,international ,education ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,t4 ,,harris1 ,a4 ,m41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,volume ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,international ,,education ,,series4 #abmo1 cloth1 uniform binding4 ,the ,international ,education ,series was projected for the purpose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings1 new and old1 upon educational subjects1 and presenting a complete course of reading and training for teachers generally4 ,it is edited by ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 who has contributed for the different volumes in the way of introductions1 analysis1 and commentary4 ,the volumes are tastefully and substantially bound in uniform style4 ,,volumes ,,now ,,ready4 ,vol4 ,i4--,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,,johann ,k4 ,f4 ,,rosenkranz1 ,doctor of ,theology and ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,university of ,knigsberg4 ,translated by ,,anna ,c4 ,,brackett4 ,second edition1 revised1 with ,commentary and complete ,analysis4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,painter1 ,a4 ,m41 ,professor of ,modern ,languages and ,literature1 ,roanoke ,college1 ,va4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,early ,,constitution ,,of ,,universities4 ,,with ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,medi,,val ,,education4 ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,,laurie1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of the ,institutes and ,history of ,education1 ,university of ,edinburgh4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,,the ,,ventilation ,,and ,,warming ,,of ,,school ,,buildings4 ,by ,,gilbert ,b4 ,,morrison1 ,teacher of ,physics and ,chemistry1 ,kansas ,city ,high ,school4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,v4--,,the ,,education ,,of ,,man4 ,by ,,friedrich ,,froebel4 ,translated and annotated by ,w4 ,n4 ,,hailmann1 ,a4 ,m41 ,superintendent of ,public ,schools1 ,la ,porte1 ,ind4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,vi4--,,elementary ,,psychology ,,and ,,education4 ,by ,,joseph ,,baldwin1 ,a4,m41 ,,ll4 ,d41 author of 8,the ,art of ,school ,management40 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,the ,,will4 7,part ,i of 8,,the ,,mind ,,of ,,the ,,child407 ,by ,w4 ,,preyer1 ,professor of ,physiology in ,jena4 ,translated by ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown1 ,teacher in the ,state ,normal ,school at ,worcester1 ,mass4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,viii4--,,memory3 ,,what ,,it ,,is ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,improve ,,it4 ,by ,,david ,,kay1 ,f4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s41 author of 8,education and ,educators10 etc4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,ix4--,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,intellect4 7,part ,,ii of 8,,the ,,mind ,,of ,,the ,,child407 ,by ,w4 ,,preyer1 ,professor of ,physiology in ,jena4 ,translated by ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,x4--,,how ,,to ,,study ,,geography4 ,a ,practical ,exposition of ,methods and ,devices in ,teaching ,geography which apply the ,principles and ,plans of ,ritter and ,guyot4 ,by ,,francis ,w4 ,,parker1 ,principal of the ,cook ,county 7,illinois7 ,normal ,school4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xi4--,,education ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states3 ,,its ,,history ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,settlements4 ,by ,,richard ,g4 ,,boone1 ,a4 ,m41 ,professor of ,pedagogy1 ,indiana ,university4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xii4--,,european ,,schools3 ,,or1 ,,what ,i ,,saw ,,in ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,austria1 ,,and ,,switzerland4 ,by ,l4 ,r4 ,,klemm1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,principal of the ,cincinnati ,technical ,school4 ,fully illustrated4 #b4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4--,,practical ,,hints ,,for ,,the ,,teachers ,,of ,,public ,,schools4 ,by ,,george ,,howland1 ,superintendent of the ,chicago ,public ,schools4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xiv4--,,pestalozzi3 ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,work4 ,by ,,roger ,,de ,,guimps4 ,authorized ,translation from the second ,french edition1 by ,j4 ,,russell1 ,b4 ,a4 ,with an ,introduction by ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,quick1 ,m4 ,a4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xv4--,,school ,,supervision4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,pickard1 ,,ll4 ,d4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4--,,higher ,,education ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,europe4 ,by ,,helene ,,lange1 ,berlin4 ,translated and accompanied by comparative statistics by ,l4 ,r4 ,,klemm4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4--,,essays ,,on ,,educational ,,reformers4 ,by ,,robert ,,herbert ,,quick1 ,m4 ,a41 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,only authorized edition of the work as rewritten in #ahij4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4--,a ,,text-,,book ,,in ,,psychology4 ,by ,,johann ,,friedrich ,,herbart4 ,translated by ,,margaret ,k4 ,,smith4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xix4--,,psychology ,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,teaching4 ,by ,,joseph ,,baldwin1 ,a4 ,m41 ,,ll4 ,d4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xx4--,,rousseau',s ,,mile3 ,,or1 ,,treatise ,,on ,,education4 ,translated and annotated by ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,chancellor of the ,university of ,nashville4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4--,,the ,,moral ,,instruction ,,of ,,children4 ,by ,,felix ,,adler4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxii4--,,english ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,elementary ,,and ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,by ,,isaac ,,sharpless1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,president of ,haverford ,college4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4--,,education ,,from ,a ,,national ,,standpoint4 ,by ,,alfred ,,fouill,e4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv4--,,mental ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,child4 ,by ,w4 ,,preyer1 ,professor of ,physiology in ,jena4 ,translated by ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xxv4--,,how ,,to ,,study ,,and ,,teach ,,history4 ,by ,b4 ,a4 ,,hinsdale1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,university of ,michigan4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxvi4--,,symbolic ,,education3 ,a ,,commentary ,,on ,,froebel',s 8,,mother ,,play40 ,by ,,susan ,e4 ,,blow4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4--,,systematic ,,science ,,teaching4 ,by ,,edward ,,gardnier ,,howe4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4--,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,people4 ,by ,,thomas ,,davidson4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxix4--,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,public-,,school ,,system4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,martin1 ,a4,m4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxx4--,,pedagogics ,,of ,,the ,,kindergarten4 ,by ,,friedrich ,,froebel4 #abmo4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxi4--,,the ,,mottoes ,,and ,,commentaries ,,of ,,friedrich ,,froebel',s ,,mother ,,play4 ,by ,,susan ,e4 ,,blow and ,,henrietta ,r4 ,,eliot4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii4--,,the ,,songs ,,and ,,music ,,of ,,froebel',s ,,mother ,,play4 ,by ,,susan ,e4 ,,blow4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii4--,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,number1 ,,and ,,its ,,applications ,,to ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching ,,arithmetic4 ,by ,,james ,a4 ,,mclellan1 ,a4 ,m41 and ,,john ,,dewey1 ,ph4 ,d4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv4--,,teaching ,,the ,,language-,,arts4 ,,speech1 ,,reading1 ,,composition4 ,by ,b4 ,a4 ,,hinsdale1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of ,science and the ,art of ,teaching in the ,university of ,michigan4 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xxxv4--,,the ,,intellectual ,,and ,,moral ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,child4 ,,part ,i4 ,,containing ,,chapters ,,on ,,perception1 ,,emotion1 ,,memory1 ,,imagination1 ,,and ,,consciousness4 ,by ,,gabriel ,,compayr4 ,translated from the ,french by ,,mary ,e4 ,,wilson1 ,b4 ,l4 ,smith ,college1 ,member of the ,graduate ,seminary in ,child ,study1 ,university of ,california4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxvi4--,,herbart',s ,a ,b ,c ,,of ,,sense-,,perception1 ,,and ,,introductory ,,works4 ,by ,,william ,j4 ,,eckoff1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,pd4 ,d41 ,professor of ,pedagogy in the ,university of ,illinois2 ,author of 8,kant's ,inaugural ,dissertation40 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxxvii4--,,psychologic ,,foundations ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,,william ,t4 ,,harris1 ,a4 ,m41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,vol4 ,,xxxviii4--,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,ontario4 ,by the ,hon4 ,,george ,w4 ,,ross1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,minister of ,education for the ,province of ,ontario4 #a4jj ,vol4 ,,xxxix4--,,principles ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,teaching4 ,by ,,james ,,johonnot4 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xl4--,,school ,,management ,,and ,,school ,,methods4 ,by ,,joseph ,,baldwin4 ,,others ,,in ,,preparation4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 #gb ,fifth ,avenue4 ,,international ,,education ,,series ,,essays ,,on ,,educational ,,reformers ,,by ,,robert ,,hebert ,,quick ,m4 ,a4 ,,trin4 ,,coll41 ,,cambridge ,,formerly ,,assistant ,,master ,,at ,,harrow1 ,,and ,,lecturer ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,education ,,at ,,cambridge ,,late ,,vicar ,,of ,,sedbergh ,,only ,,authorized ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,as ,,rewritten ,,in #ahij ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahif ,,copyright1 #ahij1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,to ,,dr4 ,,henry ,,barnard1 ,the first ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 ,,who ,,in ,a ,,long ,,life ,,of ,,self-,,sacrificing ,,labour ,,has ,,given ,,to ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,an ,,educational ,,literature1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,dedicated1 ,,with ,,the ,,esteem ,,and ,,admiration ,,of ,,the ,,author4 1 4 ,plato in initio ,theagis 7p4 #abb ,b74 ,socrates saith plainlie1 that 8no man goeth about a more godlie purpose1 than he that is mindfull of the good bringing up both of hys owne and other men's children40--,ascham's ,scholemaster4 ,preface4 ,fundamentum totius reipublic est recta juventutis educatio4 ,the very foundation of the whole commonwealth is the proper bringing up of the young4--,cic4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,many years ago ,i proposed to my friend ,mr4 ,quick to rewrite his ,educational ,reformers1 making some additions 7,sturm and ,froebel1 for example71 and allow me to place it in this series of educational works4 ,i had read his essays when they first appeared1 and noted their great value as a contribution to the right kind of educational literature4 ,they showed admirable tact in the selection of the materials2 the 8epoch-making0 writers were chosen and the things that had been said and done of permanent value were brought forward4 ,better than all was the running commentary on these materials by ,mr4 ,quick himself4 ,his style was popular1 taking the reader1 as it were1 into confidential relations with him from the start1 and offering now and then a word of criticism in the most judicial spirit1 leaning neither to the extreme of destructive radicalism1 which seeks revolution rather than reform1 nor1 on the other hand1 to the extreme of blind conservatism1 which wishes to preserve the vesture of the past rather than its wisdom4 ,i have called this book of ,mr4 ,quick the most valuable history of education in our mother-tongue1 fit only to be compared with ,karl von ,raumer's ,geschichte der ,pdagogik for its presentation of essentials and for the sanity of its verdicts4 ,i made my proposal that he 8rewrite0 his book because ,i knew that he considered his first edition hastily written and1 in many respects1 not adequate to the ideal he had conceived of the book4 ,i knew1 moreover1 that years of continued thinking on a theme necessarily modifies one's views4 ,he would wish to make some changes in matter presented1 some in judgments rendered1 and many more in style of presentation4 ,hence it has come about that after this lapse of time ,mr4 ,quick has produced a substantially new book1 which1 retaining all or nearly all of the admirable features of the first edition1 has brought up to their standard of excellence many others4 ,the history of education is a vast field1 and we are accustomed to demand bulky treatises as the only adequate ones4 ,but the obvious disadvantage of such works has led to the clearly defined ideal of a book like ,mr4 ,quick's1 which separates the gold from the dross1 and offers it small in bulk but precious in value4 ,the educational reformers are the men above all others who stimulate us to think about education4 ,every one of these was an extremist1 and erred in his judgment as to the value of the methods which prevailed in his time1 and also overestimated the effects of the new education that he proposed in the place of the old4 ,but thought begins with negations1 and originality shows itself first not in creating something new1 but in removing the fettering limitations of its existing environment4 ,the old is attacked--its good and its bad are condemned alike4 ,it has been imposed on us by authority1 and we have not been allowed to summon it before the bar of our reason and ask of it its credentials4 ,it informs us that it presented these credentials ages ago to our ancestors--men older and wiser than we are4 ,such imposition of authority leaves us no choice but to revolt4 ,we1 too1 have a right to think as well as our ancestors2 we1 too1 must clear up the ground of our belief and substitute insight for blind faith in tradition4 ,these educational reformers are prophets of the clearing-up period 7,aufklrung7 of revolution against mere authority4 ,while we are inspired to think for ourselves1 however1 we must not neglect that more important matter of thinking the truth4 ,free-thinking1 if it does not reach the truth1 is not of great value4 ,it sets itself as puny individual against the might of the race1 which preserves its experience in the forms of institutions--the family1 the social organism1 the state1 the ,church4 ,hence our wiser and more scientific method studies everything that is1 or exists1 in its history1 and endeavors to discover how it came to be what it is4 ,it inquires into its evolution4 ,the essential truth is not the present fact1 but the entire process by which the present fact grew to be what it is4 ,for the living force that made the present fact made also the past facts antecedent to the present1 and it will go on making subsequent facts4 ,the revelation of the living forces which make the facts of existence is the object of science4 ,it takes all these facts to reveal the living force that is acting and producing them4 ,hence the scientific attitude is superior to the attitude of these educational reformers1 and we shall in our own minds weigh these men in our scales1 asking first of all3 ,what is their view of the world8 ,how much do they value human institutions8 ,how much do they know of the substantial good that is wrought by those institutions8 ,if they know nothing of these things1 if they see only incumbrance in these institutions1 if to them the individual is the measure of all things1 we can not do reverence to their proposed remedies1 but must account their value to us chiefly this1 that they have stimulated us to thinking1 and helped us to discover what they have not discovered--namely1 the positive value of institutions4 ,all education deals with the boundary between ignorance and knowledge and between bad habits and good ones4 ,the pupil as pupil brings with him the ignorance and the bad habits1 and is engaged in acquiring good habits and correct knowledge4 ,this situation gives us a general recipe for a frequently recurring type of educational reformer4 ,any would-be reformer may take his stand on the boundary mentioned1 and1 casting an angry look at the realm of ignorance and bad habit not yet conquered1 condemn in wholesale terms the system of education that has not been efficient in removing this mental and moral darkness4 ,such a reformer selects an examination paper written by a pupil whose ignorance is not yet vanquished1 and parades the same as a product of the work of the school1 taking great pains to avoid an accurate and just admeasurement of the actual work done by the school4 ,the reformer critic assumes that there is one factor here1 whereas there are three factors--namely1 7a7 the pupil's native and acquired powers of learning1 7b7 his actual knowledge acquired1 and 7c7 the instruction given by the school4 ,the school is not responsible for the first and second of these factors1 but it is responsible only for what increment has grown under its tutelage4 ,how much and what has the pupil increased his knowledge1 and how much his power of acquiring knowledge and of doing8 ,the educational reformer is always telling us to leave words and take up things4 ,he dissuades from the study of language1 and also undervalues the knowledge of manners and customs and laws and usages4 ,he dislikes the study of institutions even4 ,he 8loves ,nature10 as he informs us4 ,herbert ,spencer wants us to study the body1 and to be more interested in biology than in formal logic2 more interested in natural history than in literature4 ,but ,i think he would be indignant if one were to ask him whether he thought the study of the habits and social instincts of bees and ants is less important than the study of insect anatomy and physiology4 ,anatomy and physiology are1 of course1 important1 but the social organism is more important than the physiological organism1 even in bees and ants4 ,so in man the social organism is transcendent as compared with human physiology1 and social hygiene compared with physiological hygiene is supreme4 ,to suppose that the habits of plants and insects are facts1 and that the structure of human languages1 the logical structure of the mind itself as revealed in the figures and modes of the syllogism and the manners and customs of social life1 the deep ethical principles which govern peoples as revealed in works of literature--to suppose that these and the like of these are not real facts and worthy of study is one of the strangest delusions that has ever prevailed4 ,but it is a worse delusion to suppose that the study of ,nature is more practical than the study of man1 though this is often enough claimed by the educational reformers4 ,the knowledge of most worth is first and foremost the knowledge of how to behave--a knowledge of social customs and usages4 ,any person totally ignorant in this regard would not escape imprisonment--perhaps ,i should say decapitation--for one day in any city of the world--say in ,london1 in ,pekin1 in ,timbuctoo1 or in a pueblo of ,arizona4 ,a knowledge of human customs and usages1 next a knowledge of human views of ,nature and man--these are of primordial necessity to an individual1 and are means of direct self-preservation4 ,the old trivium or threefold course of study at the university taught grammar1 logic1 and rhetoric--namely1 7#a7 the structure of language1 7#b7 the structure of mind and the art of reasoning1 7#c7 the principles and art of persuasion4 ,these may be seen at once to be lofty subjects and worthy objects of science4 ,they will always remain such1 but they are not easy for the child4 ,in the course of mastering them he must learn to master himself and gain great intellectual stature4 ,pedagogy has wisely graded the road to these heights1 and placed much easier studies at the beginning and also made the studies more various4 ,improvements in methods and in grading--devices for interesting the pupil--so essential to his self-activity1 for these we have to thank the ,educational ,reformers4 ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #ahij4 ,,preface ,,to ,,edition ,,of #ahfh4 8,it is clear that in whatever it is our duty to act1 those matters also it is our duty to study40 ,these words of ,dr4 ,arnold's seem to me incontrovertible4 ,so a sense of duty1 as well as fondness for the subject1 has led me to devote a period of leisure to the study of ,education1 in the practice of which ,i have been for some years engaged4 ,there are countries where it would be considered a truism that a teacher in order to exercise his profession intelligently should know something about the chief authorities in it4 ,here1 however1 ,i suppose such an assertion will seem paradoxical2 but there is a good deal to be said in defence of it4 ,de ,quincey has pointed out that a man who takes up any pursuit without knowing what advances others have made in it works at a great disadvantage4 ,he does not apply his strength in the right direction1 he troubles himself about small matters and neglects great1 he falls into errors that have long since been exploded4 ,an educator is1 ,i think1 liable to these dangers if he brings to his task no knowledge but that which he learnt for the tripos1 and no skill but that which he acquired in the cricket ground or on the river4 ,if his pupils are placed entirely in his hands1 his work is one of great difficulty1 with heavy penalties attached to all blundering in it2 though here1 as in the case of the ignorant doctor and the careless architect1 the penalties1 unfortunately1 are paid by his victims4 ,if 7as more commonly happens7 he has simply to give a class prescribed instruction1 his smaller scope of action limits proportionally the mischief that may ensue2 but even then it is obviously desirable that his teaching should be as good as possible1 and he is not likely to employ the best methods if he invents as he goes along1 or simply falls back on his remembrance of how he was taught himself1 perhaps in very different circumstances4 ,i venture to think1 therefore1 that practical men in education1 as in most other things1 may derive benefit from the knowledge of what has already been said and done by the leading men engaged in it1 both past and present4 ,all study of this kind1 however1 is very much impeded by want of books4 8,good books are in ,german10 says ,professor ,seeley4 ,i have found that on the history of ,education1 not only good books but all books are in ,german or some other foreign language4#a ,i have1 therefore1 thought it worth while to publish a few such imperfect sketches as these1 with which the reader can hardly be less satisfied than the author4 ,they may1 however1 prove useful till they give place to a better book4 ,several of the following essays are nothing more than compilations4 ,indeed1 a hostile critic might assert that ,i had used the scissors with the energy of ,mr4 ,timbs and without his discretion4 ,the reader1 however1 will probably agree with me that ,i have done wisely in putting before him the opinions of great writers in their own language4 ,where ,i am simply acting as reporter1 the author's own way of expressing himself is obviously the best2 and if1 following the example of the gipsies and ,sir ,fretful ,plagiary1 ,i had disfigured other people's offspring to make them pass for my own1 success would have been fatal to the purpose ,i have steadily kept in view4 ,the sources of original ideas in any subject1 as the student is well aware1 are few1 but for irrigation we require troughs as well as water-springs1 and these essays are intended to serve in the humbler capacity4 ,a word about the incomplete handling of my subjects4 ,i have not attempted to treat any subject completely1 or even with anything like completeness4 ,in giving a sketch of the opinions of an author one of two methods must be adopted2 we may give an epitome of all that he has said1 or by confining ourselves to his more valuable and characteristic opinions1 may gain space to give these fully4 ,as ,i detest epitomes1 ,i have adopted the latter method exclusively1 but ,i may sometimes have failed in selecting an author's most characteristic principles2 and probably no two readers of a book would entirely agree as to what was most valuable in it3 so my account must remain1 after all1 but a poor substitute for the author himself4 ,for the part of a critic ,i have at least one qualification--practical acquaintance with the subject4 ,as boy or master1 ,i have been connected with no less than eleven schools1 and my perception of the blunders of other teachers is derived mainly from the remembrance of my own4 ,some of my mistakes have been brought home to me by reading works on education1 even those with which ,i do not in the main agree4 ,perhaps there are teachers who on looking through the following pages may meet with a similar experience4 ,had the essays been written in the order in which they stand1 a good deal of repetition might have been avoided1 but this repetition has at least the advantage of bringing out points which seem to me important2 and as no one will read the book as carefully as ,i have done1 ,i hope no one will be so much alive to this and other blemishes in it4 ,i much regret that in a work which is nothing if it is not practically useful1 ,i have so often neglected to mark the exact place from which quotations are taken4 ,i have myself paid the penalty of this carelessness in the trouble it has cost me to verify passages which seemed inaccurate4 ,the authority ,i have had recourse to most frequently is ,raumer 7,geschichte der ,pdagogik74 ,in his first two volumes he gives an account of the chief men connected with education1 from ,dante to ,pestalozzi4 ,the third volume contains essays on various parts of education1 and the fourth is devoted to ,german ,universities4 ,there is an ,english translation1 published in ,america1 of the fourth volume only4 ,i confess to a great partiality for ,raumer--a partiality which is not shared by a ,saturday ,reviewer and by other competent authorities in this country4 ,but surely a ,german author who is not profound1 and is almost perspicuous1 has some claim on the gratitude of ,english readers1 if he gives information which we cannot get in our own language4 ,to ,raumer ,i am indebted for all that ,i have written about ,ratke1 and almost all about ,basedow4 ,elsewhere his history has been used1 though not to the same extent4 ,c4 ,a4 ,schmid's ,encyclopdie des ,erziehungs-und-,unterrichtswesens is a vast mine of information on everything connected with education4 ,the work is still in progress4 ,the part containing ,rousseau has only just reached me4 ,i should have been glad of it when ,i was giving an account of the ,emile1 as ,raumer was of little use to me4 ,those for whom ,schmid is too diffuse and expensive will find ,carl ,gottlob ,hergang's ,pdagogische ,realencyclopdie useful4 ,this is in two thick volumes1 and costs1 to the best of my memory1 about eighteen shillings4 ,it was finished in #ahdg4 ,the best sketch ,i have met with of the general history of education is in the article on ,pdagogik in ,meyers ,conversations-,lexicon4#b ,i wish someone would translate this article2 and ,i should be glad to draw the attention of the editor of an educational periodical1 say the ,museum or the ,quarterly ,journal of ,education1 to it4 ,i have come upon references to many other works on the history of ,education1 but of these the only ones ,i have seen are ,theodore ,fritz's ,esquisse d'un ,systme complet d'instruction et d'ducation et de leur histoire 7#c vols41 ,strasburg1 #ahdc71 and ,carl ,schmidt's ,geschichte der ,pdagogik 7#d vols474 ,the first of these gives only the outline of the subject4 ,the second is1 ,i believe1 considered a standard work4 ,it does not seem to me so readable as ,raumer's history1 but it is much more complete1 and comes down to quite recent times4 ,for my account of the ,jesuit schools and of ,pestalozzi1 the authorities will be found elsewhere 7pp4 #cd and #chc74 ,in writing about ,comenius ,i have had much assistance from a life of him prefixed to an ,english translation of his ,school of ,infancy1 by ,daniel ,benham 7,london1 #aheh74 ,for almost all the information given about ,jacotot1 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,payne's papers1 which ,i should not have ventured to extract from so freely if they had been before the public in a more permanent form4 ,i am sorry ,i cannot refer to any ,english works on the history of ,education1 except the essays of ,mr4 ,parker and ,mr4 ,furnivall1 and ,christian ,schools and ,scholars1 which are mentioned above1 but we have a very good treatise on the principles of education in ,marcel's ,language as a ,means of ,mental ,culture 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahec74 ,edgeworth's ,practical ,education seems falling into undeserved neglect1 and ,mr4 ,spencer's recent work is not universally known even by schoolmasters4 ,if the following pages attract but few readers1 it will be some consolation1 though rather a melancholy one1 that ,i share the fate of my betters4 ,r4 ,h4 ,q4 ,,ingatestone1 ,,essex1 ,may1 #ahfh4 ,,preface ,,to ,,edition ,,of #ahij4 ,when ,i was a young man 7i4e41 nearly forty years ago71 ,i once did what those who know the ground would declare a very risky1 indeed1 a fool-hardy thing4 ,i was at the highest point of the ,gemmi ,pass in ,switzerland1 above the ,rhone ,valley2 and being in a hurry to get down and overtake my party ,i ran from the top to the bottom4 ,the path in those days was not so good as it is now1 and it is so near the precipice that a few years afterwards a lady in descending lost her head and fell over4 ,no doubt ,i was in great danger of a drop of a thousand feet or so4 ,but of this ,i was totally unconscious4 ,i was in a thick mist1 and saw the path for a few yards in front of me and nothing more4 ,when ,i think of the way in which this book was written three and twenty years ago ,i can compare it to nothing but my first descent of the ,gemmi4 ,i did a very risky thing without knowing it4 ,my path came into view little by little as ,i went on4 ,all else was hid from me by a thick mist of ignorance4 ,when ,i began the book ,i knew next to nothing of the ,reformers1 but ,i studied hard and wrote hard1 and ,i turned out the essays within the year4 ,this feat ,i now regard with amazement1 almost with horror4 ,since that time ,i have given more years of work to the subject than ,i had then given months1 and the consequence is ,i find ,i can write fast no longer4 ,the mist has in a measure cleared off1 and ,i cannot jog along in comfort as ,i did when ,i saw less4 ,at the same time ,i have no reason to repent of the adventure4 ,being fortunate in my plan and thoroughly interested by my subject1 ,i succeeded beyond my wildest expectations in getting others to take an interest in it also4 ,the small ,english edition of #ejj copies was1 as soon as ,i reduced the price1 sold off immediately1 and the book has been1 in ,england1 for twenty years 8out of print40 ,but no less than three publishing firms in the ,united ,states have reprinted it 7one quite recently7 without my consent1 and1 except in the edition of ,messrs4 ,r4 ,clarke ,co41 ,cincinnati1 with omissions and additions made without my knowledge4 ,it seems then that the book will live for some years yet1 whether ,i like it or not2 and while it lives ,i wish it to be in a form somewhat less defective than at its first appearance4 ,i have therefore in a great measure re-written it1 beside filling in a gap here and there with an additional essay4 ,perhaps some critics will call it a new book with an old title4 ,if they do1 they will ,i trust allow that the new book has at least two merits which went far to secure the success of the old1 #ast1 a good title1 and #bnd1 a good plan4 ,my plan in both editions has been to select a few people who seemed specially worth knowing about1 and to tell concerning them in some detail just that which seemed to me specially worth knowing4 ,so ,i have given what ,i thought very valuable or very interesting1 and everything ,i thought not particularly valuable or interesting ,i have ruthlessly omitted4 ,i have not attempted a complete account of anybody or anything2 and as for what the examiner may 8set10 ,i have not once given his questions a thought4 ,as the book is likely to have more readers in the country of its adoption than in the country of its birth1 ,i have persuaded my friend ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 to put it into 8,the ,international ,education ,series0 which he edits4 ,so the only authorized editions of the book are the ,english edition1 and the ,american edition published by ,messrs4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,r4 ,h4 ,q4 ,,earlswood ,,cottage1 ,,redhill1 ,,surrey1 ,,england1 #bhth ,july1 #ahij4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,chapter ,i4--,effects of the ,renascence #a-ba ,no escape from the ,past #b 8,discovery0 of the ,classics #c ,mark ,pattison's account of ,renascence #d ,revival of taste for beauty in ,literature #e ,what is ,literature8 #f ,renascence loved beauty of expression #g ,no translations4 ,the 8educated0 #h ,spread of literature by printing #i ,school course settled before ,bacon #aj ,first defect3 ,learner above ,doer #aa ,second3 ,over-estimate of literature #ab ,literary taste not common #ac ,third3 ,literature banished from school #ad ,translations would be literature #ae ,the classics not written for children #af ,language versus ,literature #ag ,fourth3 8,miss as good as a mile0 #ah ,fifth3 ,neglect of children #ai ,child's study of his surroundings #bj ,aut ,csar aut nihil #ba ,chapter ,,ii4--,renascence ,tendencies #bb-bf ,reviving the ,past4 ,the ,scholars #bc ,the ,scholars3 things for words #bd ,verbal ,realists3 things through words #be ,stylists3 words for themselves #bf ,chapter ,,iii4--,sturmius4 7#aejg-aehi7 #bg-cb ,his early life4 ,settles in ,strassburg #bh ,his course of ,latin4 ,dismissed #bi ,the ,schoolmaster taught ,latin mainly #cj ,resulting verbalism #ca ,some books about ,sturm #cb ,chapter ,,iv4--,schools of the ,jesuits #cc-fb ,importance of the ,jesuit ,schools #cd ,the ,society in part educational #ce 8,ratio atque ,institutio40 ,societas ,professa #cf ,the ,jesuit teacher3 his preparation1 c4 #cg ,supervision4 ,maintenance4 ,lower ,schools #ch ,free instruction4 ,equality4 ,boarders #ci ,classes4 ,curriculum4 ,latin only used #dj ,teacher ,lectured4 ,exercises4 ,saying by heart #da ,emulation4 8muli40 ,concertations #db 8,academies40 ,expedients4 ,school-hours #dc ,method of teaching4 ,an example #dd ,attention4 ,extra work4 8,repetitio0 #de ,repetition4 ,thoroughness #df ,yearly examinations4 ,moral training #dg ,care of health4 ,punishments #dh ,english want of system #di ,jesuit limitations #ej ,gains from memorizing #ea ,popularity4 ,kindness #eb ,sympathy with each pupil #ec ,work moderate in amount and difficulty #ed ,the ,society the ,army of the ,church #ee ,their pedagogy not disinterested #ef ,practical #eg ,the forces3 #a4 ,master's influence4 #b4 ,emulation #eg-eh ,a pupil's summing-up #ei ,some books #fj ,barbier's advice to new master #fa ,loyola and ,montaigne4 ,port-,royal #fb ,chapter ,v4--,rabelais4 7#adhc-aeec47 #fc-fi ,rabelais' ideal4 ,a new start #fd ,religion4 ,study of ,things #fe 8,anschauung40 ,hand-work4 ,books and ,life #ff ,training the body #fg ,rabelais' ,curriculum #fh ,study of ,scripture4 ,piety #fi ,chapter ,,vi4--,montaigne4 7#aecc-aeib47 #gj-gi ,writers and doers4 ,montaigne versus ,renascence #ga ,character before knowledge4 ,true knowledge #gb ,athens and ,sparta4 ,wisdom before knowledge #gc ,knowing1 and knowing by heart #gd ,learning necessary as employment #ge ,montaigne and our ,public ,schools #gf ,pressure from ,science and ,examinations #gg ,danger from knowledge #gh ,montaigne and ,lord ,armstrong #gi ,chapter ,,vii4--,ascham4 7#aeae-aefh47 #hj-hi ,wolsey on teaching #ha ,history of ,methods useful #hb ,our three celebrities #hc ,ascham's method for ,latin3 first stage #hd ,second stage4 ,the six points #he ,value of double translating and writing #hf ,study of a model book4 ,queen ,elizabeth #hg1 #hh 8,a dozen times at the least0 #hh 8,impressionists0 and 8,retainers0 #hi ,chapter ,,viii4--,mulcaster4 7#aeca787-afaa47 #ij-ajb ,old books in ,english on education #ia ,mulcaster's wisdom hidden by his style #ib ,education and 8learning0 #ic #a4 ,development #b4 ,child-study #id #c4 ,groundwork by best workman #ie #d4 ,no forcing of young plants #if #e4 ,the elementary course4 ,english #ig #f4 ,girls as well as ,boys #ih #g4 ,training of ,teachers #ii ,training college at the ,universities #ajj ,mulcaster's reasons for training teachers #aja ,mulcaster's ,life and ,writings #ajb ,chapter ,,ix4--,ratichius4 7#aega-afce47 #ajc-aah ,principles of the ,innovators #ajd ,ratke's ,address to the ,diet #aje ,at ,augsburg4 ,at ,koethen #ajf ,failure at ,koethen #ajg ,german in the school4 ,ratichius's services #ajh #a4 ,follow ,nature4 #b4 ,one thing at a time #aji #c4 ,over and over again #aaj #d4 ,everything through the mother-tongue #aaa #e4 ,nothing on compulsion #aab #f4 ,nothing to be learnt by heart #aac #g4 ,uniformity4 #h4 ,ne modus rei ante rem #aad #i4 ,per inductionem omnia #aae ,ratke's method for language #aaf ,ratke's method and ,ascham's #aag ,slow progress in methods #aah ,chapter ,x4--,comenius4 7#aeib-afga47 #aai-aga ,early years4 ,his first book #abj ,troubles4 ,exile #aba ,pedagogic studies at ,leszna #abb ,didactic written4 ,janua published4 ,pansophy #abc ,samuel ,hartlib #abd ,the ,prodromus and ,dilucidatio #abe ,comenius in ,london4 ,parliamentary schemes #abf ,comenius driven away by ,civil ,war #abg ,in ,sweden4 ,interviews with ,oxenstiern #abh ,oxenstiern criticises #abi ,comenius at ,elbing #acj ,at ,leszna again #aca ,saros-,patak4 ,flight from ,leszna #acb ,last years at ,amsterdam #acc ,comenius sought true foundation #acd ,threefold life4 ,seeds of learning1 virtue1 piety #ace ,omnia sponte fluant4 ,analogies #acf ,analogies of growth #acg ,senses4 ,foster desire of knowledge #ach ,no punishments4 ,words and ,things together #aci ,languages4 ,system of schools #adj ,mother-tongue ,school4 ,girls #ada ,school teaching4 ,mother's teaching #adb ,comenius and the ,kindergarten #adc ,starting-points of the sciences #add ,beginnings in ,geography1 ,history1 c4 #ade ,drawing4 ,education for all #adf ,scientific and ,religious ,agreement #adg ,bishop ,butler on ,educating the ,poor #adh ,comenius and ,bacon #adi 8,everything ,through the ,senses0 #aej ,error of ,neglecting the ,senses #aea ,insufficiency of the ,senses #aeb ,comenius undervalued the ,past #aec ,literature and ,science #aed ,comenius's use of ,analogies #aee ,thought-studies and ,label-studies #aef ,unity of ,knowledges #aeg ,theory and the ,practical ,man #aeh ,mother-tongue4 ,words and ,things together #aei ,janua ,linguarum #afj ,the ,jesuits' ,janua #afa ,comenius adapts ,jesuits' ,janua #afb ,anchoran's edition of ,comenius's ,janua #afc ,change to be made by ,janua #afd ,popularity of ,janua shortlived #afe ,lubinus projector of ,orbis ,pictus #aff ,orbis ,pictus described #afg ,why ,comenius's schoolbooks failed #afh 8,compendia ,dispendia0 #afi ,comenius and ,science of ,education #agj ,books on ,comenius #aga ,chapter ,,xi4--,the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal #agb-aif ,the ,jesuits and the ,arnaulds #agc ,saint-,cyran and ,port-,royal #agd ,saint-,cyran an 8,evangelical0 #age ,short career of the ,little ,schools #agf ,saint-,cyran and ,locke on ,public ,schools #agg ,shadow-side of ,public ,schools #agh ,the ,little ,schools for the few only #agi ,advantages of great schools #ahj ,choice of masters and servants4 ,watch and pray #aha ,no rivalry or pressure4 ,freedom from routine #ahb ,study a delight4 ,reading ,french first #ahc ,literature4 ,mother-tongue first #ahd ,beginners' difficulties lightened #ahe ,begin with ,latin into ,mother-tongue #ahf ,sense before sound4 ,reason must rule #ahg ,not ,baconian4 ,the body despised #ahh ,pedagogic writings of ,port-,royalists #ahi ,arnauld4 ,nicole #aij ,light from within4 ,teach by the ,senses #aia ,best teaching escapes common tests #aib ,studying impossible without a will #aic ,against making beginnings bitter #aid ,port-,royal advance4 ,books on ,port-,royal #aie ,rollin1 ,compayr1 c4 #aif ,chapter ,,xii4--,some ,english ,writers before ,locke #aig-bah ,birth of ,realism #aih ,realist ,leaders not schoolmasters #aii ,john ,brinsley4 ,charles ,hoole #bjj ,hoole's ,realism #bja ,art of teaching4 ,abraham ,cowley #bjb ,authors and schoolmasters4 ,j4 ,dury #bjc ,disorderly use of our natural faculties #bjd ,dury's watch simile #bje ,senses1 #ast2 imagination1 #bnd2 memory1 #crd #bjf ,petty's battlefield simile #bjg ,petty's realism #bjh ,cultivate observation #bji ,petty on children's activities #baj ,hand-work4 ,education for all4 ,bellers #baa ,milton and ,school-,reform #bab ,milton as spokesman of ,christian ,realists #bac ,language an instrument4 ,object of education #bad ,milton for barrack life and ,verbal ,realism #bae ,milton succeeded as man not master #baf ,he did not advance ,science of ,education #bag ,milton an educator of mankind #bah ,chapter ,,xiii4--,locke4 7#afcb-agjd47 #bai-bch ,locke's two main characteristics #bbj #ast1 ,truth for itself4 #bnd1 ,reason for ,truth #bba ,locke's definition of knowledge #bbb ,knowing without seeing #bbc 8,discentem credere oportet0 #bbd ,locke's 8,knowledge0 and the schoolmaster's #bbe 8,knowledge0 in ,geography #bbf ,for children1 health and habits #bbg ,everything educative forms habits #bbh ,confusion about special cases4 ,wax #bbi ,locke behind ,comenius #bcj ,humanists1 ,realists1 and ,trainers #bca ,caution against classifiers #bcb ,locke and development #bcc ,was ,locke a utilitarian8 #bcd ,utilitarianism defined #bce ,locke not utilitarian in education #bcf ,locke's ,pisgah ,vision #bcg ,science and education4 ,names of books #bch ,chapter ,,xiv4--,jean-,jacques ,rousseau4 7#agab-aggh47 #bci-bgb ,middle ,age system fell in #ahth century #bdj ,do the opposite to the usual #bda ,family life4 ,no education before reason #bdb ,rousseau 8neglects0 essentials4 ,lose time #bdc ,early education negative #bdd ,childhood the sleep of reason #bde ,start from study of the child #bdf ,rousseau's paradoxes un-,english #bdg ,man the corrupter4 ,the three educations #bdh ,the aim1 living thoroughly #bdi ,children not small men #bej ,schoolmasters' contempt for childhood #bea ,schoolroom rubbish #beb ,ideas before symbols #bec ,right ideas for children #bed ,child-gardening4 ,child's activity #bee ,no sitting still or reading #bef ,memory without books #beg ,use of the senses in childhood #beh ,intellect based on the senses #bei ,cultivation of the senses #bfj ,music and drawing #bfa ,drawing from objects4 ,morals #bfb ,contradictory statements on morals #bfc ,the material world and the moral #bfd ,shun over-directing #bfe ,lessons out of school4 ,questioning4 ,at #ab #bff ,no book-learning4 ,study of nature #bfg ,against didactic teaching #bfh ,rousseau exaggerates about self-teaching #bfi ,learn with effort #bgj ,hand-work4 ,the 8,new ,education0 #bga ,the ,teacher's business #bgb ,chapter ,,xv4--,basedow and the ,philanthropinum #bgc-bhi ,basedow tries to mend religion and teaching #bgd ,reform needed4 ,subscription for 8,elementary0 #bge ,a journey with ,goethe #bgf ,goethe on ,basedow #bgg ,the ,philanthropinum opened #bgh ,basedow's 8,elementary0 and 8,book of ,method0 #bgi ,subjects to be taught #bhj ,french and ,latin4 ,religion #bha 8,fred's ,journey to ,dessau0 #bhb ,at the ,philanthropinum #bhc ,methods in the ,philanthropinum #bhd ,the ,philanthropinum criticised #bhe ,basedow's improvements in teaching children #bhf ,basedow's successors #bhg ,kant on the ,philanthropinum #bhh ,influence of ,philanthropinists #bhi ,chapter ,,xvi4--,pestalozzi4 7#agdf-ahbg47 #bij-chc ,his childhood and student-life #bia ,a ,radical ,student #bib ,turns farmer4 ,bluntschli's warning #bic ,new ideas in farming4 ,a love letter #bid ,resolutions4 ,buys land and marries #bie ,pestalozzi turns to education #bif ,neuhof filled with children #big ,appeal for the new ,institution #bih ,bankruptcy4 ,the children sent away #bii ,eighteen years of poverty and distress #cjj 8,gertrude0 to the rescue4 ,pestalozzi's religion #cja ,he turns author4 8,e4 ,h4 of ,hermit0 #cjb ,pestalozzi's belief #cjc ,the 8,hermit0 a ,christian #cjd ,success of 8,leonard and ,gertrude0 #cje ,gertrude's patience tried #cjf ,being and doing before knowing #cjg ,pestalozzi's severity4 ,women ,commissioners #cjh ,pestalozzi's seven years of authorship #cji 8,citizen of ,french ,republic40 ,doubts #caj ,waiting4 ,pestalozzi's 8,inquiry0 #caa ,pestalozzi's 8,fables0 #cab ,pestalozzi's own principles #cac ,pestalozzi's return to action #cad ,the ,french at ,stanz #cae ,pestalozzi at ,stanz #caf ,success and expulsion #cag ,at ,stanz3 ,pestalozzi's own account #cah-ccb ,value of the five months' experience #ccc ,pestalozzi a strange ,schoolmaster #ccd ,at ,burgdorf4 ,first official approval #cce ,a child's notion of ,pestalozzi's teaching #ccf ,pestalozzi engineering a new road #ccg ,psychologizing instruction #cch ,school course4 ,singing2 and the beautiful #cci ,pestalozzi's poverty4 ,kruesi joins him #cdj ,pestalozzi's assistants4 ,the ,burgdorf ,institute #cda ,success of the ,burgdorf ,institute #cdb ,reaction4 ,pestalozzi and ,napoleon ,i #cdc ,fellenberg1 ,pestalozzi goes to ,yverdun #cdd ,a portrait of ,pestalozzi #cde ,prussia adopts ,pestalozzianism #cdf ,ritter and others at ,yverdun #cdg ,causes of failure at ,yverdun #cdh ,report made by ,father ,girard #cdi ,girard's mistake4 ,schmid in flight #cej ,schmid's return4 ,pestalozzi's fame found useful #cea ,dr4 ,bell's visit4 ,death of ,mrs4 ,pestalozzi #ceb ,works republished4 ,clindy4 ,yverdun left4 ,death #cec1 #ced ,new aim3 develop organism #ced ,true dignity of man #cee ,education for all4 ,mothers' part4 ,jacob's ,ladder #cef ,educator only superintends #ceg ,first1 moral development #ceh ,moral and religious the same #cei ,second1 intellectual development #cfj ,learning by 8intuition0 #cfa ,buisson and ,jullien on intuition #cfb ,pestalozzi and ,locke #cfc ,subjects for1 and art of1 teaching #cfd 8,mastery0 #cfe ,the body's part in education #cff ,learning must not be play #cfg ,singing and drawing #cfh ,morf's summing-up #cfi ,joseph ,payne's summing-up #cgj ,the 8two nations40 ,mother's lessons #cga ,mistakes in teaching children #cgb ,children and their teachers #cgc 8,preparatory0 ,schools #cgd ,young boys ill taught at school #cge ,english folk-schools not ,pestalozzian #cgf ,schools judged by results #cgg ,pupil-teachers4 ,teaching not educating #cgh ,lowe or ,pestalozzi8 #cgi ,chief force1 personality of the teacher #chj ,english care for unessentials #cha ,aim at the ideal #chb ,use of theorists4 ,books #chc ,chapter ,,xvii4--,friedrich ,froebel4 7#aghc-aheb47 #chd-dac ,difficulty in understanding ,froebel #che ,a lad's quest of unity #chf ,froebel wandering without rest #chg ,finds his vocation4 ,with ,pestalozzi #chh ,froebel at the ,universities #chi ,through the ,freiheits-krieg4 ,mineralogy #cij ,the 8,new ,education0 started #cia ,at ,keilhau4 8,education of ,man0 published #cib ,froebel fails in ,switzerland #cic ,the first ,kindergarten #cid ,froebel's last years4 ,prussian edict against him4 ,his end #cie ,author's attitude towards ,reformers #cif ,difficulties with ,froebel #cig 8,cui omnia unum sunt0 #cih ,froebel's ideal #cii ,theory of development #djj ,development through self-activity #dja ,true idea found in ,nature #djb ,god acts and man acts #djc ,the formative and creative instinct #djd ,rendering the inner outer #dje ,care for 8young plants40 ,kindergarten #djf ,child's restlessness3 how to use it #djg ,employments in ,kindergarten #djh ,no schoolwork in ,kindergarten #dji ,without the idea the 8gifts0 fail #daj ,the ,new ,education and the old #daa ,the old still vigorous #dab ,science the thought of ,god4 ,some ,froebelians #dac ,chapter ,,xviii4--,jacotot1 a ,methodizer4 7#aggj-ahdj47 #dad-dch ,self-teaching #dae #a4 ,all can learn #daf #b4 ,everyone can teach #dag ,can he teach facts he does not know8 #dah ,languages8 ,sciences8 #dai ,arts such as drawing and music8 #dbj ,true teacher within the learner #dba ,training rather than teaching #dbb #c4 8,tout est dans tout40 ,quidlibet ex quolibet #dbc ,connexion of knowledges #dbd ,connect with model book4 ,memorizing #dbe ,ways of studying the model book #dbf ,should the book be made or chosen8 #dbg ,robertsonian plan #dbh ,hints for exercises #dbi ,the good of having learnt #dcj ,the old ,cambridge 8mathematical man0 #dca ,waste of memory at school #dcb ,how to stop this waste #dcc ,multum1 non multa4 ,de ,morgan4 ,helps4 ,stephen #dcd ,jacotot's plan for reading and writing #dce ,for the mother-tongue #dcf ,method of investigation #dcg ,jacotot's last days #dch ,chapter ,,xix4--,herbert ,spencer #dci-dfi ,same knowledge for discipline and use8 #ddj ,different stages1 different knowledges #dda ,relative value of knowledges #ddb ,knowledge for self-preservation #ddc ,useful knowledge versus the classics #ddd ,special instruction versus education #dde ,scientific knowledge and money-making #ddf ,knowledge about rearing offspring #ddg ,knowledge of history3 its nature and use #ddh ,use of history #ddi ,employment of leisure hours #dej ,poetry and the ,arts #dea ,more than science needed for complete living #deb ,objections to ,spencer's curriculum #dec ,citizen's duties4 ,things not to teach #ded ,need of a science of education #dee ,hope of a science #def ,from simple to complex3 known to unknown #deg ,connecting schoolwork with life outside #deh ,books and life #dei ,mistakes in grammar teaching #dfj ,from indefinite to definite3 concrete to abstract #dfa ,the ,individual and the ,race4 ,empirical beginning #dfb ,against 8telling40 ,effect of bad teaching #dfc ,learning should be pleasurable #dfd ,can learning be made interesting8 #dfe ,apathy from bad teaching #dff ,should learning be made interesting8 #dfg ,difference between theory and practice #dfh ,importance of ,herbert ,spencer's work #dfi ,chapter ,,xx4--,thoughts and ,suggestions #dgj-dia ,want of an ideal #dga ,get pupils to work hard #dgb ,for this arouse interest4 ,wordsworth #dgc ,interest needed for activity #dgd ,teaching young children #dge ,value of pictures #dgf ,dr4 ,vater at ,leipzig #dgg ,dr4 ,vogel and ,dr4 ,vater #dgh ,first knowledge of numbers4 ,grub #dgi ,measuring and weighing4 ,reading-books #dhj ,respect for books4 ,grammar4 ,reading #dha ,silent and ,vocal ,reading #dhb ,memorising poetry4 ,composition #dhc ,correcting exercises4 ,three kinds of books #dhd ,no epitomes #dhe ,ascham1 ,bacon1 ,goldsmith1 against them #dhf ,arouse interest4 ,dr4 ,arnold's historical primer #dhg ,a ,macaulay1 not ,mangnall1 wanted #dhh ,beginnings in history and geography #dhi ,tales of ,travelers #dij ,results positive and negative #dia ,chapter ,,xxi4--,the ,schoolmaster's ,moral and ,religious ,influence #dib-ejc ,master's power1 how gained and lost #dic ,masters1 the open and the reserved #did ,danger of excess either way #die ,high ideal4 ,danger of low practice #dif ,harm from overworking teachers #dig ,refuge in routine work4 ,small schools #dih ,influence through the ,sixth4 ,day schools wanted #dii ,teaching religion in ,england and ,germany #ejj ,religious teaching connected with worship #eja ,education to goodness and piety #ejb ,how to avoid narrowmindedness #ejc ,chapter ,,xxii4--,conclusion #ejd-ebf ,a growing science of education #eje ,jesuits the first ,reformers #ejf ,the ,jesuits cared for more than classics #ejg ,rabelais for 8intuition0 #ejh ,montaigne for educating mind and body #eji #agth century reaction against books #eaj ,reaction not felt in schools and the ,universities #eaa ,comenius begins science of education #eab ,locke's teacher a disposer of influence #eac ,locke and public schools4 ,escape from 8idols0 #ead ,rousseau's clean sweep #eae ,benevolence of ,nature4 ,man disturbs #eaf ,we arrange sequences1 capitalise ideas #eag ,loss and gain from tradition #eah ,rousseau for observing and following #eai ,rousseau exposed 8school-learning0 #ebj ,function of 8things0 in education #eba 8,new ,education0 started by ,rousseau #ebb ,drawing out4 ,man and the other animals #ebc ,intuition4 ,man an organism1 a doer and creator #ebd ,antithesis of ,old and ,new ,education #ebe ,drill needed4 ,what the ,thinkers do for us #ebf ,appendix4 ,class ,matches4 ,words and ,things4 ,books for ,teachers1 c4 #ebg-edg ,i ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,renascence4 #a4 ,the history of education1 much as it has been hitherto neglected1 especially in ,england1 must have a great future before it4 ,if we ignore the ,past we cannot understand the ,present1 or forecast the ,future4 ,in this book ,i am going to speak of ,reformers or ,innovators who aimed at changing what was handed down to them2 but the ,radical can no more escape from the ,past1 than the ,conservative can stereotype it4 ,it acts not by attraction only1 but no less by repulsion4 ,there have been thinkers in latter times who have announced themselves as the executioners of the ,past and laboured to destroy all it has bequeathed to us4 ,they have raised the ferocious cry1 8,vive la destruction6 ,vive la mort6 ,place l'avenir6 ,hurrah for destruction6 ,hurrah for death6 ,make room for the world that is to be60 ,but their very hatred of the ,past has brought them under the influence of it4 8,do just the opposite of what has been done and you will do right10 said ,rousseau2 and this rule of negation would make the ,past regulate the ,present and the ,future no less than its opposite1 8,do always what is usual40 ,if we cannot get free from the ,past in the domain of thought1 still less can we in action4 ,custom is to all our activities what the mainspring is to the watch4 ,we may bring forces into play to make the watch go faster or slower1 but if we took out the mainspring it would not go at all4 ,for our mainspring we are indebted to the ,past4 #b4 ,in studying the ,past we must give our special attention to those periods in which the course of ideas takes1 as the ,french say1 a new bend4#c ,such a period was the ,renascence4 ,then it was that the latest bend was given to the educational ideal of the civilized world2 and though we seem now again to have arrived at a period of change1 we are still1 perhaps far more than we are aware1 affected by the ideas of the great scholars who guided the intellect of ,europe in the ,revival of ,learning4 #c4 ,from the beginning to the end of the fifteenth century the balance was trembling between two kinds of culture1 and the fate of the schoolboy depended on the result4 ,in this century men first got a correct conception of the globe they were inhabiting4 ,hitherto they had not even professed to have any knowledge of geography2 there is no mention of it in the ,trivium and ,quadrivium which were then supposed to form the cycle of things known1 if not of things knowable4 ,but ,columbus and ,vasco da ,gama were grand teachers of geography1 and their lessons were learnt as far as civilization extended4 ,the impetus thus given to the study of the earth might1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 have engrossed the mind of ,europe with the material world1 had not the leaning to physical science been encountered and overcome by an impulse derived from another discovery4 ,about the time of the discovery of ,america there also came to light the literatures of ,greece and ,rome4 #d4 ,when ,i speak of the discovery of the ancient literatures as rivalling that of ,america1 this use of the word 8discovery0 may be disputed4 ,it may be urged that though the ,greek language and literature were unknown in the ,west of ,europe till they were brought there by the fugitives after the fall of ,constantinople in #adec1 yet the works of the great ,latin writers had always been known in ,italy1 and ,dante declares himself the disciple of ,virgil4 ,and yet ,i cannot give up the word 8discovery40 ,in the life of an individual it sometimes happens that he suddenly acquires as it were a new sense4 ,the world around him remains the same as before1 but it is not the same to him4 ,a film passes from his eyes1 and what has been ordinary and unmeaning suddenly becomes a source of wonder and delight to him4 ,something similar happens at times in the history of the general mind2 indeed our own century has seen a remarkable instance of it4 ,in reading the thoughts of great writers of earlier times1 we cannot but be struck1 not only with their ignorance of the material world1 but also with their ignorance of their ignorance4 ,little as they know1 they often speak as if they knew everything4 ,newton could see that he was like a child discovering a few shells while the unexplored ocean lay before him2 but in those days it required the intellect of a ,newton to understand this4 ,to the other children the ocean seemed to conceal nothing1 and they innocently thought that all the shells1 or nearly all1 had been picked up4 ,it was reserved for the people of our own century to become aware of the marvels which lie around us in the material world1 and to be fascinated by the discovery4 ,if the human race could live through several civilizations without opening its eyes to the wonders of the earth it inhabits1 and then could suddenly become aware of them1 we may well understand its retaining unheeded the literatures of ,greece and ,rome for centuries1 and at length as it were discovering them1 and turning to them with unbounded enthusiasm and delight4 ,as students of education we can hardly attach too much importance to this great revolution4 ,for nearly three centuries the curriculum in the public schools of ,europe remained what the ,renascence had made it4 ,we have again entered on an age of change1 but we are still much influenced by the ideas of the ,renascence1 and the best way to understand the forces now at work is to trace them where possible to their origin4 ,let us then consider what the ,renascence was1 and how it affected the educational system4 #e4 ,in endeavouring to understand the ,renascence1 we cannot do better than listen to what ,mark ,pattison says of it in his 8,life of ,casaubon03--8,in the fifteenth century was revealed to a world which had hitherto been trained to logical analysis1 the beauty of literary form4 ,the conception of style or finished expression had died out with the pagan schools of rhetoric4 ,it was not the despotic act of ,justinian in closing the schools of ,athens which had suppressed it4 ,the sense of art in language decayed from the same general causes which had been fatal to all artistic perception4 ,banished from the ,roman ,empire in the sixth century or earlier1 the classical conception of beauty of form re-entered the circle of ideas after near a thousand years of oblivion and abeyance4 ,cicero and ,virgil1 ,livius and ,ovid1 had been there all along1 but the idea of composite harmony on which their works were constructed was wanting4 ,the restored conception1 as if to recoup itself for its long suppression1 took entire possession of the mind of ,europe4 ,the first period of the ,renascence passed in adoration of the awakened beauty1 and in efforts to copy and multiply it40 #f4 ,here ,mark ,pattison speaks as if the conception of beauty of form belonged exclusively to the ancients and those who learnt of them4 ,this seems to require some abatement4 ,there are points in which medival art far excelled the art of the ,renascence4 ,the thirteenth century1 as ,archbishop ,trench has said1 was 8rich in glorious creations of almost every kind20 and in that century our great ,english architect1 ,street1 found the root of all that is best in modern art4 7,see 8,dublin ,afternoon ,lectures10 #ahfh47 ,but there are expressions of beauty to which the ,greeks1 and those who caught their spirit1 were keenly alive1 and to which the people of the ,middle ,age seem to have been blind4 ,the first is beauty in the human form2 the second is beauty in literature4 ,the old delight in beauty in the human form has never come back to us4 ,mr4 ,ruskin tells us we are an ugly race1 with ill-shapen limbs1 and well pleased with our ugliness and deformity1 and in reply we only mutter something about the necessity of clothing both for warmth and decency4 ,but as to the other expression of beauty1 beauty in literature1 the mind of ,europe again became conscious of it in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the re-awakening of this sense of beauty we call the ,renascence4 #g4 ,before we consider the effect of this intellectual revolution on education1 let us be sure that we are not 8paying ourselves with words10 and that we know exactly what we mean by 8literature40 ,when the conceptions of an individual mind are expressed in a permanent form of words1 we get literature4 ,the sum total of all the permanent forms of expression in one language make up the literature of that language2 and if no one has given his conceptions a form which has been preserved1 the language is without a literature4 ,there are then two things essential to a literary work3 first1 the conceptions of an individual mind2 second1 a permanent form of expression4 ,hence it follows that the domain of literature is distinct from the domain of natural or mathematical science4 ,science does not give us the conceptions of an individual mind1 but it tells us what every rational person who studies the subject must think4 ,and science is entirely independent of any form of words3 a proposition of ,euclid is science2 a sonnet of ,wordsworth's is literature4 ,we learn from ,euclid certain truths which we should have learnt from some one else if ,euclid had never existed1 and the propositions may be conveyed equally well in different forms of words and in any language4 ,but a sonnet of ,wordsworth's conveys thought and feeling peculiar to the poet2 and even if the same thought and feeling were conveyed to us in other words1 we should lose at least half of what he has given us4 ,poetry is indeed only one kind of literature1 but it is the highest kind2 and what is true of literary works in verse1 is true also in a measure of literary works in prose4 ,so great is the difference between science and literature1 that in literature1 as the first ,lord ,lytton said1 the best books are generally the oldest2 in science they are the newest4 #h4 ,at present we are concerned with literature only4 ,there are two ways in which a work of literature may excite our admiration and affect our minds4 ,these are1 first1 by the beauty of the conceptions it conveys to us2 and second1 by the beauty of the language in which it conveys them4 ,in the greatest works the two excellences will be combined4#d ,now the literary taste proper fastens especially on the second of the two1 i4e41 on beauty of expression2 and the ,renascence was the revival of literary taste4 8,it was10 as ,mark ,pattison says1 8the conception of style or finished expression which had died out with the pagan schools of rhetoric1 and which re-entered the circle of ideas after a thousand years of oblivion and abeyance40 ,if we lose sight of this1 we shall be perplexed by the unbounded enthusiasm which we find in the sixteenth century for the old classics4 ,what great evangel1 we may ask1 had ,cicero and ,virgil and ,ovid1 or even ,plato and the ,greek dramatists1 for men who lived when ,europe had experienced a thousand years of ,christianity8 ,the answer is simple4 ,they had none whatever4 ,their thoughts and conceptions were not adapted to the wants of the new world4 ,the civilization of the ,christian nations of the sixteenth century was a very different thing from the civilization of ,greece and ,rome4 ,it had its own thoughts1 its own problems1 its own wants4 ,the old-world thoughts could not be thought over again by it4 ,this indeed was felt though not admitted by the ,renascence scholars themselves4 ,had it been the thoughts of the ancients which seemed to them so valuable they would have made some effort to diffuse those thoughts in the languages of the modern world4 ,much as a great literary work loses by translation1 there may still be enough left of it to be a source of instruction and delight4 ,the thoughts of ,aristotle1 conveyed in a ,latin translation of an ,arabic translation1 profoundly affected the mind of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,bible1 or ,book par excellence1 is known to few indeed in its original form4 ,some great writers--,cervantes1 and ,shakespeare1 and the author of the 8,arabian ,nights0--please and instruct nations who know not the sound of the languages wherein their works are composed4 ,if then the great writers of ,greece and ,rome had been valued for their matter1 their works would have been translated by the ,renascence scholars as the ,bible was translated by the ,reformers1 and the history of modern education would have taken a very different turn from that which awaited it4 ,but it was not so4 ,the ,renascence scholars did all they could to discourage translations4 ,for the grand discovery which we call the ,revival of ,learning was1 not that the ancients had something to say1 but that whatever they had to say they knew how to say it4 #i4 ,and thus it happens that in the period of change1 when ,europe was re-arranging its institutions1 developing new ideas and settling into new grooves of habit1 we find the men most influential in education entirely fascinated by beauty of expression1 and this in two ancient languages1 so that the one thing needful for the young seemed to them an introduction to the study of ancient writings4 ,the inevitable consequence was this3 education became a mere synonym for instruction in ,latin and ,greek4 ,the only ideal set up for the 8educated0 was the classical scholar4 #aj4 ,perhaps the absurdity of taking this ideal1 an ideal which is obviously fitted for a small class of men only1 and proposing it for general adoption1 was partly concealed from the ,renascence scholars by the peculiar circumstances of their age4 ,no doubt they thought literature would in the future be a force capable of much wider application than it had ever been before4 ,true1 literature had till then affected a small class only4 ,literature meant books1 books meant ,,mss41 and ,,mss4 were rare and costly4 ,literature1 the embodiment of grand thoughts in grand words1 had existed before letters1 or at least without letters4 ,the ,homeric poems1 for example1 had been known to thousands who could not read or write4 ,but beauty of expression naturally got associated and indeed confounded with the art by which it was preserved2 so the creations of the mind1 when embodied in particular combinations of words1 acquired the name of literature or letters1 and became almost exclusively the affair of those who had opportunities of study1 opportunities afforded only to the few4 ,during the ,middle ,ages every one who could read was allowed his 8privilege of clergy20 that is1 he was assumed to be a clergyman4 ,literature then was not thought of as a means of instruction4 ,but at the very time that the beauty of the ancient writings dawned on the mind of ,europe1 a mechanical invention seemed to remove all hindrances to the spread of literature4 ,the scholars seized on the printing press and thought by means of it to give all 8the educated0 a knowledge of classics4 #aa4 ,we cannot help speculating what would have been the effect of the discovery of printing if it had been made at another time4 ,as there may be literature without books1 so there may be books without literature4 ,if at the time of the invention of printing there had been no literature1 no creations of individual minds embodied in permanent forms of speech1 books might have been used as apparatus in a mental gymnasium1 or they might have been made the means of conveying information4 ,but just then the intellect of ,europe was tired of mental gymnastics4 ,it had taken exercise in the ,trivium like a squirrel in its revolving cage1 and was vexed to find it made no progress4#e ,as for information there was little to be had4 ,the age of observation and of physical science was not yet4 ,so the printing press was entirely at the service of the new passion for literature and the scholars dreamed of the general diffusion of literary culture by means of printed books4 #ab4 ,for some two centuries the literary spirit had supreme control over the intellect of ,europe1 and the literary spirit could then find satisfaction nowhere but in the study of the ancient classics4 ,the natural consequence was that throughout this period the 8educated man0 was supposed to be identified with the classical scholar4 ,the great rival of the literary spirit1 the scientific spirit which cares for nothing but sequences independent of the human mind1 began to show itself early in the seventeenth century3 its first great champion was ,francis ,bacon4 ,but by this time the school course of study had been settled1 and two centuries had to elapse before the scientific spirit could unsettle it again4 ,even now when we speak of a man as 8well-educated0 we are commonly understood to mean that in his youth he was taught the two classical languages4 #ac4 ,the taking of the classical scholar as the only ideal of the educated man has been a fruitful source of evil in the history of education4 ,i4 ,this ideal exalted the learner above the doer4 ,as far back as ,xenophon1 we find a contest between the passive ideal and the active1 between the excellence which depends on a knowledge of what others have thought and done and the excellence which comes of thinking and doing4 ,but the excellence derived from learning had never been highly esteemed4 ,to be able to repeat ,homer's poetry was regarded in ,greece as we now regard a pleasing accomplishment2 but the dignity of the learned man as such was not within the range of ,greek ideas4 ,many of the ,romans after they began to study ,greek literature certainly piqued themselves on being good ,greek scholars1 and ,cicero occasionally quotes with all the airs of a pedant2 but so thoroughly was the contrary ideal1 the ideal of the doer1 established at ,rome1 that nobody ever dreamt of placing its rival above it4 ,in the decline of the ,empire1 especially at ,alexandria1 we find for the first time honours paid to the learned man2 but he was soon lost sight of again4 ,at the ,renascence he burst into sudden blaze1 and it was then discovered that he was what every man would wish to be4 ,thus the ,renascence scholars1 notwithstanding their admiration of the great nations of antiquity1 set up an ideal which those nations would heartily have despised4 ,the schoolmaster very readily adopted this ideal2 and schools have been places of learning1 not training1 ever since4 #ad4 ,,ii4 ,the next defect ,i observe in the ,renascence ideal is this3 it attributes to literature more direct power over common life than literature has ever had1 or is ever likely to have4 ,i say direct power1 for indirectly literature is one of the grand forces which act on all of us2 but it acts on us through others1 its most important function being to affect great intellects1 the minds of those who think out and act out important changes4 ,its direct action on the mass of mankind is after all but insignificant4 ,we have seen that literature consists in permanent forms of words1 expressing the conceptions of individual minds2 and these forms will be studied only by those who are interested in the conceptions or find pleasure in the mode in which they are expressed4 ,now the vast majority of ordinary people are without these inducements to literary study4 ,they take a keen interest in everything connected with their relations and intimate friends1 and a weaker interest in the thinkings and sayings and doings of every one else who is personally known to them2 but as to the mental conceptions of those who lived in other times1 or if now alive are not known even by sight1 the ordinary person is profoundly indifferent to them2 and of course delight in expression1 as such1 is out of the question4 ,the natural consequence is that the habit of reading books is by no means common4 ,mark ,pattison observes that there are few books to be found in most ,english middle-class homes1 and he says3 8,the dearth of books is only the outward and visible sign of the mental torpor which reigns in those destitute regions0 7see 8,fortnightly ,review10 ,november1 #ahgg74 ,i much doubt if he would have found more books in the middle-class homes of the ,continent4 ,there is only one kind of reading that is nearly universal--the reading of newspapers2 and the newspaper lacks the element of permanence1 and belongs to the domain of talk rather than of literature4 ,even when we get among the so-called 8educated10 we find that those who care for literature form a very small minority4 ,the rest have of course read ,shakespeare and ,milton and ,walter ,scott and ,tennyson1 but they do not read them4 ,the lion's share of our time and thoughts and interests must be given to our business or profession1 whatever that may be2 and in few instances is this connected with literature4 ,for the rest1 whatever time or thought a man can spare from his calling is mostly given to his family1 or to society1 or to some hobby which is not literature4 ,and love of literature is not shown in such reading as is common4 ,the literary spirit shows itself1 as ,i said1 in appreciating beauty of expression1 and how far beauty of expression is cared for we may estimate from the fact that few people think of reading anything a second time4 ,the ordinary reader is profoundly indifferent about style1 and will not take the trouble to understand ideas4 ,he keeps to periodicals or light fiction1 which enables the mind to loll in its easy chair 7so to speak7 and see pass before it a series of pleasing images4 ,an idea1 as ,mark ,pattison says1 8is an excitant1 comes from mind and calls forth mind2 an image is a sedative20 and most people when they take up a book are seeking a sedative4 ,so literature is after all a very small force in the lives of most men1 and perhaps even less in the lives of most women4 ,why then are the employments of the school-room arranged on the supposition that it is the grand force of all8 ,the reason is1 that we have inherited from the ,renascence a false notion of the function of literature4 #ae4 ,,iii4 ,i must now point out a fault in the ,renascence ideal which is perhaps the most remarkable of all4 ,those by whom this ideal was set up were entirely possessed by an enthusiasm for literature1 and they made the mistake of attributing to literature a share in general culture which literature seems incapable of taking4 ,after this we could little have expected that the new ideal would exclude literature from the schoolroom1 and yet so it has actually turned out4 ,as a literary creation contains the conceptions of an individual mind expressed in a permanent form of words1 it exists only for those who can understand the words or at least the conceptions4 ,from this it follows that literature for the young must have its expression in the vernacular4 ,the instances are rare indeed in which any one below the age of fifteen or sixteen 7perhaps ,i might put the limit a year or two higher7 understands any but the mother tongue4 ,in the mother tongue indeed some forms of literature exercise a great influence over young minds4 ,ballad literature seems especially to belong to youth1 the youth of nations and of individuals4 ,aristotle educated ,alexander with ,homer2 and we can easily imagine the effect which the ,iliad must have had on the young ,greeks4 ,although in the days of ,plato instruction was not confined to literature1 he gives this account of part of the training in the ,athenian schools3 8,placing the pupils on benches1 the instructors make them read and learn by heart the poems of good poets in which are many moral lessons1 many tales and eulogies and lays of the brave men of old2 that the boys may imitate them with emulation and strive to become such themselves40 ,here we see a very important function attributed to literature in the bringing up of the young2 but the literature so used must obviously be in the language of the learners4 ,the influence of a literary work may1 however1 extend itself far beyond the limits of its own language4 ,when our minds can receive and take pleasure in the conceptions of a great writer1 he may speak to us by an interpreter4 ,at the ,renascence there were books in the world which might have affected the minds of the young--,plutarch1 ,herodotus1 and above all ,homer4 ,but1 as ,i have already said1 it was not the conceptions1 but the literary form of the ancients1 which seemed to the ,renascence scholars of such inestimable value1 so they refused to give the conceptions in any but the original words4 8,studying the ancients in translations10 says ,melancthon1 8is merely looking at the shadow40 ,he could not have made a greater mistake4 ,as far as the young are concerned the truth is exactly the reverse4 ,the translation would give the substance3 the original can give nothing but the shadow4 ,let us take the experience of ,mr4 ,kinglake1 the author of 8,eothen40 ,this distinguished ,eton man1 fired by his remembrances of ,homer1 visited the ,troad4 ,he had1 as he tells us1 8clasped the ,iliad line by line to his brain with reverence as well as love40 ,well done1 ,eton6 we are tempted to exclaim when we read this passage3 here at least is proof that some literature was taught in those days of the dominion of the classics4 ,but stop6 ,it seems that this clasping did not take place at ,eton1 but in happy days before ,eton1 when ,kinglake knew no ,greek and read translations4 8,heroic days are these10 he writes1 8but the ,dark ,ages of schoolboy life come closing over them4 ,i suppose it's all right in the end3 yet1 by ,jove6 at first sight it does seem a sad intellectual fall4444 ,the dismal change is ordained and thin meagre ,latin 7the same for everybody7 with small shreds and patches of ,greek1 is thrown like a pauper's pall over all your early lore2 instead of sweet knowledge1 vile monkish doggrel1 grammars and graduses1 dictionaries and lexicons1 horrible odds and ends of dead languages are given you for your portion1 and down you fall from ,roman story to a three-inch scrap of #8,scriptores ,romani'--from ,greek poetry down1 down1 to the cold rations of #8,poet ,grci1' cut up by commentators and served out by schoolmasters60 78,eothen10 the ,troad47 ,we see from this how the ,renascence ideal had the extraordinary effect of banishing literature from the school-room4 ,literature has indeed not ceased to influence the young2 it still counts for much more in their lives than in the lives of their seniors2 but we all know who are the writers who affected our own minds in childhood and youth1 and who affect the minds of our pupils now--not ,eutropius or ,xenophon1 or ,csar or ,cicero1 but ,defoe and ,swift and ,marryatt and ,walter ,scott4 ,the ancient writings which were literature to ,melancthon and ,erasmus1 as they are still to many in our universities and elsewhere1 can never be literature to the young4 ,most of the classical authors read in the schoolroom could not be made literature to young people even by means of translations1 for they were men who wrote for men and women only4 ,we see that it would be absurd to make an ordinary boy of twelve or fourteen study ,burke or ,pope4 ,and if we do not make him read ,burke1 whose language he understands1 why do we make him read ,cicero whose language he does not understand8 ,if he cannot appreciate ,pope1 why do we teach him ,horace8 ,the ,renascence gives us the explanation of this singular anomaly4 ,the scholars of that age were so delighted with the 8composite harmony0 of the ancient classics that the study of these classics seemed to them the one thing worth living for4 ,the main1 if not the only object they kept in view in bringing up the young was to gain for them admission to the treasure house2 and though young people could not understand the ancient writings as literature1 they might at least study them as language and thus be ready to enjoy them as literature in after-life4 ,thus the subject of instruction in the schoolroom came to be1 not the classics but1 the classical languages4 ,the classics were used as school books1 but the only meaning thought of was the meaning of the detached word or at best of the detached sentence4 ,you ask a child learning to read if he understands what he is reading about1 and he says1 8,i can't think of the meaning because ,i am thinking of the words40 ,the same thing happened in the schoolboy's study of the classics1 and so it has come to pass that to this day the great writers of antiquity discharge a humble function which they certainly never contemplated4 8,great ,csar's body dead and turned to clay ,may stop a hole to keep the wind away40 ,and great ,csar's mind has been turned to uses almost as paltry4 ,he has in fact written for the schoolroom not a commentary on the ,wars of ,gaul--nothing of the kind--but simply a book of exercises in ,latin construing2 and an excellent book it would be if he had only graduated the difficulties better4 #af4 ,,iv4 ,there is yet another weakness about the ,renascence ideal--a weakness from which most ideals are free4 ,most ideals have this merit at least1 that he who makes even a feeble and abortive attempt to reach them is benefited in proportion to his advance1 however small that advance may be4 ,if he fails to seize the coat of gold1 he carries away1 as the proverb tells us1 at least one of the sleeves2 or1 to use ,george ,herbert's metaphor-- 8 444 ,who aimeth at the sky1 ,shoots higher far than he who means a tree40 ,but the learned ideal has not even this advantage4 ,the first stage1 the study of the ancient languages1 is so totally different from the study of the ancient literatures to which it is the preliminary1 that the student who never goes beyond this first stage either gets no benefit at all1 or a benefit which is not of the kind intended4 ,suppose ,i am within a walk1 though a long one1 of the ,british ,museum1 and hearing of some valuable books in the library1 which ,i can see nowhere else1 ,i set off to consult them4 ,in this case it makes no difference to me how valuable the books are if ,i do not get as far as the ,museum4#f ,my friends may comfort me with the assurance that the walk must have done me good4 ,perhaps so2 but ,i left home to get a knowledge of certain books1 not to exercise my legs4 ,had exercise been my object ,i should probably have chosen another direction4 ,now schoolmasters1 since the ,renascence1 have been in the habit of leading all their pupils through the back slums of the ,seven ,dials and ,soho in the direction of the ,british ,museum1 with the avowed purpose of taking them to the library1 although they knew full well that not one pupil in ten1 not one in fifty1 would ever reach the door4 ,to produce a few scholars able to appreciate the classics of ,greece and ,rome they have sacrificed everybody else2 and according to their own showing they have condemned a large portion of the upper classes1 nearly all the middle classes1 and quite all the poorer classes to remain 8uneducated40 ,and1 according to the theory of the schoolroom1 one-half of the human race--the women--have not been supposed to need education4 ,for them 8accomplishments0 have been held sufficient4 #ag4 ,v4 ,in conclusion ,i must point out one effect of the ,renascence ideal which seems to me no less mischievous than those ,i have already mentioned4 ,this ideal led the schoolmasters to attach little importance to the education of children4 ,directly their pupils were old enough for ,latin ,grammar the schoolmasters were quite at home2 but till then the children's time seemed to them of small value1 and they neither knew nor cared to know how to employ it4 ,if the little ones could learn by heart forms of words which would afterwards 8come in useful10 the schoolmasters were ready to assist such learning by unsparing application of the rod1 but no other learning seemed worthy even of a caning4 ,absorbed in the world of books they overlooked the world of nature4 ,galileo complains that he could not induce them to look through his telescope1 for they held that truth could be arrived at only by comparison of ,,mss4 ,no wonder then that they had so little sympathy with children1 and did not know how to teach them4 ,it is by slow degrees that we are breaking away from the bad tradition then established1 are getting to understand children1 and with such leaders as ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel1 are investigating the best education for them4 ,we no longer think of them as immature men and women1 but see that each stage has its own completeness1 and that there is a perfection in childhood which must precede the perfection of manhood just as truly as the flower goes before the fruit4 8,childhood10 says ,rousseau1 8has its own ways of seeing1 feeling1 thinking20 and it is by studying these that we find out how children should be educated4 ,our connexion with the world of nature seems much closer in our early years than ever afterwards4 ,the child's mind seems drawn out to its surroundings4 ,he is intensely interested in the new world in which he finds himself1 and whilst so many of us grown people need a flapper1 like the sages of ,laputa1 to call our attention from our own thoughts to anything that meets the eye or ear1 the child sees and hears everything1 and everything seen or heard becomes associated in his mind not so much with thought as with feeling4 ,hence it is that we most of us look back wistfully to our early days1 and confess sorrowfully that though years may have brought 8the philosophic mind10 8 444 ,nothing can bring back the hour ,of splendour in the grass1 of glory in the flower40 ,the material world then seems to supply just those objects1 whether birds1 beasts1 or flowers1 by which the child is attracted1 and on which his faculties will therefore be most naturally and healthily employed4 ,but the ,renascence schoolmasters had little notion of this4 ,if you think that the greatest scholar is the greatest man1 you will1 as a matter of course1 place at the other end of the scale those who are not scholars at all4 ,an ,english inspector1 who seems to have thought children had been created with due regard to the ,revised ,code of the ,privy ,council1 spoke of the infants who could not be classed by their performances in 8the three ,r's0 as 8the fag end of the school20 and no doubt the ,renascence schoolmasters considered the children the fag end of humanity4 ,the great scholars were indeed far above the race of pedants2 but the schoolmasters who adopted their ideal were not4 ,and what is a pedant8 8,a man who has got rid of his brains to make room for his learning40#g ,the pedantic schoolmasters of the ,renascence wished the mind of the pupil to be cleared of everything else1 that it might have room for the languages of ,greece and ,rome4 ,but what if the mind failed to take in its destined freight8 ,in that case the schoolmasters had nothing else for it1 and were content that it should go empty4 ,,ii4 ,,renascence ,,tendencies4 #a4 ,in considering and comparing the two great epochs of intellectual activity and change in modern times1 viz41 the sixteenth century and the nineteenth1 we cannot but be struck with one fundamental difference between them4 #b4 ,it will affect all our thoughts1 as ,sir ,henry ,maine has said1 whether we place the ,golden ,age in the ,past or in the ,future4 ,in the nineteenth century the 8good time0 is supposed to be 8coming10 but in the sixteenth century all thinkers looked backwards4 ,the great ,italian scholars gazed with admiration and envy on the works of ancient ,greece and ,rome1 and longed to restore the old languages1 and as much as possible the old world1 so that such works might be produced again4 ,many were suspected1 not altogether perhaps without reason1 of wishing to uproot ,christianity itself1#h that they might bring back the ,golden ,age of ,pericles4 #c4 ,at the same time another movement was going on1 principally in ,germany4 ,here too1 men were endeavouring to throw off the immediate past in order to revive the remote past4 ,the religious reformers1 like the scholars1 wished to restore a golden age1 only a different age1 not the age of the ,antigone1 but the age of the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,thus it happened that the scholars and the reformers joined in attaching the very highest importance to the ancient languages4 ,through these languages1 and1 as they thought1 through them alone1 was it possible to get a glimpse into the bygone world in which their soul delighted4 #d4 ,but though all joined in extolling the ancient writings1 we find at the ,renascence great differences in the way of regarding these writings and in the objects for which they were employed4 ,a consideration of these differences will help us to understand the course of education when the ,renascence was a force no longer4 #e4 ,very powerful in education were the great scholars1 of whom ,erasmus was perhaps the greatest1 certainly the most celebrated4 ,in devoting their lives to the study of the ancients their object was not merely to appreciate literary style1 though this was a source of boundless delight to them1 but also to understand the classical writings and the ancient world through them4 ,these men1 whom we may call par excellence the ,scholars1 cared indeed before all things for literature2 but with all their delight in the form they never lost sight of the substance4 ,they knew the truth that ,milton afterwards expressed in these memorable words3 8,though a linguist should pride himself to have all the tongues that ,babel cleft the world into1 yet if he have not studied the solid things in them as well as the words and lexicons1 he were nothing so much to be esteemed a learned man as any yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his mother dialect only40 7,tractate to ,hartlib1 #d74 ,so ,erasmus and the scholars would have all the educated understand the classical authors4 ,but to understand words you must know the things to which the words refer4 ,thus the ,scholars were led to advocate a partial study of things a kind of realism4 ,but we must carefully observe a peculiarity of this scholastic realism which distinguished it from the realism of a later date--the realism of ,bacon4 ,the study of things was undertaken not for its own sake1 but simply in order to understand books4 ,perhaps some of us are conscious that this kind of literary realism has not wholly passed away4 ,we may have observed wild flowers1 or the changes in tree or cloud1 because we find that the best way to understand some favourite author1 as ,wordsworth or ,tennyson4 ,this will help us to understand the realism of the sixteenth century4 ,the writings of great authors have been compared to the plaster globes 78celestial globes0 as we call them71 which assist us in understanding the configuration of the stars 7,guesses at ,truth1 j4 #dg74 ,adopting this simile we may say that the ,scholars loved to study the globe for its own sake1 and when they looked at stars they did so with the object of understanding the globe4 ,thus we read of doctors who recommended their pupils to look at actual cases of disease as the best commentary on the works of ,hippocrates and ,galen4 ,this kind of realism was good as far as it went1 but it did not go far4 ,of course the end in view limited the study1 and the ,scholars took no interest in things except those which were mentioned in the classics4 ,they had no desire to investigate the material universe and make discoveries for themselves4 ,this is why ,galileo could not induce them to look through his telescope2 for the ancients had no telescopes1 and the ,scholars wished to see nothing that had not been seen by their favourite authors4 ,first then we have the ,scholars1 headed by ,erasmus4 #f4 ,next we find a party less numerous and for a time less influential1 who did care about things for the sake of the things themselves2 but carried away by the literary current of their age1 they sought to learn about them not directly1 but only by reading4 ,here again we have a kind of realism which is not yet extinct4 ,some years ago ,i was assured by a ,graduate of the ,university of ,london who had passed in chemistry1 that1 as far as he knew1 he had never seen a chemical in his life3 he had got all his knowledge from books4 ,while such a thing is possible among us1 we need not wonder if those who in the sixteenth century prized the knowledge of things1 allowed books to come between the learner and the object of his study1 if they regarded ,nature as a far-off country of which we could know nothing but what great authors reported to us4 ,as this party1 unlike the ,scholars1 did not delight in literature as such1 but simply as a means of acquiring knowledge1 literary form was not valued by them1 and they preferred ,euclid to ,sophocles1 ,columella to ,virgil4 ,seeking to learn about things1 not immediately1 but through words1 they have received from ,raumer a name they are likely to keep--,verbal ,realists4 ,in the sixteenth century the greatest of the ,verbal ,realists also gave a hint of ,realism proper2 for he was no less a man than ,rabelais4 #g4 ,lastly we come to those who1 as it turned out1 were to have more influence in the schoolroom than the ,scholars and the ,verbal ,realists combined4 ,i do not know that these have had any name given them1 but for distinction sake we may call them ,stylists4 ,in studying literature the ,scholars cared both for form and substance1 the ,verbal ,realists for substance only1 and the ,stylists for form only4 ,the ,stylists gave up their lives1 not1 like the scholars1 to gain a thorough understanding of the ancient writings and of the old world1 but to an attempted reproduction of the ancient languages and of the classical literary form4 #h4 ,in marking these tendencies at the ,renascence1 we must remember that though distinguished by their tendencies1 these ,scholars1 ,verbal ,realists1 and ,stylists1 were not divided into clearly defined parties4 ,categories like these no doubt assist us in gaining precision of thought1 but we must not gain precision at the expense of accuracy4 ,the tendencies we have been considering did not act in precisely opposite directions1 and all were to some extent affected by them4 ,but one tendency was predominant in one man and another in another2 and this justifies us in calling ,sturm a ,stylist1 ,erasmus a ,scholar1 and ,rabelais a ,verbal ,realist4 #i4 ,in one respect they were all agreed4 ,the world was to be regenerated by means of books4 ,nothing pleased them more than to think of their age as the ,revival of ,learning4 ,,iii4 ,,sturmius4 #aejg-aehi4 #a4 ,the curriculum bequeathed by the ,renascence and stereotyped in the ,school ,codes of ,germany1 in the ,ratio of the ,jesuits1 and in the ,english public school system1 was greatly influenced by the most famous schoolmaster of the fifteen hundreds1 ,john ,sturm1 who was for over forty years ,rector of the ,strassburg ,gymnasium4 #b4 ,sturm was a fine specimen of the successful man3 he knew what his contemporaries wanted1 and that was just what he wanted4 8,he was a blessed fellow10 as ,prince ,hal says of ,poins1 8to think as every man thought10 and he not only 8kept the roadway0 himself1 but he also 8personally conducted0 great bands of pupils over it1 at one time 8#bjj noblemen1 #bd counts and barons1 and #c princes40 ,what could schoolmaster desire more8 #c4 ,but ,i frankly own that ,sturm is no favourite of mine1 and that ,i think that he did much harm to education4 ,however1 his influence in the schoolroom was so great that ,i must not leave him unnoticed2 and ,i give some information1 taken mainly from ,raumer's account of him1 which is translated in ,henry ,barnard's 8,german ,teachers and ,educators40 ,i have also looked at the exhaustive article by ,dr4 ,bossier in ,k4 ,a4 ,schmid's ,encyklopdie 7sub v47 #d4 ,john ,sturm1 born at ,schleiden in the ,eifel1 not far from ,cologne1 in #aejg1 was one of #ae children1 and would not have had much teaching had not his father been steward to a nobleman1 with whose sons he was brought up4 ,he always spoke with reverence and affection of his early teachers1 and from them no doubt he acquired his thirst for learning4 ,with the nobleman's sons and under the guidance of a tutor he was sent to ,lige1 and there he attended a school of the 8,brethren of the ,life in ,common10 alias ,hieronymites4 ,many of the arrangements of this school he afterwards reproduced in the ,strassburg ,gymnasium1 and in this way the good ,brethren gained an influence over classical education throughout the world4 #e4 ,between the age of #ae and #bj ,sturm was at ,lyons1 and before the end of this period he was forced into teaching for a maintenance4 ,he then1 like many other learned men of the time1 turned printer4 ,we next find him at the ,university of ,paris1 where he thought of becoming a doctor of medicine1 but was finally carried away from natural science by the ,renascence devotion to literature1 and he became a popular lecturer on the classics4 ,from ,paris he was called to ,strassburg 7then1 as now1 in ,germany7 in #aecg4 ,in #aech he published his plan of a ,gymnasium or ,grammar ,school1 with the title1 8,the right way of opening schools of literature 7,de ,literarum ,ludis recte aperiendis710 and some years afterwards 7#aefe7 he published his ,letters 7,classic ,epistol7 to the different form-masters in his school4 #f4 ,the object of teaching is three-fold1 says ,sturm1 8piety1 knowledge1 and the art of expression40 ,the student should be distinguished by reasonable and neat speech 7ratione et oratione74 ,to attain this the boys in his school had to give seven years to the acquirement of a pure ,latin style2 then two years more were devoted to elegance2 then five years of collegiate life were to be given to the art of ,latin speech4 ,this course is for ten years carefully mapped out by ,sturm in his ,letters to the masters4 ,the foundation is to be laid in the tenth class1 which the child enters at seven years old1 and in which he learns to read1 and is turned on to the declensions and conjugations4 ,we have for all classes the exact 8pensum10 and also specimens of the questions put in examination by the top boy of the next class above1 a hint which was not thrown away upon the ,jesuits4 #g4 ,sturm cries over the superior advantages of the ,roman children4 8,cicero was but twenty when he delivered his speeches in behalf of ,quintius and ,roscius2 but in these days where is there the man even of eighty1 who could make such speeches8 ,yet there are books enough and intellect enough4 ,what need we further8 ,we need the ,latin language and a correct method of teaching4 ,both these we must have before we can arrive at the summit of eloquence40 #h4 ,sturm did not1 like ,rabelais1 put ,greek on a level with ,latin or above it4 ,the reading of ,greek words is begun in the sixth class4 ,hebrew1 ,sturm did not himself learn till he was nearly sixty4 #i4 ,with a thousand boys in his school1 and carrying on correspondence with the leading sovereigns of his age1 ,sturm was a model of the successful man4 ,but in the end 8the religious difficulty0 was too much even for him1 and he was dismissed from his post by his opponents 8for old age and other causes40 ,surely the 8other causes0 need not have been mentioned4 ,sturm was then eighty years old4 #aj4 ,the successful man in every age is the man who chooses a popular and attainable object1 and shows tremendous energy in pursuit of it4 ,most people don't know precisely what they want2 and among the few who do1 nine-tenths or more fail through lack of energy4 ,but ,sturm was quite clear in his aim1 and having settled the means1 he showed immense energy and strength of will in going through with them4 ,he wanted to restore the language of ,cicero and ,ovid and to give his pupils great power of elegant expression in that language4 ,like all schoolmasters he professed that piety and knowledge 7which in more modern phrase would be wisdom and knowledge7 should come first1 but like most schoolmasters he troubled himself mainly1 if not exclusively1 about the art of expression4 ,as an abstract proposition the schoolmaster admits that to have in your head something worth saying is more important than to have the power of expression ready in case anything worth saying should 8come along40 ,but the schoolmaster's art always has taken1 and ,i suppose1 in the main1 always will take for its material the means of expression2 and by preference it chooses a tongue not vulgar or 8understanded of the people40 ,thus the schoolmasters with ,sturm at their head set themselves to teach words--foreign words1 and allowed their pupils to study nothing else1 not even the mother tongue4 ,the satirist who wrote ,hudibras has stated for us the result-- 8,no sooner are the organs of the brain ,quick to receive and stedfast to retain ,best knowledges1 but all's laid out upon ,retrieving of the curse of ,babylon4 444 ,and he that is but able to express ,no sense in several languages ,will pass for learneder than he that's known ,to speak the strongest reason in his own40#i #aa4 ,one of the scholars of the ,renascence1 ,hieronymus ,wolf1 was wise enough to see that there might be no small merit in a boy's silence3 8,nec minima pueri virtus est tacere cum recte loqui nesciat0 7,quoted by ,parker74 ,but this virtue of silence was not encouraged by ,sturm1 and he determined that by the age of sixteen his pupils should have a fair command of expression in ,latin and some knowledge of ,greek4#aj ,latin indeed was to supplant the mother tongue1 and boys were to be severely punished for using their own language4 ,by this we may judge of the pernicious effects of following ,sturm4 ,and it is a mistake to suppose that the unwisdom of tilting at the vernacular was not so much ,sturm's1 as of the age in which he lived4 ,the typical ,english schoolmaster of the century1 ,mulcaster1 was in this and many other ways greatly in advance of ,sturm4 ,to him it was plain that we should 8care for that most which we ever use most1 because we need it most40#aa ,the only need recognized by ,sturm was need of the classical languages4 ,thus he and his admirers led the unlucky schoolboy straight into that 8slough of ,despond0--verbalism1 in which he has struggled ever since2 8,plunged for some sense1 but found no bottom there1 ,so learned and floundered on in mere despair40#ab ,,iv4 ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits4 #a4 ,since the ,revival of ,learning1 no body of men has played so prominent a part in education as the ,jesuits4 ,with characteristic sagacity and energy they soon seized on education as a stepping-stone to power and influence2 and with their talent for organization1 they framed a system of schools which drove all important competitors from the field1 and made ,jesuits the instructors of ,catholic1 and even1 to some extent1 of ,protestant ,europe4 ,their skill in this capacity is attested by the highest authorities1 by ,bacon#ac and by ,descartes1 the latter of whom had himself been their pupil2 and it naturally met with its reward3 for more than one hundred years nearly all the foremost men throughout ,christendom1 both among the clergy and laity1 had received the ,jesuit training1 and in most cases retained for life an attachment to their old masters4 #b4 ,about these ,jesuit schools--once so celebrated and so powerful1 and still existing in great numbers1 though little remains of their original importance--there does not seem to be much information accessible to the ,english reader4 ,i have1 therefore1 collected the following particulars about them2 and refer any one who is dissatisfied with so meagre an account1 to the works which ,i have consulted4#ad ,the ,jesuit schools1 as ,i said1 still exist1 but they did their great work in other centuries2 and ,i therefore prefer to speak of them as things of the past4#ae #c4 ,when the ,jesuits were first formally recognized by a ,bull of ,paul ,,iii in #aedj1 the ,bull stated that the ,order was formed1 among other things1 8especially for the purpose of instructing boys and ignorant persons in the ,christian religion40 ,but the ,society well understood that secular was more in demand than religious learning2 and they offered the more valued instruction1 that they might have the opportunity of inculcating lessons which1 to the ,society at least1 were the more valuable4 ,from various ,popes they obtained powers for founding schools and colleges1 for giving degrees1 and for lecturing publicly at universities4 ,their foundations rapidly extended in the ,romance countries1 except in ,france1 where they were long in overcoming the opposition of the ,regular clergy and of the ,university of ,paris4 ,over the ,teutonic and ,slavonic countries they spread their influence first by means of national colleges at ,rome1 where boys of the different nations were trained as missionaries4 ,but1 in time1 the ,jesuits pushed their camps forward1 even into the heart of the enemy's country4 #d4 ,the system of education to be adopted in all the ,jesuit institutions was settled during the ,generalship of ,aquaviva4 ,in #aehd that ,general appointed a ,school ,commission1 consisting of six distinguished ,jesuits from the various countries of ,europe4 ,these spent nearly a year in ,rome1 in study and consultation2 and the fruit of their labours was the ground-work of the ,ratio atque ,institutio ,studiorum ,societatis ,jesu4 ,this1 however1 did not take its final form till twelve other commissioners had been at work upon it4 ,it was then 7#aeii7 revised and approved by ,aquaviva and the ,fifth and ,sixth ,general ,assemblies4 ,by this code the ,jesuit schools were governed till #ahcb1 when the curriculum was enlarged so as to include physical science and modern languages4 #e4 ,the ,jesuits who formed the ,societas ,professa1 i4e41 those who had taken all the vows1 had spent from fifteen to eighteen years in preparation1 viz41 two years as novices and one as approved scholars1 during which they were engaged chiefly in religious exercises1 three years in the study of philosophy and mathematics1 four years of theology1 and1 in the case of the more distinguished students1 two years more in repetition and private theological study4 ,at some point in this course1 mostly after the philosophy1 the students were sent1 for a while1 to teach the 8lower studies0 to boys4#af ,the method of teaching was to be learnt in the training schools1 called ,juvenats1#ag one of which was founded in each province4 ,few1 even of the most distinguished students1 received dispensation from giving elementary instruction4 ,salmeron and ,bobadilla performed this duty in ,naples1 ,lainez in ,florence1 ,borgia 7who had been ,viceroy of ,catalonia7 in ,cordova1 ,canisius in ,cologne4 #f4 ,during the time the ,jesuit held his post as teacher he was to give himself up entirely to the work4 ,his private studies were abandoned2 his religious exercises shortened4 ,he began generally with the boys in the lowest form1 and that he might be able to study the character of his pupils he went up the school with them1 advancing a step every year1 as in the system now common in ,scotland4 ,but some forms were always taught1 as the highest is in ,scotland1 by the same master1 who remained a teacher for life4 #g4 ,great care was to be taken that the frequent changes in the staff of masters did not lead to alteration in the conduct of the school4 ,each teacher was bound to carry on the established instruction by the established methods4 ,all his personal peculiarities and opinions were to be as much as possible suppressed4 ,to secure this a rigid system of supervision was adopted1 and reports were furnished by each officer to his immediate superior4 ,over all stood the ,general of the ,order4 ,next came the ,provincial1 appointed by the ,general4 ,over each college was the ,rector1 who was appointed 7for three years7 by the ,general1 though he was responsible to the ,provincial1 and made his reports to him4 ,next came the ,prefect of ,studies1 appointed1 not by the ,rector1 but by the ,provincial4 ,the teachers were carefully watched both by the ,rector and the ,prefect of ,studies1 and it was the duty of the latter to visit each teacher in his class at least once a fortnight1 to hear him teach4 ,the other authorities1 besides the masters of classes1 were usually a ,house ,prefect1 and ,monitors selected from the boys1 one in each form4 #h4 ,the school or college was to be built and maintained by gifts and bequests which the ,society might receive for this purpose only4 ,their instruction was always given gratuitously4 ,when sufficient funds were raised to support the officers1 teachers1 and at least twelve scholars1 no effort was to be made to increase them2 but if they fell short of this1 donations were to be sought by begging from house to house4 ,want of money1 however1 was not a difficulty which the ,jesuits often experienced4 #i4 ,the ,jesuit education included two courses of study1 studia superiora et inferiora4 ,in the smaller colleges only the studia inferiora were carried on2 and it is to these lower schools that the following account mainly refers4 ,the boys usually began this course at ten years old and ended it at sixteen4#ah #aj4 ,the pupils in the ,jesuit colleges were of two kinds3 #ast1 those who were training for the ,order1 and had passed the ,novitiate2 #bnd1 the externs1 who were pupils merely4 ,when the building was not filled by the first of these 7the ,scholastici1 or ,nostri1 as they are called in the ,jesuit writings71 other pupils were taken in to board1 who had to pay simply the cost of their living1 and not even this unless they could well afford it4 ,instruction1 as ,i said1 was gratuitous to all4 8,gratis receive1 gratis give10 was the ,society's rule2 so they would neither make any charge for instruction1 nor accept any gift that was burdened with conditions4 #aa4 ,faithful to the tradition of the ,catholic ,church1 the ,society did not estimate a man's worth simply according to his birth and outward circumstances4 ,the ,constitutions expressly laid down that poverty and mean extraction were never to be any hindrance to a pupil's admission2 and ,sacchini says3 8,do not let any favouring of the higher classes interfere with the care of meaner pupils1 since the birth of all is equal in ,adam1 and the inheritance in ,christ40#ai #ab4 ,the externs who could not be received into the building were boarded in licensed houses1 which were always liable to an unexpected visit from the ,prefect of ,studies4 #ac4 ,the 8lower school0 was arranged in five classes 7since increased to eight71 of which the lowest usually had two divisions4 ,parallel classes were formed wherever the number of pupils was too great for five masters4 ,the names given to the several divisions were as follows3 #a4 ,infima #b4 ,media ,classis ,grammatic4 #c4 ,suprema #d4 ,humanitas4 #e4 ,rhetorica4 ,each was 8absolved0 in a year1 except ,rhetorica1 which required two years 7,stckl1 p4 #bcg74 ,jesuits and ,protestants alike in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries thought of little but literary instruction1 and that too connected only with ,latin and ,greek4 ,the subject-matter of the teaching in the ,jesuit schools was to be 8prter ,grammaticam1 quod ad ,rhetoricam1 ,posim et ,historiam pertinet10 in addition to ,grammar1 whatever related to ,rhetoric1 ,poetry1 and ,history4 ,reading and writing the mother-tongue might not be taught without special leave from the ,provincial4 ,latin was as much as possible to supersede all other languages1 even in speaking2 and nothing else might be used by the pupils in the higher forms on any day but a holiday4#bj ,to gain a supply of ,latin words for ordinary use1 the pupils committed to memory ,latin conversations on general topics1 such as ,francis ,pomey's 8,indiculus ,universalis0 and 8,colloquia ,scholastica40 #ad4 ,although many good school-books were written by the ,jesuits1 a great part of their teaching was given orally4 ,the master was1 in fact1 a lecturer1 who expounded sometimes a piece of a ,latin or ,greek author1 sometimes the rules of grammar4 ,the pupils were required to get up the substance of these lectures1 and to learn the grammar-rules and parts of the classical authors by heart4 ,the master for his part had to bestow great pains on the preparation of his lectures4#ba #ae4 ,written exercises1 translations1 c41 were given in on every day1 except ,saturday2 and the master had1 if possible1 to go over each one with its writer and his appointed rival or mulus4 #af4 ,the method of hearing the rules1 c41 committed to memory was this3--,certain boys in each class1 who were called ,decurions1 repeated their tasks to the master1 and then in his presence heard the other boys repeat theirs4 ,the master meanwhile corrected the written exercises4#bb #ag4 ,one of the leading peculiarities in the ,jesuits' system was the pains they took to foster emulation--8cotem ingenii puerilis1 calcar industri--the whetstone of talent1 the spur of industry40 ,for this purpose all the boys in the lower part of the school were arranged in pairs1 each pair being rivals 7muli7 to one another4 ,every boy was to be constantly on the watch to catch his rival tripping1 and was immediately to correct him4 ,besides this individual rivalry1 every class was divided into two hostile camps1 called ,rome and ,carthage1 which had frequent pitched battles of questions on set subjects4 ,these were the 8,concertations10 in which the boys sometimes had to put questions to the opposite camp1 sometimes to expose erroneous answers when the questions were asked by the master#bc 7see ,appendix3 ,class ,matches1 p4 #ebi74 ,emulation1 indeed1 was encouraged to a point where1 as it seems to me1 it must have endangered the good feeling of the boys among themselves4 ,jouvency mentions a practice of appointing mock defenders of any particularly bad exercise1 who should make the author of it ridiculous by their excuses2 and any boy whose work was very discreditable1 was placed on a form by himself1 with a daily punishment1 until he could show that some one deserved to change places with him4 #ah4 ,in the higher classes a better kind of rivalry was cultivated by means of 8,academies10 i4e41 voluntary associations for study1 which met together1 under the superintendence of a master1 to read themes1 translations1 c41 and to discuss passages from the classics4 ,the new members were elected by the old1 and to be thus elected was a much-coveted distinction4 ,in these ,academies the cleverer students got practice for the disputations1 which formed an important part of the school work of the higher classes4 #ai4 ,there was a vast number of other expedients by which the ,jesuits sought to work on their pupils' amour propre1 such as1 on the one hand1 the weekly publication of offences per prconem1 and1 on the other1 besides prizes 7which could be won only by the externs71 titles and badges of honour1 and the like4 8,there are10 says ,jouvency1 8hundreds of expedients of this sort1 all tending to sharpen the boys' wits1 to lighten the labour of the master1 and to free him from the invidious and troublesome necessity of punishing40 #bj4 ,the school-hours were remarkably short3 two hours and a half in the morning1 and the same in the afternoon2 with a whole holiday a week in summer1 and a half holiday in winter4 ,the time was spent in the first form after the following manner3--,during the first half-hour the master corrected the exercises of the previous day1 while the ,decurions heard the lesson which had been learnt by heart4 ,then the master heard the piece of ,latin which he had explained on the previous day4 ,with this construing1 was connected a great deal of parsing1 conjugating1 declining1 c4 ,the teacher then explained the piece for the following day1 which1 in this form1 was never to exceed four lines4 ,the last half-hour of the morning was spent in explaining grammar4 ,this was done very slowly and carefully3 in the words of the ,ratio ,studd43 8,pluribus diebus fere singula prcepta inculcanda sunt0--8,generally take a single rule and drive it in1 several days40 ,for the first hour of the afternoon the master corrected exercises1 and the boys learnt grammar4 ,if there was time1 the master put questions about the grammar he had explained in the morning4 ,the second hour was taken up with more explanations of grammar1 and the school closed with half an hour's concertation1 or the master corrected the notes which the pupils had taken during the day4 ,in the other forms1 the work was very similar to this1 except that ,greek was added1 and also in the higher classes a little mathematics4 #ba4 ,it will be observed from the above account1 that almost all the strength of the ,jesuit teaching was thrown into the study of the ,latin language1 which was to be used1 not only for reading1 but also in writing and speaking4 ,but under the name of 8erudition0 some amount of instruction in other subjects1 especially in history and geography1 was given in explaining1 or rather lecturing on1 the classical authors4 ,jouvency says that this lecture must consist of the following parts3--#ast1 the general meaning of the whole passage2 #bnd1 the explanation of each clause1 both as to the meaning and construction2 #crd1 any information1 such as accounts of historical events1 or of ancient manners and customs1 which could be connected with the text2 #dth1 in the higher forms1 applications of the rules of rhetoric and poetry2 #eth1 an examination of the ,latinity2 #fth1 the inculcation of some moral lesson4 ,this treatment of a subject he illustrates by examples4 ,among these is an account of a lesson for the first 7i4e41 lowest7 class in the ,fable of the ,fox and the ,mask3--#ast1 comes the argument and the explanation of words2 #bnd1 the grammar and parsing1 as vulpes1 a substantive of the third declension1 c41 like proles1 clades1 c4 7here the master is always to give among his examples some which the boys already know72 #crd1 comes the eruditio--something about foxes1 about tragedy1 about the brain1 and hence about other parts of the head2 #dth1 ,latinity1 the order of the words1 choice of the words1 synonyms1 c4 ,then the sentences may be parodied2 other suitable substantives may be found for the adjectives and vice vers2 and every method is to be adopted of showing the boys how to use the words they have learnt4 ,lastly1 comes the moral4 #bb4 ,the practical teacher will be tempted to ask1 ,how is the attention of the class to be kept up whilst all this information is given8 ,this the ,jesuits did partly by punishing the inattentive4 ,every boy was subsequently required to reproduce what the teacher had said1 and to show his written notes of it4 ,but no doubt this matter of attention was found a difficulty4 ,jouvency tells the teachers to break off from time to time in their lectures1 and to ask questions2 and he adds3 8,vari sunt artes excitand attentionis quas docebit usus et sua cuique industria suggeret4--,very various are the devices for arousing attention4 ,these will occur with practice and pains40 ,for private study1 besides written exercises and learning by heart1 the pupils were recommended subjects to get up in their own time2 and in this1 and also as to the length of some of the regular lessons1 they were permitted to decide for themselves4 ,here1 as everywhere1 the ,jesuits trusted to the sense of honour and emulation--those who did extra work were praised and rewarded4 #bc4 ,one of the maxims of this system was3 8,repetitio mater studiorum40 ,every lesson was connected with two repetitions--one before it began1 of preceding work1 and the other at the close1 of the work just done4 ,besides this1 one day a week was devoted entirely to repetition4 ,in the three lowest classes the desire of laying a solid foundation even led to the second six months in the year being given to again going over the work of the first six months4#bd ,by this means boys of extraordinary ability could pass through these forms in eighteen months1 instead of three years4 #bc4 ,thoroughness in work was the one thing insisted on4 ,sacchini says that much time should be spent in going over the more important things1 which are 8veluti multorum fontes et capita 7as it were the sources and starting points of many others702 and that the master should prefer to teach a few things perfectly1 to giving indistinct impressions of many things4#be ,we should remember1 however1 that the pupils of the ,jesuits were not children4 ,subjects such as grammar cannot1 by any expenditure of time and trouble1 be perfectly taught to children1 because children cannot perfectly understand them2 so that the ,jesuit thoroughness is not always attainable4 #bd4 ,the usual duration of the course in the lower schools was six years--i4e41 one year in each of the four lower classes1 and two years in the highest class4 ,every year closed with a very formal examination4 ,before this examination took place1 the pupils had lessons in the manner of it1 so that they might come prepared1 not only with a knowledge of the subjects1 but also of the laws of writing for examination 78scribendi ad examen leges074 ,the examination was conducted by a commission appointed for the purpose1 of which commission the ,prefect of ,studies was an ex officio member4 ,the masters of the classes1 though they were present1 and could make remarks1 were not of the examining body4 ,for the viv voce the boys were ushered in1 three at a time1 before the solemn conclave4 ,the results of the examination1 both written and verbal1 were joined with the records of the work done in the past year2 and the names of those pupils who had distinguished themselves were then published in order of merit1 but the poll was arranged alphabetically1 or according to birthplace4 #be4 ,as might be expected1 the ,jesuits were to be very careful of the moral and religious training of their pupils4 8,quam maxime in vit probitate ac bonis artibus doctrinaque proficiant ad ,dei gloriam40 7,ratio ,studd41 quoted by ,schmid47 ,and ,sacchini tells the master to remember how honourable his office is2 as it has to do1 not with grammar only1 but also with the science and practice of a ,christian and religious life3 8atque eo quidem ordine ut ipsa ingenii eruditio sit expolitio morum1 et humana literatura divin ancilletur sapienti40#bf ,each lesson was to begin with prayer or the sign of the ,cross4 ,the pupils were to hear ,mass every morning1 and were to be urged to frequent confession and receiving of the ,holy ,communion4 ,the ,father ,confessor was always a ,jesuit1 but he was not a master in the school4 #bf4 ,the bodily health also was to be carefully attended to4 ,the pupils were not to study too much or too long at a time4 ,nothing was to be done for a space of from one or two hours after dinner4 ,on holidays excursions were made to farms in the country4#bg #bg4 ,punishments were to be as light as possible1 and the master was to shut his eyes to offences whenever he thought he might do so with safety4 ,grave offences were to be visited with corporal punishment1 performed by a 8corrector10 who was not a member of the ,order4 ,where this chastisement did not have a good effect1 the pupil was to be expelled4#bh #bh4 ,the dry details into which ,i have been drawn by faithfully copying the manner of the ,ratio ,studiorum may seem to the reader to afford no answer to the question which naturally suggests itself--,to what did the school-system of the ,jesuits owe its enormous popularity8 ,but in part1 at least1 these details do afford an answer4 ,they show us that the ,jesuits were intensely practical4 ,the ,ratio ,studiorum hardly contains a single principle2 but what it does is this--it points out a perfectly attainable goal1 and carefully defines the road by which that goal is to be approached4 ,for each class was prescribed not only the work to be done1 but also the end to be kept in view4 ,thus method reigned throughout--perhaps not the best method1 as the object to be attained was assuredly not the highest object--but the method1 such as it was1 was applied with undeviating exactness4 ,in this particular the ,jesuit schools contrasted strongly with their rivals of old1 as indeed with the ordinary school of the present day4 ,the ,head ,master1 who is to the modern ,english school what the ,general1 ,provincial1 ,rector1 ,prefect of ,studies1 and ,ratio ,studiorum combined were to a school of the ,jesuits1 has perhaps no standard in view up to which the boy should have been brought when his school course is completed4#bi ,the masters of forms teach just those portion of their subject in which they themselves are interested1 in any way that occurs to them1 with by no means uniform success2 so that when two forms are examined with the same examination paper1 it is no very uncommon occurrence for the lower to be found superior to the higher4 ,it is1 perhaps1 to be expected that a course in which uniform method tends to a definite goal would on the whole be more successful than one in which a boy has to accustom himself by turns to half-a-dozen different methods1 invented at haphazard by individual masters with different aims in view1 if indeed they have any aim at all4 #bi4 ,i have said that the object which the ,jesuits proposed in their teaching was not the highest object4 ,they did not aim at developing all the faculties of their pupils1 but mainly the receptive and reproductive faculties4 ,when the young man had acquired a thorough mastery of the ,latin language for all purposes1 when he was well versed in the theological and philosophical opinions of his preceptors1 when he was skilful in dispute1 and could make a brilliant display from the resources of a well-stored memory1 he had reached the highest point to which the ,jesuits sought to lead him4#cj ,originality and independence of mind1 love of truth for its own sake1 the power of reflecting1 and of forming correct judgments were not merely neglected--they were suppressed in the ,jesuits' system4 ,but in what they attempted they were eminently successful1 and their success went a long way towards securing their popularity4#ca #cj4 ,their popularity was due1 moreover1 to the means employed1 as well as to the result attained4 ,the ,jesuit teachers were to lead1 not drive their pupils1 to make their learning1 not merely endurable1 but even acceptable1 8disciplinam non modo tolerabilem1 sed etiam amabilem40 ,sacchini expresses himself very forcibly on this subject4 8,it is10 says he1 8the unvarying decision of wise men1 whether in ancient or modern times1 that the instruction of youth will be always best when it is pleasantest3 whence this application of the word ludus4 ,the tenderness of youth requires of us that we should not overstrain it1 its innocence that we should abstain from harshness4444 ,that which enters into willing ears the mind as it were runs to welcome1 seizes with avidity1 carefully stows away1 and faithfully preserves40#cb ,the pupils were therefore to be encouraged in every way to take kindly to their learning4 ,with this end in view 7and no doubt other objects also71 the masters were carefully to seek the boys' affections4 8,when pupils love the master10 says ,sacchini1 8they will soon love his teaching4 ,let him1 therefore1 show an interest in everything that concerns them and not merely in their studies4 ,let him rejoice with those that rejoice1 and not disdain to weep with those that weep4 ,after the example of the ,apostle let him become a little one amongst little ones1 that he may make them adult in ,christ1 and ,christ adult in them 444 ,let him unite the grave kindness and authority of a father with a mother's tenderness40#cc #ca4 ,in order that learning might be pleasant to the pupils1 it was necessary that they should not be overtasked4 ,to avoid this1 the master had to study the character and capacity of each boy in his class1 and to keep a book with all particulars about him1 and marks from one to six indicating proficiency4 ,thus the master formed an estimate of what should be required1 and the amount varied considerably with the pupil1 though the quality of the work was always to be good4 #cb4 ,not only was the work not to be excessive1 it was never to be of great difficulty4 ,even the grammar was to be made as easy and attractive as possible4 8,i think it a mistake0 says ,sacchini1 8to introduce at an early stage the more thorny difficulties of grammar3 444 for when the pupils have become familiar with the earlier parts1 use will1 by degrees1 make the more difficult clear to them4 ,his mind expanding and his judgment ripening as he grows older the pupil will often see for himself that which he could hardly be made to see by others4 ,moreover1 in reading an author1 examples of grammatical difficulties will be more easily observed in connection with the context1 and will make more impression on the mind1 than if they are taught in an abstract form by themselves4 ,let them then1 be carefully explained whenever they occur40#cd #cc4 ,perhaps no body of men in ,europe 7the ,thugs may1 in this respect1 rival them in ,asia7 have been so hated as the ,jesuits4 ,i once heard ,frederick ,denison ,maurice say he thought ,kingsley could find good in every one except the ,jesuits1 and1 he added1 he thought he could find good even in them4 ,but why should a devoted ,christian find a difficulty in seeing good in the ,jesuits1 a body of men whose devotion to their idea of ,christian duty has never been surpassed8#ce ,the difficulty arose from differences in ideal4 ,both held that the ideal ,christian would do everything 8to the greater glory of ,god10 or as the ,jesuits put it in their business-like fashion1 8,a4,m4,d4,g410 7i4e41 ad majorem ,dei gloriam74 ,but ,maurice and ,kingsley thought of a divine idea for every man4 ,the ,jesuits' idea lost sight of the individual4 ,like their enemy1 ,carlyle1 the ,jesuits in effect worshipped strength1 but ,carlyle thought of the strength of the individual1 the ,jesuits of the strength of 8the ,catholic ,church40 8,the ,catholic ,church0 was to them the manifested kingdom of ,god4 ,everything therefore that gave power to the ,church tended 8,a4,m4,d4,g40 ,the ,company of ,jesus was the regular army of the ,church1 so1 arguing logically from their premises1 they made the glory of ,god and the success of the ,society convertible terms4 #cd4 ,thus their conception was a purely military conception4 ,a commander-in-chief1 if he were an ardent patriot and a great general1 would do all he could to make the army powerful4 ,he would care much for the health1 morals1 and training of the soldiers1 but always with direct reference to the army4 ,he would attend to everything that made a man a better soldier2 beyond this he would not concern himself4 ,in his eyes the army would be everything1 and a soldier nothing but a part of it1 just as a link is only a part of a chain4 ,paulsen1 speaking of the ,jesuits1 says truly that no great organization can exist without a root idea4 ,the root idea of the army is the sacrifice and annihilation of the individual1 that the body may be fused together and so gain a strength greater than that of any number of individuals4 ,formed on this idea the army acts all together and in obedience to a single will1 and no mob can stand its charge4 ,ignatius ,loyola and succeeding ,generals took up this idea and formed an army for the ,church1 an army that became the wonder and the terror of all men4 ,never1 as ,compayr says1 had a body been so sagaciously organized1 or had wielded so great resources for good and for evil4#cf 7,see ,buisson1 ij1 #adai47 #ce4 ,to the ,english schoolmaster the ,jesuits must always be interesting1 if for no other reason at least for this--that they were so intensely practical4 8,les ,jsuites ne sont pas des pdagogues assez desintresss pour nous plaire4--,the ,jesuits as schoolmasters10 says ,m4 ,compayr1 8are not disinterested enough for us40 7,buisson1 sub v4 ,jsuites1 ad f474 ,but disinterested pedagogy is not much to the mind of the ,englishman4 ,it does not seem to know quite what it would be after1 and deals in generalities1 such as 8,education is not a means but an end20 and the end being somewhat indefinite1 the means are still more wanting in precision4 ,this vagueness is what the ,english master hates4 ,he prefers not to trouble himself about the end4 ,the wisdom of his ancestors has settled that1 and he can direct his attention to what really interests him--the practical details4 ,in this he resembles the ,jesuits4 ,the end has been settled for them by their founder4 ,they revel in practical details1 in which they are truly great1 and here we may learn much from them4 8,ratio applied to studies0 says ,father ,eyre1#cg 8more naturally means ,method than ,principle2 and our ,ratio ,studiorum is essentially a ,method or ,system of teaching and learning40 ,here is a method that has been worked uniformly and with singular success for three centuries1 and can still give a good account of its old rivals4 ,but will it hold its own against the late ,reformers8 ,as regards intellectual training the new school seeks to draw out the faculties of the young mind by employing them on subjects in which it is interested4 ,the ,jesuits fixed a course of study which1 as they frankly recognized1 could not be made interesting4 ,so they endeavoured to secure accuracy by constant repetition1 and relied for industry on two motive powers3 #ast1 the personal influence of the master2 and1 #bnd1 8the spur of industry0--emulation4 #cf4 ,to acquire 8influence0 has ever been the main object of the ,society1 and his devotion to this object makes a great distinction between the ,jesuit and most other instructors4 ,his notion of the task was thus expressed by ,father ,gerard1 ,s4 ,j41 at the ,educational ,conference of #ahhd3 8,teaching is an art amongst arts4 ,to be worthy of the name it must be the work of an individual upon individuals4 ,the true teacher must understand1 appreciate1 and sympathize with those who are committed to him4 ,he must be daily discovering what there is 7and undoubtedly there is something in each of them7 capable of fruitful development1 and contriving how better to get at them and to evoke whatever possibilities there are in them for good40 ,the ,jesuit master1 then1 tried to gain influence over the boys and to use that influence for many purposes2 to make them work well being one of these1 but not perhaps the most important4 #cg4 ,as for emulation1 no instructors have used it so elaborately as the ,jesuits4 ,in most ,english schools the prizes have no effect whatever except on the first three or four boys1 and the marking is so arranged that those who take the lead in the first few lessons can keep their position without much effort4 ,this clumsy system would not suit the ,jesuits4 ,they often for prize-giving