,,lippincott',s ,,educational ,,series ,,edited ,,by ,,martin ,g4 ,,brumbaugh1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,pedagogy1 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania1 ,,and ,,commissioner ,,of ,,education ,,for ,,puerto ,,rico ,illustration ,,volume ,i ,lippincott ,educational ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,dr4 ,m4 ,g4 ,,brumbaugh ,professor of ,pedagogy1 ,university of ,pennsylvania ,,volume ,i ,thinking and ,learning to ,think ,by ,,nathan ,c4 ,,schaeffer1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction for the ,state of ,pennsylvania4 #cea pages4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,volume ,,ii ,two ,centuries of ,pennsylvania ,history ,by ,,isaac ,,sharpless1 ,president of ,haverford ,college4 #che pages4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,volume ,,iii ,kemp's ,history of ,education ,by ,,dr4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,kemp1 ,principal of ,east ,stroudsburg ,normal ,school4 #che pages4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,volume ,,iv ,kant's ,educational ,theory ,by ,,edward ,,franklin ,,buckner1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,philosophy and ,education in the ,university of ,alabama4 #cji pages4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,lippincott',s ,,educational ,,series ,,thinking ,,and ,,learning ,,to ,,think ,,by ,,nathan ,c4 ,,schaeffer1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,public ,,instruction ,,for ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,illustration ,,philadelphia ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company #aijf ,,copyright1 #aijj ,,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,,electrotyped ,,and ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company1 ,,philadelphia1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,the progress of educational thought during the closing years of this century has been marvellous4 ,professional schools have created a demand for professional teaching by giving an increasing group of skilled instructors to our schools4 ,this professional activity has caused our leading cities to provide training-schools1 as integral parts of the city system of education4 ,finally1 our great universities have established departments of pedagogy for the higher training in education4 ,as a result1 the leading positions in higher schools and in supervision are more and more demanding professionally trained leaders4 ,in this auspicious awakening for professional leadership there has come an increasing demand for standard treatises upon the fundamental problems of education4 ,treatises upon the history1 methods1 principles1 and systems of education have appeared with astonishing frequency4 ,that many of these are commercial treatises--made to sell--is doubtless true4 ,there is always a great temptation to profit by an active demand4 ,well-disposed but not always widely trained and broadly cultured teachers1 who have achieved a local success with a method that owed its virtue to the personality of its author and not to its intrinsic worth1 have been tempted into authorship4 ,the wiser and nobler minds in the profession wait4 ,the days of unrest and experimentation1 breeding discord and confusion1 have in part passed away1 and the time has come when the products of all this divergent activity may be put to the test of clear analysis and adequate experience4 ,this is especially true in the domains of historic and philosophic inquiry4 ,in experimental activity1 touching the problems of psychic life as related to its sensorium1 much has been done in a tentative way4 ,much must yet be done to produce results of enduring significance4 ,this series of educational treatises is projected to give inquiring minds the best thought of our present professional life4 ,fundamental problems in education will be exhibited in the series from time to time by thoroughly trained leaders of extended experience4 ,teachers may confidently accept these as authoritative discussions of the cardinal questions of their profession4 ,the highest endowment of the human spirit on the intellectual side is the power to think4 ,learning to think is an essential process and end in all school work4 ,thinking is the intellect's regal activity4 ,in a vague way1 all teaching appeals to the thought-activity of the pupil2 but vagueness in teaching is as pernicious as it is common4 ,to exhibit the value1 scope1 and process of thought is of inestimable service to the teacher4 ,it gives specific direction to teaching processes1 and saves the child from a thousand fanciful expedients4 ,in the craze of the passing decade for novelty in teaching1 there has resulted an undue emphasis upon forms of so-called expressional activity4 ,it has been1 in many quarters1 forgotten that education is noblest when it produces reflective activity4 ,the power to analyze and synthetize thought-complexes is the most fruitful endowment of the intellectual life4 ,expression without adequate reflection is productive of superficiality4 ,we have been living a life of educational expedients4 ,the path of educational advance is strewn with countless cast-off practices which once claimed attention largely because of the feeling among too many that the newest theory is the best4 ,there has come1 let us hope1 the more rational resolve to test all new and loudly heralded theories by fundamental laws of mental activity4 ,to emphasize the significance of this reaction1 and to afford helpful criteria of educational processes1 this volume will be found most stimulating1 suggestive1 and sensible4 ,for the purposes of the teacher thinking may be distinguished as follows3 7a7 ,clear thinking1 by which one is to understand thinking the thing1 and not some other thing in its stead4 ,much thinking is not clear4 ,the power of recall is not fully developed4 ,the mind acts1 but is not able to assert confidently the accuracy of what it acts upon4 ,much needless criticism is heaped upon schools because pupils cannot spell correctly1 solve problems accurately1 recite a lesson in history or in geography properly1--in short1 because the pupil's knowledge is not clear4 ,the first step in all true teaching is the step that makes clear to the pupil the thing he is to think4 7b7 ,distinct thinking1 by which one is to understand thinking the thing in its relations4 ,this phase of thinking is sometimes called apperception4 ,it is the second1 and not the first step in thinking4 ,there is no value in teaching relations until the things to be related are first clearly apprehended4 ,perception must precede apperception4 ,the pupil in the elementary school has been well taught if he has been taught to think clearly and distinctly4 7c7 ,adequate thinking1 by which one is to understand thinking the thing in its essential parts4 ,this is the analytic form of thought4 ,the child at first cannot think adequately4 ,his mind thinks things as wholes4 ,he has not the power to think the whole and its parts1 as parts of the whole1 simultaneously4 ,he must rise to adequate thinking only after clear and distinct thinking have become habits of mind4 ,the fuller phase of this activity1 by which these analyzed parts are synthetically wrought into an organic unity1 is the process of concept-making1--the essential prerequisite of all high orders of thought4 ,this power every teacher should possess4 ,it is his surplus of knowledge1 the possession of which makes him easily master in the teaching process4 7d7 ,exhaustive thinking1 by which one is to understand thinking the thing in its causes4 ,this is the highest form of thinking the thing4 ,it gives perspective to thought-processes1 and eliminates all accidental and misleading elements from the categories of thought4 ,to achieve this1 one must specialize4 ,the teaching of the future must be more and more intensive in scope4 ,the day of the encyclopdist is gone4 ,the teacher of to-morrow must be a teacher who knows one order of truth exhaustively1 and who possesses the skill to incite in others a permanent enthusiasm for that order of truth4 ,scientific progress is conditioned by such teaching4 ,the author has brought to this discussion the matured convictions of broad training in ,american and ,european systems of schools1 and a wide and successful experience in teaching pupils and directing systems of education4 ,the discussion takes on the modest but stimulating style of the public speaker4 ,the author has for many years been among our foremost lecturers upon education4 ,the temper of the discussion is moderate and constructive4 ,there will be found here no wild excess1 no straining after fanciful effect1 no advocacy of sensational and ephemeral methods2 nor is there a trace of pessimistic and destructive criticism of the earnest teachers who are conscious of limitations and are reaching hopefully for help4 ,on the contrary1 the discussion is full of real sympathy1 founded upon personal experience with teaching in all its phases1 and abounds in stimulating suggestion4 ,m4 ,g4 ,b4 ,october #a1 #aijj4 ,,preface ,for a number of years it has been the author's duty as well as privilege to lecture at county institutes on the difficult art of teaching pupils to think4 ,this led to the request that the lectures be thrown into permanent form for publication4 ,the lecturer who never publishes has no pet theories to defend2 he can change his views as often as he sees fit2 yet1 in spite of this advantage1 he cannot always escape or ignore the art of printing4 ,one who gives his thoughts to the public without the use of manuscript and under the limitations of extemporaneous speech1 made necessary by the large audiences which gather at teachers' institutes1 especially in ,pennsylvania1 runs the risk of being misquoted and misunderstood2 he pays the penalty of being reported in fragmentary if not distorted forms4 ,this ultimately drives him1 in justice to himself and others1 to write out his theories on education and to give them to his coworkers in print4 ,portions of these lectures were delivered at the annual meeting of the superintendents of ,new ,england1 before the ,state teachers' associations of ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,florida1 before the ,connecticut ,council of ,education1 before the summer schools held under the auspices of the ,ohio ,state ,university and the ,university of ,wisconsin1 and at several of the meetings of the ,national ,educational ,association4 ,the favorable hearing accorded on these occasions induces the hope that the lectures will be kindly received by many who teach outside of ,pennsylvania1 and by some who give instruction in our higher institutions of learning4 ,although no one can hope1 on so difficult a theme1 to say much that will be entirely satisfactory to leading educators1 surely no apology is needed from any one who1 after spending his best years in educational work1 attempts to contribute his mite towards the solution of any of the problems which confront the teacher4 ,it is assumed that there is a body of educational doctrine well established in the minds of teachers1 and that on many school questions we have advanced beyond the border line of first discovery4 ,those who assert that our educational practice is radically wrong and in need of thorough reformation should hasten to clarify their own views and ideas1 to substitute constructive for destructive criticism1 and to give definite shape to their reforms2 otherwise a whole generation will grow to maturity and the reformers themselves will pass away before any of their reforms will have been accomplished4 ,to give teachers the feeling that what they are doing is all wrong1 and to leave them without anything better in place of what is condemned1 robs them of joy in their work1 makes them victims of worry and neurasthenia1 and unfits them for the care of children4 ,it is hoped that these lectures will be found to suggest a better way whenever criticism is bestowed upon existing methods of instruction4 ,no attempt is made to ridicule the arm-chair psychologists1 or the advocates of child study1 or those patient and painstaking workers who are honestly seeking to establish the facts of mind through experiments in the laboratory4 ,he who has carefully reflected upon the art of making pupils think will not hesitate to admit that thus far he has received more light from the standard psychology than from the labors of those who claim to be the exponents of the new psychology4 ,the latter can hardly write or talk without using the terms coined by the older students of mind2 this shows their indebtedness to those who taught and speculated before laboratories of psychology were established4 ,sometimes the experiments have only served to test and give a reason for what was already accepted4 ,often they have brought to our knowledge facts of mind which could never have been discovered by the method of introspection4 ,in either case the experiments have resulted in clear gain4 ,let the facts of brain and mind1 of nervous and mental action1 of human growth1 maturity1 and decay be gathered1 questioned1 tested1 and classified2 let their bearing upon educational practice be set forth in the clearest possible light3 every resulting step of progress and reform will be hailed with delight by all who have no pet theories to defend4 ,the lecturer is limited by time1 by the kind of audience which he addresses1 and by circumstances largely beyond his control4 ,these limitations drop out when he reduces his thoughts to writing1 and a rearrangement at many points becomes possible as well as desirable4 ,the expedients for relieving the strain of attention and winning back the listless can be omitted2 and omissions that become necessary through the exigencies of the programme must be supplied for the sake of logical sequence4 ,moreover1 the aims which those who engage the lecturer set before him frequently require a modification of the line of discussion1 so that a course of lectures on a specific theme cannot always follow the same order of treatment1 although substantially the same in content and scope4 ,hence the division into chapters has been adopted as preferable to the original sequence of lectures4 ,nevertheless1 the style of the rostrum has not been altogether eliminated1 because when oral discourse is thrown into new forms1 and the phraseology is changed for the sake of publication1 the loss in vividness1 directness1 and simplicity is greater than the gain in diction and fulness of statement4 ,lecturing1 as well as book-making1 has its peculiar temptations4 ,the lecturer must interest his hearers in order to hold them2 he is tempted to play to the galleries1 and to omit what is beyond the comprehension of the average audience4 ,the book-maker1 on the other hand1 is tempted to display his learning1 to make a show of depth and erudition4 ,the student of pedagogy is supposed to be in search of profound wisdom4 ,those who write for him often dive so deep that their style becomes muddy4 ,unfortunately1 some of the best treatises on education have been written in the style of the philosopher and wrought out on the plane of the university professor1 although intended for undergraduates at normal schools1 and for teachers whose meagre salaries do not enable them to pursue courses of study at institutions of higher learning4 ,the lucid style of ,spencer's treatise on 8,education0 has done much to counteract this tendency4 ,yet many of the authors of our treatises on pedagogy seem to be haunted by a feeling similar to that of the ,german professor1 who1 on reading the opening chapters of a new book1 and finding them to be intelligible to his colleagues1 exclaimed1 8,then ,i must rewrite these chapters2 otherwise nobody will read my book through40 ,huxley has well described the penalty which must be paid by those who speak or write for the purpose of being understood4 ,these are his words3 8,at the same time it must be admitted that the popularization of science1 whether by lecture or essay1 has its drawbacks4 ,success in this department has its perils for those who succeed4 ,the #8people who fail' take their revenge1 as we have recently had occasion to observe1 by ignoring all the rest of a man's work and glibly labelling him a mere popularizer4 ,if the falsehood were not too glaring1 they would say the same of ,faraday and ,helmholtz and ,kelvin40 ,one who can never hope to rival the style of ,spencer and ,huxley and those to whom the latter refers1 will nevertheless do well to emulate their skill in making difficult things plain to people who are not specialists or experts4 ,he who writes for the teachers in our public schools should put aside his ambition to be considered erudite or profound1 and endeavor above all things to be understood4 ,vague theories are apt to beget a bad conscience in those who teach and to destroy the joy which every one has a right to feel while doing honest and faithful work4 ,hence the writer offers no apology for heaping illustration upon illustration in the effort to make his meaning plain to those whom he aims to help4 ,there is at present great need for clear thinking and luminous presentation of facts on the part of all who write on education for the people or for teachers in our public schools4 ,by a process similar to that by which the medival imagination swelled the murder of the innocents at ,bethlehem into a slaughter of thousands of children 7there cannot have been many male children two years old and under in a small ,judean village71 the harm which some pupils suffer is magnified into a national crime at the feet of ,american parents2 the evils which result from 8,bob ,white0 societies1 from children's parties1 from church sociables for young boys and girls1 are all ascribed to the school curriculum2 and reforms in home study are proposed which never fail to provoke a smile on the face of a healthy boy4 ,the hygienic conditions of the average school are quite equal to those of the average home4 ,the health of many children improves during their attendance at school4 ,the pupils who are born with a sound mind in a sound body1 who get healthful diet1 enough sleep1 and treatment from their elders which is not calculated to make them nervous or unhappy1 show none of the illness from overwork1 the dulness of brain from fatigue1 and the exhaustion of nervous energy which are made to furnish the narrow basis of fact for vague and broad generalizations4 ,the haze in which those who must furnish the printer a given amount of copy in a given time are apt to envelop whatever they write has an effect like that of misty air upon the size of visible objects4 ,travellers who have come into a cloud while ascending a mountain report that a small wood-pile then looks like a barn1 a cow seems larger than an elephant1 men appear as giants1 and the surrounding heights assume threatening proportions4 ,as soon as sunlight clears the atmosphere1 objects are again seen in their true dimensions4 ,the moment the light of common sense penetrates the haze and mist and fog and cloud which are used to heighten the effect of essays upon school work1 the need of radical reform seems far less urgent2 and teachers1 instead of wasting their time in worry and uncertainty1 begin with cheerful heart to impart that which modern civilization requires every child to know as a condition of bread-winning and complete living4 ,there is1 of course1 a worse fault than obscurity of style1--namely1 dearth of ideas4 ,the danger to which the lecturer is always exposed1 that of losing his hearers and failing to be recalled 7their minds may leave while they are bodily present71 spurs to effort in two directions4 ,either he will try to say something worth listening to1 or he will strive to entertain by amusing stories and incidents4 ,if he be conscious of a lack of talent for humor1 he will try to stuff his lectures full of sense4 ,if the lectures here published lack in this respect1 the writer is willing to acknowledge failure4 ,in preparing a course of lectures it is proper to bear in mind the difference between the lecturer1 the orator1 the poet1 and the philosopher4 ,the philosopher investigates ideas and truths1 explores their essence and relations1 and unfolds them in their deepest unity and in their greatest possible compass4 ,when this has been done throughout the whole domain of thought1 his mission is accomplished4 ,the poet seeks to clothe his ideas in beautiful forms4 ,when the idea is perfectly suited to the form and the form to the idea1 his mission is accomplished4 ,the orator aims to move the will2 he quotes authorities1 uses ideas1 appeals to the feelings1 and subordinates everything to the one end of gaining a verdict1 winning a vote1 or getting a response in the conduct of those whom he addresses4 ,the lecturer seeks to impart information4 ,he aims to get a response in the thinking of those whom he addresses4 ,he tries to reach the intellect rather than the will4 ,beautiful language and exhaustive treatment are not essential parts of his mission4 ,it is his province to elucidate the theme under consideration1 to guide the efforts and inquiries of those who come to him for instruction1 to direct them to the sources of information1 and to furnish such incentives as he can towards independent study and investigation4 ,since the data for pedagogy are derived mainly from kindred fields of investigation1 the lecturer on the science and art of education has frequent occasion to cite authorities and to utilize the labors and conclusions of the men eminent in the sciences which throw light upon the growth of the child1 more especially upon the development of mind and character4 ,the most original writers quote very little1 and those who are anxious to establish a reputation for originality refrain from quoting others4 ,it is the business of the lecturer to lead the hearer to the sources of information4 ,when anything has been so well said that he cannot improve upon the form of statement it is proper that he should quote the language1 carefully giving the source whence it is derived4 ,without doubt1 when the genius appears who will do for pedagogy what ,aristotle did for logic and ,euclid for geometry1 he will so polish every gem he gets from others and give it a setting so unique and appropriate that the world will recognize the touch of the master and acknowledge the contribution as peculiarly his own handiwork4 ,in painting and sculpture we look to the past for the greatest works of art4 ,in music the century now closing has rivalled1 if not surpassed1 its predecessors4 ,in the science and art of education the greatest achievements belong to the future4 ,it is currently reported and sometimes believed that when the president of a celebrated university was asked why he had transferred a certain professor from the department of geology to that of pedagogy1 he replied1 8,i thought the fellow would do less harm in that department40 ,if the story is not a myth1 he probably meant less harm to the reputation of the university4 ,when in our day a course in geology or logic or geometry is announced1 one can foretell the ground that will be covered4 ,no such prediction can be made with reference to a course of lectures on teaching4 ,the prophet is yet to come who will fix the scope of the science of education and give it something like definite and abiding shape4 ,this volume is not designed to supplant systematic treatises on psychology and logic4 ,its aim is to throw light upon one important phase of the art of teaching4 ,if it contributes but two mites to the treasury of information on the science and art of education1 the labor bestowed upon it has not been in vain4 ,should any critic hint that two mites are all one has to give1 it may be said in reply that it is better to give something than to give nothing at all1 and that according to ,holy ,writ the smallest contributions are not to be despised if made in the right spirit4 ,and it may add to the critic's stock of ideas to be informed that a small ,english weight1 called mite1 outweighs very many of the current criticisms upon modern education1 that of this small weight it takes twenty to make a grain1 and that to a faithful teacher a tenth of a grain of helpful suggestion is worth more than many tons of destructive criticism4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4--,,make ,,the ,,pupils ,,think #ba ,,ii4--,,thinking ,,in ,,things ,,and ,,in ,,symbols #ce ,,iii4--,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,thought #dg ,,iv4--,,basal ,,concepts ,,as ,,thought-,,material #fc ,v4--,,the ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought #he ,,vi4--,,technical ,,terms ,,as ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought #ii ,,vii4--,,thought ,,and ,,language #aaa ,,viii4--,,the ,,stimulus ,,to ,,thinking #abc ,,ix4--,,the ,,right ,,use ,,of ,,books #acg ,x4--,,observation ,,and ,,thinking #aee ,,xi4--,,the ,,memory ,,and ,,thinking #afg ,,xii4--,,imaging ,,and ,,thinking #aia ,,xiii4--,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought #bji ,,xiv4--,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,listening ,,and ,,reading #bbc ,,xv4--,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,writing1 ,,speaking1 ,,and ,,oral ,,reading #bci ,,xvi4--,,kinds ,,of ,,thinking #bee ,,xvii4--,,thinking ,,and ,,knowing #bfi ,,xviii4--,,thinking ,,and ,,feeling #bhi ,,xix4--,,thinking ,,and ,,willing #cjc ,,xx4--,,thinking ,,and ,,doing #cag ,,xxi4--,,thinking ,,in ,,the ,,arts #cca ,,xxii4--,,thinking ,,and ,,the ,,higher ,,life #cda ,i ,,make ,,the ,,pupils ,,think ,the value of a thought cannot be told4 ,,bailey4 ,he who will not reason is a bigot2 he who cannot is a fool2 he who dares not is a slave4 ,,byron4 ,reason is the glory of human nature1 and one of the chief eminences whereby we are raised above the beasts in this lower world4 ,,watts4 ,man is not the prince of creatures1 ,but in reason4 ,fail that1 he is worse ,than horse1 or dog1 or beast of wilderness4 ,,field4 ,man is a thinking being1 whether he will or no4 ,all he can do is to turn his thoughts the best way4 ,,sir ,w4 ,,temple4 ,i ,,make ,,the ,,pupils ,,think ,sidenote3 ,a test of teaching4 ,for the purpose of testing the quality of gold alloy jewellers formerly used a fine-grained dark stone1 called the touchstone4 ,in the eyes of an educator good instruction is more precious than pure gold4 ,the touchstone by which he tests the quality of instruction1 so as to distinguish genuine teaching from its counterfeit1 rote teaching1 is thinking4 ,the schoolmaster who teaches by rote is satisfied if the pupils repeat his words or those of the book2 the true teacher sees to it that the pupils think the thoughts which the words convey4 ,sidenote3 ,thring's practice4 ,thring1 who1 next to ,arnold1 was perhaps the greatest teacher ,england ever had1 laid much stress upon thinking4 ,sometimes he would startle a dull lad1 in the midst of an exercise1 by asking1 8,what have you got sticking up between your shoulders80 8,my head10 was the reply4 8,how does it differ from a turnip80 ,and by questioning he would elicit the answer1 8,the head thinks2 the turnip does not40 ,sidenote3 ,views of others4 ,so important is thinking in all teaching that at the ,world's ,educational ,congress1 in #ahic1 one educator after another rose in his place to emphasize the maxim1 8,make the pupils think40 ,one of the most advanced of the reformers shouted in almost frantic tones1 8,yes1 make even the very babies think40 ,after the wise men had returned to their homes1 a ,chicago periodical raised the query1 8,how can you stop a pupil from thinking80 ,and the conclusion it announced was that neither the teacher behind the desk nor the tyrant upon his throne can stop a pupil from thinking4 ,evidently1 if that which sticks up between a boy's shoulders is a head and not a turnip1 if the pupil is rational and not an imbecile or an idiot1 he does some thinking for himself2 and the maxim1 8,make the pupils think10 requires further analysis before it can be helpful in the art of teaching4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking for one's self4 ,relying on others4 ,we who teach are very apt to overestimate thinking in our own line of work and to undervalue thinking outside of the school4 ,there is1 perhaps1 as much good thought in a lady's bonnet as in the solution of a quadratic equation4 ,a sewing-machine embodies as much genuine thought as the demonstration of a geometrical theorem4 ,the construction of a locomotive or a railway bridge displays as much effective thinking as ,hegel's 8,philosophy of ,history10 or ,kant's 8,critique of the ,pure ,reason40 ,most men think very well in doing their own kind of work2 in many other spheres of activity they must let other people think for them4 ,when the professor of astronomy discusses a problem connected with his science1 he thinks for himself2 but when he buys a piece of land1 he gets a lawyer to think for him in the examination of the title and the preparation of the deed4 ,the lawyer thinks for himself in the court-house2 but when he goes home to dine1 he expects his wife1 or the cook1 to have done the thinking for him in the preparation of the dinner4 ,grover ,cleveland had the reputation of thinking for himself3 many a politician found out that this reputation was founded on fact2 but when the ex-,president is sick1 or has the toothache1 he is willing to let a physician or a dentist think for him4 ,in like manner1 a pupil may think very well upon the play-ground2 but if the teacher1 whose very name indicates the function of guiding1 fails to guide the pupil aright1 the latter may become a mere parrot in the class-room4 ,what1 then1 is involved in making a pupil think8 ,sidenote3 ,thinking defined4 ,the difficulty in answering this question is increased by the diversity of meanings of the word thinking4 ,the teacher who is not clear in his use of the term may employ exercises calculated to develop one kind of mental activity1 and then accuse the pupils of dulness because they do not show facility in some other intellectual process4 ,when a text-book on mental science defines the intellect as the power by which we think1 the term thinking is used to designate every form of intellectual activity4 ,the ,century ,dictionary defines thinking as an exercise of the cognitive faculties in any way not involving outward observation1 or the passive reception of ideas from other minds4 ,the logician defines thinking as the process of comparing two ideas through their relation to a third4 ,many exercises of the school are supposed to cultivate thinking in the last sense of the word1 when in reality they cultivate thinking only in the widest acceptation of the term4 ,sidenote3 ,a faulty exercise4 ,the writer saw a normal school principal conduct an exercise in thinking1 as the latter called it4 ,turning to one of the pupils1 he said1 8,charley1 will you please think of something80 ,as soon as the boy raised his hand the principal asked1 8,does it belong to the animal1 the vegetable1 or the mineral kingdom80 ,then turning to the other members of the class1 he said1 8,who of you can think of the vegetable in ,charley's mind80 ,the names of at least forty different vegetables were given and spelled and written upon the black-board4 ,at last a pupil succeeded in naming what was in ,charley's mind4 ,then there was a look of triumph upon the faces of the principal and the class1 as much as to say1 8,isn't that splendid thinking80 ,at least one person felt like burying his face in his hands for very shame2 for here was resurrected from the dead an old exercise of philanthropinism which was buried more than a hundred years ago4 ,what should one call that kind of mental activity8 ,guessing4 ,that is all it is4 ,the exercise tended to beget a habit very difficult to break up after it has been formed4 ,sidenote3 ,a better plan4 ,far better was an exercise which the writer witnessed in a graded school4 ,the teacher had called the class in the second reader4 ,as soon as all the pupils were seated she said1 8,you may read the first paragraph40 ,instead of reading orally1 the class became so quiet that one might have heard a pin drop4 ,after most of the hands were raised she called upon one pupil to tell what the paragraph said4 ,the second paragraph was read and the substance of it stated in the pupil's own words4 ,an omission was supplied by another pupil2 an incorrect phrase was modified by giving the correct words for conveying the thought4 ,in the course of the lesson it became necessary to clarify the ideas of some4 ,this was accomplished by a few pertinent questions which made the pupils think for themselves4 ,after the entire lesson had been read in this way she dismissed the class without assigning a lesson4 ,every member of the class went to his seat1 took out his slate1 and began to write out the lesson in his own language4 ,the interest and pleasure depicted on their faces showed that it was not a task but a joy to express thought by the pencil4 ,the teacher had given them something to think about2 she had taught them to express their thoughts in spoken and written language2 her questions had stimulated their thinking1 and when1 later in the day1 the lesson in oral reading was given1 the vocal utterance showed that every pupil understood what he was reading4 ,there was no parrot-like utterance of vocables1 but an expression of thought based upon a thorough understanding and appreciation of what was read4 ,the silent reading was an exercise in thought-getting and thought-begetting1 the language lesson upon the slate was an exercise in active thinking through written words1 and the oral expression furnished a test by which the teacher could ascertain what she had accomplished in getting her pupils to think4 ,sidenote3 ,a suggestive reply4 ,the first thing necessary in making the pupil think is best shown by relating another incident4 ,the catalogue of a well-known school announced that the teachers were aiming to get their pupils to read ,latin at sight and to think in more tongues than one4 ,a captious superintendent wrote to the principal1 saying1 8,i envy you4 ,how do you do it8 ,we would be satisfied if we could make pupils think in ,english40 ,the reply was equally sharp and suggestive3 8,you ask how we make pupils think4 ,i answer1 ,by giving them something to think about4 ,if you ask how we make them think in more tongues than one1 ,i answer1 ,by giving them1 in addition to the materials of thought1 the instruments of thought as found in two or more languages40 ,sidenote3 ,the first essential4 ,the first step in training a pupil to think is to furnish him proper materials of thought1 to develop in his mind the concepts which lie at the basis of a branch of study1 and which must be analyzed1 compared1 and combined in new forms during the prosecution of that study4 ,just as little as a boy can draw fish from an empty pond1 so little can he draw ideas1 thoughts1 and conclusions from an empty head4 ,if the fundamental ideas are not carefully developed when the study of a new science is begun1 all subsequent thinking on the part of the pupil is necessarily hazy1 uncertain1 unsatisfactory4 ,how can a pupil compare two ideas or concepts and join them in a correct judgment if there is nothing in his mind except the technical terms by which the scientist denotes these ideas8 ,the idea of number lies at the basis of arithmetic4 ,how often are beginners expected to think in figures without having a clear idea of what figures denote6 ,what teacher has not seen children wrestling with fractions who had no idea of a fraction save that of two figures1 one above the other1 with a line between them6 ,how many of our arithmetics are full of problems involving business transactions of which the pupil cannot possibly have an adequate idea6 ,not having clear ideas of the things to be compared1 how can the learner form clear and accurate judgments and conclusions8 ,sidenote3 ,proper thought-material4 ,so essential to correct thinking is the development of the concepts and ideas which lie at the basis of each science1 that we may designate the giving to the pupil of something to think about as the first and most important step in the solution of the educational problem before us4 ,in other words1 the furnishing of the proper materials of thought is the first step in teaching others to think4 ,the force and the validity of this proposition are easily seen if we reflect upon the essential oneness of the manifold diversities of thinking as they appear at school and in subsequent years4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking in the professions4 ,it is universally conceded that education should be a preparation for life4 ,the thinking at school should be an adumbration of the thinking beyond the school4 ,the possession of enough data1 or thought-materials1 for reaching trustworthy conclusions1 which is the indispensable requisite of successful thinking at school1 is likewise a necessary requisite of successful thinking in practical life4 ,it behooves us to inquire into the nature and foundation of the thinking of men in the professions1 and in other vocations1 for the purpose of gaining further light upon the problem before us4 ,let us1 then1 inquire into the nature and foundation of the thinking of men eminent in a profession or prominent in some other vocation4 ,the professional man may have less native ability1 less general knowledge1 less culture and education1 less mental power than the client whom he advises or the patient for whom he prescribes2 and yet his inferences and conclusions are accepted as more trustworthy than those of men outside of the given profession1 because he has a knowledge of facts and data which they do not possess4 ,if he be a physician1 special training and professional experience have taught him how to observe the symptoms of different diseases2 how to eliminate sources of doubt and error2 how to reach a correct diagnosis of difficult cases1 and how to apply the proper remedies4 ,if he be a lawyer1 he has been taught how to examine court records2 how to detect and guard against flaws in legal documents2 how to find and interpret the law in specific cases2 how to protect the life and property of his client4 ,the judge on the bench is learned in the law1 though he may be ignorant of science1 literature1 agriculture1 commerce1 and manufactures4 ,he is aided in arriving at correct conclusions by thought-materials which are not in the possession of laymen4 ,sidenote3 ,the thinking of experts4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching not a trade4 ,how does the thinking of an expert differ from that of other men8 ,not so much in the processes of thought as in the data upon which he reasons4 ,an ordinary witness may testify as to matters of fact2 the expert is supposed to possess extensive knowledge and superior discrimination in a particular branch of learning or practice2 hence he may be a witness in matters as to which ordinary observers cannot form just conclusions1 and he is held liable for negligence in case he injures another from want of proper qualifications or proper use of the thought-materials necessary to form trustworthy conclusions4 ,from this point of view we can see new force and beauty in the remark of ,fitch that teaching is the noblest of the professions1 but the sorriest of trades4 ,the aim of a trade is to make something that will sell2 its ultimate aim is money1 a livelihood4 ,teaching and the other professions1 although they cannot be sundered from money-making1 have a nobler aim4 ,this arises out of the thought-materials with which they deal4 ,if a teacher's mind does not busy itself with these1 he sinks to the level of a tradesman4 ,a very keen observer said of the head of a large boarding-school1 that he had learned his trade from the principal of a large normal school under whom he had been trained4 ,the remark1 if true1 was severe1 but significant4 ,it was an intimation that the substance of the thinking of these two men was business rather than education2 that their conversation about the quality of the beef and mutton served1 about the loaves of bread1 the pounds of butter1 and the bushels of potatoes consumed each week1 indicated that they were thinking more of the stomach and the purse than of the things of the mind2 that their aim was a large attendance and a large cash-balance at the end of the year rather than the mental growth and professional preparation of their students4 ,their thinking was efficient and trustworthy in the domain in which it was exercised4 ,it partook of the nature of trade-thinking1 and lacked professional quality because it did not concern itself with problems of mental growth and moral training1 with the proper sequence of studies1 with the educational value of different kinds of knowledge1 and with the best methods of economizing the time and effort of their students4 ,sidenote3 ,mysteries4 ,in several aspects teaching is like a trade4 ,every art has its mysteries1 with which those who practise it must be familiar if they would succeed4 ,teaching is no exception2 and if the annual institute or the school of pedagogy fails to clarify these mysteries by putting the teachers in possession of materials for thought and of methods of applying knowledge to beget thinking which are not within the ken of the average parent and the general public1 then failure must be written over the outcome4 ,a mystery is a lesson to be learned4 ,a scrutiny of the mysteries which characterize every trade and every art will serve not merely to emphasize the necessity for furnishing proper thought-materials1 but will be helpful also in paving the way for the consideration of another essential in training pupils to think4 ,let us view them in the concrete4 ,sidenote3 ,examples4 ,a machinist1 who was also a skilled mechanic1 was compelled by circumstances to quit his trade and to accept a position as janitor4 ,one day the pipe leading from the sink to the sewer was clogged4 ,the teacher1 in conjunction with a carpenter1 worked a long time to fix it1 but in vain4 ,the janitor was called1 who in a few moments overcame the difficulty by the application of a principle in natural philosophy on which the teacher could have talked learnedly1 although he knew not how to apply it in the given case4 ,the janitor related how the foreman in a foundry was baffled in the effort to bore a hole through a piece of iron until a workman1 trained under a foreign master1 suggested the purchase of two things at a drug-store by means of which the hole was easily bored4 ,when the druggist asked about the use that was to be made of these chemicals1 he was told that the use was one of the mysteries of the machinist's trade4 ,next1 the carpenter fixed the mortise lock of a door which needed attention1 and the others lauded the skill with which he handled his tools and applied his knowledge4 ,before the three separated1 the janitor's son came with a word which he could not find in his lexicon4 ,with the aid of chalk and black-board and grammar1 the teacher showed how to dig out the roots of a ,greek verb and what beautiful changes occur in its conjugation4 ,the turn had come for the tradesmen to admire the mysterious skill and power of the teacher4 ,in applying the principle of natural philosophy1 the janitor made skilful use of one or two tools which the teacher and the carpenter had never seen4 ,he could express thought through the tools of his own handicraft1 in ways that they could not4 ,each one of the three men knew the tools and the mysteries of his own vocation4 ,during the entire scene there was not a logical flaw in the thinking of any one of them4 ,probably there was little difference in their native ability2 certainly none in the fundamental nature of their thought-processes4 ,the practical difference resulted from the data at their command and from the tools they were using to express the thoughts peculiar to their several vocations4 ,sidenote3 ,man1 the tool-user4 ,sidenote3 ,instruments of thought the second essential4 ,the power to use tools1 instruments1 and machinery lifts man above the brute creation4 ,there is labor-saving machinery in thinking as well as in manual labor4 ,the more perfect the tools with which we work the greater the results we can achieve without waste of effort4 ,in thinking as well as in working we must use the best tools in order to attain the greatest facility and efficiency4 ,yonder are two wheat-fields4 ,in one of them a giant is wielding the sickle of our forefathers2 in the other a youth1 not yet out of his teens1 is at work4 ,at the close of the day the work of the giant will not bear comparison with that of the lad1 because the latter was sitting upon a self-binder4 ,they had the same material to work upon1 yet1 in spite of his superior strength1 the giant could not cope with his weaker though better-equipped competitor4 ,in like manner1 the youth who has mastered the algebraic equation1 or the symbols and formulas of chemistry1 is in many respects the superior of a much brighter man who is not in possession of these tools or instruments of thought4 ,a boy of average capacity who goes through a good high school thereby acquires certain fundamental ideas and the accompanying instruments of thought by which he is enabled to solve problems entirely beyond the power of a much brighter boy who never studies beyond the grammar grade4 ,sidenote3 ,confusion in thought and practice4 ,the instruments of thought are generally spoken of as symbols1 whilst the materials of thought are the things for which the symbols stand4 ,in thinking1 the mind may employ the ideas which correspond to the things in the external world2 or it may employ the symbols by which science indicates things that have been definitely fixed or quantified4 ,failure to distinguish the sign from the thing signified1 the symbol from its reality1 leads to confusion in thought and to the most disastrous results in mental development4 ,loss of appetite for knowledge must inevitably result from methods of teaching by which the pupil is expected to learn the sounds of the letters from their names1 or musical sounds from the notation on the staff1 or the ideas of number from the arabic notation1 or a knowledge of flowers from the technical terms of a text-book1 or a knowledge of chemical elements and substances from the definitions1 descriptions1 and formulas of a scientific treatise4 ,the symbol is indispensable in advanced thinking2 but to expect the learner to get the fundamental ideas of a science from words1 symbols1 and definitions is evidence that the teacher does not understand the nature of thinking4 ,it may1 therefore1 be helpful to set forth clearly the important distinction between thinking in things and thinking in symbols2 to point out their relative value in mental development2 and to fix their place in a rational system of education4 ,,ii ,,thinking ,,in ,,things ,,and ,,in ,,symbols ,the rote system1 like other systems of its age1 made more of forms and symbols than of the things symbolized4 ,to repeat the words correctly was everything1 to understand the meaning nothing2 and thus the spirit was sacrificed to the letter4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,words are men's daughters1 but ,god's sons are things4 ,,johnson4 ,for words are wise men's counters1--they do but reckon by them1--but they are the money of fools4 ,,hobbes4 ,it is only by the help of language 7or some other equivalent set of signs7 that we can think in the strict sense of the word2 that is to say1 consider things under their general or common aspects4 ,,sully4 ,,ii ,,thinking ,,in ,,things ,,and ,,in ,,symbols ,sidenote3 ,lesson in geography4 ,sidenote3 ,two kinds of thinking4 ,within half a mile of the ,susquehanna ,river a teacher was asking the class1 8,of what is the earth's surface composed80 8,of land and water10 was the reply4 ,in answer to a question by the superintendent concerning the earth's surface1 one boy declared that he had never seen the earth4 ,he had been acquiring words without the corresponding ideas4 ,turning to another boy1 this official said1 8,will you please show me water80 ,with a gleam of satisfaction on his face1 the lad raised his atlas1 pointed to the blue coloring around the map of ,north ,america1 and said1 8,that is water40 8,will you please drink it80 ,the expression on the faces of teacher and pupils indicated that all felt as if some one had committed a blunder4 ,where did the blunder lie8 ,had the teacher taught what should not be learned8 ,surely1 every child should learn how water is indicated on a map4 ,did the boy use language wrong in idiom8 ,by no means2 for1 as every student who has handled a lexicon well knows1 many words have both a literal and a tropical1 or figurative1 meaning4 ,if1 pointing to an object1 the teacher says1 8,this is a desk10 he uses the word is in its literal sense4 ,on the other hand1 if he points to a division on the map of the ,united ,states1 and says1 8,this is ,pennsylvania10 he does not mean that the colored surface to which he is pointing is the real ,state of ,pennsylvania 7if it were1 a political boss could pocket it1 and carry it the rest of his days without further trouble74 ,what is meant is1 that a given space on the map indicates or represents ,pennsylvania1 the word is being used1 in the latter instance1 in a figurative sense4 ,whether the word is1 in the expression1 8,this is my body10 should be understood in a literal or in a figurative sense has been discussed for ages in the ,christian church4 ,in the answer of the boy we strike a distinction in thought that lies at the basis of good teaching in all grades of schools1 from the kindergarten to the university1--namely1 the distinction between thinking in things and thinking in symbols4 ,in one sense of the word1 all thinking is symbolic2 for the percepts1 concepts1 and images of external objects which the mind employs in the thinking process are symbolic of the things for which they stand4 ,but in advanced thinking1 and especially in scientific investigations1 objective symbols1 such as words1 signs1 letters1 equations1 formulas1 technical terms and expressions1 are utilized to facilitate the thinking process4 ,take the age questions in mental arithmetic that have been prematurely inflicted upon so many pupils in the public schools4 ,so long as the mind consciously carries ,a's age and the wife's age1 using the clumsy instruments of arithmetical analysis1 the thinking is difficult indeed4 ,as soon as x is made the symbol of ,a's age1 and y the symbol of the wife's age1 so that the conditions of the problem can be thrown into algebraic equations1 the difficulty vanishes4 ,in the algebraic solution the mind drops all thought of ,a's age and the wife's age while manipulating the signs and symbols of the equation1 and restores the meaning of the symbols only when their value in figures has been found4 ,the algebraic solution is a genuine specimen of thinking in symbols1 and illustrates the labor-saving machinery which the human mind employs1 more or less1 in all the most difficult scientific investigations4 ,sidenote3 ,symbol defined4 ,what is a symbol8 ,it is a mark1 sign1 or visible representation of an idea4 ,the mathematician uses the symbol to represent quantities1 operations1 and relations4 ,the chemist uses the symbol to indicate elements and their groupings or combinations4 ,the theologian applies the term symbol to creeds and abstract statements of doctrine4 ,the grips1 countersigns1 and passwords of a secret society may be spoken of as symbols of the ideas1 aims1 and principles of the organization4 ,often the symbol is chosen on account of some supposed resemblance between it and that for which it stands1 as when black is made the symbol of mourning1 white of purity1 the oak of strength1 and the sword of slaughter4 8,a symbol10 says ,kate ,douglass ,wiggin1 8may be considered to be a sensuous object which suggests an idea1 or it may be defined as the sign or representation of something moral or intellectual by the images or properties of natural things1 as we commonly say1 for instance1 that the lion is the symbol of courage1 the dove the symbol of gentleness4 ,it need not be an object any more than an action or an event1 for the emerging of the butterfly from the chrysalis may be a symbol of the resurrection of the body1 or the silver lining of the cloud typify the joy that shines through adversity40 ,frequently the symbol is chosen arbitrarily1 or because it is the first letter of the word which denotes the quality1 substance1 thing1 or idea for which the symbol stands4 ,generally the symbol is a visible representation1 but it may also address the other senses1 notably the ear and the sense of touch4 ,the ,standard ,dictionary excludes the portrait from the extent or scope of the symbol1 and confines it to the representation of that which is not capable of portraiture1 as an idea1 state1 quality1 or action4 ,it is well to bear this limitation in mind during the present discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,examples4 ,a few illustrations will serve to fix the sense of the word symbol4 ,in some parts of ,america the tramps have a system of symbols of their own1 a given mark on the front gate indicating a good place to ask for a meal1 another indicating a cross dog in the rear yard4 ,that which the tramp fears or likes is not the mark which he sees1 but a very real thing which that mark suggests to his mind4 ,a number of the apostles were fishermen by trade4 ,the fish became a very significant symbol in the days of early ,christianity4 ,the letters in the ,greek name for fish are the initial letters of the expression1 ,jesus ,christ1 ,god's ,son1 ,saviour4 ,it is one of many instances showing how the human mind delights in heaping symbol upon symbol to conceal precious meanings from the uninitiated4 ,sidenote3 ,symbols for water4 ,what was the mental condition of the lad spoken of at the beginning of this chapter8 ,the boy knew the real thing long before he knew the first symbol for water4 ,without doubt he had tasted it1 played in it against his mother's will1 been washed in it against his own will1 for months before he learned the first symbol for water used in common by him and others1 which was probably the spoken word4 ,up to that time he thought of water in some mental picture or image which had been formed upon the eye and then upon mind somewhat as the picture is formed through the art of the photographer4 ,up to the time that he learned the spoken word for water this liquid suggested mental pictures which constituted a thinking in things#a rather than in symbols1 using the latter term according to the limitation set by the ,standard ,dictionary4 ,on entering school he was taught to read2 he added to the ear-symbol the eye-symbol1--that is1 the written or printed word1 which he may have associated at first with the real thing1 or with the spoken word2 of course1 very soon with both1 if correct methods of teaching were followed4 ,next1 he was taught the map-symbol4 ,the blunder which the teacher on the banks of the ,susquehanna had committed consisted not in teaching how water is indicated on a map1 but in not pointing to the majestic river near the school-house1 and associating the water in its channel with the representations of water on a map4 ,if the boy studied ,latin or ,greek1 he was taught new symbols for water in the corresponding words of these languages4 ,if he studied chemistry1 he early learned the composition of water1 and was thenceforth taught to write it ,h,o1 a symbol enshrining a new truth and lifting him to higher planes of thought by giving him a new instrument as well as new materials of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,sources of error4 ,sidenote3 ,elementary instruction4 ,half the errors in teaching arise from the fact that the teacher does not constantly bear in mind the distinction between the symbol and the thing for which the symbol stands1 thus giving rise to confusion in the mind of the learner4 ,a class was bounding the different ,states of the ,union4 ,at the close of the recitation the superintendent suggested that the class bound the school-house4 ,it was bounded on the north by the roof1 on the south by the cellar1 on the east and west by walls4 ,the geography classes of an entire city were caught in that way4 ,either the pupils had not been taught1 or else they had forgotten the difference between the real directions and the ordinary representation of them on the surface of a wall map4 ,sometimes the confusion exists in the mind of the teacher as well as in the minds of the pupils4 ,then he expects them to learn one thing while he teaches them another4 ,by the methods formerly in vogue the pupil was expected to learn the sounds of the letters from their names2 the pronunciation of the word from the names of the letters which compose it2 the names1 forms1 and sounds of letters from the word taught as a whole2 the musical sounds from the notation on a musical staff2 the ideas of number1 of fractions1 from the corresponding symbols2 the units of denominate numbers and of the metric system from the names used in the tables of weights and measures2 the flowers of the field from the nomenclature of the botany2 the substances and experiments in chemistry from the descriptions and pictures of a text-book4 ,such teaching has given rise to endless lectures1 editorials1 and discussions upon the use of the concrete in teaching1 upon the value of thinking in things1 upon the importance of object-lessons1 laboratory methods1 and the like4 ,sidenote3 ,more advanced instruction4 ,but there is another side to the question4 ,there comes a time in the development of the pupil when he must rise above the sticks and shoe-pegs and blocks of the elementary arithmetic1 and learn to think in the symbols of the ,arabic notation4 ,later he must learn to think in the more comprehensive symbols of the algebraic notation4 ,he must learn to think the abstract and general concepts of science1 and1 in thinking these1 to use the devices1 technical terms1 and other symbols which the scientists have invented to facilitate their thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,a parable4 ,hear a parable4 ,a teacher sat down to dinner4 ,the waiter handed him the bill of fare4 ,the proprietor followed the waiter to the kitchen1 directed him to cut out the names of the eatables which had been ordered1 and to carry these names on plates to the dining-room4 8,it is not these words10 exclaimed the guest1 8that ,i desire to eat1 but the things in the kitchen for which these words stand40 8,isn't that what you pedagogues are doing all the time1 expecting children to make an intellectual meal on words such as are found in the columns of the spelling-book and attached on maps to the black dots which you call cities8 ,my boy gravely informs me that every ,state capital has its ring1 because on his map there is always a ring around the dot called the capital of a country40 ,the teacher was forced to admit that there is1 alas6 too much truth in the allegation4 ,in the afternoon he took revenge4 ,knowing that the proprietor had a thousand-dollar draft to be cashed1 he arranged with the banker to have it paid in silver coin4 ,when the landlord saw the growing heap of coin1 he exclaimed1 8,if ,i must be paid in silver1 can you not give me silver certificates80 8,did you not intimate to me10 said the teacher1 tapping him on the shoulder1 8that it is the real things we want1 and not words and symbols which stand for realities80 ,the landlord was obliged to admit that in the larger transactions of the mercantile world it saves time and is far more convenient to use checks1 drafts1 and other symbols for money than it would be to use the actual cash4 ,in elementary transactions1 like the purchase of a necktie1 it is better to use the cash1 to think and deal in real money1 but when it comes to the distribution of five and one-half million dollars among the school districts of ,pennsylvania1 it is better to draw warrants upon the ,state ,treasurer1 to use checks and drafts1 and to think in figures1 than it would be to count so much coin1 and send the appropriation in that form all over a great commonwealth4 ,sidenote3 ,its interpretation4 ,the parable hardly needs an interpretation4 ,its lesson points in two directions4 ,on the one hand1 it shows in the true light every species of rote teaching1 of parrot-like repetition of definitions1 statements1 and lists of words which give a show of knowledge without the substance4 ,it puts the seal of condemnation on most forms of pure memory work4 ,it sounds the note of warning to all teachers who are trying to improve the memory by concert recitations4 ,the boy whose class was taught to define a point as position without length1 breadth1 or thickness1 and who1 when asked to recite alone1 gave the definition1 8,a point has a physician without strength1 health1 or sickness10 is but one of many specimens of class-teaching condemned by the parable4 ,it says in unmistakable terms that all elementary instruction must start in the concrete1 taking up the objects or things to be known1 and resolutely refusing to begin with statements and definitions which to the children are a mere jargon of words4 ,sidenote3 ,making blockheads4 ,on the other hand1 the parable indicates how too long-continued use of the concrete may arrest development1 and hinder the learner from reaching the stages of advanced thinking4 ,it hints that the too constant use of blocks1 however valuable at first1 ultimately begets blockheads1 instead of intelligences capable of the higher life of thought and reflection4 ,a rational system of pedagogy involves proper attention to the materials of thought and proper care in furnishing the instruments by which advanced thinking is made easy and effective4 ,in one respect the parable does not set forth the whole truth4 ,it makes no account of differences in thinking due to heredity and mental training4 ,the differences in native ability are1 however1 not as great as is generally supposed 7unless the feeble-minded enter into the comparison72 the differences due to correct training1 or the neglect of it1 are far more striking4 ,the work expected of the pupil should1 of course1 tally with his capacity2 otherwise it will force him to resort to pernicious helps1 beget in him wrong habits of study1 rob him of the sense of mastery and the joy of intellectual achievement1 and destroy his self-reliance1 his power of initiative1 and his ability to grapple with difficult problems and perplexing questions4 ,the power to think grows by judicious exercise4 ,here better than anywhere else in the whole domain of school work can we distinguish the genuine coin from its counterfeit1 and discriminate between true skill and quackery1 between the artist and the artisan4 ,it is at this point that most help can be given to young teachers by a good course of lectures on learning to think and on the difficult art of stimulating others to think4 ,,iii ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,thought ,a vast abundance of objects must lie before us ere we can think upon them4 ,,goethe4 ,the young have a strong appetite for reality1 and the teacher who does not make use of that appetite is not wise4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,blackie4 ,the child's restless observation1 instead of being ignored or checked1 should be diligently ministered to1 and made as accurate as possible4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,what do you read1 my lord8 ,words1 words1 words4 ,,hamlet4 ,you have an exchequer of words1 and ,i think no other treasure4 ,,two ,,gentlemen ,,of ,,verona4 ,,iii ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,thought ,sidenote3 ,words without thoughts4 ,the hotel man was right in his criticism of teachers who expect their pupils to make an intellectual meal on mere words4 ,for three hundred years educational reformers have been hurling their epithets against this abuse4 ,has it been banished from the schools8 ,by no means4 ,it crops out anew with every generation of teachers and in every grade of instruction from the kindergarten to the university4 ,during the years in which a child acquires several languages without difficulty1 if it hears them spoken1 the mind is eager for words and often appropriates them regardless of their meaning4 ,the child learns rhymes and phrases for the sake of the jingle that is in them1 and cares very little for clearly defined ideas and thoughts4 ,so strong and retentive is the memory for words that the child finds it easier to learn by heart entire sentences than to think the thoughts therein expressed4 ,like a willing and obedient slave1 the verbal memory can be made to do the work of the other mental powers4 ,the merest glimpse at a picture may recall all the sentences on the same page1 so that the pupil can repeat them with the book closed or the back turned towards the reading chart4 ,the recollection of what the ear has heard may thus relieve the eye of its function in seeing words1 degrade the child to the level of a parrot1 and thereby greatly hinder progress in learning to read4 ,very frequently the memory is required to perform work belonging to the reflective powers1 because the learner is thereby saved the trouble of comprehending the lesson and expressing its substance in his own language4 ,moreover1 the accurate statement of a truth is apt to be accepted as evidence of knowledge and correct thinking4 ,the average examination tests very little more than the memory4 ,if the answers are given in the language of the text-book or the teacher1 the examiner seldom supplements the written work by an oral examination4 ,thus there is a constant tendency on the part of teachers and pupils to rest satisfied with correct forms of statement2 and the pernicious custom of feeding the mind on mere words is encouraged and perpetuated4 ,exposed in plain terms1 this abuse of words is condemned by everybody2 yet it is as easy at this point to slide into the wrong practice as it is to fall into the sins forbidden by the decalogue4 ,like ,proteus1 this abuse assumes diverse and unexpected forms2 instance after instance is needed to put young teachers on their guard and to expose its pernicious effect upon methods of instruction and habits of study4 ,to cry 8words1 words1 nothing but words10 will not suffice to correct the evil1 for words must be used in the best kind of instruction4 ,line upon line1 precept upon precept1 example after example is needed to expose the folly of learning words without corresponding ideas1 of teaching symbols apart from the things for which they stand4 ,no apology is needed for citing laughable and flagrant instances in point2 ridicule sometimes avails where good counsel fails4 ,sidenote3 ,spelling4 ,a superintendent who advocates spelling-bees and magnifies correct orthography out of all proportion to its real value startled a class in the high school by asking for the spelling of a word of five syllables4 ,not receiving an immediate answer1 he referred to the ,greek4 ,this made the spelling easy for at least one pupil4 ,a year later he accosted this pupil1 saying1 8,you are the only person that ever spelled psychopannychism for me40 8,what does it mean80 was the question flashed back at him in return for his compliment4 ,he could not tell1 because he did not know4 ,for years he had worried teachers and pupils with the spelling of a word whose meaning he had failed to fix accurately in his own mind4#b ,what more effective method could be devised for destroying correct habits of thinking8 ,sidenote3 ,eyesight4 ,there is a time in the life of the child when it is hungry for new words4 ,the habit of seeing words accurately and learning their spelling at first sight is then easily acquired1 provided there is no defect in the pupil's eyes4 ,in cases of defective eyesight the first step towards the solution of the spelling problem1 as well as the first condition in teaching the pupil to think accurately1 is to send him to a skilled oculist 7not to a so-called graduate optician or doctor of refraction1 who must make his living out of the spectacles he sells1 and whose limited training does not enable him to make a correct diagnosis in critical cases74 ,correct vision will assist the pupil not merely in learning the exact form of the words which he uses in writing1 but also in forming correct ideas of the things with which the mind deals in the thought-processes4 ,although great stress should be laid upon the orthography of such words in common use as are frequently misspelled1--daily drill upon lists of these should not be omitted at school while the child's word-hunger lasts1--yet it is vastly more important to acquire an adequate knowledge of the ideas1 concepts1 and relations for which the words stand4 ,to spend time upon the spelling of words which only the specialist uses1 and which are easily learned in connection with the specialty by a student possessing correct mental habits1 is a form of waste that cannot be too severely condemned4 ,it is far better to spend time in building concepts of things met with in real life4 ,the meaning of very many words is1 of course1 learned from the connection in which they occur4 ,this1 however1 is not true of sesquipedalian words like the one mentioned above1 nor of