is followed by an   

octave4  ,it is by them still reckoned  
as the day of the ,nativity4      ,the  
festivals of the days immediately       
following ,christmas4    ,we see that in
 the ,gregorian ,kalendar the           
commemorations of ,st ,stephen  7,dec4  
#bf71 ,st ,john the ,evangelist 7,dec4  
#bg71 and ,holy ,innocents 7,dec4  #bh71
 in the order with which we are         
familiar1 were already established  in  
the ,west4 ,and long before the period  
of the ,gregorian ,kalendar we  have    
evidence that in some parts of the ,east
 before the close of the  fourth century
 a group of festivals commemorating     
eminent saints of the  ,new ,testament  
were celebrated between the feast of the
 ,nativity and  the first of ,january4  
,basil the ,great died on ,jan4 #a      
,a4,d4 #cgi2 and his  brother ,gregory  
of ,nyssa delivered the funeral oration 
at his burial4 ,in  this discourse the  
preacher speaks of a group of feasts    
preceding the  first of ,january1 namely
 of ,st ,stephen1 ,st ,peter1 ,st ,james

 and ,st ,john1  and ,st ,paul4 ,it may 
with some reason be believed that the   
dates of these  festivals had no        
relation1 real or fancied1 to the days  
of the deaths of  these saints of the   
,church's beginnings4        ,as regards
 ,st ,james we know that he was killed  
at the time      of the ,passover1 so   
that the ,hieronymian ,martyrology makes
      the day in ,december to be the day
 of his consecration to the             
episcopate4 ,liturgists have said it was
 becoming that the      ,king of glory  
should come into the world accompanied  
by the      chiefs of his court4 ,and it
 is not a wholly baseless fancy that    
already there was a desire 7of which at 
a later period we have      many        
illustrations7 to connect a great       
festival with one or      more other    
commemorations associated with it in    
thought4 ,the      memories of the age  
of the martyrs would naturally suggest  
the      name of the protomartyr2 while 
the relations of the ,lord to ,st       

,james1 ,st ,john1 and ,st ,peter1 and  
the eminence of ,st ,paul may           
perhaps sufficiently account for their  
appearance here4    ,there is little    
doubt that at the close of the fourth   
century the  churches of ,asia ,minor   
had festivals of ,st ,stephen on ,dec4  
#bf1 ,st ,james  and ,st ,john on ,dec4 
#bg1 and ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul on    
,dec4 #bhdi4 ,and in  the ,west our     
earliest information shows us ,st       
,stephen on ,dec4 #bf2 but  there are   
variations as regards the other         
festivals4 ,the ancient ,kalendar  of   
,carthage shows us on ,dec4 #bg #8,st   
,john the ,baptist and ,james the       
,apostle1 whom ,herod slew1' and ,holy  
,innocents on ,dec4 #bhej4    ,the      
earliest ,roman service-books show us   
only ,st ,john on ,dec4 #bg1 and he  is 
,st ,john the ,evangelist#ea4 ,yet in   
the so-called ,martyrology of ,st       
,jerome 7which1 though interpolated1    
contains many ancient features71 we     
find at this day1 together with #8the   

,assumption of ,st ,john at ,ephesus1'  
#8the ordination to the episcopate of   
,james1 the ,lord's brother1 who was    
crowned with martyrdom at the paschal   
time#eb4' ,the ,holy ,innocents  7,dec4 
#bh7 is known in the ,latin books since 
the sixth century1 and may  well have   
been earlier2 but ,peter and ,paul are  
found together on another  day 7,june   
#bi71 the day of their martyrdom at     
,rome1 as was generally  assumed4       
,though we are not able to determine    
with precision on what day  the         
,innocents of ,bethlehem were           
commemorated in early times1 there can  
be little doubt that there was some     
commemoration of those whom1 as ,st     
,augustine says1 #8the ,church has      
received to the honour of the martyrs4' 
,there are some reasons for conjecturing
 that the commemoration of the          
,innocents was at first in association  
with the ,epiphany4 ,in the second  half
 of the fourth century the poet         
,prudentius has some pretty lines on    

the ,holy ,innocents as martyrs in his  
hymn on the ,epiphany#ec4 ,and ,leo  the
 ,great in more than one of his sermons 
on the ,epiphany has laudatory  passages
 on the martyrdom of the ,innocents4    
,yet in estimating the  weight that     
should attach to such references it     
should be remembered  that ,herod's     
slaughter of the children at ,bethlehem 
is in the ,gospel  narrative so closely 
connected with the visit of the ,magi   
that it would  not be unnatural for both
 poet and preacher to touch on that     
striking  story1 although there were no 
intentional commemoration of the        
,innocents  attached by the ,church to  
that day4 ,in the ,byzantine ,kalendar  
the  ,fourteen ,thousand ,holy ,infants 
are commemorated on ,dec4 #bi4 ,in the  
,armenian ,kalendar the ,fourteen       
,thousand ,innocent ,martyrs are        
commemorated  on ,june #aj4 ,it deserves
 notice that in the ,mozarabic          
,kalendars we find  #8,st ,james the    
,lord's ,brother' at ,dec4 #bh2 #8,st   

,john ,evangelist' at ,dec4  #bi2 and   
#8,st ,james the ,brother of ,john' at  
,dec4 #cj4          ,,chapter ,,iv      
,,other ,,commemorations ,,of ,,events  
,,in ,,the ,,lord',s ,,life4 ,,pentecost
      ,the commemoration of the death   
and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ was  
in  the nature of things a natural and  
inevitable outcome of the religious     
beliefs and feelings of the infant      
,church4 ,the fixing of days for the    
commemoration of other events in the    
life of our ,lord came with thought  and
 reflection2 they belong to the period  
of constructiveness1 and we  have no    
evidence to show that their appearance  
was very early4 ,tertullian  is silent  
about other days than ,sunday 7the      
,lord's ,day71 the ,pasch  7including   
the ,passion and the ,resurrection71 and
 ,pentecost#ed2 and  ,origen            
particularises the ,lord's ,day1 the    
,parasceve 7perhaps in the sense  of the
 weekly ,friday #8station'71 the ,pasch1
 and ,pentecost1 as being days          

specially observed by ,christians#ee4   
,the ,circumcision is obviously         
dependent on whatever was regarded  as  
the date of the ,nativity1 and is the   
result of reflection and  ecclesiastical
 constructiveness4 ,it is eight days    
after the ,nativity  on ,jan4 #a1 with  
all ,christendom1 save the ,armenians1  
who celebrating  the ,nativity 7together
 with other ,epiphanies of the ,lord7 on
 ,jan4 #f1  naturally observe ,jan4 #ac 
as the day of the ,circumcision4 ,the   
day is not  noted in the ,bucherian     
,kalendar1 nor in the ,carthaginian4    
,baillet#ef  comes to the conclusion    
that it appears first as appointed for  
general  observance as a festival1 about
 the middle of the seventh century1 and 
in ,spain1 where servile work was       
forbidden on this day4 ,but it would    
appear from the ,canons of the ,fourth  
,council of ,toledo that the day was    
then observed with penitential features 
7canon #aa74 ,from the ,sermons of      
,augustine we learn that in his time    

,jan4 #a was observed by ,christians as 
a solemn fast1 in protest against the   
licentious revelry and excesses  of the 
pagans at this time of the year#eg4 ,and
 as late as the ,second  ,council of    
,tours 7,a4,d4 #efg7 it is enjoined     
that1 while all other days  between the 
,nativity and the ,epiphany are to be   
treated 7in regard to  use of food7 as  
festivals1 an exception is to be made   
for the space of  three days at the     
beginning of ,january1 for which time   
the fathers had  appointed litanies to  
be made #8ad calcandam ,gentilium       
consuetudinem4'  ,but it should be      
remarked that the canon 7#ag7 dealing   
with the subject  has special reference 
to fasts to be observed by monks4 ,it is
 therefore  not impossible that the fast
 had by this time ceased to be observed 
by  the general body of the faithful1   
but1 in a spirit of conservatism1  was  
regarded as proper to be maintained in  
the monasteries4 ,the canon  is         
interesting for another reason2 it      

affords perhaps the earliest  example of
 the use of the term #8,circumcision' as
 applied to this day1  which appears in 
the ,gelasian and ,gregorian            
,sacramentaries simply as  ,octava      
,domini1 i4e4 the octave of the         
,nativity4 ,in the ,gelasian            
,sacramentary there is no emphasis in   
the service on the ,circumcision1  while
 the prayer called ,ad populum          
distinctly points to a prohibition      
against partaking of the convivium      
diabolicum of the pagans4 ,and a mass   
immediately following that for the      
,octave1 entitled ,ad prohibendum ab    
idolis1 points in the same direction4   
,the ,gregorian ,sacramentary shows  no 
reference to the ,circumcision in the   
prayers of the mass#eh4    ,even in the 
early part of the seventh century       
,isidore of ,seville condemns  the      
indecent gaieties indulged in on this   
day1 and recalls the ancient  injunction
 that the day should be observed as a   
fast#ei4 ,the fourth  ,council of       

,toledo 7canon #aa7 represents as the   
practice of ,spain and ,gaul  the       
omission of the singing of ,alleluia on 
the ,kalends of ,january1  propter      
errorem gentilium4    ,in the later     
,western service-books the thought of   
the ,circumcision is  given greater     
prominence1 and intermingles with the   
thoughts suggested by  the ,octave4 ,the
 feast of the ,circumcision appears in  
the ,greek ,church in  the eighth       
century#fj4    ,commemoration of        
,passiontide2 ,holy ,week 7the #8,great 
,week1' as it is  styled in the ,east74 
,the commemoration of the death of the  
,saviour is  the primitive and essential
 element3 other days were given places  
as  the result of reflection1 and of the
 desire to reproduce liturgically  in a 
mimetic way the events of the ,lord's   
history during the last  paschal week4  
,we possess the early testimony of      
,tertullian for the dies  ,paschae1 for 
so he names the day4 ,he tells us that  
it was a public and  general fast1 and  

that the kiss of peace was omitted from 
the services  of the ,church#fa4 ,but   
for ,palm ,sunday1 ,coena ,domini1 and  
the ,great  ,sabbath we have no evidence
 till much later4 ,it is from ,palestine
 that  we get the earliest notice of the
 rites of ,palm ,sunday4 ,in her account
  of the ceremonies at ,jerusalem       
#8,silvia' describes the procession of  
palm-bearers on the ,sunday of the      
,great ,week4 ,the feast of ,palms is   
also  mentioned in the life of          
,euthymius1 abbot in ,palestine1 who    
died at a  very advanced age in ,a4,d4  
#dgc4 ,but in the ,west the carrying of 
palms does  not appear earlier than the 
ninth century4 ,the commemoration       
7,natalis  ,calicis7 of the institution 
of the ,eucharist on the night before   
the  ,lord suffered probably had its    
rise about the same time as ,palm       
,sunday2  and a certain mimetic         
character was given to the rites of the 
,thursday  by delaying the celebration  
of the ,liturgy till the evening4 ,this 

was  further enhanced in the ,church of 
,carthage 7,a4,d4 #cig71 which in view  
of  the original institution of the     
,eucharist having been after supper1    
made  an express synodical declaration  
that the rule of fasting communion was  
binding #8excepto uno die anniversario1 
quo coena domini celebratur#fb4'  ,and  
,st ,augustine expressly affirms that   
the practice of the ,church did  not    
condemn communion after the evening meal
 on the ,thursday in ,holy  ,week#fc4   
,the name ,dies ,mandati 7which has     
probably given us our  ,maundy          
,thursday7 is not very ancient4 ,in     
mediaeval times the particular  mandate 
of the ,lord was taken to be the        
feet-washing1 before or during  which   
were sung the words #8,mandatum novum do
 vobis#fd4'    ,at ,rome1 as late as the
 time of ,st ,leo1 in regard to the days
 specially  observed in ,holy ,week1 the
 only distinction from ordinary weeks   
seems  to have been the commemoration of
 the institution of the ,eucharist on   

,thursday4 ,the adoration of the ,cross 
on ,good ,friday 7which we find at      
,jerusalem in the days of #8,silvia'7   
and the mass of the pre-sanctified  were
 later additions1 and are regarded by   
,duchesne as having been  introduced    
into the ,west in the seventh or eighth 
century#fe4 ,the  observances of the    
,saturday were those of the vigil of    
,easter4    ,the ,ascension3 in the     
,greek ,kalendar1 and frequently in     
,greek  writers1 with a different       
connotation1 #8the ,taking up1'         
#8,assumption'  77#ff1 was celebrated   
forty days after ,easter1 as the actual 
,ascension took place forty days after  
the ,resurrection2 it is obviously  a   
festival of the constructive period4    
,there is no mention of it in  the      
earliest ,christian writings2 but1      
without here going into details  of     
evidence1 it may be stated that the     
festival was observed1 possibly  early  
in1 and certainly before1 the close of  
the fourth century4 ,it is  noticed by  

#8,silvia' 7though the name ,ascensa is 
not given to it7 as  a day on which at  
,bethlehem1 where the vigil was kept1   
the bishop of  ,jerusalem and the       
presbyters preached1 but it does not    
appear that the  ,eucharist was         
celebrated4 ,there was a procession back
 to ,jerusalem in the  evening4         
,augustine classes the day with the     
,passion1 the ,resurrection1  and the   
advent of the ,holy ,spirit             
7,pentecost71 as observed #8anniversaria
  solemnitate#fg4' ,in the ,sacramentary
 of ,leo many masses in ,ascensa  7     
,ascensione7 ,domini are to be found4   
,both in the ,east and in some  parts of
 the ,west it was customary to celebrate
 the festival outside the  cities1--a   
practice suggested doubtless by ,luke   
xxiv4 #ej4    ,it may be remarked that  
many old ,english writers1 both before  
and after  the ,reformation1 use the    
term #8,holy ,thursday' for this day4   
,the ,transfiguration 7,aug4 #f in the  
,byzantine#fh1 ,ethiopic1 and  later    

mediaeval and modern ,roman ,kalendars3 
on the #gth ,sunday after  ,pentecost in
 the ,armenian7 is of late appearance4  
,if a certain canon  7or prose hymn7 on 
the ,transfiguration attributed to ,john
 of ,damascus  be really his1 it would  
point to the probable observance of the 
day in  the eighth century in the ,east4
 ,in the ,west the festival appears much
  later2 but the evidence indicates its 
having had a partial and local          
observance long before it was enjoined  
by ,pope ,calixtus ,,iii for the        
,church generally in ,a4,d4 #adeg4 ,this
 ,pope appointed an office for the day1 
which was afterwards somewhat altered by
 ,pius ,v4 ,the action of ,calixtus  was
 prompted by thankfulness for a victory 
over the ,turks at ,belgrade4  ,among   
the ,greeks the ,transfiguration is a   
day of great solemnity4 ,it is  preceded
 by a #8proheortia' and affects the     
following eight days4 ,the  ,armenians  
observe a preparatory fast for a        
week#fi4    ,pentecost4 ,this word as   

commonly employed by early ,christian   
writers  signifies the whole period of  
fifty days after the ,resurrection4 ,it 
is thus that the term is used by        
,tertullian in a passage 7de ,idolat4   
#ad7 where he compares the number of    
festival days among the pagans with  the
 number of ,christian festivals4 ,the   
same is probably true where he  speaks  
of ,pentecost as #8ordinandis lavacris  
latissimum spatium' 7de  ,baptismo #ai74
 ,during that period fasting1 and       
kneeling at prayer1 at  least in the    
public assemblies1 were forbidden3 and  
,alleluia1 which  had been silent1 was  
resumed4 ,it seems1 however1 that once  
at least  ,tertullian had in view1 in   
the use of the word1 the day on which   
the  period closed#gj4 ,origen in a     
similar way uses the word for the whole 
period1 but also seems to distinguish   
between the general and more  restricted
 signification of the word#ga4 ,earlier 
than either of these  is the testimony  
of ,irenaeus 7if we may accept it as    

his7 cited1 as from  his lost book ,on  
the ,pascha1 by ,pseudo-,justin         
7,quaest4 et ,respons4 ad  ,orthodoxos1 
#aae71 where ,irenaeus speaks of not    
kneeling in ,pentecost1  as that time is
 of equal dignity with the ,lord's day1 
#8,pentecost' being  here used evidently
 for a season4 ,on the other hand1 the  
compiler1  whoever he was1 of the       
,quaestiones1 in which ,irenaeus is     
quoted1 in  the same place speaks of not
 kneeling #8from the ,pascha to         
,pentecost1'  using the latter term in  
its restricted sense4 ,in the           
newly-recovered  ,testament of the      
,lord#gb ,pentecost is used for the     
fifty days between  ,easter and our     
,whitsunday 7i4 #bh1 #db2 ii4 #ab74 ,an 
interesting survival  of the old        
signification of ,pentecost is still to 
be found in the ,greek  service-books1  
where the term ,mesopentecoste is used  
for special festal  observances mid-way 
between ,easter and ,whitsunday1        
commencing on the  ,wednesday following 

the third ,sunday after ,easter1 and    
lasting for a week4    ,in the          
forty-third canon of the ,council of    
,elvira 7,a4,d4 #cje7 we have a  clear  
example of the use of the word          
,pentecost for the fiftieth day4 ,and   
after that date the word is widely used 
in that sense3 while the festival       
itself assumes gradually more and more  
dignity and importance4 #8,silvia'      
describes the elaborate ceremonial      
observed on this day at ,jerusalem      
towards the close of the fourth century4
    ,there are considerable difficulties
 attendant on an attempt to assign  a   
precise date to the addition of an      
octave to this festival2 and the  festal
 character of the octave week was       
affected by the ember days  occurring in
 that week4 ,in the ,gelasian           
,sacramentary1 as it has come  down to  
us1 we have the #8propers' for a mass on
 the ,sunday of the octave  of          
,pentecost4 ,the mass may be described  
as a mass of the ,holy ,spirit1  praying

 for protection for the ,church from the
 allurements of the vain  and deceitful 
philosophy of the world2 true knowledge 
of the nature of  ,god was given by the 
bestowal of the ,holy ,spirit1 the      
,spirit of wisdom1  and knowledge1 and  
understanding1 and counsel4 ,the        
benedictions1 which  immediately follow1
 on those who return to the ,catholic   
unity from the  ,arian and other        
heresies1 suggest that it was in this   
way that the  octave of ,pentecost came 
at a later date to be made a festival in
 honour  of the mystery of the blessed  
,trinity#gc4 ,the public reception to   
the  ,catholic unity of ,arian and other
 heretics would gradually cease to be a 
feature of the season3 but the          
liturgical colouring of the service     
would  remain1 and would have to be     
accounted for4 ,as a matter of fact1    
however1  the establishment of a        
festival of the ,trinity with a special 
office and  mass was of late date4 ,it  
makes its appearance in the ,low        

,countries in  the tenth century1 and   
made its way but slowly1 and with       
varying success4  ,pope ,alexander ,,ii1
 who died in ,a4,d4 #ajgc1 when         
consulted on the subject1  wrote that   
according to the ,roman rite there was  
no day set apart to  commemorate the    
,trinity any more than the ,unity of the
 ,divine ,being1  and that every day of 
the year was truly consecrated to the   
honour of  the ,trinity in ,unity4 ,it  
was not till the fourteenth century1    
under the  pontificate of ,john ,,xxii1 
that the ,roman ,church received the    
feast of the  ,trinity and attached it  
to the first ,sunday after              
,pentecost#gd4    ,in ,england1         
according to ,gervase of ,canterbury1   
,archbishop ,thomas  ,becket instituted 
the principal feast of the ,trinity on  
the octave of  ,pentecost#ge4           
,,chapter ,v    ,,festivals ,,of ,,st   
,,mary ,,the ,,virgin      ,i4 ,western 
,kalendars4    ,the history of the      
origin of some of the following         

festivals is obscure2  and it is        
impossible to be precise as to the dates
 of their first  appearance4 ,we speak  
with some reservation of the ,festival  
of ,feb4 #b1  known first in the ,west1 
as well as in the ,east1 by the name    
,hypapante  7i4e4 #8the ,meeting' of    
,simeon with the ,lord and ,his         
,mother71 and  afterwards as the        
,purification of the ,virgin4 ,it seems 
at first in the  ,west to have been a   
festival of our ,lord rather than of the
 ,virgin4 ,in  the propria for          
#8,yppapanti' 7sic7 in the ,gregorian   
,sacramentary the  allusion to ,st ,mary
 is of the slightest4 ,hence at the time
 when it first  appeared in the ,west it
 may be reckoned as having no special   
reference to  ,st ,mary4 ,the ,church of
 ,rome does not appear 7according to    
,duchesne7 to  have observed any        
festival of the ,virgin before the      
seventh century1 when  it adopted the   
four following festivals from the       
,church of ,byzantium4    #a4 ,the      

,purification 7or1 in early times1      
,hypapante74 ,its date 7,feb4  #b7 is   
determined by counting forty days from  
,christmas 7,luke ii4 #bb3  compare     
,levit4 xii4 #b1 #d74    ,a feast of    
much dignity and importance 7cum summa  
laetitia1 ac si  per ,pascha7           
commemorating the ,presentation of the  
,lord in the ,temple  is noticed as     
celebrated 7towards the close of the    
fourth century7 at  ,jerusalem at the   
time of the pilgrimage of #8,silvia4'   
,it was observed on  ,feb4 #ad 7the     
#djth day after the ,epiphany1 reckoned 
as the day of the  ,lord's ,nativity73  
but #8,silvia' does not appear to have  
regarded it as in  any sense having     
special reference to ,st ,mary4 ,the    
words of the pilgrim  simply record the 
incident in the ,temple2 and it looks as
 if the feast  were only commemorative  
of a remarkable event in the history of 
the ,lord4    ,it may be pointed out    
that the ,feast of the ,presentation of 
the ,lord in  the ,temple is still      

observed by the ,armenians on ,feb4 #ad1
 as they still  celebrate the ,nativity 
on ,jan4 #f4    ,the origin of the      
consecrating of candles and carrying    
them in procession  which has given us  
the low ,latin names candelaria and     
candelcisa1 the  ,french chandeleur1 the
 ,italian candelora1 the ,german        
,lichtmesse1  and our ,english name     
,candlemas1 and which from early times  
formed a  striking feature in the ritual
 of the ,feast1 has been conjecturally  
connected by some with a symbolical     
setting forth of the words of  ,simeon  
7,luke ii4 #cb72 and by others with the 
ceremonial of the heathen  ,lupercalia4 
,but the matter is still involved in    
doubt4    ,in the ,east the             
establishment of the festival throughout
 the ,empire  is generally assigned to  
,justinian in the year #edb4 ,the       
appearance of  ,hypapante in the        
so-called ,gregorian ,sacramentary is1  
it need scarcely be  said1 no proof that
 the festival was observed in the time  

of ,gregory the  ,great4    ,the word   
#8,hypapante' lingered long in the      
,west4 ,we find it as the only  name of 
the festival in the ,martyrology of     
,bede2 and one hundred and  fifty years 
later the day is marked in ,usuard as   
simply #8,hypapante  ,domini4'    #b4   
,the ,annunciation 7,march #be7 like    
#8,hypapante' was probably  originally a
 feast of our ,lord1 as marking the time
 of the ,incarnation4  ,inferentially it
 may be considered as well established  
both in the  ,east and ,west            
considerably before the close of the    
seventh century4  ,duchesne considers   
that we have very clear testimony to    
this feast before  the ,council in      
,trullo 7,a4,d4 #fib71 where it was     
spoken of as already  established4      
,perhaps earlier1 or1 at latest1 almost 
contemporary1 in the  ,west is the      
testimony of what is known as the tenth 
,council of ,toledo  78,a4,d4 #fid7gf   
where the complaint is made that in     
various parts of  ,spain the festival of

 ,st ,mary was observed on various days1
 and it is  further added that as the   
festival cannot be fitly celebrated     
either in  ,lent1 or when overshadowed  
by the ,paschal festival1 the ,council  
ordains  that for the future the day    
should be xv ,kal4 ,jan4 7,dec4 #ah7 and
 the  ,nativity of the ,lord on viii    
,kal4 ,jan4 7,dec4 #be74 ,it is plain   
that  something of the nature of an     
octave was to follow the festival of    
,dec4  #ah2 and there is added in a     
somewhat apologetic tone1 #8nam quid    
festum  matris nisi incarnatio verbi8'  
7canon #a74 ,the ,trullan ,council took 
a  different course4 ,while continuing  
to prohibit all other festivals during  
,lent1 it sanctioned the celebration of 
this4 ,in the ,milanese rite the  feast 
was celebrated on the fourth ,sunday in 
,advent4 ,in the ,mozarabic  ,missal we 
find in the ,kalendar the ,annunciation 
of ,st ,mary marked both on  ,march #be 
and ,dec4 #ah2 the latter being         
distinguished as the #8,annunciation  of

 the ,o1' referring to the great        
,antiphons sung at that season4    ,the 
older titles of the festival were the   
#8,annunciation of the ,lord1'  #8the   
,annunciation of the ,angel to the      
,blessed ,virgin ,mary1' or #8the       
,conception of ,christ4'    ,the rules  
in the ,roman rite for transferring the 
,annunciation to another  day under     
certain circumstances will be found in  
technical works of the  commentators4   
#c4 ,the ,nativity of the ,virgin       
7,sept4 #h74 ,this also is found in the 
,west  towards the close of the seventh 
century4 ,durandus1 who is often more   
fanciful than wise1 had in this case    
perhaps some historical foundation  for 
his assertion that the festival was     
founded by ,pope ,sergius ,i in ,a4,d4  
#fie4 ,the story of ,joachim and ,anna1 
the parents of ,st ,mary1 is found in   
certain apocryphal ,gospels which       
circulated among the ,gnostics#gg4      
#d4 ,the ,sleep1 or 7later7 ,assumption1
 of the ,virgin 7,aug4 #ae7 appears in  

the ,west about the same time as the    
,annunciation and the ,nativity of  the 
,virgin4 ,all three were unknown to     
,gregory the ,great4 ,it originated  in 
the ,east1 and was there known as the   
,sleep and 7afterwards7 the             
,translation4 ,according to the         
historian1 ,nicephorus ,callistus1 the  
festival was founded by the ,emperor    
,maurice 7,a4,d4 #ehb-fjb74 ,it is      
beyond  our province here to deal with  
the legend of ,st ,mary's body as well  
as  soul being taken up to heaven4 ,the 
festival made its way slowly in ,gaul1  
but was eventually adopted by           
,charlemagne4 ,as late as the twelfth   
century  it was not universally observed
 in the ,east4    ,the advance in the   
titles of the festival from depositio1  
pausatio1  dormitio to transitus and    
assumptio is not without significance4  
,in  ,bede the name is ,dormitio4    ,it
 will be observed that all these four   
festivals came to ,rome from            
,byzantium4 ,in the later mediaeval     

period they were of universal           
obligation in the ,west#gh4    ,for     
notices of the observance of the death  
of ,st ,mary on ,jan4 #ah1 see          
,baillet1 op4 cit41 ,,vi4 #aa4    #e4   
,the ,presentation of ,st ,mary         
7praesentatio1 illatio1 oblatio7  in the
 ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,in the modern  
,roman ,kalendar at ,nov4 #ba1 it  is a 
#8greater double4' ,it does not appear  
in the ,kalendar of the ,sarum          
,breviary or ,missal2 but the ,sarum    
,enchiridion 7#aecj7 gives ,nov4 #ba1   
and the ,office is printed in the       
,breviary4 ,there were many exceptions  
to  this feast being observed#gi4 ,the  
festival is based on a legend#hj that   
at an early age ,mary was dedicated to  
the service of ,god in the ,temple1  and
 that there she grew up1 and served     
under the priests and ,levites4  ,the   
first appearance of the festival is at  
,constantinople2 and there is  evidence 
for it there in ,a4,d4 #aaej4 ,it passed
 to the ,west towards the  close of the 

fourteenth century#ha4 ,and with more   
certainty than is  usually possible in  
such enquiries we can trace its         
introduction to the  impression made by 
the accounts1 brought back from ,cyprus1
 by ,philip  de ,mazires1 of the        
solemnities of the feast in the ,east4  
,pius ,v 7,a4,d4  #aeff-aegb7 withdrew  
it from the ,roman ,kalendar2 but it was
 restored by  ,sixtus ,v 7,a4,d4        
#aehe-aeij74    #f4 ,the ,conception of 
,st ,mary 7,dec4 #h74 ,since ,dec4 #h1  
#ahed1 when ,pius  ,,ix 7in the         
,apostolic ,letters ,ineffabilis ,deus7 
decreed the doctrine  of the ,immaculate
 ,conception to be a necessary article  
of the ,faith1  the epithet ,immaculate 
has been prefixed to the original title 
in  the service-books of the ,roman     
,communion4 ,in the ,greek ,church the  
day observed is ,dec4 #i1 and the title 
is the ,conception of ,st ,anna1        
grandmother of ,god1 the ,easterns      
connecting the word #8conception' with  
the person who conceived1 while the     