divide a class into a number of small groups1 the boys in each group being approximately equal1 and a prize is offered for each group4 ,the class matches1 too1 stimulate the weaker pupils even more than the strong4 #ch4 ,in conclusion1 ,i will give the chief points of the system in the words of one of its advocates and admirers1 who was himself educated at ,stonyhurst3 8,let us now try to put together the various pieces of this school machinery and study the effect4 ,we have seen that the boys have masters entirely at their disposition1 not only at class time1 but at recreation time after supper in the night ,reading ,rooms4 ,each day they record victory or defeat in the recurring exercises or themes upon various matters4 ,by the quarterly papers or examinations in composition1 for which nine hours are assigned1 the order of merit is fixed1 and this order entails many little privileges and precedencies1 in chapel1 refectory1 class room1 and elsewhere4 ,each master1 if he prove a success and his health permit1 continues to be the instructor of the boys in his class during the space of six years4 #8,it is obvious' says ,sheil1 in his account of ,stonyhurst1 #8that much of a boy's acquirements1 and a good deal of the character of his taste1 must have depended upon the individual to whose instructions he was thus almost exclusively confined4' ,and in many cases the effects must be a greater interest felt in the students by their teachers1 a mutual attachment founded on long acquaintance1 and a more thorough knowledge1 on the part of the master1 of the weak and strong points of his pupils4 ,add to the above1 the #8rival' and #8side' system1 the effect of challenges and class combats2 of the wearing of decorations and medals by the ,imperators on ,sundays1 ,festival ,days1 ,concertation ,days1 and ,examination ,days2 of the extraordinary work--done much more as private than as class work--helping to give individuality to the boy's exertions1 which might otherwise be merged in the routine work of the class2 and the #8free time' given for improvement on wet evenings and after night prayers2 add the ,honours ,matter2 the ,reports read before the ,rector and all subordinate ,superiors1 the ,professors1 and whole body of ,students2 add the competition in each class and between the various classes1 and even between the various colleges in ,england of the ,society2 and only one conclusion can be arrived at4 ,it is a system which everyone is free to admire or think inferior to some other preferred by him2 but it is a system40 7,stonyhurst ,college1 ,present and ,past1 by ,a4 ,hewitson1 #bnd edition1 #ahgh1 pp4 #bad1 ff47 #ci4 ,yes1 it is a system1 a system built up by the united efforts of many astute intellects and showing marvellous skill in selecting means to attain a clearly conceived end4 ,there is then in the history of education little that should be more interesting or might be more instructive to the master of an ,english public school than the chapter about the ,jesuits4#ch ,v4 ,,rabelais4 7#adhc-aeec47 #a4 ,to great geniuses it is given to think themselves in a measure free from the ordinary notions of their time and often to anticipate the discoveries of a future age4 ,in all literature there is perhaps hardly a more striking instance of this 8detached0 thinking than we find in ,rabelais' account of the education of ,gargantua4 #b4 ,we see in ,rabelais an enthusiasm for learning and a tendency to verbal realism2 that is1 he turned to the old writers for instruction about things4 ,so far he was a child of the ,renascence4 ,but in other respects he advanced far beyond it4 #c4 ,after a scornful account of the ordinary school books and methods by which ,gargantua 8though he studied hard1 did nevertheless profit nothing1 but only grew thereby foolish1 simple1 dolted1 and blockish10 ,rabelais decides that 8it were better for him to learn nothing at all than to be taught suchlike books under suchlike schoolmasters40 ,all this old lumber must be swept away1 and in two years a youth may acquire a better judgment1 a better manner1 and more command of language than could ever have been obtained by the old method4 ,we are then introduced to the model pupil4 ,the end of education has been declared to be sapiens et eloquens pietas2 and we find that though ,rabelais might have substituted knowledge for piety1 he did care for piety1 and valued very highly both wisdom and eloquence4 ,the eloquent ,roman was the ideal of the ,renascence1 and ,rabelais' model pupil expresses himself 8with gestures so proper1 pronunciation so distinct1 a voice so eloquent1 language so well turned and in such good ,latin that he seemed rather a ,gracchus1 a ,cicero1 an milius of the time past than a youth of the present age40 #d4 ,so a ,renascence tutor is appointed for ,gargantua and administers to him a potion that makes him forget all he has ever learned4 ,he then puts him through a very different course4 ,like all wise instructors he first endeavours to secure the will of the pupil4 ,he allows ,gargantua to go the accustomed road till he can convince him it is the wrong one4 ,this seems to me a remarkable proof of wisdom4 ,how often does the 8new master0 break abruptly with the past1 and raise the opposition of the pupil by dispraise of all he has already done6 ,by degrees ,ponocrates1 the model tutor1 inspired in his pupil a great desire for improvement4 ,this he did by bringing him into the society of learned men1 who filled him with ambition to be like them4 ,thereupon ,gargantua 8put himself into such a train of study that he lost not any hour in the day1 but employed all his time in learning and honest knowledge40 ,the day was to begin at #d a4m41 with reading of 8some chapter of the ,holy ,scripture1 and oftentimes he gave himself to revere1 adore1 pray1 and send up his supplications to that good ,god1 whose word did show ,his majesty and marvellous judgments40 ,this is the only hint we get in this part of the book on the subject of religious or moral education3 the training is directed to the intellect and the body4 #e4 ,the remarkable feature in ,rabelais' curriculum is this1 that it is concerned mainly with things4 ,of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts of the ,middle ,ages1 the first three were purely formal3 grammar1 logic1 rhetoric2 while the following course3 arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 and music1 were not4 ,the effect of the ,renascence was to cause increasing neglect of the ,quadrivium1 but ,rabelais cares for the ,quadrivium only2 ,gargantua studies arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 and music1 and the ,trivium is not mentioned4 ,great use is made of books and ,gargantua learned them by heart2 but all that he learned he at once 8applied to practical cases concerning the estate of man40 ,it was the substance of the reading1 not the form1 that was thought of4 ,at dinner 8if they thought good they continued reading or began to discourse merrily together2 speaking first of the virtue1 propriety1 efficacy1 and nature of all that was served in at that table2 of bread1 of wine1 of water1 of salt1 of flesh1 fish1 fruits1 herbs1 roots1 and of their dressing4 ,by means whereof he learned in a little time all the passages that on these subjects are to be found in ,pliny1 ,athenus1 c4 ,whilst they talked of these things1 many times to be more certain they caused the very books to be brought to the table2 and so well and perfectly did he in his memory retain the things above said1 that in that time there was not a physician that knew half so much as he did40 ,again1 out of doors he was to observe trees and plants1 and 8compare them with what is written of them in the books of the ancients1 such as ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 c40 ,here again1 actual realism was to be joined with verbal realism1 for ,gargantua was to carry home with him great handfuls for herborising4 ,rabelais even recommends studying the face of the heavens at night1 and then observing the change that has taken place at #d in the morning4 ,so he seems to have been the first writer on education 7and the first by a long interval71 who would teach about things by observing the things themselves4 ,it was this ,anschauungs-prinzip--use of sense-impressions--that ,pestalozzi extended and claimed as his invention two centuries and a half later4 ,rabelais also gives a hint of the use of hand-work as well as head-work4 ,gargantua and his fellows 8did recreate themselves in bottling hay1 in cleaving and sawing wood1 and in threshing sheaves of corn in the barn4 ,they also studied the art of painting or carving40 ,the course was further connected with life by visits to the various handicraftsmen1 in whose workshops 8they did learn and consider the industry and invention of the trader40 ,thus1 even in the time of the ,renascence1 ,rabelais saw that the life of the intellect might be nourished by many things besides books4 ,but books were still kept in the highest place4 ,even on a holiday1 which occurred on some fine and clear day once a month1 8though spent without books or lecture1 yet was the day not without profit2 for in the meadows they repeated certain pleasant verses of ,virgil's ,agriculture1 of ,hesiod1 of ,politian's ,husbandry40 ,they also turned ,latin epigrams into ,french rondeaux4 ,this course of study1 8although at first it seemed difficult1 yet soon became so sweet1 so easy1 and so delightful1 that it seemed rather the recreation of a king than the study of a scholar40 ,in preferring the ,quadrivial studies to the ,trivial1 and still more in his use of actual things1 ,rabelais separates himself from all the teachers of his time4 #f4 ,very remarkable too is the attention he pays to physical education4 ,a day does not pass on which ,gargantua does not gallantly exercise his body as he has already exercised his mind4 ,the exercises prescribed are very various1 and include running1 jumping1 swimming1 with practice on the horizontal bar and with dumb-bells1 c4 ,but in one respect ,rabelais seems behind our own writer1 ,richard ,mulcaster4 ,mulcaster trained the body simply with a view to health4 ,rabelais is thinking of the gentleman1 and all his physical exercises are to prepare him for the gentleman's occupation1 war4 ,the constant preparation for war had a strong and in some respects a very beneficial influence on the education of gentlemen in the fifteen and sixteen hundreds1 as it has had on that of the ,germans in the eighteen hundreds4 ,but to be ready to slaughter one's fellow creatures is not an ideal aim in education2 and besides this1 one half of the human race can never 7as far as we can judge at present7 be affected by it4 ,we therefore prefer the physical training recommended by the ,englishman4 ,mr4 ,walter ,besant by his ,readings in ,rabelais 7,blackwood1 #ahhc71 has put ,rabelais' wit and wisdom where we can get at most of it without searching in the dung-hill4 ,but he has unfortunately omitted ,gargantua's letter to ,pantagruel at ,paris 7book ij1 chap4 #h71 where we get the curriculum as proposed by ,rabelais1 a chapter in which no scavenger is needed4 ,i will give some extracts from it3-- 8,although my deceased father of happy memory1 ,grangousier1 had bent his best endeavours to make me profit in all perfection and political knowledge1 and that my labour and study was fully correspondent to1 yea1 went beyond his desire2 nevertheless1 the time then was not so proper and fit for learning as it is at present1 neither had ,i plenty of such good masters as thou hast had2 for that time was darksome1 obscured with clouds of ignorance and savouring a little of the infelicity and calamity of the ,goths1 who had1 wherever they set footing1 destroyed all good literature1 which in my age hath by the ,divine ,goodness been restored unto its former light and dignity1 and that with such amendment and increase of knowledge that now hardly should ,i be admitted unto the first form of the little grammar school boys 7des petits grimaulx73 ,i say1 ,i1 who in my youthful days was 7and that justly7 reputed the most learned of that age4 ,now it is that the old knowledges 7disciplines7 are restored1 the languages revived4 ,greek 7without which it is a shame for any one to call himself learned71 ,hebrew1 ,chaldee1 ,latin4 ,printing 7,des impressions7 too1 so elegant and exact1 is in use1 which in my day was invented by divine inspiration1 as cannon were by suggestion of the devil4 ,all the world is full of men of knowledge1 of very learned teachers1 of large libraries2 so that it seems to me that neither in the age of ,plato1 nor of ,cicero1 nor of ,papinian was there such convenience for studying as there is now4 ,i see the robbers1 hangmen1 adventurers1 ostlers of to-day more learned then the doctors and the preachers of my youth4 ,why1 women and girls have aspired to the heavenly manna of good learning 444 ,i mean you to learn the languages perfectly first of all1 the ,greek as ,quintilian wishes1 then the ,latin1 then ,hebrew for the ,scriptures1 and ,chaldee and ,arabic at the same time2 and that thou form thy style in ,greek on ,plato1 in ,latin on ,cicero4 ,let there be no history which thou hast not ready in thy memory1 in which cosmography will aid thee4 ,of the ,liberal ,arts1 geometry1 arithmetic1 music1 ,i have given thee a taste when thou wast still a child1 at the age of five or six ,pantagruel was a giant1 we must remember2 carry them on2 and know'st thou all the rules of astronomy8 ,don't touch astrology for divination and the art of ,lullius1 which are mere vanity4 ,in the civil law thou must know the five texts by heart4 8 444 ,as for knowledge of the works of ,nature1 ,i would have thee devote thyself to them so that there may be no sea1 river1 or spring of which thou knowest not the fishes2 all the birds of the air1 all the trees1 forest or orchard1 all the herbs of the field1 all the metals hid in the bowels of the earth1 all the precious stones of the ,east and the ,south1 let nothing be unknown to thee4 8,then turn again with diligence to the books of the ,greek physicians1 and the ,arabs1 and the ,latin1 without despising the ,talmudists and the ,cabalists2 and by frequent dissections acquire a perfect knowledge of the other world1 which is ,man4 ,and some hours a-day begin to read the ,sacred ,writings1 first in ,greek the ,new ,testament and ,epistles of the ,apostles2 then in ,hebrew the ,old ,testament4 ,in brief1 let me see thee an abyss and bottomless pit of knowledge1 for from henceforth as thou growest great and becomest a man thou must part from this tranquillity and rest of study 444 ,and because1 as ,solomon saith1 wisdom entereth not into a malicious mind1 and science without conscience is but the ruin of the soul1 thou shouldst serve1 love1 and fear ,god1 and in ,him centre all thy thoughts1 all thy hope2 and by faith rooted in charity be joined to ,him1 so as never to be separated from ,him by sin40 ,the influence of ,rabelais on ,montaigne1 ,locke1 and ,rousseau has been well traced by ,dr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,arnstdt4 7,franois ,rabelais1 ,leipzig1 ,barth1 #ahgb47 ,,vi4 ,,montaigne4 7#aecc-aeib47 #a4 ,the learned ideal established by the ,renascence was accepted by ,rabelais1 though he made some suggestions about ,realien#ci that seem to us much in advance of it4 ,when he quotes the saying 8,magis magnos clericos non sunt magis magnos sapientes0 78the greatest clerks are not the greatest sages071 this singular piece of ,latinity is appropriately put into the mouth of a monk1 who represents everything the ,renascence scholars despised4 ,in ,montaigne we strike into a new vein of thought1 and we find that what the monk alleges in defence of his ignorance the cultured gentleman adopts as the expression of an important truth4 #b4 ,we ordinary people see truths indeed1 but we see them indistinctly1 and are not completely guided by them4 ,it is reserved for men of genius to see truths1 some truths that is1 often a very few1 with intense clearness4 ,some of these men have no great talent for speech or writing1 and they try to express the truths they see1 not so much by books as by action4 ,such men in education were ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel4 ,but sometimes the man of genius has a great power over language1 and then he finds for the truths he has seen1 fitting expression1 which becomes almost as lasting as the truths themselves4 ,such men were ,montaigne and ,rousseau4 ,if the historian of education is asked 8,what did ,montaigne do80 he will answer 8,nothing40 8,what did ,froebel say80 8,he said a great deal1 but very few people can read him and still fewer understand him40 ,both1 however1 are and must remain forces in education4 ,montaigne has given to some truths imperishable form in his ,essays1 and ,froebel's ideas come home to all the world in the ,kindergarten4 #c4 ,the ideal set up by the ,renascence attached the highest importance to learning4 ,montaigne maintained that the resulting training even at its best was not suited to a gentleman or man of action4 ,virtue1 wisdom1 and intellectual activity should be thought of before learning4 ,education should be first and foremost the development and exercise of faculties4 ,and even if the acquirement of knowledge is thought of1 ,montaigne maintains that the pedants do not understand the first conditions of knowledge and give a semblance not the true thing4--8,il ne faut pas attacher le savoir l'me1 il faut l'incorporer4--,knowledge cannot be fastened on to the mind2 it must become part and parcel of the mind itself40#dj ,here then we have two separate counts against the ,renascence education3 #ast4--,knowledge is not the main thing4 #bnd4--,true knowledge is something very different from knowing by heart4 #d4 ,it is a pity ,montaigne's utterances about education are to be found in ,english only in the complete translation of his essays4 ,seeing that a good many millions of people read ,english1 and are most of them concerned in education1 one may hope that some day the sayings of the shrewd old ,frenchman may be offered them in a convenient form4 #e4 ,here are some of them3 8,the evil comes of the foolish way in which our instructors set to work2 and on the plan on which we are taught no wonder if neither scholars nor masters become more able1 whatever they may do in becoming more learned4 ,in truth the trouble and expense of our fathers are directed only to furnish our heads with knowledge3 not a word of judgment or virtue4 ,cry out to our people about a passer-by1 #8,there's a learned man6' and about another #8,there's a good man6' they will be all agog after the learned man1 and will not look at the good man4 ,one might fairly raise a third cry3 #8,there's a set of numskulls6' ,we are ready enough to ask #8,does he know ,greek or know ,latin8 ,does he write verse or write prose8' ,but whether he has become wiser or better should be the first question1 and that is always the last4 ,we ought to find out1 not who knows most but who knows best40 7,i1 chap4 #bd1 ,du ,pdantisme1 page or two beyond ,odi homines47 #f4 ,the true educators1 according to ,montaigne1 were the ,spartans1 who despised literature1 and cared only for character and action4 ,at ,athens they thought about words1 at ,sparta about things4 ,at ,athens boys learnt to speak well1 at ,sparta to do well3 at ,athens to escape from sophistical arguments1 and to face all attempts to deceive them2 at ,sparta to escape from the allurements of pleasure1 and to face the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune1 even death itself4 ,in the one system there was constant exercise of the tongue1 in the other of the soul4 8,so it is not strange that when ,antipater demanded of the ,spartans fifty children as hostages they replied they would sooner give twice as many grown men1 such store did they set by their country's training40 7,du ,pdantisme1 ad f47 #g4 ,it is odd to find a man of the fifteen hundreds who quotes from the old authors at every turn1 and yet maintains that 8we lean so much on the arm of other people that we lose our own strength40 ,the thing a boy should learn is not what the old authors say1 but 8what he himself ought to do when he becomes a man40 ,wisdom1 not knowledge6 8,we may become learned from the learning of others2 wise we can never be except by our own wisdom40 7,bk4 j1 chap4 #bd74 #h4 ,so entirely was ,montaigne detached from the thought of the ,renascence that he scoffs at his own learning1 and declares that true learning has for its subject1 not the past or the future1 but the present4 8,we are truly learned from knowing the present1 not from knowing the past any more than the future40 ,and yet 8we toil only to stuff the memory and leave the conscience and the understanding void4 ,and like birds who fly abroad to forage for grain bring it home in their beak1 without tasting it themselves1 to feed their young1 so our pedants go picking knowledge here and there out of several authors1 and hold it at their tongue's end1 only to spit it out and distribute it amongst their pupils40 7,du ,pdantisme47 8,we are all richer than we think1 but they drill us in borrowing and begging1 and lead us to make more use of other people's goods than of our own40#da 7,bk4 iij1 chap4 #ab1 ,de la ,physionomie1 beg4 of #crd paragraph74 #i4 ,so far ,montaigne4 ,what do we schoolmasters say to all this8 ,if we would be quite candid ,i think we must allow that1 after reading ,montaigne's essay1 we put it down with the conviction that in the main he was right1 and that he had proved the error and absurdity of a vast deal that goes on in the schoolroom4 ,but from this first view we have had on reflection to make several drawbacks4 #aj4 ,montaigne1 like ,locke and ,rousseau1 who followed in his steps1 arranges for every boy to have a tutor entirely devoted to him4 ,we may question whether this method of bringing up children is desirable1 and we may assert1 without question1 that in most cases it is impossible4 ,it seems ordained that at every stage of life we should require the companionship of those of our own age4 ,if we take two beings as little alike as a man and a child and force them to be each other's companions1 so great is the difference in their thoughts and interests that they will fall into inevitable boredom and restraint4 ,so we see that this plan1 even in the few cases in which it would be possible1 would not be desirable2 and for the great majority of boys it would be out of the question4 ,we must then arrange for the young to be taught1 not as individuals1 but in classes1 and this greatly changes the conditions of the problem4 ,one of the first conditions is this1 that we have to employ each class regularly and uniformly for some hours every day4 ,schoolmasters know what their non-scholastic mentors forget3 we can make a class learn1 but1 broadly speaking1 we cannot make a class think1 still less can we make it judge4 ,as a great deal of occupation has to be provided1 we are therefore forced to make our pupils learn4 ,whatever may be the value of the learning in itself it is absolutely necessary as employment4 #aa4 ,no doubt it will make a vast difference whether we consider the learning mainly as employment1 as a means of taking up time and preventing 8sauntering10 as ,locke boldly calls it1 or whether we are chiefly anxious to secure some special results4 ,the knowledge of the ,latin and ,greek languages and the ,latin and ,greek authors was a result so highly prized by the ,renascence scholars that they insisted on a prodigious quantity of learning1 not as employment1 but simply as the means of acquiring this knowledge4 ,as the knowledge got to be less esteemed the pressure was by degrees relaxed4 ,in our public schools fifty or sixty years ago the learning was to some extent retained as employment1 but there certainly was no pressure1 and the majority of the boys never learnt the ancient languages4 ,so the masters of that time had given up the ,renascence enthusiasm for the classics1 and on the negative side of his teaching had come to an agreement with ,montaigne4 ,any one inclined to sarcasm might say that on the positive side they were still totally opposed to him1 for he thought virtue and judgment were the main things to be cared for1 and they did not care for these things at all4 ,but this is not a fair statement4 ,the one thing gained1 or supposed to be gained1 in the public schools was the art of living1 and this art1 though it does not demand heroic virtue1 requires at least prudence and self-control4 ,montaigne's system was a revolt against the bookishness of the ,renascence4 8,in our studies10 says he1 8whatever presents itself before us is book enough2 a roguish trick of a page1 a blunder of a servant1 a jest at table1 are so many new subjects40 ,so the education out of school was in his eyes of more value than the education in school4 ,and this was acknowledged also in our public schools3 8,it is not the ,latin and ,greek they learn or don't learn that we consider so important10 the masters used to say1 8but it is the tone of the school and the discipline of the games40 ,but of late years this virtual agreement with ,montaigne has been broken up4 ,school work is no longer mere employment1 but it is done under pressure1 and with penalties if the tale of brick turned out does not pass the inspector4 #ab4 ,what has produced this great change8 ,it is due mainly to two causes3 #a4 ,the pressure put on the young to attain classical knowledge was relaxed when it was thought that they could get through life very well without this knowledge4 ,but in these days new knowledge has awakened a new enthusiasm4 ,the knowledge of science promises such great advantages that the latest reformers1 headed by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 seem to make the well-being of the grown person depend mainly on the amount of scientific knowledge he stored up in his youth4 ,this is the first cause of educational pressure4 #ac4 #b4 ,the second and more urgent cause is the rapid development of our system of examinations4 ,everybody's educational status is now settled by the examiner1 a potentate whose influence has brought back in a very malignant form all the evils of which ,montaigne complains4 ,do what we will1 the faculty chiefly exercised in preparing for ordinary examinations is the 8carrying memory40 ,so the acquisition of knowledge--mere memory or examination knowledge--has again come to be regarded as the one thing needful in education1 and there is great danger of everything else being neglected for it4 ,of the fourfold results of education--virtue1 wisdom1 good manners1 learning--the last alone can be fairly tested in examinations2 and as the schoolmaster's very bread depends nowadays first on his getting through examinations himself and then on getting his pupils through1 he would be more than human1 if with ,locke he thought of learning 8last and least40 ,a great change has come over our public schools4 ,the amount of work required from the boys is far greater than it used to be and masters again measure their success by the amount of knowledge the average boy takes away with him4 ,it seems to me high time that another ,montaigne arose to protest that a man's intellectual life does not consist in the number of things he remembers1 and that his true life is not his intellectual life only1 but embraces his power of will and action and his love of what is noble and right4 8,wisdom cried of old1 ,i am the mother of fair ,love and ,fear and ,knowledge and holy ,hope0 7,ecclesiasticus74 ,in these days of science and examinations does there not seem some danger lest knowledge should prove the sole survivor8 ,may not ,knowledge1 like another ,cain1 raise its hand against its brethren 8fair ,love and ,fear and holy ,hope80 ,this is perhaps the great danger of our time1 a danger especially felt in education4 ,every school parades its scholarships at the public schools or at the universities1 or its passes in the ,oxford and ,cambridge ,locals1 or its percentage at the last ,inspection1 and asks to be judged by these4 ,and yet these are not the one thing or indeed the chief thing needful3 and it will be the ruin of true education if1 as ,mark ,pattison said1 the master's attention is concentrated on the least important part of his duty4#db ,,vii4 ,,ascham4 7#aeae-aefh47 #a4 ,masters and scholars who sigh over what seem to them the intricacies and obscurities of modern grammars may find some consolation in thinking that1 after all1 matters might have been worse1 and that our fate is enviable indeed compared with that of the students of ,latin #djj years ago4 ,did the reader ever open the ,doctrinale of ,alexander de ,villa ,dei1 which was the grammar in general use from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the fifteenth century8 7v4 ,appendix1 p4 #ecb74 ,if so1 he is aware how great a step towards simplicity was made by our grammatical reformers1 ,lily1 ,colet1 and ,erasmus4 ,indeed1 those whom we now regard as the forgers of our chains were1 in their own opinion and that of their contemporaries1 the champions of freedom 7,appendix1 p4 #ecc74 #b4 ,i have given elsewhere 7,appendix1 p4 #ecc7 a remarkable passage from ,colet1 in which he recommends the leaving of rules1 and the study of examples in good ,latin authors4 ,wolsey also1 in his directions to the masters of ,ipswich ,school 7dated #aebh71 proposes that the boys should be exercised in the eight parts of speech in the first form1 and should begin to speak ,latin and translate from ,english into ,latin in the second4 ,if the masters think fit1 they may also let the pupils read ,lily's ,carmen ,monitorium1 or ,cato's ,distichs4 ,from the third upwards a regular course of classical authors was to be read1 and ,lily's rules were to be introduced by degrees4 8,although ,i confess such things are necessary10 writes ,wolsey1 8yet1 as far as possible1 we could wish them so appointed as not to occupy the more valuable part of the day40 ,only in the sixth form1 the highest but two1 ,lily's syntax was to be begun4 ,in these schools the boys' time was wholly taken up with ,latin1 and the speaking of ,latin was enforced even in play hours1 so we see that anomalies in the accidence as taught in the ,as in prsenti were not given till the boys had been some time using the language2 and the syntax was kept till they had a good practical knowledge of the usages to which the rules referred4#dc #c4 ,but although there was a great stir in education throughout this century1 and several ,english books were published about it1 we come to #aegj before we find anything that has lived till now4 ,we then have ,roger ,ascham's ,scholemaster1 a posthumous work brought out by ,ascham's widow1 and republished in #aega and #aehi4 ,the book was then lost sight of1 but reappeared1 with ,james ,upton as editor1 in #agaa1dd and has been regarded as an educational classic ever since4 ,dr4 ,johnson says 8it contains perhaps the best advice that was ever given for the study of languages10 and ,professor ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,mayor1 who on this point is a higher authority than ,dr4 ,johnson1 declares that 8this book sets forth the only sound method of acquiring a dead language40 #d4 ,with all their contempt for theory1 ,english schoolmasters might have been expected to take an interest in one part of the history of education1 viz41 the history of methods4 ,there is a true saying attributed by ,marcel to ,talleyrand1 8,les ,mthodes sont les matres des matres--,method is the master's master40 ,the history of education shows us that every subject of instruction has been taught in various ways1 and further1 that the contest of methods has not uniformly ended in the survival of the fittest4 ,methods then might often teach the teachers1 if the teachers cared to be taught2 but till within the last half century or so an unintelligent traditional routine has sufficed for them4 ,there has no doubt been a great change since men now old were at school1 but in those days the main strength of the teaching was given to ,latin1 and the masters knew of no better method of starting boys in this language than making them learn by heart ,lily's1 or as it was then called1 the ,eton ,latin ,grammar4 ,if reason had had anything to do with teaching1 this book would have been demolished by ,richard ,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries published in #agjf2 but worthless as ,johnson proved it to be1 the ,grammar was for another #aej years treated by ,english schoolmasters as the only introduction to the ,latin tongue4 ,the books that have recently been published show a tendency to revert to methods set forth in ,elizabeth's reign in ,ascham's ,scholemaster 7#aegj7 and ,william ,kempe's ,education of ,children 7#aehh71 but the innovators have not as a rule been drawn to these methods by historical inquiry4 #e4 ,there seem to be only three ,english writers on education who have caught the ear of other nations1 and these are ,ascham1 ,locke1 and ,herbert ,spencer4 ,of a contemporary we do well to speak with the same reserve as of 8present company10 but of the other two we may say that the choice has been somewhat capricious4 ,locke's ,thoughts perhaps deserves the reputation and influence it has always had1 but in it he hardly does himself justice as a philosopher of the mind2 and much of the advice which has been considered his exclusively1 is to be found in his ,english predecessors whose very names are unknown except to the educational antiquarian4 ,ascham wrote a few pages on method which entitle him to mention in an account of methods of language-learning4 ,he also wrote a great many pages about things in general which would have shared the fate of many more valuable but long forgotten books had he not had one peculiarity in which the other writers were wanting1 that indescribable something which ,matthew ,arnold calls 8charm40 #f4 ,ascham has been very fortunate in his editors1 ,professor ,arber and ,professor ,mayor1 and the last editions#de give everyone an opportunity of reading the ,scholemaster4 ,i shall therefore speak of nothing but the method4 #g4 ,latin is to be taught as follows3--,first1 let the child learn the eight parts of speech1 and then the right joining together of substantives with adjectives1 the noun with the verb1 the relative with the antecedent4 ,after the concords are learned1 let the master take ,sturm's selection of ,cicero's ,epistles1 and read them after this manner3 8first1 let him teach the child1 cheerfully and plainly1 the cause and matter of the letter2 then1 let him construe it into ,english so oft as the child may easily carry away the understanding of it2 lastly1 parse it over perfectly4 ,this done1 then let the child by and by both construe and parse it over again2 so that it may appear that the child doubteth in nothing that his master has taught him before4 ,after this1 the child must take a paper book1 and1 sitting in some place where no man shall prompt him1 by himself let him translate into ,english his former lesson4 ,then showing it to his master1 let the master take from him his ,latin book1 and pausing an hour at the least1 then let the child translate his own ,english into ,latin again in another paper book4 ,when the child bringeth it turned into ,latin1 the master must compare it with ,tully's book1 and lay them both together1 and where the child doth well1 praise him10 where amiss point out why ,tully's use is better4 ,thus the child will easily acquire a knowledge of grammar1 8and also the ground of almost all the rules that are so busily taught by the master1 and so hardly learned by the scholar in all common schools4444 ,we do not contemn rules1 but we gladly teach rules2 and teach them more plainly1 sensibly1 and orderly1 than they be commonly taught in common schools4 ,for when the master shall compare ,tully's book with the scholar's translation1 let the master at the first lead and teach the scholar to join the rules of his grammar book with the examples of his present lesson1 until the scholar by himself be able to fetch out of his grammar every rule for every example2 and let the grammar book be ever in the scholars hand1 and also used by him as a dictionary for every present use4 ,this is a lively and perfect way of teaching of rules2 where the common way used in common schools to read the grammar alone by itself is tedious for the master1 hard for the scholar1 cold and uncomfortable for them both40 ,and elsewhere ,ascham says3 8,yea1 ,i do wish that all rules for young scholars were shorter than they be4 ,for1 without doubt1 grammatica itself is sooner and surer learned by examples of good authors than by the naked rules of grammarians40 #h4 8,as you perceive your scholar to go better on away1 first1 with understanding his lesson more quickly1 with parsing more readily1 with translating more speedily and perfectly than he was wont2 after1 give him longer lessons to translate1 and1 withal1 begin to teach him1 both in nouns and verbs1 what is proprium and what is translatum1 what synonymum1 what diversum1 which be contraria1 and which be most notable phrases1 in all his lectures1 as-- ,proprium ,rex sepultus est magnifice4 ,translatum ,cum illo principe1 sepulta est et gloria et salus reipublic4 ,synonyma ,ensis1 gladius3 laudare1 prdicare4 ,diversa ,diligere1 amare3 calere1 exardescere3 inimicus1 hostis4 ,contraria ,acerbum et luctuosum bellum1 dulcis et lta pax4 ,phrases ,dare verba1 adjicere obedientiam40 ,every lesson is to be thus carefully analysed1 and entered under these headings in a third ,,ms4 book4 #i4 ,here ,ascham leaves his method1 and returns to it only at the beginning of ,book ,,ii4 ,he there supposes the first stage to be finished and 8your scholar to have come indeed1 first to a ready perfectness in translating1 then to a ripe and skilful choice in marking out his six points40 ,he now recommends a course of ,cicero1 ,terence1 ,csar1 and ,livy which is to be read 8a good deal at every lecture40 ,and the master is to give passages 8put into plain natural ,english40 ,these the scholar shall 8not know where to find0 till he shall have tried his hand at putting them into ,latin2 then the master shall 8bring forth the place in ,tully40 #aj4 ,in the ,second ,book of the ,scholemaster1 ,ascham discusses the various branches of the study then common1 viz43 #a4 ,translatio linguarum2 #b4 ,paraphrasis2 #c4 ,metaphrasis2 #d4 ,epitome2 #e4 ,imitatio2 #f4 ,declamatio4 ,he does not lay much stress on any of these1 except translatio and imitatio4 ,of the last he says3 8,all languages1 both learned and mother-tongue1 be gotten1 and gotten only1 by imitation4 ,for1 as ye use to hear1 so ye use to speak2 if ye hear no other1 ye speak not yourself2 and whom ye only hear1 of them ye only learn40 ,but translation was his great instrument for all kinds of learning4 8,the translation10 he says1 8is the most common and most commendable of all other exercises for youth2 most common1 for all your constructions in grammar schools be nothing else but translations1 but because they be not double translations 7as ,i do require7 they bring forth but simple and single commodity3 and because also they lack the daily use of writing1 which is the only thing that breedeth deep root1 both in the wit for good understanding and in the memory for sure keeping of all that is learned2 most commendable also1 and that by the judgment of all authors which entreat of these exercises40 #aa4 ,after quoting ,pliny1#df he says3 8,you perceive how ,pliny teacheth that by this exercise of double translating is learned easily1 sensibly1 by little and little1 not only all the hard congruities of grammar1 the choice of ablest words1 the right pronouncing of words and sentences1 comeliness of figures1 and forms fit for every matter and proper for every tongue3 but1 that which is greater also1 in marking daily and following diligently thus the footsteps of the best authors1 like invention of arguments1 like order in disposition1 like utterance in elocution1 is easily gathered up2 and hereby your scholar shall be brought not only to like eloquence1 but also to all true understanding and rightful judgment1 both for writing and speaking40 ,again he says3 8,for speedy attaining1 ,i durst venture a good wager if a scholar in whom is aptness1 love1 diligence1 and constancy1 would but translate after this sort some little book in ,tully 7as ,de ,senectute1 with two ,epistles1 the first #8,ad ,quintum ,fratrem1' the other #8,ad ,lentulum'71 that scholar1 ,i say1 should come to a better knowledge in the ,latin tongue than the most part do that spend from five to six years in tossing all the rules of grammar in common schools40 ,after quoting the instance of ,dion ,prussus1 who came to great learning and utterance by reading and following only two books1 the ,phdo1 and ,demosthenes de ,falsa ,legatione1 he goes on3 8,and a better and nearer example herein may be our most noble ,queen ,elizabeth1 who never took yet ,greek nor ,latin grammar in her hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb2 but only by this double translating of ,demosthenes and ,isocrates daily1 without missing1 every forenoon1 and likewise some part of ,tully every afternoon1 for the space of a year or two1 hath attained to such a perfect understanding in both the tongues1 and to such a ready utterance of the ,latin1 and that with such a judgment1 as there be few now in both ,universities or elsewhere in ,england that be in both tongues comparable with ,her ,majesty40 ,ascham's authority is indeed not conclusive on this point1 as he1 in praising the ,queen's attainments1 was vaunting his own success as a teacher1 and1 moreover1 if he flattered her he could plead prevailing custom4 ,but we have1 ,i believe1 abundant evidence that ,elizabeth was an accomplished scholar4 #ab4 ,before ,i leave ,ascham ,i must make one more quotation1 to which ,i shall more than once have occasion to refer4 ,speaking of the plan of double translation1 he says3 8,ere the scholar have construed1 parsed1 twice translated over by good advisement1 marked out his six points by skilful judgment1 he shall have necessary occasion to read over every lecture a dozen times at the least2 which because he shall do always in order1 he shall do it always with pleasure4 ,and pleasure allureth love3 love hath lust to labour2 labour always obtaineth his purpose40 #ac4 ,a good deal has been said1 and perhaps something learnt1 about the teaching of ,latin since the days of ,ascham4 ,as far as ,i know the method which ,ascham denounced1 and which most ,english schoolmasters stuck to for more than two centuries longer1 has now been abandoned4 ,no one thinks of making the beginner learn by heart all the ,latin ,grammar before he is introduced to the ,latin language4 ,to understand the machinery of which an account is given in the grammar1 the learner must see it at work1 and must even endeavour in a small way to work it himself4 ,so it seems pretty well agreed that the information given in the grammar must be joined with some construing and some exercises from the very first4 ,but here the agreement ends4 ,our teachers1 consciously or in ignorance1 follow one or more of a number of methodizers who have examined the problem of language-learning1 such men as ,ascham1 ,ratke1 ,comenius1 ,jacotot1 ,hamilton1 ,robertson1 and ,prendergast4 ,these naturally divide themselves into two parties1 which ,i have ventured to call 8,rapid ,impressionists10 and 8,complete ,retainers40 ,the first of these plunge the beginner into the language1 and trust to the great mass of vague impressions clearing and defining themselves as he goes along4 ,the second insist on his learning at the first a very small portion of the language1 and mastering and retaining everything he learns4 ,it will be seen that in the first stage of the course ,ascham is a 8,complete ,retainer40 ,he does not talk1 like ,prendergast1 of 8mastery10 nor1 like ,jacotot1 does he require the learner to begin every lesson at the beginning of the book3 but he makes the pupil go over each lesson 8a dozen times at the least10 before he may advance beyond it4 ,as for his practice of double translation1 for the advanced pupil it is excellent1 but if it is required from the beginner1 it leads to unintelligent memorizing4 ,i think ,i shall be able to show later on that other methodizers have advanced beyond ,ascham4 7,infra1 #bdf n47 ,,viii4 ,,mulcaster4 7#aeca787-afaa47 #a4 ,the history of ,english thought on education has yet to be written4 ,in the literature of education the ,germans have been the pioneers1 and have consequently settled the routes2 and when a track has once been established few travellers will face the risk and trouble of leaving it4 ,so up to the present time1 writers on the history of ,european education after the ,renascence have occupied themselves chiefly with men who lived in ,germany1 or wrote in ,german4 ,but the ,french are at length exploring the country for themselves2 and in time1 no doubt1 the ,english-speaking races will show an interest in the thoughts and doings of their common ancestors4 ,we know what toils and dangers men will encounter in getting to the source of great rivers2 and although1 as ,mr4 ,widgery truly says1 8the study of origins is not everybody's business10#dg we yet may hope that students will be found ready to give time and trouble to an investigation of great interest and perhaps some utility--the origin of the school course which now affects the millions who have ,english for their mother-tongue4 #b4 ,in the fifteen hundreds there were published several works on education1 three of which1 ,elyot's ,governour1 ,ascham's ,scholemaster1 and ,mulcaster's ,positions1 have been recently reprinted4#dh ,others1 such as ,edward ,coote's ,english ,schoolmaster1 and ,mulcaster's ,elementarie1 are pretty sure to follow1 without serious loss1 let us hope1 to their editors1 though neither ,coote nor ,mulcaster are likely to become as well-known writers as ,roger ,ascham4 #c4 ,henry ,barnard1 whose knowledge of our educational literature no less than his labours in it1 makes him the greatest living authority1 says that ,mulcaster's ,positions is 8one of the earliest1 and still one of the best treatises in the ,english language40 7,english ,pedagogy1 #bnd series1 p4 #agg47 ,mulcaster was one of the most famous of ,english schoolmasters1 and by his writings he proved that he was far in advance of the schoolmasters of his own time1 and of the times which succeeded4 ,but he paid the penalty of thinking of himself more highly than he should have thought2 and whether or no the conjecture is right that ,shakespeare had him in his mind when writing ,love's ,labour's ,lost1 there is an affectation in ,mulcaster's style which is very irritating1 for it has caused even the master of ,edmund ,spenser to be forgotten4 ,in a curious and interesting allegory on the progress of language 7in the ,elementarie1 pp4 #ff1 ff471 ,mulcaster says that ,art selects the best age of a language to draw rules from1 such as the age of ,demosthenes in ,greece and of ,tully in ,rome2 and he goes on3 8,such a period in the ,english tongue ,i take to be in our days for both the pen and the speech40 ,and he suggests that the ,english language1 having reached its zenith1 is seen to advantage1 not in the writings of ,shakespeare or ,spenser1 but in those of ,richard ,mulcaster4 ,after enumerating the excellencies of the language1 he adds3 8,i need no example in any of these1 whereof my own penning is a general pattern40 ,here we feel tempted to exclaim with ,armado in ,love's ,labour's ,lost 7,act #e1 sc4 #b73 8,i protest the schoolmaster is exceeding fantastical3 too too vain1 too too vain40 ,he speaks elsewhere of his 8so careful1 ,i will not say so curious writing0 7,elementarie1 p4 #bec71 and says very truly3 8,even some of reasonable study can hardly understand the couching of my sentence1 and the depth of my conceit0 7ib41 #bce74 ,and this was the death-warrant of his literary renown4 #d4 ,but there is good reason why ,mulcaster should not be forgotten4 ,when we read his books we find that wisdom which we are importing in the nineteenth century was in a great measure offered us by an ,english schoolmaster in the sixteenth4 ,the latest advances in pedagogy have established 7#a7 that the end and aim of education is to develop the faculties of the mind and body2 7#b7 that all teaching processes should be carefully adapted to the mental constitution of the learner2 7#c7 that the first stage in learning is of immense importance and requires a very high degree of skill in the teacher2 7#d7 that the brain of children1 especially of clever children1 should not be subjected to 8pressure02 7#e7 that childhood should not be spent in learning foreign languages1 but that its language should be the mother-tongue1 and its exercises should include handwork1 especially drawing2 7#f7 that girls' education should be cared for no less than boys'2 7#g7 that the only hope of improving our schools lies in providing training for our teachers4 ,these are all regarded as planks in the platform of 8the new education10 and these were all advocated by ,mulcaster4 #e4 ,before ,i point this out in detail ,i may remark how greatly education has suffered from being confounded with learning4 ,there are interesting passages both in ,ascham and ,mulcaster which prove that the class-ideal of the 8scholar and gentleman0 was of later growth4 ,in the fifteen hundreds learning was thought suitable1 not for the rich1 but for the clever4 ,still1 learning1 and therefore education1 was not for the many1 but the few4 ,mulcaster considers at some length how the number of the educated is to be kept down 7,positions1 chapp4 #cf1 #cg1 #ci71 though even here he is in the van1 and would have everyone taught to read and write 7,positions1 chapp4 #e1 #cf74 ,but the true problem of education was not faced till it was discovered that every human being was to be considered in it4 ,this was1 ,i think1 first seen by ,comenius4 ,with this abatement we find ,mulcaster's sixteenth-century notions not much behind our nineteenth4 #f4 7#a #b7 8,why is it not good10 he asks1 8to have every part of the body and every power of the soul to be fined to his best80 7,,pp41 p4 #cddi74 ,elsewhere he says3 8,the end of education and train is to help ,nature to her perfection1 which is1 when all her abilities be perfected in their habit1 whereunto right elements be right great helps4 ,consideration and judgment must wisely mark whereunto ,nature is either evidently given or secretly affectionate and must frame an education consonant thereto40 7,el41 p4 #bh74 ,michelet has with justice claimed for ,montaigne that he drew the teacher's attention from the thing to be learnt to the learner3 8,non l'objet1 le savoir1 mais le sujet1 c'est l'homme40 7,nos ,fils1 p4 #agj47 ,mulcaster has a claim to share this honour with his great contemporary4 ,he really laid the foundation of a science of education4 ,discussing our natural abilities1 he says3 8,we have a perceiving by outward sense to feel1 to hear1 to see1 to smell1 to taste all sensible things2 which qualities of the outward1 being received in by the common sense and examined by fantsie1 are delivered to remembrance1 and afterward prove our great and only grounds unto further knowledge40#ej 7,el41 p4 #cb47 ,here we see ,mulcaster endeavouring to base education1 or as he so well calls it1 8train10 on what we receive from ,nature4 ,elsewhere he speaks of the three things which we 8find peering out of the little young souls10 viz3 8wit to take1 memory to keep1 and discretion to discern40 7,,pp41 p4 #bg47 #g4 7#c7 ,i have pointed out that the false ideal of the ,renascence led schoolmasters to neglect children4 ,mulcaster remarks that the ancients considered the training of children should date from the birth2 but he himself begins with the school age4 ,here he has the boldness to propose that those who teach the beginners should have the smallest number of pupils1 and should receive the highest pay4 8,the first groundwork would be laid by the best workman10 says ,mulcaster 7,,pp41 #acj71 here expressing a truth which1 like many truths that are not quite convenient1 is seldom denied but almost systematically ignored4#ea #h4 7#d7 ,in the ,nineteenth ,century ,magazine for ,november1 #ahhh1 appeared a vigorous protest with nearly #djj signatures1 many of which carried great weight with them1 against our sacrifice of education to examination4 ,our present system1 whether good or bad1 is the result of accident4 ,winchester and ,eton had large endowments1 and naturally endeavoured by means of these endowments to get hold of clever boys4 ,at first no doubt they succeeded fairly well2 but other schools felt bound to compete for juvenile brains1 and as the number of prizes increased1 many of our preparatory schools became mere racing stables for children destined at #ab or #ad to run for 8scholarship stakes40 ,thus1 in the scramble for the money all thought of education has been lost sight of2 injury has been done in many cases to those who have succeeded1 still greater injury to those who have failed or who have from the first been considered 8out of the running40 ,these very serious evils would have been avoided had we taken counsel with ,mulcaster3 8,pity it were for so petty a gain to forego a greater2 to win an hour in the morning and lose the whole day after2 as those people most commonly do which start out of their beds too early before they be well awaked or know what it is o'clock2 and be drowsy when they are up for want of their sleep40 7,,pp41 p4 #ai2 see also ,el41 xi41 pp4 #eb ff47 #i4 7#e7 ,it would have been a vast gain to all ,europe if ,mulcaster had been followed instead of ,sturm4 ,he was one of the earliest advocates of the use of ,english instead of ,latin 7see ,appendix1 p4 #ecd71 and good reading and writing in ,english were to be secured before ,latin was begun4 ,his elementary course included these five things3 ,english reading1 ,english writing1 drawing1 singing1 playing a musical instrument4 ,if the first course were made to occupy the school-time up to the age of #ab1 ,mulcaster held that more would be done between #ab and #af than between #g and #ag in the ordinary way4 ,there would be the further gain that the children would not be set against learning4 8,because of the too timely onset too little is done in too long a time1 and the school is made a torture1 which as it brings forth delight in the end when learning is held fast1 so should it pass on very pleasantly by the way1 while it is in learning40#eb 7,,pp41 #cc47 #aj4 7#f7 ,among the many changes brought about in the nineteenth century we find little that can compare in importance with the advance in the education of women4 ,in the last century1 whenever a woman exercised her mental powers she had to do it by stealth1#ec and her position was degraded indeed when compared not only with her descendants of the nineteenth century1 but also with her ancestors of the sixteenth4 ,this ,i know has been disputed by some authorities1 e4g41 by the late ,professor ,brewer3 but to others1 e4g41 to a man who1 as regards honesty and wisdom1 has had few equals and no superiors in investigating the course of education1 ,i mean the late ,joseph ,payne1 this educational superiority of the women of ,elizabeth's time has seemed to be entirely beyond question4 ,on this point ,mulcaster's evidence is very valuable1 and1 to me at least1 conclusive4 ,he not only 8admits young maidens to learn10 but says that 8custom stands for him10 and that 8the custom of my country 444 hath made the maidens' train her own approved travail40 7,,pp41 p4 #afg47 #aa4 7#g7 ,of all the educational reforms of the nineteenth century by far the most fruitful and most expansive is1 in my opinion1 the training of teachers4 ,in this1 as in most educational matters1 the ,english1 though advancing1 are in the rear4 ,far more is made of 8training0 on the ,continent and in the ,united ,states than in ,england4 ,and yet we made a good start4 ,our early writers on education saw that the teacher has immense influence1 and that to turn this influence to good account he must have made a study of his profession and have learnt 8the best that has been thought and done0 in it4 ,every occupation in life has a traditional capital of knowledge and experience1 and those who intend to follow the business1 whatever it may be1 are required to go through some kind of training or apprenticeship before they earn wages4 ,to this rule there is but one exception4 ,in ,english elementary schools children are paid to 8teach0 children1 and in the higher schools the beginner is allowed to blunder at the expense of his first pupils into whatever skill he may in the end manage to pick up4 ,but our ,english practice received no encouragement from the early ,english writers1 ,mulcaster1 ,brinsley1#ed and ,hoole4 ,as far as ,i am aware the first suggestion of a training college for teachers came from ,mulcaster4 ,he schemed seven special colleges at the ,university2 and of these one is for teachers4 ,some of his suggestions1 e4g41 about 8,university ,readers0 have lately been adopted1 though without acknowledgment2 and as the ,university of ,cambridge has since #ahgi acknowledged the existence of teachers1 and appointed a 8,teachers' ,training ,syndicate10 we may perhaps in a few centuries more carry out his scheme1 and have training colleges at ,oxford and ,cambridge4#ee ,some of the reasons he gives us have not gone out of date with his ,english4 ,they are as follows3-- 8,and why should not these men 7the teachers7 have both this sufficiency in learning1 and such room to rest in1 thence to be chosen and set forth for the common service8 ,be either children or schools so small a portion of our multitude8 or is the framing of young minds1 and the training of their bodies so mean a point of cunning8 ,be schoolmasters in this ,realm such a paucity1 as they are not even in good sadness to be soundly thought on8 ,if the chancel have a minister1 the belfry hath a master3 and where youth is1 as it is eachwhere1 there must be trainers1 or there will be worse4 ,he that will not allow of this careful provision for such a seminary of masters1 is most unworthy either to have had a good master himself1 or hereafter to have a good one for his4 ,why should not teachers be well provided for1 to continue their whole life in the school1 as ,divines1 ,lawyers1 ,physicians do in their several professions8 ,thereby judgment1 cunning1 and discretion will grow in them3 and masters would prove old men1 and such as ,xenophon setteth over children in the schooling of ,cyrus4 ,whereas now1 the school being used but for a shift1 afterward to pass thence to the other professions1 though it send out very sufficient men to them1 itself remaineth too too naked1 considering the necessity of the thing4 ,i conclude1 therefore1 that this trade requireth a particular college1 for these four causes4 #a4 ,first1 for the subject being the mean to make or mar the whole fry of our ,state4 #b4 ,secondly1 for the number1 whether of them that are to learn1 or of them that are to teach4 #c4 ,thirdly1 for the necessity of the profession1 which may not be spared4 #d4 ,fourthly1 for the matter of their study1 which is comparable to the greatest professions1 for language1 for judgment1 for skill how to train1 for variety in all points of learning1 wherein the framing of the mind1 and the exercising of the body craveth exquisite consideration1 beside the staidness of the person40 7,,pp41 #i pp4 #bdh1 #i47 #ab4 ,though once a celebrated man1 and moreover the master of ,edmund ,spenser1 ,mulcaster has been long forgotten2 but when the history of education in ,england comes to be written1 the historian will show that few schoolmasters in the fifteen hundreds or since were so enlightened as the first headmaster of ,merchant ,taylors'4#ef ,,ix4 ,,ratichius4 7#aega-afce47 #a4 ,the history of ,education in the fifteen hundreds tells chiefly of two very different classes of men4 ,first we have the practical men1 who set themselves to supply the general demand for instruction in the classical languages4 ,this class includes most of the successful schoolmasters1 such as ,sturm1 ,trotzendorf1 ,neander1 and the ,jesuits4 ,the other class were thinkers1 who never attempted to teach1 but merely gave form to truths which would in the end affect teaching4 ,these were especially ,rabelais and ,montaigne4 #b4 ,with the sixteen hundreds we come to men who have earned for themselves a name unpleasant in our ears1 although it might fittingly be applied to all the greatest benefactors of the human race4 ,i mean the name of ,innovators4 ,these men were not successful2 at least they seemed unsuccessful to their contemporaries1 who contrasted the promised results with the actual4 ,but their efforts were by no means thrown away3 and posterity at least1 has acknowledged its obligations to them4 ,one sees now that they could hardly have expected justice in their own time4 ,it is safe to adopt the customary plan2 it is safe to speculate how that plan may and should be altered2 but it is dangerous to attempt to translate new thought into new action1 and boldly to advance without a track1 trusting to principles which may1 like the compass1 show you the right direction1 but1 like the compass1 will give you no hint of the obstacles that lie before you4 ,the chief demands made by the ,innovators have been3 #ast1 that the study of things should precede1 or be united with1 the study of words 7v4 ,appendix1 p4 #ech72 #bnd1 that knowledge should be communicated1 where possible1 by appeals to the senses2 #crd1 that all linguistic study should begin with that of the mother-tongue2 #dth1 that ,latin and ,greek should be taught to such boys only as would be likely to complete a learned education2 #eth1 that physical education should be attended to in all classes of society for the sake of health1 not simply with a view to gentlemanly accomplishments2 #fth1 that a new method of teaching should be adopted1 framed 8according to ,nature40 ,their notions of method have1 of course1 been very various2 but their systems mostly agree in these particulars3-- #a4 ,they proceed from the concrete to the abstract1 giving some knowledge of the thing itself before the rules which refer to it4 #b4 ,they employ the student in analysing matter put before him1 rather than in working synthetically according to precept4 #c4 ,they require the student to teach himself and investigate for himself under the superintendence and guidance of the master1 rather than be taught by the master and receive anything on the master's authority4 #d4 ,they rely on the interest excited in the pupil by the acquisition of knowledge1 and renounce coercion4 #e4 ,only that which is understood may be committed to memory 7v4 supra1 p4 #gd1 n47 #c4 ,the first of the ,innovators was ,wolfgang ,ratichius1 who1 oddly enough1 is known to posterity by a name he and his contemporaries never heard of4 ,his father's name was ,radtk or ,ratk1 and the son having received a ,university education1 translated this into ,ratichius4 ,with our usual impatience of redundant syllables1 we have attempted to reduce the word to its original dimensions1 and in the process have hit upon ,ratich1 which is a new name altogether4 ,ratke 7to adopt the true form of the original7 was connected1 as ,basedow was a hundred and fifty years later1 with ,holstein and ,hamburg4 ,he was born at ,wilster in ,holstein in #aega1 and studied at ,hamburg and at the ,university of ,rostock4 ,he afterwards travelled to ,amsterdam and to ,england1 and it was perhaps owing to his residence in this country that he was acquainted with the new philosophy of ,bacon4 ,we next hear of him at the ,electoral ,diet1 held as usual in ,frankfurt-on-,main1 in #afab4 ,he was then over forty years old1 and he had elaborated a new scheme for teaching4 ,like all inventors1 he was fully impressed with the importance of his discovery1 and he sent to the assembled ,princes an address1 in which he undertook some startling performances4 ,he was able1 he said3 7#a7 to teach young or old ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin1 or other languages1 in a very short time and without any difficulty2 7#b7 to establish schools in which all arts should be taught and extended2 7#c7 to introduce and peaceably establish throughout the ,german ,empire a uniform speech1 a uniform government1 and 7still more wonderful7 a uniform religion4 #d4 ,naturally enough the address arrested the attention of the ,princes4 ,the ,landgraf ,lewis of ,darmstadt thought the matter worthy of examination1 and he deputed two learned men1 ,jung and ,helwig1 to confer with ,ratke4 ,their report was entirely favourable1 and they did all they could to get for ,ratke the means of carrying his scheme into execution4 8,we are10 writes ,helwig1 8in bondage to ,latin4 ,the ,greeks and ,saracens would never have done so much for posterity if they had spent their youth in acquiring a foreign tongue4 ,we must study our own language1 and then sciences4 ,ratichius has discovered the art of teaching according to ,nature4 ,by his method1 languages will be quickly learned1 so that we shall have time for science2 and science will be learned even better still1 as the natural system suits best with science1 which is the study of ,nature40 ,moved by this report the ,town ,council of ,augsburg agreed to give ,ratke the necessary power over their schools1 and accompanied by ,helwig1 he accordingly went to ,augsburg and set to work4 ,but the good folks of ,augsburg were like children1 who expect a plant as soon as they have sown the seed4 ,they were speedily dissatisfied1 and ,ratke and ,helwig left ,augsburg1 the latter much discouraged but still faithful to his friend4 ,ratke went to ,frankfurt again1 and a ,commission was appointed to consider his proposals1 but by its advice ,ratke was 8allowed to try elsewhere40 #e4 ,he would never have had a fair chance had he not had a firm friend in the ,duchess ,dorothy of ,weimar4 ,then1 as now1 we find women taking the lead in everything which promises to improve education1 and this good ,duchess sent for ,ratke and tested his method by herself taking lessons of him in ,hebrew4 ,with this adult pupil his plans seem to have answered well1 and she always continued his admirer and advocate4 ,by her advice her brother1 ,prince ,lewis of ,anhalt-,koethen1 decided that the great discovery should not be lost for want of a fair trial2 so he called ,ratke to ,koethen and complied with all his demands4 ,a band of teachers sworn to secrecy were first of all instructed in the art by ,ratke himself4 ,next1 schools with very costly appliances were provided1 and lastly some #ejj little ,koetheners--boys and girls--were collected and handed over to ,ratke to work his wonders with4 #f4 ,it never seems to have occurred either to ,ratke or his friends or the ,prince that all the principles and methods that ever were or ever will be established could not enable a man without experience to organize a school of #ejj children4 ,a man who had never been in the water might just as well plunge into the sea at once and trust to his knowledge of the laws of fluid pressure to save him from drowning4 ,there are endless details to be settled which would bewilder any one without experience4 ,some years ago school-buildings were provided for one of our county schools1 and the council consulted a master of great experience who strongly urged them not to start as they had intended with #cjj boys4 8,i would not undertake such a thing10 said he4 ,when pressed for his reason1 he said quietly1 8,i would not be responsible for the boots40 ,i have no doubt ,ratke had to come down from his principles and his new method to deal with numberless little questions of caps1 bonnets1 late children1 broken windows1 and the like2 and he was without the tact and the experience which enable many ordinary men and women1 who know nothing of principles1 to settle such matters satisfactorily4 #g4 ,years afterwards there was another thinker much more profound and influential than ,ratke1 who was quite as incompetent to organize4 ,i mean ,pestalozzi4 ,but ,pestalozzi had one great advantage over ,ratke4 ,he attached all his assistants to him by inspiring them with love and reverence of himself4 ,this made up for many deficiencies4 ,but ,ratke was not like the fatherly1 self-sacrificing ,pestalozzi4 ,he leads us to suspect him of being an impostor by making a mystery of his invention1 and he never could keep the peace with his assistants4 #h4 ,so1 as might have been expected1 the grand experiment failed4 ,the ,prince1 exasperated at being placed in a somewhat ridiculous position1 and possibly at the serious loss of money into the bargain1 revenged himself on ,ratke by throwing him into prison1 nor would he release him till he had made him sign a paper in which he admitted that he had undertaken more than he was able to fulfil4 #i4 ,this was no doubt the case2 and yet ,ratke had done more for the ,prince than the ,prince for ,ratke4 ,in ,koethen had been opened the first ,german school in which the children were taught to make a study of the ,german language4 ,ratke never recovered from his failure at ,koethen1 and nothing memorable is recorded of him afterwards4 ,he died in #afce4 #aj4 ,much was written by ,ratke2 much has been written about him2 and those who wish to know more than the few particulars ,i have given may find all they want in ,raumer or ,barnard4 ,the ,innovator failed in gaining the applause of his contemporaries1 and he does not seem to stand high in the respect of posterity2 but he was a pioneer in the art of didactics1 and the rules which ,raumer has gathered from the ,methodus ,institutionis nova 444 ,ratichii et ,ratichianorum1 published by ,rhenius at ,leipzig in #afbf1 raise some of the most interesting points to which a teachers attention can be directed4 ,i will therefore state them1 and say briefly what ,i think of them4 #aa4 ,i4 ,in everything we should follow the order of ,nature4 ,there is a certain natural sequence along which the human intelligence moves in acquiring knowledge4 ,this sequence must be studied1 and instruction must be based on the knowledge of it4 ,here1 as in all teaching of the ,reformers1 we find 8,nature0 used as if the word stood for some definite idea4 ,from the time of the ,stoics we have been exhorted to 8follow ,nature40 ,in more modern times the demand was well formulated by ,picus of ,mirandola3 8,take no heed what thing many men do1 but what thing the very law of ,nature1 what thing very reason1 what thing our ,lord ,himself showeth thee to be done40 7,trans4 by ,sir ,thomas ,more1 quoted in ,seebohm1 ,oxford ,reformers47 ,pope1 always happy in expression but not always clear in thought1 talks of-- 8,unerring ,nature1 still divinely bright1 ,one clear1 unchanged1 and universal light40 7,essay on ,c41 i1 #gj47 ,but as ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,harris has well pointed out 7,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 ,school ,report1 '#gh1 '#gi1 p4 #bag71 with this word 8,nature0 writers on education do a great deal of juggling4 ,some times they use it for the external world1 including in it man's unconscious growth1 sometimes they make it stand for the ideal4 ,what sense does ,ratke attach to it8 ,one might have some difficulty in determining4 ,perhaps the best meaning we can nowadays find for his rule is3 study ,psychology4 #ab4 ,,ii4 ,one thing at a time4 ,master one subject before you take up another4 ,for each language master a single book4 ,go over it again and again till you have completely made it your own4 ,in its crude form this rule could not be carried out4 ,if the attempt were made the results would be no better than from the six months' course of ,terence under ,ratke4 ,it is 8against all ,nature0 to go on hammering away at one thing day after day without any change2 and there is a point beyond which any attempt at thoroughness must end in simple stagnation4 ,the rule then would have two fatal drawbacks3 #ast1 it would lead to monotony2 #bnd1 it would require a completeness of learning which to the young would be impossible4 ,but in these days no one follows ,ratke4 ,on the other hand1 concentration in study is often neglected1 and our time-tables afford specimens of the most ingenious mosaic work1 in which everything has a place1 but in so small a quantity that the learners never find out what each thing really is4 ,school subjects are like the clubs of the eastern tale1 which did not give out their medicinal properties till the patient got warm in the use of them4 ,when a good hold on a subject has once been secured1 short study1 with considerable intervals between1 may suffice to keep up and even increase the knowledge already obtained2 but in matters of any difficulty1 e4g41 in a new language1 no start is ever made without allotting to it much more than two or three hours a week4 ,it is perhaps a mistake to suppose that if a good deal of the language may be learnt by giving it ten hours a week1 twice that amount might be acquired in twenty hours4 ,it is a much greater mistake if we think that one-fifth of the amount might be acquired in two hours4 #ac4 ,,iii4 ,the same thing should be repeated over and over again4 ,this is like the ,jesuits' ,repetitio ,mater ,studiorum2 and the same notion was well developed #bjj years later by ,jacotot4 ,by ,ratke's application of this rule some odd results were produced4 ,the little ,koetheners were drilled for ,german in a book of the ,bible 7,genesis was selected71 and then for ,latin in a play of ,terence4 ,unlike many 8theoretical notions0 this precept of ,ratke's comes more and more into favour as the schoolmaster increases in age and experience4 ,but we must be careful to take our pupils with us2 and this repeating the same thing over and over may seem to them what marking time would seem to soldiers who wanted to march4 ,even more than the last rule this is open to the objections that monotony is deadening1 and perfect attainment of anything but words impossible4 ,in keeping to a subject then we must not rely on simple repetition4 ,the rule now accepted is thus stated by ,diesterweg3--8,every subject of instruction should be viewed from as many sides as possible1 and as varied exercises as possible should be set on one and the same thing40 ,the art of the master is shown in disguising repetition and bringing known things into new connection1 so that they may partially at least retain their freshness4 #ad4 ,,iv4 ,first let the mother-tongue be studied1 and teach everything through the mother-tongue1 so that the learners attention may not be diverted to the language4 ,we saw that ,sturm1 the leading schoolmaster of ,renascence1 tried to suppress the mother-tongue and substitute ,latin for it4 ,against this a vigorous protest was made in this country by ,mulcaster4 ,and our language was never conquered by a foreign language1 as ,german was conquered first by ,latin and then by ,french4 ,but 8the tongues0 have always had the lion's share of attention in the schoolroom1 and though many have seen and ,milton has said that 8our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on sensible things10 this truth is only now making its way into the schoolroom4 ,hitherto the foundation has hardly been laid before 8the schoolmaster has stept in and staid the building by confounding the language40#eg ,ratke's protest against this will always be put to his credit in the history of education4 #ae4 ,v4 ,everything without constraint4 8,the young should not be beaten to make them learn or for not having learnt4 ,it is compulsion and stripes that set young people against studying4 ,boys are often beaten for not having learnt1 but they would have learnt had they been well taught4 ,the human understanding is so formed that it has pleasure in receiving what it should retain3 and this pleasure you destroy by your harshness4 ,where the master is skilful and judicious1 the boys will take to him and to their lessons4 ,folly lurks indeed in the heart of the child and must be driven out with the rod2 but not by the teacher40 ,here at least there is nothing original in ,ratke's precept4 ,a goodly array of authorities have condemned learning 8upon compulsion40 ,this array extends at least as far as from ,plato to ,bishop ,dupanloup4 8,in the case of the mind1 no study pursued under compulsion remains rooted in the memory10 says ,plato4#eh 8,everything depends10 says ,dupanloup1 8on what the teacher induces his pupils to do freely3 for authority is not constraint--it ought to be inseparable from respect and devotion4 ,i will respect human liberty in the smallest child40 ,as far as ,i have observed there is only one class of persons whom the authorities from ,plato to ,dupanloup have failed to convince1 and that is the schoolmasters4 ,this is the class to which ,i have belonged1 and ,i should not be prepared to take ,plato's counsel3 8,bring up your boys in their studies without constraint and in a playful manner40 7,ib47 ,at the same time ,i see the importance of self-activity1 and there is no such thing as self-activity upon compulsion4 ,you can no more hurry thought with the cane than you can hurry a snail with a pin4 ,so without interest there can be no proper learning4 ,interest must be aroused--even in ,latin ,grammar4 ,but if they could choose their own occupation1 the boys1 however interested in their work1 would probably find something else more interesting still4 ,we cannot get on1 and never shall1 without the must4 #af4 ,,vi4 ,nothing may be learnt by heart4 ,it has always been a common mistake in the schoolroom to confound the power of running along a sequence of sounds with a mastery of the thought with which those sounds should be connected4 ,but1 as ,i have remarked elsewhere 7supra1 p4 #gd1 note71 the two things1 though different1 are not opposed4 ,too much is likely to be made of learning by heart1 for of the two things the pupils find it the easier1 and the teacher the more easily tested4 ,we may1 however1 guard against the abuse without giving up the use4 #ag4 ,,vii4#ei ,uniformity in all things4 ,both in the way of learning1 and in the books1 and the rules1 a uniform method should be observed1 says ,ratke4 ,the right plan is for the learner to acquire familiar knowledge of one subject or part of a subject1 and then use this for comparison when he learns beyond it4 ,if the same method of learning is adopted throughout1 this will render comparison more easy and more striking4#fj #ah4 ,,viii4 ,the thing itself should come first1 then whatever explains it4 ,to those who do not with closed eyes cling to the method of their predecessors1 this rule may seem founded on common-sense4 ,would any one but a 8teacher10 or a writer of school books1 ever think of making children who do not know a word of ,french1 learn about the ,french accents8 ,and yet what ,ratke said #bej years ago has not been disproved since3 8,accidens rei priusquam rem ipsam quaerere prorsus absonum et absurdum esse videtur10 which ,i take to mean3 8,before the learner has a notion of the thing itself1 it is folly to worry him about its accidents or even its properties1 essential or unessential40 ,ne modus rei ante rem4#fa ,this rule of ,ratke's warns teachers against a very common mistake4 ,the subject is to them in full view1 and they make the most minute observations on it4 ,but these things cannot be seen by their pupils2 and even if the beginner could see these minuti1 he would find in them neither interest nor advantage4 ,but when we apply ,ratke's principle more widely1 we find ourselves involved in the great question whether our method should be based on synthesis or analysis1 a question which ,ratke's method did not settle for us4 #ai4 ,,ix4 ,everything by experience and examination of the parts4 ,or as he states the rule in ,latin3 ,per inductionem et experimentum omnia4 ,nothing was to be received on authority1 and this disciple of ,bacon went beyond his master and took for his motto3 ,vetustas cessit1 ratio vicit 78,age has yielded1 reason prevailed072 as if reason must be brand-new1 and truth might wax old and be ready to vanish away4 #bj4 ,from these rules of his we see that ,ratke did much to formulate the main principles of ,didactics4 ,he also deserves to be remembered among the methodizers who have tackled the problem--how to teach a language4 ,at ,kthen the instructor of the lowest class had to talk with the children1 and to take pains with their pronunciation4 ,when they knew their letters 7,ickelsamer's plan for reading ,ratke seems to have neglected7 the teacher read the ,book of ,genesis through to them1 each chapter twice over1 requiring the children to follow with eye and finger4 ,then the teacher began the chapter again1 and read about four lines only1 which the children read after him4 ,when the book had been worked over in this way1 the children were required to read it through without assistance4 ,reading once secured1 the master proceeded to grammar4 ,he explained1 say1 what a substantive was1 and then showed instances in ,genesis1 and next required the children to point out others4 ,in this way the grammar was verified throughout from ,genesis1 and the pupils were exercised in declining and conjugating words taken from the ,book4 ,when they advanced to the study of ,latin1 they were given a translation of a play of ,terence1 and worked over it several times before they were shown the ,latin4 ,the master then translated the play to them1 each half-hour's work twice over4 ,at the next reading1 the master translated the first half-hour1 and the boys translated the same piece the second4 ,having thus got through the play1 they began again1 and only the boys translated4 ,after this there was a course of grammar1 which was applied to the ,terence1 as the grammar of the mother-tongue had been to ,genesis4 ,finally1 the pupils were put through a course of exercises1 in which they had to turn into ,latin sentences imitated from the ,terence1 and differing from the original only in the number or person used4 ,raumer gives other particulars1 and quotes largely from the almost unreadable account of ,kromayer1 one of ,ratke's followers1 in order that we may have1 as he says1 a notion of the tediousness of the method4 ,no doubt anyone who has followed me hitherto1 will consider that this point has been brought out already with sufficient distinctness4 #ba4 ,when we compare ,ratke's method with ,ascham's1 we find several points of agreement4 ,ratke would begin the study of a language by taking a model book1 and working through it with the pupil a great many times4 ,ascham did the same4 ,each lecture according to his plan would be gone over 8a dozen times at the least40 ,both construed to the pupil instead of requiring him to make out the sense for himself4 ,both ,ratke and ,ascham taught grammar not by itself1 but in connection with the model book4 ,but the points of difference are still more striking4 ,in one respect ,ratke's plan was weak4 ,it gave the pupils little to do1 and made no use of the pen4 ,ascham's was better in this and also as a training in accuracy4 ,ascham was1 as ,i have pointed out1 a 8complete retainer40 ,ratke was a 8rapid impressionist40 ,his system was a good deal like that which had great vogue in the early part of this century as the 8,hamiltonian ,system40 ,from the first the language was to be laid on 8very thick10 in the belief that 8some of it was sure to stick40 ,the impressions would be slight1 and there would at first be much confusion between words which had a superficial resemblance1 but accuracy it was thought would come in time4 #bb4 ,the contest between the two schools of thought of which ,ascham and ,ratke may be taken as representatives has continued till now1 and within the last few years both parties have made great advances in method4 ,but in nothing does progress seem slower than in education2 and the plan of grammar-teaching in vogue fifty years ago was inferior to the methods advocated by the old writers4#fb ,x4 ,,comenius4 7#aeib-afga74 #a4 ,one of the most hopeful signs of the improvement of education is the rapid advance in the last thirty years of the fame of ,comenius1 and the growth of a large literature about the man and his ideas4 ,twenty-three years ago1 when ,i first became interested in him1 his name was hardly known beyond ,germany4 ,in ,english there was indeed an excellent life of him prefixed to a translation of his ,school of ,infancy2 but this work1 by ,daniel ,benham 7,london1 #aheh71 had not then1 and has not now1 anything like the circulation it deserves4 ,a much more successful book has been ,professor ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie's ,john ,amos ,comenius 7,cambridge ,university ,press71 and this is known to most1 and should be to all1 ,english students of education4 ,by the ,germans and ,french ,comenius is now recognised as the man who first treated education in a scientific spirit1 and who bequeathed the rudiments of a science to later ages4 ,on this account the great library of pedagogy at ,leipzig has been named in his honour the 8,comenius ,stiftung40 #b4 ,john ,amos ,komensky or ,comenius1 the son of a miller1 who belonged to the ,moravian ,brethren1 was born1 at the ,moravian village of ,niwnic1 in #aeib4 ,of his early life we know nothing but what he himself tells us in the following passage3--8,losing both my parents while ,i was yet a child1 ,i began1 through the neglect of my guardians1 but at sixteen years of age to taste of the ,latin tongue4 ,yet by the goodness of ,god1 that taste bred such a thirst in me1 that ,i ceased not from that time1 by all means and endeavours1 to labour for the repairing of my lost years2 and now not only for myself1 but for the good of others also4 ,for ,i could not but pity others also in this respect1 especially in my own nation1 which is too slothful and careless in matter of learning4 ,thereupon ,i was continually full of thoughts for the finding out of some means whereby more might be inflamed with the love of learning1 and whereby learning itself might be made more compendious1 both in matter of the charge and cost1 and of the labour belonging thereto1 that so the youth might be brought by a more easy method1 unto some notable proficiency in learning40#fc ,with these thoughts in his head1 he pursued his studies in several ,german towns1 especially at ,herborn in ,nassau4 ,here he saw the ,report on ,ratke's method published in #afab for the ,universities of ,jena and ,giessen2 and we find him shortly afterwards writing his first book1 ,grammatic facilioris ,prcepta1 which was published at ,prag in #afaf4 ,on his return to ,moravia1 he was appointed to the ,brethren's school at ,prerau1 but 7to use his own words7 8being shortly after at the age of twenty-four called to the service of the ,church1 because that divine function challenged all my endeavours 7divinumque ,,hoc ,,age pr oculis erat7 these scholastic cares were laid aside40#fd ,his pastoral charge was at ,fulneck1 the headquarters of the ,brethren4 ,as such it soon felt the effects of the ,battle of ,prag1 being in the following year 7#afba7 taken and plundered by the ,spaniards4 ,on this occasion ,comenius lost his ,,mss4 and almost everything he possessed4 ,the year after his wife died1 and then his only child4 ,in #afbd all ,protestant ministers were banished1 and in #afbg a new decree extended the banishment to ,protestants of every description4 ,comenius bore up against wave after wave of calamity with ,christian courage and resignation1 and his writings at this period were of great value to his fellow-sufferers4 #c4 ,for a time he found a hiding-place in the family of a ,bohemian nobleman1 ,baron ,sadowsky1 at ,slaupna1 in the ,bohemian mountains1 and in this retirement1 his attention was again directed to the science of teaching4 ,the ,baron had engaged ,stadius1 one of the proscribed1 to educate his three sons1 and1 at ,stadius' request1 ,comenius wrote 8some canons of a better method10 for his use4 ,we find him1 too1 endeavouring to enrich the literature of his mother-tongue1 making a metrical translation of the ,psalms of ,david1 and even writing imitations of ,virgil1 ,ovid1 and ,cato's ,distichs4 ,in #afbg1 however1 the persecution waxed so hot1 that ,comenius1 with most of the ,brethren1 had to flee their country1 never to return4 ,on crossing the border1 ,comenius and the exiles who accompanied him knelt down1 and prayed that ,god would not suffer ,his truth to fail out of their native land4 #d4 ,comenius had now1 as ,michelet says1 lost his country and found his country1 which was the world4 ,many of the banished1 and ,comenius among them1 settled at the ,polish town of ,leszna1 or1 as the ,germans call it1 ,lissa1 near the ,silesian frontier4 ,here there was an old-established school of the ,brethren1 in which ,comenius found employment4 ,once more engaged in education1 he earnestly set about improving the traditional methods4 ,as he himself says1#fe 8,being by ,god's permission banished my country with divers others1 and forced for my sustenance to apply myself to the instruction of youth1 ,i gave my mind to the perusal of divers authors1 and lighted upon many which in this age have made a beginning in reforming the method of studies1 as ,ratichius1 ,helvicus1 ,rhenius1 ,ritterus1 ,glaumius1 ,ccilius1 and who indeed should have had the first place1 ,joannes ,valentinus ,andre1 a man of a nimble and clear brain2 as also ,campanella and the ,lord ,verulam1 those famous restorers of philosophy2--by reading of whom ,i was raised in good hope1 that at last those so many various sparks would conspire into a flame2 yet observing here and there some defects and gaps as it were1 ,i could not contain myself from attempting something that might rest upon an immovable foundation1 and which1 if it could be once found out1 should not be subject to any ruin4 ,therefore1 after many workings and tossings of my thoughts1 by reducing everything to the immovable laws of ,nature1 ,i lighted upon my ,didactica ,magna1 which shows the art of readily and solidly teaching all men all things40 #e4 ,this work did not immediately see the light1 but in #afca ,comenius published a book which made him and the little ,polish town where he lived known throughout ,europe and beyond it4 ,this was the ,janua ,linguarum ,reserata1 or 8,gate of ,tongues unlocked40 ,writing about it many years afterwards he says that he never could have imagined that that little work1 fitted only for children 7puerile istud opusculum71 would have been received with applause by all the learned world4 ,letters of congratulation came to him from every quarter2 and the work was translated not only into ,greek1 ,bohemian1 ,polish1 ,swedish1 ,belgian1 ,english1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,hungarian1 but also into ,turkish1 ,arabic1 ,persian1 and even 8,mongolian1 which is familiar to all the ,east ,indies40 7,dedication of ,schola ,ludus in vol4 i4 of collected works47 #f4 ,incited by the applause of the learned1 ,comenius now planned a scheme of universal knowledge1 to impart which a series of works would have to be written1 far exceeding what the resources and industry of one man1 however great a scholar1 could produce4 ,he therefore looked about for a patron to supply money for the support of himself and his assistants1 whilst these works were in progress4 8,the vastness of the labours ,i contemplate10 he writes to a ,polish nobleman1 8demands that ,i should have a wealthy patron1 whether we look at their extent1 or at the necessity of securing assistants1 or at the expenses generally40 #g4 ,at ,leszna there seemed no prospect of his obtaining the aid he required2 but his fame now procured him invitations from distant countries4 ,first he received a call to improve the schools of ,sweden4 ,after declining this he was induced by his ,english friends to undertake a journey to ,london1 where ,parliament had shown its interest in the matter of education1 and had employed ,hartlib1#ff an enthusiastic admirer of ,comenius1 to attempt a reform4 ,probably through his family connections1 ,hartlib was on intimate terms with ,comenius1 and he had much influence on his career4 ,it would seem that ,comenius1 though never tired of forming magnificent schemes1 hung back from putting anything into a definite shape4 ,after the appearance of the ,janua ,linguarum ,reserata1 he planned a ,janua ,rerum1 and even allowed that title to appear in 8the list of new books to come forth at the next ,mart at ,frankford40#fg ,but again he hesitated1 and withdrew the announcement4 ,here ,hartlib came in1 and forced him into print without his intending or even knowing it 78prter meam spem et me inconsulto02 preface to ,conatuum ,pansophicorum ,dilucidatio1 #afch74 ,hartlib begged of ,comenius a sketch of his great scheme1 and with apologies to the author for not awaiting his consent1 he published it at ,oxford in #afcg1 under the title of ,conatuum ,comenianorum ,prludia4 ,comenius accepted the fait accompli with the best grace he could--pleased at the stir the book made in the learned world1 but galled by criticisms1 especially by doubts of his orthodoxy4 ,to refute the cavillers1 he wrote a tract called ,conatuum ,pansophicorum ,dilucidatio which was published in #afch4 ,in #afci ,hartlib issued in ,london a new duodecimo edition of the ,prludia 7or as he then called it1 ,prodromus7 and the ,dilucidatio1 adding a dissertation by ,comenius on the study of ,latin4 ,now1 when everything seemed ripe for a change in education1 and ,comenius himself was on his way to ,england1 ,hartlib translated the ,prodromus1 and when ,comenius had come he published it with the title1 ,a ,reformation of ,schools1 #afdb4fh #h4 ,it was no doubt by ,hartlib's influence that ,parliament had been led to summon ,comenius1 and at any other time the visit might have been 8the occasion of great good to this island10 but inter arma silent magistri1 and ,comenius went away again4 ,this is the account he himself has left us3-- 8,when seriously proposing to abandon the thorny studies of ,didactics1 and pass on to the pleasing studies of philosophical truth1 ,i find myself again among the same thorns4444 ,after the ,pansophi ,prodromus had been published and dispersed through various kingdoms of ,europe1 many of the learned approved of the object and plan of the work1 but despaired of its ever being accomplished by one man alone1 and therefore advised that a college of learned men should be instituted to carry it into effect4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,hartlib1 who had forwarded the publication of the ,pansophi ,prodromus in ,england1 laboured earnestly in this matter1 and endeavoured1 by every possible means1 to bring together for this purpose a number of men of intellectual activity4 ,and at length1 having found one or two1 he invited me also1 with many very strong entreaties4 ,my people having consented to the journey1 ,i came to ,london on the very day of the autumnal equinox 7,september #bb1 #afda71 and there at last learnt that ,i had been invited by the order of the ,parliament4 ,but as the ,parliament1 the ,king having then gone to ,scotland ,august #aj1 was dismissed for a three months' recess not quite three months1 but from ,september #i to ,october #bj1 ,i was detained there through the winter1 my friends mustering what pansophic apparatus they could1 though it was but slender4444 ,the ,parliament meanwhile1 having re assembled1 and our presence being known1 ,i had orders to wait until they should have sufficient leisure from other business to appoint a ,commission of learned and wise men from their body for hearing us and considering the grounds of our design4 ,they communicated also beforehand their thoughts of assigning to us some college with its revenues1 whereby a certain number of learned and industrious men called from all nations might be honourably maintained1 either for a term of years or in perpetuity4 ,there was even named for the purpose ,the ,savoy in ,london2 ,winchester ,college out of ,london was named2 and again nearer the city1 ,chelsea ,college1 inventories of which and of its revenues were communicated to us1 so that nothing seemed more certain than that the design of the great ,verulam1 concerning the opening somewhere of a ,universal ,college1 devoted to the advancement of the ,sciences could be carried out4 ,but the rumour of the ,insurrection in ,ireland1 and of the massacre in one night of more than #bjj1jjj ,english ,october1 ,november1 and the sudden departure of the ,king from ,london ,january #aj1 #afda-b1 and the plentiful signs of the bloody war about to break out disturbed these plans1 and obliged me to hasten my return to my own people40#fi #i4 ,while ,comenius was in ,england1 where he stayed till ,august1 #afdb1 he received an invitation to ,france4 ,this invitation1 which he did not accept1 came perhaps through his correspondent ,mersenne1 a man of great learning1 who is said to have been highly esteemed and often consulted by ,descartes4 ,it is characteristic of the state of opinion in such matters in those days1 that ,mersenne tells ,comenius of a certain ,le ,maire1 by whose method a boy of six years old1 might1 with nine months' instruction1 acquire a perfect knowledge of three languages4 ,mersenne also had dreams of a universal alphabet1 and even of a universal language4 #aj4 ,comenius' hopes of assistance in ,england being at an end1 he thought of returning to ,leszna2 but a letter now reached him from a rich ,dutch merchant1 ,lewis de ,geer1 who offered him a home and means for carrying out his plans4 ,this ,lewis de ,geer1 8the ,grand ,almoner of ,europe10 as ,comenius calls him1 displayed a princely munificence in the assistance he gave the exiled ,protestants4 ,at this time he was living at ,nordcoping in ,sweden4 ,comenius having now found such a patron as he was seeking1 set out from ,england and joined him there4 #aa4 ,soon after the arrival of ,comenius in ,sweden1 the great ,oxenstiern sent for him to ,stockholm1 and with ,john ,skyte1 the ,chancellor of ,upsal ,university1 examined him and his system4 8,these two10 as ,comenius says1 8exercised me in colloquy for four days1 and chiefly the most illustrious ,oxenstiern1 that eagle of the ,north 7,aquila ,aquilonius74 ,he inquired into the foundations of both my schemes1 the ,didactic and the ,pansophic1 so searchingly1 that it was unlike anything that had been done before by any of my learned critics4 ,in the first two days he examined the ,didactics1 and finally said3 #8,from an early age ,i perceived that our ,method of ,studies generally in use is a harsh and crude one 7violentum quiddam71 but where the thing stuck ,i could not find out4 ,at length1 having been sent by my ,king of glorious memory i4e41 by ,gustavus ,adolphus1 as ambassador into ,germany1 ,i conversed on the subject with various learned men4 ,and when ,i had heard that ,wolfgang ,ratichius was toiling at an amended ,method ,i had no rest of mind till ,i had him before me1 but instead of talking on the subject1 he put into my hands a big quarto volume4 ,i swallowed this trouble1 and having turned over the whole book1 ,i saw that he had detected well enough the maladies of our schools but the remedies he proposed did not seem to me sufficient4 ,yours1 ,mr4 ,comenius1 rest on firmer foundations4 ,go on with the work4' ,i answered that ,i had done all ,i could in those matters1 and must now go on to others4 #8,i know1' said he1 #8that you are toiling at greater affairs1 for ,i have read your ,prodromus ,pansophi4 ,that we will discuss to-morrow1 ,i must now to public business4' ,next day he began on my ,pansophic attempts1 and examined them with still greater severity4 #8,are you a man1' he asked1 #8who can bear contradiction8' #8,i can1' said ,i1 #8and for that reason my ,prodromus or preliminary sketch was sent out first 7not indeed that ,i sent it out myself1 this was done by friends71 that it might meet with criticism4 ,and if we seek the criticism of all and sundry1 how much more from men of mature wisdom and heroic reason8' ,he began accordingly to discourse against the hope of a better state of things arising from a rightly instituted study of ,pansophia2 first1 objecting political reasons1 then what was said in ,scripture about #8the last times4' ,all which objections ,i so answered that he ended with these words3 #8,into no one's mind do ,i think such things have come before4 ,stand upon these grounds of yours2 so shall we some time come to agreement1 or there will be no way left4 ,my advice1 however1' added he1 #8is that you first do something for the schools1 and bring the study of the ,latin tongue to a greater facility2 thus you will prepare the way for those greater matters4'0 ,as ,skyte and afterwards ,de ,geer gave the same advice1 ,comenius felt himself constrained to follow it2 so he agreed to settle at ,elbing1 in ,prussia1 and there write a work on teaching1 in which the principles of the ,didactica ,magna should be worked out with especial reference to teaching languages4 ,notwithstanding the remonstrances of his ,english friends1 to which ,comenius would gladly have listened1 he was kept by ,oxenstiern and ,de ,geer strictly to his agreement1 and thus1 much against his will1 he was held fast for eight years in what he calls the 8miry entanglements of logomachy40 #ab4 ,elbing1 where1 after a journey to ,leszna to fetch his family 7for he had married again71 ,comenius now settled1 is in ,west ,prussia1 thirty-six miles south-east of ,dantzic4 ,from #aegg to #affj an ,english trading company was settled here1 with which the family of ,hartlib was connected4 ,this perhaps was one reason why ,comenius chose this town for his residence4 ,but although he had a grant of #cjj a year from ,parliament1 ,hartlib1 instead of assisting with money1 seems at this time to have himself needed assistance1 for in ,october1 #afdb1 ,comenius writes to ,de ,geer that he fears ,fundanius and ,hartlib are suffering from want1 and that he intends for them #bjj promised by the ,london booksellers2 he suggests that ,de ,geer shall give them #cj each meanwhile4 7,benham1 p4 #fc47 #ac4 ,the relation between ,comenius and his patron naturally proved a difficult one4 ,the ,dutchman thought that as he supported ,comenius1 and contributed something more for the assistants1 he might expect of ,comenius that he would devote all his time to the scholastic treatise he had undertaken4 ,comenius1 however1 was a man of immense energy and of widely extended sympathies and connections4 ,he was a 8,bishop0 of the religious body to which he belonged1 and in this capacity he engaged in controversy1 and attended some religious conferences4 ,then again1 pupils were pressed upon him1 and as money to pay five writers whom he kept at work was always running short1 he did not decline them4 ,de ,geer complained of this1 and supplies were not furnished with wonted regularity4 ,in #afdg ,comenius writes to ,hartlib that he is almost overwhelmed with cares1 and sick to death of writing begging-letters4 ,yet in this year he found means to publish a book ,on the ,causes of this 7i4e41 the ,thirty ,years7 ,war1 in which the ,roman ,catholics are attacked with great bitterness--a bitterness for which the position of the writer affords too good an excuse4 #ad4 ,the year #afdh brought with it the downfall of all ,comenius' hopes of returning to his native land4 ,the ,peace of ,westphalia was concluded without any provision being made for the restoration of the exiles4 ,but though thus doomed to pass the remaining years of his life in banishment1 ,comenius1 in this year1 seemed to have found an escape from all his pecuniary difficulties4 ,the ,senior ,bishop1 the head of the ,moravian ,brethren1 died1 and ,comenius was chosen to succeed him4 ,in consequence of this1 ,comenius returned to ,leszna1 where due provision was made for him by the ,brethren4 ,before he left ,elbing1 however1 the fruit of his residence there1 the ,methodus ,linguarum ,novissima1 had been submitted to a commission of learned ,swedes1 and approved of by them4 ,the ,,ms4 went with him to ,leszna1 where it was published4 #ae4 ,as head of the ,moravian ,church1 there now devolved upon ,comenius the care of all the exiles1 and his widespread reputation enabled him to get situations for many of them in all ,protestant countries4 ,but he was now so much connected with the science of education1 that even his post at ,leszna did not prevent his receiving and accepting a call to reform the schools in ,transylvania4 ,a model school was formed at ,saros-,patak1 where there was a settlement of the banished ,brethren1 and in this school ,comenius laboured from #afej till #afed4 ,at this time he wrote his most celebrated book1 which is indeed only an abridgment of his ,janua with the important addition of pictures1 and sent it to ,nrnberg1 where it appeared three years later 7#afeg74 ,this was the famous ,orbis ,pictus4 #af4 ,full of trouble as ,comenius' life had hitherto been1 its greatest calamity was still before him4 ,after he was again settled at ,leszna1 ,poland was invaded by the ,swedes1 on which occasion the sympathies of the ,brethren were with their fellow-,protestants1 and ,comenius was imprudent enough to write a congratulatory address to the ,swedish ,king4 ,a peace followed1 by the terms of which1 several towns1 and ,leszna among them1 were made over to ,sweden2 but when the ,king withdrew1 the ,poles took up arms again1 and ,leszna1 the headquarters of the ,protestants1 the town in which the chief of the ,moravian ,brethren had written his address welcoming the enemy1 was taken and plundered4 ,comenius and his family escaped1 but his house was marked for special violence1 and nothing was preserved4 ,his sole remaining possessions were the clothes in which he and his family travelled4 ,all his books and manuscripts were burnt1 among them his valued work on ,pansophia1 and a ,latin-,bohemian and ,bohemian-,latin ,dictionary1 giving words1 phrases1 idioms1 adages1 and aphorisms--a book on which he had been labouring for forty years4 8,this loss10 he writes1 8,i shall cease to lament only when ,i cease to breathe40 #ag4 ,after wandering for some time about ,germany1 and being prostrated by fever at ,hamburg1 he at length came to ,amsterdam1 where ,lawrence ,de ,geer1 the son of his deceased patron1 gave him an asylum4 ,here were spent the remaining years of his life in ease and dignity4 ,compassion for his misfortunes was united with veneration for his learning and piety4 ,he earned a sufficient income by giving instruction in the families of the wealthy2 and by the liberality of ,de ,geer he was enabled to publish a fine folio edition of all his writings on ,education 7#afeg74 ,his political works1 however1 were to the last a source of trouble to him4 ,his hostility to the ,pope and the ,house of ,hapsburg made him the dupe of certain 8prophets0 whose soothsayings he published as ,lux in ,tenebris4 ,one of these prophets1 who had announced that the ,turk was to take ,vienna1 was executed at ,pressburg1 and the ,lux in ,tenebris at the same time burnt by the hangman4 ,before the news of this disgrace reached ,amsterdam1 ,comenius was no more4 ,he died in the year #afga1 at the advanced age of eighty1 and with him terminated the office of ,chief ,bishop among the ,moravian ,brethren4 #ah4 ,his long life had been full of trouble1 and he saw little of the improvements he so earnestly desired and laboured after1 but he continued the struggle hopefully to the end4 ,in his seventy-seventh year he wrote these memorable words3 8,i thank ,god that ,i have all my life been a man of aspirations4444 ,for the longing after good1 however it spring up in the heart1 is always a rill flowing from the ,fountain of all good--from ,god40#gj ,labouring in this spirit he did not toil in vain1 and the historians of education have agreed in ranking him among the most influential as well as the most noble-minded of the ,reformers4 #ai4 ,before ,comenius1 no one had brought the mind of a philosopher to bear practically on the subject of education4 ,montaigne and ,bacon had advanced principles1 leaving others to see to their application4 ,a few able schoolmasters1 ,ascham1 e4g41 had investigated new methods1 but had made success in teaching the test to which they appealed1 rather than any abstract principle4 ,comenius was at once a philosopher who had learnt of ,bacon1 and a schoolmaster who had earned his livelihood by teaching the rudiments4 ,dissatisfied with the state of education as he found it1 he sought for a better system by an examination of the laws of ,nature4 ,whatever is thus established is indeed on an immovable foundation1 and1 as ,comenius himself says1 8not liable to any ruin40 ,it will hardly be disputed1 when broadly stated1 that there are laws of ,nature which must be obeyed in dealing with the mind1 as with the body4 ,no doubt these laws are not so easily established in the first case as in the second1 nor can we find them without much 8groping0 and some mistakes2 but whoever in any way assists or even tries to assist in the discovery1 deserves our gratitude2 and greatly are we indebted to him who first boldly set about the task1 and devoted to it years of patient labour4 #bj4 ,comenius has left voluminous ,latin writings4 ,professor ,laurie gives us the titles of the books connected with education1 and they are in number forty-two3 so there must be much repetition and indeed retractation2 for ,comenius was always learning1 and one of his last books was ,ventilabrum ,sapienti1 sive sapienter sua retractandi ,ars--i4e41 8,wisdom's ,winnowing-machine1 or the ,art of wisely withdrawing one's own assertions40 ,we owe much to ,professor ,laurie1 who has served as a ventilabrum and left us a succinct and clear account of the ,reformer's teaching4 ,i have read little of the writings of ,comenius except the ,german translation of the 8,great ,didactic10 from which the following is taken4 #ba4 ,we live1 says ,comenius1 a threefold life--a vegetative1 an animal1 and an intellectual or spiritual4 ,of these1 the first is perfect in the womb1 the last in heaven4 ,he is happy who comes with healthy body into the world1 much more he who goes with healthy spirit out of it4 ,according to the heavenly idea1 man should 7#a7 know all things2 7#b7 should be master of all things1 and of himself2 7#c7 should refer everything to ,god4 ,so that within us ,nature has implanted the seeds of 7#a7 learning1 7#b7 virtue1 and 7#c7 piety4 ,to bring these seeds to maturity is the object of education4 ,all men require education1 and ,god has made children unfit for other employments that they may have leisure to learn4 #bb4 ,but schools have failed1 and instead of keeping to the true object of education1 and teaching the foundations1 relations1 and intentions of all the most important things1 they have neglected even the mother tongue1 and confined the teaching to ,latin2 and yet that has been so badly taught1 and so much time has been wasted over grammar rules and dictionaries1 that from ten to twenty years are spent in acquiring as much knowledge of ,latin as is speedily acquired of any modern tongue4 #bc4 ,the cause of this want of success is that the system does not follow ,nature4 ,everything natural goes smoothly and easily4 ,there must therefore be no pressure4 ,learning should come to children as swimming to fish1 flying to birds1 running to animals4 ,as ,aristotle says1 the desire of knowledge is implanted in man3 and the mind grows as the body does--by taking proper nourishment1 not by being stretched on the rack4 #bd4 ,if we would ascertain how teaching and learning are to have good results1 we must look to the known processes of ,nature and ,art4 ,a man sows seed1 and it comes up he knows not how1 but in sowing it he must attend to the requirements of ,nature4 ,let us then look to ,nature to find out how knowledge takes root in young minds4 ,we find that ,nature waits for the fit time4 ,then1 too1 she has prepared the material before she gives it form4 ,in our teaching we constantly run counter to these principles of hers4 ,we give instruction before the young minds are ready to receive it4 ,we give the form before the material4 ,words are taught before the things to which they refer4 ,when a foreign tongue is to be taught1 we commonly give the form1 i4e41 the grammatical rules1 before we give the material1 i4e41 the language1 to which the rules apply4 ,we should begin with an author1 or properly prepared translation-book1 and abstract rules should never come before the examples4 #be4 ,again1 ,nature begins each of her works with its inmost part4 ,moreover1 the crude form comes first1 then the elaboration of the parts4 ,the architect1 acting on this principle1 first makes a rough plan or model1 and then by degrees designs the details2 last of all he attends to the ornamentation4 ,in teaching1 then1 let the inmost part1 i4e41 the understanding of the subject1 come first2 then let the thing understood be used to exercise the memory1 the speech1 and the hands2 and let every language1 science1 and art be taught first in its rudimentary outline2 then more completely with examples and rules2 finally1 with exceptions and anomalies4 ,instead of this1 some teachers are foolish enough to require beginners to get up all the anomalies in ,latin ,grammar1 and the dialects in ,greek4 #bf4 ,again1 as ,nature does nothing per saltum1 nor halts when she has begun1 the whole course of studies should be arranged in strict order1 so that the earlier studies prepare the way for the later4 ,every year1 every month1 every day and hour even1 should have its task marked out beforehand1 and the plan should be rigidly carried out4 ,much loss is occasioned by absence of boys from school1 and by changes in the instruction4 ,iron that might be wrought with one heating should not be allowed to get cold1 and be heated over and over again4 #bg4 ,nature protects her work from injurious influences1 so boys should be kept from injurious companionships and books4 #bh4 ,in a chapter devoted to the principles of easy teaching1 ,comenius lays down1 among rules similar to the foregoing1 that children will learn if they are taught only what they have a desire to learn1 with due regard to their age and the method of instruction1 and especially when everything is first taught by means of the senses4 ,on this point ,comenius laid great stress1 and he was the first who did so4 ,education should proceed1 he said1 in the following order3 first1 educate the senses1 then the memory1 then the intellect2 last of all the critical faculty4 ,this is the order of ,nature4 ,the child first perceives through the senses4 8,nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu4 ,everything in the intellect must have come through the senses40 ,these perceptions are stored in the memory1 and called up by the imagination4#ga ,by comparing one with another1 the understanding forms general ideas1 and at length the judgment decides between the false and the true4 ,by keeping to this order1 ,comenius believed it would be possible to make learning entirely pleasant to the pupils1 however young4 ,here ,comenius went even further than the ,jesuits4 ,they wished to make learning pleasant1 but despaired of doing this except by external influences1 emulation and the like4 ,comenius did not neglect external means to make the road to learning agreeable4 ,like the ,jesuits1 he would have short school-hours1 and would make great use of praise and blame1 but he did not depend1 as they did almost exclusively1 on emulation4 ,he would have the desire of learning fostered in every possible way--by parents1 by teachers1 by school buildings and apparatus1 by the subjects themselves1 by the method of teaching them1 and lastly1 by the public authorities4 7#a7 ,the parents must praise learning and learned men1 must show children beautiful books1 c41 must treat the teachers with great respect4 7#b7 ,the teacher must be kind and fatherly1 he must distribute praise and reward1 and must always1 where it is possible1 give the children something to look at4 7#c7 ,the school buildings must be light1 airy1 and cheerful1 and well furnished with apparatus1 as pictures1 maps1 models1 collections of specimens4 7#d7 ,the subjects taught must not be too hard for the learner's comprehension1 and the more entertaining parts of them must be especially dwelt upon4 7#e7 ,the method must be natural1 and everything that is not essential to the subject or is beyond the pupil must be omitted4 ,fables and allegories should be introduced1 and enigmas given for the pupils to guess4 7#f7 ,the authorities must appoint public examinations and reward merit4 #bi4 ,nature helps herself in various ways1 so the pupils should have every assistance given them4 ,it should especially be made clear what the pupils are to learn1 and how they should learn it4 #cj4 ,the pupils should be punished for offences against morals only4 ,if they do not learn1 the fault is with the teacher4 #ca4 ,one of ,comenius's most distinctive principles was that there should no longer be 8infelix divortium rerum et verborum1 the wretched divorce of words from things0 7the phrase1 ,i think1 is ,campanella's71 but that knowledge of things and words should go together4 ,this1 together with his desire of submitting everything to the pupil's senses1 would have introduced a great change into the course of instruction1 which was then1 as it has for the most part continued1 purely literary4 ,we should learn1 says ,comenius1 as much as possible1 not from books1 but from the great book of ,nature1 from heaven and earth1 from oaks and beeches4 #cb4 ,when languages are to be learnt1 he would have them taught separately4 ,till the pupil is from eight to ten years old1 he should be instructed only in the mother-tongue1 and about things4 ,then other languages can be acquired in about a year each2 ,latin 7which is to be studied more thoroughly7 in about two years4 ,every language must be learnt by use rather than by rules1 i4e41 it must be learnt by hearing1 reading and re-reading1 transcribing1 attempting imitations in writing and orally1 and by using the language in conversation4 ,rules assist and confirm practice1 but they must come after1 not before it4 ,the first exercises in a language should take for their subject something of which the sense is already known1 so that the mind may be fixed on the words and their connections4#gb ,the ,catechism and ,bible ,history may be used for this purpose4 #cc4 ,considering the classical authors not suited to boys' understanding1 and not fit for the education of ,christians1 ,comenius proposed writing a set of ,latin manuals for the different stages between childhood and manhood3 these were to be called 8,vestibulum10 8,janua10 8,palatium0 or 8,atrium10 8,thesaurus40 ,the 8,vestibulum10 8,janua10 and 8,atrium0 were really carried out4 #cd4 ,in ,comenius's scheme there were to be four kinds of schools for a perfect educational course3--#ast1 the mother's breast for infancy2 #bnd1 the public vernacular school for children1 to which all should be sent from six years old till twelve2 #crd1 the ,latin school or ,gymnasium2 #dth1 residence at a ,university and travelling1 to complete the course4 ,the public schools were to be for all classes alike1 and for girls#gc as well as boys4 #ce4 ,most boys and girls in every community would stop at the vernacular school2 and as this school is a very distinctive feature in ,comenius's plan1 it may be worth while to give his programme of studies4 ,in this school the children should learn--#ast1 to read and write the mother-tongue well1 both with writing and printing letters2 #bnd1 to compose grammatically2 #crd1 to cipher2 #dth1 to measure and weigh2 #eth1 to sing1 at first popular airs1 then from music2 #fth1 to say by heart1 sacred psalms and hymns2 #gth1 ,catechism1 ,bible ,history1 and texts2 #hth1 moral rules1 with examples2 #ith1 economics and politics1 as far as they could be understood2 #ajth1 general history of the world2 #aath1 figure of the earth and motion of stars1 c41 physics and geography1 especially of native land2 #abth1 general knowledge of arts and handicrafts4 #cf4 ,each school was to be divided into six classes1 corresponding to the six years the pupil should spend in it4 ,the hours of work were to be1 in school1 two hours in the morning and two in the afternoon1 with nearly the same amount of private study4 ,in the morning the mind and memory were to be exercised1 in the afternoon the hands and voice4 ,each class was to have its proper lesson-book written expressly for it1 so as to contain everything that class had to learn4 ,when a lesson was to be got by heart from the book1 the teacher was first to read it to the class1 explain it1 and re-read it2 the boys then to read it aloud by turns till one of them offered to repeat it without book2 the others were to do the same as soon as they were able1 till all had repeated it4 ,this lesson was then to be worked over again as a writing lesson1 c4 ,in the higher forms of the vernacular school a modern language was to be taught and duly practised4 #cg4 ,here we see a regular school course projected which differed essentially from the only complete school course still earlier1 that of the ,jesuits4 ,in education ,comenius was immeasurably in advance of ,loyola and ,aquaviva4 ,like the great thinkers1 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel1 who most resemble him1 he thought of the development of the child from its birth2 and in a singularly wise little book1 called ,schola materni gremii1 or 8,school of the ,mother's ,breast10 he has given advice for bringing up children to the age of six4#gd #ch4 ,very interesting are the hints here given1 in which we get the first approaches to ,kindergarten training4 ,comenius saw that1 much as their elders might do to develop children's powers of thought and expression1 8yet children of the same age and the same manners and habits are of greater service still4 ,when they talk or play together1 they sharpen each other more effectually2 for the one does not surpass the other in depth of invention1 and there is among them no assumption of superiority of the one over the other1 only love1 candour1 free questionings and answers0 7,school of ,infancy1 vi1 #ab1 p4 #ch74ge ,the constant activity of children must be provided for4 8,it is better to play than to be idle1 for during play the mind is intent on some object which often sharpens the abilities4 ,in this way children may be early exercised to an active life without any difficulty1 since ,nature herself stirs them up to be doing something0 7,ib4 ix1 #ae1 p4 #ee74 8,in the second1 third1 fourth years1 c41 let their spirits be stirred up by means of agreeable play with them or their playing among themselves4444 ,nay1 if some little occupation can be conveniently provided for the child's eyes1 ears1 or other senses1 these will contribute to its vigour of mind and body0 7,ib4 vi1 #ba1 p4 #ca74 #ci4 ,we have the usual cautions against forcing4 8,early fruit is useful for the day1 but will not keep2 whereas late fruit may be kept all the year4 ,as some natural capacities would fly1 as it were1 before the sixth1 the fifth1 or even the fourth year1 yet it will be beneficial rather to restrain than permit this2 but very much worse to enforce it40 8,it is safer that the brain be rightly consolidated before it begin to sustain labours3 in a little child the whole bregma is scarcely closed and the brain consolidated within the fifth or sixth year4 ,it is sufficient1 therefore1 for this age to comprehend spontaneously1 imperceptibly and as it were in play1 so much as is employed in the domestic circle0 7,ib4 chap4 xi74 #dj4 ,one disastrous tendency has always shown itself in the schoolroom--the tendency to sever all connection between studies in the schoolroom and life outside4 ,the young pack away their knowledge as it were in water-tight compartments1 where it may lie conveniently till the scholastic voyage is over and it can be again unshipped4#gf ,against this tendency many great teachers have striven1 and none more vigorously than ,comenius4 ,like ,pestalozzi he sought to resolve everything into its simplest elements1 and he finds the commencements before the school age4 ,in the ,school of ,infancy he says 7speaking of rhetoric71 8,my aim is to shew1 although this is not generally attended to1 that the roots of all sciences and arts in every instance arise as early as in the tender age1 and that on these foundations it is neither impossible nor difficult for the whole superstructure to be laid2 provided always that we act reasonably with a reasonable creature0 7viij1 #f1 p4 #df74 ,this principle he applies in his chapter1 8,how children ought to be accustomed to an active life and perpetual employment0 7chap4 vij74 ,in the fourth and fifth year their powers are to be drawn out in mechanical or architectural efforts1 in drawing and writing1 in music1 in arithmetic1 geometry1 and dialectics4 ,for arithmetic in the fourth1 fifth1 or sixth year1 it will be sufficient if they count up to twenty2 and they may be taught to play at 8odd and even40 ,in geometry they may learn in the fourth year what are lines1 what are squares1 what are circles2 also the usual measures--foot1 pint1 quart1 c41 and soon they should try to measure and weigh for themselves4 ,similar beginnings are found for other sciences such as physics1 astronomy1 geography1 history1 economics1 and politics4 8,the elements of geography will be during the course of the first year and thenceforward1 when children begin to distinguish between their cradles and their mother's bosom0 7vj1 #f1 p4 #cd74 ,as this geographical knowledge extends1 they discover 8what a field is1 what a mountain1 forest1 meadow1 river0 7iv1 #i1 p4 #ag74 8,the beginning of history will be1 to be able to remember what was done yesterday1 what recently1 what a year ago40#gg 7,ib47 #da4 ,in this book ,comenius is careful to provide children with occupation for 8mind and hand0 7iv1 #aj1 p4 #ah74 ,drawing is to be practised by all4 8,it matters not10 says ,comenius1 8whether the objects be correctly drawn or otherwise provided that they afford delight to the mind40#gh #db4 ,we see then that this restless thinker considered the entire course of a child's bringing-up from the cradle to maturity2 and we cannot doubt that ,raumer is right in saying1 8,the influence of ,comenius on subsequent thinkers and workers in education1 especially on the ,methodizers1 is incalculable40 7,gesch4 d4 ,p41 ij1 8,comenius10 #aj47 ,before we think of his methods and school books1 let us inquire what he did for education that has proved to be on a solid foundation and 8not liable to any ruin40 #dc4 ,he was the first to reach a standpoint which was and perhaps always will be above the heads of 8the practical men10 and demand education for all4 8,we design for all who have been born human beings1 general instruction to fit them for everything human4 ,they must1 therefore1 as far as possible be taught together1 so that they may mutually draw each other out1 enliven and stimulate4 ,of the #8mother-tongue school' the end and aim will be1 that all the youth of both sexes between the sixth and the twelfth or thirteenth years be taught those things which will be useful to them all their life long40#gi ,in these days we often hear controversies between the men of science and the ministers of religion4 ,it is as far beyond my intention as it is beyond my abilities to discuss how far the antithesis between religion and science is a true one2 but our subject sometimes forces us to observe that religion and science often bring thinkers by different paths to the same result2 e4g41 they both refuse to recognise class distinctions and make us see an essential unity underlying superficial variations4 ,in ,comenius we have an earnest ,christian minister who was also an enthusiast for science4 ,moreover he was without social and virtually without national restrictions1 and he was thus in a good position for expressing freely and without bias what both his science and his religion taught him4 8,not only are the children of the rich and noble to be drawn to the school1 but all alike1 gentle and simple1 rich and poor1 boys and girls1 in great towns and small1 down to the country villages4 ,and for this reason4 ,every one who is born a human being is born with this intent--that he should be a human being1 that is1 a reasonable creature ruling over the other creatures and bearing the likeness of his ,maker40 7,didactica ,m4 ix1 #a47 ,this sounds to me nobler than the utterances of ,rousseau and the ,french ,revolutionists1 not to mention ,locke who fell back on considering merely 8the gentleman's calling40 ,even ,bishop ,butler a century after ,comenius hardly takes so firm a ground1 though he lays it down that 8children have as much right to some proper education as to have their lives preserved40#hj #dd4 ,the first man who demanded training for every human being because he or she was a human being must always be thought of with respect and gratitude by all who care either for science or religion4 ,it has taken us #bej years to reach the standpoint of ,comenius2 but we have reached it1 or almost reached it at last1 and when we have once got hold of the idea we are not likely to lose it again4 ,the only question is whether we shall not go on and in the end agree with ,comenius that the primary school shall be for rich and poor alike4 ,at present the practical men1 in ,england especially1 have things all their own way2 but their horizon is and must be very limited4 ,they have already had to adjust themselves to many things which their predecessors declared to be 8quite impracticable--indeed impossible40 ,may not their successors in like manner get accustomed to other 8impossible0 things1 this scheme of ,comenius among them8 #de4 ,the champions of realism have always recognised ,comenius as one of their earliest leaders4 ,bacon had just given voice to the scientific spirit which had at length rebelled against the literary spirit dominant at the ,renascence1 and had begun to turn from all that had been thought and said about ,nature1 straight to ,nature herself4 ,comenius was the professed disciple of 8the noble ,verulam1 who10 said he1 8has given us the true key of ,nature40 ,furnished with this key1 ,comenius would unlock the door of the treasure-house for himself4 8,it grieved me10 he says1 8that ,i saw most noble ,verulam present us indeed with a true key of ,nature1 but not to open the secrets of ,nature1 only shewing us by a few examples how they were to be opened1 and leave i4e41 leaving the rest to depend on observations and inductions continued for several ages40 ,comenius thought that by the light of the senses1 of reason1 and of the ,bible1 he might advance faster4 8,for what8 ,are not we as well as the old philosophers placed in ,nature's garden8 ,why then do we not cast about our eyes1 nostrils1 and ears as well as they8 ,why should we learn the works of ,nature of any other master rather than of these our senses8 ,why do we not1 ,i say1 turn over the living book of the world instead of dead papers8 ,in it we may contemplate more things and with greater delight and profit than any one can tell us4 ,if we have anywhere need of an interpreter1 the ,maker of ,nature is the best interpreter ,himself40 7,preface to ,naturall ,philosophie reformed4 ,english trans41 #afea47 #df4 ,several things are involved in this so-called 8realism40 ,first1 ,comenius would fix the mind of learners on material objects4 ,secondly1 he would have them acquire their notions of these for themselves through the senses4 ,from these two principles he drew the corollary that the vast accumulation of traditional learning and literature must be thrown overboard4 #dg4 ,the demand for the study of things has been best formulated by one of the greatest masters of words1 by ,milton4 8,because our understanding cannot in the body found itself but on sensible things1 nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of ,god and things invisible1 as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creature1 the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching40 7,to ,hartlib47 ,its material surroundings then are to be the subjects on which the mind of the child must be fixed4 ,this being settled1 ,comenius demands that the child's knowledge shall not be verbal but real realism1 knowledge derived at first hand through the senses4#ha #dh4 ,on this subject ,comenius may speak for himself3 8,the ground of this business is1 that sensual objects we now say sensible3 why not sensuous8 be rightly presented to the senses1 for fear they may not be received4 ,i say1 and say it again aloud1 that this last is the foundation of all the rest3 because we can neither act nor speak wisely1 unless we first rightly understand all the things which are to be done and whereof we have to speak4 ,now there is nothing in the understanding which was not before in the sense4 ,and therefore to exercise the senses well about the right perceiving the differences of things will be to lay the grounds for all wisdom and all wise discourse and all discreet actions in one's course of life4 ,which1 because it is commonly neglected in ,schools1 and the things that are to be learned are offered to scholars without their being understood or being rightly presented to the senses1 it cometh to pass that the work of teaching and learning goeth heavily onward and affordeth little benefit40 7,preface to ,orbis ,pictus1 ,hoole's trans4 ,a4,d4 #afeh47 #di4 ,without going into any metaphysical discussion1 we must all agree that a vast amount of impressions come to children through the senses1 and that it is by the exercise of the senses that they learn most readily4 ,as ,comenius says3 8,the senses 7being the main guides of childhood1 because therein the mind doth not as yet raise up it self to an abstracted contemplation of things7 evermore seek their own objects2 and if these be away1 they grow dull1 and wry themselves hither and thither out of a weariness of themselves3 but when their objects are present1 they grow merry1 wax lively1 and willingly suffer themselves to be fastened upon them till the thing be sufficiently discerned40 7,p4 to ,orbis47 ,this truth lay at the root of most of the methods of ,pestalozzi2 and though it has had little effect on teaching in ,england 7where for the word anschaulich there is no equivalent71 everything that goes on in a ,german ,folkschool has reference to it4 #ej4 ,for children then ,comenius gave good counsel when he would have their senses exercised on the world about them4 ,but after all1 whatever may be thought of the proposition that all knowledge comes through the senses1 we must not ignore what is bequeathed to us1 both in science and in literature4 ,comenius says3 8,and now ,i beseech you let this be our business that the schools may cease to persuade and begin to demonstrate2 cease to dispute and begin to look2 cease lastly to believe and begin to know4 ,for that ,aristotellical maxim #8,discentem oportet credere1 ,a learner must believe1' is as tyrannical as it is dangerous2 so also is that same ,pythagorean #8,ipse dixit1 ,the ,master has said it4' ,let no man be compelled to swear to his ,masters words1 but let the things themselves constrain the intellect40 7,p4 to ,nat4 ,phil4 ,r47 ,but the things themselves will not take us far4 ,even in ,natural ,science we need teachers1 for ,science is not reached through the senses but through the intellectual grasp of knowledge which has been accumulating for centuries4 ,if the education of times past has neglected the senses1 we must not demand that the education of the future should care for the senses only4 ,there is as yet little danger of our thinking too much of physical education2 