the technical terms by which science designates the things that have been accurately defined or quantified4 ,sidenote3 ,fundamental ideas4 ,technical terms are used to denote the ideas which lie at the basis of science4 ,these fundamental ideas are appropriately called basal concepts4 ,since basal concepts cannot be transferred from the teacher's mind to the pupils' minds by merely teaching the corresponding technical terms1 they must be developed by appropriate lessons4 ,if this be neglected1 there may be juggling with words and a show of knowledge2 but close1 accurate thinking is impossible4 ,this seems to be so self-evident that one would hardly expect to meet violations of such a simple rule in the art of teaching4 ,and yet it is related of the professor of physics in one of our largest universities that he began his course of lectures in this wise3 8,a rearrangement of the courses of study deprived you of the usual instruction in elementary physics4 ,that is your misfortune1 and not my fault40 ,thereupon1 he began his lectures on advanced physics as if the preparation of his class to think the concepts at the foundation of his science could be ignored without detriment to the progress of the student1 as if confused minds and unsatisfactory thinking were not the inevitable outcome of juggling with technical terms apart from the concepts which they denote4 ,a master in the art of teaching would have started on the plane occupied by the students4 ,by development lessons he would have lifted them to the plane of thought on which he intended to move4 ,he would have considered their mental progress of more consequence than the course of lectures which he was in the habit of delivering4 ,the student1 and not the study1 should have held the chief place in his professional horizon4 ,sidenote3 ,abuse of text-books4 ,in another ,state university the professor of physics applied to an influential member of the board of trustees for an appropriation for apparatus4 8,teach what is in the text-book2 then you will not need apparatus10 was the reply4 ,it seems almost incredible that a trustee of a modern university should fail to see the difference between an experiment actually performed and a description of the experiment in a text-book4 ,more incredible still does it seem when we hear of professors who see no difference between an experiment made in the presence of a student and an experiment made by the student himself4 ,sidenote3 ,apparatus and experiments4 ,sidenote3 ,agassiz4 ,pictures of apparatus and descriptions of experiments should1 of course1 not be despised or neglected4 ,they are helpful in forming concepts of that which cannot be brought before a class4 ,when made by the learner himself1 as a result of his own work1 they serve to clarify his thinking1 and furnish a sure test of the pupil's progress and of the teacher's skill as a guide and instructor4 ,a drawing1 or even a statement in the pupil's own words1 is often an astonishing revelation of the crude notions which pictures give4 ,the city lad who said that a cow was no bigger than a finger-nail because he had often measured its size in the ,first ,reader is a typical example4 ,the ability to interpret pictures and descriptions comes from actual knowledge of things similar to what is depicted or described4 ,the noted teacher1 ,agassiz1 made a difference in his directions to beginners and advanced students4 ,to the former he would give specimens1 with directions to study them without referring to a book4 ,having taught them how to use their eyes1 he would gradually lead them to the method of interpreting and verifying the statements of an author4 ,and when the advanced student was set to work at original investigations1 he was told to study certain books1 as it would save much valuable time4 ,one of his pupils writes1 8,i shall never forget a forceful lesson given me by the great ,agassiz1 when ,i studied with him in the ,museum of ,cambridge4 ,i worked near a young man from ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 who has since achieved distinction as a teacher of biology4 ,i was comparatively a beginner1 however1 while he was well advanced in his studies4 ,on a certain day ,agassiz came sauntering by1 and stopped long enough to tell me not to use the library so much1 but to confine myself to observations of the specimens on hand and the writing of my observations and comments4 ,passing on a little farther1 he spoke to my friend and said1 #8,albert1 when you go home1 this summer1 to ,cleveland1 ,i wish you would make a special study of a certain kind of fish found in the harbor there4 ,it is not found plentifully anywhere else in the world4 ,take a row-boat and go three hundred yards northeast of the point of the breakwater1 and you will find them in abundance4 ,before going home1 get the only three books ever written on this fish from the library here and read them4 ,it will save your time to read them before beginning to study the fish itself4'0#c ,agassiz was as anxious to teach the right use of books as is the professor of literature2 but he adapted his directions to the degree of advancement which his students had attained1 and did not neglect the formation of the basal concepts and the habits of study needful in the sciences he taught4 ,sidenote3 ,botany4 ,how little the exhortations of our educational reformers have been taken to heart by some teachers is evident from the recent experiences of a normal school principal1 who had great difficulty in finding a satisfactory teacher of botany4 ,the students could invariably answer the questions of the ,state ,board of ,examiners by filling pages of manuscript with technical terms4 ,in the field they could not distinguish one plant from another4 ,in despair1 the principal said to his teacher of psychology1 8,why can we not apply common sense to the teaching of botany8 ,can we not plant seeds1 watch their growth1 and study the growing specimens instead of the pictures in a text-book80 8,if you will give me the class in botany1 ,i will try it10 was the reply4 ,before the next class took up botany1 every chalk-box was emptied and every flower-pot utilized in the planting of seeds4 ,in no long time there appeared on the fences of neighboring farms sign-boards with the inscription1 8,trespassing on these fields is forbidden1 under penalty of the law40 ,the members of the class were traversing the country1 studying the real flowers1 the growing plants1 instead of the technical terms of a text-book4 ,at the next final examination1 the herbarium which each one had prepared1 together with the accompanying analysis and drawings of parts which could not be described1 including colorings in imitation of the actual colors of the flowers1 gave evidence of real knowledge1 and served to satisfy the examiners1 although the array of technical terms was far less formidable4 ,if violations of the fundamental laws of teaching occur in our higher institutions of learning1 what may we not expect in the lower schools where the teaching is intrusted to young people of limited education8 ,nevertheless1 it is a notorious fact that the worst forms of teaching are found in our higher institutions of learning1 where many of the professors seem to know as little of the science of education as the motorman knows of the science of electricity2 otherwise they would make impossible the use of 8ponies1 coaches1 and keys10 by means of which the student taxes the memory rather than the understanding1 and ultimately loses all power of independent thought and investigation4 ,such helps arrest mental development1 destroy the power of original thinking1 and do more harm than the practice of feeding the mind with mere verbal statements which in course of time may acquire content and meaning4 ,the study of the sciences which classify minerals1 plants1 insects1 birds1 fishes1 and other animals may degenerate into a mere study of words1 even when the student acquires some familiarity with the specimens to be classified4 ,the scientific name is the one thing about a flower with which the ,creator has had nothing to do1 and if the recognition of the scientific name is the chief or sole aim of the student of botany1 it is a genuine case of feeding the mind on words4 ,sidenote3 ,words as material for thought4 ,sidenote3 ,geometry as thought-material4 ,by those who are fond of scientific pursuits the dead languages are sometimes despised as though the study of them were learned playing with mere words4 ,among people who begin their education somewhat late in life there is a strong temptation to estimate linguistic studies very far below their true value as a means for disciplining the reasoning faculty4 ,when pursued in the right way1 the study of the classical languages furnishes as much good material for thought as the natural sciences4 ,huxley may charm an audience by a lecture on a piece of chalk2 the philologist can excite equal interest by a lecture on the word chalk4 ,words grow and undergo changes according to well-defined laws which furnish as much food for thought as the laws governing the union of atoms or the motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,the words of a lexicon contain as much of precious interest in the sight of man as the manufactured gases or the plucked leaves and dissected flowers of the laboratory4 ,greek and ,latin roots have more vitality in them than the collections of stones1 stuffed birds1 and transfixed bugs in the museum4 ,the endings of nouns1 adjectives1 pronouns1 and verbs furnish ample opportunity for observation1 comparison1 and reflection2 their functions in the syntax of the sentence furnish splendid exercises in formal and qualitative thinking4 ,if1 however1 the time of the pupil is entirely consumed in mastering the hundreds of exceptions to the rules of gender and case1 of declensions and conjugations1 of syntax and prosody1 it is another sad instance of feeding the mind on mere words4 ,the pupil who begins the study of any foreign language before he has reached his teens should acquire the power to read the language at sight2 otherwise there has been something faulty in the methods of teaching or of study1 or in both4 ,a man is as many times a man as he knows languages2 and the comparison of the idioms of two or more languages furnishes most excellent material for careful and accurate thinking4 ,in translating an author like ,plato the student must think the thoughts of a master mind1 weigh words so as to detect the finer shades of meaning1 and arrange them in sentences that shall adequately express the meaning of the original4 ,the value of pure mathematics1 especially the ,euclidian geometry1 as a means for the cultivation of thinking1 lies in the limited number of fundamental concepts which must be clearly fixed and in the nature of the reasoning by which the truth of the theorems is established4 ,the axioms are few in number and easily grasped2 the quantities to be defined can1 without difficulty1 be set in a clear light before the understanding2 the chain of proof compels the mind to join ideas by their logical nexus1 and if the learner persists in memorizing the demonstration1 he is at once detected4 ,and yet when1 as sometimes happens1 he goes over several books of geometry without clearly perceiving the difference between an angle and a triangle1 it must be a genuine specimen of acquiring words without the corresponding ideas4 ,sidenote3 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene's views4 ,the words of ,s4 ,s4 ,greene deserve the attention of every teacher anxious to prevent the formation of vicious habits of thought by the pupils in our schools and colleges4 ,years ago he wrote as follows3 8,while an external object may be viewed by thousands in common1 the idea or image of it addresses itself only to the individual consciousness4 ,my idea or image is mine alone1--the reward of careless observation1 if imperfect2 of attentive1 careful1 and varied observation1 if correct4 ,between mine and yours a great gulf is fixed4 ,no man can pass from mine to yours1 or from yours to mine4 ,neither1 in any proper sense of the word1 can mine be conveyed to you4 ,words do not convey thoughts2 they are not vehicles of thought in any true sense of that term4 ,a word is simply a common symbol which each associates with his own idea or image4 ,neither can ,i compare mine with yours1 except through the mediation of external objects4 ,and1 then1 how do ,i know that they are alike2 that a measure called a foot1 for instance1 seems as long to you as to me8 ,my idea of a new object1 which you and ,i observe together1 may be very imperfect4 ,by it ,i attribute to the object what does not belong to it1 take from it what does1 distort its form1 and otherwise pervert it4 ,suppose1 now1 at the time of observation we agree upon a word as a sign or symbol of the object or the idea of it4 ,the object is withdrawn2 the idea only remains1--imperfect in my case1 complete and vivid in yours4 ,the sign is employed4 ,does it bring back the original object8 ,by no means4 ,does it convey my idea to your mind8 ,nothing of the kind2 you would be disgusted with the shapeless image4 ,does it convey yours to me8 ,no2 ,i should be delighted at the sight4 ,what does it effect8 ,it becomes the occasion for each to call up his own image4 ,does each now contemplate the same thing8 ,what multitudes of dissimilar images instantly spring up at the announcement of the same symbol6--dissimilar not because of anything in the one source whence they are derived1 but because of either an inattentive and imperfect observation of that source1 or some constitutional or habitual defect in the use of the perceptive faculty40 ,sidenote3 ,j4 ,p4 ,gordy's statement4 ,sidenote3 ,pestalozzi's reform4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,gordy1 to whom credit is due for the preceding quotation1 further says1 8,words are like paper money2 their value depends on what they stand for4 ,as you would be none the richer for possessing ,confederate money to the amount of a million dollars1 so your pupils would be none the wiser for being able to repeat book after book by heart1 unless the words were the signs of ideas in their minds4 ,words without ideas are an irredeemable paper currency4 ,it is the practical recognition of this truth that has revolutionized the best schools in the last quarter of a century4444 ,in what did the reform inaugurated by ,pestalozzi consist8 ,in the substitution of the intelligent for the blind use of words4 ,he reversed the educational engine4 ,before his time teachers expected their pupils to go from words to ideas2 he taught them to go from ideas to words4 ,he brought out the fact upon which ,i have been insisting1--that words are utterly powerless to create ideas2 that all they can do is to help the pupil to recall and recombine ideas already formed4 ,with ,pestalozzi1 therefore1 and with those who have been imbued with his theories1 the important matter is the forming of clear and definite ideas40#d ,sidenote3 ,sight and insight4 ,it was a remark of ,goethe that genius begins in the senses4 ,with equal truth we may say that thinking begins in the senses4 ,like unto the genius1 the thoughtful man perceives and interprets what has escaped the notice of other people4 ,to sight he adds insight4 ,that which he sees is subsumed under the proper class or category1 and is viewed from different sides until its significance is discovered1 and a place is assigned to it in the intellectual horizon and in the external world4 ,every fact thus seen in its relation to other facts serves as a basis for further observation1 reflection1 and comparison4 ,not merely the genius1 but every other person whose thinking is above the average in vigor and accuracy1 has the power to perceive things which escape the eyes and ears of other people4 ,through habits of careful and correct observation he fills his mind with images1 ideas1 concepts of the objects of thought and of the relations which exist between these objects1 and thereby acquires the materials for the comparisons which constitute the essence of good thinking4 ,if the strength of a student is exhausted in gathering and storing the materials for thought1 his mind becomes a wilderness of facts2 if he reasons without the facts1 his conclusions are more unreal than the figments of the imagination4 ,sidenote3 ,truth the proper thought-material4 ,truth is the best thought-material for the mind to act upon4 ,the possession of truth is the aim and the goal of all correct thinking4 ,knowledge of the truth implies the conformity of thinking with being4 ,the world within should be made to correspond with the world outside of us4 ,sidenote3 ,the laboratory and the library4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle4 ,fortunately1 the self-activity of children is towards the objective world of things which they can see1 hear1 smell1 taste1 and handle4 ,from inner impulse their thinking is directed towards the cognition of objects4 ,one of the functions of nature study is to beget habits of careful and accurate observation4 ,this is a characteristic feature of the laboratory method as distinguished from the library method4 ,a training in both is essential to a complete education4 ,the library stores the treasures of knowledge which the human race has gathered and makes them accessible to the learner4 ,the laboratory shows him by what methods truth is discovered and tested and verified4 ,the ,german professor who declined to visit a menagerie1 asserting that he could evolve the idea of the elephant from his inner consciousness1 may have spent much time in reading books and in speculation2 but he certainly never worked in a laboratory2 nor had he taken to heart the lessons which he might have learned from the sages of antiquity4 ,aristotle knew the importance of asking nature for facts1 and he induced his royal pupil1 ,alexander the ,great1 to employ two thousand persons in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa for the purpose of gathering information concerning beasts1 birds1 and reptiles1 whereby he was enabled to write fifty volumes upon animated nature4 ,after teachers had forgotten his methods they still turned to his books for the treasures which he had gathered4 ,in the ages in which men hardly dared to ask nature for her secrets1 fearing that they might be accused of witchcraft1 they turned to ,aristotle as if he were an infallible guide--so much so that when ,galileo announced the discovery of sun-spots a monk declared that he had read ,aristotle through from beginning to end1 and inasmuch as ,aristotle said nothing about spots on the sun1 therefore there are none4 ,this book-method of studying science has not entirely disappeared from the seats of learning4 ,books like ,tyndall's 8,water and the ,forms of ,water10 ,faraday's 8,chemistry of a ,candle10 and ,newcomb's 8,popular ,astronomy0 may1 indeed1 be read or studied as literature1 and thus prove a means of culture2 but to accept the facts and statements of a text-book without verification is the lazy man's method of studying science2 and as a method it fails to lay the foundation upon which a solid superstructure can be built4 ,the correct method starts with observation of the things to be known1 develops the basal concepts which lie at the foundation of the science under consideration1 ends by teaching the pupil how to make independent investigations1 how to utilize the treasures which have been preserved in our libraries1 thereby furnishing an adequate supply of proper materials for thought4 ,sidenote3 ,productive minds4 ,the habits of men who have surprised the world by their intellectual and professional achievements are very suggestive4 ,spurgeon kept his mind filled by constant reading4 ,goethe was fond of travel and utilized what he learned from others4 ,emerson visited the markets regularly1 conversed with the men and women from whom he bought1 and sought to learn their views on current events4 ,study the greatest thinkers the world has known1 and you will find their memories to have been a storehouse of thought-materials which they analyzed1 sifted1 compared1 and formulated into systems that win the admiration of all who love to think4 ,,iv ,,basal ,,concepts ,,as ,,thought-,,material ,thought proper1 as distinguished from other facts of consciousness1 may be adequately described as the act of knowing or judging of things by means of concepts4 ,,mansel4 ,we cannot learn all words through other words4 ,there is a large and rapidly increasing part of all modern vocabularies which can be comprehended only by the observation of nature1 scientific experiment1--in short1 by the study of things4 ,,marsh4 ,the question we ask of each thing 7and of the whole experience7 is1 ,what are you8 ,you have qualities which ,i find everywhere else2 your color ,i find in other things2 your texture and hardness and odor and form ,i find in other things2 but they are combined in you in such a way as to make you a thing by yourself1 and not anything else4 ,and ,i want to know what you truly are1--in short1 what is your essence1 which is also your idea1 and the purpose or of your existence4 ,,laurie4 ,,iv ,,basal ,,concepts ,,as ,,thought-,,material ,sidenote3 ,building concepts4 ,the head may be likened unto a walled city1 with comparatively few building materials on the inside1 and with a limited number of gate-ways through which all other materials for building purposes must pass4 ,the walls are not made of brick or stone1 but of bone2 the gate-ways are the different senses through which knowledge enters the mind4 ,the building materials on the inside are intuitive ideas which take shape in conjunction with the entrance of materials from without4 ,the structures which are built up out of the ideas within and the sense-impressions from without are individual and general concepts4 ,take an orange4 ,its shape1 color1 parts1 are known through the eye4 ,its flavor1 as sweet or sour1 is ascertained through taste2 its odor through smell2 its temperature1 shape1 and some other qualities through touch4 ,these various sense-impressions1 giving the mind a knowledge of essential and accidental qualities and attributes1 are combined in the idea of a particular orange4 ,if the object were a bell1 its sound1 parts1 uses1 and qualities would make impressions through different gate-ways of knowledge2 the builder inside would combine them into the more or less complete idea of the object presented to the senses4 ,from each sense-impression the mind may get a percept2 the synthesis of these percepts produces the individual concept or notion4 ,it is helpful at this point clearly to distinguish between essential and accidental attributes4 ,the orange may have been kept in the open air when the temperature is low4 ,to the hand it feels cold1 and this quality enters into the idea of the first orange which the child has4 ,as other oranges which have been in a warmer atmosphere are brought to the child1 the attribute cold is seen to be accidental1--that is1 it is not a necessary quality of oranges in general4 ,on the other hand1 the qualities which are found in every orange--many of them hard to describe in words--become fixed in the mind as essential attributes of the orange4 ,in course of time many objects of the same kind are presented to the senses1 cognized by comparison so as to retain the essential attributes and to omit the accidentals4 ,by this process the general notion or concept is formed4 ,sidenote3 ,gate-ways of knowledge4 ,it is self-evident that the mind's comparisons and conclusions are unreliable in so far as the gate-ways of knowledge are defective4 ,few persons have perfect ears2 many can never become expert tuners of pianos or reliable critics of musical performances4 ,the man who is color-blind is not accepted in the railway service or as an officer in the navy4 ,the man who is totally blind is never selected as a guide in daylight4 ,on the other hand1 the blind girl spoken of by ,bulwer could find her way better in the darkness of the last days of ,pompeii than other people1 because she was accustomed to rely upon the data furnished by the other senses in making her way through the city1 and had improved these as gate-ways of knowledge beyond the needs of those gifted with sight4 ,sidenote3 ,from things to symbols4 ,sidenote3 ,from sign to thing or idea4 ,sidenote3 ,the sense to be addressed4 ,in building concepts of objects in nature it would be a great mistake to begin with the word instead of the thing4 ,just as little as a blind man can conceive the qualities color1 light1 darkness1 through mere words1 so little can children conceive classes of objects which have never addressed the senses4 ,hence great stress has been laid by educational reformers upon the cultivation of habits of observation1 upon the supreme necessity of teaching by the use of objects1 or so-called object-lessons4 ,first1 things1 then words1 or signs for things1 was at one time a favorite maxim in treatises on teaching4 ,consistent application of the maxim would have banished the dictionary from the school-room1 or at least its use as a means for ascertaining the meaning of words4 ,in consulting the dictionary for the meaning of a word1 we pass not from the thing to its sign1 but in the opposite direction1--that is1 from the sign to the thing signified1 from the symbol to the idea for which the symbol stands4 ,the main essential in good instruction is that the words be made significant4 ,in primary instruction this is best accomplished by passing from the idea to the word2 but in advanced instruction it is of less importance whether we pass from the word to the idea or from the idea to the word4 ,the meaning of very many words is acquired from the connection in which they are used4 ,for the meaning of the larger number of words in our vocabulary we never consult a dictionary4 ,the finer shades of meaning we get not from definitions1 but from quotations taken from standard authors4 ,this fact should never tempt the teacher to trust to words1 definitions1 and descriptions in the formation of basal concepts4 ,he should seek to give unto himself a clear and full account of the things or ideas which cannot spring from mere words1 however skilfully arranged in sentences4 ,the music-teacher who complained of the public schools because a seven-year-old child did not grasp his meaning when he spoke of half-notes1 quarter-notes1 eighth-notes1 sixteenth-notes1 should have known that many children of that age have never been taught fractions1 and that the idea of a fraction is obtained not from sounds 7who distinguishes between half a noise and a whole noise871 but from objects which address the eye4 ,instead of complaining about the school which the pupil attended1 a teacher acquainted with the mysteries of his art would have started with the comparison of things visible2 and after having developed the idea of halves1 quarters1 eighths1 sixteenths1 by the division of visible objects into equal parts1 he would have applied the idea to musical sounds4 ,sidenote3 ,different gate-ways for different ideas4 ,sidenote3 ,integers4 ,in seeking to build in the mind of the learner the concepts which lie at the basis of a new branch of study1 it is a legitimate question to ask by which of the gate-ways of knowledge the materials or elements for the new idea can best be made to enter the mind4 ,at the basis of arithmetic lies the idea of number1--an idea that is evoked by the question of how many applied to a collection of two or more units4 ,taste and smell must be ruled out from the list of senses which can be utilized to advantage4 ,three taps on the desk are as easily recognized as three marks or strokes on the black-board4 ,the sense of touch is helpful in passing from concrete to abstract numbers4 ,to think a number when the corresponding collection of objects is not visible1 but is suggested by tactile impressions1 helps to emancipate the thinking process from the domination of the eye2 in other words1 it helps to sunder the thinking of number from a specific sense1 and thus aids in the evolution of the idea of number apart from concrete objects4 ,sidenote3 ,fractions4 ,as already indicated1 there are some basal concepts1 like that of a fraction1 in the development of which only one sense can be utilized to advantage4 ,whilst imparting the idea of a whole number1 the appeal may be to the eye1 the ear1 and the sense of touch2 the instruction designed to impart the idea of fractions to the normal child is limited to visible objects4 ,in the instruction of the blind the other senses are addressed from necessity4 ,the extent to which touch can supply the function of sight is full of hints to teachers in charge of pupils possessing all the gate-ways of knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching decimals4 ,moreover1 not all units are equally adapted for imparting the first ideas of a fraction4 ,half of a stick is still a stick to the child1 just as half of a stone is still called a stone in common parlance4 ,the half should be radically different from the unit2 hence an object resembling a sphere or a circle is best adapted for the first lessons in fractions4 ,in teaching decimals the square or rectangle is better than the circle4 ,it is difficult to divide a circumference into ten equal parts4 ,on the contrary1 the square is easily divided into tenths by vertical lines1 and then into hundredths by horizontal lines1 thus furnishing also a convenient device for the first lessons in percentage4 ,sidenote3 ,basal concepts4 ,sidenote3 ,john ,fiske on symbolic conceptions4 ,it is one of the aims of the training-class and the normal school to point out the best methods of developing the different basal concepts which lie at the foundation of the branches to be taught4 ,many of these are complex1 and require great skill on the part of the teacher4 ,the difficulty is well stated in ,john ,fiske's discussion of ,symbolic ,conceptions4 ,he says1 8,of any simple object which can be grasped in a single act of perception1 such as a knife or a book1 an egg or an orange1 a circle or a triangle1 you can frame a conception which almost1 or quite exactly1 represents the object4 ,the picture1 or visual image1 in your mind when the orange is present to the senses is almost exactly reproduced when it is absent4 ,the distinction between the two lies chiefly in the relative faintness of the latter4 ,but as the objects of thought increase in size and in complexity of detail1 the case soon comes to be very different4 ,you cannot frame a truly representative conception of the town in which you live1 however familiar you may be with its streets and houses1 its parks and trees1 and the looks and demeanor of the townsmen2 it is impossible to embrace so many details in a single mental picture4 ,the mind must range to and fro among the phenomena1 in order to represent the town in a series of conceptions4 ,but practically1 what you have in mind when you speak of the town is a fragmentary conception in which some portion of the object is represented1 while you are well aware that with sufficient pains a series of mental pictures could be formed which would approximately correspond to the object4 ,to some extent the conception is representative1 but to a great degree it is symbolic4 ,with a further increase in the size and complexity of the objects of thought1 our conceptions gradually lose their representative character1 and at length become purely symbolic4 ,no one can form a mental picture that answers even approximately to the earth4 ,even a homogeneous ball eight thousand miles in diameter is too vast an object to be conceived otherwise than symbolically1 and much more is this true of the ball upon which we live1 with all its endless multiformity of detail4 ,we imagine a globe1 and clothe it with a few terrestrial attributes1 and in our minds this fragmentary notion does duty as a symbol of the earth4 8,the case becomes still more striking when we have to deal with conceptions of the universe1 of cosmic forces such as light and heat1 or of the stupendous secular changes which modern science calls us to contemplate4 ,here our conceptions cannot even pretend to represent the objects2 they are as purely symbolic as the algebraic equations whereby the geometer expresses the shapes of curves4 ,yet so long as there are means of verification at our command we can reason as safely with these symbolic conceptions as if they were truly representative4 ,the geometer can at any moment translate his equation into an actual curve1 and thereby test the results of his reasoning2 and the case is similar with the undulatory theory of light1 the chemist's conception of atomicity1 and other vast stretches of thought which in recent times have revolutionized our knowledge of nature4 ,the danger in the use of symbolic conceptions is the danger of framing illegitimate symbols that answer to nothing in heaven or earth1 as has happened first and last with so many short-lived theories in science and in metaphysics40 ,the word conception as used in this quotation is synonymous with concept1 but elsewhere it is also used in two other senses1--namely1 to signify the mind's power to conceive objects1 their relations and classes1 and to name the activity by which the concept is produced4 ,hence the term concept is preferred in this discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,concepts of distance4 ,sidenote3 ,large cities4 ,to give a full account of the development of the basal concepts in the different branches of study would require a treatise on the methods of teaching these branches4 ,all that can be attempted is to draw attention to some of the typical methods and devices adopted by eminent teachers in the development of the concepts which ,mr4 ,fiske calls symbolic conceptions4 ,distance is one of the concepts at the basis of geography and astronomy4 ,to say that the circumference of the earth is twenty-five thousand miles1 that the distance of the moon from the earth is two hundred and forty thousand miles1 and that the distance of the sun is ninety-two and one-half millions of miles may mean very little to the human mind1 especially to the mind of a child4 ,supposing1 however1 that a boy finds a mile by actual measurement1 and that he finds he can walk four miles an hour1 he can gradually rise to the thought of walking forty miles in a day of ten hours1 or two hundred and forty miles in the six working days of a week4 ,in one hundred and four weeks1 or two years1 he could walk around the globe4 ,to walk to the moon would require a thousand weeks1 or about twenty years4 ,it is by the method of gradual approach that concepts of great distance1 of immense magnitudes1 of the infinitely large and the infinitely small1 must be developed4 ,to this category belong large cities like ,new ,york and ,london1 quantities denoting the size of the earth and its distance from the sun and the fixed stars1 the fraction of a second in which a snap-shot is taken1 or an electric flash is photographed2 such quantities are apt to remain as mere figures or symbols in the mind of the learner unless the method of gradual approach is adopted4 ,starting with a town or a ward with which the pupil is familiar1 several may be joined in idea until the concept of a city of fifty or sixty thousand population is reached4 ,it takes about twenty of these to make a city like ,philadelphia1 and five cities like ,philadelphia to make a city like ,london4 ,a lesson on how ,london is fed will add much to the formation of an adequate idea of such a large city4#e ,sidenote3 ,shape of the earth4 ,an adequate idea of the shape of the earth can be formed only by gradual development4 ,the three kinds of roundness 7dollar1 pillar1 ball7 must be taught2 then the various easily intelligible reasons for believing it to be round like a ball may follow in the elementary grade4 ,as the pupil advances he may be told of the dispute between ,newton and the ,french1 the former affirming it to be round like an orange1--that is1 flattened at the poles1--the latter asserting that it resembled a lemon with the polar axis longer than the equatorial diameter2 and how1 by measuring degrees of latitude and finding that their length increases as we approach the poles1 the ,french mathematicians1 in spite of their wishes to the contrary1 proved ,newton's view to be correct4 ,the same lesson might be taught by starting with the rotation of the earth1 showing by experiment the tendency of revolving bodies to bulge out at the equator1 and then drawing the inference that the degrees of latitude are shortest where the curvature is greatest1 and that they are longest where the curvature is least4 ,either method is strictly logical2 but the method which follows the order of discovery1 whenever it is feasible1 is calculated to arouse the greater interest in minds of average capacity4 ,the teacher who is a master of his art will supplement the historical lesson by a lesson passing from cause to consequence1 so as to fix and clarify the concept formed by passing from the ground of knowledge to the necessary inference4 ,finally1 by drawing attention to the fact that the equatorial diameters are not all of the same length1 he will build up in the pupil's mind a concept of the real shape of the earth1--a shape unlike any mathematical figure treated of in the text-books on geometry4 ,the attempt to give a complete idea of the shape of the earth in the first lessons on geography would have ended in confusion of thought2 the wise teacher develops complex concepts gradually and not more rapidly than the learner is able to advance4 ,this process may be called enriching the concept4 ,the successive concepts1 although only partial representations of what is to be known1 are adequate for the thinking required at a given stage of development2 the number of complete or exhaustive concepts in any department of knowledge is small indeed4 ,sidenote3 ,the order of discovery and of instruction4 ,instructive as it often is to follow the order of discovery1 it must not be inferred that this is invariably the best order of instruction4 ,what teacher of astronomy would be so foolish as to lead a student through the nineteen imaginary paths which ,kepler tried before he discovered that an elliptical orbit fitted the recorded observations of ,tycho ,brahe6#f ,much may be learned from the methods pursued by eminent teachers4 ,it will abundantly pay any teacher of science to study ,faraday's lectures on the chemistry of a candle1--a series which for models of developing the fundamental concepts of chemistry is unsurpassed4 ,the devices used by such teachers are often very suggestive4 ,for instance1 in teaching the concept of the new geography that the earth revolves not like a body with a liquid interior1 but like a body with an interior as rigid as glass1 ,lord ,kelvin suggests a comparison of the spinning of a hard-boiled egg and of an egg not boiled at all1--an experiment easily made in every school-room4 ,sidenote3 ,ideas of great distances4 ,a few quotations from the astronomer ,young will show how concepts of great distances can be developed so as to be more than a numeral with a row of ciphers annexed3 8,if one were to try to walk such a distance1 supposing that he could walk four miles an hour1 and keep it up for ten hours every day1 it would take sixty-eight and one-half years to make a single million of miles1 and more than sixty-three hundred years to traverse the whole4 ,if some celestial railway could be imagined1 the journey to the sun1 even if our trains ran sixty miles an hour1 day and night1 without a stop1 would require over one hundred and seventy-five years4 ,to borrow the curious illustration of ,professor ,mendenhall1 if we could imagine an infant's arm long enough to enable him to touch the sun and burn himself1 he would die of old age before the pain could reach him1 since1 according to the experiments of ,helmholtz and others1 a nervous shock is communicated only at the rate of one hundred feet per second1 or one thousand six hundred and thirty-seven miles a day1 and would need more than one hundred and fifty years to make the journey4 ,sound would do it in about fourteen years if it could be transmitted through celestial space1 and a cannon-ball in about nine1 if it were to move uniformly with the same speed as when it left the muzzle of the gun4 ,if the earth could be suddenly stopped in her orbit1 and allowed to fall unobstructed towards the sun under the accelerating influence of his attraction1 she would reach the centre in about two months4 ,i have said if she could be stopped1 but such is the compass of her orbit that to make its circuit in a year she has to move nearly nineteen miles a second1 or more than fifty times faster than the swiftest rifle-ball2 and in moving twenty miles her path deviates from perfect straightness by less than one-eighth of an inch40#g ,professor ,young uses a very suggestive device in his astronomy for showing the comparative sizes and distances of heavenly bodies3 8,representing the sun by a globe two feet in diameter1 the earth would be twenty-two-hundredths of an inch in diameter--the size of a very small pea or a #8twenty-two caliber round pellet4' ,its distance from the sun on that scale would be just two hundred and twenty feet1 and the nearest star 7still on the same scale7 would be eight thousand miles away at the antipodes40#h ,sometimes the employment of a new unit aids in realizing the idea of very great distances4 ,the ordinary astronomical unit is the distance of the sun from the earth2 it is not large enough to be convenient in expressing the distances of fixed stars4 ,hence astronomers have found it more satisfactory to take as a unit the distance light travels in a year1 which is about sixty-three thousand times the distance of the sun from the earth4 ,the tables of fixed stars give distances in terms of this unit from #c4e upward4 ,a glance at these figures fills the mind with an idea of the infinite grandeur of the universe and with feelings of awe and sublimity akin to those which must fill the soul on approaching the throne of ,almighty ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,time of snap-shot4 ,scientists assert that the infinitely great is more easily conceived than the infinitely small2 that quantities represented by billions and trillions are more easily grasped than fractions of a unit with a million in the denominator2 that ages of time are more easily comprehended than fractions of a second4 ,in a lecture delivered at the ,international ,electrical ,exhibition1 ,professor ,charles ,f4 ,himes employed a very ingenious device for giving an idea of how a 8snap-shot0 may be made1 or a photographic impression taken of an electric spark1 or a flash of lightning4 ,he exhibited a photograph of the sparks of a ,holtz machine1 which are of shorter duration than any instantaneous drop or slide could be made to give4 8,they impressed themselves upon an ordinary collodion plate as they passed4 ,suppose we assume one-twenty-thousandth of a second as the time1 and we will be within bounds4 ,that is a fraction difficult to comprehend4 ,our mental dividing engine fails as we work towards zero4 ,the twenty-thousandth of a second is so small that it eludes our mental grasp4444 ,looking at it from another point of view1 let us regard the effect as a space-effect instead of a time-effect4 ,light has a velocity1 in round numbers1 of one hundred and ninety thousand miles per second4 ,that would be one hundred and ninety miles in one-thousandth of a second1 nineteen in one-ten-thousandth1 or1 say1 ten miles in our one-twenty-thousandth of a second4 ,ten miles of light drive in upon our plate in that time2 or1 if we held the corpuscular theory of ,newton1 a chain of these little pellets ten miles long would have delivered themselves upon the sensitive surfaces4 ,ten miles is comprehensible1 one mile is1 so that we could easily conceive of an effect in one-tenth of the time allowed to our electric sparks4 ,but let us take another look at it4 ,light is not corpuscles1 but undulations1 tiny wavelets1 ripplets of ether1 eight hundred million million in a second for violet1 a number we can easily understand1 as ,sir ,william ,thomson#i has told us4 ,that would make eight hundred thousand million in one-thousandth1 eight thousand million in one-ten-thousandth1 or forty thousand million impulses striking our sensitive molecules in our one-twenty-thousandth of a second4 ,surely that number should produce an effect4 ,we can readily conceive that one thousand million wavelets would produce an appreciable effect4 ,they would represent one-eight-hundred-thousandth of a second1 say one-millionth of a second4 ,that would seem1 then1 to be ample time to produce a photographic effect40#aj ,sidenote3 ,idea of total depravity4 ,many teachers of science spend all their spare time in reading scientific literature and in posting themselves upon the latest achievements in their specialty4 ,it might be to them a less delightful occupation if they traversed fields of investigation already well explored for the purpose of seeing how the student can be led over these most expeditiously and with minimum expenditure of time and effort4 ,thought bestowed upon the best way of imparting the elements of science would have a most beneficial effect upon their methods of instruction1 and would greatly increase their skill in teaching4 ,many of the most abstruse and complex ideas can be resolved by analysis into their elements1 and thereby be made intelligible to people of ordinary training4 ,an eminent teacher of theology felt called upon to impart to a promiscuous audience an idea of the doctrine of total depravity as taught by the ,church4 ,he started by referring first to the popular mistake that the doctrine teaches the utter depravity of the human race1 then to the ancient heresy that the depravity of human nature resides in the body1 and not in the soul1 and1 finally1 to the meaning of total as signifying not that man is as bad as he can become1 but that he is depraved1 or has a tendency towards sin not merely in his physical body1 but in the totality of his being4 ,analysis prepared them to see that by total depravity is not meant that men are as bad as they can be1 nor that they do not have in their natural condition certain amiable qualities or certain laudable virtues2 that the doctrine means that depravity1 or the sinful condition of man1 infects the whole man1--intellect1 feeling1 heart1 and will1--and that in each unrenewed person some lower affection1 and not the love of ,god1 is supreme4 ,such analysis of a complex concept into its elements1 the explicit setting forth what it is and what it is not1 followed by the synthesis of the parts into a thought-unit1 is the plan pursued by the best teachers in teaching difficult subjects4 ,by analysis we resolve complex concepts into their elements1 which may be simple percepts or their relations4 ,things are separated in thought which go together in time1 space1 motion1 force1 or substance4 ,every essential attribute or constituent can then be viewed by itself until the mind has gone around it with the bounding line of thought1 grasped its nature and essence1 and explored it in its different aspects and relations4 ,in this way the most abstruse subjects are shorn of their difficulties1 the most complex problems are solved and elucidated4 ,sidenote3 ,value of analysis4 ,the bearing of all this upon the art of teaching is easily shown4 ,a teacher of geometry1 whose mind was quite logical1 failed1 through lack of power1 to make things plain4 ,if the class did not grasp the demonstration of a theorem1 he invariably started at the beginning1 tried to throw light upon every link in the chain of proof1 and by the time he reached the point of difficulty the members of the class were thinking of something else4 ,a younger colleague pursued a different plan4 ,starting some pupil upon the demonstration1 he detected the difficulty1 and by a few words of explanation1 or by a well-framed question1 he focussed attention upon the simple elements1 into which he resolved the difficulty1 and frequently surprised the class by showing the simplicity of what had puzzled their minds4 ,under the clarifying light of analysis half the difficulties and half the sophistries of human thinking vanish like dew and mist before the morning sun4 ,sidenote3 ,the moral nature4 ,for the purpose of making an impression upon the moral nature word-painting is sometimes very helpful4 ,all the text-books on physiology and hygiene intended for use in the public schools seek to teach the evils of strong drink by showing the effect of alcoholic stimulants upon different parts of the human system4 ,yet the most exhaustive lessons on how whiskey is made1 and what are its exhilarating and its pernicious effects1 cannot equal the effects of the word painting of ,robert ,ingersoll and the paraphrase by ,dr4 ,buckley4 ,in making a gift to a friend the former penned the following eulogy on whiskey3 8,i send you some of the most wonderful whiskey that ever drove the skeleton from the feast or painted landscapes in the brain of man4 ,it is the mingled souls of wheat and corn4 ,in it you will find the sunshine and the shadow that chased each other over the billowy fields1 the breath of ,june1 the carol of the lark1 the dew of night1 the wealth of summer1 and autumn's rich content1 all golden with imprisoned light4 ,drink it1 and you will hear the voice of men and maidens singing the #8,harvest ,home1' mingled with the laughter of children4 ,drink it1 and you will feel within your blood the starlit dawns1 the dreamy1 tawny dusks of perfect days4 ,for forty years this liquid joy has been within the staves of oak1 longing to touch the lips of man40 ,this was ,dr4 ,buckley's statement of the other side3 8,i send you some of the most wonderful whiskey that ever brought a skeleton into the closet1 or painted scenes of lust and bloodshed in the brain of man4 ,it is the ghosts of wheat and corn1 crazed by the loss of their natural bodies4 ,in it you will find a transient sunshine chased by a shadow as cold as an ,arctic midnight1 in which the breath of ,june grows icy and the carol of the lark gives place to the foreboding cry of the raven4 ,drink it1 and you shall have #8woe1' #8sorrow1' #8babbling1' and #8wounds without cause4' ,your eyes shall behold strange women1 and #8your heart shall utter perverse things4' ,drink it deep1 and you shall hear the voices of demons shrieking1 women wailing1 and worse than orphaned children mourning the loss of a father who yet lives4 ,drink it deep and long1 and serpents will hiss in your ears1 coil themselves about your neck1 and seize you with their fangs2 for at the last it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder4 ,for forty years this liquid death has been within staves of oak1 harmless there as purest water4 ,i send it to you that you may put an enemy in your mouth to steal away your brains1 and yet ,i call myself your friend40 ,sidenote3 ,the languages4 ,there comes a stage of development of the learner at which the word itself becomes the object of thought4 ,words are then classified as parts of speech1 and their function in sentences is studied4 ,their properties and endings must be learned and compared4 ,there is abundant room for thought in the eleven hundred variations of the ,greek verb4 ,the variations of words by declension and conjugation can be made the material for thought1 and as these are always at hand in the text-book1 no excursions to the field being needed to secure specimens1 and no preparation of difficult experiments being required on the part of the teacher1 the ancient languages have held their own in the schools with most wonderful tenacity4 ,the study of language has not merely the advantage of supplying material for thought in the words1 grammatical forms1 and sentences which are always at hand in the text1 but through the classics it brings the learner into intellectual contact with the best thoughts of the best men in ancient and modern times4 ,to translate an author like ,virgil or ,demosthenes is to think the thoughts of a master mind1 to weigh words as in a most nicely adjusted balance1 and finally to arrange them in sentences that shall adequately convey the meaning of the original text4 ,sidenote3 ,science4 ,science is1 of course1 a product of the human mind1 quite as much as the so-called humanities1 and answers the same purpose when studied as literature2 but then it ceases to have the value of training the intellect in the rigid methods of original research and scientific investigation4 ,whilst it is the function of the laboratory to initiate the student into the mysteries of the methods by which new discoveries are made and verified1 and thus to enable him to avail himself of the labors of others through their publications1 it does not bring the student into living contact with human hopes1 emotions1 and aspirations as do the poems of ,goethe1 ,schiller1 and ,shakespeare4 ,sidenote3 ,history4 ,history deals with what man has achieved4 ,the materials for thought which it furnishes are mostly in the shape of the testimony of eye-witnesses and other original sources of information4 ,the incidents1 the achievements1 the struggles1 the victories and the defeats1 the thoughts1 feelings1 and experiences of historic personages1 are an inexhaustible supply of material from which authors1 editors1 and orators draw illustrations1 figures of speech1 and other matter for their thinking4 ,here is a field which must not be neglected by those who would influence their fellows or figure as leaders of men4 ,sidenote3 ,vigorous thinking4 ,some minds are slow at gathering materials2 yet they think vigorously4 ,they look at facts and ideas from every possible point of view1 explore their nature and relations1 their content and extent1 and point out their bearing upon other things by the conclusions they reach4 ,sometimes they go astray because they do not have sufficient data to warrant a conclusion4 ,their condition resembles that of the ,king of ,siam1 who did not believe that water could become solid because he had been in the nine points of his kingdom and had not seen ice4 ,sidenote3 ,intellectual gluttony4 ,other men are intellectual gluttons4 ,they keep pouring into themselves knowledge from every quarter1 carry it in their minds as the overloaded stomach carries food1 and end in mental dyspepsia4 ,better the man with few ideas1 who can apply these in practical life1 than the man of erudition who cannot apply his knowledge4 ,too little food produces inanition and starvation2 too much food brings on dyspepsia and a host of other ills and distempers4 ,the haphazard selection of studies by inexperienced youth from the large list of electives offered by a great university is apt to result either in mental overfeeding or in intellectual starvation4 ,the mind can be rightly formed only when it is rightly informed4 ,to expect satisfactory thought-products when the mind lacks proper materials to act upon would be as irrational as to expect good grist from a flour-mill whose supply of grain is deficient in quality and quantity4 ,in the process of making flour very much depends upon the instruments employed4 ,the rude implements of antiquity1 the buhr-stones of our fathers1 and the improved machinery of the roller process make a difference in the product1 even though the same quality of grain is used4 ,in the elaboration of the thought-material the well-educated man uses instruments which may be likened to our modern inventions for saving labor in the domain of the mechanic arts4 ,these instruments of thought will next claim our attention4 ,v ,,the ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought ,but words are things2 and a small drop of ink ,falling1 like dew1 upon thought1 produces ,that which makes thousands1 perhaps millions1 think4 ,,byron4 ,constant thought will overflow in words unconsciously4 ,,byron4 ,the great ,lagrange specifies among the many advantages of algebraic notation that it expresses truths more general than those which were at first contemplated1 so that by availing ourselves of such extensions we may develop a multitude of new truths from formul founded on limited truths4 ,a glance at the history of science will show this4 ,for example1 when ,kepler conceived the happy idea of infinitely great and infinitely small quantities 7an idea at which common sense must have shaken its head pityingly71 he devised an instrument which in expert hands may be made to reach conclusions for an infinite series of approximations without the infinite labor of going successively through these4 ,again1 when ,napier invented logarithms1 even he had no suspicion of the value of this instrument4 ,he calculated the tables merely to facilitate arithmetical computation1 little dreaming that he was at the same time constructing a scale whereon to measure the density of the strata of the atmosphere1 the height of the mountains1 the areas of innumerable curves1 and the relation of stimuli to sensations4 ,,lewes',s ,,problems ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,mind4 ,v ,,the ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought ,sidenote3 ,labor-saving in thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,squaring the circle4 ,of the people who1 though inheriting a rich vernacular like the ,english1 spend their lives in the routine of a farm1 a trade1 or a store1 very few have an adequate conception of the labor-saving instruments and appliances which modern civilization places at the disposal of the thinker4 ,the machinery by which one man does as much as a thousand hands formerly did is not a whit more wonderful than the modern appliances for reaching results in the domain of thought4 ,reference might be made to the machines for adding used in counting-houses1 to the tables of interest used by bankers1 to the tables of logarithms by which it is as easy to find the one-hundredth power as the square of a number4 ,the last named have1 so to speak1 multiplied the lives of astronomers by enabling them to make in a short time calculations that formerly occupied months1 and even years4 ,it is not necessary to discuss these2 their value is apparent at a glance4 ,but the value of a rich vocabulary1 the function of the symbols and formulas of chemistry1 physics1 mathematics1 and other sciences1 and the advantages derived from the use of the technical terms peculiar to every domain of thought are not so easily seen4 ,the teacher who fails at the right time to put the pupils in possession of these instruments of thought cripples their thinking1 wastes their time and effort1 and seriously mars their progress4 ,hence it is worth while to devote a chapter or two to the consideration of instruments of thought1 for the purpose of showing how1 by means of them1 thinking is made easier and more effective4 ,let some one write the amounts in a ledger column by the ,roman notation1 then endeavor to add them without using any figures of the ,arabic notation1 either in his mind or in any other way1 and he will soon realize what a labor-saving device our ten digits are4 ,then let him face the problem of squaring the circle as it confronted ,archimedes1 using the obvious truth that the perimeter of an inscribed polygon is less1 while the perimeter of the circumscribed polygon is greater than the circumference of the circle1 and long before his calculations reach the regular polygon of ninety-six sides 7which is as far as ,archimedes carried it71 he will realize how the great ,syracusan was hampered by the lack of the arithmetical notation now in use4 ,next1 supposing himself in possession of the ,arabic method of notation1 let him conceive the labor of ,rudolph von ,ceulen1 who1 before logarithms were known1 computed the ratio of the circumference to the diameter to thirty-five decimal places1--an achievement considered so great that the result was inscribed upon his tombstone1--and then1 turning to the calculus1 let him examine the formulas by which ,clausen and ,dase1 of ,germany1 computing independently of each other1 carried out the value to two hundred decimal places1 their results agreeing to the last figure2 this will give him a conception of the superior instruments of thought invented by those who developed the calculus4 ,his idea of the labor-saving devices introduced by the calculus will be heightened still more on learning that ,mr4 ,shanks1 of ,durham1 ,england1 carried the calculation to six hundred and seven decimal places1--a result so nearly accurate that if it were correctly used in calculating the circumference of the visible universe1 the possible error would be inappreciable in the most powerful microscope4 ,on further learning that in #ahhb ,lindeman1 of ,knigsberg1 rigorously proved this ratio1 commonly represented by the symbol 1 to be incapable of representation as the root of any algebraic equation whatever with rational coefficients1 he will not only refrain from joining the common herd of squarers of the circle1 but no further argument will be needed to show the nature and value of the labor-saving devices introduced into the domain of thought by modern mathematics4 ,since it is unreasonable to expect that every reader shall be familiar with higher mathematics1 the duty of using simpler illustrations cannot be evaded4 ,fortunately for the purpose in hand1 the book of experience furnishes these with an abundance that is almost bewildering4 ,sidenote3 ,chemistry4 ,a professor of chemistry was lecturing to an audience of teachers on agriculture4 ,when he began to write upon the black-board they smiled at his spelling4 ,iron he wrote ,fe4 ,water he spelled ,h,o4 ,they soon saw that he was using the instruments of thought furnished by a science with which1 unfortunately1 few of them were familiar4 ,he had found that the use of these chemical symbols made his thinking as much superior to that of the ordinary man as the work of the youth upon a self-binder is superior to that of the giant working with no better instrument than the sickle of our forefathers4 ,sidenote3 ,arabic notation4 ,the school furnishes numerous examples to illustrate this point4 ,when the teachers of a well-known city began the use of objects to impart the ideas of number and of the fundamental rules in arithmetic1 the interest of the pupils and their facility in calculation grew wonderfully4 ,the teaching was in accordance with the laws of mental growth4 ,for fear the pupils would manipulate the ,arabic figures without corresponding ideas1 collections and equal parts of objects were drawn upon the slate to illustrate addition and subtraction of integers and fractions4 ,the plan was followed for years and carried upward through the grades4 ,finally the pupils were examined for admission into the high school4 ,a problem involving the four fundamental rules in combinations which could not be illustrated by pictures of objects1 or the objects themselves1 was set for solution4 ,out of fifty-nine applicants1 only ten succeeded in giving the correct answer4 ,the same kind of problem was given three times by three different persons1 and with practically the same outcome4 ,the teachers realized that they had kept up for too long a time the thinking in things1 instead of drilling the pupils upon the process of thinking in the symbols of the ,arabic notation4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to think number without using the ,arabic digits4 ,the ,romans did so by means of their counting-boards1 and the ,chinese do so by devices of their own4 ,the characters which were brought into ,western ,europe through ,arabic influences are derived1 according to ,max ,mueller1 from the first letters of the ,sanskrit words for the first ten numerals4 ,their use facilitated calculation to such an extent that arithmetic gradually ceased to be the prerogative of slaves and ecclesiastics2 its operations began to be understood by freemen and by the nobility4 ,if children are denied the use of objects in their early lessons in number1 they resort to counting on their fingers4 ,if they are not led from this thinking on their fingers to thinking in figures1 they will never become expert in arithmetic4 ,sometimes the fingers no longer move1 but the mind conceives pictures of the hand1 and the mind's eye runs along the fingers of hands not visible to the corporeal eye4 ,it is equally bad if the pupils never think number except by mental pictures of blocks1 sticks1 balls1 and the like4 ,when the pupil sees #g #i1 he should not conceive seven heaps of nine shoe-pegs each1 and then a rearrangement into six groups of ten shoe-pegs1 and three stray ones alongside of these groups2 but instantaneously the symbols #g #i should suggest1 with unerring accuracy1 the result1--#fc4 ,sidenote3 ,fractions4 ,in the schools of another district the principal proposed concrete work in fractions4 ,the teachers and pupils began to divide things into halves1 and thirds1 and fourths1 and sixths4 ,they added and subtracted by subdividing these into fractions that denoted equal parts of a unit4 ,whilst the charm of novelty still clung to the process1 a stranger who visited the schools asked one of the teachers how the pupils and parents liked the change4 8,everybody is delighted10 was the exclamation4 ,a year later the same teacher was asked by the visitor1 8,how are you succeeding with your concrete work in fractions80 ,with a dejected air she replied1 8,we are disappointed with the results40 8,just as ,i expected10 exclaimed the visitor2 8for you were making the children think on the level of barbarism1 instead of teaching them to use the tools and labor-saving machinery of modern civilization40 ,sidenote3 ,reckoning interest4 ,still another incident1 taken from actual life1 will serve to throw light upon the subject under discussion4 ,in the booming days of the iron industry a laborer had saved and put out at interest twelve hundred dollars4 ,the rate was six per cent41 and no interest had been paid for one year and four months4 ,unable to reckon interest with figures1 the toiler asked the principal of the schools to tell him the amount of interest due4 ,next day he greeted the principal by asking1 8,did you not make a mistake in your calculation80 ,the reply was1 8,in my hurry to avoid being late at school ,i may have made a mistake40 ,he found that the man was right1 and curiosity led him to ask how the error had been detected4 8,i reckoned it10 said the man4 ,this aroused still greater curiosity2 for the principal knew that1 beyond the ability to count1 the man had no knowledge of arithmetic4 ,by agreement they met on ,saturday afternoon1 so that the man might show his method of reckoning interest4 ,at the appointed hour the man laid six pennies on the floor to denote a year's interest on one dollar1 and then laid two pennies alongside of these as the additional interest on a dollar for four months4 ,the supply of pennies being exhausted1 he made strokes with chalk1 and proceeded to do this twelve hundred times1 and then to count them for the purpose of ascertaining the interest4 ,it was thinking in things with a vengeance4 ,and yet the making of strokes with chalk was a step in symbolic representation1 and shows the innate tendency of the human mind to use symbols in thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,words4 ,sidenote3 ,dialects4 ,even the words used in counting are symbols4 ,in fact1 every word that signifies anything is a symbol used by the mind to indicate an idea more or less complex1 as well as the thing or things or relation of things in the external world which corresponds to the idea4 ,in advanced thinking the words denote ideas more and more complex as the problems grow in difficulty or involve more of the abstract and general concepts under which the mind classifies the objects of which it takes cognizance4 ,this is more largely true of the words in a developed language than it is of a dialect with little or no literature4 ,a reference to the writer's early home will be pardoned in this connection4 ,his father1 a plain farmer in ,eastern ,pennsylvania1 sent four sons through college and gave each of them a professional or university education4 ,when they gather under the parental roof they use the dialect of their early days in discussing life on the farm and in rehearsing the funny experiences of their boyhood2 but when they discuss a question in science or mathematics1 in law1 medicine1 or theology1 they drop the dialect of their boyhood and use the instruments of thought furnished by languages having a literature4 ,some one has facetiously said of one town in the ,lehigh ,valley that the people pray in seven languages and swear in eight4 ,it is a witty statement of an actual fact4 ,the ,welshman can pray as well as swear in his native tongue4 ,the ,pennsylvania ,german can vent his feelings fully in his own dialect when he grows profane4 ,as soon as he says his prayers he reverts to the language of the pulpit and of ,luther's ,bible because he there finds the words which express the deepest wants and emotions of the human soul4 ,sidenote3 ,melanchthon4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the ,german language4 ,sidenote3 ,value of a rich vocabulary4 ,when ,melanchthon prepared the ,saxony school plan he insisted that pupils should read ,latin1 write ,latin1 and speak ,latin to the exclusion of the mother