,latins connected it with the person    
who was conceived4 ,the festival was    
commanded to be observed throughout  the
 ,empire of the ,east by the ,emperor   
,manuel ,comnenus in the middle of  the 
twelfth century4    ,the evidence seems 
to point to the fact that1 like several 
other  festivals of the ,virgin1 this   
originated in the ,east4 ,in the ,greek 
,horologion we find it related that1    
according to the ancient tradition  of  
the ,church1 ,anna was barren and well  
stricken in years1 and also that  her   
spouse ,joachim was an aged man4 ,in    
sorrow for their childlessness  they    
prayed to the ,lord1 who hearing their  
prayers intimated to them  by an angel  
that they would have a child1 and in    
accordance with the  promise ,anna      
conceived#hb4 ,it appears that the      
festival had no dogmatic  significance2 
and it had its parallel in the          
historical festival1 still  observed in 
the ,greek ,church on ,sept4 #bc1 of the
 ,conception of ,st  ,john the ,baptist1

 a festival which also had a place in   
the old ,latin  ,martyrologies4    ,in  
the ,west the local observance of the   
day is associated commonly with  the    
name of ,st ,anselm1 archbishop of      
,canterbury1 who1 in one form of  the   
story1 on a voyage from ,england to     
,normandy during a storm vowed to       
establish the festival4 ,but the day is 
marked in some ,english ,kalendars  just
 before the ,norman ,conquest1 though at
 first it had a very limited            
acceptance#hc4 ,it is plain that at an  
early date there were some who          
connected the festival with the belief  
that ,st ,mary differed from other      
mortals in being without original sin4  
,for when the ,chapter of the           
,cathedral of ,lyons were about to      
institute the festival in that church1  
,st ,bernard of ,clairvaux wrote 7,a4,d4
 #aadj7 expostulating with them partly  
on the ground that though ,st ,mary was1
 as he believed1 sanctified in  the     
womb1 yet her conception was not holy4  

,he added that this was a  novel        
festival1 #8quam ritus ,ecclesiae       
nescit1 non probat ratio1 non  commendat
 antiqua traditio'2 and declares that it
 was the outcome of the  simplicity of a
 few unlearned persons1 the daughter of 
inconsiderateness  7levitatis71 and the 
sister of superstition 7,epist4 #agd74  
,john ,beleth1 ,dean of the ,faculty of 
,theology at ,paris1 towards the close  
of the twelfth century argued much in   
the same way as ,st ,bernard4 ,and in   
the following century1 and towards its  
close1 such a leading authority as      
,durandus1 bishop of ,mende1 in his     
,rationale says that there were some    
who would celebrate this festival1 but  
that he could not approve of it1        
because ,st ,mary was conceived in      
original sin1 though she was sanctified 
in the womb4    ,as regards the ,church 
of ,rome 7properly so called71 ,innocent
 ,,iii in  the beginning of the         
thirteenth century declares in one of   
his sermons  7,serm4 ,,ii de ,joan4     

,bapt47 that no other conception than   
that of the  ,lord ,jesus was celebrated
 in the ,church4 ,nevertheless the      
celebration of  the day spread both in  
,france1 and1 more particularly1 in     
,england4 ,the  ,council of ,oxford     
7,a4,d4 #abbb7 approved of the feast1   
but distinguished  it from the other    
feasts of the ,virgin by leaving it to  
be observed or  not at discretion4 ,in  
the province of ,canterbury the day was 
made of  obligation by ,archbishop      
,simon ,mepeham 7,a4,d4 #acbh-cc74      
,in #abfc the ,franciscans resolved to  
celebrate the festival publicly in      
their churches4 ,but even the           
,franciscans were not agreed among      
themselves  as to the doctrine of the   
,immaculate ,conception4 ,alvarus       
,pelagius1 the  ,spanish ,theologian1   
,great ,penitentiary of ,pope ,john     
,,xxii1 in his de  ,planctu ,ecclesiae  
7#accb7 declares that #8the new and     
fantastic opinion  should be cancelled  
by the faithful4'    ,as is well known1 

the ,dominicans took a strong and even  
violent part  against the doctrine4 ,the
 greatest doctor of the thirteenth      
century1  ,thomas ,aquinas1 had clearly 
pronounced that ,st ,mary was not       
sanctified  till the infusion of her    
anima rationalis4 ,but with regard to   
the feast  of the ,conception he states 
that inasmuch as the ,roman ,church1    
though not  celebrating the ,conception 
of the ,blessed ,virgin1 tolerates the  
practice  of certain ,churches which do 
celebrate it1 the celebration of the    
feast  is not to be wholly reprobated2  
and he adds that we must not infer from 
the observance of the day that ,st ,mary
 was holy in her conception1 but        
because we are ignorant as to the time  
when she was sanctified1 the feast  of  
her sanctification rather than of her   
conception is celebrated on the  day of 
her conception#hd4 ,accordingly in      
,dominican ,kalendars we find  the day  
marked as ,sanctificatio ,mariae4       
,the ,council of ,ble 7#adci7 adopted a 

constitution applicable to the whole    
,church that the feast should be        
observed according to the ancient and   
laudable custom on ,dec4 #h1 and that it
 should be known under the title of  the
 ,conception of the ,blessed ,virgin    
,mary1 forbidding the use of the  name  
,sanctification1 as having a less       
extended use4 ,the ,roman ,see1 not     
recognising this ,council1 did not take 
action till ,a4,d4 #adgg1 when ,sixtus  
,,iv1 who had been a ,franciscan1       
published an ordinance 7and it is the   
very first decree of any ,pope on the   
subject7 granting large indulgences  to 
all the faithful who celebrated1 or     
assisted at1 the ,mass and ,office  of  
the ,conception on the festival or      
throughout its octave4 ,in #adhc the    
same ,pope pronounced excommunication on
 any preachers who asserted that  ,st   
,mary was conceived in original sin or  
that those who observed the  festival   
sinned#he4 ,clement ,,viii 7#aeib-afje7 
raised the festival to  the rank of a   

greater double4 ,the later history of   
the festival can be  pursued in         
,baillet1 and in recent writers dealing 
with ,pius ,,ix4    ,for minor festivals
 of the ,virgin1 such as #8,st ,mary at 
,snows1' the  ,visitation of ,st ,mary1 
the ,espousals 7,desponsatio71 the ,most
 ,holy ,name  of ,mary1 the ,seven      
,sorrows1 the ,rosary of ,st ,mary1     
,blessed ,mary of ,mount  ,carmel1 the  
,expectation of the ,delivery 7parts71  
and others1 the  reader may consult     
,baillet1 the ,catholic ,dictionary1    
etc4      ,,ii4 ,the ,orthodox ,church  
of the ,east4    ,a reference to the    
classification of ,feasts in the        
,eastern ,church#hf  will show that     
among the twelve principal ,feasts are  
found 7#a7 ,the  ,evangelismos of the   
,theotokos1 ,march #be1 corresponding to
 the ,western  feast of the             
,annunciation2 7#b7 the ,repose of the  
,theotokos1 ,aug4 #ae2  7#c7 the        
,nativity of the ,theotokos1 ,sept4 #h2 
and 7#d7 the ,entrance of the           

,theotokos into the ,temple1 ,nov4 #ba1 
corresponding to the ,presentation of   
the ,virgin in the ,west4    ,to these  
have to be added the following feasts of
 lesser dignity3 7#e7  ,hypapante 7the  
,meeting of ,st ,mary with ,simeon and  
,anna in the ,temple71  ,feb4 #b1       
corresponding to the ,western           
,purification4 ,this is a day of        
obligation3 but 7as has been already    
remarked7 it is perhaps to be  regarded 
rather as a festival of the ,lord than  
of ,st ,mary4 7#f7 ,the  ,deposition of 
the precious ,vestment of the ,theotokos
 in the ,church of  ,blachernae at      
,constantinople1 ,july #b3 7#g7 the     
,deposition of the precious  ,zone of   
the ,theotokos at ,constantinople1 ,aug4
 #ca3 7#h7 the ,conception of  ,st ,anna
 7i4e4 her conception of ,st ,mary71    
,dec4 #i1 a day of obligation3  7#i7 the
 ,synaxis of the ,theotokos and ,joseph1
 her spouse1 ,dec4 #bf1 a day  of       
obligation4 ,this day is also called the
 ,synaxis of the ,theotokos  fleeing    

into ,egypt4 ,the ,greeks consider that 
the visit of the ,magi was  exactly one 
year after the birth of ,christ1 and    
that the flight into  ,egypt was on the 
day following that visit4               
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,festivals ,,of ,,the
 ,,apostles1 ,,the ,,evangelists1 ,,and 
,,of ,,other ,,persons ,,named ,,in     
,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,,octaves ,,and
 ,,vigils      ,in the ,greek ,church   
there has continued to the present day a
 ,synaxis  of the ,twelve ,apostles on  
the day following ,st ,peter and ,st    
,paul 7,june  #bi72 and in the ,west we 
find a commemoration of all the         
,apostles1  connected with the festival 
of ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul1 in the     
,leonine  ,sacramentary#hg4 ,there is a 
,natale ,omnium ,apostolorum with a     
vigil in  the ,gelasian ,sacramentary4  
,this festival may have preceded all    
separate  commemorations4 ,it would seem
 to have been observed close to the date
 of  ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul4    ,with 
certain notable exceptions1 feasts of   

the ,new ,testament ,saints came  but   
slowly into the cycle of ,christian     
solemnities4 ,with some exceptions1     
more or less doubtful1 there is no      
reason to think that the days of the    
deaths of the ,apostles were known to   
those who gave them places in  the      
,kalendars4 ,it is highly probable in   
some cases1 and not improbable  in      
others1 that the dates assigned for the 
festivals really mark some  deposition  
or translation of the supposed relics of
 those commemorated1  or the dedication 
of some church named in their honour4   
,considerations of  the space at our    
disposal demand that the subject should 
be only lightly  touched2 but references
 are given to easily accessible works4  
,and we deal  only with the more notable
 festivals1 or festivals of early       
appearance4    ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul 
7,june #bi74 ,there is no question that 
at an early  date this festival was     
celebrated at ,rome4 ,the belief was    
entertained by  several ancient writers 

that these two ,saints suffered death   
upon the  same day of the month1 but in 
different years4    ,we have seen       
already 7p4 #cc f47 that in the ,east at
 an early date there  was a             
commemoration of ,st ,peter in close    
connexion with the commemoration  of the
 ,lord's ,nativity4 ,but at ,rome in the
 earliest ,western ,kalendar 7the       
,bucherian7 we find two festivals that  
deserve consideration3 7#a7 ,natale     
,petri de ,cathedra at ,feb4 #bb2 and   
7#b7 ,petri in ,catacumbas et ,pauli    
,ostiense1 at ,june #bi1 to which are   
added the words1 ,tusco et ,basso       
,coss4 ,to deal first with the latter   
entry2 as the consulate of ,tuscus  and 
,bassus marks ,a4,d4 #beh1 it has been  
not unnaturally conjectured that  the   
record marks the date of some           
translation of the ,apostles' relics4   
,but that conjecture does not absolutely
 exclude the supposition that the  day  
chosen for the translation was the day  
which was believed to have  been the day

 of their martyrdom4 ,the translation1  
as ,bishop ,pearson#hh  long ago        
supposed1 was the removal1 perhaps with 
a view to safety1 of the  remains to a  
place at the third milestone on the     
,appian ,way1 called #8,ad              
,catacumbas1' during the heat of the    
persecution under ,valerian4    ,the    
observance of a commemoration of ,st    
,paul on ,june #cj 7still so  marked in 
the ,roman ,kalendar71 has been         
accounted for by the fact that  the     
bishop of ,rome celebrating mass first  
at the tomb of ,st ,peter1 and          
afterwards on the same day having to go 
a long distance to the tomb of ,st      
,paul1 there to celebrate again1 it was 
arranged to observe the festival  of ,st
 ,paul on the day after ,june #bi1 with 
a view to avoiding the fatigue  and     
inconvenience of the two functions on   
the one day4    ,cathedra ,petri4 ,the  
entry cited above from the ,bucherian   
,kalendar1  ,natale ,petri de cathedra1 
#8the ,festival of ,peter of the        

,chair1' looks  very like the record of 
the dedication of a church1 where       
perhaps a  seated statue of the ,apostle
 was placed#hi4 ,we are at once reminded
  of the large seated figure of         
,hippolytus discovered in #aeea on the  
,via  ,tiburtina4 ,or1 as ,de ,rossi    
supposes1 the festival may have had to  
do with  the actual wooden chair 7as was
 supposed7 which ,st ,peter had used1   
and  of which we hear in the time of    
,gregory the ,great4 ,but1 whatever may 
have  been the origin of the festival1  
it came at a later time to be regarded  
as marking the date of the beginning of 
,st ,peter's episcopate2 and there  is  
some evidence that the festival was made
 much of as a ,christian set  off       
against the popular pagan solemnity of  
,cara cognatio on ,feb4 #bb1  when the  
dead members of each family were        
commemorated4    ,duchesne asserts1 with
 something of undue confidence1 that    
this was  without doubt the ground for  
the selection of the date ,feb4 #bb for 

the  ,christian festival2 but without   
committing ourselves to the acceptance  
of ,duchesne's view1 we may say that it 
may well have been a reason why  efforts
 were made to draw off the faithful1 by 
means of the ,christian  solemnity1 from
 the temptation to join in rites        
incompatible with  their profession4    
,the festival was unknown in the ,east1 
and1 what is  more remarkable1 equally  
unknown in the ,church of ,north        
,africa2 but it  appeared early in      
,gaul1 and1 as has been conjectured1    
with a view to  prevent the festival    
falling1 as would occasionally happen1  
in ,lent1 the  date was pushed back to  
,jan4 #ah4 ,at ,rome it continued to be 
observed on  ,feb4 #bb4    ,it would    
seem to have been due to the anxiety of 
the early mediaeval  ,kalendar-makers   
and ,martyrologists to comprehend in    
their lists  everything in the way of   
church solemnities recorded in any      
,kalendar that  we have the invention of
 ,st ,peter's ,chair at ,antioch4 ,they 

found some  ,kalendars marking ,cathedra
 ,petri at ,jan4 #ah1 and others at     
,feb4 #bb4  ,might not1 they would      
argue1 these double dates be accounted  
for by the  old accounts that ,st ,peter
 had exercised an episcopate at ,antioch
 before  he came to ,rome8    ,venerable
 ,bede does not mark any ,festival of   
,st ,peter's ,chair at ,jan4  #ah1 but  
at ,feb4 #bb writes #8,apud ,antiochiam 
,cathedra ,s4 ,petri4' ,but in  the     
,martyrology1 known as ,gellonense      
7circ4 #hjj71 and in ,usuard's          
,martyrology we find at ,jan4 #ah1      
#8,cathedrae ,s4 ,petri ,apostoli qu    
,romae  primo sedit1' and at ,feb4 #bb  
#8,cathedrae ,s4 ,petri ,apostoli qu    
sedit  apud ,antiochiam' 7,gellonense71 
#8,apud ,antiochiam ,cathedrae ,s4      
,petri'  7,usuard74 ,there continued to 
be a variety of use in different        
dioceses  as to the day on which #8,st  
,peter's ,chair' was celebrated2 and it 
was not  till as late as #aeeh that     
,pope ,paul ,,iv settled the question by

 ordering  that the feast of the ,roman 
,chair should be observed on ,jan4 #ah1 
while  ,gregory ,,xiii restored ,feb4   
#bb as the feast of the ,chair at       
,antioch4 ,this  is not the place to    
discuss whether there was1 properly     
speaking1 any  episcopate of ,st ,peter 
at ,antioch4 ,it is significant that the
 churches  of ,greece and the ,east knew
 nothing of the feast of ,st ,peter's   
,chair at  ,antioch#ij4    ,st ,peter   
#8ad vincula1' #8,st ,peter's ,chains4' 
,the ,eastern ,church  celebrates the   
festival of ,st ,peter's ,chain on ,jan4
 #af2 the ,latin  ,church celebrates the
 corresponding festival on ,aug4 #a4    
,both festivals  not improbably had     
their origins in the dedication of      
churches1 where  what were supposed to  
be a chain or chains which had bound    
,peter were  preserved4 ,the plural1    
#8chains1' in the ,roman name is        
significant1 and  will be understood by 
reference to the #dth and #eth ,lections
 for the feast  in the ,roman ,breviary4

 ,the feast does not appear in ,western 
,kalendars  till the eighth century4    
,the seventeenth century building1 ,s4  
,pietro in ,vincoli1 on the ,esquiline1 
occupies the site of the church of the  
,apostles1 reconstructed at the  expense
 of the imperial family between ,a4,d4  
#dcb and ,a4,d4 #ddj1 where the         
precious relics were deposited4    ,in  
connexion with this feast attention     
should be called to the fact that  in   
the so-called ,hieronymian ,martyrology 
at ,aug4 #a1 we find no reference  to   
the chains1 but there is the            
particularly interesting entry3 #8,at   
,rome1 dedication of the first church   
both constructed and consecrated by     
blessed ,peter the ,apostle#ia4'    ,st 
,andrew 7,nov4 #cj74 ,the ,martyrologies
 agree in giving ,nov4 #cj as  the day  
of the martyrdom4 ,the festival appeared
 early at ,rome1 and was  given a place 
of high dignity#ib4 ,in fact there is   
authority for the  feast being kept at  
,rome in early times with no less       

solemnity than ,st  ,peter's ,day4 ,it  
will be remembered that in the prayer   
,libera nos in  the ,canon of the ,mass 
,andrew is named together with ,peter   
and ,paul4 ,the  ,sacramentary of ,st   
,leo has four sets of #8propers' for    
masses on this  festival4 ,it is a day  
of much importance in the ,greek        
,church1 as ,st  ,andrew1 the           
,protoclete1 is reckoned the apostle of 
,greece4 ,st ,andrew is  the patron of  
the ,russian ,church#ic4 ,relics of ,st 
,andrew1 said to have  been brought by a
 monk named ,regulus from ,patras to    
,scotland1 gave the  name of ,st ,andrew
 to the place in ,fife previously known 
as ,kilrymont2 and  ,st ,andrew became  
the patron saint of ,scotland4 ,in the  
,aberdeen ,breviary  his day is a       
#8greater double4'    ,bishop           
,wordsworth remarks that ,st ,andrew's  
,day #8is perhaps the only  festival of 
an ,apostle claiming to be really on the
 anniversary of his  death4' ,nov4 #cj  
is given as the day of his martyrdom in 

the apocryphal  ,acta ,andreae1         
describing his death at ,patras#id4     
,st ,james the ,great 7,july #be71 the  
son of ,zebedee1 does not appear very   
early4 ,the day is not noticed in either
 the ,leonine or the ,gelasian          
,sacramentary1 and made its way to      
general acceptance but slowly4 ,in the  
canons of the ,council of ,oxford       
7,a4,d4 #abbb7 it does not appear among 
the  chief festivals for general        
observance in ,england1 although in     
,england  it was certainly a festum     
chori long before that date4    ,it     
would seem 7,acts xii4 #b1 #c7 that the 
death of ,james took place about  the   
time of the ,paschal commemoration2 the 
,coptic ,kalendar marks ,st  ,james's   
day on ,april #ab1 and the ,syrian      
lectionary of ,antioch on ,april  #cj1  
on which day also the ,greek ,church    
keeps a festival of ,st ,james1  using  
for the ,epistle ,acts xii4 #a1 etc4    
,the placing of the festival in  the    
,west so far from ,easter as ,july #be1 

suggests that the latter date was       
connected with some translation of      
relics1 or such like4    ,as we have    
already seen 7p4 #af7 the ancient       
,syriac ,kalendar edited  originally by 
,wright1 commemorates ,james together   
with his brother ,john  on ,dec4 #bg4   
,st ,john1 ,apostle and ,evangelist4    
,the principal festival on ,dec4 #bg is 
found in the fourth century in the      
,east1 where he was conjoined with      
,james4 ,traces of this conjunction are 
to be found in the ,west4 ,it is        
interesting to find in the ,gothic      
,missal1 printed by ,muratori1 a mass   
for the ,natale of the ,apostles ,james 
and ,john placed between ,st ,stephen   
and ,holy ,innocents4 ,and in the       
,hieronymian ,martyrology we find at    
,dec4  #bg #8the ordination to the      
episcopate of ,st ,james1 the ,lord's   
brother a  confusion1 and the assumption
 of ,st ,john1 the ,evangelist1 at      
,ephesus4'    ,the ,greek ,church       
commemorates the metastasis1 or         

migration of ,john1 on  ,sept4 #bf1 and 
an important festival in honour of the  
holy dust 7called  manna7 from his tomb 
at ,ephesus on ,may #h4    ,st ,john    
before the ,latin gate 7,may #f74 ,the  
story of the caldron of  boiling oil is 
as old as ,tertullian 7de ,praescript4  
c4 #cf74 ,but of  the festival there is 
no notice before the closing years of   
the eighth  century4 ,the day of the    
month probably marks the date of the    
dedication  of a church near the ,latin 
gate#ie4 ,it is characteristically a    
,western  festival4 ,in the ,roman rite 
it was1 about the thirteenth century1 a 
semi-double3 it was made a double by    
,pius ,v 7#aeff-aegb71 and a greater    
double by ,clement ,,viii 7#aeib-afje74 
,st ,matthew 7,sept4 #ba73 in the       
,greek1 ,russian1 ,syrian and ,armenian 
,churches1 ,nov4 #af3 in the ,egyptian  
and ,ethiopic ,kalendars of ,ludolf1    
,oct4 #i4 ,the festival of ,sept4 #ba is
 certainly late in appearing4 ,it is    
wanting in the ,leonine1 ,gelasian1 and 

,gallican ,sacramentaries1 and in       
,muratori's edition of the ,gregorian4  
,it is found1 however1 generally in  the
 martyrologies1 which fact1 of course1  
does not necessarily imply that  there  
was any liturgical observance of the    
day#if4    ,st ,luke 7,oct4 #ah72 and on
 the same day generally in the ,east4   
,the day  perhaps marks a translation of
 relics in the ,east1 as is stated in   
the  so-called ,hieronymian             
,martyrology4 ,st ,luke does not appear 
in the older  ,sacramentaries2 but in   
some manuscripts of the ,gregorian we   
find a proper  preface for ,st ,luke on 
v ,kal4 ,nov4 7,oct4 #bh74    ,st ,mark 
7,april #be73 on the same day in the    
,east4 ,the day is of late  appearance1 
not perhaps before the ninth century4   
,the great processional  litanies on    
,april #be appear at ,rome long before  
,st ,mark's name was  attached to the   
day4 ,in their origin these litanies    
were distinctively  ,roman4    ,st      
,philip and ,st ,james 7,may #a74 ,this 

was the day of the dedication of a      
church at ,rome in their honour in the  
second half of the sixth century4  ,the 
word natale is applied at a later time  
to the day2 which may have  been in     
error1 or1 as can be proved by many     
examples1 the word natale  came to be   
used loosely as equivalent to festival  
or commemoration4 ,in  the ,greek       
,church ,st ,james1 #8the brother of    
,god1' is commemorated on ,oct4  #bc1   
and ,st ,philip1 #8one of the twelve1'  
on ,nov4 #ad4 ,the ,greeks celebrate    
,philip1 the deacon1 on ,oct4 #aa1 and  
he appears in ,usuard's ,martyrology at 
,june #f4    ,why ,philip and ,james    
should be associated we know not4 ,the  
deposition of  relics of both at the    
time of the dedication of the church at 
,rome may  perhaps account for the      
conjunction of the names4    ,st ,simon 
and ,st ,jude 7,oct4 #bh74 ,legend      
associates these two ,apostles as       
having together laboured for thirteen   
years in ,persia1 and as there dying    

martyrs' deaths4 ,in the ,sacramentaries
 they do not appear till they are  found
 in a late form of the ,gregorian4 ,in  
the ,east the commemoration of  these   
,apostles is divided and a day assigned 
to each4 ,in the ,greek ,church  ,simon 
,zelotes appears at ,may #aj1 and ,judas
 7,thaddaeus7 at ,june #ai4    ,st      
,thomas1 ,apostle and ,martyr 7,dec4    
#ba72 his ,translation is marked at     
,july #c in the ,west4 ,in the ,greek   
,church ,st ,thomas is commemorated on  
,oct4  #f1 a day also observed by the   
,syrians1 who add a translation on ,july
 #c4  ,in the fourth century there was a
 magnificent basilica of ,st ,thomas at 
,edessa1 and to this church the remains 
of the ,apostle were translated  7from  
,india according to the legend7 before  
the close of the century4 ,st  ,thomas  
7at ,dec4 #ba7 is not found in the      
,leonine1 and only in some texts  of the
 ,gregorian ,sacramentary4 ,he appears1 
however1 in the ,gelasian4    ,st       
,bartholomew 7,aug4 #bd72 and at ,rome  

on ,aug4 #be4 ,the ,latin churches      
generally1 including that of mediaeval  
,england1 observed ,aug4 #bd4 ,the      
,greek ,church commemorates ,bartholomew
 together with ,barnabas on ,june #aa1  
and a translation of the relics of      
,bartholomew on ,aug4 #be4 ,in the ,west
  the introduction of the feast was     
late4 ,there is no trace of it in the   
early forms of the great                
,sacramentaries#ig4    ,st ,john the    
,baptist1 the ,nativity 7,june #bd72 so 
too in the ,greek  ,church4 ,the date   
was doubtless assigned on the strength  
of the inference  drawn from the        
,gospels1 that the birth of the baptist 
preceded that of  the ,saviour by six   
months4 ,it appeared early1 and was a   
recognised day  in the time of ,st      
,augustine#ih4 ,it has its masses in the
 ,sacramentaries  from the ,leonine     
downwards4    ,the ,decollation of ,st  
,john the ,baptist 7generally ,aug4     
#bi74 ,this  festival is also early1    
but1 so far as evidence goes1 not so    

early as the  ,nativity#ii4 ,it was     
known in ,gaul before it was adopted at 
,rome4 ,the  ,greek churches celebrate  
the day on ,aug4 #biajj4    ,the        
,conversion of ,st ,paul 7,jan4 #be71   
was of late introduction4 ,it does  not 
appear in the correct text of ,bede's   
,martyrology1 and in only late  texts of
 the ,gregorian ,sacramentary4 ,there is
 reason for believing that  the day was 
first observed to mark the translation  
of relics of ,st ,paul  at ,rome1 for so
 it appears in the ,hieronymian         
,martyrology1 and the period  of        
transition seems to be marked in the    
,martyrology of ,rabanus ,maurus  7ninth
 century71 where we find at ,jan4 #be1  
#8,translation and ,conversion  of ,st  
,paul4' ,it is not found in ,england in 
the ,pontifical of ,egbert1  ,archbishop
 of ,york 7,a4,d4 #gcb-gff71 but it     
appears in the ,leofric ,missal1  in the
 second half of the eleventh century4   
,it is unknown in the ,greek  ,church4  
,st ,mary ,magdalene 7,july #bb71 who is

 identified in the ,west with  the woman
 who was a sinner1 and with ,mary the   
sister of ,lazarus1 is  distinguished   
from each of these in the ,greek        
service-books which also  mark her      
festival on ,july #bb4 ,among the       
,easterns she is thought of as  #8the   
holy myrrh-bearer1' one of the women who
 brought the spices to the  tomb of the 
,lord4 ,in various places in the ,west1 
though not at ,rome1  the day was a day 
of obligation in the middle ages4 ,it   
appears in some  service-books in the   
tenth and eleventh centuries1 but not in
 missals1  secundum consuetudinem       
,romanae curiae1 till the               
thirteenth#aja4    ,there was a festival
 of ,st ,mary ,magdalene 7,july #bb7 in 
the ,english ,prayer  ,book of #aedi4   
,the collect and gospel 7,luke vii4 #cf 
to the end of the  chapter7 show that no
 ,english ,reformers identified the     
,magdalene with the  woman who was a    
sinner4 ,the festival disappears in the 
,prayer ,book of  #aeeb4    ,st         