but we sometimes hear reformers talking as if the true ideal were sketched in 8,locksley ,hall30 8,iron-jointed1 supple-sinew'd1 they shall dive1 and they shall run1 ,catch the wild goat by the hair1 and hurl their lances in the sun1 ,whistle back the parrot's call1 and leap the rainbows of the brooks2 ,not with blinded eyesight poring over miserable books40 ,there seems1 however1 still some reason for counting 8the gray barbarian lower than the ,christian child40 ,and the reason is that we are 8the heirs of all the ages40 ,our education must enable every child to enter in some measure on his inheritance2 and not a few of our most precious heirlooms will be found not only in scientific discoveries but also in those great works of literature which the votaries of science are apt to despise as 8miserable books40 ,this truth was not duly appreciated by ,comenius4 ,as ,professor ,laurie well says1 8he accepted only in a half-hearted way the products of the genius of past ages40 7,laurie's ,c41 p4 #bb47 ,in his day there was a violent reaction from the ,renascence passion for literature1 and ,comenius would entirely banish from education the only literatures which were then important1 the 8heathen0 literatures of ,greece and ,rome4 8,our most learned men10 says he1 8even among the theologians take from ,christ only the mask3 the blood and life they draw from ,aristotle and a crowd of other heathens40 7,see ,paulsen's ,gesch41 pp4 #cab1 ff47 ,so for ,cicero and ,virgil he would substitute1 and his contemporaries at first seemed willing to accept1 the ,janua ,linguarum4 ,but though there may be much more 8real0 knowledge in the ,janua1 the classics have survived it4#hb ,in these days there is a passion for the study of things which in its intensity resembles the ,renascence passion for literature4 ,there is a craving for knowledge1 and we know only the truths we can verify2 so this craving must be satisfied1 not by words1 but things4 ,and yet that domain which the physicists contemptuously describe as the study of words must not be lost sight of1 indeed cannot be1 either by young or old4 ,as ,matthew ,arnold has said1 8those who are for giving to natural knowledge the chief place in the education of the majority of mankind leave one important thing out of their account--the constitution of human nature40 8,we live by ,admiration1 ,hope1 and ,love1 ,and e'en as these are well and wisely fixed1 ,in dignity of being we ascend40 ,so says ,wordsworth1 and if this assertion cannot be verified1 no more can it be disproved2 that the words have become almost proverbial shows that it commends itself to the general consciousness4 ,whatever knowledge we may acquire1 it will have little effect on our lives unless we can 8relate it0 7again to use ,matthew ,arnold's words71 8to our sense of conduct and our sense of beauty40 7,discourses in ,america4 8,literature and ,science407 ,so long as we retain our sense for these1 8the humanities0 are safe4 ,like ,milton we may have no inclination to study 8modern ,januas10 but we shall not cease to value many of the works which the ,janua of ,comenius was supposed to have supplanted4#hc #ea4 8,analogies are good for illustration1 not for proof40 ,if ,comenius had accepted this caution1 he would have escaped much useless labour1 and might have had a better foundation for his rules than fanciful applications of what he observed in the external world4 8,comenius0 as ,august ,vogel has said1 8is unquestionably right in wishing to draw his principles of education from ,nature2 but instead of examining the proper constitution and nature of man1 and taking that as the basis of his theory1 he watches the life of birds1 the growth of trees1 or the quiet influence of the sun1 and thus substitutes for the nature of man nature without man 7die objective ,natur74 ,and yet by ,nature he understands that first and primordial state to which as to our original idea we should be restored1 and by the voice of ,nature he understands the universal ,providence of ,god or the ceaseless influence of the ,divine ,goodness working all in all1 that is1 leading every creature to the state ordained for it4 ,the vegetative and animal life in ,nature is according to ,comenius himself not life at all in its highest sense1 but the only true life is the intellectual or spiritual life of ,man4 ,no doubt in the two lower kinds of life certain analogies may be found for the higher2 but nothing can be less worthy of reliance and less scientific than a method which draws its principles for the higher life from what has been observed in the lower40 7,a4 ,vogel's ,gesch4 d4 ,pdagogik als ,wissenschaft1 p4 #id47 #eb4 ,this seems to me judicious criticism2 but whatever mistakes he may have made1 ,comenius1 like ,froebel long after him1 strove after a higher unity which should embrace knowledge of every kind4 ,the connexion of knowledges 7so constantly overlooked in the schoolroom7 was always in his thoughts4 8,we see that the branches of a tree cannot live unless they all alike suck their juices from a common trunk with common roots4 ,and can we hope that the branches of ,wisdom can be torn asunder with safety to their life1 that is to truth8 ,can one be a ,natural ,philosopher who is not also a ,metaphysician8 or an ,ethical ,thinker who does not know something of ,physical ,science8 or a ,logician who has no knowledge of real matters8 or a ,theologian1 a jurisconsult1 or a ,physician1 who is not first a ,philosopher8 or an ,orator or ,poet1 who is not all these at once8 ,he deprives himself of light1 of hand1 and of regulation1 who pushes away from him any shred of the knowable40 7,quoted in ,masson's ,l4 of ,milton vol4 iij41 p4 #bac from the ,delineatio1 i4e41 ,pansophi ,prodromus4 ,conf4 ,j4 ,h4 ,newman1 ,idea of a ,university1 ,disc4 iij47 #ec4 ,we see then that on the side of theory1 ,comenius was truly great4 ,but the practical man who has always been the tyrant of the schoolroom cared nothing for theory and held1 with a modern ,english minister responsible for education1 who proved his ignorance of theory by his 8,new ,code10 that there was1 and could be no such thing4 ,so the reputation of ,comenius became pretty much what our great authority ,hallam has recorded1 that he was a person of some ingenuity and little judgment who invented a new way of learning ,latin4 ,this estimate of him enables us to follow some windings in the stream of thought about education4 ,comenius faced the whole problem in its double bearing1 theory and practice3 he asked1 ,what is the educator's task8 ,how can he best accomplish it8 ,but his contemporaries had not yet recovered from the idolatry of ,latin which had been bequeathed to them by their fathers from the ,renascence1 and they too saw in ,comenius chiefly an inventor of a new way of learning ,latin4 ,he sought to train up children for this world and the next2 they supposed1 as ,oxenstiern himself said1 that the main thing to be remedied was the clumsy way of teaching ,latin4 ,so ,comenius was little understood4 ,his books were seized upon as affording at once an introduction to the knowledge of things and a short way of learning ,latin4 ,but in the long run they were found more tiresome than the old classics3 so they went out of fashion1 and their author was forgotten with them4 ,now that schoolmasters are forming a more worthy conception of their office1 they are beginning to do justice to ,comenius4 #ed4 ,as the ,jesuits kept to ,latin as the common language of the ,church1 so ,comenius thought to use it as a means of inter-communication for the instructed of every nationality4 ,but he was singularly free from over-estimating the value of ,latin1 and he demanded that all nations should be taught in their own language wherein they were born4 ,on this subject he expresses himself with great emphasis4 8,we desire and protest that studies of wisdom be no longer committed to ,latin alone1 and kept shut up in the schools1 as has hitherto been done1 to the greatest contempt and injury of the people at large1 and the popular tongues4 ,let all things be delivered to each nation in its own speech40 7,delineatio ,prodromus in ,masson ut supra47 #ee4 ,comenius was then neither a verbalist nor a classicist1 and yet his contemporaries were not entirely wrong in thinking of him as 8a man who had invented a new way of learning ,latin40 ,his great principle was that instruction in words and things should go together4#hd ,the young were to learn about things1 and at the same time were to acquire both in the vernacular and also in ,latin1 the international tongue1 the words which were connected with the things4 ,having settled on this plan of concurrent instruction in words and things1 ,comenius determined to write a book for carrying it out4 ,just then there fell into his hands a book which a less open-minded man might have thrown aside on account of its origin1 for it was written by the bitter foes and persecutors of the ,bohemian ,protestants1 by the ,jesuits4 ,but ,comenius says truly1 8,i care not whether ,i teach or whether ,i learn10 and he gave a marvellous proof of this by adopting the linguistic method of the ,jesuits' ,janua ,linguarum4#he ,this 8,noah's ,ark for words10 treated in a series of proverbs of all kinds of subjects1 in such a way as to introduce in a natural connection every common word in the ,latin language4 8,the idea10 says ,comenius1 8was better than the execution4 ,nevertheless1 inasmuch as they 7the ,jesuits7 were the prime inventors1 we thankfully acknowledge it1 nor will we upbraid them with those errors they have committed40 7,preface to ,anchoran's trans4 of ,janua47 #ef4 ,the plan commended itself to ,comenius on various grounds4 ,first1 he had a notion of giving an outline of all knowledge before anything was taught in detail4 ,next1 he could by such a book connect the teaching about simple things with instruction in the ,latin words which applied to them4 ,and thirdly1 he hoped by this means to give such a complete ,latin vocabulary as to render the use of ,latin easy for all requirements of modern society4 ,he accordingly wrote a short account of things in general1 which he put in the form of a dialogue1 and this he published in ,latin and ,german at ,leszna in #aeca4 ,the success of this work1 as we have already seen1 was prodigious4 ,no doubt the spirit which animated ,bacon was largely diffused among educated men in all countries1 and they hailed the appearance of a book which called the youth from the study of old philosophical ideas to observe the facts around them4 #eg4 ,the countrymen of ,bacon were not backward in adopting the new work1 as the following1 from the title-page of a volume in the ,british ,museum1 will show3 8,the ,gate of ,tongues ,unlocked and ,opened2 or else1 a ,seminary or ,seed-plot of all ,tongues and ,sciences4 ,that is1 a short way of teaching and thoroughly learning1 within a yeare and a half at the furthest1 the ,latine1 ,english1 ,french and any other tongue1 with the ground and foundation of arts and sciences1 comprised under a hundred titles and #ajeh periods4 ,in ,latin first1 and now1 as a token of thankfulness1 brought to light in ,latine1 ,english and ,french1 in the behalfe of the most illustrious ,prince ,charles1 and of ,british1 ,french1 and ,irish youth4 ,the #dth edition1 much enlarged1 by the labour and industry of ,john ,anchoran1 ,licentiate in ,divinity1 ,london4 ,printed by ,edward ,griffin for ,michael ,sparke1 dwelling at the ,blew ,bible in ,green ,arbor1 #afci40 ,the first edition must have been some years earlier1 and the work contains a letter to ,anchoran from ,comenius dated 8,lessiv polonorum 7,leszna7 #aath ,oct1 #afcb40 ,so we see that1 however the connexion arose1 it was ,anchoran not ,hartlib who first made ,comenius known in ,england4 #eh4 ,in the preface to the volume 7signed by ,anchoran and ,comenius7 we read of the complaints of 8,ascam1 ,vives1 ,erasmus1 ,sturmius1 ,frisclinus1 ,dornavius and others40 ,the ,scaligers and ,lipsius did climb but left no track4 8,hence it is that the greater number of schools 7howsoever some boast the happinesse of the age and the splendour of learning7 have not as yet shaked off their ataxies4 ,the youth was held off1 nay distracted1 and is yet in many places delayed with grammar precepts infinitely tedious1 perplexed1 obscure1 and 7for the most part7 unprofitable1 and that for many years40 ,the names of things were taught to those who were in total ignorance of the things themselves4 #ei4 ,from this barren region the pupil was to escape to become acquainted with things4 8,come on10 says the teacher in the opening dialogue1 8let us go forth into the open air4 ,there you shall view whatsoever ,god produced from the beginning1 and doth yet effect by nature4 ,afterwards we will go into towns1 shops1 schools1 where you shall see how men do both apply those ,divine works to their uses1 and also instruct themselves in arts1 manners1 tongues4 ,then we will enter into houses1 courts1 and palaces of princes1 to see in what manner communities of men are governed4 ,at last we will visit temples1 where you shall observe how diversely mortals seek to worship their ,creator and to be spiritually united unto ,him1 and how ,he by ,his ,almightiness disposeth all things40 7,this is from the #afef edition1 by 8,w4,d407 ,the book is still amusing1 but only from the quaint manner in which the mode of life two hundred years ago is described in it4#hf #fj4 ,but though parts of the book may on first reading have gratified the youth of the seventeenth century1 a great deal of it gave scanty information about difficult subjects1 such as physiology1 geometry1 logic1 rhetoric1 and that too in the driest and dullest way4 ,moreover1 in his first version 7much modified at ,saros-,patak7 ,comenius following the ,jesuit boasts that no important word occurs twice2 so that the book1 to attain the end of giving a perfect stock of ,latin words1 would have to be read and re-read till it was almost known by heart2 and however amusing boys might find an account of their toys written in ,latin the first time of reading1 the interest would somewhat wear away by the fifth or sixth time4 ,we cannot then feel much surprised on reading this 8general verdict10 written some years later1 touching those earlier works of ,comenius3 8,they are of singular use1 and very advantageous to those of more discretion 7especially to such as have already got a smattering in ,latin71 to help their memories to retain what they have scatteringly gotten here and there1 and to furnish them with many words which perhaps they had not formerly read or so well observed2 but to young children 7whom we have chiefly to instruct1 as those that are ignorant altogether of most things and words71 they prove rather a mere toil and burden than a delight and furtherance40 7,chas4 ,hoole's preface to his trans4 of ,orbis ,pictus1 dated 8,from my school in ,lothbury1 ,london1 ,jan4 #be1 #afeh407 #fa4 ,the 8,janua0 would1 therefore1 have had but a short-lived popularity with teachers1 and a still shorter with learners1 if ,comenius had not carried out his principle of appealing to the senses1 and adopted a plan which had been suggested1 nearly #ej years earlier1 by a ,protestant divine1 ,lubinus1#hg of ,rostock4 ,the artist was called in1 and with ,endter at ,nrnberg in #afeg was published the first edition of a book which long outlived the ,janua4 ,this was the famous ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus1 which was used for a century at least in many a schoolroom1 and lives in imitations to the present day4 ,comenius wrote this book on the same lines as the ,janua1 but he goes into less detail1 and every subject is illustrated by a small engraving4 ,the text is mostly on the opposite page to the picture1 and is connected with it by a series of corresponding numbers4 ,everything named in the text is numbered as in the picture4 ,the artist employed must have been a bold man1 as he sticks at nothing2 but in skill he was not the equal of many of his contemporaries2 witness the pictures in the ,schaffhausen ,janua 7,editio secunda1 ,schaffhus,i1 #afeh71 in ,daniel's edition of the ,janua1 #aefb1 and the very small but beautiful illustrations in the ,vestibulum of 8,jacob ,redinger and ,j4 ,s40 7,amsterdam1 #afgc74 ,however1 the ,orbis ,pictus gives such a quaint delineation of life #bjj years ago that copies with the original engravings keep rising in value1 and an ,american publisher 7,bardeen of ,syracuse1 ,new ,york71 has lately reproduced the old book with the help of photography4 #fb4 ,and yet as instruments of teaching1 these books1 i4e4 the ,vestibulum and the ,janua and even the ,orbis ,pictus which in a great measure superseded both1 proved a failure4 ,how shall we account for this8 ,comenius immensely over-estimated the importance of knowledge and the power of the human mind to acquire knowledge4 ,he took it for the heavenly idea that man should know all things4 ,this notion started him on the wrong road for forming a scheme of instruction1 and it needed many years and much experience to show him his error4 ,when he wrote the ,orbis ,pictus he said of it3 8,it is a little book1 as you see1 of no great bulk1 yet a brief of the whole world and a whole language20 7,hoole's trans4 ,preface72 and he afterwards speaks of 8this our little encyclopdia of things subject to the senses40 ,but in his old age he saw that his text-books were too condensed and attempted too much 7,laurie1 p4 #ei72 and he admitted that after all ,seneca was right3 8,melius est scire pauca et iis rect uti quam scire multa1 quorum ignores usum4 ,it is better to know a few things and have the right use of them than to know many things which you cannot use at all40 #fc4 ,the attempt to give 8information0 has been the ruin of a vast number of professing educators since ,comenius4 ,masters 8of the old school0 whom some of us can still remember made boys learn ,latin and ,greek ,grammar and nothing else4 ,their successors seem to think that boys should not learn ,latin and ,greek ,grammar but everything else3 and the last error ,i take to be much worse than the first4 ,as ,ruskin has neatly said1 education is not teaching people to know what they do not know1 but to behave as they do not behave4 ,it is to be judged not by the knowledge acquired1 but the habits1 powers1 interests3 knowledge must be thought of 8last and least40 #fd4 ,so the attempt to teach about everything was unwise4 ,the means adopted were unwise also4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that a 8general view0 should come first2 this is not the right way to give knowledge in any subject4 8,a child begins by seeing bits of everything--here a little and there a little2 it makes up its wholes out of its own littles1 and is long in reaching the fulness of a whole2 and in this we are children all our lives in much40 7,dr4 ,john ,brown in ,hor ,subseciv1 p4 #e47 ,so nothing could have been much more unfortunate than an attempt to give the young 8a brief of the whole world40 ,compendia1 dispendia4 #fe4 ,corresponding to 8a brief of the whole world10 ,comenius offers 8a brief of a whole language40 ,the two mistakes were well matched4 ,in 8the whole world0 there are a vast number of things of which we must1 and a good number of which we very advantageously may be ignorant4 ,in a language there are many words which we cannot know and many more which we do not want to know4 ,the language lives for us in a small vocabulary of essential words1 and our hold upon the language depends upon the power we have in receiving and expressing thought by means of those words4 ,but the ,jesuit ,bath1 and after him ,comenius1 made the tremendous mistake of treating all ,latin words as of equal value1 and took credit for using each word once and once only6 ,moreover1 ,comenius wrote not simply to teach the ,latin language1 but also to stretch the ,latin language till it covered the whole area of modern life4 ,he aimed at two things and missed them both4 #ff4 ,we see then that ,comenius was not what ,hallam calls him1 8a man who invented a new way of learning ,latin40 ,he did not do this1 but he did much more than this4 ,he saw that every human creature should be trained up to become a reasonable being1 and that the training should be such as to draw out ,god-given faculties4 ,thus he struck the key-note of the science of education4 ,the quantity and the diffuseness of the writings of ,comenius are truly bewildering4 ,in these days eminent men1 ,carlyle1 e4g41 sometimes find it difficult to get into print2 but printing-presses all over ,europe seemed to be at the service of ,comenius4 ,an account of the various editions of the ,janua would be an interesting piece of bibliography1 but the task of making it would not be a light one4 ,the earliest copy of which ,i can find a trace is entered in the catalogue of the ,bodleian3 8,comenius ,j4 ,a4 ,janua ,linguarum1 #hvo1 ,lips 7,leipzig7 #afcb40 ,i also find there another copy entered 8per ,anchoranum1 cum clave per ,w4 ,saltonstall1 ,london1 #afcc40 ,the fame of ,comenius is increasing and many interesting works have now been written about him4 ,i have already mentioned the ,english books of ,benham and ,laurie4 ,in ,german ,i have the following books1 but not the time to read them all3-- ,daniel1 ,h4 ,a4 ,zerstreute ,bltter4 ,halle1 #ahff4 ,free1 ,h4 ,pdagogik d4 ,comenius4 ,bernburg1 #ahhd4 ,hiller1 ,r4 ,latein ,methode d4 ,j4 ,a4 ,comenius4 ,zschopau1 #ahhc4 7v4 g4 and terse2 only #df pp47 ,mller1 ,walter4 ,comenius ein ,systematiker in d4 ,pd4 ,dresden1 #ahhg4 ,pappenheim1 ,e4 ,amos ,comenius4 ,berlin1 #ahga4 ,seyffarth1 ,l4 ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,comenius4 ,leipzig1 #bnd edition1 #ahga4 7,a careful and1 as far as ,i can judge in haste1 an excellent piece of work47 ,zoubek1 ,fr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,a4 ,comenius4 ,eine quellenmssige ,lebensskizze1 7,prefixed to trans4 of ,didac4 ,m4 in ,richter's ,pd4 ,bibliothek47 ,for a ,port-,royalist's criticism of the ,janua1 see infra4 7p4 #ahe note47 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,gentlemen ,,of ,,port-,,royal4#hh #a4 ,in the sixteen-hundreds by far the most successful schoolmasters were the ,jesuits4 ,in spite of their exclusion from the ,university1 they had in the ,province of ,paris some #ad1jjj pupils1 and in ,paris itself at the ,collge de ,clermont1 #a1hjj4 ,might they not have neglected 8the ,little ,schools10 which were organized by the friends and disciples of the ,abb de ,saint-,cyran1 schools in which the numbers were always small1 about twenty or twenty-five1 and only once increasing to fifty8 ,and yet the ,jesuits left no stone unturned1 no weapon unemployed1 in their attack on 8the ,little ,schools40 ,the conflict seems to us like an engagement between a man-of-war and a fishing-boat4 ,that the poor fishing-boat would soon be beneath the waves1 was clear enough from the beginning1 and she did indeed speedily disappear2 but the victors have never recovered from their victory and never will4 ,whenever we think of ,jesuitism we are not more forcibly reminded of ,loyola than of ,pascal4 ,all educated ,frenchmen1 most educated people everywhere1 get their best remembered impressions of the ,society of ,loyola from the ,provincial ,letters4#hi #b4 ,the ,society had a long standing rivalry with the ,university of ,paris1 and the ,university not only refused to admit the ,jesuits1 but several times petitioned the ,parliament to chase them out of ,france4 ,on one of these occasions the advocate who was retained by the ,university was ,antoine ,arnauld1 a man of renowned eloquence2 and he threw himself into the attack with all his heart4 ,from that time the ,jesuits had a standing feud with the house of ,arnauld4 #c4 ,but it was no mere personal dislike that separated the ,port-,royalists and the ,jesuits4 ,port-,royal with which the ,arnauld family was so closely united1 became the stronghold of a theology which was unlike that of the ,jesuits1 and was denounced by them as heresy4 ,the daughter of ,antoine ,arnauld was made1 at the age of eleven years1 ,abbess of ,port-,royal1 a ,cistercian convent not far from ,versailles4 ,this position was obtained for her by a fraud of ,marion1 ,henry ,,iv's advocate-general1 who thought only of providing comfortably for one of the twenty children to whom his daughter1 ,made4 ,arnauld1 had made him grandfather4 ,never was a nomination more scandalously obtained or used to better purpose4 ,the ,mre ,anglique is one of the saints of the universal church1 and she soon became the restorer of the religious life first in her own and then by her influence and example in other convents of her ,order4 #d4 ,in these reforms she had nothing to fear from her hereditary foes the ,jesuits2 but she soon came under the influence of a man whose theory of life was as much opposed to the ,jesuits' theory as to that of the world which found in the ,jesuits the most accommodating father confessors4 ,duvergier de ,hauranne 7#aeha-afdc7 better known by the name of his 8abbaye10 ,saint-,cyran1 was one of those commanding spirits who seem born to direct others and form a distinct society4 ,in vain ,richelieu offered him the posts most likely to tempt him4 ,the prize that ,saint-,cyran had set his heart upon was not of this world1 and ,richelieu could assist him in one way only--by persecution4 ,this assistance the ,cardinal readily granted1 and by his orders ,saint-,cyran was imprisoned at ,vincennes1 and not set at liberty till ,richelieu was himself summoned before a higher tribunal4 #e4 ,driven by prevailing sickness from ,port-,royal des ,champs1 the ,mre ,anglique transported her community 7in #afbf7 to a house purchased for them in ,paris by her mother who in her widowhood became one of the ,sisters4 ,in ,paris ,anglique sought for herself and her convent the spiritual direction of ,saint-,cyran 7not yet a prisoner71 and from that time ,saint-,cyran added the ,abbess and ,sisters of ,port-,royal to the number of those who looked up to him as their pattern and guide in all things4 ,port-,royal des ,champs was in course of time occupied by a band of solitaries who at the bidding of ,saint-,cyran renounced the world and devoted themselves to prayer and study4 ,to them we owe the works of 8the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal40 #f4 ,it is then to ,saint-,cyran we must look for the ideas which became the distinctive mark of the ,port-,royalists4 ,saint-,cyran was before all things a theologian4 ,in his early days at ,bayonne his studies had been shared by a friend who afterwards was professor of theology at ,louvain1 and then ,bishop of ,ypres4 ,this friend was ,jansenius4 ,their searches after truth had brought them to opinions which in the ,england of the nineteenth century are known as 8,evangelical40 ,according to 8,catholic0 teaching all those who receive the creed and the sacraments of the ,church and do not commit 8mortal0 sin are in a 8state of salvation10 that is to say the great majority of ,christians are saved4 ,this teaching is rejected by those of another school of thought who hold that only a few 8elect0 are saved and that the great body even of ,christians are doomed to perdition4 #g4 ,such a belief as this would seem to be associated of necessity with harshness and gloom2 but from whatever cause1 there has been found in many1 even in most1 cases no such connexion4 ,those who have held that the great mass of their fellow-creatures had no hope in a future world1 have thrown themselves lovingly into all attempts to improve their condition in this world4 ,still1 their main effort has always been to increase the number of the converted and to preserve them from the wiles of the enemy4 ,this ,saint-,cyran sought to do by selecting a few children and bringing them up in their tender years like hot-house plants1 in the hope that they would be prepared when older and stronger1 to resist the evil influences of the world4 #h4 ,his first plan was to choose out of all ,paris six children and to confide them to the care of a priest appointed to direct their consciences1 and a tutor of not more than twenty-five years old1 to teach them ,latin4 8,i should think10 says he1 8it was doing a good deal if ,i did not advance them far in ,latin before the age of twelve1 and made them pass their first years confined to one house or a monastery in the country where they might be allowed all the pastimes suited to their age and where they might see only the example of a good life set by those about them40 7,letter quoted by ,carr1 p4 #bj47 #i4 ,his imprisonment put a stop to this plan1 8but10 says ,saint-,cyran1 8,i do not lightly break off what ,i undertake for ,god20 so when intrusted with the disposal of #b1jjj francs by ,m4 ,bignon1 he started the first 8,little ,school10 in which two small sons of ,m4 ,bignon's were taken as pupils4 ,the name of 8,little ,schools10 was given partly perhaps because according to their design the numbers in any school could never be large1 partly no doubt to deprecate any suspicion of rivalry with the schools of the ,university4 ,the children were to be taken at an early age1 nine or ten1 before they could have any guilty knowledge of evil1 and ,saint-,cyran made in all cases a stipulation that at any time a child might be returned to his friends2 but in cases where the master's care seemed successful1 the pupils were to be kept under it till they were grown up4 #aj4 ,the ,little ,schools had a short and troubled career of hardly more than fifteen years4 ,they were not fully organized till #afdf2 they were proscribed a few years later and in #affa were finally broken up by ,louis ,,xiv1 who was under the influence of their enemies the ,jesuits4 ,but in that time the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal had introduced new ideas which have been a force in ,french education and indeed in all literary education ever since4 ,to ,saint-,cyran then we trace the attempt at a particular kind of school1 and to his followers some new departures in the training of the intellect4 #aa4 ,basing his system on the ,fall of ,man1 ,saint-,cyran came to a conclusion which was also reached by ,locke though by a different road4 ,to both of them it seemed that children require much more individual care and watching than they can possibly get in a public school4 ,saint-,cyran would have said what ,locke said3 8,the difference is great between two or three pupils in the same house and three or four score boys lodged up and down3 for let the master's industry and skill be never so great1 it is impossible he should have fifty or one hundred scholars under his eye any longer than they are in school together3 ,nor can it be expected that he should instruct them successfully in anything but their books2 the forming of their minds and manners preserving them from the danger of the enemy1 ,saint-,cyran would have said requiring a constant attention and particular application to every single boy1 which is impossible in a numerous flock1 and would be wholly in vain 7could he have time to study and correct everyone's peculiar defects and wrong inclinations7 when the lad was to be left to himself or the prevailing infection of his fellows the greater part of the four-and-twenty hours40 7,thoughts c4 ,ed4 #gj47 #ab4 ,an ,english public schoolmaster told the ,commission on ,public ,schools1 that he stood in loco parentis to fifty boys4 8,rather a large family10 observed one of the ,commissioners drily4 ,the truth is that in the bringing up of the young there is the place of the schoolmaster and of the school-fellows1 as well as that of the parents2 and of these several forces one cannot fulfil the functions of the others4 #ac4 ,according to the theory or at least the practice of ,english public schools1 boys are left in their leisure hours to organize their life for themselves1 and they form a community from which the masters are1 partly by their own over-work1 partly by the traditions of the school1 utterly excluded4 ,from this the intellectual education of the boys no doubt suffers4 8,engage them in conversation with men of parts and breeding10 says ,locke2 and this was the old notion of training when boys of good family grew up as pages in the household of some nobleman4 ,but1 except in the holidays1 the young aristocrats of the present day talk only with other boys1 and servants1 and tradesmen4 ,hence the amount of thought and conversation given to school topics1 especially the games1 is out of all proportion to the importance of such things2 and this does much to increase what ,matthew ,arnold calls 8the barbarians'0 inaptitude for ideas4 #ad4 ,what are we to say about the effects of the system on the morals of the boys8 ,if we were to start like ,saint-,cyran from the doctrine of human depravity1 we should entirely condemn the system and predict from it the most disastrous results2#ij but from experience we come to a very different conclusion4 ,bishop ,dupanloup1 indeed1 spoke of the public schools of ,france as 8ces gouffres40 ,this is not what is said or thought of the ,english schools1 and they are filled with boys whose fathers and grandfathers were brought up in them1 and desire above all things to maintain the old traditions4 #ae4 ,the ,little ,schools of ,port-,royal aimed at training a few boys very differently2 each master had the charge of five or six only1 and these were never to be out of his presence day or night4#ia #af4 ,it may reasonably be objected that such schools would be possible only for a few children of well-to-do parents1 and that men who would thus devote themselves could be found only at seasons of great enthusiasm4 ,under ordinary circumstances small schools have most of the drawbacks and few of the advantages which are to be found in large schools4 ,as ,i have already said1 parents1 schoolmasters1 and school-fellows have separate functions in education2 and even in the smallest school the master can never take the place of the parent1 or the school become the home4 ,children at home enter into the world of their father and mother2 the family friends are their friends1 the family events affect them as a matter of course4 ,but in the school1 however small1 the children's interests are unconnected with the master and the master's family4 ,the boys may be on the most intimate1 even affectionate terms with the grown people who have charge of them2 but the mental horizon of the two parties is very different1 and their common area of vision but small4 ,in such cases the young do not rise into the world of the adults1 and it is almost impossible for the adults to descend into theirs4 ,they are 8no company0 the one for the other1 and to be constantly in each other's presence would subject both to very irksome restraint4 ,when left to themselves1 boys in small numbers are far more likely to get into harm than boys in large numbers4 ,in large communities even of boys1 8the common sense of most0 is a check on the badly disposed4 ,so as it seems to me if from any cause the young cannot live at home and attend a day-school1 they will be far better off in a large boarding school than in one that would better fulfil the requirements of ,erasmus1#ib ,saint-,cyran1 and ,locke4 #ag4 ,as ,saint-,cyran attributed immense importance to the part of the master in education1 he was not easily satisfied with his qualifications4 8,there is no occupation in the ,church that is more worthy of a ,christian2 next to giving up one's life there is no greater charity4444 ,the charge of the soul of one of these little ones is a higher employment than the government of all the world40 7,cadet1 #b47 ,so thought ,saint-,cyran1 and he was ready to go to the ends of the earth to find the sort of teacher he wanted4 #ah4 ,he was so anxious that the children should see only that which was good that the servants were chosen with peculiar care4 #ai4 ,for the masters his favourite rule was3 8,speak little2 put up with much2 pray still more40 ,piety was not to be instilled so much by precepts as by the atmosphere in which the children grew up4 8,do not spend so much time in speaking to them about ,god as to ,god about them30 so formal instruction was never to be made wearisome4 ,but there was to be an incessant watch against evil influences and for good4 8,in guarding the citadel10 says ,lancelot1 8we fail if we leave open a single gateway by which the enemy might enter40 #bj4 ,though anxious1 like the ,jesuits1 to make their boys' studies 8not only endurable1 but even delightful10 the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal banished every form of rivalry4 ,each pupil was to think of one whom he should try to catch up1 but this was not a school-fellow1 but his own higher self1 his ideal4 ,here ,pascal admits that the exclusion of competition had its drawbacks and that the boys sometimes became indifferent--8tombent dans la nonchalance10 as he says4 #ba4 ,as for the instruction it was founded on this principle3 the object of schools being piety rather than knowledge there was to be no pressure in studying1 but the children were to be taught what was sound and enduring4 #bb4 ,in all occupations there is of necessity a tradition4 ,in the higher callings the tradition may be of several kinds4 ,first there may be a tradition of noble thoughts and high ideals1 which will be conveyed in the words of the greatest men who have been engaged in that calling1 or have thought out the theory of it4 ,next there will be the tradition of the very best workers in it4 ,and lastly there is the tradition of the common man who learns and passes on just the ordinary views of his class and the ordinary expedients for getting through ordinary work4 ,of these different kinds of tradition1 the school-room has always shown a tendency to keep to this last1 and the common man is supreme4 ,young teachers are mostly required to fulfil their daily tasks without the smallest preparation for them2 so they have to get through as best they can1 and have no time to think of any high ideal1 or of any way of doing their work except that which gives them least trouble4 8,practice makes perfect10 says the proverb1 but it would be truer to say that practice in doing work badly soon makes perfect in contentment with bad workmanship4 ,thus it is that the tradition of the school-room settles down for the most part into a deadly routine1 and teachers who have long been engaged in carrying it on seem to lose their powers of vision like horses who turn mills in the dark4 ,the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal worked free from school-room tradition4 8,if the want of emulation was a drawback10 says ,sainte-,beuve1 8it was a clear gain to escape from all routine1 from all pedantry4 ,la crasse et la morgue des rgents n'en approchaient pas40 7,p4,r4 vol4 iij1 p4 #dad7 ,piety as we have seen was their main object4 ,next to it they wished to 8carry the intellects of their pupils to the highest point they could attain to40 #bc4 ,in doing this they profited by their freedom from routine to try experiments4 ,they used their own judgments and sought to train the judgment of their pupils4 ,themselves knowing the delights of literature1 they resolved that their pupils should know them also4 ,they would banish all useless difficulties and do what they could to 8help the young and make study even more pleasant to them than play and pastime40 7,preface to ,cic4's ,billets1 quoted by ,sainte-,beuve1 vol4 iij1 p4 #dbc47 #bd4 ,one of their innovations1 though startling to their contemporaries1 does not seem to us very surprising4 ,it was the custom to begin reading with a three or four years' course of reading ,latin1 because in that language all the letters were pronounced4 ,the connexion between sound and sense is in our days not always thought of1 but even among teachers no advocates would now be found for the old method which kept young people for the first three or four years uttering sounds they could by no possibility understand4 ,the ,french language might have some disadvantage from its silent letters1 but this was small compared with the disadvantage felt in ,latin from its silent sense4 ,so the ,port-,royalists began reading with ,french4 #be4 ,further than this1 they objected to reading through spelling1 and pointed out that as consonants cannot be pronounced by themselves they should be taken only in connexion with the adjacent vowel4 ,pascal applied himself to the subject and invented the method described in the #fth chap4 of the ,general ,grammar 7,carr1 p4 xxiij7 and introduced by his sister ,jacqueline at ,port-,royal des ,champs4 #bf4 ,when the child could read ,french1 the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal sought for him books within the range of his intelligence4 ,there was nothing suitable in ,french1 so they set to work to produce translations in good ,french of the most readable ,latin books1 8altering them just a little--en y changeant fort peu de chose10 as said the chief translator ,de ,saci1 for the sake of purity4 ,in this way they gallicised the ,fables of ,phdrus1 three ,comedies of ,terence1 and the ,familiar ,letters 7,billets7 of ,cicero4 #bg4 ,in this we see an important innovation4 ,as ,i have tried to explain 7supra pp4 #ad ff47 the effect of the ,renascence was to banish both the mother-tongue and literature proper from the school-room2 for no language was tolerated but ,latin1 and no literature was thought possible except in ,latin or ,greek4 ,before any literature could be known1 or indeed1 instruction in any subject could be given1 the pupils had to learn ,latin4 ,this neglect of the mother-tongue was one of the traditional mistakes pointed out and abandoned by the ,port-,royalists4 8,people of quality complain10 says ,de ,saci1 8and complain with reason1 that in giving their children ,latin we take away ,french1 and to turn them into citizens of ancient ,rome we make them strangers in their native land4 ,after learning ,latin and ,greek for #aj or #ab years1 we are often obliged at the age of #cj to learn ,french40 7,cadet1 #aj47 ,so ,port-,royal proposed breaking through this bondage to ,latin1 and laid down the principle1 new in ,france1 though not in the country of ,mulcaster or of ,ratke1 that everything should be taught through the mother-tongue4 ,next1 the ,port-,royalists sought to give their pupils an early and a pleasing introduction to literature4 ,the best literature in those days was the classical2 and suitable works from that literature might be made intelligible by means of translations4 ,in this way the ,port-,royalists led their pupils to look upon some of the classical authors not as inventors of examples in syntax1 but as writers of books that meant something4 ,and thus both the mother-tongue and literature were brought into the school-room4 #bh4 ,when the boys had by this means got some feeling for literature and some acquaintance with the world of the ancients1 they began the study of ,latin4 ,here again all needless difficulties were taken out of their way4 ,no attempt indeed was made to teach language without grammar1 the rationale of language1 but the science of grammar was reduced to first principles 7set forth in the ,grammaire ,gnrale et ,raisonne of ,arnauld and ,lancelot71 and the special grammar of the ,latin language was no longer taught by means of the work established in the ,university1 the ,latin ,latin ,grammar of ,despautre1 but by a 8,new ,method0 written in ,french which gave essentials only and had for its motto3 8,mihi inter virtutes grammatici habebitur aliqua nescire--,to me it will be among the grammarian's good points not to know everything40 7,quintil47#ic #bi4 ,with this minimum of the essentials of the grammar and with a previous acquaintance with the sense of the book the pupils were introduced to the ,latin language and were taught to translate a ,latin author into ,french4 ,this was a departure from the ordinary route1 which after a course of learning grammar-rules in ,latin went to the 8theme10 i4e41 to composition in ,latin4 ,the art of translating into the mother-tongue was made much of4 ,school 8construes10 which consist in substituting a word for a word1 were entirely forbidden1 and the pupils had to produce the old writer's thoughts in ,french4#id #cj4 ,from this we see that the training was literary4 ,but in the study of form the ,port-,royalists did not neglect the inward for the outward4 ,their great work1 which still stands the attacks of time1 is the ,port-,royal ,logic1 or the ,art of ,thinking 7see ,trans1 by ,t4 ,spencer ,baynes1 #ahej74 ,this was substantially the work of ,arnauld2 and it was ,arnauld who led the ,port-,royalists in their rupture with the philosophy of the ,middle ,age1 and who openly followed ,descartes4 ,in the ,logic we find the claims of reason asserted as if in defiance of the ,jesuits4 8,it is a heavy bondage to think oneself forced to agree in everything with ,aristotle and to take him as the standard of truth in philosophy4444 ,the world cannot long continue in this restraint1 and is recovering by degrees its natural and reasonable liberty1 which consists in accepting that which we judge to be true and rejecting that which we judge to be false40 7,quoted by ,cadet1 p4 #ca47ie #ca4 ,to mark the change1 the ,port-,royalists called their book not 8the ,art of ,reasoning10 but 8the ,art of ,thinking10 and it was in this art of thinking that they endeavoured to train their scholars4 ,they paid great attention to geometry1 and ,arnauld wrote a book 78,new ,elements of ,geometry07 which so well satisfied ,pascal that after reading the ,,ms4 he burnt a similar work of his own4 #cb4 ,the ,port-,royalists then sought to introduce into the school-room a 8sweet reasonableness40 ,they were not touched1 as ,comenius was1 by the spirit of ,bacon1 and knew nothing of a key for opening the secrets of ,nature4 ,they loved literature and resolved that their pupils should love it also2 and with this end they would give the first notions of it in the mother-tongue2 but the love of literature still bound them to the past1 and they aimed simply at making the best of the ,old ,education without any thought of a ,new4 #cc4 ,in one respect they seem less wise than ,rabelais and ,mulcaster1 less wise perhaps than their foes the ,jesuits4 ,they gave little heed to training the body1 and thought of the soul and the mind only2 or if they thought of the body they were concerned merely that it should do no harm4 8,not only must we form the minds of our pupils to virtue10 says ,nicole1 8we must also bend their bodies to it1 that is1 we must endeavour that the body do not prove a hindrance to their leading a well-regulated life or draw them by its weight to any disorder4 ,for we should know that as men are made up of mind and body1 a wrong turn given to the body in youth is often in after life a great hindrance to piety40 7,vues p4 bien lever un prince1 quoted by ,cadet1 p4 #bjf47 #cd4 ,but let us not underrate the good effect produced by this united effort of ,christian toil and ,christian thought4 8,nothing should be more highly esteemed than good sense10 7,preface to the ,logique71 and ,port-,royal did a great work in bringing good sense and reason to bear on the practice of the school-room4 ,when the ,little ,schools were dispersed the ,gentlemen still continued to teach1 but the lessons they gave were now in the 8art of thinking0 and in the art of teaching2 and all the world might learn of them1 for they taught in the only way left open to them2 they published books4 #ce4 ,of these writers on pedagogy the most distinguished was 8the great ,arnauld10 i4e41 ,antoine ,arnauld1 7#afab-afid7 brother of the ,mre ,anglique4 ,his 8,rglement des tudes0 shows us how literary instruction was given at ,port-,royal4 ,in these directions we have not so much the rules observed in the ,little ,schools as the experience of the ,little ,schools rendered available for the schools of the ,university4 ,on this account ,sainte-,beuve speaks of the ,rglement of ,arnauld as forming a preface to the ,treatise on ,studies 7,trait des tudes7 of ,rollin4 ,in the ,rglement we see ,arnauld yielding to what seems a practical necessity and admitting competition and prizes4 ,some excellent advice is given1 especially on practice in the use of the mother-tongue4 ,the young people are to question and answer each other about the substance of what they have read1 about the more remarkable thoughts in their author or the more beautiful expressions4 ,each day two of the boys are to narrate a story which they themselves have selected from a classical author4#if #cf4 ,with the notable exception of ,pascal1 ,arnauld was the most distinguished writer among the ,gentlemen of ,port-,royal4 ,a writer less devoted to controversy than ,arnauld1 less attached to the thought of ,saint-,cyran and of ,descartes1 but of wider popularity1 was ,nicole1 who had ,made4 de ,svign for an admirer1 and ,locke for one of his translators4 ,nicole has given us a valuable contribution to pedagogy in his essay on the right bringing-up of a prince4 7,vues gnrales pour bien lever un prince47 ,in this essay he shows us with what thought and care he had applied himself to the art of instruction1 and he gives us hints that all teachers may profit by4 ,take the following3-- #cg4 8,properly speaking it is not the masters1 it is no instruction from without1 that makes things understood2 at the best the masters do nothing but expose the things to the interior light of the mind1 by which alone they can be understood4 ,it follows that where this light is wanting instruction is as useless as trying to shew pictures in the dark4 ,the very greatest minds are nothing but lights in confinement1 and they have always sombre and shady spots2 but in children the mind is nearly full of shade and emits but little rays of light4 ,so everything depends on making the most of these rays1 on increasing them and exposing to them what one wishes to have understood4 ,for this reason it is hard to give general rules for instructing anyone1 because the instruction must be adapted to the mixture of light and darkness1 which differs widely in different minds1 especially with children4 ,we must look where the day is breaking and bring to it what we wish them to understand2 and to do this we must try a variety of ways for getting at their minds and must persevere with such as we find have most success4 8,but generally speaking we may say that1 as in children the light depends greatly on their senses1 we should as far as possible attach to the senses the instruction we give them1 and make it enter not only by the ear but also by the sight1 as there is no sense which makes so lively an impression on the mind and forms such sharp and clear ideas40 ,this is excellent4 ,there is a wise proverb that warns us that 8however soon we get up in the morning the sunrise comes never the earlier40 ,a vast amount of instruction is thrown away because the instructors will not wait for the day-break4 #ch4 ,for the moral training of the young there is one qualification in the teacher which is absolutely indispensable--goodness4 ,similarly for the intellectual training1 there is an indispensable qualification--intelligence4 ,this is the qualification required by the system of ,port-,royal1 but not required in working the ordinary machinery of the school-room either in those days or in ours4 ,when ,nicole has described how instruction should be given so as to train the judgment and cultivate the taste1 he continues3 8,as this kind of instruction comes without observation1 so is the profit derived from it likely to escape observation also2 that is1 it will not announce itself by anything on the surface and palpable to the common man4 ,and on this account persons of small intelligence are mistaken about it and think that a boy thus instructed is no better than another1 because he cannot make a better translation from ,latin into ,french1 or beat him in saying his ,virgil4 ,thus judging of the instruction by these trifles only1 they often make less account of a really able teacher than of one of little science and of a mind without light40 7,nicole in ,cadet1 p4 #bjd2 ,carr1 p4 #ahg47 ,in these days of marks and percentages we seem agreed that it must be all right if the children can stand the tests of the examiner or the inspector4 ,something may no doubt be got at by these tests2 but we cannot hope for any genuine care for education while everything is estimated 8par des signes grossiers et extrieurs40 #ci4 ,whatever was required to adapt the thought of ,port-,royal to the needs of classical schools1 especially the schools of the ,university of ,paris was supplied by ,rollin 7#affa-agda7 whose ,trait des tudes or 8,way of teaching and studying ,literature10 united the lessons of ,port-,royal with much material drawn from his own experience and from his acquaintance with the writings of other authors1 especially ,quintilian and ,seneca4 ,having been twice ,rector of the ,university 7in #afid and #afie7 ,rollin had managed to bring into the schools much that was due to ,port-,royal2 and in his ,trait he has the tact to give the improved methods as the ordinary practice of his colleagues4 #dj4 ,much that ,rollin has said applies only to classical or at most to literary instruction2 but some of his advice will be good for all teachers as long as the human mind needs instruction4 ,i have met with nothing that seems to me to go more truly to the very foundation of the art of teaching than the following3 8,we should never lose sight of this grand principle that ,,study ,,depends ,,on ,,the ,,will1 and the will does not endure constraint3 #8,studium discendi voluntate qu cogi non potest constat4' 7,quint4 j1 #a1 cap4 #c47ig ,we can1 to be sure1 put constraint on the body and make a pupil1 however unwilling1 stick to his desk1 can double his toil by punishment1 compel him to finish a task imposed upon him1 and with this object we can deprive him of play and recreation4 ,but is this work of the galley-slave studying8 ,and what remains to the pupil from this kind of study but a hatred of books1 of learning1 and of masters1 often till the end of his days8 ,it is then the will that we must draw on our side1 and this we must do by gentleness1 by friendliness1 by persuasion1 and above all by the allurement of pleasure40 7,trait1 #hth ,bk4 ,du ,gouvernement des ,classes1 #are ,partie1 ,art4 x47 #da4 ,the passage ,i have quoted is from the ,article 8on giving a taste for study 7rendre l'tude aimable720 and if some masters do not agree that this is 8one of the most important points concerning education10 they will not deny that 8it is at the same time one of the most difficult40 ,as ,rollin truly says1 8among a very great number of masters who in other respects are highly meritorious there will be found very few who manage to get their pupils to like their work40 #db4 ,one of the great causes of the disinclination for school work is to be found according to ,rollin and ,quintilian1 in the repulsive form in which children first become acquainted with the elements of learning4 8,in this matter success depends very much on first impressions2 and the main effort of the masters who teach the first rudiments should be so to do this1 that the child who cannot as yet love study should at least not get an aversion for it from that time forward1 for fear lest the bitter taste once acquired should still be in his mouth when he grows older40#ih 7,begin4 of ,art4 x1 as above47 #dc4 ,in this matter ,rollin was more truly the disciple of the ,port-,royalists than of ,quintilian4 ,they it was who protested against the dismal 8grind0 of learning to read first in an unknown tongue1 and of studying the rules of ,latin in ,latin with no knowledge of ,latin1 a course which professed to lead1 as ,sainte-,beuve puts it1 8to the unknown through the unintelligible40 ,they directed their highly-trained intellects to the teaching of the elements1 and succeeded in proving that the ordinary difficulties were due not to the dulness of the learners1 but to the stupidity of the masters4 ,they showed how much might be done to remove these difficulties by following not routine but the dictates of thought1 and study and love of the little ones4 ,there is an excellent though condensed account of the ,port-,royalists under 8,jansenists0 in ,sonnenschein's ,cyclopdia of ,education4 ,in vol4 ij1 of ,charles ,beard's ,port-,royal1 7#b vols41 #ahfa7 there is a chapter on the ,little ,schools4 ,the most pleasing account ,i have seen in ,english of the ,port-,royalists 7without reference to education7 is in ,sir ,jas4 ,stephen's ,essays on ,ecclesiastical ,biography4 ,in ,french the great work on the subject is ,sainte-,beuve's ,port-,royal1 #e vols4 7#ga ed41 #f vols47 ,the account of the ,schools is in #dth bk41 in vol4 iij1 of #ast ed4 ,very useful for studying the pedagogy of ,port-,royal are ,l',education ,port-,royal by ,flix ,cadet 7,hachette1 #ahhg7 and ,les ,pdagogues de ,port-,royal1 by ,i4 ,carr 7,delagrave1 #ahhg74 ,these last give extracts from the main writings on education by ,arnauld1 ,nicole1 ,lancelot1 ,coustel1 c4 ,the article1 ,port-,royal1 in ,buisson's ,d41 is the 8,introduction0 to ,carr's book4 ,a #c-vol4 ed4 of ,rollin's ,trait was published 7,paris1 ,didot7 in #ahgb4 ,the more interesting parts of this book are contained in ,f4 ,cadet's ,rollin3 ,trait des tudes 7,delagrave1 #ahhb74 ,rollin's work was at one time well-known in the ,english trans41 and copies of it are often to be found 8second-hand40 ,the best part comes last2 which may account for the neglect into which the book has fallen4 ,the accounts of ,port-,royal and of ,rollin in ,g4 ,compayr's ,histoire ,critique are very good parts of a very good book4 ,vrin's tude sur ,lancelot ,i have not seen1 and it is only too probable that ,i have not given to ,lancelot the attention due to him4 ,,xii4 ,,some ,,english ,,writers ,,before ,,locke4 #a4 ,the beginning of the #agth century brought with it a change in the main direction of thought and interest4 ,as we have seen1 the #afth century adored literature and was thrown back on the remote past4 ,some of the great scholars like ,sturm had indeed visions of literary works to be written1 that would rival the old models on which they were fashioned2 but whether they hoped or not to bring back the ,golden ,age all the scholars of the ,renascence thought of it as having been4 ,with the change of century1 however1 a new conception came into men's minds4 ,might not this worship of the old writers after all be somewhat of a superstition8 ,the languages in which they wrote were beautiful languages1 no doubt1 but they were ill adapted to express the ideas and wants of the modern world4 ,as for the substance of these old writings1 this did not satisfy the cravings of men's minds4 ,it left unsolved all the main problems of existence1 and offered for knowledge mere speculations or poetic fancies or polished rhetoric4 ,man needed to understand his position with regard to ,god and to ,nature2 but on both of these topics the classics were either silent or misleading4 ,revelation had supplied what the classics could not give concerning man's relation to ,god2 but nothing had as yet thrown light on his relation to ,nature4 ,and yet with his material body and animal life he could not but see how close that relation was1 and could not but wish that something about it might be known1 not simply guessed or feigned4 ,hence the demand for real knowledge1 that is1 a knowledge of the facts of the universe as distinct from the knowledge of what men have thought and said4 ,we have heard of the mathematician who put down ,paradise ,lost with the remark that it seemed to him a poor book1 for it did not prove anything2 and it was just in this spirit that the new school of thinkers1 the ,realists1 looked upon the classics4 ,they wanted to know ,nature's laws3 and words which did not convey such knowledge seemed to them of little value4 #b4 ,here was a tremendous revolution from the mode of thought prevalent in the ,renascence4 ,no longer was the ,golden ,age in the past4 ,in science the ,golden ,age must always be in the future4 ,scientific men start with what has been discovered and add to it4 ,every discovery passes into the common stock of knowledge1 and becomes the property of everyone who knows it just as much as of the discoverer4 ,harvey had no more property in the circulation of the blood1 ,newton and ,leibnitz no more property in the ,differential ,calculus than ,columbus in the ,continent of ,america2 indeed not so much1 for ,columbus gained some exclusive rights in ,america1 but ,harvey gained none over the blood4 ,so we see that whereas the literary spirit made the dominant minds reverence the past1 the scientific spirit led them to despise the past2 and whereas the literary spirit raised the value of words and led to the study of celebrated writings1 the scientific spirit was totally careless about words and prized only physical truths which were entirely independent of words4 ,again1 the literary spirit naturally favoured the principle of authority1 for its oracles had already spoken3 the scientific spirit set aside all authority and accepted nothing that did not of itself satisfy the reason4 7,compare ,comenius1 supra p4 #aeb47 #c4 ,the first great leader in this revolution was an ,englishman1 ,francis ,bacon4 ,but the school-room felt his influence only through those who learnt from him2 and among educational reformers1 the chief advocates of realism have been found on the ,continent1 e4g41 ,ratke and ,comenius4#ii ,but the desire to learn by 8things1 not words0 affected the minds of many ,english writers on education1 and we find this spirit showing itself even in ,milton and ,locke1 and far more clearly in some writers less known to fame4 #d4 ,there is a wide distinction in educational writers between those who were schoolmasters and those who were not4 ,schoolmasters have to come to terms with what exists and to make a livelihood by it4 ,so they are conservatives by position1 and rarely get beyond an attempt at showing how that which is now done badly might be done well4 ,suggestions of radical change usually come from those who never belonged to the class of teachers1 or who1 not without disgust1 have left it4 ,among ,english schoolmasters of the olden times the chief writers ,i have met with besides ,mulcaster are ,john ,brinsley the elder1 and ,charles ,hoole4 #e4 ,john ,brinsley the elder1 a ,puritan schoolmaster at ,ashby-de-la-,zouch1 a brother-in-law of ,bishop ,hall's1 and father of ,john ,brinsley the younger who became a leading ,puritan minister and author1 was a veritable reformer1 but only with reference to methods4 ,his most interesting books are ,ludus ,literarius or the ,grammar ,schoole1 #afab 7written after #bj years' experience in teaching1 as we learn from the ,consolation1 p4 #de71 and ,a ,consolation for our ,grammar ,schooles3 or a faithfull and most comfortable incouragement for laying of a sure foundation of all good learning in our schooles and for prosperous building thereupon1 #afbb4 ,the first of these1 when reprinted1 as it is sure to be1 will always secure for its author the notice and the gratitude of students of the history of our education2 for in this book he tells us not only what should be done in the school-room1 but also what was done4 ,in a dialogue with the ordinary schoolmaster the reformer draws to light the usual practice1 criticizes it1 and suggests improvements4 #f4 ,in ,brinsley we get no hint of realism2 but by the middle of the sixteen hundreds we find the realistic spirit is felt even by a schoolmaster1 ,charles ,hoole1#ajj who was a kinsman of ,bishop ,sanderson1 the ,casuist1 and was master first of the ,grammar ,school at ,rotherham1 then of a private ,grammar ,school in ,london1 published besides a number of school books1 a translation of the ,orbis ,pictus 7date of preface1 ,january1 #afeh71 and also 8,a ,new ,discovery of the old art of teaching schoole 444 published for the general profit1 especially of young ,schoolemasters0 7date of preface1 ,december1 #afei74 ,in these books we find that ,hoole succeeded even in the school-room in keeping his mind open4 ,he complains of the neglect of ,english1 and evidently in theory at least went a long way with the realistic reformers4 8,comenius10 he says1 8hath proceeded 7as ,nature itself doth7 in an orderly way1 first to exercise the senses well by presenting their objects to them1 and then to fasten upon the intellect by impressing the first notions of things upon it and linking them one to another by a rational discourse2 whereas indeed we generally1 missing this way1 do teach children as we do parrots to speak they know not what1 nay1 which is worse1 we taking the way of teaching little ones by grammar only1 at the first do puzzle their imaginations with abstractive terms and secondary intentions1 which1 till they be somewhat acquainted with things1 and the words belonging to them in the language which they learn1 they cannot apprehend what they mean4 ,and this ,i guess to be the reason why many greater persons do resolve sometimes not to put a child to school till he be at least eleven or twelve years of age4444 ,you then1 that have the care of little children1 do not too much trouble their thoughts and clog their memories with bare grammar rudiments1 which to them are harsh in getting1 and fluid in retaining2 because indeed to them they signifie nothing but a meer swimming notion of a general term1 which they know not what it meaneth till they comprehend all particulars3 but by this i4e41 the ,orbis ,p4 or the like subsidiarie inform them first with some knowledge of things and words wherewith to express them2 and then their rules of speaking will be better understood and more firmly kept in mind4 ,else how should a child conceive what a rule meaneth when he neither knoweth what the ,latine word importeth1 nor what manner of thing it is which is signified to him in his own native language which is given him thereby to understand the rule8 for rules consisting of generalities are delivered 7as ,i may say7 at a third hand1 presuming first the things and then the words to be already apprehended touching which they are made40 ,this subject ,hoole wisely commends to the consideration of teachers1 8it being the very basis of our profession to search into the way of children's taking hold by little and little of what we teach them1 that so we may apply ourselves to their reach40 7,preface to trans4 of ,orbis ,pictus47 #g4 8,good ,lord6 how many good and clear wits of children be now-a-days perished by ignorant schoolmasters60 ,so said ,sir ,thomas ,elyot in his ,governor in #aeca1 and the complaint would not have been out of date in the #agth century1 possibly not in the #aith4 ,in the sixteen hundreds we certainly find little advance in practice1 though in theory many bold projects were advanced1 some of which pointed to the study of things1 to the training of the hand1 and even to observation of the 8educands40 #h4 ,the poet ,cowley's 8proposition for the advancement of experimental philosophy0 is a scheme of a college near ,london to which is to be attached a school of #bjj boys4 8,and because it is deplorable to consider the loss which children make of their time at most schools1 employing or rather casting away six or seven years in the learning of words only1 and that too very imperfectly2 that a method be here established for the infusing knowledge and language at the same time1 ,is this an echo of ,comenius8 and that this may be their apprenticeship in ,natural ,philosophy40#aja #i4 ,rarely indeed have those who either theoretically or practically have made a study of education ever acquired sufficient literary skill to catch the ear of the public or 7what is at least as difficult7 the ear of the teaching body4 ,and among the eminent writers who have spoken on education1 as ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1 ,milton1 ,locke1 ,rousseau1 ,herbert ,spencer1 we cannot find one who has given to it more than passing1 if not accidental1 attention4 ,schoolmasters are1 as ,i said1 conservative1 at least in the school-room2 and moreover1 they seldom find the necessary time1 money1 or inclination for publishing on the work of their calling4 ,the current thought at any period must then be gathered from books only to be found in our great libraries1 books in which writers now long forgotten give hints of what was wanted out of the school-room and grumble at what went on in it4 #aj4 ,one of the most original of these writers that have come in my way is ,john ,dury1 a ,puritan1 who was at one time ,chaplain to the ,english ,company of ,merchants at ,elbing1 and laboured with ,comenius and ,hartlib to promote unity among the various ,christian bodies of the reformed faith 7see ,masson's ,life of ,milton1 vol4 iii74 ,about #afdi ,dury published ,the ,reformed ,schoole which gives the scheme of an association for the purpose of educating a number of boys and girls 8in a ,christian way40 #aa4 ,that ,dury was not himself a schoolmaster is plain from the first of his 8rules of education40 8,the chief rule of the whole work is that nothing be made tedious and grievous to the children1 but all the toilsomeness of their business the ,governor and ,ushers are to take upon themselves2 that by diligence and industry all things may be so prepared1 methodized and ordered for their apprehension1 that this work may unto them be as a delightful recreation by the variety and easiness thereof40 #ab4 8,the things to be looked unto in the care of their education10 he enumerates in the order of importance3 8#a4 ,their advancement in piety2 #b4 ,the preservation of their health2 #c4 ,the forming of their manners2 #d4 ,their proficiency in learning0 7p4 #bd74 8,godliness and bodily health are absolutely necessary10 says ,dury2 8the one for spiritual and the other for their temporal felicitie0 7p4 #ca73 so great care is to be taken in 8exercising their bodies in husbandry or manufactures or military employments40#ajb #ac4 ,about instruction we find the usual complaints which like 8mother's truth keep constant youth40 8,children10 says ,dury1 8are taught to read authors and learn words and sentences before they can have any notion of the things signified by those words and sentences or of the author's strain and wit in setting them together2 and they are made to learn by heart the generall rules1 sentences and precepts of ,arts before they are furnished with any matter whereunto to apply those rules and precepts0 7p4 #ch74 ,dury would entirely sweep away the old routine1 and in all instruction he would keep in view the following end3 8the true end of all human learning is to supply in ourselves and others the defects which proceed from our ignorance of the nature and use of the creatures1 and the disorderliness of our natural faculties in using them and reflecting upon them0 7p4 #da74 #ad4 8,our natural faculties0--here ,dury struck a new note1 which has now become the keynote in the science of education4 ,he enforces his point with the following ingenious illustration3--8,as in a watch one wheel rightly set doth with its teeth take hold of another and sets that a-work towards a third2 and so all move one by another when they are in their right places for the end for which the watch is made2 so is it with the faculties of the human nature being rightly ordered to the ends for which ,god hath created them4 ,but contrariwise1 if the wheels be not rightly set1 or the watch not duly wound up1 it is useless to him that hath it4 ,and so it is with the faculties of ,man2 if his wheels be not rightly ordered and wound up by the ends of sciences in their subordination leading him to employ the same according to his capacity to make use of the creatures for that whereunto ,god hath made them1 he becomes not only useless1 but even a burthen and hurtful unto himself and others by the misusing of them0 7p4 #dc74 #ae4 8,as in ,nature sense is the servant of imagination2 imagination of memory2 memory of reason2 so in teaching arts and sciences we must set these faculties a-work in this order towards their proper objects in everything which is to be taught4 ,whence this will follow1 that as the faculties of ,man's soul naturally perfect each other by their mutual subordination2 so the ,arts which perfect those faculties should be gradually suggested3 and the objects wherewith the faculties are to be conversant according to the rules of ,art should be offered in that order which is answerable to their proper ends and uses and not otherwise40 #af4 ,in this and much else that ,dury says we see a firm grasp of the principle that the instruction given should be regulated by the gradual development of the learner's faculties4 ,the three sources of our knowledge1 says he1 are--#a4 ,sense2 #b4 ,tradition2 #c4 ,reason2 and ,sense comes first4 8,art or sciences which may be learnt by mere sense should not be learnt any other way40 8,as children's faculties break forth in them by degrees to be vigorous with their years and the growth of their bodies1 so they are to be filled with objects whereof they are capable1 and plied with arts2 whence followeth that while children are not capable of the acts of reasoning1 the method of filling their senses and imaginations with outward objects should be plied4 ,nor is their memory at this time to be charged further with any objects than their imagination rightly ordered and fixed doth of itself impress the same upon them40 ,after speaking of the common abuse of general rules1 he says3 8,so far as those faculties 7viz41 sense1 imagination1 and memory7 are started with matters of observation1 so far rules may be given to direct the mind in the use of the same1 and no further40 8,the arts and sciences which lead us to reflect upon the use of our own faculties are not to be taught till we are fully acquainted with their proper objects1 and the direct acts of the faculties about them40 ,so 8it is a very absurd and preposterous course to teach ,logick and ,metaphysicks before or with other ,humane ,sciences which depend more upon ,sense and ,imagination than reasoning0 7p4 #df74 #ag4 ,in all this it seems to me that the worthy ,puritan1 of whom nobody but ,dr4 ,barnard and ,professor ,masson has ever heard1 has truly done more to lay a foundation for the art of teaching than his famous contemporaries ,milton and ,locke4 #ah4 ,another writer of that day better known than ,dury and with far more power of expression was ,sir ,william ,petty4 ,he is the 8,w4,p410 who in an ,epistle 8to his honoured friend ,master ,samuel ,hartlib10 set down his 8thoughts concerning the advancement of real learning0 7#afdg74 ,this letter is to be shown only 8to those few that are ,reall ,friends to the ,designe of ,realities40#ajc #ai4 ,petty sees the need of intercommunication of those who wish to advance any art or science4 ,he complains that 8the wits and endeavours of the world are as so many scattered coals or fire-brands1 which for want of union are soon quenched1 whereas being but laid together they would yield a comfortable light and heat40 ,this is a thought which may well be applied to the bringing up of the young2 and the following passage might have been written to secure a training for teachers3 8,methinks the present condition of men is like a field where a battle hath been lately fought1 where we may see many legs and arms and eyes lying here and there1 which for want of a union and a soul to quicken and enliven them are good for nothing but to feed ravens and infect the air4 ,so we see many wits and ingenuities lying scattered up and down the world1 whereof some are now labouring to do what is already done1 and puzzling themselves to re-invent what is already invented4 ,others we see quite stuck fast in difficulties for want of a few directions which some other man 7might he be met withal7 both could and would most easily give him40 ,i wonder how many young teachers are now wasting their own and their pupils' time in this awkward predicament4 #bj4 8,as for 444 education10 says ,petty1 8we cannot but hope that those who make it their trade will supply it and render the idea thereof much more perfect40 ,his own contributions to the more perfect idea consist mainly in making the study of 8realities0 precede literature1 and thus announcing the principle which in later times has led to the introduction of 8object lessons40 ,the ,baconians thought that the good time was at hand1 and that they had found the right road at last4 ,by experiments they would learn to interpret ,nature4 ,after scheming a 8,gymnasium1 ,mechanicum1 or ,college of ,tradesmen10 ,petty says1 8,what experiments and stuff would all those shops and operations afford to active and philosophical heads1 out of which to extract that interpretation of nature whereof there is so little1 and that so bad1 as yet extant in the world60#ajd ,and this study of things was to affect the work of the school-room1 and redeem it from the dismal state into which it was fallen4 8,as for the studies to which children are now-a-days put10 says ,petty1 8they are altogether unfit for want of judgment which is but weak in them1 and also for want of will1 which is sufficiently seen 444 by the difficulty of keeping them at schools and the punishment they will endure rather than be altogether debarred from the pleasure which they take in things40 #ba4 ,the grand reform required is thus set forth2 8,since few children have need of reading before they know or can be acquainted with the things they read of2 or of writing before their thoughts are worth the recording or they are able to put them into any form 7which we call inditing72 much less of learning languages when there be books enough for their present use in their own mother-tongue2 our opinion is that those things being withal somewhat above their capacity 7as being to be attained by judgment which is weakest in children7 be deferred awhile1 and others more needful for them1 such as are in the order of ,nature before those afore-mentioned1 and are attainable by the help of memory which is either most strong or unpreoccupied in children1 be studied before them4 ,we wish1 therefore1 that the educands be taught to observe and remember all sensible objects and actions1 whether they be natural or artificial1 which the educators must upon all occasions expound unto them40 #bb4 ,in proposing this great change ,petty was influenced not merely by his own delight in the study of things but by something far more important for education1 by observation of the children themselves4 ,this study of things instead of 8a rabble of words0 would be 8more easy and pleasant to the young as the more suitable to the natural propensions we observe in them4 ,for we see children do delight in drums1 pipes1 fiddles1 guns made of elder sticks1 and bellows' noses1 piped keys1 c41 painting flags and ensigns with elderberries and cornpoppy1 making ships with paper1 and setting even nut-shells a-swimming1 handling the tools of workmen as soon as they turn their backs and trying to work themselves2 fishing1 fowling1 hunting1 setting springes and traps for birds and other animals1 making pictures in their writing-books1 making tops1 gigs and whirligigs1 gilting balls1 practising divers juggling tricks upon the cards1 c41 with a million more besides4 ,and for the females they will be making pies with clay1 making their babies' clothes and dressing them therewith2 they will spit leaves on sticks as if they were roasting meat2 they will imitate all the talk and actions which they observe in their mother and her gossips1 and punctually act the comedy or the tragedy 7,i know not whether to call it7 of a woman's lying-in4 ,by all which it is most evident that children do most naturally delight in things and are most capable of learning them1 having quick senses to receive them and unpreoccupied memories to retain them0 7ad f474 #bc4 ,in these writers1 ,dury and ,petty1 we find a wonderful advance in the theory of instruction4 ,children are to be taught about things and this because their inward constitution determines them towards things4 ,moreover the subjects of instruction are to be graduated to accord with the development of the learner's faculties4 ,the giving of rules and incomprehensible statements that will come in useful at a future stage is entirely forbidden4 ,all this is excellent1 and greatly have children suffered1 greatly do they suffer still1 from their teachers' neglect of it4 ,there seems to me to have been no important advance on the thought of these men till ,pestalozzi and ,froebel fixed their attention on the mind of the child1 and valued things not in themselves but simply as the means best fitted for drawing out the child's self-activity4 #bd4 ,in several other matters we find ,sir ,william ,petty's recommendations in advance of the practice of his own time and ours4 ,he advises 8that the business of education be not 7as now7 committed to the worst and unworthiest of men here at least we have improved but that it be seriously studied and practised by the best and abler persons40 ,to this standard we have not yet attained4 #be4 ,handwork is to be practised1 but its educational value is not clearly perceived4 8,all children1 though of the highest rank1 are to be taught some gentle manufacture in their minority40 ,ergastula ,literaria1 literary workhouses1 are to be instituted where children may be taught as well to do something towards their living as to read and write4#aje #bf4 ,education was to be universal1 but chiefly with the object of bringing to the front the clever sons of poor parents4 ,the rule he would lay down is 8that all children of above seven years old may be presented to this kind of education1 none being to be excluded by reason of the poverty and unability of their parents1 for hereby it hath come to pass that many are now holding the plough which might have been made fit to steer the state40#ajf #bg4 ,from these enthusiasts for realities we find a change when we turn to their contemporary1 a schoolmaster and author of a ,latin ,accidence1 who was perhaps the most notable ,englishman who ever kept a school or published a school-book4 #bh4 ,milton was not only a great poet3 he was also a great scholar4 ,everything he said or wrote bore traces of his learning4 ,the world of books then rather than the world of the senses is his world4 ,he has benefited as he says 8among old renowned authors0 and 8his inclination leads him not0 to read modern ,januas and ,didactics1 or apparently the writings of any of his contemporaries including those of his great countryman1 ,bacon4 ,but1 as ,professor ,laurie reminds us1 no man1 not even a ,milton1 however he may ignore the originators of ideas can keep himself outside the influence of the ideas themselves when they are in the air2 and so we find ,milton using his incomparable power of expression in the service of the ,realists4 #bi4 ,but brief he endeavours to be1 and paying the ,horatian penalty he becomes obscure4 ,in the 8few observations which flowered off and were the burnishing of many studious and contemplative years10 ,milton touches only on the bringing up of gentlemen's sons between the ages of #ab and #ba1 and his suggestions do not1 like those of ,comenius1 deal with the education of the people1 or of both sexes4#ajg ,this limit of age1 sex1 and station deprives ,milton's plan of much of its interest1 as the absence of detail deprives it of much of its value4 #cj4 ,still1 we find in the ,tractate a very great advance on the ideas current at the ,renascence4 ,learning is no longer the aim of education but is regarded simply as a means4 ,no finer expression has been given in our literature to the main thesis of the ,christian and of the ,realist and to the ,realist's contempt of verbalism1 than this3 8,the end of learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know ,god aright1 and out of that knowledge to love ,him1 to imitate ,him1 to be like ,him1 as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue1 which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection4 ,but because our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on sensible things1 nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of ,god and things invisible1 as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creature1 the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching4 ,and seeing every ,nation affords not experience and tradition enough for all kind of learning1 therefore we are chiefly taught the languages of those people who have at any time been most industrious after wisdom2 so that language is but the instrument conveying to us things useful to be known4 ,and though a linguist should pride himself to have all the tongues that ,babel cleft the world into1 yet1 if he have not studied the solid things in them as well as the words and lexicons1 he were nothing so much to be esteemed a learned man as any yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his mother-dialect only40 #ca4 ,the several propositions here implied have thus been 8disentangled0 by ,professor ,laurie 7,john ,milton in ,addresses1 c41 p4 #afg74 #a4 ,the aim of education is the knowledge of ,god and likeness to ,god4 #b4 ,likeness to ,god we attain by possessing our souls of true virtue and by the ,heavenly ,grace of ,faith4 #c4 ,knowledge of ,god we attain by the study of the visible things of ,god4 #d4 ,teaching then has for its aim this knowledge4 #e4 ,language is merely an instrument or vehicle for the knowledge of things4 #f4 ,the linguist may be less learned 7i4e41 educated7 in the true sense than a man who can make good use of his mother-tongue though he knows no other4 #cb4 ,elsewhere1 ,milton gives his idea of 8a complete and generous education20 it 8fits a man to perform justly1 skilfully1 and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of ,peace and ,war40 7,browning's edition1 p4 #h47 ,here and indeed in all that ,milton says we feel that 8the noble moral glow that pervades the ,tractate on ,education1 the mood of magnanimity in which it is conceived and written1 and the faith it inculcates in the powers of the young human spirit1 if rightly nurtured and directed1 are merits everlasting40 7,masson iij1 p4 #beb47 #cc4 ,but in this moral glow and in an intense hatred of verbalism lie as it seems to me the chief merits of the ,tractate4 ,the practical suggestions are either incomprehensible or of doubtful wisdom4 ,the reforming of education was1 as ,milton says1 one of the greatest and noblest designs that could be thought on1 but he does not take the right road when he proposes for every city in ,england a joint school and university for about #abj boarders4 ,the advice to keep boys between #ab and #ba in this barrack life ,i consider1 with ,professor ,laurie1 to be 8fundamentally unsound20 and the project of uniting the military training of ,sparta with the humanistic training of ,athens seems to me a pure chimra4 #cd4 ,when we come to instruction we find that ,milton after announcing the distinctive principle of the ,realists proves to be himself the last survivor of the ,verbal ,realists4 7,see supra1 p4 #be47 ,no doubt 8,his daily teachers had been woods and rills10 but his thoughts had been even more in his books2 and for the young he sketches out a purely bookish curriculum4 ,the young are to learn about things1 but they are to learn through books2 and the only books to which ,milton attaches importance are written in ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,hebrew4 ,he held1 probably with good reason1 that far too much time 8is now bestowed in pure trifling at grammar and sophistry40 8,we do amiss10 he says1 8to spend #g or #h years merely in scraping together so much miserable ,latin and ,greek as might be learned otherwise easily and delightfully in one year40 ,without an explanation of the 8otherwise0 this statement is a truism1 and what ,milton says further hardly amounts to an explanation4 ,his plan1 if plan it can be called1 is as follows3 8,if after some preparatory grounds of speech by their certain forms got into memory1 the boys were led to the praxis thereof in some chosen short book lessoned thoroughly to them1 they might then proceed to learn the substance of good things and arts in due order1 which would bring the whole language quickly into their power4 ,this10 adds ,milton1 8,i take to be the most rational and most profitable way of learning languages40 ,it is1 however1 not the most intelligible4 #ce4 8,i doubt not but ye shall have more ado to drive our dullest and laziest youth1 our stocks and stubbs1 from the infinite desire of such a happy nurture than we have now to hale and drag our choicest and hopefullest wits to that asinine feast of sow thistles and brambles which is commonly set before them as all the food and entertainment of their tenderest and most docible age40 ,we cannot but wonder whether this belief survived the experience of 8the pretty garden-house in ,aldersgate40 ,from the little we are told by his nephew and old pupil ,edward ,phillips we should infer that ,milton was not unsuccessful as a schoolmaster4 ,in this we have a striking proof how much more important is the teacher than the teaching4 ,a character such as ,milton's in which we find the noblest aims united with untiring energy in pursuit of them could not but dominate the impressionable minds of young people brought under its influence4 ,but whatever success he met with could not have been due to the things he taught nor to his method in teaching them4 ,in spite of the 8moral glow0 about his recommendations they are 8not a bow for every or any man to shoot in that counts himself a teacher40 #cf4 ,nor did he do much for the science of education4 ,his scheme is vitiated1 as ,mark ,pattison says1 by 8the information fallacy40 ,in the literary instruction there is no thought of training the faculties of all or the special faculties of the individual4 8,it requires much observation of young minds to discover that the rapid inculcation of unassimilable information stupefies the faculties instead of training them10 says ,pattison2 and ,milton absorbed by his own thoughts and the thoughts of the ancients did not observe the minds of the young1 and knew little of the powers of any mind but his own4 ,for information the youths are not required to observe for themselves but are to be taught 8a general compact of physicks40 8,also in course might be read to them out of some not tedious writer the ,institution of ,physick2 that they may know the tempers1 the humours1 the seasons1 and how to manage a crudity40 #cg4 ,even the study of the classics is advocated by ,milton on false grounds4 ,if1 like the ,port-,royalists1 he had recommended the study of the classical authors for the sake of pure ,latin and ,greek or as models of literary style1 the means would have been suited to the end2 but it was very different when he directed boys to study ,virgil and ,columella in order to learn about bees and farming4 ,in after-life they would find these authorities a little out of date2 and if they ever attempted to improve tillage1 8to recover the bad soil and to remedy the waste that is made of good1 which was one of ,hercules's praises10 they would have found a knowledge of the methods of ,hercules about as useful as of the methods of the ,romans4 #ch4 ,milton was then a reformer 8for his own hand20 and notwithstanding his moral and intellectual elevation and his superb power of rhetoric1 he seems to me a less useful writer on education than the humble ,puritans whom he probably would not deign to read4 ,in his haughty self-reliance1 he1 like ,carlyle with whom ,seeley has well compared him 7,lectures and ,addresses3 ,milton71 addressed his contemporaries de haut en bas1 and though ready to teach could learn only among the old renowned authors with whom he associated himself and we associate him4 #ci4 ,judged from our present standpoint the ,tractate is found with many weaknesses to be strong in this1 that it co-ordinates physical1 moral1 mental and sthetic training4 #dj4 ,but nothing of ,milton's can be judged by our ordinary canons4 ,he soars far above them and raises us with him 8to mysterious altitudes above the earth0 7supra1 p4 #aec1 note74 ,whatever we little people may say about the suggestions of the ,tractate1 ,milton will remain one of the great educators of mankind4#ajh ,,xiii4 ,,locke4 7#afcb-agjd74 #a4 ,when an ,english ,university established an examination for future teachers1#aji the 8special subjects0 first set were 8,locke and ,dr4 ,arnold40 ,the selection seems to me a very happy one4 ,arnold greatly affected the spirit and even the organization of our public schools at a time when the old schools were about to have new life infused into them1 and when new schools were to be started on the model of the old4 ,he is perhaps the greatest educator of the ,english type1 i4e41 the greatest educator who had accepted the system handed down to him and tried to make the best of it4 ,locke on the other hand1 whose reputation is more ,european than ,english1 belongs rather to the continental type4 ,like his disciple ,rousseau and like ,rousseau's disciples the ,french ,revolutionists1 ,locke refused the traditional system and appealed from tradition and authority to reason4 ,we ,english revere ,arnold1 but so long as the history of education continues to be written1 as it has been written hitherto1 on the ,continent1 the only ,englishman celebrated in it will be as now not the great schoolmaster but the great philosopher4 #b4 ,in order to understand ,locke we must always bear in mind what ,i may call his two main characteristics2 #ast1 his craving to know and to speak the truth and the whole truth in everything1 truth not for a purpose but for itself#aaj2 #bnd1 his perfect trust in the reason as the guide1 the only guide1 to truth4#aaa #c4 #ast4 ,those who have not reflected much on the subject will naturally suppose that the desire to know the truth is common to all men1 and the desire to speak the truth common to most4 ,but this is very far from being the case4 ,if we had any earnest desire for truth we should examine things carefully before we admitted them as truths2 in other words our opinions would be the growth of long and energetic thought4 ,but instead of this they are formed for the most part quite carelessly and at haphazard1 and we value them not on account of their supposed agreement with fact but because though 8poor things0 they are 8our own0 or those of our sect or party4 ,locke on the other hand was always endeavouring to get at the truth for its own sake4 ,this separated him from men in general4 ,and he brought great powers of mind to bear on the investigation4 ,this raised him above them4 #d4 #bnd4 ,locke's second characteristic was his entire reliance on the guidance of reason4 8,the faculty of reasoning10 says he1 8seldom or never deceives those who trust to it40 ,elsewhere1 borrowing a metaphor from ,solomon 7,prov4 xx1 #bg71 he speaks of this faculty as 8the candle of the ,lord set up by ,himself in men's minds40 7,f4 ,b4 ij41 #abi74 ,in a fine passage in the ,conduct of the ,understanding he calls it 8the touchstone of truth0 7 iij1 ,fowler's edition1 p4 #aj74 ,he even goes so far in his correspondence with ,molyneux as to maintain that intelligent honest men cannot possibly differ4#aab ,but if we consider it from one point of view the treatise on the ,conduct of the ,understanding is itself a witness that human reason is a compass liable to incalculable variations and likely enough to shipwreck those who steer by it alone4 ,in this book ,locke shows us that to come to a true result the understanding 7#a7 must be perfectly trained1 7#b7 must not be affected by any feeling in favour of or against any particular result1 and 7#c7 must have before it all the data necessary for forming a judgment4 ,in practice these conditions are seldom 7if ever7 fulfilled2 and ,locke himself1 when he wants an instance of a mind that can acquiesce in the certainty of its conclusions1 takes it from 8angels and separate spirits who may be endowed with more comprehensive faculties0 than we are 7,c4 of ,u4 iij1 #c74 #e4 ,it seems to me then that ,locke much exaggerates the power of the individual reason for getting at the truth4 ,and to exaggerate the importance of one function of the mind is to unduly diminish the importance of the rest4 ,thus we find that in ,locke's scheme of education little thought is taken for the play of the affections and feelings2 and as for the imagination it is treated merely as a source of mischief4 #f4 ,locke1 as it has often been pointed out1 differs from the schoolmaster in making small account of the knowledge to be acquired by those under education4 ,but it has not been so often remarked that the fundamental difference is much deeper than this and lies in the conception of knowledge itself4 ,with the ordinary schoolmaster the test of knowledge is the power of reproduction4 ,whatever pupils can reproduce with difficulty they know imperfectly2 whatever they can reproduce with ease they know thoroughly4 ,but ,locke's definition of knowledge confines it to a much smaller area4 ,according to him knowledge is 8the internal perception of the mind0 7,locke to ,stillingfleet v4 ,f4 ,b4 ij1 #dcb74 8,knowing is seeing2 and if it be so1 it is madness to persuade ourselves we do so by another man's eyes1 let him use never so many words to tell us that what he asserts is very visible4 ,till we ourselves see it with our own eyes1 and perceive it by our own understandings1 we are as much in the dark and as void of knowledge as before1 let us believe any learned authors as much as we will0 7,c4 of ,u4 #bd74aac #g4 ,here ,locke makes no distinction between different classes of truths4 ,but surely very important differences exist4 ,about some physical facts our knowledge is at once most certain and most definite when we derive it through the evidence of our own senses4 8,seeing is believing10 says the proverb4 ,it may be believing1 but it is not knowing4 ,that certainty which we call knowledge we often arrive at better by the testimony of others than by that of our own senses4 ,miss ,martineau in her ,autobiography tells us that as a child of ten she entirely and unaccountably failed to see a comet which was visible to all other people2 but1 although her own senses were at fault1 the evidence for the comet was so conclusive that she may be said to have known there was a comet in the sky4 ,on sufficient evidence we can know anything1 just as we know there is a great water-fall at ,niagara though we may never have crossed the ,atlantic4 ,but we cannot be so certain simply on the evidence of our senses4 ,if we trusted entirely to them we might take the earth for a plane and 8know0 that the sun moved round it4 #h4 ,but ,locke probably considers as the subject of knowledge not so much physical facts as the great body of truths which are ascertained by the intellect4 ,it is the eye of the mind by which alone knowledge is to be gained4 ,of these truths the purest specimens are the truths of geometry4 ,it may be said that only those who have followed the proofs know that the area of the square on the side opposite the right angle in a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other sides4 ,but even in pure reasoning like this1 the tiro often seems to see what he does not really see2 and where his own reason brings him to a conclusion different from the one established he knows only that he is mistaken4 #i4 ,it must be admitted then that first-hand knowledge1 knowledge derived from the vision of the eye or of the mind1 is not the only knowledge the young require4 ,every learner must take things on trust1 as even ,lord ,bacon admits4 ,discentem credere oportet4 ,to use ,locke's own words3--8,i do not say1 to be a good geographer that a man should visit every mountain1 river1 promontory1 and creek upon the face of the earth1 view the buildings and survey the land everywhere as if he were going to make a purchase0 7,c4 of ,u41 iij1 ad f474 ,so that even according to ,locke's own shewing we must use the eyes of others as well as our own1 and this is true not in geography only1 but in all other branches of knowledge4 #aj4 ,but are we driven to the alternative of agreeing either with ,locke or with the schoolmaster8 ,i do not see that we are4 ,the thought which underlies ,locke's system of education is this3 true knowledge can be acquired only by the exercise of the reason3 in childhood the reasoning power is not strong enough for the pursuit of knowledge3 knowledge1 therefore1 is out of the question at that age1 and the only thing to be thought of is the formation of habits4 ,opposed to this we have the schoolmaster's ideal which is governed by examinations4 ,according to this ideal the object of the school course is to give certain 8knowledge10 linguistic and other1 and to fix it in the memory in such a manner that it can be displayed on the day of examination4 8,knowledge0 of this kind often makes no demand whatever on the reasoning faculty1 or indeed on any faculty but that of remembering and reproducing what the learner has been told2 in extreme cases the memory of mere sounds or symbols suffices4 ,but after all we are not compelled to choose between these two theories4 ,take1 e4g41 the subject which ,locke has mentioned1 geography4 ,the schoolmasters of the olden time began with the use of the globes1 a plan which1 by the way1 ,locke himself seems to have winked at4 ,his disciple ,molyneux tells him of the performances of the small ,molyneux4 ,when he was but just turned five he could read perfectly well1 and on the globe could have traced out and pointed at all the noted ports1 countries1 and cities of the world1 both land and sea2 by five and a half could perform many of the plainest problems on the globe1 as the longitude and latitude1 the ,antipodes1 the time with them and other countries1 c4 7,molyneux to ,l41 #bdth ,august1 #afie47 ,here we find a child brought up1 without any protest from ,locke1 on mere examination knowledge1 which according to ,locke himself is not knowledge at all4 ,it is strange that ,locke did not at once point out to ,molyneux that the child was not really learning what the father supposed him to be learning4 ,when the child turned over the plaster ball and found the word 8,paris10 the father no doubt attributed to the child much that was in his own mind only4 ,to the child 8the ,globe0 7as ,rousseau afterwards said71 was nothing but a plaster ball2 8,paris0 was nothing but some letters marked on that ball4 ,comenius had already got a notion how children may be given some knowledge of geography4 8,children begin geography10 said he1 8when they get to understand what a hill1 a valley1 a field1 a river1 a village1 a town is40 7,supra1 p4 #ade47 ,when this beginning has been made1 geographical knowledge is at once possible to the child1 and not before4 ,perfect knowledge in geography1 as in most other things1 is out of every one's reach4 ,nobody knows1 e4g41 all that could be known about ,paris4 ,the knowledge its inhabitants have of it is very various1 but in all cases this knowledge is far greater than that of a visitor4 ,the visitor's knowledge again is far greater than that of strangers who have never seen ,paris4 ,nobody1 then1 can know everything even about ,paris2 but a child who knows what a large town is1 and can fancy to himself a big town called ,paris1 which is the biggest and most important town in ,france has some knowledge about it4 ,this must be maintained against ,locke4 ,against the schoolmaster it may be pointed out that making an ,eskimo say the words3--8,paris is the capital of ,france10 would not be giving him any knowledge at all2 and the same may be said of many 8lessons0 in the school-room4 ,if a common sailor were to teach an ,eskimo ,english1 he would very likely suppose that when he had taught the sounds 8,paris is the capital of ,france10 he had conveyed to his pupil all the ideas which those sounds suggested to his own mind4 ,a common schoolmaster may fall into a similar error4 #aa4 ,in the most celebrated work which has been affected by the ,thoughts of ,locke1 ,rousseau's ,emile1 we find childhood treated in a manner altogether different from youth3 the child's education is mainly physical1 and instruction is not given till the age of twelve4 ,locke's system on first sight seems very different to this1 but there is a deeper connection between the two than is usually observed4 ,we have seen that ,locke allowed nothing to be knowledge that was not acquired by the perception of the intellect4 ,but in children the intellectual power is not yet developed2 so according to ,locke knowledge properly so-called is not within their reach4 ,what then can the educator do for them8 ,he can prepare them for the age of reason in two ways1 by caring first for their physical health1 second for the formation of good habits4 #ab4 #ast4 ,on the ,continent ,locke has always been considered one of the first advocates of physical education1 and he does1 it is true1 give physical education the first place1 a feature in his system1 which we naturally connect with his study of medicine1 and also with the trouble he had all his life with his own health4 ,but care of the body1 and especially bodily exercises1 were always much thought of in this country1 and the main writers on education before ,locke1 e4g41 ,sir ,thos4 ,elyot1 ,mulcaster1 ,milton1 were very emphatic about physical training4 ,in the autobiography of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 we may see what attention was paid in ,locke's own century to this part of education4#aad #ac4 #bnd4 8,that1 and that only1 is educative which moulds forms or modifies the soul or mind40 7,mark ,pattison in ,new ,quarterly ,magazine1 ,january1 #ahhj47 ,here we have a proposition which is perhaps seldom denied1 but very commonly ignored by those who bring up the young4 ,but ,locke seems to have been entirely possessed with this notion1 and the greater part of the ,thoughts is nothing but a long application of it4 ,the principle which lies at the root of most of his advice1 he has himself expressed as follows3 8,that which ,i cannot too often inculcate is1 that whatever the matter be about which it is conversant whether great or small1 the main1 ,i had almost said only thing1 to be considered in every action of a child is what influence it will have upon his mind2 what habit it tends to1 and is likely to settle in him3 how it will become him when he is bigger1 and if it be encouraged1 whither it will lead him when he is grown up40 7,thoughts1 #ajg1 p4 #hf47 ,here we see that ,locke differed widely from the schoolmasters of his time1 perhaps of all time4 ,a man must be a philosopher indeed if he can spend his life in teaching boys1 and yet always think more about what they will be and what they will do when their schooling is over than what they will know4 ,and in these days if we stopped to think at all we should be trodden on by the examiner4#aae ,in this respect ,locke has not been surpassed4 ,like his predecessor ,montaigne he took for his centre not the object1 knowledge1 but the subject1 man4#aaf #ad4 ,in some other respects he does not seem so happy4 ,he makes little attempt to reach a scientific standpoint and to establish general truths about our common human nature4 ,he thinks not so much of the man as the gentleman1 not so much of the common laws of the mind as of the peculiarities of the individual child4 ,he even hints that differences of disposition in children render treatises on education defective if not useless4 8,there are a thousand other things that may need consideration0 he writes 8especially if one should take in the various tempers1 different inclinations1 and particular defaults that are to be found in children and prescribe proper remedies4 ,the variety is so great that it would require a volume1 nor would that reach it4 ,each man's mind has some peculiarity as well as his face1 that distinguishes him from all others2 and there are possibly scarce two children who can be conducted by exactly the same method3 besides that ,i think a prince1 a nobleman1 or an ordinary gentleman's son should have different ways of breeding4 ,but having had here only some general views in reference to the main end and aims in education1 and those designed for a gentleman's son1 whom being then very little ,i considered only as white paper or wax to be moulded and fashioned as one pleases1 ,i have touched little more than those heads which ,i judged necessary for the breeding of a young gentleman of his condition in general40 7,thoughts1 #bag1 p4 #ahg47 ,no language could bring out more clearly the inferiority of ,locke's standpoint to that of later thinkers4 ,he makes little account of our common nature and wishes education to be based upon an estimate of the peculiarities of the individual pupil and of his social needs4 ,and no one with an adequate notion of education could ever compare the young child to 8white paper or wax40 ,perhaps the development of an organism was a conception that could not have been formed without a great advance in physical science4 ,froebel who makes most of it learnt it from the scientific study of trees and from mineralogy4 ,we need not then be surprised that ,locke does not say1 as ,pestalozzi said a hundred years later1 8,education instead of merely considering what is to be imparted to children ought to consider first what they already possess40 ,but if he had read ,comenius he would have been saved from comparing the child to wax or white paper in the hands of the educator4 ,comenius had said3 8,nature has implanted within us the seeds of learning1 of virtue1 and of piety4 ,the object of education is to bring these seeds to perfection40 7,supra1 p4 #ace47 ,this seems to me a higher conception than any that ,i meet with in ,locke4 #ae4 ,but if our philosopher did not learn from ,comenius he certainly learnt from ,montaigne4#aag ,indeed ,dr4 ,arnstdt 7v4 supra1 p4 #fi7 has put him into a series of thinkers who have much in common4 ,this succession is as follows3 ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1 ,locke1 ,rousseau2 and1 according to ,mr4 ,browning's division1 they form a school by themselves4 8,thinkers on education10 says ,mr4 ,browning1#aah 8are #ast those who wish to educate through the study of the classics1 or #bnd those who wish to educate through the study of the works of ,nature1 or #crd those who aim at an education independent of study and knowledge1 and think rather of the training of character and the attaining to the ,greek ideal1 the man beautiful and good40 ,to the three schools ,mr4 ,browning gives the names ,humanist1 ,realist1 and ,naturalist1 78nos autres naturalistes10 ,montaigne says74 ,locke he considers one of the principal writers of the 8naturalistic0 school1 and says1 ,locke 8has given a powerful bias to naturalistic education both in ,england and on the ,continent for the last #bjj years40 7,ed4 ,theories1 p4 #he47 ,this use of the word 8naturalistic0 seems to me somewhat misleading1 or at best vague1 and it is a word overworked already3 so ,i should prefer to speak of the 8developing0 or 8training0 school4 ,the classification itself certainly has its uses but it must be employed with caution4 ,if caught up by those who have only an elementary acquaintance with the subject a class of persons apt to delight in such arrangements as an aid to memory1 these divisions may easily prove a hindrance to light4 #af4 ,this subject of classification is so important to students that it may be worth while to make a few remarks upon it4 ,the only thoroughly consistent people are the people of fiction4 ,we can know all about them4 ,directly we understand their central thought or peculiarity we may be sure that everything they say and do will be strictly in accordance with it1 will indeed be explainable by it4 ,to take a bald and simple instance1 directly we know that ,mrs4 ,jellaby in ,bleak ,house is absorbed by her interest in an ,african ,mission1 we know all that is to be known about her2 and everything she does or omits to do has some reference to ,borrioboola ,ghar4 ,but in real life not only are people much less easily understood1 but when we actually have seized their main idea or peculiarity or interest we must not expect to find them always consistent3 and they will say and do much which if not inconsistent with the main idea or peculiarity or interest has at least no connection with it4 ,suppose1 e4g41 you can make out with some certainty that ,locke belonged to the developing school1 you must not expect him to pay little heed to instruction as such4 ,again1 suppose you find that his philosophy was utilitarian2 you must not suppose that in everything he says he will be thinking of utility4 ,now the historian is tempted to treat real men and women as the writer of fiction treats his puppets4 ,having fastened1 quite correctly let us suppose1 on their main peculiarity he considers it necessary to square everything with his theory of them1 and whatever will not fall in with it he1 if he is unscrupulous1 misrepresents1 or if he is scrupulous1 suppresses4 ,again1 we are too apt to read into words meanings derived from controversies unknown at the time when the words were uttered4 ,this is a well-known fact in the history of religious thought4 ,we must always consider not merely the words used but the time when they were used4 ,what a man might say quite naturally and orthodoxly at one period would be sufficient to convict him of sympathizing with some terrible heresy if uttered half a century later4 ,we find something like this in the history of education4 ,if anyone nowadays speaks of the pleasure with which as a young man he read ,tacitus1 he is understood to mean that he is opposed to the introduction of 8modern studies0 into the school-room4 ,if on the other hand he extols botany1 or regrets that he never learned chemistry1 this is taken for an assault on classical instruction4 ,but1 of course1 no such inference could be drawn if we went back to a time when the antithesis between classics and natural science had not been accentuated4 ,in many other instances we have to be on our guard against forcing into language meaning which belongs rather to a later date4 #ag4 ,with these cautions in mind let us see how far ,locke may be said 7#a7 to be a trainer1 and 7#b7 how far a utilitarian4 #ah4 ,i4 ,mr4 ,browning attributes to ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1 and ,locke the desire to bring up a well-developed man rather than a good scholar4 ,but ,rabelais certainly craved for the knowledge of things2 and if he is to be classed at all ,i should put him rather with the ,realists1 albeit he lived before the realistic spirit became powerful4 ,montaigne went more on the lines of developing rather than teaching1 and1 shrewd man of the world as he was1 he thought a great deal about the art of living4 ,but his ideal was not so much the man as the gentleman4 ,this was true also of ,locke2 and here we see some explanation why both ,montaigne and ,locke do not value classical learning4#aai ,on the ,continent classical learning has never been associated with the character of an accomplished gentleman2 and1 as far as ,i know1 the conception that the highest type of excellence is found in the union of 8the scholar and the gentleman0 is peculiar to this country4 ,in the society of ,locke's day this union does not seem to have been recognized1 and ,locke observes3 8,a great part of the learning now in fashion in the schools of ,europe1 and that goes ordinarily into the round of education1 a gentleman may in a good measure be unfurnished with1 without any great disparagement to himself or prejudice to his affairs40 7,thoughts1 #id1 p4 #gd47 ,so ,locke sought as the true essential for the young gentleman 8prudence and good breeding40 ,he puts his requisites in the following order of importance3--#a1 virtue2 #b1 wisdom2 #c1 manners2 #d1 learning2 and so 8places learning last and least40 ,here he shews himself far ahead of those who still held to the learned ideal2 but his notions of development were cramped by his thinking only of the gentleman and what was requisite for him4 #ai4 ,,ii4 ,was ,locke a utilitarian in education8 ,it is the fashion 7and in history as in other things fashion is a powerful force71 it is the fashion to treat of ,locke as a great champion of utilitarianism4 ,we might expect this in the ordinary historians1 for 8when they do agree their unanimity is0 not perhaps very wonderful4 ,but there is one great ,english authority quite uninfluenced by them who has said the same thing1 viz4--,cardinal ,newman4 ,the ,cardinal1 as the champion of authority1 is perhaps prejudiced against ,locke1 who holds that 8the faculty of reasoning seldom or never deceived those who trusted to it40 ,be this as it may1 ,newman asserts that 8the tone of ,locke's remarks is condemnatory of any teaching which tends to the general cultivation of the mind40 7,idea of a ,university4 ,discourse vij41 #d2 see also #f47 ,a very interesting point for us to consider is then1 ,is this reputation of ,locke's for utilitarianism well deserved8 #bj4 ,first let us be quite certain of our definition4 ,in learning anything there are two points to be considered2 #ast1 the advantage we shall find from knowing that subject or having that skill1 and #bnd1 the effect which the study of that subject or practising for that skill will have on the mind or the body4 ,these two points are in themselves distinct1 though it is open to anyone to maintain that they need not be considered separately4 ,nature has provided that the bodies of most animals should get the exercise best for them in procuring food4 ,so ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer has come to the conclusion that it would be contrary to 8the economy of nature0 if one set of occupations were needed as gymnastics and another for utility4 ,in other words he considers that it is in learning the most useful things we get the best training4 ,the utilitarian view of instruction is that we should teach things useful in themselves and either neglect the result on the mind and body of the learner or assume ,mr4 ,spencer's law of 8the economy of nature40 ,again1 when the subjects are settled the utilitarian thinks how the knowledge or skill may be most speedily acquired1 and not how this method or that method of acquisition will affect the faculties4 #ba4 ,this being utilitarianism in education the question is how far was ,locke the utilitarian he is generally considered8 ,if we take by itself what he says under the head of 8,learning0 in the ,thoughts concerning ,education no doubt we should pronounce him a utilitarian4 ,he considers each subject of instruction and pronounces for or against it according as it seems likely or unlikely to be useful to a gentleman4 ,and in the methods he suggests he simply points out the quickest route1 as if the knowledge were the only thing to be thought of4 ,hence his utilitarian reputation4 ,but two very important considerations have been lost sight of4 #ast4 ,learning is with him 8the last and least part0 in education4 #bnd4 ,intellectual education was not for childhood but for the age when we can teach ourselves4 8,when a man has got an entrance into any of the sciences10 says he1 8it will be time then to depend on himself and rely upon his own understanding and exercise his own faculties1 which is the only way to improvement and mastery40 7,l4 to ,peterborough1 quoted in ,camb4 edition of ,thoughts1 p4 #bbi47 8,so10 he says1 8the business of education is not1 as ,i think1 to make the young perfect in any one of the sciences but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them capable of any when they shall apply themselves to it40 ,the studies he proposes in the ,conduct of the ,understanding 7which is his treatise on intellectual education7 have for their object 8an increase of the powers and activity of the mind1 not an enlargement of its possessions0 7,c4 of ,u4 #ai1 ad f474 ,thus strange to say the supposed leader of the ,utilitarians has actually propounded in so many words the doctrine of their opponents4 #bb4 ,when ,locke is more studied it will be found that the ,thoughts are misleading if we neglect his other works1 more particularly the ,conduct of the ,understanding4 #bc4 ,towards the end of his days1 ,locke was conscious of gleams of the 8untravelled world0 which lay before the generations to come4 ,with great pathos he writes to a friend3 8,when ,i consider how much of my life has been trifled away in beaten tracks where ,i vamped on with others only to follow those who went before me1 ,i cannot but think ,i have just as much reason to be proud as if ,i had travelled all ,england and1 if you will1 all ,france too1 only to acquaint myself with the roads1 and be able to tell how the highways lie wherein those of equipage1 and even the common herd too1 travel4 ,now1 methinks--and these are often old men's dreams--,i see openings to truth and direct paths leading to it1 wherein a little application and industry would settle one's mind with satisfaction and leave no darkness or doubt4 ,but this is the end of my day when my sun is setting3 and though the prospect it has given me be what ,i would not for anything be without--there is so much truth1 beauty1 and consistency in it--yet it is for one of your age1 ,i think ,i ought to say for yourself1 to set about0 7,l4 to ,bolde1 quoted by ,fowler1 ,locke1 p4 #abj74 ,but another #bjj years have not sufficed to put us in possession of the ,promised ,land of which ,locke had these ,pisgah visions4 ,we still 8vamp on10 following those who went before us and getting small help from expounders of 8,education as a ,science40 ,but as it would seem the days of vamping on blindly in the beaten track are drawing to a close4 ,we cannot doubt that if ,locke had known the wonderful advance which various sciences have made since his day he would have seen in them 8openings to truth and direct paths leading to it0 for many purposes1 certainly for education4 ,it is for our age and ages to come to set about applying our scientific knowledge to the bringing up of children2 and thinkers such as ,froebel will shew us how4 ,locke's ,thoughts concerning ,education and his ,conduct of the ,understanding should be in the hands of all students of education who know the ,english language4 ,i have therefore not attempted to epitomise what he has said1 but have endeavoured to get at the main thoughts which are1 so to speak1 the taproot of his system4 ,of the ,thoughts there is an edition published by the ,national ,society and another by the ,pitt ,press1 ,cambridge4 ,the ,cambridge edition gives from ,fox-,bourne's ,life ,locke's scheme of 8,working ,schools0 and from ,lord ,king's the essay 8,of ,study40 ,of the ,conduct there is an edition published by the ,clarendon ,press4 8,f4,b40 in the references above stands for ,fox-,bourne's ,life of ,locke4 ,in the above essay ,i have not treated of ,locke as a methodizer2 but he advocated teaching foreign languages without grammar1 and he published 8sop's ,fables in ,english and ,latin1 interlineary4 ,for the benefit of those1 who not having a master would learn either of these ,tongues40 ,when ,i edited the ,thoughts for ,pitt ,press ,i did not know of this book or ,i should have mentioned it4 ,,xiv4 ,,jean-,,jacques ,,rousseau4 7#agab-aggh74 #a4 ,the great men whom we meet with in the history of education may be divided into two classes1 thinkers and doers4 ,there would seem no good reason why the thinker should not be great as a doer or the doer as a thinker2 and yet we hardly find any records of men who have been successful both in investigating theory and directing practice4 ,history tells us of first-rate practical schoolmasters like ,sturm and the ,jesuits2 but they did not think out their own theory of their task3 they accepted the current theory of their time4 ,on the other hand1 men who like ,montaigne and ,locke rejected the current theory and sought to establish a better by an appeal to reason were not practical schoolmasters4 ,whenever the thinker tries to turn his thought into action he has cause to be disappointed with the result4 ,we saw this in the disastrous failure of ,ratke2 and even the books in which ,comenius tried to work out his principles1 the ,vestibulum1 ,janua and the rest1 with the exception of the ,orbis ,pictus1 were speedily forgotten4 ,in the world of education as elsewhere it takes time to find for great thoughts the practice which gives effect to them4 ,the course of great thoughts is in some ways like the course of great rivers4 ,most romantic and beautiful near their source1 they are not most useful4 ,they must leave the mountains in which they first appeared1 and must flow not in cataracts but smoothly along the plain among the dwellings of common men before they can be turned to account in the every-day business of life4 #b4 ,the eighteenth century was soon distinguished by boundless activity of thought2 and this thought was directed mainly to a great work of destruction4 ,europe had outgrown the ideas of the ,middle ,age1 and the framework of ,society1 which the ,middle ,age had bequeathed1 had waxed old and was ready to vanish as soon as any strong force could be found to push it out of the way4 ,as ,matthew ,arnold has described it-- 8,it's frame yet stood without a breach 8,when blood and warmth were fled2 8,and still it spake it's wonted speech-- 8,but every word was dead40 ,here then there was need of some destructive power that should remove and burn up much that had become mere obstacle and incumbrance4 ,this power was found in the writings which appeared in ,france about the middle of the century2 and among the authors of them none spoke with more effect than one who differed from all the rest1 a vagabond without family ties or social position of any kind1 with no literary training1 with little knowledge and in conduct at least1 with no morals4 ,the writings of ,rousseau and the results produced by them are among the strangest things in history2 and especially in matters of education it is more than doubtful if the wise man of the world ,montaigne1 the ,christian philanthropist ,comenius1 or that 8slave of truth and reason0 the philosopher ,locke1 had half as much influence as this depraved serving man4 #c4 ,the work by which ,rousseau became famous was a prize essay in which he maintained that civilization1 the arts and all human institutions were from first to last pernicious in their effects1 and that no happiness was possible for the human race without giving them all up and returning to what he called the state of ,nature4 ,he glorified the 8noble savage40 ,if man had brought himself to a state of misery bordering on despair by following his own many inventions1 take away all these inventions and you will have man in his proper condition4 ,the argument seems something of this kind3 ,man was once happy3 ,man is now miserable3 undo everything that has been done and ,man will be happy again4 #d4 ,this principle of a so-called 8natural0 state existing before man's many inventions1 ,rousseau applied boldly to education1 and he deduced this general rule3 8,do precisely the opposite to what is usually done1 and you will have hit on the right plan40 ,not reform but revolution was his advice4 ,he took the ordinary school teaching and held it up to ridicule1 and certainly he did prove its absurdity4 ,and a most valuable service he thus rendered to teachers4 ,every employment while it makes us see some things clearly1 also provides us with blinkers1 so to speak1 which prevent our seeing other things at all4 ,the school teacher's blinkers often prevent his seeing much that is plain enough to other people2 and when a writer like ,rousseau takes off our blinkers for us and makes us look about us1 he does us a great deal of good4 ,but we need more than this3 if we have children entrusted to us we must do something with them1 and ,rousseau's rule of doing the opposite to what is usual will not be found universally applicable4 ,so we consult ,rousseau again1 and what is his advice8 #e4 ,rousseau would bring everything back to the 8natural0 state1 and unfortunately he never pauses to settle whether he means by this a state of ideal perfection1 or of simply savagery4 ,the savage1 he says1 gets his education without any one's troubling about it1 and so he infers that all the trouble taken by the civilized is worse than thrown away4 7,girardin's ,rousseau1 ij41 #he47 ,but he does not fall back on laisser faire4 ,he urges on parents the duty of themselves attending to the bringing up of their children4 8,point de mre1 point d'enfant--no mother1 no child10 says he2 and he would have the father see to the training of the child whom the mother has suckled4 #f4 ,rousseau's picture of family life is given us where few ,englishmen are likely to find it1 enveloped in the ,nouvelle ,hlose4 ,here we read how ,julie always has her children with her1 and while seeming to let them do as they like1 conceals with the air of apparent carelessness the most vigilant observation4 ,possessed by the notion that there can be no intellectual education before the age of reason1 she proclaims3 8,la fonction dont je suis charge n'est pas d'lever mes fils1 mais de les prparer pour tre levs3 ,my business is not to educate my sons1 but to prepare them for being educated40 7,n4 ,hlose1 #eth ,p41 ,lett4 #c47abj #g4 ,there is much that is very pleasing in this picture of ideal family life2 but when ,rousseau comes formally to propound his ideas on education1 he gives up family life to attain greater simplicity4 8,je m'en tiens ce qui est plus simple10 says he3 8,what ,i stick to is the more simple40 ,he tries to state everything in its lowest terms1 so to speak2 and this method is excellent so long as he puts on one side only what is accidental1 and retains all the essentials of the problem4 ,but his rage for simplicity sometimes carried him beyond this4 ,there is an old ,cambridge story of a problem introducing an elephant 8whose weight may be neglected40 ,this is after the manner of ,rousseau4 ,in the bringing up of the model child1 he 8neglects0 parents1 brothers and sisters1 young companions2 and though he says that the needful qualities of a master may be expected only in 8un homme de gnie10 he hands over mile to a governor to live an isolated life in the country4 #h4 ,this governor is to devote himself1 for some years1 entirely to imparting to his pupil these difficult arts--the art of being ignorant and of losing time4 ,till he is twelve years old1 mile is to have no direct instruction whatever4 8,at that age he shall not know what a book is10 says ,rousseau2 though elsewhere we are told that he will learn to read of his own accord by the time he is ten1 if no attempt is made to teach him4 ,he is to be under no restraint1 and is to do nothing but what he sees to be useful4 #i4 ,freedom from restraint is1 however1 to be apparent1 not real4 ,as in ordinary education the child employs all its faculties in duping the master1 so in education 8according to ,nature0 the master is to devote himself to duping the child4 8,let him always be his own master in appearance1 and do you take care to be so in reality4 ,there is no subjection so complete as that which preserves the appearance of liberty2 it is by this means even the will is led captive40 #aj4 8,the most critical interval of human nature is that between the hour of our birth and twelve years of age4 ,this is the time wherein vice and error take root without our being possessed of any instrument to destroy them40 7m4 ij41 #gi47 ,throughout this season1 the governor is to be at work training the pupil in the art of being ignorant and losing time4 8,the first education should be purely negative4 ,it consists by no means in teaching virtue or truth1 but in securing the heart from vice and the intellect from error4 ,if you could do nothing and let nothing be done1 if you could bring on your pupil healthy and strong to the age of #ab without his being able to tell his right hand from his left1 from your very first lessons the eyes of his understanding would open to reason4 ,being without prejudices and without habits he would have nothing in him to thwart the effect of your care2 and by beginning with doing nothing you would have made an educational prodigy40#aba 8,exercise his body1 his organs1 his senses1 his powers2 but keep his mind passive as long as possible4 ,mistrust all his sentiments formed before the judgment which determines their value4 ,restrain1 avoid all foreign impressions1 and to prevent the birth of evil be in no hurry to cause good2 for good is good only in the light of reason4 ,look on all delays as so many advantages3 it is a great gain to advance towards the goal without loss3 let childhood ripen in children4 ,in short1 whatever lesson they may need1 be sure not to give it them to-day if you can safely put it off till to-morrow40#abb 8,do not1 then1 alarm yourself much about this apparent idleness4 ,what would you say of the man1 who1 in order to make the most of life1 should determine never to go to sleep8 ,you would say1 ,the man is mad3 he is not enjoying the time2 he is depriving himself of it3 to avoid sleep he is hurrying towards death4 ,consider1 then1 that it is the same here1 and that childhood is the sleep of reason40#abc #aa4 ,we have now reached the climax 7or shall we say the nadir87 in negation4 ,rousseau has given the coup de grce to the ideal of the ,renascence4 ,comenius was the first to take a comprehensive view of the educator's task and to connect it with man's nature and destiny2 but he could not get clear from an over-estimate of the importance of knowledge4 ,according to his ideal1 man should know all things2 so in practice he thought too much of imparting knowledge4 ,then came ,locke and treated the imparting of knowledge as of trifling importance when compared with the formation of character2 but he too in practice hardly went so far as this principle might have led him4 ,he was much under the influence of social distinctions1 and could not help thinking of what it was necessary for a gentleman to know4 ,so that ,rousseau was the very first to shake himself entirely free from the notion which the ,renascence had handed down that man was mainly a learning animal4 ,rousseau has the courage to deny this in the most emphatic manner possible1 and to say3 8,for the first #ab years the educator must teach the child nothing40 #ab4 ,in this reaction against the ,renascence ,rousseau puts the truth in the form of such a violent paradox that we start back in terror4 ,but it was perhaps necessary thus to sweep away the ordinary schoolroom rubbish before the true nature of the educator's task could be fairly considered4 ,the rubbish having been cleared away what was to take its place8 ,no longer having his mind engrossed by the knowledge he wished to communicate1 the educator had now an eye for something else not less worthy of his attention1 viz41 the child itself4 ,rousseau was the first to base education entirely on a study of the child to be educated2 and by doing this he became1 as ,i believe1 one of the greatest of educational ,reformers4 #ac4 ,it was1 however1 purely as a thinker1 or rather as a voice giving expression to the general discontent that ,rousseau became such a tremendous force in ,europe4 ,he has indeed often been called the father of the first ,french ,revolution which he did not live to see4 ,but1 as ,macaulay has well said1 a good deal besides eloquent writing is needed to cause such a convulsion2 and we can no more attribute the ,french ,revolution to the writings of ,rousseau than we can attribute the shock of an explosion of gunpowder to the lucifer match without which it might never have happened 7v4 ,macaulay's ,barrre74 ,rousseau did in the world of ideas what the ,french ,revolutionists afterwards did in the world of politics2 