tongue4 ,if an educator of to-day should advocate this policy in the fatherland1 he would be banished4 ,melanchthon1 surnamed preceptor ,germani1 knew what he was about4 ,he taught at a time when teachers of the humanities lamented that children were born in the homes of parents speaking ,german4 ,he lectured at a time when ,luther and his colleagues were visiting market-places to talk with the peasants for the purpose of gathering words and phrases by which the ,new ,testament might be adequately rendered in the vernacular of the common people4 ,a development extending over one hundred and fifty years was required before the lecturers at the universities found in it enough words and phrases to serve as instruments of thought for purposes of advanced investigation and ratiocination4 ,so rich and flexible has the ,german become that ,voss succeeded in translating ,homer into ,german1 using the same metre1 the same number of lines1 without adding to or subtracting from the ideas of the original4 ,schlegel's translation of ,shakespeare is equally famous and equally successful4 ,both of these masterpieces show how essential a rich vocabulary is in rendering or in reproducing the best thoughts of the best minds2 they show the importance of linguistic development and linguistic teaching4 ,for purposes of thought and culture a rich mother tongue is of untold advantage4 ,it is a great blessing to be born and raised in a home presided over by a well-educated mother4 ,it is an invaluable help to be trained in schools whose teachers speak and write the languages which have felt the touch of the genius of ,shakespeare and of ,goethe4 ,next to furnishing ideas or something to think about1 the thing of most importance in teaching a pupil to think is to enrich his vocabulary1 to train him in language4 ,dr4 ,whewell has well remarked that 8language is the atmosphere in which thought lives1 for there is hardly a subject we can think about without the aid of language4 ,consequently1 without knowledge of the language of a science all thinking with regard to that science is impossible2 for although we conceive the world by means of our senses1 we comprehend it only in and through the form of language40 ,in this connection one cannot do better than listen to the conclusions of men who have attained eminence as scholars1 thinkers1 and writers4 ,speaking from experience1 they can throw light upon the art of correct and efficient thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,morrell4 8,language1 we must remember10 says ,dr4 ,morrell1 8is not constructed afresh by every individual mind which uses it4 ,it is a world already created for us1--one into which we have simply to be introduced1 and in which the process of human development1 up to any given period1 is more or less perfectly preserved and registered4 ,recollection1 accordingly1 by enabling us to appropriate to ourselves a whole system of signs1 with the ideas attached to them1 initiates us insensibly into the intellectual world of the present1 puts us upon the vantage-ground of the latest degree of civilization1 and enables us to grasp the ideas of the age without the labor of thinking them out consecutively by our own individual effort40#aa ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,whewell4 8,language10 says ,dr4 ,whewell1 8is often called an instrument of thought2 but it is also the nutriment of thought2 or1 rather1 it is the atmosphere in which thought lives2 a medium essential to the activity of our speculative power1 although invisible and imperceptible in its operation2 and an element modifying1 by its qualities and changes1 the growth and complexion of the faculties which it feeds4 ,in this way the influence of preceding discoveries upon subsequent ones1 of the past upon the present1 is most penetrating and universal1 though most subtle and difficult to trace4 ,the most familiar words and phrases are connected by imperceptible ties with the reasonings and discoveries of former men and most distant times4 ,their knowledge is an inseparable part of ours2 the present generation inherits and uses the scientific wealth of all the past4 ,and this is the fortune not only of the great and rich in the intellectual world1 of those who have the key to the ancient storehouses and who have accumulated treasures of their own1 but the humblest inquirer1 while he puts his reasoning into words1 benefits by the labors of the greatest discoverers4 ,when he counts his little wealth1 he finds he has in his hands coins which bear the image and superscription of ancient and modern intellectual dynasties2 and that1 in virtue of this possession1 acquisitions are in his power1 solid knowledge within his reach1 which none could ever have attained to if it were not that the gold of truth1 once dug out of the mine1 circulates more and more widely among mankind40#ab ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,hinsdale4 8,the word #8vernacular1'0 says ,hinsdale1 8is derived from vernaculus1 which comes from verna1 a slave born in his master's house2 and it means the speech to which one is born and in which he is reared1--the patrius sermo of the ,roman1 the ,mutter-sprache of the ,german1 the mother tongue of the ,englishman4 ,command of a noble vernacular involves the most valuable discipline and culture that a man is capable of receiving4 ,it conditions all other discipline and culture4444 ,the greatest mental inheritance to which a ,german1 a ,frenchman1 or an ,englishman is born is his native tongue1 rich in the knowledge and wisdom1 the ideas and thoughts1 the wit and fancy1 the sentiment and feeling1 of a thousand years4 ,nay1 of more than a thousand years2 for these languages1 in their modern forms1 were enriched by still earlier centuries4 ,to come back to the old thought1 such a speech as one of these only flows out from such a life as it expresses1 and is in turn essential to the existence of that life40#ac ,sidenote3 ,english4 ,parents who wish their children to possess the best instruments of thought cannot be too careful in the selection of teachers for them4 ,children whose mother tongue is a dialect should be trained in one or more of the languages that have been enriched by centuries of development and literary culture4 ,the best that the people of ,pennsylvania-,german extraction can do for future generations is to make the transition as speedily as possible from their vernacular--so poverty-stricken in its vocabulary--to the ,english1 with its abundant vocabulary and its unsurpassed literary treasures4 ,in the ,english they will find the instruments of thought fitted to develop native powers that have been inherited from an ancestry of sturdy husbandmen1 and strengthened through heredity by centuries of contact with the soil1 even as the giant ,antus1 in wrestling with ,hercules1 is fabled to have gained new strength as often as he came in contact with mother earth4 ,the same advice will apply to the other nationalities who have come to live on ,american soil1 even though they have brought with them a more developed vernacular4 ,the ,english dictionary contains one hundred and twenty thousand words2 but besides these words in common use1 the dictionaries of the specialists contain several hundred thousand more1 which may be called technical terms1 and which serve as instruments of thought in scientific discussions and investigations4 ,to these we next turn our attention4 ,,vi ,,technical ,,terms ,,as ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought ,it is the power of thinking by means of symbols which demarcates men from animals1 and gives one man or nation the superiority over others4 ,,lewes4 ,hardly any original thoughts on mental or social subjects ever make their way among mankind or assume their proper importance in the minds even of their inventors until aptly selected words or phrases have1 as it were1 nailed them down and held them fast4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,though most readers1 probably1 entertain1 at first1 a persuasion that a writer ought to content himself with the use of common words in their common sense1 and feel a repugnance to technical terms and arbitrary rules of phraseology1 as pedantic and troublesome1 it is soon found by the student of any branch of science that1 without technical terms and fixed rules1 there can be no certain or progressive knowledge4 ,the loose and infantine grasp of common language cannot hold objects steadily enough for scientific examination1 or lift them from one stage of generalization to another4 ,they must be secured by the rigid mechanism of a scientific phraseology4 ,this necessity has been felt in all the sciences1 from the earliest periods of their progress4 ,,whewell4 ,ideas and existences are represented by terms and phrases2 and as terms and phrases are representative of thoughts and things1 and are the means which enable us to speak about them1 the definitions1 descriptions1 and explanations of terms form a very necessary part of science2 and he who would understand science must learn the meaning of the special terms employed in it4 ,,gore4 ,,vi ,,technical ,,terms ,,as ,,instruments ,,of ,,thought ,sidenote3 ,technical terms4 ,sidenote3 ,their value4 ,some teachers are very much afraid of technical terms4 ,they teach their pupils to say name-word instead of noun1 action-word instead of verb1 and bring over instead of transpose4 ,there is no end to the phrases they invent for the sake of avoiding technical terms4 ,acting on the maxim that a pupil shall never be allowed to use a word without comprehending its meaning1 they prefer to use compound words and phrases to denote the fundamental ideas of the various branches of study4 ,this fear of technical terms is a natural result of the reaction against rote teaching4 ,so much has been said and written against the teaching of mere words1 especially big words1 against parrot-like recitations of definitions1 rules1 principles1 and forms of statement given in the text-book or wrought out by the teacher1 that many people fail to see the value of technical terms as instruments of thought4 ,a separate chapter is necessary to point out their function in scientific thinking and instruction4 ,in common parlance the use of technical terms should be avoided4 ,do we say that ,nebuchadnezzar had a long noun or a long name8 ,noun is a technical term2 name is the word in ordinary use4 ,do we say that a man broke his femur or his leg8 ,the doctors who set the limb will probably use the technical term in their conferences4 ,in talking with the common people they use the common names1 unless they wish to awe the multitudes by a show of learning4 ,often1 indeed1 men use big words to hide their ignorance4 ,in physiology the investigations are carried as far as possible1 and then a term is coined to cover the unknown4 ,often high-sounding words are strung together to cover a lack of ideas or to establish a reputation for erudition4 ,these are tricks to which a genuine teacher has no occasion to resort4 ,it is his duty to ascertain the educational value of the technical terms of science1 and to use these terms for the purpose of fixing scientific ideas in the mind and of causing the pupil to think clearly and exactly4 ,sidenote3 ,basal concepts4 ,at the basis of every science1 as we have seen1 there are certain ideas which cannot be conveyed to other minds by the use of the corresponding technical terms4 ,these basal concepts must be built up in the learner's mind by skilful teaching1 sometimes by the very process by which the race acquired or discovered them4 ,it may require a trip to the field1 to the museum1 or to the mine2 or an experiment in the laboratory may be necessary4 ,perhaps a development lesson is needed to enable the pupil to grasp the idea clearly and fully4 ,it is very certain that if the idea is hazy and ill-defined1 the subsequent thinking will be loose1 obscure1 and unsatisfactory4 ,the glib use of technical terms may often hide from the teacher the defects of the pupil's thinking1 and it may require an examination to reveal the points wherein the teacher has failed4 ,questions which require a pupil to look at his knowledge from a new point of view are helpful2 an examination abounding in such questions may be an intellectual blessing to both teacher and pupil4 ,the examiner should1 of course1 avoid puzzling catch-questions1 for these are calculated to embarrass the pupil and confuse his thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,popular lectures4 ,a clear thinker can always make his ideas intelligible to those who have acquired the basal concepts of the things1 principles1 and laws with which he deals4 ,lecturers on popular science avoid the abstruse questions of advanced science and the technical terms which do not convey a definite meaning to the average hearer4 ,they select topics which can be discussed in the language of common life1 and often state the results of scientific research without leading the audience through the successive steps by which these results are obtained4 ,the popular lecture requires special gifts that are not in the possession of every scientist4 ,huxley was one of the most gifted men of the century2 yet he says of himself1-- ,sidenote3 ,huxley4 8,i have not been one of those fortunate persons who are able to regard a popular lecture as a mere hors d'uvre unworthy of being ranked among the serious efforts of a philosopher1 and who keep their fame as scientific hierophants unsullied by attempts--at least of the successful sort--to be understanded by the people4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have found that the task of putting the truths learned in the field1 the laboratory1 and the museum into language which1 without bating a jot of scientific accuracy1 shall be generally intelligible1 taxed such scientific and literary faculty as ,i possessed to the uttermost2 indeed1 my experience has furnished me with no better corrective of the tendency to scholastic pedantry1 which besets all those who are absorbed in pursuits remote from the common ways of men1 and become habituated to think and speak in the technical dialect of their own little world1 as if there were no other40 ,sidenote3 ,exact thinking4 ,there is an error1 on the other hand1 into which practical men fall when they object to the technical language of the scientist4 ,there are many things in science which cannot be made plain to the non-scientific mind4 ,the difficulty lies not in the terminology employed1 but in the lack of the basal concepts necessary for the advanced thinking which must be employed4 ,says ,robert ,galloway1 8,words when employed in science1 unlike their employment in common use1 have a meaning steadily fixed and precisely determined2 this precision in the meaning of scientific terms necessarily requires on the part of those who can make proper use of them accurate habits of thought2 this is an indispensable qualification for attainment in any science2 there is no dispensing with it1 consequently one who does not know the language of a science1 and who has not been taught to think accurately with respect to it1 cannot understand properly what may be told or shown him about the facts or principles of that science40 ,sidenote3 ,de ,quincey4 ,from this point of view it is easy to see the use which the teacher should make of technical terms4 ,circumlocutions and explanatory phrases may be helpful in developing fundamental ideas1 but the corresponding technical terms should be associated with the ideas as soon as these assume clear1 definite shape4 ,language is the atmosphere in which thinking lives2 technical language is as necessary to the scientific thought as the air we breathe is to the physical life4 ,in one of his letters to a young man whose education had been neglected1 ,de ,quincey renders an important service to the science of teaching4 8,in assigning to the complex notion ,x the name transcendental1 ,kant was not simply transferring a word which had previously been used by the school-men to a more useful office2 he was bringing into the service of the intellect a new birth2 that is1 drawing into a synthesis1 which had not existed before as a synthesis1 parts or elements which exist and come forward hourly in every man's mind4 ,i urge this upon your attention1 because you will often hear such challenges thrown out as this 7or others involving the same error73 #8,now1 if there be any sense in this ,mr4 ,kant's writings1 let us have it in good old mother ,english4' ,that is1 in other words1 transfer into the unscientific language of life scientific notions which it is not fitted to express4 ,the challenger proceeds upon the common error of supposing all ideas fully developed to exist in esse in all understandings1 ergo1 his own2 and all that are in his own he thinks we can express in ,english4 ,thus the challenger1 in his own notions1 has you in a dilemma1 at any rate2 for1 if you do not translate it1 then it confirms his belief that the whole is jargon2 if you do 7as1 doubtless1 with the help of much periphrasis1 that will be intelligible to a man who already understands the philosophy71 then where was the use of the terminology8 ,but the way to deal with this fellow is as follows3 ,my good sir1 ,i shall do what you ask2 but before ,i do it ,i beg you will oblige me by 7#a7 translating this mathematics into the language of chemistry2 7#b7 translating this chemistry into the language of mathematics2 7#c7 both into the language of cookery1 and1 finally1 solve me the ,cambridge problem1 ,given the captain's name1 the year of our ,lord1 to determine the longitude of the ship8 ,this is the way to deal with such fellows40 ,sidenote3 ,images4 ,sidenote3 ,higher forms of thinking4 ,technical terms are very helpful in dealing with that which cannot be imaged or visualized4 ,when ,francis ,galton began his inquiries into the power possessed by different minds to conceive the breakfast table1 to recall vividly the various dishes and the way in which they are placed upon the table1 many men of scientific habits of thought declared that there is no such human faculty4 ,on the other hand1 the educational reformer whose early training did not make him familiar with the thought-processes of higher mathematics may honestly declare that he cannot conceive an abstract number1 and1 as a matter of course1 he can have no adequate conception of the value of the higher forms of thinking in symbols4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,harris has well said that the mind can think ideas which cannot be pictorially conceived or made to stand before the mind in thought-images4 ,in thinking this class of ideas1 technical terms are indispensable as instruments of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,symbols classified4 ,sidenote3 ,suggestive symbols4 ,the value of technical terms as instruments of thought is seen in a still clearer light if we try to classify the various uses of the signs and symbols which are employed as aids in thinking4 ,many of these have no office beyond that of suggesting the things or ideas for which they stand4 ,to this class belong the marks which suggest to the tramp a cross dog or a good meal4 ,as soon as he has seen them1 they could be erased2 the train of thought which they started in his mind can go on without them4 ,of a similar character are the devices by which the merchant marks the buying and the selling prices of goods1 the red and blue lights used on railways and ocean steamers1 the secret signs and signals employed by the signal corps of an army1 and the steps1 grips1 signs1 countersigns1 and passwords employed by secret societies as a means of identification4 ,very many of the artificial devices used in systems of mnemonics have no higher function than that of suggesting what otherwise might be forgotten4 ,sidenote3 ,symbols as substitutes4 ,very different are the signs and symbols which mathematics employs as substitutes for the quantities to be considered4 ,in adding a column in the ledger or in a statistical table the mind thinks the figures without reference to the concrete objects which they denote4 ,in the solution of a problem in algebra the unknown quantities are represented by symbols like x and y1 the known quantities by the first letters of the alphabet or by numerical expressions2 the relations between the quantities are indicated by equations2 there is no thought of the quantities themselves while the mind is engaged in manipulating the symbols according to well-defined rules of operation1 and only when the result is to be interpreted do the quantities reappear in the field of consciousness4 ,the substitute symbol is a device for temporarily dropping an idea until it is needed for interpretation2 the suggestive symbol is a means of bringing an idea or thought into the domain of consciousness4 ,the latter furnishes or recalls material for the mind to act upon2 the former lightens the burden which the mind would otherwise have to carry4 ,the arithmetical solution of an age question in which the mind constantly carries the thought of ,a's age and his wife's age as compared with the algebraic solution of the same question in which ,a and his wife1 as well as their ages1 sink temporarily out of sight1 shows the value of substitute signs and symbols in mathematical thinking1 and explains why algebraic methods are so far superior to the clumsy and involved methods of arithmetical analysis4 ,sidenote3 ,expressive symbols4 ,different from either of these is the class of symbols used in expressing ideas4 ,this class includes not only the words of written and spoken language1 but also the natural signs of gesture language and the conventional signs of manual language taught to deaf mutes4 ,the language is full of faded metaphors indicating the office of common words4 ,they are said to express meaning1 to convey thought1 to embody ideas1 to enshrine content4 ,they may be likened to window-panes through which one sees what is back of them4 ,sometimes the window-panes1 like spectacles when first worn1 attract more attention from the person looking than the objects seen through them1--a parallel to what occurs when the articulate speech1 or its rhetorical adornment1 attracts more attention than the thought expressed4 ,but if that which is seen through the window-pane is on the order of a ,santa ,claus loaded with toys and ,christmas-gifts1 then no notice is taken of the medium through which the object is seen4 ,hence the very best teaching--that which rivets attention upon the thought conveyed--always fails to teach the spelling of words incidentally4 ,furthermore1 the instruction which frequently stops to draw attention to the grammar of the sentences1 the spelling of the words or their mode of utterance1 interferes with the formation of logical habits of thinking and divests the words of their function as expressive signs4 ,when the word itself becomes an object of thought the mind is not thinking by means of that word4 ,it has been well said that we may fail to apprehend the meaning of what a person is saying because the tone of his voice arrests our attention through its resemblance to that of some one else in whom we feel an interest2 that so far as signs thus attract notice on their own account1 they fail to fulfil their function as a means of attending to something other than themselves4 ,for this very pertinent observation credit is due to ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,stout1 who 78,mind10 lxii4 page #ah7 has very clearly drawn the distinction between the three classes of signs or symbols used as helps in thinking4 ,he says1-- ,sidenote3 ,g4 ,f4 ,stout4 8,suggestive signs serve only to bring something to mind2 they are not a means of minding it when once recalled4 ,an expressive sign1 on the contrary1 is a means of attending to its signification4444 ,expressive signs differ from substitutes in a manner exactly the inverse of that in which they differ from suggestive signs4 ,a suggestive sign has fulfilled its purpose and becomes of no further avail so soon as it has suggested its meaning4 ,a substitute sign is a counter which takes the place of its meaning2 so long as it fulfils its representative function it renders useless all reference to that which it represents4 ,the counters are manipulated according to certain rules of operation until a certain result is reached1 which is then interpreted4 ,the operator may be actually unable to interpret the intermediate steps4 ,algebraical and arithmetical symbols are to a great extent used as mere substitute signs4 ,the same is true of the symbols employed in formal logic4 ,it is possible to use signs of this kind whenever fixed and definite rules of operation can be derived from the nature of the things symbolized1 so as to be applied in manipulating the signs without further reference to their signification4 ,a word is an instrument for thinking about the meaning which it expresses2 a substitute sign is a means of not thinking about the meaning which it symbolizes40 ,sidenote3 ,fixing concepts4 ,in addition to these three purposes the technical term may serve still another important end4 ,it helps to fix the new concept or notion after it has been developed by skilful instruction4 ,its association therewith makes it a suggestive sign whenever occasion requires the recurrence of the concept or thought for which it stands4 ,the train of thought is facilitated and made possible by the use of technical terms as expressive signs4 ,and if the idea denoted by it can be accurately defined1 so that the definition becomes a triumph of intellect1 or if it can be quantified1 so as to become a unit of measure like the volts1 ohms1 ampres1 and watts in applied electricity1 the technical term may even serve a purpose analogous to the substitute signs in sciences like formal logic and mathematics4 ,sidenote3 ,proper use of technical terms4 ,the foregoing analysis indicates the proper method of teaching technical terms4 ,first1 the basal concept should be carefully developed and clearly presented2 it should then be fixed in the mind by association with the corresponding technical term2 finally1 the union should be made permanent by frequently causing the two to appear together in the domain of thought1 by treating them as welcome guests when they appear together in the citadel of mind4 ,divorce of one from the other should be as impossible as in the case of the two parties to a suitable marriage4 ,on the fte days of science they should appear together1 each suggesting the presence of the other1 the technical term serving as a helpmeet to the idea1 and as its representative when1 in the charmed circle of scientific investigation1 the presence of the idea is not absolutely required4 ,circumlocutions1 like name-word for noun1 quality-word for adjective1 and relation-word for preposition1 may be helpful in presenting the idea or in introducing the technical term2 they may be tolerated1 like a third party in the making of a match2 but when the match has been made1 and the wedding has been solemnized1 they should drop out of sight as of no further use4 ,the figure of speech could easily be pressed too far2 for many objects known to science have a common as well as a technical designation4 ,each has its proper place in the realm of thought1--the common name in ordinary conversation1 the technical term when scientific precision is required4 ,,vii ,,thought ,,and ,,language ,it seems to me quite certain that we can and do think things without thinking of any sound or words4 ,language seems to me to be necessary to the progress of thought1 but not at all necessary to the mere act of thinking4 ,it is a product of thought3 a vehicle for the communication of it1 a channel for the conveyance of it1 and an embodiment which is essential to its growth and continuity4 ,but it seems to be altogether erroneous to represent it as an inseparable part of cogitation4 ,donkeys and dogs are without true thought1 not because they are speechless1 but they are speechless because they have no abstract ideas1 and no true reasoning powers4 ,in parrots the power of mere articulation exists sometimes in wonderful perfection4 ,but parrots are not so clever as many other birds which have no such power4 ,man's vocal organs are correlated with his brain4 ,both are equally mysterious1 because they are co-operative1 and yet separable1 parts of 8one plan40 ,,argyll4 ,that the language may be fitted for its purpose1 not only should every word perfectly express its meaning1 but there should be no important meaning without its word4 ,whatever we have occasion to think of often1 and for scientific purposes1 ought to have a name appropriated to it4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,,vii ,,thought ,,and ,,language ,sidenote3 ,three possible contingencies4 ,in the development of intellectual life three contingencies are possible4 #a4 ,the growth of the vocabulary may be more rapid than the acquisition of ideas4 #b4 ,the accumulation and development of ideas may exceed the ability to express them in language4 #c4 ,the acquisition of ideas and words1 of thought and language1 may be simultaneous4 ,without doubt1 these possibilities in mental growth exist for wise and beneficent purposes4 ,sidenote3 ,words without ideas4 ,the tendency to acquire words without the corresponding ideas is1 in at least one direction1 a source of gain rather than loss4 ,the pert phrases1 profane words1 and other objectionable language which the child accidentally hears from the lips of older persons1 and at times uses to the unspeakable annoyance of parents and teachers1 would be an occasion for far more serious alarm if the meaning were fully understood4 ,were it a law of our mental life that the hearing and learning of a profane or obscene word necessarily carried with it a clear grasp of the meaning1 the resulting harm to the inner life of the soul would be immeasurably greater1 and the stain upon the character would be vastly more difficult to remove4 ,the objectionable language may mirror the habits of thought and speech into which those in charge of the child have fallen1 awaken in them a new sense of their responsibility1 and cause them to be more careful of what they say2 or it may prove an index to the kind of company into which the child is drifting1 and thus serve as a danger-signal to parent and teacher4 ,when the mind has not learned to think the thought expressed1 a simple warning against the use of such ugly words generally suffices to eradicate them from the child's vocabulary2 and in such instances it is a blessing in disguise that the learning of the words was not accompanied by the acquisition of their meaning4 ,the loss to the intellectual life is more than balanced by the gain in moral training4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking without words4 ,is thinking possible without language8 ,if by language is meant oral speech and written words1 the sign-language of deaf mutes is sufficient to compel an affirmative answer to the question4 ,moreover1 there are modes of thinking and of expressing thought other than by the use of words4 ,of the means of expressing thought without words1 symbols like the ten digits and the sigma of the new psychology are well-known examples4 ,the player in a game of chess1 croquet1 or billiards thinks movements in advance of making them1 and generally without describing the same in words4 ,the drawings and plans by means of which the architect designs a new building1 the mental images of mechanical contrivances which precede the invention and construction of machines1 the mental pictures used in designing1 engineering1 and sketching1 in original geological thought1 prove beyond the shadow of a doubt that thinking may go forward without words and sentences1 and may find expression in ways better adapted to the needs of the artisan4 ,the graphic method of presenting to the eye the results of an investigation is less cumbersome than any description in words4 ,some men depend so much upon mental pictures in their thinking that they assert they cannot think at all without them4 ,in some kinds of gymnastic drill the movement is described in words1 then conceived by the mind1 and finally executed4 ,this exercise has a different educational value from the exercise in which the student simply imitates the movements of the teacher1 the latter being an instance of thinking and expressing thought without the help of words4 ,the speed with which many movements must be executed1 as in fencing1 legerdemain1 athletic sports1 the manipulation of the lever in the hands of the engineer1 requires thinking without the intermediate agency of words and sentences4 ,the time it takes for an idea to pass into words1 and through them into actions1 is measurably greater than the time required for the direct translation of thought into action4 ,although the difference in specific instances is measured by the fraction of a second1 it would involve serious loss of time as well as energy in the handicrafts if thoughts could only pass into action through speech or written language4 ,sidenote3 ,superfluity of words4 ,sidenote3 ,thought and action4 ,sidenote3 ,francis ,galton4 ,some persons run to mouth2 others lack in this respect4 ,to the former class belong those whose lips move in study2 those who talk to themselves2 and many whose paucity of ideas does not justify their superfluity of words4 ,let such a man be elected as a delegate to a synod or a convention1 and the sessions will be prolonged beyond the usual time4 ,as a rule1 the energy of such men is exhausted in speech2 they are not noted for getting things done4 ,on the other hand1 the men of great executive ability are oftentimes men of few words2 their thought is translated into doing rather than talking4 ,the man of deeds is always estimated above the man of words1 the general above the orator1 ,csar the commander above ,csar the orator4 ,sometimes the men of original turn of mind find that their thinking outstrips their power to express thought4 ,francis ,galton says of himself1 8,it is a serious drawback to me in writing that ,i do not so easily think in words as otherwise4 ,it often happens that after being hard at work and having arrived at results that are perfectly clear and satisfactory to myself1 when ,i try to express them in language ,i feel that ,i must begin by putting myself on quite a different intellectual plane2 ,i have to translate my thoughts into a language that does not run evenly with them4 ,i therefore waste a great deal of time in seeking for appropriate words and phrases1 and am conscious1 when required to speak on a sudden1 of being often obscure through mere verbal maladroitness1 and not through want of clearness of perception4 ,this is one of the small annoyances of my life4 ,i may add that often while engaged in thinking out something ,i hatch an accompaniment of nonsense-words1 just as notes of a song might accompany the thought4 ,also1 that after ,i have made a mental step1 the appropriate word frequently follows as an echo2 as a rule1 it does not accompany it40 ,sidenote3 ,knowing and telling4 ,this throws a new light upon one phase of school work4 ,the boy who has a notion of the content of a lesson sometimes stops in the midst of a recitation and1 without premeditation1 exclaims1 8,i know it1 but cannot say it40 ,the teacher retorts1 8,you do not know what you cannot express40 ,both are right and both are wrong4 ,there is1 probably1 a measure of truth in what each claims4 ,if the pupil had mastered the text1 he would not only have a clear idea of the lesson1 but he would also have acquired from the book or from the teacher the words to express the idea4 ,nevertheless1 if there is reason for thinking that the pupil has devoted reasonable time to the lesson1 his linguistic powers should be developed by questions and other appropriate help4 ,the good sense and native instincts of most teachers lead them to give this help4 ,the teacher whose captious disposition issues in remarks calculated to repress a backward pupil's powers of expression should find employment outside of the school-room4 ,sidenote3 ,foreign-born children4 ,the child of foreigners may outstrip native children and astonish the school by unprecedented progress because1 being already familiar with the ideas of the lesson1 it is compelled simply to acquire the language by which the ideas are expressed4 ,by reason of their inability at first to tell what they know1 such children are often classified with those less mature1 and the mastery of the new language in their case is not as difficult as the mastery of new ideas for which brain-growth may be the essential condition4 ,to ignore the fact that such children often know more than they can tell is pedagogic folly in the highest degree4 ,sidenote3 ,language clarifies thought4 ,sidenote3 ,literary societies4 ,courses of study are sometimes mapped out so as to cause inequality in the pace with which ideas are accumulated and language is developed4 ,undue stress on grammar1 rhetoric1 and belles-lettres may cause abnormal development in the direction of flowery language1 a verbose style1 an ornate diction4 ,it is a fault difficult to correct4 ,to insist that such a student shall have something to say1 to force him into studies that will bring him face to face with great questions as yet unsettled1 to beget in him a state of mind in which he is troubled with ideas1 to compel him to work over and over what he writes until his sentences are as clear as crystals1 seems necessary to counteract the one-sided development of such students4 ,the curriculum of study may err on the other side4 ,the graduates in the various courses of engineering 7civil1 electrical1 mechanical1 and mining7 sometimes develop technical1 to the neglect of linguistic1 skill4 ,in the presence of a body of capitalists they are made deeply conscious of the difference between the ability to think and the ability to express thought4#ad ,in one large school of technology the graduates established prizes in ,english composition and endowed chairs of the ,english language and literature1 so that future students might acquire the power to state in clear and intelligible language the results of their work as specialists4 ,in no long time it was discovered that for this purpose they also needed training in an art similar to that of the teacher1--namely1 the art of developing the ideas and thoughts which underlie and condition the engineering project under consideration4 ,for him who would be a leader among men1 the ability to express thought is quite as important as the ability to think4 ,moreover1 there is a vast difference between ability to express thought on one's feet in the presence of an audience and ability to express it on paper in the privacy of the home4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau and ,washington ,irving could write well1 but neither of them could make a speech4 ,patrick ,henry's eloquence before an audience was unsurpassed2 he never could write a satisfactory report4 ,power in both directions may be acquired in a college course through the exercises of a good debating society4 ,the student who1 during four years1 carefully writes out his thoughts1 then discards his manuscript while speaking1 and studies how he can best convince his hearers and how he can prune himself of the defects pointed out by the merciless criticism of his fellows1 can feel sure of ultimate success4 ,president ,barnard says of one of our largest institutions that half its glory departed when its literary societies were killed through the influence of the ,greek letter fraternities4 ,a public speaker who is a slave to his manuscript is deserving of pity4 ,college authorities may well exercise their ingenuity in finding a substitute for the drill and practice which the literary societies of by-gone days afforded in learning to think and to express thought in the face of opposition1 criticism1 and other unfavorable conditions4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of language upon thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching ,english4 ,thought and language exercise a reciprocal influence4 ,thought is stimulated and clarified by the effort to express it4 ,often it is shaped by the limitations of one's vocabulary and the range of the words with which one's hearers or readers are familiar4 ,the faded metaphors of language betray us into fallacies4 ,phrases like the witness of the spirit1 total depravity1 have led to extravagant expectations and unwarranted conclusions4 ,people sometimes have a religious phraseology without a corresponding religious experience1 and hence deceive themselves and others4 ,everywhere we see instances that go to show how important it is that the development of the power to think should keep pace with the growth of the power to express thought4 ,very much is said in these days about the use of good ,english4 ,as ,adam threw the blame upon ,eve1 and ,eve cast it upon the ,serpent1 so every one blames some one else for the poor ,english used at school and college4 ,in the end the teachers are usually made to bear most of the blame3 the college professor blames the teachers in the high school2 these1 in turn1 blame the teachers in the lower grades2 and when the matter is cast up to the primary teacher1 she throws the blame upon the street and the home4 ,a professor in the college department of a university gave many ludicrous specimens of ,english in the work handed to him by students4 ,he was asked of what college class he had charge1 and when he replied the sophomore1 a high-school teacher suggested that the specimens reflected quite as much upon the teachers of the freshman class as upon the schools below the university4 ,sidenote3 ,the committee4 ,a women's society in one of our large cities sent a committee to the superintendent to complain of the poor ,english used by the children in the schools4 ,he agreed that strenuous efforts should be made to provide a remedy4 ,he added1 8,if you will take care of the ,english in the homes and on the streets1 ,i will get the teachers to look after the ,english in the schools40 ,instead of throwing blame upon others1 it were far more sensible for each educated person to ask wherein he is to blame for setting others a bad example and wherein he can help the teachers of ,english to accomplish the desired result4 ,sidenote3 ,aim4 ,the aim in teaching ,english is twofold1--first1 to get the student to appreciate good ,english and good literature2 secondly1 to get him to use it in speaking and writing4 ,the latter end cannot be reached by mere practice in essay-writing4 ,ability to think is a condition of ability to express thought4 ,too many of the subjects assigned lay stress upon the forms of speech and not upon the content of language4 ,when pupils think in words and disconnected phrases rather than sentences1 when they violate the rules for capitals1 punctuation1 and paragraphs1 the teachers of ,english may be solely to blame2 but1 in so far as the use of good ,english depends upon good thinking1 the blame for the use of faulty language rests upon all who teach4 ,if the ability to think is not developed in proportion to the use of language1 the school will produce stylists who exalt the forms of speech above their content1 slaves of beautiful and flowery language who resemble the fops and dudes of social life4 ,to emancipate from such slavery requires more than an emancipation proclamation from the president of a college association4 ,sidenote3 ,linguistic studies4 ,sidenote3 ,language tributary to thinking4 ,the labors of the brothers ,grim1 ,max ,mller1 and others have reduced the knowledge of language to a science4 ,linguistic studies have become as interesting as any branch of natural science4 ,they shed new light upon the history of mankind4 ,in furnishing material for thought1 as well as mental discipline1 they are not inferior to any other study in the curriculum4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake to suppose that philological studies are superior to other disciplines as means for developing power to think and power to express thought4 ,the professor of any language is apt to regard that language as an end1 and not as means to an end4 ,primarily1 language is a medium of communication4 ,it distinguishes man from the brute creation1 and furnishes him the instruments of thought by which he carries forward processes of reasoning beyond the reach of the lower animals4 ,at the university language in general1 or any particular language1 may be studied as a specialty1 and can thus be made an end in itself as appropriately as any other subject which is studied for its own sake4 ,in the lower schools language should always be made tributary to the art of thinking4 ,it should be employed to embody thought1 and to convey thought1 without intruding itself upon our attention as the thing of chief value4 ,any phase of linguistic study may be lifted by an enthusiastic teacher into the chief place in the course of study4 ,orthography has sometimes been taught as if it were the chief end of man to spell correctly4 ,grammar has been taught as if a faulty sentence were one of the sins forbidden by the ,decalogue1 and as if the fate of the republic depended upon parsing1 analysis1 and diagramming4 ,the pronunciation of words may be emphasized until the lips of teacher and pupil smack of an overdose of dictionary1 until the overdoing of obscure vowels draws attention away from the thought to the manner of utterance4 ,a sensible man articulates his words in such a manner as readily to be understood1 but never in such a way as to excite remark or draw the mind of the listener from the subject-matter of the discourse4 ,in educational practice1 the manner of expressing the thought should not supplant the more important art of making the pupil think4 ,getting and begetting thought are of more consequence than the expression of thought2 in fact1 they condition the correct use of language4 ,all talk about ,english1 or ,german1 or ,spanish1 or ,latin1 or ,greek1 as if any one of these languages were an end in itself for the average pupil1 is wide of the mark4 ,correct sentences1 beautiful expressions1 and rhetorical phrases can never make a nation great or perpetuate its free institutions4 ,flowery language can never save a dying sinner or console the widow who is following the bier of a son1 her only child and support4 ,fine words never win a battle by land or by sea4 ,the most eloquent orations against ,philip of ,macedon did not keep him from destroying the liberties of ,greece4 ,correct and forceful language is a gift to be coveted1 a prize worth striving for2 but it should never be made the all-absorbing aim of education4 ,the teacher of any phase of language must for a time make his instruction the object of chief concern2 but he should never ignore the fact that language is and ever should be an aid to thought1 a stimulus to thinking1 an embodiment of ideas1 a medium of communication1 a means to an end4 ,,viii ,,the ,,stimulus ,,to ,,thinking ,good methods of teaching are important1 but they cannot supply the want of ability in the teacher4 ,the ,socratic method is good2 but a ,socrates behind the teacher's desk to ask questions is better4 ,,thomas ,m4 ,,balliet4 ,of all forms of friendship in youth1 by far the most effective as a means of education is that species of enthusiastic veneration which young men of loyal and well-conditioned minds are apt to contract for men of intellectual eminence in their own circles4 ,the educating effect of such an attachment is prodigious2 and happy the youth who forms one4 ,we all know the advice given to young men to 8think for themselves20 and there is sense and soundness in the advice2 but if ,i were to select what ,i account perhaps the most fortunate thing that can befall a young man during the early period of his life1--the most fortunate1 too1 in the end1 for his intellectual independence1--it would be his being voluntarily subjected for a time to some powerful intellectual slavery4 ,,david ,,masson4 ,,viii ,,the ,,stimulus ,,to ,,thinking ,sidenote3 ,thought stimulus4 ,whilst the distinction between thinking in things and thinking in symbols should never be ignored or lost sight of by the teacher1 it need not be brought to the attention of the learner1--at least not in the elementary stages of instruction4 ,it is more profitable for the learner to be absorbed in gathering the materials of thought and in learning by practice how the educated man uses the instruments of thought for drawing correct conclusions by the most effective methods4 ,if the eye of consciousness is turned inward upon the mental processes too early1 the flow of thought is interrupted and turned away from its logical trend4 ,the teacher1 on the other hand1 is expected to watch the growth of the mind1 to awaken its powers1 and to rouse these into vigorous activity4 ,it is essential not merely that he furnish the pupils with the proper materials and the best instruments of thought1 but it is necessary also to stimulate and direct their thinking2 otherwise that which is given them may overload the memory1 lie undigested in the mind1 exhaust the energy of the intellect in the effort at retention1 and ultimately cause mental dyspepsia4 ,sidenote3 ,competition4 ,sidenote3 ,socratic question4 ,men engaged in the struggle for existence or preferment usually find ample stimulus to their thinking faculties in the competition which real life affords4 ,if the merchant does not think accurately and effectively1 the consequences make themselves visible in his bank-account4 ,the desire for gain is the stimulus to thought in the commercial world4 ,an appeal to the same motive is often made through the offer of prizes and fellowships4 ,the competition of maturer years finds an adumbration in the competition for class-standing and for superiority in field sports4 ,the teacher who employs no higher stimulus to thought must be a stranger to the mysteries of the art which he professes to practise4 ,the best device for stimulating thought has come down to us hallowed by the ages4 ,it bears the name of the greatest teacher of ancient ,athens4 ,it is the question as employed in the ,socratic method4 ,not every question is the ,socratic question4 ,a man who has lost his way may ask a question1 but it is for the sake of getting information4 ,the teacher may be striving to fix in the memory the salient points of the lesson3 he asks questions1 the answers to which the pupils are expected to have at their tongue's or fingers' end4 ,a question thus used for purposes of drill is often called a categorical question4 ,it is not the ,socratic question4 ,yonder sits a boy who for half an hour has been wrestling with a problem4 ,unable to find a clue to the solution1 he asks the teacher for help4 ,instead of telling him directly what he wishes to know1 the ,socrates behind the teacher's desk asks a question which causes the pupil to put side by side in his mind two ideas never before linked together in his thought4 ,upon the learner's face is seen an expression as if light had broken in from on high4 ,he goes back to his seat1 and ere five minutes have elapsed he is rejoicing in the glory of a triumph4 ,the teacher did not do the pupil's thinking2 he simply asked the ,socratic question1 which aims to make the pupil think for himself4 ,sidenote3 ,substitute teachers4 ,this stimulus to thought is employed by every master in the art of teaching4 ,the question may be used to badger and confuse a pupil1 especially if the teacher is not fully acquainted with the ideas and thoughts already in the learner's mind4 ,to cause each pupil to place side by side in his mind ideas and concepts whose relation he had not before perceived1 it is necessary that the teacher be familiar with the intellectual storehouse of every member of the class4 ,at this point the substitutes who occasionally supply the places of regular teachers are at a serious disadvantage4 ,not knowing what the pupils have mastered1 they must often waste time in finding out where the new should be linked to the old1 and where it is necessary to clarify and develop ideas with which the members of the class are only partially familiar4 ,often these lose interest in the recitation while the new teacher quizzes them on things that have grown stale by repetition4 ,sidenote3 ,the living teacher4 ,sidenote3 ,the dead line4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge and teaching power4 ,sidenote3 ,the course of study4 ,sidenote3 ,difficulties4 ,back of the ,socratic method must be a ,socrates to ask the questions4 ,education results not from highly differentiated methods1 but primarily from the play of mind upon mind1 heart upon heart1 will upon will4 ,in the difficult art of making others think the most important factor is the teacher himself4 ,thinking begets thinking4 ,in this connection one cannot forbear contrasting the living teacher with other educational forces4 ,treatises on education are in the habit of printing nature with a capital letter1 whilst words like teacher1 humanity1 unless they stand at the beginning of the sentence1 begin with a small letter4 ,are lifeless rocks1 dead leaves1 stuffed birds1 and transfixed bugs more potent in begetting thought than the teacher himself8 ,if nature were such a wonderful teacher1 then the savage1 who is in daily contact with nature1 and who knows little or nothing of the artificial life of our great cities and great seats of learning1 should be the best thinker4 ,a teacher whose power to stimulate thought is not superior to dead leaves and bugs and butterflies must have reached the dead line4 ,teachers may be divided into two classes1--those who have ceased to grow and those who are still alive and growing4 ,under the tuition of the former the boy soon loses interest in study1 and seldom acquires the power to think4 ,from a dead tree you cannot propagate life4 ,ingraft a lifeless teacher upon the school2 the most skilful devices of school management and recitation serve only to intensify the dull routine1 the mechanical iteration and repetition which ,bishop ,spalding declares to be the most radical defect in our systems of education4 ,it takes life to beget life4 ,a growing mind is required to beget growth in other minds4 ,a good thinker begets habits of close and careful thinking in those whom he moulds4 ,some minds are more gifted in this respect than others4 ,without doubt the reader can recall the difference between knowledge and teaching power which he felt while under several instructors at the same time4 ,from those gifted with stimulating power he came away with a mind full of interrogation points1 and with the attention riveted upon problems calling for investigation4 ,under their tuition the commonest things acquired new interest and became food for thought4 ,the thinking seemed to spring out of that upon which the mind was feeding4 ,without the stimulating influence which comes from a live teacher1 contact with nature1 access to libraries and laboratories1 may amount to very little4 ,the chief trouble in our schools is not that the courses of study are too crowded1 but the teachers are too empty4 ,there is not enough fuel in their minds to keep alive the glow of thought4 ,a course of study in the hands of a skilful instructor is like a good bill of fare under the direction of a skilful caterer4 ,the latter does not expect every guest to eat his way through the entire bill of fare2 he so manages the succession of dishes as to stimulate the appetite to the end of the feast2 he sends the guests away without the feeling of satiety1--in fact1 anxious for the next banquet4 ,the wise teacher does not expect the pupils to assimilate everything in the course of study2 he aims so to feed and stimulate their minds that they find genuine pleasure in thinking1 and go away from him with a desire not only for more knowledge1 but also for things that give suitable exercise to the reflective powers4 ,watch a boy at work upon a puzzle1 and you will be convinced that he finds genuine delight in thinking that which is difficult4 ,the most popular teachers are not they who smooth away every difficulty in the pathway of the student1 but they who stimulate his thinking and help him to a sense of mastery over intellectual difficulties4 ,the quickening1 stimulative influence of the ,socratic question lies in its content rather than its form2 and both form and content derive their vivifying power from the personality of the teacher4 ,sidenote3 ,conscious and unconscious influences4 ,the stimulating influences which go forth from a live teacher are partly conscious and partly unconscious4 ,the latter are the more effective4 ,minds gifted with quickening power create about themselves an intellectual atmosphere that is like the invigorating atmosphere of the mountains or the tonic breezes which blow from the sea4 ,the woman who touched the hem of the ,saviour's garment felt at once the vivifying influences which were all the time going forth from the ,great ,teacher4 ,here we stand face to face with the greatest mystery of the teacher's art4 ,sidenote3 ,the heart4 ,some light is shed upon the mystery by the intimate relation which exists between the conscious and the subconscious life of the soul4 ,the ideas upon any subject which the individual cherishes during his conscious moments1 the train of logical thinking which he pursues when the will gives direction to reflection1 the creative effort which he seeks to put forth in a given direction1--these shape the activities which go forward in the depths of the soul when perhaps the attention is directed to the discharge of routine duties4 8,out of the heart are the issues of life40 8,out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh40 ,from the treasure-house of the heart come welling up thoughts1 ideas1 sentiments1 and purposes which largely determine the influence exerted upon others when the individual is not aware of it4 ,the teacher must make himself what he wishes his pupil to be4 ,if foot-ball and base-ball and boating form the staple of his thinking1 the centre of his affections1 these athletic sports1 in ways that are marvellous and often past finding out1 become the objects of thought in which his students will delight4 ,if the truths and principles of science absorb his interest and engage the best thought of his conscious hours1 these will determine the moulding influence which he will unconsciously exert upon others4 ,if he delights in germ-ideas1 in seed-thoughts1 these will emanate from him whenever he is thrown into contact with inquiring minds4 ,much1 of course1 is due to native ability1 to inherited qualities4 ,the circle of minds which one teacher can reach is further limited by the breadth or narrowness of his views1 by the points which he has in common with others1 by the amount of sympathetic interest which he manifests in their progress and welfare1 by the sum total of the characteristics of generic humanity which he has taken up into himself4 ,in other words1 his stimulating power depends upon the extent to which his inner life is representative of the best thought and the best traits of the age in which he lives and of the people to whom he belongs4 ,sidenote3 ,exhaustive treatment4 ,sidenote3 ,hope4 ,a teacher may destroy his power to awaken and stimulate thought by developing every subject in all its bearings to its logical or final conclusion4 ,he should send his classes away from the daily lecture or recitation to the library or the laboratory1 to the study1 the shop1 or the field1 with the sense of something to be achieved1 with the feeling that there are fields of research for them to explore1 fields that will amply repay careful study1 investigation1 and reflection4 ,there is nothing that tires a boy so soon as the feeling that there is nothing for him to do1 nothing that he can master1 achieve1 or conquer on his own account4 ,the normal child is so constituted that it loves activity1 looks into the future1 and regards itself as an important factor in the world's life4 ,the advance from childhood to youth is marked by a transition into the period that is brimful of hope and ambition4 ,the pampered son of a rich man may feel no longing of this sort2 his opportunities for early travel and premature indulgence in every whim may have brought him to the point where the whole world seems like a sucked orange for which one has no further use4 ,unless the rich father and mother possess an extraordinary amount of good sense1 their children do not have an even chance with the children of the middle classes whose outlook upon life supplies abundant motives for study and exertion4 ,sidenote3 ,the field of vision4 ,if a boy has not made a mistake in selecting his parents1 if the atmosphere of the home in which his first six years are spent is normal1 he comes to school with a sense of something to be achieved4 ,should this feeling be lacking1 the true teacher will aim to beget it by the instruction he gives and by appeals to the innate desire for knowledge4 ,as the intelligence dawns1 the interrogation points on the boy's face multiply2 his appetite for knowledge grows by what it feeds on4 ,if the branches of study do not become more interesting than any occupation by which the boy can earn coppers1 there is something wrong either with the boy or his teacher1 or with both4 ,in the ascent of the hill of science every step upward widens the horizon1 increases the field of vision1 and stimulates to new effort4 ,every field explored beckons to new fields of investigation4 ,it is the prerogative of the teacher to point out what is in store for the aspiring youth4 ,take1 for instance1 the domain of pure mathematics4 ,a pupil had learned in his geometry that parallel lines never meet4 ,the teacher told him that his geometrical studies would after a while acquaint him with lines that are not parallel and yet never meet4 ,no sooner had he met lines of this kind1 situated in different planes1 than his teacher told him of lines that continually approach but never meet4 ,the appeal to his curiosity helped to stimulate the desire for knowledge and kept him thinking earnestly and seriously until he met the asymptote and its curve4 ,the study of asymptotes soon grew more interesting than chess or any sports upon the athletic field4 ,sidenote3 ,master minds4 ,the aim of the teacher should be to make himself useless4 ,in other words1 the school should aim to lift the pupil to the plane of an independent thinker1 capable of giving conscious direction to his intellectual life and of concentrating all his powers upon anything that is to be mastered4 ,it is to be reckoned a piece of good fortune for a bright and talented youth to fall under the dominating influence of a master mind4 ,in endeavoring to walk in the footsteps of an intellectual giant1 to comprehend his theories and speculations1 and to carry the burden of his thoughts1 unexpected strength and power are developed1 and when the day of emancipation comes--as it always does come in the case of gifted youth--the learner will find that he has entered a higher sphere of intellectual activity1 and will henceforth rank among the world's productive thinkers4 ,sidenote3 ,false stimulants4 ,sidenote3 ,mental lethargy4 ,as was said at the beginning of the chapter1 the competition of men in mature life is usually sufficient to stimulate their thinking4 ,the men whose duties make a constant drain upon their productivity need other forms of thought-stimulation4 ,reference is not here made to the narcotics1 alcoholic stimulants1 and other drugs which brain-workers use in periods of reaction and fatigue3 these stimulate only for a short time1 and leave the nervous system and the brain weaker than before2 they shorten life by burning the candle at both ends2 they cannot supply the need of sleep1 rest1 and recreation4 ,to take rational exercise1 to eat proper food1 and to obey all the laws of health is the sacred duty of every person who teaches by word of mouth or pen4 ,every effort should be made to keep vitality at its maximum4 ,often the mind resembles the soil which yields a richer harvest if permitted to lie fallow for a time4 ,if at the close of a period of rest or a summer vacation the mind refuses to work1 what shall then be done to stimulate mental activity8 ,different men derive stimulus from different sources4 ,one finds help from taking a pen in hand1 another by facing a sea of upturned faces4 ,a clergyman of considerable repute uses an ,indian story to start his mental machinery4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher declared that the greatest kindness which could be shown him was to oppose his public utterances4 ,opposition roused all his powers and helped him to think vigorously and to the best advantage4 ,schiller is said to have kept rotten apples in his desk1 because he believed that the odor stimulated his mind4 ,some men find help in solitude1 from the singing of birds1 from the sound of rustling leaves and falling waters1 from the noise of ocean waves1 or from the glimpse of distant waters or far-off mountains4 ,an eminent theologian is stimulated by the playing of a piano in the next room4 ,the stimulus from books is reserved for discussion in a separate chapter on the ,right ,use of ,books4 ,sidenote3 ,hinderances4 ,as there are helps1 so there are hinderances to good thinking4 ,petty cares1 executive duties1 noises in the same room1 or in the next room1 or upon the street1 are well-known examples4 ,their name is legion1 and their cost is enormous if they come from manufacturing establishments near the school4 ,a word about the extra-mural music which emanates from vile machinery on the streets is not out of place in this connection4 ,an ,english writer asserts that the organ-grinders of ,london have done more in the last twenty years to detract from the quality and quantity of the higher mental work of the nation than any two or three colleges at ,oxford have effected to increase it4 ,a mathematician estimates the cost of the increased mental labor these street-musicians have imposed upon him and his clerks at several thousand pounds' worth of first-class work1 for which the government actually paid in added length of the time needed for his calculations4 ,sidenote3 ,our fellow-men4 ,in matters of this kind every man must be a law unto himself4 ,since no two human beings are exactly alike1 but each is a new creation fresh from the hands of the ,creator1 it follows that each person must study his own peculiarities1 form his own habits of work1 and acquire the power to think in the midst of the circumstances in which he is placed4 ,by resolute effort the mind can ignore many a hinderance and distraction4 ,the best stimulus from without comes from our fellow-men4 8,our minds need the stimulus of other minds1 as our lungs need oxygen to perform their functions40 ,at school the stimulus comes from classmates1 from those in the higher and lower classes1 but above all else1 from the best books and the best teachers4 ,in the life beyond the school the stimulus comes from the daily contact and competition with others1 from conversation and discussions with those who think1 from communion with the best books1 with nature1 and with nature's ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,sources of stimulus4 ,after the powers of the mind have been awakened and disciplined1 stimulus and inspiration may come from ten thousand sources4 ,silence and solitude1 city and country1 business and pleasure1 observation and travel1 observatories and laboratories1 libraries and museums1 nature and art1 poetry and prose1 fiction and history1 may each in turn serve as a spur to creative1 inventive1 and productive thinking1 as an incentive to original research1 fruitful investigation1 and profitable reasoning4 ,among all the sources of stimulation1 the good teacher and the good book take superlative rank4 ,,ix ,,the ,,right ,,use ,,of ,,books ,even the very greatest of authors are indebted to miscellaneous reading1 often in several different languages1 for the suggestion of their most original works1 and for the light which has kindled many a shining thought of their own4 ,,hamerton4 ,he reads a book most wisely who thinks everything into a book that it is capable of holding1 and it is the stamp and token of a great book so to incorporate itself with our own being1 so to quicken our insight and stimulate our thought1 as to make us feel as if we helped to create it while we read4 ,whatever we can find in a book that aids us in the conduct of life1 or to a truer interpretation of it1 or to a franker reconcilement with it1 we may with a good conscience believe is not there by accident1 but that the author meant we should find it there4 ,,lowell4 ,much as a man gains from actual conflict with living minds1 he may gain much even of the same kind of knowledge1 though different in detail1 from the accumulated thinking of the past4 ,no living generation can outweigh all the past4 ,if books without experience in real life cannot develop a man all round1 neither can life without books do it4 ,there is a certain dignity of culture which lives only in the atmosphere of libraries4 ,there is a breadth and a genuineness of self-knowledge which one gets from the silent friendship of great authors without which the best work that is in a man cannot come out of him in large professional successes4 ,,phelps4 ,the great secret