,barnabas1 the ,apostle 7,june #aa74    
,the ,greeks commemorate on this  day   
#8,bartholomew and ,barnabas1           
,apostles4' ,the festival probably marks
  the supposed finding of the body of   
,barnabas 7having a copy of ,st         
,matthew's ,gospel in his hand7 in the  
island of ,cyprus in the fifth  century4
 ,barnabas is not found at ,june #aa in 
the so-called ,hieronymian              
,martyrology2 nor in the ,martyrology   
known as ,gellonense1 but it is  noted  
in ,bede 7though there is some doubt    
whether the entry is not due to         
,florus71 and in the later              
,martyrologies4    ,the ,greek ,church  
commemorates 7many of them with proper  
names attached7  the seventy disciples  
of ,luke x4 #a1 called in the           
service-books  #8apostles4'    ,octaves4
 ,the word ,octave is used sometimes for
 the eighth day after  a festival1      
sometimes 7in later documents7 for the  
space of eight days  which follow the   
festival4 ,it may be regarded as an echo

 or prolongation  of the festival4 ,in  
the ,eastern ,church what is known as   
the ,apodosis  7see p4 #ace7 in a       
measure corresponds to the ,western     
,octave4 ,it has not  unreasonably been 
conjectured that they owe their origin  
to an imitation  of the festal practices
 of the ,hebrews 7,levit4 xxiii4 #f2    
,num4 xxviii4  #ag2 ,deut4 xvi4 #c74    
,octaves were originally few3 they      
appear first  in connexion with ,easter 
and ,pentecost1 and1 occasionally1 with 
the  ,epiphany4 ,in the eighth and ninth
 centuries ,octaves became more         
numerous4  ,yet in the ,corbie ,kalendar
 7,a4,d4 #hbf71 assuming that the       
movable feasts  of ,easter and          
,pentecost had their ,octaves1 we find  
in addition only the  ,octaves of       
,christmas1 ,epiphany1 ,peter and ,paul1
 ,lawrence and ,andrew4 ,this  falls in 
well with what is said by ,amalarius    
7about the same date7 who1  after       
noticing the ,octaves of ,christmas1    
,epiphany1 ,easter1 and ,pentecost1     

adds1 #8,we are accustomed to celebrate 
the ,octaves of the natalitia  of some  
saints1 that is1 of those whose         
festivals are esteemed as more          
illustrious amongst us' 7,de            
ecclesiasticis officiis1 iv4 #cf74 ,at  
,rome  we find ,st ,agnes having an     
,octave 7,jan4 #bh7 at a date earlier   
than that  with which we have been      
dealing#ajb2 and even to-day in the     
,roman ,missal  and ,breviary there is  
an interesting survival in the          
persistence of the  old name1 ,agnetis  
secundo1 and of #8propers' for the day4 
,liturgically1  the ancient practice in 
the ,west was to insert a simple        
commemoration on  the eighth day of     
festivals4    ,the prolongation of a    
festival for eight days may be found    
illustrated  by the practice of the     
,church at ,jerusalem in the fourth     
century1 as  recounted by #8,silvia' in 
her descriptions of the ,epiphany1 the  
,pascha1  and the feast of the          
dedication of the churches known as the 

,martyrium  and the ,church of the      
,resurrection4    ,the great            
multiplication of ,octaves in mediaeval 
times has been  attributed to the       
influence of the ,franciscans1 who in   
the language of  ,kellner #8provided an 
inordinate number of ,octaves in their  
,breviary1 and  observed each day of the
 ,octave with the rite of a festum      
duplex#ajc4'    ,the somewhat elaborate 
rules with respect to ,octaves and their
 relation  to the observance of other   
festivals1 as enjoined in the modern    
,roman  rite1 can be found in such      
technical works as those of ,gavantus   
and  ,ferraris4 ,it must suffice here to
 observe that within the ,octaves of    
,christmas1 ,easter1 ,pentecost1 the    
,epiphany1 and ,corpus ,christi1 ,votive
  and ,requiem masses are prohibited4   
,vigils4 ,the origin of vigils is       
obscure4 ,the proper service of each    
,lord's ,day was preceded in early times
 by what may be regarded as  something  
like a vigil1 a service before the dawn 

of day2 and some  think that this view  
may be deduced from ,pliny's well-known 
letter to  ,trajan4 ,but in this there  
would seem1 perhaps1 to be a reading    
into the  document of more than its     
contents warrant4 ,however this may be1 
we  find as early as ,tertullian that   
there were among ,christians #8nocturnae
  convocationes1' the solemnities of the
 ,pascha being more particularly        
referred to#ajd4 ,the exact nature and  
object of these assemblies are not      
described4 ,evidence is more full at a  
later date for vigils of some kind1  not
 only before the ,lord's ,day but also  
before the ,sabbath#aje4 ,at the  period
 when #8,silvia' visited ,jerusalem the 
faithful seem to have engaged  in       
services before the dawn on every       
,lord's ,day4 ,and in ,gaul in the fifth
  century1 as we gather from ,sidonius  
,apollinaris#ajf1 the vigils were  not  
all night-watches but services before   
day-break4 ,about a century  later than 
,tertullian1 we find the ,council of    

,elvira1 near ,granada1 some  time in   
the first quarter of the fourth century1
 enacting a canon 7#ce71  declaring that
 women should not spend the             
night-watches 7pervigilent7  in         
cemeteries1 #8because often under the   
pretext of prayer they secretly  commit 
serious offences 7scelera74' ,there is  
no further explanation2  and the        
probable conjecture has been offered    
that it may have been  the practice to  
have vigils in the cemeteries on the    
night before the  oblation was offered  
at the tomb of one of the martyrs4 ,that
 there was  in ,spain at this date some 
kind of service in the cemeteries seems 
not  improbable from the fact that the  
canon immediately preceding that which  
we have noticed forbids the lighting of 
wax tapers in cemeteries in the  day    
time4    ,by the end of the fourth      
century1 there is ample evidence for the
  observance of nocturnal or early      
morning vigils before the greater       
festivals in both ,east and ,west4      

,early in the fifth century ,vigilantius
  protested against the scandals which  
arose from the nocturnal watchings  in  
the basilicas1 and for this1 among other
 assaults upon the current  abuses and  
superstitions of the time1 he drew upon 
himself the violent  and coarse         
invective of ,jerome4 ,yet ,jerome      
himself may be quoted for the  fact that
 there were moral dangers attending     
these nocturnal vigils1 for  while      
advising the lady ,laeta to inure her   
daughter1 the younger ,paula1  to days  
of vigil and solemn pernoctations1 he   
warns her that she should  keep the girl
 close by her side#ajg4 ,to ,pope       
,boniface ,i 7,a4,d4 #dah-dbb7  has been
 attributed the prohibition of nocturnal
 vigils in the ,roman  cemeteries4      
,with regard to the ,paschal ,vigil1    
,jerome expresses the opinion that it   
originated in the belief that ,christ   
would come again in the night of the    
,pascha#ajh4    ,in process of time1 the
 day before the feast 7dies profestus7  

assumed  the name of vigil1 and was in  
the ,west commonly1 though not          
universally1  associated with a fast4   
,mediaeval ritualists1 such as ,honorius
 of ,autun  7who died a little after    
,a4,d4 #aacj71 connect the change with  
the popular  abuses of the nocturnal    
vigils4    ,there is an interesting     
letter of ,innocent ,,iii 7about ,a4,d4 
#abac71 laying  down the rule in the    
,roman ,church1 which still prevails4   
,the vigils of  the ,apostles are to be 
observed as fasts1 with the exception of
 ,st ,john  the ,evangelist and ,st     
,philip and ,st ,james1 the former      
occurring in the  season of ,christmas1 
and the latter in that of ,easter#aji4  
,beside the  vigils of the ,apostles1   
the vigils of ,christmas and the        
,assumption are  fasts de jure1 and by  
custom the vigils of ,pentecost1 the    
,nativity of  the ,baptist1 ,st         
,lawrence1 and ,all ,saints4 ,these     
rules were often locally  modified by   
papal indults4          ,,chapter ,,vii 

,,seasons ,,of ,,preparation ,,and      
,,penitence      ,,advent    ,advent1 as
 the term is now employed1 signifies a  
season1 regarded as  preparatory to the 
,festival of the ,nativity of the ,lord1
 including four  ,sundays and a variable
 number of days1 as affected by the day 
of the week  upon which ,december #be   
falls4    ,as no evidence has been      
adduced for an established celebration  
of the  ,feast of the ,nativity before  
the fourth century1 so it is obvious    
that  we cannot expect to find the      
appointment of a season of preparation  
before that date4 ,as a matter of fact1 
it would seem that the earliest         
distinct notice of such a season1       
prescribed for general use1 belongs to  
the latter part of the sixth century2   
and that the practice originated in     
,gaul4 ,in a small council held at      
,tours about ,a4,d4 #efg there is       
vaguely  indicated a fast for monks in  
,december1 to be kept every day #8usque 
ad natale domini' 7can4 #ag74 ,a few    

years later1 in the south of ,gaul1  we 
find what seems a canon of general      
application1 but less exacting in       
regard to the number of days on which   
the fast was to be observed4 ,in  the   
ninth canon of the ,council of ,mcon    
7,a4,d4 #eha7 it is enjoined that  from 
the festival of ,st ,martin 7,nov4 #aa7 
the second1 fourth and sixth  days of   
the week should be fasting days1 that   
the sacrifices should be  celebrated in 
the quadragesimal order1 and that on    
these days the canons  7probably meaning
 the canons of this synod7 should be    
read1 so that no  one could plead that  
he erred through ignorance4 ,we have    
here something  that at once reminds us 
of the pre-paschal season1 as observed  
in some  ,churches4 ,the season came to 
be known as ,quadragesima ,s4 ,martini4 
,but  the length of this season 7as was 
also true of ,lent7 seems to have varied
  much4 ,the six ,sundays which it      
covered1 as we may infer from the canon 
of  ,mcon referred to above1 we find    

indicated probably by the six missae  of
 ,sundays of ,advent in the ,ambrosian  
and ,mozarabic rites4 ,yet the oldest   
,gallican ,sacramentary records only    
three ,sundays1 and the                 
,gothic-,gallican  only two#aaj4    ,in 
,england1 as we learn from ,bede1 forty 
days of fasting #8ante natale  domini'  
were observed by ,cuthbert 7 #fhg7 and  
by ,ecbert 7 #gbi74 ,in both  cases1    
however1 it should be remarked1 the     
observance seems mentioned as  an       
indication of exceptional piety#aaa4    
,at the close of the sixth century      
,rome1 under ,gregory the ,great1       
adopted  the rule of the four ,sundays  
in ,advent2 and in the following century
  this rule became prevalent 7though not
 universal7 in the ,west4    ,in the    
,greek ,church the general observance of
 forty days' penitential  preparation   
for ,christmas does not appear to have  
been established before  the thirteenth 
century4 ,in the ,greek ,church of      
to-day the forty days'  preparation     

begins on ,nov4 #ae4 ,it is sometimes   
called the ,fast of ,st  ,philip1       
doubtless because the festival of ,st   
,philip was celebrated on  ,nov4 #ad4   
,on ,wednesdays and ,fridays the fast is
 rigorous2 but on other  days1 wine1    
oil1 and fish are allowed4    ,the      
practice of the ,armenians is peculiar3 
they observe a fast for the  week       
preceding the ,nativity1 and for one    
week commencing fifty days  before the  
,nativity4 ,the conjecture has been     
offered that these two weeks  are a     
survival of a fast that had originally  
lasted for the whole of  fifty days4    
,in ,churches of the ,roman ,communion  
at the present day1 the practice as  to 
fasting varies4 ,in ,great ,britain and 
,ireland ,wednesdays and ,fridays  are  
expected to be observed2 but in many    
parts of the continent of ,europe  there
 is no distinction between weeks in     
,advent and ordinary weeks4    ,on      
,december #af in the ,west it was the   
practice to sing as an antiphon to  the 

,magnificat the first of a series of    
seven antiphons1 each beginning  with   
#8,o'2 thus1 #8,o ,sapientia' 7,dec4    
#af71 #8,o ,adonai' 7#ag71 #8,o ,radix  
,jesse' 7#ah71 etc4 ,in the ,kalendar of
 the ,book of ,common ,prayer the  words
 #8,o ,sapientia' appear at ,dec4 #af4  
,this is not1 strictly speaking1  a     
survival of mediaeval times2 for it was 
first introduced into the  ,english     
,prayer ,book ,kalendar in ,a4,d4 #afjd4
    ,the rule of the ,english ,book of  
,common ,prayer 7#affb7 for determining 
,advent runs thus3 #8,advent ,sunday is 
always the nearest ,sunday to the       
,feast of ,st ,andrew1 whether before or
 after4' ,as thus expressed1 the  rule  
does not seem to contemplate the case of
 ,advent ,sunday falling on  ,st        
,andrew's ,day4 ,it was a mistake not to
 add the additional words which  were in
 the ,scottish ,prayer ,book of #afcg1  
namely1 #8or that ,sunday which  falleth
 upon any day from the twenty-seventh of
 ,november to the third of  ,december   

inclusively4' ,the word #8or' does not  
imply that the second part  of the rule 
is an equivalent of the first2 but it   
gives a rule to meet a  case not        
contemplated in the first part4         
,,the ,,fast ,,preceding ,,easter       
7,,lent7    ,that a fast preliminary to 
the ,pascha was observed in the early   
,church is  beyond question4 ,irenaeus1 
in his letter to ,victor1 bishop of     
,rome#aab1  states that at the time     
there were several differences as to the
 length  of the fast2 but in no case was
 a prolonged series of days prescribed4 
#8,some1' he says1 #8think they ought to
 fast one day2 others1 two2 others  more
 than two2 others reckon together forty 
hours both of the day and  the night as 
the day of fasting#aac4' ,and ,irenaeus 
adds that these  differences existed    
long before 7 7 the time when he wrote4 
,the words about the forty hours may    
perhaps be illustrated by passages  of  
,tertullian#aad1 where he speaks of     
persons fasting in the days #8when  the 

bridegroom was taken away1' or1 in other
 words1 the time during which  the ,lord
 was under the power of death1 i4e4     
certain hours of the day of  the        
,crucifixion1 the twenty-four hours of  
,saturday1 and certain hours of  the    
early part of ,easter ,day4 ,we shall   
not delay to discuss the questions      
connected with the exact time of        
commencing and of closing the forty     
hours4    ,about the middle of the third
 century at ,alexandria the whole week  
before  ,easter was observed as a time  
of fasting by some2 but there were those
  who fasted only on four days2 others  
contented themselves with three or  even
 two2 while there were some 7evidently  
exceptional persons7 who did  not fast  
even one day#aae4 ,it is plain that as  
yet no fixed rule was  enforced4    ,in 
the fourth century we meet with the term
 1 or  ,quadragesima4 ,in the fifth     
canon of the ,council of ,nicaea it is  
ordered  that one of the two annual     
provincial ,synods should be held before

  #8the tessarakoste4' ,the sense of the
 term is assumed to be known1 and  is   
not explained4 ,but it must not be      
inferred that the word necessarily      
signifies here forty days1 or that forty
 days were assigned to  fasting4    ,the
 classical authority for the variations 
of later usages is the passage  of      
,socrates#aaf1 where he describes many  
differences of practice in  his own day 
7c4 ,a4,d4 #ddj7 and the varieties in   
the length of the fast  in different    
countries4 ,at ,rome1 he says1 there was
 a fast of three  weeks1 excepting      
,saturdays and ,sundays2 at ,alexandria 
and in ,achaia and  ,illyricum a fast of
 six weeks2 in other places the fast    
began seven  weeks before ,easter1 but  
was limited to fifteen days1 with an    
interval  between each five days#aag4   
,not long after his time there were two 
prevailing usages--that of the ,churches
 which deducted from the fasting  days  
,sundays and ,saturdays 7always         
excepting the ,saturday in ,holy ,week71

  and that of the ,churches which       
deducted only the ,sundays4 ,the former 
was  the prevailing usage in the ,east2 
the latter1 in the ,west4 ,the seven    
weeks in the ,east1 with thirteen days  
deducted 7seven ,sundays and six        
,saturdays71 and the six weeks of the   
,west1 with only six days deducted1     
agree precisely in each having only     
thirty-six fasting days4    ,at the time
 of the ,peregrinatio ,silviae 7about   
the end of the fourth  century71 if we  
may trust the writer1 at ,jerusalem     
eight weeks of fasting  preceded        
,easter1 which1 deducting eight ,sundays
 and seven ,saturdays1  gave1 as she    
expressly says1 forty-one days of       
fasting4 ,this is highly  exceptional1  
if not unique4 ,at any rate1 the        
practice did not long  continue4    ,the
 number #cf is nearly the tenth of      
#cfe--the number of the days of the     
year2 and this thought struck the fancy 
of more than one writer4 ,we  were      
bound1 they urged1 to offer to ,god the 

holy tithe1 not only of our  increase1  
but of our time4 ,and in the fifth      
century ,john ,cassian presses  this    
point1 and attempts to bring the length 
of the fast to correspond  more closely 
with the tithe of the year by observing 
that the fast  was prolonged for some   
hours1 #8usque in gallorum cantum1' on  
,easter  morning#aah4    ,at a later    
period the thought of the fasts of      
,moses and ,elijah1 and  more           
particularly of the ,lord's fast of     
forty days in the wilderness1  seems to 
have suggested that the fast of the     
faithful should correspond  in length4  
,the addition of four days--the         
,wednesday and three following  days    
immediately preceding the first ,sunday 
in ,lent--has been frequently           
attributed to ,gregory the ,great4 ,but 
the writings of ,gregory testify  to his
 knowing only thirty-six fasting days4  
,and it is now generally  acknowledged  
that no support for the supposition can 
be based on the  language of the        

collects for ,feria ,,iv and ,feria ,,vi
 in the week begun on  ,quinquagesima1  
which speak of the beginning of the     
fast1 and are to be  found in the       
,gregorian ,sacramentary#aai4 ,the      
,sacramentary1 as we now  possess it1   
abounds in additions later than the time
 of ,gregory4    ,it is impossible to   
say precisely when1 or by whom1 the     
additional four  days were introduced4  
,approximately we may assign this change
 to about  the beginning of the eighth  
century1 and to ,rome4 ,it did not      
obtain  everywhere4 ,it was not till    
near the close of the eleventh century  
that  the ,scottish ,church1 at the     
persuasion of the ,saxon princess1      
,queen  ,margaret of ,scotland1 fell    
into line with most of the other        
,western  ,churches1 by accepting the   
four fasting days in the week before the
  first ,sunday in ,lent#abj4 ,the      
,mozarabic ,liturgy adopted it only at  
the instance of ,cardinal ,ximenes about
 the beginning of the sixteenth         

century4 ,the ,church of ,milan still   
preserves1 among its interesting        
survivals1 the commencement of the      
rigorous ,lenten ,fast on the ,monday   
after the first ,sunday4 ,but in #aefc  
,st ,charles ,borromeo1 then archbishop 
of ,milan1 succeeded1 against vigorous  
local protests1 in making the first     
,sunday in ,lent a day of abstinence4   
,the term caput jejunii was applied     
sometimes to the ,wednesday1 known as   
,ash ,wednesday1 and frequently in      
service-books to the period of the four 
days preceding the first ,sunday in     
,lent4 ,thus1 these days are designated 
#8,feria ,,iv1 ,feria ,v1 ,feria ,,vi1  
et ,sabbatum1 in capite jejunii4' ,the  
distribution of ashes on the ,wednesday 
in the ,western ,church is a much       
modified survival and relic of the      
ancient penitential discipline4    ,in  
the ,orthodox ,church of the ,east at   
the present day #8the great and  holy   
,tessarakoste' contains1 as in the      
,west1 six ,sundays4 ,but the  ,lenten  

offices commence at ,vespers on the     
,sunday 7known as ,tyrinis1 or          
,tyrophagus7 preceding the first ,sunday
 in ,lent4 ,in the week preceding  this 
,sunday 7corresponding to the ,western  
,quinquagesima7 the faithful  give up   
the use of flesh meat1 and confine      
themselves to cheese 77  and other      
lacticinia4 ,and it may be observed1 in 
passing1 that in  the ,greek ,church    
there are other examples of the week    
being named from  the ,sunday which     
follows it4 ,thus1 #8the week of ,palms'
 is the week  followed by ,palm         
,sunday#aba4 ,the ,sunday 7our          
,sexagesima7 preceding  ,tyrinis is     
called ,apocreos 7,dominica             
carnisprivii74 ,it is the  last day upon
 which flesh may be eaten4 ,after the   
,sunday #8,tyrinis' a  more rigorous    
fast is prescribed2 but ,sundays and    
,saturdays 7except the  ,saturday in    
,holy week7 are exempted1 so that there 
are only thirty-six  days of rigid      
fasting2 five days in each of the first 

six weeks1 and six  days in the last    
week#abb4    ,the word quadragesima is  
the source of the ,italian quaresima1   
and  the ,french carme 7in old ,french1 
quaresme72 while our ,english word1     
,lent1 is simply indicative of the      
season of the year when the fast        
occurs1 being derived from the          
,anglo-,saxon ,lencten1 the spring-time4
      ,,other ,,special ,,times ,,of    
,,fasting      ,i4 ,western             
,church--,the three fasts called        
#8,quadragesima'2 ,rogation ,days2  the 
,four ,seasons4    ,in addition to      
,advent1 which1 as we have seen1 is     
sometimes spoken  of as the quadragesima
 of ,st ,martin1 and ,lent 7quadragesima
 ante  ,pascha7#abc1 we find in the     
eighth1 ninth and tenth centuries in    
writers of ,germany1 ,france1 ,britain1 
and ,ireland references to a third      
quadragesima which is styled sometimes  
the quadragesima after  ,pentecost1 and 
sometimes the quadragesima before ,st   
,john the ,baptist4  ,in the            

,paenitentiale of ,theodore1 ,archbishop
 of ,canterbury 7 ,a4,d4  #fij71 it is  
declared that #8there are three fasts   
established by law  7jejunia legitima7  
for the people generally 7per           
populum7#abd1 forty  days and nights    
before ,pascha1 when we pay the tithes  
of the year1 and  forty before the      
,nativity of the ,lord1 and forty after 
,pentecost#abe4'  ,the remarkable       
collection of canons of the ancient     
,irish ,church1 which  is known as the  
,hibernensis1 is of uncertain date1 but 
is attributed  by such eminent          
authorities as ,wasserschleben1 ,henry  
,bradshaw1 ,whitley  ,stokes1 and ,j4   
,b4 ,bury1 to the end of the seventh or 
early part of the  eighth century4 ,the 
three penitential seasons called        
quadragesima are  distinctly referred   
to#abf4 ,in the ,capitula of            
,charlemagne1 priests  are directed to  
announce to the people that these three 
seasons are  legitima jejunia4 ,in the  
canons collected by ,burchard1 ,bishop  

of ,worms  7,a4,d4 #ajjf71 the three    
seasons called quadragesima are referred
 to1 and  the third is defined as the   
forty days before the festival of ,st   
,john  the ,baptist4 ,many interesting  
questions are suggested by these        
passages  with which we are unable to   
deal here4 ,it must suffice to say that 
the  quadragesima after ,pentecost did  
not long survive4 ,it disappeared1 and  
has left no mark upon the ,church's     
year4    ,rogation ,days4 ,there is a   
general agreement that the observance of
 the  ,monday1 ,tuesday1 and ,wednesday 
before the ,ascension as days of special
  prayer and fasting1 owes its origin to
 ,mamertus1 bishop of ,vienne  7about   
,a4,d4 #dgj71 who appointed litanies or 
rogations to be said1 at a  time when   
the people of his city were in great    
terror by reason of a  severe earthquake
 and a conflagration consequent         
thereupon4 ,the shaken  walls and the   
destruction of public buildings1 as     
vividly described  by ,sidonius         

,apollinaris1 may have suggested        
practical reasons for the  litanies     
being chanted out of doors4 ,the        
practice of ,rogations soon  spread     
through the whole of ,gaul1 and in the  
,council of ,orleans 7,a4,d4  #eaa71    
where thirty-two bishops were present1  
the three days' fast1 with  ,rogations1 
was enjoined upon all their churches4   
,in ,england1 the practice  of observing
 the ,rogations had evidently been long 
established when the  ,council of       
,cloveshoe 7,a4,d4 #gdg7 enjoined it    
#8according to the custom of  our       
predecessors4' ,at ,rome1 in the opinion
 of ,baillet1 and recently of           
,duchesne1 the ,rogation days were not  
introduced till about ,a4,d4 #hjjabg4   
,in the ,east there is nothing          
corresponding to the ,rogation ,days2   
and  the ordinary fast of ,wednesday is 
on the ,wednesday before ,ascension ,day
  relaxed by a dispensation for oil1    
wine1 and fish2 for in the ,east the    
dies profestus commonly possesses       

something of a festal character1        
anticipatory of the morrow4    ,in the  
,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle the term       
#8gang-days' is used more than once  for
 the ,rogation days2 and in the ,laws of
 ,athelstan we find #8gang-days'  and   
#8gang-week4' ,the name originated in   
the walking in procession on  these     
days4    ,the ,fasts of the ,four       
,seasons 7jejunia quatuor temporum74    
,the  earliest distinct reference to    
these fasts is to be found in the       
,sermons  of ,pope ,leo ,i 7,a4,d4      
#ddj-dfa71 who speaks of the spring fast
 being in  ,lent1 the summer fast #8in  
,pentecost1' the autumn fast in the     
seventh1  and the winter fast in the    
tenth month4 ,from ,st ,leo we also     
learn that  the fast was on ,wednesday  
and ,friday1 and that on the ,saturday a
 vigil  was observed at ,st             
,peter's#abh4 ,the observance is        
characteristically  ,roman1 and is found
 at first only at ,rome1 and in         
,churches in immediate  dependence on   

,rome4 ,duchesne holds that the weeks in
 which these fasts  occurred differed   
from other weeks mainly in the rigour of
 the fast1  i4e4 #8the substitution of a
 real fast for the half-fast of the     
ordinary  stations4' ,and he adds the   
suggestion that on the ,wednesday of the
  ,four ,seasons1 if not on the ,friday1
 the ,eucharist was from the outset     
celebrated#abi4    ,in ,england the     
,council of ,cloveshoe 7,a4,d4 #gdg7    
enjoins that no one should  neglect     
#8the fasts of the fourth1 seventh1 and 
tenth month4' ,the omission  of any     
notice of the ,ember days in ,lent will 
be noticed later on4    ,in the         
,churches of ,gaul we do not find the   
,ember days established long  before the
 time of ,charlemagne4    ,at first we  
find no trace of a connexion between the
 ,ember seasons and  the holding of     
ordinations2 and1 as is observed by ,dr 
,sinker1 #8everything  points to the    
conclusion that the solemnity attaching 
to the seasons led  to their being      

chosen as fitting times for the         
rite#acj4'    ,the ,sacramentary that is
 known as ,st ,leo's exhibits #8propers'
 for  masses of the fasts in the fourth1
 seventh1 and tenth months1 i4e4  ,june1
 ,september and ,december#aca2 and from 
these we can gather that on  #8the      
festival of the fasts' assemblies and   
processions had been made on  the       
,wednesdays and ,fridays1 and a vigil   
7with the ,eucharist7 held on  the      
,saturdays4 ,in these there is not only 
no reference to ordinations  of the     
clergy1 but also no reference that would
 suggest the special  intention and     
significance of these days of fasting4  
,the conjecture is  not unreasonable    
that there was the desire to dedicate in
 penitence the  year in its four several
 parts to the service of ,god2 but      
neither the  history nor the literature 
of the early ,church is decisive in     
confirming  the conjecture4    ,the     
practice of the ,church at ,rome spread 
gradually1 with some varieties  as to   

the particular weeks in which the three 
days of fasting were  observed4 ,for    
,england the notices of the ,ember days 
are earlier than  they are for ,france4 
,at first1 at ,rome1 the spring fast    
seems to have  been in the first week in
 ,march1 but afterwards always in ,lent4
 ,and as  soon as it came to be observed
 in ,lent it would 7as regards the fast7
  require no special injunction4 ,this  
may perhaps account for the omission  of
 any mention of the fast of the first   
month in the canon of the ,council  of  
,cloveshoe referred to above4 ,the      
fixing of the particular days now       
observed in the ,west is generally      
assigned to about the close of the      
eleventh century2 but in ,england1 as   
late as ,a4,d4 #abbb1 the ,council of   
,oxford still speaks of the fast in the 
first week in ,march#acb4    ,in the    
,eastern ,church there is nothing       
corresponding to the fasts of the  ,four
 ,seasons4        ,there is some        
uncertainty as to the etymology of our  

