,,transcrib]',s ,,note3 ,italic text is d5ot$ by und]scores & bold text by equal signs4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,heal?2 ,,or1 ,,an ,,exposition ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,& ,,m5tal ,,con/itution ,,( ,,man1 ,,) ,a ,,view ,,to ,,! ,,promotion ,,( ,,human ,,longevity ,,& ,,happ9ess4 ,,by ,,s\?wood ,,smi?1 ,m4,d41 ,physician to ! ,london ,fev] ,hospital1 to ! ,ea/]n ,disp5s>y1 & to ! ,jews' ,hospital4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,c4 ,,cox1 #ab1 ,,k+ ,,william ,,/reet1 ,,/r&4 #ahdg4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ by ,w4 ,,cl[es & ,,sons1 ,/am=d ,/reet4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,introduction ,page #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,*>act]s by :i* liv+ be+s are di/+ui%$ f inorganic bodies--,*>act]s by :i* animals are di/+ui%$ f plants--,actions common to plants & animals--,actions peculi> to animals--,actions includ$ 9 ! ,,organic circle--,actions includ$ 9 ! ,,animal circle--,organs & functions def9$--,action ( physical ag5ts on organiz$ /ructures--,processes ( supply1 & processes ( wa/e--,reasons :y ! /ructure ( ! animal is m complex ?an t ( ! plant #ac ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,two di/9ct lives comb9$ 9 ! animal--,*>act]s ( ! app>atus ( ! organic life--,*>act]s ( ! app>atus ( ! animal life--,*>act]i/ic diff]5ces 9 ! action ( ea*--,progress ( life--,progress ( dea? #ea ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,ultimate object ( organization & life--,s\rces ( pleasure--,special provision by :i* ! organic organs influ5ce consci\sness & af=d pleasure--,po9t at :i* ! organic organs cease to affect consci\sness & :y--,! animal appetites3 ! s5ses3 ! intellectual faculties3 ! selfi% & sympa!tic affections3 ! moral faculty--,pleasure ! direct1 ! ord9>y1 & ! gratuit\s result ( ! action ( ! organs--,pleasure conducive to ! developm5t ( ! organs1 & to ! cont9uance ( _! action--,progress ( human k--,progress ( human happ9ess #gc ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,relation betwe5 ! physical condition & happ9ess1 & betwe5 happ9ess & longevity--,longevity a good1 & :y--,epo*s ( life--,! age ( maturity ! only "o t admits ( ext5sion--,pro( ( ?is f physiology--,pro( f /ati/ics--,explanation ( t]ms--,life a fluctuat+ quantity--,am\nt ( x possess$ 9 anci5t ,rome3 9 mod]n ,europe3 at pres5t 9 ,engl& among ! mass ( ! p & among ! high] classes #ajf ,,*apt] ,v4 ,ultimate elem5ts ( :i* ! body is compos$-- ,proximate pr9ciples--,fluids & solids--,prim>y tissues-- ,comb9ations--,results--,organs1 sy/ems1 app>atus-- ,=m ( ! body--,division into head1 trunk1 & extremities--,/ructure & function ( ea*--,regions-- ,seats ( ! m important int]nal organs #adh ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,( ! blood--,physical *>act]s ( ! blood3 col\r1 fluidity1 specific gravity1 temp]ature2 quantity--,process ( coagulation--,con/itu5ts ( ! blood2 proportions --,con/itu5ts ( ! body conta9$ 9 ! blood--,vital prop]ties ( ! blood--,practical applications #ccd ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ! circulation--,vessels connect$ ) ! he>t2 *amb]s ( ! he>t--,position ( ! he>t--,pulmonic circle2 sy/emic circle--,/ructure ( ! he>t1 art]y1 & ve9--,consequ5ces ( ! discov]y ( ! circulation to ! discov]]--,action ( ! he>t2 s\nds occasion$ by its diff]5t movem5ts--,contraction2 