of reading consists in this1--that it does not matter so much what we read or how we read it as what we think and how we think it4 ,reading is only the fuel2 and1 the mind once on fire1 any and all material will feed the flame1 provided only it have any combustible matter in it4 ,and we cannot tell from what quarter the next material will come4 ,the thought we need1 the facts we are in search of1 may make their appearance in the corner of the newspaper1 or in some forgotten volume long ago consigned to dust and oblivion4 ,hawthorne in the parlor of a country inn on a rainy day could find mental nutriment in an old directory4 ,that accomplished philologist1 the late ,lord ,strangford1 could find ample amusement for an hour's delay at a railway station in tracing out the etymology of the names in ,bradshaw4 ,the mind that is not awake and alive will find a library a barren wilderness4 ,,charles ,f4 ,,richardson4 ,,ix ,,the ,,right ,,use ,,of ,,books ,sidenote3 ,a novel4 ,a clergyman who found the reaction from his pulpit efforts so great that often he could not bring himself to think vigorously and consecutively before the middle of the following week was advised by his physician to try the effect of an ,indian tale or an exciting story1 and found that a good novel works like a charm in bringing the mind back to normal action4 ,after the interest in the story or novel begins to grow there is danger of reading too long1 of reading until another spell of fatigue and reaction comes4 ,the book should be laid aside as soon as the first glow of mental action is felt4 ,sidenote3 ,books4 ,most thinkers need the stimulating influence of other minds4 ,these can be found at their best upon the shelves of a well-selected library4 ,they are ready to help us whenever we feel ready to give them our attention4 ,men put the best part of themselves into their books4 ,the process of writing for print intensifies mental activity1 spurs the intellect to the keenest1 most vigorous effort1 and arouses the highest energy of thought and feeling4 ,authors that exert a quickening influence upon our thinking should be kept for use whenever we need a stimulus to rouse the mind from its lethargy4 ,leibnitz got his best ideas while reading books4 ,he had acquired the habits of a librarian to whom favorite volumes are always accessible4 ,sidenote3 ,as stimulus4 ,a scientist of repute says he gets the necessary stimulus from ,jevons's treatise on the inductive sciences4 ,professor ,phelps has collected an instructive list of authors whose writings have been helpful to other authors of note4 ,he says1-- ,sidenote3 ,examples4 8,voltaire used to read ,massillon as a stimulus to production4 ,bossuet read ,homer for the same purpose4 ,gray read ,spenser's #8,faerie ,queene' as the preliminary to the use of his pen4 ,the favorites of ,milton were ,homer and ,euripides4 ,fnelon resorted to the ancient classics promiscuously4 ,pope read ,dryden as his habitual aid to composing4 ,corneille read ,tacitus and ,livy4 ,clarendon did the same4 ,sir ,william ,jones1 on his passage to ,india1 planned five different volumes1 and assigned to each the author he resolved to read as a guide and awakener to his own mind for its work4 ,buffon made the same use of the works of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,with great variety of tastes successful authors have generally agreed in availing themselves of this natural and facile method of educating their minds to the work of original creation40#ae ,sidenote3 ,great thinkers4 ,the most valuable function of standard authors lies in their quickening influence upon the intellectual life4 ,the effort to appropriate their ideas and to master their thoughts is the best possible exercise for the understanding4 ,in thinking their thoughts1 weighing their arguments1 and following their train of reasoning the mind gains vigor1 strength1 and the capacity for sustained effort4 ,the invigorating atmosphere which a great thinker creates has a most remarkable tonic effect upon all who dwell in it4 ,by unconscious absorption they acquire his spirit of inquiry1 his methods of research1 his habits of investigation1 his way of attacking and mastering difficulties4 ,while trying to walk in his footsteps they learn to take giant strides4 ,his idioms1 his choice of words1 his favorite phrases and expressions are at their service when they enter new fields of truth4 ,both in power and aspiration they become like him through the mysterious process of mind acting upon mind1 of heart evoking heart1 and of will transfusing itself into will4 ,a great thinker gets his place in the galaxy of shining intellects through the truths which he communicates2 and as truth is the best food for the soul1 so the quest of truth is the best exercise for all its faculties4 ,sidenote3 ,the literature of knowledge and the literature of power4 ,de ,quincey1 in his essay on ,alexander ,pope1 draws an important and oft-quoted distinction between the literature of knowledge and the literature of power4 ,he says the function of the one is to teach1 of the other to move4 ,the former he likens to a rudder1 the latter to an oar or a sail4 ,to illustrate the difference he asks1 8,what do you learn from #8,paradise ,lost'8 ,nothing at all4 ,what do you learn from a cookery-book8 ,something new1 something that you did not know before1 in every paragraph4 ,but would you1 therefore1 put the wretched cookery-book on a higher level of estimation than the divine poem8 ,what you owe to ,milton is not any knowledge1 of which a million separate items are still but a million of advancing steps on the same earthly level2 what you owe is power1--that is1 exercise and expansion to your own latent capacity of sympathy with the infinite1 where every pulse and each separate influx is a step upward1 a step ascending1 as upon ,jacob's ladder1 from earth to mysterious altitudes above the earth4 ,all the steps of knowledge1 from first to last1 carry you farther on the same plane1 but could never raise you one foot above your ancient level of earth2 whereas1 the very first step in power is a flight1 is an ascending into another element where earth is forgotten40 ,sidenote3 ,lowell4 ,the value of the literature of power as a means of imparting power to every soul that lives under its influence is easily seen and generally acknowledged4 ,but the literature of knowledge serves the double purpose of furnishing us material for thought and of acting as a stimulus to thought4 ,on this point we have the testimony of the wisest who have ventured to give advice upon the use of books4 ,lowell says1 8,it is certainly true that the material of thought reacts upon the thought itself4 ,shakespeare himself would have been commonplace had he been padlocked in a thinly shaven vocabulary1 and ,phidias1 had he worked in wax1 only a more inspired ,mrs4 ,jarley40 ,the advice which ,lowell gives concerning a course of reading and the ends of scholarship to be kept in mind by those who read with a purpose is too valuable to be omitted in this connection3 ,sidenote3 ,his advice4 8,one is sometimes asked by young people to recommend a course of reading4 ,my advice would be that they should confine themselves to the supreme books in whatever literature1 or1 still better1 to choose some one great author and make themselves thoroughly familiar with him4 ,for1 as all roads lead to ,rome1 so do they likewise lead away from it1 and you will find that in order to understand perfectly and to weigh exactly any vital piece of literature you will be gradually and pleasantly persuaded to excursions and explorations of which you little dreamed when you began1 and will find yourselves scholars before you are aware4 ,for1 remember1 there is nothing less profitable than scholarship for the mere sake of scholarship1 nor anything more wearisome in the attainment4 ,but the moment you have a definite aim1 attention is quickened1 the mother of memory1 and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an order that is lucid1 because everywhere and always it is in intelligent relation to a central object of constant and growing interest4 ,this method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking1 which is1 after all1 the highest result of all education4 ,for what we want is not learning1 but knowledge2 that is1 the power to make learning answer its true end as a quickener of intelligence and a widener of our intellectual sympathies4 ,i do not mean to say that every one is fitted by nature or inclination for a definite course of study1 or1 indeed1 for serious study in any sense4 ,i am quite willing that these should #8browse in a library1' as ,dr4 ,johnson called it1 to their heart's content4 ,it is perhaps the only way in which time may be profitably wasted4 ,but desultory reading will not make a #8full man1' as ,bacon understood it1 of one who has not ,johnson's memory1 his power of assimilation1 and1 above all1 his comprehensive view of the relations of things4 #8,read not1' says ,lord ,bacon1 in his #8,essay of ,studies1' #8to contradict and confute2 not to believe and take for granted2 nor to find talk and discourse2 but to weigh and consider4 ,some books are to be tasted1 others to be swallowed1 and some few to be chewed and digested2 that is1 some books are to be read only in parts2 others to be read1 but not curiously 7carefully71 and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention4 ,some books1 also1 may be read by deputy4' 8,this is weighty and well said1 and ,i would call your attention especially to the wise words with which the passage closes4 ,the best books are not always those which lend themselves to discussions and comment1 but those 7like ,montaigne's #8,essays'7 which discuss and comment ourselves40#af ,professor ,phelps1 in his lectures to divinity students1 gives golden advice to the class of professional men whose life-work compels them to draw upon their productive intellect more than any other class of professional men4 ,sidenote3 ,phelps4 8,there is an influence exerted by books upon the mind which resembles that of diet upon the body4 ,a studious mind becomes1 by a law of its being1 like the object which it studies with enthusiasm4 ,if your favorite authors are superficial1 gaudy1 short-lived1 you become yourself such in your culture and your influence4 ,if your favorite authors are of the grand1 profound1 enduring order1 you become yourself such to the extent of your innate capacity for such growth4 ,their thoughts become yours not by transfer1 but by transfusion4 ,their methods of combining thoughts become yours2 so that on different subjects from theirs you will compose as they would have done if they had handled those subjects4 ,their choice of words1 their idioms1 their constructions1 their illustrative materials become yours2 so that their style and yours will belong to the same class in expression1 and yet your style will never be merely imitative of theirs4 8,it is the prerogative of great authors thus to throw back a charm over subsequent generations which is often more plastic than the influence of a parent over a child4 ,do we not feel the fascination of it from certain favorite characters in history8 ,are there not already certain solar minds in the firmament of your scholarly life whose rays you feel shooting down into the depths of your being1 and quickening there a vitality which you feel in every original product of your own mind8 ,such minds are teaching you the true ends of an intellectual life4 ,they are unsealing the springs of intellectual activity4 ,they are attracting your intellectual aspirations4 ,they are like voices calling to you from the sky4 8,respecting this process of assimilation1 it deserves to be remarked that it is essential to any broad range of originality4 ,never1 if it is genuine1 does it create copyists or mannerists4 ,imitation is the work of undeveloped mind4 ,childish mind imitates4 ,mind unawakened to the consciousness of its own powers copies4 ,stagnant mind falls into mannerism4 ,on the contrary1 a mind enkindled into aspiration by high ideals is never content with imitated excellence4 ,any mind thus awakened must1 above all things else1 be itself4 ,it must act itself out1 think its own thoughts1 speak its own vernacular1 grow to its own completeness4 ,you can no more become servile under such a discipline than you can unconsciously copy another man's gait in your walk or mask your own countenance with his40#ag 8,give to yourself a hearty1 affectionate acquaintance with a group of the ablest minds in ,christian literature1 and if there is anything in you kindred to such minds1 they will bring it up to the surface of your own consciousness4 ,you will have a cheering sense of discovery4 ,quarries of thought original to you will be opened4 ,suddenly1 it may be in some choice hour of research1 veins will glisten with a lustre richer than that of silver4 ,you will feel a new strength for your life's work1 because you will be sensible of new resources40#ah ,sidenote3 ,two ways of reading4 ,there are two ways of reading books1--one a help to thinking1 the other destructive of ability to think4 ,if the reader allows the ideas of a book to pass through his mind as a landscape passes before the eye of a traveller1 ever seeking the excitement of something new and never stopping to reflect upon the contents of the book so as to weigh its arguments1 to notice its beauties1 and to appropriate its truths1 the book will leave him less able to think than before4 ,passive reading is permissible when the aim is merely recreation1 but he who would read to gain mental strength must read actively1 read books that he can understand only as the result of effort4 ,president ,porter gives this advice3 ,sidenote3 ,president ,porter4 8,the person1 particularly the student1 who has never wrestled manfully and perseveringly with a difficult book will be good for little in this world of wrestling and strife4 ,but when you are convinced that a book is above your attainments1 capacity1 or age1 it is of little use for you1 and it is wiser to let it alone4 ,it is both vexing and unprofitable to stand upon one's toes and strain one's self for hours in efforts to reach the fruit which you are not tall enough to gather4 ,it is better to leave it till it can be reached more easily4 ,when the grapes are both ripe and within easy reach for you1 it is safe to conclude that they are not sour40#ai ,sidenote3 ,reading as a source of material4 ,there are many phases of the library problem which do not call for consideration in this connection1 but in addition to their value as a stimulus to thinking1 the function of books in furnishing proper material for thought and suitable instruments of thought deserves special consideration on the part of those charged with the duty of teaching others to think4 ,there was a time when libraries were managed as if it were the mission of the librarian to keep the books from being used4 ,the modern librarian seeks to make the accumulated wisdom of the past accessible to all4 ,he regards the library as a storehouse of knowledge1 from which any one able to read can get what he needs4 ,cyclopdias and dictionaries of reference1 card catalogues1 and helps like ,poole's 8,index to ,periodical ,literature0 make the best thought of the best minds in these and other days accessible to the student4 ,he who wishes to gain a hearing on any theme must know what others have said upon it4 ,disraeli has well said that those who do not read largely will not themselves deserve to be read4 ,the prize debates between different colleges are teaching students how to utilize books in getting material for public discussions4 ,theses for graduation develop the ability to use books in the right way4 ,and yet1 valuable as books are for furnishing fuel to the mind1 they may be used to destroy what little ability to think a pupil has otherwise developed4 ,to assign topics for composition which require a culling of facts from books1 and to allow the essays to be written outside of school hours1 expose the pupil to unnecessary temptations4 ,in the public schools there should be set apart each week several periods of suitable length1 during which the pupil1 under the eye of the teacher1 writes out his thoughts4 ,in such exercises the attention should not be riveted upon capitals1 spelling1 punctuation1 grammatical construction1 and rhetorical devices2 the mind should be occupied solely and intensely with the expression of the thought4 ,mistakes should be corrected when the pupil reviews and rewrites his composition4 ,books can be used to furnish material for thought2 the elaboration can be helped by oral discussions2 the interest thereby aroused will make each member of the class anxious to express his thoughts2 hesitation in composing and distraction from dread of mistakes can be overcome by making the class write against time4 ,sidenote3 ,enriching one's vocabulary4 ,books are helpful in enriching one's vocabulary4 ,treatises on rhetoric teach what words should be avoided4 ,the student finds more difficulty in getting enough words to express his thoughts4 ,the study of a good series of readers is more valuable as a means of acquiring a good vocabulary than all the rules on purity1 propriety1 and so forth1 which are found in the text-books on rhetoric4 ,a good series of school readers employs from five to six thousand words4 ,with these the average teacher is familiar to the extent of knowing their meaning when he sees them in sentences4 ,he does not have a sufficient command of a third of them to use them in writing or speaking4 ,the selections of a ,fifth ,reader contain more words than are found in the vocabulary of any living author4 ,the step from knowing a word when used by another to the ability to use that word in expressing our own thoughts has not been taken in the case of the larger proportion of the words with which we are familiar on the printed page4 ,most persons use more words in writing than in oral speech1 more words in public speaking than in ordinary conversation4 ,we unconsciously absorb many words which we hear others use1 but we pick up a far larger number from those we see in print simply because the printed page contains a larger variety of words than spoken language4 ,in this respect there is a vast difference between the oral discourse and the written manuscript of the same person4 ,the style is different2 the sentences in oral discourse are less involved2 the diction is less complicated2 the vocabulary is less copious4 ,hence the advantage of the boy who has access to standard authors over the youth who has access to few books1 and these not well selected4 ,without any effort1 the former gains possession of a vocabulary which makes thinking easier and richer4 ,sidenote3 ,school readers4 ,the lack of a library of standard authors can be supplied1 to some extent1 by a judicious use of the school readers4 ,if the mastery of the words and the getting of the thought precede the oral reading of the lesson1 and if the vocal utterance is followed by oral and written reproduction of the thought1 correct habits of study will be formed1 and the working vocabulary of teacher and pupil will be vastly increased4 ,the habit of eying every stranger on the printed page will be fixed1 and the appropriation of new words will rise above the subconscious stage4 ,only one other exercise is comparable1--namely1 the comparison of words in a lexicon for the purpose of selecting the right one in making a translation from some ancient or modern language4 ,such translations1 if honestly made1 enrich the vocabulary and furnish exercise in the study of the finer shades of meaning which words have1 as well as in the use of the words for the purpose of expressing thought4 ,sidenote3 ,franklin's plan4 ,sidenote3 ,correcting papers4 ,most persons1 when they face an audience or feel at all embarrassed1 think in phrases1 in broken sentences4 ,hence exercises designed to cultivate the habit of thinking in sentences are very valuable4 ,franklin's plan of rewriting the thought of a book like 8,the ,spectator10 and then comparing his own sentences with those of a master-mind1 can be followed with great advantage1 because it lifts the burden of correction from the teacher's shoulders and throws it upon the pupil1 giving the latter the full benefit of the exercise4 ,moreover1 it cultivates in the pupil the habit of watching how thought is expressed by standard authors4 ,the teacher's interest in the thought side of language often makes him forget that the correct use of capitals1 punctuation marks1 sentences1 and paragraphs is a matter of thinking quite as much as invention and the arrangement of materials4 ,these externals of the process of composing must at some time be made the object of chief regard4 ,the reason so many pupils do not learn their use is found in the fact that teachers hate the drudgery of correcting papers1 and they expect the pupils to acquire this knowledge incidentally4 ,the right use of books obviates the necessity for much of this drudgery1 and secures the desired end with a minimum expenditure of time and effort4 ,skill in the use of capitals and punctuation marks is best acquired when the attention is not absorbed by the elaboration of ideas or by the labor of composing4 ,the externals involved in putting sentences upon paper can claim the chief attention in the dictation of standard selections from a school reader4 ,this exercise enables the pupil to make his own corrections1 and is worth a dozen in which the teacher makes the corrections1 only to be cast aside after a momentary glance by the pupil4 ,the exercise may be varied by copying a selection from a standard author upon the black-board1 covering it with a screen or shade 7on rollers7 during the dictation1 and exposing it to view only while the corrections are made4 ,if each one of the punctuation marks is made an object of special attention in a particular grade1 there are enough grades to cover them all before the pupil reaches the high school4 ,sidenote3 ,dictation4 ,a superintendent revolutionized the language-work of an entire county by dictating to the applicants at the annual examination for provisional certificates a selection from a ,first ,reader for the purpose of testing their knowledge of capitals and punctuation and the other details of written speech4 ,every one saw the value of the test1 and it led to a study of the school reader from a new point of view4 ,sidenote3 ,books for all4 ,sidenote3 ,right use of books4 ,it is not easy to overestimate the value of books1 not merely for those who aspire to become thinkers1 but even for all classes of men in civilized life4 ,books treasure the wisdom of the ages and transmit it to future generations4 ,they kindle thought1 enliven the emotions1 and lift the soul into the domain of the true1 the beautiful1 and the good4 ,they furnish recreation and instruction1 comfort and consolation1 stimulation and inspiration4 ,they confirm or correct the opinions already formed1 and give tone to the entire intellectual life4 ,they enlarge the vocabulary1 exemplify the best methods of embodying thought in language1 and show how master-minds throw their materials into connected discourse1 how they organize facts1 truths1 inferences1 and theories into systems of science or speculation4 ,one can subscribe to all that is said in favor of object-teaching and laboratory methods1 and still be consistent in maintaining that it should be one of the chief aims of the school to teach the right use of books1 that the college and university fail in their mission if they neglect to put the student into the way of using a library to the best advantage4 ,if the policy of many schools were adopted in other fields of human activity1 the folly would be too glaring to escape notice4 ,suppose1 by months of effort1 a botanist could create in his son a liking for the plants of the nightshade family1 some of which1 like the potato and the tomato1 are good for food and others are poisonous4 ,having created the appetite1 the father makes no effort to gratify it4 ,the son1 failing to distinguish between the good and the bad1 the esculent and the poisonous1 and finding the latter within easy reach1 begins to gratify his appetite by eating without discrimination4 ,the deadly effects are more easily imagined than described4 ,sidenote3 ,good literature4 ,a parallel folly has been committed in hundreds of communities which have taxed themselves to banish illiteracy and to make ignorance impossible among the young people4 ,reading is carefully taught2 the ability to read is followed by an appetite for reading2 a strong desire for the mental food derived from the printed page is created4 ,yet nothing is done to supply the right kind of books for the purpose of gratifying this appetite4 ,the average youth is allowed to get what he can from the book-stalls1 which contain much that is as deleterious to the soul as some plants of the nightshade family are to the body4 ,it is as much a duty to supply proper literature as it is to impart the ability to read4 ,when1 in the twentieth century1 some historian shall give an account of the educational development of ,pennsylvania1 he will record it as a fact passing strange and well-nigh incapable of explanation that for more than three decades there stood upon the statute-books of a great commonwealth a law preventing boards of directors from appropriating any school funds to the purchase of books for a school library except such works of a strictly professional character as were necessary for the improvement of the teachers4 ,within the last decade a new era has dawned in library legislation and in the purchase of books4 ,directors are now empowered to levy a tax for library purposes1 and free libraries are springing into existence not only in the large centres of population1 but even in the rural schools4 ,the movement has come not a whit too soon2 for habits of reading are sadly needed to supplement life in the factory and on the farm4 ,to make from day to day nothing except the head of a pin1 or the sixtieth part of a shoe1 may develop marvellous skill and speed in workmanship1 but such division of labor leaves little room for intellectual activity or for anything above the merest mechanical routine4 ,sidenote3 ,the factory4 ,it should not occasion surprise that operatives in factories seek the mental excitement which human nature always craves after hours of monotony4 ,far better that they should find recreation in a good book than in a game of cards1 in a free library than in a drinking-saloon4 ,that the workman may taste the joys of the higher life of thought1 it is essential that he have access to the best literature in prose and poetry1 to books of travel1 biography1 history1 science1 and sociology4 ,if he lack these1 his mind will lose itself in local gossip1 in discontent over his lot1 in envy of those who have more to eat and drink1 better clothes to wear1 and better houses to live in4 ,of the pleasures of the higher life he can have as many as1 if not more than1 others have2 for at the close of the day his mind is not exhausted by professional thinking1 and he can enjoy a good book far more than the men whose daily occupation obliges them to seek recreation in physical exercise4 ,sidenote3 ,the farm4 ,sidenote3 ,twentieth century4 ,the same remarks apply to life on the farm4 ,the incessant drudgery of monotonous toil day after day from early dawn till late at night has sent farmers and their wives to untimely graves1 sometimes to the insane asylum4 ,they need the intellectual stimulus which comes from good books1 the health-giving recreation which comes with the change from the fatiguing toil of the day to the perusal of good literature in the evening4 ,under the more rational policy of providing a supply of good books along with the creation of a taste for reading1 the working people of the next generation will be as well read1 as well informed1 and as capable of sustained thought as those who think money all day1 or spend their strength in vocations which act upon the mind very much as a grindstone acts upon a knife1--narrowing the blade while sharpening the edge4 ,let it be hoped that early in the twentieth century the laboring classes will have shorter hours of work1 more leisure for reading1 and an appreciation of good books equal to that of ,charles ,lamb1 who asserted that there was more reason for saying grace before a new book than before a dinner4 ,under the beneficent influence of free text-books and free libraries it should be possible to create in the rising generation a spirit like that of ,macaulay1 who declared that if any one should offer to make him the greatest king that ever lived1 with palaces and gardens1 and fine dinners and wines1 and coaches and beautiful clothes1 and hundreds of servants1 on condition that he should not read books1 he would decline the offer1 preferring to be a poor man in a garret with plenty of books rather than a king who did not love reading4 ,x ,,observation ,,and ,,thinking ,the degree of vision that dwells in a man is the correct measure of a man4 ,,thomas ,,carlyle4 ,when general observations are drawn from so many particulars as to become certain and indubitable1 these are the jewels of knowledge4 ,,dr4 ,i4 ,,watts4 ,to behold is not necessarily to observe1 and the power of comparing and combining is only to be obtained by education4 ,it is much to be regretted that habits of exact observation are not cultivated in our schools2 to this deficiency may be traced much of the fallacious reasoning1 the false philosophy which prevails4 ,,humboldt4 ,you should not only have attention to everything1 but quickness of attention1 so as to observe at once all the people in the room1 their motions1 their looks1 and their words1 yet without staring at them or seeming to be an observer4 ,this quick and unobserved observation is of infinite advantage in life1 and is to be acquired with care2 and1 on the contrary1 what is called absence1 which is a thoughtlessness and want of attention about what is doing1 makes a man so like either a fool or a madman1 that1 for my part1 ,i see no real difference4 ,a fool never has thought1 a madman has lost it1 and an absent man is for the time without it4 ,,lord ,,chesterfield4 ,x ,,observation ,,and ,,thinking ,sidenote3 ,inventors4 ,very few thinkers have let us into the secret of their thinking4 ,probably most of them could not if they would4 ,they are too much absorbed in that which engrosses their attention to pay any heed to the processes of the inner life4 ,occasionally an inventor or discoverer gives us a glimpse of the state of his mind when the new idea flashed into consciousness4 ,such glimpse always reveals his indebtedness to habits of careful observation4 ,his thinking was stimulated by some felt want or puzzling phenomenon1 and perhaps by contact with others engaged in similar lines of study4 ,oftentimes a number of persons are thinking of ways1 means1 and contrivances by which a widely felt want may be supplied or a perplexing fact explained4 ,after prolonged effort and meditation1 during which the mind is concentrated upon one thing to the neglect of everything else having no bearing upon the problem in hand1 the happy thought is suggested by the observation of some neglected fact or the perception of some unsuspected relation4 ,probably half the inventions are made in that way4 ,what seems accidental or a piece of good luck is in reality the result of long musing and reflection1 during which many comparisons are made1 until at length the right combination gives the desired result4 ,wants keenly felt by mankind in general or by some gifted individual in particular serve as a powerful stimulus to thought1 and quicken the eye and the ear to perceive what was before unnoticed1 thereby laying the foundation for invention1 discovery1 or progress in new fields of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,writers4 ,great writers are equally indebted to their powers of observation4 ,of the men of genius whom the world delights to honor1 probably no one watched his inner development more closely than ,goethe4 ,he gives us the following account of how his works were produced3 ,sidenote3 ,goethe4 8,to each one of my writings a thousand persons1 a thousand things have contributed4 ,the learned and the ignorant1 the wise and the foolish1 childhood and age have all a share therein4 ,they all1 without suspecting it1 have brought me the gifts of their faculties1 their thought and experience4 ,often they have sown1 and ,i have reaped4 ,my works are a combination of elements which have been taken from all nature and which bear the name--,goethe40 ,sidenote3 ,human nature4 ,human nature furnishes as much room for observation as all the rest of nature4 ,the hopes and fears1 the joys and sorrows1 the trials and struggles1 the thoughts and beliefs1 the aspirations and achievements1 the motives and deeds of the men and women whom we meet in our daily life and on the pages of history and fiction 7such as is true to life7 offer a field for observation as vast1 as interesting1 and as important as all the rocks and soils1 the bugs and beetles1 the insects1 birds1 beasts1 and fishes that dwell beneath or above or on the surface of the earth4 ,the larger proportion of the books taken from free libraries are works of fiction1--a fact which shows that the interest of most of those who read is centred upon the things of the human heart and in the observation of human life4 ,goethe's views of originality are these3 ,sidenote3 ,originality4 8,we are always talking about originality1 but what do we mean8 ,as soon as we are born the world begins to work upon us1 and this goes on to the end4 ,after all1 what can we call our own except our energy1 strength1 and will8 ,if ,i could give an account of all that ,i owe to great predecessors and contemporaries1 there would be little left of my own40 ,sidenote3 ,observation4 ,observation lies at the basis of the thinking which leads to invention in the arts1 to discovery in the domain of science1 to productivity in the fields of literature1 journalism1 and oratory4 ,it lies at the foundation of success in the professions and in the ordinary walks of life4 ,the medical school1 for instance1 seeks to develop the power of noting facts and making careful observations4 ,it encourages the student to put his observations on paper while the patient is before him1 to compare the diseased or injured part with the corresponding healthy part1 and to watch symptoms as a basis for a correct diagnosis of the case to be treated4 ,sidenote3 ,books4 ,sidenote3 ,daily life4 ,the use of the encyclopdia1 if pursued without any attempt to verify its statements1 may destroy the habits of observation which are so essential to correct thinking4 ,mere reliance on books cannot beget trustworthy habits of thought1 for books contain the errors1 as well as the wisdom1 of the ages4 ,errors of judgment may be corrected by thinking2 errors of fact must be corrected by observation4 ,many a book is made useless by new observations and discoveries4 8,send to the cellar as useless every book on surgery that is eight years old10 said the professor to the librarian of a great university4 ,the order is an indication of the rapid advances which science is making under the influence of observation1 experiment1 hypothesis1 and verification4 ,observation is needed not merely to extend our scientific knowledge1 but far more imperatively to acquaint us with our environment4 ,we cannot learn from books the multitudinous details of business1 or of our daily life4 ,books cannot make us acquainted with the circle of friends in which we move1 the pupils whom we teach1 the things in dress1 toilet1 and behavior upon which our standing and reputation very largely depend4 ,no thinker has a right to neglect these4 ,many a famous professor has diminished his usefulness by carelessness in the observation of such details4 ,the worst failures in the class-room are due to failure in observing either the difficulties or the conduct of the pupils4 ,if conduct is to be regulated1 it must be observed2 if difficulties are to be explained1 the teacher must perceive when and where they occur4 ,men noted for their absent-mindedness nevertheless owe much of their fame and success to their ability to make accurate observations in favorite lines of study4 ,notwithstanding the many ludicrous tales about ,newton's failure to see ordinary conditions and circumstances1 he showed himself indefatigable in watching the effect of a glass prism upon the ray of light admitted into a dark room4 ,the falling of an apple started in his mind a train of thought which led to the discovery of the law of gravitation4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment4 ,sidenote3 ,daguerre4 ,our best thinking is based upon experience1 and our two main sources of experience are observation and experiment4 ,how does experiment differ from simple observation8 ,in the latter we watch conditions1 phenomena1 and sequences as they follow one another in the ordinary course of nature4 ,in an experiment we change or control the course of nature by varying the conditions and causes for the sake of seeing the effects produced4 ,in experiment the relation of causes and effects is studied by adding or excluding one factor after another4 ,take the discovery which made ,daguerre famous4 ,up to his time men had tried in vain to fix the impression of the image formed in the camera obscura4 ,no alchemist ever went to work at a more unpromising task than the one ,daguerre set before himself4 8,as years rolled on1 the passion only took deeper hold upon him4 ,in spite of utter failures and discouragement of all kinds1 for years in loneliness and secrecy1 suspected of mental weakness even by his wife1 he kept on in the same line of experiment40 ,finally an accident gave him a clue to discovery4 ,the plates with which he experimented were stowed away in a rubbish closet4 ,one day he found1 to his surprise1 upon one of these plates the very image which had fallen upon it in the camera4 ,something in the closet must have produced the effect4 ,he removed one thing after another1 getting the same effect1 until nothing remained except some mercury which had been spilled upon the closet floor4 ,this was inferred to be the agent which developed the image1 and thus was laid the foundation of the modern art of photography4#bj ,sidenote3 ,accidental observations4 ,the observation of a fact often stimulates thought in new directions4 ,in fact1 new sciences have arisen from accidental observations4 8,erasmus ,bartholinus thus first discovered double refraction in ,iceland spar2 ,galvini noticed the twitching of a frog's leg2 ,oken was struck by the form of a vertebra2 ,malus accidentally examined light reflected from a distant window with a double refracting substance2 and ,sir ,john ,herschel's attention was drawn to the peculiar appearance of a solution of quinine sulphate4 ,in earlier times there must have been some one who first noticed the strange behavior of a loadstone1 or the unaccountable motions produced by amber4 ,as a general rule we shall not know in what direction to look for a great body of phenomena widely different from those familiar to us4 ,chance1 then1 must give us the starting-point2 but one accidental observation well used may lead us to make thousands of observations in an intentional and organized manner1 and thus a science may be gradually worked from the smallest opening40#ba ,sidenote3 ,factories4 ,in recent years experimental research has become a regular occupation in connection with large manufacturing establishments4 ,in some factories along the ,rhine upward of sixty men are employed in chemical experiments for the purpose of finding what use can be made of waste products4 ,in this way over two hundred useful products from petroleum have been discovered1 and a large increase in profits has been the result4 ,the great electrical works spend time and money upon experiments1 and jealously censor every article written by their employees for scientific journals lest their valuable secrets should be given away4 ,a company engaged in the manufacture of cash registers offers a yearly premium for the most helpful suggestion from the men and women in its employ4 ,in one year the firm received over eleven hundred suggestions1 of which at least eight hundred were utilized in improvements of various kinds4 ,sidenote3 ,universities4 ,sidenote3 ,where observation is needed4 ,sidenote3 ,the weather4 ,these instances are only samples of many that could be cited to show how systematic observation and experiment lend a helping hand to our national prosperity4 ,manufacturers carry them on for the sake of gain1 the universities for the sake of widening the field of knowledge4 ,to aid in such research large endowments have been established1 and many of the common people willingly pay tax in support of ,state universities4 ,treatises on inductive logic and on the physical sciences have been prepared by ,herschel1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,jevons1 and others for the purpose of showing the correct methods of research by the use of instruments of precision1 of standards of measurement1 and of other apparatus2 for the laws of thought must be obeyed in the interpretation of natural phenomena4 ,although as a matter of discipline the teacher in our public schools may well study these advanced treatises1 yet the habits of observation which the elementary school should aim to beget and to foster are simpler in detail1 more easily acquired1 and1 it may be added1 of inestimable value in the subsequent life of the pupils4 ,habits of observation are needed not only by authors1 inventors1 and scientists1 but also by all other people for the interpretation of the books they may read and for the discharge of the daily duties devolving upon them4 ,the engineer1 the fireman1 the conductor1 the tradesman1 the mechanic1 the detective1 the scout1 the warrior1 must be able to see things as they are or face partial failure4 ,too many of them have eyes and see not2 they have ears and hear not4 ,the study of nature is valuable as a preparation for life either in the country or in the city4 ,our rural population have not learned to see and appreciate the marvels in nature which are transpiring on every side4 ,the way in which the almanac is consulted for signs to guide in sowing and planting1 for prognostications of the weather1 show how little the average man can make observations4 ,the printers have found it necessary to retain these absolutely unreliable weather predictions in their almanacs2 the attempted omission has been an experiment involving the loss of thousands of dollars4 ,the success of the quack is largely due to limited observation4 ,one cure is made much of while multitudes of failures are always forgotten4 ,sidenote3 ,country and city4 ,our rural population would be far more contented if the boys and girls were taught at school how to observe and appreciate their surroundings4 ,they have many advantages over city folks which they never realize as sources of enjoyment4 ,the senses themselves1 which have been styled the gate-ways of knowledge1 may be improved by judicious exercise2 and the power of the mind to interpret sense-impressions may be developed to a marvellous degree4 ,the savages of our ,north ,american forests had developed keen eyes and ears2 the more civilized backwoodsmen were soon more than a match for the wily ,indian4 ,to-day1 when the latter watches the trained sharp-shooters hitting with unerring accuracy a mark more than half a mile distant1 he shakes his head and walks away in silence4 ,sidenote3 ,the child4 ,it has been asserted that a child gains more knowledge in the first seven years of its life than in all its subsequent days4 ,if the domain of abstract and scientific knowledge be excluded from the comparison1 this is probably true4 ,at any rate1 if the thinking which is based upon the knowledge of facts thus gained is to be correct1 the facts must be correctly observed4 ,sidenote3 ,observation a source of thought-material4 ,observation is thus of prime importance1 not merely as furnishing a stimulus to thought1 but also as supplying abundant materials of thought4 ,travel1 experience1 experiment1 as well as the ordinary course of natural phenomena1 furnish abundant opportunity for the formation of correct habits of observation4 ,the observations thus made should be recorded in the memory1 if not on manuscript4 ,from the storehouse of the memory1 thus filled with materials for thought1 the mind derives many of the best data for reaching conclusions4 ,observation1 experience1 and reading1 as sources of thought-material1 presuppose an accurate and retentive memory in those who think well and act well4 ,the relation of memory to thinking deserves treatment in a separate chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,nature-study4 ,there is a limit to the number of observations which the mind can carry and use4 ,nature-study may be overdone4 ,mere seeing is not thinking4 ,what the eye beholds must be sorted and assigned to its appropriate class2 otherwise the treasure-house of memory will soon resemble a wilderness of meaningless facts4 ,than this only one thing can be worse1--namely1 a wilderness of meaningless words4 ,sidenote3 ,reading and observation4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching a child to read4 ,sidenote3 ,first test4 ,sidenote3 ,second test4 ,reading is a species of observation4 ,an exercise in oral reading1 during which each pupil is called down as soon as he miscalls a word1 is often an astonishing revelation1 showing how few of the advanced pupils can accurately see and correctly name every word in a stanza or paragraph4 ,methods of teaching a beginner to read are correct in seeking to develop the ability to pronounce words without help from others4 ,faulty application of a method that is right in this respect may seriously retard1 and even destroy1 the power of thinking what is on the printed page4 ,what on earth is a first-year pupil to do with the many hundred words which he is sometimes taught to pronounce8 ,often words are arranged in sentences which come dangerously near the slang of the slums1 and which no child ever hears in a cultured home4 ,furthermore1 some sentences in primers and first readers are well-nigh void of meaning1 the aim being to teach the words for the sake of the combinations of letters which they contain4 ,the first test to apply to a method of teaching a beginner to read is the question1 ,how quickly does it teach that which must be known as a condition of pronouncing new words1--namely1 the shape and the sound or sounds of each of the letters of the alphabet8 ,as compared with the sound and the shape1 the name of the letter is of relatively little importance4 ,students of ,hebrew may read that language fluently without being able to repeat the ,hebrew alphabet1 the names of the letters being a mere matter of convenience in talking about them4 ,the second great test to be applied to the method of teaching a beginner to read is the question1 ,does it form the habit of getting thought from the printed page8 ,grown men have admitted that they passed through several readers before they discovered that there was a meaning or connected story in the words which they were pronouncing4 ,they saw and gave names to words very much as people see and give names to objects round about them without recognizing the significance of what is seen1 or thinking the thoughts which the ,author of the ,universe has spread out before them in the great book of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,third test4 ,the third test to be applied to the method of teaching reading is the question1 ,does it save the pupil from the unnatural tones of the school-room by training him to use his voice in the right way8 ,to this test reference will be made later4 ,sidenote3 ,observation should lead to thinking4 ,if observation is to have abiding value1 it must lead to thinking4 ,this is as true of the observation of words and sentences on the printed or written page as it is of the observation of earth and sky and sea1 of the starry heavens above and the moral law within 7which filled the soul of the philosopher ,kant with never-ceasing awe74 ,how the things obtained from books and from the world outside are appropriated in thought and made our own will appear more fully when we discuss the relation of memory to thinking4 ,,xi ,,the ,,memory ,,and ,,thinking ,overburden not thy memory to make so faithful a servant a slave4 ,remember ,atlas was weary4 ,have as much reason as a camel1 to rise when thou hast thy full load4 ,memory1 like a purse1 if it be overfull that it cannot shut1 all will drop out of it3 take heed of a gluttonous curiosity to feed on many things1 lest the greediness of the appetite of thy memory spoil the digestion thereof4 ,,thomas ,,fuller4 ,to impose on a child to get by heart a long scroll of phrases without any ideas is a practice fitter for a jackdaw than for anything that wears the shape of man4 ,,dr4 ,i4 ,,watts4 ,the habit of laying up in the memory what has not been digested by the understanding is at once the cause and the effect of mental weakness4 ,,sir ,w4 ,,hamilton4 ,there is no one department of educational work in which the difference between skilled and unskilled teaching is so manifest as in the view which is taken of the faculty of memory1 the mode of training it1 and the uses to which different teachers seek to put it4 ,,fitch4 ,,xi ,,the ,,memory ,,and ,,thinking ,sidenote3 ,memory and judgment4 ,many people freely admit that they have a poor memory4 ,their misstatements1 breaches of etiquette1 and failure to keep engagements they excuse by claiming a poor memory for dates1 names1 faces1 facts1 and the like4 ,accuse them of possessing poor judgment1 and they are very much offended4 ,they fail to see the close relation between a good memory and good judgment1 between an accurate memory and sound common sense1 which is but another name for good judgment in matters that all men have in common4 ,judgment affirms the agreement or disagreement between two objects of thought4 ,it involves comparison4 ,how can the comparison be accurate if the memory is not accurate in the ideas it recalls of the things to be compared8 ,sidenote3 ,comparison4 ,at one time it was a mooted question whether the mind can think of more than one thing at a time4 ,as a matter of doubt this question is no longer discussed4 ,for1 since all thinking involves comparison1 if two objects are to be compared1 they must be held before the mind at one and the same time4 ,a good memory is1 therefore1 a very important aid to reflection4 ,sidenote3 ,memorizing4 ,sidenote3 ,two forms of memory4 ,and yet ,thucydides and ,lord ,bolingbroke are said to have complained of a memory so retentive of details that it seriously interfered with their processes of thought4 ,it is commonly believed that much memory work interferes with the growth and development of a pupil's ability to think4 8,much memorizing deadens the power of thought10 says ,w4 ,t4 ,harris1 who is recognized at home and abroad as one of the profoundest thinkers that ,america has produced4 ,innumerable anecdotes are told of great thinkers to show their forgetfulness in the commonest details of every-day life4 ,these anecdotes are handed down from one generation of students to the next2 their mirth-provoking character gives them vitality2 they grow more ludicrous the oftener they are told2 they do harm because they lead pupils to undervalue the importance of a good memory to those who are ambitious to shine as thinkers4 ,often1 after it is too late1 the student finds how he has crippled his whole intellectual life by neglect and abuse of the memory4 ,a correct conception of the nature of memory and its function in every department of thought and research is of immense importance to those who teach1 as well as to those who have gone far enough in their studies to give conscious direction to their own intellectual life4 ,most writers on education have treated1 directly or indirectly1 of the use and abuse of the memory2 every examiner appeals to it more or less in the questions he puts2 and every teacher shows the nature and extent of his skill in the kind of demands he makes upon the retentive power of his pupils4 ,take1 for instance1 the lesson in geometry4 ,there are two ways of learning and giving the proof of a theorem3 the language of the text-book may be committed to memory1 and accepted in the class-room2 or the pupil may fix in his mind the line of argument and give in his own language the successive steps of the demonstration4 ,the former method is a sure sign of bad teaching and of defective habits of study4 ,whenever a skilful teacher finds his pupils giving the exact words of the text-book on geometry1 he changes the lettering of the figure1 and sometimes even the figure itself4 ,he is not satisfied until he feels sure that the pupil is thinking the thoughts of the geometry and recalling the ideas by the inner nexus which binds them into a line of argument4 ,he insists on it that the learner shall cultivate a memory for ideas rather than words4 ,sidenote3 ,verbal memory4 ,does it follow that the verbal memory is to be neglected and despised8 ,this is the feeling of the learner who has tasted the joys of thinking2 he hates the drudgery of learning by heart1 because he has reached the age when logical memory begins to assert itself at the expense of the verbal memory4 ,no less a psychologist than ,professor ,james of ,harvard has recently put in a plea for the verbal memory which1 by reason of the abuses to which it was formerly subjected1 has fallen into such disuse that pupils on reaching the high school are often unable to quote a single stanza of poetry4 ,in his 8,talks on ,psychology to ,teachers0 he says1-- 8,the older pedagogic method of learning things by rote1 and reciting them parrot-like in the school-room1 rested on the truth that a thing merely read or heard1 and never verbally reproduced1 contracts the weakest possible adhesion to the mind4 ,verbal recitation or reproduction is thus a highly important kind of reactive behavior on our impressions2 and it is to be feared1 in the reaction against the old parrot recitations as the beginning and end of instruction1 the extreme value of verbal recitation as an element of complete training may nowadays be too much forgotten40#bb ,sidenote3 ,association4 ,psychologists have shown that1 in remembering and recollecting1 the mind works according to certain laws of association4 ,of two words or ideas which have been before the mind at the same time1 or in immediate sequence1 the one naturally tends to suggest the other4 ,if the attention is directed to the words as they follow each other in a line of poetry1 the memory will recall these in the order in which they occur4 ,if the mind's eye is fixed on the ideas which the words express1 the memory may carry these by reason of the logical connection which exists between them4 ,often the connection between the two things which are to be remembered is purely arbitrary4 ,then the link which binds them together must be forged by some mechanical process like frequent oral repetition1 or by constant gazing at them upon the printed page1 or by writing them out so that the impression made upon the mind through the eye and the ear is further strengthened through the muscular sense4 ,the latter species of memory is usually called the mechanical memory1 in distinction from the memory for ideas1 which has been aptly styled the logical memory4 ,sidenote3 ,mechanical memory4 ,the verbal memory is but one form of the mechanical memory4 ,there is no necessary connection between persons and their names1 between events and dates1 between things and their symbols2 these must be learned by bringing them together before the mind until by the law of association1 called contiguity in time and place1 the link that binds them is forged2 or1 to change the figure1 until they occupy places side by side on the tablets of the mechanical memory4 ,it is sometimes supposed that there is a necessary connection between the two factors and their result in the multiplication table4 ,but the moment we construct an arithmetical scale based on the dozen instead of ten1 #g #h #dh instead of #ef 7the former combination of figures signifying four twelves and eight ones71 and the arbitrary character of the combinations in the ,arabic notation becomes apparent at a glance4 ,sometimes a peculiarity in a rule like that for the middle and the opposite parts in the right-angled spherical triangle may assist the memory2 but in most cases the formulas which are in constant use in the higher mathematics must be fixed by the methods of drill appropriate for the mechanical memory4 ,sidenote3 ,pestalozzi's mistake4 ,it is a mistake in teaching as well as in practical life to neglect the mechanical memory4 ,in many directions it takes care of itself through the conditions and requirements of a person's daily occupation4 ,the salesman in a large store1 the conductor on a railway1 the politician on the hustings remembers many things in this way1 and not because they are bound together by a logical nexus like that which binds together the thoughts of a geometrical proof4 ,many things which the pupil must carry from the school into practical life must be retained through drill and repetition4 ,pestalozzi imagined that if he taught pupils how to construct the multiplication table it would not be necessary for them to commit it to memory4 ,the ,swiss teachers long ago found out the insufficiency of his method2 found out that1 whilst it pays to let a pupil construct the table for himself1 because it increases his interest in the combinations1 and thus lightens the burden of the mechanical memory1 the drill must be kept up until the sight of two factors suggests their product with infallible accuracy4 ,valuable time can be saved if the teacher will make a list of things that must be fixed in the mechanical memory for the purpose of facilitating the thought-processes in more advanced stages of instruction and in the discharge of the duties of practical life4 ,the following are typical examples of what should be lodged in the mechanical memory3 #a4 ,a reasonable vocabulary of words in the mother tongue4 #b4 ,a working vocabulary of words in the foreign languages which the circumstances or occupation of a student will compel him to use4 #c4 ,the combinations of addition up to one hundred1 the multiplication table1 and the tables of weights and measures4 #d4 ,algebraic and other formulas which constantly recur in the higher mathematics4 #e4 ,the fundamental formulas in chemistry1 physics1 and other sciences4 #f4 ,declensions1 conjugations1 comparison1 and genders of words in such foreign languages as the pupil expects to read1 write1 and speak4 #g4 ,the most necessary fact-lore of history and geography4 #h4 ,choice selections from the best literature and such definitions as mark a triumph of intellect in the history of human thought4 ,this enumeration may indicate the range and kind of knowledge which should be fixed in the mechanical memory so that the mind may be in possession of the best instruments of thought evolved by ages of civilization4 ,many of the things above named must be learned by an effort of retention1 pure and simple1 like that of the boy who is sent to a store to buy half a dozen sheets of paper1 two yards of ribbon1 five dozen eggs1 and specified quantities of salt1 flour1 and other provisions4 ,he may write these on paper and thus ease the memory burden1 but in solving mathematical problems and in reading1 writing1 or speaking a foreign language it is impossible always to carry for use written or printed tables1 vocabularies1 and lexicons4 ,to use these in thinking1 one must have them on his tongue and at his fingers' end4 ,of course it makes a difference whether one wishes simply to read a language1 like ,latin or ,greek1 or to use it1 like ,french and ,german1 in conversation and correspondence4 ,in the former instance it is sufficient to learn the language symbols through the eye2 in the latter they must be acquired through the ear1 the tongue1 and the pen4 ,sidenote3 ,time for learning languages4 ,it is a wise provision of nature that the perceptive powers and the mechanical memory are most active in childhood and youth4 ,the normal child is hungry for words and facts1 and gathers information from every conceivable quarter4 ,the judgment and the reason develop after the mind has been stored with the materials upon which these may act4 ,parents and teachers who are ignorant of this order of development often force the reasons for arithmetical processes upon the pupil when these are difficult and when he could learn the eleven hundred variations of the ,greek verb without difficulty1 whilst the study of the classical and foreign languages is postponed to an age when the acquisition of a new language becomes a difficult task because the logical memory has driven the mechanical into the background1 and the growth of judgment and reason makes the pupil crave the intellectual food furnished by the thought-studies4 ,it is a species of cruelty to force upon children the consideration of the why's and the wherefore's of mathematical operations1 when learning how to go through the motions would be quite enough of a tax upon their mental strength4 ,some of the demonstrations in arithmetic are logically more difficult than many of the proofs in geometry2 hence no pupil should be asked to pass his final examination in arithmetic before he has mastered the elements of geometry4 ,the proper sequence of subjects is of immense importance in leading the child from the lower to the higher forms of intellectual activity4 ,with the proper study of geometry the logical memory steps to the front1 and the thought-studies should then supplant those which largely appeal to the mechanical memory4 ,nevertheless1 it is a distinct loss if the verbal or mechanical memory is ever allowed to drop into desuetude4 ,on this point the practice1 as well as the testimony1 of ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,harris is worthy of the attention of every person charged with the training of himself or others4 ,sidenote3 ,harris on the memory4 8,if a person finds himself forgetful of names1 it is a health-giving process to take a certain portion of time in committing to memory words4 ,if this is done by committing new masterpieces of poetry and prose1 or in committing to memory the words of a new language1 there is profit or gain to the thinking powers1 as well as to the memory4 ,doubtless the cultivation of verbal memory1 building up1 as it does1 a certain convolution in the brain1 has a tendency to prevent atrophy in that organ4 ,this contains a hint in the direction of keeping up in the later part of life the faculties which are usually so active in youth4 ,the tendency is to neglect childish faculties and allow them to become torpid4 ,but if this is liable to weaken certain portions of the brain in such a way as to induce hemorrhage1 ending in softening of the brain1 certainly the memory should be cultivated1 if only for the health of the brain1 and the memory for mechanical items of detail should be cultivated on grounds of health as well as on grounds of culture4 ,the extreme advocates of the rational method of teaching are perhaps wrong in repudiating entirely all mechanical memory of dates and names or items4 ,certainly they are right in opposing the extremes of the old pedagogy1 which obliged the pupils to memorize1 page after page1 the contents of a grammar verbatim et literatim et punctuatim 7as1 for instance1 the graduates of the ,boston ,latin ,school tell us was the custom early in this century74 ,but is there not a middle ground8 ,is there not a minimum list of details1 of dates and names which must and should be memorized1 both on account of the health of the nervous system and on account of the intrinsic usefulness of the data themselves8 ,and must not the person in later life continue to exercise these classes of memory which deal with details for the sake of physical health8 ,this is a question for the educational pathologist40#bc ,sidenote3 ,vocabularies4 ,a teacher of ,hebrew spent one-fourth of his time in drill on ,hebrew roots and their meaning4 ,his students groaned under the drudgery imposed4 ,at the end of the first six chapters of ,genesis1 he surprised his class by the announcement1 8,now you know half the words in the ,hebrew ,bible40 ,he had selected words used five hundred times1 then words used three hundred times1 and drilled on these in various ways until he had fixed all the words in most frequent use in the ,hebrew text4 ,it was a great saving of time in the end1 and a great step towards reading at sight the ,old ,testament in the original4 ,by the modern short-cuts to knowledge the pupils are hurried from one classic author to another1 and hence they never master the vocabulary to the extent of reading ,latin or ,greek at sight4 ,a little less haste at the start1 and a little more drill for the purpose of fixing new words as they come up1 thus avoiding the everlasting turning to the lexicon for more than half the words in a lesson1 would facilitate progress and enable the student to find some pleasure in the study of foreign languages4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching languages4 ,an old teacher of ,latin1 who had discovered this secret in the acquisition of a foreign tongue1 agreed to take a small class in ,livy on condition that the students write in a special blank-book and review every day all the words whose meaning they were required to hunt in the lexicon4 ,at the end of ten weeks half the class read two pages without looking up more than two words4 ,their study of ,latin not only gave them a sense of pleasure1 but1 in thinking the thoughts of the author through the medium of the eye-symbols and then putting them into good ,english1 they acquired excellent thought-material1 an extensive vocabulary1 and superior skill in syntactical construction4 ,it proved a most valuable exercise in thinking and in the expression of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,logical memory4 ,valuable as the mechanical memory is for the purpose of furnishing the thought-instruments1 it sinks into comparative insignificance alongside of the logical memory4 ,the latter is the memory for ideas1 binding them by associations based on cause and effect1 reason and consequence1 similarity and contrast1 the general and the particular4 ,it is the kind of memory by which the mind carries a knowledge of the laws of science1 the principles of art1 the salient points of a discourse1 the train of ideas in a book1 the leading thoughts in a system of philosophy4 ,it converts history and geography from a dry collection of facts1 dates1 and names into a living organism whose parts are internally related by a plastic principle1 and combined into a whole that has order and system in every detail4 ,how much better that a pupil's knowledge of history and geography should be thus systematized than that it should resemble a wilderness of facts6 ,as a means for furnishing thought-material1 the logical memory is far more valuable than the memory which holds words and things by the accidental ties of sound1 sight1 and fanciful relations4 ,sidenote3 ,latham's classification4 ,a classification of the forms of memory into portative1 analytical1 and assimilative1 given in ,latham's book on the 8,action of ,examinations10 is helpful in determining the relation of memory to thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,portative memory4 ,the portative memory simply conveys matter4 8,its only aim1 like that of a carrier1 is to deliver the parcel as it was received40 ,it is the form of memory that enables some people to carry the contents of entire volumes in their minds1 sometimes in the very words1 oftener in ideas only4 ,the rhapsodists in ancient ,greece who could repeat entire books of ,homer are examples in point4 ,some men of superior talent have possessed this power in an eminent degree4 ,macaulay1 on a voyage across the ,irish ,channel1 rehearsed from memory an entire book of ,virgil's 8neid40 ,it is the kind of memory that shines at examinations and excites the envy of persons less gifted with powers of retention4 ,it may easily be degraded into a slave1 doing work which should be performed by higher mental powers4 ,hence it has been appropriately styled the ,cinderella faculty of the mind4 ,like the girl in the story1 it may be abused dreadfully by having all sorts of useless drudgery heaped upon it4 ,to require a child to learn the five thousand isolated facts formerly scattered through treatises on geography was an exercise as useless as the picking of the lentils which were poured into the ashes to give ,cinderella something to do1 and1 unfortunately1 there is no bird from fairyland to assist in the accomplishment of the task4 ,much as we may admire the power of ,thomas ,fuller1 who could repeat five hundred unrelated words in foreign languages after hearing them twice1 it is an accomplishment not worth acquiring4 ,as an accomplishment it recalls the king to whom a man exhibited his skill in throwing a pea so that it would stick on the end of a pin1--a feat acquired after years