,english      phrase #8,ember ,days4'   
,the weight of authority is in favour of
      the derivation from the ,old      
,english words ymb1 #8about1'           
#8round1' and ryne1 #8course1'          
#8running'2 but the ,new ,english       
,dictionary 7,oxford7 adds that it is   
not wholly impossible      that the word
 may have been due to popular etymology 
working      upon some vulgar ,latin    
corruption of quatuor tempora1 as the   
,german quatember1 #8ember tide4'       
,,ii4 ,eastern ,churches4    ,the fasts 
before the ,nativity and ,easter have   
been treated of under  ,advent and      
,lent4 ,in the ,greek ,church the season
 before ,easter is called  #8the great  
,tessarakoste1' for the word            
,tessarakoste is also applied  to three 
other penitential seasons1 7#a7 to the  
fast before the ,lord's  ,nativity1 7#b7
 the fast of the ,apostles 7,peter and  
,paul71 and 7#c7 the fast  of the       
,assumption of the ,theotokos4 ,but1    
though the word ,tessarakoste  is       

applied to each of these1 there is no   
apparent connexion between the  number  
forty and the number of days observed as
 fasting-days2 and this  is notably the 
case in regard to the third and fourth4 
,the fast of the  ,apostles extends for 
a variable number of days from the      
,monday after the  ,sunday of ,all      
,saints 7i4e4 the first ,sunday after   
,pentecost7 to ,june  #bh1 both         
inclusive4    ,examination will show    
that the interval between these two     
limits can very  rarely amount to forty 
days2 and when ,easter falls at its     
latest possible  date 7,april #be7 the  
first ,sunday after ,pentecost is ,june 
#bj1 so that the  ,tessarakoste of the  
,apostles would in that case be only    
eight days in  length4    ,the length of
 the ,tessarakoste of the ,assumption is
 fixed1 and extends  only from ,aug4 #a 
to ,aug4 #ad4    ,it would appear then  
that the term ,tessarakoste has come in 
practice to  signify simply a fast of a 
number of days1 and has lost all        

reference to  the number #dj4    ,the   
,exaltation of the ,cross 7,sept4 #ad71 
although regarded as a festival  77 of  
the highest dignity1 is observed as a   
strict fast4    ,the same is true of the
 ,decollation of the ,forerunner 7,aug4 
#bi71 because  of #8the murder of him   
who is greater than all the prophets4'  
,when it is  remembered that all        
,wednesdays as well as ,fridays are     
fasting days1 it  will not be a surprise
 to be told that the fasting days of the
 ,greek  ,church amount in each year to 
some #aij in number4    ,the ,armenians 
on fast-days abstain from flesh1 milk1  
butter1 eggs1 and  oil4 ,every day in   
,lent except ,sundays is kept as a fast4
 ,among peculiar  observances is 7#a7   
the ,fast of ,nineveh1 for two weeks    
commencing  in the week before our      
,septuagesima4 ,it is called by the     
,armenians  ,aratschavor-atz1 meaning1  
it is said1 #8preceding abstinence1' and
 this  term has taken shape among the   
,greeks as #8,artziburion4' ,in the     

frequent  controversies between the     
,greeks and ,armenians the former       
denounce this  fast as execrable and    
satanic4 7#b7 ,the ,armenians also      
observe as a fast  the week after       
,pentecost4 ,it has been maintained that
 in early times this  fast was observed 
in the week before ,pentecost1 and that 
afterwards1  in compliance with the     
general rule that the days between      
,easter and  ,pentecost should not be   
observed as fasts1 a change was made4   
,illustration3 ,kalendar of ,worcester  
,book 7,october7    7,portiforium ,s4   
,oswaldi47 ,corpus ,christi ,college1   
,cambridge 7,,ms4 #cia74  ,circa ,a4,d4 
#ajfd4          ,,chapter ,,viii        
,,western ,,mediaeval ,,kalendars3      
,,martyrologies      ,the word          
,martyrology has been sometimes applied 
to mere records of  names placed        
opposite days of the month1 like the    
document which goes  under the name of  
,liberius 7see p4 #ad71 as well as to   
the fuller and  more elaborate accounts 

of saints and martyrs1 with often       
something  of biographical detail1 and  
notices of time and place1 and 7in the  
case of martyrs7 the manner of the      
passions1 such as are to be found1  for 
example1 in the ,martyrology of ,bede1  
and more particularly in the  additions 
of ,florus1 and the ,martyrologies of   
,ado and ,usuard4    ,the study of the  
,martyrologies is surrounded by many    
difficulties4 ,they  were again and     
again copied1 and re-handled4 ,it       
demands much knowledge  and critical    
acumen to sever from the documents as   
they have come down to  us later        
additions1 so that we may get at what   
may reasonably be regarded  as the      
original texts4 ,such work is always    
attended with considerable  uncertainty1
 and scholars are often divided in      
opinion as to the  results#acc4    ,the 
influence of the later ,martyrologies   
upon the mediaeval ,kalendars of  the   
,west is marked4 ,bede's valuable work  
is the outcome of honest and  patient   

research2 many days1 however1 were left 
blank--an offence to the  professional  
,martyrologist4 ,it was much enlarged1  
about one hundred years  after his      
death1 by one ,florus1 who 7with some   
differences of opinion7  is generally   
supposed to have been a sub-deacon of   
,lyons4 ,ado1 bishop  of ,vienne1 some  
twenty or thirty years later than       
,florus1 prepared an  extensive         
,martyrology1 which1 together with the  
work of ,florus1 was  in turn utilised  
and abridged about ,a4,d4 #hge by       
,usuard1 a priest and  ,benedictine monk
 of the monastery of ,st                
,germain-des-,prs1 then outside  the    
walls of ,paris1 who undertook his work 
at the instance of the ,emperor         
,charles the ,bald4 ,the book when      
completed was dedicated to the ,emperor2
  and before long ,usuard's ,martyrology
 came in general to supersede  previous 
attempts of the same kind4 ,its         
influence on subsequent mediaeval       
,kalendars is unmistakeable4 ,usuard    

came to be adopted almost universally   
for use4    ,in monasteries and         
cathedral churches it was a common      
practice to read  aloud each day1       
sometimes in chapter1 sometimes in      
choir1 after ,prime1  the part of the   
,martyrology which had reference to the 
commemorations  of the day or of the    
following day1 together with notices of 
obits  and anniversaries of members of  
the ecclesiastical corporation and of   
benefactors1 which on the following day 
would be observed4 ,indeed1 in  later   
times the name ,martyrology is not      
infrequently applied to the mere  lists 
of such obits and anniversaries4 ,the   
mediaeval martyrologies are  generally  
,usuard's1 but they have local          
additions4        ,the student who      
desires to know something of other early
      ,martyrologies1 such as that which
 is called the ,hieronymian1      the   
,lesser ,roman1 and the ,martyrology of 
,rabanus1 bishop of      ,mainz1 may    
consult ,kellner 7pp4 #dja-daj7 and ,mr 

,birk's article1      ,martyrology1 in  
,d4 ,c4 ,a4 ,since the publication of   
the      latter article the ,henry      
,bradshaw ,society has issued1 under    
the competent editorship of ,mr ,whitley
 ,stokes1 the metrical      ,martyrology
 of ,oengus the ,culdee 7about ,a4,d4   
#hjj7 and the      metrical ,martyrology
 of ,gorman 7latter part of the twelfth 
century71 which are of much value in    
illustrating the hagiology      of the  
,irish ,church4 ,the scanty materials   
for the study of      ,scottish         
mediaeval ,kalendars 7all of them late7 
have been      gathered together by     
,bishop ,a4 ,p4 ,forbes in his          
,kalendars of      ,scottish ,saints1   
#ahgb4 ,the ,martiloge in ,englysshe    
printed      by ,wynkyn de ,worde       
7#aebf7 and reprinted by the ,henry     
,bradshaw      ,society 7#ahic7 is the  
,martyrology of the ,church of ,sarum1  
with      many additions4    ,by the    
tenth century the general features of   
,kalendars throughout ,europe  are      

substantially identical as regards the  
greater days of observance4  ,but       
differences1 often of much interest1    
arise through different churches        
commemorating saints of local or        
national celebrity4 ,it often happens   
that by this means alone we are able to 
determine1 or to conjecture  with       
considerable probability1 the place or  
region where some liturgical  manuscript
 had its origin4 ,when we find in a     
,kalendar a large proportion  of more or
 less obscure saints belonging to the   
,rhine valley1 we may be  confident that
 the manuscript belongs to that region  
of ,germany4 ,when  an ,english         
,kalendar contains no notice of ,st     
,osmund we may be sure that  it did not 
originate at ,salisbury4 ,when we find  
,st ,margaret on ,nov4 #af1  ,st ,fillan
 on ,jan4 #i1 ,st ,triduana on ,oct4 #h1
 and ,st ,regulus on ,march #cj1  there 
is an overwhelming probability that the 
manuscript belongs to  ,scotland4 ,in   
the ,kalendar of ,york we find ,st      

,aidan 7,aug4 #ca71 ,st ,hilda  of      
,whitby 7,aug4 #be71 and ,st ,paulinus1 
the archbishop 7,oct4 #aj71 but  these  
are all wanting to the ,sarum ,kalendar4
 ,st ,kunnegund1 the ,german  ,empress1 
who died in ,a4,d4 #ajdj1 figures       
largely in ,german ,kalendars4          
,sometimes we find marked not only her  
obit1 but her canonization1 and  her    
translation2 and at ,bamberg the octave 
of her translation was  observed4       
,outside ,germany she is all but        
unknown4 ,st ,louis is naturally  an    
important personage in ,french          
,kalendars2 and he appears as far north 
as the ,kalendars of ,scandinavia4 ,he  
never obtained a place in any of  the   
leading #8uses' of ,england4 ,on the    
other hand1 at an earlier date          
continental influences on ecclesiastical
 affairs 7not unknown before the        
,conquest7 became potent when ,norman   
churchmen poured into this country      
after ,a4,d4 #ajff1 and obtained places 
of the highest dignity4 ,it is thus     

probably that ,st ,batildis1 wife of    
,clovis ,,ii 7,jan4 #cj71 ,st           
,sulpicius1  bishop of ,bourges 7,jan4  
#ag71 ,st ,medard1 bishop of ,noyon1    
with ,st ,gildard1  bishop of ,rouen    
7,june #h71 and ,st ,andoen1 another    
bishop of ,rouen 7,aug4  #bd71 obtained 
days in our ,english ,kalendars4 ,all   
these are absent from  the ,anglo-,saxon
 ,kalendars printed by ,hampson#acd4    
,again1 occasionally a ,church ,kalendar
 exhibits features which may  be        
attributed to merely accidental         
circumstances4 ,relics of some  saint   
belonging to another and distant region 
may happen to have  been presented to   
some church2 and thereupon his name is  
inserted  in its ,kalendars4 ,it is     
thus1 with much probability1 that ,mr   
,warren  accounts for the appearance of 
the names of one northern bishop and    
two northern abbots--,aidan1 bishop of  
,lindisfarne1--,benedict1 first  abbot1 
and ,ceolfrith1 second abbot of         
,wearmouth--in the ,kalendar of the     

,leofric ,missal4 ,in ,william of       
,malmesbury1 we read that in ,a4,d4 #gjc
  relics of these saints were brought to
 ,glastonbury4 ,and in the case of  two 
of these1 ,aidan 7,aug4 #ca7 and        
,ceolfrith 7,sept4 #be71 the ,leofric   
,kalendar adds to each name the word1   
#8in ,glaestonia4' ,other evidence      
makes it all but certain that           
,glastonbury and its history affected   
the  ,leofric ,kalendar4 ,at ,cologne1  
which claims to possess the heads of the
  ,three ,kings1 one cannot wonder that 
their ,translation 7,july #bc7 is a     
#8summum festum4' ,in the ,kalendars of 
the ,orthodox ,church of the ,east  the 
deposition of relics is frequently the  
occasion of the annual  commemoration of
 the event1 and the insertion of a      
festival in the  ,menology4 ,in all     
countries translations of the bodies of 
saints are found  entered2 and when the 
dates of such translations are known    
from history1  we are at once enabled to
 say of any particular manuscript       

service-book  that the ,kalendar1 in    
which some particular translation is    
marked prima  manu1 was written after   
the known date4 ,on the other side1 when
 we find  any important festival absent1
 or1 as is frequently the case1 inserted
 in  a later handwriting1 the strong    
presumption is raised that the original 
,kalendar belongs to a time before the  
establishment of the festival4  ,thus1  
the absence of the ,conception of ,st   
,mary 7,dec4 #h7 from a ,kalendar       
suggests that it is earlier than the    
last quarter of the eleventh  century2  
while the appearance of ,corpus ,christi
 goes to determine a  ,kalendar to be   
later than ,a4,d4 #abfj4    ,from what  
has been said1 it will seen that1 even  
apart from the style  of the            
handwriting1 the formation of the       
various letters1 the manner of          
punctuation1 and other palaeographical  
indications1 the mere contents of  a    
,kalendar will often help the student to
 make a good conjecture as to  both the 

place of the origin of a manuscript and 
the time when it was  penned4           
,illustration3 ,kalendar of ,durham     
,psalter 7,september7    ,jesus         
,college1 ,cambridge 7,,ms4 ,q4 ,b4 #f74
 ,cent4 xii4    ,as regards the         
particular ,church for the use of which 
any ,kalendar was  intended1 attention  
should be directed not only to the      
appearance of  certain festivals1 but to
 the rank and dignity of the festivals1 
which  are often indicated by some such 
notes as #8principal1' #8of ix          
,lessons1'  #8of iii ,lessons1'         
#8greater double1' #8lesser double1' or 
some other term  of classification#ace4 
,classification in continental          
,kalendars is often  otherwise          
expressed#acf4 ,in the ,kalendar of the 
,missal of ,westminster  ,abbey the     
dignity of the greater festivals is     
marked by indicating the  number of     
copes 7varying from two to eight7 which 
were to be used1 as  has been thought1  
by the monks who sang the ,invitatory to

 ,venite at  ,mattins4 ,no one will be  
surprised to learn that at ,westminster 
the ,feast  of ,st ,edward the          
,confessor 7,jan4 #e71 and his          
,translation 7,oct4 #ac7 are  marked    
#8viii cape1' a dignity which is reached
 only in the cases of ,st  ,peter and   
,st ,paul1 the ,assumption1 ,all        
,saints1 and ,christmas3 while in  the  
,sarum ,kalendar ,st ,edward is marked  
on ,jan4 #e only by a #8memory1'  and   
his ,translation is but a #8lower       
double4' ,at ,holyrood ,abbey1 near     
,edinburgh1 ,holy ,cross ,day was       
naturally one of the greatest festivals 
of the year1 while in the ,aberdeen     
,breviary the ,invention of the ,cross  
and the ,exaltation were both #8lesser  
doubles4' ,at ,hereford1 ,thomas of     
,hereford 7,oct4 #b7 was a #8principal  
feast1' and so was his ,translation     
7,oct4 #be72 neither day appears in the 
,sarum ,kalendar4 ,the ,translation  of 
the ,three ,kings1 already referred to1 
which is a #8summum festum' at          

,cologne1 is all but unknown elsewhere4 
,these examples will suffice for  our   
purpose4    ,it remains to notice       
entries of other kinds not uncommon in  
mediaeval  ,kalendars4 ,there are       
notices of what ,i may call an          
antiquarian kind1  which did not at all1
 or but seldom1 affect the service of   
the day1  but which are not without an  
interest of their own4 ,thus1 such      
entries  as the following are not       
uncommon4 #8,the first day of the world'
 7,march  #ah72 #8,adam was created'    
7,march #bc72 #8,noah entered the ark'  
7,march #ag72  #8,the ,resurrection of  
the ,lord' 7,march #bg71 by which is    
meant that the  actual resurrection of  
the ,saviour took place on this day of  
the month1  in the year in which the    
,lord was crucified4 ,this assigned date
 is of  great antiquity4 ,we find it in 
,tertullian 7adv4 ,judaeos c4 #h72 and  
later it was accepted by ,hippolytus and
 ,augustine1 and it is frequent  in the 
,kalendars of the early mediaeval       

period4 ,in the ,sarum ,kalendar  it is 
marked as a principal feast of three    
lessons1 but there is no  service       
answering to the day in the ,breviary4  
,we find #8,noah comes forth  from the  
ark' 7,april #bi72 #8,the devil departs 
from the ,lord' 7,feb4 #ae72  #8,the    
,ascension of the ,lord' 7,may #e72 this
 last mentioned day is plainly  a       
corollary to the date assigned to the   
,resurrection1 but it is not so         
frequently inserted in the ,kalendars4  
,we may pass without comment entries of 
astronomical interest1 such as  #8,sol  
in aquario1' #8,sol in piscibus1' and   
such like2 the solstices and the        
equinoxes2 the days when the four       
seasons began2 and such weather-notes   
as the dates when the dog-days 7dies    
caniculares7 began and ended4  ,it will 
be observed that there was at least     
ancient precedent for what  gave offence
 to ,bishop ,wren when he wrote of the  
,kalendar of the ,book of  ,common      
,prayer1 #8,out with the dog-days from  

among the ,saints4'    ,some of the     
features just noticed continued to make 
their appearance in  various ,english   
,kalendars after the ,reformation4 ,the 
,kalendar1 indeed1  of the ,prayer ,book
 of #aedi looks to our eyes singularly  
bare1 with no  days marked other than   
what we call the red-letter festivals4  
,in #aeeb1  the #8dog-days' reappear1   
and also the astronomical notes as to   
dates of  the sun's entrance into the   
various signs of the zodiac4 ,to these  
are  added1 for reasons of practical    
convenience1 the ,term days4 ,the       
,prayer  ,book of #aeei adds further the
 hours of the rising and setting of the 
sun  at the beginning of each month4 ,in
 the ,primer of ,edward ,,vi 7#aeec7 the
  names of a very large number of the   
old ,saints' ,days are introduced1 and  
the convenient reminder of #8,fish' is  
placed at the days preceding the        
,purification1 ,st ,matthias1 the       
,annunciation1 ,st ,john ,baptist1 ,st  
,peter1  ,st ,james1 ,st ,bartholomew1  

,st ,matthew1 ,st ,simon and ,st ,jude1 
,all ,saints1  ,st ,andrew1 ,st ,thomas1
 and ,christmas4 ,this ,kalendar also1  
after the manner  of many mediaeval     
,kalendars1 marks the first possible day
 for ,easter1  and #8first of the       
,ascension1' #8uttermost ,ascension1'   
#8first ,pentecost1'  #8uttermost       
,pentecost4' ,in some of the            
unauthorised books of devotion  issued  
in ,elizabeth's reign we find some of   
the dates inferred rightly  or wrongly  
from the ,scripture history1 which had  
long before appeared  in mediaeval      
,kalendars1 such as days connected with 
,noah's story1 the  ,passion1           
,resurrection1 and ,ascension of the    
,lord2 and to these many other  days of 
historical interest are added#acg4      
,in many of the mediaeval ,kalendars we 
find entered at ,jan4 #bh1 ,march #aa1  
and ,april #ae1 respectively1 the words 
#8,claves ,quadragesimae1' #8,claves    
,paschae1' and #8,claves ,rogationum4'  
,the number of days to be counted  from 

each of these dates to the beginning of 
,lent1 to ,easter1 and to  the ,rogation
 ,days1 varying according to the place  
which any given year  occupies in the   
,cycle of ,golden ,numbers1 may be found
 with the help of a  table prefixed to  
the ,kalendar4 ,it should be noted that 
the #8terminus' of  the key never falls 
on the day of the fast or festival      
sought1 and if the  terminus of the key 
for ,easter falls on a ,sunday1 ,easter 
is the following  ,sunday4    ,several  
of the old ,kalendars exhibit the days  
on which #8the months of  the           
,egyptians' and #8the months of the     
,greeks' begin1 with the names of  these
 several months4 ,in some early ,english
 ,kalendars the ,saxon names  of the    
months are also inserted4 ,this feature 
may have been of use to  historical     
students1 but having no bearing on      
ecclesiastical life in the  ,west it is 
passed over here without further notice4
    ,for a similar reason we do not     
describe the verses frequently inserted 

at the various months1 with advice as to
 agricultural operations1               
blood-letting1 rules of health1 and the 
unlucky1 or ,egyptian days4             
,occasionally attached to early         
,kalendars and ,martyrologies is      to
 be found the ,horologium or            
,shadow-clock--a set of rules for       
determining1 in a rough way1 the hour of
 the day by measuring      one's own    
shadow on the ground#ach4    ,the modern
 ,roman ,martyrology was preceded       
towards the close of the  fifteenth     
century and in the sixteenth century by 
several attempts to  provide what was   
thought to be a more serviceable work   
than that of  ,usuard4 ,among the more  
remarkable of these are the ,martyrology
 of the  ,italian mathematician         
,francesco ,maurolico1 and that of      
,pietro ,galesini1  published first at  
,milan in the year #aegg4 ,the latter   
work had the  effect of making manifest 
that there was need for the correction  
of the  ,roman ,martyrology4 ,gregory   

,,xiii appointed a commission to deal   
with the  subject4 ,the result of the   
labours of the commission was printed in
 #aehd4  ,further corrections were made 
by ,cardinal ,baronius2 and the work as 
revised by him is in substance the      
modern ,roman ,martyrology#aci4         
,,chapter ,,ix    ,,easter ,,and ,,the  
,,moveable ,,commemorations      ,i4    
,paschal ,controversies prior to the    
,council of ,nicaea4    ,the            
commemoration of the ,pascha is the     
first annual ,christian solemnity  with 
which history makes us acquainted4 ,and 
it will be well that the  student should
 bear in mind that the term #8,pascha'  
was used in early  times to signify1    
more particularly1 not ,easter 7for     
which it was used  in later times71 but 
the day of the ,lord's ,crucifixion1    
more commonly  without1 and sometimes   
together with1 the succeeding two days1 
including  the day of the ,resurrection4
 ,but most commonly the word is employed
 in  the earlier literature of the      

subject to signify the commemoration of 
the  day of the ,crucifixion1 which was 
generally held to have corresponded in  
the history of the ,passion to the day  
upon which the ,paschal lamb was        
sacrificed in the ,jewish ritual#adj4   
,it is scarcely possible to conceive    
that1 even if the ,christian religion   
had taken its rise in circumstances     
altogether dissimilar from those  amid  
which as a matter of history it actually
 emerged1 there would have  been no     
commemoration of such great events as   
the death and rising again  of its      
,founder4 ,but the first disciples of   
,christ being ,hebrews1 and  their      
converts at first being also in a large 
measure ,hebrews1 it was  inevitable    
that the great ,hebrew festival of the  
,passover should take  to itself a new  
colouring and a new significance in     
,christian thought4  ,thus we find ,st  
,paul speaking of ,christ as #8our      
,pascha' 7i4e4 ,paschal  victim71 which 
#8hath been sacrificed for us' 7#a ,cor4

 v4 #g74 ,and he  adds1 #8therefore let 
us keep the feast 7or keep festival7 not
 with  the old leaven1 neither with the 
leaven of malice and wickedness1 but    
with the unleavened bread of sincerity  
and truth4' ,it would indeed  be        
unwarrantable to infer from this passage
 that a ,christian ,pascha  was actually
 observed as a festival at the time when
 ,st ,paul wrote  to the ,corinthians4  
,but it is obvious that the passage is  
steeped  in reminiscences of the ,hebrew
 festival1 and that these are already   
receiving a new complexion and a new    
meaning4    ,the observance of the      
,christian ,pascha first comes into     
marked prominence  about the middle of  
the second century4 ,at that date it was
 everywhere  a recognised institution of
 the ,church2 but there were differences
  between the ,churches of proconsular  
,asia 7the ,asia of the seven ,churches 
of the ,apocalypse7 and the ,church at  
,rome and in other places1 as to  the   
particular day upon which the           

commemoration should be observed4 ,the  
evidence with regard to the early stages
 of the dispute is scanty4 ,such        
details as we possess are not free from 
obscurity and have been variously       
interpreted4    ,in a work like the     
present volume we can do no more than   
lay before  the student the results     
which seem to us to have the greater    
weight of  probability in their favour4 
,the ,asiatics1 it would seem1 began to 
celebrate the festival of the  ,pascha  
on the fourteenth day of the moon of the
 ,hebrew month ,nisan1 the  day upon    
which the ,jews put away all leaven from
 their houses and slew  the lamb of the 
,passover4 ,on the whole1 the evidence  
seems to make for  the ,asiatic         
,christians terminating the preceding   
fast on the evening  of that day1 and on
 the same evening celebrating the       
,paschal feast  consisting of the       
,eucharist1 accompanied1 perhaps1 by the
 ,agape4 ,it was  on the fourteenth     
,nisan1 according to the prevailing     

,asiatic belief1  that the ,lord        
suffered death upon the cross1 and in   
,his sacrifice became  the true         
representative of the ,paschal lamb     
which had been his antitype4  ,foreign  
as it must be to us with our habits of  
thought to conceive of  a festival being
 kept on the day of the ,crucifixion    
7that is1 on the  evening which was     
regarded as the beginning of the        
following day71 we  must suppose that   
the realisation of the blessings of the 
redemption  purchased by the ,saviour's 
blood overtoned 7to borrow a term from  
the  art of music7 the imaginative      
presentment of the historical sufferings
 of  the ,cross4 ,our own ,english term1
 #8,good ,friday1' seems to have        
originated  with a similar way of       
regarding the facts#ada4    ,from what  
has been said1 it will be apparent that1
 as the fourteenth day  of the moon     
might fall upon any day in the week1 the
 commemoration of the  ,resurrection1   
three days later1 might also fall upon  

any day of the week4  ,at ,rome1 and in 
various other places1 the festival of   
the ,resurrection  was always observed  
on a ,sunday1 because it was on the     
first day of the  week that the ,saviour
 rose from the dead4 ,the ,asiatics laid
 stress on  the day of the month--the   
lunar month--on which the ,saviour      
suffered3  the ,roman ,church insisted  
that the sixth day of the week1 ,friday1
 was  the proper day for commemorating  
the ,crucifixion1 and that the following
  ,sunday should be kept as the feast of
 the ,resurrection4 ,those who  made the
 fourteenth day of the moon to be       
necessarily the day for the  celebration
 of the ,pascha were known as           
#8,quartodecimans#adb4'    ,the dispute 
was further complicated by the          
difference with regard to the           
observance of the fast4 ,the ,asiatics  
terminated their fast on the evening  of
 the day of the ,crucifixion4 ,the      
,romans continued it till the morning   
of the day of the ,resurrection4    ,the

 ,asiatics claimed ,st ,john and ,st    
,philip1 the ,apostles1 as the          
originators of the usage which they     
followed2 and at the close of the       
second century they were able to recite 
a long list of holy bishops and  martyrs
 who had never deviated from the        
practice of their ,churches4    ,it was 
some time about the middle of the second
 century that ,st  ,polycarp1 bishop of 
,smyrna1 the personal disciple of ,st   
,john1 visited  ,rome1 and conferred    
with ,anicetus1 the bishop of that city1
 on this and  other subjects4 ,on the   
,paschal question neither bishop was    
convinced  by the other2 but it was     
agreed that on such a matter it was not 
essential that there should be          
uniformity4 ,the discussion was carried 
on with moderation1 the two bishops     
received the ,eucharist together1  and  
,anicetus1 #8out of reverence' for      
,polycarp permitted him to act as       
celebrant in his church#adc4    ,the    
subject of the proper time for observing

 the ,christian ,pascha  continued to   
excite discussion2 and between ,a4,d4   
#afd and #aff1 on  the occasion of      
disputes at ,laodicea1 a defence of the 
practice of  proconsular ,asia came from
 the pen of one of the bishops of that  
region1  ,melito1 bishop of ,sardis4    
,unfortunately no remains of the work of
 ,melito  survive of such a kind as     
would help us to understand the writer's
  argument1 or to clear the difficulties
 which surround the attempt to form  a  
well assured picture of the practice of 
his part of the ,christian  world4 ,it  
has indeed been conjectured that the    
work of ,melito was  directed mainly    
against certain sectaries1 perhaps      
,ebionites1 who on  the fourteenth day  
of ,nisan feasted after the manner of   
the ,jews upon  a paschal lamb4 ,this   
practice was so distinctly ,judaistic1  
that it was  rejected everywhere by the 
orthodox4    ,of vastly more importance 
and significance1 as affecting the whole
  ,church1 were incidents which occurred

 towards the close of the century4      
,victor1 bishop of ,rome1 successor next
 but one to ,anicetus1 was a man  of    
different temper2 or1 at all events1 he 
attached a much higher  importance to   
uniformity as to the time of observing  
,easter4 ,interest  in the question was 
roused in various quarters4 ,councils of
 bishops 7at  the instance of ,victor7  
discussed it in ,gaul1 in ,greece1 in   
,palestine1  in ,pontus1 and as far east
 as ,osrhoene beyond the ,euphrates4 ,by
 this  time it was found that what1 for 
convenience1 we may style the ,western  
practice was also largely followed in   
the ,east4 ,the churches1 however1 of   
proconsular ,asia still maintained their
 old position4 ,a letter written by     
,polycrates1 bishop of ,ephesus1 to     
,victor on their behalf is preserved by 
,eusebius#add4    ,victor1 departing    
from the moderate policy of his         
predecessor ,anicetus1  thought the time
 had come for dealing more drastically  
with his opponents  on the ,paschal     

question1 and sought to cut them off    
from the communion of  the ,catholic    
,church#ade4 ,victor's attitude called  
forth remonstrances  from various       
quarters1 and was the occasion of a     
remarkable letter  written by ,irenaeus1
 bishop of ,lyons1 in the name of the   
brethren in  ,gaul1 over whom he        
presided4 ,he declares that the mystery 
of the ,lord's  ,resurrection should    
indeed be celebrated only on a ,sunday1 
yet he  strongly urges the impropriety  
of ,victor's cutting off #8whole        
,churches  of ,god' because of          
differences on such a matter4 ,he then  
adds that the  controversy was not only 
on the question as to the day on which  
,easter  should be celebrated1 but also 
on the length and manner of the         
preceding  fast1 varieties as to which  
he recounts 7see p4 #gi72 and he goes on
  to remind ,victor that bishops of     
,rome in former times1 while strictly   
preserving their own usages1 did not    
break the peace of the ,church by       

excommunications directed against those 
who followed other ways#adf4  ,letters  
of similar purport were addressed by    
,irenaeus to various other  bishops4    
,the result of this intervention was    
that the ,asiatic ,churches  were for   
the time left undisturbed in the        
practice of their traditional  usages4  
,how soon the ,asiatic ,churches fell   
into line with the majority is  not     
apparent4 ,but it seems evident that the
 change had taken place before  the     
,council of ,nicaea4    ,we have seen   
that in the attempts to commemorate on  
the proper days the  death and          
resurrection of the ,lord1 the ,asiatics
 thought most of the  day of the month1 
and the ,westerns and those who         
concurred with them  thought most of the
 day of the week4 ,but the latter party 
had obviously  to make some attempt to  
lay down a rule which would at least    
approximate  the date of their ,pascha  
to the time of the year when the ,lord  
suffered4  ,the vernal equinox was taken

 by them1 and by the ,church of         
,alexandria1  as the fixed point to     
which the date of ,easter should bear   
some settled  relation4    ,it is       
perhaps impossible to determine with    
precision when the rule came  to be     
generally accepted that the full moon1  
which was to regulate the  date of      
,easter1 was the first full moon after  
the vernal equinox4 ,we  find that this 
is the rule which governs the ,paschal  
,tables of ,hippolytus  7of which more  
will be said hereafter71 and we find it 
expressly enjoined  in that ancient     
collection of ,church law which goes    
under the name of  the ,apostolic       
,canons4 ,the ,tables of ,hippolytus    
can1 with reasonable  certainty1 be     
assigned to ,a4,d4 #bbb4 ,in the        
,apostolic ,constitutions1 the  date of 
which it is impossible to determine with
 any close approach to  certainty#adg1  
the rule runs1 #8,observe the days of   
the ,pascha with all  care after the    
vernal equinox1 that ye keep not the    

memorial of the one  passion twice in a 
year4 ,keep it once only in a year for  
,him who died  but once#adh4' ,the      
mystical reason assigned here also      
appears in the  letter of the ,emperor  
,constantine1 announcing the decision to
 which the  ,nicene ,council came upon  
the ,paschal question#adi4 ,later on the
 reader  will find what is probably     
meant by keeping the ,pascha twice in   
the same  year#aej4    ,it would not    
perhaps be fitting to pass over in      
silence the attempt  made in the early  
part of the third century by the ,roman 
ecclesiastic1  ,hippolytus1 to construct
 a cycle which would make it possible to
 predict  the day on which ,easter would
 fall in any future year4    ,as to who 
this ,hippolytus was1 ,eusebius and     
subsequent students among  the ,fathers 
appear to have known scarcely anything4 
,eusebius speaks of  the many writings  
of ,hippolytus1 and gives the titles of 
some of them1  and describes one more   
particularly4 ,this was a treatise      