dilatation--,disposition & action ( ! valves--,p[]s t move ! blood--,=ce ( ! he>t--,action ( ! art]ial tubes2 ! pulse2 action ( ! capill>ies2 action ( ! ve9s--,self-mov+ p[] ( ! blood--,vital end[m5t ( ! capill>ies2 functions--,practical applications #ceg ,,footnotes4 #djh ,,introduction4 ,! object ( ! pres5t "w is to give a brief & pla9 acc\nt ( ! /ructure & functions ( ! body1 *iefly ) ref]5ce to heal? & disease4 ,?is is int5d$ to be introductory to an acc\nt ( ! con/itution ( ! m9d1 *iefly ) ref]5ce to ! developm5t & direction ( its p[]s4 ,!re is a natural connexion betwe5 ^! subjects1 & an advantage 9 /udy+ !m 9 _! natural ord]4 ,/ructure mu/ be kn[n be=e function c be und]/ood3 h5ce ! sci5ce ( physiology is bas$ on t ( anatomy4 ,! m9d is dep5d5t on ! body3 h5ce an acqua9tance ) ! physiology ( ! body %\ld prec$e ! /udy ( ! physiology ( ! m9d4 ,! con/itution ( ! m9d mu/ be und]/ood be=e its p[]s & affections c be prop]ly develop$ & direct$3 h5ce a k ( ! physiology ( ! m9d is ess5tial to a s\nd view ( education & morals4 ,9 ! execution ( ! fir/ "p ( ?is "w1 t :i* relates to ! organization ( ! body1 a =midable difficulty pres5ts itself at ! outset4 ,! explanation ( /ructure is easy :5 ! "p describ$ c be se54 ,! tea*] ( anatomy f9ds no difficulty 9 communicat+ to ! /ud5t a cle> & exact k ( ! /ructure ( an organ2 because1 by ! aid ( dissection1 he resolves ! v>i\s complex sub/ances1 ( :i* x is built up1 into _! con/itu5t p>ts1 & demon/rates ! relation ( ^! elem5t>y p>ts to ea* o!r4 ,b ! case is diff]5t ) him :o attempts to convey a k ( ! /ructure ( an organ m]ely by ! description ( x4 ,! be/ conceiv$ & execut$ draw+ is a mo/ inadequate sub/itute = ! object itself4 ,x is impossible :olly to remove ?is difficulty3 :at c be done1 by ! aid ( plates1 to less5 x1 is "h attempt$4 ,a "t may come :5 ! objects !mselves w be m g5]ally accessible3 mean:ile1 ! description n[ giv5 ( ! *ief organs ( ! body may facilitate ! /udy ( _! /ructure to ^? :o h an opportunity ( exam9+ ! organs !mselves1 & w1 x is hop$1 enable e read] at once to und]/& mu* ( _! action4 ,physical sci5ce has become ! subject ( popul> att5tion1 & m5 ( ! highe/ end[m5ts1 :o h devot$ _! lives to ! cultivation ( ?is dep>tm5t ( k1 conceive t !y c make no bett] use ( ! treasures !y h accumulat$1 ?an t ( diffus+ !m4 ,( ?is "p ( ! great field ( k1 to make ! r\gh places pla91 & ! crook$ places /raight1 is deem$ a lab\r second 9 importance only to t ( ext5d+ ! b\nd>ies ( ! field itself4 ,b no attempt has hi!rto be5 made to exhibit a cle> & compreh5sive view ( ! ph5om5a ( life2 ! organization ^u :i* ^? ph5om5a dep5d2 ! physical ag5ts ess5tial to _! production1 & ! laws1 z f> z !y h yet be5 discov]$1 accord+ to :i* ^? ag5ts act4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t p 9 g5]al1 n except+ ! educat$ class1 are :olly ignorant ( ! /ructure & action ( ! organs ( _! own bodies1 ! circum/ances :i* are conducive to _! own heal?1 ! ag5ts :i* ord9>ily produce disease1 & ! means by :i* ! op]ation ( su* ag5ts may be avoid$ or c\nt]act$2 & !y c h>dly be said to possess m in=mation relative to ! connexion betwe5 ! organization ( ! body & ! qualities ( ! m9d1 ! physical condition & ! m5tal /ate2 ! laws :i* regulate ! production1 comb9ation1 & succession ( ! tra9s ( pleasurable & pa9ful ?\ght1 & ! rules d$ucible f ^? laws1 hav+ = _! object su* a det]m9ation ( volunt>y human conduct1 z may secure ! pleasurable & avoid ! pa9ful4 ,yet no?