of patient practice4 ,the man hoped to get a valuable present for his exhibition of skill4 ,the king ordered a bag of pease to be given him1 saying that it was all his accomplishment was worth4 ,there is no end of warnings as to the possible evil effects of a good memory upon the power to think1--warnings that a teacher may take to heart with advantage to himself and others4 ,sidenote3 ,memory and the understanding4 ,dr4 ,carpenter asserts that when the form of memory by which children learn a piece of poetry whose meaning they do not comprehend exists in unusual strength1 it seems to impede rather than aid the formation of the nexus of associations which makes acquired knowledge a part of the mind itself4 ,in illustration1 he cites the suggestive case of ,dr4 ,leyden1 8who was distinguished for his extraordinary gift of learning languages1 and who could repeat long acts of ,parliament1 or any similar document1 after having once read it4 ,being congratulated by a friend on his remarkable gift1 he replied that1 instead of being an advantage to him1 it was often a source of great inconvenience1 because1 when he wished to recollect anything in a document he had read1 he could only do it by repeating the whole from the commencement till he reached the point he wished to recall40 ,latham has well said1 8,the ready mechanical memory of a youth1 besides enabling him to mislead unpractised examiners1 makes him deceive himself4 ,teachers find that a very ready memory is a bad educator2 it stunts the growth of other mental powers by doing their work for them4 ,a youth who can recollect without trouble will1 as it were1 mask the difficulty in his classical author or his mathematics by learning by rote what stands in his translation or text-book1 and march forward without more ado4 ,thus a quick memory involves a temptation which may enervate its possessor by suffering him to evade a difficulty instead of bracing himself to encounter it in front40#bd ,maudsley writes in the same strain3 8,this kind of memory1 in which the person seems to read a photographic copy of former impressions with his mind's eye1 is not1 indeed1 commonly associated with high intellectual power2 for what reason ,i know not1 unless it be that the mind1 to which it belongs1 is prevented1 by the very excellence of its power of apprehending and recalling separate facts1 from rising to that discernment of their relations which is involved in reasoning and judgment1 and so stays in a function which should be the foundation of further development1 or that1 being by some natural defect prevented from rising to the higher sphere of a comprehension of relations1 it applies all its energies to a comprehension of details4 ,certainly one runs the risk1 by overloading the memory of a child with details1 of arresting the development of the mental powers of the child2 stereotyping details on the brain1 we prevent that further development of it which consists in rising from concrete conceptions to the conception of relations40#be ,here is another warning from the pen of ,archbishop ,whately3 8,some people have been intellectually damaged by having what is called a good memory4 ,an unskilful teacher is content to put before children all they ought to learn1 and to take care that they remember it2 and so1 though the memory is retentive1 the mind is left in a passive state1 and men wonder that he who was so quick at learning and remembering should not be an able man1 which is as reasonable as to wonder that a cistern if filled should not be a perpetual fountain4 ,many men are saved by their deficiency of memory from being spoiled by an education2 for those who have no extraordinary memory are driven to supply its place by thinking4 ,if they do not remember a mathematical demonstration1 they are driven to devise one4 ,if they do not remember what ,aristotle or ,bacon said1 they are driven to consider what they are likely to have said or ought to have said40#bf ,in his letter to a student who lamented his defective memory1 ,p4 ,c4 ,hamerton says that1 so far from writing1 as might be expected1 a letter of condolence on a miserable memory1 he felt disposed to write a letter of congratulation4 8,it is possible that you may be blessed with a selecting memory which is not only useful for what it retains1 but also for what it rejects4 ,in the immense mass of facts which come before you in literature and in life it is well that you should suffer as little bewilderment as possible4 ,the nature of your memory saves you from this by unconsciously selecting what has interested you and letting the rest go by40#bg ,sidenote3 ,analytical memory4 ,in the last quotation we get a hint of the form of memory which ,latham styles the analytical4 8,the analytical memory is exercised when the mind furnishes a view of its own and thereby holds together a set of impressions selected out of a mass4 ,thus a barrister strings together the material facts of his case1 and a lecturer those of his science by their bearing on what he wants to establish40 ,many thinkers sift everything they read1 hear1 and see4 ,that which they do not need is rejected and forgotten4 ,that which has a bearing upon their investigations is selected1 retained1 and utilized4 ,as an aid in thinking a form of retention called the index memory is very helpful4 ,the lawyer should know where to find such law as he does not carry in his head4 ,having found the required statute or judicial interpretation1 he applies it to the case in hand4 ,no sooner is a case finally decided or settled than he drops its details from his mind and directs his intellectual strength to the interests of the next client4 ,in this ability to sift1 select1 and reject1 as the occasion demands1 lies the secret of the success of many a public lecturer1 of many a magazine writer4 ,the men in the pulpit or upon the platform who lack this gift soon wear out2 the public speedily detects when they have nothing more to give4 ,the preparation of debates1 speeches1 essays1 and theses trains these forms of memory4 ,after the analytical habit has been formed1 the student unconsciously1 yet constantly1 gathers1 classifies1 and stores materials for thought4 ,the public are frequently surprised by the array of striking facts1 interesting data1 apt illustrations1 and pleasing anecdotes with which he enlivens every topic of discussion and elucidates every subject of investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,assimilative memory4 ,higher than the analytical is the assimilative form of memory which 8absorbs matter into the system so that the knowledge assimilated becomes a part of the person's own self1 like that of his name or of a familiar language40 ,the assimilation of knowledge has a parallel in the assimilation of food4 ,the phrase that knowledge is the food of the mind has almost become classical in treatises on education4 ,the figure of speech throws light upon the relative functions of memory and thinking in the acquisition and elaboration of knowledge4 ,before the food is set before the child it should be cooked and put into the most palatable form1--a parallel to the preparation of the lesson by the teacher so that he may put it before the learner in its most attractive form4 ,before the food is swallowed it should be masticated1 broken into parts1--a parallel to the act of analysis by which the chunks of knowledge are resolved into their elements and each set before the mind in the simplest form1 in the form in which it can be grasped most easily4 ,sidenote3 ,transformation of knowledge4 ,if the food remains in the stomach unchanged1 it produces dyspepsia and a long train of bodily ills4 ,if the knowledge which the mind appropriates is retained unchanged1 it produces mental dyspepsia1 and there is no real assimilation4 ,from this point of view we can easily see why ,montaigne said that to know by heart is not to know at all4 ,just as the food which is taken into the body must be transformed into chyme and chyle and blood before it can be assimilated1 so the knowledge which is taken up by the mind must be transformed if it is to be assimilated4 ,the best illustration of the transformation of knowledge is that given by an anecdote of ,gough1 which has now become classic4 ,in a ,pullman car a crying child was disturbing the slumbers of every passenger4 ,at last a gruff miner1 whose patience was exhausted1 stuck his head out of his berth and exclaimed1 8,i should like to know where that child's mother is80 8,in the baggage car in a coffin10 was the reply of the person in charge of the child4 ,the knowledge imparted by that phrase was immediately transformed into new thought and sentiment and purpose4 ,there was not another word of complaint throughout the entire journey2 every passenger was thinking of the unfortunate child in the light of an orphan4 ,their hearts were stirred with feelings of sympathy1 which1 in the case of the old miner1 issued into will and purpose1 for he got up1 began to carry the little one1 and did his best to make it feel contented in the new surroundings4 ,if the lessons in civil government and history of the ,united ,states remain in the memory a mere tissue of dates1 names1 and events1 the teacher has failed1 no matter how brilliant the answers in class or at the examination4 ,if these lessons do not issue in new thoughts1 sentiments1 and purposes1 if they do not enlarge the mental vision of the pupils1 beget in them the sentiment of patriotism and cause them to resolve that they will support the government by paying a just share of its taxes and by insisting on a pure ballot1--in a word1 if these lessons do not make the pupil say that he will live for his country and even die in its defence1--then the teacher has failed because there has been no adequate assimilation of knowledge4 ,another figure of speech is sometimes used to describe the transformation of knowledge4 8,except a grain of wheat fall into the earth and die1 it abideth by itself alone2 but if it die1 it beareth much fruit40#bh ,if the knowledge which enters the mind remains unchanged1 it abideth by itself alone4 ,but if it perish in its original form1 if it is changed through the process of growth so as to enter into new relations1 it brings forth a harvest of thought and sentiment and purpose4 ,the last two should be the concomitants of the crop of new thoughts which spring from seed-thoughts implanted in the soul4 ,that the ancients understood the use and abuse of the memory is evident from their method of teaching law4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching the law4 ,the ,roman school-boy learned by heart the ,twelve ,tables of the ,law4 ,his teachers were not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the words2 they insisted that he should understand the meaning of the law1 and apply it in regulating his own conduct and in passing judgment upon the conduct of others4 ,is it any wonder that the ,roman people became the exponents of law and order throughout the civilized world1 and that ,roman jurisprudence still exerts a moulding influence upon the legislation of the ,latin races1 if not of the entire civilized world8 ,there is still another nation of antiquity whose youth were instructed in the law with the most scrupulous care4 ,the ,ten ,commandments of the ,mosaic ,law were committed to memory4 ,in ,chapter ,,vi41 #f-i1 of ,deuteronomy1 we read3 8,and these words1 which ,i command thee this day1 shall be in thine heart3 and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children1 and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house1 and when thou walkest by the way1 and when thou liest down1 and when thou risest up4 ,and thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand1 and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes40 ,verse #ah of ,chapter ,,xi4 is still more explicit3 8,therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart and in your soul1 and bind them for a sign upon your hand1 that they may be as frontlets between your eyes40 ,the exact words of the law were to be fixed in the memory1 and kept both before the bodily and mental eye until they passed into the deeds and conduct of every-day life4 ,in ,john vii4 #di we find the same thought3 8,this people who knoweth not the law are cursed40 ,this was the universal conviction of the ,jewish people after the ,babylonian exile1 if not before4 ,the reading of the ,talmud has been likened unto travelling through endless galleries of lumber1 where the air is darkened and the lungs are well-nigh asphyxiated with the rising dust4 ,on one point1 however1 the ,jewish ,rabbis speak with the authority and earnestness of those who know whereof they affirm4 8,to the ,law60 is the exhortation sounded abroad in every key4 8,let your house10 says one1 8be a house of assembly for those wise in the law2 let yourself be dusted by the dust of their feet1 and drink eagerly their teaching40 8,make the study of the law thy special business10 says another4 8,the more teaching of the law10 says a third1 8the more life2 the more school1 the more wisdom2 the more counsel1 the more reasonable action4 ,he who gains a knowledge of the law gains life in the world to come40 ,maxims like the following show the stress that was laid upon exercises designed to bring out the full force and import of the law3 8,when two sit together and do not converse about the law1 they are an assembly of scorners1 of which it is said1 #8,sit not in the seat of the scorners4' ,when1 however1 two sit together and converse about the law1 the ,shechinah 7the ,divine ,presence7 is present among them40 8,when three eat together at one table1 and do not converse about the law1 it is as though they ate of the offerings of the dead4 ,but when three eat together at one table and converse about the law1 it is as though they ate at the table of ,god40 8,the following are things whose interest is enjoyed in this world1 while the capital remains for the world to come2 ,reverence for fathers and mothers1 benevolence1 peacemaking among neighbors1 and the study of the law above them all40 ,it is very apparent that the chosen people were not satisfied with mere memorizing of the law4 ,their teachers sought to make it a living1 regulative force in all the relations of man4 ,their practice emphasized a phase of memory work which should be borne in mind whenever pupils are requested to learn by heart any form of words or selection of literature4 ,words have no value so long as they remain mere words4 ,when words convey the intended meaning1 the more perfect the form in which they are joined together the deeper and more lasting is the impression made upon the mind of the learner4 ,the thoughts which have been transmitted in forms fixed for ages may not produce a harvest of new thought and linguistic expression1 but may issue in feeling and will1 in lofty emotions and noble purposes1 in heroic deeds and unselfish devotion1 in righteousness and right conduct far more valuable than mediocre effusions of prose and poetry1 or many of the speculations of scientists and philosophers4 ,sidenote3 ,seed-thoughts4 ,thoughts that are to regulate conduct and life may be remembered in the form in which a nation has treasured them for ages4 ,if thoughts are to become seed-thoughts1 their form must be changed through the process of growth2 otherwise no crop of new thoughts can mature4 ,the expression1 seed-thoughts1 is a figure of speech based upon vegetable life4 ,the mind may be likened unto soil that has become fertile through the labor and skill of the husbandman4 ,the mind grows fertile and productive by cultivation4 ,like the sower going forth to sow1 the good teacher deposits in the youthful mind ideas which germinate and bring forth a harvest of thought1 sentiment1 and purpose4 ,if the grain of wheat be cut in pieces1 and then put into the soil1 there can be no growth1 because the life has been destroyed4 ,the ideas which the teacher instils into the minds of the pupils should be living ideas4 ,their vitality should not be destroyed by dissection into fragments from which all life has departed4 ,sunshine and moisture are conditions of growth4 ,lack of sympathy is lack of sunshine4 ,cold natures have an ,arctic effect in stunting and preventing growth4 ,again1 instruction may be so dry that nothing can thrive under its influence4 ,like a drought1 it may speedily evaporate the child's love of school and interest in study4 ,weeds may choke the growing crop4 ,these the husbandman removes and destroys1 so that the good seed may have a chance to ripen4 ,with equal solicitude the faithful teacher watches the development of the seed-thoughts which are sprouting in the mind4 ,for a time the seed is hid in the earth4 ,seed-thoughts disappear in the unconscious depths of the soul4 ,they are not lost4 ,by processes which we cannot explain1 they sprout and grow and ripen4 ,that such mysterious processes are going forward in the hidden depths of the soul cannot be doubted4 ,a process of growth may be unseen2 its visible results are evidence that it exists and is going forward4 ,if the soil be barren or the conditions of growth be wanting1 no harvest is possible4 ,unfortunately1 the unskilful husbandman always blames the soil and the weather when he himself is at fault4 ,unfortunate is the pupil whose teacher is a fossil1 devoid of life and the power to infuse life4 ,under such a teacher the pupil always gets the blame4 ,,xii ,,imaging ,,and ,,thinking ,things more excellent than any image are expressed through images4 ,,jamblichus4 ,an unimaginative person can neither be reverent nor kind4 ,,ruskin4 ,few men have imagination enough for the truth of reality4 ,,goethe4 ,science does not know its debt to the imagination4 ,,emerson4 ,the human race is governed by its imagination4 ,,napoleon4 ,,xii ,,imaging ,,and ,,thinking ,every human being divides the world into two parts1 the self and the not-self4 ,it would not be right to say that he divides the world into two hemispheres1 because self may occupy more space and engross more thought than all else in the universe4 ,sidenote3 ,self4 ,the idea of self is complex4 ,it includes our thoughts1 emotions1 and purposes4 ,kindred and friends1 home and country1 creed and occupation1 dress and personal appearance1 possessions and the work one has done1--in fact1 all one has and is and does enters into the idea of self4 ,when we lose a child1 a manuscript1 an investment1 a position1 we are apt to feel as if a part of ourselves had been lost4 ,so closely are the things of self identified with the inner self1 the self in the narrowest signification of the term1 that the latter is oftentimes lost in the former2 and the end of existence is sought in wealth1 fame1 honor1 social position1 erudition1 and the thousand other things which intensify the feeling of self by giving it form and content4 ,sidenote3 ,image of self4 ,an important element in the thought of self is the image of self that every man carries in his own mind4 ,this image of self is derived from looking-glasses and photographs1 from the sight of hands and feet and the other impressions of the physical organism which reach the mind through the senses4 ,in the minds of many persons the image of self is ever present1 it matters not whether they are eating or drinking1 walking or talking1 singing or thinking1 posing or working4 ,the perpetual presence of the image of self gives rise to vanity and pride1 to avarice1 ambition1 and other detestable forms of selfishness4 ,it is the province of education to bring self and the things of self into proper relation with the not-self1 with ,god and the universe4 ,that this may be accomplished the images of sense and the idea of self must be made to take their proper place in the domain of thought and volition4 ,sidenote3 ,education defined4 ,not many years ago it was customary in certain quarters to define education as the process of unsensing the mind and unselfing the will4 ,the definition never became popular4 ,it contains a truth and an error1 both deserving of careful consideration4 ,the maxim may signify that by the process of education the soul is to be emancipated from the tyranny of the senses and from the domination of selfish desires4 ,the mind may be hindered in its growth because it is under the thraldom of desire and appetite4 ,excess in eating and drinking1 in sight-seeing1 and in other pleasures which so easily ripen into dissipation may check the normal development of the higher faculties4 ,the delight which some gifted natures find in beautiful colors and good music may prevent them from acquiring the power of abstract and abstruse thinking4 ,the things of the mind may be sacrificed to the things of sense1 the higher life of the soul may be stifled through the exaltation of self and the domination of selfish desires4 ,sidenote3 ,unsensing the mind4 ,what is meant by unsensing the mind8 ,it may mean1 for instance1 that the student of arithmetic is to be freed from the necessity of counting strokes or fingers in finding the sum or the product of two numbers2 that the learner is to get away from the cats and dogs of the ,first ,reader as soon as possible2 that he is to be lifted by education to the plane on which he can think in abstract and general terms4 ,in this sense it is correct to say that it is the purpose of education to unsense the mind4 ,the phrase may also be interpreted to imply that the habit of thinking by means of visual images is to be got rid of4 ,in this sense it is a dangerous maxim4 ,sidenote3 ,arrested development4 ,the first thinking of children is carried on in mental pictures4 ,it is one of the aims of the school to lift the learner above this necessity of thinking in things by enabling him to think in symbols4 ,these symbols are in their turn visualized2 and we may have specimens of arrested development in the use of figures as well as in the use of fingers1 blocks1 or other objects employed in teaching the fundamental operations of integers and fractions4 ,the principal of a well-known ward school aimed at great speed in arithmetical calculations4 ,the results which his teachers obtained excited surprise and admiration4 ,the test of progress was the number of digits that a pupil could add1 or subtract1 or multiply1 or divide in a minute4 ,the danger of this instruction became apparent when it was found that of five or six hundred children drilled in that way only one ever reached the high school1 and she was only a third-rate student1 who never acquired skill or proficiency in thinking in abstract and general terms4 ,mental energy was exhausted in the attempt to develop lightning calculators4 ,there was no growth in the direction of thinking the laws and truths which make knowledge scientific4 ,sidenote3 ,the thinking of savages4 ,the untutored savage is guided by sense impressions2 he thinks in mental pictures2 he is incapable of a chain of reasoning like the demonstration of a theorem in geometry4 ,tribes have been found who could not count beyond three2 any number in excess of two was called many or a multitude4 ,whilst their powers of observation were developed to a remarkable degree1 they lacked the power of abstruse thought4 ,their descendants1 who are now at school1 make rapid progress in knowledge which appeals to the senses2 they find more than the usual difficulty in studies requiring demonstrative reasoning or sustained effort in scientific thought4 ,music is their delight2 they can be taught to sing like birds in the air2 their bands give sighs to brass itself4 ,as in the eighteenth century the ,iroquois1 who would not submit to the doctrines of ,christianity1 were overcome by concerts1 so1 in the nineteenth1 the missionaries of ,british ,columbia appeal to the red man's ear for music in winning him for the ,christian religion4 ,sidenote3 ,popular audiences4 ,language is full of faded metaphors which show how the things of the mind are conceived in images formed through the senses4 ,those who address popular audiences clothe their thoughts in figures of speech based upon the mental pictures in which the common people carry on their thinking4 ,the ability to think in the language of science and philosophy is a later development1 and those who by disuse or neglect impair their power to think in sense-images pay a penalty in losing1 or never acquiring1 the power to move the multitudes4 ,sidenote3 ,mental pictures4 ,the power to think in mental pictures1 or through the sense-impressions which memory recalls1 varies in different persons4 ,occasionally the sense of touch is very active2 the child in such cases manifests a desire to handle everything within reach1 and undoubtedly gains impressions of peculiar strength answering its desire to know4 ,a limited number of children in every school get their best impressions through the ear1 and hence are said to be ear-minded2 but the far larger proportion are eye-minded to the extent of connecting their most accurate knowledge with images obtained through vision4 ,similar peculiarities exist among older persons4 ,a friend claims that he hears the voices of speakers while reading the proof-sheets of their speeches4 ,another friend claims that he cannot bring up a mental picture of the faces of his children and his friends1 but he writes out strains of music which he thinks and hears while seated on railway cars4 ,the power of bringing up a vivid picture of the breakfast-table1 or of some scene of special interest1 is possessed by many persons4 ,they live over again in memory the delights of travel1 and enjoy scenery through the vivid mental pictures stored away in the treasure-house of memory4 ,the ability to appreciate the best literature in prose and poetry depends largely upon the power of visualizing the realities at the basis of the descriptions and figures of speech4 ,francis ,galton thinks that the perspicuous style of ,french literature and the wonderful manual skill of the ,french people is due to their power of thinking in visual images4 ,he says1-- ,sidenote3 ,the ,french4 8,the ,french appear to possess the visualizing faculty in a high degree4 ,the peculiar ability they show in prearranging ceremonials and ftes of all kinds and their undoubted genius for tactics and strategy show that they are able to foresee effects with unusual clearness4 ,their ingenuity in all technical contrivances is an additional testimony in the same direction1 and so is their singular clearness of expression4 ,their phrase #8figurez-vous1' or #8picture to yourself1' seems to express their dominant mode of perception4 ,our equivalent of #8imagine' is ambiguous40#bi ,sidenote3 ,galton's investigations4 ,the profession of teaching owes ,mr4 ,galton a special debt of gratitude for the light which his investigations throw upon the process of thinking4 ,these investigations were published in a volume entitled 8,inquiries into ,human ,faculty40 ,when he began to inquire among his friends as to their power to call up mental pictures of the breakfast-table1 those engaged in scientific pursuits were inclined to consider him fanciful and fantastic in supposing that the words mental imagery really expressed what he thought everybody supposed them to mean4 ,he says they had no more notion of its true nature than a color-blind man who has not discerned his defect has of the nature of color4 ,when he spoke to persons in general society1 he got very different replies4 ,among other curious things which he discovered1 he found that the power of thinking in sense-images1 or mental pictures1 may be partly inherited1 partly developed by practice1 and that it may be impaired by disuse or by the habit of hard thinking peculiar to men engaged in scientific pursuits4 ,scientific men1 as a class1 have feeble powers of visual representation4 ,he reached the conclusion that 8an over-ready perception of sharp mental pictures is antagonistic to the acquirement of highly generalized and abstract thought1 especially when the steps of reasoning are carried on by words as symbols1 and that if the faculty of seeing the pictures was ever possessed by men who think hard1 it is very apt to be lost by disuse40 ,sidenote3 ,wrong methods4 ,he further claims that the visualizing faculty can be developed by education4 ,this is very significant4 ,it shows how unwise methods may harm our children in two directions4 ,the wrong method may keep the mind at work in the concrete when the science under consideration demands more advanced and very different methods of thought4 ,in the other direction the mind may be tied to words1 descriptions1 book methods1 and symbolic representations1 whereas the thinking which one's future duties demand points in the direction of drawing1 mechanics1 and handicrafts1 in which success turns upon the power of thinking in visual images and mental pictures4 ,one cannot forbear quoting his language in so far as it bears upon the thinking developed by schools for manual training in distinction from the thinking developed by the university which aims to fit its students for the professions and for scientific thought and experimental research4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking in images4 8,there can1 however1 be no doubt as to the utility of the visualizing faculty when it is duly subordinated to the higher intellectual operations4 ,a visual image is the most perfect form of mental representation wherever the shape1 position1 and relations of objects in space are concerned4 ,it is of importance in every handicraft and profession where design is required4 ,the best workmen are those who visualize the whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool in their hands4 ,the village smith and the carpenter who are employed on odd jobs employ it no less for their work than the mechanician1 the engineer1 and the architect4 ,the lady's maid who arranges a new dress requires it for the same reason as the decorator employed on a palace1 or the agent who lays out great estates4 ,strategists1 artists of all denominations1 physicists who contrive new experiments1 and1 in short1 all who do not follow routine1 have need of it4 ,the pleasure its use can afford is immense4 ,i have many correspondents who say that the delight of recalling beautiful scenery and great works of art is the highest that they know2 they carry whole picture-galleries in their minds4 ,our bookish and wordy education tends to repress this valuable gift of nature4 ,a faculty that is of importance in all technical and artistic occupations1 that gives accuracy to our perceptions1 and justness to our generalizations is starved by lazy disuse instead of being cultivated judiciously in such a way as will1 on the whole1 bring the best return4 ,i believe that a serious study of the best method of developing and utilizing this faculty1 without prejudice to the practice of abstract thought in symbols1 is one of the many pressing desiderata in the yet unformed science of education40#cj ,what is meant by the process of unselfing the will8 ,if the maxim is interpreted to mean that education must eliminate the selfishness of the individual1 and teach him to will and act for the good of humanity1 especially of all with whom he comes in contact1 the maxim points out an important end of education4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the maxim is made to mean that the self1 with its peculiarities1 is to be sacrificed in the educative process1 it carries a contradiction on its face4 ,the lower self may have to be sacrificed in order that the higher self may be conserved4 ,he that loseth his life shall save it2 he that saveth his life shall lose it1 is the teaching of ,holy ,writ4 ,open a dictionary and search for words indicating how the belief in the necessity of emancipating life from the dominion of self has been woven into the very texture of the ,english language4 ,egotism1 which originally meant the excessive use of the pronoun ,i1 has come to signify all kinds of self-praise1 self-exaltation1 and to include all manner of parading one's virtues and excellencies2 egoism denotes a state of mind in which the feelings are concentrated on self4 ,vanity and self-conceit are two words closely allied to the natural selfishness of the human heart4 ,the former indicates the feeling which springs from the thought that we are highly esteemed by others2 the latter is an overweening opinion of one's talents1 capacities1 and importance4 ,there is another list of compound words1 like self-denial1 self-sacrifice1 self-abnegation1 which point to the importance of eliminating self and thoughts of self from the soul's activities in thinking and willing4 ,virtues like humility1 love1 service1 sacrifice1 are lauded in every ,christian land4 ,they are the ,christian virtues exemplified by ,jesus of ,nazareth1 who lived to do good to others1 and who died that the sinning1 sorrowing millions on earth might find peace and consolation for their troubled souls4 ,sidenote3 ,selfishness4 ,the unselfing of the will depends as much upon right thinking as does the unsensing of the mind4 ,the untrained mind deals too much with things near at hand in the objective world2 the uneducated will deals too much with the thing nearest to every man in the subjective world1--the individual self4 ,the thought of self may enter so thoroughly into the feelings and activities of the soul that the rights of others are never thought of in the gratification of self and in the efforts at self-aggrandizement and self-glorification4 ,selfish desire and selfish ambition may dominate the soul and cause the individual to trample upon the dearest rights of others4 ,the millions which some men heap up are squeezed from the productive toil of thousands1 perhaps millions1 of human hands4 ,colossal fortunes can seldom be made without reducing a considerable number of human beings to a condition of living from hand to mouth1 to a state of chronic poverty4 ,that the inordinate ambition of a masterful politician may be gratified1 the hopes of other aspirants must be frustrated and their rights must be trampled upon4 ,hence in the end there is little happiness among office-holders and office-seekers4 ,the selfishness of great conquerors is still more inexcusable4 ,in the effort to gratify an unholy ambition the lives of thousands are sacrificed1 their blood is spilt upon the battle-field1 and their health is undermined by suffering and disease4 ,if the men who send the soldier to the front were themselves compelled to sleep in ditches1 or to expose themselves to the fire of machine-guns upon the open field1 wars would not be declared1 or1 if declared1 would soon cease4 ,sidenote3 ,self-sacrifice4 ,the higher life demands that the lower self be subordinated1 regulated and sublimated in the education of man4 ,the individual may be taught to find happiness in self-sacrifice for the sake of others1 in deeds of love1 charity1 and benevolence4 ,that this may result from the educative process1 there should occur a change of heart1 resulting in a change of view and in a transformation of the habits of thought so that self is seen in its true relation to mankind and to ,god1 so that the things of time and sense shall stand in true relation to the verities of eternity and the interests of the higher life4 ,sidenote3 ,self-development4 ,on the other hand1 if the maxim is interpreted to mean that any gifts or powers of the self are to be sacrificed in preparation for a given calling1 say for the army or navy1 it becomes a dangerous heresy4 ,the true end of education is found in the harmonious development of all our faculties4 ,every man is in one sense the product of countless ages and generations1 and from another point of view he is a new creation fresh from the hand of his ,maker1 and a distinct setting forth of the creative power of ,him who said1 8,let us make man in our own image1 after our likeness40 ,as such he has a claim upon immortality1 as well as upon all the help which earth can give him towards a full realization of self4 ,every person feels that there are possibilities of his being which are never realized in this world2 that it will require the ceaseless ages of eternity to unfold and mature his ,god-given powers and traits4 ,any unselfing of the will in the sense of sacrificing or checking the growth and fruition of the best of which the self is capable1 is a violation of ,spencer's famous definition that education is a preparation for complete living4 ,sidenote3 ,justice to others4 ,what1 then1 is the relation of the imaging power to the proper unselfing of the will and the full realization of the self8 8,a great deal of the selfishness of the world comes not from bad hearts1 but from languid imaginations40#ca ,to do justice to others1 we must put ourselves in their place4 ,this we cannot do except through the exercise of the imagination4 ,the imagination is the creative power of the mind4 ,by means of it we can create for our thinking the world in which our neighbor lives1 and learn to understand his motives1 aims1 hopes1 needs1 and temptations4 ,this will keep us from many a mistake in judging his conduct and estimating his character4 ,moreover1 this thinking of ourselves into the life and surroundings of our fellow-men is a condition of success in dealing with them4 ,it helps the merchant to sell his wares and the teacher to govern his pupils4 ,it helps the orator to reach the hearts of the audience whom he is addressing1 and the journalist to write editorials that will modify the views and mould the thinking of the reading public4 ,every profession and every occupation requires the constant exercise of the imagination so that we may see life from our neighbor's point of view1 and1 in sympathizing with him or helping him1 outgrow our innate selfishness4 ,a hard1 cruel1 unforgiving man makes a failure of life even though he win riches1 fame1 and public position4 ,sidenote3 ,ideals4 ,by means of the imagination we paint ideals of life and conduct1 which hover before the mind in the hour of struggle and trial1 luring us onward and upward1 spurring us to greater effort1 and giving to life added charms and glories4 ,without the power to imagine what is beyond the real1 the workman sinks to the level of drudgery1 and never rises to the plane of artistic production4 ,sidenote3 ,the child's imagination4 ,sidenote3 ,geography4 ,the imagination is very active in children4 ,watch their plays if you would see how they convert a stick into a horse1 the play-house into a home1 and mimic the drama of life in their games and contests4 ,their life is largely make-believe and thinking in images4 ,this tendency to think in images can be utilized in the lessons in arithmetic1 geometry1 geography1 and history4 ,without the combination of images into new forms and products1 the pupil cannot think the thoughts peculiar to these branches4 ,for instance1 the lesson in geography starts with what the child has seen or can see at home1 and proceeds to that which is away from home1 using pictures1 drawings1 lantern-slides1 and vivid descriptions to aid the imagination in picturing scenery1 cities1 countries1 and forms of life in other parts of the globe4 ,it may be a question what the mind should think in connection with the symbols and truths of that science4 ,the form of a continent is without doubt best conceived as given on a map4 ,for many practical purposes1 cities may be thought as mere starting-points and halting-places in a journey4 ,many a river is for mature minds a winding black line on colored surfaces called maps4 ,nevertheless1 if geography means for a pupil no more than this1 it will be dry and uninteresting indeed4 ,out of the images of things observed the mind should be led to construct images of what it has not seen4 ,these images are never an adequate picture of the foreign city or country1 even after they have been supplemented or modified by visits to museums1 conservatories1 and zoological gardens1 by excursions to the field1 the forest1 and the factory1 or even by travel at home and abroad4 ,the thoughts of a country that one has journeyed through1 or lived in for a time1 consist partly of images and partly of symbolic representations4 ,since thinking in images is easier for beginners than thinking in symbols1 the instruction in geography should begin with child-life at home1 with the things on the breakfast-table1 with the garments worn and the means of transportation used1 and proceed from these to the life1 the home1 the dress1 and the sports of children living in other lands and other climes4 ,the lessons in geography make constant appeals to the imagination1 and call for thinking in images or mental-pictures in connection with map-symbols and the discussions of causes and laws4 ,sidenote3 ,history4 ,not less valuable is the power of imaging in the study of history4 ,many details are worthless and meaningless until the imagination weaves them into a fabric in which their relations and significance become apparent4 ,so far as the trend of history is concerned1 it would have mattered very little if the name of the ship in which the ,pilgrim fathers sailed had been ,aprilshower instead of ,mayflower1 if the number of passengers had been one hundred and one instead of exactly one hundred1 if they had landed at some place other than ,plymouth ,rock4 ,their coming1 their compact1 their religious life and purposes were of chief importance4 ,details help to fill out the mental picture of their voyage1 landing1 and settlement4 ,they throw a halo of interest around the central event1 or germinal idea4 ,or1 to change the figure1 they furnish the scaffolding by means of which the teacher gradually raises the edifice of historical knowledge4 ,after the edifice has been completed the scaffolding may be removed4 ,after the essential or central idea has been grasped and fixed1 details like the name of the ship1 the number of emigrants1 and the exact day of their arrival may be forgotten4 ,the mind can often unload the luggage that is not absolutely needed1 and move with more ease and speed into new fields of thought and investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,geometry4 ,sidenote3 ,arithmetic4 ,geometry has been aptly styled eine ,augenwissenschaft1 8a science of the eye0 7the last word being used not as the object with which the science deals1 but as the means by which its ideas are acquired74 ,the line drawn upon the black-board has breadth1 and is not at all a mathematical line4 ,through the eye it serves to suggest the line which has length without breadth or thickness4 ,progress in solid geometry is impossible if the mind does not image or conceive the volumes of three dimensions indicated by the drawings on a surface which has but two dimensions4 ,in arithmetic many of the business transactions upon which the problems are based have not come into the experience of the child1 but must be evolved by appeals to the imagination if the solutions are to be brought within easy reach of the understanding4 ,the power of combining images into new forms aids greatly in the construction of apparatus and in the making of experiments4 ,it helps the scientist to evolve his theories and hypotheses4 ,it is the faculty by which man becomes a creator in science1 art1 literature1 and philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,creative imagination4 ,sidenote3 ,productive thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge uncommunicated4 ,few suggestions for the exercise of the creative imagination can be given4 ,here rules are more of a hinderance than a help4 ,the imagination is not creative in the sense of evolving something out of nothing1--this notion has misled many in their estimate of genius1--but in the sense of producing that which never existed1 at least for the individual himself4 ,its activity has been denominated plastic from the fact that it moulds and fashions the materials or images into the forms which the new product is to assume4 ,the influence of judgment is needed to keep the imagination from violating the laws and principles inherent in the things from which its materials are drawn4 ,the understanding aids and is aided by this creative1 plastic function of the imagination4 ,the two should have free play in productive thinking4 ,let the student of science or art saturate himself with the theme on which he is working2 let him keep health and energy of body and mind at their highest point2 let him concentrate his best powers on what is to be accomplished1 keeping clearly in mind the end to be reached and the materials to be used2 the product for which he is working will spring into being in ways that he cannot explain4 ,like an unfathomable well which has been gathering its waters through hidden channels from mysterious sources1 the stream of thought comes welling up from the depth of the soul into the conscious life of the thinker1 giving him the living waters by which he can satisfy the thirst for knowledge felt by other souls4 ,in expressing1 formulating1 and communicating the thoughts which thus come to him he cannot help feeling the 8joy of creating40 8,the history of literature10 says ,shedd1 8furnishes many examples of men whose knowledge only increased their sorrow1 because it never found an efflux from their own minds into the world4 ,knowledge uncommunicated is something like remorse unconfessed4 ,the mind1 not being allowed to go out of itself1 and to direct its energies towards an object and end greater and worthier than itself1 turns back upon itself1 and becomes morbidly self-reflecting and self-conscious4 ,a studious and reflecting man of this class is characterized by excessive fastidiousness1 which makes him dissatisfied with all that he does himself or sees done by others2 which represses and finally suppresses all the buoyant and spirited activity of the intellect1 leaving it sluggish as #8the dull weed that rots by ,lethe's wharf4'0 ,sidenote3 ,forms of creative effort4 ,no teacher and no system of training can furnish both brains and culture4 ,it is not the mission of any person to create in every line of effort4 ,some find their joy in evolving and expressing thought with tongue or pen1 others through the brush or the chisel1 and still others through machinery and the handicrafts4 ,in every occupation man may experience the joy of creating if his powers of imaging are allowed to play and interplay with other activities of thought4 ,each in normal conditions helps the others1 and the activity of all combined is essential to complete living4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,at ,learning's fountain it is sweet to drink1 ,but 'tis a nobler privilege to think2 ,and oft1 from books apart1 the thirsting mind ,may make the nectar which it cannot find4 ',tis well to borrow from the good and great2 ',tis wise to learn2 'tis godlike to create6 ,j4 ,g4 ,,saxe4 ,madame ,swetchine says that to have ideas is to gather flowers3 to think is to weave them into garlands4 ,there could be no happier synonym for thinking than the word weaving1--a putting together of the best products of observation1 reading1 experience1 and travel so as to represent a patterned whole1 receiving its design from the weaver's own mind4 ,we have plenty of flowers2 we want more garlands4 ,we have libraries1 books1 and newspapers2 we want more thinkers4 ,t4 ,,sharper ,,knowlson4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,in speaking of our inner life we employ language that abounds in metaphors drawn from the external world4 ,some are faded metaphors2 others are still fresh and new enough to suggest what was in the minds of those first using them4 ,many of these metaphorical expressions draw attention to one side or phase of the truth4 ,if pressed with the design of making them embody the whole truth1 they become untruths4 ,sidenote3 ,the flow of thought4 ,one fact of our waking consciousness is that thought goes on without stopping so long as we remain awake4 ,indeed1 some philosophers have drawn the inference that the soul always thinks1 that during the hours of deep sleep the brain-centres may be at rest1 but that thought nevertheless flows on in the unconscious depths of our being4 ,locke combats this idea at length and with more than usual warmth4 ,during sleep on a railway train we sometimes seem to be awake1 the ends of our conscious thinking apparently fitting into each other without gaps2 and yet the calling out of the stations convinces us that we must have been wrapped in unconscious slumber when we passed certain stations without noticing that the train stopped and the stations were announced4 ,on the other hand1 it is the experience of earnest students that the striking of a clock may escape notice because the mind has been deeply absorbed in a difficult problem4 ,sidenote3 ,teacher's duty4 ,the question need not concern us beyond the fact that the thinking of our most wakeful moments perpetually plays into our subconscious life4 ,in order that the flow of thought welling up from the deepest depths of the soul may be clear1 copious1 and full1 it is the duty of the teacher to keep himself and his pupils wide awake during the hours of study and recitation4 ,he should not worry them by excessive tasks or unreasonable examinations so that the hours of sleep are disturbed by dreams1 followed during the day by weariness and fatigue4 ,the folly of burning the midnight oil and of spending too many hours each day in mental toil is fraught with evil consequences in the domain of thought4 ,in the main ,harbaugh was right when he undertook to change ,franklin's maxim about early rising into the following form3 8,go to bed early1 and get up late2 but then keep awake all day40 ,sidenote3 ,thought like a stream4 ,so far as we are aware1 thought is going forward continuously while we are awake4 ,this phase of consciousness has been likened to a stream1 and has given rise to the expression1 ,the stream of thought4 ,the metaphor can be pressed very far without conveying untruths4 ,a stream does not always flow with the same velocity4 ,it is at times deep1 at other times shallow1 now moving forward like a swollen torrent1 now flowing placidly with scarcely a wave or a ripple perceptible on its surface4 ,here its smooth course is disturbed by wind and storm and rain2 there its even flow is influenced by rocks and irregularities in the bed of the stream4 ,again and again its current is modified by affluents which empty their waters into the main stream1 perhaps changing the appearance from clear to cloudy or muddy1 or1 it may be1 exerting the opposite effect4 ,to all these peculiarities in the flow of the stream there are likenesses in the stream of thought4 ,at times it is deep and at other times shallow1 now violent and disturbed1 now calm and placid1 sometimes clear to the bottom1 sometimes cloudy1 yea1 muddy1 always modified more or less by influences from without1 which are taken up into the main current of thought and alter the stream like the tributaries of a great river4 ,sidenote3 ,early life4 ,sidenote3 ,other metaphors4 ,on reaching the level country a river may spread out into a lake1 resulting in a clearing up of the water and resembling the periods of calm meditation during which the soul clarifies its thinking4 ,the lifelike behavior of rivers and the carving of land forms from their youth through maturity to old age have furnished many a figure of speech for our poetic literature4 ,the change from the active upper waters to the sedate lower current may typify the change in the stream of thought as we pass from youth to age4 ,while the volume of the stream is small and the channel lacks depth1 it is easy to change the direction of the current1 as sometimes happens when a straight channel is dug to take the place of its windings4 ,in early life the stream of thought is apt to wander in meandering courses2 the teacher may very frequently find it necessary to keep the mind from wandering1 to direct the stream of thought towards the destined goal1 and to make it groove for itself channels in harmony with logical habits4 ,in teaching pupils to think it is quite as essential to give direction to thought as it is to furnish either thought-stimulus or thought-material4 ,in one respect the metaphor1 stream of thought1 fails utterly to express the truth4 ,the constituents of thought are not related to each other like the molecules of a liquid which move freely among themselves4 ,thoughts have a connection with those that precede and those that follow4 ,an inner nexus binds the successive portions of a demonstration4 ,hence other figures of speech have been employed to denote the connection between the successive elements of a logical proof1 such as the train of thought1 the line of argument1 the chain of reasoning4 ,sidenote3 ,cognitive function4 ,it will be readily admitted that often our thinking is so loose and disjointed that its component parts resemble the liquid more than the chain1 whereas our best thinking--namely1 that which leads to a goal in the shape of a trustworthy conclusion--resembles a train of cars in which motive power is derived not from steam1 but from a conscious expenditure of will-power4 ,the teacher may perform the triple function of fireman1 engineer1 and switch-tender1 supplying the fuel for the process1 regulating the speed1 and directing it along the lines of track which lead to the desired goal4 ,it is as natural for a pupil to think as it is for a stream to flow towards the ocean4 ,the stream may run shallow if no supply of water is received from the outside4 ,it is the mission of the teacher to keep up the supply1 to remove as far as possible the obstructions which are likely to throw the current of thought into unexpected channels4 ,it is a peculiarity of this current of thinking that it is cognitive1 or possesses the function of knowing4 ,human thought resembles the stream in seemingly taking up and carrying what was not a part of itself4 ,just as the stream of water carries minerals in solution as well as silt1 sand1 pebbles1 and even heavier objects1 so the stream of thought appears to lay hold of objects and to carry them as part of itself4 ,here1 however1 the strings of the analogy break4 ,the stream of thought is in the mind2 the objects with which it deals are outside of the mind4 ,mental pictures of these objects float in the stream of thought as objects on the bank of a river are mirrored in its waters2 yet the parallel is not complete1 because the mind may turn the eye upon itself and make what is thus seen the object of thought4 ,this turning upon itself may be likened to eddies in the stream4 ,but even when the mind thus turns back upon itself and views its own states and activities1 these are regarded as objective1 as related to the thinking process very much like the objects of knowledge in the external world4 ,another important phase of thinking finds no likeness in any of the figures of speech above referred to4 ,the mind meets certain objects of thought on which it seems to tarry or fasten itself4 ,this has led some writers to deny that the stream of thought is a continuous current4 ,this view causes undue stress to be laid upon the material of thought1 and leads the teacher to undervalue his function as directing guide in teaching pupils to think4 ,even ,professor ,bain claims that1-- ,sidenote3 ,bain's view4 8,the stream of thought is not a continuous current1 but a series of distinct ideas1 more or less rapid in their succession1 the rapidity being measurable by the number that pass through the mind in a given time4 ,mental excitement is constantly judged of by this test2 and if we choose to count and time the thoughts as they succeed one another1 we could give so much more precision to the estimate40#cb ,sidenote3 ,transitions4 ,sidenote3 ,two phases4 ,these transitions should not be confounded with the relations between objects of thought or between objects in the external world4 ,the relations may be part of the thought of that which is perceived or known1 or they may be made distinct ideas or thoughts4 ,the important phase under consideration is the passage of the mind from one idea or thought to another4 ,such transitions are quite as important and quite as much a part of the current of thought as the premises and conclusions on which the mind seems to rest4 ,these two phases of the thought-process may be likened to the perching and the flight of a bird4 ,this figure of speech is used by ,professor ,james1 among whose services to the profession of teaching it is not the least that he has called attention to the importance of these transitions in the stream of consciousness4 ,his account is so lucid and satisfactory that one cannot forbear to quote his words at some length4 ,referring to the stream of thought1 he says1-- ,sidenote3 ,view of ,professor ,james4 8,like a bird's life1 it seems to be made up of an alternation of flights and perchings4 ,the rhythm of language expresses this1 where every thought is expressed in a sentence and every sentence closed by a period4 ,the resting-places are usually occupied by sensorial imaginations of some sort1 whose peculiarity is that they can be held before the mind for an indefinite time and contemplated without changing2 the places of flight are filled with thoughts of relations1 static or dynamic1 that for the most part obtain between the matters contemplated in the periods of comparative rest4 ,let us call the halting-places the #8substantive' parts and the places of flight the #8transitive' parts of the stream of thought4 ,it then appears that the main need of our thinking is at all times the attainment of some other substantive part than the one from which we have just been dislodged4 ,and we may say that the main use of the transitive parts is to lead us from one substantive conclusion to another4 ,now it is very difficult1 introspectively1 to see the transitive parts for what they really are4 ,if they are but flights to a conclusion1 stopping them to look at them before a conclusion is reached is really annihilating them4 ,whilst if we wait until the conclusion be reached1 it so exceeds them in vigor and stability that it quite eclipses and swallows them up in its glare4 ,let any one try to cut a thought in the middle and get a look at its section1 and he will see how difficult the introspective observation of the transitive tract is4 ,the rush of the thought is so headlong that it almost always brings us up at the conclusion before we can arrest it4 ,or if our purpose is nimble enough and we do arrest it1 it ceases forthwith to be itself4 ,as a snow-flake crystal caught in the warm hand is no longer a crystal1 but a drop1 so1 instead of catching the feeling of relation moving to its term1 we find we have caught some substantive thing1 usually the last word we were pronouncing1 statistically taken1 and with its function1 tendency1 and particular meaning in the sentence quite evaporated4 ,the attempt at introspective analysis in these cases is1 in fact1 like seizing a spinning top to catch its motion1 or trying to turn up the gas quickly enough to see the darkness4 ,and the challenge to produce these psychoses1 which is sure to be thrown by doubting psychologists at any one who contends for their existence1 is as unfair as ,zeno's treatment of the advocates of motion1 when1 asking them to point out in what place an arrow is when it moves1 he argues the falsity of their thesis from their inability to make to so preposterous a question an immediate reply40#cc ,sidenote3 ,nouns1 verbs1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,connectives4 ,the science of logic deals almost altogether with the halting-places1 with the substantive parts1 with the ideas1 notions1 concepts that are to be compared1 and with the resulting judgments1 inferences1 and conclusions4 ,whether the teacher has studied the science of logic or not1 it is to these he devotes his chief attention2 they can be analyzed1 defined1 and clearly fixed as thought-products or knowledge4 ,defects in the thinking-process are apt to show themselves here2 at least1 they furnish tangible data for criticism1 corrections1 and reviews4 ,these thought-products on which the mind loves to linger are denoted by nouns1 verbs1 adjectives1 and adverbs1--the parts of speech which constitute the bulk of the vocabulary of every language4 ,the movements of the mind from one object of thought to another are indicated by conjunctions and other connectives4 ,thinkers are often known by their favorite connective words and phrases4 ,pupils catch these from the phraseology of their teachers1 or pick them up unconsciously from the books they read4 ,some languages are richer in such connective words and phrases than others2 the mind carries away some influence in the way of making these transitions in thought from every language which it studies2 its thinking is moulded by the language which it masters4 ,logic has very little to say about these transitions for which one language sometimes supplies words and expressions altogether wanting in another4 ,frequently we grow conscious of them through the feeling of a gap to be filled1 or of a chasm to be leaped over1 or of an obstacle to be cleared away1 or of something that obstructs our thinking and hinders it from reaching the goal4 ,here again one cannot refrain from quoting ,professor ,james1 although his words do not indicate that he fully realizes the value for elementary instruction of what he has written4 ,here are his words3 8,the truth is that large tracts of human speech are nothing but signs of direction in thought1 of which direction we1 nevertheless1 have an acutely discriminative sense1 though no definite sensorial image plays any part in it whatsoever4 ,sensorial images are stable psychic facts2 we can hold them still1 and look at them as long as we like4 ,these bare images of logical movements1 on the contrary1 are psychic transitions1 always on the wing1 so to speak1 and not to be glimpsed except in flight4 ,their function is to lead from one set of images to another4 ,as they pass1 we feel both the waxing and the waning images in a way quite different from the way of their full presence4 ,if we try to hold fast the feeling of direction1 the full presence comes1 and the feeling of direction is lost4 ,the blank verbal scheme of logical movement gives us the fleeting sense of the movement as we read it1 quite as well as does a rational sentence awakening definite imaginations by its words40#cd ,sidenote3 ,directing the youthful mind4 ,right here the teacher who is an artist finds the opportunity for the display of his highest skill4 ,it is his privilege to direct the flights and the perchings of the youthful mind4 ,he can shape the thoughts and their sequence4 ,he can cause the intellect to move from the reason to its consequence1 or in the reverse direction if that be more natural or more appropriate4 ,he can guide the thought from cause to effect1 from the whole to the parts1 from the general to the particular1 from the end to the means1 from the design to its execution2 or a movement the other way is possible in each of these categories4 ,while thus choosing the direction which thought shall take1 he can select the objects upon which it shall tarry4 ,this directing influence he will often exert when he is not aware of it4 ,his own habits of mind will be reflected in the mental life of his pupils4 ,there was profound philosophy in the reply of a gifted author who1 when asked by his daughter what she should study1 said1 8,i am more concerned about the teachers under whom you study than about the branches of study which you may select40 ,habits of thought depend far more upon the teacher than upon the text-book1 upon the quality of the instruction than upon its general content4 ,there is1 of course1 a difference in the culture value of different branches of study2 but a study as valuable as geometry may be pursued in a loose way1 whilst branches of much inferior value for developing power to think may be taught and studied by the methods of rigid and exact thought4 ,sidenote3 ,the artist-teacher4 ,sidenote3 ,forms of speech4 ,in shaping the activity of thought1 the artist-teacher makes the mind tarry long enough for clear apprehension1 sometimes for thorough comprehension1 upon the ideas1 judgments1 and conclusions which are the framework of a system of thought1 but he does not neglect the transitions from one to the other1 as if these were of little account or necessarily took care of themselves4 ,the transitions in thought are aided by set phrases and forms of solution4 ,as soon as these are mastered1 there develops the tendency to think them as algebraic symbols1 which do substitute duty in the absence of that for which they stand4 ,for fear of this1 the teacher sometimes fails to drill on them long enough to fix them in the mind1--certainly a radical mistake4 ,drill is a condition of the highest discipline in the school as well as in the army4 ,the drill-master seeks to habituate the soldier to the word of command1 so that he will obey in the face of danger without thinking of the consequences4 ,the drill-master at school seeks to make it second nature for a pupil to go through the logical motions1 but not without conscious thought of the process or the consequences4 ,whenever the learner uses forms of parsing1 analysis1 or solution1 his mind should go through the movements of thought expressed by the language4 ,ask any ordinary class to give you a noun of the first person2 they are almost sure to give you either a noun of the third person or a pronoun of the first person4 ,dictate a sentence with a noun in the first person1 and ask the pupils to parse it in the customary way2 in nearly all cases they will parse it as a noun of the third person4 ,ask them to tell why a personal pronoun is so called2 frequently they say because it indicates a person1--a statement quite applicable to other kinds of pronouns4 ,if the logical or customary forms of speech are employed1 the stream of thought moves on1 the mind often failing to perceive the new truth1 or error1 or nonsense inherent in the language employed4 ,school-boys have tricks of their own which turn upon this peculiarity in the movement of thought4 8,who killed ,cain80 is suddenly asked4 8,abel10 is the reply generally elicited by the question4 ,should you say1 ,nine times seven is or are forty-two8 ,the boy who decides in favor of is or are gets a shock of surprise on being told that the product of nine times seven is not forty-two4 ,sidenote3 ,a strange reply4 ,one day a teacher was lecturing upon education in the dark ages4 ,to show how the energies of the common people were exhausted in the struggle for existence1 the resolution of a synod in the south of ,france was cited4 ,the resolution enjoined upon the bishops the duty of seeing to it that during a period of scarcity of food the peasants were at least provided with bread made of acorns4 ,a few minutes later a reference was made to the autobiography of ,thomas ,platter1 in which certain things are described as happening about the time of the ,diet of ,worms4 ,on being asked in what period of history that was1 a pupil promptly replied1 8,when the common people were fed on worms40 ,sidenote3 ,biblical phraseology4 ,sidenote3 ,huxley's story4 ,very much of the sermonizing of our day gives rise to the same kind of thinking4 ,the mind is borne along by the customary flow of words4 ,the phrases used have an orthodox sound2 perhaps they are biblical in the sense that they occur in the ,bible4 ,it is impossible to tell whether any clear idea or real religious experience is suggested to the hearer's mind by the words used4 ,the ideas excited in the hearer should be those for which the words stand in the mind of the speaker4 ,if the ideas of the speaker are not clear1 how can his words suggest anything definite to the audience8 ,huxley relates an amusing story of an after-dinner orator who was endowed with a voice of rare flexibility and power1 and with a fine flow of words1 and who was called upon to speak without much preparation4 ,the applause was terrific4 ,when ,huxley asked a neighbor who was especially enthusiastic what the orator had said1 the latter could not tell4 ,nothing was lacking in the post-prandial speech save sense and occasionally grammar4#ce ,the fuller consideration of the stream of thought in listening and lecturing1 in reading1 speaking1 and composing1 is deserving of separate chapters4 ,the mental attitude in listening resembles that in getting thought from the printed page4 ,silent reading is for the reader's own benefit2 it comprises by far the larger proportion of our reading4 ,in oral reading1 the stream of thought is somewhat different1 the aim being similar to that of public speaking1--namely1 to suggest or convey to the hearer thoughts from some other mind4 ,in the act of composing1 the aim is to evolve thought from the mind's own resources and activities4 ,the thought process is very much the same1 no matter whether we dictate to a stenographer1 or speak to an audience1 or use the pen in giving to it form and abiding shape4 ,it will be most convenient to treat together the stream of thought in listening and in silent reading1 and to reserve for separate consideration the activity of the mind in writing1 speaking1 and oral reading4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,listening ,,and ,,reading ,reading is thinking along a prescribed line that lies goldenly beneath the flow of words4 ,,brumbaugh4 ,whittier uses words as stepping-stones upon which with a light and joyous bound