,concerning the  ,pascha1 in which was  
to be found a certain sixteen-year rule 
7canon7  about the ,pascha1 the boundary
 of the writer's computation being the  
first year of the ,emperor              
,alexander#aea1 i4e4 ,alexander         
,severus1 whose  first year was ,a4,d4  
#bbb4    ,the brief statement of        
,eusebius1 dull and prosaic in itself1  
acquired  suddenly a new and            
extraordinary interest in the year      
#aeea1 when during  some excavations    
made in the neighbourhood of ,rome1 in  
the ,via ,tiburtina  7the road to       
,tivoli71 a much shattered statue was   
unearthed1 which on  being pieced       
together exhibited1 on the sides of the 
chair in which  the figure of a         
venerable looking man was represented as
 seated1 two  elaborate numerical       
tables1 in ,greek characters1 one       
showing the day of  the month on which  
the ,pascha1 or fourteenth day of the   
moon1 would  fall from ,a4,d4 #bbb to   
,a4,d4 #ccc3 the other showing1 for the 

same number  of years1 the day of the   
month upon which ,easter ought to be    
kept4 ,the  statue1 as restored1 may now
 be seen in the ,museum of the ,vatican4
  ,the ,tables are constructed in seven 
columns of sixteen years each4 ,on  the 
back of the chair were inscribed in     
,greek the titles of various  books1    
many of which corresponded with the     
titles of works attributed  to          
,hippolytus by ,eusebius4 ,there could  
be no reasonable doubt that the  statue 
was the statue of ,hippolytus1 and that 
the ,tables represented his             
calculations as to the time for keeping 
,easter4    ,a further confirmation of  
the correctness of this inference       
7though  confirmation was indeed        
scarcely needed7 emerged when a ,syriac 
version  of the ,cycle of ,hippolytus   
was discovered in a chronological       
treatise by  ,elias of ,nisibis#aeb4 ,it
 corresponds exactly with the ,tables   
inscribed  on the chair4    ,an         
examination of the ,tables of           

,hippolytus reveals that he assumed     
#8that  after eight years the full moons
 returned to the same day of the solar  
month2 and he took notice that after    
sixteen years the days of the week      
moved one backward2 that is to say1 the 
full moon in the first year  of the     
cycle being ,saturday1 ,april #ac1 after
 sixteen years it would  be ,friday1    
,april #ac1 and so on#aec4' ,but for the
 purposes of what he  supposed would be 
a perpetual ,kalendar1 ,hippolytus      
desired to ascertain  after what        
interval the full moon would fall not   
only on the same day of  the solar      
month1 but on the same day of the week4 
,he assumed that this  would happen     
after seven cycles of sixteen years4    
,we can also infer that ,hippolytus     
probably placed the vernal equinox on   
,march #ah1 for every full moon entered 
in his ,tables is placed either on  7as 
in the case of ,a4,d4 #bce7 or after    
that date4    ,again1 the examination of
 his ,tables reveals what may seem to us

 the  somewhat arbitrary regulation that
 if the full moon fell upon ,saturday   
the ,feast of the ,resurrection should  
not be kept on the following day1  but  
on ,sunday a week later4 ,the           
explanation probably is that it was     
considered that ,easter should never be 
held earlier than the sixteenth  day of 
the moon1 that is1 two days after the   
day of the ,crucifixion4  ,if the full  
moon fell upon ,friday1 then the        
following ,sunday would  be ,easter2 but
 if the full moon fell upon ,saturday1  
the day of the  ,crucifixion was taken  
to be the following ,friday1 and ,easter
 would be two  days after4    ,no       
,easter cycle yet devised is free from  
errors1 which have to be met  by        
adjustments2 but the ,cycle of          
,hippolytus was such that the errors    
accumulated rapidly4 ,it was more than  
two days wrong at the end of the  first 
sixteen years2 and five days wrong at   
the end of the second cycle2  at the end
 of the third cycle it would be nine    

days wrong#aed4 ,this  must have been   
soon discovered2 and the cycle had to be
 discarded4 ,it is  the earliest ,easter
 cycle known to us4    ,a cycle on the  
same lines as that of ,hippolytus1 which
 has been 7probably  incorrectly7       
attributed to ,st ,cyprian1 will be     
found in ,fell's edition  of ,cyprian   
7#afhb71 among the works commonly       
assigned to that writer4 ,by  whomsoever
 it was composed it is ushered in with a
 great flourish of  trumpets1 and the   
author feels sure that he has been led  
by nothing short  of divine inspiration 
to the discovery4 ,these ,tables can be 
assigned to  ,a4,d4 #bdc4 ,one cannot   
but suspect that the author had got hold
 of the  ,hippolytean ,tables before    
their worthlessness was discovered4     
,such seem to have been the best efforts
 of the learning of ,western            
,christendom in the third century to    
deal with the ,paschal problem4 ,nor  at
 this period was the ,church of         
,alexandria1 which at a later date      

became the paramount authority on such  
questions1 any better equipped4         
,dionysius1 about the middle of the     
third century1 justly styled by         
,eusebius #8the great bishop of         
,alexandria1' made use of the eight-year
  cycle1 which1 like its variant1 the   
sixteen-year cycle1 gathered error      
rapidly4    ,it was1 however1 another   
distinguished ,alexandrian1 more than a 
quarter  of a century later1 who was the
 first1 so far as we know1 to make use  
of the old nineteen-year cycle for the  
determination of ,easter4 ,this  was    
,anatolius1 a native of ,alexandria1 and
 eminent for learning of  various kinds 
7among which arithmetic1 geometry1 and  
astronomy are  particularised71 who     
became bishop of ,laodicea in ,syria    
,prima in ,a4,d4  #bgj4 ,the            
nineteen-year cycle1 with some          
modifications1 eventually1 though       
slowly1 displaced all rivals#aee4       
,,ii4 ,the ,council of ,nicaea and the  
,easter ,controversy4    ,we may pass on

 now to the consideration of the        
determinations on this  question arrived
 at by the ,council of ,nicaea4    ,the 
varieties of usage as to the dates of   
keeping the ,pascha had  disturbed the  
mind of ,constantine before he issued   
his invitations to the  bishops of the  
empire to attend the ,council4 ,his     
trusted adviser1 ,hosius1  bishop of    
,corduba1 had been sent by him to the   
,east in the hopes that by  his         
arguments and persuasion the followers  
of the ,eastern practice might  be      
induced to yield4 ,but the mission was  
ineffective1 and the matter was         
submitted to the great ,council in      
,a4,d4 #cbe4 ,we have no record of any  
of  the proceedings connected with the  
matter beyond what is to be found in  a 
,synodical ,letter of the ,council1 and 
a circular letter of the ,emperor4  ,we 
cannot help feeling some surprise that  
the ,council did not enact any  canon on
 the subject2 but it was probably       
believed that the adoption of  a rigid  

canon1 with an attendant anathema1 might
 have produced a formal  schism1 while a
 statement of the opinion of the        
,council could scarcely  fail to be     
highly influential in eventually        
securing uniformity4 ,the  letter of the
 ,council1 preserved by ,socrates#aef1  
is addressed to the  ,church of         
,alexandria and the brethren in ,egypt1 
,libya1 and ,pentapolis4 ,it  simply    
announces #8the good news' that1 in     
accordance with the desire of  those to 
whom the letter was addressed1 the      
question had been elucidated  by the    
,council1 and that all the brethren of  
the ,east1 who had formerly  celebrated 
the ,pascha #8with the ,jews1' will     
henceforth keep it #8at the  same time  
as the ,romans1 and ourselves1 and all  
those who from ancient  times celebrated
 the day at the same time with us#aeg4' 
,the ,emperor is more full4 ,he says    
that it was thought by all that it      
would be fitting that the ,pascha should
 be kept on one day by all2 that  it was

 declared to be particularly unworthy to
 follow the custom of the  ,jews who had
 soiled their hands with the most       
dreadful of crimes1 and  who are blinded
 with error1 so that they even          
frequently celebrate two  ,paschas in   
one year4 #8,our ,saviour has left us   
only one festal day of our  deliverance1
 that is to say1 of his holy passion2   
and he has willed that  his ,catholic   
,church should be one4' ,how unseemly is
 it that some should  be fasting while  
others are seated at the banquet6 ,he   
hopes that every  one will agree in     
this4 ,it had been resolved that the    
,pascha should be  kept everywhere on   
one and the same day#aeh4    ,there is  
nothing in these letters to show what   
rule had been established4  ,all that is
 laid down is that the ,pascha should be
 kept everywhere on  the same day2 and  
it assumed that the ,roman and          
,alexandrian rules as to  ,easter were  
identical1 and were well known4 ,as a   
matter of fact1 while  the ,churches of 

,rome and ,alexandria were at one both  
in keeping ,easter on  a ,sunday1 and on
 a ,sunday after the vernal equinox1    
they were not agreed  in their methods  
of calculating the ,sunday upon which   
,easter would fall4  ,hence1 long after 
the ,council of ,nicaea1 several        
instances occur in which  a day was     
taken for the ,easter festival at ,rome 
which differed from the  day which the  
,alexandrian experts had calculated to  
be the correct day4    ,it is worthy of 
observation that the ,emperor in his    
letter reprobates  what he assumes was  
the ,jewish practice of frequently      
celebrating two  ,paschas in the same   
year4 ,what is probably meant is that   
the ,jews at that  time 7whatever their 
earlier practice may have been7 did not 
think it  necessary to keep the         
,passover after the vernal equinox4 ,now
 the vernal  equinox was taken as the   
beginning of the tropical or solar year2
 and it  might happen from time to time 
that the full moon of ,nisan fell in one

  year after the vernal equinox1 and in 
the following civil year before  the    
equinox1 which would give two passovers 
in the same solar year4 ,if  this       
interpretation of the words of          
,constantine's letter be correct1 it    
would imply that the ,christian ,pascha 
should always be celebrated after  the  
equinox1 which was certainly already the
 general practice4 ,but no  specific    
rule with reference to the equinox is   
laid down in express terms  either by   
the ,fathers of the ,council or by the  
,emperor4    ,it will be observed that  
in the ,letter of ,constantine he states
 that the  ,lord has left us #8only one 
festal day of our deliverance1 that is  
to  say1 of his holy passion4' ,the     
dominant thought connected with the word
  ,pascha was still that of the         
,crucifixion4 ,at a later period        
writers1 for  the sake of accuracy1 made
 the distinction between the #8,pascha  
of the  ,crucifixion' 7 7 and the       
#8,pascha of the ,resurrection'  7 72   

and eventually the thought of the       
,crucifixion  disappears from the       
connotation of the word1 which has given
 the name for  what we call ,easter to  
the ,french 7pques72 the ,italians      
7pasqua72  and the ,spaniards           
7pascua7#aei4    ,after the ,council of 
,nicaea1 although the ,quartodeciman    
practice lingered  on among unorthodox  
sectaries1 the differences among        
,catholics were in  the main confined to
 such questions as1 ,when was the       
equinox8 and ,what  ,tables should be   
used for predicting the ,sunday which   
should be observed  as ,easter ,day8    
,the ,synod of ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #cda  
7can4 #a7 could now  make bold to       
advance a step beyond the ,oecumenical  
,council1 and enacted  a canon          
pronouncing excommunication against any 
who acted contrary to  the command of   
the great and holy ,synod assembled at  
,nicaea regarding  the ,pascha#afj4 ,in 
principle the ,church was united2 but   
there were  differences in the          

application of the principle4 ,in ,a4,d4
 #ddd1 and eleven  years later1 in      
,a4,d4 #dee1 ,pope ,leo the ,great was  
in perplexity as to the  day upon which 
,easter should be kept4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ddd 
he wrote to ,cyril of  ,alexandria on   
the subject4 ,the answer he received was
 that the proper  day was not ,march #bf
 7as the ,latins would make it7 but     
,april #bc4 ,in  ,a4,d4 #dee ,leo was   
much moved by finding that the          
,alexandrian computists  had given      
,april #bd for ,easter ,day1 while those
 at ,rome had assigned  the festival to 
,april #ag1 a week earlier4 ,the matter 
seemed to him of  sufficient importance 
to justify his writing to ,marcianus1   
,emperor of the  ,east1 whom he now     
besought to intervene1 and direct the   
,alexandrians not  to name ,april #bd1  
declaring that so late a date was beyond
 the ancient  ,paschal limits4 ,leo also
 wrote on the same subject to the       
learned and  once beautiful ,eudocia    
,augusta1 who1 though now spending her  

old age  in retirement and devotion at  
,jerusalem1 was not without influence in
  church affairs4 ,the ,emperor had     
enquiries made among certain bishops of 
the ,east and communicated with the     
,alexandrians4 ,the result was that  the
 observance of ,april #bd was           
reaffirmed1 and the bishop of ,rome     
reluctantly submitted for the sake of   
peace#afa4    ,the account of the matter
 lies in the fact that while the        
,alexandrians  had long before adopted  
the ,paschal limits that still continue 
to rule  our ,easter1 that is1 from     
,march #bb to ,april #be1 the ,latins1  
though at  this date accepting the prior
 limit1 hesitated as to the later1      
because  the ,easter ,tables then in use
 among them had placed the later        
,paschal  limit on ,april #bc4    ,the  
position of authority conceded to the   
,church of ,alexandria on the  question 
as to the date of the ,pascha was due to
 the acknowledged  learning and skill of
 the astronomers and mathematicians of  

that city in  matters of chronology and 
the computation of time4 ,it was the    
practice of  the bishop of ,alexandria1 
as early at least as the middle of the  
third  century1 to issue what were      
styled #8,festal ,letters' or1 at a     
later date1  #8,paschal ,letters1'      
commonly of the nature of a homily on   
the religious  lessons of the ,paschal  
season1 with an announcement as to the  
date of the  next ,pascha4 ,these       
letters were commonly issued by the     
bishop a year in  advance1 and were sent
 by special messengers to his           
comprovincial bishops4    ,it has been  
supposed by several ecclesiastical      
historians of repute that  the ,council 
of ,nicaea expressly authorised the     
bishop of ,alexandria  to issue these   
preparatory notices to the authorities  
in the various  churches of             
,christendom4 ,the evidence for this    
opinion is lacking2 but  certainly1 as a
 matter of fact1 the judgment of        
,alexandria carried great  weight4 ,in  

the ,west1 however1 the general practice
 was that ,metropolitans  should        
determine the date1 and announce the day
 to their suffragans4 ,in  the sixth    
century the ,council of ,orleans 7,a4,d4
 #eda7 directs that if the              
,metropolitan were in doubt he should   
consult the ,apostolic see 7,rome71  and
 act in accordance with its decision    
7can4 #a74 ,about one hundred years     
later it would appear from the fifth    
canon of the ,council of ,toledo 7,a4,d4
  #fcc7 that the ,spanish ,metropolitan 
bishops did not receive information  as 
to the date of ,easter from any external
 source4 ,they are directed to  enquire 
among themselves by letter three months 
before the ,epiphany1 and  make the     
announcement2 and the reason assigned   
for this canon is that  erroneous       
,easter ,tables had caused differences4 
,to attempt anything like a detailed    
account of the varieties in the  methods
 adopted for the determination of       
,easter which held their ground  for a  

time1 some in the ,east1 some in the    
,west1 would be unsuitable in  an       
introductory work like the present4 ,the
 extraordinary persistence  exhibited by
 the ,celtic ,churches of ,britain and  
,ireland in maintaining  for a long time
 their own method of computing ,easter  
against the ,roman  method introduced by
 ,augustine of ,canterbury and his      
followers1 is  an important and         
interesting feature in the history of   
,christianity  in these countries4 ,it  
is enough here to say that the native   
,churches  were not ,quartodecimans 7as 
has sometimes been incorrectly alleged71
  but were adhering to a cycle which    
they had received long before the       
,roman missionaries arrived in          
,britain#afb4 ,we must here be content  
with  briefly noticing some of the      
leading features in the history of the  
change which gradually led up to the    
adoption of the ,nineteen-,year ,cycle  
as modified and propounded by ,dionysius
 ,exiguus in the early part of the      

sixth century4    ,after the abandonment
 of the ,cycle of ,hippolytus there is  
found in use  at ,rome an #hd-year      
cycle4 ,in this the date of ,easter is  
believed to have  oscillated between    
,march #be and ,april #ba2 and between  
the fourteenth  and twentieth day of the
 moon4 ,this system1 according to the   
results of  recent research1 was        
modified in ,a4,d4 #cab and again in    
,a4,d4 #cdc4 ,this  cycle 7still of #hd 
years7 came to be known as the          
supputatio ,romana4  ,easter could not  
now fall earlier than the sixteenth1 nor
 later than the  twenty-second of the   
moon1 while its date limits were ,march 
#bb and ,april  #ba4 ,this supputatio1  
with some modifications1 served the     
bishops of  ,rome during the fourth and 
the greater part of the fifth century4  
,the  ,alexandrians1 on the other hand1 
had about ,a4,d4 #bgg come to use the   
more  exact ,nineteen-,year cycle1 with 
possible ,easters between ,march #bb and
  ,april #be1 and between the fifteenth 

and twenty-second of the moon#afc4      
,in the pontificate of ,leo the ,great  
the differences which he had with the   
,church of ,alexandria as to the date of
 ,easter caused him to direct his       
archdeacon1 ,hilary 7who afterwards     
succeeded to the papal throne71 to      
investigate the whole question4 ,hilary 
resorted to the aid of ,victorius  of   
,aquitaine1 who happened to be then at  
,rome4 ,victorius devised1 or  adopted1 
a cycle of #ecb years1 a combination of 
the lunar cycle of #ai  years with the  
so-called solar cycle of #bh years 7#ai 
#bh  #ecb74 ,his  ,easter limits were   
,march #bb and ,april #bd4    ,the cycle
 of ,victorius met with favourable      
acceptance1 more particularly  in ,gaul1
 where it continued in use till nearly  
the end of the eighth  century4    ,at  
,rome1 whatever may have been the       
position actually attained by the  cycle
 of ,victorius1 it and all other devices
 for determining ,easter  gave way in   
the sixth century 7,a4,d4 #ebg7 before  

the ,paschal ,tables  of ,dionysius     
,exiguus4 ,this remarkable person1 who  
came to occupy an  eminent place in the 
science of chronology generally1 as well
 as in  the computations necessary for  
ecclesiastical purposes1 was a monk1 a  
,scythian by birth1 who settled in a    
monastery at ,rome4 ,it is to him that  
we owe in chronology the adoption by    
,western ,christendom of what we know   
as the #8,christian ,era' and #8the year
 of our ,lord1' now in universal use    
for the dating of the events of history1
 and of all our documents public  and   
private4    ,the system of ,dionysius   
was1 practically1 the adoption of the   
,nineteen-,year ,cycle of the           
,alexandrians4 ,it fixed the date of the
 vernal  equinox at ,march #ba1 placed  
the ,paschal limits at ,march #bb and   
,april #be1  and declared ,easter to be 
the next ,sunday after the ,paschal full
 moon4 ,we  have here in full the rule  
which eventually came to prevail        
everywhere4  ,but its adoption was not  

immediate in all countries#afd4    ,the 
space at our disposal will not allow of 
our treating in detail of  the work of  
the computists1 and of the #8,sunday    
,letters1' #8,epacts1' and  other       
technical terms which appear in the old 
,church ,kalendars4 ,for  these1 as well
 as for such terms as #8,indiction1'    
#8,lunar ,regulars1' #8,solar           
,regulars1' and #8,concurrents1'        
reference may be made to such books as  
,sir  ,harris ,nicholas' ,chronology of 
,history1 and ,giry's fuller and lucid  
,manuel de ,diplomatique4      ,the     
,gregorian ,reform4    ,the defects of  
the ,nineteen-,year ,cycle became       
apparent after some lapse  of time4     
,there were two grave sources of error4 
,first1 the ,kalendar  proceeded on the 
assumption that the solar year consisted
 of #cfe days2  but the true solar year 
is #aa minutes and some seconds shorter 
than the  ,kalendar year1 and the       
accumulation of this error gradually    
brought  confusion into the system4 ,in 

one hundred and thirty years the        
,kalendar  will have gained on the true 
solar year by almost exactly one day4   
,at the  date of the ,council of ,nicaea
 7,a4,d4 #cbe7 the vernal equinox was   
placed at  ,march #ba1 but in the year  
,a4,d4 #dej the true vernal equinox     
would be on  ,march #bj4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ehe
 the equinox would be on ,march #ai2 in 
,a4,d4 #gae on  ,march #ah1 and so on4  
,and thus it will be seen that in ,a4,d4
 #aehb1 when the  ,kalendar was         
reformed1 the real vernal equinox was   
about ten days earlier  than the ,march 
#ba of the ,kalendar4    ,the second    
source of error lay in the assumption   
that at the close of a  cycle of        
nineteen years there was an exact       
agreement of solar and lunar  time4     
,nineteen solar years1 of #cfe days1    
make #fici days and #ah hours2  but #bce
 moons of #bi days1 #ab hours1 #dd      
minutes1 and #c seconds and a  fraction 
make #fici days1 #af hours1 and a       
fraction over #ca minutes4 ,so it  comes

 about that the solar time in nineteen  
years is nearly #a hours in  excess of  
the real lunar time4 ,in other words1   
the moons in the second  cycle of       
nineteen years make their changes nearly
 #a hours earlier than  they did in the 
first cycle4 ,it is easy then to show   
that in about #cjh  years this          
difference would amount to a whole day2 
and in ,a4,d4 #aehb1  when the          
,gregorian reform was effected1 the moon
 in the heavens made its  changes nearly
 four days before the time which was    
indicated for these  changes in the     
,kalendar4    ,we must omit any notice  
of the various schemes for reforming the
 ,kalendar  prior to the reformation of 
,gregory ,,xiii4 ,after he had consented
 to the  general idea that a reformation
 should be undertaken1 various schemes  
were proposed4 ,of these1 that of ,luigi
 ,lilio1 a physician and astronomer  of 
the city of ,rome1 obtained the         
preference#afe4 ,and it is on the lines 
suggested by ,lilio that the work was   

accomplished1 mainly by a ,german       
mathematician then resident at ,rome1   
the ,jesuit1 ,christopher ,schlssel     
7or1 in the ,latin form of his name1    
,clavius71 who afterwards published at  
,rome1 in folio1 an exposition of the   
work done1 under the title ,romani      
,calendarii a ,gregorio ,,xiii          
,pontifice ,maximo restituti ,explicatio
 7#afjc74      ,,leading ,,features ,,of
 ,,the ,,gregorian ,,reform    ,the     
,gregorian ,reform is an ingenious and1 
indeed1 brilliant practical  solution of
 the problems presented by the condition
 of the ,kalendar at  the close of the  
sixteenth century4 ,the characteristic  
features of the  ,gregorian system will 
now be described4    #a4 ,it was known  
that the true vernal equinox was at this
 date 7#aehb7  about ten days earlier   
than ,march #ba as marked in the        
,kalendar4 ,should  the equinox be fixed
 as at ,march #aa8 ,it was resolved to  
keep the equinox  at the nominal date of
 ,march #ba1 and to bring the date into 

conformity  with facts by the simple    
process of striking out ten nominal     
days4 ,it  was decreed that the day     
following ,oct4 #d1 #aehb 7when what is 
known as  the ,new ,style was to make   
its beginning71 should be counted1 not  
as ,oct4  #e1 but as ,oct4 #ae4 ,and    
thus in the following year1 #aehc1 the  
true vernal  equinox would fall on      
,march #ba1 as it was supposed to have  
fallen in ,a4,d4  #cbe1 the date of the 
,council of ,nicaea4    #b4 ,but how was
 it to be provided that in the future   
the same errors which  had vitiated the 
old ,kalendar should not come in time to
 vitiate the new8    ,it will be        
remembered that the time of the old     
,kalendar had gained on  true solar time
 at the rate1 almost precisely1 of one  
day in every #acj  years4 ,if the       
counting of one day could be suppressed 
in every #acj years1  the end would be  
obtained4 ,for purposes of practical    
convenience the  reformers of the       
,kalendar assumed that #acc years should

 be taken as the  period in which the   
,kalendar time exceeded the solar time  
by one day4  ,the difference1 for the   
purpose in hand1 was insignificant2 and1
 as  will be seen hereafter1 this       
deliberately chosen error will not      
affect  the ,kalendar to the extent of  
one day till ,a4,d4 #ebjj1 while it     
makes  calculations much simpler4       
,now the plan adopted to prevent the    
accumulation of the error in the  old   
,kalendar was as follows3 if one day    
could be withdrawn in every #acc  years1
 or1 what is the same thing1 three days 
in every #cii years1 the  object would  
be attained4    ,in the ,old ,style1    
every year of an exact century--every   
centurial 7or1  as it was sometimes     
called1 secular7 year--was a leap-year  
of #cff days4  ,what would be the effect
 of treating every centurial year as a  
common  year of #cfe days8 ,we should   
have suppressed four days at the end of 
four centuries when we ought to suppress
 only three in #cii years4 ,so  it was  

suggested that while three successive   
centurial years should be  regarded as  
common years1 the fourth centurial year 
should be treated  as a leap-year4      
,thus1 in both ,old and ,new ,style the 
years #afjj and #bjjj  are leap-years2  
but #agjj1 #ahjj1 and #aijj1 which in   
the ,old ,style were  leap-years1 are in
 the ,new ,style treated as common years
 of #cfe days4  ,and the rule laid down 
in the ,gregorian system was that if the
 number  expressed by the first two     
figures of the century was exactly      
divisible  by #d it should be a         
leap-year1 but if not exactly divisible 
by #d it  should be treated as a common 
year4 ,the numbers #af and #bj are      
exactly  divisible by #d1 but #ag1 #ah1 
and #ai are not so divisible4 ,the years
 #afjj  and #bjjj are in the ,new ,style
 leap-years1 but the years #agjj1 #ahjj1
 and  #aijj are in the ,new ,style      
common years4    ,it is true that the   
adoption of #acc years1 instead of #acj 
years1 as the  time in which in the ,old