he made a clean sweep and endeavoured to start afresh4 #ad4 ,i have already said that as regards education ,i think his labours in destruction were of very great value4 ,but what shall we say of his efforts at construction8 ,there would not be the least difficulty in showing that most of his proposals are impracticable4 ,it is no more 8natural0 to treat as a typical case a child brought up in solitude than it would be to write a treatise on the rearing of a bee cut off from the hive4#abd ,rousseau requires impossibilities1 e4g41 he postulates that the child is never to be brought into contact with anyone who might set a bad example4 ,modern science has shown us that the young are liable to take diseases from impurities in the air they breathe3 but as yet no one has proposed that all children should be kept at an elevation of #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,yet the advice would be about as practicable as the advice of ,rousseau4 ,a method which always starts with paradox and not infrequently ends with platitude might seem to have little in its favour2 and ,rousseau has had far less influence since 7in the words of ,herman ,merivale7 8he was dethroned with the fall of his extravagant child1 the ,first ,republic40 ,no doubt the great exponent of ,english opinion was right in calling ,rousseau 8the most un-,english stranger who ever landed on our shores0 7,times1 #bi ,aug41 #ahgc72 and the torch of his eloquence will never cause a conflagration1 still less an explosion1 here4 ,his disregard for 8appearances0--or rather his evident purpose of making an impression by defying 8appearances0 and saying just the opposite of what is expected1 is simply distressing to us4 ,but there is no denying ,rousseau's genius4 ,his was one of the original voices that go on sounding and awakening echoes in all lands4 ,willingly or unwillingly1 at first hand or from imperfect echoes1 everyone who studies education must study ,rousseau4 #ae4 ,as specimens of ,rousseau's teaching ,i will give a few characteristic passages from the mile4 8,everything is good as it leaves the hands of the ,creator3 everything degenerates in the hands of man40#abe ,these are the first words of the 8mile10 and the key-note of ,rousseau's philosophy4 #af4 8,we are born weak1 we have need of strength2 we are born destitute of everything1 we have need of assistance2 we are born stupid1 we have need of understanding4 ,all that we have not at our birth1 and which we require when grown up1 is bestowed on us by education4 ,this education we receive from nature1 from men1 or from things4 ,the internal development of our organs and faculties is the education of nature3 the use we are taught to make of that development is the education given us by men2 and in the acquisitions made by our own experience on the objects that surround us1 consists our education from things40#abf 8,since the concurrence of these three kinds of education is necessary to their perfection1 it is by that one which is entirely independent of us1 we must regulate the two others40#abg #ag4 ,now 8to live is not merely to breathe2 it is to act1 it is to make use of our organs1 our senses1 our faculties1 and of all those parts of ourselves which give us the feeling of our existence4 ,the man who has lived most1 is not he who has counted the greatest number of years1 but he who has most thoroughly felt life40#abh #ah4 ,the aim of education1 then1 must be complete living4 ,but ordinary education1 instead of seeking to develop the life of the child1 sacrifices childhood to the acquirement of knowledge1 or rather the semblance of knowledge1 which it is thought will prove useful to the youth or the man4 ,rousseau's great merit lies in his having exposed this fundamental error4 ,he says1 very truly1 8,we do not understand childhood1 and pursuing false ideas of it our every step takes us further astray4 ,the wisest among us fix upon what it concerns men to know without ever considering what children are capable of learning4 ,they always expect to find the man in the child without thinking of what the child is before it is a man4 ,and this is the study to which ,i have especially devoted myself1 in order that should my entire method be false and visionary1 my observations might always turn to account4 ,i may not have seen aright what ought to be done3 but ,i believe ,i have seen aright the subject on which we have to act4 ,begin then by studying your pupils better1 for most certainly you do not understand them40#abi 8,nature wills that children should be children before they are men4 ,if we seek to pervert this order we shall produce forward fruits without ripeness or flavour1 and tho' not ripe1 soon rotten3 we shall have young savans and old children4 ,childhood has ways of seeing1 thinking1 feeling peculiar to itself2 nothing is more absurd than to wish to substitute ours in their place40#acj 8,we never know how to put ourselves in the place of children2 we do not enter into their ideas1 we attribute to them our own2 and following always our own train of thought1 even with syllogisms we manage to fill their heads with nothing but extravagance and error40#aca 8,i wish some discreet person would give us a treatise on the art of observing children--an art which would be of immense value to us1 but of which fathers and schoolmasters have not as yet learnt the very first rudiments40#acb #ai4 ,in these passages1 ,rousseau strikes the key-note of true education4 ,the first thing necessary for us is to see aright the subject on which we have to act4 ,unfortunately1 however1 this subject has often been the subject most neglected in the schoolroom4 ,children have been treated as if they were made for their school books1 not their school books for them4 ,as education has been thought of as learning1 childhood has been treated as unimportant1 a necessary stage in existence no doubt1 but far more troublesome and hardly more interesting than the state of the chrysalis4 ,if some forms of words1 tables1 declensions1 county towns1 and the like can be drummed into children1 this is1 say educators of the old school1 a clear gain4 ,for the rest nothing can be done with them except teaching them to read1 write1 and say the multiplication table4 ,but since the publication of the mile1 there has been in the world a very different view of education4 ,according to this view1 the importance of childhood is not to be measured by the amount of our knowledge1 or even the number of our words1 we can force it to remember4 ,according to this view1 in dealing with children we must not think of our knowledge or of our notions at all4 ,we must think not of our own minds1 but of the minds of the little ones4#acc #bj4 ,the absurd results in which the opposite course has ended1 ,rousseau exposes with great severity4 8,all the studies demanded from the poor unfortunates lead to such things as are entirely beyond the range of their ideas1 so you may judge what amount of attention they can give to them4 ,schoolmasters who make a great display of the instruction they give their pupils are paid to differ from me2 but we see from what they do that they are entirely of my opinion4 ,for what do they really teach8 ,words1 words1 for ever words4 ,among the various knowledges which they boast of giving1 they are careful not to include such as would be of use2 because these would involve a knowledge of things1 and there they would be sure to fail2 but they choose subjects that seem to be known when the terms are known such as heraldry1 geography1 chronology1 languages and the like2 all of them studies so foreign to a man1 and still more to a child1 that it is a great chance if anything of the whole lot ever proves useful to him on a single occasion in his whole life40#acd 8,whatever the study may be1 without the idea of the things represented the signs representing them go for nothing4 ,and yet the child is always kept to these signs without our being able to make him comprehend any of the things they represent40#ace ,what does a child understand by 8the globe08 ,an old geography book says candidly1 that it is a round thing made of plaster2 and this is the only notion children have of it4 ,what a fearful waste1 and worse than waste1 it is to make them learn the signs without the things1 when if they ever learn the things1 they must at the same time acquire the signs6 7,conf4 ,ruskin supra p4 #aei1 note47 8,no6 if ,nature gives to the child's brain this pliability which makes it capable of receiving impressions of every kind1 this is not that we may engrave on it the names of kings1 dates1 the technical words of heraldry1 of astronomy1 of geography1 and all those words meaningless at his age and useless at any age1 with which we oppress his sad and sterile childhood2 but that all the ideas which he can conceive and which are useful to him1 all those which relate to his happiness and will one day make his duty plain to him1 may trace themselves there in characters never to be effaced1 and may assist him in conducting himself through life in a manner appropriate to his nature and his faculties40#acf #ba4 ,with ,rousseau1 as afterwards with ,froebel1 education was a kind of 8child-gardening40 8,plants are developed by cultivation10 says he1 8men by education3 ,on faonne les plantes par la culture1 et les hommes par l'ducation0 7m4 j41 #f74 ,the governor1 who is the child-gardener1 is to aim at three things3 first1 he is to shield the child from all corrupting influences2 second1 he is to devote himself to developing in the child a healthy and strong body in which the senses are to be rendered acute by exercise2 third1 he is1 by practice not precept1 to cultivate the child's sense of duty4 #bb4 ,in his study of children ,rousseau fixed on their never-resting activity4 8,the failing energy concentrates itself in the heart of the old man2 in the heart of the child energy is overflowing and spreads outwards2 he feels in him life enough to animate all his surroundings4 ,whether he makes or mars it is all one to him3 it is enough that he has changed the state of things1 and every change is an action4 ,if he seems by preference to destroy1 this is not from mischief2 but the act of construction is always slow1 and the act of destruction being quicker is more suited to his vivacity40#acg ,one of the first requisites in the care of the young is then to provide for the expansion of their activity4 ,all restraints such as swaddling clothes for infants and 8school0 and 8lessons0 for children are to be entirely done away with4#ach ,literary instruction must not be thought of4 8,there must be no other book than the world10 says ,rousseau1 8no other instruction than facts4 ,the child who reads does not think1 he does nothing but read1 he gets no instruction2 he learns words3 ,point d'autre livre que le monde1 point d'autre instruction que les faits4 ,l'enfant qui lit ne pense pas1 il ne fait que lire2 il ne s'instruit pas1 il apprend les mots40 7m4 iij41 #aha47aci #bc4 ,if it be objected that1 according to ,rousseau's plan1 there would be a neglect of memory1 he replies3 8,without the study of books the kind of memory that a child should have will not remain inactive2 all he sees1 all he hears1 strikes him1 and he remembers it2 he keeps a record in himself of people's actions and people's talk2 and all around him makes the book by which without thinking of it he is constantly enriching his memory against the time that his judgment may benefit by it3 ,sans tudier dans les livres1 l'espce de mmoire que peut avoir un enfant ne reste pas pour cela oisive2 tout ce qu'il voit1 tout ce qu'il entend le frappe1 et il s'en souvient2 il tient registre en lui-mme des actions1 des discours des hommes2 et tout ce qui l'environne est le livre1 dans lequel1 sans y songer1 il enrichit continuellement sa mmoire1 en attendant que son jugement puisse en profiter40 7m4 ij41 #ajf47 ,we should be most careful not to commit to our memory anything we do not understand1 for if we do1 we can never tell what part of our stores really belong to us4 7m4 iij41 #bcf47 #bd4 ,on the positive side the most striking part of ,rousseau's advice relates to the training of the senses4 8,the first faculties which become strong in us10 says he1 8are our senses4 ,these then are the first that should be cultivated2 they are in fact the only faculties we forget or at least those which we neglect most completely40 ,we find that the young child 8wants to touch and handle everything4 ,by no means check this restlessness2 it points to a very necessary apprenticeship4 ,thus it is that the child gets to be conscious of the hotness or coldness1 the hardness or softness1 the heaviness or lightness of bodies1 to judge of their size and shape and all their sensible properties by looking1 feeling1 listening1 especially by comparing sight and touch1 and combining the sensations of the eye with those of the fingers40#adj 8,see a cat enter a room for the first time2 she examines round and stares and sniffs about without a moment's rest1 she is satisfied with nothing before she has tried it and made it out4 ,this is just what a child does when he begins to walk1 and enters1 so to say1 the chamber of the world4 ,the only difference is that to the sight which is common to the child and the cat the first joins in his observations the hands which nature has given him1 and the other animal that subtle sense of smell which has been bestowed upon her4 ,it is this tendency1 according as it is well cultivated or the reverse1 that makes children either sharp or dull1 active or slow1 giddy or thoughtful4 8,the first natural movements of the child being then to measure himself with his surroundings and to test in everything he sees all its sensible properties which may concern him1 his first study is a kind of experimental physics relating to his own preservation2 and from this we divert him to speculative studies before he feels himself at home here below4 ,so long as his delicate and flexible organs can adjust themselves to the bodies on which they ought to act1 so long as his senses as yet uncorrupted are free from illusion1 this is the time to exercise them all in their proper functions2 this is the time to learn to understand the sensuous relations which things have with us4 ,as everything that enters the mind finds its way through the senses1 the first reason of a human being is a reason of sensations2 this it is which forms the basis of the intellectual reason2 our first masters in philosophy are our feet1 our hands1 our eyes4 ,substituting books for all this is not teaching us to reason1 but simply to use the reason of other people2 it teaches us to take a great deal on trust and never to know anything4 8,in order to practise an art we must begin by getting the proper implements2 and that we may have good use of these implements they must be made strong enough to stand wear and tear4 ,that we may learn to think we must then exercise our members1 our senses1 our organs1 as these are the implements of our intelligence2 and that we may make the most of these implements the body which supplies them must be strong and healthy4 ,we see then that far from man's true reason forming itself independently of his body1 it is the sound constitution of the body that makes the operations of the mind easy and certain40#ada #be4 ,rousseau does not confine himself to advising that the senses should be cultivated2 he also gives some hints of the way in which they should be cultivated1 and many modern experiments1 such as 8object lessons0 and the use of actual weights and measures1 may be directly traced to him4 8,as soon as a child begins to distinguish objects1 a proper choice should be made in those which are presented to him40 ,elsewhere he says1 8,to exercise the senses is not simply to make use of them2 it is to learn to judge aright by means of them2 it is to learn1 so to say1 to perceive2 for we can only touch and see and hear according as we have learnt how4 ,there is a kind of exercise perfectly natural and mechanical which serves to make the body strong without giving anything for the judgment to lay hold of3 swimming1 running1 jumping1 whip-top1 stone throwing2 all this is capital2 but have we nothing but arms and legs8 have we not also eyes and ears8 and are these organs not needed in our use of the others8 ,do not then merely exercise the strength but exercise all the senses which direct it2 get all you can out of each of them1 and then check the impressions of one by the impressions of another4 ,measure1 reckon1 weigh1 compare40#adb #bf4 ,two subjects there were in which mile was to receive instruction1 viz43 music and drawing4 ,rousseau's advice about drawing is well worth considering4 ,he says3 8,children who are great imitators all try to draw4 ,i should wish my child to cultivate this art1 not exactly for the art itself1 but to make his eye correct and his hand supple3 ,les enfants1 grands imitateurs1 essayent tous de dessiner3 je voudrais que le mien cultivt cet art1 non prcisment pour l'art mme1 mais pour se rendre l'il juste et la main flexible40 7m4 ij41 #adi74 ,but mile is to be kept clear of the ordinary drawing-master who would put him to imitate imitations2 and there is a striking contrast between ,rousseau's suggestions and those of the authorities at ,south ,kensington4 ,technical skill he cares for less than the training of the eye2 so mile is always to draw from the object1 and1 says ,rousseau1 8my intention is not so much that he should get to imitate the objects1 as get to know them3 mon intention n'est pas tant qu'il sache imiter les objets que les connatre40 7m4 ij41 #aej74 #bg4 ,before we pass the age of twelve years1 at which point1 as someone says1 ,rousseau substitutes another mile for the one he has hitherto spoken of1 let us look at his proposals for moral training4 ,rousseau is right1 beyond question1 in desiring that children should be treated as children4 ,but what are children8 ,what can they understand8 ,what is the world in which they live8 ,is it the material world only1 or is the moral world also open to them8 7,girardin's ,r41 vol4 ij41 #acf74 ,on the subject of morals ,rousseau seems to have admirable instincts1#adc but no principles1 and moral as he is 8on instinct10 there is always some confusion in what he ,says4 ,at one time he asserts that 8there is only one knowledge to give children1 and that is a knowledge of duty3 ,il n'y a qu'une science enseigner aux enfants3 c'est celle des devoirs de l'homme40 7m4 j41 #bf74 ,elsewhere he says3 8,to know right from wrong1 to be conscious of the reason of duty is not the business of a child3 ,connatre le bien et le mal1 sentir la raison des devoirs de l'homme1 n'est pas l'affaire d'un enfant40 7m4 ij41 #ge74add ,in another place he mounts his hobby that 8the most sublime virtues are negative0 7m4 ij41 #ie71 and that about the best man who ever lived 7till he found ,friday87 was ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,the outcome of all ,rousseau's teaching on this subject seems that we should in every way develop the child's animal or physical life1 retard his intellectual life1 and ignore his life as a spiritual and moral being4 #bh4 ,a variety of influences had combined1 as they combine still1 to draw attention away from the importance of physical training2 and by placing the child's bodily organs and senses as the first things to be thought of in education1 ,rousseau did much to save us from the bad tradition of the ,renascence4 ,but there were more things in heaven and earth than were dreamt of in his philosophy1 and whatever ,rousseau might say1 mile could never be restrained from inquiring after them4 ,every boy will think2 i4e41 he will think for himself1 however unable he may seem to think in the direction in which his instructors try to urge him4 ,the wise elders who have charge of him must take this into account1 and must endeavour to guide him into thinking modestly and thinking right4 ,then again1 as soon as the child can speak1 or before1 the world of sensation becomes for him a world1 not of sensations only1 but also of sentiments1 of sympathies1 of affections1 of consciousness of right and wrong1 good and evil4 ,all these feelings1 it is true1 may be affected by traditional prejudices4 ,the air the child breathes may also contain much that is noxious2 but we have no more power to exclude the atmosphere of the moral world than of the physical4 ,all we can do is to take thought for fresh air in both cases4 ,as for ,rousseau's notion that we can withdraw the child from the moral atmosphere1 we see in it nothing but a proof how little he understood the problems he professed to solve4#ade #bi4 ,although the governor is to devote himself to a single child1 ,rousseau is careful to protest against over-direction4 8,you would stupify the child10 says he1 8if you were constantly directing him1 if you were always saying to him1 #8,come here6 ,go there6 ,stop6 ,do this6 ,don't do that6' ,if your head always directs his arms1 his own head becomes useless to him40 7m41 ij41 #aad74 ,here we have a warning which should not be neglected by those who maintain the ,lyces in ,france1 and the ordinary private boarding-schools in ,england4 ,in these schools a boy is hardly called upon to exercise his will all day long4 ,he rises in the morning when he must2 at meals he eats till he is obliged to stop2 he is taken out for exercise like a horse2 he has all his indoor work prescribed for him both as to time and quantity4 ,in this kind of life he never has occasion to think or act for himself4 ,he is therefore without self-reliance4 ,so much care is taken to prevent his doing wrong1 that he gets to think only of checks from without4 ,he is therefore incapable of self-restraint4 ,in the ,english public schools boys have much less supervision from their elders1 and organise a great portion of their lives for themselves4 ,this proves a better preparation for life after the school age2 and most public schoolmasters would agree with ,rousseau that 8the lessons the boys get from each other in the playground are a hundred times more useful to them than the lessons given them in school3 les leons que les coliers prennent entre eux dans la cour du collge leur sont cent fois plus utiles que tout ce qu'on leur dira jamais dans la classe40 7m4 ij41 #abc47 #cj4 ,on questions put by children1 ,rousseau says3 8,the art of questioning is not so easy as it may be thought2 it is rather the art of the master than of the pupil4 ,we must have learnt a good deal of a thing to be able to ask what we do not know4 ,the learned know and inquire1 says an ,indian proverb1 but the ignorant know not what to inquire about40 ,and from this he infers that children learn less from asking than from being asked questions4 7,n4 ,h41 #eth p4 #dij47 #ca4 ,at twelve years old mile is said to be fit for instruction4 8,now is the time for labour1 for instruction1 for study2 and observe that it is not ,i who arbitrarily make this choice2 it is pointed out to us by ,nature herself40 #cb4 ,what novelties await us here8 ,as we have seen ,rousseau was determined to recommend nothing that would harmonise with ordinary educational practice2 but even a genius1 though he may abandon previous practice1 cannot keep clear of previous thought1 and ,rousseau's plan for instruction is obviously connected with the thoughts of ,montaigne and of ,locke4 ,but while on the same lines with these great writers ,rousseau goes beyond them and is both clearer and bolder than they are4 #cc4 ,rousseau's proposals for instruction have the following main features4 #ast4 ,instruction is to be no longer literary or linguistic4 ,the teaching about words is to disappear1 and the young are not to learn by books or about books4 #bnd4 ,the subjects to be studied are to be mathematics and physical science4 #crd4 ,the method to be adopted is not the didactic but the method of self-teaching4 #dth4 ,the hands are to be called into play as a means of learning4 #cd4 #ast4 ,till quite recently the only learning ever given in schools was book-learning1 a fact to which the language of the people still bears witness3 when a child does not profit by school instruction he is always said to be 8no good at his book40 ,now-a-days the tendency is to change the character of the schools so that they may become less and less mere 8,ludi ,literarii40 ,in this ,rousseau seems to have been a century and more in advance of us2 and yet we cannot credit him with any remarkable wisdom or insight about literature4 ,he himself used books as a means of 8collecting a store of ideas1 true or false1 but at any rate clear0 7,j4 ,morley's ,rousseau1 j4 chap4 #c1 p4 #he71 and he has recorded for us his opinion that 8the sensible and interesting conversations of a young woman of merit are more proper to form a young man than all the pedantical philosophy of books0 7,confessions1 quoted by ,morley j41 #hg74 ,after this1 whatever we may think of the merit of his suggestions we can sit at the ,sage's feet no longer4 #ce4 #bnd4 ,rousseau had himself little knowledge of mathematics and natural science1 but he was strongly in favour of the 8study of ,nature02 and in his last years his devotion to botany became a passion4 ,his curriculum for mile is in the air1 but the chief thing is to get him to attend to the phenomena of nature1 and 8to foster his curiosity by being in no hurry to satisfy it40 #cf4 #crd4 ,about teaching and learning1 there is one point on which we find a consensus of great authorities extending from the least learned of writers who was probably ,rousseau to the most learned who was probably ,friedrich ,august ,wolf4 ,in one form or other these assert that there is no true teaching but self-teaching4 ,past a doubt the besetting weakness of teachers is 8telling40 ,they can hardly resist the tendency to be didactic4 ,they have the knowledge which they desire to find in their pupils1 and they cannot help expressing it and endeavouring to pass it on to those who need it1 8like wealthy men who care not how they give40 ,but true 8teaching10 as ,jacotot and his disciple ,joseph ,payne were never tired of testifying1 is 8causing to learn10 and it is seldom that 8didactic0 teaching has this effect4 ,rousseau saw this clearly1 and clearly pointed out the danger of didacticism4 ,as usual he by exaggeration laid himself open to an answer that seems to refute him1 but in spite of this we feel that there is valuable truth underlying what he says4 8,i like not explanations given in long discourses10 says he2 8young people pay little attention to them and retain little from them4 ,the things themselves6 ,the things themselves6 ,i shall never repeat often enough that we attach too much importance to words3 with our chattering education we make nothing but chatterers40#adf ,accordingly ,rousseau lays down the rule that mile is not to learn science but to invent it 7qu'il n'apprenne pas la science2 qu'il l'invente72 and he even expects him to invent geometry4 ,as mile is not supposed to be a young ,pascal but only an ordinary boy with extraordinary physical development such a requirement is obviously absurd1 and ,herbart has reckoned it among ,rousseau's ,hauptfehler 7,pd4 ,schriften1 ij41 #bdb74 ,the training prescribed is in fact the training of the intellectual athlete2 and the trainer may put the body through its exercises much more easily than the mind4 ,of this the practical teacher is only too conscious1 and he will accept ,rousseau's advice1 if at all1 only as 8counsels of perfection40 ,rousseau says3 8mile1 obliged to learn of himself1 makes use of his own reason and not that of others2 for to give no weight to opinion1 none must be given to authority2 and the more part of our mistakes come less from ourselves than from other people4 ,from this constant exercise there should result a vigour of mind like that which the body gets from labour and fatigue4 ,another advantage is that we advance only in proportion to our strength4 ,the mind like the body carries that only which it can carry4 ,when the understanding makes things its own before they are committed to memory1 whatever it afterwards draws forth belongs to it2 but if the memory is burdened with what the understanding knows nothing about we are in danger of bringing from it things which the understanding declines to acknowledge40#adg ,again he writes3 8,beyond contradiction we get much more clear and certain notions of the things we learn thus of ourselves than of those we derive from other people's instruction1 and besides not accustoming our reason to bow as a slave before authority1 we become more ingenious in finding connexions1 in uniting ideas1 and in inventing our implements1 than when we take all that is given us and let our minds sink into indifference1 like the body of a man who always has his clothes put on for him1 is waited on by his servants and drawn about by his horses till at length he loses the strength and use of his limbs4 ,boileau boasted of having taught ,racine to find difficulty in rhyming4 ,among all the admirable methods of shortening the study of the sciences we might have need that some one should give us a way of learning them with effort40#adh #cg4 #dth4 ,however highly we may value our gains from the use of books we must admit that in some ways the use of books tends to the neglect of powers that should not be neglected4 ,as ,rousseau wished to see the young brought up without books he naturally looked to other means of learning1 especially to learning by the eye and by the hand4 ,much is now said about using the hand for education1 and many will agree with ,rousseau3 8,if instead of making a child stick to his books ,i employ him in a workshop1 his hands work to the advantage of his intellect3 he becomes a philosopher while he thinks he is becoming simply an artisan3 ,au lieu de coller un enfant sur des livres1 si je l'occupe dans un atelier1 ses mains travaillent au profit de son esprit3 il devient philosophe1 et crot n'tre qu'un ouvrier40 7m4 iij41 #aic74 #ch4 ,in these essays ,i have done what ,i could to shew the best that each reformer has left us4 ,in ,rousseau's case ,i have been obliged to confine myself to his words4 8,we attach far too much importance to words10 said ,rousseau1 and yet it is by words and words only that ,rousseau still lives2 and for the sake of his words we forget his deeds4 ,of the mile ,mr4 ,morley says3 8,it is one of the seminal books in the history of literature4 ,it cleared away the accumulation of clogging prejudices and obscure inveterate usage which made education one of the dark formalistic arts2 and it admitted floods of light and air into tightly-closed nurseries and schoolrooms0 7,rousseau1 ij41 #bdh74 ,in the region of thought it set us free from the ,renascence2 and it did more than this1 it announced the true nature of the teacher's calling1 8,study the subject you have to act upon40 ,in these words we have the starting point of the 8,new ,education40 ,from them the educator gets a fresh conception of his task4 ,we grown people have received innumerable impressions which1 forgotten as they are1 have left their mark behind in our way of looking at things2 and as we advance in life these experiences and associations cluster around everything to which we direct our attention1 till in the end the past seems to dominate the present and to us 8nothing is but what is not40 ,but to the child the present with its revelations and the future which will be 8something more1 a bringer of new things10 are all engrossing4 ,it is our business as teachers to try to realize how the world looks from the child's point of view4 ,we may know a great many things and be ready to teach them1 but we shall have little success unless we get another knowledge which we cannot teach and can learn only by patient observation1 a knowledge of 8the subject to be acted on10 of the mind of our pupils and what goes on there4 ,when we set out on this path1 which was first clearly pointed out by ,rousseau1 teaching becomes a new occupation with boundless possibilities and unceasing interest in it4 ,every teacher becomes a learner1 for we have to study the minds of the young1 their way of looking at things1 their habits1 their difficulties1 their likes and dislikes1 how they are stimulated to exertion1 how they are discouraged1 how one mood succeeds another4 ,what we need we may well devote a lifetime to acquiring2 it is a knowledge of the human mind with the object of influencing it4 ,,xv4 ,,basedow ,,and ,,the ,,philanthropinum4 #a4 ,one of the most famous movements ever made in educational reform was started in the last century by ,john ,bernard ,basedow4 ,basedow was born at ,hamburg in #agbc1 the son of a wigmaker4 ,his early years were not spent in the ordinary happiness of childhood4 ,his mother he describes as melancholy1 almost to madness1 and his father was severe almost to brutality4 ,it was the father's intention to bring up his son to his own business1 but the lad ran away1 and engaged himself as servant to a gentleman in ,holstein4 ,the master soon perceived what had never occurred to the father1 viz41 that the youth had very extraordinary abilities4 ,sent home with a letter from his master pointing out this notable discovery1 ,basedow was allowed to renounce the paternal calling1 and to go to the ,hamburg ,grammar ,school 7,gymnasium71 where he was under ,reimarus1 the author of the 8,wolfenbttel ,fragment40 ,in due course his friends managed to send him to the ,university of ,leipzig to prepare himself for the least expensive of the learned professions--the clerical4 ,basedow1 however1 was not a man to follow the beaten tracks4 ,after an irregular life he left the university too unorthodox to think of being ordained1 and in #agdi became private tutor to the children of ,herr von ,quaalen in ,holstein4 ,in this situation his talent for inventing new methods of teaching first showed itself4 ,he knew how to adapt himself to the capacity of the children1 and he taught them much by conversation1 and in the way of play1 connecting his instruction with surrounding objects in the house1 garden1 and fields4 ,through ,quaalen's influence1 he next obtained a professorship at ,soroe1 in ,denmark1 where he lectured for eight years1 but his unorthodox writings raised a storm of opposition1 and the ,government finally removed him to the ,gymnasium at ,altona4 ,here he still continued his efforts to change the prevailing opinions in religious matters2 and so great a stir was made by the publication of his 8,philalethia10 and his 8,methodical ,instruction in both ,natural and ,biblical ,religion10 that he and his family were refused the ,communion at ,altona1 and his books were excluded1 under a heavy penalty1 from ,lbeck4 #b4 ,about this time ,basedow1 incited by ,rousseau's 8,emile10 turned his attention to a fresh field of activity1 in which he was to make as many friends as in theology he had found enemies4 ,a very general dissatisfaction was then felt with the condition of the schools4 ,physical education was not attempted in them4 ,the mother-tongue was neglected4 ,instruction in ,latin and ,greek1 which was the only instruction given1 was carried on in a mechanical way1 without any thought of improvement4 ,the education of the poor and of the middle classes received but little attention4 8,youth10 says ,raumer1 8was in those days1 for most children1 a sadly harassed period4 ,instruction was hard and heartlessly severe4 ,grammar was caned into the memory1 so were portions of ,scripture and poetry4 ,a common school punishment was to learn by heart ,psalm cxix4 ,school-rooms were dismally dark4 ,no one conceived it possible that the young could find pleasure in any kind of work1 or that they had eyes for aught besides reading and writing4 ,the pernicious age of ,louis ,,xiv4 had inflicted on the poor children of the upper class1 hair curled by the barber and messed with powder and pomade1 braided coats1 knee breeches1 silk stockings1 and a dagger by the side--for active1 lively children a perfect torture0 7,gesch4 d4 ,pdagogik1 ii4 #big74 ,kant gave expression to a very wide-spread feeling when he said that what was wanted in education was no longer a reform but a revolution4 ,here1 then1 was a good scope offered for innovators1 and ,basedow was a prince of innovators4 #c4 ,having succeeded in interesting the ,danish minister1 ,bernstorff1 in his plans1 he was permitted to devote himself entirely to a work on the subject of education whilst retaining his income from the ,altona ,gymnasium4 ,the result was his 8,address to ,philanthropists and ,men of ,property on ,schools and ,studies and their ,influence on the ,public ,weal0 7#agff71 in which he announces the plan of his 8,elementary40#adi ,in this address he calls upon princes1 governments1 town-councils1 dignitaries of the ,church1 freemasons' lodges1 c41 c41 if they loved their fellow-creatures1 to come to his assistance in bringing out his book4 ,nor did he call in vain4 ,when the 8,elementary0 at length appeared 7in #aggd71 he had to acknowledge contributions from the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii41 from ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia1 from ,christian ,,vii4 of ,denmark1 from the ,grand ,prince ,paul1 and many other celebrities1 the total sum received being over #b1jjjl4 #d4 ,while ,basedow was travelling about 7in #aggd7 to get subscriptions1 he spent some time in ,frankfurt1 and thence made an excursion to ,ems with two distinguished companions1 one of them ,lavater1 and the other a young man of five-and-twenty1 already celebrated as the author of 8,gtz von ,berlichingen10 and the 8,sorrows of ,werther40 ,of ,basedow's personal peculiarities at this time ,goethe has left us an amusing description in the 8,wahrheit und ,dichtung20 but we must accept the portrait with caution3 the sketch was thrown in as an artistic contrast with that of ,lavater1 and no doubt exaggerates those features in which the antithesis could be brought out with best effect4 8,one could not see10 writes ,goethe1 8a more marked contrast than between ,lavater and ,basedow4 ,as the lines of ,lavater's countenance were free and open to the beholder1 so were ,basedow's contracted1 and as it were drawn inwards1 ,lavater's eye1 clear and benign1 under a very wide eye-lid2 ,basedow's1 on the other hand1 deep in his head1 small1 black1 sharp1 gleaming out from under shaggy eyebrows1 whilst ,lavater's frontal bone seemed bounded by two arches of the softest brown hair4 ,basedow's impetuous rough voice1 his rapid and sharp utterances1 a certain derisive laugh1 an abrupt changing of the topic of conversation1 and whatever else distinguished him1 all were opposed to the peculiarities and the behaviour by which ,lavater had been making us over-fastidious40 #e4 ,goethe approved of ,basedow's desire to make all instruction lively and natural1 and thought that his system would promote mental activity and give the young a fresher view of the world3 but he finds fault with the 8,elementary10 and prefers the 8,orbis ,pictus0 of ,comenius1 in which subjects are presented in their natural connection4 ,basedow himself1 says ,goethe1 was not a man either to edify or to lead other people4 ,although the object of his journey was to interest the public in his philanthropic enterprise1 and to open not only hearts but purses1 and he was able to speak eloquently and convincingly on the subject of education1 he spoilt everything by his tirades against prevalent religious belief1 especially on the subject of the ,trinity4 #f4 ,goethe found in ,basedow's society an opportunity of 8exercising1 if not enlightening10 his mind1 so he bore with his personal peculiarities1 though apparently with great difficulty4 ,basedow seems to have delighted in worrying his associates4 8,he would never see anyone quiet but he provoked him with mocking irony1 in a hoarse voice1 or put him to confusion by an unexpected question1 and laughed bitterly when he had gained his end2 yet he was pleased when the object of his jests was quick enough to collect himself1 and answer in the same strain40 ,so far ,goethe was his match2 but he was nearly routed by ,basedow's use of bad tobacco1 and of some tinder still worse with which he was constantly lighting his pipe and poisoning the air insufferably4 ,he soon discovered ,goethe's dislike to this preparation of his1 so he took a malicious pleasure in using it and dilating upon its merits4 #g4 ,here is an odd account of their intercourse4 ,during their stay at ,ems ,goethe went a great deal into fashionable society4 8,to make up for these dissipations10 he writes1 8,i always passed a part of the night with ,basedow4 ,he never went to bed1 but dictated without cessation4 ,occasionally he cast himself on the couch and slumbered1 while his amanuensis sat quietly1 pen in hand1 ready to continue his work when the half-awakened author should once more give free course to his thoughts4 ,all this took place in a close confined chamber1 filled with the fumes of tobacco and the odious tinder4 ,as often as ,i was disengaged from a dance ,i hastened up to ,basedow1 who was ready at once to speak and dispute on any question2 and when after a time ,i hurried again to the ball-room1 before ,i had closed the door behind me he would resume the thread of his essay as composedly as if he had been engaged with nothing else40 #h4 ,it was through a friend of ,goethe's1 ,behrisch1 whose acquaintance we make in the 8,wahrheit und ,dichtung10 that ,basedow became connected with ,prince ,leopold of ,dessau4 ,behrisch was tutor to the ,prince's son1 and by him the ,prince was so interested in ,basedow's plans that he determined to found an ,institute in which they should be realised4 ,basedow was therefore called to ,dessau1 and under his direction was opened the famous ,philanthropinum4 ,then for the first1 and probably for the last time1 a school was started in which use and wont were entirely set aside1 and everything done on 8improved principles40 ,such a bold enterprise attracted the attention of all interested in education1 far and near3 but it would seem that few parents considered their own children vilia corpora on whom experiments might be made for the public good4 ,when1 in ,may #aggf1 a number of schoolmasters and others collected from different parts of ,germany1 and even from beyond ,germany1 to be present by ,basedow's invitation at an examination of the children1 they found only thirteen pupils in the ,philanthropinum1 including ,basedow's own son and daughter4 #i4 ,before we investigate how ,basedow's principles were embodied in the ,philanthropinum1 let us see the form in which he had already announced them4 ,the great work from which all children were to be taught was the 8,elementary40 ,as a companion to this was published the 8,book of ,method0 7,methodenbuch7 for parents and teachers4 ,the 8,elementary0 is a work in which a great deal of information about things in general is given in the form of dialogue1 interspersed with tales and easy poetry4 ,except in bulk1 it does not seem to me to differ very materially from many of the reading-books1 which1 in late years1 have been published in this country4 ,it had the advantage1 however1 of being accompanied by a set of engravings to which the text referred1 though they were too large to be bound up with it4 ,the root-ideas of ,basedow put forth in his 8,book of ,method10 and other writings1 are those of ,rousseau4 ,for example1 8,you should attend to nature in your children far more than to art4 ,the elegant manners and usages of the world are for the most part unnatural 7,unnatur74 ,these come of themselves in later years4 ,treat children like children1 that they may remain the longer uncorrupted4 ,a boy whose acutest faculties are his senses1 and who has no perception of anything abstract1 must first of all be made acquainted with the world as it presents itself to the senses4 ,let this be shown him in nature herself1 or where this is impossible1 in faithful drawings or models4 ,thereby can he1 even in play1 learn how the various objects are to be named4 ,comenius alone has pointed out the right road in this matter4 ,by all means reduce the wretched exercises of the memory40 ,elsewhere he gives instances of the sort of things to which this method should be applied4 #ast4 ,man4 ,here he would use pictures of foreigners and wild men1 also a skeleton1 a hand in spirits1 and other objects still more appropriate to a surgical museum4 #bnd4 ,animals4 ,only such animals are to be depicted as it is useful to know about1 because there is much that ought to be known1 and a good method of instruction must shorten rather than increase the hours of study4 ,articles of commerce made from the animals may also be exhibited4 #crd4 ,trees and plants4 ,only the most important are to be selected4 ,of these the seeds also must be shown1 and cubes formed of the different woods4 ,gardeners' and farmers' implements are to be explained4 #dth4 ,minerals and chemical substances4 #eth4 ,mathematical instruments for weighing and measuring2 also the air-pump1 siphon1 and the like4 ,the form and motion of the earth are to be explained with globes and maps4 #fth4 ,trades4 ,the use of various tools is to be taught4 #gth4 ,history4 ,this is to be illustrated by engravings of historical events4 #hth4 ,commerce4 ,samples of commodities may be produced4 #ith4 ,the younger children should be shown pictures of familiar objects about the house and its surroundings4 #aj4 ,we see from this list that ,basedow contemplated giving his educational course the charm of variety4 ,indeed1 with that candour in acknowledging mistakes which partly makes amends for the effrontery too common in the trumpetings of his own performances1 past1 present1 and to come1 he confesses that when he began the 8,elementary0 he had exaggerated notions of the amount boys were capable of learning1 and that he had subsequently very much contracted his proposed curriculum4 ,and even 8the ,revolution10 which was to introduce so much new learning into the schools1 could not afford entirely to neglect the old4 ,however pleased parents might be with the novel acquirements of their children1 they were not likely to be satisfied without the usual knowledge of ,latin1 and still less would they tolerate the neglect of ,french1 which in ,german polite society of the eighteenth century was the recognised substitute for the vulgar tongue4 ,these1 then1 must be taught4 ,but the old methods might be abandoned1 if not the old subjects4 ,basedow proposed to teach both ,french and ,latin by conversation4 ,let a cabinet of models1 or something of the kind1 be shown the children2 let them learn the names of the different objects in ,latin or ,french2 then let questions be asked in those languages1 and the right answers at first put into the children's mouths4 ,when they have in this way acquired some knowledge of the language1 they may apply it to the translating of an easy book4 ,basedow does not claim originality for the conversational method4 ,he appeals to the success with which it had been already used in teaching ,french4 8,are the ,french governesses10 he asks1 8who1 without vocabularies and grammars1 first by conversation1 then by reading1 teach their language very successfully and very rapidly in schools of from thirty to forty children1 better teachers than most masters in our ,latin schools80 #aa4 ,on the subject of religion the instruction was to be quite as original as in matters of less importance4 ,the teachers were to give an impartial account of all religions1 and nothing but 8natural religion0 was to be inculcated4 #ab4 ,the key-note of the whole system was to be--everything according to nature4 ,the natural desires and inclinations of the children were to be educated and directed aright1 but in no case to be suppressed4 #ac4 ,these1 then1 were the principles and the methods which1 as ,basedow believed1 were to revolutionise education through the success of the ,philanthropinum4 ,basedow himself1 as we might infer from ,goethe's description of him1 was by no means a model director for the model ,institution1 but he was fortunate in his assistants4 ,of these he had three at the time of the public examination1 of whom ,wolke is said to have been the ablest4 #ad4 ,a lively description of the examination was afterwards published by ,herr ,schummel of ,magdeburg1 under the title of 8,fred's ,journey to ,dessau40 ,it purports to be written by a boy of twelve years old1 and to describe what took place without attempting criticism4 ,a few extracts will give us a notion of the instruction carried on in the ,philanthropin4 8,i have just come from a visit with my father to the ,philanthropinum1 where ,i saw ,herr ,basedow1 ,herr ,wolke1 ,herr ,simon1 ,herr ,schweighuser1 and the little ,philanthropinists4 ,i am delighted with all that ,i have seen1 and hardly know where to begin my description of it4 ,there are two large white houses1 and near them a field with trees4 ,a pupil--not one of the regular scholars1 but of those they call ,famulants 7a poorer class1 who were servitors7--received us at the door1 and asked if we wished to see ,herr ,basedow4 ,we said #8,yes1' and he took us into the other house1 where we found ,herr ,basedow in a dressing-gown1 writing at a desk4 ,we came at an inconvenient time1 and ,herr ,basedow said he was very busy4 ,he was very friendly1 however1 and promised to visit us in the evening4 ,we then went into the other house1 and enquired for ,herr ,wolke40 ,by him they were taken to the scholars4 8,they have10 says ,fred1 8their hair cut very short1 and no wig-maker is employed4 ,their throats are quite open1 and their shirt-collars fall back over their coats40 ,further on he describes the examination4 8,the little ones have gone through the oddest performances4 ,they play at #8word of command4' ,eight or ten stand in a line like soldiers1 and ,herr ,wolke is officer4 ,he gives the word in ,latin1 and they must do whatever he says4 ,for instance1 when he says ,claudite oculos1 they all shut their eyes2 when he says ,circumspicite1 they look about them2 ,imitamini sartorem1 they all sew like tailors2 ,imitamini sutorem1 they draw the waxed thread like the cobblers4 ,herr ,wolke gives a thousand different commands in the drollest fashion4 ,another game1 #8the hiding game1' ,i will also teach you4 ,some one writes a name1 and hides it from the children--the name of some part of the body1 or of a plant1 or animal1 or metal--and the children guess what it is4 ,whoever guesses right gets an apple or a piece of cake4 ,one of the visitors wrote ,intestina1 and told the children it was a part of the body4 ,then the guessing began4 ,one guessed caput1 another nasus1 another os1 another manus1 pes1 digiti1 pectus1 and so forth1 for a long time2 but one of them hit it at last4 ,next ,herr ,wolke wrote the name of a beast1 a quadruped4 ,then came the guesses3 leo1 ursus1 camelus1 elephas1 and so on1 till one guessed right--it was mus4 ,then a town was written1 and they guessed ,lisbon1 ,madrid1 ,paris1 ,london1 till a child won with ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,they had another game1 which was this3 ,herr ,wolke gave the command in ,latin1 and they imitated the noises of different animals1 and made us laugh till we were tired4 ,they roared like lions1 crowed like cocks1 mewed like cats1 just as they were bid40 #ae4 ,the subject that was next handled had also the effect of making the strangers laugh1 till a severe reproof from ,herr ,wolke restored their gravity4 ,a picture was brought1 in which was represented a sad-looking woman1 whose person indicated the approaching arrival of another subject for education4 ,from one part of the picture it also appeared that the prospective mother1 with a prodigality of forethought1 had got ready clothing for both a boy and a girl4 ,after a warning from ,herr ,wolke1 that this was a most serious and important subject1 the children were questioned on the topics the picture suggested4 ,they were further taught the debt of gratitude they owed to their mothers1 and the ,german fiction about the stork was dismissed with due contempt4 #af4 ,next came the examination in arithmetic4 ,here there seems to have been nothing remarkable1 except that all the rules were worked viv voce4 ,from the arithmetic ,herr ,wolke went on to an 8,attempt at various small drawings40 ,he asked the children what he should draw4 ,some one answered leonem4 ,he then pretended he was drawing a lion1 but put a beak to it2 whereupon the children shouted ,non est ,leo--leones non habent rostrum6 ,he went on to other subjects1 as the children directed him1 sometimes going wrong that the children might put him right4 ,in the next exercise dice were introduced1 and the children threw to see who should give an account of an engraving4 ,the engravings represented workmen at their different trades1 and the child had to explain the process1 the tools1 c4 ,a lesson on ploughing and harrowing was given in ,french1 and another1 on ,alexander's expedition to ,india1 in ,latin4 ,four of the pupils translated passages from ,curtius and from ,castalio's ,bible1 which were read to them4 8,these children10 said the teacher1 8knew not a word of ,latin a year ago40 8,the listeners were well pleased with the ,latin10 writes ,fred1 8except two or three1 whom ,i heard grumbling that this was all child's play1 and that if ,cicero1 ,livy1 and ,horace were introduced1 it would soon be seen what was the value of ,philanthropinist ,latin40 ,after the examination1 two comedies were acted by the children1 one in ,french1 the other in ,german4 ,most of the strangers seem to have left ,dessau with a favourable impression of the ,philanthropin4 ,they were especially struck with the brightness and animation of the children4 #ag4 ,how far did the ,philanthropinum really deserve their good opinion8 ,the conclusion to which we are driven by ,fred's narrative is1 that ,basedow carried to excess his principle--8,treat children as children1 that they may remain the longer uncorrupted20 and that the ,philanthropinum was1 in fact1 nothing but a good infant-school4 ,surely none of the thirteen children who were the subjects of ,basedow's experiments could have been more than ten years old4 ,but if we consider ,basedow's system to have been intended for children1 say between the ages of six and ten1 we must allow that it possessed great merits4 ,at the very beginning of a boy's learning1 it has always been too much the custom to make him hate the sight of a book1 and escape at every opportunity from school-work1 by giving him difficult tasks1 and neglecting his acutest faculties4 8,children love motion and noise10 says ,basedow3 8here is a hint from nature40 ,yet the youngest children in most schools are expected to keep quiet and to sit at their books for as many hours as the youths of seventeen or eighteen4 ,their vivacity is repressed with the cane4 ,their delight in exercising their hands and eyes and ears is taken no notice of2 and they are required to keep their attention fixed on subjects often beyond their comprehension1 and almost always beyond the range of their interests4 ,everyone who has had experience in teaching boys knows how hard it is to get them to throw themselves heartily into any task whatever2 and probably this difficulty arises in many cases1 from the habits of inattention and of shirking school-work1 which the boys have acquired almost necessarily from the dreariness of their earliest lessons4#aej ,basedow determined to change all this2 and in the ,philanthropin no doubt he succeeded4 ,we have already seen some of the expedients by which he sought to render school-work pleasurable4 ,he appealed1 wherever it was possible1 to the children's senses2 and these1 especially the sight1 were trained with great care by exercises1 such as drawing1 shooting at a mark1 c4 ,one of these exercises1 intended to give quick perception1 bears a curious likeness to what has since been practised in a very different educational system4 ,a picture1 with a somewhat varied subject1 was exhibited for a short time and removed4 ,the boys had then1 either verbally or on paper1 to give an account of it1 naming the different objects in proper order4 ,houdin1 if ,i rightly remember1 tells us that the young thieves of ,paris are required by their masters to make a mental inventory of the contents of a shop window1 which they see only as they walk rapidly by4 ,other exercises of the ,philanthropinum connected the pupils with more honourable callings4 ,they became acquainted with both skilled and unskilled manual labour4 ,every boy was taught a handicraft1 such as carpentering and turning1 and was put to such tasks as threshing corn4 ,basedow's division of the twenty-four hours was the following3 ,eight hours for sleep1 eight for food and amusement1 and1 for the children of the rich1 six hours of school-work1 and two of manual labour4 ,in the case of the children of the poor1 he would have the division of the last eight hours inverted1 and would give for school-work two1 and for manual labour six4 ,the development of the body was specially cared for in the ,philanthropinum4 ,gymnastics were now first introduced into modern schools2 and the boys were taken long expeditions on foot--the commencement1 ,i believe1 of a practice now common throughout ,germany4 #ah4 ,as ,i have already said1 ,basedow proved a very unfit person to be at the head of the model ,institution4 ,many of his friends agreed with ,herder1 that he was not fit to have calves entrusted to him1 much less children4 ,he soon resigned his post2 and was succeeded by ,campe1 who had been one of the visitors at the public examination4 ,campe did not remain long at the ,philanthropinum2 but left it to set up a school1 on like principles1 at ,hamburg4 ,his fame now rests on his writings for the young2 one of which--8,robinson ,crusoe the ,younger0--is still a general favourite4 ,other distinguished men became connected with the ,philanthropin--among them ,salzmann1 and ,matthison the poet--and the number of pupils rose to over fifty2 gathered we are told1 from all parts of ,europe between ,riga and ,lisbon4 ,but this number is by no means a fair measure of the interest1 nay1 enthusiasm1 which the experiment excited4 ,we find ,pastor ,oberlin raising money on his wife's earrings to send a donation4 ,we find the philosopher ,kant prophesying that quite another race of men would grow up1 now that education according to ,nature had been introduced4 #ai4 ,these hopes were disappointed4 ,kant confesses as much in the following passage in his treatise 8,on ,pdagogy03-- 8,one fancies1 indeed1 that experiments in education would not be necessary2 and that we might judge by the understanding whether any plan would turn out well or ill4 ,but this is a great mistake4 ,experience shows that often in our experiments we get quite opposite results from what we had anticipated4 ,we see1 too1 that since experiments are necessary1 it is not in the power of one generation to form a complete plan of education4 ,the only experimental school which1 to some extent1 made a beginning in clearing the road1 was the ,institute at ,dessau4 ,this praise at least must be allowed it1 notwithstanding the many faults which could be brought up against it--faults which are sure to show themselves when we come to the results of our experiments1 and which merely prove that fresh experiments are necessary4 ,it was the only ,school in which the teachers had liberty to work according to their own methods and schemes1 and where they were in free communication both among themselves and with all learned men throughout ,germany40 #bj4 ,we observe here1 that ,kant speaks of the ,philanthropinum as a thing of the past4 ,it was finally closed in #agic4 ,but even from ,kant we learn that the experiment had been by no means a useless one4 ,the conservatives1 of course1 did not neglect to point out that young ,philanthropinists1 when they left school1 were not in all respects the superiors of their fellow-creatures4 ,but1 although no one could pretend that the ,philanthropinum had effected a tithe of what ,basedow promised1 and the 8friends of humanity0 throughout ,europe expected1 it had introduced many new ideas1 which in time had their influence1 even in the schools of the opposite party4 ,moreover1 teachers who had been connected with the ,philanthropinum founded schools on similar principles in different parts of ,germany and ,switzerland1 as ,bahrd's at ,heidesheim1 and ,salzmann's celebrated school at ,schnepfenthal1 which is1 ,i believe1 still thriving4 ,their doctrines1 too1 made converts among other masters1 the most celebrated of whom was ,meierotto of ,berlin4 #ba4 ,little remains to be said of ,basedow4 ,he lived chiefly at ,dessau1 earning his subsistence by private tuition1 but giving offence by his irregularities4 ,in #agij1 when visiting ,magdeburg1 he died1 after a short illness1 in his sixty-seventh year4 ,his last words were1 8,i wish my body to be dissected for the good of my fellow-creatures40 ,basedow has a posthumous connexion with this country as the great-grandfather of ,professor ,max ,mller4 ,basedow's son became 8,regierungs ,prsident10 in ,dessau4 ,the ,president's daughter1 born in #ahjj1 became the wife of the poet ,wilhelm ,mller1 and the mother of ,max ,mller4 ,max ,mller has contributed a life of his great-grandfather to the ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie4 ,those who read ,german and care about either ,basedow or ,comenius should get ,die ,didaktik ,basedows im ,vergleiche zur ,didaktik des ,comenius von ,dr4 ,petru ,garbovicianu 7,bucarest1 ,c4 ,gobl71 #ahhg4 ,this is a very good piece of work2 it is printed in roman type1 and the price is only #as4 #f;d4 ,since the above was in type ,i have got an important book1 ,l',education en ,allemagne au ,dix-huitime ,sicle3 ,basedow et le ,philanthropinisme1 by ,a4 ,pinloche 7,paris1 ,a4 ,colin1 #ahhi47 ,,xvi4 ,,pestalozzi4 #agdf-ahbg4 #a4 ,qui facit per alium facit per se4 ,it is thus the law holds us accountable for the action of others which we direct4 ,by the extension of this rule we immensely increase the personality of great writers and may credit them with vast spheres of action which never come within their consciousness4 ,no man gains and suffers more from this consideration than ,rousseau4 ,on the one hand1 we may attribute to him the crimes of ,robespierre and ,saint-,just2 on the other ,pestalozzi was instigated by him to turn to farming and--education4 ,in treating of ,rousseau as an educational reformer ,i passed over a life in which almost every incident tends to weaken the effect of his words4 ,with ,pestalozzi we must turn to his life for the true source of his writings and the best comment on them4 #b4 ,john ,henry ,pestalozzi was born at ,zurich in #agdf4 ,his father dying when he was five years old1 he was brought up with a brother and sister by a pious and self-denying mother and by a faithful servant 8,babeli10 who had comforted the father in his last hours by promising to stay with his family4 ,thus ,pestalozzi had an advantage denied to ,rousseau and denied as it would seem to ,locke2 there was scope for his home affections1 and the head was not developed before the heart4 ,when he was sent to a day-school he became to some extent the laughing stock of his companions who dubbed him ,harry ,oddity of ,foolborough2 but he gained their good-will by his unselfishness4 ,it was remembered that on the shock of an earthquake when teachers and taught fled from the school building ,harry ,oddity was induced to go back and bring away what his companions considered precious4 ,his holidays he spent with his grandfather the pastor of a village some three miles from ,zurich1 where the lad learnt the condition of the rural poor and saw what a good man could do for them4 ,he always looked back to these visits as an important element in his education4 8,the best way for a child to acquire the fear of ,god10 he wrote1 8is for him to see and hear a true ,christian40 ,the grandfather's example so affected him that he wished to follow in his steps1 and he became a student of theology4#aea #c4 ,even as a student ,pestalozzi proved that he was no ordinary man4 ,in his time there was great intellectual and moral enthusiasm among the students of the little ,swiss ,university4 ,some distinguished professors1 especially ,bodmer1 had awakened a craving for the old ,swiss virtues of plain living and high thinking2 and a band of students1 among whom ,lavater was leader and ,pestalozzi played a prominent part1 became eager reformers4 ,the citizens of the great towns like ,geneva and ,zurich had become in effect privileged classes2 and as their spokesmen the ,geneva magistrates condemned the ,contrat ,social and the ,emile4 ,this raised the indignation of the reforming students at ,zurich2 and though their organ1 a periodical called the ,memorial1 kept clear of politics1 one ,muller wrote a paper which contained some strong language1 and this was held to be proof of a conspiracy4 ,muller fled and was banished4 ,pestalozzi and some other of his friends were imprisoned4 ,the ,memorial was suppressed4 #d4 ,it is in this ,memorial1 a weekly paper edited by ,lavater who was five years ,pestalozzi's senior that we have ,pestalozzi's earliest writing4 ,we find him coming forward as 8a man of aspirations40 ,no one he says can object to his expressing his wishes4 ,and 8wishes0 with a man of #ai are usually hopes4 ,among other wishes he says3 8,i would that some one would draw up in a simple manner a few principles of education intelligible to everybody2 that some generous people would then share the expense of printing1 so that the pamphlet might be given to the public for nothing or next to nothing4 ,i would then have clergymen distribute it to all fathers and mothers1 so that they might bring up their children in a rational and ,christian manner4 ,but10 he adds1 8perhaps this is asking too much at a time40 ,the ,memorial was suppressed because 8the privileged classes0 knew that it was in the hands of their opponents4 ,pestalozzi then and always felt keenly the oppression to which the peasants were exposed2 and he spoke of 8the privileged0 as men on stilts who must descend among the people before they could secure a natural and firm position4 ,he also satirises them in some of his fables1 as1 e4g41 that of the 8,fishes and the ,pike40 8,the fishes in a pond brought an accusation against the pike who were making great ravages among them4 ,the judge1 an old pike1 said that their complaint was well founded1 and that the defendants1 to make amends1 should allow two ordinary fish every year to become pike40 #e4 ,by this time ,pestalozzi had given up theology and had taken to the law4 ,now under the influence of ,rousseau1 or rather of the craving for a simple 8natural0 life which found its most eloquent expression in ,rousseau's writing1 ,pestalozzi made a bonfire of his ,,mss4 and decided on becoming a farmer4 #f4 ,there was another person concerned in this decision4 ,in his childhood he had one day ventured into the shop of one of the leading tradesmen1 ,herr ,schulthess1 bent on procuring for his farthings some object of delight2 but he found there a little shop-keeper1 ,anna ,schulthess1 seven years his senior1 who discouraged his extravagance and persuaded him to keep his money4 ,anna and he since those days had become engaged--not at all to the satisfaction of her parents4 ,their intimacy had been strengthened by their concern for a common friend1 a young man named ,bluntschli1 who died of consumption4 ,this friend1 three years older than ,pestalozzi1 seems to have understood him thoroughly2 and in the parting advice he gave him there was a warning which happily for the general good was in after years neglected4 8,i am going10 said ,bluntschli1 8and you will be left alone4 ,avoid any career in which you might become the victim of your own goodness and trust1 and choose some quiet life in which you will run no risk4 ,above all1 do not take part in any important undertaking without having at your side a man who by his cool judgment1 knowledge of men and things1 and unshakable fidelity may be able to protect you from the dangers to which you will be exposed40 #g4 ,when the friendship with ,anna ,schulthess had ripened into a betrothal ,pestalozzi spent a year in the neighbourhood of ,bern learning farming under a man then famous for his innovations4 ,his new ideas ,pestalozzi absorbed very readily4 8,i had come to him10 he says1 8a political visionary1 though with many profound and correct attainments1 views1 and anticipations in matters political4 ,i went away from him just as great an agricultural visionary1 though with many enlarged and correct ideas and intentions with regard to agriculture40 #h4 ,during his 8learning year0 he kept up a correspondence with his betrothed1 and the letters of both1 which have been preserved1 differ very widely from love-letters in general4 ,of himself ,pestalozzi gives an account which shows that in part at least he could see himself as others saw him4 8,dearest10 he writes1 8those of my faults which appear to me most important in relation to the situation in which ,i may be placed in after-life are improvidence1 incautiousness1 and a want of presence of mind to meet unexpected changes in my prospects4444 ,of my great1 and indeed very reprehensible negligence in all matters of etiquette1 and generally in all matters which are not in themselves of importance1 ,i need not speak2 anyone may see them at first sight of me4 ,i also owe you the open confession1 my dear1 that ,i shall always consider my duties toward my beloved partner subordinate to my duties towards my country2 and that1 although ,i shall be the tenderest husband1 nevertheless1 ,i hold myself bound to be inexorable to the tears of my wife if she should ever attempt to restrain me by them from the direct performance of my duties as a citizen1 whatever this must lead to4 ,my wife shall be the confidante of my heart1 the partner of all my most secret counsels4 ,a great and honest simplicity shall reign in my house4 ,and one thing more4 ,my life will not pass without important and very critical undertakings4 ,i shall not forget 444 my first resolutions to devote myself wholly to my country4 ,i shall never1 from fear of man1 refrain from speaking when ,i see that the good of my country calls upon me to speak4 ,my whole heart is my country's3 ,i will risk all to alleviate the need and misery of my fellow-countrymen4 ,what consequences may the undertakings to which ,i feel myself urged on draw after them6 how unequal to them am ,i6 and how imperative is my duty to show you the possibility of the great dangers which they may bring upon me6 ,my dear1 my beloved friend1 ,i have now spoken candidly of my character and my aspirations4 ,reflect upon everything4 ,if the traits which it was my duty to mention diminish your respect for me1 you will still esteem my sincerity1 and you will not think less highly of me1 that ,i did not take advantage of your want of acquaintance with my character for the attainment of my inmost wishes40 #i4 ,the young lady addressed was worthy of her lover4 8,such nobleness1 such elevation of character1 reach my very soul10 said she4 ,with equal nobleness she encouraged ,pestalozzi in his schemes and took the consequences without a murmur during their long married life of #df years4 #aj4 ,full of new ideas about farming ,pestalozzi now thought he saw his way to making a fortune4 ,he took some poor land near ,birr not far from ,zurich1 and persuaded a banking firm to advance money with which he proposed to cultivate vegetables and madder4 ,in ,september1 #agfi1 he was married1 and six months later the pair settled in a new house1 8,neuhof10 which ,pestalozzi had built on his land4 #aa4 ,but in spite of his excellent ideas and great industry1 his speculation failed4 ,the bankers soon withdrew their money4 ,pestalozzi was not cautious enough for them4 ,however1 his wife's friends prevented an immediate collapse4 #ab4 ,but before he had any reason to doubt the success of his speculation ,pestalozzi had begun to reproach himself with being engrossed by it4 ,what had become of all his thoughts for the people8 ,was he not spending his strength entirely to gain the prosperity of himself and his household8 ,these thoughts came to him with all the more force when a son was born to him2 and at this time they naturally connected themselves with education4 ,he had now seen a good deal of the degraded state of the peasantry4 ,how were they to be raised out of it8 #ac4 ,to ,pestalozzi there seemed one answer and one only4 ,this was by education4 ,to many people in the present day it might seem that 8education10 when quite successful1 would qualify labourers to become clerks4 ,this was not the notion of ,pestalozzi4 ,rousseau had completely freed him from bondage to the ,renascence1 and education did not mean to him a training in the use of books4 ,he looked at the children of the lowest class of the peasants and asked himself what they needed to raise them4 ,knowledge would not do it4 8,the thing was not that they should know what they did not know1 but that they should behave as they did not behave0 7supra1 p4 #afi72 and the road to right action lay through right feeling4 ,if they could be made conscious that they were loved and cared for1 their hearts would open and give back love and respect in return4 ,more than this1 they must be taught not only to respect their elders but also themselves4 ,they must be taught to help themselves and contribute to their own maintenance4 ,so ,pestalozzi resolved to take into his own house some of the very poorest children1 to bring them up in an atmosphere of love1 and to instruct them in field-work and spinning which would soon partly 7as ,pestalozzi hoped1 wholly7 pay for their keep4 ,thus1 just at the time when the experiment for himself failed he began for others an experiment that seemed likely to add indefinitely to his difficulties4 #ad4 ,in the winter of #aggd the first children were taken into ,neuhof4 ,the consequences to his wife and to his little son only four years old might have vanquished the courage of a less ardent philanthropist4 8,our position entailed much suffering on my wife20 he writes1 8but nothing could shake us in our resolve to devote our time1 strength and remaining fortune to the simplification of the instruction and domestic education of the people40 #ae4 ,these children1 at first not more than #bj in number1 ,pestalozzi treated as his own4 ,they worked with him in the summer in the garden and fields1 in winter in the house4 ,very little time was given to separate lessons1 the children often learning while they worked with their hands4 ,pestalozzi held that talking should come before reading and writing2 and he practised them in conversation on subjects taken from their every day life4 ,they also repeated passages from the ,bible till they knew them by heart4 #af4 ,in a few months1 as we are told1 the appearance of these poor little creatures had entirely changed2 though fed only on bread and vegetables they looked strong and hearty1 and their faces gained an expression of cheerfulness1 frankness and intelligence which till then had been totally wanting4 ,they made good progress with their manual work as well as with the associated lessons1 and took pleasure in both4 ,in all they said and did1 they seemed to show their consciousness of their benefactor's kind care of them4 #ag4 ,this experiment naturally drew much attention to it1 and when it had gone on over a year ,pestalozzi was induced by his friend ,iselin of ,basel to insert in the ,ephemerides 7a paper of which ,iselin was editor71 an 8appeal 444 for an institution intended to provide education and work for poor country children40 ,in this appeal ,pestalozzi narrates his experience4 8,i have proved10 says he1 8that it is not regular work that stops the development of so many poor children1 but the turmoil and irregularity of their lives1 the privations they endure1 the excesses they indulge in when opportunity offers1 the wild rebellious passions so seldom restrained1 and the hopelessness to which they are so often a prey4 ,i have proved that children after having lost health1 strength and courage in a life of idleness and mendicity have1 when once set to regular work quickly recovered their health and spirits and grown rapidly4 ,i have found that when taken out of their abject condition they soon become kindly1 trustful and sympathetic2 that even the most degraded of them are touched by kindness1 and that the eyes of the child who has been steeped in misery1 grow bright with pleasure and surprise1 when1 after years of hardship1 he sees a gentle friendly hand stretched out to help him2 and ,i am convinced that when a child's heart has been touched the consequences will be great for his development and entire moral character40 ,pestalozzi therefore would have the very poorest children brought up in private establishments where agriculture and industry were combined1 and where they would learn to work steadily and carefully with their hands1 the chief part of their time being devoted to this manual work1 and their instruction and education being associated with it4 ,and he asks for support in greatly increasing the establishment he has already begun4 #ah4 ,encouraged by the support he received and still more by his love for the children and his own too sanguine disposition ,pestalozzi enlarged his undertaking4 ,the consequence was bankruptcy4 ,several causes conspired to bring about this result4 ,whatever he might do for the children1 he could not educate the parents1 and these were many of them beggars with the ordinary vices of their class4 ,with the usual discernment of such people they soon came to the conclusion that ,pestalozzi was making a fortune out of their children's labour2 so they haunted ,neuhof1 treated ,pestalozzi with the greatest insolence1 and often induced their children to run away in their new clothes4 ,this would account for much1 but there was another cause of failure that accounted for a great deal more4 ,this was ,pestalozzi's extreme incapacity as an administrator4 ,even his industrial experiment he carried on in such a way that it proved a source of expense rather than of profit4 ,he says himself1 that1 contrary to his own principles1 which should have led him to begin at the beginning and lay a good foundation in teaching1 he put the children to work that was too difficult for them1 wanted them to spin fine thread before their hands got steadiness and skill by exercise on the coarser kind1 and to manufacture muslin before they could turn out well-made cotton goods4 8,before ,i was aware of it10 he adds1 8,i was deeply involved in debt1 and the greater part of my dear wife's property and expectations had1 as it were1 in an instant gone up in smoke40 #ai4 ,the precise arrangement made with the creditors we do not know4 ,the bare facts remain that the children were sent away1 and that the land was let for the creditors' benefit2 but ,pestalozzi remained in the house4 ,this was settled in #aghj4 #bj4 ,we have now come to the most gloomy period in ,pestalozzi's history1 a period of eighteen years1 and those the best years in a man's life1 which ,pestalozzi spent in great distress from poverty without and doubt and despondency within4 ,when he got into difficulties1 his friends1 he tells us1 loved him without hope3 8in the whole surrounding district it was everywhere said that ,i was a lost man1 that nothing more could be done for me40 8,in his only too elegant country house10 we are told1 8he often wanted money1 bread1 fuel1 to protect himself against hunger and cold40 8,eighteen years6--what a time for a soul like his to wait6 ,history passes lightly over such a period4 ,ten1 twenty1 thirty years--it makes but a cipher difference if nothing great happens in them4 ,but with what agony must he have seen day after day1 year after year gliding by1 who in his fervent soul longed to labour for the good of mankind and yet looked in vain for the opportunity60 7,palmer47 #ba4 ,but he who was always ready to sacrifice himself for others now found someone1 and that a stranger1 ready to make a great sacrifice for him4 ,a servant1 named ,elizabeth ,naef1 heard of the disaster and distress at ,neuhof1 and her master having just died she resolved to go to the rescue4 ,at first ,pestalozzi refused her help4 ,he did not wish her to share the poverty of his household1 and he felt himself out of sympathy with her 8evangelical0 form of piety4 ,but ,elizabeth declared she had come to stay1 and when ,pestalozzi found he could not shake her determination he consented1 saying1 8,well1 you will find after all that ,god is in our house also40 #bb4 ,to this pious sensible but illiterate peasant woman ,pestalozzi was fond of tracing many of his ideas4 ,she was the original of his ,gertrude1 and it was of her he wrote3 8,god's sun pursues its path from morning to evening2 yet your eye detects no movement1 your ear no sound4 ,even when it goes down1 you know that it will rise again and continue to ripen the fruits of the earth4 ,extreme as it may seem1 ,i am not ashamed to say that this is an image of ,gertrude as of every woman who makes her house a temple of the living ,god and wins heaven for her husband and children40 7,leonard and ,gertrude74 ,she was invaluable at ,neuhof and restored comfort to the household4 ,in after years she managed the establishment at ,yverdun and married one of the ,krsis who were ,pestalozzi's assistants4 #bc4 ,writing of the gloomy years at ,neuhof ,pestalozzi afterwards said2 8,my head was grey1 yet ,i was still a child4 ,with a heart in which all the foundations of life were shaken1 ,i still pursued in those stormy times my favourite object1 but my way was one of prejudice1 of passion and of error40 ,but with ,pestalozzi self-depreciation had 8almost grown the habit of his soul10 and in his writings at ,neuhof at this period we find no traces of this prejudice1 passion and error from which he supposes himself to have suffered4 ,he certainly did not abandon his love of humanity2 and in his sacrifice for it he sought a religious basis4 ,in these ,neuhof days he wrote3 8,christ teaches us by ,his example and doctrine to sacrifice not only our possessions but ourselves for the good of others1 and shews us that nothing we have received is absolutely ours but is merely entrusted to us by ,god to be piously employed in the service of charity40 7,quoted by ,guimps4 ,r's trans4 #gb47 ,whatever were his doubts and difficulties1 he never swerved from pursuing the great object of his life1 and nothing could cloud his mind as to the true method of attaining that object4 ,as he afterwards wrote to ,gessner 7,wie ,gertrud u4s4w471 8,even while ,i was the sport of men who condemned me ,i never lost sight for a moment of the object ,i had in view1 which was the removal of the causes of the misery that ,i saw on all sides of me4 ,my strength too kept on increasing1 and my own misfortunes taught me valuable truths4 ,i knew the people as no one else did4 ,what deceived no one else always deceived me1 but what deceived everybody else deceived me no longer4444 ,my own sufferings have enabled me to understand the sufferings of the people and their causes as no man without suffering can understand them4 ,i suffered what the people suffered and saw them as no one else saw them2 and strange as it may seem1 ,i was never more profoundly convinced of the fundamental truths on which ,i had based my undertaking than when ,i saw that ,i had failed40 7,r's4 ,guimps #gd47 #bd4 ,pestalozzi still had a few friends who did not despise the dreamer of dreams4 ,among them was the editor of the ,ephemerides1 ,iselin4 ,this friend encouraged him to write1 and there soon appeared in the ,ephemerides a series of reflexions under the title of 8,the ,evening ,hour of a ,hermit40 ,not many editors would have printed these aphorisms1 and they attracted little or no attention at the time1 but they have proved worth attending to4 8,the fruit of ,pestalozzi's past years1 they are10 says ,raumer1 8at the same time the seed-corn of the years that were to come1 the plan and key to his action in pedagogy4444 ,the drawing of the architect of genius contains his work1 even though the architect himself has not skill enough to carry out his own design40 7,quoted by ,otto ,fischer74#aeb #be4 ,what was the connexion between ,pestalozzi's belief at this season and complete belief in dogmatic ,christianity8 ,the question is one that will always be asked and can never1 ,i think1 be fully answered4 ,in the days preceding the ,french ,revolution it was a proof of wisdom to 8,cleave ever to the sunnier side of doubt1 and cling to ,faith10 even though the ,faith were 8beyond the forms of ,faith0 7see ,tennyson's ,ancient ,sage74 ,but ,pestalozzi did far more than this4 ,he traced all virtue and strength in the people to belief in the ,fatherhood of ,god2 and he saw in unbelief the severance of all the bonds of society4 ,the 8,hermit0 does not indeed use the phrases common among 8evangelical0 ,christians1 but that he was indeed a ,christian is established not only by the general tone of his aphorisms but still more clearly by his last words3 8,the ,man of ,god1 who with his sufferings and death has restored to humanity the lost feeling of the child's disposition towards ,god is the ,redeemer of the world2 he is the sacrificed ,priest of the ,lord2 he is the ,mediator between ,god and ,god-forgetting mankind4 ,his teaching is pure justice1 educating philosophy of the people2 it is the revelation of ,god the ,father to the lost race of his children40 #bf4 ,the 8,evening ,hour0 remaining almost unnoticed1 ,pestalozzi's friends urged him to write something in a more popular form4 ,so he set to work on a tale which should depict the life of the peasantry and shew the causes of their degradation and the cure4 ,with extraordinary rapidity he wrote between the lines of an old account book the first part of his 8,leonard and ,gertrude40 ,the book1 which was complete in itself1 and through the good offices of ,iselin 7of the ,ephemerides71 soon found a publisher1 suddenly sprang into immense popularity1 a popularity of which nothing but the 8continuations0 could ever have deprived it4 ,in the works of a great artist we see natural objects represented with perfect fidelity and yet with a life breathed into them by genius1 which is wanting or at least is not visible to common eyes in the originals4 ,just so do we find ,swiss peasant life depicted by ,pestalozzi4 ,the delineation is evidently true to nature2 and1 at the same time1 shows ,nature as she reveals herself to genius4 ,but for this work something more than genius was necessary1 viz41 sympathy and love4 ,in the preface to the first edition1 he says1 8,in that which ,i here relate1 and which ,i have1 for the most part1 seen and heard myself in the course of an active life1 ,i have taken care not once to add my own opinion to what ,i saw and heard the people themselves saying1 feeling2 believing1 judging1 and attempting40 ,in a later edition 7#ahjj7 he says1 8,i desired nothing then1 and ,i desire nothing else now1 as the object of my life1 but the welfare of the people1 whom ,i love1 and whom ,i feel to be miserable as few feel them to be miserable1 because ,i have with them borne their sufferings as few have borne them40 #bg4 ,wherever ,german was read this book excited vast interest1 and though it seemed to most people only a good tale1 it met with some more discerning readers4 ,the ,bern ,agricultural ,society sent the author their thanks and a gold medal1 and ,pestalozzi was at once recognised as a man who understood the peasantry and had good ideas for raising them4 ,the book is and must remain a classic1 but ,pestalozzi in his zeal to spread the truth added again and again 8continuations10 and these became less and less popular in the method of exposition4#aec #bh4 ,here and there we get glimpses of the trials ,pestalozzi had gone through in his industrial experiment4 8,the love and patience10 he writes1 8with which ,gertrude bore with the disorderly and untrained little ones was almost past belief4 ,their eyes were often anywhere but on their yarn1 so that this would now be too thick1 and now too thin4 ,when they had spoiled it1 they would watch for a moment when ,gertrude was not looking1 and throw it out of the window by the handful1 until they found that she discovered the trick when she weighed their work at night40 7,e4 ,c's4 trans41 p4 #abb47 ,and in this connexion ,pestalozzi preached his doctrine of perfect attainment4 8#8,what you can't do blindfold1'0 said ,harry1 8#8you can't do at all4'0 7ib47 #bi4 8,gertrude10 we are told1 8seemed quite unable to explain her method in words20 and here no doubt ,pestalozzi was speaking of himself2 but like ,gertrude he 8would let fall some significant remark which went to the root of the whole matter of education40 ,as an instance we may take what ,gertrude said to the schoolmaster3 8,you should do for the children what their parents fail to do for them4 ,the reading1 writing1 and arithmetic are not after all what they most need4 ,it is all well and good for them to learn something1 but the really important thing for them is to be something40 ,when this truth is fully realized by teachers and school managers there will be some hope for national education4 #cj4 8,although ,gertrude exerted herself to develop very early the manual dexterity of her children1 she was in no haste for them to learn to read and write2 but she took pains to teach them early how to speak3 for1 as she said1 #8,of what use is it for a person to be able to read and write if he cannot speak1 since reading and writing are only an artificial sort of speech4' 444 ,she did not adopt the tone of an instructor towards the children 444 and her verbal instruction seemed to vanish in the spirit of her real activity1 in which it always had its source4 ,the result of her system was that each child was skilful1 intelligent1 and active to the full extent that its age and development allowed40 7,ib4 p4 #acj47 #ca4 ,in this book we see that knowledge is treated as valueless unless it has a basis in action4 8,the pastor was soon convinced that all verbal instruction in so far as it aims at true human wisdom and at the highest goal of this wisdom1 true religion1 ought to be subordinated to a constant training in practical domestic labour4444 ,so he strove to lead the children without many words to a quiet industrious life1 and thus to lay the foundations of a silent worship of ,god and love of humanity4 ,to this end he connected every word of his brief religious teachings with their actual every-day experience1 so that when he spoke of ,god and eternity1 it seemed to them as if he were speaking of father and mother1 house and home2 in short of the things with which they were most familiar0 7p4 #aef74 ,thus he built on the foundation laid by the schoolmaster1 who 8cared for the children's heads as he did for their hearts1 and demanded that whatever entered them should be plain and clear as the silent moon in the sky4 ,to insure this he taught them to see and hear with accuracy1 and cultivated their powers of attention0 7p4 #aeg74 #cb4 ,with all his love for the children1 an element of severity was not wanting4 ,pestalozzi maintained that 8love was only useful in the education of men when in conjunction with fear3 for they must learn to root out thorns and thistles1 which they never do of their own accord1 but only under compulsion and in consequence of training0 7p4 #aeg74 #cc4 ,just at the end of the book 8the ,duke0 appoints a commission to report on the success of the ,bonal experiment1 and ,pestalozzi makes him give the following order3 8,to insure thoroughness there must be among the examiners men skilled in law and finance1 merchants1 clergymen1 government officials1 schoolmasters1 and physicians1 besides women of different ranks and conditions of life who shall view the matter with their woman's eyes and be sure there is nothing visionary in the background0 7p4 #ahj74 ,in this respect ,pestalozzi is in advance of us still4 ,no woman has yet sat on an educational commission4 #cd4 ,thus we find ,pestalozzi at the age of thirty-five turning author1 and for the next six or seven years he worked indefatigably with his pen4 ,most men of genius have some leading purpose which unites their varied activities1 and this was specially true of ,pestalozzi4 ,he never lost sight of his one object1 which was the elevation of the people2 and this he held to be attainable only by means of education properly so called4 ,the success of the first part of ,leonard and ,gertrude he now endeavoured to turn to account in spreading true ideas of education4 ,with this intent he published ,christopher and ,eliza3 ,my ,second ,book for the ,people 7#aghb71 which was a kind of commentary on ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,but the public wished to be amused1 not taught2 and the book was a failure4 ,he was thus driven into the attempt already mentioned to catch the public ear by continuing ,leonard and ,gertrude1 thus endangering his first and1 as it proved1 his only great success in literature4 #ce4 ,to gain circulation for his ideas he also started a weekly paper called the ,swiss ,journal1 and issued it regularly throughout the year #aghb2 but the subscribers were so few that he was then obliged to give it up4 ,i have not the smallest doubt that it was1 as ,guimps says1 full of wisdom1 but not the kind of wisdom that readers of periodicals are likely to care for4#aed #cf4 ,in the ,swiss ,journal we get a hint of the analogy between the development of the plant and of the man4 ,this analogy1 often as it had been observed before1 was never before so fruitful as it became in the hands of ,pestalozzi and ,froebel4 ,the passage quoted by ,guimps is this3 8,teach me1 summer day1 that man formed from the dust of the earth1 grows and ripens like the plant rooted in the soil40 #cg4 ,between the close of the year #aghg and #agig ,pestalozzi did not publish anything4 ,though he had become famous1 had made the acquaintance of the greatest men in ,germany1 such as ,goethe1 ,wieland1 ,herder1 and ,fichte1 and had been declared a 8,citizen of the ,french ,republic10 together with ,bentham1 ,tom ,payne1 ,wilberforce1 ,clarkson1 ,washington1 ,madison1 ,klopstock1 ,kozciusko1 c41 he was nearly starving1 and1 naturally enough in that state of affairs both private and public1 he was in great despondency4 ,as we have seen1 his whole life and work were founded on religion and on the only religion possible for us1 the ,christian religion2 but carried away by his political radicalism he seems at this time to have doubted whether ,christianity was more than the highest human wisdom4 ,in ,october1 #agic1 he wrote to a friend in ,berlin3 8,i doubt1 not because ,i look on doubt as the truth1 but because the sum of the impressions of my life has driven faith with its blessings from my soul4 ,thus impelled by my fate ,i see nothing more in ,christianity but the purest and noblest teaching of the victory of the spirit over the flesh1 the one possible means of raising our nature to its true nobility1 or in other words of establishing the empire of the reason over the senses by the development of the purest feelings of the heart40 ,if this was the lowest point to which ,pestalozzi's faith sank in the days of the ,revolution1 it remained for practical purposes higher than the faith of most professing ,christians then and since4 #ch4 ,at this time we find him complaining3 8,my agriculture swallows up all my time4 ,i am longing for winter with its leisure4 ,my time passes like a shadow40 ,he was then forty-six years of age and seemed to himself to have done nothing4 #ci4 ,another five years he had to wait before he found an opportunity for action4 ,during this time1 impelled by ,fichte1 he endeavoured to give his ideas philosophic completeness1 and after labouring for three years with almost incredible toil he published in #agig his 8,inquiry into the ,course of ,nature in the ,development of the ,human ,race40 ,this book is pronounced even by his biographer ,guimps to be 8prolix and obscure10 and1 says ,pestalozzi1 8nobody understood me40 ,but even in this book there was much wisdom1 had the world cared to learn2 but the world had then no place for ,pestalozzi1 and as he says at the end of this book1 8without even asking whether the fault was his or another's1 it crushed him with its iron hammer as the mason crushes a useless stone40 ,he was1 however1 not actually crushed1 and a place was in time found for him4 #dj4 ,the world might be pardoned for neglecting an ,inquiry which even a biographer finds 8prolix and obscure40 ,but why could it see nothing in another book which ,pestalozzi published in the same year1 8,figures to my ,,abc ,book10 or according to its later title1 8,fables10 a series of apologues as witty and wise as those of ,lessing4#aee #da4 ,as ,i have said already 7supra p4 #bci7 there seems a marked distinction between thinkers and doers1 at least in education1 and we seldom find a man great in both4 ,but with all his weakness as a practical man ,pestalozzi proved great both as a thinker and a doer4 ,he not only thought out what should be done1 but he also made splendid efforts to do it4 ,his first attempt at ,neuhof was1 as we have seen1 all his own2 so was the next at ,stanz2 but afterwards he had to work with others1 and the work would have come to a standstill if he had not gained the co-operation of the magistrates1 the parents of the children1 and his own assistants4 ,so he never again had the free hand1 or at least the free thought which bore such good fruit in his enforced cessation from practice in the years between #aghj and #agih4 ,it is well then to ask1 as his biographer ,guimps has asked1 what was the main outcome of ,pestalozzi's thought before he plunged into action a second time in #agih4 #db4 ,pestalozzi set himself to find a means of rescuing the people from their poverty and degradation4 ,this he held would last as long as their moral and intellectual poverty lasted2 so there was no hope except in an education that should make them better and more intelligent4 ,in studying the children even of the most degraded parents he found the seeds1 as it were1 of a wealth of faculties1 sentiments1 tastes1 and capabilities1 which1 if developed1 might make them reasonable and upright human beings4 ,but what was called education did nothing of the kind4 ,instead of developing the noblest part of the child's nature it neglected this entirely1 and bringing to the child the knowledge1 ideas1 and feelings of others1 it tried to make him 8learn0 them4 ,so 8education0 did little beyond stifling the child's individuality under a mass of borrowed ideas4 ,the schoolmaster worked1 as it were1 from without to within4 ,this ,pestalozzi would change1 and make education begin in the child and work from within outwards4 ,acting on this principle he sought for some means of developing the child's inborn faculties1 and he found as he says3 8,nature develops all the powers of humanity by exercising them2 they increase with use40 7,evening ,hour1 ,aph4 #bb47 ,no means can be found of exercising the higher faculties which can be compared with the actual relations of daily life2 so ,pestalozzi declares3 8,the pure sentiment of truth and wisdom is formed in the narrow circle of the relationships which affect us1 the circumstances which suggest our actions1 and the common knowledge which we cannot do without40 ,and taking as his starting-point the needs1 desires1 and connexions of actual life he was naturally led to associate the work of the body with that of the mind1 to develop industry and study side by side1 to combine the workshop and the school4 ,with regard to instruction he was never tired of insisting on the importance of thorough mastery in the first elements1 and there was to be no advance till this mastery was attained4 7,see what 8,harry0 says1 supra p4 #cjf47 8,the schools10 he says 7,e4 ,h41 ,no4 #bh71 8hastily substitute an artificial method of words for the truer method of ,nature which knows no hurry but waits40 #dc4 ,in this account of ,pestalozzi's doctrine before #agih ,i have as usual followed ,m4 ,guimps4 ,according to him ,pestalozzi had discovered 8a principle which settles the law of man's development1 and is the fundamental principle of education40 ,this principle ,m4 ,guimps briefly states as follows3 8,all the real knowledge1 useful powers1 and noble sentiments that a man can acquire are but the extension of his individuality by the development of the powers and faculties that ,god has put in him1 and by their assimilation of the elements supplied by the outer world4 ,there exists for this development and the work of assimilation a natural and necessary order1 an order which the school mostly sets at nought40 #dd4 ,now we come to the period of ,pestalozzi's practical activity4 ,in #agih ,switzerland was overrun by the ,french4 ,everything was remodelled after the ,french pattern2 and in conformity with the existing phase in the model country the government of ,switzerland was declared to be in the hands of five 8,directors40 ,pestalozzi was a ,radical1 and he at once set to work to serve the new government with his pen4 ,the ,directors gladly welcomed such an ally as the author of ,leonard and ,gertrude1 and they made him editor of a newspaper intended to diffuse the revolutionary principles among the people4 ,naturally enough they supposed that he1 like other people1 8wanted0 something2 but when asked what he wanted he replied simply that he wished to be a schoolmaster4 ,the ,directors1 especially ,le ,grand1 took a genuine interest in education1 and were quite willing that ,pestalozzi should be allowed a free hand in his 8new departure40 ,they therefore agreed to find the funds with which ,pestalozzi might open a new ,institution in ,aargau4 #de4 ,but the editorship and the plans for the new ,institution came to an abrupt ending4 ,the ,catholic cantons did not acquiesce in giving up their local liberties and being subjected to a new government in the hands of men whom they regarded as heretics and even atheists4 ,consequently those missionaries of enlightenment1 the ,french troops1 at once fell upon them and slaughtered many without distinction of age or sex4 ,the ,french1 we are told1 did not expect to meet with resistance2 so their light became lightning and struck dead the stupid people who could not or would not see4 8,our soldiers0 7it is ,michelet who speaks7 8were ferocious at ,stanz40 7,nos ,fils1 #bag74 ,this ferocity at ,stanz in ,september1 #agih1 was in secret disapproved of by the ,directors1 who were nominally responsible for it4 ,but all they could do was to provide in a measure for the 8#aaa infirm old people1 the #afi orphans1 and #bcg other children10 who were left totally destitute4 ,le ,grand proposed to ,pestalozzi that he should1 for the present1 give up his other plans and go to ,stanz 7which is on the ,lake of ,lucerne7 to take charge of the orphan and destitute children4 ,pestalozzi was not the man to refuse such a task as this4 ,he at once set out4 ,some buildings connected with an ,ursuline convent were1 without the consent of the nuns1 made over to him4 ,workmen were employed upon them1 and as soon as a single room could be inhabited ,pestalozzi received forty children into it4 ,this was in ,january1 #agii1 in the middle of a remarkably cold winter4 #df4 ,thus under circumstances perhaps less unfavourable than they seemed began the five months' trial of pure ,pestalozzianism4 ,the physical difficulties were immense4 ,at first ,pestalozzi and all the children were shut up day and night in a single room4 ,he had throughout no helper of any kind but one female servant1 and he had to do everything for the children1 even what was most menial and disgusting4 ,as soon as possible the number was increased1 and before long was nearly eighty1 some of the children having to go out to sleep4 ,but great as were the material difficulties1 those arising from the opposition and hatred of the people he came to succour were still worse4 ,to them he seemed no philanthropist1 but only a servant of the devil1 an agent of the wicked government which had sent its ferocious soldiers and slaughtered the parents of these poor children1 a ,protestant who came to complete the work by destroying their souls4 ,pestalozzi1 who was making heroic efforts in their behalf1 seems to have wondered at the animosity shown him by the people of ,stanz2 but on looking back we must admit that in the circumstances it was only natural4 #dg4 ,and yet in spite of enormous difficulties of every kind ,pestalozzi triumphed4 ,within the five months he spent with them he attached to him the hearts of the children1 and produced in them a marvellous physical1 intellectual1 and moral change4 8,if ever there was a miracle10 says ,michelet1 8it was here4 ,it was the reward of a strong faith1 of a wonderful expansion of heart4 ,he believed1 he willed1 he succeeded40 7,nos ,fils #bbc47 ,what was the great act of faith by which ,pestalozzi triumphed8 ,according to ,m4 ,michelet he stood before these vicious and degraded children and said1 8,man is good40 ,pestalozzi does not tell us this himself2 and as a benighted believer in ,christianity1 ,i venture to differ from the enlightened ,michelet4 ,as far as ,i can judge from ,pestalozzi's own teaching the source of his strength was his belief in the goodness not of ,man but of ,god4 #dh4 ,but encouraged and rewarded as he was by the result1 ,pestalozzi could not long have maintained this fearful exertion4 ,he was over fifty years of age1 and he must soon have succumbed2 indeed he was already spitting blood when in ,june1 #agii1 the ,french soldiers1 whose action had brought him to ,stanz1 drove him away again4 ,falling back before the ,austrians they had need of a hospital in ,stanz1 and demanded the buildings occupied by ,pestalozzi and the children4 ,so almost all the children had to be sent away1 and then at last ,pestalozzi took thought for his own health and retired to some baths in the mountains4 ,but most of his peculiarities in teaching may be said to date from the experience at ,stanz2 and ,i will therefore give this experience in his own words4 #di4 ,the following is the account given in his letter to his friend ,gessner4 7,i have in part availed myself of ,mr4 ,russell's translation of ,guimps1 pp4 #adi ff47 8,my friend1 once more ,i awake from a dream2 once more ,i see my work destroyed1 and my failing strength wasted4 8,but1 however weak and unfortunate my attempt1 a friend of humanity will not grudge a few moments to consider the reasons which convince me that some day a more fortunate posterity will certainly take up the thread of my hopes at the place where it is now broken4444 8,i once more made known1 as well as ,i could1 my old wishes for the education of the people4 ,in particular1 ,i laid my whole scheme before ,legrand 7then one of the ,directors71 who not only took a warm interest in it1 but agreed with me that the ,republic stood in urgent need of a reform of public education4 ,he also agreed with me that much might be done for the regeneration of the people by giving a certain number of the poorest children an education which should be complete1 but which1 far from lifting them out of their proper sphere1 would but attach them the more strongly to it4 8,i limited my desires to this one point1 ,legrand helping me in every possible way4 ,he even thought my views so important that he once said to me3 #8,i shall not willingly give up my present post till you have begun your work4' 444 8,it was my intention to try to find near ,zurich or in ,aargau a place where ,i should be able to join industry and agriculture to the other means of instruction1 and so give my establishment all the development necessary to its complete success4 ,but the ,unterwalden disaster 7,september1 #agih7 left me no further choice in the matter4 ,the ,government felt the urgent need of sending help to this unfortunate district1 and begged me for this once to make an attempt to put my plans into execution in a place where almost everything that could have made it a success was wanting4 8,i went there gladly4 ,i felt that the innocence of the people would make up for what was wanting1 and that their distress would1 at any rate1 make them grateful4 8,my eagerness to realise at last the great dream of my life would have led me to work on the very highest peaks of the ,alps1 and1 so to speak1 without fire or water4 8,for a house1 the ,government made over to me the new part of the ,ursuline convent at ,stanz1 but when ,i arrived it was still uncompleted1 and not in any way fitted to receive a large number of children4 ,before anything else could be done1 then1 the house itself had to be got ready4 ,the ,government gave the necessary orders1 and ,rengger pushed on the work with much zeal and useful activity4 ,i was never indeed allowed to want for money4 8,in spite1 however1 of the admirable support ,i received1 all this preparation took time1 and time was precisely what we could least afford1 since it was of the highest importance that a number of children1 whom the war had left homeless and destitute1 should be received at once4 8,i was still without everything but money when the children crowded in2 neither kitchen1 rooms1 nor beds were ready to receive them4 ,at first this was a source of inconceivable confusion4 ,for the first few weeks ,i was shut up in a very small room2 the weather was bad1 and the alterations1 which made a great dust and filled the corridors with rubbish1 rendered the air very unhealthy4 8,the want of beds compelled me at first to send some of the poor children home at night2 these children generally came back the next day covered with vermin4 ,most of them on their arrival were very degenerated specimens of humanity4 ,many of them had a sort of chronic skin-disease1 which almost prevented their walking1 or sores on their heads1 or rags full of vermin2 many were almost skeletons1 with haggard1 careworn faces1 and shrinking looks2 some brazen1 accustomed to begging1 hypocrisy1 and all sorts of deceit2 others broken by misfortune1 patient1 suspicious1 timid1 and entirely devoid of affection4 ,there were also some spoilt children amongst them who had known the sweets of comfort1 and were therefore full of pretensions4 ,these kept to themselves1 affected to despise the little beggars their comrades1 and to suffer from this equality1 and seemed to find it impossible to adapt themselves to the ways of the house1 which differed too much from their old habits4 ,but what was common to them all was a persistent idleness1 resulting from their want of physical and mental activity4 ,out of every ten children there was hardly one who knew his ,a ,b ,c2 as for any other knowledge1 it was1 of course1 out of the question4 8,the entire absence of school learning was what troubled me least1 for ,i trusted in the natural powers that ,god bestows on even the poorest and most neglected children4 ,i had observed for a long time that behind their coarseness1 shyness1 and apparent incapacity1 are hidden the finest faculties1 the most precious powers2 and now1 even amongst these poor creatures by whom ,i was surrounded at ,stanz1 marked natural abilities soon began to show themselves4 ,i knew how useful the common needs of life are in teaching men the relations of things1 in bringing out their natural intelligence1 in forming their judgment1 and in arousing faculties which1 buried1 as it were1 beneath the coarser elements of their nature1 cannot become active and useful till they are set free4 ,it was my object then to set free these faculties1 and bring them to bear on the pure and simple circumstances of domestic life1 for ,i was convinced this was all that was wanting1 and these natural faculties would shew themselves capable of raising the hearts and minds of my pupils to all that ,i could desire4 8,i saw then how my wishes might be carried out2 and ,i was persuaded that my affection would change the state of my children just as quickly as the spring sun would awake to new life the earth that winter had benumbed4 ,i was not deceiving myself3 before the spring sun melted the snow of our mountains my children were hardly to be recognised4 8,but ,i must not anticipate4 ,just as in the evening ,i often mark the quick growth of the gourd by the side of the house1 so ,i want you to mark the growth of my plant2 and1 my friend1 ,i will not hide from you the worm which sometimes fastens on the leaves1 sometimes even on the heart4 8,i opened the establishment with no other helper but a woman-servant4 ,i had not only to teach the children1 but to look after their physical needs4 ,i preferred being alone1 and1 unfortunately1 it was the only way to reach my end4 ,no one in the world would have cared to enter into my views for the education of children1 and at that time ,i knew scarcely any one even capable of it4 8,in proportion as the men whom ,i might have called to my aid were highly educated just so far they failed to understand me1 and were incapable of confining themselves even in theory to the simple starting-points which ,i sought to come back to4 ,all their views about the organisation and requirements of the enterprise differed entirely from mine4 ,what they specially objected to was the notion that the enterprise might be carried out without the aid of any artificial means1 and simply by the influence of nature in the environment of the children1 and by the activity aroused in them by the needs of their daily life4 8,and yet it was precisely upon this idea that ,i based all my hope of success2 it was1 as it were1 a basis for innumerable other points of view4 8,experienced teachers1 then1 could not help me2 still less boorish1 ignorant men4 ,i had nothing to put into the hands of assistants to guide them1 nor any results or apparatus by which ,i could make my ideas clearer to them4 ,thus1 whether ,i would or no1 ,i had first to make my experiment alone1 and collect facts to illustrate the essential features of my system before ,i could venture to look for outside help4 ,indeed1 in my then position1 nobody could help me4 ,i knew that ,i must help myself and shaped my plans accordingly4 8,i wanted to prove by my experiment that if public education is to have any real value for humanity1 it must imitate the means which make the merit of domestic education2 for it is my opinion that if school teaching does not take into consideration the circumstances of family life1 and everything else that bears on a man's general education1 it can only lead to an artificial and methodical dwarfing of humanity4 8,in any good education1 the mother must be able to judge daily1 nay hourly1 from the child's eyes1 lips1 and face1 of the slightest change in his soul4 ,the power of the educator1 too1 must be that of a father1 quickened by the general circumstances of domestic life4 8,such was the foundation upon which ,i built4 ,i determined that there should not be a minute in the day when my children should not be aware from my face and my lips that my heart was theirs1 that their happiness was my happiness1 and their pleasures my pleasures4 8,man readily accepts what is good1 and the child readily listens to it2 but it is not for you that he wants it1 master and educator1 but for himself4 ,the good to which you would lead him must not depend on your capricious humour or passion2 it must be a good which is good in itself and by the nature of things1 and which the child can recognize as good4 ,he must feel the necessity of your will in things which concern his comfort before he can be expected to obey it4 8,whatever he does gladly1 whatever gains him credit1 whatever tends to accomplish his great hopes1 whatever awakens his powers and enables him truly to say ,i can1 all this he wills4 8,but this will is not aroused by words2 it is aroused only by a kind of complete culture which gives feelings and powers4 ,words do not give the thing itself1 but only an expression1 a clear picture1 of the thing which we already have in our minds4 8,before all things ,i was bound to gain the confidence and the love of the children4 ,i was sure that if ,i succeeded in this all the rest would come of itself4 ,friend1 only think how ,i was placed1 and how great were the prejudices of the people and of the children themselves1 and you will comprehend what difficulties ,i had to overcome40 ,after narrating what we already know he goes on3 8,think1 my friend1 of this temper of the people1 of my weakness1 of my poor appearance1 of the ill-will to which ,i was almost publicly exposed1 and then judge how much ,i had to endure for the sake of carrying on my work4 8,and yet1 however painful this want of help and support was to me1 it was favourable to the success of my undertaking1 for it compelled me to be always everything for my children4 ,i was alone with them from morning till night4 ,it was from me that they received all that could do them good1 soul and body4 ,all needful help1 consolation1 and instruction they received direct from me4 ,their hands were in mine1 my eyes were fixed on theirs4 8,we wept and smiled together4 ,they forgot the world and ,stanz2 they only knew that they were with me and ,i with them4 ,we shared our food and drink4 ,i had about me neither family1 friends1 nor servants2 nothing but them4 ,i was with them in sickness1 and in health1 and when they slept4 ,i was the last to go to bed1 and the first to get up4 ,in the bedroom ,i prayed with them1 and1 at their own request1 taught them till they fell asleep4 ,their clothes and bodies were intolerably filthy1 but ,i looked after both myself1 and was thus constantly exposed to the risk of contagion4 8,this is how it was that these children gradually became so attached to me1 some indeed so deeply that they contradicted their parents and friends when they heard evil things said about me4 ,they felt that ,i was being treated unfairly1 and loved me1 ,i think1 the more for it4 ,but of what avail is it for the young nestlings to love their mother when the bird of prey that is bent on destroying them is constantly hovering near8 8,however1 the first results of these principles and of this line of action were not always satisfactory1 nor1 indeed1 could they be so4 ,the children did not always understand my love4 ,accustomed to idleness1 unbounded liberty1 and the fortuitous and lawless pleasures of an almost wild life1 they had come to the convent in the expectation of being well fed1 and of having nothing to do4 ,some of them soon discovered that they had been there long enough1 and wanted to go away again2 they talked of the school fever that attacks children when they are kept employed all day long4 ,this dissatisfaction1 which showed itself during the first months1 resulted principally from the fact that many of them were ill1 the consequence either of the sudden change of diet and habits1 or of the severity of the weather and the dampness of the building in which we lived4 ,we all coughed a great deal1 and several children were seized with a peculiar sort of fever4 ,this fever1 which always began with sickness1 was very general in the district4 ,cases of sickness1 however1 not followed by fever1 were not at all rare1 and were an almost natural consequence of the change of food4 ,many people attributed the fever to bad food1 but the facts soon showed them to be wrong1 for not a single child succumbed4 8,on the return of spring it was evident to everybody that the children were all doing well1 growing rapidly1 and gaining colour4 ,certain magistrates and ecclesiastics1 who saw them some time afterwards1 stated that they had improved almost beyond recognition4444 8,months passed before ,i had the satisfaction of having my hand grasped by a single grateful parent4 ,but the children were won over much sooner4 ,they even wept sometimes when their parents met me or left me without a word of salutation4 ,many of them were perfectly happy1 and used to say to their mothers3 #8,i am better here than at home4' ,at home1 indeed1 as they readily told me when we talked alone1 they had been ill-used and beaten1 and had often had neither bread to eat nor bed to lie down upon4 ,and yet these same children would sometimes go off with their mothers the very next morning4 8,a good many others1 however1 soon saw that by staying with me they might both learn something and become something1 and these never failed in their zeal and attachment4 ,before very long their conduct was imitated by others who had not altogether the same feelings4 8,those who ran away were the worst in character and the least capable4 ,but they were not incited to go till they were free of their vermin and their rags4 ,several were sent to me with no other purpose than that of being taken away again as soon as they were clean and well clothed4 8,but after a time their better judgment overcame the defiant hostility with which they arrived4 ,in #agiiaef ,i had nearly eighty children4 ,most of them were bright and intelligent1 some even remarkably so4 8,for most of them study was something entirely new4 ,as soon as they found that they could learn1 their zeal was indefatigable1 and in a few weeks children who had never before opened a book1 and could hardly repeat a ,pater ,noster or an ,ave1 would study the whole day long with the keenest interest4 ,even after supper1 when ,i used to say to them1 #8,children1 will you go to bed1 or learn something8' they would generally answer1 especially in the first month or two1 #8,learn something4' ,it is true that afterwards1 when they had to get up very early1 it was not quite the same4 8,but this first eagerness did much towards starting the establishment on the right lines1 and making the studies the success they ultimately were1 a success indeed1 which far surpassed my expectations4 ,and yet great beyond expression were my difficulties4 ,i did not as yet find it possible to organise the studies properly4 8,neither my trust nor my zeal had been able to overcome either the intractability of individuals or the want of coherence in the whole experiment4 ,the general order of the establishment1 ,i felt1 must be based upon order of a higher character4 ,as this higher order did not yet exist1 ,i had to attempt to create it2 for without this foundation ,i could not hope to organise properly either the teaching or the general management of the place1 nor should ,i have wished to do so4 ,i wanted everything to result not from a preconceived plan1 but from my relations with the children4 ,the high principles and educating forces ,i was seeking1 ,i looked for from the harmonious common life of my children1 from their common attention1 activity1 and needs4 ,it was not1 then1 from any external organisation that ,i looked for the regeneration of which they stood so much in need4 ,if ,i had employed constraint1 regulations1 and lectures1 ,i should1 instead of winning and ennobling my children's hearts1 have repelled them and made them bitter1 and thus been farther than ever from my aim4 ,first of all1 ,i had to arouse in them pure1 moral1 and noble feelings1 so that afterwards1 in external things1 ,i might be sure of their ready attention1 activity1 and obedience4 ,i had1 in short1 to follow the high precept of ,jesus ,christ1 #8,cleanse first that which is within1 that the outside may be clean also2 and if ever the truth of this precept was made manifest1 it was made manifest then4 8,my one aim was to make their new life in common1 and their new powers1 awaken a feeling of brotherhood amongst the children1 and make them affectionate1 just1 and considerate4 8,i was successful in gaining my aims4 ,amongst these seventy wild beggar-children there soon existed such peace1 friendship1 and cordial relations as are rare even between actual brothers and sisters4 8,the principle to which ,i endeavoured to conform all my conduct was as follows3 ,endeavour1 first1 to broaden your children's sympathies1 and1 by satisfying their daily needs1 to bring love and kindness into such unceasing contact with their impressions and their activity1 that these sentiments may be engrafted in their hearts2 then try to give them such judgment and tact as will enable them to make a wise1 sure1 and abundant use of these virtues in the circle which surrounds them4 ,in the last place1 do not hesitate to touch on the difficult questions of good and evil1 and the words connected with them4 ,and you must do this especially in connection with the ordinary events of every day1 upon which your whole teaching in these matters must be founded1 so that the children may be reminded of their own feelings1 and supplied1 as it were1 with solid facts upon which to base their conception of the beauty and justice of the moral life4 ,even though you should have to spend whole nights in trying to express in two words what others say in twenty1 never regret the loss of sleep4 8,i gave my children very few explanations2 ,i taught them neither morality nor religion4 ,but sometimes1 when they were perfectly quiet1 ,i used to say to them1 #8,do you not think that you are better and more reasonable when you are like this than when you are making a noise8' ,when they clung round my neck and called me their father1 ,i used to say1 #8,my children1 would it be right to deceive your father8 ,after kissing me like this1 would you like to do anything behind my back to vex me8' ,when our talk turned on the misery of the country1 and they were feeling glad at the thought of their own happier lot1 ,i would say1 #8,how good ,god is to have given man a compassionate heart6' 444 ,they perfectly understood that all they did was but a preparation for their future activity1 and they looked forward to happiness as the certain result of their perseverance4 ,that is why steady application soon became easy to them1 its object being in perfect accordance with their wishes and their hopes4 ,virtue1 my friend1 is developed by this agreement1 just as the young plant thrives when the soil suits its nature1 and supplies the needs of its tender shoots4 8,i witnessed the growth of an inward strength in my children1 which1 in its general development1 far surpassed my expectations1 and in its particular manifestations not only often surprised me1 but touched me deeply4 8,when the neighbouring town of ,altdorf was burnt down1 ,i gathered the children round me1 and said1 #8,altdorf has been burnt down2 perhaps1 at this very moment1 there are a hundred children there without home1 food1 or clothes2 will you not ask our good ,government to let twenty of them come and live with us8' ,i still seem to see the emotion with which they answered1 #8,oh1 yes1 yes6' #8,but1 my children1' ,i said1 #8think well of what you are asking6 ,even now we have scarcely money enough1 and it is not at all certain that if these poor children came to us1 the ,government would give us any more than they do at present1 so that you might have to work harder1 and share your clothes with these children1 and sometimes perhaps go without food4 ,do not say1 then1 that you would like them to come unless you are quite prepared for all these consequences4' ,after having spoken to them in this way as seriously as ,i could1 ,i made them repeat all ,i had said1 to be quite sure that they had thoroughly understood what the consequences of their request would be4 ,but they were not in the least shaken in their decision1 and all repeated1 #8,yes1 yes1 we are quite ready to work harder1 eat less1 and share our clothes1 for we want them to come4' 8,some refugees from the ,grisons having given me a few crowns for my poor children1 ,i at once called them and said1 #8,these men are obliged to leave their country2 they hardly know where they will find a home to-morrow1 yet1 in spite of their trouble1 they have given me this for you4 ,come and thank them4' ,and the emotion of the children brought tears to the eyes of the refugees4 8,it was in this way that ,i strove to awaken the feeling of each virtue before talking about it1 for ,i thought it unwise to talk to children on subjects which would compel them to speak without thoroughly understanding what they were saying4 8,i followed up this awakening of the sentiments by exercises intended to teach the children self-control1 so that all that was good in them might be applied to the practical questions of every-day life4 8,it will easily be understood that1 in this respect1 it was not possible to organise any system of discipline for the establishment2 that could only come slowly1 as the general work developed4 8,silence1 as an aid to application1 is perhaps the great secret of such an institution4 ,i found it very useful to insist on silence when ,i was teaching1 and also to pay particular attention to the attitude of my children4 ,i succeeded so well that the moment ,i asked for silence1 ,i could teach in quite a low voice4 ,the children repeated my words all together2 and as there was no other sound1 ,i was able to detect the slightest mistakes of pronunciation4 ,it is true that this was not always so4 ,sometimes1 whilst they repeated sentences after me1 ,i would ask them as if in fun to keep their eyes fixed on their middle fingers4 ,it is hardly credible how useful simple things of this sort sometimes are as means to the very highest ends4 8,one young girl1 for instance1 who had been little better than a savage1 by keeping her head and body upright1 and not looking about1 made more progress in her moral education than any one would have believed possible4 8,these experiences have shown me that the mere habit of carrying oneself well does much more for the education of the moral sentiments than any amount of teaching and lectures in which this simple fact is ignored4 8,thanks to the application of these principles1 my children soon became more open1 more contented and more susceptible to every good and noble influence than any one could possibly have foreseen when they first came to me1 so utterly devoid were they of ideas1 good feelings1 and moral principles4 ,as a matter of fact1 this lack of previous instruction was not a serious obstacle to me2 indeed1 it hardly troubled me at all4 ,i am inclined even to say that1 in the simple method ,i was following1 it was often an advantage1 for ,i had incomparably less trouble to develop those children whose minds were still blank1 than those who had already acquired inaccurate ideas4 ,the former1 too1 were much more open than the latter to the influence of all pure and simple sentiments4 8,but when the children were obdurate and churlish1 then ,i was severe1 and made use of corporal punishment4 8,my dear friend1 the pedagogical principle which says that we must win the hearts and minds of our children by words alone without having recourse to corporal punishment1 is certainly good1 and applicable under favourable conditions and circumstances2 but with children of such widely different ages as mine1 children for the most part beggars1 and all full of deeply-rooted faults1 a certain amount of corporal punishment was inevitable1 especially as ,i was anxious to arrive surely1 speedily1 and by the simplest means1 at gaining an influence over them all1 for the sake of putting them all in the right road4 ,i was compelled to punish them1 but it would be a mistake to suppose that ,i thereby1 in any way1 lost the confidence of my pupils4 8,it is not the rare and isolated actions that form the opinions and feelings of children1 but the impressions of every day and every hour4 ,from such impressions they judge whether we are kindly disposed towards them or not1 and this settles their general attitude towards us4 ,their judgment of isolated actions depends upon this general attitude4 8,this is how it is that punishments inflicted by parents rarely make a bad impression4 ,but it is quite different with schoolmasters and teachers who are not with their children night and day1 and have none of those relations with them which result from life in common4 8,my punishments never produced obstinacy2 the children ,i had beaten were quite satisfied if a moment afterwards ,i gave them my hand and kissed them1 and ,i could read in their eyes that the final effect of my blows was really joy4 ,the following is a striking instance of the effect this sort of punishment sometimes had4 ,one day one of the children ,i liked best1 taking advantage of my affection1 unjustly threatened one of his companions4 ,i was very indignant1 and my hand did not spare him4 ,he seemed at first almost broken-hearted1 and cried bitterly for at least a quarter of an hour4 ,when ,i had gone out1 however1 he got up1 and going to the boy he had ill-treated1 begged his pardon1 and thanked him for having spoken about his bad conduct4 ,my friend1 this was no comedy2 the child had never seen anything like it before4 8,it was impossible that this sort of treatment should produce a bad impression on my children1 because all day long ,i was giving them proofs of my affection and devotion4 ,they could not misread my heart1 and so they did not misjudge my actions4 ,it was not the same with the parents1 friends1 strangers1 and teachers who visited us2 but that was natural4 ,but ,i cared nothing for the opinion of the whole world1 provided my children understood me4 8,i always did my best1 therefore1 to make them clearly understand the motives of my actions in all matters likely to excite their attention and interest4 ,this1 my friend1 brings me to the consideration of the moral means to be employed in a truly domestic education4 8,elementary moral education1 considered as a whole1 includes three distinct parts3 the children's moral sense must first be aroused by their feelings being made active and pure2 then they must be exercised in self-control1 so that they may give themselves to that which is right and good2 finally they must be brought to form for themselves1 by reflection and comparison1 a just notion of the moral rights and duties which are theirs by reason of their position and surroundings4 8,so far1 ,i have pointed out some of the means ,i employed to reach the first two of these ends4 ,they were just as simple for the third2 for ,i still made use of the impressions and experiences of their daily life to give my children a true and exact idea of right and duty4 ,when1 for instance1 they made a noise1 ,i appealed to their own judgment1 and asked them if it was possible to learn under such conditions4 ,i shall never forget how strong and true ,i generally found their sense of justice and reason1 and how this sense increased and1 as it were1 established their good will4 8,i appealed to them in all matters that concerned the establishment4 ,it was generally in the quiet evening hours that ,i appealed to their free judgment4 ,when1 for instance1 it was reported in the village that they had not enough to eat1 ,i said to them1 #8,tell me1 my children1 if you are not better fed than you were at home8 ,think1 and tell me yourselves1 whether it would be well to keep you here in such a way as would make it impossible for you afterwards1 in spite of all your application and hard work1 to procure what you had become accustomed to4 ,do you lack anything that is really necessary8 ,do you think that ,i could reasonably and justly do more for you8 ,would you have me spend all the money that is entrusted to me on thirty or forty children instead of on eighty as at present8 ,would that be just8' 8,in the same way1 when ,i heard that it was reported that ,i punished them too severely1 ,i said to them3 #8,you know how ,i love you1 my children2 but tell me would you like me to stop punishing you8 ,do you think that in any other way ,i can free you from your deeply-rooted bad habits1 or make you always mind what ,i say8' ,you were there1 my friend1 and saw with your own eyes the sincere emotion with which they answered1 #8,we don't complain about your