+ w\ld seem a fitt] /udy = man ?an ! nature ( man 9 ?is s5se ( ! t]m4 ,a k ( ! /ructure & functions ( ! body is admitt$ to be indisp5sable to :oev] und]takes1 z ! bus9ess ( 8 pr(ession1 to protect ^? organs f injury1 & to re/ore _! action to a s\nd /ate :5 x has become disord]$2 b surely "s k ( ?is k9d may be useful to ^? :o h no int5tion to practise physic1 or to p]=m op]ations 9 surg]y2 may be useful to e human be+1 to enable him to take a rational c>e ( 8 heal?1 to make him obs]vant ( 8 own alt]$ s5sations1 z indications ( approa*+ sickness2 to give him ! p[] ( communicat+ intelligibly ) 8 m$ical advis] respect+ ! seat & ! succession ( ^? signs ( disord]$ function1 & to dispose & qualify him to co-op]ate ) 8 physician 9 ! use ( ! means employ$ to av]t imp5d+ dang]1 or to remove actual disease4 ,b if to e human be+ occasions mu/ cont9ually occur1 :5 k ( ?is k9d w\ld be useful1 ! possession ( x seems peculi>ly necess>y to ^? :o h ! exclusive c>e ( infancy1 almo/ ! entire c>e ( *ildhood1 a great "p ( ! c>e ( ! sick1 & ^: ignorance1 n ! less mis*iev\s because its activity is induc$ by affection1 con/antly endang]s1 & (t5 defeats1 ! be/ conc]t$ measures ( ! physician4 ,! bodily organization & ! m5tal p[]s ( ! *ild dep5d ma9ly on ! managem5t ( ! infant2 & ! intellectual & moral aptitudes & qualities ( ! man h _! orig9 9 ! pr$om9ant /ates ( s5sation1 at a p]iod f> e>li] 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human be+ ?an is commonly imag9$4 ,! p]iod ( infancy is divid$ by physiologi/s into two epo*s2 ! fir/1 comm5c+ f bir?1 ext5ds to ! sev5? mon?3 ! second1 comm5c+ f ! sev5? mon?1 ext5ds to ! end ( ! second ye>1 at :i* "t ! p]iod ( infancy ceases1 & t ( *ildhood beg9s4 ,! fir/ epo* ( infancy is rem>kable = ! rapidity ( ! developm5t ( ! organs ( ! body3 ! processes ( gr[? are 9 extreme activity2 ! =mative pr$om9ates ov] ! s5ti5t life1 ! *ief object ( ! action ( ! =m] be+ to prep>e ! app>atus ( ! latt]4 ,! second epo* ( infancy is rem>kable = ! developm5t ( ! p]ceptive p[]s4 ,! physical organization ( ! bra91 :i* /ill advances ) rapidity1 is n[ capable ( a great] en]gy1 & a wid] range ( function4 ,s5sation becomes m exact & v>i$2 ! intellectual faculties are 9 almo/ con/ant op]ation2 spee* comm5ces1 ! sign1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! cause ( ! gr[+ /r5g? ( ! m5tal p[]s2 ! capacity ( volunt>y locomotion is acquir$1 :ile passion1 emotion1 affection1 come into play ) su* con/ancy & en]gy1 z to ex]t ov] ! :ole economy ( ! n[ irritable & pla/ic creature a prodigi\s influ5ce = good or evil4 ,if x be1 inde$1 possible to make correct moral p]ception1 feel+1 & conduct1 a "p ( human nature1 z mu* a "p ( x z any s5sation or prop5sity--if ?is be possible = e individual ( ! human race1 )\t exception1 to an ext5t :i* w\ld r5d] all m em95tly & consi/5tly virtu\s ?an any are at pres5t 7& ( ! possibility ( ?is1 ! conviction is ! /ronge/ 9 ! acute/ m9ds :i* h /udi$ ?is subject ! mo/ pr(\ndly71 prep>ation = ! accompli%m5t ( ?is object mu/ be comm5c$ at ?is epo*4 ,b if prep>ation = ?is object be really comm5c$1 x implies1 on ! "p ( ^? :o engage 9 ! und]tak+1 "s degree ( k2 k ( ! physical & m5tal con/itution ( ! individual to be influ5c$2 k ( ! mode1 9 :i* circum/ances mu/ be s modifi$ 9 adaptation to ! nature ( ! individual be+1 z to produce ^u x1 ) uni=mity & c]ta9ty1 a giv5 