 ,style one day was gained by the       
,kalendar on the  sun1 imports an error 
into the system1 which causes the       
,kalendar to fall  behind the sun4 ,this
 error1 as has been said1 will          
accumulate to the  extent of one day in 
,a4,d4 #ebjj4 ,it may be thought that1  
if men be on the  earth at that date1   
they will know how to deal with the     
case4 ,yet it is  suggested for the     
instruction of our remote posterity that
 they will have  only to make ,a4,d4    
#ebjj a common year1 instead of a       
leap-year1 to bring  things back to     
correctness#aff4    ,for the ,sunday    
letters in the ,new ,style and for the  
,cycle of ,epacts in  the ,gregorian    
,kalendar1 see ,dr ,seabury1 ,theory and
 ,use of the ,church  ,calendar4    ,the
 work of the ,gregorian reformation is  
marvellous in its elaborate  ingenuity4 
,it even provides for a case which will 
not occur till  ,dec4 #ca1 ,a4,d4 #hfjj4
 ,yet it does not reach the attainment  
of an exact  correspondence with        

astronomical phenomena4 ,and it has been
 frequently  observed that the new moons
 of the ,kalendar may occur one1 two1 or
  even three days later than the new    
moons of the astronomer4 ,in fact  the  
astronomical new moon rarely occurs on  
the date marked for the  ecclesiastical 
new moon4 ,but care has been taken that 
the new moon of the  ,kalendar never    
occurs earlier than the new moon of     
astronomy4      ,the adoption of the    
,new ,style4    ,as was to be expected1 
the countries of ,europe which          
recognised  the authority of the bishop 
of ,rome were not long in accepting the 
reformation of the ,kalendar4 ,spain1   
,portugal1 and part of ,italy made  the 
change on the same day as at ,rome1 that
 is on ,oct4 #ae 7#e71 #aehb4  ,in      
,france and ,lorraine the change was    
made on ,december #bj 7#aj7 in the  same
 year2 in the ,roman ,catholic cantons  
of ,switzerland in #aehc or  #aehd2 in  
,poland in #aehf2 in ,hungary in #aehg4 
,in ,protestant countries  and countries

 where ,protestants were numerous the   
alteration was more  slowly effected4   
,but ,denmark was an exception1 for the 
,new ,style was  adopted in #aehb4 ,in  
,holland and the ,low ,countries the    
provinces were  divided in their        
acceptance of the ,new ,style1 and in   
some places the  change was not effected
 till the year #agjj4 ,in ,germany we   
also find a  variety of usages3 ,austria
 and ,roman ,catholics in other parts   
accepted  the change in #aehd1 but      
,protestants did not yield till #agjj1  
when they  adopted the ,kalendar of the 
,german astronomer1 ,erhard ,weigel1    
which  differed from the ,gregorian     
,kalendar only in the rule for          
determining  ,easter4 ,this variation   
brought about the result that the       
,protestants and  ,roman ,catholics     
sometimes celebrated ,easter on         
different days4 ,in #aggh  ,frederick   
the ,great ordained that from that time 
,easter should be kept at  the time     
ascertained from the ,gregorian ,paschal

 moon4 ,weigel's ,kalendar  was also    
adopted in the ,protestant cantons of   
,switzerland in #agjj4 ,in  ,russia1    
,greece1 and throughout the ,christian  
,east the ,old ,kalendar is  still in   
use#afg4    ,great ,britain was the last
 of the countries of ,western ,europe to
 adopt  the ,new ,style4 ,it is true    
that as early as ,march #af1 #aehd-e1 a 
bill was  introduced in the ,house of   
,lords under the title1 #8,an ,act      
giving her  ,majesty ,queen ,elizabeth  
authority to alter and new make a       
,calendar  according to the ,calendar   
used in other countries4' ,the bill was 
read a  second time in the ,house of    
,lords1 and proceeded no further4       
,through an extraordinary blunder1 it   
has been stated by writers of repute    
that ,scotland adopted the ,new ,style  
in ,a4,d4 #afjj4 ,the error originated  
in  the fact that ,king ,james ,,vi1    
with the advice of the ,lords of his    
,privy  ,council1 ordered by            
proclamation dated ,haliruidhous1 ,dec4 

#ag1 #aeii1 that  on and after ,jan4 #a1
 #afjj1 the year should be held to begin
 on ,jan4 #a  instead of ,march #be3 but
 there was no rectification of the      
,kalendar by  the omission of nominal   
days4 ,in ,england the legal year       
continued to  begin on ,march #be till  
#ageb4 ,the accession of ,james ,,vi to 
the throne of  ,england on the death of 
,elizabeth occurred on ,march #bd1      
#afjb1 according  to the ,english style1
 but on ,march #bd1 #afjc1 according to 
the ,scottish  style4 ,in this and such 
like cases the double dates may be      
wisely  employed1 thus1 ,march #bd1     
#afjb-c4 ,but ,scotland did not use the 
,new ,style  till it was adopted in     
#ageb1 in accordance with the provision 
of the  ,act of ,parliament of ,great   
,britain 7#bd ,george ,,ii1 c4 #bc71    
entitled #8,an  ,act for regulating the 
commencement of the ,year1 and for      
correcting the  ,calendar now in use4'  
,,chapter ,x    ,,the ,,kalendar ,,of   
,,the ,,orthodox ,,church ,,of ,,the    

,,east      ,the modern ,kalendar of the
 ,byzantine ,church is here dealt with4 
,the early  ,menologies 7which          
corresponded pretty closely to the      
,martyrologies of  the ,west7 show the  
usual phenomena of comparative          
simplicity passing  into forms of great 
elaboration4 ,the best known are the    
,menology of  ,constantinople of the    
eighth century and that which is known  
as the  ,basilianum1 now most commonly  
associated with the ,emperor ,basil ,,ii
  7,a4,d4 #igf-ajbe71 at whose instance 
it is said to have been composed#afh4   
,the history of the growth and          
variations of the ,kalendar of the      
,greeks  cannot be here attempted2 we   
confine ourselves to the ,kalendar now  
in use4      ,i4 ,immoveable            
commemorations4    ,this ,kalendar1 or  
the ,kalendar of ,saints1 begins on     
,sept4 #a1 the first  day of the year of
 the ,indiction4 ,with us in the ,west  
the civil year  has left no mark upon   
the services of the ,church4 ,in the    

,greek ,church in  the hymns the divine 
blessing is invoked on the new year2 and
 two of the  lessons at ,vespers are    
chosen as bearing references applicable 
to the day4    ,the services of the     
,church have frequently several         
commemorations of  various saints upon  
the same day2 and this general statement
 may be  illustrated from ,sept4 #a4 ,in
 addition to the propria of the new     
year1  we find commemorations of ,simeon
 ,stylites senior2 his mother1 ,st      
,martha2  forty women martyrs with the  
,deacon ,ammun2 and a miraculous icon of
 ,st  ,mary4 ,to these must be added a  
commemoration of the ,old ,testament    
worthy1  ,joshua1 the son of ,nun4 ,this
 specimen will suffice to show that it  
would  be impossible in the space at our
 disposal to exhibit the commemorations 
of every day in the year#afi4 ,we shall 
confine ourselves to exhibiting  the    
,greek classification of festivals1 and 
marking the dates of some of  the more  
eminent commemorations4 ,but it must be 

observed that days that  are not        
regarded as festivals frequently contain
 canons 7metrical hymns7  which         
commemorate saints or martyrs4 ,indeed  
the offices of the ,eastern             
service-books are packed with an        
extraordinary abundance of hagiological 
reference and allusion4    ,as regards  
dignity and importance in the ,greek    
,church1 in addition to  ,easter1 which 
stands pre-eminent and is known by way  
of distinction as  #8the ,feast' 7 71   
there are twelve festivals of the first 
rank1 some  of them being moveable4     
,these are3 7#a7 the ,nativity of the   
,lord1 ,dec4  #be2 7#b7 the ,theophany  
7,epiphany71 ,jan4 #f2 7#c7 ,hypapante  
7,purification71  ,feb4 #b2 7#d7 the    
,annunciation of the ,theotokos1 ,march 
#be2 7#e7 the festival  of ,palms1 which
 with the ,sabbath of ,lazarus on the   
preceding day makes  one festival2 7#f7 
the ,ascension of the ,lord2 7#g7       
,pentecost2 7#h7 the  ,transfiguration1 
,aug4 #f2 7#i7 the ,repose of           

,theotokos1 ,aug4 #ae2 7#aj7  the       
,nativity of ,theotokos1 ,sept4 #h2     
7#aa7 the ,exaltation of the ,cross1    
,sept4 #ad2 7#ab7 the ,entrance of the  
,theotokos into the ,temple 7i4e4 her   
presentation71 ,nov4 #ba4    ,each of   
these is marked first by the day        
preceding 7proheortia7  partaking of a  
festive character1 and secondly1 by     
having an echo of  the festival on      
certain following days1 which are known 
as the apodosis  of the feast2 but the  
name is often applied to the final day  
of the  observance4 ,the apodosis1      
unlike the ,western ,octave1 is in some 
cases  shorter than a week and in some  
cases longer4 ,thus1 the apodosis of    
the ,nativity of the ,virgin 7,sept4 #h7
 terminates on ,sept4 #ab2 while the    
apodosis of the ,theophany 7,jan4 #f7   
ordinarily extends to ,jan4 #ad4        
,next in dignity are four festivals of  
high rank1 though not having either     
proheortia or apodosis4 ,they are3 7#a7 
the ,circumcision1 ,jan4 #a2  7#b7 the  

,nativity of the ,forerunner 7,st ,john 
,baptist71 ,june #bd2 7#c7 ,st  ,peter  
and ,st ,paul1 the ,koryphaeoi1 ,june   
#bi2 7#d7 the ,decollation of the       
,forerunner1 ,aug4 #bi4    ,the twelve  
of the first group and the four of the  
second may be taken as  together        
corresponding in a measure to festivals 
of the first class in  the ,roman       
classification4    ,similarly           
corresponding to feasts of the second   
class in the ,west is  a group which is 
divided into greater and lesser4 ,the   
greater feasts  of this group are marked
 liturgically by the singing of a canon 
of the  ,virgin in addition to the canon
 proper to the feast4 ,the lesser are   
marked by the singing in the service of 
what is known as ,polyeleos1 a  name    
given to ,psalms cxxxiv1 cxxxv 7,pss4   
cxxxv1 cxxxvi in the enumeration  of the
 ,english ,prayer ,book74    ,the       
greater feasts of the middle class are3 
7#a7 the common festival of  the three  
,doctors of the ,church ,chrysostom1    

,basil1 ,gregory ,nazianzen1  ,jan4 #cj2
 7#b7 ,st ,george1 martyr1 ,april #bc2  
7#c7 ,st ,john the ,evangelist1 ,may    
#h2 7#d7 the ,translation of the image  
of ,christ1 made without hands1 from    
,edessa1 ,aug4 #af2 7#e7 the ,migration 
of ,st ,john the ,evangelist1 ,sept4    
#bf4  ,this festival is based on the    
ancient legend that ,st ,john did not   
die1  but was translated2 7#f7 ,st      
,sabbas1 the ,sanctified ,abbot of      
,palestine1  who died ,a4,d4 #eca1 ,dec4
 #e2 7#g7 ,st ,nicholas of ,myra1 the   
wonder-worker1  ,dec4 #f4    ,the lesser
 feasts of the middle class include3    
7#a7 ,st ,anthony1 hermit1  ,jan4 #ag2  
7#b7 the forty ,martyrs of ,sebaste1    
under ,licinius1 ,march #i2 7#c7  ,st   
,constantine and ,st ,helena1 ,may #ba2 
7#d7 ,st ,cosmas and ,st ,damian1 the   
unmercenary physicians1 ,july #a2 7#e7  
,st ,elias1 the prophet1 ,july #bj2 7#f7
  ,st ,demetrius1 ,great ,martyr of     
,thessalonica1 under ,diocletian1 ,oct4 
#bf2 7#g7 ,synaxis of the ,archangel1   

,st ,michael1 ,nov4 #h2 7#h7 ,st ,andrew
 the  ,apostle1 ,nov4 #cj4    ,there is 
a third class subdivided into 7a7       
festivals with the great  doxology1 and 
7b7 festivals without the great         
doxology#agj4 ,festivals  of the third  
class are very numerous1 but they are   
festivals rather of  the service-books  
than of actual life1 upon which they    
leave little or  no impression4 ,the    
number of festivals kept by the ,greeks 
and observed  either by a complete or a 
partial cessation from trade and servile
 labour  far surpasses the festivals so 
observed in any of the countries of     
,western ,christendom4    ,the ,russian 
,kalendar corresponds largely to the    
,byzantine2 but there are1  as might be 
expected1 not a few commemorations of   
persons1 events1 and of  miraculous     
icons1 peculiar to ,russia4    ,a few   
explanatory observations may here be    
added3 7#a7 ,the ,eastern  ,kalendars   
contrast in a striking way with the     
,western in the prominence  given to    

commemorations of the saints and heroes 
of the ,old ,testament4  ,all the       
prophets and many of the righteous men  
of ,hebrew history have  their days4    
,and the service-books contain a common 
of ,prophets as well  as a common of    
,apostles1 etc4    7#b7 ,honorary       
epithets are freely bestowed upon the   
various saints without  any very precise
 significance4 ,thus #8,god-bearing'    
7theophorus71 which  is a natural       
epithet in the case of ,ignatius1 as    
being used of himself  in his writings1 
is bestowed on various distinguished    
ascetics1 as  ,anthony1 ,euthymius1     
,sabbas1 ,onuphrius4    7#c7 ,the ground
 for the distinction between #8,martyrs'
 and #8,great ,martyrs'  is not         
apparent4 #8,hieromartyrs' are martyrs  
who were bishops or priests2            
#8,hosiomartyrs' are martyrs who were   
living as religious4 ,thekla1 as well   
as ,stephen1 is #8,protomartyr4'    7#d7
 ,the word #8,apostle' is not confined  
to the twelve4 ,the seventy  disciples  

whom the ,lord sent forth are the       
#8,seventy ,apostles1' among  whom were 
reckoned many of the persons named in   
the salutations of ,st  ,paul's         
,epistles4 ,and the word is also applied
 to certain companions or  acquaintances
 of ,st ,paul1 as e4g4 ,ananias of      
,damascus1 ,agabus1 ,titus1  etc4       
#8,equal to the ,apostles'              
7,isapostolos7 is applied 7a7 to very   
early saints1 e4g4 ,abercius of         
,hierapolis1 ,mary ,magdalene1 ,junia1  
,thekla1 etc42 and 7b7 to great princes 
who were distinguished for their        
services to the ,church1 as ,constantine
 and ,helena4    #8,wonder-worker'      
7thaumaturgos7 is used of various saints
 famous for  their miracles1 as e4g4    
,charilampes 7,feb4 #aj71 ,spiridion    
7,dec4 #ab71  ,gregory1 bishop of       
,neocaesarea in ,pontus 7,nov4 #ag71 the
 ,saint ,elizabeth  7,april #bd71 of    
uncertain date1 who never washed her    
body with water1 and  others4    ,john1 
son of ,zacharias and ,elizabeth1 who   

with us is the ,baptist1 appears  as the
 ,precursor or ,forerunner 7,prodromos74
 ,he figures much in the  services of   
the ,church3 and several days are       
dedicated to his honour2  his           
,conception 7,sept4 #bc71 his ,nativity 
7,june #bd71 his ,decollation 7,aug4    
#bi7 and the great feast known as his   
,synaxis 7,jan4 #g74 ,in addition1 the  
first and second finding of his head is 
commemorated on ,feb4 #bd1 and the      
third finding of his head on ,may #be4  
,st ,mary the ,virgin is almost         
invariably the ,theotokos1 and ,joachim 
and  ,anna are the ,theopator and       
,theometor 7,sept4 #i74    ,the         
#8unmercenary' 7anarguroi7 saints are   
generally physicians who  took no fees1 
as ,cosmas and ,damian1 ,cyrus and his  
companion ,john1 and  ,pantaleon4       
,the term ,synaxis in such phrases as   
the ,synaxis of the ,archangel  ,michael
 7,nov4 #h71 the ,synaxis of the        
,theotokos 7,dec4 #bf71 the ,synaxis  of
 the seventy ,apostles 7,jan4 #d71 the  

,synaxis of the ,forerunner 7,jan4  #g71
 the ,synaxis of the ,archangel ,gabriel
 7,march #bf71 the ,synaxis of the      
twelve ,apostles 7,june #cj71 is not    
easily rendered into ,english2 and its  
precise significance 7as used in the    
,kalendar7 is not obvious4 ,it is       
sometimes used for a gathering or       
assembly of people2 but more commonly   
it is employed to signify a ,eucharistic
 ,communion#aga4    ,it is customary    
after the great feasts of our ,lord and 
of the ,virgin ,mary  to subjoin on the 
following day the commemoration of      
saints associated  with the event       
commemorated on the preceding day4      
,thus1 the ,epiphany  7,theophany7 in   
the ,greek ,church being chiefly        
concerned with the  ,baptism of ,christ1
 we have on the following day 7,jan4 #g7
 the feast of  ,st ,john ,baptist2 after
 the ,hypapante1 or meeting with ,simeon
 and ,anna  in the ,temple 7on ,feb4 #b1
 the day of the ,purification of the    
,virgin1 in  the ,west71 we find 7,feb4 

#c7 ,simeon and ,anna the prophetess2   
after the  ,nativity of the ,lord1 the  
synaxis of the ,theotokos1 ,dec4 #bf2   
after the  ,nativity of the ,virgin     
7,sept4 #h7 we have on ,sept4 #i        
,joachim and ,anna1  her parents2 after 
the ,annunciation 7,march #be7 we have  
on ,march #bf the  synaxis of the       
,archangel ,gabriel1 who made the great 
announcement4    ,it remains to be added
 that1 as in the ,orthodox ,church of   
the ,east  ,wednesdays and ,fridays are 
observed as strict fasts alike by the   
clergy1  the monks1 and the laity1 most 
of the important festivals carry with   
them  either a partial dispensation 7as 
in some cases for the use of oil and    
wine1 and in others for the use of oil1 
wine1 and fish7 or a dispensation  for  
all kinds of food1 when a festival falls
 on one of these fast days4    ,we now  
proceed to describe the annual cycle of 
,sundays4      ,,ii4 ,the ,dominical    
,kalendar of the ,orthodox ,church of   
the ,east4    ,the arrangement of the   

,sundays falls into two divisions1 the  
first  beginning with the ,sunday before
 our ,western ,septuagesima2 and the    
second1 immediately after our ,trinity  
,sunday1 which1 with the ,greeks1  is   
called the ,sunday of ,all ,saints4 ,in 
the following table1 opposite  the names
 of the ,sundays for the earlier part of
 the ,dominical cycle1  as given in the 
,greek service-books1 are placed the    
names of the  corresponding ,sundays in 
the ,west1 as known to ,english         
churchmen4      ,publican and ,pharisee 
,sunday before ,septuagesima    ,the    
,prodigal ,son                          
,septuagesima    ,apocreos              
,sexagesima    ,tyrinis1 or ,tyrophagus 
,quinquagesima    ,first of the ,fasts  
7or ,orthodoxy7      ,first ,sunday in  
,lent    ,second of the ,fasts          
,second ,sunday in ,lent    ,third of   
the ,fasts 7or ,adoration of    ,third  
,sunday in ,lent      the ,cross7       
,fourth of the ,fasts                   
,fourth ,sunday in ,lent    ,fifth of   

the ,fasts                     ,fifth   
,sunday in ,lent    ,palms              
,sixth ,sunday in ,lent 7,palm ,sunday7 
,holy ,pasch                            
,easter    ,antipasch 7or ,st ,thomas7  
,first ,sunday after ,easter            
,myrrh-bearers                          
,second ,sunday after ,easter           
,paralytic                              
,third ,sunday after ,easter            
,samaritan ,woman                       
,fourth ,sunday after ,easter    ,blind 
,man                              ,fifth
 ,sunday after ,easter    ,the ,three   
hundred and eighteen#agb    ,sunday     
after ,ascension-day    ,pentecost      
,whitsunday    ,first after ,pentecost  
7or ,all ,saints7  ,trinity ,sunday     
,the following ,sundays are numbered the
 ,second1 ,third1 ,fourth after         
,pentecost1 and so on1 till we reach the
 ,sunday of the ,publican 7the  ,sunday 
before ,septuagesima7 in the following  
year4 ,but while the numbers  are       
continuous1 special names are given to  

certain ,sundays4 ,thus we find  the    
,sunday before and the ,sunday after the
 ,exaltation of the ,cross 7,sept4      
#ad72 the ,sundays before and after the 
,nativity2 the ,sundays before and      
after the ,lights 7i4e4 the ,epiphany74 
,again1 we sometimes find the ,sundays  
after ,pentecost referred to as the     
,first1 ,second1 ,third1 etc41 of       
,matthew2 because the liturgical ,gospel
  on these ,sundays1 on to the          
,exaltation of the ,cross1 is taken from
 ,st  ,matthew4 ,similarly1 after the   
,exaltation of the ,cross and on to     
,apocreos  the liturgical ,gospel for   
the ,sundays is taken from ,st ,luke1   
and the  ,sundays are named ,first1     
,second1 ,third1 etc41 of ,luke4    ,it 
is the subject-matter of the ,gospel for
 the day which gives its  name to the   
,sundays called the ,publican1 the      
,prodigal1 ,st ,thomas1 the             
,myrrh-bearers 7i4e4 the women bringing 
spices to the tomb71 etc4    ,on the    
,sunday of ,orthodoxy 7the first in     

,lent7 some sixty anathemas  against    
heresy of various kinds are recited1    
including several against  the          
,iconoclasts who were condemned at the  
second ,council of ,nicaea 7,a4,d4      
#ghg74 ,tyrinis 7or ,tyrophagus7 and    
,apocreos are explained elsewhere#agc4  
,the name #8,antipasch1' for the first  
,sunday after ,easter 7,low ,sunday2    
,dominica in ,albis71 implies that it is
 #8over against' or #8answering to'  the
 ,pasch4 ,on the ,sunday of the ,three  
hundred and eighteen holy ,fathers  of  
,nicaea a canon 7or metrical hymn7 in   
honour of the ,council is sung4    ,the 
naming of the week in relation to the   
,sunday is peculiar1 and does  not      
follow1 as in the ,west1 a consistent   
rule4 ,in some cases1 the week          
preceding a ,sunday is given its name3  
in other cases the week is called  after
 the ,sunday with which it begins4 ,and 
when the determination of  dates is in  
view the student should be on the alert4
 ,thus1 the week of  ,apocreos 7the last

 week of flesh-eating7 precedes the     
,sunday ,apocreos2  the week of ,tyrine 
7when cheese1 butter and milk are       
allowed7 precedes  the ,sunday of that  
name2 and the first week of the ,lenten 
fast precedes  the ,sunday that is the  
first in ,lent4 ,on the other hand1     
after ,antipascha  and on to the second 
,sunday after ,pentecost the weeks are  
named from the  ,sunday which they      
follow3 while the naming the week from  
the ,sunday which  follows is resumed at
 the latter date#agd4    ,the period    
from the ,sunday of the ,publican to    
,easter ,eve inclusive  is sometimes    
called the time of the ,triodion 771    
because the  propria for that time are  
contained in a service-book which bears 
that name2 while the period from ,easter
 ,day to the ,sunday of ,all ,saints    
7first ,sunday after ,pentecost71 both  
inclusive1 is called the time of the    
,pentekostarion 77 from the name of the 
service-book used at  that time4    ,a  
few words must be said on certain       

week-days observed with special         
dignity1 the position of which in the   
almanack varies with the position  of   
,sundays as affected by the incidence of
 ,easter4 ,it will be remembered  that  
in the ,east the ,sabbath 7,saturday7 is
 reckoned as a day of special  religious
 observance2 and some ,sabbaths are     
distinguished by special  names4 ,the   
,sabbath of ,apocreos is a day for the  
solemn commemoration of  all the        
faithful departed2 and vigils are kept  
during the night4 ,it is  known as the  
,sabbath of the ,dead4 ,the next        
following ,sabbath serves for  the      
commemoration of religious and ascetics2
 it is named the ,sabbath of  ,ascetics4
 ,on the ,sabbath of the first week of  
,lent 7known as the ,sabbath  of        
,kollyba7 there is a commemoration of   
,st ,theodore ,tyro1 martyr1 who1       
according to the legend1 in the time of 
,julian the apostate1 appeared  to the  
bishop of ,constantinople1 and ordered  
him in a great emergency  to make       

,kollyba and distribute them to the     
people4 ,the bishop said in  reply that 
he did not know what ,kollyba were1 and 
the saint explained  that they were     
wheaten cakes4 ,we need not pursue the  
story further4 ,the  ,sabbath before the
 fifth ,sunday in ,lent is the ,sabbath 
of the ,akathist4  ,a hymn1 so called1  
in honour of the ,virgin1 was sung      
throughout the  night by the people1 not
 sitting down4 ,the ,sabbath before the 
,sixth  ,sunday commemorates the raising
 of ,lazarus1 and is called the ,sabbath
 of  ,lazarus4 ,easter ,eve is the      
#8,great ,sabbath4'    ,it may be       
observed that while in the ,west the    
word ,parasceve is used  exclusively for
 ,good ,friday1 in the ,east the word is
 used for every  ,friday1 and ,good     
,friday is distinguished by the epithet 
,great4    ,a detailed exhibition of the
 ,byzantine ,kalendar cannot be         
attempted here1  but the student will   
find it treated by ,j4 ,m4 ,neale in the
 ,general  ,introduction to his ,history

 of the ,holy ,eastern ,church 7vol4    
,,ii47 and  with great fulness in       
,nilles' ,kalendarium manuale utriusque 
,ecclesiae4    ,notes on the ,kalendars 
of some of the separated ,churches of   
the ,east will  be found in ,appendix   
,,iii4          ,,appendix ,i    ,,the  
,,paschal ,,question ,,in ,,the ,,celtic
 ,,churches      ,the controversies as  
to the calculation of ,easter between   
the ,roman  ecclesiastics1 on the one   
hand1 and1 on the other1 the            
ecclesiastics  of ,ireland 7,scotia71   
,scotland 7,alban71 and ,wales1 arose   
from the fact  that our native ,churches
 continued to follow a cycle which had1 
at  the beginning of the fourth century1
 prevailed at ,rome1 but which was      
afterwards abandoned by the ,church of  
that city4 ,an admirable account of  the
 matter will be found in ,prof4 ,bury's 
,life of ,st ,patrick1 #cga-cgd4  ,the  
improved ,roman computation was         
eventually adopted in the south of      
,ireland about ,a4,d4 #fej2 in the north

 of ,ireland in ,a4,d4 #gjc2 among the  
,picts of ,scotland in ,a4,d4 #gaj2 at  
,iona in ,a4,d4 #gaf2 and in ,south     
,wales in  ,a4,d4 #hjb4                 
,,appendix ,,ii    ,,note ,,on ,,the    
,,kalendars ,,of ,,the ,,separated      
,,churches ,,of ,,the ,,east      ,i4   
,the ,armenians4 ,the year is counted   
from the year #eea of our era1  when the
 ,catholicos1 ,moses ,,ii1 who reformed 
the ,kalendar1 ascended the  patriarchal
 throne4 ,thus ,a4,d4 #aiaj is the year 
#acei among the ,armenians4    ,one     
noteworthy feature of the ,armenian     
observance is that1 with the  exception 
of the ,nativity 7,jan4 #f71 the        
,circumcision1 the ,presentation of  the
 ,lord in the ,temple1 and the          
,annunciation1 various important        
festivals  are transferred to the       
following ,sunday4 ,certain minor ,holy 
,days1 if they  fall on ,wednesday1     
,friday1 or ,sunday1 are in some cases  
omitted1 while  others are transferred  
to the following ,saturday4 ,in regard  

to days of  fasting1 in addition to     
,lent1 the most remarkable feature is   
#8the fast  of ,nineveh1' kept for two  
weeks1 one month before the beginning of
 ,lent4  ,the days of the week following
 ,pentecost are fast days 7see p4 #ia   
f474  ,for details see ,e4 ,f4 ,k4      
,fortescue's ,armenian ,church1 and     
,nilles1 op4  cit4 7vol4 ,,ii474        
,,ii4 ,the ,eastern ,syrian 7,chaldean1 
,assyrian1 ,nestorian7 ,church4 ,the    
,kalendar1 ,lectionary1 and a list of   
days of ,martyrs and others for which   
no special lessons are appointed will be
 found in ,bishop ,a4 ,j4 ,maclean's    
,east ,syrian ,daily ,offices4 ,one of  
the most interesting features is the    
frequency with which ,friday is observed
 as a commemoration of saints2 and      
sometimes the ,friday commemoration is  
related in history or in thought  with  
the event commemorated on the preceding 
,sunday or great festival4  ,thus ,st   
,john ,baptist is commemorated on the   
,friday after the ,epiphany  7,jan4 #f71

 of which festival the baptism of the   
,lord is the dominant  thought4 ,the    
festival is popularly called at ,urmi   
#8,the ,new waters4' ,for  details see  
,maclean4    ,,iii4 ,the ,coptic        
7,egyptian7 and ,abyssinian ,churches1  
both ,monophysite4  ,the ,copts compute 
their years according to #8the era of   
the martyrs' 7of  ,diocletian71         
commencing ,a4,d4 #bhd4 ,the year begins
 on the first of the  month ,tout1 a day
 corresponding to ,sept4 #aj4 ,each     
month consists of #cj  days2 and the    
five 7or in leap-year six7 days         
necessary to complete  the solar year   
are called #8the little month4' ,there  
are fourteen  principal feasts4 ,the    
most peculiar features are              
commemorations of the  ,four-and-twenty 
,elders1 and of the ,four ,beasts1 of   
the ,revelation4    ,the ,ethiopic      
,kalendar runs on broadly similar lines2
 but it is a peculiar  feature of this  
,kalendar that there are monthly        
celebrations of the  ,lord's ,nativity  