he crosses and recrosses at will the rapid and rushing stream of thought4 ,,longfellow4 ,to listen well is to think well1--the hearing ear must be attended by the alert mind1 eager to seize upon incoming sensations and weave them into a garland of thought4 ,m4 ,g4 ,b4 ,words1 however well constructed originally1 are always tending1 like coins1 to have their inscription worn off by passing from hand to hand2 and the only possible mode of reviving it is to be ever stamping it afresh by living in the habitual contemplation of the phenomena themselves1 and not resting in our familiarity with the words that express them4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,listening ,,and ,,reading ,sidenote3 ,a suggestive dialogue4 ,two men engaged in speculative pursuits met after one had published a book4 ,let us speak of them as ,a and ,b4 ,a3 ,i have just read your new book4 ,many things in it please me very much1 but in it you say so and so1 with which ,i do not find myself in full accord4 ,b3 ,i say nothing of the kind in that book4 ,a3 ,i surely read your book4 ,b3 ,you never read a book in your life4 ,you read some sentences or paragraphs2 your mind begins to react upon what you have read2 and ere long you imagine that your inferences are the conclusions of the author4 ,a3 ,i have a notion to write a psychology1 and to set forth my views in full4 ,b3 ,don't you do it4 ,you know no psychology4 ,you have been of great service in stimulating others to think2 you are a most delightful lecturer2 but you have never mastered psychology4 ,sidenote3 ,feeling4 ,sidenote3 ,interest4 ,if a third party could have listened to the conversation1 what stream of consciousness would have started in his mind8 ,possibly surprise at the frankness of ,b and the composure of ,a1 mingled with thoughts of what they were discussing4 ,in other words1 a strong tinge of feeling would be perceptible in the stream of thought4 ,in the minds of the two engaged in the dialogue1 feeling must have greatly modified the current of thought4 ,the greatest kindness that can be shown to some men is to oppose or criticise their views4 ,opposition and criticism stimulate their thinking1 and rouse their mental powers to the highest possible tension and activity4 ,in men of the opposite temperament1 feeling beclouds their thinking1 and makes the stream of thought more sluggish4 ,the common prejudice against appeals to feeling are due to the abuse of the right which every orator has of addressing the feelings through the intellect1 and of thereby moving the will4 ,to move the will is the essence and aim of all eloquence4 ,in listening or lecturing1 in reading or composing1 some form of emotion always accompanies the stream of thought4 ,the orator may move the hearer to tears or to laughter2 he is not untrue to his mission if he can thereby win a vote1 secure a verdict1 or move the hearer to action4 ,a lecture is addressed primarily to the understanding4 ,it is greatly improved if the stream of thought which it starts and supplies is accompanied by feelings of interest and the pleasurable emotions attendant upon novelty1 curiosity1 or admiring approval4 ,the consciousness that we understand a lecture is accompanied by pleasurable emotions which help to sustain the attention4 ,sidenote3 ,spurgeon4 ,the writer once paid a shilling to hear ,spurgeon4 ,it was his purpose to get a good seat1 so that he might study this famous preacher's gestures and delivery1 the quality of his voice1 and the secret of his eloquence4 ,the text was hardly announced before every one in the audience1 including the writer1 forgot all about ,spurgeon1 and thought only of his message to the thousands before him4 ,the secret of his oratory lay in his ability to make the audience forget everything except the gospel he was preaching4 ,if people1 after hearing a speaker1 talk of his fine delivery1 his flowery language and beautiful figures of speech1 or his peculiarities of pronunciation and other eccentricities1 it is proof positive that he has failed4 ,instead of holding the attention to what he was saying1 the audience was thinking of his manner and delivery4 ,a well-printed book has the advantage of keeping the author's personal characteristics from interfering with the stream of thought4 ,it has the disadvantage of losing all the helps to listening and thinking which come from the tones of the voice and eloquent delivery4 ,the accusation of ,b against ,a1 referred to at the beginning of this chapter1 is applicable to many readers4 ,for several sentences the mind is riveted upon the author's meaning4 ,presently a train of thought starts2 the eye runs along the sentences to the bottom of the page4 ,on turning the page1 the reader wakes up to the consciousness that his mind does not retain1 perhaps never had the slightest notion of the contents of said page4 ,often the train of thought leads to no goal2 the thinking resembles the process of wool-gathering1 the tufts of wool on bushes and hedges necessitating much wandering to little purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,the works of great thinkers4 ,for the sake of cultivating ability to think1 students are advised to read the works of great thinkers1 like ,kant1 ,schleiermacher1 and ,hegel4 ,such reading is often a sham and a delusion4 ,no one has done more to shape the critical thinking of the world than ,kant2 and yet how many young men waste time upon his pages because they are not prepared to think his thoughts4 ,schleiermacher stimulated and modified the thinking of theologians in every department of their science except ,old ,testament exegesis2 and yet the celebrated ,dr4 ,kahnis1 of the ,university of ,leipsic1 used to say of ,schleiermacher1 8,er ist rein nicht zum studiren40 ,nevertheless1 students for the ministry have been known to waste hours in trying to read his writings1 which they were not prepared to understand4 ,of the obscurer passages in ,hegel an eminent authority says1 8,it is a fair question whether the rationality included in them be anything more than the fact that the words all belong to a common vocabulary1 and are strung together on a scheme of predication and relation1--immediacy1 self-relation1 and what not1--which has habitually recurred4 ,yet there seems no reason to doubt that the subjective feeling of the rationality of these sentences was strong in the writer as he penned them1 or even that some readers by straining may have reproduced it in themselves40#cf ,it may be worth an honest effort for students and teachers to try to grasp the meaning of such writers2 but if after a fair trial the mind is left empty of meaning1 it is wise to follow the advice of ,locke with regard to obscure ancient authors3 8,in reading of them1 if they do not use their words with a due clearness and perspicuity1 we may lay them aside1 and1 without any injury done them1 resolve thus with ourselves3 8,si non vis intelligi1 debes negligi40#cg ,several months or years of study may be required to prepare the mind for grasping the ideas or phraseology of new departments of investigation4 ,no one can comprehend the treatises on physiological psychology without devoting several weeks to the anatomy of the brain4 ,sidenote3 ,reading4 ,sidenote3 ,lewes's view4 ,the words1 phrases1 and sentences of the printed or written page should call up in the mind of the reader that for which they stand in the mind of the author4 ,what the stream of thought should be in reading a book is well worthy of careful consideration4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 in 8,problems of ,life and ,mind10 claims that 8our thought is a constant interchange of ideas and images1 some trains of thought being carried on mainly by images more or less vivid1 others mainly by ideas with only a faint escort of images40 ,it should be said1 by way of explanation1 that he does not use the word 8ideas0 in the ,platonic sense of patterns fixed in nature1 of which the individual objects in any given class are but imperfect copies1 and by participation in which they have their being2 nor in the sense of a mental image or picture1 which 7in opposition to ,sir ,william ,hamilton71 the ,century ,dictionary claims1 has been the more common meaning of the term in ,english literature since the sixteenth century4 ,in ,lewes's pages ideas never stand for images1 nor for copies of sensations4 ,sully says that the term idea is used to include both images and concepts1 marking off the whole region of the representative from the presentative1 but that1 like the term notion1 it now tends to be confined to concepts4 ,with ,lewes all ideas are thoughts1 but not all thoughts are ideas4 ,he does not reject the popular usage of the word in phrases like the idea of ,shakespeare's ,othello1 of ,bismarck's policy4 ,take the following sentence from ,justin ,mc,carthy's 8,history of ,our ,own ,times30 8,unluckily1 ,lord ,palmerston became possessed with the idea that the ,french minister in ,greece was secretly setting the ,greek government on to resist our claims40 ,in thinking the thought of this sentence the mind is not filled with any images of ,greece or mental pictures of any other kind4 ,possibly the adjective ,greek may bring to the minds of some persons the map symbol of ,greece or even scenery and cities in ,greece1 especially if they have travelled or resided there2 but such mental pictures really interfere with the current of thought in reading4 ,in planning a route from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco one is apt to think it in the lines and dots of railway maps4 ,that in the mind for which words stand may be styled their meaning1 and ,lewes claims that much of our reading does not translate the words into their full signification1 but proceeds by a process of logical symbolism4 ,he asserts that 8the greater proportion of all men's thinking goes forward with confident reliance on the correctness of the logical operations1 and with only an occasional translation of symbols into images4 ,the translation--verification--does1 indeed1 from time to time take place1 and always in proportion to the novelty of the connections2 but how easily and how fatally the mind glides along the path of logical operation without pausing to interpret more than the relation of the symbols is humorously illustrated in the common story of a physicist1 whose claim to omniscience was the joke of his friends4 ,being asked earnestly whether he had #8read ,biot's paper on the malleability of light8' #8,no1' he replied2 #8he sent it me1 but ,i have not yet had time to read it4'0 ,sidenote3 ,an example4 ,lewes's meaning is made somewhat clearer by two examples which he uses4 8,suppose you inform me that the blood rushed violently from the man's heart1 quickening his pulse1 at the sight of his enemy4 ,of the many latent images in this phrase1 how many were salient in your mind and in mine8 ,probably two1--the man and his enemy1--and these images were faint4 ,images of blood1 heart1 violent rushing1 pulse1 quickening1 and sight were either not revived at all or were passing shadows4 ,had any such images arisen1 they would have hampered thought1 retarding the logical process of judgment by irrelevant connections4 ,the symbols had substituted relations for these values1--the logical relations of inclusion and exclusion which constitute judgment4 ,you were not anxious to inform me respecting the qualities of blood1 heart1 pulse1 etc41 but only of a certain effect produced on one man by sight of another2 and this effect you expressed in the physiological terms which came first to hand2 you might have expressed it equally well in very different psychological terms1--#8fierce anger seized the man's soul1 rousing all his energies at the sight of his enemy1' when assuredly there would not have been present images of #8anger1' #8seizing1' #8soul1' #8rousing1' and #8energies4' ,these terms are symbols which stand for clusters of images1 and can at will be translated into images1 just as algebraic letters stand for values which can be assigned4 ,but for purposes of thought and calculation such translation is unnecessary1 is hampering2 all that is necessary is that the terms should occupy their proper logical position40#ch ,sidenote3 ,another example4 ,the other example is still more striking4 8,suppose ,i read the phrase1 #8,the ship which carried ,nelson was appropriately named the ,victory2' unless the ship itself is the prominent interest1 ,i have probably no image at all1 or at least only a faint and fleeting shadow of some vague outline4 ,i do not picture a man-of-war1 ,i do not see the hull1 masts1 cordage1 and cannon1 though these1 with the figure-head1 fluttering flags1 and pennons1 may successfully emerge if ,i dwell on the ship4 ,i perhaps do not see ,nelson1 or1 at any rate1 do not see his pale face1 one eye1 and one arm1 but only some faint suggestion of a human form4 ,the purpose of the phrase was not to raise images1 but to communicate a fact respecting the name of the ship2 and my intelligence has been occupied with this purpose4 ,i must1 it is true1 have understood each word1 or1 at any rate1 each clause of the sentence2 but for this understanding it is not necessary that ,i should translate1 nor even that ,i should be capable of translating1 each word into an image or cluster of images2 it is enough if ,i apprehend a series of logical relations4 ,we all use occasional words with intelligent and intelligible propriety1 the meaning of which as isolated terms we cannot translate4 ,we read ,shakespeare and ,goethe without a suspicion of the many words which for us have no images4 ,but if one of these words occurs in an unfamiliar connection we are at once arrested1 as we are if any familiar word is placed in an unfamiliar position4 ,suppose we come upon the sentence1 #8,the ship which carried ,nelson was named ,victory2 the ship which carried ,napoleon across the desert was named ,akbar1'--we are at once arrested2 the connection of ship and desert is unusual1 and is seen1 on reflection1 to be contrary to experience2 but when we learn that the camel is called the #8ship of the desert1' we recognize the new value assigned to the term1 and the logical correctness of the phrase is thereby recognized40#ci ,these examples1 and others like them which ,lewes gives1 bring us face to face with the proposition that 8much of our thinking is carried on by means of symbols without any images1 which is the same thing as thinking being carried on by words without any meanings and with only the accompanying intuition of their logical relations40 ,thus1 after a century of exhortation against the blind use of words we are brought face to face with the question of using words in thinking without realizing the full meaning1 an abuse of words for which reformers have shot their arrows at rote teaching from every possible point of view4 ,what truth is there in the statement of ,mr4 ,lewes8 ,what can be his meaning8 ,sidenote3 ,literature4 ,sidenote3 ,imaging in poetry4 ,sidenote3 ,the correct plan4 ,it must be admitted that men in mature life skim newspapers1 magazines1 and books1 especially books of fiction and books of reference1 without realizing in their minds the import of all the words upon which the eye falls4 ,the aim may be to get the plot of the story or a fact for some specific use1 or a hurried view of the news and current events of the last twenty-four hours4 ,but this is not the kind of thinking which the teacher aims to beget in the minds of his pupils4 ,nor does it ever lead to a just appreciation of literature4 ,all literature which appeals to the imagination cannot be read and enjoyed in that way4 ,no one can rightly read a choice selection without thinking what was in the author's mind1 reconstructing the images and scenes which were before his mental eye and following the movements depicted by his language4 ,movement is more easily conceived than scenery1 and abounds in the stories which are most popular among children4 ,judicious exercises will soon enable the pupil to call up all kinds of imagery4 ,in the ,standard ,fifth ,reader it is suggested that the pupils sit with closed eyes and close attention while the teacher or one of the pupils reads a paragraph or stanza4 ,for illustration1 ,kate ,putnam ,osgood's poem1 entitled 8,driving ,home the ,cows10 is selected4 ,out of the clover and blue-eyed grass ,he turned them into the river lane2 ,one after another he let them pass1 ,then fastened the meadow bars again4 ,under the willows and over the hill ,he patiently followed their sober pace2 ,the merry whistle for once was still1 ,and something shadowed the sunny face4 ,only a boy6 and his father had said ,he never could let his youngest go2 ,two already were lying dead ,under the feet of the trampling foe4 ,but after the evening's work was done1 ,and the frogs were loud in the meadow-swamp1 ,over his shoulder he slung his gun1 ,and stealthily followed the foot-path damp2 ,across the clover and through the wheat1 ,with resolute heart and purpose grim2 ,though the dew was on his hurrying feet ,and the blind bat's flitting startled him4 ,thrice since then had the lanes been white1 ,and the orchard sweet with apple-bloom2 ,and now1 when the cows came back at night1 ,the feeble father drove them home4 ,for news had come to the lonely farm ,that three were lying where two had lain2 ,and the old man's tremulous1 palsied arm ,could never lean on a son's again4 ,the summer days grew cool and late3 ,he went for the cows when the work was done2 ,but down the lane as he opened the gate ,he saw them coming1 one by one3 ,brindle1 ,ebony1 ,speckle1 and ,bess1 ,shaking their horns in the evening wind2 ,cropping the buttercups out of the grass2 ,but who was it following close behind8 ,loosely swung in the idle air ,an empty sleeve of army blue2 ,and worn and pale1 from the crisping hair1 ,looked out a face that the father knew4 ,the great tears sprang to their meeting eyes ,for the heart must speak when the lips are dumb2 ,and under the silent evening skies ,together they followed the cattle home4 ,sidenote3 ,some thoughts are not images4 ,who can fully appreciate these stanzas without picturing the landscape of clover1 blue-eyed grass1 meadow bars1 river lane1 cows moving homeward1 and especially the boy with the shadow on his face1 the two older brothers lying dead under the feet of the trampling foe8 ,the subsequent parts of the poem lend themselves to the activity of the imagination1 to a play of sympathy for the father seemingly bereft of all his sons1 until on a summer day cool and late he sees fluttering in the wind an empty sleeve of army blue1 beneath a face that he knew1--a scene which1 if constructed by the imagination1 cannot help stirring the emotional life of the reader and giving him proper tones and inflections in oral reading while more fully realizing the price paid in war for the saving of the nation4 ,very much of our thinking does not turn on images or mental pictures4 ,we do not primarily think justice1 law1 kindness1 mercy under the form of images1 though by a secondary process we can throw these ideas into concrete examples and image them as occurring in life4 ,very many ideas cannot be made concrete in that way1 as1 for example1 the ideas of infinity1 eternity4 ,sometimes an indistinct or faded image does duty for the idea of horses in general1 but in such cases the image is representative of the idea1 and should not be confounded with the idea4 ,both are thoughts1 but not all thoughts are ideas or images4 ,many thoughts are propositions and cannot be imaged at all4 ,sidenote3 ,putting content into words4 ,the images which go with words grow in fulness as one's experience enlarges4 ,take the word fire4 ,the first idea was formed from fire in the stove and in the smithy4 ,a fuller idea resulted from the sight of a distant mountain on fire4 ,then a distant conflagration resulting in the loss of a block of town property gave the word still fuller content4 ,finally1 the destruction of the ,state ,capitol1 in which part of the manuscript of a book1 other valuable papers and records were destroyed1 and in which one or two friends almost lost their lives1 gave a meaning to the word fire which it never had before4 ,without doubt it hampers the mind and impedes the logical processes of thought if the word invariably calls up the idea of these fires with the accompanying emotions4 ,sidenote3 ,books on mathematics and other sciences4 ,we saw the value of the labor-saving devices introduced by the symbols and formulas of mathematics and other sciences4 ,analysts carry forward long trains of thought by means of symbols whose meaning can be1 but is not always1 called up with the successive links of the chain of reasoning4 ,in adding a column of figures1 in solving an algebraic equation1 in reading a work on higher mathematics or logic1 in thinking the formulas of chemistry1 physics1 astronomy1 etc41 and in dealing with objects1 forces1 and relations which have been accurately and definitely quantified1 the thinking may be carried forward by the use of symbols which can be interpreted and applied whenever the occasion requires1 but whose meaning is not always present to the mind4 ,in reading of things which have not been quantified1 the stream of thought often flows on without images1 or mental pictures1 or copies of sensations4 ,nevertheless1 the examination of any school reader or book of selections from the best literature will show how our best writers and orators appeal to the imagination1 and to what a large field the method of thinking in images or mental pictures is applicable for the purpose of securing due appreciation of good literature and proper expression in oral reading4 ,the simplest thinking is the comparison of objects when these are present to the senses4 ,it prevails largely in the handicrafts and in the ordinary duties of life4 ,more difficult is the comparison of images or mental pictures of things when these are not present to the senses1 but must be recalled by the memory4 ,this thinking is essential to the appreciation of poetry1 to the vivid presentation of thought1 and should not be neglected by those who wish to move the multitudes with tongue or pen4 8,imaging10 says ,dryden1 8is in itself the very height and life of poetry1 which1 by a kind of enthusiasm or extraordinary emotion of the soul1 makes it seem to us that we behold those things which the poet paints40 ,higher1 from the scientist's point of view1 is the thinking in substitute symbols which stand for ideas definitely fixed or quantified4 ,higher still is the comparison of abstract and general ideas through expressive symbols1 including their application to the problems of life2 for this is the kind of thinking that characterizes the scientist and the philosopher1 the engineer and the surgeon1 the editor and the orator1 and1 in fact1 all whose vocation has risen to the rank of a profession4 ,but highest of all is the thinking which creates and invents1 begetting progress in science and art1 in literature and history1 in government and civilization4 ,,xv ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,writing1 ,,speaking1 ,,and ,,oral ,,reading ,the highest joy is the freedom of the mind in the living play of all its powers4 ,,schiller4 ,the historian ,niebuhr1 speaking of the historian's vocation1 remarks that he who calls past ages into being enjoys a bliss analogous to that of creating4 ,with still more truth may we say of that mind which is able1 in the conscious awakening of all its powers1 to give full and satisfactory utterance to its thick-coming thoughts1 that it enjoys the joy of a creator4 ,if there is one bright particular hour in the life of the educated man1 in the career of the scholar1 it is that hour for which all other hours of student-life were made1--that hour in which he gives original and full expression to what has been slowly gendering within him4 ,,shedd4 ,unless a man can link his written thoughts with the everlasting wants of men so that they shall draw from them as from wells1 there is no more immortality to the thoughts and feelings of the soul than to the muscles and bones4 ,,beecher4 ,,xv ,,the ,,stream ,,of ,,thought ,,in ,,writing1 ,,speaking1 ,,and ,,oral ,,reading ,sidenote3 ,the first speech4 ,eventful in his career is the day on which a young person speaks in public for the first time4 ,his hands and arms are in his way2 his lower limbs quake2 his lips and throat feel dry and parched2 the vocal organs refuse to obey his bidding2 he experiences other discomforts which he cannot explain and which are due to embarrassment and nervousness4 ,what is worst of all1 he cannot tell what has gone wrong in his mind4 ,if his speech was committed1 the memory fails to recall some word or sentence that seems absolutely essential to the sequence of thought4 ,if he speaks extemporaneously1 the stream of thought stops flowing1 or turns back in eddies1 or perhaps spreads out over all the land instead of moving towards the proper goal4 ,in fact1 all these annoyances have their fontal source in the mind1 in a play of emotions in which stage-fright is the principal element4 ,to this young man some trusted friend should whisper1 8,take courage20 for if ever in his life a young man needs encouragement it is when he makes his first speech or preaches his first sermon4 ,sidenote3 ,public speakers are made1 not born4 ,public speakers are made1 not born4 ,native talent is helpful1 but not all sufficient4 ,most of the obstacles to success disappear as soon as one has learned to think on his feet2 that is1 to control the stream of thought when facing an audience4 ,sidenote3 ,dangers of fluency4 ,there are1 of course1 exceptions to all rules4 ,some young men possess an amount of self-confidence which is proof against embarrassment4 ,such youth are sometimes gifted with a flow of words that is fatal to ultimate success4 ,it enables them to fill time without previous preparation4 ,bautain describes a 8fatal facility a thousand times worse than hesitation or than silence1 which drowns thought in floods of words1 or in a torrent of copiousness1 sweeping away good earth and leaving behind sand and stones alone4 ,heaven keep us from these interminable talkers1 such as are often to be found in southern countries1 who deluge you1 relatively to anything and to nothing1 with a shower of dissertation and a down-pouring of their eloquence4 ,during nine-tenths of the time there is not one rational thought in the whole of this twaddle1 carrying along in its course every kind of rubbish and platitude4 ,the class of persons who produce a speech so easily and who are ready at the shortest moment to extemporize a speech1 a dissertation1 or a homily1 know not how to compose a tolerable sentence2 and ,i repeat that1 with such exceptions as defy all rule1 he who has not learned how to write will never know how to speak40#dj ,no one stands in greater need of the discipline derived from the use of the pen than those who overflow with words and sentences4 ,their dearth of ideas can be remedied in no other way4 ,the sentence which escapes from the lips is fleeting and soon forgotten4 ,the sentence in black and white1 which stares you in the face from the written page1 can be read and re-read until its lack of sense and its wealth of nonsense and absurdity grow too glaring to be endured4 ,paragraph after paragraph can thus be tested1 condensed1 and stuffed full of meaning4 ,this discipline ultimately enables a fluent talker to speak with force and to the point1 because it gradually transforms his habits of thinking1 deepening the stream of thought and enabling it to carry craft too weighty to be borne by a shallow stream4 ,sidenote3 ,hesitating speakers4 ,the person who is afflicted with hesitation and embarrassment also stands in sore need of the discipline of writing4 ,in the solitude of the home one can take time to find and fix the right word1 to weave it into sentences that stand the test of grammar1 logic1 and rhetoric1 and to arrange a line of thought from which everything irrelevant is excluded4 ,embarrassment vanishes with the advent of the feeling that one has something to say4 ,the growth of language1 which invariably accompanies the evolution and clarification of thought1 corrects hesitation4 ,soon the hands drop to the side or obey the will in gesture1 and the feeling of ease begins to color the delivery4 ,nothing more beneficial can happen to a young preacher than the call to preach the same discourse a number of times in succession1 each time to a different audience4 ,repetition will make him a master of the train of ideas1 improving his phraseology1 and deeping the stream of thought4 ,who has not watched with delight the improvement in the presentation of a lecture heard from the same lips half a dozen times in succession8 ,the change for the better was due to the deepening1 straightening1 and improvement of the channel in which the stream of thought seems to flow4 ,sidenote3 ,writing4 ,if a student several times each month during a college course writes out and fixes a line of argument for a debate1 he can acquire the power to fix and retain the thoughts as fast as he writes4 ,the habit of memorizing the words is1 of course1 pernicious1 because it is apt to make him the slave of his manuscript1 to destroy his freedom in meeting the blows of an antagonist1 and to divest him of the glow of feeling and animation which gives force to the delivery while the mind is engaged in the elaboration of the argument4 ,the sequence of ideas rather than of words should be fixed in the mind1 very much as the student of ,euclid fixes in his mind1 not the words1 but the ideas which constitute the chain of proof4 ,this kind of practice gives a young speaker the sense of security without destroying his freedom in modifying the line of thought while standing upon his feet4 ,sidenote3 ,criticism4 ,from this point of view the folly of much criticism in teaching is very apparent4 ,the current of thought is frequently interrupted by drawing attention at the wrong time to mistakes in grammar and errors of pronunciation4 ,the proper time for such criticism is after the movement of thought has reached the goal2 and even then the critic should not call attention to too many defects at one time2 otherwise the effect will be to discourage and bewilder the pupil4 ,sidenote3 ,the thought4 ,the stream of thought is the most essential thing in writing1 speaking1 and oral reading4 ,the management of face and hands and feet1 the postures of the body1 and the vocal utterance should1 of course1 not be neglected4 ,the intelligent counsel of a good friend is needed to point out mannerisms and eccentricities4 ,the practice prescribed by a wise teacher is helpful in pruning the delivery of defects and harmful habits which are sure to grow where attention to the thought sinks the delivery into the subconscious realm4 ,nevertheless1 the main thing in writing and speaking is the stream of thought4 ,a profound truth was stated by the ,kentucky backwoodsman1 who said that he would have it in him to become as great an orator as ,henry ,clay1 were it not that he found himself lacking in two things3 ,whenever a favorable opportunity for a great speech presented itself he never knew what to say nor how to say it4 ,the how is more easily acquired than the what4 ,both should receive attention1 from the kindergarten to the university4 ,the getting of something to say is invention4 ,it is the one thing in which special teachers and special courses give least help4 ,the power of invention is acquired by years of effort and discipline4 ,tributaries from many sources must pour into the stream of thought before it becomes full1 copious1 and capable of carrying great thoughts1 or of supplying the motive power for great undertakings4 ,sidenote3 ,hinderances4 ,in writing nothing should be allowed to interfere with the stream of thought4 ,some can write in the midst of noise4 ,others must seek silence and solitude4 ,gifted men like ,horace ,greeley can write in the cars1 upon the knee1 anywhere4 ,habit has much to do with the art of composing4 ,in any event1 the stream of thought must be kept flowing4 ,in so far as the rules of grammar1 logic1 rhetoric have become unconscious guiding principles1 they do not interfere with the evolution of thought4 ,in so far as they absorb the attention and hinder the flow of thought1 they should be cast to the winds during the first glow of writing4 ,better think of these during the process of rewriting1 polishing1 and correcting4 ,so great a thinker and successful a writer as ,charles ,darwin makes the following suggestive statement concerning his own methods of composing3 ,sidenote3 ,how ,darwin composed4 8,there seems to be a sort of fatality in my mind1 leading me to put at first my statement or proposition in a wrong or awkward form4 ,formerly ,i used to think about my sentences before writing them down2 but for several years ,i have found that it saves time to scribble in a vile hand whole pages as quickly as ,i possibly can1 contracting half the words2 and then correct deliberately4 ,sentences thus scribbled down are often better ones than ,i could have written deliberately40#da ,no one should speak as he writes1 nor should any one write as he speaks4 ,few men are satisfied with the stenographic report of a speech1 exactly true to the language at the time of delivery4 ,a reporter who cannot make a speech read better1 without changing the line of thought1 than if it were printed exactly as spoken is not a master of the art of reporting4 ,written discourse abounds in longer sentences1 in more involved constructions1 in forms of diction which please the eye1 but are too cumbersome for the voice and the ear4 ,the public speaker is prone to use short1 simple sentences in which the subject of the sentence does not pass out of the mind before the predicate is reached4 ,his style abounds in questions which arrest the attention of the hearer2 if necessary1 he indulges in colloquial expressions to which the ears of the hearer are accustomed1 thereby bringing himself nearer the common people4 ,sidenote3 ,fox's opinion4 ,sidenote3 ,written discourse4 ,upon a speech delivered in the ,british ,parliament high praise was bestowed in the hearing of ,mr4 ,fox4 8,does it read well80 he inquired4 8,yes1 grandly10 was the reply4 8,then10 said he1 8it was not a good speech40 ,it may be difficult to point out exactly wherein speaking differs from writing so far as the stream of thought is concerned2 yet one feels the difference4 ,austin ,phelps shows the difference by using an extract from an essay on the 8,end of ,god in ,creation30 8,what was the final cause of creation8 ,the transition from the unconditioned to the conditioned is incomprehensible by the human faculties4 ,what that transition is1 and how it could take place1 and how it became an actualized occurrence1 it is confessed on all hands are absolutely incomprehensible enigmas4 ,we cannot reasonably imagine1 then1 that1 if we are thus ignorant of the nature and mode of this stupendous fact1 we can nevertheless comprehend its primitive ground1 can explore its ultimate reasons1 can define its final motive4 ,nor can we think to unveil the infinite soul at that moment when1 according to our conceptions1 the eternal uniformity was interrupted and a new mode of being1 absolutely unintelligible to us1 was first introduced4 ,we cannot think to grasp all the views which were present to that soul1 extending from the unbeginning past to the unending future1 and to fathom all its purposes1 and to analyze all its motives4 ,if anywhere1 we must here repel everything like dogmatic interpretation of the phenomena1 and admit whatever is put forth only as conjectural in its nature1 or1 at all events1 partial1 and belonging far more to the surface than to the interior of the subject40 ,sidenote3 ,example of spoken discourse4 ,one can easily see how ill adapted to oral delivery these sentences are4 ,phelps throws the same leading thoughts and succession of thoughts into a form adapted for public speaking3 8,why did ,god create the universe8 ,creation is incomprehensible to man4 ,what is creation8 ,how was it possible8 ,how did it ever come to be8 ,i cannot answer4 ,can you8 ,every man of common sense confesses his ignorance here4 ,but if we are ignorant of what creation is1 and how it is1 can we imagine that we understand why it is8 ,shall we think to unveil the mind of ,god in the stupendous act8 ,that moment when ,god said #8,let there be light' was a moment of which we can know nothing but that #8there was light4' ,shall we think to see all that ,god saw8 ,can we look through the past without beginning1 and the future without end1 and fathom all ,his purposes and all ,his motives8 ,can we1 by searching1 find out ,god8 ,if we must repel assertion anywhere1 we must do so here4 ,whatever we may think1 it is but little more than guess-work4 ,at the best it can be but knowing in part4 ,the most we can know must be on the surface4 ,it cannot penetrate to the heart of the matter40#db ,sidenote3 ,two kinds of style4 ,the plan of writing down a line of discussion helps to clarify the thought4 ,casting aside the manuscript as soon as the sequence of ideas is fixed in the mind emancipates the speaker from the written page4 ,several years of practice develop two kinds of style1 one adapted for writing1 the other for speaking4 ,after this stage of development is reached1 it may be no longer necessary to formulate on paper every line of argument4 ,nevertheless1 the pen cannot be laid aside entirely without detriment to the quality of the thought and the effectiveness of oral discourse4 ,sidenote3 ,dictating4 ,everything calculated to interfere with the stream of thought should1 so far as possible1 be eliminated from the act of composing4 ,some men find the pen an irksome drain upon their energy and vitality4 ,their thought moves faster than they can write4 ,the employment of a stenographer aids them in the work of composing4 ,the danger against which they must guard is a growing dislike to the use of the pen1 and a deterioration of their style resulting in the obliteration of the difference which distinguishes effective speaking from successful writing4 ,sidenote3 ,lectures and orations4 ,there is a radical difference between a lecture and an oration4 ,public speaking which partakes of the nature of the lecture1 aiming primarily at instruction or the communication of knowledge1 may be assisted by experiments1 by maps1 charts1 and pictures upon the screen1 by specimens and models designed to throw light upon the theme under discussion4 ,public speaking which partakes of the nature of oratory1 its aim being to move the will to action1 is generally limited in the appliances it can utilize1 and in the way it must appeal to the hearer4 ,it must not exhaust the attention of the hearer by consuming his time in the establishment of principles1 and in showing1 by lengthy details1 how results are obtained4 ,far better is it to cite authorities1 to quote their language if necessary1 and to make the application to the case in hand4 ,in referring to recognized standards1 like a dictionary1 a treatise on law1 or the ,sacred ,scriptures1 it is always best to quote the exact words4 ,this is also more appropriate on the written page than a reproduction of the thought in inferior forms of statement4 ,in public speaking1 however1 the original statement may be too involved1 and a breaking up into shorter1 simpler sentences may aid the forward movement of the stream of thought4 ,the first aim of the speaker is to be understood4 ,if he fails to reach the understanding1 he can neither persuade nor convince1 nor spur the will to action4 ,sidenote3 ,starting in too high a key4 ,there is another limitation to the kind of public speaking which partakes of the nature of oratory4 ,the idea which the speaker seeks to have realized in the vote1 or verdict1 or conduct of others1 must be carried back to the necessary ideas of the hearer4 ,the full discussion of this peculiarity in the stream of thought belongs to treatises on rhetoric4 ,such a discussion can be found in ,theremin's ,rhetoric1 translated by ,shedd4 ,suffice it to say that the recognition of this principle makes the speaker a more thoughtful man4 ,it causes him to rely for the effect he seeks to produce upon solid and sterling qualities rather than showy rhetoric4 ,it tends to make the stream of thought flow deeper1 fuller1 yet clearer and with more power4 ,any interference with the stream of thought while the speaker is before the audience may be disastrous4 ,the crying of a child1 or an outburst of feeling in the audience1 or some other mishap may disconcert his mind4 ,legouv tells how the world-renowned advocate1 ,berryer1 lost a very good cause by unconsciously starting his speech in too high a key4 8,his temples soon felt the unusual fatigue of the larynx2 from the temples it passed to the brain2 the strain being too great1 the brain gave way2 the thought became confused1 and the language disarranged and indistinct40 ,he broke down in open court because he never thought of descending from the lofty perch on which his voice started at the beginning of his plea4 ,legouv claims1 and the experience of many speakers confirms the claim1 that the abuse of the high notes has not infrequently affected injuriously the orator's very flow of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,the three generals4 ,three generals made stump speeches on a joint trip during the last ,presidential campaign4 ,one day the name of the candidate of the other great political party was mentioned1 when there was a perfect storm of applause in the gallery4 ,a second reference elicited similar applause1 and the disconcerted general1 who had bravely faced the enemy on the battle-field1 took his seat4 ,the next general1 walking on a crutch1 came forward1 and requested that all who had been sent to disturb the meeting should rise4 ,ho one moved4 ,he exclaimed1 8,there are some cowards here40 ,then he asked that all who had come to listen and learn should rise4 ,everybody rose4 ,he exclaimed1 8,there are some liars here40 ,next he announced that any one attempting to disturb the meeting would be pitched out of doors1 the general on the crutch declaring he would lead the attack4 ,soon a man arose as if to ask a question4 ,whereupon a big burly policeman threw the fellow out1 and there was no further outside interference with the stream of thought in the mind of speaker or listeners4 ,the man on the platform always has the advantage over disturbers in the audience1 provided he is master of his faculties1 full of resources1 and quick at repartee4 ,sidenote3 ,the schools of ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,the reading lesson4 ,the schools of ,france have been quoted to show the uselessness of exercises in oral reading4 ,as in other things1 so in school matters1 distance lends enchantment to the view4 ,legouv1 in his lectures on the 8,art of ,reading10 mentions with approval that in the great ,republic of ,north ,america reading aloud is justly considered one of the very first elements of a child's education1 whilst in ,france1 reading aloud does not reach even the sorry dignity of a diverting art1 but is regarded as a curiosity1 a luxury1 often something hardly better than a pretension4#dc ,this was written several decades ago1 and may not be just to the ,french nation at this time4 ,the value of oral reading depends upon the way in which it is done4 ,if it amounts to no more than calling words and parrot-like imitation of the teacher's manner of reading1 the exercise is a waste of time4 ,the mastery of the new words and of the thought embodied should precede the attempt to read a lesson aloud4 ,the mastery of the words involves ability to recognize them at sight1 to pronounce them with fluency and ease1 and to spell them by letter and by sound4 ,it implies both a knowledge of their meaning and ability to use them in a sentence4 ,an average series of readers has a vocabulary of five thousand words4 ,the meaning of all these words may be known at sight1 but ability to use them by tongue or pen is quite another thing1 the vocabulary of most persons being not much in excess of a thousand words4 ,the thought can be mastered by an exercise in silent reading1 followed by the oral and written reproduction of the lesson4 ,the mastery of the thought is a condition of proper vocal utterance4 ,sidenote3 ,acting and reading4 ,sidenote3 ,reading and talking4 ,there is a difference between acting and reading4 ,the actor endeavors to speak and act after the exact manner of the character whom he impersonates4 ,the reader aims to suggest the thought instead of imitating the original actors4 ,an actor will go through the motion of stabbing or shooting an enemy2 the reader simply aims to suggest the thought of what was done4 ,exercises in breathing1 gesture1 tone1 pitch1 cadence1 voice may be needed for the sake of correcting defects2 nevertheless1 everything connected with oral reading should turn on and culminate in the stream of thought4 ,if anything else is made the object of chief regard1 the main purpose of oral reading is lost4 ,it furnishes an excellent test by means of which the teacher can determine whether the pupil understands what he reads or is merely calling words after the manner of a parrot4 ,to correct the unnatural tones acquired in the school-room1 the pupil is wisely exhorted to read as he would talk4 ,in the effort to develop a style of reading exactly like talking1 some teachers ruin their natural way of talking and reading4 ,in conversation1 they talk as if they were trying to read4 ,while reading1 they seem to be trying to talk4 ,the human voice is so made that it puts the quotation marks to selections recited from memory and to sentences read from a manuscript or book4 ,as a rule1 a person can read best what he himself has written2 yet his voice tells whether his sentences and thoughts are framed and evolved at the moment of delivery1 or taken from a manuscript prepared beforehand4 ,as a matter of fact1 no one can read as he talks or speaks4 ,a blindfolded listener could tell when ,spurgeon was reading or speaking4 ,the same was true of ,charles ,sumner1 and of every other great speaker ,america has produced4 ,sidenote3 ,abiding thoughts4 ,to think the best thoughts of the best men is the privilege of him who can read4 ,to plant these thoughts in other minds by reading aloud is a noble achievement4 ,to give in speech something from our own resources that others shall treasure is nobler still1 because it links our life with the creative workers of the world4 ,but noblest of all is it to write what shall be read by our own and future generations1 in our own and other lands1 as a source of light and life1 of uplift and enjoyment4 ,the worst punishment that can befall a human being is to be cut off from participation in the movement of the race towards greater well-being and perfection4 ,one naturally desires to employ his gifts and powers for the benefit of mankind4 ,the stream of thought determines what we shall accomplish4 ,if others are to be benefited by our thinking1 they must think our thoughts4 ,the stream of our thought must carry ideas of interest and value to them1 ideas they will care to get and keep4 ,if our thinking is busy with things of transient interest1 transient will be our influence over others4 ,if our thought is to abide1 it must deal with verities of eternal moment to humanity1 with the works of ,him who made the heavens and the earth1 with the truth of ,him who is 8the same yesterday1 to-day1 and forever40 ,,xvi ,,kinds ,,of ,,thinking 8,what we want is not the example of ,democritus1 who put out his eyes that1 ceasing to read1 he might think the more2 or the example of ,pythagoras1 who devoted his evenings to solemn reflections on the events of the day4 ,we want men and women of all-round activities who will set apart an hour for thought's own sake1 and thus fulfil the exhortation of a wise man whose practice it was to #8sort his thoughts and label them4'0 ,t4 ,s4 ,,knowlson4 8,people read a great deal more than they used to do1--there is more to be read1--but they think less4 ,the chief danger of to-day is that of intellectual apathy4 ,life is so complex1 the struggle for existence is so keen1 and pleasures of various kinds so cheap and abundant1 that men and women seem to live entirely on the surface of things4 ,what we need is a call to independent thought40 ,,ibid4 ,,xvi ,,kinds ,,of ,,thinking ,sidenote3 ,equivocal terms4 ,sidenote3 ,the term thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds of thinking4 ,as was pointed out in the first chapter1 the word thinking has several meanings4 ,one can hardly write or speak on education without using the word in more senses than one1 and it is not always convenient to break the line of thought or discussion by indicating with a definition the meaning intended4 ,this is a violation of ,pascal's rule1 that no terms in the least obscure or equivocal shall be used without defining them4 ,pascal possessed one of the most remarkable intellects the world has ever known4 ,his style has been described as a garment of light4 ,few thinkers have attained1 to an equal degree1 clearness of expression and perfect grasp of the truth4 ,nowhere are these qualities more essential than in lectures and treatises on teaching4 ,it is a misfortune that so useful a word as thinking should ever be ambiguous4 ,the use of equivocal terms leads to misunderstandings in theory and faults in practice4 ,the advantage of technical terms lies in the fact that after they have been clearly defined they can always be used in the same sense4 ,the disadvantage in the use of technical terms is that they convey no meaning to minds unfamiliar with the terminology of the specific science to which they belong4 ,hence the best thinkers cannot escape the necessity of employing words in current use to convey their thoughts4 ,as soon as words pass into common parlance they acquire a variety of meanings and of shades of meaning4 ,the thought of a people is always more or less in advance of their vocabulary2 the same word must be used in several meanings1 because no other term equally simple and convenient can serve as a substitute4 ,no one1 for instance1 can write or speak in the ,english language without using the word is in both its figurative and its literal sense4 ,the connection must show what signification is intended4 ,the same remark applies to the word thinking4 ,the connection must show whether it is used in the colloquial sense of guessing1 or in the logical sense of a comparison of two ideas through their relation to a third1 or in the broader sense of imaging1 reflecting1 and reacting upon what one reads or hears1 or in a still broader sense1 to designate any form of mental activity4 ,since the popular mind employs the word as a general term to cover the entire intellectual life1 it is convenient to specify kinds of thinking by the use of adjectives like independent1 loose1 continuous1 organic1 technical1 scientific1 and other qualifying phrases4 ,inasmuch as these distinctions are made for the purpose of characterizing differences observed in the thought-processes of the maturer life for which our pupils are to be trained1 it is helpful to glance at them for the purpose of seeing the bearing of what we do at school upon habits of thought beyond the school4 ,sidenote3 ,the independent thinker4 ,what is meant by an independent thinker8 ,evidently one who is not indebted to others for the inferences which he draws or the conclusions at which he arrives4 ,many practices at school are subversive of habits of independent thinking4 ,the assignment of lessons of such length and difficulty that the weaker pupils must rely upon their stronger classmates for help1 or resort to 8coaches1 keys1 and ponies0 for assistance1 makes them helpless instead of self-reliant1 and cultivates the memory at the expense of the understanding4 ,the lessons should be graded so as to beget the sense of mastery4 ,every difficulty that is overcome by a pupil's own efforts tends to develop in him an ambition to conquer other difficulties4 ,few1 if any1 joys can be compared with the ecstatic joy of victory4 ,moreover1 it should be the aim of the teacher to beget in the pupil a love of truth more potent and profound than reverence for a favorite authority4 ,on the contrary1 the feeling of independence and the desire of distinction by differing from other people may grow into a passion4 ,this seldom does much harm in the case of an editor or a professor4 ,if you give either of them leave to criticise and to print1 he is well satisfied4 ,if he is elected to a board of managers or the national assembly1 his critical faculty and his fondness for finding fault and thinking differently from other people may make him a hinderance to the leaders1 who must get things done1 or cause him to stand apart1 like ,ewald1 in the ,german ,reichstag1 as a one-man party1 whose views must be ignored on all questions requiring prompt action or immediate decision4 ,to counteract this tendency in a youth of strong personality1 it is difficult to devise anything better than the moulding supremacy of class-spirit1 the chastening influence of a contest in the literary society1 and the relentless lessons which a boy gets on the play-ground when he will not play because the game does not go his way4 ,independence of thought in the quest of truth1 on the one hand1 and concert of action for the public good1 on the other1 are two of the most useful lessons to be learned at school4 ,at this point there is room for a kind of child-study apart from a syllabus of set questions1 and leading to results which cannot be tabulated in statistics or averages4 ,the average in such cases is untrue as a guide1 and may be utterly subversive of correct habits of thinking1 or the correct method of dealing with the individual4 ,to give enough optional or specific work for the brightest1 and not too much general or required work for the slowest1 is an ideal hard to realize in the assignment of work1 and yet of supreme importance in the endeavor to develop habits of independent thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,independent thinking and popular government4 ,there is great need for independent thinking under a system of popular government1 especially on the part of those who exercise the elective franchise4 ,in the modern caucus or convention one man often does the thinking for the rest4 8,if he is the man whom ,i follow1 ,i call him my leader4 ,if he is the man whom you follow1 ,i call him your boss40 ,when the leader or boss is not sufficiently sure of his ability to bind the others by his orders1 those who have a following are invited to a conference1 at which a line of action is agreed upon to relieve the multitudes of the trouble of thinking4 ,a delegate who was giving very vociferous vent to his feelings was rebuked by a colleague1 saying1 8,just think where you are40 ,he replied with more emphasis than elegance1 8,i was not brought here to think1 but to shout40 ,independent thinking is as hard work as the average man cares to do4 ,he craves a guide1 an authority to relieve him of the trouble of thinking for himself4 ,outside of their particular vocation or profession it is absolutely necessary at times for the strongest intellects to accept the conclusions of other thinkers4 ,the man who has been successful at making money1 and who finds that his thinking in financial matters is trustworthy1 often makes himself obnoxious by assuming that his opinions and conclusions should be accorded equal weight in every other sphere of human activity4 ,there is no better place to teach the individual his limitations without destroying his independence as a thinker than the atmosphere of a great university4 ,the dependent thinker is aptly described by a writer in ,leisure ,hours in the following language3 ,sidenote3 ,the dependent thinker4 8,it is sometimes amusing to hear a man of this order coming out strongly with opinions which he would have you believe are thoroughly independent and original1 but which you can trace directly to the source from which he got them4 ,you could indicate those sources if it were not uncivil to do so1 very much as a shrewd but not very well-behaved old gentleman is said to have indicated at church1 in a tone sufficiently loud to be heard by the clergyman and the congregation1 too1--which was especially galling1--the authors to whom the said clergyman had been indebted for his sermon1 #8,that's ,sherlock2 that's ,tillotson2 that's ,jeremy ,taylor4' #8,i tell you what1 fellow1 if you don't hold your tongue1 ,i'll have you turned out of church4' #8,that's his own4'0 ,the men who must depend upon others to do their thinking for them deserve pity and commiseration4 ,the bureaus which thrive by furnishing essays and orations for commencements1 sermons for special occasions1 and even for the regularly recurring ,sunday services1 show how often our schools make their pupils dependent instead of self-reliant4 ,on being cast upon the sea of life1 their minds resemble a craft which has lost its rudder2 they drift with wind and tide1 uncertain where they shall land4 ,their thinking is not grounded on first principles2 hence their minds reflect transient views on every question4 ,the strong personality in the sunlight of whose influence they happened last to bask moulds their opinions and directs their intellectual life until they move into the sphere of new influences1 constantly resembling those whom ,randolph of ,roanoke stigmatized as dough-faces because their votes were under the control of party leaders and were cast regardless of their convictions of right4 ,sidenote3 ,continuous thought4 ,the men whom the world reveres as great thinkers have been distinguished by their ability to give continuous thought to whatever engaged their serious attention4 ,newton claimed that he made his discoveries by always thinking about them4 ,his biographers relate how he would for hours remain seated upon his bed1 half dressed1 absorbed in thought1 forgetful of his surroundings4 ,stories of the absent-mindedness of ,socrates1 ,sydney ,smith1 ,neander1 ,edison1 and many others who attained eminence as philosophers1 authors1 or inventors1 are interesting indeed1 but they throw no light upon the way in which these men acquired their marvellous powers2 they merely show a capacity for focussing all the energies of the soul upon one point to the exclusion of sense impressions from without4 ,it is very certain that men who excel in any line of work acquire habits of concentrated and continuous thought in one direction4 ,very different from these are the mental habits of the boy and the average man4 ,a writer in ,cornhill ,magazine describes their intellectual activity as follows3 8,the normal mental locomotion of even well-educated men and women 7save under the spur of exceptional stimulus7 is neither the flight of an eagle in the sky1 nor the trot of a horse upon the road1 but may better be compared to the lounge of a truant school-boy in a shady lane1 now dawdling passively1 now taking a hop-skip-jump1 now stopping to pick blackberries1 and now turning to right or left to catch a butterfly1 climb a tree1 or make dick-duck-drake on a pond2 going nowhere in particular1 and only once in a mile or so proceeding six steps in an orderly and philosophical manner40 ,sidenote3 ,loose thinkers4 ,sidenote3 ,organic thinking4 ,the thoughts of some men resemble mosaic work4 ,each part is beautiful in itself1 but has no inner connection with those next to it4 ,men of this class are called loose thinkers2 it is always difficult to retain what they say4 ,the thinking of a totally opposite class of men resembles the growth of an organism4 ,they start from a germinal idea1 which1 like seed sown into good soil1 begins to grow1 throwing out parts which have inward connection and which together constitute an organic unity4 ,in a machine any part can be replaced by another4 ,in the organism no such substitution is possible4 ,for each organ bears a life relation to the whole1 and if it is wanting the unity of the organism is destroyed4 ,organic thinking gives the hearer the feeling that the several parts and inferences of a discourse are evolved from his inner consciousness4 ,having had the germ-idea in his mind1 he feels as if he had held all it involves2 the speaker supplied the conditions of development as the sun supplies warmth for vegetable growth4 ,the effect of such thinking is irresistible4 ,the branches of study which thus grow out of a fundamental idea1 and show the inner relation between the subjects not as a mere sequence1 but as a living organic relation1 have an educative value which cannot be too highly prized4 ,the organic thinker1 if he makes himself understood1 has the audience on his side2 and his cogency can seldom be refuted except by showing either that his germinal idea is wrong or that his conclusions have no connection with his premises4 ,sidenote3 ,harris on stages of thinking4 ,dr4 ,harris has drawn attention to three stages of thinking4 ,he claims that in the first stage things are regarded as the essential elements of all being1 that in the second the mind discovers relations1--truly essential relations1--and that in the third stage the mind thinks the self-related4 8,self-relation is the category of the reason1 just as relativity is the category of the understanding1 or non-relativity 7atomism7 the category of sense-perception40 ,theoretically this distinction is important as giving us a rational basis for the knowledge of ,god as revealed to man4 ,practically1 every child thinks the idea of ,god4 ,where the study of science or philosophy leads to atheism1 the wish is always father to the thought4 ,sidenote3 ,technical and scientific thinking4 ,clifford has made a distinction between technical and scientific thinking4 ,the former enables one to do with skill and accuracy what has been done heretofore4 ,the latter partakes of the nature of prophecy or prediction4 ,he claims that scientific as well as merely technical thought make use of experience to direct human action1 but that while technical thought or skill enables a man to deal with the same circumstances he has met before1 scientific thought enables him to deal with circumstances different from any he has met before4 ,in his opinion1 scientific thought is human progress itself4 ,an example or two can best be given in his own language4 8,if you make a dot on a piece of paper1 and then hold a piece of ,iceland spar over it1 you will see not one dot1 but two4 ,a mineralogist1 by measuring the angles of a crystal1 can tell you whether or not it possesses this property without looking through it4 ,he requires no scientific thought to do that4 ,but ,sir ,rowan ,hamilton1 the late ,astronomer ,royal of ,ireland1 knowing these facts1 and also the explanation of them which ,fresnel had given1 thought about the subject1 and predicted that by looking through certain crystals in a particular direction we should see not two dots1 but a continuous circle4 ,mr4 ,lloyd made the experiment and saw the circle1 a result which had never been even suspected4 ,this has always been considered one of the most signal instances of scientific thought in the domain of physics4 ,it is most distinctly an application of experience gained under certain circumstances to entirely different circumstances40#dd ,clifford compares two well-known achievements in the domain of astronomy which help to set the distinction between technical and scientific thought in a still clearer light3 8,ancient astronomers observed that the relative motions of the sun and moon recurred all over again in the same order every nineteen years4 ,they were thus enabled to predict the time at which eclipses would take place4 ,a calculator at one of our great observatories can do a great deal more than this4 ,like them1 he makes use of past experience to predict the future2 but he knows of a great number of other cycles besides the one of nineteen years1 and takes account of all of them2 and he can tell about the solar eclipse of six years hence1 exactly when it will be visible1 and how much of the sun's surface will be covered at each place1 and to a second at what time of the day it will begin and finish there4 ,this prediction involves technical skill of the highest order1 but it does not involve scientific thought1 as any astronomer will tell you4 ,by such calculations the place of the planet ,uranus at different times of the year had been predicted and set down4 ,the predictions were not fulfilled4 ,then arose ,adams1 and from the errors in the prediction he calculated the place of an entirely new planet that had never yet been suspected2 and you all know how the new planet was actually found in that place4 ,now this prediction does involve scientific thought1 as any one who has studied it will tell you4 ,here1 then1 are two cases of thought about the same subject1 both predicting events by the application of previous experience1 yet we say one is technical and the other scientific40#de ,sidenote3 ,science as knowledge of things in their causes and relations4 ,the foregoing distinction may be valuable in the training of university students whose career is to be that of original research and discovery1 but it has very little value for teachers in schools of lower grade4 ,for ordinary purposes1 science is the knowledge of things in their causes and relations4 ,if the teacher begets the habit of asking why1 and makes the pupils dissatisfied with simply knowing the how and the what1 he has gone far towards making them thinkers in the scientific sense of the word4 ,how shall the knowledge of things in their causes and relations be attained8 ,the mind first thinks things as isolated units apart from and without reference to other things4 ,under the impulse to know it resolves the thing into its elements or constituent parts1 and then puts them together in a more complete idea of each thing as a whole4 ,the boy whose curiosity impels him to take apart a watch or clock is following the bent of the mind to proceed analytically4 ,if he does not try to put the pieces together1 so that the reconstructed whole will keep time as before1 he needs stimulus in the direction of synthetic thinking4 ,soon his interest in time-pieces leads him to detect similarities between ,american watches and those made in ,switzerland1 and he learns to classify time-pieces1 to see a multitude of details and peculiarities at a glance1 one characteristic or peculiarity bringing to his mind the distinctive parts and construction of every watch in a given class4 ,from the way in which a given watch keeps time1 he draws inferences in regard to the entire class4 ,this is inductive thinking4 ,from the conclusions he has framed1 he makes up his mind as to the new watch which the jeweller offers him for sale4 ,he is now thinking deductively4 ,sidenote3 ,distinction between laws and causes4 ,from thinking things as units1 the mind passes to thinking the relations of things4 ,the adaptation of means to ends in play1 in ministering to bodily wants1 occupies the mind in very early stages of thinking4 ,the gifts of the kindergarten appeal to this tendency in the mind1 and help to develop it into habit and faculty4 ,design and its execution1 means and end1 the tool and its use1 the raw material and the purpose for which it is to be used1 thought-material and the essay in which it is to be formulated1--these are so many ways of thinking things or ideas in their relations4 ,not only may a relation become a distinct object of thought1 but relations between relations1 classes of relations1--for instance1 in simple and compound proportion1--can thus be made to stand apart before the mind as distinct objects of thought4 ,the most important of all these relations is that of cause and effect4 ,how things come to be1 their origin and development1 the forces that make them what they are1 are the questions of profound and abiding interest to the scientific mind4 ,laws are often spoken of as if they were causes4 ,a law is a generalized statement of an invariable sequence of things or motions of things4 ,we sometimes personify these sequences1 and speak of them as if they were forces in nature4 ,the laws are personified1 as if they were conscious beings demanding obedience1 and inflicting punishment for disobedience4 ,the consciousness of the personification is lost1 and then along with spelling nature with a capital letter1 we fall into the mistake of making laws stand for the ,maker and ,creator of all things4 ,furthermore1 it is very important to distinguish the ground of knowledge from causes that are operative in the world outside of mind4 ,the rain of last night caused the streets to be muddy2 but the condition of the streets1 an effect of rainfall1 may be the ground of our knowledge that it must have rained last night4 ,the fact that the earth is flattened at the poles1 or1 in other words1 that its curvature is less at the poles than at the equator1 explains the fact that degrees of latitude get longer as we approach the poles4 ,the former is the cause1 the latter is an effect4 ,but the mind drew the former as an inference from the determination of degrees of latitude by actual measurement4 ,the effect became the ground of knowledge4 ,frequently the cause is known or inferred from its effect4 ,that