result4 ,! !ory ( human society1 accord+ to its pres5t in/itutions1 supposes t ?is k is possess$ by ! "m2 & x supposes1 fur!r1 t ?is adaptation w actually take place 9 ! dome/ic circle ?r\gh h] ag5cy4 ,h5ce ! presum$ advantage ( hav+ ! eye ( ! "m always ^u ! *ild2 h5ce ! appreh5sion ( evil s g5]al1 ,i _h almo/ said in/9ctive1 :5ev] x is propos$ to take ! infant1 = ! purpose ( sy/ematic physical & m5tal discipl9e1 f beyond ! sph]e ( mat]nal influ5ce4 ,b society1 :i* ?us presumes t ! "m w possess ! p[] & ! disposition to d ?is1 :at exp$i5ts has x devis$ to end[ h] ) ! =m]1 & to secure ! =mation ( ! latt]8 ,i appeal to e woman ^: eye may re/ on ^! pages4 ,i ask ( y1 :at has ev] be5 done = y to enable y to und]/& ! physical & m5tal con/itution ( t human nature1 ! c>e ( :i* is impos$ ^u y8 ,9 :at "p ( ! c\rse ( y\r education 0 in/ruction ( ?is k9d introduc$8 ,ov] h[ l>ge a portion ( y\r education did x ext5d8 ,:o 7 y\r tea*]s8 ,:at h y pr(it$ by _! lessons8 ,:at progress h y made 9 ! acquisition ( ! requisite in=mation8 ,7 y at ?is mom5t to und]take ! guidance ( a new-born infant to heal?1 k1 goodness1 & happ9ess1 h[ w\ld y set ab\t ! task8 ,h[ w\ld y regulate ! influ5ce ( ext]nal ag5ts ^u its delicate1 t5d]1 & highly-irritable organs1 9 su* a mann] z to obta9 f !m heal?ful /imulation1 & avoid de/ructive excitem5t8 ,:at natural & moral objects w\ld y select z ! be/ adapt$ to ex]cise & develope its op5+ faculties8 ,:at feel+s w\ld y *eck1 & :at *]i%8 ,h[ w\ld y excite aims2 h[ w\ld y apply motives8 ,h[ w\ld y avail y\rself ( pleasure z a f9al end1 or z ! means to "s fur!r end8 ,& h[ w\ld y deal ) ! no less =midable in/rum5t ( pa98 ,:at is y\r own physical1 intellectual1 & moral /ate1 z specially fitt+ y = ?is (fice8 ,:at is ! measure ( y\r own self-control1 )\t a l>ge portion ( :i* no human be+ ev] yet ex]t$ ov] ! infant m9d any consid]able influ5ce = good8 ,!re is no philosoph]1 h[ev] pr(\nd 8 k1 no in/ructor1 h[ev] v>i$ & ext5d$ 8 exp]i5ce1 :o w\ld n ent] ^u ?is task ) an appreh5sion proportion$ to 8 k & exp]i5ce2 b k :i* m5 acquire only aft] ye>s ( /udy1 habits :i* are g5]at$ 9 m5 only z ! result ( long-cont9u$ discipl9e1 are expect$ to come to y spontane\sly1 to be born ) y1 to require on y\r "p no culture1 & to ne$ no su/a9+ influ5ce4 ,b1 inde$1 x is a mo/ inadequate expression ( ! fact1 to say t ! communication ( ! k1 & ! =mation ( ! habits :i* are necess>y to ! due p]=mance ( ! duties ( wom51 con/itute no ess5tial "p ( _! education3 ! direct t5d5cy ( a great "p ( _! education is to produce & fo/] op9ions1 feel+s1 & ta/es1 :i* positively disqualify !m = ! p]=mance ( _! duties4 ,all w\ld be well if ! m>riage c]emony1 :i* trans=ms ! girl into ! wife1 conf]r$ ^u ! wife ! qualities :i* %\ld be possess$ by ! "m4 ,b x is r>e to f9d a p]son capable ( ! lea/ difficult "p ( education1 namely1 t ( communicat+ in/ruction1 ev5 aft] dilig5t /udy1 ) a direct view to tea*+2 yet an ord9>y girl1 br\ght up 9 ! ord9>y mode1 9 ! ord9>y dome/ic circle1 is intru/$ ) ! direction & control ( ! fir/ impressions t are made ^u ! human be+1 & ! mom5t\s1 physical1 intellectual1 & moral results t arise out ( ^? impressions6 ,i am s5sible ( ! total inadequacy ( any rem$y = ?is evil1 %ort ( a modification ( our dome/ic in/itutions4 ,m]e in=mation1 h[ev] complete ! communication ( x1 c d little beyond af=d+ a cle>] conception ( ! end 9 view1 & ( ! means fitt$ to secure x4 ,ev5 ?is little1 h[ev]1 w\ld be some?