7except that the ,lord's ,conception is 
substituted on  ,march #be71 as well as 
of ,st ,mary1 of ,st ,michael1 and of   
,abraham1 ,isaac  and ,jacob4 ,pontius  
,pilate is commemorated on ,june #be4   
,see ,neale's  ,eastern ,church 7,,ii4  
#hje-hae74          ,,appendix ,,iii    
,,note ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,kalendar ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of     
,,england ,,since ,,the  ,,reformation  
,as early as #aecb we find a ,petition  
of the ,commons 7really emanating from  
the ,court7 to ,henry ,,viii that1 with 
the advice of his most honourable       
council1 prelates1 and ordinaries1 holy 
days1 #8and specially such as fall  in  
the harvest1' may be #8made fewer in    
number4' ,to this the ordinaries        
answered1 objecting to change1 and1 with
 reference to holy days in  harvest1    
stating that #8there be in ,august but  
,st ,lawrence1 the ,assumption  of our  
,blessed ,lady1 ,st ,bartholomew1 and in
 ,september the ,nativity of our  ,lady1
 the ,exaltation of the ,cross1 and ,st 

,matthew the ,apostle1 before  which    
days harvest is commonly ended#age4'    
,the reference both in the  ,petition   
and the answer is obviously to holy days
 carrying with them a  cessation of     
labour4    ,in #aecf ,convocation passed
 an ordinance abrogating superfluous    
holy days4  ,it was ordained that in    
term time no holy days should be kept   
except  ,ascension ,day1 the ,nativity  
of the ,baptist1 ,allhallen1 and        
,candlemas1  nor in harvest except      
feasts of the ,apostles and our ,lady4  
,st ,george was  to continue to be      
celebrated4 ,the feast of the patron of 
each church  was to be abolished2 and   
the feast of every church's dedication  
was to  be observed on the first ,sunday
 in ,october4 ,by this ordinance the    
great  festival of ,st ,thomas ,becket1 
the translation of his relics 7,july    
#g71  fell1 as occurring in the season  
of harvest4 ,two years later by a royal 
proclamation the festival of his        
martyrdom 7,dec4 #bi7 met the same fate4

    ,the ,kalendar of the ,first ,prayer
 ,book of ,edward ,,vi 7#aedi7 exhibits 
a  clean sweep of all festivals except  
the red-letter days still observed1     
together with #8,magdalen' 7,july #bb71 
for which a collect1 epistle1 and       
gospel are supplied4 ,st ,matthias is   
placed at ,feb4 #bd4    ,the ,kalendar  
of the ,second ,prayer ,book of ,edward 
,,vi 7#aeeb7 differs from  that of the  
,first ,prayer ,book1 by omitting ,st   
,mary ,magdalene and ,st  ,barnabas     
7,june #aa73 but this latter would seem 
to have been omitted only  per incuriam1
 as the collect1 epistle1 and gospel are
 found in the body  of the book2 and by 
the insertion of the following          
black-letter days1 ,st  ,george 7,april 
#bc71 ,lammas 7,aug4 #a71 ,st ,lawrence 
7,aug4 #aj71 ,st ,clement  7,nov4 #bc71 
together with ,term days1 #8,dog days1' 
#8,equinoctium' 7,march  #aj7 and the   
days of the entrance of the sun into the
 several signs of  the zodiac4 ,it is an
 interesting problem how in the ,prayer 

,book1 which  represents emphatically   
the action of the more thorough-going of
 the  ,protestant party1 these          
black-letter days came to be inserted4  
,in the ,prayer ,book of #aeei          
#8,barnabe ,ap4' reappears2 the         
astronomical  notes are somewhat fuller1
 and the hours of the rising and setting
 of the  sun at certain dates are       
recorded4    ,as regards the            
black-letter days in the present        
,kalendar of the ,church of  ,england we
 have first to call attention to the    
,latin ,prayer ,book issued  by the     
authority of ,elizabeth in ,april #aefj4
 ,it seems to have been ready  for the  
press as early as ,aug4 #aa1 #aeei4 ,its
 ,kalendar is adorned with a  great     
crowd of black-letter saints2 and there 
are but few days blank4  ,in #aefa      
appeared a new ,kalendar in ,english1   
the work of ,ecclesiastical             
,commissioners acting upon a royal      
letter4 ,the ,commissioners were        
directed to peruse the order of the     

lessons throughout the year1 and  to    
cause some new ,kalendars to be         
imprinted1 #8whereby such chapters or   
parcels of less edification may be      
removed1 and others more profitable  may
 supply their rooms4' ,as a matter of   
fact the ,commissioners went  beyond    
their instructions1 and inserted in the 
,kalendar the names  of black-letter    
saints almost as they were a century    
later approved  by ,convocation in      
#affa4 ,these were inserted in the later
 issues of  ,elizabeth's ,prayer ,book4 
,after the accession of ,james ,i the   
,birth-,day of ,queen ,elizabeth ceased 
to  appear in the ,kalendar at ,sept4   
#g1 and ,st ,enurchus takes its place4  
,the only changes made in #affa were the
 addition of ,ven4 ,bede 7,may #bg71 ,st
  ,alban 7,june #ag71 and the           
continuance of ,st ,enurchus 7,sept4    
#g71 together  with the shifting        
7probably through mistake7 of ,st ,mary 
,magdalene from  ,july #bb to ,july #ba4
    ,with regard to the date of ,st     

,mary ,magdalene a reference to the     
photo-zincographic facsimile of the     
,black-,letter ,prayer ,book1 in which  
corrections were made at the last       
revision1 will show at once how easily  
the scribe who copied from this book    
might make the mistake4    ,st          
,enurchus1 who had appeared in this form
 of the name in the ,prayer  ,book of   
#afjd1 and still earlier in the         
,kalendar of the ,preces ,privatae      
7which had been issued1 as ,regia       
authoritate approbatae1 in #aefd71 is   
obviously a faulty form1 arising from an
 error of transcription1 for  ,st       
,euurtius4 ,the first letter u1 after   
the initial ,e1 was read as  n 7the     
confusion of u and n is one of the most 
frequent of the  errors of copyists71   
and the ti 7in a manner not surprising  
to those  familiar with sixteenth       
century script7 was apparently read as  
ch4 ,it  may be added that ,bede and    
,alban had also appeared in the         
,kalendar of  the ,preces ,privatae4 ,we

 have stated that ,st ,enurchus appears 
in the  ,kalendar of the ,prayer ,book  
of #afjd1 and it was introduced then as 
the  only addition to the black-letter  
saints of the ,kalendar of #aefa4 ,it is
  perhaps impossible to account for its 
introduction2 but the conjecture  has   
been offered that it was inserted to    
fill the gap caused by the  omission of 
the ,nativity of ,queen ,elizabeth which
 had formerly occupied  ,sept4 #gagf4   
,the above are not the only errors of   
our present ,kalendar4 ,the revisers  of
 #affa added explanatory comments to the
 names of the saints1 and in  doing so  
have sometimes blundered4 ,thus they    
found #8,cyprian' at ,sept4 #bf1  and   
they added #8,archbishop of ,carthage   
and ,martyr4' ,if they had taken  the   
trouble to look at the old ,sarum or    
,york ,kalendars they would have  seen  
that the ,cyprian commemorated on this  
day was the converted magician  of      
,antioch4 ,this error is probably to be 
traced to ,cosin's ,devotions  7#afbg74 

,it must be confessed that the          
black-letter saints of the modern       
,english  ,kalendar form by no means an 
ideal presentation of the worthies and  
heroes of the ,church ,catholic4 ,the   
,bishop of ,salisbury 7,j4 ,wordsworth7 
has some admirable remarks on the future
 reform of our ,english ,kalendar  in   
his ,ministry of ,grace 7pp4 #dba-dbe74 
,certain errors in the placing of the   
,golden ,numbers in the ,kalendar of    
the ,prayer ,book of #affb for the month
 of ,january were soon discovered4      
,they are noticed in ,nicholl's         
,commentary on the ,book of ,common     
,prayer  7#agab74    ,among the         
red-letter days of #affb were #8,king   
,charles4 ,martyr' 7,jan4  #cj71 #8,king
 ,charles ,,ii4 ,nativity and           
,restoration' 7,may #bi71 #8,papists'   
,conspiracy' 7,nov4 #e74 ,these days    
have the authority of the ,act of       
,uniformity of #affb1 all of them       
appearing in the ,book annexed to the   
,act4 ,on the authority of a ,royal     

,warrant 7,jan4 #ag1 #ahei71 the legal  
sufficiency of which has been           
questioned1 these days have ceased to be
  entered in the ,kalendars of modern   
,prayer ,books4    ,it may be added that
 the ,kalendar of the ,scottish ,prayer 
,book of #afcg  7known commonly1 though 
not correctly as #8,archbishop ,laud's  
,prayer ,book'7  exhibited1 in addition 
to the black-letter saints of the       
,english ,prayer  ,book of the day1 the 
following national or local             
commemorations3--,david1  ,king1 ,jan4  
#aa2 ,mungo1 ,bishop1 ,jan4 #ac2        
,colman1 ,feb4 #ah2 ,constantine ,,iii1 
,king1 ,march #aa2 ,patrick1 ,march #ag2
 ,cuthbert1 ,march #bj2 ,gilbert1       
,bishop1  ,april #a2 ,serf1 ,bishop1    
,april #bj2 ,columba1 ,june #i2         
,palladius1 ,july #f2  ,ninian1 ,bishop1
 ,sept4 #ah2 ,adaman 7sic71 ,bishop     
7sic71 ,sept4 #be2  ,margaret1 ,queen1  
,nov4 #af2 ,ode1 ,virgin1 ,nov4 #bg2    
,drostan1 ,dec4 #d4    ,the ,kalendar of
 the ,prayer ,book of the ,church of    

,ireland has since #ahgg  omitted all   
black-letter days4 ,the same is true of 
the ,american ,prayer  ,book since      
#agij4          ,,footnotes      #a     
,less costly works are ,giry's admirable
 ,manuel de ,diplomatique  7#ahid71 ,sir
 ,harris ,nicholas' ,chronology of      
,history1 and ,mr ,j4 ,j4 ,bond's       
,handy-,book of ,rules and ,tables for  
verifying dates4    #b ,acts xx4 #g2 #a 
,cor4 xvi4 #b4    #c ,the view that ,st 
,john is here representing himself as   
rapt in vision  to the time of judgment 
spoken of by ,st ,paul 7#a ,cor4 i4 #h2 
#b ,thess4 ii4  #b7 is the only other   
interpretation which deserves serious   
consideration4  7,for the view mentioned
 see ,hort1 ,apocalypse1 p4 #ae47 ,but  
it does not1  as it seems to the present
 writer1 dislodge the commonly accepted 
view4    #d ,the ,italian #8,domenica'  
and the ,french #8,dimanche' follow the 
language  of the ,latin ,church in      
designating what we call #8,sunday4' ,in
 the ,greek  ,church #8the ,lord's ,day'

 is still the term employed4    #e ,e4g4
 ,epist4 to ,diognetus #d4    #f        
,christian ,worship1 ,e4 tr4 #bca4    #g
 ,expos4 ,fid4 #bd4    #h ,see ,maclean1
 ,ancient ,church ,orders1 p4 #adi f4   
#i ,ibid41 p4 #aga f4    #aj ,this last 
word 77 points to a temporary deprival  
of  communion4    #aa ,h4,e4 v4 #bb4    
#ab ,epist4 xxxvi4 #b1 ad ,casulanum4   
#ac ,augustine1 ,ep4 liv4 #c1 ad        
,bonifacium4    #ad ,canon ,,xxvi4      
#8,errorem placuit corrigi1 ut omni     
sabbati die  superpositiones            
celebremus4' ,on superpositio jejunii   
see ,d4,c4,a4 ,it  would seem that once 
a month 7except in ,july and ,august1 ob
 quorumdam  infirmitatem7 the added fast
 of ,saturday was to be observed2 ,canon
 ,,xxiii4    #ae ,tertullian 7de        
,jejuniis #b7 speaks of #8stations'     
being held on the  fourth and sixth     
feria4    #af ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 #c4
    #ag ,see the ,notes of ,valesius on 
,eusebius' ,martyrs of ,palestine       
7,paris1 #afei71 pp4 #agc f4    #ah     

,compare ,luke xviii4 #ab4    #ai       
,simil4 v4 #a1  4    #bj ,de ,jejuniis  
#ad4    #ba ,strom4 vii4 p4 #hgg1       
,potter's edit4 ,on conjectures as to   
the origin  of the word statio in this  
sense1 see ,d4,c4,a4    #bb ,see p4 #ia4
    #bc ,christian ,worship1 ,e4 tr4    
#bcj4    #bd ,aegidius ,bucherius       
7,gilles ,boucher71 a learned ,french   
,jesuit1 whose  ,de doctrina temporum   
appeared at ,antwerp in #afcd4    #be   
,ruinart's ,acta ,martyrum 7#agca71 p4  
#eda1 and ,lietzmann1 ,three  oldest    
,martyrologies1 #aijd4    #bf ,it will  
be remembered that ,felicitas and       
,perpetua are named in the  ,canon of   
the ,roman ,mass4    #bg ,satornilos is 
presumably a transcriptional variant of 
,saturninus4    #bh ,duchesne has       
assisted ,r4 ,graffin in editing this   
,martyrology in  ,acta ,sanctorum       
,boll41 ,nov4 ,,ii41 under the title    
,breviarium ,syriacum4    #bi ,see      
,mommsen1 ,corpus ,inscript4 ,lat4 ,i4  
#ccc4    #cj ,lietzmann has printed the 

text in ,the ,three ,oldest             
,martyrologies4  ,see also ,ruinart1    
,acta ,martyrum1 pp4 #eda f4    #ca     
,from the mention of ,eugenius1 bishop  
of ,carthage 7 #eje71 ,lietzmann        
concludes that the ,kalendar received   
its present form shortly after the      
death of ,eugenius4 ,edd4    #cb        
,ministry of ,grace1 #fe4    #cc ,see   
,hefele ,,ii4 #djj1 ,english            
translation4    #cd ,liturgia ,romana   
,vetus1 ,muratori ,i4 #ch-dj4 ,see as to
 the date of  the ,sacramentary1        
,duchesne1 ,chr4 ,worship1 ,e4 tr4 pp4  
#acg-aci4 ,it has  been edited by ,c4   
,l4 ,feltoe 7,sacramentarium ,leonianum1
 ,cambridge1 #ahif74    #ce #8,georgii' 
is a conjecture of ,muratori4 ,the ,,ms4
 has #8,gregorii4' ,see  ,feltoe's note1
 op4 cit4 p4 #agg4 ,edd4    #cf ,but    
,feltoe reads #8iiii4 non4 aug41' which 
corresponds with  the ordinary date1    
,aug4 #b4 ,the actual prayers1 however1 
in the ,leonine  ,sacramentary refer to 
,st ,stephen the protomartyr1 whose     

#8,invention' the  ,roman ,kalendar     
still keeps on ,aug4 #c4 ,see ,feltoe1  
pp4 #he f41 with notes4  ,edd4    #cg   
,gregorius disappears from this day in  
the ,gregorian ,kalendar4    #ch ,see   
,muratori's ,liturg4 ,rom4 ,vet4 ,i4    
#dh-ej4    #ci ,it will interest        
,english students to know that the synod
 of  ,worcester1 under ,cantilupe1 in   
,a4,d4 #abdj appointed this day1 with   
three  others1 ,st ,margaret's1 ,st     
,lucy's1 and ,st ,agatha's1 to be free  
from labour  for women4    #dj ,histoire
 du ,brviaire romain1 p4 #acb4    #da in
 ,diem ,natal4 #a4    #db ,topograph4   
,christ4 v4 #aid 7,migne1 ,p4 ,g4       
lxxxviii4 #aig74    #dc ,see the late   
,dr ,george ,salmon's masterly article  
#8,the ,commentary of  ,hippolytus on   
,daniel' in ,hermathena1 vol4 ,,viii4   
#ahic1 and ,bishop ,j4  ,wordsworth's   
exposition in the ,ministry of ,grace1  
pp4 #cic-cih4    #dd ,ministry of       
,grace1 #cii4    #de ,there are         
unfortunately some grave doubts as to   

the correct text  of ,sozomen1 and as to
 the accuracy of his computation4 ,see  
what is said  by ,ussher in his         
,dissertation de ,macedonum et          
,asianorum anno solari1  c4 #b4 ,compare
 also ,jerome's ,commentary on ,ezekiel 
where the time of the  prophet's vision 
7thirtieth year1 fourth month1 fifth    
day1 ,i4 #a7 is set  forth as           
corresponding to the day of the ,lord's 
baptism and ,epiphany4  ,jerome makes   
the fourth month #8of the orientals'    
correspond to the  ,january of the      
,romans4    #df ,this view 7fanciful    
though it seems7 should not be summarily
  dismissed2 see ,kellner1 pp4 #aja-b4  
#dg ,according to ,clement of           
,alexandria 7,strom4 i4 #ade1 #adf7 the 
,basilidians kept ,jan4 #f as the       
festival of the ,baptism1 and it was    
preceded by a ,vigil4 ,edd4    #dh ,it  
may interest the ,english student to be 
given a sketch of the  principal        
features of the ,sarum ,breviary and    
,missal in relation to the  subject of  

the festival4 ,at ,mattins the first    
three lessons are from  ,isaiah 7lv4    
#a-e1 #f-ab2 lx4 #a-g71 speaking of     
light1 and the calling of  the          
,gentiles4 ,the versicle after the #ast 
lesson is #8and the nations1  shall walk
 in thy light1 and kings in the         
brightness of thy rising4' ,the         
response and versicle after the #bnd    
lesson touch on the gifts of gold  and  
incense from ,saba2 #8the kings of the  
,arabs and of ,saba shall bring  gifts'2
 and this note is sounded again and     
again4 ,the #dth1 #eth and #fth  lessons
 are from a sermon of ,st ,leo1 and the 
responses and versicles  relate to the  
visit of the ,magi4 ,in the response and
 versicle to the #gth  lesson the       
baptism of ,christ is recounted2 and    
subsequently there are  several         
references to the baptism4 ,the collect 
is solely confined to the  thought of   
the revelation of ,god's only begotten  
,son to the ,gentiles by  the guiding of
 a star2 and this is the dominant       

7though not exclusive7  feature of the  
rest of the service4 ,during the octave 
the baptism is  given greater           
prominence2 and on the octave itself the
 miracle at ,cana  has an important     
place1 as well as the baptism4 ,in the  
,missal the propers  are confined to the
 revelation to the ,gentiles and the    
visit of the ,magi4  ,but on the octave 
and the ,sunday within the octave the   
baptism of ,christ  forms the leading   
thought4    #di ,duchesne1 ,chr4        
,worship1 ,e4 tr41 #bff f41 where       
certain variations  in the ,armenian and
 ,nestorian ,kalendars are exhibited4   
#ej ,possibly #8the ,baptist' is a      
bungle of the transcriber4    #ea ,on   
these commemorations of ,st ,james and  
,st ,john see further ,c4 ,l4  ,feltoe  
in ,j4 ,th4 ,st4 x4 #ehi f4 ,edd4    #eb
 ,the ,hieronymian ,martyrology is a    
mechanical and unintelligent  piecing   
together of ,eastern and ,western lists1
 to which ,african additions  were made 
as late as ,a4,d4 #fjj4 ,its origin has 

been investigated by ,de  ,rossi and    
,duchesne1 ,v4 de ,buck and ,achelis3   
see ,wordsworth's ,ministry of  ,grace1 
p4 #ff4    #ec ,cathemerinon1 ,hymnus   
,,xii4    #ed ,de ,corona1 #c4    #ee   
,contra ,celsum1 ,,viii4 #bb4    #ef    
,les ,vies des ,saints 7,paris1 #agci71 
,,ii4 #d4    #eg ,serm4 #aig1 #aih4     
#eh ,this is so as regards the text     
printed by ,muratori2 but in ,menard's  
text there is a benediction that in its 
language is not unlike the  collect in  
the ,book of ,common ,prayer4    #ei ,de
 ,eccl4 ,off4 ,i4 #dj1 #da4    #fj ,in  
,dom ,cabrol's ,les ,origines           
liturgiques 7,appendice ,c47 will be    
found an interesting collection of      
liturgical passages illustrating the    
,church's protest against idolatry on   
the ,kalends of ,january4    #fa ,de    
,orat4 #ah4    #fb ,concil4 ,carthag4   
,,iii4 c4 #bi4    #fc ,ep4 ,,liv4 #g1 ad
 ,januarium4 ,the well-known passage in 
,socrates  7,h4,e4 v4 #bb7 seems to     
indicate that he believed that1         

excluding  ,alexandria1 the ,egyptians  
and the inhabitants of the ,thebais     
ordinarily  partook of the mysteries in 
the evening after a full meal4    #fd   
,spelman 7,glossarium ,archaeologicum1  
s4v47 derives our ,maundy  from maund1  
#8a basket1' because gifts for the poor 
were carried in  baskets2 and this      
derivation has attained some popularity4
 ,but there is  little to support it4   
,in ,germany from the later mediaeval   
period ,der  grne ,donnerstag 7,green   
,thursday7 has been the popular name of 
the day4  ,no entirely satisfactory     
explanation of the term has been        
offered4 ,there  is no question that in 
several ,german churches green vestments
 were worn  by the priest and his       
ministers at the ,mass of ,maundy       
,thursday4    #fe ,chr4 ,worship1 ,e4   
tr41 p4 #bdh4 ,see also ,cabrol1 ,les   
,origines  liturgiques1 pp4 #agc f4     
#ff ,see ,luke ix4 #ea4    #fg ,epist4  
,,liv4 #a1 ad ,januarium4    #fh   4    
#fi ,in #ahib the ,protestant ,episcopal

 ,church in the ,united ,states of      
,america introduced into its ,prayer    
,book the ,transfiguration 7,aug4 #f7 as
 a  red-letter day with proper ,lessons1
 ,collect1 ,epistle1 and ,gospel4    #gj
 ,de ,corona1 #c4    #ga c4 ,celsum1    
,,viii4 #bb4    #gb ,on the date of this
 ,church ,order1 see ,maclean1 ,ancient 
,church  ,orders1 p4 #afc f4    #gc ,see
 ,wilson's edit4 #abi-aca4    #gd ,for  
details the student may consult         
,baillet1 tom4 ,,ix4 ii4 #aeb-aeh4      
#ge ,twysden's ,decem4 ,scriptores1 col4
 #achc4    #gf ,the date of this        
,council is sometimes placed as early as
 ,a4,d4 #fef4    #gg ,see esp4 the      
,protevangelium ,jacobi4 ,edd4    #gh   
,in the printed ,sarum books the        
,assumption was a #8principal double'2  
the ,purification and ,nativity         
#8greater doubles'2 and the             
,annunciation a  #8lesser double4'      
#gi ,for these1 and varieties as to the 
day of observance1 see ,grotefend1      
,zeitrechnung des deutsch4 ,mittelalters

 u4 der ,neuzeit4    #hj ,see the       
,protevangelium 7cc4 #g1 #h74 ,edd4     
#ha ,see however ,gasquet and ,bishop1  
,bosworth ,psalter1 pp4 #di f4 ,edd4    
#hb ,this legend also appears in the    
,protevangelium 7cc4 #a-e74 ,edd4    #hc
 ,gasquet and ,bishop1 ,bosworth        
,psalter1 pp4 #dc ff4 ,edd4    #hd      
,summa1 ,p4 ,,iii4 qu4 #bg1 art4 #b4    
#he ,both these constitutions will be   
found in the ,common ,extravagants1     
lib4 iii4 tit4 #ab4    #hf ,see p4 #ace4
    #hg ,see the prayer in ,feltoe's    
edition1 p4 #df2 #8omnipotens sempiterne
  deus qui nos omnium apostolorum merita
 sub una tribuisti celebritate          
venerari4' ,edd4    #hh ,annales        
,cyprianici1 sub anno #beh4    #hi ,in  
the 7so-called7 ,hieronymian            
,martyrology the entry at ,jan4 #ah runs
  #8,dedicatio ,cathedrae ,s4 ,petri    
,apostoli1 qu primo ,romae sedit4'      
#ij ,the student may consult the        
scholarly article of ,dr ,sinker on     
#8,peter  ,s41 ,festivals of' in        

,d4,c4,a41 together with ,duchesne's    
,christian  ,worship1 ,e4 tr4 7pp4      
#bgg-bha71 ,wordsworth's ,ministry of   
,grace1 and  ,kellner's ,heortology1 pp4
 #cja-cjh4 ,it should be added however  
with  regard to ,kellner that the notion
 that the feast is connected with the   
,primacy1 as distinguished from the     
,episcopacy of ,st ,peter1 seems to be  
devoid of evidence4    #ia ,d',achery's 
,spicilegium1 tom4 ii4 #ae4    #ib ,it  
is found in the ,carthaginian ,kalendar1
 but not in the ,bucherian1  nor in that
 of ,polemius ,silvius4 ,edd4    #ic    
,other festivals connected with ,st     
,andrew are noticed in ,d4,c4,a4    #id 
,ministry of ,grace1 #dai4    #ie ,see  
,duchesne1 ,chr4 ,worship1 ,e4 tr4 #bha4
    #if ,see ,sinker's article in       
,d4,c4,a4    #ig ,for variations as to  
the day of observance see ,baillet1 and 
,sinker  in ,d4,c4,a4    #ih ,serm4     
#aif1 #bhg4    #ii ,it is found in the  
,gelasian and in some forms of the      
,gregorian  ,sacramentary4 ,edd4    #ajj

 ,for other variations as to the day see
 ,sinker's article in ,d4,c4,a4    #aja 
,kellner1 #cac4    #ajb ,see the        
,gelasian and ,gregorian                
,sacramentaries4    #ajc ,heortology1 p4
 #ae4    #ajd ,ad ,uxor4 ii4 #d4    #aje
 ,see for details of evidence ,bingham1 
bk4 xiii4 c4 #i4    #ajf ,epp4 lib4 v4  
#ag4    #ajg ,ep4 ad ,laetam1 #i4       
#ajh ,comment4 in ,matth4 ,,xxv4 #f4    
#aji ,this letter is to be found in the 
,corpus ,juris ,canonici1  ,decretal4   
lib4 iii4 tit4 #df4    #aaj ,muratori1  
,liturg4 ,rom4 ,,ii4 #ghf-gij3 #gjb-gjc4
    #aaa ,h4,e4 ,,iv4 #cj3 ,,iii4 #bg4  
#aab ,see p4 #aaj4    #aac ,euseb4      
,h4,e4 v4 #bd4 ,the words as to the     
forty hours are not  unattended with    
difficulty2 but the interpretation given
 above is that  adopted by the soundest 
scholars4 ,see ,duchesne 7,christ4      
,worship1 ,e4  tr41 p4 #bda71 and the   
notes on the place by ,valesius4 ,the   
meaning is  probably that no food was   
partaken for forty continuous hours4    

#aad de ,jejunio1 #b1 #ac1 #ad4    #aae 
,dionysius of ,alexandria1 ,ep4 to      
,basilides1 in ,feltoe1 ,letters of     
,dionysius of ,alex41 p4 #id f4    #aaf 
,h4,e4 v4 #bb4    #aag ,the account in  
,socrates cannot be confidently regarded
 as strictly  accurate in some of its   
details4 ,we cannot readily accept the  
statement  that the ,saturdays at ,rome 
were not fasting days4    #aah ,collat4 
xxi4 #be4    #aai ,liturgia ,romana     
,vetus 7,muratori71 ,,ii4 #bh1 #bi4     
#abj ,vita ,s4 ,margaritae1 c4 ,,ii4    
#ah4    #aba ,see pp4 #adc f4    #abb   
,the whole subject of the ,lent of the  
,eastern ,church is very  fully dealt   
with by ,nilles in his ,kalendarium     
,manuale and by ,prince  ,maximilian of 
,saxony in his ,praelectiones de        
,liturgiis ,orientalibus1  #aijh4       
#abc ,see pp4 #gg1 #hj f4    #abd       
,another reading is pro populo4    #abe 
,paenitentiale1 ,,ii4 xiv4 #a 7,haddon  
and ,stubbs1 ,councils1 ,,iii4  #bjb74  
#abf #8,in tribus quadragesimis anni et 

in dominica die et in feriis  quartis et
 in sextis feriis conjuges continere se 
debent4' ,lib4 xlvi4 c4  #aa3           
,wasserschleben1 ,die ,irische          
,kanonensammlung 7ed4 #ahhe71 p4 #ahg4  
#abg ,the ,great ,litany on ,st ,mark's 
day at ,rome was much earlier4    #abh  
,see ,serm4 xix4 #b2 lxxx4 #d4    #abi  
,for the reasons for his ingenious      
conjecture see ,christian  ,worship1 ,e4
 tr4 p4 #bbc4    #acj ,see ,sinker's    
scholarly article #8,ember ,days' in the
 ,dictionary of  ,christian             
,antiquities1 for many valuable details4
    #aca ,the ,,ms4 is wanting for the  
part before ,april4    #acb ,can4 #h    
7,labbe xi4 #bgd74 ,it is to be observed
 that in the ,leofric  ,missal1 of much 
earlier date1 the ,ember days are noted 
as falling in the  first week of ,lent2 
in the week of ,pentecost2 in the full  
week before the  autumnal equinox2 and  
in the full week before the ,nativity4  
#acc ,the study of the ,martyrologies of
 ,bede1 ,florus1 ,ado1 and ,usuard  has 

been recently approached in the true    
scientific spirit by ,dom ,henri        
,quentin1 of ,solesmes4 ,manuscripts in 
the various libraries of ,europe  have  
been examined and classified1 and the   
sources of the entries traced  in most  
cases with great success4 ,see this     
writer's ,les ,martyrologes  historiques
 du moyen age 7#aijh74    #acd ,med4 v4 
,kal4 ,i4 #cig-dbj4    #ace ,on these   
terms see ,ducange1 ,glossarium1 s4v4   
,festum2 ,addis and  ,arnold1 ,catholic 
,dictionary1 art4 #8,festival4' ,edd4   
#acf ,the classification of festivals in
 the ,kalendars of ,germany with        
,tyrol1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 and         
,scandinavia1 as printed by ,grotefend1 
varies  much4 ,we find such terms as    
#8,triplex' as well as #8,duplex'       
7,breslau72  #8,duplex compositum'      
7,utrecht72 #8ix ,psalmorum' 7,metz72   
#8,bini' 7i4e4  bini chori7 at          
,salzburg2 #8,festa ,prelatorum1'       
#8,festa ,canonicorum1' #8,festa        
vicariorum' 7,roskilde72 #8,summum' and 