which is causal in the world of mind is effect in the world outside of mind2 and that which is effect in nature becomes the ground of knowledge in the processes of thought4 ,from this point as vantage-ground1 we spy the land in which thinking becomes knowing4 ,,xvii ,,thinking ,,and ,,knowing ,when a man's knowledge is not in order1 the more of it he has the greater will be his confusion of thought4 ,when the facts are not organized into faculty1 the greater the mass of them the more will the mind stagger along under its burden1 hampered instead of helped by its acquisitions4 ,h4 ,,spencer4 ,that knowledge cannot be gained without more or less of correct and prolonged thinking is a practical maxim which no one would be found to dispute4 ,but that there is much knowledge which does not come by mere thinking is a maxim scarcely more to be held in doubt4 ,thinking is1 then1 universally recognized as an important and even necessary part of knowing2 but it is not the whole of knowing4 ,or1 in other words1 one must make use of one's faculties of thought as an indispensable means to cognition2 but there are other means which must also be employed1 since it is not by thought alone that the human mind attains cognition4 ,,ladd',s 8,,philosophy ,,of ,,knowledge10 page #acj4 ,,xvii ,,thinking ,,and ,,knowing ,one morning a teacher was awakened by a noise1 the like of which he had never heard and hopes never to hear again4 ,it was unlike anything in his former experience4 ,soon he began to distinguish the hissing of steam and the moaning of men1 but the cause was still a mystery4 ,later1 he learned that the blast furnace in the neighborhood had exploded1 and that several men were killed and others had been seriously injured by the explosion4 ,sidenote3 ,interpretation of sense-impressions4 ,the cause of the noise could not be inferred1 because there was nothing in his former experience with which it could be compared4 ,the escaping steam and the voices of the suffering workmen were recognized because they could be interpreted in the light of what he had seen and heard before4 ,in order that any one may derive definite knowledge from sense-impressions1 there must be something in past experience to give meaning to the new experience4 ,observation that issues in knowing is coupled with a process of thought in which the new perception is linked to the ideas which the mind brings to the perception4 ,in other words1 observation always involves the element of thinking2 without thinking1 sense-impressions cannot give us knowledge4 ,knowing is impossible without thinking1 and yet not all thinking gives ripe to knowing4 ,what is the relation between the two8 ,sidenote3 ,what is knowledge8 ,knowledge has been defined as firm belief in what is true on sufficient ground4 ,the explanation of this definition which ,locke gives is well known to every student of philosophy4 8,if any one is in doubt respecting one of ,euclid's demonstrations1 he cannot be said to know the proposition proved by it2 if again he is fully convinced of anything that is not true1 he is mistaken in supposing himself to know it2 lastly1 if two persons are each fully confident1 one that the moon is inhabited1 and the other that it is not 7though one of these opinions must be true71 neither of them could properly be said to know the truth1 since he cannot have sufficient proof of it40#df ,sidenote3 ,belief4 ,the foregoing definition consists of three parts1--#a1 firm belief2 #b1 in what is true2 #c1 on sufficient ground4 ,in common parlance1 belief is distinguished from knowledge1 the latter implying a higher degree of assurance than the former4 ,in some treatises on psychology belief denotes all forms of assent1 including the highest possible certainty and conviction4 ,the expression firm belief excludes the element of doubt from knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,truth4 ,truth1 according to the etymology of the word1 signifies that which the mind trows or believes to be fact or reality4 ,it has its source in ,god1 whilst knowledge proceeds from man4 ,to be true1 a proposition must be in exact accordance with what is or has been or shall be4 ,truth exists apart from the cognitions of the human mind4 ,it would continue to exist if the mind of man were blotted out of existence1 and there was truth long before the intelligence of man was called into being4 ,the aim of thinking is to find out and lay hold of the truth4 ,thinking in which truth and error are mixed may have value as partial knowledge and as a stepping-stone to fuller knowledge4 ,knowledge becomes full and complete only in so far as it contains the truth1 the whole truth1 and nothing but the truth4 ,sidenote3 ,the ground of knowledge4 ,full knowledge implies a basis upon which it may rest4 ,there may be sufficient ground for the firm belief which constitutes the essence of knowledge even when the truth cognized is incapable of full and complete demonstration4 ,sidenote3 ,the reason why4 ,it is natural for a child to believe4 ,the statements of others are accepted as true without question1 so long as the child has not been deceived by others4 ,hence many teachers have assumed that their chief function is to ask the reason why1 so that belief in what is true may be based upon sufficient ground1 and that nothing shall be accepted as true until it is proved4 ,this was one of the erroneous views under which ,pestalozzi labored4 ,he justified the undue attention paid to mathematics in his school on the ground that he wished his pupils to believe nothing which cannot be demonstrated as clearly as two and two make four4 ,whereupon ,pre ,girard replied1 8,in that case1 if ,i had thirty sons ,i would not intrust one of them to you2 for it would be impossible for you to demonstrate to him1 as you can that two and two make four1 that ,i am his father and that ,i have a right to his obedience40#dg ,sidenote3 ,exhaustive study4 ,sidenote3 ,the question how4 ,the progress of a pupil may be hindered by too much emphasis upon the ground of knowledge4 ,the human mind cannot make an exhaustive study of very many things4 ,exhaustion is a term applied by logicians to a method of proof in which 8all the arguments tending to an opposite conclusion are brought forward1 discussed1 and proved untenable or absurd1 thus leaving the original proposition established by the exclusion of every alternate40 ,speaking positively1 we may say that exhaustive study of a subject explores it in all its bearings and relations as well as in its nature and essence4 ,in every subject the known is bounded by the unknown2 new methods of preparation and investigation constantly reveal novelties in whole classes of objects which it was supposed had been studied exhaustively4 ,the specialist seeks to know all that has been brought to light in his field of research1 and to push out the limits of knowledge beyond the goal reached by his predecessors4 ,the thoroughness of the specialist is not required in elementary instruction4 ,the writer knows of a teacher who for an entire term kept a class of boys at work upon highest common factor and least common multiple on the plea that they did not thoroughly understand these subjects4 ,no better plan of disgusting boys with arithmetic and algebra could have been devised4 ,thorough knowledge of these two subjects involves reasoning and demonstrations more difficult to grasp than half the theorems in ,euclid4 ,instead of aiming at exhaustive treatment1 the true teacher is satisfied with knowledge adequate for the subsequent work of the course4 ,if the pupil has reached the stage where he can appreciate the reason why1 it may be 7though it is not always7 wise to raise this question1 and to insist on a comprehension of the proof4 ,very often the mind has enough to do in trying to see how2 the question why then interferes with the mastery of the mechanical operations4 ,let any adult take up a system of arithmetic with which he is unfamiliar1 say the arithmetic based on counting by fives1 or by twelves1 or by thirties 7each of the last two1 mathematically speaking1 better than the arithmetic based on tens71 he will soon find it is work enough at first for his intellect to perform the operations of adding1 subtracting1 multiplying1 and dividing without reference to the philosophic explanations which exhaustive study would require at every step in the operations4 ,sidenote3 ,when knowledge is clear1 when distinct4 ,descartes applied several of the technical terms of optics to the science of mind1 and in this he has been followed by ,locke1 ,leibnitz1 and others4 ,an object seen at a great distance or in insufficient light looks obscure2 as the eye approaches1 or as the dawn increases1 the object1 as a whole1 becomes clear enough to be distinguished from other objects1 although its constituent parts are still confused4 ,increasing light or a nearer approach finally enables us to discern the parts1 and the vision of the object grows distinct4 ,clear vision occurs where the object1 as a whole1 can be recognized2 distinct vision occurs when the parts of the object seen can be recognized4 ,in like manner ideas are said to be clear as distinguished from obscure1 when they are discerned in outline2 they are distinct 7opposed to indistinct or confused7 when they are discerned in their elements or constituent parts4 ,distinct mental vision requires analytic and synthetic thinking4 ,of many objects the mind needs only clear knowledge for ordinary purposes4 ,one may distinguish two brothers by the total impression of each which he carries in his mind1 and yet be totally unable to tell any specific marks by which he knows the one from the other4 ,the painter1 on the other hand1 cannot be satisfied with this total impression2 he studies the individual features until he has a distinct impression of their likenesses and differences4 ,of the map of one's own country it pays to know the ,states and ,territorial divisions4 ,of one's ,state1 a knowledge of the counties1 and of one's county1 a knowledge of the townships may be helpful4 ,for specific vocations more minute knowledge may be desirable4 ,each individual mind can well afford to stop with a measure of geographical knowledge that is adequate for the duties of his vocation and the purposes of his reading of books and newspapers4 ,very little of our knowledge of geography is based upon experience2 most of it rests upon testimony4 ,the eye at a glance may take in the outlines of an island of the ,susquehanna river4 ,the fact that ,great ,britain is an island rests upon the testimony of maps2 our belief is based upon what we have always heard and read1 and is further strengthened by the absence of testimony to the contrary4 ,if the fact had ever been questioned1 the mind might hold its judgment in suspense until sufficient ground was found to warrant a conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,value of questions4 ,when the knowledge which a pupil has is to be deepened or made more distinct a series of well-chosen questions may beget the required thinking4 ,for instance1 let us take the case of a pupil who has reached the stage where his knowledge of the properties of the parts of speech should be made more complete4 ,let the teacher ask for the difference between a pencil and a part of speech1 between a noun and a name1 between gender and sex1 between number in grammar and number in arithmetic1 between person in grammar and a person like the ,president of the ,united ,states1 between case in grammar and a case in division of fractions1 between tense and time1 between mode and manner1 between action and a verb1 between the object of an action and the object of a verb4 ,comparison will soon show the inaccuracy of the statement that the direct object of an action is in the accusative case2 and the learner will see that case is a property of nouns1 not of objects1 and cannot be predicated of the object of an action1 but of the word which denotes the object of the action1 which word may be either in the nominative or the accusative case as the verb is either in the passive or active voice4 ,comparison will lead the pupil to see clearly that gender is a property of nouns1 whereas sex or the absence of sex is predicated of that for which nouns stand4 ,comparison will serve to bring out the distinction between number in grammar as a property of nouns indicating one or more than one1 and numbers in arithmetic1 of which there are as many as there are units or collections of units in the universe4 ,thinking by comparison will lead to the detection of similarities and differences1 to discrimination1 combination1 and generalization1 and through these to more distinct and more adequate knowledge4 ,questions which draw attention to likenesses and differences1 to causal relations and logical sequences1 stimulate analysis and comparison2 the resulting judgments clarify the stream of thought and push the boundary of knowledge into the regions of the hitherto unknown4 ,sidenote3 ,theory1 true and false4 ,the greatest minds when working under the influence of a false theory fail to arrive at truth4 ,socrates rejected the view of ,anaxagoras that the sun is a fire1 because we can look at a fire1 but not at the sun1 because plants grow by sunshine and are killed by fire1 and because a stone heated in fire is not luminous1 but soon cools1 whereas the sun always remains equally hot and luminous4 ,newton did more than all other thinkers combined to make astronomy a science2 his discoveries in physics and mathematics rank him among the greatest investigators the world has thus far known2 yet he spent many nights trying to find the method by which the baser metals could be transmuted into silver and gold2 his researches as an alchemist led to nothing1 because he was working under the spell of a false theory4#dh ,sidenote3 ,scientists4 ,faraday acknowledged that he was often compelled to give up his preconceived notions1 and in some cases his failures are almost as instructive as his discoveries4 ,it was characteristic of him to hold to his theories until he proved them either true or false1 and he was ever ready to reject any hypothesis as soon as he found it inconsistent with the laws of nature4 ,newton was willing to suspend judgment for years upon his theory of gravitation1 until more accurate measurements of the earth's size and the moon's distance showed his theory and calculations to be right4 ,socrates advised his followers to quit the study of astronomy1 probably because he felt that in his time the data were not sufficient to warrant definite conclusions4 ,hosts of instances can be cited showing that the thinking of the strongest intellects does not issue in knowing when it is based upon or biassed by a wrong working hypothesis4 ,and yet it must be confessed that wrong hypotheses may lead to valuable negative results1 as in the case of ,kepler's investigations1 each exploded theory making room for the construction of a theory more in accordance with the facts4 ,the superiority of men of genius lies in their love of truth and fidelity to fact2 in the facility with which they construct theories to account for observed phenomena2 in the patience with which they test theory by fact1 and in the readiness with which they reject every hypothesis as soon as it is found to be in irreconcilable conflict with well-established facts4 ,the average life of a theory in science is said to be only ten years4 ,the average would be lower still if all rejected theories had been put into books4 ,the men possessed of a truly scientific spirit differ from ordinary men not only in the painstaking accuracy of their observations and in the surprising fertility with which they frame theories1 but also in the habit of verifying every hypothesis until there is sufficient ground to establish its truth and to receive it as an addition to the sum total of human knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,the common people4 ,the common people are quite as ready to frame theories as the scientists and philosophers4 ,it would be well if they were equally patient in testing their theories and in verifying their suppositions4 ,the human mind cannot help generalizing4 ,the moment a child uses a common noun it begins to classify4 ,its tendency to pull things to pieces and to put them together again are exhibitions of the mind's tendency to treat everything by analysis and synthesis4 ,purpose and design1 cause and effect early show themselves in the thinking of children4 ,the teacher need but guide these activities and give the mind the proper material to work upon2 the result cannot be doubtful if the mind which plays upon the learner's mind has been trained to operate according to the laws of thought and the principles which must guide in the discovery of the truth4 ,sidenote3 ,doubt4 ,doubt is sometimes the prerequisite of knowledge4 ,to raise a doubt in the mind of a growing youth may cause him to think4 ,it may cause him to explore the grounds of his knowledge1 to ascertain the rational basis upon which his beliefs rest1 and to reject such as were of the nature of prejudice or of tradition with no sufficient warrant for acceptance4 ,rational belief is far superior to blind faith4 ,when the doubt is raised in regard to the verities of one's religious faith there is grave danger of landing in scepticism or infidelity4 ,what is truth8 may be asked in the spirit of ,pilate1 who turned away from the ,great ,teacher with a despairing sneer and without waiting for a reply4 ,pilate had trifled with his own conscience until he could no longer discern truth and righteousness4 ,some men need better hearts in order that they may think and know the highest truth4 ,the hope can be held out that whenever the truth is earnestly sought by the human heart the soul will ultimately be guided into a knowledge of the truth4 ,to disturb the grounds upon which rest the principles of morality and religion is a dangerous experiment1 especially in the case of immature minds4 ,the flood of doubt may sweep away the solid foundations of a pupil's moral nature and leave him a wreck upon the quicksands of vice or upon the rock of scepticism4 ,it is the nature of the child to believe1 to cherish faith in what others tell him and in what the world presents to his vision4 ,to disturb the fervor and strength of this trust before the understanding is ripe for fuller knowledge may result in life-long injury4 ,the child's faith in fairyland1 in ,santa-,claus1 should1 of course1 be kept from becoming a source of terror4 ,the stories of ghosts1 spooks1 and hobgoblins sometimes employed in the nursery to influence conduct may cause fears1 terrors1 and horrors from which it is well to emancipate the child as speedily as possible through the light of clearer knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,the desire to know4 ,better than doubt as a stimulus to thought is the desire to know4 ,st4 ,augustine was on fire to know4 ,the teacher who kindles and keeps burning this fire in the soul of the pupil has supplied the most powerful incentive to thought2 for without thinking knowledge is impossible of attainment4 ,sidenote3 ,full cognition4 ,as we may start our wood flaming by coals hot from another's fire1 so we may kindle a burning desire for knowledge by bringing the mind in contact with minds that are all aglow with the desire to know4 ,a burning fire may soon exhaust its fuel if left to itself4 ,the teacher supplies the fuel1 fans the flame1 directs its activity for well-defined purposes4 ,here the analogy breaks4 ,instead of smoke and ashes we want living products as the result of knowing4 ,as thinking leads to knowing1 so knowing should give rise to further thinking4 ,nowhere is the teacher's function of guiding more indispensably necessary than in the interplay of these two activities4 ,while the learner is engrossed in the pursuit of knowledge1 the teacher is watching the process and the results4 ,he is not satisfied unless the activity of thinking and knowing ends in full cognition4 ,it has been well said that a dog knows his master1 but does not cognize him2 that to cognize means to refer a perception to an object by means of a conception4 ,the objects of thought must be sorted and arranged in groups2 the particular notion must take its place in the general concept2 the materials upon which the mind acts must be assimilated and organized into a unity1 showing how each has its origin and how it stands in living relation to every other part of the organic whole2 otherwise thinking cannot lead to complete cognition4 ,sidenote3 ,the limit of instruction4 ,the incident at the beginning of this chapter shows that some preparation is necessary to interpret sense-impressions and organize the materials of thought for the purpose of cognition4 ,the degree of preparation determines how far the instruction at a given time shall aim to go4 ,to get a clearer idea of the thing to be known may exhaust the learner's strength4 ,if so1 the presentation should stop at that point4 ,but as soon as his power and interest are equal to the task he should be led to analyze the object of thought so as to cognize the constituent elements1 the essential attributes1 a process whereby he will arrive at distinct knowledge4 ,it may be advisable before dropping the inquiry to institute comparisons between objects of the same class1 for the purpose of calling attention to differences and likenesses and evolving general concepts or universal propositions4 ,for many thinkers these are the goal of thinking4 ,if they can resolve the universe to a few simple generalizations1 their minds are satisfied4 ,nothing more barren can well be imagined or conceived4 ,sidenote3 ,application of knowledge4 ,cognition is not complete until the knowledge has been or can be applied4 ,at times there may be a division of labor and glory in the discovery and application of truth4 ,the discoveries of ,professor ,henry which made the electric telegraph possible involved thinking quite as valuable as the invention of ,professor ,morse4 ,the achievement of ,cyrus ,w4 ,field in laying the ,atlantic cable involved thinking quite as important as the researches and experiments of ,lord ,kelvin which made the cable successful4 ,interesting examples of such division of labor in thinking cannot justify neglect of the applications after a general truth has been evolved and stated4 ,the instruction may sometimes begin with a statement of applications1 in order to prepare the mind for the thinking that issues in knowing4 ,the applications of color in the railway service1 in navigation1 and in the arts will create an interest in the study of color without which the presentation of the fundamental ideas may be in vain4 ,several lecturers have admitted that they failed1 in the presentation of color lessons1 to hold the attention of their pupil-teachers until they excited an interest in color by indicating important applications4 ,this statement of applications by way of preparation must1 however1 not be confounded with the applications which should follow the framing of general propositions and the cognition of general truths4 ,the hypotheses of the scientist correspond to the general truths and principles which instruction always aims to reach4 ,in all except the most advanced investigations1 the pupil should work under the guidance of principles that have risen above the hypothetical stage4 ,he should think under the inspiration of well-established truths4 ,he should master the known in his chosen field before he seeks to enlarge the boundaries of human knowledge by invasions into the realm of the unknown4 ,sad is the spectacle of a talented mind wasting its strength in fruitless efforts to rediscover what is already well established4 ,sidenote3 ,the formulation of truths4 ,sidenote3 ,similarity in diversity4 ,the formulation of truths in mathematical studies is sometimes carried to extremes4 ,the pupil may at times be allowed to work under the guidance of principles which he knows by implication1 and which he has never had occasion to formulate in explicit statements4 ,the formulation of the principles of algebra can be carried into the statement of hundreds of general propositions4 ,if the pupil is asked to fix all these in the crystallized or specific form given in the text-book1 it may result in a prodigious waste of time4 ,furthermore1 the effort to follow invariably any formal steps in the order of instruction is apt to make the instruction unduly formal and lifeless4 ,no thinker can afford to think in the set forms of the syllogism while evolving a train of thought4 ,conscious conformity to these hinders progress in the spontaneous evolution of germinal ideas4 ,in like manner1 although the student of pedagogy may find a guide in the rules and principles of his science while preparing the subject-matter of a lesson1 yet1 in giving the instruction1 the truth must be the object of chief regard1 the centre of attention in consciousness4 ,constant thought of prescribed steps makes the teaching stiff and formal1 and dissipates the joyous interest which accompanies free and spontaneous thinking4 ,formal rules are very often like hobbles on the feet of the horse4 ,they impede his speed1 rob him of half his power and energy1 and spoil his enjoyment of the open field4 ,bearing this in mind1 the young teacher will perhaps not be harmed by the advice that in his teaching he should ever seek to lead the learner to clear and distinct perception of likenesses and differences in the subject-matter of each and every lesson4 ,the newer methods of teaching a beginner to read1 wisely draw attention to the points of similarity and difference in the shapes and sounds of the letters of the alphabet4 ,they even go to the extreme of comparing sounds with the noises of animals1 with which the child in the larger cities is totally unfamiliar4 ,this error is not half so bad as the opposite extreme4 ,very much of the bad teaching by which the schools are afflicted arises from the assumption that the learner sees the points of agreement and difference which are so very obvious to the mature mind of the teacher4 ,the consequence is mental confusion and loss of the joy of definite thinking4 ,the detection of likeness in objects having many points of diversity gives the mind an agreeable surprise4 ,this emotion is an element in the pleasure afforded by the various forms of wit1 metaphor1 and allegory4 ,professor ,bain has shown how greatly progress in science and art is indebted to the discovery of similarity in the midst of great diversity4#di ,much of the child's progress in knowledge must be ascribed to the same principle4 ,children notice points of similarity that often escape older persons4 ,on seeing the picture of a tiger1 they call it a cat4 ,a mother who showed her little daughter1 just beginning to talk1 the caricature of a man prominent in the public eye1 was surprised to hear the child exclaim1 8,papa40 ,it was the child's word for man1 as she afterwards discovered4 ,where she saw contrast1 the child only noticed the points of similarity between one man and another4 ,as the power of discrimination advances1 the mind pays more attention to points of difference than to points of likeness4 ,indistinguishableness gives way to clear and distinct knowledge4 ,with the further growth of intelligence the mind seeks the hidden resemblances in objects far removed from one another in space and time1 or by surface appearances4 ,at first sight the bat seems like a bird1 because it can fly4 ,scientific discrimination assigns it to the class of mammals4 ,the identification of the lightning in the clouds with the sparks of the electric machine gave ,franklin world-wide reputation as a philosopher4 ,the identification of the force which causes bodies to fall to the earth with the force which holds the moon in its orbit1 and with the kind of force by which the sun attracts the bodies of the solar system1 has been justly called the greatest example of the power to detect likeness in the midst of diversity4 ,the power of detecting similarity in diversity should be appealed to whenever it is helpful either for purposes of illustration or discovery4 ,algebra is shorn of half its difficulty as soon as the learner is led to see that the operations in multiplication1 division1 involution and evolution of monomials turn on signs1 coefficients1 and exponents4 ,let him grasp the thought that the words add1 subtract1 multiply1 and divide respectively express the law of exponents in the four operations above named2 and he will not only escape the perplexities of the average student in the more difficult operations of ordinary algebra1 but he will also see at a glance the beautiful truth which underlies the manipulation of logarithms4 ,sidenote3 ,the thinking that ripens into knowing4 ,thinking that ripens in knowing involves comparison1 discrimination1 and formation of judgments4 ,through the detection of likeness and unlikeness in objects and their relations1 judgments are formed1 inferences are made1 and conclusions are drawn1 which mark the transition from thinking to knowing4 ,discrimination1 identification1 judgment1 reasoning1 definition1 division1 and classification mark the stages through which the mind passes in thinking things1 their relations1 more especially their causes1 effects1 laws1 and ends4 ,analysis and synthesis1 induction and deduction1 are the processes by which the intellect explores the content and extent of concepts1 and passes to general principles and truths1 and to their applications in thought and action4 ,as processes of mental activity1 these are discussed in detail by the psychologist4 ,the laws of thought to which they must conform in order to be correct are set forth in treatises on logic4 ,it would be a mistake to underestimate the value of a knowledge of logic and psychology2 but neither of them can supply the place and function of the living teacher4 ,he who would learn to think in some special line of research should go to a master of that specialty1 learn of him what is well established in the chosen field of study1 imbibe his methods of work1 think his thoughts1 catch his spirit1 and follow his advice until the hour for independent investigation comes4 ,great is the tonic effect of a university atmosphere2 but greater still is the bracing influence of the atmosphere created by a specialist who is both a master in his department and a master in the art of teaching4 ,the choice of a teacher is of more account than the choice of a university1 either at home or abroad4 ,sidenote3 ,knowing involves more than mere thinking4 ,thinking is not the whole of knowing4 ,feeling and willing play an important part in thinking and knowing4 ,words like heretic1 sceptic1 and sophist have a history which shows the distrust of mankind in pure intellectual effort4 ,it would be hard to find a better commentary on the effect of a perverse heart upon the operations of the intellect than the following paragraph from ,max ,mller1 although it was penned for a purpose entirely different from the use here made of it4 8,no title could have been more honorable at first than was that of ,sophistes4 ,it was applied to the greatest thinkers1 such as ,socrates and ,plato2 nay1 it was not considered irreverent to apply it to the ,creator of the ,universe4 ,afterwards it sank in value because applied to one who cared neither for truth nor for wisdom1 but only for victory1 till to be called a sophist became almost an insult4 ,again1 what name could have been more creditable in its original acceptation than that of sceptic8 ,it meant thoughtful1 reflective1 and was a name given to philosophers who carefully looked at all the bearings of a case before they ventured to pronounce a positive opinion4 ,and now a sceptic is almost a term of reproach1 very much like heretic1--a word which likewise began by conveying what was most honorable1 a power to choose between right and wrong1 till it was stamped with the meaning of choosing from sheer perversity what the majority holds to be wrong40#ej ,there are realms in which thought cannot beget knowledge of the truth until there is a radical change in the wishes and desires of the heart1 in the choice and alms of the will1 in the movings of the inmost depths of the soul4 ,,xviii ,,thinking ,,and ,,feeling ,there is much contention among men whether thought or feeling is the better2 but feeling is the bow and thought the arrow2 and every good archer must have both4 ,alone1 one is as helpless as the other4 ,the head gives artillery2 the heart1 powder4 ,the one aims1 and the other fires4 ,,beecher4 ,it may be noted that medical men1 who are a scientific class1 and1 therefore1 more than commonly aware of the great importance of disinterestedness in intellectual action1 never trust their own judgment when they feel the approach of disease4 ,they know that it is difficult for a man1 however learned in medicine1 to arrive at accurate conclusions about the state of a human body that concerns him so nearly as his own1 even though the person who suffers has the advantage of actually experiencing the morbid sensations4 ,,hamerton4 ,when pupils are encouraged to make for themselves fresh combinations of things already known1 additional progress is certain4 ,variety of exercise in this way is as attractive to children as many of their games4 ,if1 when such exercises are given1 the rivalry involved in taking places were discontinued1 and all extraneous excitement avoided1 the play of intelligence would bring an ample reward4 ,i plead for discontinuance of rivalry in such exercises1 because1 while it stimulates some1 in other cases it hinders and even stops the action of intelligence4 ,if any teacher doubts this1 he may subject a class to experiment by watching the faces of the pupils1 and next by asking from the child who has been corrected an explanation of the reason for the correction4 ,hurry in such things is an injury1 and so is all commingling of antagonistic motives4 ,all fear hinders intellectual action1 and the fear of wounded ambition offers no exception to the rule4 ,the fear of being punished is more seriously detrimental than any other form of fear which can be stirred4 ,it is essentially antagonistic to the action of intelligence4 ,let mind have free play4 ,,calderwood4 ,,xviii ,,thinking ,,and ,,feeling ,sidenote3 ,bodily conditions4 ,in all our thinking it is very important to get a clear and full vision of the thing to be known4 ,this is not always as easy as it seems4 ,like ,nelson in the battle of ,copenhagen1 we may consciously turn the blind eye towards what we do not like and exclaim1 8,i do not see it40 ,the lenses through which we gaze may be green1 or smoked1 or ill-adjusted1 and thus without suspecting it we may see things in false colors or distorted shapes4 ,our bodily condition may color everything we see and think4 ,in health and high animal spirits every thought is rose-colored4 ,in periods of disease and depression everything we think seems to pass1 8like a great bruise1 through yellow1 green1 blue1 purple1 to black4 ,a liver complaint causes the universe to be shrouded in gray2 and the gout covers it with inky pall1 and makes us think our best friends little better than fiends in disguise40 ,sidenote3 ,prejudice4 ,one of the greatest hinderances to correct thinking is prejudice4 ,hence all who have presumed to give advice on the conduct of the understanding have had something to say concerning prejudice4 ,bacon has a chapter on the idols of the mind1 and ,locke contends that we should never be in love with any opinion4 ,in a charming little volume on the 8,art of ,thinking10 ,knowlson has a chapter in which he enumerates and discusses the prejudices arising from birth1 nationality1 temperament1 theory1 and unintelligent conservatism4 ,the list might easily be enlarged4 ,close analysis must convince any one that feeling strengthens all forms of prejudice1 and there are very few1 if any1 fields of thought in which it is not essential for the attainment of truth to divest ourselves of preconceived notions and the resultant feelings1 and to weigh the arguments on both sides of a question before reaching a conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,the wishes of the heart and the conclusions of the intellect4 ,a student may take up geometry with a feeling of prejudice for or against the study1 based upon what he has heard from others concerning its difficulties or the teacher who gives the instruction2 but after he has mastered the demonstration of a theorem he does not lie awake at night wishing the opposite were true4 ,in the realms of mathematics the wishes of the heart are not in conflict with the conclusions of the intellect4 ,in the domain of ethical1 social1 historical1 or religious truth the head often says one thing and the heart another4 8,we see plainly enough what we ought to think or do1 but we feel an irresistible inclination to think or do something else40 ,in most of the instances in which the study of science has led to agnosticism the wish was father to the thought4 ,when two men argue the same question1 weighing the same arguments and reaching opposite conclusions1 as did ,stonewall ,jackson and his father-in-law at the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 the inclinations and wishes of the heart must have influenced their thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,feeling an element in all mental activity4 ,feeling is an element in all forms of mental activity4 ,the intellect never acts without stirring the emotions4 ,the teacher who reproved a pupil for showing signs of pleasure and delight over the reasoning of ,euclid1 saying1 8,euclid knows no emotion10 must have been a novice in the art of introspection4 ,who cannot recall the thrill of delight with which he first finished the proof of the ,pythagorean proposition8 ,mathematics is considered difficult2 the emotions connected with victory and mastery sustain the student as he advances from conquest to conquest4 ,the effort which some thinkers make to reduce the phenomena of the universe to a few universal principles is1 without doubt1 sustained and stimulated by a feeling that there must be unity in the midst of the most manifold diversity4 ,sidenote3 ,descartes4 ,scientists and philosophers are prone to imagine themselves free from the prejudices which warp the thinking of the common mind4 ,descartes started to divest himself of all preconceived notions2 yet he could not divest himself of the notion that he was immensely superior to other men4 8,this ,french philosopher regarded himself as almost infallible1 and had a scorn of all his contemporaries4 ,he praised ,harvey1 but says he only learned a single point from him2 ,galileo was only good in music1 and here he attributed to him the elder ,galileo's work2 ,pascal and ,campanella are pooh-poohed4 ,here is an instance of how pride in one's own work may beget a cheap cynicism with regard to the work of others2 and how as a feeling it blinds the mind to excellences outside those we have agreed to call our own40 ,of men in general ,jevons1 in his treatise on the 8,physical ,sciences10#ea says1-- 8,it is difficult to find persons who can with perfect fairness register facts for and against their own peculiar views4 ,among uncultivated observers1 the tendency to remark favorable and to forget unfavorable events is so great that no reliance can be placed upon their supposed observations4 ,thus arises the enduring fallacy that the changes of the weather coincide in some way with the changes of the moon1 although exact and impartial registers give no countenance to the fact4 ,the whole race of prophets and quacks live on the overwhelming effect of one success compared with hundreds of failures which are unmentioned or forgotten4 ,as ,bacon says1 #8,men mark when they hit1 and never mark when they miss4' ,and we should do well to bear in mind the ancient story1 quoted by ,bacon1 of one who in ,pagan times was shown a temple with a picture of all the persons who had been saved from shipwreck after paying their vows4 ,when asked whether he did not now acknowledge the power of the gods1 #8,ay1' he answered2 #8but where are they painted that were drowned after their vows8'0 ,sometimes the feeling that a given way of looking at things is undoubtedly correct prevents the mind from thinking at all4 ,a lady claimed that she had been taught to accept the statements of the ,bible in their literal sense1 and that in this belief she was going to live and die4 ,she was asked to read the twenty-third ,psalm4 ,at the end of the first verse she was asked whether she could be anything else than a sheep if the ,lord was literally her ,shepherd4 ,when1 a little farther on1 she was asked in what green pastures she had been lying down1 she burst into tears4 ,her condition1 and that of hundreds of thousands of others1 is correctly given in the opening pages of ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's 8,subjection of ,women40#eb ,sidenote3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill on the influence of feeling upon thinking4 8,so long as an opinion is strongly rooted in the feelings1 it gains rather than loses in stability by having a preponderating weight of argument against it4 ,for if it were accepted as the result of argument1 the refutation of the argument might shake the solidity of the conviction2 but when it rests solely on feeling1 the worse it fares in argumentative contest the more persuaded its adherents are that their feeling must have some deeper ground which the arguments do not reach2 and while the feeling remains1 it is always throwing up fresh intrenchments of argument to fill any breach made in the old40 ,sidenote3 ,regard for truth4 ,when a man's opinions are1 as he thinks1 grounded in first principles1 it is but natural that he should be unwilling to abandon them without a struggle to intrench himself behind impregnable arguments4 ,if he has reached his conclusions as the result of long and careful inquiry1 he has a right to hold on to them with more than ordinary tenacity4 ,the same regard for truth which led him to form an opinion should1 however1 make him willing to change whenever he finds himself in the wrong4 ,he should avoid the frame of mind of the ,scotch lady who1 when it was charged that she was not open to conviction1 exclaimed1 8,not open to conviction6 ,i scorn the imputation4 ,but10 added she1 after a moment's pause1 8show me the man who can convince me40 ,the secret of this tenacity of opinion is not love of truth1 but love of self1--in one word1 pride4 ,sidenote3 ,emotions are helpful4 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,brumbaugh on the emotions4 ,in view of the hinderances which certain kinds or degrees of feeling throw into the way of thinking1 it might be inferred that the thinker must suppress the element of feeling in his inner life4 ,no greater mistake could be made4 ,if the ,creator endowed man with the power to think1 to feel1 and to will1 these several activities of the mind are not designed to be in conflict1 and so long as any one of them is not perverted or allowed to run to excess1 it necessarily aids and strengthens the others in their normal functions4 ,whilst it is a duty to overcome prejudice1 fear1 embarrassment1 anxiety1 and other emotions or degrees of emotion which interfere with our ability to think correctly1 especially when face to face with an audience or with our peers and superiors1 it is equally a duty to cultivate the emotions which stimulate thinking and strengthen the will4 ,without the ability to feel strongly1 it is impossible to stir the hearts of an audience4 ,a strong character is impossible without strong emotion4 ,jesus could weep and denounce4 ,he showed the strongest emotion in his public discourses and at all the great turning-points of his life4 ,the men and women who have done most for the race showed the element of strong feeling in their thinking and in their efforts at philanthropy and reform4 ,it is the feeling of patriotism that sustains the soldier on the field of battle and the statesman in the midst of public criticism and personal abuse4 ,according to ,plato1 the feeling with which education begins is wonder4 8,the elementary school10 says ,dr4 ,brumbaugh1 8does its best work when it creates a desire to learn1 not when it satisfies the learner40 ,teachers everywhere are beginning to see that it is the mission of the elementary school to beget a desire for knowledge that will carry the pupil onward and upward1 and not to make him feel satisfied with a mere knowledge of the rudiments1 so that he will leave the school at the first opportunity to earn a penny4 ,dr4 ,brumbaugh further says1-- 8,we must recognize the emotional life as the basis of appeal for all high acting and high thinking4 ,we can never make men by ignoring an essential element in manliness4 ,to live well1 we must know clearly1 feel keenly1 and act nobly2 and1 indeed1 we shall have noble action only as we have gladsome action1--action inspired of feeling1 not of thought4 ,the church made men of great power because it made men of great feeling40 ,sidenote3 ,playing upon the feelings4 ,the close connection between thinking and feeling cannot be ignored without serious detriment to the intellectual development of the pupil4 ,some teachers play upon the feelings in ways that prevent accurate and effective thinking4 ,the tones of voice in which they speak1 their manner of putting questions and administering discipline1 their lack of self-control1 and their frantic efforts to get and keep order cause the pupils to feel ill at ease and destroy the calmness of soul1 which is the first condition of logical thinking4 ,the skilful teacher calls into play feelings like joy1 hope1 patriotism1 that stimulate and invigorate the whole intellectual life2 he is extremely careful not to stir emotions like fear1 anger1 and hate1 which hinder clear and vigorous thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,responsibility for failure at examinations4 ,feeling plays an important part in the examinations by superintendents for the promotion of pupils1 or by ,state boards whose function it is to license persons to teach or preach1 to practise law1 medicine1 or dentistry1 or to test the fitness of applicants for some branch of civil or military service4 ,examiners are often responsible for the failure of those whom they examine4 ,if the first questions arouse the fear of failure1 causing the mind to picture the disappointment and displeasure of parents and teachers and friends1 and the other evils which result from a loss of class standing1 the resulting emotions hinder effective thinking and thus prevent the pupil from doing justice to himself and his teachers4 ,the expert seeks to lift those whom he examines above all feelings of embarrassment4 ,with a friendly smile1 a kind word1 and a few easy questions he puts the mind at ease1 dissipates the dread of failure1 and gets results which are an agreeable surprise to all concerned4 ,if he cannot otherwise make those before him work to the best advantage1 he will even sacrifice his dignity by the use of a good-natured joke which turns the laugh upon himself or upon some other member of the board of examiners4 ,jokes at the expense of any one of those examined are a species of cruelty which cannot be too severely condemned1 to say nothing of the effect upon the results of the examination4 ,sidenote3 ,speculative thinking4 ,sidenote3 ,darwin's experience4 ,within certain limits thinking begets feeling1 and feeling stimulates thinking4 ,beyond these limits each interferes with the other4 ,when feeling rises to the height of passion it beclouds the judgment and prevents reflection4 ,certain kinds of speculative thinking leave the heart cold and ultimately destroy the better emotions and the warmer affections4 8,it is terrible10 said the daughter of a voluminous writer on theology1 8when a man feels a perpetual impulse to write4 ,it makes him a stranger in his own house1 and deprives wife and children of their husband and father40 ,abstract thinking may be indulged in to the exclusion of the tastes and emotions which help to make life worth living4 ,the oft-quoted experience of ,darwin is a case in point4 ,in his autobiography he gives his experience1 showing the effect of his exclusive devotion to scientific pursuits upon his ability to enjoy poetry1 music1 and pictures4 8,up to the age of thirty and beyond it poetry of many kinds gave me great pleasure1 and even as a school-boy ,i took intense delight in ,shakespeare1 especially in the historical plays4 ,i have also said that pictures formerly gave me considerable and music very great delight4 ,but now for many years ,i cannot endure to read a line of poetry4 ,i have tried lately to read ,shakespeare1 and found it so intolerably dull that it nauseated me4 ,i have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music4 ,music generally sets me thinking too energetically on what ,i have been at work on1 instead of giving me pleasure4444 ,my mind seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts2 but why this should have caused the atrophy of that part of the brain alone1 on which the higher tastes depend1 ,i cannot conceive4444 ,if ,i had to live my life again1 ,i would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once a week2 for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied would thus have been kept alive through use4 ,the loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness1 and may possibly be injurious to the intellect1 and more probably to the moral character by enfeebling the emotional part of our nature40#ec ,sidenote3 ,the sight of an audience4 ,every teacher has both felt and witnessed the effect of embarrassment upon ability to think4 ,to face an audience of a thousand people was embarrassing to some excellent thinkers like ,melanchthon and ,washington4 ,on the other hand1 the sight of a multitude of listening1 upturned faces stimulates natures and temperaments like that of ,martin ,luther and ,patrick ,henry1 causing them to think more vigorously and to feel more deeply4 ,sidenote3 ,great thoughts4 ,great thoughts spring from the heart4 ,this is certainly true of thoughts which have lifted men to higher planes of effort4 ,and it is true of the best thoughts and volitions which a pupil puts forth4 ,the desire for knowledge may develop into the love of truth4 ,the student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake and values the possession of truth above all other worldly possessions4 ,sidenote3 ,interest4 ,the ,herbartians deserve praise for the attention they have given the doctrine of interest4 ,the older text-books on psychology seldom refer to interest as an important element in the education of the child4 ,the greatest boon which can come to a child is happiness1 and this was impossible in the days when fear of the rod held sway in the school-room4 ,then children looked forward to the school with feelings of dread2 they went with fear and trembling4 ,from the day that the children became interested in their lessons the rod was no longer required4 ,instead of crying because they must go to school1 they now cry because they cannot go4 ,through interest the school becomes the place to which children best like to go4 ,sidenote3 ,interest in a clock4 ,a boy who was pronounced incorrigible1 and who had been transferred from school to school because he could not get along with his teachers1 at last met a teacher who discovered that he could take apart and put together watches and clocks4 ,she allowed him to fix her clock1 and thus won his heart4 ,she asked him to explain to the school the mechanism of instruments for keeping time4 ,his interest in clocks she connected with the numbers twelve and sixty1 then with the time-table1 with denominate numbers1 and finally with the whole subject of arithmetic4 ,interest in the exercises of the school converted the incorrigible boy into an obedient and studious pupil4#ed ,there is no more important element of emotion for teachers to cultivate than that which enters into the feeling of interest4 ,interest sustains the power of thought1 diminishes the need of effort in the direction of voluntary attention1 and lies at the basis of all successful teaching1 book-making1 and public speaking4 ,the teacher1 the writer1 the speaker who wearies us has lost his power over us4 ,the lesson1 the book1 the sermon that interests us has found an entrance to our minds2 the greater the interest the more potent and profound the influence upon the inner life4 ,sidenote3 ,interest conditions ability to think4 ,the moment a teacher begins to lose interest in a subject1 that moment he begins to lose his ability to teach that subject4 ,from this point of view the recent graduate has a manifest advantage over the old pedagogue whose interest in the subjects of instruction has been dulled by frequent repetition4 ,the latter can keep himself from reaching the dead-line by keeping up his studies in the allied departments of knowledge1 and by watching the growth of mind and heart in his pupils1--a growth that always reveals something new and interesting by reason of the boundless possibilities that slumber in every human being4 ,the interest in the growing mind is spontaneously transferred to the branches of knowledge which stimulate that growth1 and1 in ways that no one can explain1 the interest which the teacher feels is communicated to the pupils whose minds are prepared to grasp his instruction4 ,sidenote3 ,fiction4 ,by far the larger proportion of books taken from our free libraries are books of fiction1--books which appeal to our emotional life4 ,it shows that even those who are habitual readers can be best reached through the emotions4 ,of course1 the act of reading proves that their feelings are reached through the intellect2 yet it cannot be denied that emotion is the element of their inner life which sustains the interest in the novel4 ,appeals to the intellect which do not touch the heart fail to reach the deepest depths of our being1 and hence fail to stimulate in others the productive powers of the soul4 ,only thoughts which come from the heart can reach the heart4 ,this is true of the child and the adult1 of the reader and the listener1 of the scientist and the man of affairs1 of the author and the editor1 of the orator and the philosopher1 of the teacher1 and1 in short1 of all whose duty it is to stimulate the thinking and to influence the conduct of their fellow-men4 ,,xix ,,thinking ,,and ,,willing ,strong reasons make strong actions4 ,,shakespeare4 ,bad thoughts quickly ripen into bad actions4 ,,bishop ,,portens4 ,the man of thought strikes deepest1 and strikes safely4 ,,savage4 ,reason is the director of man's will1 discovering in action what is good2 for the laws of well-doing are the dictates of right reason4 ,,hooker4 ,,xix ,,thinking ,,and ,,willing ,much thinking is spontaneous1 in the sense that there is no conscious effort of the will to direct and control the activity of the mind4 ,under normal conditions the stream of thought flows onward1 like the current of water in the bed of a river4 ,when the onward movement is interrupted1 an act of volition may be needed to bring the mind back to the regular channel4 ,there are forms of intellectual activity called dreaming1 reverie1 and meditation1 in which the ideas follow each other without any effort to regulate them4 ,often they are fanciful1 incoherent1 and illogical2 they are suggested by passing objects1 by musical sounds1 perhaps by the stimulating influence of a drug or narcotic4 ,few can start a train of thought1 winding up their minds as they would a clock1 and then letting it run down until the discourse1 lecture1 or newspaper article is complete1 no conscious effort of the will being required to keep the mind from wandering4 ,this may be partly a gift of nature1 but mostly it is the result of discipline4 ,sidenote3 ,discipline4 ,sidenote3 ,mental discipline4 ,what is discipline8 ,we speak of mental discipline1 of military discipline1 of family discipline4 ,what is the element which all these have in common8 ,an army is under discipline when every soldier and every officer is subject to the will of his superior1 so that the entire body of men can be moved against the foe at the will of the commanding general4 ,a family is under discipline when the entire household is under the control of the head of the house4 ,the school is under discipline when all the pupils are subject to the will of the teacher1 and to the rules which he has laid down for the regulation of conduct4 ,the mind is under discipline when its powers are under the control of the will1 and its activities are in accord with the laws of thought4 ,it is important to ascertain the laws of thought which underlie correct thinking4 ,these are developed and discussed in treatises on logic1--a science that should be mastered not only by those who must meet others in the field of argument and controversy1 but by all who seek to regulate the thinking of their own minds1 or to aid others in the formation of correct habits of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,habit4 ,fortunately1 the law of habit here comes into play to lighten the conscious effort of the will4 ,when the intellect1 through the guidance of a conscious will1 has acted according to the forms of thought in which the logician can find no fallacies1 it tends to act again in that way1 and the next time a less expenditure of conscious effort is required4 ,the thinking of the teacher1 if correct and logical1 tends to beget correct and logical habits of thought on the part of the pupil4 ,it is a piece of good fortune to fall under the dominating influence of a towering intellect4 ,for a time the growing mind that is engaged in thinking the thoughts1 and mastering the speculations1 the reflections1 the reasonings1 of a master who is such not merely in name1 but also in fact1 may be in a subjection very like unto intellectual slavery4 ,sooner or later the day of emancipation arrives2 and those who were not under the invigorating tuition of such an intellectual giant are surprised at the thought-power developed by the youth whose equal they hitherto fancied themselves to be4 ,sidenote3 ,volitional control4 ,those who expect to spend their days in teaching1 lecturing1 preaching1 pleading1 or writing have great reason to strive after the discipline which results in placing all the powers of mind and heart under the control of the will4 ,the feelings which interfere with reflection should be repressed and expelled by strenuous effort4 ,the emotions which stimulate thinking should be cherished and fostered4 ,the inner nexus1 which binds ideas in logical trains of thought1 should be followed until the habit becomes second nature4 ,thinking which goes forward according to some established habit requires less effort than intellectual work that is accompanied with much volitional effort4 ,this fact serves as a valuable indication to men who must do intellectual work for the press or the pulpit or the lecture-room4 ,perhaps no one is better qualified to speak on this point than ,dr4 ,carpenter1 who studied mental action from the physiological point of view1 and whose publications show the quality1 as well as the quantity1 of his intellectual labor4 ,he says1-- ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,carpenter4 8,to individuals of ordinary mental activity who have been trained in the habit of methodical and connected thinking1 a very considerable amount of work is quite natural2 and when such persons are in good bodily health1 and the subject of their labor is congenial to them1--especially if it be one that has been chosen by themselves1 as furnishing a centre of attraction around which their thoughts spontaneously tend to range themselves1--their intellectual operations require but little of the controlling or directing power of the will1 and may be continued for long periods together without fatigue4 ,but from the moment when an indisposition is experienced to keep the attention fixed upon the subject1 and the thoughts wander from it unless coerced by the will1 the mental activity loses its spontaneous or automatic character2 and 7as in the act of walking7 more effort is required to maintain it volitionally during a brief period1 and more fatigue is subsequently experienced from such exertion than would be involved in the continuance of an automatic operation through a period many times as long4 ,hence he has found it practically the greatest economy of mental labor to work vigorously when he feels disposed to do so1 and to refrain from exertion1 so far as possible1 when it is felt to be an exertion4 ,of course1 this rule is by no means universally applicable2 for there are many individuals who would pass their whole time in listless inactivity if not actually spurred on by the feeling of necessity4 ,but it holds good for those who are sufficiently attracted by objects of interest before them1 or who have in their worldly position a sufficiently strong motive to exertion to make them feel that they must work2 the question with them being1 how they can attain their desired results with the least expenditure of mental effort40#ee ,sidenote3 ,jokes4 ,there is a danger to which public speakers are exposed1 against which the efforts of a resolute will are not too potent4 ,to capture a crowd that is more easily moved by jokes than by argument1 the speaker resorts to sallies of wit and humor and turns the laugh upon an opponent4 ,the temptation to cultivate one's gifts in this direction is very strong1 and when yielded to1 it destroys the powers of logical reflection and consecutive thought4 ,wit is illogical1 because it introduces into the current of thought what is foreign to the subject in hand1 the incongruity giving rise to the laughter4 ,wit and humor serve a useful purpose in acting as a safety-valve to let off the discontent which accumulates in the human breast1 and may be used for that purpose with great effect4 ,but they should never be allowed to divert the stream of thought from its logical channel4 ,the reputation for wit and humor may dispose people to laugh at everything a man says4 ,it destroys their respect for his judgment and impairs his power to follow a line of thought to its legitimate conclusion4 ,the ability to discuss a theme in all its bearings and details implies the power to investigate a subject in its essence and relations1 to resolve an idea into its elements1 and to present these in the form most easily understood1--an object which is as far from the purposes of the funny man as the poles are from the equator4 ,sidenote3 ,forms of thought-expression4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking in action4 ,all thinking tends towards the expression of thought4 8,every expression of thought10 says ,tracy1 8whether it be word1 or mark1 or gesture1 is the result of an active will1 and as such may be classed among the movements40 ,word1 mark1 and gesture do not exhaust the list of movements by which the mind expresses thought4 ,every handicraft is a form of expressing thought quite as important as writing and speaking and gesticulating4 ,the fine arts and the useful arts are so many ways through which the will passes into thinking and issues in the expression of thought4 ,movements for reform are the intense expressions of great thoughts which have their origin in the heart4 ,the men who spend their lives in the atmosphere of colleges and universities are apt to be satisfied if they have expressed their thoughts in a lecture or on the printed page4 ,they live in books1 and their thinking terminates in books4 ,the thinking which issues in getting things done1 in deeds1 actions1 achievements1 is undervalued and too often ignored4 ,university men are waking up to this defect in their thinking4 ,they are throwing themselves into movements for reform and giving the world splendid examples of the translation of thought into vigorous action4 ,the effort to carry theory into practice reacts powerfully upon the mind1 forces the individual to see things as they are1 and saves him from the habit of looking only for things which the schools have taught him to expect4 ,when thinking issues in doing1 the process promotes intellectual honesty4 ,this remark is especially applicable to exercises in which the hand makes in wood1 metal1 marble1 or clay what the mind has conceived4 ,the execution cannot be accurate unless the thinking has been accurate and satisfactory4 ,drawing is a universal language4 ,it imposes upon the mind a degree of accuracy which is wanting in the fleeting spoken word or even in the more permanent printed or written sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking in business4 ,the movements in manual training are an excellent preparation for the movements in the handicrafts and the daily occupations by which men gain the necessaries and the comforts of life4 ,ten thousand men are active in supplying our breakfast-table1 and many thousand more in providing clothing1 shelter1 light1 heat1 and the manifold necessities and luxuries of modern society4 ,all these involve thinking quite as useful1 as logical1 and as effective as the thinking which ends in talk or printer's ink4 ,the relation of thinking to doing and the reflex influence which the latter exerts upon the former is seen in the solution of problems and in all exercises involving the application of knowledge4 ,manual training is really and primarily a training in thinking1 but it is the kind of thinking most closely related to thinking in things1 and its value in education is so great that it has led to the formulation of the maxim1 ,we learn to do by doing1--a maxim which deserves separate consideration1 because1 as usually applied1 it is taken to mean that doing by the hand necessarily and inevitably leads to thinking and knowing4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the will4 ,another aspect of the relation of thinking to willing claims our attention4 ,thinking is an important element in the growth of the will4 ,the education of the will is coming to be recognized as a matter of supreme importance4 ,the development of character is everywhere emphasized4 ,no teacher in these days regards intellectual training as the sole or chief aim of the school4 ,the philosopher is no longer regarded as the highest type of humanity4 ,the age demands that thought shall pass into volition1 and that volition shall manifest itself in action4 ,the executive is not satisfied with the investigation of a subject in its essence and relations1 with the elaboration of thought into a system2 he must get things done4 ,mere thinking he despises4 ,the philosopher he regards as a man troubled with ideas1 the poet as a man troubled with fancies and rhymes2 he hates men who let their minds 8go astray into regions not peopled with real things1 animate or inanimate1 even idealized1 but with personified shadows created by the illusions of metaphysics or by the mere entanglement of words1 and think these shadows the proper objects of the highest1 the most transcendental philosophy40 ,and the sympathies of the multitudes are on the side of the executive in his exaltation of the will as the chief element of utility and success4 ,the acts of the will should be guided by intelligence4 ,the will is weak and vacillating if the ends to be accomplished are not clearly conceived1 if the purposes to be accomplished are not definitely thought out4 ,thinking is the guide to willing4 ,thought gives direction to volition4 ,sidenote3 ,self-gratification4 ,sidenote3 ,self-denial4 ,sidenote3 ,the right4 ,there are successive stages in the growth of the will as clearly defined as the activities of memory and imagination4 ,in the first or lowest stage the aim is some form of happiness4 ,in the second stage the will acts under the influence of some ethical idea1 commonly finding expression in a maxim like the command1 ,thou shalt not steal1 or in some fixed occupation like a trade or farm work4 ,in the third the will acts under the inspiration of the good or its opposite1 and from motives grounded in right or wrong4 ,in all these stages of growth thinking is a most important factor4 ,let us go into details for purposes of illustration4 ,the human will in its process of development starts on a physical rather than a spiritual basis4 ,on the one hand a want is felt and on the other an impulse towards the satisfaction of that want4 ,in course of time this impulse or appetence assumes the form of intelligent or conscious purpose looking towards the gratification of felt wants1 and then the will begins to show itself in the form of clear1 definite volitions and actions4 ,the strength of the will depends largely upon these impulses or appetences2 and their strength in turn depends upon the health1 the temperament1 the organization 7physical and psychical7 of the individual4 ,if by careful diet1 exercise1 or otherwise1 we invigorate these1 we thereby furnish capital that will in after years bear compound interest in the form of strong will-power4 ,if the diet1 exercise1 play1 sleep1 and work are not properly regulated1 first by the parent1 the nurse1 and the teacher1 and later by the individual himself1 the appetences develop into appetites that enslave the will and seriously interfere with its further growth4 ,as the power to think is developed1 the will passes over into a higher stage of