hitting us4 ,we wish we never deserved it4 ,but we want to be punished when we do wrong4' 8,many things that make no difference in a small household could not be tolerated where the numbers were so great4 ,i tried to make my children feel this1 always leaving them to decide what could or could not be allowed4 ,it is true that in my intercourse with them ,i never spoke of liberty or equality2 but1 at the same time1 ,i encouraged them as far as possible to be free and unconstrained in my presence1 with the result that every day ,i marked more and more that clear open look in their eyes which1 in my experience1 is the sign of a really liberal education4 ,i could not bear the thought of betraying the trust in me which ,i saw shining in their eyes2 ,i strove constantly to strengthen it and at the same time their free individuality1 that nothing might happen to trouble those angel-eyes1 the sight of which caused me the most intense delight4 ,but ,i could not endure frowns and anxious looks2 ,i myself smoothed away the frowns2 then the children smiled1 and even among themselves they took care not to shew frowning faces4 8,by reason of their great number1 ,i had occasion nearly every day to point out the difference between good and evil1 justice and injustice4 ,good and evil are equally contagious amongst so many children1 so that1 according as the good or bad sentiments spread1 the establishment was likely to become either much better or much worse than if it had only contained a smaller number4 ,about this1 too1 ,i talked to them frankly4 ,i shall never forget the impression that my words produced when1 in speaking of a certain disturbance that had taken place among them1 ,i said1 #8,my children1 it is the same with us as with every other household2 when the children are numerous1 and each gives way to his bad habits1 the disorder becomes such that the weakest mother is driven to take sensible measures in bringing up her children1 and make them submit to what is just and right4 ,and that is what ,i must do now4 ,if you do not willingly assist in the maintenance of order1 our establishment cannot go on1 you will fall back into your former condition1 and your misery--now that you have been accustomed to a good home1 clean clothes1 and regular food--will be greater than ever4 ,in this world1 my children1 necessity and conviction alone can teach a man to behave2 when both fail him1 he is hateful4 ,think for a moment what you would become if you were safe from want and cared nothing for right1 justice1 or goodness4 ,at home there was always some one who looked after you1 and poverty itself forced you to many a right action2 but with convictions and reason to guide you1 you will rise far higher than by following necessity alone4' 8,i often spoke to them in this way without troubling in the least whether they each understood every word1 feeling quite sure that they all caught the general sense of what ,i said4444 8,here are a few more thoughts which produced a great impression on my children3 #8,do you know anything greater or nobler than to give counsel to the poor1 and comfort to the unfortunate8 ,but if you remain ignorant and incapable1 you will be obliged1 in spite of your good heart1 to let things take their course2 whereas1 if you acquire knowledge and power1 you will be able to give good advice1 and save many a man from misery4' 8,i have generally found that great1 noble1 and high thoughts are indispensable for developing wisdom and firmness of character4 8,such an instruction must be complete in the sense that it must take account of all our aptitudes and all our circumstances2 it must be conducted1 too1 in a truly psychological spirit1 that is to say1 simply1 lovingly1 energetically1 and calmly4 ,then1 by its very nature1 it produces an enlightened and delicate feeling for everything true and good1 and brings to light a number of accessory and dependent truths1 which are forthwith accepted and assimilated by the human soul1 even in the case of those who could not express these truths in words4 8,i believe that the first development of thought in the child is very much disturbed by a wordy system of teaching1 which is not adapted either to his faculties or the circumstances of his life4 ,according to my experience1 success depends upon whether what is taught to children commends itself to them as true through being closely connected with their own personal observation and experience4444 8,i knew no other order1 method1 or art1 but that which resulted naturally from my children's conviction of my love for them1 nor did ,i care to know any other4 8,thus ,i subordinated the instruction of my children to a higher aim1 which was to arouse and strengthen their best sentiments by the relations of every-day life as they existed between themselves and me4444 8,as a general rule ,i attached little importance to the study of words1 even when explanations of the ideas they represented were given4 8,i tried to connect study with manual labour1 the school with the workshop1 and make one thing of them4 ,but ,i was the less able to do this as staff1 material1 and tools were all wanting4 ,a short time only before the close of the establishment1 a few children had begun to spin2 and ,i saw clearly that1 before any fusion could be effected1 the two parts must be firmly established separately--study1 that is1 on the one hand1 and labour on the other4 8,but in the work of the children ,i was already inclined to care less for the immediate gain than for the physical training which1 by developing their strength and skill1 was bound to supply them later with a means of livelihood4 ,in the same way ,i considered that what is generally called the instruction of children should be merely an exercise of the faculties1 and ,i felt it important to exercise the attention1 observation1 and memory first1 so as to strengthen these faculties before calling into play the art of judging and reasoning2 this1 in my opinion1 was the best way to avoid turning out that sort of superficial and presumptuous talker1 whose false judgments are often more fatal to the happiness and progress of humanity than the ignorance of simple people of good sense4 8,guided by these principles1 ,i sought less at first to teach my children to spell1 read1 and write than to make use of these exercises for the purpose of giving their minds as full and as varied a development as possible4444 8,in natural history they were very quick in corroborating what ,i taught them by their own personal observations on plants and animals4 ,i am quite sure that1 by continuing in this way1 ,i should soon have been able not only to give them such a general acquaintance with the subject as would have been useful in any vocation1 but also to put them in a position to carry on their education themselves by means of their daily observations and experiences2 and ,i should have been able to do all this without going outside the very restricted sphere to which they were confined by the actual circumstances of their lives4 ,i hold it to be extremely important that men should be encouraged to learn by themselves and allowed to develop freely4 ,it is in this way alone that the diversity of individual talent is produced and made evident4 8,i always made the children learn perfectly even the least important things1 and ,i never allowed them to lose ground2 a word once learnt1 for instance1 was never to be forgotten1 and a letter once well written never to be written badly again4 ,i was very patient with all who were weak or slow1 but very severe with those who did anything less well than they had done it before4 8,the number and inequality of my children rendered my task easier4 ,just as in a family the eldest and cleverest child readily shows what he knows to his younger brothers and sisters1 and feels proud and happy to be able to take his mother's place for a moment1 so my children were delighted when they knew something that they could teach others4 ,a sentiment of honour awoke in them1 and they learned twice as well by making the younger ones repeat their words4 ,in this way ,i soon had helpers and collaborators amongst the children themselves4 ,when ,i was teaching them to spell difficult words by heart1 ,i used to allow any child who succeeded in saying one properly to teach it to the others4 ,these child-helpers1 whom ,i had formed from the very outset1 and who had followed my method step by step1 were certainly much more useful to me than any regular schoolmasters could have been4 8,i myself learned with the children4 ,our whole system was so simple and so natural that ,i should have had difficulty in finding a master who would not have thought it undignified to learn and teach as ,i was doing4444 8,you will hardly believe that it was the ,capuchin friars and the nuns of the convent that showed the greatest sympathy with my work4 ,few people1 except ,truttman1 took any active interest in it4 ,those from whom ,i had hoped most were too deeply engrossed with their high political affairs to think of our little institution as having the least degree of importance4 8,such were my dreams2 but at the very moment that ,i seemed to be on the point of realizing them1 ,i had to leave ,stanz40 #ej4 ,heroic efforts rise above the measurement of time4 ,as ,byron has said1 8,a thought is capable of years10 and it seldom happens that the nobleness of any human action depends on the time it lasts4 ,pestalozzi's five months' experiment at ,stanz proved one of the most memorable events in the history of education4 ,he was now completely satisfied that he saw his way to giving children a right education and 8thus raising the beggar out of the dung-hill02 and seeing the right course he was urged by his love of the people into taking it4 ,but how was he to set to work8 ,his notions of school instruction differed entirely from those of the teaching profession2 and even in the revolutionary age they had some reason for looking askance at this revolutionist4 8,he had everything against him10 we read1 8thick1 indistinct speech1 bad writing1 ignorance of drawing1 scorn of grammatical learning4 ,he had studied various branches of natural history1 but without any particular attention either to classification or terminology4 ,he was conversant with the ordinary operations in arithmetic1 but he would have had difficulty in getting through a really long sum in multiplication or division2 and he probably had never tried to work out a problem in geometry4 ,for years this dreamer had read no books4 ,but instead of the usual knowledge that any young man of ordinary talent can acquire in a year or two1 he understood thoroughly what most masters were entirely ignorant of--the mind of man and the laws of its development1 human affections and the art of arousing and ennobling them4 ,he seemed to have almost an intuitive insight into the development of human nature1 and was never tired of contemplating it40 7,c4 ,monnard in ,r4's ,guimps1 p4 #agd47aeg #ea4 ,this man wished to be a schoolmaster1 but who would venture to entrust him with a school8 ,no one seemed willing to do this2 and he would have been at a loss where to turn had he not had influential friends at ,burgdorf1 a town not far from ,bern4 ,these got for him permission to teach1 not indeed the children of burgesses but the children of non-burgesses1 seventy-three of whom used to assemble under a shoemaker in his house in the suburbs4 ,with this arrangement1 however1 the shoemaker and the parents of the children were by no means satisfied4 8,if the burgesses like the new method10 they said very reasonably1 8let them try it on their own children40 ,their grumbling was heard1 and permission to teach was withdrawn from ,pestalozzi4 #eb4 ,the check1 however1 was only temporary4 ,his friends were wiser than the shoemaker1 and they procured for him admission into the lowest class of the school for burghers' children4 ,in this class there were about #be children1 boys and girls between the ages of #e and #h4 ,here he proved that he was vastly different from a mere dreamer4 ,after teaching these children in his own way for eight months he received the first official recognition of the merits of his system4 ,the ,burgdorf ,school ,commission after the usual examination1 wrote a public letter to ,pestalozzi1 in which they said3 8,the surprising progress of your little scholars of various capacities shews plainly that every one is good for something1 if the teacher knows how to get at his abilities and develop them according to the laws of psychology4 ,by your method of teaching you have proved how to lay the groundwork of instruction in such a way that it may afterwards support what is built on it4444 ,between the ages of #e and #h1 a period in which according to the system of torture enforced hitherto1 children have learnt to know their letters1 to spell and read1 your scholars have not only accomplished all this with a success as yet unknown1 but the best of them have already distinguished themselves by their good writing1 drawing1 and calculating4 ,in them all you have been able so to arouse and excite a liking for history1 natural history1 mensuration1 geography1 c41 that thus future teachers must find their task a far easier one if they only know how to make good use of the preparatory stage the children have gone through with you0 7,morf1 ,pt4 ,i1 p4 #bbc74 #ec4 ,in consequence of this report1 ,pestalozzi in ,june #ahjj was made master of the second school of ,burgdorf1 a school numbering about #gj boys and girls from #aj to #af years old4 ,with them ,pestalozzi did not get on so well4 ,ramsauer1 a poor boy of #aj who afterwards helped ,pestalozzi at ,yverdun and became one of his best teachers1 has left us his remembrances4 ,two things seemed clear to the child's mind3 #ast1 that their teacher was very kind but very unhappy2 #bnd1 that the pupils did not learn anything and behaved very badly4 ,many schoolmasters have smiled in derision at this account of ,pestalozzi's actual teaching2 but in reading it several things should be borne in mind4 ,first ,ramsauer as a child would have a keen eye and good memory for the master's eccentricities2 but how far the teaching succeeded he could not judge1 for he did not know what it aimed at4 ,then again he saw that ,pestalozzi's zeal was for the whole school1 not for individual scholars4 ,but the child who knew of nothing beyond ,burgdorf could not tell that ,pestalozzi was thinking not so much of the children of ,burgdorf as of the children of ,europe4 ,for ,burgdorf--whether it was pleased to honour or to dismiss ,pestalozzi--could not contain him4 ,his aims extended beyond the town1 beyond canton ,bern1 beyond ,switzerland even2 and he was consumed with zeal to bring about a radical change in elementary education throughout ,europe4 ,the truth which was burning within him he has himself expressed as follows3 8,if we desire to aid the poor man1 the very lowest among the people1 this can be done in one way only1 that is1 by changing his schools into true places of education1 in which the moral1 intellectual1 and physical powers which ,god has put into our nature may be drawn out1 so that the man may be enabled to live a life such as a man should live1 contented in himself and satisfying other people4 ,thus and only thus does the man1 whom in ,god's wide world nobody helps and nobody can help1 learn to help himself40 8,the public common school-coach throughout ,europe must not simply be better horsed1 but still more it must be turned round and be brought on to an entirely new road40 7,quoted by ,morf1 ,p4 ,i1 p4 #baa47 #ed4 ,pestalozzi was now working heart and soul at the engineering of this 8new road40 ,his grand successes hitherto had been gained more by the heart than by the head2 but the school course must draw out the faculties of the head as well as of the heart4 ,pestalozzi made all instruction start from what children observed for themselves4 8,i laid special stress10 he says1 8on just what usually affected their senses4 ,and as ,i dwelt much on elementary knowledge1 ,i wanted to know when the child receives its first lesson1 and ,i soon came to the conviction that the first hour of learning dates from birth4 ,from the very moment that the child's senses open to the impressions of nature1 nature teaches it4 ,its new life is but the faculty1 now come to maturity1 of receiving impressions2 it is the awakening of the germs now perfect which will go on using all their forces and energies to secure the development of their proper organisation2 it is the awakening of the animal now complete which will and shall become a man4 ,so the sole instruction given to the human being consists merely in the art of giving a helping hand to this natural tendency towards its proper development2 and this art consists essentially in the means of putting the child's impressions in connexion and harmony with the precise degree of development the child has reached4 ,there must be then in the impressions to be given him by instruction1 a regular gradation2 and the beginning and the progress of his various knowledges must exactly correspond with the beginning and increase in his powers as they are developed4 ,from this ,i soon saw that this gradation must be ascertained for all the branches of human knowledge1 especially for those fundamental notions from which our thinking power takes its rise4 ,on such principles and no others is it possible to construct real school books and books about teaching0 7,wie ,gertrud1 c41 ,letter ,i474 #ee4 ,in endeavouring to put teaching1 as he said1 8on a psychological basis10 ,pestalozzi compared it to a mechanism4 ,on one occasion when expounding his views1 he was interrupted by the exclamation1 8,vous voulez mcaniser l'ducation60 ,pestalozzi was weak in ,french1 and he took these words to mean1 8,you wish to get at the mechanism of education40 ,he accordingly assented1 and was in his turn misunderstood4 ,soon afterwards he endeavoured to express the new thing by a new word and said1 8,ich will den menschlichen ,unterricht psychologisieren2 ,i wish to psychologise instruction10 and this he explains to mean that he sought to make instruction fall in with the eternal laws which govern the development of the human intellect 7,morf1 ,i1 p4 #bbg74 ,but this was a task which no one man could accomplish1 not even ,pestalozzi4 ,the eternal laws which govern the development of mind have not been completely ascertained even after investigations carried on during thousands of years2 and ,pestalozzi did not know what had been established by previous thinkers4 ,he made a gigantic effort to find both the laws and their application1 but if he had continued to stand alone he could have done but little4 ,happily he attracted to him some young and vigorous assistants1 who caught his enthusiasm and worked in his spirit4 ,they did much1 but there was one thing the ,master could not communicate--his genius4 #ef4 ,just at this time1 before ,pestalozzi found associates in his work1 he drew up for a 8,society of ,friends of ,education0 an account of his method2 and this begins with the words ,i have already quoted1 8,i want to psychologise education40 ,basing all instruction on ,anschauung 7which is nearly equivalent to the child's own observation71 he explains how this may be used for a series of exercises1 and he takes as the general elements of culture the following3 language1 drawing1 writing1 arithmetic1 and the art of measuring4 ,in the education of the poor he would lay special stress on the importance of two things1 then and since much neglected1 viz41 singing and the sense of the beautiful4 ,the mother's cradle song should begin a series leading up to hymns of praise to ,god4 ,education should develop in all a sense of the beauties of ,nature4 8,nature is full of lovely sights1 yet ,europe has done nothing either to awaken in the poor a sense for these beauties1 or to arrange them in such a way as to produce a series of impressions capable of developing this sense4444 ,if ever popular education should cease to be the barbarous absurdity it now is1 and put itself into harmony with the real needs of our nature1 this want will be supplied40 7,r4's ,guimps1 #ahf47 #eg4 ,in the last year of the eighteenth century 7#ahjj7 ,pestalozzi was toiling away1 constant to his purpose but not clearly seeing the road before him4 ,in ,march1 #ahjj1 he wrote to ,zschokke3 8,for thirty years my life has been a well-nigh hopeless struggle against the most frightful poverty4444 ,for thirty years ,i have had to forego many of the barest necessaries of life1 and have had to shun the society of my fellow-men from sheer lack of decent clothes4 ,many and many a time have ,i gone without a dinner and eaten in bitterness a dry crust of bread on the road at a time when even the poorest were seated round a table4 ,all this ,i have suffered and am still suffering to-day1 and with no other object than the realization of my plans for helping the poor0 7,r4's ,guimps1 #ahi74 ,it was clear that he could not help others till he himself got help2 and he now did get just the help he wanted1 an assistant who though a schoolmaster was1 strange to say1 perfectly ready to learn1 and to throw himself into carrying out another man's ideas4 ,this was ,hermann ,kruesi1 a man twenty-five years old1 who from the age of #ah had been master of the village school at ,gais in ,appenzell4 ,in consequence of the war between the ,french and ,austrians1 ,appenzell was now reduced to a state of famine1 and bands of children were sent off to other cantons to escape starvation4 ,fischer1 a friend of ,pestalozzi's1 and himself an educationist taught by ,salzmann 7supra #bhi71 wrote from ,burgdorf to the pastor of ,gais1 offering to get thirty children taken in by the people of ,burgdorf1 and asking that they might be sent with some one who would look after them in the day-time and teach them4 ,in answer to this invitation ,kruesi1 after a week's march1 entered ,burgdorf with a troop of little ones4 ,the children were drawn up in an open place1 and benevolent people chose which they would adopt4 ,kruesi was taken into the ,castle which the ,government had made over partly to ,fischer1 partly to ,pestalozzi4 ,in it ,kruesi opened a day-school4 ,fischer soon afterwards died2 and ,pestalozzi proposed to ,kruesi1 who had become entirely converted to his views1 that they should unite and together carry on the school in the ,castle4 ,by a decree of #bcrd ,july1 #ahjj1 the ,executive ,council granted to ,pestalozzi the gratuitous use of as much of the ,castle and garden as he needed1 and thus was established ,pestalozzi's celebrated ,institute at ,burgdorf4 #eh4 ,very soon ,kruesi enlisted other helpers who had read ,leonard and ,gertrude1 viz41 ,tobler and ,buss1 and this is his account of the party3 8,our society thus consisted of four very different men 444 the founder1 whose chief reputation was that of a dreamy writer1 incapable in practical life1 and three young men1 one ,tobler a private tutor whose youth had been much neglected1 who had begun to study late1 and whose pedagogic efforts had never produced the results his character and talents seemed to promise2 another ,buss1 a bookbinder1 who devoted his leisure to singing and drawing2 and a third ,kruesi himself1 a village schoolmaster who carried out the duties of his office as best he could without having been in any way prepared for them4 ,those who looked on this group of men1 scarce one of them with a home of his own1 naturally formed but a small opinion of their capabilities4 ,and yet our work succeeded1 and won the public confidence beyond the expectations of those who knew us1 and even beyond our own0 7,r4's ,guimps1 #cjd74 #ei4 ,with assistance from the ,government there was added to the united schools of ,pestalozzi and ,kruesi a training class for teachers2 and elementary teachers were sent to spend a month at ,burgdorf and learn of ,pestalozzi1 as years afterwards they were sent to the same town to learn of ,froebel4 ,this ,institute opened in ,january1 #ahja1 and had nearly three years of complete success4 ,in it was carried out ,pestalozzi's notion that there should be 8no gulf between the home and the school40 ,on one occasion a parent visiting the establishment exclaimed1 8,why1 this is not a school but a family60 and ,pestalozzi declared that this was the highest praise he could give it4 ,the bond which united them all1 both teachers and scholars1 was love of 8,father ,pestalozzi40 ,want of space kept the number of children below a hundred1 and these enjoyed great freedom and worked away without rewards and almost without punishments4 ,both public reports and private speak very highly of the results4 ,in ,june1 #ahjb1 the ,president of the ,council of ,public ,education in ,bern declares3 8,pestalozzi has discovered the real and universal laws of all elementary teaching40 ,a visitor1 ,charles ,victor von ,bonstetten1 writes3 8,the children know little1 but what they know1 they know well4444 ,they are very happy and evidently take great pleasure in their lessons1 which says a great deal for the method4444 ,as it will be long before there is another ,pestalozzi1 ,i fear that the rich harvest his discovery seems to promise will be reserved for future ages40 ,the success of the method was specially conspicuous in arithmetic4 ,a ,nrnberg merchant who came prejudiced against ,pestalozzi was much impressed and has acknowledged3 8,i was amazed when ,i saw these children treating the most complicated calculations of fractions as the simplest thing in the world40 #fj4 ,up to this point ,pestalozzi may be said to have gained by the disposition to 8reform0 or revolutionise everything1 which had prevailed in ,switzerland since #agih4 ,but from the reaction which now set in he suffered more than he had gained4 ,switzerland sent deputies to ,paris to discuss under the direction of the ,first ,consul ,bonaparte what should be their future form of ,government4 ,among these deputies ,pestalozzi was elected1 and he set off thinking more of the future of the schools than of the future of the ,government4 ,at ,paris he asked for an interview with ,bonaparte1 but destruction being in his opinion a much higher art than instruction1 the ,first ,consul said he could not be bothered about questions of ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,he1 however1 deputed ,monge to hear what ,pestalozzi had to say1 but the mathematician seems to have agreed with some ,english authorities that 8there was nothing in ,pestalozzi40#aeh ,on his return to ,switzerland ,pestalozzi was asked by ,buss1 8,did you see ,bonaparte80 8,no10 replied ,pestalozzi1 8,i did not see ,bonaparte and ,bonaparte did not see me40 ,his presumption in thus putting himself on an equality with the great conqueror seems to have taken away the breath of his contemporaries3 but 8the whirligig of time brings in his revenges10 and before the close of the century ,europe already thinks more in amount1 and immeasurably more in respect1 of ,pestalozzi than of ,bonaparte4 #fa4 ,as a result of the reaction the ,government of ,united ,switzerland ceased to exist1 and the ,cantons were restored4 ,this destroyed ,pestalozzi's hopes of ,government support1 and even turned his ,institute out of doors4 ,the ,castle of ,burgdorf was at once demanded for the ,prefect of the ,district2 but ,pestalozzi was offered an old convent at ,mnchenbuchsee near ,bern1 and thither he was forced to migrate4 #fb4 ,close to ,mnchenbuchsee was ,hofwyl where was the agricultural institution of ,emmanuel ,fellenberg4 ,fellenberg and ,pestalozzi were old friends and correspondents1 and as they had much regard for each other and ,fellenberg was as great in administration as ,pestalozzi in ideas1 there seemed a chance of their benefiting by co-operation2 but this could not be4 ,the teachers desired that the administration should be put into the hands of ,fellenberg1 and this was done accordingly1 8not without my consent10 says ,pestalozzi1 8but to my profound mortification40 ,he could not work with this 8man of iron10 as he calls ,fellenberg2 so he left ,mnchenbuchsee and accepting one of several invitations he settled in the ,castle of ,yverdun near the lake of ,neuchatel4 ,within a twelvemonth he was followed by his old assistants1 who had found government by ,fellenberg less to their taste than no-government by ,pestalozzi4 #fc4 ,thus arose the most celebrated ,institute of which we read in the history of education4 ,for some years its success seemed prodigious4 ,teachers came from all quarters1 many of them sent by the ,governments of the countries to which they belonged1 that they might get initiated into the ,pestalozzian system4 ,children too were sent from great distances1 some of them being intrusted to ,pestalozzi1 some of them living with their own tutor in ,yverdun and only attending the ,institute during the day4 ,the wave of enthusiasm for the new ideas seemed to carry everything before it2 but there is nothing stable in a wave1 and when the enthusiasm has subsided disappointment follows4 ,this was the case at ,yverdun1 and ,pestalozzi outlived his ,institute4 ,but the principles on which he worked and the spirit in which he worked could not pass away2 and1 at least in ,germany1 all elementary schoolmasters acknowledge how much they are indebted to his teaching4 #fd4 ,of the state of things in the early days of the ,institute we have a very lively account written for his own children by ,professor ,vuillemin1 who entered it in #ahje as a child of eight1 and was in it for two years4 ,from this ,i extract the following portrait of ,pestalozzi3 8,imagine1 my children1 a very ugly man with rough bristling hair1 his face scarred with small-pox and covered with freckles1 an untidy beard1 no neck-tie1 his breeches not properly buttoned and coming down to his stockings1 which in their turn descended on to his great thick shoes2 fancy him panting and jerking as he walked2 then his eyes which at one time opened wide to send a flash of lightning1 at another were half closed as if engaged on what was going on within2 his features now expressing a profound sadness and now again the most peaceful happiness2 his speech either slow or hurried1 either soft and melodious or bursting forth like thunder2 imagine the man and you have him whom we used to call our ,father ,pestalozzi4 ,such as ,i have sketched him for you we loved him2 we all loved him1 for he loved us all2 we loved him so warmly that when some time passed without our seeing him1 we were quite troubled about it1 and when he again appeared we could not take our eyes off him0 7,guimps1 #cae74 #fe4 ,at this time he was no less loved by his assistants1 who put up with any quarters that could be found for them1 and received no salary4 ,we read that the money paid by the scholars was kept in the room of 8the head of the family02 every master could get the key1 and when they required clothes they took from these funds just the sum requisite4 ,this system1 or want of system1 went on for some time without abuse4 ,as ,vuillemin says1 it was like a return to the early days of the ,christian ,church4 #ff4 ,we have seen that the first ,emperor ,napoleon 8could not be bothered about questions of ,a1 ,b1 ,c40 ,his was the pride that goes before a fall4 ,on the other hand the ,prussian ,government which he brought to the dust in the battle of ,jena 7#ahjf7 had the wisdom to perceive that children will become men1 and that the nature of the instruction they receive will in a great measure determine what kind of men they turn out4 ,how was ,prussia again to raise its head8 ,its rulers decided that it was by the education of the people4 8,we have lost in territory10 said the king2 8our power and our credit abroad have fallen2 but we must and will go to work to gain in power and in credit at home4 ,it is for this reason that ,i desire above everything that the greatest attention be paid to the education of the people0 7,guimps1 #cai74 ,about the same time the ,queen 7,louisa7 wrote in her private diary1 8,i am reading ,leonard and ,gertrude1 and ,i delight in being transported into the ,swiss village4 ,if ,i could do as ,i liked ,i should take a carriage and start for ,switzerland to see ,pestalozzi2 ,i should warmly shake him by the hand1 and my eyes filled with tears would speak my gratitude4444 ,with what goodness1 with what zeal1 he labours for the welfare of his fellow-creatures6 ,yes1 in the name of humanity1 ,i thank him with my whole heart40 ,so in the day of humiliation ,prussia seriously went to work at the education of the people1 and this she did on the lines pointed out by ,pestalozzi4 ,to him they were directed by their philosopher ,fichte1 who in his ,addresses to the ,german ,nation 7delivered at ,berlin #ahjg-h7 declared that education was the only means of raising a nation1 and that all sound reform of public instruction must be based on the principles of ,pestalozzi4 ,to bring these principles to bear on popular education1 the ,prussian ,government sent seventeen young men for a three years' course to ,pestalozzi's ,institute1 8where10 as the ,minister said in a letter to ,pestalozzi1 8they will be prepared not only in mind and judgment1 but also in heart1 for the noble vocation which they are to follow1 and will be filled with a sense of the holiness of their task1 and with new zeal for the work to which you have devoted your life40 #fg4 ,among the eminent men who were drawn to ,yverdun were some who afterwards did great things in education1 as e4g41 ,karl ,ritter1 ,karl von ,raumer the historian of education1 the philosopher ,herbart1 and a man who was destined to have more influence than anyone1 except perhaps ,pestalozzi himself--,i mean ,friedrich ,froebel4 ,ritter's testimony is especially striking4 8,i have seen10 says he1 8more than the ,paradise of ,switzerland1 for ,i have seen ,pestalozzi1 and recognised how great his heart is1 and how great his genius2 never have ,i been so filled with a sense of the sacredness of my vocation and the dignity of human nature as in the days ,i spent with this noble man4444 ,pestalozzi knew less geography than a child in one of our primary schools1 yet it was from him that ,i gained my chief knowledge of this science2 for it was in listening to him that ,i first conceived the idea of the natural method4 ,it was he who opened the way to me1 and ,i take pleasure in attributing whatever value my work may have entirely to him40 #fh4 ,at this time we read glowing accounts of the healthy and happy life of the children2 and throughout ,pestalozzi never lost a single pupil by illness4 ,with a body of very able assistants1 instruction was carried on for ten hours out of the twenty-four2 but in these hours there was reckoned the time spent in drill1 gymnastics1 hand-work1 and singing4 ,the monotony of school-life was also broken by frequent 8festivals40 #fi4 ,and yet the ,institute had taken into it the seeds of its own ruin4 ,there were several causes of failure1 though these were not visible till the house was divided against itself4 #gj4 ,first1 ,pestalozzi based the morality and discipline of the school on the relations of family life4 ,he would be the 8father0 of all the children4 ,at ,burgdorf this relation seemed a reality1 but it completely failed at ,yverdun when the ,institute became1 from the number of the pupils and their differences in language1 habits1 and antecedents1 a little world4 ,the pupils still called him 8,father ,pestalozzi10 but he could no longer know them as a father should know his children4 ,thus the discipline of affection slowly disappeared1 and there was no school discipline to take its place4 #ga4 ,next1 we can see that even at ,burgdorf1 and still more at ,yverdun1 ,pestalozzi was attempting to do impossibilities4 ,according to his system1 the faculties of the child were to be developed in a natural unbroken order1 and the first exercises were to give the child the power of surmounting later difficulties by its own exertions4 ,but this education could not be started at any age1 and yet children of every age and every country were received into the ,institution4 ,it was not likely that the fresh comers could be made to understand that they 8knew nothing10 and must start over again on a totally different road4 ,the teachers might take such pupils to the water of 8sense-impressions10 but they could not inspire the inclination to drink1 nor induce the lad to learn what he supposed himself to know already4 7,cfr4 supra p4 #fd1 #d47 #gb4 ,but there was a greater mischief at work than either of these4 ,in his discourse to the members of the ,institution on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahjh1 ,pestalozzi surprised them all by his gloom4 ,he had had a coffin brought in1 and he stood beside it4 8,this work10 said he1 8was founded by love1 but love has disappeared from our midst40 ,this was only too true1 and the discord was more deeply rooted than at first appeared4 ,among the brood of ,pestalozzians there was a ,catholic shepherd lad from ,tyrol1 ,joseph ,schmid by name1 and he1 in the end1 proved a veritable cuckoo4 ,as he shewed very marked ability in mathematics1 he became one of the assistant masters2 and a good deal of the fame of the ,institution rested on the performances of his pupils4 ,but his ideas differed totally from those of his colleagues1 especially from those of ,niederer1 a clergyman with a turn for philosophy1 who had become ,pestalozzi's chief exponent4 #gc4 ,after ,pestalozzi's gloomy speech1 the masters1 with the exception of ,schmid1 urged ,pestalozzi to apply for a ,government inquiry into the state of the ,institution4 ,this ,pestalozzi did1 and ,commissioners were appointed1 among them an educationist1 ,pre ,girard of ,freiburg1 by whom the ,report was drawn up4 ,the ,report was not favourable4 ,pre ,girard was by no means inclined to sit at the feet of ,pestalozzi1 as he had principles of his own4 ,pestalozzi1 he thought1 laid far too much stress on mathematics1 and he drew from him a statement that everything taught to a child should seem as certain as that two and two made four4 8,then10 said ,girard1 8if ,i had thirty children ,i would not intrust you with one of them4 ,you could not teach him that ,i was his father40 ,thus the ,report1 though very friendly in tone1 was by no means friendly in spirit4 ,the ,commissioners simply compared the performances of the scholars with what pupils of the same age could do in good schools of the ordinary type1 and ,pre ,girard stated1 though not in the ,report1 that the ,institution was inferior to the ,cantonal ,school of ,aargau4 ,but the comparison of these incommensurables only shews that ,girard was not capable of understanding what was going on at ,yverdun4 ,indeed1 he asserts 8not only that the mother-tongue was neglected10 but also that the children1 8though they had reached a high pitch of excellence in abstract mathematics1 were inconceivably weak in all ordinary practical calculations40 ,this is absurd4 ,in ,pestalozzian teaching the abstract never went before ordinary practical calculations4 ,the good ,father evidently blunders1 and takes 8head-reckoning0 for abstract1 and pen or pencil arithmetic for practical work4 ,reckoning with slate or paper is no doubt 8ordinary10 but a distinction has often to be drawn between what is ordinary and what is practical4 #gd4 ,soon after this the disputes between ,schmid and his colleagues waxed so fierce that ,schmid was virtually driven away4 ,in #ahaj he left ,yverdun1 and declared the ,institution 8a disgrace to humanity40 ,great was the disorder into which the ,institution now fell from having over it only a genius with 8an unrivalled incapacity to govern40 ,the days which 8remind us of the early ,church0 were no more1 and financial difficulties naturally followed them4 ,for the next five years things went from bad to worse1 and the masters were then driven to the desperate1 and1 as it proved1 the fatal step of inviting the able and strong-willed ,schmid back again4 ,he came in #ahae1 he acquired entire control over ,pestalozzi1 and drove from him all his most faithful adherents1 among them not only ,niederer1 who had invited the return of his rival1 but even ,kruesi and the faithful servant1 ,elizabeth ,naef1 now ,mrs4 ,kruesi1 the widow of ,kruesi's brother4 ,pestalozzi's grandson married ,schmid's sister1 and thus united with him by family ties1 ,schmid took entire possession of the old man and kept it till the end4 ,his former colleagues seem to have been deceived in their estimate both of ,schmid's integrity and ability4 ,he completed the ruin of the ,institution1 and he was finally expelled from ,yverdun by the ,magistrates4 #ge4 ,but while ,pestalozzi seemed falling lower and lower to the eyes of the inhabitants of ,yverdun1 and so had little honour in his own country1 his fame was spreading all over ,europe4 ,of this ,yverdun was to reap the benefit4 ,in #ahac-ad1 ,austrian troops marched across ,switzerland to invade ,france4 ,in ,january1 #ahad1 the ,castle and other buildings in ,yverdun were 8requisitioned0 for a military hospital1 many of the ,austrian soldiers being down with typhus fever4 ,in a great fright the ,municipality sent off two deputies to headquarters1 then at ,basel1 to petition that this order might be withdrawn4 ,as the order threatened the destruction of his ,institution1 ,pestalozzi went with them1 and it was entirely to him they owed their success4 ,on their return they reported that 8no military hospital would be established at ,yverdun1 and that ,m4 ,pestalozzi had been received with most extraordinary favour40 #ge4 ,on this occasion ,pestalozzi took the opportunity of preaching to the ,emperor ,alexander on the necessity of establishing good schools and of emancipating the serfs4 ,the ,emperor took the lecture in good part1 and allowed the philanthropist to drive him into a corner and 8button-hole0 him4 #gf4 ,in #ahae ,pestalozzi received a visit from an ,englishman1 or more accurately ,scotsman--,dr4 ,bell1 who1 however1 like most of our compatriots1 could find nothing in ,pestalozzi4 ,whatever we may think of ,bell as an educationist1 he was certainly a poor prophet4 ,on leaving ,yverdun he said1 8,in another twelve years mutual instruction will be adopted by the whole world and ,pestalozzi's method will be forgotten40#aei #gg4 ,in ,december1 #ahae1 ,pestalozzi was thrown more completely into the power of ,schmid by losing the only companion from whom nothing but death could separate him--his wife4 ,at the funeral ,pestalozzi1 standing by the coffin1 and as if heard by her whose earthly remains were in it1 ran over the disasters and trials they had passed through together1 and the sacrifices she had made for him4 8,what in those days of affliction10 said he1 8gave us strength to bear our troubles and recover hope80 and taking up a ,bible he went on1 8,this is the source whence you drew1 whence we both drew courage1 strength1 and peace40 #gh4 ,the 8death agony of the ,institution10 as ,guimps calls it1 lasted for some years1 but in this gloomy period there are only two incidents ,i will mention4 ,the first is the publication of ,pestalozzi's writings1 for which ,schmid and ,pestalozzi sought subscriptions2 and the appeal was so cordially answered that ,pestalozzi received #b1jjj4 ,this sum he wished to devote to the carrying out of a plan he had always cherished of an orphanage at ,neuhof2 but the money seems to have melted we do not know how4 #gi4 ,the other incident is that of ,pestalozzi's last success4 ,in spite of ,schmid he would open a school for twelve neglected children at ,clindy1 a hamlet near ,yverdun4 ,here he produced results like those which had crowned his first efforts at ,neuhof1 ,stanz1 and ,burgdorf4 ,old1 absent-minded1 and incapable as he seemed in ordinary affairs1 he1 as though by enchantment1 gained the attention and the affection of the children1 and bent them entirely to his will4 ,in a few months the number of children had risen to thirty1 and wonderful progress had been made4 ,clindy at once became celebrated4 ,pestalozzi was induced to admit some children whose friends paid for them1 and ,schmid then persuaded the old man to remove the school into the ,castle4 #hj4 ,in #ahbd the ,institution1 which had lasted for twenty years1 was finally closed1 and ,pestalozzi went to spend his remaining days 7nearly three years as it proved7 at ,neuhof1 which was then in the hands of his grandson4 ,the year before his death he visited an orphanage conducted on his principles by ,zeller at ,beuggen near ,rheinfelden4 ,the children sang a poem of ,goethe's quoted in ,leonard and ,gertrude1 and had a crown of oak ready to put on the old man's head2 but this he declined4 8,i am not worthy of it10 said he1 8keep it for innocence40 #ha4 ,on #agth ,february1 #ahbg1 at the age of eighty-one1 ,pestalozzi fell asleep4 #hb4 8,the reform needed10 said ,pestalozzi1 8is not that the school-coach should be better horsed1 but that it should be turned right round and started on a new track40 ,this may seem a violent metaphor1 but perhaps it is not more violent than the change that was 7and in this country still is7 necessary4 ,let us try to ascertain what is the right road according to ,pestalozzi1 and then see on what road the school-coach is now travelling4 #hc4 ,the grand change advocated by ,pestalozzi was a change of object4 ,the main object of the school should not be to teach but to develop4 #hd4 ,this change of object naturally brings many changes with it4 ,measured by their capacity for acquiring school knowledge and skill young children may be considered1 as one of ,h4,m4 ,inspectors considered them1 8the fag-end of the school40 ,but if the school exists not to teach but to develop1 young children1 instead of being the 8fag-end10 become the most important part of all4 ,in the development of all organisms more depends on the earlier than on the later stages2 and there is no reason to doubt that this law holds in the case of human beings4 ,on this account1 from the days of ,pestalozzi educational science has been greatly1 ,i may say mainly1 concerned with young children4 ,for the dominating thought has been that the young human being is an undeveloped organism1 and that in education that organism is developed4 ,so the essence of ,pestalozzianism lies not so much in its method as in its aim1 not more in what it does than in what it endeavours to do4 #he4 ,and thus it was that ,pestalozzi 7in ,raumer's words7 8compelled the scholastic world to revise the whole of their task1 to reflect on the nature and destiny of man1 and also on the proper way of leading him from his youth towards that destiny40 ,and it was his love of his fellow-creatures that raised him to this standpoint4 ,he was moved by 8the enthusiasm of humanity40 ,consumed with grief for the degradation of the ,swiss peasantry1 he never lost faith in their true dignity as men1 and in the possibility of raising them to a condition worthy of it4 ,he cast about for the best means of thus raising them1 and decided that it could be effected1 not by any improvement in their outward circumstances1 but by an education which should make them what their ,creator intended them to be1 and should give them the use and the consciousness of all their inborn faculties4 8,from my youth up10 he says1 8,i felt what a high and indispensable human duty it is to labour for the poor and miserable2 444 that he may attain to a consciousness of his own dignity through his feeling of the universal powers and endowments which he possesses awakened within him2 that he may not only learn to gabble over by rote the religious maxim that #8man is created in the image of ,god1 and is bound to live and die as a child of ,god1' but may himself experience its truth by virtue of the ,divine power within him1 so that he may be raised1 not only above the ploughing oxen1 but also above the man in purple and silk who lives unworthily of his high destiny0 7,quoted in ,barnard1 p4 #ac74 ,again he says 7and ,i quote at length on the point1 as it is indeed the key to ,pestalozzianism71 8,why have ,i insisted so strongly on attention to early physical and intellectual education8 ,because ,i consider these as merely leading to a higher aim1 to qualify the human being for the free and full use of all the faculties implanted by the ,creator1 and to direct all these faculties towards the perfection of the whole being of man1 that he may be enabled to act in his peculiar station as an instrument of that ,all-wise and ,almighty ,power that has called him into life0 7,to ,greaves1 p4 #afj74 #hf4 ,believing in this high aim of education1 ,pestalozzi required a proper early training for all alike4 8,every human being10 said he1 8has a claim to a judicious development of his faculties by those to whom the care of his infancy is confided0 7,ib4 p4 #afc74 #hg4 ,pestalozzi therefore most earnestly addressed himself to mothers1 to convince them of the power placed in their hands1 and to teach them how to use it4 8,the mother is qualified1 and qualified by the ,creator ,himself1 to become the principal agent in the development of her child2 444 and what is demanded of her is--a thinking love4444 ,god has given to thy child all the faculties of our nature1 but the grand point remains undecided--how shall this heart1 this head1 these hands1 be employed8 to whose service shall they be dedicated8 ,a question the answer to which involves a futurity of happiness or misery to a life so dear to thee4444 ,it is recorded that ,god opened the heavens to the patriarch of old1 and showed him a ladder leading thither4 ,this ladder is let down to every descendant of ,adam2 it is offered to thy child4 ,but he must be taught to climb it4 ,and let him not attempt it by the cold calculations of the head1 or the mere impulse of the heart2 but let all these powers combine1 and the noble enterprise will be crowned with success4 ,these powers are already bestowed on him1 but to thee it is given to assist in calling them forth0 7,to ,greaves1 p4 #ba74 8,maternal love is the first agent in education4444 ,through it the child is led to love and trust his ,creator and his ,redeemer40 #hh4 ,from the theory of development which lay at the root of ,pestalozzi's views of education1 it followed that the imparting of knowledge and the training for special pursuits held only a subordinate position in his scheme4 8,education1 instead of merely considering what is to be imparted to children1 ought to consider first what they may be said already to possess1 if not as a developed1 at least as an involved faculty capable of development4 ,or if1 instead of speaking thus in the abstract1 we will but recollect that it is to the great ,author of life that man owes the possession1 and is responsible for the use1 of his innate faculties1 education should not simply decide what is to be made of a child1 but rather inquire what it was intended that he should become4 ,what is his destiny as a created and responsible being8 ,what are his faculties as a rational and moral being8 ,what are the means for their perfection1 and the end held out as the highest object of their efforts by the ,almighty ,father of all1 both in creation and in the page of revelation80 #hi4 ,education1 then1 must consist 8in a continual benevolent superintendence1 with the object of calling forth all the faculties which ,providence has implanted2 and its province1 thus enlarged1 will yet be with less difficulty surveyed from one point of view1 and will have more of a systematic and truly philosophical character1 than an incoherent mass of #8lessons'--arranged without unity of principle1 and gone through without interest--which too often usurps its name40 ,the educator's task then is to superintend and promote the child's development1 morally1 intellectually1 and physically4 #ij4 8,the essential principle of education is not teaching10 said ,pestalozzi2 8it is love0 7,r4's ,g41 #bhi74 ,again he says1 8,the child loves and believes before it thinks and acts0 7,ib4 #cgh74 ,and in a very striking passage 7,ib4 #cbi71 where he compares the development of the various powers of a human being to the development of a tree1 he says1 8,these forces of the heart--faith and love--are in the formation of immortal man what the root is for the tree40 ,so1 according to ,pestalozzi1 a child without faith and love can no more grow up to be what he should be than a tree can grow without a root4 ,apart from this vital truth there can be no such thing as ,pestalozzianism4 8,ah yet when all is thought and said ,the heart still overrules the head40 ,it is our hearts and affections that lead us right or wrong far more than our intellects4 ,in advocating the training of the minds of the people1 ,lord ,derby once remarked that as ,chairman of ,quarter ,sessions he had found most of the culprits brought before him were stupid and ignorant4 ,it certainly cannot be denied that the commonest kind of criminal is bad in every way4 ,he has his body ruined by debauchery1 his intellect almost in abeyance1 and his heart and affections set on what is vile and degrading4 ,if you could cultivate his intellect you would certainly raise him out of the lowest and by far the largest of the criminal classes4 ,but he might become a criminal of a type less disgusting in externals1 but in reality far more dangerous4 ,the most atrocious miscreant of our time1 if not of all time1 was a man who contrived a machine to sink ships in mid-ocean1 his only object being to gain a sum of money on a false insurance4 ,this man was a type of the lite of criminals1 had received an intellectual training1 and could not have been described by ,lord ,derby as ignorant or stupid4 #ia4 ,pestalozzi then1 much as he valued the development of the intellect1 put first the moral and religious influence of education2 and with him moral and religious were one and the same4 ,he protested against the ordinary routine of elementary education1 because 8everywhere in it the flesh predominated over the spirit1 everywhere the divine element was cast into the shade1 everywhere selfishness and the passions were taken as the motives of action1 everywhere mechanical habits usurped the place of intelligent spontaneity0 7,r4's ,g41 #dgj74 ,education for the people must be different to this4 8,man does not live by bread alone2 every child needs a religious development2 every child needs to know how to pray to ,god in all simplicity1 but with faith and love0 7,r4's ,g41 #cgh74 8,if the religious element does not run through the whole of education1 this element will have little influence on the life2 it remains formal or isolated0#afj 7,ib4 #cha74 ,and ,pestalozzi sums up the essentials of popular education in the words3 8,the child accustomed from his earliest years to pray1 to think1 and to work1 is already more than half educated0 7,ib4 #cha74 #ib4 ,here we see the main requisites4 ,first the child must pray with faith and love4 ,next he must think4 8,the child must think60 exclaims the schoolmaster3 8,must he not learn80 ,to which ,pestalozzi would have replied1 8,most certainly he must40 ,learning was not in ,pestalozzi's estimation as in ,locke's1 the 8last and least0 thing1 but learning was with him something very different from the learning imparted by the ordinary schoolmaster4 ,pestalozzi was very imperfectly acquainted with the thoughts and efforts of his predecessors1 but the one book on education which he had studied had freed him from the 8idols0 of the schoolroom4 ,this book was the ,emile of ,rousseau1 and from it he came no less than ,rousseau himself to despise the learning of the schoolmaster4 ,but when he had to face the problem of organizing a course of education for the people1 ,pestalozzi did not agree with ,rousseau that the first twelve years should be spent in 8losing time40 ,no1 the children must learn1 but they must learn in such a way as to develop all the powers of the mind4 ,and so ,pestalozzi was led to what he considered his great discovery1 viz41 that all instruction must be based on 8,anschauung40 #ic4 ,the ,germans1 who have devoted so much thought and care and effort to education1 greatly honour ,pestalozzi1#afa and as his disciples aim at making all elementary instruction 8anschaulich40 ,we ,english have troubled ourselves so little about ,pestalozzi1 or1 ,i might say1 about the theory of education1 that we have not cared to get equivalent words for ,anschauung and anschaulich4 ,for ,anschauung 8sense-impression0 has lately been tried2 but this is in two ways defective2 for 7#a7 there may be 8,anschauungen0 beyond the range of the senses1 and 7#b7 there is in an 8,anschauung0 an active as well as a passive element1 and this the word 8impression0 does not convey4 ,the active part is brought out better by 8observation0--the word used by ,joseph ,payne and ,james ,mac,alister2 but this seems hardly wide enough4 ,other writers of ,english borrow words straight from the ,french1 and talk about 8intuition0 and 8intuitive10 words which were taken 7first ,i believe by ,kant7 from the ,latin intueri1 8to look at with attention and reflection40 #id4 ,i think we shall be wise in following these writers4 ,on good authority ,i have heard of a ,german professor who when asked if he had read some large work recently published in the distressing type of his nation1 replied that he had not2 he was waiting for a ,french translation4 ,if the ,germans find that the ,french express their thoughts more clearly than they can themselves1 we may think ourselves fortunate when the ,french will act as interpreters4 ,i therefore gladly turn to ,m4 ,buisson and translate what he says about 8intuition40 8,intuition is just the most natural and most spontaneous action of human intelligence1 the action by which the mind seizes a reality without effort1 hesitation1 or go-between4 ,it is a #8direct apperception1' made as it were at a glance4 ,if it has to do with some matter within the province of the senses1 the senses perceive it at once4 ,here we have the simplest case of all1 the most common1 the most easily noted4 ,if the thing concerned is an idea1 a reality1 that is1 beyond the reach of the senses1 we still say that we seize it by intuition when all that is necessary is that it present itself to the mind1 and the mind at once grasps it and is satisfied with it without any need of proof or investigation4 ,we advance by intuition whenever our mind1 acting by the senses1 or by the judgment1 or by the conscience1 knows things with the same amount of evidence and the same amount of speed that a distinct view of an object affords the eye4 ,so intuition is no separate faculty2 it is nothing strange or new in the mind of man4 ,it is just the mind itself #8intuitively' recognising what exists in it or around it0 7,les ,confrences ,pd4 faites aux ,instituteurs1 ,delagrave1 #ahgi1 p4 #cca74 ,so the 8intuitive method0 7to keep the ,french name for it7 is of very wide application4 8,it appeals to this force sui generis1 to this glance of the mind1 to this spontaneous spring of the intelligence towards truth40 ,it sets the pupil's mind to work in following his own intellectual instincts4 ,if in our teaching we can use it1 we shall have gained1 as ,m4 ,buisson says1 the best helper in the world1 viz41 the pupil4 ,if he can be got to take an active part in the instruction all difficulty vanishes at once4 ,instead of having to drag him along1 you will see him delighted to keep you company4 #ie4 ,according to ,m4 ,buisson there are three kinds of intuition--sensuous1 intellectual1 and moral4 ,similarly ,m4 ,jullien 7,esprit de ,pestalozzi1 #ahab1 vol4 j1 p4 #aeb7 says that there are 8intuitions0 of the 8internal senses0 as well as of the external3 the 8internal senses0 are four in number3 first1 the sense for the true2 second1 the sense for the beautiful2 third1 the sense for the good2 fourth1 the sense for the infinite4 #if4 ,without settling whether this analysis is complete we shall have no difficulty in admitting that both body and mind have faculties by means of which we apprehend1 lay hold of1 what is true and right2 and it is on the use of these faculties that ,pestalozzi bases instruction4 ,no ,englishman may have found a good word to indicate ,anschauung1 but one ,englishman at least had the idea of it long before ,pestalozzi4 ,more than a century earlier ,locke had called knowledge 8the internal perception of the mind40 8,knowing is seeing10 said he2 8and if it be so1 it is madness to persuade ourselves we do so by another man's eyes1 let him use never so many words to tell us that what he asserts is very visible0 7,supra p4 #bbb74 #ig4 ,thus in theory ,pestalozzi was1 however unconsciously1 a follower of ,locke4 ,but in practice they went far asunder4 ,locke's thoughts were constantly occupied with philosophical investigations1 and he seems to have made small account of the intellectual power of children1 and to have supposed that they cannot 8see0 anything at all4 ,so he cared little what was taught them1 and till they reached the age of reason the tutor might give such lessons as would be useful to 8young gentlemen10 the avowed object being to 8keep them from sauntering40 ,his follower ,rousseau preferred that the child's mind should not be filled with the traditional lore of the schoolroom1 and that the instructor1 when the youth reached the age of twelve1 should find 8an unfurnished apartment to let40 ,then came ,pestalozzi1 and he saw that at whatever age the instructor began to teach the child1 he would not find an unfurnished apartment1 seeing that every child learns continuously from the hour of its birth4 ,and how does the child learn8 ,not by repeating words which express the thoughts1 feelings1 and experiences of other people1#afb but by his own experiences and feelings1 and by the thoughts which these suggest to him4 #ih4 ,elementary education then on its intellectual side is teaching the child to think4 ,the proper subjects of thought for children ,pestalozzi held to be the children's surroundings1 the realities of their own lives1 the things that affect them and arouse their feelings and interests4 ,perhaps he did not emphasize interest as much as ,herbart has done since2 but clearly an ,anschauung or 8intuition0 is only possible when the child is interested in the thing observed4 #ii4 ,the art of teaching in ,pestalozzi's system consists in analyzing the knowledge that the children should acquire about their surroundings1 arranging it in a regular sequence1 and bringing it to the children's consciousness gradually and in the way in which their minds will act upon it4 ,in this way they learn slowly1 but all they learn is their own4 ,they are not like the crow drest up in peacock's feathers1 for they have not appropriated any dead knowledge 78angelernte todte ,begriffe10 as ,diesterweg has it71 and it cannot be said of them1 8,they know about much1 but know nothing 7,sie kennen viel und wissen nichts740 ,their knowledge is actual knowledge1 for they are taught not what to think but to think1 and to exercise their powers of observation and draw conclusions from their own experience4 ,the teacher simply furnishes materials and occasions for this exercise in observing1 and as it goes on gives his benevolent superintendence4 #ajj4 ,they learn slowly for another reason4 ,according to ,pestalozzi the first conceptions must be dwelt upon till they are distinct and firmly fixed4 ,buss tells us that when he first joined ,pestalozzi at ,burgdorf the delay over the prime elements seemed to him a waste of time1 but that afterwards he was convinced of its being the right plan1 and felt that the failure of his own education was due to its incoherent and desultory character4 8,not only10 says ,pestalozzi1 8have the first elements of knowledge in every subject the most important bearing on its complete outline1 but the child's confidence and interest are gained by perfect attainment even in the lowest stage of instruction40#afc #aja4 ,we have seen that ,pestalozzi would have children learn to pray1 to think1 and to work4 ,in schools for the soi-disant 8upper classes0 the parents or friends of a boy sometimes say1 8,there is no need for him to work he will be very well off40 ,from this kind of demoralization ,pestalozzi's pupils were free4 ,they would have to work1 and ,pestalozzi wished them to learn to work as soon as possible4 ,in this way he sought to increase their self-respect1 and to unite their school-life with their life beyond it4#afd #ajb4 ,pestalozzi was tremendously in earnest1 and he wished the children also to take instruction seriously4 ,he was totally opposed to the notion which had found favour with many great authorities as e4g41 ,locke and ,basedow1 that instruction should always be given in the guise of amusement4 8,i am convinced10 says he1 8that such a notion will for ever preclude solidity of knowledge1 and1 for want of sufficient exertions on the part of the pupils1 will lead to that very result which ,i wish to avoid by my principle of a constant employment of the thinking powers4 ,a child must very early in life be taught the lesson that exertion is indispensable for the attainment of knowledge0#afe 7,to ,g41 xxiv1 p4 #aag74 ,but he should be taught at the same time that exertion is not an evil1 and he should be encouraged1 not frightened1 into it4 ,healthy exertion1 whether of body or mind1 is always attended with a feeling of satisfaction amounting to pleasure1 and where this pleasure is absent the instructor has failed in producing proper exertion4 ,as ,pestalozzi says1 8,whenever children are inattentive and apparently take no interest in a lesson1 the teacher should always first look to himself for the reason0#aff 7,ib474 #ajc4 ,but though he took so serious a view of instruction1 he made instruction include and indeed give a prominent place to the arts of singing and drawing4 ,in the ,pestalozzian schools singing found immense favour with both the masters and the pupils1 and the collection of songs by ,ngeli1 a master at ,yverdun1 became famous4 ,drawing too was practised by all4 ,as ,pestalozzi writes to ,greaves 7xxiv1 #aag71 8,a person who is in the habit of drawing1 especially from nature1 will easily perceive many circumstances which are commonly overlooked1 and will form a much more correct impression even of such objects as he does not stop to examine minutely1 than one who has never been taught to look upon what he sees with an intention of reproducing a likeness of it4 ,the attention to the exact shape of the whole and the proportion of the parts1 which is requisite for the taking of an adequate sketch1 is converted into a habit1 and becomes productive both of instruction and amusement40 #ajd4 ,i have now endeavoured to point out the main features of ,pestalozzianism4 ,the following is the summing up of these features given by ,morf in his ,contribution to ,pestalozzi's ,biography3-- #a4 ,instruction must be based on the learner's own experience4 7,das ,fundament des ,unterrichts ist die ,anschauung47 #b4 ,what the learner experiences and observes must be connected with language4 #c4 ,the time for learning is not the time for judging1 not the time for criticism4 #d4 ,in every department instruction must begin with the simplest elements1 and starting from these must be carried on step by step according to the development of the child1 that is1 it must be brought into psychological sequence4 #e4 ,at each point the instructor shall not go forward till that part of the subject has become the proper intellectual possession of the learner4 #f4 ,instruction must follow the path of development1 not the path of lecturing1 teaching1 or telling4 #g4 ,to the educator the individuality of the child must be sacred4 #h4 ,not the acquisition of knowledge or skill is the main object of elementary instruction1 but the development and strengthening of the powers of the mind4 #i4 ,with knowledge 7,wissen7 must come power 7,knnen71 with information 7,kenntniss7 skill 7,fertigkeit74 #aj4 ,intercourse between educator and pupil1 and school discipline especially1 must be based on and controlled by love4 #aa4 ,instruction shall be subordinated to the aim of education4 #ab4 ,the ground of moral-religious bringing up lies in the relation of mother and child4#afg #aje4 ,having now seen in which direction ,pestalozzi would start the school-coach1 let us examine 7with reference to ,england only7 the direction in which it is travelling at present4 #ajf4 ,for educational purposes we may1 with ,lord ,beaconsfield1 regard the ,english as composed of two nations1 the rich and the poor4 ,let us consider these separately4 ,in the case of the rich we find that the worst part of our educational course--the part most wrong in theory and pernicious in practice--is the schooling of young children1 say between six and twelve years old4 ,before the age of six some few are fortunate enough to attend a good ,kindergarten2 but the opportunity of doing this is at present rare1 and for most children of well-to-do parents there is1 up to six years old1 little or no organised instruction4 ,pestalozzi would have every mother made capable of giving such instruction4 ,froebel would have every child sent to a skilled 8,kindergrtnerin40 ,it seems to me beyond question that children gain immensely from joining a properly-managed ,kindergarten2 but where this is impossible1 perhaps the mother may leave the child to the series of impressions which come to its senses without any regular order4 ,according to the first ,lord ,lytton1 the mother's interference might remind us of the man who thought his bees would make honey faster if1 instead of going in search of flowers1 they were shut up and had flowers brought to them4 ,the way in which young children turn from object to object1 like the bees from flower to flower1 seems to show that at this stage their intellectual training goes on whether we help it or not4 ,there is no doubt an education for children however young1 and the mother is the teacher1 but the lessons have more to do with the heart than the head4 #ajg4 ,but the time for regular teaching comes at last1 and what is to be done then8 ,let us consider briefly what is done4 ,hitherto1 the only defence ever made of our school-course leading up to residence at a ,university1 has been that it aims not at giving knowledge but at training the mind4 ,youths then are supposed to be engaged1 not in gaining knowledge1 but in training their faculties for adult life4 ,but when we come to provide for the 8education0 of children1 we never think of training their faculties for youth1 but endeavour solely to inculcate what will then come in useful4 ,we see clearly enough that it would be absurd to cram the mind of a youth with laws of science or art or commerce which he could not understand1 on the ground that the getting-up of these things might save him trouble in after-life4 ,but we do not hesitate to sacrifice childhood to the learning by heart of grammar rules1 ,latin declensions1 historical dates1 and the like1 with no thought whatever of the child's faculties1 but simply with a view of giving him knowledge 7so-called7 that will come in useful five or six years afterwards4 ,we do not treat youths thus1 probably because we have more sympathy with them1 or at least understand them better4 ,the intellectual life to which the senses and the imagination are subordinated in the man has already begun in the youth4 ,in an inferior degree he can do what the man can do1 and understand what the man can understand4 ,he has already some notion of reasoning1 and abstraction1 and generalisation4 ,but with the child it is very different4 ,his active faculties may be said almost to differ in kind from a man's4 ,he has a feeling for the sensuous world which he will lose as he grows up4 ,his strong imagination1 under no control of the reason1 is constantly at work building castles in the air1 and investing the doll or the puppet-show with all the properties of the things they represent4 ,his feelings and affections1 easily excited1 find an object to love or dislike in every person and thing he meets with4 ,on the other hand1 he has only vague notions of the abstract1 and has no interest except in actual known persons1 animals1 and things4 #ajh4 ,there is1 then1 between the child of eight or nine and the youth of fourteen or fifteen a greater difference than between the youth and the man of twenty2 and this demands a corresponding difference in their studies4 ,and yet1 as matters are carried on now1 the child is too often kept to the drudgery of learning by rote mere collections of hard words1 perhaps1 too1 in a foreign language3 and absorbed in the present1 he is not much comforted by the teacher's assurance that 8some day0 these things will come in useful4 #aji4 ,how to educate the child is doubtless the most difficult problem of all1 and it is generally allotted to those who are the least likely to find a satisfactory solution4 ,the earliest educator of the children of many rich parents is the nursemaid--a person not usually distinguished by either intellectual or moral excellence4#afh ,at an early age this educator is superseded by the ,preparatory ,school4 ,taken as a body1 the ladies who open 8establishments for young gentlemen0 cannot be said to hold enlarged views1 or1 indeed1 any views whatever1 on the subject of education4 ,their intention is not so much to cultivate the children's faculties as to make a livelihood1 and to hear no complaints that pupils who have left them have been found deficient in the expected knowledge by the master of the next school4 ,if anyone would investigate the sort of teaching which is considered adapted to the capacity of children at this stage1 let him look into a standard work still in vogue 78,mangnall's ,questions071 from which the young of both sexes acquire a great quantity and variety of learning2 the whole of ancient and modern history and biography1 together with the heathen mythology1 the planetary system1 and the names of all the constellations1 lying very compactly in about #cjj pages4#afi ,unfortunately1 moreover1 from the gentility of these ladies1 their scholars' bodies are often treated in preparatory schools no less injuriously than their minds4 ,it may be natural in a child to use his lungs and delight in noise1 but this can hardly be considered genteel1 so the tendency is1 as far as possible1 suppressed4 ,it is found1 too1 that if children are allowed to run about they get dirty and spoil their clothes1 and do not look like 8young gentlemen10 so they are made to take exercise in a much more genteel fashion1 walking slowly two-and-two1 with gloves on4#agj #aaj4 ,at nine or ten years old1 boys are commonly put to a school taught by masters4 ,here they lose sight of their gloves1 and learn the use of their limbs2 but their minds are not so fortunate as their bodies4 ,the studies of the school have been arranged without any thought of their peculiar needs4 ,the youngest class is generally the largest1 often much the largest1 and it is handed over to the least competent and worst paid master on the staff of teachers4 ,the reason is1 that little boys are found to learn the tasks imposed upon them very slowly4 ,a youth or a man who came fresh to the ,latin grammar would learn in a morning as much as the master1 with great labour1 can get into children in a week4 ,it is thought1 therefore1 that the best teaching should be applied where it will have the most obvious results4 ,if anyone were to say to the manager of a school1 8,the master who takes the lowest form teaches badly1 and the children learn nothing02 he would perhaps say1 8,very likely2 but if ,i paid a much higher salary1 and got a better man1 they would learn but little40 ,the only thing the school-manager thinks of is1 ,how much do the little boys learn of what is taught in the higher forms8 ,how their faculties are being developed1 or whether they have any faculties except for reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 and for getting grammar-rules1 c4 by heart1 he is not so 8unpractical0 as to enquire4 #aaa4 ,with reference to the education of the first of our 8two nations10 it seems then pretty clear that ,pestalozzi would require that the school-coach should be turned and started in a totally different direction4 #aab4 ,what about the education of the other 8nation10 a nation of which the verb 8to rule0 has for many centuries been used in the passive voice1 but can be used in that voice no longer8 ,a century ago1 with the partial exception of ,scotland and ,massachusetts1 there was no such thing as school education for the people to be found anywhere in ,europe or ,america4 ,but from #aghi onwards power has been passing more and more from the few to the many2 and as a natural consequence folk-schools 7for which we have not yet found a name7 have become of vast importance everywhere4 ,the ,germans1 as we have seen1 have been the disciples of ,pestalozzi1 and their elementary education in everything bears traces of his ideas4 ,the ,english have organised a great system of elementary education in total ignorance of ,pestalozzi4 ,as usual1 we seem to have supposed that the right system would come to us 8in sleep40 ,but has it come8 ,the children of the poor are now compelled by the law to attend an elementary school4 ,what sort of an education has the law there provided for them8 ,the ,education ,department professes to measure everything by results4 ,let us do the same4 ,suppose that on his leaving school we wished to forecast a lad's future4 ,what should we try to find out about him8 ,no doubt we should ask what he knew2 but this would not be by any means the main thing4 ,his skill would interest us1 and still more would his state of health4 ,but what we should ask first and foremost is this1 ,whom does he love8 ,whom does he admire and imitate8 ,what does he care about8 ,what interests him8 ,it is only when the answers to these questions are satisfactory1 that we can think hopefully of his future2 and it is only in so far as the school-course has tended to make the answers satisfactory1 that it deserves our approval4 ,schools such as ,pestalozzi designed would have thus deserved our approval2 but we cannot say this of the schools into which the children of the ,english poor are now driven4 ,in these schools the heart and the affections are not thought of1 the powers of neither mind nor body are developed by exercise1 and the children do not acquire any interests that will raise or benefit them4 #aac4 ,an advocate of our system would not deny this1 but would probably say1 8,the question for us to consider is1 not what is the best that in the most favourable circumstances might be attempted1 but what is the best that in very restricted and by no means favourable circumstances1 we are likely to get4 ,the teachers in our schools are not self-devoting ,pestalozzis1 but only ordinary men and women1 and still worse1 ordinary boys and girls4#aga ,it would be of no use talking to our teachers 7still less our pupil-teachers7 about developing the affections and the mental or bodily powers of the children4 ,all such talk could end in nothing but silly cant4 ,as for character1 we expect the school to cultivate in the children habits of order1 neatness1 industry4 ,beyond this we cannot go40 ,and yet1 though this seems reasonable1 we feel that it is not quite satisfactory4 ,if so much depends in all of us on 8admiration1 hope1 and love10 we can hardly consider a system of education that entirely ignores them to be well adapted to the needs of human nature4 ,if ,pestalozzi was right1 we must be wrong4 ,we have never supposed the object of the school to be the development of the faculties of heart1 of head1 and of hand1 but we have thought of nothing but learning--learning first of all to read1 write1 and cipher1 and then in 8good0 schools1 one or more 8extra subjects0 may be taken up1 and a grant obtained for them4 ,the sole object1 both of managers and teachers1 is to prepare for the ,inspector1 who comes once a year1 and from an examination of five hours or so1 pronounces on what the children have learnt4 #aad4 ,the engineer most concerned in the construction of this machine1 the ,right ,hon4 ,robert ,lowe1 announced that there could be 8no such thing as a science of education20 and as when we have no opinion of our own we always adopt the opinion of some positive person1 we took his word for it4 ,but what if the confident ,mr4 ,lowe was mistaken8 ,what if there is such a science1 and the aim of it is that children should grow up not so much to know something as to be something8 ,in this case we shall be obliged sooner or later to give up ,mr4 ,lowe and to come round to ,pestalozzi4#agb ,science is correct inferences drawn from the facts of the universe2 and where such science exists1 confident assertions that it does not and cannot exist are dangerous for the confident persons and for those who follow them4 ,even if 8there is no such thing as a science of education10 such a thing as education there is2 and this is just what ,mr4 ,lowe1 and we may say the ,english1 practically deny4 ,they make arrangements for instruction and mete out 8the grant0 according to the results obtained1 but they totally fail to conceive of the existence of education1 education which has instruction among its various agents4 #aae4 ,in one respect the analogy between the educator and child and the gardener and plant1 an analogy in which ,pestalozzi no less than ,froebel delighted1 entirely breaks down4 ,the gardener has to study the conditions necessary for the health and development of the plant1 but these conditions lie outside his own life and are independent of it4 ,with the educator it is different4 ,like the gardener he can create nothing in the child1 but unlike the gardener he can further the development only of that which exists in himself4 ,he draws out in the young the intelligence and the sense of what is just1 the love of what is beautiful1 the admiration of what is noble1 but this he can do only by his own intelligence and his own enthusiasm for what is just and beautiful and noble4 ,even industry is in many cases caught from the teacher4 ,in a volume of essays 7originally published in the ,forum71 in which some men1 distinguished as scholars or in literature in the ,united ,states1 have given an account of their early years1 we find that almost in every case they date their intellectual industry and growth from the time when they came under the influence of some inspiring teacher4 ,thus even for instruction and still more for education1 the great force is the teacher4 ,this is a truth which all our 8parties0 overlook4 ,they wage their controversies and have their triumphs and defeats about unessentials1 and leave the essentials to 8crotchety educationists40 ,in such questions as whether the ,church ,catechism shall or shall not be taught1 whether natural science shall or shall not figure in the time-table 7without scientific teachers it can figure nowhere else71 whether the parents or the ,government shall pay for each child twopence or threepence a week1 whether the ratepayers shall or shall not be 8represented0 among the ,managers in 8voluntary0 schools1 in all questions of this kind education is not concerned2 and yet these are the only questions that we think about4 ,in the end it will perhaps dawn upon us that in every school what is important for education is not the time-table but the teacher1 and that so far as pupil-teachers are employed education is impossible4 ,elsewhere 7infra p4 #dgf7 ,i have told of a man in the prime of life 7he seemed between #dj and #ej years old7 whose time was entirely taken up in teaching a large class of children1 boys and girls1 of six or seven years4 ,he most certainly could and did educate them both in heart and mind4 ,he made their lessons a delightful occupation to them1 and he exercised over them the influence of a good and wise father4 ,here was the right system seen at its best4 ,i do not say that all or even most adult teachers would have exercised so good an influence as this gentleman2 but so far as they come up to what they ought to be and might be they do exercise such an influence4 ,and this of course can be said of no pupil-teacher4 #aaf4 ,as regards schools then1 schools for the rich and schools for the poor1 the great educating force is the personality of the teacher4 ,before we can have ,pestalozzian schools we must have ,pestalozzian teachers4 ,teachers must catch something of ,pestalozzi's spirit and enter into his conception of their task4 ,perhaps some of them will feel inclined to say3 8,fine words1 no doubt1 and in a sense very true1 that education should be the unfolding of the faculties according to the ,divine idea2 but between this high poetical theory and the dull prose of actual school-teaching1 there is a great gulf fixed1 and we cannot attend to both at the same time40 ,i know full well the difference there is between theories and plans of education as they seem to us when we are at leisure and can think of them without reference to particular pupils1 and when all our energy is taxed to get through our day's teaching1 and our animal spirits jaded by having to keep order and exact attention among veritable schoolboys who do not answer in all respects to 8the young0 of the theorists4 ,but whilst admitting most heartily the difference here1 as elsewhere1 between the actual and the ideal1 ,i think that the dull prose of school-teaching would be less dull and less prosaic if our aim was higher1 and if we did not contentedly assume that our present performances are as good as the nature of the case will admit of4 ,many teachers 7perhaps ,i may say most7 are discontented with the greater number of their pupils1 but it is not so usual for teachers to be discontented with themselves4 ,and yet even those who are most averse from theoretical views1 which they call unpractical1 would admit1 as practical men1 that their methods are probably susceptible of improvement1 and that even if their methods are right1 they themselves are by no means perfect teachers4 ,only let the desire of improvement once exist1 and the teacher will find a new interest in his work4 ,in part1 the treadmill-like monotony so wearing to the spirits will be done away1 and he will at times have the encouragement of conscious progress4 ,to a man thus minded1 theorists may be of great assistance4 ,his practical knowledge may1 indeed1 often show him the absurdity of some pompously enunciated principle1 and even where the principles seem sound1 he may smile at the applications4 ,but the theorists will show him many aspects of his profession1 and will lead him to make many observations in it1 which would otherwise have escaped him4 ,they will save him from a danger caused by the difficulty of getting anything done in the school-room1 the danger of thinking more of means than ends4 ,they will teach him to examine what his aim really is1 and then whether he is using the most suitable methods to accomplish it4 ,such a theorist is ,pestalozzi4 ,he points to a high ideal1 and bids us measure our modes of education by it4 ,let us not forget that if we are practical men we are ,christians1 and as such the ideal set before us is the highest of all4 8,be ye perfect1 even as your ,father in heaven is perfect40 ,the ,pestalozzian literature in ,german and even in ,french is now considerable1 but it is still small in ,english4 ,the book ,i have made most use of is ,histoire de ,pestalozzi par ,r4 de ,guimps 7,lausanne1 ,bridel71 with its translation by ,john ,russell 7,london3 ,sonnenschein4 ,appleton's3 ,n4 ,yk474 ,in ,henry ,barnard's ,pestalozzi and ,pestalozzianism are collected some good papers1 among them ,tilleard's trans4 from ,raumer4 ,we also have ,h4 ,kruesi's ,pestalozzi 7,cincinatti3 ,wilson1 ,hinkle1 ,co474 ,i have already mentioned ,miss ,channing's ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,the ,letters to ,greaves are now out of print4 ,a complete account of ,pestalozzi and everything connected with him1 bibliography included1 is given in ,m4 ,j4 ,guillaume's article ,pestalozzi1 in ,buisson's ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie4 7,see also ,pestalozzi par ,j4 ,guillaume 7,hachette7 just published47 ,,xvii4 ,,friedrich ,,froebel4 7#aghc-aheb47 #a4 ,i now approach the most difficult part of my subject4 ,i have endeavoured to give some account of the lessons taught us by the chief ,educational ,reformers4 ,no doubt my selection of these has been made in a fashion somewhat arbitrary1 and there are names which do not appear and yet might reasonably be looked for if all the chief ,educational ,reformers were supposed to be included4 ,but the plan of my book has restricted me to a few1 and ,i am by no means sure that some to whom ,i have given a chapter are as worthy of it as some to whom ,i have not4 ,i have in a measure been guided by fancy and even by chance4 ,one man1 however1 ,i dare not leave out4 ,all the best tendencies of modern thought on education seem to me to culminate in what was said and done by ,friedrich ,froebel1 and ,i have little doubt that he has shown the right road for further advance4 ,of what he said and did ,i therefore feel bound to give the best account ,i can1 but ,i am well aware that ,i shall fail1 even more conspicuously than in other cases1 to do him justice4 ,there are some great men who seem to have access to a world from which we ordinary mortals are shut out4 ,like ,moses 8they go up into the ,mount10 and the directions they give us are based upon what they have seen in it4 ,but we cannot go up with them2 so we feel that we very imperfectly understand them2 and when there can be not the smallest doubt of their sincerity we at times hesitate about the nature of their visions4 ,for myself ,i must admit that ,i very imperfectly understand ,froebel4 ,i am convinced1 as ,i said1 that he has pointed out the right road for our advance in education2 but he was perhaps right in saying3 8,centuries may yet pass before my view of the human creature as manifested in the child1 and of the educational treatment it requires1 are universally received40 ,it has already taken centuries to recover from the mistakes made at the ,renascence4 ,for the full attainment of ,froebel's standpoint perhaps a few additional centuries may be necessary4 #b4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,august ,froebel#agc was born at ,oberweissbach1 a village of the ,thuringian ,forest1 on the #bast ,april1 #aghc4 ,he completed his seventieth year1 and died at ,marienthal1 near ,bad-,liebenstein1 on the #bast ,june1 #aheb4 ,like ,comenius1 with whom he had much in common1 he was neglected in his youth2 and the remembrance of his own early sufferings made him in after life the more eager in promoting the happiness of children4 ,his mother he lost in his infancy1 and his father1 the pastor of ,oberweissbach and the surrounding district1 attended to his parish but not to his family4 ,friedrich soon had a stepmother1 and neglect was succeeded by stepmotherly attention2 but a maternal uncle took pity on him1 and for some years gave him a home a few miles off at ,stadt-,ilm4 ,here he went to the village school1 but like many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce4 ,throughout life he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying unity in all things4 ,in his own words3 8,man1 particularly in boyhood1 should become intimate with nature--not so much with reference to the details and the outer forms of her phenomena as with reference to the ,spirit of ,god that lives in her and rules over her4 ,indeed1 the boy feels this deeply and demands it0 7,ed4 of ,m41 ,hailmann's trans41 p4 #afb74 ,but nothing of this unity was to be perceived in the piecemeal studies of the school2 so ,froebel's mind1 busy as it was for itself1 would not work for the masters4 ,his half-brother was therefore thought more worthy of a university education1 and ,friedrich was apprenticed for two years to a forester 7#agig-agii74 ,left to himself in the ,thuringian ,forest1 ,froebel now began to 8become intimate with nature20 and without scientific instruction he obtained a profound insight into the uniformity and essential unity of nature's laws4 ,years afterwards the celebrated ,jahn 7the 8,father ,jahn0 of the ,german gymnasts7 told a ,berlin student of a queer fellow he had met1 who made out all sorts of wonderful things from stones and cobwebs4 ,this 8queer fellow0 was ,froebel2 and the habit of making out general truths from the observation of nature1 especially of plants and trees1 dated from his solitary rambles in the ,forest4 ,no training could have been better suited to strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism2 and when he left the ,forest at the early age of seventeen1 he seems to have been possessed by the main ideas which influenced him all his life4 ,the conception which in him dominated all others was the unity of nature2 and he longed to study natural sciences that he might find in them various applications of nature's universal laws4 ,with great difficulty he got leave to join his elder brother at the university of ,jena2 and there for a year he went from lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion of the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any particular science in itself4 ,but ,froebel's allowance of money was very small1 and his skill in the management of money was never great2 so his university career ended in an imprisonment of nine weeks for a debt of thirty shillings4 ,he then returned home with very poor prospects1 but much more intent on what he calls the course of 8self-completion0 7,vervollkommnung meines selbst7 than on 8getting on0 in a worldly point of view4 ,he was soon sent to learn farming1 but was recalled in consequence of the failing health of his father4 ,in #ahjb the father died1 and ,froebel1 now twenty years old1 had to shift for himself4 ,it was some time before he found his true vocation1 and for the next three-and-a half years we find him at work now in one part of ,germany now in another1--sometimes land-surveying1 sometimes acting as accountant1 sometimes as private secretary4 #c4 ,but in all this his 8outer life was far removed from his inner life40 8,i carried my own world within me10 he tells us1 8and this it was for which ,i cared and which ,i cherished40 ,in spite of his outward circumstances he became more and more conscious that a great task lay before him for the good of humanity2 and this consciousness proved fatal to his 8settling down40 8,to thee may ,fate soon give a settled hearth and a loving wife0 7thus he wrote in a friend's album in #ahje72 8me let it keep wandering without rest1 and allow only time to learn aright my true relation to the world and to my own inner being4 ,do thou give bread to men2 be it my effort to give men to themselves0 7,k4 ,schmidt's ,gesch4 d4 ,pd41 #crd ed4 by ,lange1 vol4 iv1 p4 #bgg74 #d4 ,as yet the nature of the task was not clear to him1 and it seemed determined by accident4 ,while studying architecture in ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 he became acquainted with the director of a model school who had caught some of the enthusiasm of ,pestalozzi4 ,this friend saw that ,froebel's true field was education1 and he persuaded him to give up architecture and take a post in the model school4 8,the very first time10 he says1 8that ,i found myself before thirty or forty boys1 ,i felt thoroughly at home4 ,in fact1 ,i perceived that ,i had at last found my long-missed life-element2 and ,i wrote to my brother that ,i was as well pleased as the fish in the water3 ,i was inexpressibly happy40 #e4 ,in this school ,froebel worked for two years with remarkable success2 but he felt more and more his need of preparation1 so he then retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family4 ,even in this he could not satisfy himself1 and he obtained the parents' consent to his taking the boys to ,yverdun1 and there forming with them a part of the celebrated institution of ,pestalozzi4 ,thus from #ahjg till #ahji ,froebel was drinking in ,pestalozzianism at the fountain head1 and qualifying himself to carry on the work which ,pestalozzi had begun4 ,for the science of education had to deduce from ,pestalozzi's experience principles which ,pestalozzi himself could not deduce2 and 8,froebel1 the pupil of ,pestalozzi1 and a genius like his master1 completed the reformer's system2 taking the results at which ,pestalozzi had arrived through the necessities of his position1 ,froebel developed the ideas involved in them1 not by further experience but by deduction from the nature of man1 and thus he attained to the conception of true human development and to the requirements of true education0 7,schmidt's ,gesch4 d4 ,pd474 #f4 ,holding that man and nature1 inasmuch as they proceed from the same ,source1 must be governed by the same laws1 ,froebel longed for more knowledge of natural science4 ,even ,pestalozzi seemed to him not to 8honour science in her divinity40 ,he therefore determined to continue the university course which had been so rudely interrupted eleven years before1 and in #ahaa he began studying at ,gttingen1 whence he proceeded to ,berlin4 ,in his ,autobiography he tells us3 8,the lectures for which ,i had so longed really came up to the needs of my mind and soul1 and made me feel more fervently than ever the certainty of the demonstrable inner connexion of the whole cosmical development of the universe4 ,i saw also the possibility of man's becoming conscious of this absolute unity of the universe1 as well as of the diversity of things and appearances which is perpetually unfolding itself within that unity2 and then when ,i had made clear to myself1 and brought fully home to my consciousness the view that the infinitely varied phenomena in man's life1 work1 thought1 feeling1 and position were all summed up in the unity of his personal existence ,i felt myself able to turn my thoughts once more to educational problems0 7,autob4 trans4 by ,michaelis and ,moore1 p4 #hi74 ,but again his studies were interrupted1 this time by the king of ,prussia's celebrated call 8,to my people40 ,though not a ,prussian1 ,froebel was heart and soul a ,german4 ,he therefore responded to the call1 enlisted in ,ltzow's corps1 and went through the campaign of #ahac4 ,his military ardour1 however1 did not take his mind off education4 8,everywhere10 he writes1 8as far as the fatigues ,i underwent allowed1 ,i carried in my thoughts my future calling as educator2 yes1 even in the few engagements in which ,i had to take part4 ,even in these ,i could gather experience for the task ,i proposed to myself40 ,froebel's soldiering showed him the value of discipline and united action1 how the individual belongs not to himself but to the whole body1 and how the whole body supports the individual4 ,froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship of two men whose names will always be associated with his1 ,langethal and ,middendorff4 ,these young men1 ten years younger than ,froebel1 became attached to him in the field1 and were ever afterwards his devoted followers1 sacrificing all their prospects in life for the sake of carrying out his ideas4 #g4 ,at the peace of ,fontainebleau 7signed in ,may1 #ahad7 ,froebel returned to ,berlin1 and became curator of the ,museum of ,mineralogy under ,professor ,weiss4 ,in accepting this appointment from the ,government he seemed to turn aside from his work as educator2 but if not teaching he was learning4 ,the unity of nature and human nature seemed more and more to reveal itself to him4 ,of the days past in the museum he afterwards wrote3 8,here was ,i at the central point of my life and strife1 where inner working and law1 where life1 nature1 and mathematics were united in the fixed crystaline form1 where a world of symbols lay open to the inner eye40 ,again he says3 8,the stones in my hand and under my eye became speaking forms4 ,the world of crystals declared to me the life and laws of life of man1 and in still but real and sensible speech taught the true life of humanity40 8,geology and crystallography not only opened for me a higher circle of knowledge and insight1 but also showed me a higher goal for my inquiry1 my speculation1 and my endeavour4 ,nature and man now seemed to me mutually to explain each other through all their numberless various stages of development4 ,man1 as ,i saw1 receives from a knowledge of natural objects1 even because of their immense deep-seated diversity1 a foundation for and a guidance towards a knowledge of himself and life1 and a preparation for the manifestation of that knowledge0 7,autob4 ut supra1 p4 #ig74 ,more and more the thought possessed him that the one thing needful for man was unity of development1 perfect evolution in accordance with the laws of his being1 such evolution as science discovers in the other organisms of nature4 #h4 ,he at first intended to become a teacher of natural science1 but before long wider views dawned upon him4 ,langethal and ,middendorff were in ,berlin1 engaged in tuition4 ,froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory1 and at length1 counting on their support1 he resolved to set about realising his own idea of 8the new education40 ,this was in #ahaf4 ,three years before one of his brothers1 a clergyman1 had died of fever caught from the ,french prisoners4 ,his widow was still living in the parsonage at ,griesheim1 a village on the ,ilm4 ,froebel gave up his post in ,berlin1 and set out for ,griesheim on foot1 spending his very last groschen on the way for bread4 ,here he undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews1 and also of two more nephews sent him by another brother4 ,with these he opened a school1 and wrote to ,middendorff and ,langethal to come and help in the experiment4 ,middendorff came at once1 ,langethal a year or two later1 when the school had been moved to ,keilhau1 another of the ,thuringian villages1 which became the ,mecca of the new faith4 ,in ,keilhau1 ,froebel1 ,langethal1 ,middendorff1 and ,barop1 a relation of ,middendorff's1 all married and formed an educational community4 ,such zeal could not be fruitless1 and the school gradually increased1 though for many years its teachers1 with ,froebel at their head1 were in the greatest straits for money1 and at times even for food4 ,karl ,froebel1 who was brought up in the school1 tells how1 on one occasion1 he and the other children were sent to ramble in the woods till some of the seed-corn provided for the coming year had been turned into bread for them4 ,besides these difficulties the community suffered from the panic and reaction after the murder of ,kotzebue 7#ahai71 and were persecuted as a nest of demagogues4 ,but 8the ,new ,education0 was sufficiently successful to attract notice from all quarters2 and when he had been ten years at ,keilhau 7#ahbf7 ,froebel published his great work1 ,the ,education of ,man4 #i4 ,four years later he determined to start other institutions in connexion with the parent institution at ,keilhau2 and being offered by a private friend the use of a castle on the ,wartensee1 in the canton of ,lucerne1 he left ,keilhau under the direction of ,barop1 and with ,langethal made a settlement in ,switzerland4 ,the ground1 however1 was very ill chosen4 ,the ,catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a ,protestant invasion1 and the experiment on the ,wartensee and at ,willisau in the same canton1 to which the institution was moved in #ahcc1 never had a fair chance4 ,it was in vain that ,middendorff at ,froebel's call left his wife and family at ,keilhau1 and laboured for four years in ,switzerland without once seeing them4 ,the ,swiss institution never flourished4 ,but the ,swiss ,government wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator2 so young teachers were sent to ,froebel for instruction1 and finally he removed to ,burgdorf 7a town already famous from ,pestalozzi's labours there thirty years earlier7 to undertake the establishment of a public orphanage1 and also to superintend a course of teaching for schoolmasters4 ,the elementary teachers of the canton were to spend three months every alternate year at ,burgdorf1 and there compare experiences1 and learn of distinguished men such as ,froebel and ,bitzius4 #aj4 ,in his conferences with these teachers ,froebel found that the schools suffered from the state of the raw material brought into them4 ,till the school age was reached the children were entirely neglected4 ,froebel's conception of harmonious development naturally led him to attach much importance to the earliest years1 and his great work on ,the ,education of ,man1 published as early as #ahbf1 deals chiefly with the education of children4 ,at ,burgdorf his thoughts were much occupied with the proper treatment of young children1 and in scheming for them a graduated course of exercises modelled on the games in which he observed them to be most interested4 ,in his eagerness to carry out his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints2 and partly from this reason1 partly on account of his wife's ill health1 he left ,burgdorf without even actually becoming 8,waisenvater0 7father of the orphans74#agd ,after a sojourn of some months in ,berlin1 where he was detained through family affairs1 but used the opportunities thus afforded of examining the recently founded infant schools1 ,froebel returned to ,keilhau1 and soon afterwards opened the first ,kindergarten1 or 8,garden of ,children10 in the neighbouring village of ,blankenburg 7,a4,d4 #ahcg74 ,not only the thing but the name seemed to ,froebel a happy inspiration1 and it has now become inseparably connected with his own4 ,perhaps we can hardly understand the pleasure he took in it unless we know its predecessor1 ,kleinkinderbeschftigungsanstalt4 #aa4 ,firmly convinced of the importance of the ,kindergarten for the whole human race1 ,froebel described his system in a weekly paper 7his ,sonntagsblatt7 which appeared from the middle of #ahcg till #ahdj4 ,he also lectured in great towns2 and he gave a regular course of instruction to young teachers at ,blankenburg4 #ab4 ,but although the principles of the ,kindergarten were gradually making their way1 the first ,kindergarten was failing for want of funds4 ,it had to be given up2 and ,froebel1 now a widower 7he had lost his wife in #ahci71 carried on his course for teachers first at ,keilhau1 and from #ahdh1 for the last four years of his life1 at or near ,liebenstein1 in the ,thuringian ,forest1 and in the duchy of ,meiningen4 ,it is in these last years that the man ,froebel will be best known to posterity2 for in #ahdi be attracted within the circle of his influence a woman of great intellectual power1 the ,baroness von ,marenholtz-,blow1 who has given us in her ,recollections of ,friedrich ,froebel the only life-like portrait we possess4 ,in these records of personal intercourse we see the truth of ,deinhardt's words3 8,the living perception of universal and ideal truth which his talk revealed to us1 his unbounded enthusiasm for the education and happiness of the human race1 his willingness to offer up everything he possessed for the sake of his idea1 the stream of thoughts which flowed from his enthusiasm for the ideal as from an inexhaustible fountain1 all these made ,froebel a wonderful appearance in the world1 by whom no unprejudiced spectator could fail to be attracted and elevated40 #ac4 ,these seemed likely to be ,froebel's most peaceful days4 ,he married again2 and having now devoted himself to the training of women as educators1 he spent his time in instructing his class of young female teachers4 ,but trouble came upon him from a quarter whence he least expected it4 ,in the great year of revolutions1 #ahdh1 ,froebel had hoped to turn to account the general eagerness for improvement1 and ,middendorff had presented an address on ,kindergartens to the ,german ,parliament4 ,besides this a nephew of ,froebel's published books which were supposed to teach socialism4 ,true the uncle and nephew differed so widely that 8the ,new ,froebelians0 were the enemies of the 8,old40 ,but the distinction was overlooked1 and ,friedrich and ,karl ,froebel were regarded as the united advocates of 8some new thing40 ,in the reaction which soon set in1 ,froebel found himself suspected of socialism and irreligion2 and in #ahea the ,cultus-minister ,raumer issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools 8after ,friedrich and ,karl ,froebel's principles0 in ,prussia4 ,it was in vain that ,froebel proved that his principles differed fundamentally from his nephew's4 ,it was in vain that a congress of schoolmasters1 presided over by the celebrated ,diesterweg1 protested against the calumnious decree4 ,the ,minister turned a deaf ear1 and the decree remained in force ten years after the death of ,froebel 7i4e41 till #ahfb74 ,but the edict was a heavy blow to the old man1 who looked to the ,government of the 8,cultus-staat0 ,prussia for support1 and was met with denunciation4 ,of the justice of the charge brought by the ,minister against ,froebel the reader may judge from the account of his principles given below4 ,whether from the worry of this new controversy1 or from whatever cause1 ,froebel did not long survive the decree4 ,his seventieth birthday was celebrated with great rejoicings in ,may1 #aheb1 but he died in the following month1 and lies buried at ,schweina1 a village near his last abode1 ,marienthal4 #ad4 ,throughout these essays my object has been to collect what seemed to me the most valuable lessons of various ,reformers4 ,in doing this ,i have had to judge and decide what was most valuable1 and at times to criticise and differ from my authorities4 ,this may perhaps give rise to the question1 ,do you then think yourself the superior or at least the equal of the great men you criticise8 and ,i could only reply in all sincerity1 ,i most certainly do not4 ,if ,i am asked further1 what then is my attitude towards them8 ,i reply1 it differs very much with different individuals4 ,i cannot say ,i am prepared to sit at the feet of ,mulcaster1 or ,dury1 or ,petty4 ,in writing of these men ,i simply point out very early expression of ideas that following generations have developed partially and we are developing still4 ,when we come to the great leaders we see among them men like ,comenius who unite a thorough study of what has already been thought and done with a genius for original thinking1 men like ,locke with splendid intellectual gifts and a power of happy and clear expression1 men like ,rousseau with a talent for shaking themselves free from 8custom0--custom which 8lies upon us with a weight1 ,heavy as frost and deep almost as life10 and besides this 7in his case at least7 endowed with a voice to be heard throughout the world4 ,then again we have men like ,pestalozzi who with a genius for investigating1 devote their lives to the investigation1 and men like ,froebel who seem to penetrate to a region above us or at least beyond us1 and to talk about it in language which at times only partially conveys a meaning4 ,from all these men we have much to learn2 and that we may do this we must come as learners to them4 ,when we thus come we find that the great lessons they teach become clearer and clearer as each takes up wholly or in part what has been taught by his predecessors and adds to it4 ,some of these lessons we may now receive as established truths and seek to conform our practice to them4 ,but in following our leaders we dare not close our eyes4 ,before we can know anything we must see it1 as ,locke says1 with our mind's eye4 ,the great thing is to keep the eye of the mind wide open and always on the lookout for truth4 ,acting on this conviction ,i have not blindly accepted the dicta even of the greatest men but have selected those of their lessons which are taught if not by all at least by most of them1 and which also seem to evoke 8the spontaneous spring of the intelligence towards truth0 7see p4 #cfb1 supra74 #ae4 ,in reading ,froebel however ,i am conscious that this 8spring0 is wanting4 ,before one can accept teaching one must at least understand it1 and this preliminary is not always possible when we would learn from ,froebel4 ,at times he goes entirely out of sight1 and whether the words we hear are the expression of deep truth or have absolutely no meaning at all1 ,i for my part am at times totally unable to determine4 ,but where ,i can understand him he seems to me singularly wise2 and working in the same lines as ,pestalozzi he in some respects advances far beyond his great predecessor4 #af4 ,both these men were devotees of science2 but instead of finding in science anything antagonistic to religion they looked upon science as the expression of the mind of ,god4 ,their belief was just that which ,sir ,thomas ,browne had uttered more than #bjj years before in the ,religio ,medici3 8,though we christen effects by their most sensible and nearest causes yet is ,god the true and infallible cause of all1 whose concourse i4e41 concurrence1 co-operation though it be general1 yet doth it subdivide itself into the particular actions of everything1 and is that spirit by which each singular essence not only subsists but performs its operation40#age ,with this belief ,froebel sought to trace everything back to the central ,unity1 to ,god4 ,the author of the ,de ,imitatione ,christi has said3 8,the man to whom all things are one1 who refers all things to one and sees all things in one1 he can stand firm and be at peace in ,god4 ,cui omnia unum sunt1 et qui omnia ad unum trahit1 et omnia in uno videt1 potest stabilis esse et in ,deo pacificus permanere0 7,de ,im4 ,xti4 lib4 i2 cap4 #c1 #b74 ,so thought ,froebel1 and his great longing was to refer all things to one and see all things in one4 ,however little we may share this longing we must admit that it is a natural outcome from the ,christian religion4 ,if there is ,one in ,whom all 8live and move and have their being10 everything should be referred to ,him4 ,as ,froebel says1 8,in ,allem wirkt und schafft ,ein ,leben1 ,weil das ,leben ,all' ein einz'ger ,gott gegeben4 7,in everything there works and stirs one life1 because to all ,one ,god has given life470 ,so long then as we remain ,christians we must agree with ,froebel that all true education is founded on ,religion4 ,perhaps in the end we may adopt his high ideal and say with him1 8,education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself1 to peace with nature1 and to unity with ,god2 hence1 it should lift him to a knowledge of himself and of mankind1 to a knowledge of ,god and of ,nature1 and to the pure and holy life to which such knowledge leads40 7,e4 of ,m41 ,hailmann's t41 #e47 8,the object of education is the realization of a faithful1 pure1 inviolate1 and hence holy life0 7,ib4 #d74 #ag4 ,this is indeed a high ideal3 and we naturally ask1 ,if we would work towards it what road would ,froebel point out to us8 ,this brings us to his theory of development or1 as it has been called since ,darwin1 evolution4 ,the idea of organic growth was first definitely applied to the young by ,pestalozzi1 but it was more clearly and consistently applied by ,froebel4 ,it has gone forth conquering and to conquer2 and though far indeed from being accepted by the teaching profession of this age1 it is likely to have a vast influence on the practice of those who will come after them4 ,i therefore give the following statement of it1 which seems to me excellent3-- 8,the first thing to note in the idea of development is that it indicates1 not an increase in bulk or quantity 7though it may include this71 but an increase in complexity of structure1 an improvement in power1 skill1 and variety in the performance of natural functions4 ,we say that a thing is fully developed when its internal organisation is perfect in every detail1 and when it can perform all its natural actions or functions perfectly4 ,if we apply this distinction to mind1 an increase in bulk will be represented by an increase in the amount of material retained in the mind1 in the memory2 development will be a perfecting of the structure of the mind itself1 an increase of power and skill and variety in dealing with knowledge1 and in putting knowledge to all its natural uses4 ,the next thing to consider is how this development is produced4 ,how can we aid in promoting this change from germ to complete organism1 from partially developed thing to more highly developed thing8 ,the answer comes from every part of creation with ever-increasing clearness and emphasis--development is produced by exercise of function1 use of faculty4 ,neglect or disuse of any part of an organism leads to the dwindling1 and sometimes even to the disappearance1 of that part4 ,and this applies not only to individuals1 but stretches also from parent to child1 from generation to generation1 constituting then what we call heredity1 or what ,froebel calls the connectedness of humanity4 ,slowly through successive generations a faculty or organ may dwindle and decay1 or may be brought to greater and greater perfection4 ,as ,froebel puts it1 humanity past1 present1 and future is one continuous whole4 ,the amount of development1 then1 possible in any particular case plainly depends partly on the original outfit1 and partly 7and as a rule in a greater measure7 on the opportunities there have been for exercise1 and the use made of those opportunities4 ,if we wish to develop the hand1 we must exercise the hand4 ,if we wish to develop the body1 we must exercise the body4 ,if we wish to develop the mind1 we must exercise the mind4 ,if we wish to develop the whole human being1 we must exercise the whole human being4 ,but will any exercise suffice8 ,again the answer is clear4 ,only that exercise which is always in harmony with the nature of the thing1 and which is always proportioned to the strength of the thing1 produces true development4 ,all other exercise is partially or wholly hurtful4 ,and another condition1 evident in every case1 becomes still more evident when we apply these laws to the mind4 ,to produce development most truly and effectively1 the exercise must arise from and be sustained by the thing's own activity--its own natural powers1 and all of them 7as far as these are in any sense connected with the activity proposed7 should be awakened and become naturally active4 ,if1 for instance1 we desire to further the development of a plant1 what we have to do is to induce the plant 7and the whole of it7 to become active in its own natural way1 and to help it to sustain that activity4 ,we may abridge the time2 we may modify the result2 but we must act through and by the plant's own activity4 ,this activity of a thing's own self we call self-activity 7,e4 of ,m41 #i74 ,we generally consider the mind in the light of its three activities of knowing1 feeling1 and willing4 ,the exercise which aims at producing mental development must be in harmony with the nature of knowing1 feeling1 and willing1 and continually in proportion to their strength4 ,and1 further1 it is found that the more the activity is that of the whole mind1 the more it is the mind's own activity--self-produced1 and self-maintained1 and self-directed--the better is the result4 ,in other words1 knowing1 feeling1 and willing must all take their rightful share in the exercise2 and1 in particular1 feeling and willing--the mind's powers of prompting and nourishing1 of maintaining and directing its own activities--must never be neglected0 7,h4 ,c4 ,bowen on ,ed4 of ,m474 #ah4 8,a divine message or eternal regulation of the ,universe there verily is1 in regard to every conceivable procedure and affair of man2 faithfully following this1 said procedure or affair will prosper 444 not following this 444 destruction and wreck are certain for every affair40 ,these words of ,carlyle's express ,froebel's thought about education4 ,before attempting to educate we must do all we can to ascertain the divine message and must then direct our proceedings by it4 ,the divine message must be learnt according to ,froebel by studying the nature of the organism we have to assist in developing4 ,each human being must 8develop from within1 self-active and free1 in accordance with the eternal law4 ,this is the problem and the aim of all education in instruction and training2 there can be and should be no other0 7,ed4 of ,m41 #ac74 ,for 8all has come forth from the ,divine1 from ,god1 and is through ,god alone conditioned4 ,to this it is that all things owe their existence--to the ,divine working in them4 ,the ,divine element that works in each thing is the true idea 7das ,wesen7 of the thing40 ,therefore 8the destiny and calling of all things is to develop their true idea1 and in so doing to reveal ,god in outward and through passing forms40 #ai4 ,what we must think of then is the 8true idea0 which each child should develop4 ,how is this idea to be ascertained8 ,in other words1 how are we to learn the ,divine ,message about the bringing up of children8 ,this ,message is given us through the works of ,god4 8,in the creation1 in nature and the order of the material world1 and in the progress of mankind1 ,god has given us the true type 7,urbild7 of education40 #bj4 ,so ,froebel would have all educators lay to heart the great principle of the ,baconian philosophy3 ,we command ,nature only by obeying her4 ,they are to be very cautious how they interfere1 and the education they give is to be 8passive1 following40 ,even in teaching they must bear in mind1 that 8the purpose of teaching is to bring ever more out of man rather than to put more and more into him40 7,ed4 of ,m41 #bgi47 ,froebel in fact taught the ,pestalozzian doctrine that the function of the educator was that of 8benevolent superintendence40#agf #ba4 ,but if ,froebel would thus limit the action of the educator he would greatly extend the action of those educated2 and here we see the great principle with which the name of ,froebel is likely to be permanently associated4 8,the starting-point of all that appears1 of all that exists1 and therefore of all intellectual conception1 is act1 action4 ,from the act1 from action1 must therefore start true human education1 the developing education of the man2 in action1 in acting1 it must be rooted and must spring up4444 ,living1 acting1 conceiving1--these must form a triple chord within every child of man1 though the sound now of this string1 now of that1 may preponderate1 and then again of two together40 #bb4 ,many thinkers before ,froebel had seen the transcendent importance of action2 but ,froebel not only based everything upon it1 but he based it upon ,god4 8,god creates and works productively in uninterrupted continuity4 ,each thought of ,god is a work1 a deed0 7,ed4 of ,m41 #bc74 ,as ,jesus has said3 8,my ,father worketh hitherto and ,i work0 7,st4 ,john v1 #ag74 ,from this it follows that1 since ,god created man in his own image1 8man should create and bring forth like ,god0 7,ed4 of ,m41 ib474 8,he who will early learn to recognise the ,creator must early exercise his own power of action with the consciousness that he is bringing about what is good2 for the doing good is the link between the creature and the ,creator1 and the conscious doing of it the conscious connexion1 the true living union of the man with ,god1 of the individual man as of the human race1 and is therefore at once the starting point and the eternal aim of all education40 ,elsewhere he says3 8,we become truly ,god-like in diligence and industry1 in working and doing1 which are accompanied by the clear perception or even by the vaguest feeling that thereby we represent the inner in the outer2 that we give body to spirit1 and form to thought2 that we render visible the invisible2 that we impart an outward1 finite1 transient being to life in the spirit4 ,through this ,god-likeness we rise more and more to a true knowledge of ,god1 to insight into ,his ,spirit2 and thus1 inwardly and outwardly1 ,god comes ever nearer to us4 ,therefore ,jesus says of the poor1 #8,theirs is the kingdom of heaven1' if they could but see and know it and practice it in diligence and industry1 in productive and creative work4 ,of children too is the kingdom of heaven2 for unchecked by the presumption and conceit of adults they yield themselves in child-like trust and cheerfulness to their formative and creative instinct0 7,ed4 of ,m41 #bc4 ,p4 #ca74 #bc4 ,this 8formative and creative instinct0 which as we must suppose has existed in all children in all nations and in all ages of the world1 ,froebel was the first to take duly into account for education4 ,pestalozzi saw the importance of getting children to think1 and to think about their material surroundings4 ,these the child can observe and search into2 and in doing this he may discover what is not at first obvious to sight or touch and may even ascertain relations between the several parts of the same thing or connexions between different things compared together4 ,all these discoveries may be made by the child's self-activity1 but only on one condition1 viz43 that the child is interested4 ,but in the search interest soon flags and then observation comes to an end4 ,besides1 even while it lasts in full vigour the activity is mental only2 it is concerned with perceiving1 taking in2 and for development something more is needed2 the organism must not only take in1 it must also give out4 ,and so we find in children a restless eagerness to touch1 pull about1 and change the condition of things around them4 ,when this activity of theirs1 instead of being checked is properly directed1 the children are delighted in recognising desirable results which they themselves have brought about2 especially those which give expression to what is their own thought4 ,in this way the child 8renders the inner outer20 and in thus satisfying his creative instinct he is led to exercise some faculties both of mind and body4 #bd4 ,the prominence which ,froebel gave to action1 his doctrine that man is primarily a doer and even a creator1 and that he learns only through 8self-activity10 may produce great changes in educational methods generally1 and not simply in the treatment of children too young for schooling4 ,but it was to the first stage of life that ,froebel paid the greatest attention1 and it is over this stage that his influence is gradually extending4 ,froebel held that each age has a completeness of its own 78,first the blade1 then the ear1 then the full corn in the ear071 and that the perfection of the later stage can be attained only through the perfection of the earlier4 ,if the infant is what he should be as an infant1 and the child as a child1 he will become what he should be as a boy1 just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy plant4 ,every stage1 then1 must be cared for and tended in such a way that it may attain its own perfection4 ,but as ,bacon says with reference to education1 the gardener bestows most care on the young plants1 and it was 8the young plants0 for whom ,froebel designed his ,kindergarten4 ,like ,pestalozzi he attached the very highest importance to giving instruction to mothers4 ,but he would not like ,pestalozzi leave young children entirely in the mother's hands4 ,there was something to be done for them which even the ideal mother in the ideal family could not do4 ,pestalozzi held that the child belonged to the family4 ,fichte on the other hand claimed it for society and the state4 ,froebel1 whose mind1 like that of our own theologian ,frederick ,maurice1 delighted in harmonising apparent contradictions1 and who taught that 8all progress lay through opposites to their reconciliation10 maintained that the child belongs both to the family and to society2 and he would therefore have children prepare for society by spending some hours of the day in a common life and in well-organised common employments4 #be4 ,his study of children showed him that one of their most striking characteristics was restlessness4 ,this was1 first1 restlessness of body1 delight in mere motion of the limbs2 and1 secondly1 restlessness of mind1 a constant curiosity about whatever came within the range of the senses1 and especially a desire to examine with the hand every unknown object within reach4#agg ,children's fondness for using their hands was especially noted by ,froebel2 and he found that they delighted1 not merely in examining by touch1 but also in altering whatever they could alter1 and further that they endeavoured to imitate known forms whether by drawing or whenever they could get any kind of plastic material by modelling4 ,besides remarking in them these various activities1 he saw that children were sociable and needed the sympathy of companions4 ,there was1 too1 in them a growing moral nature1 passions1 affections1 and conscience1 which needed to be controlled1 responded to1 cultivated4 ,both the restraints and the opportunities incident to a well-organised community would be beneficial to their moral nature1 and prove a cure for selfishness4 #bf4 ,as all education was to be sought in rightly directed but spontaneous action1 ,froebel considered how the children in this community should be employed4 ,at that age their most natural employment is play1 especially as ,wordsworth has pointed out1 games in which they imitate and 8con the parts0 they themselves will have to fill in after years4 ,froebel agreed with ,montaigne that the games of children were 8their most serious occupations10 and with ,locke that 8all the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good and useful habits1 or else they will introduce ill ones0 7,th4 c4 ,ed41 #acj74 ,so he invented a course of occupations1 a great part of which consisted in social games4 ,many of the names are connected with the 8,gifts10 as he called the series of simple playthings provided for the children1 the first being the ball1 8the type of unity40 ,the 8gifts0 are chiefly not mere playthings but materials which the children work up in their own way1 thus gaining scope for their power of doing and inventing and creating4 ,the artistic faculty was much thought of by ,froebel1 and1 as in the education of the ancients1 the sense of rhythm in sound and motion was cultivated by music and poetry introduced in the games4 ,much care was to be given to the training of the senses1 especially those of sight1 sound1 and touch4 ,intuition 7,anschauung7 was to be recognised as the true basis of knowledge1 and though stories were to be told1 and there was to be much intercourse in the way of social chat1 instruction of the imparting and 8learning-up0 kind was to be excluded4 ,there was to be no 8dead knowledge20 in fact ,froebel like ,pestalozzi endeavoured to do for the child what ,bacon nearly #bjj years before had done for the philosopher4 ,bacon showed the philosopher that the way to study ,nature was not to learn what others had surmised but to go straight to ,nature and use his own senses and his own powers of observation4 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel wished children to learn in this way as well as philosophers4 #bg4 ,schools for very young children existed before ,froebel's ,kindergarten1 but they had been thought of more in the interest of the mothers than of the children4 ,it was for the sake of the mothers that ,oberlin established them in the ,vosges more than a century ago1 his first ,conductrices de l',enfance being peasant women1 ,sara ,banzet and ,louise ,scheppler4 ,in the early part of this century the notion was taken up by ,james ,buchanan and ,samuel ,wilderspin in this country 7see ,james ,leitch's ,practical ,educationists7 and by ,j4 ,m4 ,d4 ,cochin in ,france4 ,but ,froebel's conception differed from that of the 8,infant ,school40 ,his object was purely educational but he would have no 8schooling40 ,he called these communities of children ,kindergarten1 ,gardens of children1 i4e41 enclosures in which young human plants are nurtured4#agh ,the children's employment is to be play4 ,but any occupation in which children delight is play to them2 and ,froebel's series of employments1 while they are in this sense play to the children1 have nevertheless1 as seen from the adult point of view1 a distinctly educational object4 ,this object1 as ,froebel himself describes it1 is 8to give the children employment in agreement with their whole nature1 to strengthen their bodies1 to exercise their senses1 to engage their awakening mind1 and through their senses to bring them acquainted with nature and their fellow-creatures2 it is especially to guide aright the heart and the affections1 and to lead them to the original ground of all life1 to unity with themselves40 #bh4 ,no less than six-and-thirty years ago ,henry ,barnard 7in his ,report to ,governor of ,connecticut1 #ahed7 declared the ,kindergarten to be 8by far the most original1 attractive1 and philosophical form of infant development the world has yet seen40 ,since then it has spread in all civilised lands1 and in many of them there are now public ,kindergartens1 the first ,i believe having been established in #ahgc by ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris in ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,but ,froebel's ideas are not so easily got hold of as his 8,gifts10 and the real extension of his system may be by no means so great as it seems4 8,the ,kindergarten system in the hands of one who understands it10 says ,dr4 ,james ,ward1 8produces admirable results2 but it is apt to be too mechanical and formal4 ,there does not seem room for the individuality of a child1 to which all free play possible should be given in the earliest years40 7,in ,parents' ,review ,ap4 #ahij47 ,and ,mr4 ,courthope ,bowen has well said3 8,kindergarten work without the ,kindergarten idea1 like a body without a soul1 is subject to rapid degeneration and decay40 ,so perhaps it will in the end prove that ,froebel in his ,education of ,man which is 8a book with seven seals0 has left us a more precious legacy than in his 8,gifts0 and ,occupations which are so popular and so easily adopted4 #bi4 ,it has been well said that 8the essence of stupidity is in the demand for final opinions40 ,how our thoughts have widened about education since a man like ,dr4 ,johnson could assert1 8,education is as well known1 and has long been as well known1 as ever it can be60#agi 7,hill's ,boswell's ,j4 ij1 #djg47 ,the astronomers of the ,middle ,ages might as well have asserted that nothing more could ever be known about astronomy4 ,was ,froebel what he believed himself to be1 the ,kepler or the ,newton of the educational system8 ,whoso is wise will not during the nineteenth century lay claim to a 8final opinion0 on this point4 ,but the 8,new ,education0 seems gaining ground4 ,f4 ,w4 ,parker emphatically declares 8the ,kindergarten0 7by which he probably means ,froebel's encouragement of self-activity7 to be 8the most important far-reaching educational reform of the nineteenth century40 ,we sometimes see it questioned whether the 8,new ,education0 has any proper claim to its title2 but the education which ,dr4 ,johnson considered final and which seems to us old aimed at learning2 and the education which aims not at learning1 but at developing through self-activity is so different from this that it may well be called ,new4 ,if we consider the platform of the ,new ,educationists as it stands1 e4g41 in the ,new ,york ,school ,journal1 we shall find that if it is not all new in theory it would be substantially new in practice4 #cj4 ,let us look at a brief statement of what the 8,new ,education0 requires3-- #a4 ,each study must be valued in proportion as it develops power2 and power is developed by self-activity4 #b4 ,the memory must be employed in strict subservience to the higher faculties of the mind4 #c4 ,whatever instruction is given1 it must be adapted to the actual state of the pupil1 and not ruled by the wants of the future boy or man4 #d4 ,more time must be given to the study of nature and to modern language and literature2 less to the ancient languages4 #e4 ,the body must be educated as well as the mind4 #f4 ,rich and poor alike