#8semi-summum' 7,erfurt71 and many      
forms that are unfamiliar to ,english   
students4    #acg ,for further          
observations on the ,kalendars of the   
,church of ,england  and of ,churches in
 communion with it see ,appendix ,,iii4 
#ach ,see ,quentin's ,les ,martyrologes 
historiques1 pp4 #bg1 #bh4    #aci ,for 
details see ,baillet1 ,les ,vies des    
,saints1 tom4 ,i1 in his  ,discours1 pp4
 xxxiii4-xxxix4    #adj ,in the recently
 discovered ,testament of the ,lord1 the
 word  #8,pascha' is used for the season
 preceding ,easter1 even as             
#8,pentecost' is  used for the season of
 fifty days preceding ,whitsunday4      
#ada ,gute ,freitag is found            
occasionally in the ,german ,church     
,orders of  the ,reformation ,period4   
#adb ,in ,greek writers 4 ,for a full   
discussion of  the whole question1 with 
reference to the authorities1 see ,v4   
,h4 ,stanton1  ,the ,gospels as         
,historical ,documents1 ,part ,i41 pp4  
#agc-aig4 ,edd4    #adc ,see ,eusebius1 

,h4,e4 v4 #bd1 where the full context   
scarcely leaves  a doubt that    must be
 understood in the sense  that ,anicetus
 yielded the place of celebrant to      
,polycarp4    #add ,h4,e4 v4 #bd4       
#ade ,we do not enter upon the          
discussion of the question whether he   
actually proceeded to the length of a   
formal excommunication4 ,in certain  of 
his letters he undoubtedly spoke of them
 as 4 ,euseb4  ,h4,e4 v4 #bd4    #adf   
,ibid4    #adg ,see the discussion by   
,bp ,maclean1 ,ancient ,church ,orders  
7in the  present series71 p4 #adi f4    
#adh ,lib4 ,v4 c4 #g4    #adi ,see p4   
#aag4    #aej ,see p4 #aah f4    #aea   
,h4,e4 ,,vi4 #bb4    #aeb ,lagarde1     
,analecta ,syriaca1 p4 #hi4    #aec ,see
 ,dr ,george ,salmon's article on       
#8,hippolytus ,romanus' in ,smith and   
,wace's ,dictionary of ,christian       
,biography4    #aed ,see ,ludwig        
,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen u4
 techn4  ,chronologie1 ,,ii4 #bai4      
#aee ,see for a full treatment of the   

subject ,ideler1 ,,ii4 #bbf-bca4    #aef
 ,h4,e4 ,i4 #i4    #aeg ,in the opinion 
of ,duchesne the controversy dealt with 
in ,a4,d4  #cbe was between the system  
of ,antioch1 which celebrated ,easter on
 the  ,sunday next after the ,jewish    
,pascha1 and the system of ,alexandria1 
which  insisted on ,easter being always 
after the vernal equinox4 ,see          
,christian  ,worship1 ,e4 tr41 #bcg4    
#aeh ,eusebius1 ,vita ,const4 ,,iii4    
#ah3 ,socrates ,h4,e4 ,i4 #i4    #aei   
,in ,french there is a trace of the more
 extended meaning in the  phrase        
#8quinzaine de ,pques1' meaning #8,holy 
week and ,easter week4' ,in  ,scotland  
and the north of ,england gifts of      
#8pasch eggs' 7pronounced  #8paise      
eggs'71 hard-boiled eggs stained with   
various colours1 at ,easter  are still  
not unknown4    #afj ,hefele1 ,councils1
 ,e4 tr4 ,,ii4 #fg4    #afa ,for the    
history of the paschal controversies in 
the time of  ,pope ,leo see ,bruno      
,krusch1 ,studien zur                   

christlich-mittelalterlichen            
,chronologie4 ,der #hd jhrige           
,ostercyclus und seine ,quellen         
7,leipzig1  #ahhj74    #afb ,see        
,appendix ,i4    #afc ,see ,bruno       
,krusch1 ,studien1 p4 #cb f4    #afd    
,the student who desires further details
 of the history of the  controversies   
about the date of ,easter1 prior to the 
time of ,dionysius  ,exiguus1 may       
consult with profit the dissertation of 
,adrian ,baillet in  the ninth volume of
 his ,les ,vies des ,saints 7ed4 #agci74
    #afe ,the author died before his    
work was presented to the ,pope1 a duty 
performed by his brother ,antonio       
,lilio1 who was also a physician4 ,now  
and  then we find the ,gregorian        
,kalendar spoken of as the ,lilian      
,kalendar4    #aff ,see ,seabury1 ,the  
theory and use of the ,church ,calendar 
in  measurement and distribution of     
time1 p4 #abj4 ,other devices of the    
astronomers which would reduce the error
 to only one day in a thousand          

centuries are noticed in the same work4 
#afg ,sir ,harris ,nicholas1 ,chronology
 of ,history1 pp4 #cb-cd2 ,giry1        
,manuel de ,diplomatique1 pp4 #afe-afg4 
#afh ,notices of these ,menologies will 
be found in ,kellner's  ,heortology1    
#chg-cic3 and on both the ,menology and 
the ,menaea 7in twelve  volumes1        
corresponding to the months from        
,september to ,august7 see the          
,dissertation de libris et officiis     
ecclesiasticis ,graecorum appended to   
,cave's ,historia ,literaria4    #afi   
,nilles' ,kalendarium ,manuale1 tom ,i41
 and ,prince ,maximilian's              
,praelectiones1 pp4 #abb-bba1 may be    
consulted by the curious4    #agj ,the  
great doxology corresponds substantially
 to ,gloria in  excelsis2 and the little
 doxology to ,gloria ,patri1 etc4       
#aga ,see ,suicer's ,thesaurus1 s4v4    
#agb ,the #cah bishops at ,nicaea in    
,a4,d4 #cbe4    #agc p4 #hd4    #agd    
,see ,neale's ,holy ,eastern ,church1   
,,ii4 pp4 #gdc1 #gdi1 #gec4    #age ,see

 ,gee and ,hardy1 ,documents            
illustrative of the history of the      
,church of ,england1 pp4 #aej1 #agc4    
#agf ,see ,v4 ,staley's ,the ,liturgical
 ,year1 where the ,kalendar of the      
,church of ,england is treated with much
 fulness4          ,,index    ,see also 
,table of ,contents1 p4 vii4            
,abyssinian ,kalendar1 see ,kalendar    
,ado1 martyrology of xvi1 #ic1 #id      
,advent1 observance of #gf ff4          
,agnes1 ,st1 octave of #bj1 #ga         
,akathist1 sabbath of #add              
,alexandria1 church of1 its authority in
 settling date of ,easter #aba      ,all
 ,saints 7,allhallen71 festival of #bc1 
#adi2      ,sunday of #ia1 #ada2        
vigil of #ge      ,all ,souls' ,day     
xiii1 #bd      ,ambrosian rite #gg      
anarguroi1 see ,unmercenary             
,anatolius1 ,paschal cycle of #aae      
,andrew1 ,st1 commemoration of #ag1 #ai1
 #bb1 #fc f41 #acg2      octave of #ga2 
relation of ,advent to festival of #gi  
,anna1 ,st1 conception of1 see ,mary1   

festivals of      ,annunciation1 see    
,mary1 festivals of      ,antipasch     
#ada1 #adb      ,antiphons1 in ,advent  
#gh f4      ,apocreos1 ,sunday of #hd1  
#ada1 #adc2      ,sabbath of #add       
,apodosis #ga1 #ace      ,apostles1     
commemoration of #bb1 #eh ff42          
,fast of the #ij f42      ,synaxis of   
the ,twelve #eh1 #aci2      ,seventy    
#gj1 #ach1 #aci      ,apostolic ,canons 
#f1 #aaa      ,apostolic ,constitutions 
#f1 #aaa      ,aratschavor-atz #ib      
,armenians1 their observance of         
,epiphany and ,christmas #cb1 #ch2      
rules of fasting #gh1 #ia f42           
,kalendar of #cf1 #dc1 #adg f4          
,artziburion #ib      ,ascension1       
commemoration of #ah1 #db f41 #ace1 #adi
      ,ascetics1 ,sabbath of #add       
,ash ,wednesday #hb1 #hc f4             
,asiatics1 commemoration of the ,pascha 
by #ajf ff4      ,assumption1 see ,mary1
 festivals of        ,baptism1 of       
,christ1 commemoration of #cj1 #ca n41  
#cb1 #aci f4      ,barnabas1 ,st1       

commemoration of #gj1 #aej              
,baronius1 ,cardinal #ajc               
,bartholomew1 ,st1 commemoration of #fh 
,basilian ,menology1 see ,menology      
,basilidians1 festival of ,baptism of   
,christ kept by #ca      ,becket1       
,thomas1 institution of festival of     
,trinity by #df2      feasts of his     
martyrdom and translation #aej          
,bede1 martyrology of xvi1 #bc1 #di1    
#fb1 #fi1 #gj1 #ic1 #id      ,borromeo1 
,charles #hc        ,candlemas1 meaning 
of #dh2      festival of1 see           
,purification      caput jejunii #hc    
,cara cognatio1 pagan solemnity of #fa  
,celtic churches1 ,paschal cycle of     
#abb1 #adf      ,charlemagne1 ,capitula 
of #hf      ,christmas1 see ,nativity   
,circumcision1 feast of #bb f41 #cg ff41
 #ace1 #adg      claves quadragesimae1  
,paschae1 ,rogationum #ajb              
,clavius1 see ,schlssel      ,coena     
,domini #dj      ,conception1 see ,mary1
 feasts of      ,constantine1 letter of1
 on ,paschal question #aaa f41 #aag ff4 

,coptic ,kalendar1 see ,kalendar        
,corbie ,kalendar #ga      ,corpus      
,christi1 feast of xiv1 #ih2      octave
 of #gb      ,cross1 ,holy1 adoration of
 #da f42      ,sunday of ,adoration of  
#ada2      ,exaltation of #bb1 #ii1     
#ace1 #adb1        7a fast in ,eastern  
,church7 #ia2      ,invention of #ii2   
,procession of #be      ,cyprian1 ,st1  
,paschal cycle attributed to #aae2      
commemoration of1 in ,english ,prayer   
,book #aeb        ,dead1 ,sabbath of    
#add      ,decollation1 see ,john       
,baptist      depositiones1 of martyrs  
and bishops #ad1 #af1 #ag      dies     
caniculares #aja      dies profestus    
#gd1 #hg      ,dionysius of ,alexandria1
 ,paschal cycle of #aae      ,dionysius 
,exiguus1 ,paschal cycle of #abc1 #abd  
f4      dominica carnisprivii1 see      
,apocreos      dominica in albis #adb   
,dominical ,kalendar1 of ,orthodox      
,eastern ,church #adj ff4               
,dormitio1 see ,mary1 feasts of         
,doxology1 the great and the little #acg

        ,easter1 regulations for date of
 #ae1 #aaa f41 #abb ff4      ,see also  
,pascha1 ,paschal cycle etc42           
octave of #ga1 #gb      ,edward1 ,st1   
the ,confessor1 feast and translation of
 #ii      ,egbert1 ,abp1 ,pontifical of 
#fi      ,elias of ,nisibis #aac        
,ember ,days1 meaning of term #ij4      
,see ,fasts      ,english ,prayer ,book1
 see ,prayer ,book      ,enurchus1 ,st  
#aea      ,epiphany1 feast of #ag1 #bj1 
#bc1 #cj f41 #ace1 #aci2      octave of 
#ga1 #gb1 #ace      ,ethiopic ,kalendar1
 see ,kalendar      ,evangelists1       
commemoration of #fe ff4        ,fasts1 
in ,advent #gh2      before ,easter     
7,lent7 #gi ff42      after ,pentecost  
#he1 #ib1 #adg2      ,rogation days #hf2
      of four seasons 7,ember ,days7 #ah
 f41 #hg ff42      of vigils #gd f42    
of ,eastern ,church #ij f42      of     
,nineveh #ia f41 #adg      feria1       
meaning of term #h      festa chori1    
festa fori xix      ,festal ,letters1   
see ,paschal ,epistles      ,festivals1 

rank and dignity of #ih f4      ,florus1
 martyrology of xvi1 #ic1 #id           
,friday1 ,christian observance of #aj   
f42      fast in ,advent #gh2      a    
fast in ,eastern ,church #ia1 #adj2     
commemoration of ,saints among ,east    
,syrians on #adg        ,gabriel1       
archangel1 ,synaxis of #aci1 #adj       
,galesini1 ,pietro1 martyrology of #ajc 
gang-days #hg      ,gelasian            
,sacramentary1 see ,sacramentary        
,gellonense1 see ,martyrologies         
,george1 ,st1 commemoration of #ba1 #bc1
 #acf1 #adi      ,good ,friday #da f41  
#ajg      ,gorman1 martyrology of #ie   
,gothic ,missal #fe      ,gregorian     
reform1 see ,kalendar      ,gregory the 
,great #gg1 #hb      ,gregory ,,xiii1   
,pope1 his scheme for a fixed ,easter   
xviii2      appoints a commission to    
revive ,martyrology #ajc2      his      
reform of ,kalendar #abg ff4            
,hieromartyr #ach      ,hippolytus1     
,paschal ,tables of #aaa1 #aab ff42     
statue of #aab      ,holy ,thursday1 see

 ,ascension      ,holy ,week1 observance
 of #dj ff4      ,horologium #ajc       
,hosiomartyr #ach      ,hypapante1 see  
,purification        ,immaculate        
,conception1 see ,mary1 feasts of       
,innocent ,,iii1 ,pope1 rules of1       
concerning vigils #gd f4                
,innocents1 ,holy1 commemoration of #ag1
 #ai1 #bb1 #cc ff4      ,irenaeus1      
letter of1 to ,victor of ,rome #gi1 #aaj
      ,irish canons1 collection of #he  
f4      ,isapostolos #ach        ,james1
 ,st1 son of ,zebedee1 commemoration of 
#ag1 #cd1 #cf1 #fd f4      ,james1 ,st1 
the ,lord's brother1 commemoration of   
#cd1 #cf1 #fg4      ,see also ,philip   
and ,james      ,james and ,john1 ,,ss41
 commemoration of #af1 #cc f41 #fe      
,january1 ,kalends of1 observed as a    
fast #ch f4      ,jerome1 see           
,martyrologies 7,hieronymian7      ,john
 ,baptist1 ,st1 commemoration of #ag1   
#ah1 #ba1 #cd2      ,conception of #ec1 
#aci2      ,nativity of #ah1 #fh1 #ace1 
#aci1 #adi2      ,decollation of #ah1   

#fi1 #ace1 #aci1 7a fast7 #ia2          
,synaxis of #aci1 #adj2      ,east      
,syrian commemoration of #adh2          
vigil of ,nativity of #ge      ,john1   
,st1 the ,evangelist1 commemoration of  
#ag1 #ai1 #bb1 #cc f41 #fe1 #ge1        
#acf2      before the ,latin ,gate #ba1 
#ff2      ,migration 7or ,assumption7 of
 #cd1 #fe1 #acf      ,jude1 ,st         
7,thaddaeus71 commemorated in ,greek    
,church #fg        ,kalendar1 causes of 
growth of xii f41 #ie ff42              
antiquarian notices in #ajj1 #ajb2      
artificial construction of xii2         
astronomical notes in #aja2             
influences affecting #ig f42      marks 
of antiquity in #ac2      value of1 for 
study of ,,mss #ie f42      ,gregorian  
reform of #abe ff42      ,bucherian     
7,liberian1 or ,philocalian7 #ad1 #bh1  
#ca1 #ch1 #ei1 #fc n42                  
,carthaginian #af1 #ca1 #cd1 #ch1 #fc   
n42      of ,polemius ,silvius1 #af1 #fc
 n42      ,abyssinian #adh2             
,armenian #adg2      ,coptic #adh2      

,east ,syrian #adg2      of ,english    
,prayer ,books #adi ff42      ,ethiopic 
#adh2      ,mozarabic #cf2      of      
,orthodox ,eastern ,church #acc ff4     
,see also ,martyrologies1 ,sacramentary 
,kings1 the ,three1 ,translation of #ig1
 #ajj      ,kollyba1 ,sabbath of #add   
,koryphaeoi #ace        ,lawrence1 ,st1 
octave of #ga2      vigil of #ge        
,lazarus1 ,sabbath of #ace1 #add        
,lent1 observance of #gi ff41 #ada ff4  
,leo1 ,st1 correspondence of1 on        
,paschal limits #abj f41 #abd2          
,sacramentary of1 see ,sacramentary     
,leofric ,missal #fi1 #ig      ,lights1 
,feast of 7,epiphany7 #cj f41 #adb      
,lilio1 ,luigi1 reformation of ,kalendar
 by #abg      ,litanies1 origin of #hf  
f42      at ,rome #fg      ,lord1       
festivals of the1 xii1 #bg ff4          
,lord's ,day1 ,christian observance of  
xi1 #c f41 #e1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #cg2        
vigil preceding #gc4      ,see also     
,dominical ,kalendar      ,luke1 ,st1   
commemoration of #ag1 #ff               

,lupercalia1 heathen festival of #dh    
,maccabees1 commemoration of #af1 #ag1  
#be f4      ,mamertus1 bishop of        
,vienne1 rogations appointed by #hf     
,margaret1 ,queen of ,scotland #hc      
,mark1 ,st1 commemoration of #ff f4     
,martyrologies1 use of term #ic f42     
influence on later ,kalendars #id2      
marks of antiquity in #ac2              
,bucherian 7,liberian or ,philocalian7  
#ad2      ,carthaginian #af f42         
,syrian #ae1 #fe2      ,gellonense #fb1 
#gj2      ,hieronymian #cd1 #fc1 #fe1   
#ff1 #fi1 #gj2      modern ,roman #ajc4 
,see also ,ado1 ,bede1 ,florus1 ,usuard1
 and ,kalendar      ,martyrs1 days of1  
observed locally xi1 #ab ff41 7at       
cemeteries7 #bd2      ,acts of1 read in 
churches #ag2      oblations offered for
 #ad      ,mary1 ,st1 the ,virgin       
7,theotokos71 feasts of xv1 #dg ff41    
#adh2      ,annunciation of #ba1 #di f41
 #eg1 #ace1 #adj1 #adg2      ,assumption
 7dormitio1 ,repose7 of #bb1 #ea1 #eg1  
#ge1 #ace1        7fast before7 #ge1    

#ij2      ,conception of xiv f41 #eb    
ff41 #eg1 #ih2      ,immaculate         
,conception of #eb ff42      ,nativity  
of #bb1 #ej1 #ea n41 #eg1 #ace1 #adj2   
,presentation of #ea1 #eg1 #ace2        
,synaxis of ,theotokos #eg1 #aci1 #adj4 
,see also ,purification      ,mary      
,magdalene1 ,st1 commemoration of #fi   
f42      the #8myrrh-bearer' #fi2       
in ,english ,prayer ,book #gj1 #aej1    
#aea      ,matthew4 ,st1 commemoration  
of #ff      ,matthias1 ,st1             
commemoration of1 in ,english ,prayer   
,book #aej      ,maundy ,thursday 7dies 
mandati71 observance of #dj f42         
meaning of term #da n4      ,maurolico1 
,francesco1 martyrology of #ajc         
,melito1 ,bp of ,sardis1 defence of     
,asiatic ,paschal observance by #ajh f4 
,menology1 character of early ,eastern  
#acc2      of ,constantinople #acc2     
,basilian #cj1 #acc      ,michael1 ,st1 
,synaxis of #acg1 #aci2      monthly    
commemoration of1 by ,ethiopic ,church  
#adh      missa ad prohibendum ab idolis

 #ci      ,montanists1 celebration of   
,pascha by #bh f4      ,mozarabic rite  
#gg1 #hc      ,myrrh-bearers1 ,sunday of
 #ada1 #adb4      ,see also ,mary       
,magdalene        natale1 dies natalis1 
natalitia #ac1 #ae1 #fg      natale     
,calicis #ae1 #dj      natale ,petri de 
,cathedra1 see ,peter1 ,st      natalis 
,solis ,invicti #cj      ,nativity1 of  
the ,lord 7,christmas71 feast of #ae1   
#ag1 #ai1 #bb1 #bg f41 #di1        #gf1 
#ace1 #adj1 #adg1 #adh2      origin of  
feast of #bi f42      octave of #ga1    
#gb2      fast before #ij2      vigil of
 #ge      ,nicaea1 ,council of1         
decisions of1 on ,paschal question #aaf 
f42      commemoration of the #cah      
fathers of #ada1 #adc        ,octaves1  
meaning of term #gj f42      history of 
#ga      ,oengus1 the ,culdee1          
martyrology of #ie      ,old ,testament 
worthies1 commemoration of xii1 #acd1   
#acf1 #adh      ,orthodoxy ,sunday xiii1
 #ada1 #adb      ,o sapientia #gh f4    
,palm ,sunday 7,feast of ,palms7 #dj1   

#hd1 #ace1 #ada      ,parasceve #aj1    
#aa1 #cg1 #add f4      ,pascha1 original
 use of term #ajd ff42      ,christian  
commemoration of xi1 #cg1 #ajd ff42     
dies ,paschae #dj      ,paschal ,cycles1
 of ,hippolytus #aaa1 #aab ff42      of 
,dionysius ,al4 #aae2      of ,anatolius
 #aae2      ,roman #abc2                
,alexandrine #abc2      of ,victorius   
#abd2      of ,dionysius ,exiguus #abc1 
#abd f4      ,paschal ,epistles xviii1  
#aba      ,paschal limits #abj f4       
,paschal question xvii1 #aje ff4        
,paschal ,tables1 see ,paschal ,cycles  
,passiontide1 observance of #dj ff4     
,paul1 ,st1 commemoration of #ba1 #cc2  
,conversion of #fi2      ,translation of
 #fi4      ,see also ,peter and ,paul   
,pentecost1 meaning of term #dc ff42    
observance of #ah1 #cg1 #dc ff41 #ace1  
#ada2      octave of #ga1 #gb2          
vigil of #ge      ,peter1 ,st1          
commemoration of #cc2      ,chains of   
7ad ,vincula7 #ba1 #be1 #fc2      ,chair
 of 7,cathedra ,petri7 #ae1 #ei1 #fj    

ff42      ,dedication of ,basilica of   
#ah1 #fc      ,peter and ,paul1 ,,ss41  
commemoration of #af1 #ah1 #ba1 #cd1    
#ce1 #ace2      depositio of #af2       
origin of festival of xiii1 #ei f42     
fast before #ij2      octave of #ga     
,philip1 the deacon #fg      ,philip1   
,st1 feast of #fg1 #gh2      fast of #gh
      ,philip and ,james1 ,,ss41        
commemoration of #ba1 #fg1 #ge          
,pliny1 letter of1 to ,trajan #gb       
,polycarp1 ,st1 conference of1 with     
,anicetus on ,paschal question #ajh     
,polycrates1 letter of1 on ,paschal     
controversy #aji      ,polyeleos #acf   
,pontius ,pilate1 commemorated by       
,ethiopians #adh      ,prayer ,book1    
,american #dc1 #aec2      ,english      
7#aedi1 #aeeb7 #gj1 #aja1 #aej1         
7#aeei7 #aja1 #aej1        7#afjd7 #aea1
        7#affb7 #gi1 #aea2      ,irish  
#aec2      ,latin 7#aefj7 #aej2         
,scottish 7#afcg7 #gi1 #aec      ,preces
 ,privatae 7#aefd7 #aea                 
,pre-sanctified1 ,mass of #db           

,presentation1 of the ,lord in ,temple  
#dh1 #adg4      ,see also ,purification2
      of ,st ,mary1 see ,mary1 feasts of
      ,primer1 of ,edward ,,vi #aja     
,prodromos #ach      proheortia #dc1    
#ace      ,protevangelium ,jacobi #ej   
n41 #eb n41 #ec n4      ,purification   
7,hypapante1 ,candlemas71 feast of #bj1 
#bc1 #dg ff41 #ea n41        #eg1 #aja1 
#ace1 #adj1 #adi        ,quadragesima1  
ante ,pascha 7,lent7 #hj f41 #he2       
of ,st ,martin #gg1 #he2      after     
,pentecost #he2      before ,st ,john   
,baptist #he f4      ,see also ,fasts   
,quartodecimans #ajg      ,quinquagesima
 #hd        ,rabanus ,maurus1           
martyrology of #fi1 #ie      ,relics1   
translation of1 as affecting ,kalendars 
#ig      ,requiem masses1 prohibited    
within certain octaves1 #gb             
,rogation ,days1 origin of #hf f4       
,roman ,breviary and ,missal #fc1 #ga   
,roman ,kalendar #eb        ,sabbath1   
see ,saturday      ,sacramentary1       
,gallican #gg2      ,gothic-,gallican   

#gg2      ,gelasian #bj1 #ci1 #eh1 #fd1 
#ff1 #fh2      ,gregorian #bj f41 #cc1  
#ci1 #di1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #hc2           
,leonine #ah f41 #db1 #eh1 #fd1 #ff1    
#fh1 #hh f4      ,samaria1 woman of     
7,photina71 commemorated xii1 #ada      
,sarum1 ,breviary #cb1 #ea1 #eb2        
,enchiridion #ea f42      ,missal #cb1  
#ea      ,saturday 7or ,sabbath71       
,christian observance of #b1 #d ff42    
special observances of1 in ,greek       
,church #add2      ,great ,sabbath #f1  
#dj1 #add      ,schlssel1 ,christopher1 
reformation of ,kalendar by #abg        
,seventy ,apostles 7disciples7 #gj1     
#ach1 #aci      ,sexagesima #hd         
,silvia1 ,pilgrimage of xvi1 #bg1 #dj1  
#db1 #dh1 #gb1 #gc1 #hb      ,simon and 
,jude1 ,,ss41 commemoration of1 #fg     
,simon ,zelotes1 ,st1 commemorated in   
,greek ,church #fg      ,station        
7statio7 #aa      ,stephen1 ,st1        
commemoration of #af1 #ag1 #ah n41 #bb1 
#cc1 #cd      ,style1 ,new1 history of  
adoption of #acj ff4      ,sunday1 see  

,lord's ,day      supputatio ,romana    
#abc      ,synaxis1 use of term in      
,eastern ,kalendars #aci      ,syrians1 
,east1 ,kalendar of #adg f4             
,tessarakoste1 use of term #hj1 #ij f4  
,thaddaeus1 see ,jude      thaumaturgos 
#ach      ,theodore1 of ,canterbury1    
,paenitentiale of #he      ,theodore    
,tyro1 ,st1 #add      ,theometor1       
,theopator1 #aci      ,theophany1 see   
,epiphany      theophorus #acg          
,theotokos1 see ,mary1 feasts of        
,thomas1 ,st1 commemoration of #fg f4   
,three hundred and eighteen1 see ,nicaea
      ,transfiguration1 commemoration of
 #dc1 #ace      ,trinity ,sunday1       
observance of #de f4      ,tyrinis or   
,tyrophagus 7,sunday7 #hd1 #ada1 #adc   
,unmercenary saints #aci      ,usuard1  
martyrology of xvi1 #di1 #fb1 #fg1 #ic1 
#id1 #ie        ,victor1 ,bp of ,rome1  
attitude of1 on ,paschal question #aji  
f4      ,victorius of ,aquitaine1       
,paschal cycle of #abd      ,vigils1    
origin of #gb ff42      rules for #gd   

f42      at ,ember seasons #hh          
,votive masses1 prohibited within       
certain octaves #gb        ,wednesday1  
observance of #aj f42      fast in      
,advent #gh2      a fast in ,eastern    
,church #ia1 #adj      ,week1 ,jewish   
and ,christian #b2      first day of1   
see ,lord's ,day2      ,great1 see ,holy
 ,week      ,weigel1 ,erhard1 ,kalendar 
of #aca        ,ximenes1 ,cardinal #hc  
#db         #dc         #aj        #aai 
#aai       #adc         #hj       #ajg  
#adc      ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by   
,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the        
,,university ,,press4