activity4 ,the very longing for happiness leads the child to impose restrictions upon itself4 ,it feels happy if it can secure the approbation of those with whom it associates4 ,if we show our displeasure at something it has done1 the little philosopher begins to practise self-denial in certain directions for the purpose of regaining and retaining our good will4 ,the second stage is now reached in which self-gratification gives place to self-denial1 the will acting under the influence of one or more ethical ideas4 ,the child at school is lifted upon this loftier plane by the circumstances which surround him2 it must practise the school virtues1--punctuality1 industry1 obedience1 and the like2 it accepts certain forms of self-restraint in keeping quiet1 in abstaining from play1 in observing the rules of the school4 ,where the discipline is rigid and the instruction lacks interest1 it may even conceive of the school as a mere place of self-denial and self-restraint4 8,why do you come here80 asked a director4 ,the little boy replied1 8,we come here to sit and wait for school to let out40 ,the hours at school can be sweetened by exercises in thinking and expressing thought to such an extent that the school becomes the place to which children best like to go4 ,some full-grown men have not advanced very far beyond this second stage in the growth of the will4 ,they follow some regular occupation as the boy does in going to school2 they practise certain forms of virtue1--say honesty1 so that you could intrust to them your pocket-book with perfect safety1--but they break the ,sabbath1 use ,god's name in vain1 and commit daily many other sins and transgressions4 ,occasionally one finds a school in which no pupil would dare to be caught telling a lie1 and yet the moral tone is low1 there being vices which1 like a cankerworm1 eat out the moral life of the school4 ,the teacher should not feel satisfied until he has raised the pupil to the third stage1 where the will is brought under the inspiration of the good1 and right becomes the law of life4 ,upon this highest plane different phases of development can be detected4 ,the law of right may brandish the avenging rod of conscience and drive the individual into paths of rectitude4 ,the idea of duty thus operating alone may reduce him to the subservience of a slave and prevent him from reaching the high stature of perfect human freedom4 ,this kind of slavery is apt to be followed by a struggle in which the lower nature seeks to assert itself against the higher1 and if the latter conquers1 the person is apt to be elated with the feeling of victory4 ,whenever you hear a man boast of the sacrifices he has made in his devotion to duty1 you can rest assured he has not yet reached that lofty elevation in will-culture upon which the person does right spontaneously and without effort1 and never dreams of having made a sacrifice in the performance of the hardest duties4 ,sidenote3 ,evil4 ,of course1 the development from the first stage may move in the opposite direction4 ,if the appetences are gratified beyond the requirements of self-preservation1 or of the well-being of the child1 they grow into uncontrollable desires and passions2 the individual sinks deeper and deeper into selfishness4 ,he may deny himself for the sake of some ambition1 or vice1 or wicked end which the soul cherishes2 then1 unless lifted up by the grace of ,god1 he will ultimately land in a state bordering on that of ,mephistopheles in ,goethe's ,faust1 a character who found pleasure in human suffering1 and whose will was constantly under the direction and inspiration of the principle of evil4 ,he will at last become like ,milton's ,satan1 who exclaimed1 8,evil1 be thou my good40 ,college boys who delight in hazing innocent freshmen have gone far towards this loathsome stage of moral degradation1 the lowest which the will can reach in its downward career4 ,sidenote3 ,thought and volition4 ,now1 it is easy to see the relation of thinking to these several stages of will-development4 ,volition presupposes something to be done1 an end to be sought and accomplished4 ,if the will is to act steadily in the endeavor to realize this end1 the end must be clearly thought and held before the soul in definite form4 ,to do the right implies that the right be known as the result of right thinking4 ,a soul ignorant of right cannot be expected to practise the virtues which are grounded in the law of right4 ,on the other hand1 many forms of evil are never conceived by young people unless suggested to them by their superiors4 ,volition issues in doing1 and doing is a powerful stimulus to thinking4 ,making things out of wood1 metal1 marble1 wax1 papier-mach1 or even out of paper is genuine thinking in things4 ,it is a species of doing which flows from thinking through willing and reacts upon the process of thinking4 ,to see how a thing is made is better than to be told how1 but to make it by our own effort1 skill1 and thought is vastly more educative than seeing and hearing4 ,manual training tends to make the pupil intellectually honest4 ,he cannot get away from a thought expressed in wood or other material as he can from a thought expressed in language which may suffice to suggest his idea1 but not to give it adequate expression4 ,this influence of doing upon thinking has led to the formulation of the maxim1 ,we learn to do by doing1--a maxim whose limitations and legitimate meaning it will be necessary to discuss in a separate lecture4 ,,xx ,,thinking ,,and ,,doing ,when we turn to modern pedagogics1 we see how enormously the field of reactive conduct has been extended by the introduction of all those methods of concrete object-teaching which are the glory of our contemporary schools4 ,verbal reactions1 useful as they are1 are insufficient4 ,the pupil's words may be right1 but the concepts corresponding to them are often direfully wrong4 ,in a modern school1 therefore1 they form only a small part of what the pupil is required to do4 ,he must keep note-books1 make drawings1 plans1 and maps1 take measurements1 enter the laboratory and perform experiments1 consult authorities1 and write essays4 ,he must do1 in his fashion1 what is often laughed at by outsiders when it appears in prospectuses under the title of original work2 but what is really the only possible training for the doing of original work thereafter4 ,the most colossal improvement which recent years have seen in secondary education lies in the introduction of manual-training schools2 not because they will give us a people more handy and practical for domestic life1 and better skill in trades1 but because they will give us citizens with an entirely different intellectual life4 ,laboratory work and shop work engender a habit of observation1 a knowledge of the difference between accuracy and vagueness1 and an insight into nature's complexity and into the inadequacy of all abstract verbal accounts of real phenomena1 which once brought into the mind remain there as life-long possessions4 ,they confer precision2 because1 if you are doing a thing1 you must do it definitely right or definitely wrong4 ,they give honesty2 for1 when you express yourself by making things1 and not by using words1 it becomes impossible to dissimulate your vagueness or ignorance by ambiguity4 ,they beget a habit of self-reliance2 they keep the interest and attention always cheerfully engaged1 and reduce the teacher's disciplinary function to a minimum4 ,,william ,,james4 ,,xx ,,thinking ,,and ,,doing ,sidenote3 ,saying and doing4 ,the best methods of instruction in the ordinary school aim at the expression of thought in language4 ,if a thing has been well said1 the teacher and the examiner are apt to make no further inquiries4 ,although the expression of thought in written or spoken language is a species of doing1 there is often a wide chasm between getting a thing said and having it done4 ,many of the reforms and revolutions thought out by university professors never get beyond the room in which they lecture or the page on which they formulate their ideas4 ,the freedom of speech in the universities never troubles a despotic government until the ideas of the professors and students show signs of passing into the life of the nation4 ,the difference between speech and action1 between the man of words and the man of deeds1 has long been felt and emphasized4 ,the favorite method of teaching by lectures1 and requiring the pupil to take notes1 fails utterly if it stops with mere telling how a thing is to be done1 and is not followed by actual doing on the part of the learner4 ,work in the shop1 in the field1 and in the factory often proves more effective in fitting a boy to earn a living than the theoretical instruction of the schools4 ,the advantage of doing over telling as a means of learning has led to the formulation of the maxim1 8,we learn to do by doing10 and some educational reformers have announced the maxim as a principle of education universal in its application4 ,hence it is worth while to clarify its meaning and to ascertain its limitations4 ,in so doing1 we shall get a glimpse of the true relation between thinking and doing4 ,sidenote3 ,the maxim applied to medicine and surgery4 ,a young man possessed of unbounded faith in this maxim came to town for the purpose of practising medicine and surgery4 ,he announced that if any persons got sick he proposed to give them medicine in the hope of learning the physiological and therapeutic effects of the various drugs4 ,if any limbs were to be amputated1 he was willing to try his hand1 in the hope of ultimately learning how to perform surgical operations4 ,he was too simple to succeed as a quack4 ,he did not get a single patient2 the people wisely gave him no opportunity of learning to do by doing4 ,sidenote3 ,the maxim in the other professions4 ,equally foolish were it thus to apply the maxim to any of the other professions4 ,would you1 with life or property at stake1 allow a novice to plead your cause at court in order that he might learn to plead by pleading8 ,who would waste the golden ,sabbath hours in listening to one who was trying to learn to preach by preaching8 ,the civilized world regards knowledge1 which is the product of the act of learning1 as the indispensable guide of those who offer their services at the bar1 from the pulpit1 or in the sick-room4 ,when a ,yale professor was asked whether study was required of those divinely called to preach1 he replied that he had read of but one instance in which the ,lord condescended to speak through the mouth of an ass4 ,sidenote3 ,comenius4 ,even an ass may learn to do some things by continually doing them in a blind way1 and that1 too1 in spite of his proverbial stubbornness2 but such learning by blind practice is unworthy of the school-life of a being gifted with human intelligence1 and capable1 it may be1 of filling a profession4 ,instinct may guide a bee or a beaver3 but knowledge should guide man in the arts and habits which he acquires4 ,this fact is not ignored in the maxim as originally given by ,comenius4 8,things to be done should be learned by doing them4 ,mechanics understand this well3 they do not give the apprentice a lecture upon their trade1 but they will let him see how they1 as masters1 do2 then they place the tool in his hands1 teach him to use it and imitate them4 ,doing can be learned only by doing1 writing by writing1 painting by painting1 and so on40 ,there is in this statement a clear recognition1 on the one hand1 of the knowledge-getting which precedes and accompanies all intelligent doing1 and1 on the other1 of the practice which is needful for the attainment of skill4 ,the master mechanic seeks first to give his apprentice a clear concept of what is to be done2 and the knowledge thus acquired through the eye1 and perhaps partly through hearing directions and explanations1 is afterwards put into practice by the actual manipulation of tools and materials4 ,if the maxim had been allowed to stand in this1 its original form and meaning1 no one could have objected to its use and application4 ,but when the attempt was made to elevate it into a principle of binding force for all teaching2 when1 furthermore1 the form was shortened so as to widen the meaning1 and the maxim was then applied to regulate the acquisition of every form of human activity1 both physical and mental1 it is not surprising that protests were heard1 and the necessity was felt of investigating the maxim for the purpose of ascertaining its limitations and defining its meaning4 ,sidenote3 ,value of the maxim4 ,yet we must not fail to make grateful acknowledgment of the services to education rendered by those who lifted the maxim into prominence4 ,how often were pupils expected to learn one thing by doing another4 ,drawing was advocated because it would improve the penmanship4 ,silent reading or thought-getting was to be learned by oral reading or thought-giving4 ,the alphabet was taught as if the names of the letters would make the child familiar with the sounds4 ,the idea of number was to be gotten by naming the numbers or imitating the ,arabic notation4 ,facility and accuracy in the use of language were to be acquired from exercises in parsing and analysis4 ,familiarity with birds1 flowers1 minerals1 chemicals1 etc41 was to be gained from the learned phraseology of the text-books4 ,sometimes even the teachers knew very little more than the technical terms4 ,when the great ornithologist1 ,wilson1 visited ,princeton ,college1 the professor of natural history scarcely knew a sparrow from a woodpecker4 ,a great change has come over ,princeton and all other higher institutions of learning2 and the new influence has been felt in our high schools1 and even in the grades below4 ,sidenote3 ,maxims1 principles4 ,whilst cheerfully acknowledging the value of the maxim of ,comenius1 we should1 nevertheless1 insist on the difference between a maxim which may regulate our conduct in specific cases and a principle which is an all-controlling guide in operations4 ,coleridge says1 8,a maxim is a conclusion upon observation of matters of fact1 and is speculative2 a principle has truth in itself1 and is prospective40 ,it is always dangerous to generalize upon facts observed in one realm of investigation1 and then to allow others to apply these general statements to realms as diverse from the original field of observation as mind or spirit is from matter4 ,the disciples in such cases always manifest the hidden weaknesses in the system of their master4 ,they rush in where he would have feared to tread4 ,they push his language to extremes1 from which his deeper insight1 broader vision1 and larger experience would have caused him to shrink4 ,comenius framed the maxim from the observation of bodily acts2 some seek to apply it to every form of human activity4 ,the original language has been twisted into a statement that sounds paradoxical4 8,we learn to do by doing40 ,what can these words mean8 ,if we can do a given thing1 what need is there of learning to do that thing4 ,if we cannot do the thing to be learned by the doing of it1 how can any doing on our part issue in learning8 ,evidently the maxim in its modern form1 if it is at all valid1 must partake of the nature of a paradox1 which1 though seemingly absurd1 is yet true in essence or fact4 ,for the purpose of testing the validity of a paradoxical statement1 there is no better way than to ascertain its possible meanings1 to eliminate those evidently not intended1 and finally to investigate the one or more senses or interpretations that may legitimately be put upon the language4 ,the investigation will1 in this instance1 reveal the relation existing between doing and the act of learning4 ,sidenote3 ,analysis of the maxim4 ,in the first place1 the maxim cannot mean that we learn to do by every kind of doing4 ,the kind of doing by which the young man hoped to learn medicine and surgery was ridiculed centuries ago2 no one in our day would advocate mere blind doing as a means of learning4 ,the maxim must refer to doing guided by an intelligent will4 ,the doing must be guided by thinking that is based upon correct and reliable data or premises4 ,again1 the maxim cannot mean that we learn one thing by doing another4 ,the maxim was emphasized in protest against the absurdity of some of our methods of teaching4 ,it may happen that the learner accidentally discovers one thing while seeking to find out some other thing2 to expect that this shall always be the case is to invite disappointment4 ,for instance1 pupils do not learn to spell while studying books if attention is absorbed in the meaning1 and is not drawn1 in separate exercises1 to the correct orthography of words that are apt to be misspelled4 ,sidenote3 ,fatigue4 ,there is a third limitation to the maxim on the side of attention4 ,how1 for instance1 is the art of writing acquired8 ,it is undoubtedly true that a boy cannot learn to write without himself writing2 it is equally true that he is not always learning or improving in penmanship while he is practising with his pen upon paper4 ,from the teacher or the copy he gets a concept of the letters to be made4 ,the first efforts at imitation are fraught with defects4 ,the pupil must clearly recognize wherein he failed1 and earnestly strive to remedy the defects1 if the next attempt is to be an improvement4 ,the maxim1 if here applied1 must mean that the pupil learns to do by continually doing1 as nearly as he can1 the thing to be done4 ,with each step of progress1 his concept of the form of the letters and how to make them becomes more accurate2 or1 in other words1 his power and skill keep pace with his knowledge4 ,finally1 after much practice1 the nerves and muscles which control the act of writing are properly co-ordinated2 the habit of writing with ease is acquired2 the process becomes largely subconscious1 if not altogether automatic4 ,the learner has at length reached the stage in which his attention is no longer concentrated upon the form and beauty of the letters1 but rather upon the thought to be expressed1 and it is quite possible that henceforth his chirography will grow more illegible the more he writes4 ,of course1 he is now learning the art of composing by composing2 but he has ceased to learn in the direction of his handwriting by writing1 because the attention is riveted upon something else4 ,even before the subconscious stage is reached1 practice1 if too long continued1 may exhaust the powers of attention1 and doing can no longer issue in learning by reason of fatigue4 ,on the score of attention there is a limit to the application of the maxim in another direction4 ,talking1 oral reading1 and public speaking may be spoiled by too much attention4 ,practice in these1 under the guidance of an injudicious teacher1 may serve to make the gestures too studied1 the pronunciation too precise1 and the tones of the voice too artificial1 defects by which the hearer's mind is drawn from the thought to the delivery4 ,sidenote3 ,injudicious criticism4 ,the lack of good elocutionary drill in youth is a serious misfortune1 yet the writer cannot help blaming the elocutionists for ruining one public speaker among his acquaintances4 ,under their tuition the gestures and articulation of this friend have become almost faultless2 but there is such a self-conscious air about his platform utterances that the audience can think of nothing except the delivery4 ,by his efforts at doing he has learned most emphatically not to do4 ,the same thing may happen in elementary instruction1 and in the practice-schools connected with our ,state normal schools4 ,injudicious criticism by the teacher may so rivet the attention upon the utterance that the pupils lose sight of the thought to be expressed1 and the more they practise under his guidance the worse their reading becomes4 ,the vocal and physical elements1 in the act of oral reading or speaking1 should spring spontaneously out of the thought and sentiment to be conveyed4 ,any drill which interferes with this natural connection between the mental and the physical is indescribably bad1 and should never be regarded as a means of learning4 ,equally severe must be the sentence of condemnation upon much of the criticism to which pupil teachers are subjected by their fellow-students and their critic-teachers at our normal schools1 and upon the comments made by candidates for the ministry and their professors upon the efforts of the embryo preacher during the so-called homiletical exercises4 ,injudicious fault-finding leads to a kind of doing which cannot issue in learning4 ,sidenote3 ,application4 ,sidenote3 ,the arm and hand4 ,within these limitations we find a wide field for the application of the maxim to our efforts at learning to think and to express thought4 ,the hand performs a very important function in aiding the mind to perfect its concepts4 ,the metric system remains a dark1 confused mass of names so long as the pupil does not actually handle and use the metric units of weights and measures4 ,a few days of manual training1 during which the learner is compelled to measure accurately1 are of immense account in developing accurate ideas and accurate thinking4 ,of all the ways of expressing thought1 those by the hand and the tongue are more perfect than those by the eye1 the face1 the gesture1 the bodily movement4 ,the latter are well adapted to express feeling2 the former1 to express thought4 ,few have ever thought of the marvellous mechanism given to a human being in the arm and hand4 ,a glimpse from the mathematician's point of view is here very interesting4 ,a pencil fastened to the end of a ruler revolving around a fixed point will describe a circle4 ,if the pencil be fastened to the end of a second ruler revolving around the end of the first1 while the first revolves around the original centre1 the pencil will describe a very complicated curve4 ,if three radii1 revolving in this way1 be joined together1 the pencil at the end of the third can be made to describe the cycles and epicycles by which the ancient astronomers explained the movements of the planets4 ,the modern mathematician has shown that1 by annexing a fourth1 a fifth1 and a sixth radius1 each revolving around the preceding1 while the first is moving around the original centre1 all curves of the fifth and sixth orders can be described4 ,let any one examine his right arm1 starting from the shoulder and ending with the fingers1 and he will find that since infancy he has had this mechanism for executing curves and movements1 has been using this wonderful system of revolving radii to express thought1 and that it has been to him a source of skill in thinking and doing4 ,when viewed in their anatomical and physiological aspects1 human arms and hands are seen to be a still more wonderful mechanism1 rivalled only by the tongue in capability for describing any curve and uttering any kind of thought4 ,whilst the tongue may speak many oral languages1 the hand writes them all1 and supplies additional methods for expressing thought in drawing1 painting1 sculpture1 instrumental music1 in the various handicrafts1 and in the machines which act like man's hand made bigger1 more powerful1 more tireless4 ,sidenote3 ,apprentices4 ,sidenote3 ,manual training4 ,from this point of view one can see a wide field for the intelligent application of the maxim to our efforts at learning to write1 to talk1 to walk1 to play on a musical instrument1 or to handle the tools of some handicraft4 ,if questioned with reference to these and kindred activities1 the physiologist would answer that the repeated action of the nerves and muscles in specific functions fits them the better to act in the same functions1 and that the effect of the exercise of any function may be stored up so as to increase the facility of the nervous structure to exercise again every similar function4 ,the psychologist would say that any normal act performed under the guidance of an intelligent will leaves1 as its enduring result1 an increased power to act and a tendency to act again in like manner4 ,common parlance1 which is apt to enshrine its wisdom in proverbs1 simply says1 ,practice makes perfect4 ,doing1 when it engrosses the attention1 exerts a reflex influence upon thinking2 after it sinks to the subconscious level it ceases to exert a helpful influence4 ,the methods adopted in our manual-training schools are1 in this respect1 much superior to those pursued under the old apprentice system4 ,the master mechanic found it to his interest to keep the apprentice upon one kind of work until a high degree of skill was attained4 ,he used the apprentice as a means to an end1--the end being the production of things that would sell and thus reimburse the master for the time and trouble of teaching his trade to another4 ,the mysteries of the trade were kept to the last for fear the apprentice would quit before the expiration of the time for which he was indentured4 ,no better plan for crushing the intellectual life could have been conceived4 ,the manual-training school1 on the other hand1 makes the boy1 and not the product1 the end of its training1 the object of chief concern4 ,it seeks not merely to make the man a better workman1 but the workman a better man4 ,no pupil is asked to go through the same movement1 to do the same piece of work1 for the purpose of developing skill1 until every trace of interest is gone4 ,nothing is made for the purpose of selling2 everything prescribed is for the purpose of developing the pupil's powers1 to enable him to express thought by the use of working-tools and instruments4 ,the working-drawing and the model are the symbols which come nearest to a full representation of the thing to be made4 ,the word1 the clay1 the stone1 the metal1 the leather1 the cloth1 are the materials in which thought finds its final expression4 ,nothing is carried so far as to deaden the boy's interest in what he is doing2 the charm of novelty is kept up from day to day4 ,if the first product is defective1 a new problem is set1 involving the same fundamental operations1 or the use of the same tools and instruments4 ,the manual-training school and the trade school1 if properly conducted1 thus become a most valuable means for developing the power to think in things4 ,it aims to create the power to think1 as well as the power to do2 the two are made commensurate and mutually helpful4 ,the thinking is made to issue in doing1 and the doing is kept from sinking into the subconscious stage1 where it tends to degrade the individual to the mere level of a machine4 ,within these limitations we can endorse ,professor ,wilson's tribute to the hand1 and subscribe to his demand that1 as in the days of ,israel's glory1 it shall be trained in some useful handicraft1 not merely as a means of livelihood1 but more especially as a means of making the pupil a better thinker1 a completer man4 ,sidenote3 ,handicrafts4 8,when ,i think of all that man's and woman's hand has wrought10 says he1 8from the day that ,eve put forth her erring hand to pluck the fruit of the forbidden tree to that dark hour when the pierced hands of the ,saviour were nailed to the predicted tree of shame1 and of all that human hands have wrought of good and evil since1 ,i lift up my hand and gaze upon it with wonder and awe4 ,what an instrument for good it is6 ,what an instrument for evil6 ,and all day long it never is idle4 ,there is no implement which it cannot wield1 and it should never in working hours be without one4 ,we unwisely restrict the term handicrafts-man or hand-worker to the more laborious callings2 but it belongs to all honest1 earnest men and women1 and is a title which each should covet4 ,for the queen's hand there is the sceptre1 and for the soldier's hand the sword2 for the carpenter's hand the saw1 and for the smith's hand the hammer2 for the farmer's hand the plough2 for the miner's hand the spade2 for the sailor's hand the oar2 for the painter's hand the brush2 for the sculptor's hand the chisel2 for the poet's hand the pen2 and for woman's hand the needle4 ,and if none of these1 or the like1 will fit us1 the felon's chain should be round our wrist1 and our hand on the prisoner's crank4 ,but for each willing man or woman there is a tool they may learn to handle2 for all there is the command1 #8,whatsoever thy hand findeth to do1 do it with thy might4'0 ,,xxi ,,thinking ,,in ,,the ,,arts ,a meagre soul can never be made fat1 nor a narrow soul large1 by studying rules of thinking4 ,,professor ,,blackie4 ,have your thinking first1 and plenty to think about1 and then ask the logician to teach you to scrutinize with a nice eye the process by which you have arrived at your conclusions4 ,,professor ,,blackie4 ,invention1 though it can be cultivated1 cannot be reduced to rule2 there is no science which will enable a man to bethink himself of that which will suit his purpose4 ,but when he has thought of something1 science can tell him whether that which he has thought of will suit his purpose or not4 ,the inquirer or arguer must be guided by his own knowledge and sagacity in his choice of the inductions out of which he will construct his argument4 ,but the validity of the argument when constructed depends upon principles1 and must be tried by tests which are the same for all descriptions of inquiries1 whether the result be to give ,a an estate1 or to enrich science with a new general truth4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,,xxi ,,thinking ,,in ,,the ,,arts ,for centuries men have been disposed to look with disdain upon the occupations in which the hands and the body are more concerned than the mind4 ,the arts in which thought predominates were honored above the handicrafts2 and it is only in recent years that educators have begun to recognize the educative value of thinking through the hand as we find it exemplified in schools for manual training4 ,a comparison of the various arts will serve to dignify this kind of training and to set it in a clearer light before teachers and boards of education4 ,medival thinkers divided the arts into two classes1 which they called the mechanic and the liberal arts1 and enumerated seven arts in each class4 ,sidenote3 ,mechanic arts4 ,the seven mechanic arts were ,agriculture1 ,propagation of ,trees1 ,manufacture of ,arms1 ,carpenter's ,work1 ,medicine1 ,weaving1 and ,ship-building4 ,the primary operations were mechanical1 as the name implies1 and hence involved a genuine thinking in things4 ,their number has been greatly multiplied2 the operations have grown wonderfully complex2 thought upon the activities which they necessitate has led to the discovery of guiding principles1 and some have risen to the rank of regular professions4 ,the growth and the care of trees have given rise to forestry4 ,ship-building and the manufacture of arms involve science of the highest order4 ,the practice of medicine and surgery requires skill based upon kinds of knowledge and thinking that are rigidly scientific4 ,the thoughts which have been crystallized in modern inventions deserve equal rank with the thoughts which philosophers have woven into systems4 ,the various trades of civilized society necessitate the expression of thought through the hand4 ,manufactures and commerce involve transactions1 operations1 and competition requiring the highest intelligence1 the most accurate thinking1 the most vigorous effort4 ,any youth whose training has fitted him to excel in these is sure of work and fair compensation4 ,sidenote3 ,the useful occupations4 ,far too often the school has taught the pupil to undervalue and even to despise useful occupations4 ,scientific research1 philosophic speculation1 and literary productivity have been lauded as more honorable vocations4 ,any honest occupation that furnishes adequate exercise for man's marvellous faculties is honorable in the sight of ,god4 ,if two angels should be sent from heaven1 one to rule a kingdom1 the other to break stones upon the highway1 each of them would be happy in the thought that he was fulfilling his divinely appointed mission1 and each would receive1 upon the completion of his task1 the 8well done0 which will finally be spoken to every good and faithful servant4 ,sidenote3 ,woman in the arts4 ,in #ahdj ,harriet ,martineau visited the ,united ,states and reported only seven occupations open to women1--teaching1 needlework1 keeping boarders1 working in cotton factories1 typesetting1 bookbinding1 and household service4 ,the school has been blamed for causing the rising generation to underestimate the last named in comparison with the other occupations open to women4 ,when anything goes wrong in ,american life the school is not only blamed1 but also expected to supply the remedy4 ,it must be admitted that there is much false thinking on the subject of household service in so-called polite society4 ,a woman may cook for herself and her own household without losing caste4 ,as soon as she becomes the cook in another woman's kitchen she is banished from the parlor of fashionable society4 ,she can stand in a store or work in a factory without losing her place in the social scale2 but if she works for hire in the kitchen1 she is thenceforth treated as belonging to a lower caste4 ,is thinking in the culinary art less valuable or less difficult than the thinking involved in selling ribbons and laces8 ,does the preparation of a palatable meal require less brains and less skill than the setting of type or the making of yarn8 ,does good cooking add less to the welfare of the race than playing on the piano or painting in oil- or water-colors8 ,the teaching of domestic science is calculated to change public opinion and to add to the sum of human happiness by emancipating the home from the tyranny and the caprices of the servant girl and by securing to deserving help a juster appreciation of efficient thinking in household service4 ,sidenote3 ,america the paradise of woman4 ,america has been aptly named the paradise of woman4 ,the ,american woman is not expected to break stones upon the highway1 to carry market-baskets on the top of her head1 to pull the milk-cart alongside of the dog1 to do all kinds of rough manual labor1 whilst strong-armed and able-bodied men have charge of the elementary schools4 ,fully two-thirds of the teachers in ,america are women4 ,her sphere of activity has been greatly enlarged in other directions4 ,she may be the inferior of the stronger sex in original and creative work1--time will settle that question1--but in ability to carry college work and to do practical thinking she has shown herself the equal of her brother and in every respect deserving of the exalted position assigned to her in the ,new ,world4 ,she has attained her standing in ,america through her ability to think and to apply thought in the useful arts4 ,sidenote3 ,the liberal arts4 ,the liberal arts were subdivided into the trivium and the quadrivium4 ,the trivium1 consisting of grammar1 logic1 and rhetoric1 sought to teach the art of thinking correctly1 of expressing thought in correct language1 and of presenting it in forceful1 persuasive discourse4 ,sidenote3 ,quadrivium4 ,sidenote3 ,discovery4 ,the quadrivium1 consisting of arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 and music1 was composed of thought-studies1 and furnished material for the thinking of generations of the best men4 ,the enlargement of the boundaries of human knowledge has increased the number of studies to such an extent that no student need weep like ,alexander because there are no more worlds to conquer4 ,moreover1 in many directions the human race is simply on the border-land of discovery4 ,at the beginning of this century a professor lamented that the age of discovery had passed4 ,the professor who quoted him in the middle of the century could point to the steam-engine1 the electric telegraph1 and the use of ansthetics4 ,in the closing year of the century we can point to a record of inventions and discoveries unsurpassed in the thought-achievements of the race4 ,man has learned to put thought into machines that do work with a speed and accuracy impossible of attainment by the human hand4 ,his thought is changing the face of the earth and developing a civilization based upon a degree of physical well-being and comfort of which the man of the last century had not the faintest conception4 ,to follow in thought the achievements of a single year in the improvement of machinery and the resulting additions to our material wealth is to fill the soul with wonder at the marvellous powers of the race4 ,all is due primarily to the exercise of the power of thought1 and secondarily to the manifold ways of expressing and realizing thought4 ,never were there such magnificent opportunities for those who have learned to combine thought and action1 intelligence and skill1 brains and the handicrafts4 ,the tradesman deserves honor and recognition with those who earn their bread by their wits4 ,both can live the higher life of thought and culture4 ,sidenote3 ,trivium4 ,the relation of the trivium to the art of thinking is often misconceived4 ,grammar1 logic1 and rhetoric furnish valuable food for thought1 excellent discipline for the mind1 especially for the understanding2 but they do not beget the power of thinking in new fields of investigation4 ,their function is corrective1 not creative4 ,those who hope to learn the art of composition by the study of ,english grammar are sure to be disappointed4 ,grammar furnishes the tests and rules by which one may determine the correctness of sentences4 ,it may furnish discipline for the understanding1 and thus prove valuable as a means of culture4 ,it utterly fails to produce thinkers beyond the thinking required in the interpretation of language4 ,parsing1 analysis1 and diagramming often become a mechanical iteration of set phrases1 resulting in mental apathy4 ,questions in unexpected forms may then be needed to rouse the slumbering powers of the intellect4 ,homer and ,plato wrote good ,greek1 although neither of them had any knowledge of grammar as a science4 ,men used correct sentences long before there was a scientific treatment of the sentence4 ,the same remarks are applicable to the other studies of the trivium4 ,men's minds obeyed the laws of thought and drew correct inferences long before the science of logic was formulated4 ,he who studies logic in the hope that it will make him an original thinker is doomed to disappointment4 ,logic has a critical as well as a disciplinary value4 ,its influence upon the intellectual life is like that of mathematics4 ,it furnishes a test for one's own thinking and provides the means for detecting fallacies in the reasoning of others4 ,logic can be taught with advantage to those who have learned to think2 it fails to make creative spirits who have the power of gathering thoughts1 weaving them into a system1 and reaching trustworthy conclusions4 ,rhetoric possesses great disciplinary value for the understanding4 ,it deserves careful study on the part of those who express their thoughts in public discourse4 ,the moment it becomes an end1 instead of means to an end1 it defeats its own purpose4 ,to draw the attention to the figures of speech and other rhetorical devices of an oration is to divert the mind from the line of thought and to defeat the purpose for which rhetoric is taught4 ,the studies of the trivium are like the handicrafts in that they serve as means to an end4 ,from one point of view they deserve to be classed with the useful arts2 from another it is apparent that they furnish material for thinking quite as valuable as the multitudinous branches of study into which the quadrivium has been expanded4 ,sidenote3 ,fine arts4 ,the arts are sometimes divided upon the basis of use and beauty4 ,from one point of view1 as already indicated1 the liberal arts may be regarded as belonging to the category of the useful1 and thus as forming part of a class distinct from the fine arts4 ,yet the idea of beauty enters into all that man does4 ,sooner or later he seeks to adorn his home1 his language1 everything that he employs in giving expression to his inner life4 ,the thinking which lies at the basis of the fine arts has distinguishing qualities and characteristics4 ,the mind may be so completely absorbed in poetry1 music1 painting1 sculpture1 and in the other things which make life beautiful that it ceases to be a fit instrument for useful living or for engaging in more advanced thinking4 ,the element of feeling predominates in the appreciation of the beautiful4 ,the two factors which enter into the beautiful are the idea and the form4 ,by casting into the alembic of the imagination the materials which the mind gathers from the external world1 there is evolved the ideal2 as soon as this ideal is found embodied in any form of nature or art the object is called beautiful4 ,the power to see the idea in the form1 the ideal in the work of art1 is a function of thinking1 and deserves attention from those who are teaching others to think4 ,sidenote3 sthetic and scientific studies differ4 ,vast is the difference between the sthetic and the scientific appreciation of nature4 ,the scientist pulls the flower to pieces1 analyzes its parts1 imposes hard names1 and destroys that about the flower which is most attractive to the child and the poet4 ,the student of beauty admires it as it is in its original surroundings4 ,he cultivates it to adorn the garden1 the yard1 the home1 the school-room4 ,very much1 therefore1 depends upon the way in which nature is studied4 ,the study may be pursued to beget habits of observation or to cultivate a sense of the beautiful4 ,it may be studied for the sake of ascertaining the laws which govern the growth of plants1 the changes of the seasons1 the movements of the heavenly bodies1 the forces which give us light1 heat1 and all else we need for body and mind4 ,when it is studied for the sake of truth and beauty1 the effort lifts us into the domain of the higher life4 ,sidenote3 ,the higher life4 ,why should any portion of our life1 as compared with another1 be styled the higher life8 ,because a man's life may abound in some of the activities which are essential to his existence and still fail to realize the end of his existence4 ,take life on the farm with all its splendid opportunities for the study of nature and of all that is attractive in ,god's universe4 ,which should be of most account in the education of the farmer's sons and daughters1--mind or money1 light or lucre1 the soul or the soil1 character or capacity for getting riches8 ,the curse of wealth1 fame1 office1 and the like is that1 if they become the chief object of one's ambition1 they drag the soul into the dust of dishonor1 if not the dust of the street4 ,sidenote3 ,the farmer boy4 8,if the farmer boy has only been taught how to raise better stock1 what will he do when that better stock ranges his farm8 ,will he be a happier father and a nobler citizen8 ,will his home life be any less coarse and dull8 ,will the possession of blooded stock make him any more honest than common stock8 ,if that is all you have taught him1 will he not still be a brute among his brutes8 ,indeed1 just so far as you increase his money-making without increasing his true culture and manliness1 you increase the probability that he will die a drunkard1 his son a spendthrift1 and his grandson a pauper4 ,the supreme need is character to guide these resources40#ef ,sidenote3 ,the things of the mind4 ,whilst it is worth while to dignify labor in all the handicrafts by showing the need for intelligent thought on the part of those who follow them1 it is of vastly more importance to emphasize the things of the mind1 and to show how the ability to think conditions the activities of the higher life and is essential to the full realization of man's being4 ,the relation of thinking to the higher life will claim our attention in the concluding chapter4 ,,xxii ,,thinking ,,and ,,the ,,higher ,,life ,how vastly disproportionate are the pleasures of the eating and of the thinking man6 indeed1 as different as the silence of an ,archimedes in the study of a problem1 and the stillness of a sow at her wash4 ,nothing is comparable to the pleasure of an active and prevailing thought1--a thought prevailing over the difficulty and obscurity of the object1 and refreshing the soul with new discoveries and images of things1 and thereby extending the bounds of apprehension1 and enlarging the territories of reason4 ,,dr4 ,,south4 ,what is more pleasant than to read of strong-hearted youths1 who1 in the midst of want and hardships of many kinds1 have clung to books1 feeding1 like bees to flowers8 ,by the light of pine-logs1 in dim-lit garrets1 in the fields following the plough1 in early dawns when others are asleep1 they ply their blessed task1 seeking nourishment for the mind1 athirst for truth1 yearning for full sight of the high worlds of which they have caught faint glimpses2 happier now1 lacking everything save faith and a great purpose1 than in after-years when success shall shower on them applause and gold4 ,,bishop ,,spalding4 ,,xxii ,,thinking ,,and ,,the ,,higher ,,life ,sidenote3 ,the ,book of books4 ,the preceding chapter pointed out the function of thinking in the arts1 and the reciprocal influence of these upon the power of thought4 ,it remains to point out the relation of thinking to the higher life4 ,the best point of departure for such a discussion is the book which has done more to foster the higher life of the soul than all other books combined4 ,from some points of view the best book on teaching ever made is the ,book of books4 ,in it we find not only practical examples and marvellous illustrations of the art of the teacher1 but also the most significant maxims and statements bearing upon the development of the inner life4 ,in the account of the ,temptation in the ,wilderness1 we have an utterance from the lips of the ,great ,teacher1 directing our attention towards the higher life4 8,man shall not live by bread alone1 but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of ,god40 7,matt4 iv4 #d47 ,sidenote3 ,bread-studies4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,great ,teacher4 ,in the universities one hears a great deal about bread-studies4 ,knowledge for its own sake1 culture for culture's sake1 education1 not for the sake of its money-value1 but for the mind's sake1 are the ideals held up before the minds of the students4 ,a world-famous professor of mathematics demonstrated a new theorem1 and closed the demonstration with the exclamation1 8,now1 that is true1 and1 thank ,god1 nobody can use it60 ,does knowledge increase in value as its utility diminishes8 ,this professor was drawing an annual salary of five thousand dollars1 and could well afford to ignore the money-value of an education4 ,lifted above the struggle for bread1 he had no sympathy with the multitudes in whose experience the struggle for bread is the all-absorbing problem of life4 ,the theory of life propounded by the ,great ,teacher is very different4 ,he did not despise the arts that make bread and win bread4 ,twice ,he miraculously multiplied the loaves and fishes1 in order to feed the multitudes4 ,for many years ,he worked at the carpenter's bench1 and after the death of ,his father helped to support ,his mother4 ,when hanging upon the cross1 ,he intrusted ,his mother to the care of ,john1 the 8disciple whom ,jesus loved40 ,but when ,satan came to him and suggested the making of bread by unlawful means1 ,he repelled the tempter1 saying1 8,man shall not live by bread alone1 but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of ,god40 ,bread here stands for more than physical food4 ,it is symbolic of the life that turns upon what we eat and drink1 the garments we wear1 and the houses we live in4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,french king4 ,sidenote3 ,earning power4 ,the best of ,french kings cherished it as the ambition of his life to make every one of his subjects so well off as to be able on ,sunday to have roast fowl for dinner4 ,had he lived in our day1 he would have included among the objects of his ambition a new bonnet for every woman at least twice a year4 ,roast fowl and new bonnets cost money2 and money indicates the plane from which very many people look at every question of government and education4 ,money stands for what we eat and drink1 for the garments we wear and the houses we live in1 for the thousands of creature comforts which we deem essential to our well-being and happiness4 ,perhaps the school has not done all it is destined to accomplish in fitting the pupils to win these1 but there is abundant evidence to show that a good school increases the earning power of the individual1 and thereby makes possible the higher life of mind1 or of the soul4 ,the untutored red man eked out a scanty existence in spite of unparalleled advantages in soil and stream and climate2 the intelligence begotten by the modern school has enabled our people to utilize and develop the material resources of the ,new ,world to such an extent that ,carlyle sneeringly said1 8,america means roast turkey every day for everybody40 ,let us accept the remark as an acknowledgment that the ,american people are better fed than those of ,england or ,continental ,europe2 and yet ,carlyle was right in hinting that there is a life higher than that which turns upon what we eat and drink and wear1 for this is in accord with the view of life taught by the greatest ,teacher of all the ages4 ,sidenote3 ,the basis of the higher life4 ,it is worth while to pause a moment for the purpose of pointing out the relation of the higher life to the side of life symbolized by bread4 ,in a word1 the higher life rests upon the other as a basis4 ,where the vital energies of a people are exhausted in the struggle for bread1 the very mention of education is a mockery4 ,the school lays the foundation for the higher life when it increases the average earning power of the industrial classes1 and thereby makes it easier for them to gain a livelihood4 ,here is the first point of contact between the school and the higher life4 ,there is no language sufficiently strong to condemn the spirit of the professor who1 when he had demonstrated a new theorem in higher mathematics1 thanked ,god that nobody could use it4 ,sidenote3 ,what money can and cannot buy4 ,only professors filling well-endowed chairs at our universities can afford to speak disparagingly of ,brot-studien and to advocate theories of education which would sunder the school from practical life4 ,an education that unfits the pupil for bread-winning in case of necessity cannot be too severely condemned2 among other reasons1 because it fails to lay a proper foundation for the higher life4 ,on the other hand1 the school that does not aim at something higher than dollars and cents deserves equally severe condemnation2 for that which makes life worth living cannot be bought with money4 ,if you are rich1 you may buy a fine house1 but you cannot buy a happy home2 that must be made1--made by you and by those who occupy it with you4 ,with money you may rent a pew in some fashionable church1 but you cannot rent a good conscience1--that depends upon your manner of living and dealing with others4 ,money will enable you to buy a fine copy of ,shakespeare1 but it cannot purchase for you the ability to appreciate a play of ,shakespeare1--that is the result of education4 ,wealth will enable you to cover the walls of your costly mansion with beautiful pictures2 and the sewing-girl1 if she has been properly taught in a public school1 will get more enjoyment out of them than can possibly be gotten by the sons and daughters of wealth and luxury whose proper education has been neglected4 ,sidenote3 ,thinking ,god's thoughts4 ,sidenote3 ,the objection4 ,sidenote3 ,true contentment4 ,plato wrote above the door of the academy1 8,let no one enter here who is destitute of geometry40 ,why did he value geometry so highly8 ,not merely as an introduction to the study of philosophy1 for in one of his dialogues he says1 8,god geometrizes40 ,he had an idea that a youth in thinking the theorems of geometry is thinking divine thoughts4 ,when ,kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion1 he exclaimed1 in ecstasy1 8,o ,god1 ,i think thy thoughts after thee60 ,when a pupil learns to think the thoughts which the ,creator has put into the starry heavens above us and into all nature about us1 he is thinking ,god's thoughts and tasting the enjoyments of the higher life4 ,when he is taught the right use of books1 and given access to a public library1 he may acquire the power to think the best thoughts of the best men at their best moments4 ,in nature study1 in the reading lesson1 in the teaching of science and literature1 the school fosters the higher life of the pupil by enabling him to think ,god's thoughts and man's best thoughts as these are enshrined in creation and in the humanities4 ,the objection is sometimes heard that the school makes the working-classes discontented with their lot4 8,teach a man to think10 says the opponent of universal education1 8and you make him dissatisfied with what he has and knows40 ,if the school fixes the eye upon wealth1 fame1 glory1 official position1 and other things which can be attained only by a few1 and which1 when sought as the chief end of life1 resemble the apples of the ,dead ,sea1 turning to ashes on the lips as soon as they are tasted1 then1 indeed1 the school may doom its pupils to a life of discontent and disappointment4 ,but if the school fixes the eye upon the things of the higher life1 things which are within the reach of every boy and girl at school1 it lays the foundation for a contentment far transcending the possibilities of a life that turns upon feasting1 office-holding1 and the things that can be bought with money4 ,it must be admitted that the exercise of the higher powers carries with it a certain feeling of discontent1 but it is a feeling that conditions true progress and is not doomed to ultimate disappointment4 ,the true test of what is preferable is the testimony of those who have knowledge of both modes of existence4 ,who that knows both does not value the pleasures of thinking above those of eating8 ,who would exchange the joy of doing right for anything attainable by the man who1 for the sake of success1 banishes ethics from his business or his politics8 8,few human creatures10 says ,mill1 8would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures2 no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool1 no instructed person would be an ignoramus1 no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base1 even though he should be persuaded that the fool1 or the dunce1 or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they with theirs40 8,it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied1 better to be a ,socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied4 ,and if the fool or the pig is of a different opinion1 it is only because they know only their own side of the question4 ,the other party to the comparison knows both sides40 ,who would not rather be an intelligent workingman seeking to better his condition1 than an ignoramus contented with little because he knows nothing of the joys of the higher life8 ,sidenote3 ,life's contradictions4 ,sidenote3 ,tragedy and comedy4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty4 ,life is full of contradictions and incongruities and disappointments4 ,over against these1 the school1 in its relation to the higher life1 has a duty to perform4 ,for the discontent which springs from life's contradictions and incongruities a safety-valve has been given to man in his ability to laugh4 ,the person who never laughs is as one-sided and abnormal as the person who never prays4 ,the comic is now recognized as one form of the beautiful1 and the beautiful is closely allied to the true and the good4 ,without going into the philosophy of this matter1 attention may be drawn to the fact that beauty has a home in the domain of art1 as well as of nature2 that the queen of the fine arts is poetry2 that the greatest poet of all the ages was ,shakespeare2 that ,shakespeare's literary genius reached its highest flights in tragedies and comedies2 that whilst tragedy and comedy are two forms of the beautiful in art1 comedy is the highest form of the comic1 whilst tragedy is the highest form of the sublime4 ,in teaching us to appreciate the plays of ,shakespeare1 the school not merely teaches us when to laugh and when to weep1 thereby furnishing the safety-valve to let off our discontent and to reconcile us anew to our lot1 but puts us in possession of that which money cannot buy1--namely1 the ability to appreciate the beautiful in its subtlest and sublimest forms4 ,who owns the moonlit skies1 the millionaire or the poet8 ,who owns the hills and the valleys1 the streams and the mountains2 he in whose name the deeds and mortgages are recorded1 or he whose soul can appreciate beauty and sublimity8 ,beauty has a home in nature and in art4 ,it is the province of the school to put us in possession of the beautiful1 the sublime1 and the comic1 for these quite as much as the true and the good belong to the things of the higher life4 ,sidenote3 ,faith1 hope1 and love4 ,how about life's disappointments8 ,higher than the life of thought is the life of faith and hope and love1--higher1 because these are rooted and grounded in the life of thought1 ripen above it as its highest fruitage and efflorescence4 ,the nineteenth century has been an age of faith4 ,every scientific mind has profound faith in nature's laws1 in the universal efficacy of truth2 and1 like ,agassiz and ,gray and ,drummond1 multitudes of the best minds have made the step from faith in natural laws to faith in the laws which govern the spiritual world4 ,the common people evince a faith almost bordering on credulity in the readiness with which they accept the results of scientific research and investigation4 ,faith lies at the basis of great achievements4 ,bismarck declared that if he did not believe in the divine government of the world1 he would not serve his country another day4 8,take away my faith10 he exclaimed1 8and you take away my country1 too40 ,whilst no religious test can he applied to those who teach in our public schools1 our best people prefer teachers who have faith in the unseen to teachers who lack faith in the truths of revelation4 ,in ways that escape observation1 the spirit of faith passes from teacher to pupil1 and gives the latter a sense of something to live for and something to be achieved4 ,sidenote3 ,immortality4 ,faith begets hope4 ,the hope of glory1 of rewards in civil and military life1 of immortality on the pages of history1 has stimulated to deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice1 and will continue to do so to the end of time4 ,the higher life knows of higher objects of hope than these4 ,immortality on the pages of history is only an immortality in printer's ink4 ,the true teacher wishes his pupils to cherish the hope of an immortality far more real than an immortality in printer's ink2 he seeks to implant in their hearts the hope of an immortal life in a world where the soul shall be robed in a body like unto ,christ's risen body1 which ,stephen saw in a vision of glory and ,paul beheld in a manifestation of overwhelming splendor4 ,sidenote3 ,love makes life worth living4 ,that which makes life worth living is the life of love4 ,in the thirteenth chapter of ,first ,corinthians1 which is a poem1 though lacking metre and rhyme1 ,paul speaks of faith1 hope1 and charity1 and says that1 of these three1 the greatest is charity1 or love1 as the ,revised ,version translates it4 ,faith shall be changed to sight1 and hope to glad fruition1 but love shall abide forever4 ,throughout the ceaseless ages of eternity1 love of the truth1 as it is1 in ,jesus1--yea1 man's love for his ,maker and his ,saviour1 and for the whole glorious company of the redeemed1--will continue to glow and to grow1 lifting the soul to ever loftier heights of ecstasy and bliss4 ,a foretaste of this ecstatic bliss is possible in this life4 ,love of home and country1 of kindred and friends1 of truth and righteousness1 of beauty in all its forms1 of goodness of every kind1 up to the highest forms of the good1 gives life on earth a heavenly charm4 ,even in this world1 the love that binds human hearts1 that makes homes and brotherhoods1 that issues in deeds of kindness1 friendship1 and charity1 is bringing more happiness to the race than all other agencies combined4 8,the night has a thousand eyes1 ,and the day but one2 ,yet the light of the whole world dies ,with the setting sun4 8,the mind has a thousand eyes1 ,and the heart but one2 ,but the light of a whole life dies ,when love is done40 ,sidenote3 ,thinking and living4 ,the school makes possible the higher life when it teaches the pupil to think4 ,right thinking puts intelligence into the labor of his hands1 increases his earning-power1 lays the foundation for his physical well-being1 and lifts him above an existence that is a mere struggle for bread4 ,it promotes the higher life by teaching him to think ,god's thoughts1 as enshrined in all ,his works1 and the best thoughts of the best men1 as embodied in literature and the humanities4 ,it fits the pupil for complete living by developing in him the power to appreciate the beautiful in nature and art1 power to think the true and to will the good1 power to live the life of thought1 and faith1 and hope1 and love4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes #a ,for brevity's sake the phrase1 thinking in things1 is preferred to the more accurate but less convenient expression1 thinking in the images of things4 #b ,psychopannychism denotes the doctrine that the soul falls asleep at death1 not to awaken until the resurrection4 #c ,for this incident the writer is indebted to ,superintendent ,l4 ,h4 ,jones1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 #d 8,lessons in ,psychology10 pages #bfj-bfg4 #e ,see 8,how ,london ,lives10 ,thomas ,nelson ,sons1 ,london4 #f 8,johannes ,kepler 7#aega-afcj7 was at one time in ,prague assistant to the ,danish astronomer ,tycho ,brahe4 ,unlike ,tycho1 ,kepler had no talent for observation and experimentation4 ,but he was a great thinker1 and excelled as a mathematician4 ,he absorbed ,copernican ideas1 and early grappled with the problem of determining the real paths of the planets4 ,in his first attempts he worked on the dreams of the ,pythagoreans concerning figure and number4 ,intercourse with ,tycho led him to reject such mysticism and to study on the planets recorded by his master4 ,he took the planet ,mars1 and found that no combinations of circles would give a path which could be reconciled with the observations4 ,in one case the difference between the observed and his computed values was eight minutes1 and he knew that so accurate an observer as ,tycho could not make an error so great4 ,he tried an oval orbit for ,mars1 and rejected it2 he tried an ellipse1 and it fitted4 ,thus1 after more than four years of assiduous computation1 and after trying nineteen imaginary paths1 and rejecting each because it was inconsistent with observation1 ,kepler in #afah discovered the truth4 ,an ellipse6 ,why did he not think of it before8 ,what a simple matter--after the puzzle is once solved6 ,he worked out what are known as ,kepler's laws1 which accorded with observation1 but conflicted with the ,ptolemaic hypothesis4 ,thus the old system was logically overthrown4 ,but not until after a bitter struggle between science and theology did the new system find general acceptation40--,cajori's 8,history of ,physics10 pages #bi1 #cj4 #g ,young's 8,the ,sun10 pages #dc1 #dd1 second edition4 #h ,young's 8,astronomy10 page #agd4 #i ,now the well-known ,lord ,kelvin4 #aj 8,actinism10 by ,professor ,charles ,f4 ,himes1 pages #ah1 #ai4 #aa ,dr4 ,morrell's 8,elements of ,psychology10 quoted by ,galloway in 8,education1 ,scientific and ,technical10 page #afe4 #ab ,quoted by ,galloway in 8,education1 ,scientific and ,technical10 pages #aaf1 #aag4 #ac ,hinsdale's 8,the ,language ,arts10 pages #ag1 #ah4 #ad ,mr4 ,smiles1 8,life of ,stephenson10 third edition1 page #dgd1 tells how ,george ,stephenson1 arguing one evening on the coal question with ,dr4 ,buckland1 was quite unable to make good his case4 ,the next morning he talked over the matter with ,sir ,w4 ,follett1 and that illustrious advocate1 from the materials supplied by the practical knowledge of ,stephenson1 was able easily to discomfit the learned dean4 ,quoted by ,a4 ,s4 ,wilkins's 8,cicero de ,oratore10 page #aje1 second edition4 #ae ,phelps's 8,men and ,books10 page #cjc4 #af ,lowell's 8,books and ,libraries10 pages #hh-ij1 vol4 vi41 ,riverside ,edition4 #ag ,phelps's 8,men and ,books10 pages #aje1 #ajf4 #ah ,ibid41 page #abd4 #ai ,n4 ,porter's 8,books and ,reading10 page #eg4 #bj ,charles ,f4 ,himes's 8,actinism10 pages #e1 #f4 #ba ,jevons's 8,principles of ,science10 pages #cii1 #djj4 #bb 8,talks on ,psychology10 page #cd4 #bc 8,psychologic ,foundations of ,education10 pages #agg1 #agh4 #bd ,latham1 8,action of ,examinations10 pages #bbi1 #bcj4 #be ,maudsley's 8,physiology of the ,mind10 page #eah4 #bf ,annotations on ,bacon's ,essay 8,of ,studies40 #bg ,hamerton's 8,intellectual ,life10 page #abe4 #bh ,john xii4 #bd1 ,revised ,version4 #bi ,f4 ,galton's 8,inquiries into ,human ,faculty10 pages #ajj1 #aja4 #cj ,f4 ,galton's 8,inquiries into ,human ,faculty10 pages #aac1 #aad4 #ca ,james ,freeman ,clarke's 8,self-,culture10 page #ahc4 #cb ,bain's 8,the ,emotion and the ,will10 page #bi4 #cc ,james's 8,psychology10 vol4 i41 pages #bdc1 #bdd4 #cd ,james's 8,psychology10 vol4 i41 page #bec #ce ,huxley's 8,discourses1 ,biological and ,geological ,essays10 pages vi1 vii4 #cf ,james's 8,psychology10 vol4 i41 page #bfd4 ,of ,charles ,darwin's habits of reading1 his son says1 8,i have often heard him say that he got a kind of satisfaction in reading articles which 7according to himself7 he could not understand4 ,i wish ,i could reproduce the manner in which he would laugh at himself for it40 ,of his scientific reading1 this son writes as follows3 8,much of his scientific reading was in ,german1 and this was a great labor to him2 in reading a book after him1 ,i was often struck at seeing1 from the pencil-marks made each day where he left off1 how little he could read at a time4 ,he used to call ,german the #8,verdammte1' pronounced as if in ,english4 ,he was especially indignant with ,germans1 because he was convinced that they could write simply if they chose1 and often praised ,dr4 ,f4 ,hildebrand for writing ,german which was as clear as ,french40--8,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin10 vol4 i41 page #ajc4 #cg ,locke's 8,human ,understanding10 vol4 ii41 page #he4 #ch ,lewes's 8,problems of ,life and ,mind10 ,fourth ,problem1 pages #dgd1 #dge4 #ci ,lewes's 8,problems of ,life and ,mind10 ,fourth ,problem1 pages #dge-dgg4 #dj ,bautain's 8,art of ,extempore ,speaking10 pages #fh1 #fi4 #da 8,autobiography10 page #hj4 #db 8,men and ,books10 pages #bba1 #bbb4 #dc 8,in the name1 then1 of a sound condition of mind and body1 and in the confident hope of obtaining both for ,france1 ,i call on our people to imitate the people of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america by making the art of reading aloud the very corner-stone of public education40--,legouv's 8,art of ,reading10 page #ade4 #dd ,clifford's 8,essays10 page #hh4 #de ,clifford's 8,essays10 page #hg4 ,thus the movements of ,sirius led astronomers 7,peters and ,auwers7 to infer the existence of a satellite1 which was subsequently discovered by ,alvan ,clark ,son through the eighteen-inch glass which they were completing for the ,chicago ,observatory4 ,similarly1 ,professor ,wright1 of ,oberlin1 carefully studied the ,trenton deposits and their relations to the terrace and gravel deposits to the westward1 and predicted that similar paleolithic implements would be found in ,ohio4 ,two years afterwards ,dr4 ,mertz found1 eight feet below the surface1 a true paleolith of black flint at ,madisonville1 in the ,little ,miami ,valley4 ,other instances of scientific prediction will occur to the reader4 #df 8,essay on the ,human ,understanding10 ,book ,,iv41 ,chapter ,i4 #dg ,compayre's 8,history of ,pedagogy10 page #dcg1 ,american translation4 #dh 8,there can be no doubt that ,newton was an alchemist1 and that he often labored night and day at alchemical experiments4 ,but in trying to discover the secret by which gross metals might be rendered noble his lofty powers of deductive investigation were wholly useless4 ,deprived of all guiding clues1 his experiments were like those of all the alchemists1 purely haphazard and tentative4 ,while his hypothetical and deductive investigations have given us a true system of the universe1 and opened the way for almost all the great branches of natural philosophy1 the whole results of his tentative experiments are comprehended in a few happy guesses1 given in his celebrated #8,queries4'0--,jevons's 8,principles of ,science10 pages #eje1 #ejf4 #di 8,the ,senses and the ,intellect10 pages #dhh-ebd4 #ej ,max ,mller's 8,science of ,thought10 page #fje4 #ea ,page #djb4 #eb ,page #f4 #ec ,darwin's 8,autobiography10 page #ha4 #ed ,for this incident the writer is indebted to ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,winship4 #ee 8,mental ,physiology10 page #chi4 #ef ,crooker's 8,student in ,american ,life10 pages #bc1 #bh4