must be taught to use their eyes and hands4 #g4 ,the higher education of women must be cared for no less than that of men4 #h4 ,teachers1 no less than doctors1 must go through a course of professional training4 ,to these there must in time be added another3 #i4 ,all methods shall have a scientific foundation1 i4e41 they shall be based on the laws of the mind1 or shall have been tested by those laws4 #ca4 ,when this program is adopted1 even as the object of our efforts1 we shall1 indeed1 have a ,new ,education4 ,at present the encouragement of self-activity is thought of1 if at all1 only as a 8counsel of perfection40 ,our school work is chiefly mechanical and will long remain so4 8,from the primary school to the college productive creative doing is almost wholly excluded4 ,knowledge in its barrenest form is communicated1 and tested in the barrenest1 wordiest way possible4 ,never is the learner taught or permitted to apply his knowledge to even second-hand life-purpose4444 ,so inveterate is the habit of the school that the ,kindergarten itself1 although invented by the deep-feeling and far-seeing ,froebel for the very purpose of correcting this fault1 has in most cases fallen a victim to its influence40 ,so says ,w4 ,h4 ,hailmann 7,kindergarten1 ,may1 #ahhh7 and those who best know what usually goes on in the school-room are the least likely to differ from him4 #cb4 ,during the last thirty years ,i have spent the greatest part of my working hours in a variety of school-rooms2 and if my school experience has shown me that our advance is slow1 my study of the ,reformers convinces me that it is sure4 8,ring out the old1 ring in the new60 ,it has been well said that to study science is to study the thoughts of ,god2 and thus it is that all true educational ,reformers declare the thoughts of ,god to us4 8,a divine message1 of eternal regulation of the ,universe1 there verily is in regard to every conceivable procedure and affair of man20 and it behoves us to ascertain what that message is in regard to the immensely important procedure and affair of bringing up children4 ,after innumerable mistakes we seem by degrees to be getting some notion of it2 and such insight as we have we owe to those who have contributed to the science of education4 ,among these there are probably no greater names than the names of ,pestalozzi and ,froebel4 ,froebel's ,education of ,man1 trans4 by ,w4 ,n4 ,hailmann1 is a vol4 of ,appleton's ,series1 ed4 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,harris4 ,the ,autobiography trans41 by ,michaelis and ,moore1 is published by ,sonnenschein4 ,the ,mutter-u-,k4-lieder have been trans4 by ,miss ,lord 7,london1 ,rice74 ,reminiscences of ,froebel by the ,baroness ,marenholtz-,blow1 is trans4 by ,mr4 ,horace ,mann4 ,the ,child and ,child ,nature is trans4 from the ,baroness by ,miss ,a4 ,m4 ,christie4 ,the ,froebel lit4 is now immense4 ,i will simply mention some of those who have expounded ,froebel in ,english3 ,miss ,shirreff1 ,miss ,e4 ,a4 ,manning1 ,miss ,lyschinska1 ,miss ,heerwart1 ,mdme4 ,de ,portugall1 ,miss ,peabody1 ,h4 ,g ,bowen1 ,f4 ,w4 ,parker1 ,w4 ,n4 ,hailmann1 ,joseph ,payne1 ,w4 ,t4 ,harris1 are the names that first suggest themselves4 ,henry ,barnard's ,kindergarten and ,child ,culture is a valuable collection of papers4 ,,xviii4 ,,jacotot1 ,a ,,methodizer4 #aggj-ahdj4 #a4 ,we are now by degrees becoming convinced that teachers1 like everyone else who undertakes skilled labour1 should be trained before they seek an engagement4 ,this has led to a great increase in the number of ,normal ,schools4 ,in some of these schools it has already been discovered that while the study of principles requires much time and the application of much intellectual force1 the study of methods is a far simpler matter and can be knocked off in a short time and with no intellectual force at all4 ,methods are special ways of doing things1 and when it has been settled what is to be done and why1 a knowledge of the methods available adds greatly to a teacher's power2 but the what and the why demand our attention before the how1 and the study of methods disconnected from principles leads straight to the prison-house of all the teachers' higher faculties--routine4 #b4 ,i have called ,jacotot a methodizer because he invented a special method and wished everything to be taught by it4 ,but in advocating this method he appeals to principles2 and his principles are so important that at least one man great in educational science1 ,joseph ,payne1 always spoke of him as his master4 #c4 ,in the following summary of ,jacotot's system ,i am largely indebted to ,joseph ,payne's ,lectures1 which he published in the ,educational ,times in #ahfg1 and which ,i believe ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,payne has lately reprinted in a volume of his father's collected papers4 #d4 ,jacotot was born at ,dijon1 of humble parentage1 in #aggj4 ,even as a boy he showed his preference for 8self-teaching40 ,we are told that he rejoiced greatly in the acquisition of all kinds of knowledge that could be gained by his own efforts1 while he steadily resisted what was imposed on him by authority4 ,he was1 however1 early distinguished by his acquirements1 and at the age of twenty-five was appointed sub-director of the ,polytechnic ,school4 ,some years afterwards he became ,professor of 8the ,method of ,sciences0 at ,dijon1 and it was here that his method of instruction first attracted attention4 8,instead of pouring forth a flood of information on the subject under attention from his own ample stores--explaining everything1 and thus too frequently superseding in a great degree the pupil's own investigation of it--,jacotot1 after a simple statement of the subject1 with its leading divisions1 boldly started it as a quarry for the class to hunt down1 and invited every member of it to take part in the chase40 ,all were free to ask questions1 to raise objections1 to suggest answers4 ,the ,professor himself did little more than by leading questions put them on the right scent4 ,he was afterwards ,professor of ,ancient and ,oriental ,languages1 of ,mathematics1 and of ,roman ,law2 and he pursued the same method1 we are told1 with uniform success4 ,being compelled to leave ,france as an enemy of the ,bourbons1 he was appointed1 in #ahah1 when he was forty-eight years old1 to the ,professorship of the ,french ,language and ,literature at the ,university of ,louvain4 ,the celebrated teacher was received with enthusiasm1 but he soon met with an unexpected difficulty4 ,many members of his large class knew no language but the ,flemish and ,dutch1 and of these he himself was totally ignorant4 ,he was1 therefore1 forced to consider how to teach without talking to his pupils4 ,the plan he adopted was as follows3--,he gave the young ,flemings copies of ,fnelon's 8,tlmaque10 with the ,french on one side1 and a ,dutch translation on the other4 ,this they had to study for themselves1 comparing the two languages1 and learning the ,french by heart4 ,they were to go over the same ground again and again1 and as soon as possible they were to give in ,french1 however bad1 the substance of those parts which they had not yet committed to memory4 ,this method was found to succeed marvellously4 ,jacotot attributed its success to the fact that the students had learnt entirely by the efforts of their own minds1 and that1 though working under his superintendence1 they had been1 in fact1 their own teachers4 ,hence he proceeded to generalise1 and by degrees arrived at a series of astounding paradoxes4 ,these paradoxes at first did their work well1 and made noise enough in the world2 but ,jacotot seems to me like a captain who in his eagerness to astonish his opponents takes on board guns much too heavy for his own safety4 #e4 8,all human beings are equally capable of learning10 said ,jacotot4 ,the truth which ,jacotot chose to throw into this more than doubtful form1 may perhaps be expressed by saying that the student's power of learning depends1 in a great measure1 on his will1 and that where there is no will there is no capacity4 #f4 8,everyone can teach2 and1 moreover1 can teach that which he does not know himself40 ,let us ask ourselves what is the meaning of this4 ,first of all1 we have to get rid of some ambiguity in the meaning of the word teach4 ,to teach1 according to ,jacotot's idea1 is to cause to learn4 ,teaching and learning are therefore correlatives3 where there is no learning there can be no teaching4 ,but this meaning of the word only coincides partially with the ordinary meaning4 ,we speak of the lecturer or preacher as teaching when he gives his hearers an opportunity of learning1 and do not say that his teaching ceases the instant they cease to attend4 ,on the other hand1 we do not call a parent a teacher because he sends his boy to school1 and so causes him to learn4 ,the notion of teaching1 then1 in the minds of most of us1 includes giving information1 or showing how an art is to be performed1 and we look upon ,jacotot's assertion as absurd1 because we feel that no one can give information which he does not possess1 or show how anything is to be done if he does not himself know4 ,but let us take the ,jacototian definition of teaching--causing to learn--and then see how far a person can cause another to learn that of which he himself is ignorant4 #g4 ,subjects which are taught may be divided into three great classes3--#a1 ,facts2 #b1 reasonings1 or generalisation from facts1 i4e41 science2 #c1 actions which have to be performed by the learner1 i4e41 arts4 #a4 ,we learn some facts by 8intuition10 i4e41 by direct experience4 ,it may be as well to make the number of them as large as possible4 ,no doubt there are no facts which are known so perfectly as these4 ,for instance1 a boy who has tried to smoke knows the fact that tobacco is apt to produce nausea much better than another who has picked up the information second-hand4 ,an intelligent master may suggest experiments1 even in matters about which he himself is ignorant1 and thus1 in ,jacotot's sense1 he teaches things which he does not know4 ,but some facts cannot be learnt in this way1 and then a ,newton is helpless either to find them out for himself1 or to teach them to others without knowing them4 ,if the teacher does not know in what county ,tavistock is1 he can only learn from those who do1 and the pupils will be no cleverer than their master4 ,here1 then1 ,i consider that ,jacotot's pretensions utterly break down4 8,no10 the answer is2 8the teacher may give his pupil an atlas1 and direct the boy to find out for himself3 thus the master will teach what he does not know40 ,but1 in this case1 he is a teacher only so far as he knows4 ,for what he does not know1 he hands over the pupil to the maker of the map1 who communicates with him1 not orally1 but by ink and paper4 ,the master's ignorance is simply an obstacle to the boy's learning2 for the boy would learn sooner the position of ,tavistock if it were shown him on the map4 8,that's the very point10 says the disciple of ,jacotot4 8,if the boy gets the knowledge without any trouble1 he is likely to forget it again directly4 #8,lightly come1 lightly go4' ,moreover1 his faculty of observation will not have been exercised40 ,it is indeed well not to allow the knowledge even of facts to come too easily2 though the difficulties which arise from the master's ignorance will not be found the most advantageous4 ,still there is obviously a limit4 ,if we gave boys their lessons in cipher1 and offered a prize to the first decipherer1 one would probably be found at last1 and meantime all the boys' powers of observation1 c41 would have been cultivated by comparing like signs in different positions1 and guessing at their meaning2 but the boys' time might have been better employed4 ,jacotot's plan of teaching a language which the master did not know1 was to put a book with1 say1 8,arma virumque cano10 c41 on one side1 and 8,i sing arms and the man1 c40 on the other1 and to require the pupil to puzzle over it till he found out which word answered to which4 ,in this case the teacher was the translator2 and though from the roundabout way in which the knowledge was communicated the pupil derived some benefit1 the benefit was hardly sufficient to make up for the expenditure of time involved4 ,jacotot1 then1 did not teach facts of which he was ignorant1 except in the sense in which the parent who sends his boy to school may be said to teach him4 ,all ,jacotot did was to direct the pupil to learn1 sometimes in a very awkward fashion1 from somebody else4#ahj #h4 #b4 ,when we come to science1 we find all the best authorities agree that the pupil should be led to principles if possible1 and not have the principles brought to him4 ,men like ,tyndall1 ,huxley1 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,j4 ,m4 ,wilson have spoken eloquently on this subject1 and shown how valuable scientific teaching is1 when thus conducted1 in drawing out the faculties of the mind4 ,but although a schoolboy may be led to great scientific discoveries by anyone who knows the road1 he will have no more chance of making them with an ignorant teacher than he would have had in the days of the ,ptolemies4 ,here again1 then1 ,i cannot understand how the teacher can teach what he does not know4 ,he may1 indeed1 join his pupil in investigating principles1 but he must either keep with the pupil or go in advance of him4 ,in the first case he is only a fellow-pupil2 in the second1 he teaches only that which he knows4 #i4 ,finally1 we come to arts1 and we are told that ,jacotot taught drawing and music1 without being either a draughtsman or a musician4 ,in art everything depends on rightly directed practice4 ,the most consummate artist cannot communicate his skill1 and1 except for inspiration may be inferior as a teacher to one whose attention is more concentrated on the mechanism of the art4 ,perhaps it is not even necessary that the teacher should be able to do the exercises himself1 if only he knows how they should be done2 but he seldom gets credit for this knowledge1 unless he can show that he knows how the thing should be done1 by doing it4 ,lessing tells us that ,raphael would have been a great painter even if he had been born without hands4 ,he would not1 however1 have succeeded in getting mankind to believe it4 ,i grant1 then1 that the teacher of art need not be a first-rate artist1 and1 in some very exceptional cases1 need not be an artist at all2 but1 if he cannot perform the exercises he gives his pupil1 he must at least know how they should be done4 ,but ,jacotot claims perfect ignorance4 ,we are told that he 8taught0 drawing by setting objects before his pupils1 and making them imitate them on paper as best they could4 ,of course the art originated in this way1 and a person with great perseverance1 and 7,i must say1 in spite of ,jacotot7 with more than average ability1 would make considerable progress with no proper instruction2 but he would lose much by the ignorance of the person calling himself his teacher4 ,an awkward habit of holding the pencil will make skill doubly difficult to acquire1 and thus half his time might be wasted4 ,then1 again1 he would hardly have a better eye than the early painters1 so the drawing of his landscape would not be less faulty than theirs4 ,to consider music ,i am told that a person who is ignorant of music can teach1 say1 the piano or the violin4 ,this seems to go beyond the region of paradox into that of utter nonsense4 ,talent often surmounts all kinds of difficulties2 but in the case of self-taught1 and ill-taught musicians1 it is often painful to see what time and talent have been wasted for want of proper instruction4 ,i have thus carefully examined ,jacotot's pretensions to teach what he did not know1 because ,i am anxious that what seems to me the rubbish should be cleared away from his principles1 and should no longer conceal those parts of his system which are worthy of general attention4 #aj4 ,at the root of ,jacotot's paradox lay a truth of very great importance4 ,the highest and best teaching is not that which makes the pupils passive recipients of other peoples' ideas 7not to speak of the teaching which conveys mere words without any ideas at all71 but that which guides and encourages the pupils in working for themselves and thinking for themselves4 ,the master1 as ,joseph ,payne well says1 can no more think1 or practise1 or see for his pupil1 than he can digest for him1 or walk for him4 ,the pupil must owe everything to his own exertions1 which it is the function of the master to encourage and direct4 ,perhaps this may seem very obvious truth1 but obvious or not it has been very generally neglected4 ,the old system of lecturing which found favour with the ,jesuits1 has indeed now passed away1 and boys are left to acquire facts from school-books instead of from the master4 ,but this change is merely accidental4 ,the essence of the teaching still remains4 ,even where the master does not confine himself to hearing what the scholars have learnt by heart1 he seldom does more than offer explanations4 ,he measures the teaching rather by the amount which has been put before the scholars--by what he has done for them and shown them--than by what they have learned4 ,but this is not teaching of the highest type4 ,when the votary of ,dulness in the 8,dunciad0 is rendering an account of his services1 he arrives at this climax1 8,for thee explain a thing till all men doubt it1 ,and write about it1 ,goddess1 and about it40 ,and in the same spirit ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,wilson stigmatises as synonymous 8the most stupid and most didactic teaching40 #aa4 ,all the eminent authorities on education have a very different theory of the teachers function4 ,according to them the master's attention is not to be fixed on his own mind and his own store of knowledge1 but on his pupil's mind and on its gradual expansion4 ,he must1 in fact1 be not so much a teacher as a trainer4 ,here we have the view which ,jacotot intended to enforce by his paradox2 for we may possibly train faculties which we do not ourselves possess1 just as the sportsman trains his pointer and his hunter to perform feats which are altogether out of the range of his own capacities4 ,now1 8training is the cultivation bestowed on any set of faculties with the object of developing them0 7,j4 ,m4 ,wilson71 and to train any faculty1 you must set it to work4 ,hence it follows1 that as boys' minds are not simply their memories1 the master must aim at something more than causing his pupils to remember facts4 ,jacotot has done good service to education by giving prominence to this truth1 and by showing in his method how other faculties may be cultivated besides the memory4 #ab4 8,tout est dans tout0 78,all is in all071 is another of ,jacotot's paradoxes4 ,i do not propose discussing it as the philosophical thesis which takes other forms1 as 8,every man is a microcosm10 c41 but merely to inquire into its meaning as applied to didactics4 ,if you asked an ordinary ,french schoolmaster who ,jacotot was1 he would probably answer1 ,jacotot was a man who thought you could learn everything by getting up ,fnelon's 8,tlmaque0 by heart4 ,by carrying your investigation further1 you would find that this account of him required modification1 that the learning by heart was only part1 and a very small part1 of what ,jacotot demanded from his pupils1 but you would also find that entire mastery of 8,tlmaque0 was the first requisite1 and that he managed to connect everything he taught with that 8model-book40 ,of course1 if 8tout est dans tout10 everything is in 8,tlmaque20 and1 said an objector1 also in the first book of 8,tlmaque0 and in the first word4 ,jacotot went through a variety of subtilties to show that all 8,tlmaque0 is contained in the word ,calypso1 and perhaps he would have been equally successful1 if he had been required to take only the first letter instead of the first word4 ,his maxim indeed becomes by his treatment of it a mere paraphrase of 8,quidlibet ex quolibet40 ,the reader is amused rather than convinced by these discussions1 but he finds them not without fruit4 ,they bring to his mind very forcibly a truth to which he has hitherto probably not paid sufficient attention4 ,he sees that all knowledge is connected together1 or 7what will do equally well for our present purpose7 that there are a thousand links by which we may bring into connexion the different subjects of knowledge4 ,if by means of these links we can attach in our minds the knowledge we acquire to the knowledge we already possess1 we shall learn faster and more intelligently1 and at the same time we shall have a much better chance of retaining our new acquisitions4 ,the memory1 as we all know1 is assisted even by artificial association of ideas1 much more by natural4 ,hence the value of 8tout est dans tout10 or1 to adopt a modification suggested by ,joseph ,payne1 of the connexion of knowledges4 ,suppose we know only one subject1 but know that thoroughly1 our knowledge1 if ,i may express myself algebraically1 cannot be represented by ignorance plus the knowledge of that subject4 ,we have acquired a great deal more than that4 ,when other subjects come before us1 they may prove to be so connected with what we had before1 that we may also seem to know them already4 ,in other words when we know a little thoroughly1 though our actual possession is small1 we have potentially a great deal more4#aha #ac4 ,jacotot's practical application of his 8tout est dans tout0 was as follows3--8,il faut apprendre quelque chose1 et y rapporter tout le reste40 78,the pupil must learn something thoroughly1 and refer everything to that407 ,for language he must take a model book1 and become thoroughly master of it4 ,his knowledge must not be a verbal knowledge only1 but he must enter into the sense and spirit of the writer4 ,here we find that ,jacotot's practical advice coincides with that of many other great authorities1 who do not base it on the same principle4 ,the ,jesuits' maxim was1 that their pupils should always learn something thoroughly1 however little it might be4 ,pestalozzi insisted on the children going over the elements again and again till they were completely master of them4 ,ascham1 ,ratke1 and ,comenius all required a model-book to be read and re-read till words and thoughts were firmly fixed in the pupil's memory4 ,jacotot probably never read ,ascham's 8,schoolmaster40 ,if he had done so he might have appropriated some of ,ascham's words as exactly conveying his own thoughts4 ,ascham1 as we saw1 recommended that a short book should be thoroughly mastered1 each lesson being worked over in different ways a dozen times at the least1 and in this way 8your scholar shall be brought not only to like eloquence1 but also to all true understanding and right judgment1 both for writing and speaking40 ,in this the ,englishman and the ,frenchman are in perfect accord4 #ad4 ,but if ,jacotot agrees so far with earlier authorities1 there is one point in which he seems to differ from them4 ,he makes great demands on the memory1 and requires six books of 8,tlmaque0 to be learned by heart4 ,on the other hand1 ,montaigne1 ,locke1 ,rousseau1 ,h4 ,spencer1 and other great writers would be opposed to this4 ,ratke insisted that nothing should be learnt by heart4 ,protests against 8loading the memory10 8saying without book10 c41 are everywhere to be met with1 and nowhere more vigorously expressed than in ,ascham4 ,he says of the grammar-school boys of his time1 that 8their whole knowledge1 by learning without the book1 was tied only to their tongue and lips1 and never ascended up to the brain and head1 and therefore was soon spit out of the mouth again4 ,they learnt without book everything1 they understood within the book little or nothing40 ,but these protests were really directed at verbal knowledge1 when it is made to take the place of knowledge of the thing signified4 ,we are always too ready to suppose that words are connected with ideas1 though both old and young are constantly exposing themselves to the sarcasm of ,mephistopheles3-- 444 eben wo ,begriffe fehlen1 ,da stellt ein ,wort zur rechten ,zeit sich ein4 444 just where meaning fails1 a word ,comes patly in to serve your turn4 ,against this danger ,jacotot took special precautions4 ,the pupil was to undergo an examination in everything connected with the lesson learnt1 and the master's share in the work was to convince himself1 from the answers he received1 that the pupil thoroughly grasped the meaning1 as well as remembered the words1 of the author4 ,still the six books of 8,tlmaque10 which ,jacotot gave to be learnt by heart1 was a very large dose1 and he would have been more faithful to his own principles1 says ,joseph ,payne1 if he had given the first book only4 #ae4 ,there are three ways in which the model-book may be studied4 #ast1 it may be read through rapidly again and again1 which was ,ratke's plan and ,hamilton's2 or1 #bnd1 each lesson may be thoroughly mastered1 read in various ways a dozen times at the least1 which was ,ascham's plan2 or1 #crd1 the pupil may begin always at the beginning1 and advance a little further each time1 which was ,jacotot's plan4#ahb ,this last1 could not1 of course1 be carried very far ,the repetitions1 when the pupil had got on some way in the book1 could not always be from the beginning2 still every part was to be repeated so frequently that nothing could be forgotten4 ,jacotot did not wish his pupils to learn simply in order to forget1 but to learn in order to remember for ever4 8,we are learned10 said he1 8not so far as we have learned1 but only so far as we remember40 ,he seems1 indeed1 almost to ignore the fact that the act of learning serves other purposes than that of making learned1 and to assert that to forget is the same as never to have learned1 which is a palpable error4 ,we necessarily forget much that passes through our minds1 and yet its effect remains4 ,all grown people have arrived at some opinions1 convictions1 knowledge1 but they cannot call to mind every spot they trod on in the road thither4 ,when we have read a great history1 say1 or travelled through a fresh country1 we have gained more than the number of facts we happen to remember4 ,the mind seems to have formed an acquaintance with that history or that country1 which is something different from the mere acquisition of facts4 ,moreover1 our interests1 as well as our ideas1 may long survive the memory of the facts which originally started them4 ,we are told that one of the old judges1 when a barrister objected to some dictum of his1 put him down by the assertion1 8,sir1 ,i have forgotten more law than ever you read40 ,if he wished to make the amount forgotten a measure of the amount remembered1 this was certainly fallacious1 as the ratio between the two is not a constant quantity4 ,but he may have meant that this extensive reading had left its result1 and that he could see things from more points of view than the less travelled legal vision of his opponent4 ,that power acquired by learning may also last longer than the knowledge of the thing learned is sufficiently obvious4 ,so the advantages derived from having learnt a thing are not entirely lost when the thing itself is forgotten4#ahc #af4 ,but the reflection by no means justifies the disgraceful waste of memory which goes on in most school-rooms4 ,much is learnt which1 for want of the necessary repetition1 will soon be lost again1 besides much that would be valueless if remembered4 ,the thing to aim at is not giving 8useful knowledge10 but making the memory a store house of such facts as are good material for the other powers of the mind to work with2 and that the facts may serve this purpose they must be such as the mind can thoroughly grasp and handle1 and such as can be connected together4 ,to instruct is instruere1 8to put together in order1 to build20 it is not cramming the memory with facts without connexion1 and1 as ,herbert ,spencer calls them1 unorganisable4 ,and yet a great deal of our children's memory is wasted in storing facts of this kind1 which can never form part of any organism4 ,we do not teach them geography 7earth knowledge1 as the ,germans call it71 but the names of places4 ,our 8history0 is a similar1 though disconnected study4 ,we leave our children ignorant of the land1 but insist on their getting up the 8landmarks40 ,and1 perhaps1 from a latent perception of the uselessness of such work1 neither teachers nor scholars ever think of these things as learnt to be remembered4 ,they are indeed got up1 as ,schuppius says of the ,logic of his day1 in spem futur oblivionis4 ,latin grammar is gone through again and again1 and a boy feels that the sooner he gets it into his head1 the better it will be for him2 but who expects that the lists of geographical and historical names which are learnt one half-year1 will be remembered the next8 ,i have seen it asserted1 that when a boy leaves school1 he has already forgotten nine-tenths of what he has been taught1 and ,i dare say that estimate is quite within the mark4 #ag4 ,by adopting the principles of ,jacotot1 we avoid a great deal of this waste4 ,we give some thorough knowledge1 with which fresh knowledge may be connected4 ,and it will then be found that perfect familiarity with a subject is something beyond the mere understanding it and being able1 with difficulty1 to reproduce what we have learned4 ,by thus going over the same thing again and again1 we acquire a thorough command over our knowledge2 and the feeling perfectly at home1 even within narrow borders1 gives a consciousness of strength4 ,an old adage tells us that the ,jack-of-all-trades is master of none2 but the master of one trade will have no difficulty in extending his insight and capacity beyond it4 ,to use an illustration1 which is of course an illustration merely1 we should kindle knowledge in children1 like fire in a grate4 ,a stupid servant1 with a small quantity of wood1 spreads it over the whole grate4 ,it blazes away1 goes out1 and is simply wasted4 ,another1 who is wiser or more experienced1 kindles the whole of the wood at one spot1 and the fire1 thus concentrated1 extends in all directions4 ,similarly we should concentrate the beginnings of knowledge1 and although we could not expect to make much show for a time1 we might be sure that after a bit the fire would extend1 almost of its own accord4#ahd #ah4 ,from ,joseph ,payne ,i take ,jacotot's directions for carrying out the rule1 8,,ii faut apprendre quelque chose1 et y rapporter tout le reste40 #a4 ,,learn--i4e41 learn so as to know thoroughly1 perfectly1 immovably 7imperturbablement71 as well six months or twelve months hence1 as now--,,something--something which fairly represents the subject to be acquired1 which contains its essential characteristics4 #b4 ,,repeat that 8something0 incessantly 7sans cesse71 i4e41 every day1 or very frequently1 from the beginning1 without any omission1 so that no part may be forgotten4 #c4 ,,reflect upon the matter thus acquired1 so as1 by degrees1 to make it a possession of the mind as well as of the memory1 so that1 being appreciated as a whole1 and appreciated in its minutest parts1 what is as yet unknown1 may be referred to it and interpreted by it4 #d4 ,,verify1 or test1 general remarks1 e4g41 grammatical rules1 c41 made by others1 by comparing them with the facts 7i4e41 the words and phraseology7 which you have learnt yourself4 #ai4 ,in conclusion1 ,i will give some account of the way in which reading1 writing1 and the mother-tongue were taught on the ,jacototian system4 ,the teacher takes a book1 say ,edgeworth's 8,early ,lessons10 points to the first word1 and names it1 8,frank40 ,the child looks at the word and also pronounces it4 ,then the teacher does the same with the first two words1 8,frank and02 then with the three first1 8,frank and ,robert10 c4 ,when a line or so has been thus gone over1 the teacher asks which word is ,robert8 ,what word is that 7pointing to one78 8,find me the same word in this line0 7pointing to another part of the book74 ,when a sentence has been thus acquired1 the words already known are analysed into syllables1 and these syllables the child must pick out elsewhere4 ,finally1 the same thing is done with letters4 ,when the child can read a sentence1 that sentence is put before him written in small-hand1 and the child is required to copy it4 ,when he has copied the first word1 he is led1 by the questions of the teacher1 to see how it differs from the original1 and then he tries again4 ,the pupil must always correct himself1 guided only by questions4 ,this sentence must be worked at till the pupil can write it pretty well from memory4 ,he then tries it in larger characters4 ,by carrying out this plan1 the children's powers of observation and making comparisons are strengthened1 and the arts of reading and writing are said to be very readily acquired4 #bj4 ,for the mother-tongue1 a model book is chosen and thoroughly learned4 ,suppose 8,rasselas0 is selected4 8,the pupil learns by heart a sentence1 or a few sentences1 and to-morrow adds a few more1 still repeating from the beginning4 ,the teacher1 after two or three lessons of learning and repeating1 takes portions--any portion--of the matter1 and submits it to the crucible of the pupil's mind3--,who was ,rasselas8 ,who was his father8 ,what is the father of waters8 ,where does it begin its course8 ,where is ,abyssinia8 ,where is ,egypt8 ,where was ,rasselas placed8 ,what sort of a person was ,rasselas8 ,what is #8credulity'8 ,what are the #8whispers of fancy1' the #8promises of youth1' c41 c480 ,a great variety of written exercises is soon joined with the learning by heart4 ,pieces must be written from memory1 and the spelling1 pointing1 c41 corrected by the pupil himself from the book4 ,the same piece must be written again and again1 till there are no more mistakes to correct4 8,this10 said ,joseph ,payne1 who had himself taught in this way1 8is the best plan for spelling that has been devised40 ,then the pupil may write an analysis1 may define words1 distinguish between synonyms1 explain metaphors1 imitate descriptions1 write imaginary dialogues or correspondence between the characters1 c4 ,besides these1 a great variety of grammatical exercises may be given1 and the force of prefixes and affixes may be found out by the pupils themselves by collection and comparison4 8,the resources even of such a book as 8,rasselas0 will be found all but exhaustless1 while the training which the mind undergoes in the process of thoroughly mastering it1 the acts of analysis1 comparison1 induction1 and deduction1 performed so frequently as to become a sort of second nature1 cannot but serve as an excellent preparation for the subsequent study of ,english literature0 7,payne74 #ba4 ,we see1 from these instances1 how ,jacotot sought to imitate the method by which young children and self-taught men teach themselves4 ,all such proceed from objects to definitions1 from facts to reflections and theories1 from examples to rules1 from particular observations to general principles4 ,they pursue1 in fact1 however unconsciously1 the method of investigation1 the advantages of which are thus set out in a passage from ,burke's treatise on the ,sublime and ,beautiful3--8,i am convinced10 says he1 8that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best2 since1 not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths1 it leads to the stock on which they grew2 it tends to set the reader or learner himself in the track of invention1 and to direct him into those paths in which the author has made his own discoveries40 8,for ,jacotot1 ,i think the claim may1 without presumption1 be maintained that he has1 beyond all other teachers1 succeeded in co-ordinating the method of elementary teaching with the method of investigation0 7,payne74 #bb4 ,the latter part of his life1 which did not end till #ahdj1 ,jacotot spent in his native country--first at ,valenciennes1 and then at ,paris4 ,to the last he laboured indefatigably1 and with a noble disinterestedness1 for what he believed to be the 8intellectual emancipation0 of his fellow-creatures4 ,for a time1 his system made great way in ,france1 but we now hear little of it4 ,jacotot has1 however1 lately found an advocate in ,m4 ,bernard ,perez1 who has written a book about him and also a very good article in ,buisson's ,dictionnaire4 ,,xix4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4#ahe #a4 ,i once heard it said by a teacher of great ability that no one without practical acquaintance with the subject could write anything worth reading on ,education4 ,my own opinion differs very widely from this4 ,i am not1 indeed1 prepared to agree with another authority1 much given to paradox1 that the actual work of education unfits a man for forming enlightened views about it1 but ,i think that the outsider1 coming fresh to the subject1 and unencumbered by tradition and prejudice1 may hit upon truths which the teacher1 whose attention is too much engrossed with practical difficulties1 would fail to perceive without assistance1 and that1 consequently1 the theories of intelligent men1 unconnected with the work of education1 deserve our careful1 and1 if possible1 our impartial consideration4 #b4 ,one of the most important works of this kind which has lately appeared1 is the treatise of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,so eminent a writer has every claim to be listened to with respect1 and in this book he speaks with more than his individual authority4 ,the views he has very vigorously propounded are shared by a number of distinguished scientific men2 and not a few of the unscientific believe that in them is shadowed forth the education of the future4 #c4 ,it is perhaps to be regretted that ,mr4 ,spencer has not kept the tone of one who investigates the truth in a subject of great difficulty1 but lays about him right and left1 after the manner of a spirited controversialist4 ,this1 no doubt1 makes his book much more entertaining reading than such treatises usually are1 but1 on the other hand1 it has the disadvantage of arousing the antagonism of those whom he would most wish to influence4 ,when the man who has no practical acquaintance with education1 lays down the law ex cathedr1 garnished with sarcasms at all that is now going on1 the schoolmaster1 offended by the assumed tone of authority1 sets himself to show where these theories would not work1 instead of examining what basis of truth there is in them1 and how far they should influence his own practice4 ,i shall proceed to examine ,mr4 ,spencer's proposals with all the impartiality ,i am master of4 #d4 ,the great question1 whether the teaching which gives the most valuable knowledge is the same as that which best disciplines the faculties of the mind1 ,mr4 ,spencer dismisses briefly4 8,it would be utterly contrary to the beautiful economy of nature10 he says1 8if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information1 and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic40#ahf ,but it seems to me that different subjects must be used to train the faculties at different stages of development4 ,the processes of science1 which form the staple of education in ,mr4 ,spencer's system cannot be grasped by the intellect of a child4 8,the scientific discoverer does the work1 and when it is done the schoolboy is called in to witness the result1 to learn its chief features by heart1 and to repeat them when called upon1 just as he is called on to name the mothers of the patriarchs1 or to give an account of the ,eastern campaigns of ,alexander the ,great40--7,pall ,mall ,g474 ,this1 however1 affords but scanty training for the mind4 ,we want to draw out the child's interests1 and to direct them to worthy objects4 ,we want not only to teach him1 but to enable and encourage him to teach himself2 and1 if following ,mr4 ,spencer's advice1 we make him get up the species of plants1 8which amount to some #cbj1jjj10 and the varied forms of animal life1 which are 8estimated at some #b1jjj1jjj10 we may1 as ,mr4 ,spencer tells us1 have strengthened his memory as effectually as by teaching him languages2 but the pupil will1 perhaps have no great reason to rejoice over his escape from the horrors of the 8,as in ,prsenti10 and 8,propria qu ,maribus40 ,the consequences will be the same in both cases4 ,we shall disgust the great majority of our scholars with the acquisition of knowledge1 and with the use of the powers of their mind4 ,whether1 therefore1 we adopt or reject ,mr4 ,spencer's conclusion1 that there is one sort of knowledge which is universally the most valuable1 ,i think we must deny that there is one sort of knowledge which is universally and at every stage in education1 the best adapted to develop the intellectual faculties4 ,mr4 ,spencer himself acknowledges this elsewhere4 8,there is10 says he1 8a certain sequence in which the faculties spontaneously develop1 and a certain kind of knowledge1 which each requires during its development40 ,it is for us to ascertain this sequence1 and supply this knowledge4 #e4 ,mr4 ,spencer discusses more fully 8the relative value of knowledges10 and this is a subject which has hitherto not met with the attention it deserves4 ,it is not sufficient for us to prove of any subject taught in our schools that the knowledge or the learning of it is valuable4 ,we must also show that the knowledge or the learning of it is of at least as great value as that of anything else that might be taught in the same time4 8,had we time to master all subjects we need not be particular4 ,to quote the old song-- ,could a man be secure ,that his life would endure1 ,as of old1 for a thousand long years1 ,what things he might know6 ,what deeds he might do6 ,and all without hurry or care6 ,but we that have but span-long lives must ever bear in mind our limited time for acquisition40 #f4 ,to test the value of the learning imparted in education we must look to the end of education4 ,this ,mr4 ,spencer defines as follows3 8,to prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge1 and the only rational mode of judging of an educational course is to judge in what degree it discharges such function40 ,for complete living we must know 8in what way to treat the body2 in what way to treat the mind2 in what way to manage our affairs2 in what way to bring up a family2 in what way to behave as a citizen2 in what way to utilise those sources of happiness which nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others40 ,there are a number of sciences1 says ,mr4 ,spencer1 which throw light on these subjects4 ,it should1 therefore1 be the business of education to impart these sciences4 ,but if there were 7which is far from being the case7 a well-defined and well-established science in each of these departments1 those sciences would not be understandable by children1 nor would any individual have time to master the whole of them1 or even 8a due proportion of each40 ,the utmost that could be attempted would be to give young people some knowledge of the results of such sciences and the rules derived from them4 ,but to this ,mr4 ,spencer would object that it would tend1 like the learning of languages1 8to increase the already undue respect for authority40 #g4 ,to consider ,mr4 ,spencer's divisions in detail1 we come first to knowledge that leads to self-preservation4 8,happily1 that all-important part of education which goes to secure direct self-preservation is1 in part1 already provided for4 ,too momentous to be left to our blundering1 ,nature takes it into her own hands40 ,but ,mr4 ,spencer warns us against such thwartings of ,nature as that by which 8stupid schoolmistresses commonly prevent the girls in their charge from the spontaneous physical activities they would indulge in1 and so render them comparatively incapable of taking care of themselves in circumstances of peril40 #h4 ,indirect self-preservation1 ,mr4 ,spencer believes1 may be much assisted by a knowledge of physiology4 8,diseases are often contracted1 our members are often injured1 by causes which superior knowledge would avoid40 ,i believe these are not the only grounds on which the advocates of physiology urge its claim to be admitted into the curriculum2 but these1 if they can be established1 are no doubt very important4 ,is it true1 however1 that doctors preserve their own life and health or that of their children by their knowledge of physiology8 ,i think the matter is open to dispute4 ,mr4 ,spencer does not4 ,he says very truly that many a man would blush if convicted of ignorance about the pronunciation of ,iphigenia1 or about the labours of ,hercules who1 nevertheless1 would not scruple to acknowledge that he had never heard of the ,eustachian tubes1 and could not tell the normal rate of pulsation4 8,so terribly10 adds ,mr4 ,spencer1 8in our education does the ornamental override the useful60 ,but this is begging the question4 ,at present classics form part of the instruction given to every gentleman1 and physiology does not4 ,this is the simpler form of ,mr4 ,spencer's assertion about the labours of ,hercules and the ,eustachian tubes1 and no one denies it4 ,but we are not so well agreed on the comparative value of these subjects4 ,in his ,address at ,st4 ,andrews1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill showed that he at least was not convinced of the uselessness of classics1 and ,mr4 ,spencer does not tell us how the knowledge of the normal state of pulsation is useful2 how1 to use his own test1 it 8influences action40 ,however1 whether we admit the claims of physiology or not1 we shall probably allow that there are certain physiological facts and rules of health1 the knowledge of which would be of great practical value1 and should therefore be imparted to everyone4 ,here the doctor should come to the schoolmaster's assistance1 and give him a manual from which to teach them4 #i4 ,next in order of importance1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 comes the knowledge which aids indirect self-preservation by facilitating the gaining of a livelihood4 ,here ,mr4 ,spencer thinks it necessary to prove to us that such sciences as mathematics and physics and biology underlie all the practical arts and business of life4 ,no one would think of joining issue with him on this point2 but the question still remains1 what influence should this have on education8 8,teach science10 says ,mr4 ,spencer4 8,a grounding in science is of great importance1 both because it prepares for all this business of life1 and because rational knowledge has an immense superiority over empirical knowledge40 ,should we teach all sciences to everybody8 ,this is clearly impossible4 ,should we1 then1 decide for each child what is to be his particular means of money-getting1 and instruct him in those sciences which will be most useful in that business or profession8 ,in other words1 should we have a separate school for each calling8 ,the only attempt of this kind which has been made is1 ,i believe1 the institution of ,handelschulen 7commercial schools7 in ,germany4 ,in them1 youths of fifteen or sixteen enter for a course of two or three years' instruction which aims exclusively at fitting them for commerce4 ,but1 in this case1 their general education is already finished4 ,with us1 the lad commonly goes to work at the business itself quite as soon as he has the faculties for learning the sciences connected with it4 ,if the school sends him to it with a love of knowledge1 and with a mind well disciplined to acquire knowledge1 this will be of more value to him than any special information4 #aj4 ,as ,mr4 ,spencer is here considering science merely with reference to its importance in earning a livelihood1 it is not beside the question to remark1 that in a great number of instances1 the knowledge of the science which underlies an operation confers no practical ability whatever4 ,no one sees the better for understanding the structure of the eye and the undulatory theory of light4 ,in swimming or rowing1 a senior wrangler has no advantage over a man who is entirely ignorant about the laws of fluid pressure4 ,as far as money-getting is concerned then1 science will not be found to be universally serviceable4 ,mr4 ,spencer gives instances indeed1 where science would prevent very expensive blundering2 but the true inference is1 not that the blunderers should learn science1 but that they should mind their own business1 and take the opinion of scientific men about theirs4 8,here is a mine10 says he1 8in the sinking of which many shareholders ruined themselves1 from not knowing that a certain fossil belonged to the old red sandstone1 below which no coal is found40 ,perhaps they were misled by the little knowledge which ,pope tells us is a dangerous thing4 ,if they had been entirely ignorant1 they would surely have called in a professional geologist1 whose opinion would have been more valuable than their own1 even though geology had taken the place of classics in their schooling4 8,daily are men induced to aid in carrying out inventions which a mere tyro in science could show to be futile40 ,but these are men whose function it would always be to lose money1 not make it1 whatever you might teach them4#ahg ,i have great doubt1 therefore1 whether the learning of sciences will ever be found a ready way of making a fortune4 ,but directly we get beyond the region of pounds1 shillings1 and pence1 ,i agree most cordially with ,mr4 ,spencer that a rational knowledge has an immense superiority over empirical knowledge4 ,and1 as a part of their education1 boys should be taught to distinguish the one from the other1 and to desire rational knowledge4 ,much might be done in this way by teaching1 not all the sciences and nothing else1 but the main principles of some one science1 which would enable the more intelligent boys to understand and appreciate the value of 8a rational explanation of phenomena40 ,i believe this addition to what was before a literary education has already been made in some of our leading schools1 as ,harrow1 ,rugby1 and the ,city of ,london4#ahh #aa4 ,next1 ,mr4 ,spencer would have instruction in the proper way of rearing offspring form a part of his curriculum4 ,there can be no question of the importance of this knowledge1 and all that ,mr4 ,spencer says of the lamentable ignorance of parents is1 unfortunately1 no less undeniable4 ,but could this knowledge be imparted early in life8 ,young people would naturally take but little interest in it4 ,it is by parents1 or at least by those who have some notion of the parental responsibility1 that this knowledge should be sought4 ,the best way in which we can teach the young will be so to bring them up that when they themselves have to rear children the remembrance of their own youth may be a guide and not a beacon to them4 ,but more knowledge than this is necessary1 and ,i differ from ,mr4 ,spencer only as to the proper time for acquiring it4 #ab4 ,next comes the knowledge which fits a man for the discharge of his functions as a citizen1 a subject to which ,dr4 ,arnold attached great importance at the time of the first ,reform ,bill1 and which deserves our attention all the more in consequence of the second and third4 ,but what knowledge are we to give for this purpose8 ,one of the subjects which seem especially suitable is history4 ,but history1 as it is now written1 is1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 useless4 8,it does not illustrate the right principles of political action40 8,the great mass of historical facts are facts from which no conclusions can be drawn--unorganisable facts1 and1 therefore1 facts of no service in establishing principles of conduct1 which is the chief use of facts4 ,read them if you like for amusement1 but do not flatter yourself they are instructive40 ,about the right principles of political action we seem so completely at sea that1 perhaps1 the main thing we can do for the young is to point out to them the responsibilities which will hereafter devolve upon them1 and the danger1 both to the state and the individual1 of just echoing the popular cry without the least reflection1 according to our present usage4 ,but history1 as it is now written by great historians1 may be of some use in training the young both to be citizens and men4 8,reading about the fifteen decisive battles1 or all the battles in history1 would not make a man a more judicious voter at the next election10 says ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,but is this true8 ,the knowledge of what has been done in other times1 even by those whose coronation renders them so distasteful to ,mr4 ,spencer1 is knowledge which influences a man's whole character1 and may1 therefore1 affect particular acts1 even when we are unable to trace the connexion4 ,as it has been often said1 the effect of reading history is1 in some respects1 the same as that of travelling4 ,anyone in ,mr4 ,spencer's vein might ask1 8,if a man has seen the ,alps1 of what use will that be to him in weighing out groceries80 ,directly1 none at all2 but indirectly1 much4 ,the travelled man will not be such a slave to the petty views and customs of his trade as the man who looks on his county town as the centre of the universe4 ,the study of history1 like travelling1 widens the student's mental vision1 frees him to some extent from the bondage of the present1 and prevents his mistaking conventionalities for laws of nature4 ,it brings home to him1 in all its force1 the truth that 8there are also people beyond the mountain0 7,hinter dem ,berge sind auch ,leute71 that there are higher interests in the world than his own business concerns1 and nobler men than himself or the best of his acquaintance4 ,it teaches him what men are capable of1 and thus gives him juster views of his race4 ,and to have all this truth worked into the mind contributes perhaps as largely to 8complete living0 as knowledge of the ,eustachian tubes or of the normal rate of pulsation4#ahi ,i think1 therefore1 that the works of great historians and biographers1 which we already possess1 may be usefully employed in education4 ,it is difficult to estimate the value of history according to ,mr4 ,spencer's idea1 as it has yet to be written2 but ,i venture to predict that if boys1 instead of reading about the history of nations in connection with their leading men1 are required to study only 8the progress of society10 the subject will at once lose all its interest for them2 and1 perhaps1 many of the facts communicated will prove1 after all1 no less unorganisable than the fifteen decisive battles4 #ac4 ,lastly1 we come to that 8remaining division of human life which includes the relaxations and amusements filling leisure hours40 ,mr4 ,spencer assures us that he will yield to none in the value he attaches to sthetic culture and its pleasures2 but if he does not value the fine arts less1 he values science more2 and painting1 music1 and poetry would receive as little encouragement under his dictatorship as in the days of the ,commonwealth4 8,as the fine arts and belles-lettres occupy the leisure part of life1 so should they occupy the leisure part of education40 ,this language is rather obscure2 but the only meaning ,i can attach to it is1 that music1 drawing1 poetry1 c41 may be taught if time can be found when all other knowledges are provided for4 ,this reminds me of the author whose works are so valuable that they will be studied when ,shakspeare is forgotten--but not before4 ,any one of the sciences which ,mr4 ,spencer considers so necessary might employ a lifetime4 ,where then shall we look for the leisure part of education when education includes them all8#aij #ad4 ,but1 if adopting ,mr4 ,spencer's own measure1 we estimate the value of knowledge by its influence on action1 we shall probably rank 8accomplishments0 much higher than they have hitherto been placed in the schemes of educationists4 ,knowledge and skill connected with the business of life1 are of necessity acquired in the discharge of business4 ,but the knowledge and skill which make our leisure valuable to ourselves and a source of pleasure to others1 can seldom be gained after the work of life has begun4 ,and yet every day a man may benefit by possessing such an ability1 or may suffer from the want of it4 ,one whose eyesight has been trained by drawing and painting finds objects of interest all around him1 to which other people are blind4 ,a primrose by a river's brim is1 perhaps1 more to him who has a feeling for its form and colour than even to the scientific student1 who can tell all about its classification and component parts4 ,a knowledge of music is often of the greatest practical service1 as by virtue of it1 its possessor is valuable to his associates1 to say nothing of his having a constant source of pleasure and a means of recreation which is most precious as a relief from the cares of life4 ,of far greater importance is the knowledge of our best poetry4 ,one of the first reforms in our school course would have been1 ,i should have thought1 to give this knowledge a much more prominent place2 but ,mr4 ,spencer consigns it1 with music and drawing1 to 8the leisure part of education40 ,whether a man who was engrossed by science1 who had no knowledge of the fine arts except as they illustrated scientific laws1 no acquaintance with the lives of great men1 or with any history but sociology1 and who studied the thoughts and emotions expressed by our great poets merely with a view to their psychological classification--whether such a man could be said to 8live completely0 is a question to which every one1 not excepting ,mr4 ,spencer himself1 would probably return the same answer4 ,and yet this is the kind of man which ,mr4 ,spencer's system would produce where it was most successful4 #ae4 ,let me now briefly sum up the conclusions arrived at1 and consider how far ,i differ from ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,i believe that there is no one study which is suited to train the faculties of the mind at every stage of its development1 and that when we have decided on the necessity of this or that knowledge1 we must consider further what is the right time for acquiring it4 ,i believe that intellectual education should aim1 not so much at communicating facts1 however valuable1 as at showing the boy what true knowledge is1 and giving him the power and the disposition to acquire it4 ,i believe that the exclusively scientific teaching which ,mr4 ,spencer approves would not effect this4 ,it would lead at best to a very one-sided development of the mind4 ,it might fail to engage the pupil's interest sufficiently to draw out his faculties1 and in this case the net outcome of his school-days would be no larger than at present4 ,of the knowledges which ,mr4 ,spencer recommends for special objects1 some1 ,i think1 would not conduce to the object1 and some could not be communicated early in life1 7#a47 ,for indirect self-preservation we do not require to know physiology1 but the results of physiology4 7#b47 ,the science which bears on special pursuits in life has not1 in many cases1 any pecuniary value1 and although it is most desirable that every one should study the science which makes his work intelligible to him1 this must usually be done when his schooling is over4 ,the school will have done its part if it has accustomed him to the intellectual processes by which sciences are learned1 and has given him an intelligent appreciation of their value4#aia 7#c47 ,the right way of rearing and training children should be studied1 but not by the children themselves4 7#d47 ,the knowledge which fits a man to discharge his duties as a citizen is of great importance1 and1 as ,dr4 ,arnold pointed out1 is likely to be entirely neglected by those who have to struggle for a livelihood4 ,the schoolmaster should1 therefore1 by no means neglect this subject with those of his pupils whose school-days will soon be over1 but1 probably1 all that he can do is to cultivate in them a sense of the citizen's duty1 and a capacity for being their own teachers4 7#e47 ,the knowledge of poetry1 belles-lettres1 and the fine arts1 which ,mr4 ,spencer hands over to the leisure part of education1 is the only knowledge in his program which ,i think should most certainly form a prominent part in the curriculum of every school4 #af4 ,i therefore differ1 though with great respect1 from the conclusions at which ,mr4 ,spencer has arrived4 ,but ,i heartily agree with him that we are bound to inquire into the relative value of knowledges1 and if we take1 as ,i should willingly do1 ,mr4 ,spencer's test1 and ask how does this or that knowledge influence action 7including in our inquiry its influence on mind and character1 through which it bears upon action71 ,i think we should banish from our schools much that has hitherto been taught in them1 besides those old tormentors of youth 7laid1 ,i fancy1 at last--requiescant in pace7--the ,propria qu ,maribus and its kindred absurdities4 ,what we should teach is1 of course1 not so easily decided as what we should not4 #ag4 ,i now come to consider ,mr4 ,spencer's second chapter1 in which1 under the heading of 8,intellectual ,education10 he gives an admirable summing up of the main principles in which the great writers on the subject have agreed1 from ,comenius downwards4 ,these principles are1 perhaps1 not all of them unassailable1 and even where they are true1 many mistakes must be expected before we arrive at the best method of applying them2 but the only reason that can be assigned for the small amount of influence they have hitherto exercised is1 that most teachers are as ignorant of them as of the abstrusest doctrines of ,kant and ,hegel4 #ah4 ,in stating these principles ,mr4 ,spencer points out that they merely form a commencement for a science of education4 8,before educational methods can be made to harmonise in character and arrangement with the faculties in the mode and order of unfolding1 it is first needful that we ascertain with some completeness how the faculties do unfold4 ,at present we have acquired on this point only a few general notions4 ,these general notions must be developed in detail--must be transformed into a multitude of specific propositions before we can be said to possess that science on which the art of education must be based4 ,and then1 when we have definitely made out in what succession and in what combinations the mental powers become active1 it remains to choose out of the many possible ways of exercising each of them1 that which best conforms to its natural mode of action4 ,evidently1 therefore1 it is not to be supposed that even our most advanced modes of teaching are the right ones1 or nearly the right ones40 ,it is not to be wondered at that we have no science of education4 ,those who have been able to observe the phenomena have had no interest in generalising from them4 ,up to the present time the schoolmaster has been a person to whom boys were sent to learn ,latin and ,greek4 ,he has had1 therefore1 no more need of a science than the dancing-master4#aib ,but the present century1 which has brought in so many changes1 will not leave the state of education as it found it4 ,latin and ,greek1 if they are not dethroned in our higher schools1 will have their despotism changed for a very limited monarchy4 ,a course of instruction certainly without ,greek and perhaps without ,latin will have to be provided for middle schools4 ,juster views are beginning to prevail of the schoolmaster's function4 ,it is at length perceived that he has to assist the development of the human mind1 and perhaps1 by-and-bye1 he may think it as well to learn all he can of that which he is employed in developing4 ,when matters have advanced as far as this1 we may begin to hope for a science of education4 ,in ,locke's day he could say of physical science that there was no such science in existence4 ,for thousands of years the human race had lived in ignorance of the simplest laws of the world it inhabited4 ,but the true method of inquiring once introduced1 science has made such rapid conquests1 and acquired so great importance1 that some of our ablest men seem inclined to deny1 if not the existence1 at least the value1 of any other kind of knowledge4 ,so1 too1 when teachers seek by actual observation to discover the laws of mental development1 a science may be arrived at1 which1 in its influence on mankind1 would perhaps rank before any we now possess4 #ai4 ,those who have read the previous ,essays will have seen in various forms most of the principles which ,mr4 ,spencer enumerates1 but ,i gladly avail myself of his assistance in summing them up4 #a4 ,we should proceed from the simple to the complex1 both in our choice of subjects and in the way in which each subject is taught4 ,we should begin with but few subjects at once1 and1 successively adding to these1 should finally carry on all subjects abreast4 ,each larger concept is made by a combination of smaller ones1 and presupposes them4 ,if this order is not attended to in communicating knowledge1 the pupil can learn nothing but words1 and will speedily sink into apathy and disgust4 #bj4 ,that we must proceed from the known to the unknown is something more than a corollary to the above2#aic because not only are new concepts formed by the combination of old1 but the mind has a liking for what it knows1 and this liking extends itself to all that can be connected with its object4 ,the principle of using the known in teaching the unknown is so simple1 that all teachers who really endeavour to make anything understood1 naturally adopt it4 ,the traveller who is describing what he has seen and what we have not seen tells us that it is in one particular like this object1 and in another like that object1 with which we are already familiar4 ,we combine these different concepts we possess1 and so get some notion of things about which we were previously ignorant4 ,what is required in our teaching is that the use of the known should be employed more systematically4 ,most teachers think of boys who have no school learning as entirely ignorant4 ,the least reflection shows1 however1 that they know already much more than schools can ever teach them4 ,a sarcastic examiner is said to have handed a small piece of paper to a student and told him to write all he knew on it4 ,perhaps many boys would have no difficulty in stating the sum of their school-learning within very narrow limits1 but with other knowledge a child of five years old1 could he write1 might soon fill a volume4#aid ,our aim should be to connect the knowledge boys bring with them to the schoolroom with that which they are to acquire there4#aie ,i suppose all will allow1 whether they think it a matter of regret or otherwise1 that hardly anything of the kind has hitherto been attempted4 ,against this state of things ,i cannot refrain from borrowing ,mr4 ,spencer's eloquent protest4 8,not recognising the truth that the function of books is supplementary--that they form an indirect means to knowledge when direct means fail1 a means of seeing through other men what you cannot see for yourself1 teachers are eager to give second-hand facts in place of first-hand facts4 ,not perceiving the enormous value of that spontaneous education which goes on in early years1 not perceiving that a child's restless observation1 instead of being ignored or checked1 should be diligently ministered to1 and made as accurate and complete as possible1 they insist on occupying its eyes and thoughts with things that are1 for the time being1 incomprehensible and repugnant4 ,possessed by a superstition which worships the symbols of knowledge instead of the knowledge itself1 they do not see that only when his acquaintance with the objects and processes of the household1 the street1 and the fields1 is becoming tolerably exhaustive1 only then should a child be introduced to the new sources of information which books supply1 and this not only because immediate cognition is of far greater value than mediate cognition1 but also because the words contained in books can be rightly interpreted into ideas only in proportion to the antecedent experience of things40#aif ,while agreeing heartily in the spirit of this protest1 ,i doubt whether we should wait till the child's acquaintance with the objects and processes of the household1 the streets1 and the fields1 is becoming tolerably exhaustive before we give him instruction from books4 ,the point of time which ,mr4 ,spencer indicates is1 at all events1 rather hard to fix1 and ,i should wish to connect book-learning as soon as possible with the learning that is being acquired in other ways4 ,thus might both the books1 and the acts and objects of daily life1 win an additional interest4 ,if1 e4g41 the first reading-books were about the animals1 and later on about the trees and flowers which the children constantly meet with1 and their attention was kept up by large coloured pictures1 to which the text might refer1 the children would soon find both pleasure and advantage in reading1 and they would look at the animals and trees with a keener interest from the additional knowledge of them they had derived from books4 ,this is1 of course1 only one small application of a very influential principle4 #ba4 ,one marvellous instance of the neglect of this principle is found in the practice of teaching ,latin grammar before ,english grammar4 ,as ,professor ,seeley has so well pointed out1 children bring with them to school the knowledge of language in its concrete form4 ,they may soon be taught to observe the language they already know1 and to find1 almost for themselves1 some of the main divisions of words in it4 ,but1 instead of availing himself of the child's previous knowledge1 the schoolmaster takes a new and difficult language1 differing as much as possible from ,english1 a new and difficult science1 that of grammar1 conveyed1 too1 in a new and difficult terminology1 and all this he tries to teach at the same time4 ,the consequence is that the science is destroyed1 the terminology is either misunderstood1 or1 more probably1 associated with no ideas1 and even the language for which every sacrifice is made1 is found1 in nine cases out of ten1 never to be acquired at all4#aig #bb4 #b4 8,all development is an advance from the indefinite to the definite40 ,i do not feel very certain of the truth of this principle1 or of its application1 if true4 ,of course1 a child's intellectual conceptions are at first vague1 and we should not forget this2 but it is rather a fact than a principle4 #bc4 #c4 8,our lessons ought to start from the concrete1 and end in the abstract40 ,what ,mr4 ,spencer says under this head well deserves the attention of all teachers4 8,general formulas which men have devised to express groups of details1 and which have severally simplified their conceptions by uniting many facts into one fact1 they have supposed must simplify the conceptions of a child also4 ,they have forgotten that a generalisation is simple only in comparison with the whole mass of particular truths it comprehends2 that it is more complex than any one of these truths taken simply2 that only1 after many of these single truths have been acquired1 does the generalisation ease the memory and help the reason2 and that1 to a mind not possessing these single truths1 it is necessarily a mystery4 ,thus1 confounding two kinds of simplification1 teachers have constantly erred by setting out with 8first principles10 a proceeding essentially1 though not apparently1 at variance with the primary rule of proceeding from the simple to the complex1 which implies that the mind should be introduced to principles through the medium of examples1 and so should be led from the particular to the general1 from the concrete to the abstract40 ,in conformity with this principle1 ,pestalozzi made the actual counting of things precede the teaching of abstract rules in arithmetic4 ,basedow introduced weights and measures into the school1 and ,mr4 ,spencer describes some exercise in cutting out geometrical figures in cardboard1 as a preparation for geometry4 ,the difficulty about such instruction is that it requires apparatus1 and apparatus is apt to get lost or out of order4 ,but if apparatus is good for anything at all1 it is worth a little trouble4 ,there is a tendency in the minds of many teachers to depreciate 8mechanical appliances40 ,even a decent black-board is not always to be found in our higher schools4 ,but1 though such appliances will not enable a bad master to teach well1 nevertheless1 other things being equal1 the master will teach better with them than without them4 ,there is little credit due to him for managing to dispense with apparatus4 ,an author might as well pride himself on being saving in pens and paper4 #bd4 #d4 8,the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race40 ,this is the thesis on which ,i have no opinion to offer4 #be4 #e4 ,from the above principle ,mr4 ,spencer infers that every study should have a purely experimental introduction1 thus proceeding through an empirical stage to a rational4 #bf4 #f4 ,a second conclusion which ,mr4 ,spencer draws is that1 in education1 the process of self-development should be encouraged to the utmost4 ,children should be led to make their own investigations1 and to draw their own inferences4 ,they should be told as little as possible1 and induced to discover as much as possible4 ,i quite agree with ,mr4 ,spencer that this principle cannot be too strenuously insisted on1 though it obviously demands a high amount of intelligence in the teacher4 ,but if education is to be a training of the faculties1 if it is to prepare the pupil to teach himself1 something more is needed than simply to pour in knowledge and make the pupil reproduce it4 ,the receptive and reproductive faculties form but a small portion of a child's powers1 and yet the only portion which many schoolmasters seek to cultivate4 ,it is indeed1 not easy to get beyond this point2 but the impediment is in us1 not in the children4 8,who can watch10 ask ,mr4 ,spencer1 8the ceaseless observation1 and inquiry1 and inference1 going on in a child's mind1 or listen to its acute remarks in matters within the range of its faculties1 without perceiving that these powers it manifests1 if brought to bear systematically upon studies within the same range1 would readily master them without help8 ,this need for perpetual telling results from our stupidity1 not from the child's4 ,we drag it away from the facts in which it is interested1 and which it is actively assimilating of itself4 ,we put before it facts far too complex for it to understand1 and therefore distasteful to it4 ,finding that it will not voluntarily acquire these facts1 we thrust them into its mind by force of threats and punishment4 ,by thus denying the knowledge it craves1 and cramming it with knowledge it cannot digest1 we produce a morbid state of its faculties1 and a consequent disgust for knowledge in general4 ,and when1 as a result1 partly of the stolid indolence we have brought on1 and partly of still-continued unfitness in its studies1 the child can understand nothing without explanation1 and becomes a mere passive recipient of our instruction1 we infer that education must necessarily be carried on thus4 ,having by our method induced helplessness1 we make the helplessness a reason for our method40 ,it is1 of course1 much easier to point out defects than to remedy them3 but every one who has observed the usual indifference of schoolboys to their work1 and the waste of time consequent on their inattention or only half-hearted attention to the matter before them1 and then thinks of the eagerness with which the same boys throw themselves into the pursuits of their play-hours1 will feel a desire to get at the cause of this difference2 and1 perhaps1 it may seem to him partly accounted for by the fact that their school-work makes a monotonous demand on a single faculty--the memory4 #bg4 #g4 ,this brings me to the last of ,mr4 ,spencer's principles of intellectual education4 ,instruction must excite the interest of the pupils and therefore be pleasurable to them4 8,nature has made the healthful exercise of our faculties both of mind and body pleasurable4 ,it is true that some of the highest mental powers as yet but little developed in the race1 and congenitally possessed in any considerable degree only by the most advanced1 are indisposed to the amount of exertion required of them4 ,but these1 in virtue of their very complexity will in a normal course of culture come last into exercise1 and will1 therefore1 have no demands made on them until the pupil has arrived at an age when ulterior motives can be brought into play1 and an indirect pleasure made to counterbalance a direct displeasure4 ,with all faculties lower than these1 however1 the immediate gratification consequent on activity is the normal stimulus1 and under good management the only needful stimulus4 ,when we have to fall back on some other1 we must take the fact as evidence that we are on the wrong track4 ,experience is daily showing with greater clearness that there is always a method to be found productive of interest--even of delight--and it ever turns out that this is the method proved by all other tests to be the right one40 #bh4 ,as far as ,i have had the means of judging1 ,i have found that the majority of teachers reject this principle4 ,if you ask them why1 most of them will tell you that it is impossible to make school-work interesting to children4 ,a large number also hold that it is not desirable4 ,let us consider these two points separately4 ,of course1 if it is not possible to get children to take interest in anything they could be taught in school1 there is an end of the matter4 ,but no one really goes as far as this4 ,every teacher finds that some of the things boys are taught they like better than others1 and perhaps that one boy takes to one subject and another to another2 and he also finds1 both of classes and individuals1 that they always get on best with what they like best4 ,the utmost that can be maintained is1 then1 that some subjects which must be taught will not interest the majority of the learners4 ,and if it be once admitted that it is desirable to make learning pleasant and interesting to our pupils1 this principle will influence us to some extent in the subjects we select for teaching1 and still more in the methods by which we endeavour to teach them4 ,i say we shall be guided to some extent in the selection of subjects4 ,there are theorists who assert that nature gives to young minds a craving for their proper aliment1 so that they should be taught only what they show an inclination for4 ,but surely our natural inclinations in this matter1 as in others1 are neither on the one hand to be ignored1 nor on the other to be uncontrolled by such motives as our reason dictates to us4 ,we at length perceive this in the physical nurture of our children4 ,locke directs that children are to have very little sugar or salt4 8,sweetmeats of all kinds are to be avoided10 says he1 8which1 whether they do more harm to the maker or eater is not easy to tell40 7,ed4 #bj47 ,now1 however1 doctors have found out that young people's taste for sweets should in moderation be gratified1 that they require sugar as much as they require any other kind of nutriment4 ,but no one would think of feeding his children entirely on sweetmeats1 or even of letting them have an unlimited supply of plum puddings and hardbake4 ,if we follow out this analogy in nourishing the mind1 we shall1 to some extent1 gratify a child's taste for 8stories10 whilst we also provide a large amount of more solid fare4 ,but although we should certainly not ignore our children's likes and dislikes in learning1 or in anything else1 it is easy to attach too much importance to them4 ,dislike very often proceeds from mere want of insight into the subject4 ,when a boy has 8done0 the ,first ,book of ,euclid without knowing how to judge of the size of an angle1 or the ,second ,book without forming any conception of a rectangle1 no one can be surprised at his not liking ,euclid4 ,and then the failure which is really due to bad teaching is attributed by the master to the stupidity of his pupil1 and by the pupil to the dulness of the subject4 ,if masters really desired to make learning a pleasure to their pupils1 ,i think they would find that much might be done to effect this without any alteration in the subjects taught4 ,but the present dulness of school-work is not without its defenders4 ,they insist on the importance of breaking in the mind to hard work4 ,this can only be done1 they say1 by tasks which are repulsive to it4 ,the schoolboy does not like1 and ought not to like1 learning ,latin grammar any more than the colt should find pleasure in running round in a circle3 the very fact that these things are not pleasant makes them beneficial4 ,perhaps a certain amount of such training may train down the mind and qualify it for some drudgery from which it might otherwise revolt2 but if this result is attained1 it is attained at the sacrifice of the intellectual activity which is necessary for any higher function4 ,as ,carlyle says1 7,latter-,day ,,pp41 ,no4 iij71 when speaking of routine work generally1 you want nothing but a sorry nag to draw your sand-cart2 your high-spirited ,arab will be dangerous in such a capacity4 ,but who would advocate for all colts a training which should render them fit for nothing but such humble toil8 ,i shall say more about this further on 7v4 pp4 #dgb ff472 here ,i will merely express my strong conviction that boys' minds are frequently dwarfed1 and their interest in intellectual pursuits blighted1 by the practice of employing the first years of their school-life in learning by heart things which it is quite impossible for them to understand or care for4 ,teachers set out by assuming that little boys cannot understand anything1 and that all we can do with them is to keep them quiet and cram them with forms which will come in useful at a later age4 ,when the boys have been taught on this system for two or three years1 their teacher complains that they are stupid and inattentive1 and that so long as they can say a thing by heart they never trouble themselves to understand it4 ,in other words1 the teacher grumbles at them for doing precisely what they have been taught to do1 for repeating words without any thought of their meaning4 #bi4 ,in this very important matter ,i am fully alive to the difference between theory and practice4 ,it is so easy to recommend that boys should be got to understand and take an interest in their work--so difficult to carry out the recommendation6 ,grown people can hardly conceive that words which have in their minds been associated with familiar ideas from time immemorial1 are mere sounds in the mouths of their pupils4 ,the teacher thinks he is beginning at the beginning if he says that a transitive verb must govern an accusative1 or that all the angles of a square are right angles4 ,he gives his pupils credit for innate ideas up to this point1 at all events1 and advancing on this supposition he finds that he can get nothing out of them but memory-work2 so he insists on this that his time and theirs may seem not to be wholly wasted4 ,the great difficulty of teaching well1 however1 is after all but a poor excuse for contentedly teaching badly1 and it would be a great step in advance if teachers in general were as dissatisfied with themselves as they usually are with their pupils4#aih #cj4 ,i do not purpose following ,mr4 ,spencer through his chapters on moral and physical education4 ,in practice ,i find ,i can draw no line between moral and religious education2 so the discussion of one without the other has not for me much interest4 ,mr4 ,spencer has some very valuable remarks on physical education which ,i could do little more than extract1 and ,i have already made too many quotations from a work which will be in the hands of most of my readers4 #ca4 ,mr4 ,spencer differs very widely from the great body of our schoolmasters4 ,i have ventured in turn to differ on some points from ,mr4 ,spencer2 but ,i have failed to give any adequate notion of the work ,i have been discussing if the reader has not perceived that it is not only one of the most readable1 but also one of the most important books on education in the ,english language4 ,,xx4 ,,thoughts ,,and ,,suggestions4 #a4 ,one of the great wants of middle-class education at present1 is an ideal to work towards4 ,our old public schools have such an ideal4 ,the model public school-man is a gentleman who is an elegant ,latin and ,greek scholar4 ,true1 this may not be a very good ideal1 and some of our ablest men1 both literary and scientific1 are profoundly dissatisfied with it4 ,but1 so long as it is maintained1 all questions of reform are comparatively simple4 ,in middle-class schools1 on the other hand1 there is no terminus ad quem4 ,a number of boys are got together1 and the question arises1 not simply how to teach1 but what to teach4 ,where the masters are not university men1 they are1 it may be1 not men of broad views or high culture4 ,of course no one will suppose me ignorant of the fact that a great number of teachers who have never been at a university1 are both enlightened and highly cultivated2 and also that many teachers who have taken degrees1 even in honours1 are neither4 ,but1 speaking broadly of the two classes1 ,i may fairly assume that the non-university men are inferior in these respects to the graduates4 ,if not1 our universities should be reformed on ,carlyle's 8live-coal0 principle without further loss of time4 ,many non-university masters have been engaged in teaching ever since they were boys themselves1 and teaching is a very narrowing occupation4 ,they are apt therefore to be careless of general principles1 and to aim merely at storing their pupils' memory with facts--facts about language1 about history1 about geography1 without troubling themselves to consider what is and what is not worth knowing1 or what faculties the boys have1 and how they should be developed4 ,the consequence is their boys get up1 for the purpose of forgetting with all convenient speed1 quantities of details about as instructive and entertaining as the ,propria qu maribus1 such as the division of ,england under the ,heptarchy1 the battles in the wars of the ,roses1 and lists of geographical names4 ,where the masters are university men1 they have rather a contempt for this kind of cramming1 which makes them do it badly1 if they attempt it at all2 but they are driven to this teaching in many cases because they do not know what to substitute in its place4 ,in their own school-education they were taught classics and mathematics and nothing else4 ,their pupils are too young to have much capacity for mathematics1 and they will leave school too soon to get any sound knowledge of classics2 so the strength of the teaching ought clearly not to be thrown into these subjects4 ,but the master really knows no other4 ,he soon finds that he is not much his pupils' superior in acquaintance with the theory of the ,english language or with history and geography4 ,there are not many men with sufficient strength of will to study whilst their energies are taxed by teaching2 and standard books are not always within reach3 so the master is forced to content himself with hearing lessons in a perfunctory way out of dreary school-books4 ,hence it comes to pass that he goes on teaching subjects of which he himself is ignorant1 subjects1 too1 of which he does not recognise the importance1 with an enlightened disbelief in his own method of tuition4 ,he finds it uphill work1 to be sure1 and is conscious that his pupils do not get on1 however hard he may try to drive them2 but he never hoped for success in his teaching1 so the want of it does not distress him4 ,i may be suspected of caricature1 but not1 ,i think1 by university men who have themselves had to teach anything besides classics and mathematics4 #b4 ,if there is any truth in what ,i have been saying1 school-teaching1 in subjects other than classics and mathematics 7which ,i am not now considering71 is very commonly a failure4 ,and a failure it must remain until boys can be got to work with a will1 in other words1 to feel interest in the subject taught4 ,i know there is a strong prejudice in some people's minds against the notion of making learning pleasant4 ,they remind us that school should be a preparation for after-life4 ,after-life will bring with it an immense amount of drudgery4 ,if1 they say1 things at school are made too easy and pleasant 7words1 by the way1 very often and very erroneously confounded71 school will cease to give the proper discipline3 boys will be turned out not knowing what hard work is1 which1 after all1 is the most important lesson that can be taught them4 ,in these views ,i sincerely concur1 so far as this at least1 that we want boys to work hard1 and vigorously to go through the necessary drudgery1 i4e41 labour in itself disagreeable4 ,but this result is not attained by such a system as ,i have described4 ,boys do not learn to work hard1 but in a dull stupid way1 with most of their faculties lying dormant1 and though they are put through a vast quantity of drudgery1 they seem as incapable of throwing any energy into it as prisoners on the tread-mill4 ,i think we shall find on consideration1 that no one succeeds in any occupation unless that occupation is interesting1 either in itself or from some object that is to be obtained by means of it4 ,only when such an interest is aroused is energy possible4 ,no one will deny that1 as a rule1 the most successful men are those for whom their employment has the greatest attractions4 ,we should be sorry to give ourselves up to the treatment of a doctor who thought the study of disease mere drudgery1 or a dentist who felt a strong repugnance to operating on teeth4 ,no doubt the successful man in every pursuit has to go through a great deal of drudgery1 but he has a general interest in the subject1 which extends1 partially at least1 to its most wearisome details2 his energy1 too1 is excited by the desire of what the drudgery will gain for him4#aii #c4 ,observe1 that although ,i would have boys take pleasure in their work1 ,i regard the pleasure as a means1 not an end4 ,if it could be proved that the mind was best trained by the most repulsive exercises1 ,i should most certainly enforce them4 ,but ,i do not think that the mind is benefited by galley-slave labour2 indeed1 hardly any of its faculties are capable of such labour4 ,we can compel a boy to learn a thing by heart1 but we cannot compel him to wish to understand it2 and the intellect does not act without the will 7v4 supra p4 #aic74 ,hence1 when anything is required which cannot be performed by the memory alone1 the driving system utterly breaks down2 and even the memory1 as ,i hope to show presently1 works much more effectually in matters about which the mind feels an interest4 ,indeed1 the mind without sympathy and interest is like the sea-anemone when the tide is down1 an unlovely thing1 closed against external influences1 enduring existence as best it can4 ,but let it find itself in a more congenial element1 and it opens out at once1 shows altogether unexpected capacities1 and eagerly assimilates all the proper food that comes within its reach4 ,our school teaching is often little better than an attempt to get sea-anemones to flourish on dry land4 #d4 ,we see then1 that a boy1 before he can throw energy into a study1 must find that study interesting in itself1 or in its results4 ,some subjects1 properly taught1 are interesting in themselves4 ,some subjects may be interesting to older and more thoughtful boys1 from a perception of their usefulness4 ,all subjects may be made interesting by emulation4 #e4 ,hardly any effort is made in some schools to interest the younger children in their work1 and yet no effort can be1 as the ,germans say1 more 8rewarding40 ,the teacher of children has this advantage1 that his pupils are never dull and listless1 as youths are apt to be4 ,if they are not attending to him1 they very soon give him notice of it2 and if he has the sense to see that their inattention is his fault1 not theirs1 this will save him much annoyance and them much misery4 ,he has1 too1 another advantage1 which gives him the power of gaining their attention--their emulation is easily excited4 ,in the ,waisenhaus at ,halle ,i once heard a class of very young children1 none of them much above six years old1 perform feats of mental arithmetic quite1 as ,i should have said1 beyond their age1 and ,i well remember the pretty eagerness with which each child held out a little hand and shouted1 8,mich6 ,bitte60 to gain the privilege of answering4 #f4 ,then again1 there are many subjects in which children take an interest4 ,indeed1 all visible things1 especially animals1 are much more to them than to us4 ,a child has made acquaintance with all the animals in the neighbourhood1 and can tell you much more about the house and its surroundings than you know yourself4 ,but all this knowledge and interest you would wish forgotten directly he comes into school4 ,reading1 writing1 and figures are taught in the driest manner4 ,the two first are in themselves not uninteresting to the child1 as he has something to do1 and young people are much more ready to do anything than to learn anything4 ,but when lessons are given the child to learn1 they are not about things concerning which he has ideas and feels an interest1 but you teach him mere sounds--e4g41 that ,alfred 7to him only a name7 came to the throne in #hga1 though he has no notion what the throne is1 or what #hga means4 ,the child learns the lesson with much trouble and small profit1 bearing the infliction with what patience he can1 till he escapes out of school and begins to learn much faster on a very different system4 #g4 ,we cannot often introduce into the school the thing1 much less the animal1 which children would care to see1 but we can introduce what will please them as well1 in some cases even better1 viz41 good pictures4 ,a teacher who could draw boldly on the blackboard1 would have no difficulty in arresting the children's attention4 ,but1 at present1 few can do this1 and pictures must be provided4 ,a good deal has been done of late years in the way of illustrating children's books1 and even childhood must be the happier for such pictures as those of ,tenniel and ,harrison ,weir4 ,but it seems well understood that these gentlemen are incapable of doing anything for children beyond affording them innocent amusement1 and we should be as much surprised at seeing their works introduced into that region of asceticism1 the ,english school-room1 as if we ran across one of ,raphael's ,madonnas in a ,baptist chapel4#bjj #h4 ,i had the good fortune1 many years ago1 to be present at the lessons given by a very excellent teacher to the youngest class1 consisting both of boys and girls1 at the first ,brger-schule of ,leipzig4 ,in ,saxony the schooling which the state demands for each child1 begins at six years old1 and lasts till fourteen4 ,these children were1 therefore1 between six and seven4 ,in one year1 a certain ,dr4 ,vater taught them to read1 write1 and reckon4 ,his method of teaching was as follows3--,each child had a book with pictures of objects1 such as a hat1 a slate1 c4 ,under the picture was the name of the object in printing and writing characters1 and also a couplet about the object4 ,the children having opened their books1 and found the picture of a hat1 the teacher showed them a hat1 and told them a tale connected with one4 ,he then asked the children questions about his story1 and about the hat he had in his hand--,what was the colour of it8 c4 ,he then drew a hat on the blackboard1 and made the children copy it on their slates4 ,next he wrote the word 8hat0 and told them that for people who could read this did as well as the picture4 ,the children then copied the word on their slates4 ,the teacher proceeded to analyse the word 8hat1 7hut740 8,it is made up10 said he1 8of three sounds1 the most important of which is the a 7u71 which comes in the middle40 ,in all cases the vowel sound was first ascertained in every syllable1 and then was given an approximation to consonantal sounds before and after4 ,the couplet was now read by the teacher1 and the children repeated it after him4 ,in this way the book had to be worked over and over till the children were perfectly familiar with everything in it4 ,they had been already six months thus employed when ,i visited the school1 and knew the book pretty thoroughly4 ,to test their knowledge1 ,dr4 ,vater first wrote a number of capitals at random on the board1 and called out a boy to tell him words having these capitals as initials4 ,this boy had to call out a girl to do something of the kind1 she a boy1 and so forth4 ,everything was done very smartly1 both by master and children4 ,the best proof ,i saw of their accuracy and quickness was this3 the master traced words from the book very rapidly with a stick on the blackboard1 and the children always called out the right word1 though ,i could not follow him4 ,he also wrote with chalk words which the children had never seen1 and made them name first the vowel sounds1 then the consonantal1 then combine them4 ,i have been thus minute in my description of this lesson1 because it seems to me an admirable example of the way in which children between six and eight years of age should be taught4 ,the method 7see ,regg's ,pdagogik1 p4 #cfj2 also ,die ,normalwrtermethode1 published by ,orell1 ,fssli1 ,zrich1 #ahgf71 was arranged and the book prepared by the late ,dr4 ,vogel1 who was then ,director of the school4 ,its merits1 as its author pointed out to me1 are3--#a4 ,that it connects the instruction with objects of which the child has already an idea in his mind1 and so associates new knowledge with old2 #b4 ,that it gives the children plenty to do as well as to learn1 a point on which the ,doctor was very emphatic2 #c4 ,that it makes the children go over the same matter in various ways till they have learnt a little thoroughly1 and then applies their knowledge to the acquirement of more4 ,here the ,doctor seems to have followed ,jacotot4 ,but though the method was no doubt a good one1 ,i must say its success at ,leipzig was due at least as much to ,dr4 ,vater as to ,dr4 ,vogel4 ,this gentleman had been taking the youngest class in this school for twenty years1 and1 whether by practice or natural talent1 he had acquired precisely the right manner for keeping children's attention4 ,he was energetic without bustle and excitement1 and quiet without a suspicion of dulness or apathy4 ,by frequently changing the employment of the class1 and requiring smartness in everything that was done1 he kept them all on the alert4 ,the lesson ,i have described was followed without pause by one in arithmetic1 the two together occupying an hour and three quarters1 and the interest of the children never flagged throughout4 #i4 ,dr4 ,vater's method for arithmetic ,i cannot now recall2 but ,i do not doubt that1 as a ,german teacher who had studied his profession1 he understood what ,english teachers and pupil-teachers do not understand1 viz41 how children should get their first knowledge of numbers4 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel insisted that children should learn about numbers from things which they actually counted2 and1 according to ,grub's method1 which ,i found in ,germany over #cj years ago1 and which is now extending to the ,united ,states1 the whole of the first year is given to the relations of numbers not exceeding ten 7see ,grub's ,method by ,l4 ,seeley1 ,new ,york1 ,kellogg1 and ,f4 ,l4 ,soldan's ,grub's ,m41 ,chicago74 ,in arithmetic everything depends on these relations becoming thoroughly familiar4 ,the decimal scale is possibly not so good as the scale of eight or of twelve1 but the human race has adopted it2 and even the ,french ,revolutionists1 with all their belief in 8reason10 and their hatred of the past1 recoiled from any attempt to change it4 ,but in accepting it1 they endeavoured to remove anomalies1 and so should we4 ,everything must be based on groups of ten2 and with children we should do well1 as ,mr4 ,w4 ,wooding suggests1 to avoid the great anomaly in our nomenclature1 and call the numbers between ten and twenty 7i4e41 twain-tens or two-tens71 8ten-one1 ten-two1 c40 ,numeration should by a long way precede any kind of notation1 and the main truths about numbers should be got at experimentally with counters or coins4 ,in these truths should be included all that we usually separate under the 8,first ,four ,rules10 and with integers we may even from the first give a clear conception of the fractional parts of whole numbers1 e4g41 that one third of #f is #b4bja ,actual measuring and weighing1 besides actual counting1 go towards actual arithmetic for children4 ,all this teaching1 if conducted as ,dr4 ,vater would have conducted it1 would not give children any distaste for learning or make them dread the sound of the school bell4 #aj4 ,i will suppose a child to have passed through such a course as this by the time he is eight or nine years old4 ,besides having some clear notions of number and form1 he can now read and copy easy words4 ,what we next want for him is a series of good reading-books1 about things in which he takes an interest4 ,the language must of course be simple1 but the matter so good that neither master nor pupils will be disgusted by its frequent repetition4 ,the first volume may very well be about animals--dogs1 horses1 c41 of which large pictures should be provided1 illustrating the text4 ,the first cost of these pictures would be considerable1 but as they would last for years1 the expense to the friends of each child taught from them would be a mere trifle4 #aa4 ,the books placed in the hands of the children should be well printed and strongly bound4 ,in the present penny-wise system1 school-books are given out in cloth1 and the leaves are loose at the end of a fortnight1 so that children get accustomed to their destruction and treat it as a matter of course4 ,this ruins their respect for books1 which is not so unimportant a matter as it may at first appear4 #ab4 ,after each reading lesson1 which should contain at least one interesting anecdote1 there should be columns of all the words which occurred for the first time in that lesson4 ,these should be arranged according to their grammatical classification1 not that the child should be taught grammar1 but this order is as good as any other1 and by it the child would learn to observe certain differences in words almost unconsciously4#bjb ,here ,i cannot resist quoting an excellent remark from ,helps's ,brevia 7p4 #abe74 8,we should make the greatest progress in art1 science1 politics1 and morals1 if we could train up our minds to look straight and steadfastly and uninterruptedly at the thing in question that we are observing4 ,this seems a very slight thing to do2 but practically it is hardly ever done4 ,between you and the object rises a mist of technicalities1 of prejudices1 of previous knowledge1 and1 above all1 of terrible familiarity40 ,perhaps it is this 8terrible familiarity0 that has prevented our seeing till quite lately that reading is the art of getting meaning by signs that appeal to the eye1 not the art of reporting to others the meaning we have thus arrived at4 8,accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand10 says ,benjamin ,franklin1 8is the cause of those even set tones so common among readers1 which1 when they have once got a habit of using them1 they find so difficult to correct2 by which means1 among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one40 7,essays1 ,sk4 of ,english ,sch47 ,it seems to have escaped even ,franklin's sagacity that reading aloud is a different art to the art of reading1 and a much harder one4 ,the two should be studied separately1 and most time and attention should be given to silent reading1 which is by far the more important of the two4 ,colonel ,f4 ,w4 ,parker1 who has successfully cultivated the power of 8looking straight at0 things1 gives us in his ,talks on ,teaching the right rule for reading4 8,changing10 says he1 8the beautiful power of expression1 full of melody1 harmony1 and correct emphasis and inflection1 to the slow1 painful1 almost agonising pronunciation that we have heard so many times in the school-room1 is a terrible sin that we should never be guilty of4 ,there is1 indeed1 not the slightest need of changing a good habit to a miserable one if we would follow the rule that the child has naturally followed all his life4 ,never allow a child to give a thought till he gets it0 7p4 #cg74 ,now that the existence of a thought in children is allowed for1 we may expect all sorts of improvements4 ,reading1 as a means of ascertaining thought1 is second only to hearing1 and this art should be cultivated by giving children books of questions 7e4g41 ,horace ,grant's ,arithmetic for ,young ,children71 and requiring the learner silently to get at the question and then give the answer aloud4 #ac4 ,easy descriptive and narrative poetry should be learnt by heart at this stage4 ,that the children may repeat it well1 they should get their first notions of it from the master viv voce4 ,according to the usual plan1 they get it up with false emphasis and false stops1 and the more thoroughly they have learnt the piece1 the more difficulty the master has in making them say it properly4 #ad4 ,every lesson should be worked over in various ways4 ,the columns of words at the end of the reading lessons may be printed with writing characters1 and used for copies4 ,to write an upright column either of words or figures is an excellent exercise in neatness4 ,the columns will also be used as spelling lessons1 and the children may be questioned about the meaning of the words4 ,the poetry1 when thoroughly learned1 may sometimes be written from memory4 ,sentences from the book may be copied either directly or from the black-board1 and afterwards used for dictation4 #ae4 ,boys should1 as soon as possible1 be accustomed to write out fables1 or the substance of other reading lessons1 in their own words4 ,they may also write descriptions of things with which they are familiar1 or any event which has recently happened1 such as a country excursion4 ,every one feels the necessity1 on grounds of practical utility at all events1 of boys being taught to express their thoughts neatly on paper1 in good ,english and with correct spelling4 ,yet this is a point rarely reached before the age of fifteen or sixteen1 often never reached at all4 ,the reason is1 that written exercises must be carefully looked over by the master1 or they are done in a slovenly manner4 ,anyone who has never taught in a school will say1 8,then let the master carefully look them over40 ,but the expenditure of time and trouble this involves on the master is so great1 that in the end he is pretty sure either to have few exercises written1 or to neglect to look them over4 ,the only remedy is for the master not to have many boys to teach1 and not to be many hours in school4 ,even then1 unless he set apart a special time every day for correcting exercises1 he is likely to find them 8increase upon him40 #af4 ,the course of reading-books1 accompanied by large illustrations1 may go on to many other things which the children see around them1 such as trees and plants1 and so lead up to instruction in natural history and physiology4 ,but in imparting all knowledge of this kind1 we should aim1 not at getting the children to remember a number of facts1 but at opening their eyes1 and extending the range of their interests4 #ag4 ,i should suggest1 then1 for children1 three books to be used concurrently1 viz41 a reading book about animals and things1 a poetry book1 and a prose narrative or sop's ,fables4 ,with the first commences a series culminating in works of science2 with the second1 a series that should lead up to ,milton and ,shakespeare2 the third should be succeeded by some of our best writers in prose4 #ah4 ,but many schoolmasters will shudder at the thought of a child's spending a year or two at school without ever hearing of the ,heptarchy or ,magna ,charta1 and without knowing the names of the great towns in any country of ,europe4 ,i confess ,i regard this ignorance with great equanimity4 ,if the child1 or the youth even1 takes no interest in the ,heptarchy and ,magna ,charta1 and knows nothing of the towns but their names1 ,i think him quite as well off without this knowledge as with it--perhaps better1 as such knowledge turns the lad into a 8wind-bag10 as ,carlyle might say1 and gives him the appearance of being well-informed without the reality4 ,but ,i neither despise a knowledge of history and geography2 nor do ,i think that these studies should be neglected for foreign languages or science3 and it is because ,i should wish a pupil of mine to become1 in the end1 thoroughly conversant in history and geography1 that ,i should1 if possible1 conceal from him the existence of the numerous school manuals on these subjects4 ,we will suppose that a parent meets with a book which he thinks will be both instructive and entertaining to his children4 ,but the book is a large one1 and would take a long time to get through2 so instead of reading any part of it to them or letting them read it for themselves1 he makes them learn by heart the table of contents4 ,the children do not find it entertaining2 they get a horror of the book1 which prevents their ever looking at it afterwards1 and they forget what they have learnt as soon as they possibly can4 ,just such is the sagacious plan adopted in teaching history and geography in schools1 and such are the natural consequences4 ,every student knows that the use of an epitome is to systematise knowledge1 not to communicate it1 and yet1 in teaching1 we give the epitome first1 and allow it to precede1 or rather to supplant1 the knowledge epitomised4 ,the children are disgusted1 and no wonder4 ,the subjects1 indeed1 are interesting1 but not so the epitomes4 ,i suppose if we could see the skeletons of the ,gunnings1 we should not find them more fascinating than any other skeletons4#bjc #ai4 ,the first thing to be aimed at1 then1 is to excite the children's interest4 ,even if we thought of nothing but the acquiring of information1 this is clearly the true method4 ,what are the facts which we remember8 ,those in which we feel an interest4 ,if we are told that ,so-and-so has met with an accident1 or failed in business1 we forget it directly1 unless we know the person spoken of4 ,similarly1 if ,i read anything about ,addison or ,goldsmith1 it interests me1 and ,i remember it because they are1 so to speak1 friends of mine2 but the same information about ,sir ,richard ,blackmore or ,cumberland would not stay in my head for four-and-twenty hours4 ,so1 again1 we naturally retain anything we learn about a foreign country in which a relation has settled1 but it would require some little trouble to commit to memory the same facts about a place in which we had no concern4 ,all this proceeds from two causes4 ,first1 that the mind retains that in which it takes an interest2 and1 secondly1 that one of the principal helps to memory is the association of ideas4 ,these were1 no doubt1 the ground reasons which influenced ,dr4 ,arnold in framing his plan of a child's first history book4 ,this book1 he says1 should be a picture-book of the memorable deeds which would best appeal to the child's imagination4 ,they should be arranged in order of time1 but with no other connection4 ,the letter-press should simply1 but fully1 tell the story of the action depicted4 ,these would form starting-points of interest4 ,the child would be curious to know more about the great men whose acquaintance he had made1 and would associate with them the scenes of their exploits2 and thus we might actually find our children anxious to learn history and geography6 ,i am sorry that even the great authority of ,dr4 ,arnold has not availed to bring this method into use4 ,such a book would1 of course1 be dear4 ,bad pictures are worse than none at all3 and ,goethe tells us that his appreciation of ,homer was for years destroyed by his having been shown1 when a child1 absurd pictures of the ,homeric heroes4 ,the book would1 therefore1 cost six or eight shillings at least2 and who would give this sum for an account of single actions of a few great men1 when he might buy the lives of all great men1 together with ancient and modern history1 the names of the planets1 and a great amount of miscellaneous information1 all for a shilling in 8,mangnall's ,questions08 ,however1 if the saving of a few shillings is more to be thought of than the best method of instruction1 the subject hardly deserves our serious consideration4 #bj4 ,it is much to be regretted that books for the young are so seldom written by distinguished authors4 ,i suppose that of the three things which the author seeks1 money1 reputation1 influence1 the first is not often despised1 nor the last considered the least valuable4 ,and yet both money and influence are more certainly gained by a good book for the young than by any other4 ,the influence of 8,tom ,brown10 however different in kind1 is probably not smaller in amount than that of 8,sartor ,resartus40 #ba4 ,what we want is a ,macaulay for boys1 who shall handle historical subjects with that wonderful art displayed in the 8,essays10--the art of elaborating all the more telling portions of the subject1 outlining the rest1 and suppressing everything that does not conduce to heighten the general effect4 ,some of these essays1 such as the 8,hastings0 and 8,clive10 will be read with avidity by the elder boys2 but ,macaulay did not write for children1 and he abounds in words to them unintelligible4 ,had he been a married man1 we might perhaps have had such a volume of historical sketches for boys as now we must wish for in vain4 ,but there are good story-tellers left among us1 and we might soon expect such books as we desiderate1 if it were clearly understood what is the right sort of book1 and if men of literary ability and experience would condescend to write them4 #bb4 ,if1 in these latter days1 8the individual withers1 and the world is more and more10 we must not expect our children to enter into this4 ,their sympathy and their imagination can be aroused1 not for nations1 but for individuals2 and this is the reason why some biographies of great men should precede any history4 ,these should be written after ,macaulay's method4 ,there should be no attempt at completeness1 but what is most important and interesting about the man should be narrated in detail1 and the rest lightly sketched1 or omitted altogether4 ,painters understand this principle1 and1 in taking a portrait1 very often depict a man's features minutely without telling all the truth about the buttons on his waistcoat4 ,but1 because in a literary picture each touch takes up additional space1 writers seem to fear that the picture will be distorted unless every particular is expanded or condensed in the same ratio4 #bc4 ,at the risk of wearisome repetition1 ,i must again say that ,i care as little about driving 8useful knowledge0 into a boy as the most ultra ,cambridge man could wish2 but ,i want to get the boy to have wide sympathies1 and to teach himself2 and ,i should therefore select the great men from very different periods and countries1 that his net of interest 7so to speak7 may be spread in all waters4 #bd4 ,when we have thus got our boys to form the acquaintance of great men1 they will have certain associations connected with many towns and countries4 ,constant reference should be made to the map1 and the boys' knowledge and interest will thus make settlements in different parts of the globe4 ,these may be extended by a good book of travels1 especially of voyages of discovery4 ,there are now many such books suitable for the purpose1 but ,i am still partial to a book which has been a delight to me and to my own children from our earliest years3--,miss ,hack's 8,winter ,evenings2 or1 ,tales of ,travelers02 or1 as ,routledge now calls a part of it1 8,travels in ,hot and ,cold ,lands40 ,in studying such travels1 the map should1 of course1 be always in sight2 and outline maps may be filled up by the boys as they learn about the places in the traveller's route4 ,anyone who has had the management of a school library knows how popular 8voyage and venture0 is with the boys who have passed the stage in which the picture-books of animals were the main attraction4 ,captain ,cook1 ,mungo ,park1 and ,admiral ,byron are heroes without whom boyhood would be incomplete2 but as boys are engrossed by the adventures1 and never trouble themselves about the map1 they often remember the incidents without knowing where they happened4 ,of course1 school geographies never mention such people as celebrated travellers2 if they did1 it would be impossible to give all the principal geographical names in the world within the compass of #bjj pages4 #be4 ,what might we fairly expect from such a course of teaching as ,i have here suggested8 ,at the end of a year and a half1 or two years1 from the age1 say1 of nine1 the boy would read to himself intelligently2 he would write fairly2 he would spell all common ,english words correctly2 he would be thoroughly familiar with the relations of all common numbers1 that is1 of all numbers below #ajj2 he would have had his interest aroused1 or1 to speak more accurately1 not stifled but increased in common objects1 such as animals1 trees1 and plants2 he would have made the acquaintance of some great men1 and traced the voyages of some great travellers2 he would be able to say by heart and to write from memory some of the best simple ,english poetry1 and his ear would be familiar with the sound of good ,english prose4 ,so much1 at least1 on the positive side4 ,on the negative there might also be results of considerable value4 ,he would not have learned to look upon books and school-time as the torment of his life1 nor have fallen into the habit of giving them as little of his attention as he could reconcile with immunity from the cane4 ,the benefit of the negative result might outweigh a very glib knowledge of 8tables0 and ,latin ,grammar4 ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,schoolmaster',s ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,influence4 #a4 ,all who are acquainted with the standard treatises on the theory of education1 and also with the management of schools1 will have observed that moral and religious training occupies a larger and more prominent space in theory than in practice4 ,on consideration1 we shall find perhaps that this might naturally be expected4 ,of course we are all agreed that morality is more important than learning1 and masters who are many of them clergymen1 will hardly be accused of under-estimating the value of religion4 ,why then1 does not moral and religious training receive a larger share of the master's attention8 ,the reason ,i take to be this4 ,experience shows that it depends directly on the master whether a boy acquires knowledge1 but only indirectly1 and in a much less degree1 whether he grows up a good and religious man4 ,the aim which engrosses most of our time is likely to absorb an equal share of our interest2 and thus it happens that masters1 especially those who never associate on terms of intimacy with their pupils out of school1 throw energy enough into making boys learn1 but seldom think at all of the development of their character1 or about their thoughts and feelings in matters of religion4 ,this statement may indeed be exaggerated1 but no one who has the means of judging will assert that it is altogether without foundation4 ,and yet1 although a master can be more certain of sending out his pupils well-taught than well-principled1 his influence on their character is much greater than it might appear to a superficial observer4 ,i am not speaking of formal religious instruction4 ,i refer now to the teacher's indirect influence4 ,the results of his formal teaching vary as its amount1 but he can apply no such gauge to his informal teaching4 ,a few words of earnest advice or remonstrance1 which a boy hears at the right time from a man whom he respects1 may affect that boy's character for life4 ,here everything depends1 not on the words used1 but on the feeling with which they are spoken1 and on the way in which the speaker is regarded by the hearer4 ,in such matters the master has a much more delicate and difficult task than in mere instruction4 ,the words1 indeed1 are soon spoken1 but that which gives them their influence is not soon or easily acquired4 ,here1 as in so many other instances1 we may in a few minutes throw down what it has cost us days--perhaps years--to build up4 ,an unkind word will destroy the effects of long-continued kindness4 ,boys always form their opinion of a man from the worst they know of him4 ,experience has not yet taught them that good people have their failings1 and bad people their virtues4 ,if the scholars find the master at times harsh and testy1 they cannot believe in his kindness of heart and care for their welfare4 ,they do not see that he may have an ideal before him to which he is partly1 though not wholly true4 ,they judge him by his demeanour in his least guarded moments--at times when he is jaded and dissatisfied with the result of his labours4 ,at such times he is no longer 8in touch0 with his pupils4 ,he is conscious only of his own power and mental superiority4 ,feeling almost a contempt for the boys' weakness1 he does not care for their opinion of him or think for an instant what impression he is making by his words and conduct4 ,he gives full play to his arbitrium1 and says or does something which seems to the boys to reveal him in his true character1 and which causes them ever after to distrust his kindness4 #b4 ,when we consider the way in which masters endeavour to gain influence1 we shall find that they may be divided roughly into two parties1 whom ,i will call the open and the reserved4 ,a teacher of the open party endeavours to appear to his pupils precisely as he is4 ,he will hear of no restraint except that of decorum4 ,he believes that if he is as much the superior of his pupils as he ought to be1 his authority will take care of itself without his casting round it a wall of artificial reserve4 8,be natural10 he says2 8get rid of affectations and shams of all kinds2 and then1 if there is any good in you1 it will tell on those around you4 ,whatever is bad1 would be felt just as surely in disguise2 and the disguise would only be an additional source of mischief40 ,the reserved1 on the other hand1 wish their pupils to think of them as they ought to be rather than as they are4 ,against the other party they urge that our words and actions cannot always be in harmony with our thoughts and feelings1 however much we may desire to make them so4 ,we must1 therefore1 they say1 reconcile ourselves to this2 and since our words and actions are more under our control than our thoughts and feelings1 we must make them as nearly as possible what they should be1 instead of debasing them to involuntary thoughts and feelings which are not worthy of us4 ,then again1 a teacher who is an idealist may say1 8,the young require some one to look up to4 ,in my better moments ,i am not altogether unworthy of their respect2 but if they knew all my weaknesses1 they would naturally1 and perhaps justly1 despise me4 ,for their sakes1 therefore1 ,i must keep my weaknesses out of sight1 and the effort to do this demands a certain reserve in all our intercourse40 #c4 ,i suppose an excess in either direction might lead to mischievous results4 ,the 8open0 man might be wanting in self-restraint1 and might say and do things which1 though not wrong in themselves1 might have a bad effect on the young4 ,then1 again1 the lower and more worldly side of his character might show itself in too strong relief2 and his pupils seeing this mainly1 and supposing that they understood him entirely1 might disbelieve in his higher motives and religious feeling4 ,on the other hand1 those who set up for being better than they really are1 are1 as it were1 walking on stilts4 ,they gain no real influence by their separation from their pupils1 and they are always liable to an accident which may expose them to their ridicule4#bjd #d4 ,i am1 therefore1 though with some limitation1 in favour of the open school4 ,i am well aware1 however1 what an immense demand this system makes on the master who desires to exercise a good influence on the moral and religious character of his pupils4 ,if he would have his pupils know him as he is1 if he would have them think as he thinks1 feel as he feels1 and believe as he believes1 he must be1 at least in heart and aim1 worthy of their imitation4 ,he must 7with reverence be it spoken7 enter1 in his humble way1 into the spirit of the perfect ,teacher1 who said1 8,for their sakes ,i sanctify myself1 that they also may be sanctified in truth40 ,are we prepared to look upon our calling in this light8 ,i believe that the school-teachers of this country need not fear comparison with any other body of men1 in point of morality1 and religious earnestness2 but ,i dare say many have found1 as ,i have1 that the occupation is a very narrowing one1 that the teacher soon gets to work in a groove1 and from having his thoughts so much occupied with routine work1 especially with small fault-findings and small corrections1 he is apt to settle down insensibly into a kind of moral and intellectual stagnation--,philistinism1 as ,matthew ,arnold has taught us to call it--in which he cares as little for high aims and general principles as his most commonplace pupil4 ,thus it happens sometimes that a man who set out with the notion of developing all the powers of his pupils' minds1 thinks in the end of nothing but getting them to work out equations and do ,latin exercises without false concords2 and the clergyman even1 who began with a strong sense of his responsibility and a confident hope of influencing the boys' belief and character1 at length is quite content if they conform to discipline and give him no trouble out of school-hours4 ,we may say of a really good teacher what ,wordsworth says of the poet2 in his work he must neither lack that first great gift1 the vital soul1 ,nor general truths1 which are themselves a sort ,of elements and agents1 under-powers1 ,subordinate helpers of the living mind4--,prelude1 i4 #i4 ,but the 8vital soul0 is too often crushed by excessive routine labour1 and then when general truths1 both moral and intellectual1 have ceased to interest us1 our own education stops1 and we become incapable of fulfilling the highest and most important part of our duty in educating others4 #e4 ,it is1 then1 the duty of the teacher to resist gravitating into this state1 no less for his pupils' sake than for his own4 ,the ways and means of doing this ,i am by no means competent to point out2 so ,i will merely insist on the importance of teachers not being overworked--a matter which has not1 ,i think1 hitherto received due attention4 ,we cannot expect intellectual activity of men whose minds are compelled 8with pack-horse constancy to keep the road0 hour after hour1 till they are too jaded for exertion of any kind4 ,the man himself suffers1 and his work1 even his easiest work1 suffers also4 ,it may be laid down as a general rule1 that no one can teach long and teach well4 ,all satisfactory teaching and management of boys absolutely requires that the master should be in good spirits4 ,when the 8genial spirits fail10 as they must from an overdose of monotonous work1 everything goes wrong directly4 ,the master has no longer the power of keeping the boys' attention1 and has to resort to punishments even to preserve order4 ,his gloom quenches their interest and mental activity1 just as fire goes out before carbonic acid2 and in the end teacher and taught acquire1 not without cause1 a feeling of mutual aversion4 #f4 ,and another reason why the master should not spend the greater part of his time in formal teaching is this--his doing so compels him to neglect the informal but very important teaching he may both give and receive by making his pupils his companions4 #g4 ,i fear ,i shall be met here by an objection which has only too much force in it4 ,most ,englishmen are at a loss how to make any use of leisure4 ,if a man has no turn for thinking1 no fondness for reading1 and is without a hobby1 what good shall his leisure do him8 he will only pass it in insipid gossip1 from which any easy work would be a relief4 ,that this is so in many cases1 is a proof to my mind of the utter failure of our ordinary education3 and perhaps an improved education may some day alter what now seems a national peculiarity4 ,meantime the mind1 even of ,englishmen1 is more than a 8succedaneum for salt20#bje and its tendency to bury its sight1 ostrich-fashion1 under a heap of routine work must be strenuously resisted1 if it is to escape its deadly enemies1 stupidity and ignorance4 #h4 ,i have elsewhere expressed what ,i believe is the common conviction of those who have seen something both of large schools and of small1 viz41 that the moral atmosphere of the former is1 as a rule1 by far the more wholesome2#bjf and also that each boy is more influenced by his companions than by his master4 ,more than this1 ,i believe that in many1 perhaps in most1 schools1 one or two boys affect the tone of the whole body more than any master4#bjg ,what are called ,preparatory ,schools labour under this immense disadvantage1 that their ruling spirits are mere children without reflection or sense of responsibility4#bjh ,but where the leading boys are virtually young men1 these may be made a medium through which the mind of the master may act upon the whole school4 ,they can enter into the thoughts1 feelings1 and aims of the master on the one hand1 and they know what is said and done among the boys on the other4 ,the master must1 therefore1 know the elder boys intimately1 and they must know him4 ,this consummation1 however1 will not be arrived at without great tact and self-denial on the part of the master4 ,the youth who is 8neither man nor boy0 is apt to be shy and awkward1 and is not by any means so easy to entertain as the lad who chatters freely of the school's cricket or football1 past1 present1 and to come4 ,but the master who feels how all-important is the tone of the school1 will not grudge any pains to influence those on whom it chiefly depends4 #i4 ,but1 allowing the value of all these indirect influences1 can we afford to neglect direct formal religious instruction8 ,we have most of us the greatest horror of what we call a secular education1 meaning thereby an education without formal religious teaching4 ,but this horror seems to affect our theory more than our practice4 ,few parents ever enquire what religious instruction their sons get at ,eton1 ,harrow1 or ,westminster4 ,at ,harrow when ,i was in the ,fourth ,form there 7nearly fifty years ago by the way7 we had no religious instruction except a weekly lesson in ,watts's ,scripture ,history2 and when ,i was a master some twenty years ago my form had only a ,sunday lesson in a portion of the ,old ,testament1 and a lesson in ,french ,testament at 8,first ,school0 on ,monday4 ,even in some 8,voluntary ,schools0 we do not find 8religious instruction0 made so much of as the arithmetic4 #aj4 ,in this matter we differ very widely from the ,germans4 ,all their classes have a 8religion-lesson0 7,religionstunde7 nearly every day1 the younger children in the ,german ,bible1 the elder in the ,greek ,testament or ,church ,history2 and in all cases the teacher is careful to instruct his pupils in the tenets of ,luther or ,calvin4 ,the ,germans may urge that if we believe a set of doctrines to be a fitting expression of ,divine revelation1 it is our first duty to make the young familiar with those doctrines4 ,i cannot say1 however1 that ,i have been favourably impressed by the religion-lessons ,i have heard given in ,german schools4 ,i do not deny that dogmatic teaching is necessary1 but the first thing to cultivate in the young is reverence2 and reverence is surely in danger if you take a class in 8religion0 just as you take a class in grammar4 ,emerson says somewhere1 that to the poet1 the saint1 and the philosopher1 all distinction of sacred and profane ceases to exist1 all things become alike sacred4 ,as the schoolboy1 however1 does not as yet come under any one of these denominations1 if the distinction ceases to exist for him1 all things will become alike profane4 #aa4 ,i believe that religious instruction is conveyed in the most impressive way when it is connected with worship4 ,where the prayers are joined with the reading of ,scripture and with occasional simple addresses1 and where the congregation have responses to repeat1 and psalms and hymns to sing1 there is reason to hope that boys will increase1 not only in knowledge1 but in wisdom and reverence too4 ,without asserting that the ,church of ,england service is the best possible for the young1 ,i hold that any form for them should at least resemble it in its main features1 should be as varied as possible1 should require frequent change of posture1 and should give the congregation much to say and sing4 ,much use might be made as in the ,church of ,rome1 of litanies4 ,the service1 whatever its form1 should be conducted with great solemnity1 and the boys should not sit or kneel so close together that the badly disposed may disturb their neighbours who try to join in the act of worship4 ,if good hymns are sung1 these may be taken occasionally as the subject of an address1 so that attention may be drawn to their meaning4 ,music should be carefully attended to1 and the danger of irreverence at practices guarded against by never using sacred words more than is necessary1 and by impressing on the singers the sacredness of everything connected with ,divine worship4 ,questions combined with instruction may sometimes keep up boys' attention better than a formal sermon4 ,though common prayer should be frequent1 this should not be supposed to take the place of private prayer4 ,in many schools boys have hardly an opportunity for private prayer4 ,they kneel down1 perhaps1 with all the talk and play of their schoolfellows going on around them1 and sometimes fear of public opinion prevents their kneeling down at all4 ,a schoolmaster cannot teach private prayer1 but he can at least see that there is opportunity for it4 ,education to goodness and piety1 as far as it lies in human hands1 must consist almost entirely in the influence of the good and pious superior over his inferiors1 and as this influence is independent of rules1 these remarks of mine cannot do more than touch the surface of this most important subject4#bji #ab4 ,in conclusion1 ,i wish to say a word on the education of opinion4 ,sir ,arthur ,helps lays great stress on preparing the way to moderation and open-mindedness by teaching boys that all good men are not of the same way of thinking4 ,it is indeed a miserable error to lead a young person to suppose that his small ideas are a measure of the universe1 and that all who do not accept his formularies are less enlightened than himself4 ,if a young man is so brought up1 he either carries intellectual blinkers all his life1 or1 what is far more probable1 he finds that something he has been taught is false1 and forthwith begins to doubt everything4 ,on the other hand1 it is a necessity with the young to believe1 and we could not1 even if we would1 bring a youth into such a state of mind as to regard everything about which there is any variety of opinion as an open question4 ,but he may be taught reverence and humility2 he may be taught to reflect how infinitely greater the facts of the universe must be than our poor thoughts about them1 and how inadequate are words to express even our imperfect thoughts4 ,then he will not suppose that all truth has been taught him in his formularies1 nor that he understands even all the truth of which those formularies are the imperfect expression4#baj ,,xxii4 ,,conclusion4 #a4 ,when ,i originally published these essays 7more than #bb years ago7 the critic of the ,nonconformist in one of the best1 though by no means most complimentary1 of the many notices with which the book was favoured1 took me to task for being in such a hurry to publish4 ,i had confessed incompleteness4 ,what need was there for me to publish before ,i had completed my work8 ,since that time ,i have spent years on my subject and at least two years on these essays themselves2 but they now seem to me even further from completeness than they seemed then4 ,however1 ,i have reason to believe that the old book1 incomplete as it was1 proved useful to teachers2 and in its altered form it will1 ,i hope1 be found useful still4 #b4 ,it may be useful ,i think in two ways4 ,first3 it may lead some teachers to the study of the great thinkers on education4 ,there are some vital truths which remain in the books which time cannot destroy4 ,in the world as ,goethe says are few voices1 many echoes2 and the echoes often prevent our hearing the voices distinctly4 ,perhaps most people had a better chance of hearing the voices when there were fewer books and no periodicals4 ,speakers properly so called cannot now be heard for the hubbub of the talkers2 and as literature is becoming more and more periodical our writers seem mostly employed like children on card pagodas or like the recumbent artists of the ,london streets who produce on the stones of the pavement gaudy chalk drawings which the next shower washes out4 ,but if ,i would have fewer books what business have ,i to add to the number8 ,i may be told that-- 8,he who in quest of quiet1 #8,silence6' hoots1 ,is apt to make the hubbub he imputes40 ,my answer is that ,i do not write to expound my own thought1 but to draw attention to the thoughts of the men who are best worth hearing4 ,it is not given to us small people to think strongly and clearly like the great people2 we1 however1 gain in strength and clearness by contact with them2 and this contact ,i seek to promote4 ,so long as this book is used1 it will ,i hope be used only as an introduction to the great thinkers whose names are found in it4 #c4 ,there is another way in which the book may be of use4 ,by considering the great thinkers in chronological order we see that each adds to the treasure which he finds already accumulated1 and thus by degrees we are arriving in education1 as in most departments of human endeavour1 at a science4 ,in this science lies our hope for the future4 ,teachers must endeavour to obtain more and more knowledge of the laws to which their art has to conform itself4 #d4 ,it may be of advantage to some readers if ,i point out briefly what seems to me the course of the main stream of thought as it has flowed down to us from the ,renascence4 #e4 ,as ,i endeavoured to show at the beginning of this book1 the ,scholars of the ,renascence fell into a great mistake1 a mistake which perhaps could not have been avoided at a time when literature was rediscovered and the printing press had just been invented4 ,this mistake was the idolatry of books1 and1 still worse1 of books in ,latin and ,greek4 ,so the schoolmaster fell into a bad theory or conception of his task1 for he supposed that his function was to teach ,latin and ,greek2 and his practice or way of going to work was not much better1 for his chief implements were grammar and the cane4 #f4 ,the first who made a great advance were the ,jesuits4 ,they were indeed far too much bent on being popular to be 8,innovators40 ,they endeavoured to do well what most schoolmasters did badly4 ,they taught ,latin and ,greek1 and they made great use of grammar1 but they gave up the cane4 ,boys were to be made happy4 ,school-hours were to be reduced from #aj hours a day to #e hours1 and in those #e hours learning was to be made 8not only endurable but even pleasurable40 ,but the pupils were to find this pleasure not in the exercise of their mental powers but in other ways4 ,as ,mr4 ,eve has said1 young teachers are inclined to think mainly of stimulating their pupils' minds and so neglect the repetition needed for accuracy4 ,old teachers on the other hand care so much for accuracy that they require the same thing over and over till the pupils lose zest and mental activity4 ,the ,jesuits frankly adopted the maxim 8,repetition is the mother of studies10 and worked over the same ground again and again4 ,the two forces on which they relied for making the work pleasant were one good--the personal influence of the master 78boys will soon love learning when they love the teacher107 and one bad or at least doubtful--the spur of emulation4 ,however1 the attempt to lead1 not drive1 was a great step in the right direction4 ,moreover as they did not hold with the ,sturms and ,trotzendorfs that the classics in and for themselves were the object of education the ,jesuits were able to think of other things as well4 ,they were very careful of the health of the body4 ,and they also enlarged the task of the schoolmaster in another and still more important way4 ,to the best of their lights they attended to the moral and religious training of their pupils4 ,it is much to the credit of the ,fathers that though ,plautus and ,terence were considered very valuable for giving a knowledge of colloquial ,latin and were studied and learnt by heart in the ,protestant schools1 the ,jesuits rejected them on account of their impurity4 ,the ,jesuits wished the whole boy1 not his memory only1 to be affected by the master2 so the master was to make a study of each of his pupils and to go on with the same pupils through the greater part of their school course4 ,the ,jesuit system stands out in the history of education as a remarkable instance of a school system elaborately thought out and worked as a whole4 ,in it the individual schoolmaster withered1 but the system grew1 and was1 ,i may say is1 a mighty organism4 ,the single ,jesuit teacher might not be the superior of the average teacher in good ,protestant schools1 but by their unity of action the ,jesuits triumphed over their rivals as easily as a regiment of soldiers scatters a mob4 #g4 ,the schoolmaster's theory of the human mind made of it1 to use ,bartle ,massey's simile1 a kind of bladder fit only to hold what was poured into it4 ,this pouring-in theory of education was first called in question by that strange genius who seems to have stood outside all the traditions and opinions of his age1 8holding no form of creed1 ,but contemplating all40 ,i mean ,rabelais4 ,like most reformers1 ,rabelais begins with denunciations of the system established by use and wont4 ,after an account of the school-teaching and school-books of the day1 he says--8,it would be better for a boy to learn nothing at all than to be taught such-like books by such-like masters40 ,he then proposes a training in which1 though the boy is to study books1 he is not to do this mainly1 but is to be led to look about him1 and to use both his senses and his limbs4 ,for instance1 he is to examine the stars when he goes to bed1 and then to be called up at four in the morning to find the change that has taken place4 ,here we see a training of the powers of observation4 ,these powers are also to be exercised on the trees and plants which are met with out-of-doors1 and on objects within the house1 as well as on the food placed on the table4 ,the study of books is to be joined with this study of things1 for the old authors are to be consulted for their accounts of whatever has been met with4 ,the study of trades1 too1 and the practice of some of them1 such as wood-cutting1 and carving in stone1 makes a very interesting feature in this system4 ,on the whole1 ,i think we may say that ,rabelais was the first to advocate training as distinguished from teaching2 and he was the father of ,anschauungs-unterricht1 teaching by intuition1 i4e41 by the pupil's own senses and the spring of his own intelligence4 ,rabelais would bestow much care on the body too4 ,not only was the pupil to ride and fence2 we find him even shouting for the benefit of his lungs4 #h4 ,rabelais had now started an entirely new theory of the educator's task1 and fifty years afterwards his thought was taken up and put forward with incomparable vigour by the great essayist1 ,montaigne4 ,montaigne starts with a quotation from ,rabelais--8,the greatest clerks are not the wisest men10 and then he makes one of the most effective onslaughts on the pouring-in theory that is to be found in all literature4 ,his accusation against the schoolmasters of his time is twofold4 ,first1 he says1 they aim only at giving knowledge1 whereas they should first think of judgment and virtue4 ,secondly1 in their method of teaching they do not exercise the pupils' own minds4 ,the sum and substance of the charge is contained in these words--8,we labour to stuff the memory and in the meantime leave the conscience and understanding impoverished and void40 ,his notion of education embraced the whole man4 8,our very exercises and recreations10 says he1 8running1 wrestling1 music1 dancing1 hunting1 riding1 fencing1 will prove to be a good part of our study4 ,i would have the pupil's outward fashion and mien and the disposition of his limbs formed at the same time with his mind4 ',tis not a soul1 'tis not a body1 that we are training up1 but a man1 and we ought not to divide him40 #i4 ,before the end of the fifteen hundreds then we see in the best thought of the time a great improvement in the conception of the task of the schoolmaster4 ,learning is not the only thing to be thought of4 ,moral and religious training are recognised as of no less importance4 ,and as 8both soul and body have been created by the hand of ,god0 7the words are ,ignatius ,loyola's71 both must be thought of in education4 ,when we come to instruction we find ,rabelais recommending that at least part of it should be 8intuitive10 and ,montaigne requiring that the instruction should involve an exercise of the intellectual powers of the learner4 ,but the escape even in thought from the ,renascence ideal was but partial4 ,some of ,rabelais' directions seem to come from a 8,verbal ,realist10 and ,montaigne was far from saying as ,joseph ,payne has said1 8every act of teaching is a mode of dealing with mind and will be successful only in proportion as this is recognised10 8teaching is only another name for mental training40 ,but if ,rabelais and ,montaigne did not reach the best thought of our time they were much in advance of a great deal of our practice4 #aj4 ,the opening of the sixteen hundreds saw a great revolt from the literary spirit of the ,renascence4 ,the exclusive devotion to books was followed by a reaction4 ,there might after all be something worth knowing that books would not teach4 ,why give so much time to the study of words and so little to the observation of things8 8,youth10 says a writer of the time1 8is deluged with grammar precepts infinitely tedious1 perplexed1 obscure1 and for the most part unprofitable1 and that for many years40 ,why not escape from this barren region8 8,come forth1 my son10 says ,comenius4 8,let us go into the open air4 ,there you shall view whatsoever ,god produced from the beginning and doth yet effect by nature40 ,and ,milton thus expresses the conviction of his day3 8,because our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on sensible things1 nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of ,god and things invisible as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creature1 the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching40 ,this great revolution which was involved in the ,baconian philosophy may be described as a turning from fancy to fact4 ,all the creations of the human mind seemed to have lost their value4 ,the only things that seemed worth studying were the material universe and the laws or sequences which were gradually ascertained by patient induction and experiment4 #aa4 ,till the present century this revolution did not extend to our schools and universities4 ,it is only within the last fifty years that natural science has been studied even in the ,university of ,bacon and ,newton4 ,the ,public ,school ,commission of #ahfb found that the curriculum was just as it had been settled at the ,renascence4 ,but if the walls of these educational ,jerichos were still standing this was not from any remissness on the part of 8the children of light0 in shouting and blowing with the trumpet4 ,they raised the war-cry 8,not words1 but things60 and the cry has been continued by a succession of eminent men against the schools of the #agth and #ahth centuries and has at length begun to tell on the schools of the #aith4 ,perhaps the change demanded is best shown in the words of ,john ,dury about #afdi3 8,the true end of all human learning is to supply in ourselves and others the defects which proceed from our ignorance of the nature and use of the creatures and the disorderliness of our natural faculties in using them and reflecting upon them40 ,so the ,innovators required teachers to devote themselves to natural science and to the science of the human mind4 #ab4 ,the first ,innovators1 like the people of the fifteen hundreds1 thought mainly of the acquisition of knowledge1 only the knowledge was to be not of the classics but of the material world4 ,in this they seem inferior to ,montaigne who had given the first place to virtue and judgment4 #ac4 ,but towards the middle of the sixteen hundreds a very eminent ,innovator took a comprehensive view of education1 and reduced instruction to its proper place1 that is1 he treated it as a part of education merely4 ,this man1 ,comenius1 was at once a philosopher1 a philanthropist1 and a schoolmaster2 and in his writings we find the first attempt at a science of education4 ,the outline of his science is as follows3-- 8,we live a threefold life--a vegetative1 an animal1 and an intellectual or spiritual4 ,of these1 the first is perfect in the womb1 the last in heaven4 ,he is happy who comes with healthy body into the world1 much more he who goes with healthy spirit out of it4 ,according to the heavenly idea a man should--#ast1 ,know all things2 #bnd1 ,he should be master of things and of himself2 #crd1 ,he should refer everything to ,god4 ,so that within us ,nature has implanted the seeds of learning1 of virtue1 and of piety4 ,to bring these seeds to maturity is the object of education4 ,all men require education1 and ,god has made children unfit for other employment that they may have time to learn40 ,here we have quite a new theory of the educator's task4 ,he is to bring to maturity the seeds of learning1 virtue1 and piety1 which are already sown by ,nature in his pupils4 ,this is quite different from the pouring-in theory1 and seems to anticipate the notion of ,froebel1 that the educator should be called not teacher but gardener4 ,but ,comenius evidently made too much of knowledge4 ,had he lived two centuries later he would have seen the area of possible knowledge extending to infinity in all directions1 and he would no longer have made it his ideal that 8man should know all things40 #ad4 ,the next great thinker about education--,i mean ,locke--seems to me chiefly important from his having taken up the principles of ,montaigne and treated the giving of knowledge as of very small importance4 ,montaigne1 as we have seen1 was the first to bring out clearly that education was much more than instruction1 as the whole was greater than its part1 and that instruction was of far less importance than some other parts of education4 ,and this lies at the root of ,locke's theory also4 ,the great function of the educator1 according to him1 is not to teach1 but to dispose the pupil to virtue first1 industry next1 and then knowledge2 but he thinks where the first two have been properly cared for knowledge will come of itself4 ,the following are ,locke's own words3--8,the great work of a governor is to fashion the carriage and to form the mind1 to settle in his pupil good habits and the principles of virtue and wisdom1 to give him little by little a view of mankind and work him into a love and imitation of what is excellent and praiseworthy2 and in the prosecution of it to give him vigour1 activity1 and industry4 ,the studies which he sets him upon are but1 as it were1 the exercise of his faculties and employment of his time2 to keep him from sauntering and idleness2 to teach him application and accustom him to take pains1 and to give him some little taste of what his own industry must perfect40#baa ,so we see that ,locke agrees with ,comenius in his enlarged view of the educator's task1 and that he thought much less than ,comenius of the importance of the knowledge to be given4 #ae4 ,we already see a gradual escape from the 8idols0 of the ,renascence4 ,locke1 instead of accepting the learned ideal1 declares that learning is the last and least thing to be thought of4 ,he cares little about the ordinary literary instruction given to children1 though he thinks they must be taught something and does not know what to put in its place4 ,he provides for the education of those who are to remain ignorant of ,greek1 but only when they are 8gentlemen40 ,in this respect the van is led by ,comenius1 who thought of education for all1 boys and girls1 rich and poor1 alike4 ,comenius also gave the first hint of the true nature of our task--to bring to perfection the seeds implanted by ,nature4 ,he also cared for the little ones whom the schoolmaster had despised4 ,locke does not escape from a certain intellectual disdain of 8my young masters10 as he calls them2 but in one respect he advanced as far as the best thinkers among his successors have advanced4 ,knowledge1 he says1 must come by the action of the learner's own mind4 ,the true teacher is within4 #af4 ,we now come to the least practical and at the same time the most influential of all the writers on education--,i mean ,rousseau4 ,he1 like ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1 and ,locke1 was 7to use ,matthew ,arnold's expression7 a 8child of the idea40 ,he attacked scholastic use and wont not in the name of expedience1 but in the name of reason2 and such an attack--so eloquent1 so vehement1 so uncompromising--had never been made before4 ,still there remained even in theory1 and far more in practice1 effects produced by the false ideal of the ,renascence4 ,this ideal ,rousseau entirely rejected4 ,he proposed making a clean sweep and returning to what he called the state of ,nature4 #ag4 ,rousseau was by no means the first of the ,reformers who advocated a return to ,nature4 ,there has been a constant conviction in men's minds from the time of the ,stoics onwards that most of the evils which afflict humanity have come from our not following 8,nature40 ,the cry of 8,everything according to ,nature0 was soon raised by educationists4 ,ratke announced it as one of his principles4 ,comenius would base all action on the analogy of ,nature4 ,indeed1 there has hardly ever been a system of education which did not lay claim to be the 8natural0 system4 ,and by 8natural0 has been always understood something different from what is usual4 ,what is the notion that produces this antithesis8 #ah4 ,when we come to trace back things to their cause we are wont to attribute them to ,god1 to ,nature1 or to ,man4 ,according to the general belief1 ,god works in and through ,nature1 and therefore the tendency of things apart from human agency must be to good4 ,this faith which underlies all our thoughts and modes of speech1 has been beautifully expressed by ,wordsworth-- 8,a gracious spirit o'er this earth presides1 ,and in the heart of man2 invisibly ,it comes to works of unreproved delight ,and tendency benign2 directing those ,who care not1 know not1 think not1 what they do40 ,prelude1 v1 ad f4 ,but if the tendency of things is to good1 why should the usual be in such strong contrast with 8the natural08 ,here again we may turn to ,wordsworth4 ,after pointing to the harmony of the visible world1 and declaring his faith that 8every flower enjoys the air it breathes10 he goes on-- 8,if this belief from heaven be sent1 ,if this be ,nature's holy plan1 ,have ,i not reason to lament1 ,what ,man has made of ,man80 ,this passage might be taken as the motto of ,rousseauism4 ,according to that philosophy man is the great disturber and perverter of the natural order4 ,other animals simply follow nature1 but man has no instinct1 and is thus left to find his own way4 ,what is the consequence8 ,a very different authority from ,rousseau1 the poet ,cowper1 tells us in language which ,rousseau might have adopted-- 8,reasoning at every step he treads1 ,man yet mistakes his way3 ,while meaner things whom instinct leads1 ,are seldom known to stray40 ,man has to investigate the sequences of ,nature1 and to arrange them for himself4 ,in this way he brings about a great number of foreseen results1 but in doing this he also brings about perhaps even a greater number of unforeseen results2 and alas6 it turns out that many1 if not most1 of these unforeseen results are the reverse of beneficial4 #ai4 ,another thing is observable4 ,other animals are guided by instinct2 we1 for the most part1 are guided by tradition4 ,man1 it has been said1 is the only animal that capitalises his discoveries4 ,if we capitalised nothing but our discoveries1 this accumulation would be an immense advantage to us2 but we capitalise also our conjectures1 our ideals1 our habits1 and unhappily1 in many cases1 our blunders4#bab ,so a great deal of action which is purely mischievous in its effects1 comes not from our own mistakes1 but from those of our ancestors4 ,the consequence is1 that what with our own mistakes and the mistakes we inherit1 we sometimes go far indeed out of the course which 8,nature0 has prescribed for us4 #bj4 ,the generation which found a mouthpiece in ,rousseau had become firmly convinced1 not indeed of its own stupidity1 but of the stupidity of all its predecessors2 and the vast patrimony bequeathed to it seemed nothing but lumber or worse4 ,so ,rousseau found an eager and enthusiastic audience when he proposed a return to ,nature1 in other words1 to give up all existing customs1 and for the most part to do nothing and 8give ,nature a chance40 ,his boy of twelve years old was to have been taught nothing4 ,up to that age the great art of education1 says ,rousseau1 is to do everything by doing nothing4 ,the first part of education should be purely negative4 #ba4 ,rousseau then was the first who escaped completely from the notion of the ,renascence1 that man was mainly a learning and remembering animal4 ,but if he is not this1 what is he8 ,we must ascertain1 said ,rousseau1 not a priori1 but by observation4 ,we need a new art1 the art of observing children4 #bb4 ,now at length there was hope for the ,science of ,education4 ,this science must be based on a study of the subject on whom we have to act4 ,according to ,locke there is such variation not only in the circumstances1 but also in the personal peculiarities of individuals1 that general laws either do not exist or can never be ascertained4 ,but this variation is no less observable in the human body1 and the art of the physician has to conform itself to a science which is still very far from perfect4 ,the physician1 however1 does not despair4 ,he carefully avails himself of such science as we now have1 and he makes a study of the human body in order to increase that science4 ,when a few more generations have passed away1 the medical profession will very likely smile at mistakes made by the old ,victorian doctors4 ,but1 meantime1 we profit by the science of medicine in its present state1 and we find that this science has considerably increased the average duration of human life4 ,we therefore require every practitioner to have made a scientific study of his calling1 and to have had a training in both the theory and practice of it4 ,the science of education cannot be said to have done much for us at present1 but it will do more in the future1 and might do more now if no one were allowed to teach before he or she had been trained in the best theory and practice we have4 ,since the appearance of the ,emile the best educators have studied the subject on whom they had to act1 and they have been learning more and more of the laws or sequences which affect the human mind and the human body4 ,the marvellous strides of science in every other department encourages us to hope that it will make great advances in the field of education where it is still so greatly needed4 ,perhaps the day may come when a ,pestalozzi may be considered even by his contemporaries on an equality with a ,napoleon1 and the human race may be willing to give to the art of instruction the same amount of time1 money1 thought1 and energy1 which in our day have been devoted with such tremendous success to the art of destruction4 ,it is already dawning on the general consciousness that in education as in physical science 8we conquer ,nature by obeying her10 and we are learning more and more how to obey her4 #bc4 ,rousseau's great work was first1 to expose the absurdities of the school-room1 and second1 to set the educator on studying the laws of nature in the human mind and body4 ,he also drew attention to the child's restless activity4 ,he would also 7like ,locke before him71 make the young learner his own teacher4 #bd4 ,there is another way in which the appearance of the ,emile was1 as the ,germans say1 8epoch-making40 ,from the time of the earliest ,innovators1 we have seen that 8,things not ,words10 had been the war-cry of a strong party of ,reformers4 ,but things had been considered merely as a superior means of instruction4 ,rousseau first pointed out the intimate relation that exists between children and the material world around them4 ,children had till then been thought of only as immature and inferior men4 ,since his day an ,english poet has taught us that in some ways the man is far inferior to the child1 8the things which we have seen we now can see no more10 and that 8nothing can bring back the hour 8,of splendour in the grass1 of glory in the flower40 ,rousseau had not ,wordsworth's gifts1 but he1 too1 observed that childhood is the age of strong impressions from without and that its material surroundings affect it much more acutely than they will in after life4 ,which of us knows as much about our own house and furniture as our children know8 ,still more remarkable is the sympathy children have with animals4 ,if a cat comes into a room where there are grown people and also a child1 which sees the cat first8 which observes it most accurately8 ,now1 this intimate relation of the child with its surroundings plays a most important part in its education4 ,the educator may1 if so minded1 ignore this altogether1 and stick to grammar1 dates1 and county towns1 but if he does so the child's real education will not be much affected by him4 ,rousseau saw this clearly1 and wished to use 8things0 not for instruction but for education4 ,their special function was to train the senses4 #be4 ,perhaps it is not too much to say of ,rousseau that he was the first who gave up thinking of the child as a being whose chief faculty was the faculty of remembering1 and thought of him rather as a being who feels and reflects1 acts and invents4 #bf4 ,but if the thought may be traced back to ,rousseau1 it was1 as left by him1 quite crude or rather embryonic4 ,since his time this conception of the young has been taken up and moulded into a fair commencement of a science of education4 ,this commencement is now occupying the attention of thinkers such as ,herbert ,spencer1 and much may be expected from it even in the immediate future4 ,for the science so far as it exists we are indebted mainly to the two ,reformers with whom ,i will conclude--,pestalozzi and ,froebel4 #bg4 ,pestalozzi1 like ,comenius more than #ajj years before him1 conceived of education for all4 8,every human being10 said he1 8has a claim to a judicious development of his faculties40 ,every child must go to school4 ,but the word school includes a great variety of institutions4 ,the object these have in view differs immensely4 ,with us the main object in some schools seems to be to prepare boys to compete at an early age for entrance scholarships awarded to the greatest proficients in ,latin and ,greek4 ,in other schools the object is to turn the children out 8good scholars0 in another sense2 that is1 the school is held to be successful when the boys and girls acquire skill in the arts of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 and can remember a number of facts--facts of history1 of geography1 and even of natural science4 ,so the common notion is that what is wanted in the way of education depends entirely on the child's social position4 ,there still linger among us notions derived from the literary men of the ,renascence4 ,we still measure all children by their literary and mnemonic attainments4 ,we still consider knowledge of ,latin and ,greek the highest kind of knowledge4 ,children are sent to school that they may not be ignorant4#bac ,pestalozzi1 who had studied ,rousseau1 entirely denied all this4 ,he required that the school-coach should be turned and started in a new direction4 ,the main object of the school was not to teach1 but to develop1 not to put in but to draw out4 #bh4 ,the study of nature shows us that every animal comes into the world with certain faculties or capabilities4 ,there are a set of circumstances which will develop these capabilities and make the most of them4 ,there are other circumstances which would impede this development1 decrease it1 or even prevent it altogether4 ,all other animals have this development secured for them by their ordinary environment3 but ,man1 with far higher capacities1 and with immeasurably greater faculties both for good and evil1 is left far more to his own resources than the other animals4 ,placed in an almost endless variety of circumstances we have to ascertain how the development of our offspring may best be brought about4 ,we have to consider what are the inborn faculties of our children1 and also what aids and what hinders their development4 ,when we have arrived at this knowledge we must educate them by placing them in the best circumstances in our power1 and then superintending1 judiciously and lovingly1 the development of their faculties and of their higher nature4 #bi4 ,there is1 said ,pestalozzi1 only one way in which faculty can be developed1 and that is by exercise2 so his system sought to encourage the activities of children1 and in this respect he was surpassed1 as we shall see1 by ,froebel4 8,dead0 knowledge1 as it has been called--the knowledge commonly acquired for examinations1 our school-knowledge1 in fact--was despised by ,pestalozzi as it had been by ,locke and ,rousseau before him4 ,in its place he would put knowledge acquired by 8intuition10 by the spring of the learner's own intelligence4 #cj4 ,the conception of every child as an organism and of education as the process by which the development of that organism is promoted is found first in ,pestalozzi1 but it was more consistently thought out by ,froebel4 ,there is1 said ,froebel1 a divine idea for every human being1 for we are all ,god's offspring4 ,the object of the education of a human being is to further the development of his divine idea4 ,this development is attainable only through action2 for the development of every organism depends on its self-activity4 ,self-activity then1 activity 8with a will10 is the main thing to be cared for in education4 ,the educator has to direct the children's activity in such a way that it may satisfy their instincts1 especially the formative and creative instincts4 ,the child from his earliest years is to be treated as a doer and even a creator4 #ca4 ,now1 at last1 we have arrived at the complete antithesis between the old education and the ,new4 ,the old education had one object1 and that was learning4 ,man was a being who learnt and remembered4 ,education was a process by which he learnt1 at first the languages and literatures of ,rome and ,greece only2 but as time went on the curriculum was greatly extended4 ,the ,new ,education treats the human being not so much a learner as a doer and creator4 ,the educator no longer fixes his eyes on the object--the knowledge1 but on the subject--the being to be educated4 ,the success of the education is not determined by what the educated know1 but by what they do and what they are4 ,they are well educated when they love what is good1 and have had all their faculties of mind and body properly developed to do it4 #cb4 ,the ,new ,education then is 8passive1 following10 and must be based on the study of human nature4 ,when we have ascertained what are the faculties to be developed we must consider further how to foster the self-activity that will develop them4 #cc4 ,we have travelled far from ,dr4 ,johnson1 who asserted that education was as well known as it ever could be4 ,some of us are more inclined to assert that in his day education was not invented4 ,on the other hand1 there are those who belittle the ,new ,education and endeavour to show that in it there is nothing new at all4 ,as it seems to me a revolution of the most salutary kind was made by the thinkers who proposed basing education on a study of the subject to be educated1 and1 more than this1 making the process a 8following0 process with the object of drawing out self-activity4 #cd4 ,this change of object must in the end be fruitful in changes of every kind4 ,but as yet we are only groping our way2 and1 if ,i may give a caution which1 in this country at least1 is quite superfluous1 we should be cautious1 and till we see our way clearly we should try no great experiment that would destroy our connexion with the past4 ,most of our predecessors thought only of knowledge4 ,by a reaction some of our ,new ,educationists seem to despise knowledge4 ,but knowledge is necessary1 and without some knowledge development would be impossible4 ,we probably cannot do too much to assist development and encourage 8intuition10 but there is1 perhaps1 some danger of our losing sight of truths which schoolroom experience would bring home to us4 ,even the clearest 8concepts0 get hazy again and totally unfit for use1 unless they are permanently fixed in the mind by repetition1 which to be effective must to some extent take the form of drill4 ,the practical man1 even the crammer1 has here mastered a truth of the teaching art which the educationist is prone to overlook4 ,and there are1 no doubt1 other things which the practical man can teach4 ,but the great thinkers would raise us to a higher standing-point from which we may see much that will make the right road clearer to us1 and lead us to press forward in it with good heart and hope4 ,,finis4 ,,footnotes #a ,when the greater part of this volume was already written1 ,mr4 ,parker published his sketch of the history of ,classical ,education 7,essays on a ,liberal ,education1 edited by ,farrar74 ,he seems to me to have been very successful in bringing out the most important features of his subject1 but his essay necessarily shows marks of over-compression4 ,two volumes have also lately appeared on ,christian ,schools and ,scholars 7,longmans1 #ahfg74 ,here we have a good deal of information which we want1 and also1 it seems to me1 a good deal which we do not want4 ,the work characteristically opens with a #ajth century description of the personal appearance of ,st4 ,mark when he landed at ,alexandria4 ,the author treats only of the times which preceded the ,council of ,trent4 ,a very interesting account of early ,english education has been given by ,mr4 ,furnivall1 in the #bnd and #crd numbers of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,education 7#ahfg74 ,i did not then know of ,dr4 ,barnard's works4 #b ,this article is omitted in the last edition4 #c ,the rest of this chapter was published in the ,september1 #ahhj number of ,education4 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 #d ,on the nature of literature see ,cardinal ,newman's 8,lectures on the ,nature of a ,university4 ,university ,subjects4 ,,ii4 ,literature40 #e ,i see ,carlyle has used a similar metaphor in the same connexion3 8,consider the old schoolmen and their pilgrimage towards ,truth6 the faithfullest endeavour1 incessant unwearied motion2 often great natural vigour1 only no progress2 nothing but antic feats of one limb poised against the other2 there they balanced1 somerseted1 and made postures2 at best gyrated swiftly with some pleasure like spinning dervishes and ended where they began40--,characteristics1 ,misc41 vol4 iii1 #e4 #f ,this illustration was suggested by a similar one in ,prof4 ,j4 ,r4 ,seeley's essay 8,on the teaching of ,english0 in his ,lectures and ,essays1 #ahgj4 #g ,miss ,j4 ,d4 ,potter1 in 8,journal of ,education40 ,london1 ,june1 #ahgi #h ,see ,erasmus's ,ciceronianus1 or account of it1 in ,henry ,barnard's ,german ,teachers4 #i 8,on ,abuse of ,human ,learning10 by ,samuel ,butler4 #aj ,multum ilium profecisse arbitror1 qui ante sextum decimum tatis annum facultatem duarum linguarum mediocrem assecutus est4 7,quoted by ,parker47 #aa ,r4 ,mulcaster's ,positions1 #aeha1 p4 #cj4 ,i have reprinted this book 7,longmans1 #ahhh1 price #ajs474 #ab ,sturm's school 8had an ,european reputation3 there were ,poles and ,portuguese1 ,spaniards1 ,danes1 ,italians1 ,french and ,english4 ,but besides this1 it was the model and mother school of a numerous progeny4 ,sturm himself organized schools for several towns which applied to him4 ,his disciples became organizers1 rectors1 and professors4 ,in short1 if ,melanchthon was the instructor1 ,sturm was the schoolmaster of ,germany4 ,together with his method1 his school-books were spread broadcast over the land4 ,both were adopted by ,ascham in ,england1 and by ,buchanan in ,scotland4 ,sturm himself was a great man at the imperial court4 ,no diplomatist passed through ,strasburg without stopping to converse with him4 ,he drew a pension from the ,king of ,denmark1 another from the ,king of ,france1 a third from the ,queen of ,england1 collected political information for ,cardinal ,granvella1 and was ennobled by ,charles ,v4 ,he helped to negotiate peace between ,france and ,england1 and was appointed to confer with a commission of ,cardinals on reunion of the ,church4 ,in short1 ,sturm knew what he was about as well as most men of his time4 ,yet few will be disposed to accept his theory of education1 even for the sixteenth century1 as the best4 ,wherein then lay the mistake8444 ,sturm asserted that the proper end of school education is eloquence1 or in modern phrase1 a masterly command of language1 and that the knowledge of things mainly belongs to a later stage 444 ,sturm assumed that ,latin is the language in which eloquence is to be acquired40 ,this is from ,mr4 ,charles ,stuart ,parker's excellent account of ,sturm in ,essays on a ,liberal ,education1 edited by ,farrar1 ,essay ,i41 ,on ,history of ,classical ,education1 p4 #ci4 ,i find from ,herbart 7,pd4 ,schriften1 ,o4 ,wilmann's edition1 vol4 ij1 #bbi ff2 ,beyer's edition1 ij1 #cba7 that the historian1 ,f4 ,h4 ,ch4 ,schwarz1 took a very favourable view of ,sturm's work2 and both he and ,karl ,schmidt give ,sturm credit for introducing the two ways of studying an author that may be carried on at the same time--#ast1 statarisch1 i4e41 reading a small quantity accurately1 and #bnd1 cursorisch1 i4e41 getting over the ground4 ,these two kinds1 of reading were made much of by ,j4 ,m4 ,gesner 7#afia-agfa74 ,ernst ,laas has written ,die ,pdagogik ,j4 ,sturms which no doubt does him justice1 but ,i have not seen the book4 #ac ,why did ,bacon1 who spoke slightingly of ,sturm 7see ,parker1 in ,essays on ,lib4 ,ed471 rate the ,jesuits so highly8 8,consule scholas ,jesuitarum3 nihil enim quod in usum venit his melius10 ,de ,aug41 lib4 iv1 cap4 iv4 ,see1 too1 a longer passage in first book of ,de ,aug4 7about end of first #a_/d71 8,qu nobilissima pars prisc disciplin revocata est aliquatenus1 quasi postliminio1 in ,jesuitarum collegiis2 quorum cum intueor industriam solertiamque tam in doctrina excolenda quam in moribus informandis1 illud occurrit ,agesilai de ,pharnabazo1 #8,talis cum sis1 utinam noster esses4'0 #ad 7#a7 ,joseph ,anton ,schmid's 8,niedere ,schulen der ,jesuiten30 ,regensburg1 #aheb4 7#b7 ,article by ,wagenmann in ,k4 ,a4 ,schmid's 8,encyclopdie des ,erziehungs-und ,unterrichtswesens40 7#c7 8,ratio atque ,institutio ,studiorum ,soc4 ,jesu40 ,the first edition of this work1 published at ,rome in #aehe1 was suppressed as heretical1 because it contemplated the possibility of differing from ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the book is now very scarce4 ,there is a copy in the ,british ,museum4 ,on comparing it with the folio edition 78,constitutiones10 c41 published at ,prag in #afcb71 ,i find many omissions in the latter1 some of which are curious1 e4g41 under 8,de ,matrimonio30--8,matremne an uxorem occidere sit gravius1 non est hujus loci40 7#d7 8,parnesis ad ,magistros ,scholarum ,inferiorum ,soc4 ,jesu1 scripta a ,p4 ,francisco ,sacchino1 ex edem ,societate40 7#e7 8,juvencius de ,ratione ,discendi et ,docendi40 ,crtineau-,joly's 8,histoire de la ,compagnie de ,jsus0 7,paris1 #ahdd71 ,i have not made much use of4 ,sacchini and ,jouvency were both historians of the ,order4 ,the former died in #afbe1 the latter in #agai4 ,there is a good sketch of the ,jesuit schools1 by ,andrewes1 in ,barnard's ,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4 xiv1 #ahfd1 reprinted in the best book ,i know of in ,english on the ,history of ,education1 ,barnard's ,german ,teachers4 #ae 8,l'excution des dcrets de #ahhj a eu pour rsultat la fermeture de leurs collges4 ,mais malgr leur dispersion apparente ils sont encore plus puissants qu'on ne le croit1 et ce serait une erreur de penser que le dernier mot est dit avec eux40--,compayr1 in ,buisson1 ij1 p4 #adbj4 #af ,according to the article in ,k4 ,a4 ,schmid's 8,encyclopdie10 the usual course was this--the two years' novitiate was over by the time the youth was between fifteen and seventeen4 ,he then entered a ,jesuit college as ,scholasticus4 ,here he learnt literature and rhetoric for two years1 and then philosophy 7with mathematics7 for three more4 ,he then entered on his ,regency1 i4e41 he went over the same ground as a teacher1 for from four to six years4 ,then followed a period of theological study1 ending with a year of trial1 called the ,tertiorat4 ,the candidate was now admitted to ,priest's ,orders1 and took the vows either as professus quatuor votorum1 professed father of four vows1 or as a coadjutor4 ,if he was then sent back to teach1 he gave only the higher instruction4 ,the fourth vow placed him at the disposal of the ,pope4 #ag ,karl ,schmidt 7,gesch4 d4 ,pd41 iij4 #aii1 #bjj71 says that however much teachers were wanted1 a two years' course of preparation was considered indispensable4 ,when the ,novitiate was over the candidate became a 8,junior0 7,gallic 8,juveniste074 ,he then continued his studies in literis humanioribus1 preparatory to teaching4 ,when in the 8,juvenat0 or 8,juniorate0 he had rubbed up his classics and mathematics1 he entered the 8,seminary10 and two or three times a week he expounded to a class the matter of the previous lecture1 and answered questions1 c4 ,for this information ,i am indebted to the courtesy of ,father ,eyre 7,s4 ,j471 of ,stonyhurst4 #ah ,so says ,andrewes 7,american ,journal of ,education71 but other authorities put the age of entrance as high as fourteen4 ,the studia superiora were begun before twenty-four4 #ai 8,non gratia nobilium officiat cultur vulgarium3 cum sint natales omnium pares in ,adam et hreditates quoque pares in ,christo40 #bj ,even junior masters were not to be much addicted to their own language4 8,illud cavendum imprimis juniori magistro ne vernaculis nimium libris indulgeat1 prsertim poetis1 in quibus maximam temporis ac fortasse morum jacturam faceret40--,jouvency4 #ba 8,multum proderit si magister non tumultuario ac subito dicat1 sed qu domi cogitate scripserit4--,it will be a great gain if the master does not speak in a hurry and without forethought1 but is ready with what he has thought out and written out in his own room40--,ratio ,studd41 quoted by ,schmid4 ,and ,sacchini says3 8,ante omnia1 qu quisque docturus est1 egregie calleat4 ,tum enim bene docet1 et facile docet1 et libenter docet2 bene1 quia sine errore2 facile1 quia sine labore2 libenter1 quia ex pleno4444 ,memori minimum fidat3 instauret eam refricetque iterata lectione antequam quicquam doceat1 etiamsi idem spe docuerit4 ,occurret non raro quod addat vel commodius proponat4--,before all things let everyone be thoroughly skilled in what he is going to teach2 for then he teaches well1 he teaches easily1 he teaches readily3 well1 because he makes no mistakes2 easily1 because he has no need to exert himself2 readily1 because1 like wealthy men he cares not how he gives4444 ,let him be very distrustful of his memory2 let him renew his remembrance and rub it up by repeated reading before he teaches anything1 though he may have often taught it before4 ,something will now and then occur to him which he may add1 or put more neatly40 #bb ,in a school 7not belonging to the ,jesuits7 where this plan was adopted1 the boys1 by an ingenious contrivance1 managed to make it work very smoothly4 ,the boy who was 8hearing0 the lessons held the book upside down in such a way that the others read instead of repeating by heart4 ,the masters finally interfered with this arrangement4 #bc ,since the above was written1 an account of these concertations has appeared in the ,rev4 ,g4 ,r4 ,kingdon's evidence before the ,schools ,commission1 #ahfg 7vol4 v1 ,answers #ab1 #bbh ff47 ,mr4 ,kingdon1 the ,prefect of ,studies at ,stonyhurst1 mentions that the side which wins in most concertations gets an extra half-holiday4 #bd 8,the grinding over and over of a subject after pupils have attained a fair knowledge of it1 is nothing less than stultifying--killing out curiosity and the desire of knowledge1 and begetting mechanical habits40--,supt4 ,j4 ,hancock1 ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,every teacher of experience knows how true this is4 #be 8,stude potius ut pauciora clare distincteque percipiant1 quam obscure atque confuse pluribus imbuantur4--,care rather for their seeing a few things vividly and definitely1 than that they should get filled with hazy and confusing notions of many things40 7,there are few more valuable precepts for the teacher than this47 #bf ,sacchini writes in a very high tone on this subject4 ,the following passage is striking3 8,gravitatem sui muneris summasque opportunitates assidue animo verset 7magister74444 #8,puerilis institutio mundi renovatio est2' hc gymnasia ,dei castra sunt1 hic bonorum omnium semina latent4 ,video solum fundamentumque republic quod multi non videant interpositu terr4--,let the mind of the master dwell upon the responsibilities of his office and its immense opportunities4444 ,the education of the young is the renovation of the world4 ,these schools are the camp of ,god3 in them lie the seeds of all that is good4 ,there ,i see the foundation and ground-work of the commonwealth1 which many fail to see from its being underground40 ,perhaps he had read of ,trotzendorf's address to a school1 8,hail reverend divines1 learned doctors1 worshipful magistrates1 c40 #bg 8,circa illorum valetudinem peculiari cura animadvertat 7,rector7 ut et in laboribus mentis modum servent1 et in iis qu ad corpus pertinent1 religiosa commoditate tractentur1 ut diutius in studiis perseverare tam in litteris addiscendis quam in eisdem exercendis ad ,dei gloriam possint40--,ratio ,studd41 quoted by ,schmid4 ,see also infra p4 #fb4 #bh ,the following1 from the ,ratio ,studd41 sounds ,jesuitical3 8,nec public puniant flagitia qudam secretiora sed privatim2 aut si public1 alias obtendant causas1 et satis est eos qui plectuntur conscios esse causarum40 #bi ,as the ,public ,schools ,commission pointed out1 the ,head ,master often thinks of nothing but the attainment of ,university honours1 even when the great majority of his pupils are not going to the ,university4 #cj ,the advantages of learning by heart are twofold1 says ,sacchini3 8,primum memoriam ipsam perficiunt1 quod est in totam tatem ad universa negotia instimabile commodum4 ,deinde suppellectilem inde pulcherrimam congregant verborum ac rerum3 qu item1 quamdiu vivant1 usui futura sit3 cum qu tate illa insederint indelebilia soleant permanere4 ,magnam itaque1 ubi adoleverint1 gratiam ,praeceptori habebunt1 cui memori debebunt profectum1 magnamque ltitiam capient invenientes quodammodo domi thesaurum quem1 in tate cteroqui parum fructuosa1 prope non sentientes parrint4 ,enim vero quam spe viros graves atque prstantes magnoque jam natu videre et audire est1 dum in docta ac nobili corona jucundissime qudam promunt ex iis qu pueri condiderunt8--,first1 they strengthen the memory itself and so gain an inestimable advantage in affairs of every kind throughout life4 ,then they get together by this means the fairest furniture for the mind1 both of thoughts and words1 a stock that will be of use to them as long as they live1 since that which settles in the mind in youth mostly stays there4 ,and when the lads have grown up they will feel gratitude to the master to whom they are indebted for their good memory2 and they will take delight in finding within them a treasure which at a time of life otherwise unfruitful they have been preparing almost without knowing it4 ,how often we see and hear eminent men far advanced in life1 when in learned and noble company1 take a special delight in quoting what they stored up as boys60 ,the master1 he says1 must point out to his pupils the advantages we derive from memory2 that we only know and possess that which we retain1 that this cannot be taken from us1 but is with us always and is always ready for use1 a living library1 which may be studied even in the dark4 ,boys should therefore be encouraged to run over in their minds1 or to say aloud1 what they have learnt1 as often as opportunity offers1 as when they are walking or are by themselves3 8,ita numquam in otio futuros otiosos2 ita minus fore solos cum soli erunt1 consuetudine fruentes sapientum4444 ,denique curandum erit ut selecta qudam ediscant qu deinde in quovis studiorum genere ac vita fere omni usui sint futura4--,so they will never be without employment when unemployed1 never less alone than when alone1 for then they profit by intercourse with the wise4444 ,to sum up1 take care that they thoroughly commit to memory choice selections which will for ever after be of use to them in every kind of study1 and nearly every pursuit in life40--7,cap4 viij47 ,this is interesting and well put1 but we see one or two points in which we have now made an advance4 ,learning by heart will give none of the advantages mentioned unless the boys understand the pieces and delight in them4 ,learning by heart strengthens1 no doubt1 a faculty1 but nothing large enough to be called 8the memory40 ,and the ,renascence must indeed have blinded the eyes of the man to whom childhood and youth seemed an 8tas parum fructuosa06 ,similarly1 ,sturm speaks of the small fry 8qui in extremis latent classibus40 7,quoted by ,parker47 ,but when ,pestalozzi and ,froebel came these lay hid no longer4 #ca ,ranke1 speaking of the success of the ,jesuit schools1 says3 8,it was found that young persons learned more under them in half a year than with others in two years4 ,even ,protestants called back their children from distant schools1 and put them under the care of the ,jesuits40--,hist4 of ,popes1 book v1 p4 #ach4 ,kelly's ,trans4 ,in ,france1 the ,university in vain procured an arrt forbidding the ,parisians to send away their sons to the ,jesuit colleges3 8,jesuit schools enjoyed the confidence of the public in a degree which placed them beyond competition40 7,pattison's ,casaubon1 p4 #ahb47 ,pattison remarks elsewhere that such was the common notion of the ,jesuits' course of instruction that their controversialists could treat anyone1 even a ,casaubon1 who had not gone through it1 as an uneducated person4 #cb 8,sapientum hoc omnium seu veterum seu recentum constans judicium est1 institutionem puerilem tum fore optimam cum jucundissima fuerit1 inde enim et ludum vocari4 ,meretur tatis teneritas ut ne oneretur3 meretur innocentia ut ei parcatur 444 ,qu libentibus auribus instillantur1 ad ea velut occurrit animus1 avide suscipit1 studiose recondit1 fideliter servat40 #cc 8,conciliabit facil studiis quos primm sibi concilirit4 ,det itaque omnem operam illorum erga se observantionem ut sapienter colligat et continenter enutriat4 ,ostendat1 sibi res eorum cur esse non solum qu ad animum sed etiam qu ad alia pertinent4 ,gaudeat cum gaudentibus1 nec dedignetur flere cum flentibus4 ,instar ,apostoli inter parvulos parvulus fiat quo magnos in ,christo et magnum in eis ,christum efficiat 444 ,seriam comitatem et paternam gravitatem cum materna benignitate permisceat40 ,unfortunately1 the ,jesuits' kind manner loses its value from being due not so much to kind feeling as to some ulterior object1 or to a rule of the ,order4 ,i think it is ,jouvency who recommends that when a boy is absent from sickness or other sufficient reason1 the master should send daily to inquire after him1 because the parents will be pleased by such attention4 ,when the motive of the inquiry is suspected1 the parents will be pleased no longer4 #cd 8,errorem existimo statim initio spinosiores quasdam grammatic difficultates inculcare 444 cum enim planioribus insueverint difficiliora paulatim usus explanabit4 ,quin et capacior subinde mens ac firmius cum tate judicium1 quod alio monstrante pergre unquam percepisset per sese non raro intelliget4 ,exempla quoque talium rerum dum praelegitur autor facilius in orationis contextu agnoscentur et penetrabunt in animos quam si solitaria et abscissa proponantur4 ,quamobrem faciendum erit ut quoties occurrunt diligenter enucleentur40 #ce ,see1 e4g41 marvellous instances of their self-devotion in that most interesting book1 ,francis ,parkman's ,jesuits in ,n4 ,america 7,boston1 ,little ,co41 #ajth edition1 #ahgf74 #cf ,i have referred to ,francis ,parkman1 who has chronicled the marvellous self-devotion and heroism of the ,jesuit missionaries in ,canada4 ,such a witness may be trusted when he says3 8,the ,jesuit was as often a fanatic for his ,order as for his faith2 and oftener yet1 the two fanaticisms mingled in him inextricably4 ,ardently as he burned for the saving of souls1 he would have none saved on the ,upper ,lakes except by his brethren and himself4 ,he claimed a monopoly of conversion with its attendant monopoly of toil1 hardships1 and martyrdom4 ,often disinterested for himself1 he was inordinately ambitious for the great corporate power in which he had merged his own personality2 and here lies one of the causes among many1 of the seeming contradictions which abound in the annals of the ,order40--,the ,discovery of the ,great ,west1 by ,f4 ,parkman1 ,london1 #ahfi1 p4 #bh4 #cg ,in a letter dated from ,stonyhurst1 #bbnd ,april1 #ahhj4 #ch ,the best account ,i have seen of life in a ,jesuit school is in ,erinnerungen eines chemaligen ,jesuitenzglings 7,leipzig1 ,brockhaus1 #ahfb74 ,the writer 7,khler87 says that he has become an evangelical clergyman1 but there is no hostile feeling shown to his old instructors1 and the narrative bears the strongest internal evidence of accuracy4 ,some of the ,jesuit devices mentioned are very ingenious4 ,all house masters who have adopted the cubicle arrangement of dormitories know how difficult it is to keep the boys in their own cubicles4 ,the ,jesuits have the cubicles barred across at the top1 and the locks on the doors are so constructed that though they can be opened from the inside they cannot be shut again4 ,the ,fathers at ,freiburg 7in ,breisgau7 opened a 8tuck-shop0 for the boys1 and gave 8week's-pay0 in counters which passed at their own shop and nowhere else4 ,the author speaks warmly of the kindness of the ,fathers and of their care for health and recreation4 ,but their ways were inscrutable and every boy felt himself in the hands of a human providence4 ,as the boys go out for a walk1 one of them is detained by the porter1 who says 8the ,rector wants to speak to you40 ,on their way back the boys meet a diligence in which sits their late comrade waving adieus4 ,he has been expelled4 ,another book which throws much light on ,jesuit pedagogy is by a ,jesuit--,la ,discipline1 par le ,r4 ,p4 ,emmanuel ,barbier 7,paris1 ,v4 ,palm1 #bnd edition1 #ahhh74 ,i will give a specimen in a loose translation1 as it may interest the reader to see how carefully the ,jesuits have studied the master's difficulties4 8,the master in charge of the boys1 especially in play-time1 in his first intercourse with them1 has no greater snare in his way than taking his power for granted1 and trusting to the strength of his will and his knowledge of the world1 especially as he is at first lulled into security by the deferential manner of his pupils4 8,that master who goes off with such ease from the very first1 to whom the carrying out of all the rules seems the simplest thing in the world1 who in the very first hour he is with them has already made himself liked1 almost popular1 with his pupils1 who shows no more anxiety about his work than he must show to keep his character for good sense1 that master is indeed to be pitied2 he is most likely a lost man4 ,he will soon have to choose one of two things1 either to shut his eyes and put up with all the irregularities he thought he had done away with1 or to break with a past that he would wish forgotten1 and engage in open conflict with the boys who are inclined to set him at defiance4 ,these cases are we trust rare4 ,but many believe with a kind of rash ignorance and in spite of the warnings of experience that the good feelings of their pupils will work together to maintain their authority4 ,they have been told that this authority should be mild and endeared by acts of kindness4 ,so they set about crowning the edifice without making sure of the foundations2 and taking the title of authority for its possession they spend all their efforts in lightening a yoke of which no one really bears the weight4 8,in point of fact the first steps often determine the whole course4 ,for this reason you will attach extreme importance to what ,i am now going to advise3 8,the chief characteristic in your conduct towards the boys during the first few weeks should be an extreme reserve4 ,however far you go in this1 you can hardly overdo it4 ,so your first attitude is clearly defined4 8,you have everything to observe1 the individual character of each boy and the general tendencies and feelings of the whole body4 ,but be sure of one thing1 viz41 that you are observed also1 and a careful study is made both of your strong points and of your weak4 ,your way of speaking and of giving orders1 the tone of your voice1 your gestures1 disclose your character1 your tastes1 your failings1 to a hundred boys on the alert to pounce upon them4 ,one is summed up long before one has the least notion of it4 ,try then to remain impenetrable4 ,you should never give up your reserve till you are master of the situation4 8,for the rest1 let there be no affectation about you4 ,don't attempt to put on a severe manner2 answer politely and simply your pupils' questions1 but let it be in few words1 and avoid conversation4 ,all depends on that4 ,let there be no chatting with them in these early days4 ,you cannot be too cautious in this respect4 ,boys have such a polite1 such a taking way with them in drawing out information about your impressions1 your tastes1 your antecedents2 don't attempt the diplomate2 don't match your skill against theirs4 ,you cannot chat without coming out of your shell1 so to speak4 ,instead of this1 you must puzzle them by your reserve1 and drive them to this admission3 #8,we don't know what to make of our new master4' 8,do ,i advise you then to be on the defensive throughout the whole year and like a stranger among your pupils8 ,no6 a thousand times1 ,no6 ,it is just to make their relations with you simple1 confiding1 ,i might say cordial1 without the least danger to your authority1 that ,i endeavour to raise this authority at first beyond the reach of assault40--,la ,discipline1 chap1 v1 pp4 #ca ff4 ,in this book we see the best side of the ,jesuits4 ,they believe in their 8mission10 and this belief throws light on many things4 ,those who hate the ,jesuits have often extolled the wisdom of ,montaigne1 when he says3 8,we have not to train up a soul1 nor yet a body1 but a man2 and we cannot divide him40 ,can they see no wisdom in this8 8,let your mind be filled with the thought that both soul and body have been created by the ,hand of ,god3 we must account to ,him for these two parts of our being2 and we are not required to weaken one of them out of love for the ,creator4 ,we should love the body in the same degree that ,he could love it40 ,this is what ,loyola wrote in #aedh to ,francis ,borgia 7,compayr1 ,doctrines1 c41 vol4 j1 #agi74 ,but if we wish to see the other side of the ,jesuit character1 we have only to look at the ,jesuit as a controversialist4 ,we sometimes see children hiding things and then having a pretence hunt for them4 ,the ,jesuits are no children1 but in arguing they pretend to be searching for conclusions which are settled before arguments are thought of4 ,see1 e4g41 the attack on the ,port ,royalists in ,les ,jsuites ,instituteurs1 par le ,p4 ,ch4 ,daniel1 #ahhj1 in which the ,jesuit sets himself to maintain this thesis3 8,d'une source aussi profondment infecte du poison de l'hrsie1 il ne pouvait sortir rien d'absolument bon0 7p4 #abc74 ,one good point he certainly makes1 and in my judgment one only1 in comparing the ,port ,royalist schools with the schools of ,jesuits4 ,methods which answer with very small numbers may not do with large numbers3 8,you might as well try to extend your gardening operations to agriculture0 7p4 #ajb74 #ci ,i am sorry to use a ,german word1 but educational matters have been so little considered among us that we have no ,english vocabulary for them4 ,the want of a word for ,realien was felt over #bjj years ago4 8,repositories for visibles shall be prepared by which from beholding the things gentlewomen may learn the names1 natures1 values1 and use of herbs1 shrubs1 trees1 mineral-juices 7sic71 metals1 and stones40 7,essay to ,revive the ,antient ,education of ,gentlewomen4 ,london1 #afgb47 #dj ,see the very interesting ,essay on ,montaigne by ,dean ,r4 ,w4 ,church4 #da ,perhaps the saying of ,montaigne's which is most frequently quoted is the paradox ,savoir par cur n'est pas savoir3 78to know by heart is not to know407 ,but these words are often misunderstood4 ,the meaning1 as ,i take it1 is this3 ,when a thought has entered into the mind it shakes off the words by which it was conveyed thither4 ,therefore so long as the words are indispensable the thought is not known4 ,knowing and knowing by heart are not necessarily opposed1 but they are different things2 and as the mind most easily runs along sequences of words a knowledge of the words often conceals ignorance or neglect of the thought4 ,i once asked a boy if he thought of the meaning when he repeated ,latin poetry and ,i got the instructive answer3 8,sometimes1 when ,i am not sure of the words40 ,but there are cases in which we naturally connect a particular form of words with thoughts that have become part of our minds4 ,we then know1 and know by heart also4 #db ,lord ,armstrong has perhaps never read ,montaigne's ,essay on ,pedantry2 certainly1 he has not borrowed from it2 and yet much that he says in discussing 8,the ,cry for ,useless ,knowledge0 7,nineteenth ,century ,magazine1 ,november1 #ahhh71 is just what ,montaigne said more than three centuries ago4 8,the aphorism that knowledge is power is so constantly used by educational enthusiasts that it may almost be regarded as the motto of the party4 ,but the first essential of a motto is that it be true1 and it is certainly not true that knowledge is the same as power1 seeing that it is only an aid to power4 ,the power of a surgeon to amputate a limb no more lies in his knowledge than in his knife4 ,in fact1 the knife has the better claim to potency of the two1 for a man may hack off a limb with his knife alone1 but not with his knowledge alone4 ,knowledge is not even an aid to power in all cases1 seeing that useless knowledge1 which is no uncommon article in our popular schools1 has no relation to power4 ,the true source of power is the originative action of the mind which we see exhibited in the daily incidents of life1 as well as in matters of great importance4444 ,a man's success in life depends incomparably more upon his capacities for useful action than upon his acquirements in knowledge1 and the education of the young should therefore be directed to the development of faculties and valuable qualities rather than to the acquisition of knowledge4444 ,men of capacity and possessing qualities for useful action are at a premium all over the world1 while men of mere education are at a deplorable discount40 7p4 #ffd74 8,there is a great tendency in the scholastic world to underrate the value and potency of self-education1 which commences on leaving school and endures all through life40 7p4 #ffg74 8,i deprecate plunging into doubtful and costly schemes of instruction1 led on by the ignis fatuus that #8knowledge is a power4' ,for where natural capacity is wasted in attaining knowledge1 it would be truer to say that knowledge is weakness40 7p4 #ffh74 #dc ,in another matter1 also1 we find that the masters of these schools subsequently departed widely from the intention of the great men who fostered the revival of learning4 ,wolsey writes3 8,imprimis hoc unum admonendum censuerimus1 ut neque plagis severioribus neque vultuosis minis1 aut ulla tyrannidis specie1 tenera pubes afficiatur3 hac enim injuria ingenii alacritas aut extingui aut magna ex parte obtundi solet40 ,again he says3 8,in ipsis studiis sic voluptas est intermiscenda ut puer ludum potius discendi quam laborem existimet40 ,he adds3 8,cavendum erit ne immodica contentione ingenia discentium obruantur aut lectione prolonga defatigentur2 utraque enim juxta offenditur40 #dd ,professor ,arber is one of the very few editors who give accurate and sufficient bibliographical information about the books they edit4 ,all students of our old literature are under deep obligations to him4 #de ,mayor's is beautifully printed and costs #as4 7,london1 ,bell and ,sons47 #df 8,utile imprimis ut multi prcipiunt1 vel ex ,grco in ,latinum vel ex ,latino vertere in ,grcum2 quo genere exercitationis proprietas splendorque verborum1 copia figurarum1 vis explicandi1 prterea imitatione optimorum similia inveniendi facultas paratur3 simul qu legentem fefellissent transferentem fugere non possunt4 ,intelligentia ex hoc et judicium acquiritur40--,epp4 vii4 #i1 #b4 ,so the passage stands in ,pliny4 ,ascham quotes 8et ex ,grco in ,latinum et ex ,latino vertere in ,grcum40 with other variations4 #dg ,teaching of ,languages in ,schools1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,widgery1 p4 #f4 #dh ,much information about our early books1 with quotations from some of them1 will be found in ,henry ,barnard's ,english ,pedagogy1 #ast and #bnd series4 ,some notice of rare books is given in ,schools1 ,school-books1 and ,schoolmasters1 by ,w4 ,carew ,hazlitt 7,london1 ,jarvis1 #ahhh71 but in this work there are strange omissions4 #di ,the paging is that of the reprint4 ,it differs slightly from that of first edition4 #ej ,mulcaster goes on to talk about the brain1 c4 ,of course he does not anticipate the discoveries of science1 but his language is very different from what we should expect from a writer in the pre-scientific age1 e4g41 8,to serve the turn of these two1 both sense and motion1 ,nature hath planted in our body a brain1 the prince of all our parts1 which by spreading sinews of all sorts throughout all our parts doth work all those effects which either sense is seen in or motion perceived by40 7,el41 p4 #cb47 ,but much as he thinks of the body ,mulcaster is no materialist4 8,last of all our soul hath in it an imperial prerogative of understanding beyond sense1 of judging by reason1 of directing by both1 for duty towards ,god1 for society towards men1 for conquest in affections1 for purchase in knowledge1 and such other things1 whereby it furnisheth out all manner of uses in this our mortal life1 and bewrayeth in itself a more excellent being than to continue still in this roaming pilgrimage40 7p4 #cc47 ,the grand thing1 he says1 is to bring all these abilities to perfection 8which so heavenly a benefit is begun by education1 confirmed by use1 perfected with continuance which crowneth the whole work40 7p4 #cd47 8,nature makes the boy toward2 nurture sees him forward40 7p4 #ce47 ,the neglect of the material world which has been for ages the source of mischief of all kinds in the schoolroom1 and which has not yet entirely passed away1 would have been impossible if ,mulcaster's elementary course had been adopted4 8,is the body made by ,nature nimble to run1 to ride1 to swim1 to fence1 to do anything else which beareth praise in that kind for either profit or pleasure8 ,and doth not the ,elementary help them all forward by precept and train8 ,the hand1 the ear1 the eye be the greatest instruments whereby the receiving and delivery of our learning is chiefly executed1 and doth not this ,elementary instruct the hand to write1 to draw1 to play2 the eye to read by letters1 to discern by line1 to judge by both2 the ear to call for voice and sound with proportion for pleasure1 with reason for wit8 ,generally whatsoever gift ,nature hath bestowed upon the body1 to be brought forth or bettered by the mean of train for any profitable use in our whole life1 doth not this ,elementary both find it and foresee it80 7,el41 p4 #ce74 8,the hand1 the ear1 the eye1 be the greatest instruments10 said the ,elizabethan schoolmaster4 ,so says the ,victorian reformer4 #ea ,i wish some good author would write a book on ,unpopular ,truths1 and show how1 on some subjects1 wise men go on saying the same thing in all ages and nobody listens to them4 ,plato said 8,in every work the beginning is the most important part1 especially in dealing with anything young and tender40 7,rep41 bk4 ii1 #cgg2 ,davies and ,vaughan1 p4 #fe47 ,and the complaints about 8bad grounding0 prove our common neglect of what ,mulcaster urged three centuries ago3 8,for the ,elementarie because good scholars will not abase themselves to it1 it is left to the meanest1 and therefore to the worst4 ,for that the first grounding would be handled by the best1 and his reward would be greatest1 because both his pains and his judgment should be with the greatest4 ,and it would easily allure sufficient men to come down so low1 if they might perceive that reward would rise up4 ,no man of judgment will contrary this point1 neither can any ignorant be blamed for the contrary3 the one seeth the thing to be but low in order1 the other knoweth the ground to be great in laying1 not only for the matter which the child doth learn3 which is very small in show though great for process3 but also for the manner of handling his wit1 to hearten him for afterward1 which is of great moment4 ,the first master can deal but with a few1 the next with more1 and so still upward as reason groweth on and receives without forcing4 ,it is the foundation well and soundly laid1 which makes all the upper building muster1 with countenance and continuance4 ,if ,i were to strike the stroke1 as ,i am but to give counsel1 the first pains truly taken should in good truth be most liberally recompensed2 and less allowed still upward1 as the pains diminish and the ease increaseth4 ,whereat no master hath cause to repine1 so he may have his children well grounded in the ,elementarie4 ,whose imperfection at this day doth marvellously trouble both masters and scholars1 so that we can hardly do any good1 nay1 scantly tell how to place the too too raw boys in any certain form1 with hope to go forward orderly1 the ground-work of their entry being so rotten underneath40 7,,pp41 pp4 #bcc1 #d47 #eb ,quaint as we find ,mulcaster in his mode of expression1 the thing expressed is sometimes rather what we should expect from ,herbert ,spencer than from a schoolmaster of the ,renascence4 ,i have met with nothing more modern in thought than the following3 8,in time all learning may be brought into one tongue1 and that natural to the inhabitant3 so that schooling for tongues may prove needless1 as once they were not needed2 but it can never fall out that arts and sciences in their right nature shall be but most necessary for any commonwealth that is not given over unto too too much barbarousness40 7,,pp41 #bdj47 #ec 8,subject to a regulation like that of the ancient ,spartans1 the theft of knowledge in our sex is only connived at while carefully concealed1 and if displayed is punished with disgrace40 ,so says ,mrs4 ,barbauld1 and ,i have met with similar passages in other female writers4 #ed ,john ,brinsley 7the elder7 who married a sister of ,bishop ,hall's and kept school at ,ashby-de-la-,zouch 7was it the ,grammar ,school87 was one of the best ,english writers on education4 ,in his ,consolation for our ,grammar ,schooles1 published early in the sixteen hundreds1 he says3 8,amongst others myself having first had long experience of the manifold evils which grow from the ignorance of a right order of teaching1 and afterwards some gracious taste of the sweetness that is to be found in the better courses truly known and practised1 ,i have betaken me almost wholly1 for many years unto this weighty work1 and that not without much comfort1 through the goodness of our blessed ,god40 7p4 #a47 8,and for the most part wherein any good is done1 it is ordinarily effected by the endless vexation of the painful master1 the extreme labour and terror of the poor children with enduring far overmuch and long severity4 ,now whence proceedeth all this but because so few of those who undertake this function are acquainted with any good method or right order of instruction fit for a grammar school80 7p4 #b47 ,it is sad to think how many generations have since suffered from teachers 8unacquainted with any good method or right order of instruction40 ,and it seems to justify ,goethe's dictum1 8,der ,englnder ist eigentlich ohne ,intelligenz10 that for several generations to come this evil will be but partially abated4 #ee ,at ,cambridge 7as also in ,london and ,edinburgh7 there is already a ,training ,college for ,women ,teachers in ,secondary ,schools4 #ef ,all we know of his life may soon be told4 ,richard ,mulcaster was a ,cumberland man of good family1 an 8esquier borne10 as he calls himself1 who was at ,eton1 then ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 then at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,his birth year was probably #aecj or #aeca1 and he became a student of ,christ ,church in #aeee4 ,in #aeeh he settled as a schoolmaster in ,london1 and was elected first headmaster of ,merchant ,taylors' ,school1 which dates from #aefa4 ,here he remained twenty-five years1 i4e4 till #aehf4 ,whether he then became1 as ,h4 ,b4 ,wilson says1 surmaster of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,i cannot determine1 but 8he came in0 highmaster in #aeif1 and held that office for twelve years4 ,though in #aeih ,elizabeth made him rector of ,stanford ,rivers1 there can be no doubt that he did not give up the highmastership till #afjh1 when he must have been about #gg years old4 ,he died at ,stanford ,rivers three years later4 ,while at ,merchant ,taylors'1 viz41 in #aeha and #aehb1 he published the two books which have secured for him a permanent place in the history of education in ,england4 ,the first was his ,positions1 the second 8,the first part0 7and1 as it proved1 the only part7 of his ,elementarie4 ,of his other writings1 his ,cato ,christianus seems to have been the most important1 and a very interesting quotation from it has been preserved in ,robotham's ,preface to the ,janua of ,comenius2 but the book itself is lost3 at least ,i never heard of a copy1 and ,i have sought in vain in the ,british ,museum1 and at the ,university ,libraries of ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,his ,catechismus ,paulinus is a rare book1 but ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,lupton has found and described a copy in the ,bodleian4 #eg ,lectures and ,essays3 ,english in ,school1 by ,j4 ,r4 ,seeley1 p4 #bbb4 ,elsewhere in the same lecture 7p4 #bbi7 ,professor ,seeley says3 8,the schoolmaster might set this right4 ,every boy that enters the school is a talking creature4 ,he is a performer1 in his small degree1 upon the same instrument as ,milton and ,shakespeare4 ,only do not sacrifice this advantage4 ,do not try by artificial and laborious processes to give him a new knowledge before you have developed that which he has already4 ,train and perfect the gift of speech1 unfold all that is in it1 and you train at the same time the power of thought and the power of intellectual sympathy1 you enable your pupil to think the thoughts and to delight in the words of great philosophers and poets40 ,i wish this lecture were published separately4 #eh ,rep4 bk4 vii1 #ecf1 ad f42 ,davies and ,vaughan1 p4 #bfd4 #ei ,in ,buisson 7,dictionnaire7 ,no4 #g is 8,the children must have frequent play1 and a break after every lesson40 ,raumer connects this with ,no4 #f1 and says3 8breaks were rendered necessary by ,ratke's plan1 which kept the learners far too silent40 #fj ,in the matter of grammar ,ratke's advice1 so long disregarded1 has recently been followed in the 8,parallel ,grammar ,series10 published by ,messrs4 ,sonnenschein4 #fa ,the ordinary teaching of almost every subject offers illustrations of the neglect of this principle4 ,take1 e4g41 the way in which children are usually taught to read4 ,first1 they have to say the alphabet--a very easy task as it seems to us1 but if we met with a strange word of twenty-six syllables1 and that not a compound word1 but one of which every syllable was new to us1 we might have some difficulty in remembering it4 ,and yet such a word would be to us what the alphabet is to a child4 ,when he can perform this feat1 he is next required to learn the visual symbols of the sounds and to connect these with the vocal symbols4 ,some of the vocal symbols bring the child in contact with the sound itself1 but most are simply conventional4 ,what notion does the child get of the aspirate from the name of the letter h8 ,having learnt twenty-six visual and twenty-six vocal symbols1 and connected them together1 the child finally comes to the sounds 7over #dj in number7 which the symbols are supposed to represent4 #fb ,see ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,bowen's vigorous essay on 8,teaching by means of ,grammar10 in ,essays on a ,liberal ,education1 #ahfg4 ,i have returned to the subject of language-learning in #ae of ,jacotot in the note4 ,see page #dbf4 #fc ,preface to the ,prodromus4 #fd ,preface to ,prodromus1 first edition1 p4 #dj2 second edition 7#afci71 p4 #gh4 ,the above is ,hartlib's translation1 see ,a ,reformation of ,schools1 c41 pp4 #df1 #dg4 #fe ,preface to ,prodromus1 first edition1 p4 #dj2 second edition1 p4 #gi4 ,a ,reformation1 c41 p4 #dg4 #ff ,very interesting are the 8immeasurable labours and intellectual efforts0 of ,master ,samuel ,hartlib1 whom ,milton addresses as 8a person sent hither by some good providence from a far country1 to be the occasion and incitement of great good to this island40 7,of ,education1 ,a4,d4 #afdd47 ,see ,masson's ,life of ,milton1 vol4 iii2 also biographical and bibliographical account of ,hartlib by ,h4 ,dircks1 #ahfe4 ,hartlib's mother was ,english4 ,his father1 when driven out of ,poland by triumph of the ,jesuits1 settled at ,elbing1 where there was an ,english 8,company of ,merchants0 with ,john ,dury for their chaplain4 ,hartlib came to ,england not later than #afbh1 and devoted himself to the furtherance of a variety of schemes for the public good4 ,he was one of those rare beings who labour to promote the schemes of others as if they were their own4 ,he could1 as he says1 8contribute but little0 himself1 but 8being carried forth to watch for the opportunities of provoking others1 who can do more1 to improve their talents1 ,i have found experimentally that my endeavours have not been without effect40 7,quoted by ,dircks1 p4 #ff47 ,the philosophy of ,bacon seemed to have introduced an age of boundless improvement2 and men like ,comenius1 ,hartlib1 ,petty1 and ,dury1 caught the first unchecked enthusiasm4 8,there is scarce one day10 so ,hartlib wrote to ,robert ,boyle1 8and one hour of the day or night1 being brim full with all manner of objects of the most public and universal nature1 but my soul is crying out #8,phosphore redde diem6 ,quid gaudia nostra moraris8 ,phosphore redde diem6'0 ,but in this world ,hartlib looked in vain for the day4 ,the income of #cjj a year allowed him by ,parliament was #gjj in arrears at the ,restoration1 and he had then nothing to hope4 ,his last years were attended by much physical suffering and by extreme poverty4 ,he died as ,evelyn thought at ,oxford in #affb1 but this is uncertain4 #fg ,dilucidatio1 ,hartlib's trans41 p4 #fe4 #fh ,the ,dilucidation1 as he calls it1 is added4 ,all the books above mentioned are in the ,library of the ,british ,museum under ,komensky4 #fi ,masson's ,milton1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bbd1 ,prof4 ,masson is quoting ,opera ,didactica1 tom4 ii1 ,introd4 #gj ,unum ,necessarium1 quoted by ,raumer4 ,compare ,george ,eliot3 8,by desiring what is perfectly good1 even when we don't quite know what it is1 and cannot do what we would1 we are part of the ,divine power against evil--widening the skirts of light and making the struggle with darkness narrower40--,middlemarch1 bk4 iv1 p4 #cjh of first edition4 #ga ,compare ,mulcaster1 supra1 p4 #id4 #gb ,comenius here follows ,ratke1 who1 as ,i have mentioned above 7p4 #aaf71 required beginners to study the translation before the original4 #gc ,professor ,masson 7,life of ,milton1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bje1 note7 gives us the following from chap4 ix 7cols4 #db-dd71 of the ,didactica ,magna3-- 8,nor1 to say something particularly on this subject1 can any sufficient reason be given why the weaker sex sequior sexus1 literally the later or following sex1 is his phrase1 borrowed from ,apuleius1 and1 though the phrase is usually translated the inferior sex1 it seems to have been chosen by ,comenius to avoid that implication should be wholly shut out from liberal studies whether in the native tongue or in ,latin4 ,for equally are they ,god's image2 equally are they partakers of grace1 and of the ,kingdom to come2 equally are they furnished with minds agile and capable of wisdom1 yea1 often beyond our sex2 equally to them is there a possibility of attaining high distinction1 inasmuch as they have often been employed by ,god ,himself for the government of peoples1 the bestowing of wholesome counsels on ,kings and ,princes1 the science of medicine and other things useful to the human race1 nay even the prophetical office1 and the rattling reprimand of ,priests and ,bishops etiam ad propheticum munus1 et increpandos ,sacerdotes ,episcoposque1 are the words2 and as the treatise was prepared for the press in #afch one detects a reference1 by the ,moravian ,brother in ,poland to the recent fame of ,jenny ,geddes1 of ,scotland4 ,why then should we admit them to the alphabet1 but afterwards debar them from books8 ,do we fear their rashness8 ,the more we occupy their thoughts1 the less room will there be in them for rashness1 which springs generally from vacuity of mind40 #gd ,translated by ,daniel ,benham as ,the ,school of ,infancy4 ,london1 #aheh4 #ge ,here ,comenius seems to be thinking of the intercourse of children when no older companion is present2 ,froebel made more of the very different intercourse when their thoughts and actions are led by some one who has studied how to lead them4 ,children constantly want help from their elders even in amusing themselves4 ,on the other hand1 it is only the very wisest of mortals who can give help enough and no more4 ,self-dependence may sometimes be cultivated by 8a little wholesome neglect40 #gf ,comical and at the same time melancholy results follow4 ,in an elementary school1 where the children 8took up0 geography for the ,inspector1 ,i once put some questions about ,st4 ,paul at ,rome4 ,i asked in what country ,rome was1 but nobody seemed to have heard of such a place4 8,it's geography60 said ,i1 and some twenty hands went up directly3 their owners now answered quite readily1 8,in ,italy40 #gg 8,a talent for ,history may be said to be born with us1 as our chief inheritance4 ,in a certain sense all men are historians4 ,is not every memory written quite full of annals4448 ,our very speech is curiously historical4 ,most men1 you may observe1 speak only to narrate40 7,carlyle on ,history4 ,miscellanies47 #gh ,south ,kensington1 which controls the drawing of millions of children1 says precisely the opposite1 and prescribes a kind of drawing1 which1 though it may give manual skill to adults1 does not 8afford delight0 to the mind of children4 #gi 8,generalem nos intendimus institutionem omnium qui homines nati sunt1 ad omnia humana4444 ,vernacul 7schol7 scopus metaque erit1 ut omnis juventus utriusque sexus1 intra annum sextum et duodecimum seu decimum tertium1 ea addoceatur quorum usus per totam vitam se extendat40 ,i quote this ,latin from the excellent article ,comnius 7by several writers7 in ,buisson's ,dictionnaire4 ,it is a great thing to get an author's exact words4 ,unfortunately the writer in the ,dictionnaire follows custom and does not give the means of verifying the quotation4 ,comenius in ,latin ,i have never seen except in the ,british ,museum4 #hj ,in ,sermon on ,charity ,schools1 ,a4,d4 #agde4 ,the ,bishop points out that 8training up children is a very different thing from merely teaching them some truths necessary to be known or believed40 ,he goes into the historical aspect of the subject4 ,as since the days of ,elizabeth there has been legal provision for the maintenance of the poor1 there has been 8need also of some particular legal provision in behalf of poor children for their education2 this not being included in what we call maintenance40 8,but10 says the ,bishop1 8it might be necessary that a burden so entirely new as that of a poor-tax was at the time ,i am speaking of1 should be as light as possible4 ,thus the legal provision for the poor was first settled without any particular consideration of that additional want in the case of children2 as it still remains with scarce any alteration in this respect40 ,and remained for nearly a century longer4 ,great changes naturally followed and will follow from the extension of the franchise2 and another century will probably see us with a ,folkschool worthy of its importance4 ,by that time we shall no longer be open to the sarcasm of 8the foreign friend30 8,it is highly instructive to visit ,english elementary schools1 for there you find everything that should be avoided40 7,m4 ,braun quoted by ,mr4 ,a4 ,sonnenschein4 ,the ,old ,code was in force47 #ha 8,adhuc sub judice lis est40 ,i find the editor of an ,american educational paper brandishing in the face of an opponent as a quotation from ,professor ,n4 ,a4 ,calkins' 8,ear and ,voice ,training03 8,the senses are the only powers by which children can gain the elements of knowledge2 and until these have been trained to act1 no definite knowledge can be acquired40 ,but ,calkins says1 8act1 under direction of the mind40 #hb 8,what do you learn from #8,paradise ,lost'8 ,nothing at all4 ,what do you learn from a cookery book8 ,something new1 something that you did not know before1 in every paragraph4 ,but would you therefore put the wretched cookery book on a higher level of estimation than the divine poem8 ,what you owe to ,milton is not any knowledge1 of which a million separate items are but a million of advancing steps on the same earthly level2 what you owe is power1 that is1 exercise and expansion to your own latent capacity of sympathy with the infinite1 where every pulse and each separate influx is a step upward--a step ascending as upon a ,jacob's ladder from earth to mysterious altitudes above the earth4 ,all the steps of knowledge from first to last carry you further on the same plane1 but could never raise you one foot above your ancient level of earth2 whereas the very first step in power is a flight1 is an ascending into another element where earth is forgotten40 ,i have met with this as a quotation from ,de ,quincey4 #hc ,when ,i visited 7some years ago7 the 8cole ,modle0 at ,brussels ,i was told that books were used for nothing except for learning to read4 ,comenius was saved from this consequence of his realism by his fervent ,christianity4 ,he valued the study of the ,bible as highly as the ,renascence scholars valued the study of the classics1 though for a very different reason4 ,he cared for the ,bible not as literature1 but as the highest authority on the problems of existence4 ,those who1 like ,matthew ,arnold1 may attribute to it far less authority may still treasure it as literature1 while those who despise literature and recognise no authority above things would limit us to the curriculum of the 8cole ,modle0 and care for natural science only4 ,in this country we are fortunately able to advocate some reforms which were suggested by the realism of ,comenius without incurring any suspicion of rejecting his ,christianity4 ,it is singular to see how the highest authorities of to-day--men conversant with the subject on the side of practice as well as theory--hold precisely the language which practical men have been wont to laugh at as 8theoretical nonsense0 ever since the days of ,comenius4 ,a striking instance will be found in a lecture by the ,principal of the ,battersea ,training ,college 7,rev4 ,canon ,daniel7 as reported in ,educational ,times1 ,july1 #ahhi4 ,compare what ,comenius said 7supra p4 #aea7 with the following3 8,children are not sufficiently required to use their senses4 ,they are allowed to observe by deputy4 ,they look at ,nature through the spectacles of ,books1 and through the eyes of the teacher1 but do not observe for themselves4 ,it might be expected that in object lessons and science lessons1 which are specially intended to cultivate the observing faculty1 this fault would be avoided1 but ,i do not find that such is the case4 ,i often hear lessons on objects that are not object lessons at all4 ,the object is not allowed to speak for itself1 eloquent though it is1 and capable though it is of adapting its teaching to the youngest child who interrogates it4 ,the teacher buries it under a heap of words and second-hand statements1 thereby converting the object lesson into a verbal lesson and throwing away golden opportunities of forming the scientific habit of mind4 ,now mental science teaches us that our knowledge of the sensible qualities of the material world can come to us only through our senses1 and through the right senses4 ,if we had no senses we should know nothing about the material world at all2 if we had a sense less we should be cut off from a whole class of facts2 if we had as many senses as are ascribed to the inhabitants of ,sirius in ,voltaire's novel1 our knowledge would be proportionately greater than it is now4 ,words cannot compensate for sensations4 ,the eloquence of a ,cicero would not explain to a deaf man what music is1 or to a blind man what scarlet is4 ,yet ,i have frequently seen teachers wholly disregard these obvious truths4 ,they have taught as though their pupils had eyes that saw not1 and ears that heard not1 and noses that smelled not1 and palates that tasted not1 and skins that felt not1 and muscles that would not work4 ,they have insisted on taking the words out of ,nature's mouth and speaking for her4 ,they have thought it derogatory to play a subordinate part to the object itself40 ,this subject has been well treated by ,mr4 ,thos4 ,m4 ,balliet in a paper on shortening the curriculum 7,new ,york ,school ,journal1 #ajth ,nov41 #ahhh74 8,studies10 says he1 8are of two kinds 7#a7 studies which supply the mind with thoughts of images1 and 7#b7 those which give us #8labels1' i4e4 the means of indicating and so communicating thought4 ,under the last head come the study of language1 writing 7including spelling71 notation1 c40 ,mr4 ,balliet proposes1 as ,comenius did1 that the symbol subjects shall not be taken separately1 but in connexion with the thought subjects4 ,especially in the mother-tongue1 we should study language for thought1 not thought for the sake of language4 ,but after all though we may and should bring the young in connexion with the objects of thought and not with words merely1 we must not forget that the scholastic aspect of things will differ from the practical4 ,when brought into the schoolroom the thing must be divested of details and surroundings1 and used to give a conception of one of a class4 ,the fir tree of the schoolboy cannot be the fir tree of the wood-cutter4 ,the 8boiler0 becomes a cylinder subject to internal or external pressure4 ,it is not the thing that the engine-driver knows will burn and corrode1 get foul in its tubes and loose in its joints1 and be liable to burst4 7,see ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,benton on 8,practical and ,theoretical ,training0 in ,spectator1 #ajth ,nov41 #ahhh74 ,the school knowledge of things no less than of words may easily be over-valued4 ,it should be given not for itself but to excite interest and draw out the powers of the mind4 #hd ,ruskin seems to be echoing ,comenius 7of whom perhaps he never heard7 when he says 8,to be taught to see is to gain word and thought at once1 and both true40 7,address at ,camb4 ,sch4 of ,art1 ,oct4 #aheh47 #he ,as far as my experience goes there are few men capable both of teaching and being taught1 and of these rare beings ,comenius was a noble example4 ,the passage in which he acknowledges his obligation to the ,jesuits' ,janua is a striking proof of his candour and open-mindedness4 ,as an experiment in language-teaching this ,janua is a very interesting book1 and will be well worth a note4 ,from ,augustin and ,alois de ,backer's ,bibliothque des ,ecrivains de la ,c4 de ,jsus1 ,i learn that the author ,william ,bath or ,bathe ,latin ,bateus was born in ,dublin in #aefd1 and died in ,madrid in #afad4 8,a brief introduction to the skill of song as set forth by ,william ,bathe1 gent40 is attributed to him2 but we know nothing of his origin or occupation till he entered on the ,jesuit noviciate at ,tournai in #aeif4 ,either before or after this 8he ran0 as he himself tells us 8the pleasant race of study0 at ,beauvais4 ,after studying at ,padua he was sent as ,spiritual ,father to the ,irish ,college at ,salamanca4 ,here1 according to ,c4 ,sommervogel he wrote two ,latin books4 ,he also designed the ,janua ,linguarum1 and carried out the plan with the help of the other members of the college4 ,the book was published at ,salamanca 8apud de ,cea ,tesa0 #afaa1 #dto4 ,four years afterwards an edition with ,english version added was published in ,london edited by ,wm4 ,welde4 ,i have never seen the ,spanish version1 but a copy of ,welde's edition 7wanting title page7 was bequeathed to me by a friend honoured by all ,english-speaking students of education1 ,joseph ,payne4 ,the ,janua must have had great success in this country1 and soon had other editors4 ,in an old catalogue ,i have seen 8,janua ,linguarum ,quadrilinguis1 or a ,messe of ,tongues1 ,latine1 ,english1 ,french1 ,spanish1 neatly served up together for a wholesome repast to the worthy curiositie of the studious1 sm4 #dto1 ,matthew ,lowndes1 #afag40 ,this must have been the early edition of ,isaac ,habrecht4 ,i have his 8,janua ,linguarum ,silinguis4 ,argentin 7,strassburg71 #afcj10 and in the ,preface he says that the first ,english edition came out in #afae1 and that he had added a ,french version and published the book at ,london in four languages in #afag4 ,i have seen 8sixth edition #afbg10 also published by ,lowndes1 and edited 8opera ,i4 ,h4 7,john ,harmar1 called in ,catalogue of ,british ,museum #8,rector of ,ewhurst'7 ,schol ,sancti ,albani ,magistri primarii40 ,harmar1 ,i think1 suppressed all mention of the author of the book1 but he kept the title4 ,this seems to have been altered by the celebrated ,scioppius who published the book as ,pascasii ,grosippi ,mercurius bilinguis4 ,this ,jesuits' ,janua is one of the most interesting experiments in language teaching ,i ever met with4 ,bathe and his co-adjutors collected as they believed all the common root words in the ,latin language2 and these they worked up into #a1bjj short sentences in the form of proverbs4 ,after the sentences follows a short ,appendix ,de ambiguis of which the following is a specimen3 8,dum malum comedis juxta malum navis1 de malo commisso sub malo vetita meditare4 ,while thou eatest an apple near the mast of a ship1 think of the evil committed under the forbidden apple tree40 ,an alphabetical index of all the ,latin words is then given1 with the number of the sentence in which the word occurs4 ,prefixed to this ,janua we find some introductory chapters in which the problem3 ,what is the best way of learning a foreign language8 is considered and some advance made towards a solution4 8,the body of every language consisteth of four principal members--words1 congruity1 phrases1 and elegancy4 ,the dictionary sets down the words1 grammar the congruities1 ,authors the phrases1 and ,rhetoricians 7with their figures7 the elegancy4 ,we call phrases the proper forms or peculiar manners of speaking which every ,tongue hath40 7,chap4 #a ad f47 ,hitherto1 says ,bathe1 there have been in use1 only two ways of learning a language1 8regular1 such as is grammar1 to observe the congruities2 and irregular such as is the common use of learners1 by reading and speaking in vulgar tongues40 ,the 8regular0 way is more certain1 the 8irregular0 is easier4 ,so ,bathe has planned a middle way which is to combine the advantages of the other two4 ,the 8congruities0 are learnt regularly by the grammar4 ,why are not the 8words0 learned regularly by the dictionary8 #ast1 ,because the ,dictionary contains many useless words2 #bnd1 because compound words may be known from the root words without special learning2 #crd1 because words as they stand in the ,dictionary bear no sense and so cannot be remembered4 ,by the use of this ,janua all these objections will be avoided4 ,useful words and root words only are given1 and they are worked up into sentences 8easy to be remembered40 ,and with the exception of a few little words such as et1 in1 qui1 sum1 fio no word occurs a second time2 thus1 says ,bathe1 the labour of learning the language will be lightened and 8as it was much more easy to have known all the living creatures by often looking into ,noe's ,ark1 wherein was a selected couple of each kind1 than by travelling over all the world until a man should find here and there a creature of each kind1 even in the same manner will all the words be far more easily learned by use of these sentences than by hearing1 speaking or reading until a man do accidentally meet with every particular word40 7,proeme ad f47 8,we hope no man will be so ingrateful as not to think this work very profitable10 says the author4 ,for my own part ,i feel grateful for such an earnest attempt at 8retrieving of the curse of ,babylon10 but ,i cannot show my gratitude by declaring 8this work very profitable40 ,the attempt to squeeze the greater part of a language into #a1bjj short sentences could produce nothing better than a curiosity4 ,the language could not be thus squeezed into the memory of the learner4 #hf ,this book must have had a great sale in ,england4 ,anchoran's version 7the ,latin title of which is ,porta not ,janua7 went through several editions4 ,i have a copy of ,janua ,linguarum ,reserata 8formerly translated by ,tho4 ,horn3 afterwards much corrected and amended by ,joh4 ,robotham3 now carefully reviewed and exactly compared with all former editions1 foreign and others1 and much enlarged both in the ,latine and ,english3 together with a ,portall 444 by ,g4 ,p4 #afdg40 8,w4 ,d40 was a subsequent editor1 and finally it was issued by ,roger ,daniel1 to whom ,comenius dedicates from ,amsterdam in #afei as 8,domino ,rogero ,danieli1 ,bibliopol ac ,typographo ,londinensi celeberrimo40 #hg ,eilhardus ,lubinus or ,eilert ,lueben1 born #aefe2 was ,professor first of ,poetry then of ,theology at ,rostock1 where he died in #afba4 ,this projector of the most famous school-book of modern times seems not to be mentioned in ,k4 ,a4 ,schmid's great ,encyklopdie1 at least in the first edition4 7,i have not seen the second47 ,i find from ,f4 ,sander's ,lexikon d4 ,pdagogik that ,ratke declared he learnt nothing from ,lubinus1 while ,comenius recognised him gratefully as his predecessor4 ,this is just what we should have expected from the character of ,ratke and of ,comenius4 ,lubinus advocated the use of interlinear translations and published 7says ,sander7 such translations of the ,new ,testament1 of ,plautus1 c4 ,the very interesting ,preface to the ,new ,test41 was translated into ,english by ,hartlib and published as 8,the ,true and ,readie ,way to ,learne the ,latine ,tongue by ,e4 ,lubinus10 c41 #afed4 ,the date given for ,lubinus' preface is #afad4 ,l4 finds fault with the grammar teaching which is thrashed into boys so that they hate their masters4 ,he would appeal to the senses3 8,for from these things falling under the sense of the eyes1 and as it were more known1 we will make entrance and begin to learn the ,latin speech4 ,four-footed living creatures1 creeping things1 fishes and birds which can neither be gotten nor live well in these parts ought to be painted4 ,others also1 which because of their bulk and greatness cannot be shut up in houses may be made in a lesser form1 or drawn with the pencil1 yet of such bigness as they may be well seen by boys even afar off40 ,he says he has often counselled the ,stationers to bring out a book 8in which all things whatsoever which may be devised and written and seen by the eyes1 might be described1 so as there might be also added to all things and all parts and members of things1 its own proper word1 its own proper appellation or term expressed in the ,latin and ,dutch tongues0 7pp4 #bb1 #bc74 8,visible things are first to be known by the eyes0 7p4 #bc71 and the joining of seeing the thing and hearing the name together 8is by far the profitablest and the bravest course1 and passing fit and applicable to the age of children40 ,things themselves if possible1 if not1 pictures 7p4 #be74 ,there are some capital hints on teaching children from things common in the house1 in the street1 c4 ,one ,hadrianus ,junius has made a 8nomenclator0 that may be useful4 ,in the pictures of the projected book there are to be lines under each object1 and under its printed name4 7,the excellent device of corresponding numbers seems due to ,comenius47 ,for printing below the pictures ,l4 also suggests sentences which are simpler and better for children than those in the ,vestibulum1 e4g4 8,panis in ,mensa positus est1 ,felis vorat ,murem40 ,in the ,brit4 ,museum there is a copy of ,medulla ,lingu ,grc in which ,l4 works up the root words of ,greek into sentences4 ,he was evidently a man with ideas4 ,comenius thought of them so highly that he tried to carry out another at ,saros-,patak1 the plan of a 8,cnobium0 or ,roman colony in which no language should be used but ,latin4 #hh ,for full titles of the books referred to see p4 #aie4 #hi ,the solitaries of ,port-,royal used to vary their mental toil with manual4 ,a ,jesuit having maliciously asked whether it was true that ,monsieur ,pascal made shoes1 met with the awkward repartee1 8,je ne sais pas s'il fait des souliers1 mais je crois qu'il vous a port une fameuse botte40 #ij ,a master in a great public school once stated in a school address what masters and boys felt to be true4 8,it would hardly be too much to say that the whole problem of education is how to surround the young with good influences4 ,i believe we must go on to add that if the wisest man had set himself to work out this problem without the teaching of experience1 he would have been little likely to hit upon the system of which we are so proud1 and which we call 8the ,public ,school ,system40 ,if the real secret of education is to surround the young with good influences1 is it not a strange paradox to take them at the very age when influences act most despotically and mass them together in large numbers1 where much that is coarsest is sure to be tolerated1 and much that is gentlest and most refining--the presence of mothers and sisters for example--is for a large part of the year a memory or an echo rather than a living voice8 ,i confess ,i have never seen any answers to this objection which apart from the test of experience ,i should have been prepared to pronounce satisfactory4 ,it is a simple truth that the moral dangers of our ,public ,school ,system are enormous4 ,it is the simple truth that do what you will in the way of precaution1 you do give to boys of low1 animal natures1 the very boys who ought to be exceptionally subject to almost despotic restraint1 exceptional opportunities of exercising a debasing influence over natures far more refined and spiritual than their own4 ,and it is further the simple but the sad truth1 that these exceptional opportunities are too often turned to account1 and that the young boy's character for a time--sometimes for a long time--is spoiled or vulgarized by the influence of unworthy companions40 ,this is what public schoolmasters1 if their eyes are not blinded by routine1 are painfully conscious of4 ,but they find that in the end good prevails2 the average boy gains a manly character and contributes towards the keeping up a healthy public opinion which is of great effect in restraining the evil-doer4 #ia 8,the number of boarders was never very great1 because to a master were assigned no more than he could have beds for in his room40 7,fontaine's ,mmoire1 ,carr1 p4 #bd47 #ib 8,plerisque placet media qudam ratio1 ut apud unum ,prceptorem quinque sexve pueri instituantur3 ita nec sodalitas deerit tati1 cui convenit alacritas2 neque non sufficiet singulis cura ,prceptoris2 et facile vitabitur corruptio quam affert multitudo4 ,many take up with a middle course1 and would have five or six boys placed with one preceptor2 in this way they will not be without companionship at an age when from their liveliness they seem specially to need it1 and the master may give sufficient care to each individual2 moreover1 there will be an easy avoidance of the moral corruption which numbers bring40 ,erasmus on ,christian ,marriage quoted by ,coustel in ,sainte-,beuve1 ,p4,riij1 bk4 #d1 p4 #djd4 #ic ,lancelot's 8,new way of easily learning ,latin 7,nouvelle ,mthode pour apprendre facilement la langue ,latine70 was published in #afdd1 his method for ,greek in #afee4 ,this was followed in #afeg by his 8,garden of ,greek ,roots 7,jardin des racines grecques70 7see ,cadet1 pp4 #ae ff47 ,the ,port-,royalists seem to me in some respects far behind ,comenius1 but they were right in rejecting him as a methodiser in language-learning4 ,lancelot in the preface to his 8,garden of ,greek ,roots10 says that the ,janua of ,comenius is totally wanting in method4 8,it would need10 says he1 8an extraordinary memory2 and from my experience ,i should say that few children could learn this book1 for it is long and difficult2 and as the words in it are not repeated1 those at the beginning would be forgotten before the learner reached the end4 ,so he would feel a constant discouragement1 because he would always find himself in a new country where he would recognize nothing4 ,and the book is full of all sorts of uncommon and difficult words1 and the first chapters throw no light on those which follow40 ,to this well-grounded criticism he adds3 8,the entrances to the ,tongues1 to deserve its name1 should be nothing but a short and simple way leading us as soon as possible to read the best books in the language1 so that we might not only acquire the words we are in need of1 but also all that is most characteristic in the idiom and pure in the phraseology1 which make up the most difficult and most important part of every language40 7,quoted by ,cadet1 p4 #ag74 #id ,lematre1 a nephew of ,la ,mre ,anglique1 was one of the most celebrated orators in ,france4 ,in renouncing the world for ,port-,royal1 he retired from a splendid position at the ,bar4 ,such men had qualifications out of the reach of ordinary schoolmasters4 ,dufoss1 in after years1 told how1 when he was a boy1 ,lematre called him often to his room and gave him solid instruction in learning and piety4 8,he read to me and made me read pieces from poets and orators1 and saw that ,i noticed the beauties in them both in thought and diction4 ,moreover he taught me the right emphasis and articulation both in verse and prose1 in which he himself was admirable1 having the charm of a fine voice and all else that goes to make a great orator4 ,he gave me also many rules for good translation and for making my progress in that art easy to me40 7,dufoss's ,mmoires1 c41 quoted by ,cadet1 p4 #i47 ,it was ,lematre who instructed ,racine 7born #afci1 admitted at ,les ,granges1 ,port ,royal des ,champs1 in #afee74 #ie ,in #afgj the ,general of the ,jesuits issued a letter to the ,society against the ,cartesian philosophy4 ,the ,university in this agreed with its rivals1 and petitioned the ,parliament to prohibit the ,cartesian teaching4 ,this produced the burlesque ,arrt by ,boileau 7#afge74 8,whereas it is stated that for some years past a stranger named ,reason has endeavoured to make entry by force into the ,schools of the ,university 444 where ,aristotle has always been acknowledged as judge without appeal and not accountable for his opinions4444 ,be it known by these presents that this ,court has maintained and kept and does maintain and keep the said ,aristotle in perfect and peaceable possession of the said schools 444 and in order that for the future he may not be interfered with in them1 it has banished ,reason for ever from the ,schools of the said ,university1 and forbids his entry to disturb and disquiet the said ,aristotle in the possession and enjoyment of the aforesaid schools1 under pain and penalty of being declared a ,jansenist and a lover of innovations40 7,quoted by ,cadet1 p4 #cd47 #if ,although so much time is given to the study of words1 practice in the use of words is almost entirely neglected1 and the ,english schoolboy remains inarticulate4 #ig ,rollin somewhat extends ,quintilian's statement3 8,the desire of learning rests in the will which you cannot force40 ,about attempts to coerce the will in the absence of interest1 ,i may quote a passage from a lecture of mine at ,birmingham in #ahhd1 when ,i did not know that ,i had behind me such high authorities as ,quintilian and ,rollin3 8,i should divide the powers of the mind that may be cultivated in the school-room into two classes3 in the first ,i should put all the higher powers--grasp of meaning1 perception of analogy1 observation1 reflection1 imagination1 intellectual memory2 in the other class is one power only1 and that is a kind of memory that depends on the association of sounds4 ,how is it then that in most school-rooms far more time is spent in cultivating this last and least-valuable power than all the rest put together8 ,the explanation is easy4 ,all the higher powers can be exercised only when the pupils are interested1 or1 as ,mr4 ,thring puts it1 #8care for what they are about4' ,the memory that depends on associating sounds is independent of interest and can be secured by simple repetition4 ,now it is very hard to awaken interest1 and still harder to maintain it4 ,that magician's wand1 the cane1 with which the schoolmasters of olden time worked such wonders1 is powerless here or powerful only in the negative direction2 and so is every form of punishment4 ,you may tell a boy--#8,if you can't say your lesson you shall stay in and write it out half-a-dozen times6' and the threat may have effect2 but no #8instans tyrannus' from ,orbilius downwards has ever thought of saying1 #8,if you don't take an interest in your work1 ,i'll keep you in till you do6' ,so teachers very naturally prefer the kind of teaching in which they can make sure of success40 #ih ,here as usual ,rollin uses ,quintilian without directly quoting him4 ,he gives in a note the passage he had in his mind4 8,id imprimis cavere oportebit1 ne studia qui amare nondum potest oderit2 et amaritudinem semel prceptam etiam ultra rudes annos reformidet 7,quint41 lib4 j1 cap4 #a470 #ii ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel were also in this sense realists1 but they held that the educational value of knowledge lay not in itself1 but only in so far as it was an instrument for developing the faculties of the mind4 #ajj ,henry ,barnard 7,english ,pedagogy1 second series1 p4 #aib71 speaks of ,hoole as 8one of the pioneer educators of his century40 ,according to ,barnard he was born at ,wakefield1 in #afaj1 and died in #afff1 rector of 8,stock ,billerica0 7perhaps ,stock with ,billericay71 in ,essex4 #aja ,a very interesting suggestion of ,cowley's is that another house be built for poor men's sons who show ability4 ,these shall be brought up 8with the same conveniences that are enjoyed even by rich men's children 7though they maintain the fewer for that cause71 there being nothing of eminent and illustrious to be expected from a low1 sordid1 and hospital-like education40 #ajb ,it would seem as if these ,puritans were more active in body than in mind3 even the seniors1 like the children at ,port-,royal1 tombent dans la nonchalance4 ,dury has to lay it down that 8the ,governour and ,ushers and ,steward if they be in health should not go to bed till ten40 7p4 #cj47 #ajc ,it is a sign of the failure of all attempts to establish educational science in ,england that though the meaning of 8real0 and 8realities0 which connected them with res seemed established in the sixteen hundreds1 our language soon lost it again4 ,according to a writer in ,meyer's ,conversations ,lexicon 7first edition7 8reales0 in this sense occurs first in ,taubmann1 #afad4 ,whether this is correct or not it was certainly about this time that there arose a contest between ,humanismus and ,realismus1 a contest now at its height in the ,gymnasien and ,realschulen of ,germany4 ,for a discussion of it1 see ,m4 ,arnold's 8,literature and ,science10 referred to above 7p4 #aed74 #ajd ,many of ,petty's proposals are now realized in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 #aje ,later in the century ,locke recommended that 8working schools should be set up in every parish10 7see ,fox-,bourne's ,locke1 or ,cambridge edition of the ,thoughts c4 ,ed41 ,app4 ,a1 p4 #ahi74 ,the ,quakers seem to have early taken up 8industrious education40 ,john ,bellers1 whose ,proposals for ,raising a ,college of ,industry 7#afif7 was reprinted by ,robt4 ,owen1 has some very good notions4 ,after advising that boys and girls be taught to knit1 spin1 c41 and the bigger boys turning1 c41 he says1 8,thus the ,hand employed brings ,profit1 the ,reason used in it makes wise1 and the ,will subdued makes them good0 7,proposals1 p4 #ah74 ,years afterwards in a ,letter to the ,yearly ,meeting 7dated #agbc71 he says1 8,it may be observed that some of the ,boys in ,friends' ,workhouse in ,clerkenwell by their present employment of spinning are capable to earn their own living40 #ajf ,petty does not lose sight of the body4 ,the 8educands0 are to 8use such exercises whether in work or for recreation as tend to the health1 agility1 and strength of their bodies40 ,i have quoted ,petty from the very valuable collection of ,english writings on ,education reprinted in ,henry ,barnard's ,english ,pedagogy1 #b vols4 ,petty is in ,vol4 ,i4 ,in this vol4 we have plenty of evidence of the working of the ,baconian spirit2 e4g41 we find ,sir ,matthew ,hale in a ,letter of ,advice to his ,grandchildren1 written in #afgh1 saying that there is little use or improvement in 8notional speculations in logic or philosophy delivered by others2 the rather because bare speculations and notions have little experience and external observation to confirm them1 and they rarely fix the minds especially of young men4 ,but that part of philosophy that is real may be improved and confirmed by daily observation1 and is more stable and yet more certain and delightful1 and goes along with a man all his life1 whatever employment or profession he undertakes40 #ajg 8,in this respect10 says ,professor ,masson1 8the passion and the projects of ,comenius were a world wider than ,milton's40 7,l4 of ,m4 iij1 p4 #bcg47 #ajh ,of ,education4 ,to ,master ,samuel ,hartlib 78the ,tractate0 as it is usually called71 was published by ,milton first in #afdd1 and again in #afgc4 ,see ,oscar ,browning's edition1 ,cambridge ,univ4 ,press4 #aji ,the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,the first examination was in ,june1 #ahhj4 #aaj 8,believe it1 my good friend1 to love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection in this world and the seed-plot of all other virtues40 ,l4 to ,bolde1 quoted by ,fowler1 ,locke1 p4 #abj4 ,this shows us that according to ,locke 8the principal part of human perfection0 is to be found in the intellect4 #aaa ,lady ,masham seems to consider these two characteristics identical4 ,she wrote to ,leclerc of ,locke after his death3 8,he was always1 in the greatest and in the smallest affairs of human life1 as well as in speculative opinions1 disposed to follow reason1 whosoever it were that suggested it2 he being ever a faithful servant1 ,i had almost said a slave1 to truth2 never abandoning her for anything else1 and following her for her own sake purely0 7quoted by ,fox-,bourne74 ,but it is one thing to desire truth1 and another to think one's own reasoning power the sole means of obtaining it4 #aab 8,i am far from imagining myself infallible2 but yet ,i should be loth to differ from any thinking man2 being fully persuaded there are very few things of pure speculation wherein two thinking men who impartially seek truth can differ if they give themselves the leisure to examine their hypotheses and understand one another0 7,l4 to ,w4 ,m41 #bf ,dec41 #afib74 ,again he writes3 8,i am persuaded that upon debate you and ,i cannot be of two opinions1 nor ,i think any two men used to think with freedom1 who really prefer truth to opiniatrety and a little foolish vain-glory of not having made a mistake0 7,l4 to ,w4 ,m41 #c ,sept41 #afid74 #aac ,compare ,carlyle3--8,except thine own eye have got to see it1 except thine own soul have victoriously struggled to clear vision and belief of it1 what is the thing seen or the thing believed by another or by never so many others8 ,alas1 it is not thine1 though thou look on it1 brag about it1 and bully and fight about it till thou die1 striving to persuade thyself and all men how much it is thine6 ,not it is thine1 but only a windy echo and tradition of it bedded an echo bedded8 in hypocrisy1 ending sure enough in tragical futility is thine40 ,froude's ,thos4 ,carlyle1 ij1 #aj4 ,similarly ,locke wrote to ,bolde in #afii3--8,to be learned in the lump by other men's thoughts1 and to be right by saying after others is much the easier and quieter way2 but how a rational man that should enquire and know for himself can content himself with a faith or religion taken upon trust1 or with such a servile submission of his understanding as to admit all and nothing else but what fashion makes passable among men1 is to me astonishing40 ,quoted by ,fowler1 ,locke1 p4 #aah4 #aad ,for ,rabelais1 see p4 #fg supra4 ,in the notes to the ,cambridge edition of the ,thoughts ,locke's advice on physical education is discussed and compared with the results of modern science by ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,payne4 #aae 8,examinations directed1 as the paper examinations of the numerous examining boards now flourishing are directed1 to finding out what the pupil knows1 have the effect of concentrating the teacher's effort upon the least important part of his function40 ,mark ,pattison in ,n4 ,quart4 ,m41 ,january1 #ahhj4 #aaf ,michelet 7,nos fils1 chap4 ij4 ad f4 p4 #agj71 says of ,montaigne's essay3 8c'est dj une belle esquisse1 vive et forte1 une tentative pour donner1 non l'objet1 le savoir1 mais le sujet1 c'est l'homme40 #aag ,pope seems to contrast ,montaigne and ,locke3 8,but ask not to what doctors ,i apply6 8,sworn to no master1 of no sect am ,i3 8,as drives the storm1 at any door ,i knock1 8,and house with ,montaigne now1 or now with ,locke40 ,satires iij41 #bf4 ,perhaps as ,dr4 ,abbott suggests he took ,montaigne as representing active and ,locke contemplative life4 #aah ,see 8,an introduction to the ,history of ,educational ,theories10 by ,oscar ,browning4 #aai 8,history and the mathematics1 ,i think1 are the most proper and advantageous studies for persons of your quality2 the other are fitter for schoolmen and people that must live by their learning1 though a little insight and taste of them will be no burthen or inconvenience to you1 especially ,natural ,philosophy40 ,advice to a young ,lord written by his father1 #afia1 p4 #bi4 #abj 8,il n'y a point avant la raison de vritable ducation pour l'homme40 7,n4 ,h41 #eth ,p41 ,lett4 #c4 ,conf4 supra1 p4 #bbg47 #aba 8,la premire ducation doit donc tre purement ngative4 ,elle consiste1 non point enseigner la vertu ni la vrit1 mais garantir le cur du vice et l'esprit de l'erreur4 ,si vous pouviez ne rien faire et ne rien laisser faire2 si vous pouviez amener votre lve sain et robuste l'ge de douze ans1 sans qu'il st distinguer sa main droite de sa main gauche1 ds vos premires leons les yeux de son entendement s'ouvriraient la raison2 sans prjugs1 sans habitudes1 il n'aurait rien en lui qui pt contrarier l'effet de vos soins4 ,bientt il deviendrait entre vos mains le plus sage des hommes2 et1 en commenant par ne rien faire1 vous auriez fait un prodige d'ducation40 m4 ij41 #hj4 #abb 8,exercez son corps1 ses organes1 ses sens1 ses forces1 mais tenez son me oisive aussi longtemps qu'il se pourra4 ,redoutez tous les sentiments antrieurs au jugement qui les apprcie4 ,retenez1 arrtez les impressions trangres3 et1 pour empcher le mal de natre1 ne vous pressez point de faire le bien2 car il n'est jamais tel que quand la raison l'claire4 ,regardez tous les dlais comme des avantages3 c'est gagner beaucoup que d'avancer vers le terme sans rien perdre2 laissez mrir l'enfance dans les enfants4 ,enfin quelque leon leur devient-elle ncessaire1 gardez-vous de la donner aujourd'hui1 si vous pouvez diffrer jusqu' demain sans danger40 m4 ij41 #hj4 #abc 8,effrayez-vous donc peu de cette oisivet prtendue4 ,que diriez-vous d'un homme qui1 pour mettre toute la vie profit1 ne voudrait jamais dormir8 ,vous diriez3 ,cet homme est insens2 il ne jouit pas du temps1 il se l'te2 pour fuir le sommeil il court la mort4 ,songez donc que c'est ici la mme chose1 et que l'enfance est le sommeil de la raison40 m4 ij41 #ii4 #abd 8,il n'y a pas de philosophie plus superficielle que celle qui1 prenant l'homme comme un tre goste et viager1 prtend l'expliquer et lui tracer ses devoirs en dehors de la socit dont il est une partie4 ,autant vaut considrer l'abeille abstraction faite de la ruche1 et dire qu' elle seule l'abeille construit son alvole40 ,renan1 ,la ,rforme1 #cab4 #abe 8,tout est bien1 sortant des mains de l',auteur des choses2 tout dgnre entre les mains de l'homme40 #abf 8,nous naissons faibles1 nous avons besoin de forces2 nous naissons dpourvus de tout1 nous avons besoin d'assistance2 nous naissons stupides1 nous avons besoin de jugement4 ,tout ce que nous n'avons pas notre naissance1 et dont nous avons besoin tant grands1 nous est donn par l'ducation4 ,cette ducation nous vient ou de la nature1 ou des hommes1 ou des choses4 ,le dveloppement interne de nos facults et de nos organes est l'ducation de la nature2 l'usage qu'on nous apprend faire de ce dveloppement est l'ducation des hommes2 et l'acquis de notre propre exprience sur les objets qui nous affectent est l'ducation des choses40 m4 j41 #f4 #abg 8,puisque le concours des trois ducations est ncessaire leur perfection1 c'est sur celle laquelle nous ne pouvons rien qu'il faut diriger les deux autres40 m4 j41 #g4 #abh 8,vivre ce n'est pas respirer1 c'est agir2 c'est faire usage de nos organes1 de nos sens1 de nos facults1 de toutes les parties de nous-mmes qui nous donnent le sentiment de notre existence4 ,l'homme qui a le plus vcu n'est pas celui qui a compt le plus d'annes1 mais celui qui a le plus senti la vie40 m4 j41 #ac4 #abi 8,on ne connat point l'enfance3 sur les fausses ides qu'on en a1 plus on va1 plus on s'gare4 ,les plus sages s'attachent ce qu'il importe aux hommes de savoir1 sans considrer ce que les enfants sont en tat d'apprendre4 ,ils cherchent toujours l'homme dans l'enfant1 sans penser ce qu'il est avant que d'tre homme4 ,voil l'tude laquelle je me suis le plus appliqu1 afin que1 quand toute ma mthode serait chimrique et fausse1 on pt toujours profiter de mes observations4 ,je puis avoir trs-mal vu ce qu'il faut faire2 mais je crois avoir bien vu le sujet sur lequel on doit oprer4 ,commencez donc par mieux tudier vos lves2 car trs-assurment vous ne les connaissez point40 #acj 8,la nature veut que les enfants soient enfants avant que d'tre hommes4 ,si nous voulons pervertir cet ordre1 nous produirons des fruits prcoces qui n'auront ni maturit ni saveur1 et ne tarderont pas se corrompre3 nous aurons de jeunes docteurs et de vieux enfants4 ,l'enfance a des manires de voir1 de penser1 de sentir1 qui lui sont propres2 rien n'est moins sens que d'y vouloir substituer les ntres40 m4 ij41 #ge2 also in ,n4 ,h41 #dgh4 #aca 8,nous ne savons jamais nous mettre la place des enfants2 nous n'entrons pas dans leurs ides1 nous leur prtons les ntres2 et1 suivant toujours nos propres raisonnements1 avec des chanes de vrits nous n'entassons qu'extravagances et qu'erreurs dans leur tte40 m4 iij41 #ahe4 #acb 8,je voudrais qu'un homme judicieux nous donnt un trait de l'art d'observer les enfants4 ,cet art serait trs-important connatre3 les pres et les matres n'en ont pas encore les lments40 m4 iij41 #bbd4 #acc ,rousseau says3 8,full of what is going on in your own head1 you do not see the effect you produce in their head3 ,pleins de ce qui se passe dans votre tte vous ne voyez pas l'effet que vous produisez dans la leur40 7m4 lib4 ij41 #hc47 #acd 8,or1 toutes les tudes forces de ces pauvres infortuns tendent ces objets entirement trangers leurs esprits4 ,qu'on juge de l'attention qu'ils y peuvent donner4 ,les pdagogues qui nous talent en grand appareil les instructions qu'ils donnent leurs disciples sont pays pour tenir un autre langage3 cependant on voit1 par leur propre conduite1 qu'ils pensent exactement comme moi4 ,car que leur apprennent-ils enfin8 ,des mots1 encore des mots1 et toujours des mots4 ,parmi les diverses sciences qu'ils se vantent de leur enseigner1 ils se gardent bien de choisir celles qui leur seraient vritablement utiles1 parce que ce seraient des sciences de choses1 et qu'ils n'y russiraient pas2 mais celles qu'on parat savoir quand on en sait les termes1 le blason1 la gographie1 la chronologie1 les langues1 etc42 toutes tudes si loin de l'homme1 et surtout de l'enfant1 que c'est une merveille si rien de tout cela lui peut tre utile une seule fois en sa vie40 m4 ij41 #ajj4 #ace 8,en quelque tude que ce puisse tre1 sans l'ide des choses reprsentes1 les signes reprsentants ne sont rien4 ,on borne pourtant toujours l'enfant ces signes1 sans jamais pouvoir lui faire comprendre aucune des choses qu'ils reprsentent40 m4 ij41 #ajb4 #acf 8,non1 si la nature donne au cerveau d'un enfant cette souplesse qui le rend propre recevoir toutes sortes d'impressions1 ce n'est pas pour qu'on y grave des noms de rois1 des dates1 des termes de blason1 de sphre1 de gographie1 et tous ces mots sans aucun sens pour son ge et sans aucune utilit pour quelque ge que ce soit1 dont on accable sa triste et strile enfance2 mais c'est pour que toutes les ides qu'il peut concevoir et qui lui sont utiles1 toutes celles qui se rapportent son bonheur et doivent l'clairer un jour sur ses devoirs1 s'y tracent de bonne heure en caractres ineffaables1 et lui servent se conduire pendant sa vie d'une manire convenable son tre et ses facults40 m4 ij41 #aje2 also ,n4 ,h41 ,p4 v41 ,l4 #c4 ,sans tudier dans les livres1 l'espce de mmoire que peut avoir un enfant ne reste pas pour cela oisive2 tout ce qu'il voit1 tout ce qu'il entend le frappe1 et il s'en souvient2 il tient registre en lui-mme des actions1 des discours des hommes2 et tout ce qui l'environne est le livre dans lequel1 sans y songer1 il enrichit continuellement sa mmoire1 en attendant que son jugement puisse en profiter4 ,c'est dans le choix de ces objets1 c'est dans le soin de lui prsenter sans cesse ceux qu'il peut connatre1 et de lui cacher ceux qu'il doit ignorer1 que consiste le vritable art de cultiver en lui cette premire facult2 et c'est par l qu'il faut tcher de lui former un magasin de connaissances qui servent son ducation durant sa jeunesse1 et sa conduite dans tous les temps4 ,cette mthode1 il est vrai1 ne forme point de petits prodiges et ne fait pas briller les gouvernantes et les prcepteurs2 mais elle forme des hommes judicieux1 robustes1 sains de corps et d'entendement1 qui1 sans s'tre fait admirer tant jeunes1 se font honorer tant grands4 #acg 8,l'activit dfaillante se concentre dans le cur du vieillard2 dans celui de l'enfant elle est surabondante et s'tend au dehors2 il se sent1 pour ainsi dire1 assez de vie pour animer tout ce qui l'environne4 ,qu'il fasse ou qu'il dfasse1 il n'importe2 il suffit qu'il change l'tat des choses1 et tout changement est une action4 ,que s'il semble avoir plus de penchant dtruire1 ce n'est point par mchancet1 c'est que l'action qui forme est toujours lente1 et que celle qui dtruit1 tant plus rapide1 convient mieux sa vivacit40 m4 j41 #dg4 #ach ,it would be difficult to find a man more ,english1 in a good sense1 than the present ,lord ,derby or1 whether we say it in praise or dispraise1 a man less like ,rousseau4 ,so it is interesting to find him in agreement with ,rousseau in condemning the ordinary restraints of the school-room4 8,people are beginning to find out what1 if they would use their own observation more1 and not follow one another like sheep1 they would have found out long ago1 that it is doing positive harm to a young child1 mental and bodily harm1 to keep it learning or pretending to learn1 the greater part of the day4 ,nature says to a child1 #8,run about1' the schoolmaster says1 #8,sit still2' and as the schoolmaster can punish on the spot1 and ,nature only long afterwards1 he is obeyed1 and health and brain suffer40--,speech in #ahfd4 #aci ,all this is very crude1 and so is the artifice by which ,julie in the ,nouvelle ,hlose entraps her son into learning to read4 ,no doubt ,rousseau is right when he says that where there is a desire to read the power is sure to come4 ,but 8reading0 is one thing in the lives of the labouring classes to whom it means reading aloud in school1 and quite another in families of literary tastes and habits with whom the range of thought is in a great measure dependent on books4 ,in such families the children learn to read as surely as they learn to talk4 ,they mostly have access to books which they read to themselves for pleasure2 and of course it is absurdly untrue to say that they learn nothing but words and do not think4 ,in my opinion it may be questioned whether the world of fiction into which their reading gives them the entre does not withdraw them too much from the actual world in which they live4 ,the elders find it very convenient when the child can always be depended on to amuse himself with a book2 but noise and motion contribute more to health of body and perhaps of mind also4 ,while children of well-to-do parents often read too much1 the children of our schools 8under government0 hardly get a notion what reading is4 ,in these schools 8reading0 always stands for vocal reading1 and the power and the habit of using books for pleasure or for knowledge 7other than verbal7 are little cultivated4 #adj 8,il veut tout toucher1 tout manier2 ne vous opposez point cette inquitude2 elle lui suggre un apprentissage trs-ncessaire4 ,c'est ainsi qu'il apprend sentir la chaleur1 le froid1 la duret1 la mollesse1 la pesanteur1 la lgret des corps2 juger de leur grandeur1 de leur figure et de toutes leurs qualits sensibles1 en regardant1 palpant1 coutant1 surtout en comparant la vue au toucher1 en estimant l'il la sensation qu'ils feraient sous ses doigts40 m4 j41 #dc4 #ada 8,voyez un chat entrer pour la premire fois dans une chambre3 il visite1 il regarde1 il flaire1 il ne reste pas un moment en repos1 il ne se fie rien qu'aprs avoir tout examin1 tout connu4 ,ainsi fait un enfant commenant marcher1 et entrant pour ainsi dire dans l'espace du monde4 ,toute la diffrence est qu' la vue1 commune l'enfant et au chat1 le premier joint1 pour observer1 les mains que lui donna la nature1 et l'autre l'odorat subtil dont elle l'a dou4 ,cette disposition1 bien ou mal cultive1 est ce qui rend les enfants adroits ou lourds1 pesants ou dispos1 tourdis ou prudents4 ,les premiers mouvements naturels de l'homme tant donc de se mesurer avec tout ce qui l'environne1 et d'prouver dans chaque objet qu'il aperoit toutes les qualits sensibles qui peuvent se rapporter lui1 sa premire tude est une sorte de physique exprimentale relative sa propre conservation1 et dont on le dtourne par des tudes spculatives avant qu'il ait reconnu sa place ici-bas4 ,tandis que ses organes dlicats et flexibles peuvent s'ajuster aux corps sur lesquels ils doivent agir1 tandis que ses sens encore purs sont exempts d'illusion1 c'est le temps d'exercer les uns et les autres aux fonctions qui leur sont propres2 c'est le temps d'apprendre connatre les rapports sensibles que les choses ont avec nous4 ,comme tout ce qui entre dans l'entendement humain y vient par les sens1 la premire raison de l'homme est une raison sensitive2 c'elle qui sert de base la raison intellectuelle3 nos premiers matres de philosophie sont nos pieds1 nos mains1 nos yeux4 ,substituer des livres tout cela1 ce n'est pas nous apprendre raisonner1 c'est nous apprendre nous servir de la raison d'autrui2 c'est nous apprendre beaucoup croire1 et ne jamais rien savoir4 ,pour exercer un art1 il faut commencer par s'en procurer les instruments2 et1 pour pouvoir employer utilement ces instruments1 il faut les faire assez solides pour rsister leur usage4 ,pour apprendre penser1 il faut donc exercer nos membres1 nos sens1 nos organes1 qui sont les instruments de notre intelligence2 et pour tirer tout le parti possible de ces instruments1 il faut que le corps1 qui les fournit1 soit robuste et sain4 ,ainsi1 loin que la vritable raison de l'homme se forme indpendamment du corps1 c'est la bonne constitution du corps qui rend les oprations de l'esprit faciles et sres40 m4 ij41 #abc4 #adb 8,exercer les sens n'est pas seulement en faire usage1 c'est apprendre bien juger par eux1 c'est apprendre1 pour ainsi dire1 sentir2 car nous ne savons ni toucher1 ni voir1 ni entendre1 que comme nous avons appris4 ,il y a un exercice purement naturel et mcanique1 qui sert rendre le corps robuste sans donner aucune prise au jugement3 nager1 courir1 sauter1 fouetter un sabot1 lancer des pierres2 tout cela est fort bien3 mais n'avons-nous que des bras et des jambes8 n'avons-nous pas aussi des yeux1 des oreilles8 et ces organes sont-ils superflus l'usage des premiers8 ,n'exercez donc pas seulement les forces1 exercez tous les sens qui les dirigent2 tirez de chacun d'eux tout le parti possible1 puis vrifiez l'impression de l'un par l'autre4 ,mesurez1 comptez1 pesez1 comparez40 m4 ij41 #acc4 #adc ,e4g4--,what can be better than this about family life8 8,l'attrait de la vie domestique est le meilleur contrepoison des mauvaises murs4 ,le tracas des enfants qu'on croit importun devient agrable2 il rend le pre et la mre plus ncessaires1 plus chers l'un l'autre2 il resserre entre eux le lien conjugal4 ,quand la famille est vivante et anime1 les soins domestiques font la plus chre occupation de la femme et le plus doux amusement du mari4 ,ainsi de ce seul abus corrig rsulterait bientt une rforme gnrale2 bientt la nature aurait repris tous ses droits4 ,qu'une fois les femmes redeviennent mres bientt les hommes redeviendront pres et maris40 m4 j41 #ag4 ,again he says in a letter quoted by ,saint-,marc ,girardin 7ij41 #aba7--8,l'habitude la plus douce qui puisse exister est celle de la vie domestique qui nous tient plus prs de nous qu'aucune autre40 ,we may say of ,rousseau what mile says of the ,corsair3--8,il savait fond toute la morale2 il n'y avait que la pratique qui lui manqut40 7m4 et ,s4 #fcf74 ,and yet he himself testifies3--8,nurses and mothers become attached to children by the cares they devote to them2 it is the exercise of the social virtues that carries the love of humanity to the bottom of our hearts2 it is in doing good that one becomes good2 ,i know no experience more certain than this3 ,les nourrices1 les mres1 s'attachent aux enfants par les soins qu'elles leur rendent2 l'exercice des vertus sociales porte au fond des curs l'amour de l'humanit2 c'est en faisant le bien qu'on devient bon2 je ne connais point de pratique plus sure40 m4 iv41 #bia4 #add ,elsewhere he asserts in his fitful way that there is inborn in the heart of man a feeling of what is just and unjust4 ,again1 after all his praise of negation he contradicts himself1 and says3 8,i do not suppose that he who does not need anything can love anything2 and ,i do not suppose that he who does not love anything can be happy3 ,je ne conois pas que celui qui n'a besoin de rien puisse aimer quelque chose2 je ne conois pas que celui qui n'aime rien puisse tre heureux40 m4 iv41 #beb4 #ade ,this part of ,rousseau's scheme is well discussed by ,saint-,marc ,girardin 7,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 vol4 ij474 ,the following passage is striking3 8,how is it that ,madame ,necker-,saussure understood the child better than ,rousseau did8 ,she saw in the child two things1 a creation and a ground-plan1 something finished and something begun1 a perfection which prepares the way for another perfection1 a child and a man4 ,god1 ,who has put together human life in several pieces1 has willed1 it is true1 that all these pieces should be related to each other2 but ,he has also willed that each of them should be complete in itself1 so that every stage of life has what it needs as the object of that period1 and also what it needs to bring in the period that comes next4 ,wonderful union of aims and means which shews itself at every step in creation6 ,in everything there is aim and also means1 everything exists for itself and also for that which lies beyond it6 7,tout est but et tout est moyen2 tout est absolu et tout est relatif470 ,j4 ,j4 ,r41 ij41 #aea4 #adf 8,je n'aime point les explications en discours2 les jeunes gens y font peu d'attention et ne les retiennent gure4 ,les choses6 les choses6 ,je ne rpterai jamais assez que nous donnons trop de pouvoir aux mots3 avec notre ducation babillarde nous ne faisons que des babillards40 m4 iij41 #aih4 #adg 8,forc d'apprendre de lui-mme1 il use de sa raison et non de celle d'autrui2 car1 pour ne rien donner l'opinion1 il ne faut rien donner l'autorit2 et la plupart de nos erreurs nous viennent bien moins de nous que des autres4 ,de cet exercice continuel il doit rsulter une vigueur d'esprit semblable celle qu'on donne au corps par le travail et par la fatigue4 ,un autre avantage est qu'on n'avance qu' proportion de ses forces4 ,l'esprit1 non plus que le corps1 ne porte que ce qu'il peut porter4 ,quand l'entendement s'approprie les choses avant de les dposer dans la mmoire1 ce qu'il en tire ensuite est lui3 au lieu qu'en surchargeant la mmoire1 son insu1 on s'expose n'en jamais rien tirer qui lui soit propre40 m4 iij41 #bce4 #adh 8,sans contredit on prend des notions bien plus claires et bien plus sres des choses qu'on apprend ainsi de soi-mme1 que de celles qu'on tient des enseignements d'autrui2 et1 outre qu'on n'accoutume point sa raison se soumettre servilement l'autorit1 l'on se rend plus ingnieux trouver des rapports1 lier des ides1 inventer des instruments1 que quand1 adoptant tout cela tel qu'on nous le donne1 nous laissons affaisser notre esprit dans la nonchalance1 comme le corps d'un homme qui1 toujours habill1 chauss1 servi par ses gens et tran par ses chevaux1 perd la fin la force et l'usage de ses membres4 ,boileau se vantait d'avoir appris ,racine rimer difficilement4 ,parmi tant d'admirables mthodes pour abrger l'tude des sciences1 nous aurions grand besoin que quelqu'un nous en donnt une pour les apprendre avec effort40 m4 iij41 #aic4 #adi ,i avail myself of the old substantival use of the word elementary to express its ,german equivalent ,elementarbuch4 #aej 8,who has not met with some experience such as this8 ,a child with an active and inquiring mind accustomed to chatter about everything that interests him is sent to school4 ,in a few weeks his vivacity is extinguished1 his abundance of talk has dried up4 ,if you ask him about his studies1 if you desire him to give you a specimen of what he has learnt1 he repeals to you in a sing-song voice some rule for the formation of tenses or some recipe for spelling words4 ,such are the results of the teaching which should be of all teaching the most fruitful and the most attractive60 ,translated from ,quelques ,mots1 c41 by ,m4 ,bral4 #aea ,in these visits he observed how the children suffered from working in factories4 ,these observations influenced him in after years4 #aeb ,in these aphorisms ,pestalozzi states the main principles at work in his own mind2 but this bare statement is not well suited to communicate these principles to the minds of others4 ,for most readers the aphorisms have as little attraction as the enunciations1 say1 of a book of ,euclid would have for those who knew no geometry4 ,but as his future life was guided by the principles he has formulated in this paper it seems necessary for us to bear some of these in mind4 ,what he mainly insists upon is that all wise guidance must proceed from a knowledge of the nature of the creature to be guided2 further that there is a simple wisdom which must direct the course of all men4 8,the path of ,nature10 says he1 8which brings out the powers of men must be open and plain2 and human education to true peace-giving wisdom must be simple and available for all4 ,nature brings out all men's powers by practice1 and their increase springs from use40 ,the powers of children should be strengthened by exercise on what is close at hand2 and this should be done without hardness or pressure4 ,a forced and rigid sequence in instruction is not ,nature's method1 says he3 this would make men one-sided1 and truth would not penetrate freely and softly into their whole being4 ,the pure feeling for truth grows in a small area2 and human wisdom must be grounded on a perception of our closest relationships1 and must show itself in skilled management of our nearest concerns4 ,everything we do against our consciousness of right weakens our perception of truth and disturbs the purity of our fundamental conceptions and experiences4 ,on this account all wisdom of man rests in the strength of a good heart that follows after truth1 and all the blessing of man in the sense of simplicity and innocence4 ,peace of mind must be the outcome of right training4 ,to get out of his surroundings all he needs for life and enjoyment1 to be patient1 painstaking1 and in every difficulty trustful in the love of the ,heavenly ,father1 this comes of a man's true education to wisdom4 ,nothing concerns the human race so closely and intimately as--,god4 8,god as ,father of thy household1 as source of thy blessing--,god as thy ,father2 in this belief thou findest rest and strength and wisdom1 which no violence nor the grave itself can overthrow40 ,belief in ,god which is a part of our nature1 like the sense of right and wrong and the feeling we can never quench of what is just and unjust1 must be made the foundation in educating the human race4 ,the subject of that belief is that ,god is the ,father of men1 men are the children of ,god4 ,to this divine relationship ,pestalozzi refers all human relationships as those of parent and child1 of ruler and subject4 ,the priest is appointed to declare the fatherhood of ,god and the brotherhood of men4 ,the only text ,i have seen is that reprinted by ,raumer 7,gesch4 d4 ,pd474 ,from ,otto ,fischer 7,wichtigste ,pdagogen71 ,i learn that this is the edition of #ahjg1 which differs1 at least by omission1 from the original of #aghj4 #aec ,there are now four parts1 first published respectively in #agha1 #aghc1 #aghe1 and #aghg 7,o4 ,fischer74 ,the ,english translation in two small vols4 7#ahbe7 ends with the ,first ,part1 but ,miss ,eva ,channing has recently sought to weld the four parts into one 7,boston1 ,u4,s4--,d4,c4 ,heath ,co471 and in this form the book seems to me not only very instructive but very entertaining also4 ,not many readers who look into it will fail to reach the end1 and few are the books connected with education of which this could prudently be asserted4 8,all good teachers should read it with care10 says ,stanley ,hall in his ,introduction1 and if they thus read it and catch anything of the spirit of ,pestalozzi both they and their pupils will have reason to rejoice4 #aed ,in the pages of this ,journal ,pestalozzi taught that it was 8the domestic virtues which determine the happiness of a nation40 ,again he says3 8,on the throne and in the cottage man has equal need of religion1 and becomes the most wretched being on the earth if he forget his ,god40 8,the child at his mother's breast is weaker and more dependent than any creature on earth1 and yet he already feels the first moral impressions of love and gratitude40 8,morality is nothing but a result of the development of the first sentiments of love and gratitude felt by the infant4 ,the first development of the child's powers should come from his participation in the work of his home2 for this work is what his parents understand best1 what most absorbs their attention1 and what they can best teach4 ,but even if this were not so1 work undertaken to supply real needs would be just as truly the surest foundation of a good education4 ,to engage the attention of the child1 to exercise his judgment1 to raise his heart to noble sentiments1 these ,i think the chief ends of education3 and how can these ends be reached so surely as by training the child as early as possible in the various daily duties of domestic life80 ,it would seem then that at this time ,pestalozzi was for basing education on domestic labour and would teach the child to be useful4 ,but it is hard to see how this principle could always be applied4 #aee ,one of these ,i have already given 7supra p4 #bib74 ,i will give another1 not as by any means one of the best1 but as a fit companion to ,rousseau's 8two dogs40 8#bf4 ,,the ,,two ,,colts4 8,two colts as like as two eggs1 fell into different hands4 ,one was bought by a peasant whose only thought was to harness it to his plough as soon as possible3 this one turned out a bad horse4 ,the other fell to the lot of a man who by looking after it well and training it carefully1 made a noble steed of it1 strong and mettlesome4 ,fathers and mothers1 if your children's faculties are not carefully trained and directed right1 they will become not only useless1 but hurtful2 and the greater the faculties the greater the danger40 ,compare ,rousseau3 8,just look at those two dogs2 they are of the same litter1 they have been brought up and treated precisely alike1 they have never been separated2 and yet one of them is sharp1 lively1 affectionate1 and very intelligent3 the other is dull1 lumpish1 surly1 and nobody could ever teach him anything4 ,simply a difference of temperament has produced in them a difference of character1 just as a simple difference of our interior organisation produces in us a difference of mind40 ,n4 ,hloise4 #eme ,p4 ,lettre iii4 #aef ,pestalozzi was with the children at ,stanz only during the first half of #agii4 #aeg ,as ,pestalozzi wrote to ,gessner 7,how ,gertrude1 c473 8,you see street-gossip is not always entirely wrong2 ,i really could not write properly1 nor read1 nor reckon4 ,but people always jump to wrong conclusions from such #8notorious facts4' ,at ,stanz you saw that ,i could teach writing without myself being able to write properly40 ,he here anticipates a paradox of ,jacotot's4 #aeh ,years afterwards ,napoleon1 though he could not foresee ,sedan1 got a notion that after all there was something in ,pestalozzi2 and that the aim of the system was to put the freedom and development of the individual in the place of the mechanical routine of the old schools1 which tended to produce a mass of dull uniformity4 ,with this aim1 as ,guimps says1 ,napoleon was quite out of sympathy1 and whenever the subject was mentioned he would say1 8,the ,pestalozzians are ,jesuits02 thus very inaccurately expressing an accurate notion that there was more in them than could be understood at the first glance4 #aei ,pestalozzi had from this country some more discerning visitors1 e4g41 ,j4 ,p4 ,greaves1 to whom ,pestalozzi addressed ,letters1 which were translated and published in this country2 also ,dr4 ,mayo1 who was at ,yverdun with his pupils for three years from #ahah and afterwards conducted a celebrated ,pestalozzian school at ,cheam4 ,dr4 ,mayo in #ahbf lectured on ,pestalozzi's system at the ,royal ,institution4 ,sir ,jas4 ,kay-,shuttleworth and ,mr4 ,tufnell also drew attention to it in the 8,minutes of ,council on ,education40 #afj ,the disciple is not above his master1 and if parents and teachers are without sympathy and religious feeling the children will also be without faith and love4 ,this cannot be urged too strongly on those who have charge of the young4 ,but there is no test by which we can ascertain that a master has these essential qualifications4 ,as in the ,christian ministry the unfit can be shut out only by their own consciences4 ,but let no one think to understand education if he loses sight of what ,joseph ,payne has called 8,pestalozzi's simple but profound discovery--the teacher must have a heart40 8,soul is kindled only by soul10 says ,carlyle2 8to teach religion the first thing needful and also the last and only thing is finding of a man who has religion4 ,all else follows40 #afa ,in #ahgb1 a ,congress in which more than #aj1jjj ,german elementary teachers were represented1 petitioned the ,prussian ,government for 8the organization of training schools in accordance with the pedagogic principles of ,pestalozzi1 which formerly enjoyed so much favour in ,prussia and so visibly contributed to the regeneration of the country40 #afb ,did ,pestalozzi make due allowance for the system of thought which every child inherits8 ,croom ,robertson in 8,how we came by our ,knowledge0 7,nineteenth ,century1 ,no4 #a1 ,march1 #ahgg71 without mentioning ,pestalozzi1 seems to differ from him4 ,croom ,robertson says that 8,children being born into the world are born into society1 and are acted on by overpowering social influences before they have any chance of being their proper selves4444 ,the words and sentences that fall upon a child's ear and are soon upon his lips1 express not so much his subjective experience as the common experience of his kind1 which becomes as it were an objective rule or measure to which his shall conform4444 ,he does1 he must1 accept what he is told2 and in general he is only too glad to find his own experience in accordance with it4444 ,we use our incidental1 by which ,i mean our natural subjective experience1 mainly to decipher and verify the ready-made scheme of knowledge that is given us en bloc with the words of our mother-tongue0 7pp4 #aag1 #aah74 #afc ,one of the most interesting and most difficult problems in teaching is this3--,how long should the beginner be kept to the rudiments8 ,with young children1 to whom ideas come fast1 the main thing is no doubt to take care that these ideas become distinct and are made 8the intellectual property0 of the learners4 ,but after a year or two children will be impatient to 8get on10 and if they seem 8marking time0 will be bored and discouraged4 ,then again in some subjects the elementary parts seem clear only to those who have a conception of the whole4 ,as ,diderot says in a passage ,i have seen quoted from ,le ,neveu de ,rameau1 8,il faut tre profond dans l'art ou dans la science pour en bien possder les lments40 8,c'est le milieu et la fin qui claircissent les tnbres du commencement40 ,the greatest 8coach0 in ,cambridge used to 8rush0 his men through their subjects and then go back again for thorough learning4 ,to be sure1 the 8scientific method0 suitable for young men differs greatly from the 8heuristic0 or 8method of investigation10 which is best for children4 7,see ,joseph ,payne's ,lecture on ,pestalozzi47 ,but even with children we should bear in mind ,niemeyer's caution1 8,thoroughness itself may become superficial by exaggeration2 for it may keep too long to a part and in this way fail to complete and give any notion of the whole0 7,quoted by ,o4 ,fischer1 ,wichtigste ,pd4 #bac74 #afd ,nearly #bj years ago 7#ahga7 appeared a paper on 8,elementary ,national ,education0 in which 8,john ,parkin1 ,m4,d410 advocated making all our elementary schools industrial1 not only for practical purposes1 but still more for the sake of physical education4 ,the paper attracted no notice at the time1 but now we are beginning to see that the body is concerned in education as well as the mind1 and that the mind learns through it 8without book40 ,the application of this truth will bring about many changes4 #afe ,herbart1 when he visited ,pestalozzi at ,burgdorf1 observed that though ,pestalozzi's kindness was apparent to all1 he took no pains in his teaching to mix the dulce with the utile4 ,he never talked to the children1 or joked1 or gave them an anecdote4 ,this1 however1 did not surprise ,herbart1 whose own experience had taught him that when the subject requires earnest attention the children do not like it the better for the teacher's 8fun40 8,the feeling of clear apprehension10 says he1 8,i held to be the only genuine condiment of instruction0 7,herbart's ,pd4 ,schriften1 ed4 by ,o4 ,willmann1 j4 #hi74 #aff ,first look to himself1 but there may be other causes of failure as well4 ,the great thing is never to put up contentedly1 or even discontentedly1 with failure4 ,in teaching classes of lads from ten to sixteen years old1 when ,i have found the lessons in any subject were not going well1 ,i have sometimes taken the class into my confidence1 told them that they no doubt felt as ,i did that this lesson was a dull one1 and asked them each to put on paper what he considered to be the reasons1 and also to make any suggestions that occurred to him4 ,in this way ,i have got some very good hints1 and ,i have always been helped in my effort to understand how the work seemed to the pupils4 ,every teacher should make this effort4 ,as ,pestalozzi says1 8,could we conceive the indescribable tedium which must oppress the young mind while the weary hours are slowly passing away one after another in occupations which it can neither relish nor understand 444 we should no longer be surprised at the remissness of the schoolboy creeping like snail unwillingly to school0 7,to ,g41 xxx1 #aej74 #afg ,with ,morf's summing-up it is interesting to compare ,joseph ,payne's1 given at the end of his lecture on ,pestalozzi3 ,i4 ,the principles of education are not to be devised ab extra2 they are to be sought for in human nature4 ,,ii4 ,this nature is an organic nature--a plexus of bodily1 intellectual and moral capabilities1 ready for development1 and struggling to develop themselves4 ,,iii4 ,the education conducted by the formal educator has both a negative and a positive side4 ,the negative function of the educator consists in removing impediments1 so as to afford free scope for the learner's self-development4 ,his positive function is to stimulate the learner to the exercise of his powers1 to furnish materials and occasion for the exercise1 and to superintend and maintain the action of the machinery4 ,,iv4 ,self-development begins with the impressions received by the mind from external objects4 ,these impressions 7called sensations71 when the mind becomes conscious of them1 group themselves into perceptions4 ,these are registered in the mind as conceptions or ideas1 and constitute that elementary knowledge which is the basis of all knowledge4 ,v4 ,spontaneity and self-activity are the necessary conditions under which the mind educates itself and gains power and independence4 ,,vi4 ,practical aptness or faculty1 depends more on habits gained by the assiduous oft-repeated exercise of the learner's active powers than on knowledge alone4 ,knowing and doing 7,wissen und ,knnen7 must1 however1 proceed together4 ,the chief aim of all education 7including instruction7 is the development of the learner's powers4 ,,vii4 ,all education 7including instruction7 must be grounded on the learner's own observation 7,anschauung7 at first hand--on his own personal experience4 ,this is the true basis of all his knowledge4 ,first the reality1 then the symbol2 first the thing1 then the word1 not vice vers4 ,,viii4 ,that which the learner has gained by his own observation 7,anschauung7 and which1 as a part of his personal experience1 is incorporated with his mind1 he knows and can describe or explain in his own words4 ,his competency to do this is the measure of the accuracy of his observation1 and consequently of his knowledge4 ,,ix4 ,personal experience necessitates the advancement of the learner's mind from the near and actual1 with which he is in contact1 and which he can deal with himself1 to the more remote2 therefore from the concrete to the abstract1 from particulars to generals1 from the known to the unknown4 ,this is the method of elementary education2 the opposite proceeding--the usual proceeding of our traditional teaching--leads the mind from the abstract to the concrete1 from generals to particulars1 from the unknown to the known4 ,this latter is the ,scientific method--a method suited only to the advanced learner1 who it assumes is already trained by the ,elementary method4 #afh ,most parents do not seem to think with ,jean ,paul1 8,if we regard all life as an educational institution1 a circumnavigator of the world is less influenced by all the nations he has seen than by his nurse40 7,levana1 quoted in ,morley's ,rousseau47 #afi ,i will quote the first paragraph of this work which is still considered mental pabulum suited to the digestions of young ladies and children3-- 8,name some of the most ,ancient ,kingdoms4--,chalda1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,china in ,asia1 and ,egypt in ,africa4 ,nimrod1 the grandson of ,ham1 is supposed to have founded the first of these ,b4,c4 #bbba1 as well as the famous cities of ,babylon and ,nineveh2 his kingdom being within the fertile plains of ,chalda1 ,chalontis1 and ,assyria1 was of small extent compared with the vast empires that afterwards arose from it1 but included several large cities4 ,in the district called ,babylonia were the cities of ,babylon1 ,barsta1 ,idicarra1 and ,vologsia10 c41 c4 #agj ,i shall always feel gratitude and affection for the two old ladies 7sisters7 to whom ,i was entrusted over half a century ago4 ,more truly ,christian women ,i never met with4 ,but of the science and art of education they were totally ignorant2 and moreover the premises they occupied were unfit for a school4 ,as all the boys were under ten years old1 it will seem strange1 but is alas6 too true1 that there were vices among them which are supposed to be unknown to children and which if discovered would have made the old ladies close their school4 ,the want of subjects in which the children can take a healthy interest will in a great measure account for the spread of evil in such schools4 ,on this point some mistresses and most parents are dangerously ignorant4 #aga ,having watched the 8teaching0 of pupil-teachers1 ,i find that some of them 7,i may say many7 never address more than one child at a time1 and never attempt to gain the attention of more than a single child4 ,so1 by a very simple calculation1 we can get at the maximum time each child is 8under instruction40 ,if the pupil-teacher has but three-quarters of the pupils for whom the ,department supposes him 8sufficient10 each child cannot be under instruction more than two minutes in the hour4 ,the rest of the time the children must sit quiet1 or be cuffed if they do not4 ,what is called 8simultaneous0 teaching in1 say1 reading1 consists in the pupil-teacher reading from the book1 and as he pronounces each word1 the children shout it after him2 but no one except the pupil-teacher knows the place in the book4 ,but perhaps the dangers from employing boys and girls to teach and govern children are greater morally than intellectually4 ,whether he report on it or not1 the ,inspector has less influence on the moral training than the youngest pupil-teacher4 ,channing has well said3 8,a child compelled for six hours each day to see the countenance and hear the voice of an unfeeling1 petulant1 passionate1 unjust teacher is placed in a school of vice40 ,those who have never taught day after day1 week after week1 month after month1 little know what demands school-work makes on the temper and the sense of justice4 ,the harshest tyrants are usually those who are raised but a little way above those whom they have to control2 and when ,i think of the pupil-teacher with his forty pupils to keep in order1 ,i heartily pity both him and them4 ,is there not too much reason to fear lest in many cases the school should prove for both what ,channing has well described as 8a school of vice08 7,r4 ,h4 ,q4 in ,spectator1 #ast ,march1 #ahij47 #agb ,since the above was written1 another 8,new ,code0 has appeared 7,march1 #ahij71 in which the system of measuring by 8passes10 a system maintained 7in spite of the remonstrances of all interested in education7 for nearly #cj years1 is at length abandoned4 ,we are certainly travelling1 however slowly1 away from ,mr4 ,lowe4 ,far as we are still from ,pestalozzi there seems reason to hope that the distance is diminishing4 #agc ,this short sketch of ,froebel's life is mainly taken1 with ,messrs4 ,black's permission1 from the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 for which ,i wrote it4 #agd ,this office was first filled by ,langethal and afterwards by ,ferdinand ,froebel4 ,i learned this at ,burgdorf from ,herr ,pfarrer ,heuer1 whose father had himself been ,waisenvater4 #age ,for this quotation1 and for much besides 7as will appear later on71 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,h4 ,courthope ,bowen4 ,see his paper ,froebel's ,education of ,man4 #agf ,the educator as teacher has his activity limited1 according to ,de,garmo1 to these two things2 87#a7 ,the preparation of the child's mind for a rapid and effective assimilation of new knowledge2 7#b7 ,the presentation of the matter of instruction in such order and manner as will best conduce to the most effective assimilation0 7,essentials of ,method by ,chas4 ,de,garmo1 ,boston1 ,u4,s41 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath1 #ahhi74 ,besides this he must make his pupils use their knowledge both new and old1 and reproduce it in fresh connexions4 #agg 8,little children10 says ,joseph ,payne1 8are scarcely ever contented with simply doing nothing2 and their fidgetiness and unrest1 which often give mothers and teachers so much anxiety1 are merely the strugglings of the soul to get1 through the body1 some employment for its powers4 ,supply this want1 give them an object to work upon1 and you solve the problem4 ,the divergence and distraction of the faculties cease as they converge upon the work1 and the mind is at rest in its very occupation40 ,v4 to ,german ,schools4 #agh ,i entirely agree with ,joseph ,payne that where the language spoken is not ,german1 it would be well to discard ,kindergarten1 ,kindergrtner1 and ,kindergrtnerin4 ,all who have to do with children should master some great principles taught by ,froebel1 but there is no need for them to learn ,german or to use ,german words4 ,the ,french seem satisfied with ,jardin d',enfants1 but we are not likely to be with ,children-,garden4 ,playschool might do4 #agi ,contrast this with what has been said by an eminent thinker of our time3 8,no art of equal importance to mankind has been so little investigated scientifically as the art of teaching40 ,sir ,h4 ,s4 ,maine1 quoted in ,j4 ,h4 ,hoose's ,m4 of ,teaching4 #ahj ,here ,jacotot's notion of teaching reminds one of the sophism quoted by ,montaigne--8,a ,westphalia ham makes a man drink4 ,drink quenches thirst4 ,therefore a ,westphalia ham quenches thirst40 #aha ,see ,h4 ,courthope ,bowen on 8,connectedness in ,teaching0 7,educational ,times1 ,june1 #ahij74 ,mr4 ,bowen quotes from ,h4 ,spencer--8,knowledge of the lowest kind is un-unified knowledge3 science is partially unified knowledge3 philosophy is completely unified knowledge40 #ahb ,as ,i have said above 7p4 #hi7 these methodizers in language-learning may1 with regard to the first stage1 be divided into two parties which ,i have called ,complete ,retainers and ,rapid ,impressionists4 ,two ,complete ,retainers1 ,robertson and ,prendergast1 have1 as it seems to me1 made1 since ,jacotot1 a great advance on his method and that of his predecessor ,ascham4 ,as ,i have had a good deal of experience with beginners in ,german1 ,i will give from an old lecture of mine the main conclusions at which ,i have arrived3--8,my principle is to attack the most vital part of the language1 and at first to keep the area small1 or rather to enlarge it very slowly2 but within that area ,i want to get as much variety as possible4 ,the study of a book written in the language should be carried on pari passu with drill in its common inflexions4 ,now arises the question1 ,should the book be made with the object of teaching the language1 or should it be selected from those written for other purposes8 ,i see much to be said on either side4 ,the three great facts we have to turn to account in teaching a language1 are these3--first1 a few words recur so constantly that a knowledge of them and grasp of them gives us a power in the language quite out of proportion to their number2 second1 large classes of words admit of many variations of meaning by inflection1 which variations we can understand from analogy2 third1 compound words are formed ad infinitum on simple laws1 so that the root word supplies the key to a whole family4 ,now1 if the book is written by the language-teacher1 he has the whole language before him1 and he can make the most of all these advantages4 ,he can use only the important words of the language2 he can repeat them in various connections2 he can bring the main facts of inflection and construction before the learner in a regular order1 which is a great assistance to the memory2 he can give the simple words before introducing words compounded of them2 and he can provide that1 when a word occurs for the first time1 the learners shall connect it with its root meaning4 ,a short book securing all these advantages would1 no doubt1 be a very useful implement1 but ,i have never seen such a book4 ,almost all delectuses1 c41 bury the learner with a pile of new words1 under which he feels himself powerless4 ,so far as ,i know1 the book has yet to be written4 ,and even if it were written1 with the greatest success from a linguistic point of view1 it would of course make no pretension to a meaning4 ,having myself gone through a course of ,ahn and of ,ollendorf1 ,i remember1 as a sort of nightmare1 innumerable questions and answers1 such as 8,have you my thread stockings8 ,no1 ,i have your worsted stockings40 ,still more repulsive are the long sentences of ,mr4 ,prendergast3--8,how much must ,i give to the cabdriver to take my father to the ,bank in ,new ,street before his second breakfast1 and to bring him home again before half-past two o'clock80 ,i cannot forget ,voltaire's mot1 which has a good deal of truth in it1--8,every way is good but the tiresome way40 ,and most of the books written for beginners are inexpressibly tiresome4 ,no doubt it will be said1 8,unless you adopt the rapid-impressionist plan1 any book must be tiresome4 ,what is a meaning at first becomes no meaning by frequent repetition40 ,this1 however1 is not altogether true4 ,i myself have taught ,niebuhr's ,heroengeschichten for years1 and ,i know some chapters by heart2 but the old tales of ,jason and ,hercules as they are told in ,niebuhr's simple language do not bore me in the least4 8,ein ,begriff muss bei dem ,worte sein10 says the ,student in ,faust2 and a notion--a very pleasing notion1 too--remains to me about every word in the ,heroengeschichten4 ,these1 then1 would be my books to be worked at the same time by a beginner1 say in ,german3--,a book for drill in the principal inflexions1 followed by the main facts about gender1 c41 and a book like the ,heroengeschichten4 ,this ,i would have prepared very much after the ,robertsonian manner4 ,it should be printed1 as should also the ,primer1 in good-sized ,roman type2 though1 in an appendix1 some of it should be reprinted in ,german type4 ,the book should be divided into short lessons4 ,a translation of each lesson should be given in parallel columns4 ,then should come a vocabulary1 in which all useful information should be given about the really important words1 the unimportant words being neglected4 ,finally should come variations1 and exercises in the lessons2 and in these the important words of that and previous lessons should be used exclusively4 ,the exercises should be such as the pupils could do in writing out of school1 and viv voce in school4 ,they should be very easy--real exercises in what is already known1 not a series of linguistic puzzles4 ,the object of the exercises1 and also of a vast number of viv voce questions1 should be to accustom the pupil to use his knowledge readily4 7,but some teachers1 young teachers especially1 are always cross-examining1 and seem to themselves to fail when their questions are answered without difficulty47 ,the ear1 the voice1 the hand1 should all be practised on each lesson4 ,when the construing is known1 transcription of the ,german is not by any means to be despised4 ,a good variety of transcription is1 for the teacher to write the ,german clause by clause on the black-board1 and rub out each clause before the pupils begin to write it4 ,then a known piece may be prepared for dictation4 ,in reading this as dictation1 the master may introduce small variations1 to teach his pupils to keep their ears open4 ,he may1 as another exercise1 read the ,german aloud1 and stop here and there for the boys to give the ,english of the last sentence read2 or he may read to them either the exact ,german in the book or small variations on it1 and make the pupils translate viv voce1 clause by clause4 ,he may then ask questions on the piece in ,german and require answers in ,english4 ,for exercises1 there are many devices by which the pupil may be trained to observation1 and also be confirmed in his knowledge of back lessons4 ,the great teacher1 ,f4 ,a4 ,wolf1 used to make his own children ascertain how many times such and such a word occurred in such and such pages4 ,as ,m4 ,bral says1 children are collectors by nature2 and1 acting on this hint1 we might say1 8,write in column all the dative cases on pages a to c1 and give the ,english and the corresponding nominatives40 ,or1 8,copy from those pages all the accusative prepositions with the accusatives after them40 ,or1 8,write out the past participles1 with their infinitives40 ,or1 8,translate such and such sentences1 and explain them with reference to the context40 ,or1 questions may be asked on the subject-matter of the book4 ,there is no end to the possible varieties of such exercises4 ,as soon as they get any feeling of the language1 the pupils should learn by heart some easy poetry in it4 ,i should recommend their learning the ,english of the piece first1 and then getting the ,german viv voce from the teacher4 ,to quicken the ,german in their minds1 ,i think it is well to give them in addition a ,german prose version1 using almost the same words4 ,variations of the more important sentences should be learnt at the same time4 ,in all these suggestions you will see what ,i am aiming at4 ,i wish the learner to get a feeling of1 and a power over1 the main words of the language and the machinery in which they are employed4 #ahc ,i append in a note a passage from the old edition of this book referring to the ,cambridge man of forty years ago4 8,the typical ,cambridge man studies mathematics1 not because he likes mathematics1 or derives any pleasure from the perception of mathematical truth1 still less with the notion of ever using his knowledge2 but either because1 if he is 8a good man10 he hopes for a fellowship1 or because1 if he cannot aspire so high1 he considers reading the thing to do1 and finds a satisfaction in mental effort just as he does in a constitutional to the ,gogmagogs4 ,when such a student takes his degree1 he is by no means a highly cultivated man2 but he is not the sort of man we can despise for all that4 ,he has in him1 to use one of his own metaphors1 a considerable amount of force1 which may be applied in any direction4 ,he has great power of concentration and sustained mental effort even on subjects which are distasteful to him4 ,in other words1 his mind is under the control of his will1 and he can bring it to bear promptly and vigorously on anything put before him4 ,he will sometimes be half through a piece of work1 while an average ,oxonian 7as we ,cambridge men conceive of him at least7 is thinking about beginning4 ,but his training has taught him to value mental force without teaching him to care about its application4 ,perhaps he has been working at the gymnasium1 and has at length succeeded in 8putting up0 a hundredweight4 ,in learning to do this1 he has been acquiring strength for its own sake4 ,he does not want to put up hundredweights1 but simply to be able to put them up1 and his reward is the consciousness of power4 ,now the tripos is a kind of competitive examination in putting up weights4 ,the student who has been training for it1 has acquired considerable mental vigour1 and when he has put up his weight he falls back on the consciousness of strength which he seldom thinks of using4 ,having put up the heavier1 he despises the lighter weights4 ,he rather prides himself on his ignorance of such things as history1 modern languages1 and ,english literature4 ,he 8can get those up in a few evenings10 whenever he wants them4 ,he reminds me1 indeed1 of a tradesman who has worked hard to have a large balance at his banker's4 ,this done1 he is satisfied4 ,he has neither taste nor desire for the things which make wealth valuable2 but when he sees other people in the enjoyment of them1 he hugs himself with the consciousness that he can write a cheque for such things whenever he pleases40 #ahd ,on this interesting subject ,i will quote three men who said nothing inepte--,de ,morgan1 ,helps1 and the first ,sir ,james ,stephen4 ,de ,morgan1 speaking of ,jacotot's plan1 wrote3--8,there is much truth in the assertion that new knowledge hooks on easily to a little of the old thoroughly mastered4 ,the day is coming when it will be found out that crammed erudition got up for examination1 does not cast out any hooks for more40 7,budget of ,paradoxes1 p4 #c47 ,elsewhere he says3--8,when the student has occupied his time in learning a moderate portion of many different things1 what has he acquired--extensive knowledge or useful habits8 ,even if he can be said to have varied learning1 it will not long be true of him1 for nothing flies so quickly as half-digested knowledge2 and when this is gone1 there remains but a slender portion of useful power4 ,a small quantity of learning quickly evaporates from a mind which never held any learning except in small quantities2 and the intellectual philosopher can perhaps explain the following phenomenon--that men who have given deep attention to one or more liberal studies1 can learn to the end of their lives1 and are able to retain and apply very small quantities of other kinds of knowledge2 while those who have never learnt much of any one thing seldom acquire new knowledge after they attain to years of maturity1 and frequently lose the greater part of that which they once possessed40 ,sir ,arthur ,helps in ,reading 7,friends in ,c47 says3--8,all things are so connected together that a man who knows one subject well1 cannot1 if he would1 have failed to have acquired much besides2 and that man will not be likely to keep fewer pearls who has a string to put them on than he who picks them up and throws them together without method4 ,this1 however1 is a very poor metaphor to represent the matter2 for what ,i would aim at producing not merely holds together what is gained1 but has vitality in itself--is always growing4 ,and anybody will confirm this who in his own case has had any branch of study or human affairs to work upon2 for he must have observed how all he meets seems to work in with1 and assimilate itself to1 his own peculiar subject4 ,during his lonely walks1 or in society1 or in action1 it seems as if this one pursuit were something almost independent of himself1 always on the watch1 and claiming its share in whatever is going on40 ,in his ,lecture on ,desultory and ,systematic ,reading1 ,sir ,james ,stephen said3--8,learning is a world1 not a chaos4 ,the various accumulations of human knowledge are not so many detached masses4 ,they are all connected parts of one great system of truth1 and though that system be infinitely too comprehensive for any one of us to compass1 yet each component member of it bears to every other component member relations which each of us may1 in his own department of study1 search out and discover for himself4 ,a man is really and soundly learned in exact proportion to the number and to the importance of those relations which he has thus carefully examined and accurately understood40 #ahe ,this essay1 which was written nearly twenty-five years ago1 ,i leave as it stands4 ,i take some credit to myself for having early recognised the importance of a book now famous4 7,june1 #ahij47 #ahf ,this proposition has been ably discussed by ,president ,w4 ,h4 ,payne4 ,contributions to the ,science of ,education4 8,education ,values40 #ahg 8,the brewer10 as ,mr4 ,spencer himself tells us1 8if his business is very extensive1 finds it pay to keep a chemist on the premises0--pay a good deal better1 ,i suspect1 than learning chemistry at school4 #ahh ,helps1 who by taste and talent is eminently literary1 put in this claim for science more than #bj now nearer #ej years ago4 8,the higher branches of method cannot be taught at first2 but you may begin by teaching orderliness of mind4 ,collecting1 classifying1 contrasting1 and weighing facts are some of the processes by which method is taught4444 ,scientific method may be acquired without many sciences being learnt2 but one or two great branches of science must be accurately known40 7,friends in ,council1 ,education47 ,helps1 though by his delightful style he never gives the reader any notion of over compression1 has told us more truth about education in a few pages than one sometimes meets with in a complete treatise4 #ahi ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 7who by the way1 would leave history entirely to private reading1 ,address at ,st4 ,andrews1 p4 #ba71 has pointed out that 8there is not a fact in history which is not susceptible of as many different explanations as there are possible theories of human affairs10 and that 8history is not the foundation but the verification of the social science40 ,but he admits that 8what we know of former ages1 like what we know of foreign nations1 is1 with all its imperfectness1 of much use1 by correcting the narrowness incident to personal experience40 7,dissertations1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aab47 #aij ,it is difficult to treat seriously the arguments by which ,mr4 ,spencer endeavours to show that a knowledge of science is necessary for the practice or the enjoyment of the fine arts4 ,of course1 the highest art of every kind is based on science1 that is1 on truths which science takes cognizance of and explains2 but it does not therefore follow that 8without science there can be neither perfect production nor full appreciation40 ,mr4 ,spencer tells us of mistakes which ,john ,lewis and ,rossetti have made for want of science4 ,very likely2 and had those gentlemen devoted much of their time to science we should never have heard of their blunders--or of their pictures either4 ,if they were to paint a piece of woodwork1 a carpenter might1 perhaps1 detect something amiss in the mitring4 ,if they painted a wall1 a bricklayer might point out that with their arrangement of stretchers and headers the wall would tumble down for want of a proper bond4 ,but even ,mr4 ,spencer would not wish them to spend their time in mastering the technicalities of every handicraft1 in order to avoid these inaccuracies4 ,it is the business of the painter to give us form and colour as they reveal themselves to the eye1 not to prepare illustrations of scientific text-books4 ,the physical sciences1 however1 are only part of the painter's necessary equipment1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer4 8,he must also understand how the minds of spectators will be affected by the several peculiarities of his work--a question in psychology60 ,still more surprising is ,mr4 ,spencer's dictum about poetry4 8,its rhythm1 its strong and numerous metaphors1 its hyperboles1 its violent inversions1 are simply exaggerations of the traits of excited speech4 ,to be good1 therefore1 poetry must pay attention to those laws of nervous action which excited speech obeys40 ,it is difficult to see how poetry can pay attention to anything4 ,the poet1 of course must not violate those laws1 but1 if he has paid attention to them in composing1 he will do well to present his ,,ms4 to the local newspaper4 ,it seems the class is not extinct of whom ,pope wrote3-- 8,some drily plain1 without invention's aid 8,write dull receipts how poems may be made40 ,essay on ,criticism4 #aia ,speaking of law1 medicine1 engineering1 and the industrial arts1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill remarks3 8,whether those whose speciality they are will learn them as a branch of intelligence or as a mere trade1 and whether having learnt them1 they will make a wise and conscientious use of them1 or the reverse1 depends less on the manner in which they are taught their profession1 than upon what sort of mind they bring to it--what kind of intelligence and of conscience the general system of education has developed in them40--,address at ,st4 ,andrews1 p4 #f4 #aib 8,comme vous n'avez pas su ou comme vous n'avez pas voulu atteindre la pense de l'enfant1 vous n'avez aucune action sur son dveloppement moral et intellectuel4 ,vous tes le matre de latin et de grec40 ,bral4 ,quelques ,mots1 c41 p4 #bdc4 #aic ,mr4 ,spencer does not mention this principle in his enumeration1 but1 no doubt1 considers he implies it4 #aid 8,si l'on partageait toute la science humaine en deux parties1 l'une commune tous les hommes1 l'autre particulire aux savants1 celle-ci serait trs-petite en comparaison de l'autre4 ,mais nous ne songeons gure aux acquisitions gnrales1 parce qu'elles se font sans qu'on y pense1 et mme avant l'ge de raison2 que d'ailleurs le savoir ne se fait remarquer que par ses diffrences1 et que1 comme dans les quations d'algbre1 les quantits communes se comptent pour rien40--mile1 livre i4 #aie ,this is well said in ,dr4 ,john ,brown's admirable paper ,education through the ,senses4 7,hor ,subseciv1 pp4 #cac1 #cad47 #aif ,after remarking on the wrong order in which subjects are taught1 he continues1 8,what with perceptions unnaturally dulled by early thwartings1 and a coerced attention to books1 what with the mental confusion produced by teaching subjects before they can be understood1 and in each of them giving generalisations before the facts of which they are the generalisations1 what with making the pupil a mere passive recipient of others' ideas and not in the least leading him to be an active inquirer or self-instructor1 and what with taxing the faculties to excess1 there are very few minds that become as efficient as they might be40 #aig ,a class of boys whom ,i once took in ,latin ,delectus denied1 with the utmost confidence1 when ,i questioned them on the subject1 that there were any such things in ,english as verbs and substantives4 ,on another occasion1 ,i saw a poor boy of nine or ten caned1 because1 when he had said that proficiscor was a deponent verb1 he could not say what a deponent verb was4 ,even if he had remembered the inaccurate grammar definition expected of him1 8,a deponent verb is a verb with a passive form and an active meaning10 his comprehension of proficiscor would have been no greater4 ,it is worth observing that1 even when offending grievously in great matters against the principle of connecting fresh knowledge with the old1 teachers are sometimes driven to it in small4 ,they find that it is better for boys to see that lignum is like regnum1 and laudare like amare1 than simply to learn that lignum is of the ,second ,declension1 and laudare of the ,first ,conjugation4 ,if boys had to learn by a mere effort of memory the particular declension or conjugation of ,latin words before they were taught anything about declensions and conjugations1 this would be as sensible as the method adopted in some other instances1 and the teachers might urge1 as usual1 that the information would come in useful afterwards4 #aih ,mr4 ,spencer and ,professor ,tyndall appeal to the results of experience as justifying a more rational method of teaching4 ,speaking of geometrical deductions1 ,mr4 ,spencer says3 8,it has repeatedly occurred that those who have been stupefied by the ordinary school-drill--by its abstract formulas1 its wearisome tasks1 its cramming--have suddenly had their intellects roused by thus ceasing to make them passive recipients1 and inducing them to become active discoverers4 ,the discouragement caused by bad teaching having been diminished by a little sympathy1 and sufficient perseverance excited to achieve a first success1 there arises a revolution of feeling affecting the whole nature4 ,they no longer find themselves incompetent2 they too can do something4 ,and gradually1 as success follows success1 the incubus of despair disappears1 and they attack the difficulties of their other studies with a courage insuring conquest40 #aii ,on this subject ,i can quote the authority of a great observer of the mind--no less a man1 indeed1 than ,wordsworth4 ,he speaks of the 8grand elementary principal of pleasure1 by which man knows1 and feels1 and lives1 and moves4 ,we have no sympathy10 he continues1 8but what is propagated by pleasure--,i would not be misunderstood--but wherever we sympathise with pain1 it will be found that the sympathy is produced and carried on by subtile combinations with pleasure4 ,we have no knowledge1 that is1 no general principles drawn from the contemplation of particular facts1 but what has been built up by pleasure1 and exists in us by pleasure alone4 ,the man of science1 the chemist1 and mathematician1 whatever difficulties and disgusts they may have to struggle with1 know and feel this4 ,however painful may be the objects with which the anatomist's knowledge may be connected1 he feels that his knowledge is pleasure1 and when he has no pleasure he has no knowledge40--,preface to second edition of ,lyrical ,ballads4 ,so ,wordsworth would have agreed with ,tranio3 7,t4 of ,shrew1 j4 #a47 8,no profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en2 ,in brief1 ,sir1 study what you most affect40 #bjj ,this remark1 ,i am glad to say1 is much less true now 7#ahij7 than when first published4 ,indeed some purveyors of books for children are getting to rely too exclusively on the pictures1 just as ,i have noticed that an organ-grinder with a monkey seldom or never has a good organ4 ,of large pictures for class teaching1 some of the best ,i have seen 7both for history and natural history7 are published by the ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #bja ,tillich's boxes of bricks 7sold by the ,b'ham ,midland ,educational ,supply ,company1 and by ,arnold1 ,briggate1 ,leeds71 are very useful for 8intuitive0 arithmetic3 for higher stages one might say the same of ,w4 ,wooding's 8,decimal ,abacus0 with vertical wires4 #bjb ,the grammar question is still a perplexing one4 ,there are ,inspectors who require children 7as ,i once heard in a remote country school7 to distinguish 8#g kinds of adverbs40 ,then we have children discriminating after the fashion of one of my own pupils1 7,i quote from a grammar paper17 8,parse it40 8,it is a prepreition4 ,almost all small words are prepreitions40 ,in such cases it is very hard indeed to find any common ground for the minds of the old and the young4 ,the true way ,i believe is to lead the young to make their own observations4 ,the way is very very slow1 but it developes power4 ,i have lately seen an interesting little book on these lines1 called ,language ,work by ,dr4 ,de ,garmo 7,bloomington1 ,ill41 ,u4,s4,a47 #bjc ,books for a beginner should contain a little matter in much space1 and1 as they are usually written1 they contain much matter in a little space4 ,nothing can be truer than the saying of ,lakanal1 8,l'abrg est le contraire de l'lmntaire3 ,that which is abridged is just the opposite of that which is elementary40 ,when shall we learn what seems obvious in itself and what is taught us by the great authorities8 8,epitome10 says ,ascham1 8is good privately for himself that doth work it1 but ill commonly for all others that use other men's labour therein4 ,a silly poor kind of study1 not unlike to the doing of those poor folk which neither till1 nor sow1 nor reap themselves1 but glean by stealth upon other's grounds4 ,such have empty barns for dear years40 7,school ,master1 ,book ij47 ,bacon says 7,de ,aug41 lib4 vj41 cap4 iv471 8,ad pdagogicam quod attinet brevissimum foret dictu4444 ,illud imprimis consuluerim ut caveatur a compendiis3 ,not much about pedagogics4444 ,my chief advice is1 keep clear of compendiums40 ,and yet 8the table of contents0 method which ,i suggested in irony ,i afterwards found proposed in all seriousness in an announcement of ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bright's ,english ,history3 8,the marginal analysis has been collected at the beginning of the volume so as to form an abstract of the history suitable for the use of those who are beginning the study40 ,i would rather listen to ,oliver ,goldsmith3 8,in history1 such stories alone should be laid before them as might catch the imagination3 instead of this1 they are too frequently obliged to toil through the four ,empires1 as they are called1 where their memories are burthened by a number of disgusting names that destroy all their future relish for our best historians40 7,letter on ,education in the ,bee3 a letter containing so much new truth that ,goldsmith in re-publishing it had to point out that it had appeared before ,rousseau's ,emile47 ,a modern authority on education has come to the same conclusion as ,goldsmith4 8,the first teaching in history will not give dates1 but will show the learner men and actions likely to make an impression on him4 ,der erste ,geschichtsunterricht wird nicht ,jahreszahlen geben1 sondern eindrucksvolle ,personen und ,thaten vorfhren40 7,l4 ,wiese's ,deutsche ,bildungsfragen1 #ahga47 #bjd ,dr4 ,jas4 ,donaldson has well said of the educator3--8,the most unguarded of his acts1 those which come from the depth of his nature1 uncalled for and unbidden1 are the actions which have the most powerful influence40 ,chambers' ,information sub v4 ,education1 p4 #efe4 #bje 8,that you are wife ,to so much bloated flesh as scarce hath soul ,instead of salt to keep it sweet1 ,i think ,will ask no witnesses to prove40 ,,ben ,,jonson3 ,the ,devil is an ,ass1 ,act i4 sc4 #c4 #bjf ,i fortify myself with the following quotation from the ,book about ,dominies by 8,ascott ,hope0 7,hope ,moncrieff74 ,he says that a school of from twenty to a hundred boys is too large to be altogether under the influence of one man1 and too small for the development of a healthy condition of public opinion among the boys themselves4 8,in a community of fifty boys1 there will always be found so many bad ones who will be likely to carry things their own way4 ,vice is more unblushing in small societies than in large ones4 ,fifty boys will be more easily leavened by the wickedness of five1 than five hundred by that of fifty4 ,it would be too dangerous an ordeal to send a boy to a school where sin appears fashionable1 and where1 if he would remain virtuous1 he must shun his companions4 ,there may be middle-sized schools which derive a good and healthy tone from the moral strength of their masters or the good example of a certain set of boys1 but ,i doubt if there are many4 ,boys are so easily led to do right or wrong1 that we should be very careful at least to set the balance fairly0 7p4 #afg72 and again he says 7p4 #agj71 8,the moral tone of a middle-sized school will be peculiarly liable to be at the mercy of a set of bold and bad boys40 #bjg ,as ,i have been thought to express myself too strongly on this point1 ,i will give a quotation from a master whose opinion will go far with all who know him4 8,the moral tone of the school is made what it is1 not nearly so much by its rules and regulations1 or its masters1 as by the leading characters among the boys4 ,they mainly determine the public opinion amongst their schoolfellows--their personal influence is incalculable40 ,rev4 ,d4 ,edwardes1 of ,denstone4 #bjh ,about ,preparatory ,schools ,i find ,i am at issue with my friend the ,head ,master of ,harrow 7,see ,public ,schools1 by ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,c4 ,welldon1 in ,contemporary ,r41 ,may1 #ahij74 ,i do indeed incline to his opinion that very young boys should not be at a public school1 but ,i cannot agree that they should be at a middle-sized boarding school4 ,i hold that they should live in a family 7their own if possible7 and go to a day school4 ,day ,schools have now been provided for girls1 but for young boys they do not seem in demand4 ,english parents who can afford it send their sons to boarding schools from eight years old onwards4 ,this seems to me a great mistake of theirs4 #bji 8,what is education8 ,it is that which is imbibed from the moral atmosphere which a child breathes4 ,it is the involuntary and unconscious language of its parents and of all those by whom it is surrounded1 and not their set speeches and set lectures4 ,it is the words which the young hear fall from their seniors when the speakers are off their guard3 and it is by these unconscious expressions that the child interprets the hearts of its parents4 ,that is education40--,drummond's ,speeches in ,parliament4 #baj ,in what ,i have said on this subject1 the incompleteness which is noticeable enough in the preceding essays1 has found an appropriate climax4 ,i see1 too1 that if anyone would take the trouble1 the little ,i have said might easily be misinterpreted4 ,i am well aware1 however1 that if the young mind will not readily assimilate sharply defining religious formul1 still less will it feel at home among the 8immensities0 and 8veracities40 ,the great educating force of ,christianity ,i believe to be due to this1 that it is not a set of abstractions or vague generalities1 but that in it ,god reveals ,himself to us in a ,divine ,man1 and raises us through our devotion to ,him4 ,i hold1 therefore1 that religious teaching for the young should neither be vague nor abstract4 ,mr4 ,froude1 in commenting on the use made of hagiology in the ,church of ,rome1 has shown that we lose much by not following the ,bible method of instruction4 7,see ,short ,studies3 ,lives of the ,saints1 and ,representative ,men47 #baa ,this theory of the educator's task which makes him a disposer or director of influence rather than a teacher1 led ,locke to decry our public schools1 for in them the traditions and tone of the school seem the source of influence1 and the masters are to all appearance mainly teachers4 ,locke's own words are these3--8,the difference is great between two or three pupils in the same house and three or four score boys lodged up and down2 for let the master's industry and skill be never so great1 it is impossible he should have fifty or a hundred scholars under his eye any longer than they are in the school together1 nor can it be expected that he should instruct them successfully in anything but their books2 the forming of their minds and manners requiring a constant attention and particular application to every single boy which is impossible in a numerous flock1 and would be wholly in vain 7could he have time to study and correct everyone's particular defects and wrong inclinations7 when the lad was to be left to himself or the prevailing infection of his fellows the greatest part of the four-and-twenty hours40 ,but the educator who considers himself a director of influences must remember that he is not the only force4 ,the boy's companions are a force at least as great2 and if he were brought up in private on ,locke's system1 he would be entirely without a kind of influence much more valuable than ,locke seems to think--the influence of boy companions1 and of the traditions of a great school4 ,on the other hand1 it cannot be denied that our public schools used to be1 and perhaps are still to some extent1 under-mastered1 and that the masters should not be the mere teachers which1 from overwork and other causes1 they often tend to become4 ,the consequence has been that the real education of the boys has in a great measure passed out of their hands4 ,what has been the result8 ,a long succession of able teachers have aimed at giving literary instruction and making their pupils classical scholars4 ,both manners and bodily training have been left to take care of themselves4 ,yet such is the irony of ,fate that the majority of youths who leave our great schools are not literary and are not much of classical scholars1 but they are decidedly gentlemanly and still more decidedly athletic4 #bab ,i append a note written from a different point of view--8,with how little wisdom60 certainly seems to cover most departments of life4 ,seems8 ,yes2 but are we not apt to overlook the wisdom that lies in the great mass of people8 ,in some small department we may have investigated further than our class-mates1 and may see1 or think we see1 a good deal of stupidity in what goes on4 ,but in most matters we do not investigate for ourselves1 but just do the usual thing2 and this seems to work all right4 ,there must be a good deal of wisdom underlying the complex machinery of civilised life4 ,carlyle's 8,mostly fools60 will by no means account for it4 ,at times one has a dim perception that people in general are not so stupid as they seem4 ,perhaps a long life would in the end lead us to say like ,tithonus1 8,why should a man desire in any way 8,to vary from the kindly race of men80 ,there is a higher wisdom than the disintegrating individualism of ,carlyle4 ,far better to believe with ,mazzini in 8the collective existence of humanity10 and remembering that we work in a medium fashioned for us by the labours of all who have preceded us1 regard our collective powers as 8grafted upon those of all foregoing humanity40 7,mazzini's ,essays3 ,carlyle47 ,this is the point of view to which ,wordsworth would raise us3-- 8,among the multitudes 8,of that huge city1 oftentimes was seen 84444444444444444444444444the unity of man1 8,one spirit over ignorance and vice 8,predominant1 in good and evil hearts2 8,one sense for moral judgements1 as one eye 8,for the sun's light4 ,the soul when smitten thus 8,by a sublime idea1 whence soe'er 8,vouchsafed for union or communion1 feeds 8,on the pure bliss and takes her rest with ,god40 ,prelude viij1 ad f4 ,though unable to share in 8the pure bliss0 of ,wordsworth we may take refuge with ,goethe in the thought that 8humanity is the true man10 and enjoy much to which we have no claim as individuals4 ,tradition1 blind tradition1 must rule our actions through by far the greatest part of our lives2 and seeing we owe it so much1 we should be tolerant1 even grateful4 #bac ,professor ,jebb has lately given us the main ideas of the great ,scholar ,erasmus4 8,in all his work10 says the ,professor1 8he had an educational aim4444 ,the evils of his age1 in ,church1 in ,state1 in the daily lives of men1 seemed to him to have their roots in ignorance2 ignorance of what ,christianity meant1 ignorance of what the ,bible taught1 ignorance of what the noblest and most gifted minds of the past1 whether ,christian or pagan1 had contributed to the instruction of the human race40 7,rede ,lecture1 #ahij47 ,erasmus evidently fell into the error against which ,pestalozzi and ,froebel lift up their voices1 often in vain--the error of forgetting that knowledge is of no avail without intelligence4 ,what is the use of lighting additional candles for the blind8 ,,appendix4 ,history of this ,book4--,some wise man has advised us never to find fault with ourselves1 for1 says he1 you may always depend on your friends to do it for you4 ,so1 having looked through the proofs of this book1 ,i abstain from fault-finding4 ,i fancy ,i could find fault more effectively than my friends or even my professional critics4 ,as the ,spectator's 8,correspondent in an easy chair0 says very truly2 the author has read his book many times2 the critic has read it at most once4 ,in fact the critic gives to the book 7in some cases to the subject of the book also7 no greater number of hours than the author has given months1 perhaps years4 ,partiality blinds the author1 no doubt1 but unless he is a fatuous person it does not blind him so much as his haste blinds the critic4 ,an author of note said of a book of his1 which had been much criticised3 8,the book has faults1 but ,i am the only person who has discovered them10 to which a friend maliciously appended3 8,for faults read merits40 ,whatever was the truth here1 ,i am inclined to think the author has the best chance of putting his finger on the weak places4 ,but if ,i see weaknesses in the foregoing book1 why do ,i not make it better8 ,just for two reasons3 to improve the book ,i should have to spend more time on it and more money4 ,the more ,i read and think about any one of my subjects1 the more ,i want to go on reading and thinking4 ,perhaps ,i hear of an old book that has escaped my notice1 or a new book comes out1 sometimes an important book like ,pinloche's ,basedow4 ,so ,i can never finish an essay to my satisfaction1 and the only way of getting it off my hands is to send the copy to the printer4 ,by the time the proof comes in there is something that ,i should like to add or alter2 but then the dread of a long bill for 8corrections0 restrains me4 ,however1 now the book is all in type1 ,i see here and there something that suggests a note by way of explanation or addition1 so ,i add this appendix4 ,taking a hint from one of my favourite authors1 ,sir ,arthur ,helps1 ,i throw my notes into the form of a dialogue1 but being entirely destitute of ,helps's dramatic skill ,i confine myself to ,e4 7the ,essayist7 and ,a4 7,amicus71 who is only too clearly an alter ego4 ,a4 ,so the ,americans have kept alive your old book for you1 and at last you have rewritten it4 ,you at least have no reason to complain that there is no international copyright4 ,your book would have been forgotten long ago if a lady in ,cincinnati had not persuaded an ,american publisher there to reprint it4 ,e4 ,yes1 ,i very readily allow that ,i have been a gainer4 ,the ,americans have done more for me than my own countrymen4 ,to be sure neither have 8praised with the hands0 7as ,molire's professeur has it72 and1 in money at least1 the book has never paid me its expenses2 but three ,american publishers have done for themselves what no ,englishman would do for me1 viz41 publish at their own risk4 ,in #ahfh when my ,,ms4 was ready1 ,i went to my old friend1 ,mr4 ,alexander ,macmillan2 but he would not even look at it4 8,books on education10 said he1 8don't pay4 ,why there is ,thring's ,education and ,school1 a capital book0 7,i assented heartily1 for ,i was very fond of it71 8well1 that doesn't sell40 ,i was forced to admit that in that case ,i had little chance4 8,but10 ,i said1 8,i suppose you would publish at my risk80 8,no10 said ,mr4 ,macmillan4 8,the author is never satisfied when his book doesn't pay40 8,what would you advise80 ,i asked4 8,i'll give you a letter of introduction to ,mr4 ,william ,longman10 said ,mr4 ,macmillan2 8,i dare say he'll publish for you40 ,with this letter ,i went to ,mr4 ,william ,longman 7who has since those days been gathered to his ancestors1 formerly of ,paternoster ,row74 ,mr4 ,longman said he would put the ,,ms4 in the hands of his reader4 ,if the reader's report was favourable the firm would offer me terms2 if not1 they would publish for me on commission4 ,i sent the ,,ms4 accordingly1 and soon after ,i had a letter from the firm offering to publish 8on commission40 ,when the book was in type1 ,mr4 ,longman advised me to have only #ejj printed1 and to publish at a high price4 8,i should charge #is410 he said4 8,very few people will buy1 and they won't consider the price40 ,this was not my opinion1 but in such a matter ,i felt that the weight of authority was enormously against me4 ,so ,i consented to the publishing price of #gs4 #f;d4 ,and at first it seemed that ,mr4 ,longman was right--at least about the small number of purchasers4 #cj was spent in advertising1 and the book was very generally and ,i may say very favourably reviewed2 but when about #ajj copies had been sold1 it almost entirely ceased 8to move40 ,i think #ac copies were sold in six months4 ,so to get rid of the remainder of my #ejj copies 7some #cjj of them7 ,i put down the price to #cs4 #f;d4 ,then it seemed that ,mr4 ,longman had made a mistake about the price4 ,without another advertisement the #cjj were sold in a month or two4 ,some time after1 ,i heard that the book had been republished in ,cincinnati1 and on my writing to the publishers1 ,messrs4 ,robert ,clarke ,co41 they presented me with half-a-dozen copies4 ,this proved to be a perfect reprint1 which is more than ,i can say of those which years afterwards were issued by ,mr4 ,bardeen and ,messrs4 ,kellogg4 ,i have therefore from time to time purchased from ,messrs4 ,clarke and imported the copies 7,i suppose about #aejj in all7 that have been wanted for the ,english market4 ,i hope these details do not bore you4 ,a4 ,not at all4 ,the history of any book interests me1 and your book has had some odd experiences4 ,it has lived1 ,i own1 much longer than ,i expected1 and for this you have to thank the ,americans4 ,a4 ,in my case the absence of international copyright has done no harm certainly2 but after all copyright has its advantages1 international copyright included4 ,specialists suffer severely from the want of it4 ,perhaps the 8special0 public in this country is so small that an important book for it cannot be published4 ,if to our special public were joined the special public of the ,u4,s41 the book might be fairly remunerative to its author4 ,take1 e4g41 ,joseph ,payne's writings4 ,these would have been lost to the world had not ,dr4 ,payne published them as an act of filial piety4 ,with an international copyright these works would be very good property4 ,e4 ,you think then that in the long run 8honesty is the best policy0 even internationally8 ,a4 ,i must say my opinion does incline in that direction4 ,class ,matches 7p #db74--;,a4 ,i think you have had a good deal to do with class matches8 ,e4 ,yes4 ,one must be careful not to overdo them1 but ,i have found an occasional match a capital way of enlivening school-work4 ,some time before the match takes place the master lets the two best boys pick up sides1 the second boy having the first choice4 ,the subject for the match is then arranged1 and to prevent disputes the area must be carefully defined4 ,moreover1 there must be no opportunity for the boys to ask questions about unimportant details that are likely to have escaped attention4 ,when the match is to take place each boy should come provided with a set of written questions1 and whenever a boy shows himself ignorant of the right answer to a question of his own he must be held to have failed even if his opponent is ignorant also4 ,at ,harrow1 where ,i had a class-room 78school-room0 as it is there called7 to myself1 ,i used to work these matches very successfully in ,german4 ,say ,heine's ,lorelei had been learnt by heart4 ,i set as a subject for a match the plurals of the substantives and the past participles of the verbs in the poem4 ,or the boys had to make up for themselves and number on paper a set of short sentences in which only words which occurred in the poem were used4 ,in this last case the questioner handed in to the master his paper with both the ,english and the ,german on it1 and the master gave the other side the ,english1 of which they had to write the ,german4 ,the details of such matches may of course be varied to any extent so long as the subject set is quite definite4 ,the scoring will be found best at the lower end1 so that a match stimulates those who need stimulus4 ,a4 ,what did you call 8scratch pairs80 ,e4 ,oh1 that was a device for getting up a little harmless excitement4 ,knowing the capacities of my boys1 ,i arranged them in pairs1 the best boy and the worst forming one pair1 the next best and next worst the second pair1 c41 c4 ,i then asked a series of questions to which all had to write short answers4 ,i then looked over the answers and marked them4 ,finally the marks of each pair were added together1 and ,i announced the order in which the pairs 8came in40 ,it was really 8anybody's race0 for neither ,i nor anyone could predict the result4 ,if the number of boys was an odd number the boy in the middle fought for his own hand and had his marks doubled4 ,perhaps on the whole he had the best chance4 ,competition4--,a4 ,there were then some forms of emulation which you did not set your face against8 ,e4 ,there were many1 but ,i preferred emulation which stimulated the idle rather than the industrious4 ,most 8prizes0 act only on those who would be better without them4 ,a4 ,do you see no danger in encouraging rivalry between different bodies8 ,the strife between parties has often been more virulent than the strife between individuals4 ,e4 ,yes1 ,i know well that in exciting party-feeling one is playing with edged tools2 and besides this1 a boy who for any cause is thought a disgrace to his side1 is very likely to be bullied by it4 ,let me tell you of one form of stimulus which seemed to work well and was free from most of the objections you are thinking of4 ,when ,i had a small school of my own in which there were only young boys1 ,i put up in the school-room a list of the boys' names in alphabetical order with blank spaces after the names4 ,i looked over the boys' written work very carefully1 and whenever ,i came across any written exercise evidently done with great painstaking and for that boy with more than ordinary success1 ,i marked it with a ,g1 and ,i put up the ,g in one of the spaces after that boy's name in the list hung up in the school-room4 ,when the school collectively had obtained a fixed number of ,g's we had an extra half-holiday4 ,the announcement of a ,g was therefore always hailed with delight4 ,a4 ,i see one thing in favour of that device4 ,you might by a ,g give encouragement to a boy when he has just begun to try4 ,this is often a turning-point in a boy's life2 and a master's early recognition of effort may do much to strengthen into a habit what might1 without the recognition1 have proved nothing but a passing whim4 ,at the very least1 all such devices have one good effect2 they break the monotony of school-work2 and monotony is much more wearing to the young than it is to their elders4 ,can you tell me of others who have used such plans8 ,e4 ,a friend of mine who has a genius for inventing school plans of all kinds and marvellous energy in working them1 has a boarding-house in connexion with a large school4 ,the marks of every boy in the school are given out for each week4 ,my friend gives a supper at the end of the quarter if the average marks of his house come up to a certain standard4 ,he puts up each week a list of 8,furtherers10 i4e41 of the boys who have surpassed the average1 and of 8,hinderers10 i4e41 of boys who have fallen below it ,a4 ,no doubt this is an effective spur1 but ,i should fear it would in practice deliver the hindermost to ,satan4 ,the boy whom nature has made a 8hinderer0 is likely to have by no means a good time in that house4 ,do you know if such devices as you have mentioned are common in schools8 ,e4 ,i really can't say4 ,i have seen in ,american school papers accounts of class matches4 ,in the ,new ,england ,journal of ,education 7#bbnd ,november1 #ahhh7 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,winship gave an account of some inter-class matches at ,milwaukee4 ,there is a match between three classes1 say in penmanship4 ,if there are seventy boys in the three classes together1 each boy draws a number from one to seventy1 and puts not his name but his number on his paper4 ,the same lesson is set for all4 ,the papers are collected1 divided into three equal heaps1 and looked over and marked by three masters4 ,finally the average of each class is taken4 ,in mental arithmetic each class chooses its own champions4 ,this would be fun1 but would do nothing for the lower end of the class4 ,the principal of ,mc,donough ,school ,no4 #ab1 ,new ,orleans1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,e4 ,chambers1 gives an account in the ,new ,york ,school ,journal 7#hth ,december1 #ahhh71 how he organised sixteen boys into teams of four1 putting the best and worst together as ,i did in making up scratch pairs4 ,the match between these teams was to see which could get the best record for the month4 ,as ,mr4 ,chambers tells us the sharper boys managed with more success than the master to let light into the dull intellects of boys in the same team with them4 ,this union of interests between the 8strong0 and the 8weak0 as the ,french call them1 is a very good feature in combats of sides4 ,the ,jesuits4--,a4 ,what is it that interests you so much in the ,jesuits8 ,e4 ,two things4 ,first1 the ,jesuit shows the effects of a definitely planned and rigidly carried out system of education2 and next1 in such a society you find a continuity of effort which is and must be wanting in the life of an individual4 ,if ever 8we feel that we are greater than we know0 it is when we can think of ourselves as parts of a society1 a society which existed long before us1 and will last after us4 ,for instance1 it is a great thing to be connected with an historical school such as ,harrow4 ,we then realise1 as the school's poet1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,bowen1 has said1 that we are no mere 8sons of yesterday10 and thinking of the connection between the mighty dead and the old school we join heartily in the chorus of the school song3-- 8,their glory thus shall circle us 8,till time be done40 ,a4 ,i verily believe you expect your share in this 8glory0 for having invented the ,harrow 8,blue ,book10 which is likely to outlive ,educational ,reformers2 but if the boys ever thought of the inventor 7which they don't7 they would naturally suppose that he was some contemporary of ,cadmus or ,deucalion4 ,sic transit6 ,but what has this to do with the ,jesuits8 ,e4 ,only this1 that by corporate life you secure a continuity of effort4 ,there is to me something very attractive in the idea of a teaching society4 ,how such a society might capitalise its discoveries6 ,the ,roman ,church has shown a genius for such societies1 witness the ,jesuits and the ,christian ,brothers4 ,the experience of centuries must have taught them much that we could learn of them4 ,a4 ,the ,jesuits seem to me to be without the spirit of investigators and discoverers4 ,the rules of their ,society do not permit of their learning anything or forgetting anything4 ,ignatius ,loyola was a wonderful man1 but he must have been superhuman if he could legislate for all time4 ,by the way1 ,i see you say the first edition of the ,ratio was published in #aehe4 ,what is your authority8 ,e4 ,i took the date from the copy in the ,british ,museum4 ,according to a volume published by ,rivingtons in #ahch 7,constitutiones ,societatis ,jesu7 the ,constitutions were first printed in #aeeh1 but were not divulged till 8the celebrated suit of the ,,mm4 ,lionci and ,father ,la ,valette0 in #agfa4 ,alexander's ,doctrinale 7p4 #hj74--;,a4 ,i thought you made it a rule to give only what was useful4 ,what can be the use of the quotations which your old ,appendix contained 8from a celebrated grammar written by a ,franciscan of ,brittany about the middle of the #acth century08 ,e4 ,perhaps ,i had an attack of antiquarianism2 but ,i rather think the quotations were given in order to shew our progress since those days4 ,the ,teachers' art of making easy things difficult is well exemplified in ,alexander's rules for the first declension4 ,but life is short1 and folly is best forgotten4 ,lily's ,grammar 7p4 #hj74 ,a4 ,would not your last remark rule out what you told us about ,lily's ,grammar8 ,e4 ,as regards ,lily's assertion1 8,genders of nouns be #g10 it certainly would4 ,surely nobody but a writer of school-books would ever have thought of making a 8gender0 out of 8hic1 hc1 hoc1 felix06 ,but the absurdity did not originate with ,lily4 ,he was all for simplification1 and though there were some changes in the ,eton ,latin ,grammar which succeeded the 8,short introduction of ,grammar0 known as ,lily's ,grammar1 these changes were1 some of them at least1 by no means improvements4 ,the old book put a before all ablatives and taught that 8by a kingdom0 was a regno4 ,if this was not any better than teaching that domino by itself was 8by a ,lord10 it was at least no worse4 ,the optative of the old book 78,utinam sim ,i pray ,god ,i be2 ,utinam ,essem would ,god ,i were1 c407 and the subjunctive 78,cum ,sim ,when ,i am1 c4107 were better than the oracular statement which perplexed my youth1 8,the subjunctive mood is declined like the potential40 ,how often ,i said those words1 and being of an inquiring mind wondered what on earth 8the subjunctive mood0 was6 ,colet4 ,e4 ,the passage ,i refer to on page #hj from ,colet is in a little book in the ,b4,m4 ,it is 8,joannis ,coleti theologi1 olim ,decani ,divi ,pauli1 editio1 una cum quibusdam ,g4 ,lilii ,grammatices ,rudimentis1 c4 ,antuerpi #aece40 ,after the accidence of the eight parts of speech1 he says3--8,of these eight parts of speech in order well construed1 be made reasons and sentences1 and long orations4 ,but how and in what manner1 and with what constructions of words1 and all the varieties1 and diversities1 and changes in ,latin speech 7which be innumerable71 if any man will know1 and by that knowledge attain to understand ,latin books1 and to speak and to write clean ,latin1 let him1 above all1 busily learn and read good ,latin authors of chosen poets and orators1 and note wisely how they wrote and spake2 and study always to follow them1 desiring none other rules but their examples4 ,for in the beginning men spake not ,latin because such rules were made1 but1 contrariwise1 because men spake such ,latin1 upon that followed the rules1 and were made4 ,that is to say1 ,latin speech was before the rules1 and not the rules before the ,latin speech4 ,wherefore1 well-beloved masters and teachers of grammar1 after the parts of speech sufficiently known in our schools1 read and expound plainly unto your scholars good authors1 and show to them in every word1 and in every sentence1 what they shall note and observe1 warning them busily to follow and do like both in writing and in speaking2 and be to them your own self also speaking with them the pure ,latin very present1 and leave the rules2 for reading of good books1 diligent information of learned masters1 studious advertence and taking heed of learners1 hearing eloquent men speak1 and finally1 busy imitation with tongue and pen1 more availeth shortly to get the true eloquent speech1 than all the traditions1 rules1 and precepts of masters40 ,this passage is1 ,i find1 well known4 ,it is given in ,knights' ,life of ,colet and is referred to by ,mr4 ,seebohm4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,lupton1 ,colet's latest biographer1 has kindly corrected the date for me3 it is indistinct in the ,museum copy4 ,mulcaster for ,english 7p4 #ig74 ,a4 ,except in ,clarke's edition1 your extracts from ,mulcaster's ,elementarie have been omitted by your ,american reprinters4 ,e4 ,so ,i see4 ,i should have thought the ,americans would have been much interested by this early praise of our common language4 ,the passage is certainly a very remarkable one1 and ,professor ,masson has thought it worth quoting in his ,life of ,milton4 ,the ,elementarie is a scarce book2 so ,i will not follow my reprinters in leaving out this passage3--8,is it not a marvellous bondage to become servants to one tongue1 for learning's sake1 the most part of our time1 with loss of most time1 whereas we may have the very same treasure in our own tongue with the gain of most time8 our own bearing the joyful title of our liberty and freedom1 the ,latin tongue remembering us of our thraldom and bondage8 ,i love ,rome1 but ,london better2 ,i favour ,italy1 but ,england more3 ,i honour the ,latin1 but ,i worship the ,english4444 ,i honour foreign tongues1 but wish my own to be partaker of their honour4 ,knowing them1 ,i wish my own tongue to resemble their grace4 ,i confess their furniture1 and wish it were ours4444 ,the diligent labour of learned countrymen did so enrich those tongues1 and not the tongues themselves2 though they proved very pliable1 as our tongue will prove1 ,i dare assure it1 of knowledge1 if our learned countrymen will put to their labour4 ,and why not1 ,i pray you1 as well in ,english as either ,latin or any tongue else8 ,will ye say it is needless8 sure that will not hold4 ,if loss of time1 while ye be pilgrims to learning1 by lingering about tongues be no argument of need2 if lack of sound skill while the tongue distracteth sense more than half to itself and that most of all in a simple student or a silly wit1 be no argument of need1 then ye say somewhat which pretend no need4 ,but because we needed not to lose any time unless we listed1 if we had such a vantage1 in the course of study1 as we now lose while we travail in tongues2 and because our understanding also were most full in our natural speech1 though we know the foreign exceedingly well--methink necessity itself doth call for ,english1 whereby all that gaiety may be had at home which makes us gaze so much at the fine stranger40 ,among various objections to the use of ,english which he answers1 he comes to this one3--8,but will ye thus break off the common conference with the learned foreign80 ,to this his answer is not very forcible3--8,the conference will not cease while the people have cause to interchange dealings1 and without the ,latin it may well be continued3 as in some countries the learneder sort and some near cousins to the ,latin itself do already wean their pens and tongues from the use of the ,latin1 both in written discourse and spoken disputation1 into their own natural1 and yet no dry nurse being so well appointed by the milch nurse's help40 ,further on he says3--8,the emperor ,justinian said1 when he made the ,institutes of force1 that the students were happy in having such a foredeal i4e41 advantage--,german ,vortheil as to hear him at once1 and not to wait four years first4 ,and doth not our languaging hold us back four years and that full1 think you8444 ,but this is not all4 ,our best understanding is in our natural tongue1 and all our foreign learning is applied to our use by means of our own2 and without the application to particular use1 wherefore serves learning8444 ,as for dishonouring antiquity1 if we must cleave to the eldest and not the best1 we should be eating acorns and wearing old ,adam's pelts4 ,but why not all in ,english1 a tongue of itself both deep in conceit and frank in delivery8 ,i do not think that any language1 be it whatsoever1 is better able to utter all arguments either with more pith or greater plainness than our ,english tongue is4444 ,it is our accident which restrains our tongue and not the tongue itself1 which will strain with the strongest and stretch to the furthest1 for either government if we were conquerors1 or for cunning if we were treasurers2 not any whit behind either the subtle ,greek for crouching close1 or the stately ,latin for spreading fair40 ,marcel's 8,axiomatic ,truths40--,a4 ,i have seen ,marcel referred to as a great authority in education1 but ,i look in vain for his name in ,kiddle's ,cyclopdia and in ,sonnenschein's4 ,e4 ,you would be more successful in ,buisson's4 ,there ,i see that ,claude ,marcel was born at ,paris in #agic1 and died in #ahgf4 ,he was one of ,napoleon's soldiers4 ,after #dj years' absence from ,france dating from #ahbe he went back to ,paris4 ,he had been ,french ,consul at ,cork1 and brought up nine children whom he taught entirely himself4 ,in #ahec he published with ,chapman and ,hall his ,language as a ,means of ,mental ,culture 7#b vols474 ,this book was not very well named1 for it contains in fact an analysis of the subject--education4 ,to the study of this subject ,marcel must have given his life1 and it seems odd that his contribution to ,english 7not ,french7 pedagogic literature is so little known4 ,a ,french abridgment of his work appeared in #ahee with the title ,premiers ,principes d',education2 and in #ahfg he published in ,french ,l'tudes des ,languages 7,paris1 ,borrani7 of which a translation was published in the ,u4,s4,a4 ,marcel's notion of education is threefold1 viz41 ,physical1 ,intellectual1 and ,moral ,education3 the #ast aiming at health1 strength1 and beauty2 the #bnd at mental power and the acquisition of knowledge2 the #crd at piety1 justice1 goodness1 and wisdom4 ,according to him the ,creator has made the exercise of our faculties pleasurable4 ,this will suggest his main lines4 ,he expects to find general assent1 for he quotes from ,garrick3-- 8,when ,doctrine meets with general approbation1 8,it is not heresy but reformation40 ,but he has met with less approbation than neglect4 ,his 8axiomatic truths0 that ,i quoted in the old appendix were abused without mercy by a critic of those days who accused me of 8bookmaking0 for putting them in4 ,on the other hand my last ,american reprinter singles them out for honour and puts them at the beginning of the book4 ,after this ,i suppose somebody likes them1 so here they are3 8,axiomatic ,truths of ,methodology4--#a4 ,the method of nature is the archetype of all methods1 and especially of the method of learning languages4 #b4 ,the classification of the objects of study should mark out to teacher and learner their respective spheres of action4 #c4 ,the ultimate objects of the study should always be kept in view1 that the end be not forgotten in pursuit of the means4 #d4 ,the means ought to be consistent with the end4 #e4 ,example and practice are more efficient than precept and theory4 #f4 ,only one thing should be taught at one time2 and an accumulation of difficulties should be avoided1 especially in the beginning of the study4 #g4 ,instruction should proceed from the known to the unknown1 from the simple to the complex1 from concrete to abstract notions1 from analysis to synthesis4 #h4 ,the mind should be impressed with the idea before it takes cognisance of the sign that represents it4 #i4 ,the development of the intellectual powers is more important than the acquisition of knowledge2 each should be made auxiliary to the other4 #aj4 ,all the faculties should be equally exercised1 and exercised in a way consistent with the exigencies of active life4 #aa4 ,the protracted exercise of the faculties is injurious3 a change of occupation renews the energy of their action4 #ab4 ,no exercise should be so difficult as to discourage exertion1 nor so easy as to render it unnecessary3 attention is secured by making study interesting4 #ac4 ,first impressions and early habits are the most important1 because they are the most enduring4 #ad4 ,what the learner discovers by mental exertion is better known than what is told him4 #ae4 ,learners should not do with their instructor what they can do by themselves1 that they may have time to do with him what they cannot do by themselves4 #af4 ,the monitorial principle multiplies the benefits of public instruction4 ,by teaching we learn4 #ag4 ,the more concentrated is the professor's teaching1 the more comprehensive and efficient his instruction4 #ah4 ,in a class the time must be so employed that no learner shall be idle1 and the business so contrived1 that learners of different degrees of advancement shall derive equal advantage from the instructor4 #ai4 ,repetition must mature into a habit what the learner wishes to remember4 #bj4 ,young persons should be taught only what they are capable of clearly understanding1 and what may be useful to them in after-life40 ,a4 ,what do you think of these8 ,e4 ,i confess they bring into my mind the advice given to a learner in billiards3 8,when in doubt cannon and pocket the red40 ,first catch your 8,method of ,nature10 as ,mrs4 ,glass might have said4 ,as to ,no4 #aj again1 who shall say what 8all the faculties0 are8 ,and is smelling a faculty that must be equally exercised with seeing8 ,when the young ,marcels went to ,paris ,i fancy they found there far more that was worth seeing than worth smelling4 ,a4 ,after what you have said about pupil-teachers ,i infer you do not advocate the 8monitorial principle08 ,e4 ,not exactly4 8,by teaching we learn40 ,this is very true4 ,but if we can't teach we can't learn by teaching4 ,a4 ,but may we not gain by trying to teach8 ,and short of teaching a good deal may be done by monitors4 ,e4 ,if by the monitorial principle we mean 8,encourage the young to make themselves useful0 it is a capital principle4 ,words and ,things4--,a4 ,in your ,sturm ,essay you say3 8,the schoolmaster's art always has taken1 and ,i suppose1 in the main1 always will take for its material the means of expression40 ,surely the signs of the times do not indicate this4 ,have not the tongue and the pen had their day1 and is not the schoolmaster turning his attention from them1 not perhaps to the brain1 but certainly to the eye and the hand8 ,it has at length occurred to him to ask like ,shylock 8,hath not a boy eyes8 ,hath not a boy hands80 ,and as it seems certain that the boy has these organs1 the schoolmaster wants to find employment for them4 ,till now no scholastic use has been found for the eye except reading1 or for the hand except making strokes with the pen and receiving them from the cane4 ,but it will be different in the future4 ,words have had their day4 ,things will have theirs4 ,e4 ,you may be right2 but be careful in your use of terms4 ,as is usually the case with 8cries10 if we want a meaning we may take our choice4 ,the contrast between 8words0 and 8things0 is sometimes between studies like grammar1 logic1 and rhetoric on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 ,realien1 studies which in some way have ,things for their subject4 ,then again we have words as the vocal or visible symbols of ideas contrasted with the ideas themselves4 ,those who complain of the time spent on words are thinking1 some of them1 of the time spent on the art of expression1 others of the time given to symbols which do not1 to the learner1 symbolize anything4 ,but in our day ,words and ,things are supposed to represent the study of literature and the study of natural science4 ,at present there is a rage for ,things1 but it is a little early to adjudicate on the comparative claims of1 say ,homer and ,james ,watt1 on the gratitude of mankind4 ,the great book of our day on ,education1 ,herbert ,spencer's1 would make short work with 8words02 and yet two ,school ,commissions1 the ,public ,schools ,commission of #ahfb1 and the ,middle ,schools ,commission of #ahfg have defended 8words40 ,the first of these says3 8,grammar is the logic of common speech1 and there are few educated men who are not sensible of the advantages they gained1 as boys1 from the steady practice of composition and translation1 and from their introduction to etymology4 ,the study of literature is the study1 not indeed of the physical1 but of the intellectual and moral world we live in1 and of the thoughts1 lives1 and characters of those men whose writings or whose memories succeeding generations have thought it worth while to preserve40 ,the ,commissioners on ,middle ,schools express a similar opinion3--8,the #8human' subjects of instruction1 of which the study of language is the beginning1 appear to have a distinctly greater educational power than the #8material4' ,as all civilisation really takes its rise in human intercourse1 so the most efficient instrument of education appears to be the study which most bears on that intercourse1 the study of human speech4 ,nothing appears to develop and discipline the whole man so much as the study which assists the learner to understand the thoughts1 to enter into the feelings1 to appreciate the moral judgments of others4 ,there is nothing so opposed to true cultivation1 nothing so unreasonable1 as excessive narrowness of mind2 and nothing contributes to remove this narrowness so much as that clear understanding of language which lays open the thoughts of others to ready appreciation4 ,nor is equal clearness of thought to be obtained in any other way4 ,clearness of thought is bound up with clearness of language1 and the one is impossible without the other4 ,when the study of language can be followed by that of literature1 not only breadth and clearness1 but refinement becomes attainable4 ,the study of history in the full sense belongs to a still later age3 for till the learner is old enough to have some appreciation of politics1 he is not capable of grasping the meaning of what he studies4 ,but both literature and history do but carry on that which the study of language has begun1 the cultivation of all those faculties by which man has contact with man40 7,middle ,schools ,report1 vol4 i1 c4 iv1 p4 #bb47 ,as ,matthew ,arnold says1 in comparing two things it is 8a kind of disadvantage0 to be totally ignorant about one of them2 and ,i labour under this disadvantage in comparing literature and science4 ,but ,i own ,i do not expect the ultimate victory will be with those who may kill1 or even cure or carry1 the body1 and after that have no more that they can do4 ,milton says of fine music1 that it 8brings all heaven before our eyes40 ,similarly fine literature can at least bring all earth and its inhabitants1 and the best thoughts and actions the world has known4 ,i remember ,matthew ,arnold in conversation dwelling on the difference it makes to us what we read4 ,surely one of the great things education should do is to enable and to accustom the thoughts of the young to follow the guidance which is offered us in 8the words of the wise40 ,seneca v4 ,comenius4--,a4 ,i like your quotation on p4 #afi from ,dr4 ,john ,brown4 ,after your see-saw fashion1 you have1 in a note on p4 #cfe1 expressed a fondness for 8a notion of the whole40 ,e4 ,i am there thinking of minute instruction about parts4 ,but in most things notions of the parts precede the notion of the whole2 and in this matter ,i think ,seneca was wiser than ,comenius3 8,more easily are we led through the parts into a conception of the whole4 ,facilius per partes in cognitionem totius adducimur40 7,ep4 #hh1 #a47 ,a4 ,may ,i ask to whom you are indebted for this erudition8 ,e4 ,to ,wuestemann4 7,promptuarium4 ,gotha1 #ahef47 ,useful ,knowledge4--,a4 ,i am inclined to think that now and then you do not attach sufficient importance to the possession of knowledge and skill4 ,e4 ,perhaps ,i do not4 ,what ,i wish to cultivate is1 not so much knowledge as the desire for knowledge1 and further1 the activity of mind that will turn knowledge to account4 ,knowledge driven in from without1 so to speak1 and skill obtained by enforced practice are1 ,i will not say valueless1 but very different in quality from the knowledge and skill that their possessor has sought for4 ,knowledge is a tool4 ,he who has acquired it without caring for it1 will have neither the skill nor the will to use it4 ,a4 ,does not this apply to the knowledges recommended by ,herbert ,spencer1 knowledge how to bring up children1 c41 and to the knowledge of physiological facts and rules of health which you yourself say would be 8of great practical value0 7p4 #ddd78 ,e4 ,certainly it does1 and also to the 8domestic economy0 of our ,board schools2 still more to the lessons in morality which it seems are1 at least in ,france if not elsewhere1 to supersede religion4 ,if you can get the learners to care for such lessons1 the lessons are worth giving2 if not1 not4 ,care1 not for the thing1 but for the examination in the thing1 is different1 and can produce only a very inferior article4 ,i expect there are instances in which care for the examination develops into care for the subject of the examination2 but these cases are so rare that they may be neglected4 ,a4 ,i see you would not take a deep interest in the 8,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge40 ,and yet how terrible are the results of ignorance6 ,herbert ,spencer is great on knowledge for earning a livelihood4 ,it would add1 perhaps1 three or four shillings a week to the wages of the working man if his wife had learnt to cook4 ,in matters of food the waste from ignorance among the ,english poor is appalling4 ,e4 ,in this case the school might do much1 as girls would be anxious to learn4 ,and though we cannot lay down as a general rule that it is 8never too late to learn10 this rule might be applied to cooking4 ,i see that in ,govan1 a suburb of ,glasgow1 the widow of the great ship-builder1 ,john ,elder1 employs a trained teacher of cookery to instruct both by demonstrations1 and also by visiting houses to which he 7or she87 is invited4 ,the results are said to be excellent4 ,may this good lady find many imitators6 ,memorizing ,poetry4--,a4 ,about learning poetry by heart1 did you ever hear of the old ,winchester plan of 8,standing up08 ,in the regular 8exams40 78trials0 as we called them at ,harrow71 each boy had to state in how much ,homer and ,virgil he was ready to 8stand up40 ,the master examined into the boy's power of saying this by heart1 and of construing all he said4 ,from the very first the boy always gave in the same poetry1 only adding to it each time4 ,e4 ,i have heard of it4 ,why1 ,i wonder1 was this plan given up8 ,a4 ,i have asked old ,wykamists1 but nobody seems to know4 ,perhaps the quantities learnt became absurdly large4 ,but this method of accretion1 if not overdone1 would leave something behind it for life4 ,let me show you a passage from schines 7,agnst ,ktesip4 #ace7 which ,i have seen1 not in schines1 but in ,j4 ,h4 ,krause's 8,education among the ,greeks0 7,gesch4 d4 ,erziehg bei d4 ,griechen74 ,it is so simple that even you may construe it4 ' 4 ,e4 ,there is very little left of my ,littlego ,greek1 but ,i will try3 8,for it is1 ,i suppose1 with this object that1 when we are boys1 we thoroughly commit to memory the sayings of the poets--in order to turn them to account when we are men40 ,i wish the old ,greek custom were continued4 ,i believe in learning by heart what is worthy of it 7see supra1 p4 #gd1 n474 ,a4 ,but the poetry that appeals to children they grow out of4 ,e4 ,this cannot be said of the best of it2 but of this best there is1 to be sure1 a very small quantity4 ,by 8appeals to10 ,i suppose you mean 8written on purpose for40 ,but in a sense much melodious poetry appeals to children even when they can get only a vague notion that it has a meaning4 ,i have known children delight in 8,the splendour falls on castle walls10 and ,hohen ,linden pleases them much better than anything of ,jane ,taylor's4 ,but here1 at all events1 there can be no doubt about the wisdom of ,tranio's rule3 8,study what you most affect40 ,as ,i have said in an old paper of mine 7,how to ,train the ,memory2 ,kellogg's ,teachers ,manuals1 ,no4 #i71 the teacher may read aloud some selected pieces1 and let the children separately 8give marks0 for each4 ,he can then choose 8what they most affect40 ,books for ,teachers4--,a4 ,don't you think you might give some useful advice to young teachers about the books they should read8 ,e4 ,i had intended giving some advice1 but in reading tastes differ widely1 and after all the best advice is ,tranio's1 8,study what you most affect40 ,there are three ,englishmen who have written so well that1 as it seems1 they will be read by ,english-speaking teachers of all time4 ,these are ,ascham1 ,locke1 and ,herbert ,spencer4 ,if a teacher does not know these he is not likely to know or care anything about the literature of education4 ,these authors have attained to the position of classics by writing short books in excellent ,english4 ,after these1 ,i must know something of the student before ,i ventured on a recommendation4 ,if he 7or more probably she7 be a student indeed1 nothing will be found more valuable than ,henry ,barnard's vols4 especially those of the ,english ,pedagogy4 ,but the majority of mankind want books that are readable1 i4e41 can be read easily4 ,i do not know any books on teaching that ,i have found easier reading than ,d',arcy ,thompson's ,day-,dreams of a ,schoolmaster and ,h4 ,clay ,trumbull's ,teaching and ,teachers 7,eng4 edition is ,hodder and ,stoughton's74 ,but some very valuable books are by no means easy reading4 ,take e4g4 ,froebel's ,education of ,man 7trans4 by ,hailmann1 ,appletons74 ,this book is a fount of ideas1 but ,froebel seems to want interpreters1 and happily he has found them4 ,the ,baroness ,marenholtz-,blow has done good work for him in ,german1 and in ,english he has had good interpreters as e4g41 ,miss ,shirreff1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,bowen1 and ,supt4 ,hailmann4 ,in the case of ,froebel there is certainly a want of literary talent2 but even where this talent is clearly shown1 a book may be by no means 8easy reading40 ,it may make great demands on our thinking power1 and thought is never easy4 ,this will probably prevent ,thring's ,theory and ,practice of ,teaching 7,pitt ,press1 #ds4 #f;d47 from ever being a popular book1 though every teacher who has read it will feel that he is the better for it4 ,sometimes the size of a book stands in the way of its popularity4 ,this seems to me the case with ,joseph ,payne's ,science and ,art of ,teaching 7,longmans1 #ajs472 but this book is popular in the ,united ,states1 and ,i take this as a proof that the ,american teachers are more in earnest than we are4 ,all the essentials of popularity are combined in ,fitch's ,lectures on ,teaching 7,pitt ,press1 #es471 and this is now 7and long may it continue67 one of our most read educational works4 ,a4 ,but what about less known books8 ,cannot you recommend anything as yet unknown to fame8 ,e4 ,ah6 you want me to tell you what books deserve fame1 that is1 to-- 8,look into the seeds of time 8,and say which grain will grow1 and which will not40 ,but ,i have no intention of posing as the representative of the readers of our day1 still less of the future4 ,indeed1 far from being able to tell you what other people would like or should like1 ,i can hardly say what ,i like myself4 ,perhaps ,i come across a book and read it with delight4 ,remembering the very favourable impression made by the first reading ,i go back to the book some years afterwards and ,i then in some cases cannot discover what it was that pleased me4 ,a4 ,that reminds me of ,wordsworth's similar experience-- 8,i sometimes could be sad ,to think of1 to read over1 many a page1 ,poems withal of name1 which at that time ,did never fail to entrance me1 and are now ,dead in my eyes1 dead as a theatre ,fresh emptied of spectators40 7,prelude v47 ,i suppose this has happened to all of us4 ,we go back and the things are the same and yet look so different4 ,it is like after the night of an illumination looking at the designs by daylight4 ,e4 ,not many of our designs will bear 8the light of common day40 ,and if we tried to settle which1 we should probably be quite wrong4 ,of my three ,english ,educational ,classics one can hardly understand why the peoples who speak ,english have retained ,ascham while ,mulcaster1 ,brinsley1 and ,hoole are forgotten4 ,locke had his reputation as a philosopher to keep his ,thoughts from neglect1 and yet at the beginning of #ahhj #a found that there was no ,english edition in print4 ,perhaps some of the old writers will come into the field of view again4 ,e4g41 my friend ,dr4 ,blbring1 of ,heidelberg1 the editor of ,de ,foe's ,compleat ,gentleman1 talks of reviving the fame of ,mary ,astell1 who at the end of the seventeenth century took up the rights of women and put very vigorously some of the pet ideas of the nineteenth century4 ,a4 ,i will not ask you to 8look into the seeds of time10 and ,i will not take you for a representative person in any way4 ,on these conditions perhaps you will give me the names of some of the books that have made such a favourable impression on first reading--at least in cases where that impression has not been effaced by further acquaintance4 ,e4 ,agreed4 ,i ought to begin with psychology1 but ,i must with sorrow confess that ,i never read a whole book on the science of mind2 so this most important section of the subject must be omitted4 ,french and ,german books ,i will also omit unless they exist in an ,english translation4 ,about the historical and biographical part of the subject ,i have already named many books such as ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie's ,comenius and ,russell's ,guimps's ,pestalozzi4 ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,painter's ,history of ,education is pleasantly written2 but no really satisfactory history of education can be held in one small volume4 ,this objection in limine also applies to ,g4 ,compayr's ,history of ,pedagogy 7trans4 by ,w4 ,h4 ,payne7 which is far too full of matter4 ,in it we find many things1 but only a very advanced student can find much4 ,little has been written about ,english-speaking educators1 but there are good accounts of ,bell1 ,lancaster1 ,wilderspin1 and ,stow in ,j4 ,leitch's ,practical ,educationists 7,macmillans1 #fs474 ,turning to books about principles and methods ,i have found nothing that with reference to the first stage of instruction seems to me better than ,colonel ,f4 ,w4 ,parker's ,talks on ,teaching 7,new ,york1 ,kelloggs74 ,fitch's more complete book ,i have named already4 ,a4 ,geikie's ,teaching of ,geography 7,macmillans1 #bs4 #f;d47 is a book ,i read with great delight4 ,for principles ,joseph ,payne seems to me one of our best educational writers1 and we shall before long have1 ,i hope1 the much expected volume of his papers on the history of education4 ,some of the smaller books that ,i remember reading with especial gratification are ,jacob ,abbott's ,teacher1 ,calderwood ,on ,teaching1 ,a4 ,sidgwick's lectures on ,stimulus 7,pitt ,press7 and on ,discipline 7,rivingtons71 and ,mrs4 ,malleson's ,notes on ,early ,training 7,sonnenschein74 ,there seemed to me a very fine tone in a book much read in the ,united ,states--,d4 ,p4 ,page's ,theory and ,practice of ,teaching4 ,t4 ,tate's ,philosophy of ,education ,i liked very much1 and the book has been revived by ,colonel ,parker 7,kelloggs74 ,there are some books that are worth getting 8by opportunity10 as the ,germans say1 good books now out of print4 ,among them ,i should name ,rollin's ,method in three volumes1 ,rousseau's ,emilius in four1 ,de ,morgan's ,arithmetic1 ,essays on a ,liberal ,education edited by ,farrar4 ,i know or have known all the books here named1 but my knowledge and time for reading do not extend as far as my bookshelves1 and ,i see before me some books that ,i have not mentioned and yet feel sure ,i ought to mention4 ,among them are ,compayr's ,lectures on ,pedagogy1 translated by ,w4 ,h4 ,payne1 which seems an admirable compilation 7,boston1 ,heath2 ,london1 ,sonnenschein72 ,shaw and ,donnell's ,school ,devices 7,kelloggs7 in which ,i have seen some good 8wrinkles02 and ,t4 ,j4 ,morgan's ,educational ,mosaics 7,boston2 ,silver1 ,rogers ,co474 ,j4 ,landon's ,school ,management 7,london1 ,k4 ,paul7 ,i have heard spoken of as an excellent book1 and ,i like what ,i have seen of it4 ,but ,i set out with a promise to mention not all our good books1 but those which ,i thought good after reading them4 ,there still remain some that fall under this category and have not been mentioned1 e4g41 ,the ,action of ,examinations1 by ,h4 ,latham1 ,cotterill's ,reforms in ,public ,schools1 ,w4 ,h4 ,payne's ,contributions1 and a pamphlet from which ,i formed a very high estimate of the writer's ability to give us some first-rate books about teaching4 ,i mean ,a ,pot of ,green ,feathers1 by ,t4 ,g4 ,rooper4 ,professional ,knowledge4--,a4 ,what a pity it is that in ,english we have no name for ,kernsprche6 ,when an important truth has been aptly expressed1 the very expression may be an important event in the history of thought4 ,take e4g4 ,milton's words which ,i observe you have quoted more than once1 about 8the understanding founding itself on sensible things0 7p4 #eaj74 ,here we have a 8kernel-saying0 that might have sprung up and yielded a rich crop of improvements in teaching if it had only taken root in teachers' minds4 ,why don't you make a collection of such 8kernel-sayings08 ,e4 ,i have had thoughts of doing so1 and ,i have a collection of collections of ,kernsprche in ,german4 ,a4 ,well1 ,german is not the language ,i should choose for the expression of thought4 ,according to ,heine1 in everything the ,germans do there is a thought embodied2 and we may add that in everything they say a thought is embedded2 but ,i rather shrink from the labour of digging it out4 ,e4 ,you would find a collection of 8kernel-sayings0 in any language rather stiff reading4 ,and after all1 the sayings which strike us are just those which give utterance to our own thought4 ,this is probably the reason why in reading such a book so few sayings seem to us worthy of selection4 ,i had intended prefacing these essays with some mottoes1 as ,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,hodgson used to do when he wrote1 but finally ,i have left my readers to collect for themselves4 ,a4 ,i should like to know the sort of thing you intended for your 8first course40 ,e4 ,here is one of them from ,professor ,stanley ,hall1 of ,worcester1 ,mass43 8,modern life in all its departments is ruled by experts and by those who have attained the mastery that comes by concentration40 7,new ,england ,j4 of ,ed41 #bgth ,february1 #ahij47 ,a4 ,according to you1 sayings strike us only when they express our own thought4 ,in that case ,professor ,hall's saying would not make much impression on the generality of your scholastic friends4 ,many of the best paid schoolmasters in ,england would burst out laughing if anyone spoke of them as 8educational experts40 ,educational experts8 ,why they have never even thought of the art of teaching1 leave alone the science of education4 ,they are 8good scholars0 who at one time thought enough of preparing for the ,tripos or the ,honour ,schools2 and having got a good degree they thought 7and small blame to them67 how to employ their knowledge of classics so as to secure a comfortable income for life4 ,accordingly they took a mastership1 and soon settled down into the groove of work4 ,but as for the science of education they have thought of it about as much as they have thought of the sea-serpent1 and would probably tell you with ,mr4 ,lowe 7now forgotten as ,lord ,sherbrooke7 that 8there is no such thing40 ,e4 ,no doubt they feel the force of ,dr4 ,harris's words3 8,for the most part the teacher who is theoretically inclined is lame in the region of details of work40 ,it would be a pity indeed if their 8resolution0 to make a good income were 8sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought40 ,a4 ,they had to think how to prepare for the ,tripos2 and before long they will have to think how to do their work of teaching and educating better than they have done it hitherto4 ,the future will demand something more than 8a good degree40 ,professor ,hall is right4 ,the day of the experts is coming4 ,but does not even ,dr4 ,harris warn teachers against being 8too theoretical08 ,e4 ,it is rather jumping at conclusions to assume with some of our countrymen that if a man does not think1 he does act4 ,goethe's aphorism which ,dr4 ,harris quotes is this3 8,thought expands1 but lames2 action narrows1 but intensifies40 ,now a good many men who do not expend energy in thought are by no means strong in action4 ,in education they have no desire either to think the best that is thought or to do the best that is done4 ,they won't inquire about either2 and they show the most impartial ignorance of both4 ,like ,dr4 ,ridding they are of opinion that professional knowledge is to be sought only by persons without the advantages of having been at a public school and of 8a good degree40 ,as for reading books about teaching they leave that sort of thing to national schoolmasters4 ,and yet if teaching is an art1 they might get at least as much good from books as the golf-player gets or the whist-player4 8,how marvellous it is when one comes to consider the matter1 that a man should decline to receive instruction on a technical subject from those who have eminently distinguished themselves in it and have systematised for the benefit of others the results of the experience of a lifetime60 ,mr4 ,james ,payn who wrote this 7,some ,private ,views1 p4 #agf7 was thinking of books not on teaching but on whist2 but his words would come home to teachers if they took as much interest in teaching as he takes in whist4 ,a4 ,i fancy you have spotted the real deficiency2 it is want of interest4 ,it is only when a man becomes thoroughly interested in whist that he desires to play better1 and when he becomes thoroughly interested in teaching that he desires to teach better4 ,and if only he desires to improve he will seek all the professional knowledge within his reach4 8,every one10 says ,matthew ,arnold1 8every one is aware how those who want to cultivate any sense or endowment in themselves must be habitually conversant with the works of people who have been eminent for that sense1 must study them1 catch inspiration from them4 ,only in this way can progress be made40 7,quoted by ,momerie74 ,let us hope that you have incited some young teachers to study and catch inspiration from the great thinkers and workers in the educational field4 ,e4 ,this is the object ,i have aimed at4 ,if ,i wanted a motto ,i think ,i should choose this from ,froebel interpreted by ,miss ,shirreff3 8,the duty of each generation is to gather up its inheritance from the past1 and thus to serve the present1 and prepare better things for the future40 ,,syllabus ,,of ,,quick',s ,,educational ,,reformers4 ,from the ,international ,reading ,circle ,course of ,professional ,study4 ,pages #a to #fb4 ,i4 ,,the ,,renascence4 #a4 ,the essential element in literature4 #b4 ,classical literature in education4 #c4 ,the educational classes produced by renascence tendencies4 #d4 ,how much of the error of the 8renascence ideal0 still survives8 #e4 ,is this harm overbalanced by the good influences of that ideal8 ,,ii4 ,,sturm4 7,see ,painter1 pp4 #afj-afb1 for ,sturm's ,course of ,study47 #a4 ,what two or more influences of ,sturm's school would you mention as most prominently retained in our larger schools of to-day8 #b4 ,how far are these influences good1 and in what ways are they evil8 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,jesuits4 #a4 ,their motive4 #b4 ,their elements of excellence4 #c4 ,what value attaches to their provisions for securing thoroughness8 #d4 ,what to their instruction in morals8 #e4 ,what to their physical training8 ,pages #fc to #aga4 ,,rabelais4 #a4 ,his products of education3 wisdom1 eloquence1 and piety4 #b4 ,his emphasis upon the study of things4 #c4 ,his standard of physical training4 ,,montaigne4 #a4 ,his prime product of education3 wisdom1 in thought and action2 not knowledge4 #b4 ,the practical errors in his theory of educational methods4 ,,ascham4 #a4 ,his method of ,latin instruction4 ,,mulcaster4 #a4 ,his principles of education as identical with the best of to-day4 #b4 ,his recognition of the need for trained teachers4 ,,ratke4 #a4 ,his practical failure due to the characteristics of the man1 not to faults in his principles of education4 #b4 ,nine cardinal principles of didactics as gathered from his writings upon method4 ,,comenius4 #a4 ,the first to treat education in a scientific spirit4 #b4 ,based educational method upon an understanding of the nature of the child4 #c4 ,insisted upon the direct study of external ,nature1 and upon the learning of words only in connection with things4 #d4 ,recognized education as the development of all the faculties of body and of mind4 #e4 ,demanded the equal instruction of both sexes4 #f4 ,taught that languages must be learned through practice1 not by means of rules4 #g4 ,made provision for education through the hand as well as through the eye and ear4 ,pages #agb to #bah4 ,,the ,,port-,,royalists4 #a4 ,purpose and method of ,saint ,cyran's 8,little ,schools40 #b4 ,actual results of ,english public-school influences as opposed to ,st4 ,cyran's theory4 #c4 ,port-,royalists' restoration of the mother tongue as the subject-matter of elementary instruction4 #d4 ,literature study as distinguished from grammar study of ,latin and ,greek4 #e4 ,logic1 or the act of thinking4 #f4 ,the principles set forth in the pedagogic writings of the ,port-,royalists4 ,,some ,,english ,,writers ,,before ,,locke4 #a4 ,francis ,bacon3 first great leader of the realists--of those who sought to know the facts of ,nature rather than the thoughts of man4 #b4 ,charles ,hoole3 8one of the pioneer educators of his century40 #c4 ,dury and ,petty3 extending the doctrines of realism4 #d4 ,milton3 elevating the moral nature to the first place in his theory of a complete education4 ,pages #bai to #bch4 ,,john ,,locke4 7,see ,painter's ,history1 pp4 #bah-bbc47 #a4 ,from the standpoints of reason he rejected the established methods4 #b4 ,his definition of knowledge4 #c4 ,development of body and mind1 and formation of right habits the true aim of education4 #d4 ,locke's comparison of the child to white paper or wax4 #e4 ,the naturalistic school of educational thinkers4 #f4 ,objections to classing ,locke as a utilitarian4 ,pages #bci to #bhi4 ,,rousseau4 #a4 ,to be classed with the thinkers1 not with the doers1 in educational work4 #b4 ,the value of his destructive work4 #c4 ,his three kinds of education--from ,nature1 from men1 from things4 #d4 ,the first essential in the work of education is to understand the mind of childhood4 #e4 ,some characteristics of the mode of acting of the child's mind4 #f4 ,evil of over-directing in both discipline and instruction4 #g4 ,right and wrong views of the value of self-teaching4 ,,basedow4 #a4 ,his mode of thought and manner of life4 #b4 ,the theory outlined in his ,elementary and in his ,book of ,method4 #c4 ,interesting devices used at the ,philanthropinum4 #d4 ,the training of the senses and acquirement of knowledge through the senses pre-eminent both in ,rousseau's and in ,basedow's theories4 ,pages #bij to #chc4 ,,pestalozzi4 ,i4 ,,his ,,life4 #a4 ,his personal characteristics as shown in his early life and in his farming venture4 #b4 ,his view of the nature and purpose of education4 #c4 ,the first experiment at ,neuhof and its failure4 #d4 ,the orphanage at ,stanz4 #e4 ,the experiences at ,burgdorf4 #f4 ,the ,institute at ,yverdun4 #g4 ,the last success at ,clindy4 #h4 ,death of ,pestalozzi at ,neuhof4 ,,ii4 ,,pestalozzi',s ,,principles4 #a4 ,the main object of the school not to teach but to develop4 #b4 ,the child first to be trained to love2 moral education4 #c4 ,the child next to be trained to think2 intellectual education4 #d4 ,the child also to be trained to work2 physical education4 #e4 ,the self-activity of the pupil the real force in all true education4 ,pages #chd to #dac4 ,,friedrich ,,froebel4 #a4 ,the best tendencies of educational thought embodied in ,froebel's teachings4 #b4 ,froebel imperfectly understood even by the most earnest students4 #c4 ,influence of his own neglected youth upon his after consideration for children4 #d4 ,his communion with ,nature in the ,thuringian ,forest4 #e4 ,his transfer from the study of architecture to the practice and study of education4 #f4 ,his association with ,pestalozzi at ,yverdun4 #g4 ,the influence of his military experience in showing him the value of discipline and united action4 #h4 ,his experiences in teaching prior to his first kindergarten4 #i4 ,the edict forbidding the establishment of schools based upon ,froebel's principles4 #aj4 ,his death at threescore years and ten4 ,,froebel',s ,,educational ,,principles4 #aa4 ,to find in science the expression of the mind of ,god4 #ab4 ,to view education as founded upon religion1 and leading to unity with ,god4 #ac4 ,to regard the educational process as a process of development4 #ad4 ,to seek development1 or evolution of power1 in the exercise of those functions1 in the use of those faculties1 that it is desired to develop4 #ae4 ,that the exercise productive of true development must be in harmony with the function or faculty to be developed1 and proportioned to its present strength4 #af4 ,that to be most truly efficient the exercise must arise from and be sustained by the self-activity of the function or faculty to be developed4 #ag4 ,that this self-activity must manifest itself not in receptive action or acquisition alone1 but in expressive action or production4 #ah4 ,practically1 that children should be busied with things that they can not only see but can handle and use in the making or representing of new things to express their growing ideas4 ,pages #dad to #dfi4 ,,jacotot4 #a4 ,set pupils to learning by their own investigation and refrained from giving them direct instruction4 #b4 ,asserted that all human beings are equally capable of learning4 #c4 ,declared that every one can teach2 and1 moreover1 can teach that which he does not know4 #d4 ,has done great service by giving prominence to the principle that the mental faculties must be developed and trained by being put to actual work4 #e4 ,by his doctrine 8,all is in all10 he gave prominence to the correlation of knowledge4 #f4 ,made the thorough mastery of a single book and the retention of it all in the memory his basis of all further accumulation4 #g4 ,his methodology summarized3 ,learn something1 repeat it1 reflect upon it1 test all related facts by it4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 #a4 ,the value in the views of one who comes to educational problems free from tradition and prejudice4 #b4 ,the teaching that gives the most valuable knowledge also best disciplines in the mental faculties4 #c4 ,the end and aim of education is to prepare us for complete living4 #d4 ,the test of the relative value of knowledge lies in its power to influence action in right or wrong directions4 #e4 ,in method we must proceed from the simple to the complex2 from the known to the unknown2 from the concrete to the abstract4 #f4 ,every study should have a purely experimental introduction1 and children should be led to make their own investigations and draw their own inferences4 #g4 ,instruction must excite the interest of pupils and therefore be pleasurable to them4 ,pages #dgj to #ejc4 ,i4 ,,thoughts ,,and ,,suggestions4 #a4 ,the ideal of public-school work is to beget a healthy interest and pleasure in the doing of hard work4 #b4 ,the interest to arise from the nature of the subject itself1 or from the recognized usefulness of the subject1 or from emulation4 #c4 ,the value of pictures in the teaching of children as a means of awakening active interest4 #d4 ,the first teaching in reading and number to begin with the objective method and pass thence to the subjective4 #e4 ,in geography and history the lively description and the interesting story to precede the formal compend4 ,,ii4 ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,influence4 #f4 ,sources and means of the teacher's influence upon his pupils4 #g4 ,causes of the loss of his good influence4 #h4 ,the influence of a few leading spirits among the pupils themselves4 #i4 ,a mode of religious training4 ,pages #ejd to #edg4 ,,review ,,of ,,educational ,,progress4 #a4 ,the good and the ill influences of the ,jesuits as the 8first reformers0 in educational practice4 #b4 ,rabelais1 the first to advocate training as distinguished from teaching4 #c4 ,comenius1 founder of the science of education1 recognizing in his scheme the threefold nature of man4 #d4 ,rousseau1 the originator of the 8new education0 as based upon the inherent nature of the child4 #e4 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel1 reformers of the processes of education1 seeking to secure the development of each faculty by its own activity in appropriate exercise4 ,,index4 ,abbott1 ,e4 ,a41 on ,montaigne and ,locke1 #bca1 n4 -- ,jacob2 ,teacher1 #edd ,accomplishments1 #dea ,action1 the root of ,ed41 #djc 8,advice to a ,young ,lord0 7#afia71 #bcd1 n4 schines on memorizing1 #eda sop's ,fables1 ,locke's1 #bch1 n4 ,alexander ,de ,villa ,dei1 #hj1 #ecb ,all can learn1 ,jacotot1 #daf -- ,education for1 #cef -- ,education for4 ,comenius1 #eae1 #ebb -- is in all4 ,jacotot1 #dbc -- to be educated4 ,comenius1 #adf ,altdorf burnt1 #cbf ,analogies for illustration not proof1 #aee ,anchoran edits ,c4's ,janua1 #afc ,andre1 ,j4 ,v41 #abb ,anschauung1 ,pestalozzi on1 #cfj -- ,froebel for1 #djh ,apparatus1 #dfb ,aquaviva and ,jesuit schools1 #cf ,arber1 ,prof41 #hb1 n41 #hc ,arithmetic1 ,children's4 ,comenius1 #ade -- for children1 #dgi1 #dhb ,armstrong1 ,ld41 on cry for ,useless ,knowledge1 #gh1 n4 ,arnauld1 his ,rglement1 #ahi -- the ,philosopher of ,port-,royal1 #ahg ,arnaulds1 ,the1 and the ,jesuits1 #agc ,arnold1 ,dr41 educator of ,english type1 #bai -- ,history ,primer1 #dhg -- on citizens' duties1 #ddg ,arnold1 ,m41 about the ,middle ,age1 #bdj -- ,barbarian's inaptitude for ideas1 #agh -- on importance of reading1 #eci -- on studying great authorities1 #edg -- on ,words and ,things1 #aed ,arnstdt1 ,f4 ,a43 ,rabelais1 #fi ,art learnt by right practice1 #dbj -- of observing children1 #beb ,ascham against epitomes1 #dhf1 n4 -- and ,jacotot1 #dbe ,ascham's method for ,latin1 #hd -- 8six points10 #he 8,ascott ,hope10 quoted1 #dih1 n4 ,athletic public schoolmen1 #ead1 n4 ,audition1 ,hint for1 #dbi1 n4 ,augsburg1 ,ratke at1 #ajf ,bacon against epitomes1 #ddf1 n4 -- for ,jesuits1 #cc1 n4 -- for study of ,nature1 #djh -- on 8young plants10 #djf -- studied by ,comenius1 #abb1 #adi ,baconian teaching1 ,effect of1 #eaj ,bahrd1 #bhi ,balliet1 ,t4 ,m41 quoted1 #aef1 n4 ,banzet1 ,sara1 #djh ,barbauld1 ,mrs41 on women's concealment of knowledge1 #ih1 n4 ,barbier1 ,la ,discipline1 #fj1 n4 ,bardeen's ,orbis ,pictus1 #afh ,barnard1 ,h41 ,english ,pedagogy1 #edb -- ,eng4 ,pedagogy1 #ia1 n41 #bab1 n4 -- on ,kindergarten1 #dji -- ,opinion of ,positions1 #ia1 and n4 -- ,the ,kindergarten1 #dac ,bartle ,massey in ,adam ,bede1 #ejg ,basedow and ,goethe1 #bgg ,basedow1 ,pinloche's mentioned1 #bhi1 n41 #ebg ,bateus1 #afj1 n4 ,bath1 ,w41 #afj1 n4 ,beaconsfield1 ,ld4 ,his 8two nations10 #cga ,beautiful1 ,pestalozzi on sense of the1 #cci ,beginners shall have best teachers4 ,mulcaster1 #ie ,bell1 ,dr41 at ,yverdun1 #ceb ,bellers1 ,john1 for hand-work1 #baa1 n4 ,benham1 ,d4 ,his ,comenius1 #aai -- ,his trans4 of ,sch4 of ,infancy1 #adb ,besant1 ,w4 ,readings in ,rabelais1 #fg1 n4 ,biographies before history1 #dhi ,birmingham lecture quoted1 #aic1 n4 ,blackboard1 ,drawing on1 #dgf ,blunder of insisting on repulsive tasks1 #dfg -- of not getting clear ideas about definitions1 #dfj -- of giving only book knowledge1 #deh -- of teaching epitomes1 #dhe -- of teaching words without ideas1 #dge -- of 8cramming0 children1 #cgd1 #cge -- of not beginning at the beginning1 #dfh -- of assuming knowledge in pupil1 #dfh -- of neglecting interest1 #dfd1 #dgd -- of teaching the incomprehensible1 #aie -- about 8first principles10 #dfa ,bluntschli warns ,pestalozzi1 #bic ,bodily health1 ,jesuits cared for1 #dh1 #ejg ,bodmer1 #bia ,body1 its part in education1 #eff -- must be educated1 #daa -- ,rabelais's care of the1 #ejh ,boileau's ,arrt1 #ahg1 n4 ,bookishness of ,renascence4 ,montaigne1 #gf ,book-learning1 connected with life1 #dei ,books for teachers1 #eda 8,books1 ,miserable10 #aec -- ,reaction against1 #eaj -- ,respect for1 #dha -- ,rousseau against1 #bei -- useful in learning an art1 #edf ,bowen1 ,e4 ,e41 #aah1 n41 #ecb ,bowen1 ,h4 ,c41 on connected teaching1 #dbd1 n4 -- on development1 #cii -- on ,kindergartens without idea1 #daj ,bral1 ,m41 quoted1 #bhf1 n4 -- on child-collectors1 #dbi1 n4 -- on teachers1 #dee1 n4 ,brewer1 ,prof41 #ih ,brinsley1 ,j41 #bjj -- on training teachers1 #ii1 n4 ,brown1 ,dr4 ,john1 ,ed4 through senses1 #deh1 n4 -- ,hor ,sub41 quoted1 #afi ,browning1 ,oscar1 on ,humanists1 c41 #bca ,buchanan and ,infant ,schools1 #dji ,buisson on ,intuition1 #cfa ,blbring1 ,dr41 and ,mary ,astell1 #edc ,burgdorf ,institute1 #cda -- ,pestalozzi at1 #cce ,burke1 quoted1 #dcg ,buss1 #cda1 #cfe ,butler1 ,bp41 on ,ed41 #adg1 #adh1 n4 ,butler1 ,samuel1 quoted1 #cj ,cadet on ,port-,royal1 #aie ,calkins1 ,prof41 on learning thro' senses1 #aej1 n4 ,cambridge exam1 of teachers1 #bai1 n4 -- man1 #dj years ago1 #dca1 n4 ,campanella1 #abb ,campe1 #bhg ,capitalizing discoveries1 #eag ,carlyle about the ,schoolmen1 #aj1 n4 -- on divine message1 #dja -- on ,history1 quoted1 #ade1 n4 -- on ,knowledge1 #bbc -- on 8nag for sand-cart10 #dfg -- on teaching religion1 #cei1 n4 ,carlyle's 8mostly fools10 #eag1 n4 -- 8,succedaneum for salt10 #dih ,carr on ,port-,royal1 #aie ,cat1 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