+ ga9$2 & ! hope ( contribut+1 9 "s degree1 to ! fur!rance ( ?is object1 has suppli$ "o ( ! ma9 motives = und]tak+ ! pres5t "w4 ,meantime1 wom5 are ! e>lie/ tea*]s2 !y mu/ be nurses2 !y c be nei!r1 )\t ! risk ( do+ incalculable mis*ief1 unless !y h "s und]/&+ ( ! subjects ab\t to be treat$ (4 ,on ^! gr\nds ,i re/ _! obligation to /udy !m2 & ,i look ^u t notion ( delicacy1 :i* w\ld exclude !m f k calculat$1 9 an extraord9>y degree1 to op51 exalt1 & purify _! m9ds1 & to fit !m = ! p]=mance ( _! duties1 z alike degrad+ to ^? to :om x affects to %[ respect1 & debas+ to ! m9d t ent]ta9s x4 ,?\gh ea* "p ( ?is "w w be made z complete 9 itself z ! au?or is capable ( r5d]+ x1 & to t ext5t indep5d5t ( any o!r "p1 yet !re w be f\nd to be a /rict connexion betwe5 ! sev]al portions ( ! :ole2 & greatly z ! topics includ$ 9 ! latt] diff] f ^? :i* =m ! e>li] subjects1 ! advantage ( hav+ /udi$ ! =m] be=e ! latt] are ent]$ on1 w be felt precisely z ! ^w /udy c be ju/ly appli$ to ! op]ation ( ! m9d on su* matt]s4 ,9 ! expository portion ( ! "w ,i h n be5 anxi\s to ab/a9 f ! employm5t ( te*nical t]ms1 :5 a decid$ly useful purpose 0 to be obta9$ by ! introduction ( !m2 b ,i h be5 v c>eful to use no su* t]m )\t assign+ ! exact mean+ ( x4 ,a te*nical t]m unexpla9$ is a d>k spot on ! field ( k2 expla9$1 x is a cle> & /eady light4 ,9 ord] really to und]/& ! /ates ( heal? & disease1 an acqua9tance ) ! nature ( organization1 & ( ! vital processes ( :i* x is ! seat & ! in/rum5t1 is indisp5sable3 x is = ?is reason t ! exposition ( /ructure & function1 attempt$ 9 ?is fir/ "p ( ! "w1 is some:at full2 b !re _c be a "q t1 if x accompli% its object1 x w n only enable ! acc\nt ( heal? & disease 9 ! subsequ5t "p ( x to be mu* m brief1 b t x w1 at ! same "t1 r5d] t acc\nt m intelligible1 exact1 & practical4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,heal?4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,*>act]s by :i* liv+ be+s are di/+ui%$ f inorganic bodies--,*>act]s by :i* animals are di/+ui%$ f plants--,actions common to plants & animals--,actions peculi> to animals--,actions includ$ 9 ! organic circle--,actions includ$ 9 ! animal circle--,organs & functions def9$--,action ( physical ag5ts on organiz$ /ructures--,processes ( supply1 & processes ( wa/e--,reasons :y ! /ructure ( ! animal is m complex ?an t ( ! plant4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a liv+ be+ & an inorganic body1 betwe5 a plant & a /one1 is1 t ! plant c>ries on a numb] ( processes :i* are n p]=m$ by ! /one4 ,! plant absorbs food1 conv]ts its food into its own prop] sub/ance1 arranges ?is sub/ance into b>k1 wood1 vessels1 leaves1 & o!r organiz$ /ructures2 gr[s1 arrives at maturity1 & decays2 g5]ates & ma9ta9s a c]ta9 degree ( heat2 d]ives f a p>5t ! prim>y /ructure & ! fir/ impulse ^u :i* ^! v>i$ actions dep5d2 gives orig9 to a new be+ simil> to itself1 &1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 t]m9ates its exi/5ce 9 dea?4 ,no su* ph5om5a are exhibit$ by ! /one2 x nei!r absorbs food1 nor arranges ! matt] ( :i* x is compos$ into organiz$ /ructure2 nor gr[s1 nor decays1 nor g5]ates heat1 nor d]ives its exi/5ce f a p>5t1 nor gives orig9 to a new be+1 nor dies4 ,no?+ analog\s to ! processes by :i* ^! results are produc$1 is obs]vable 9 any body t is de/itute ( life2 all ( !m are c>ri$ on by e liv+ creature4 ,^! processes are1 !re=e1 d5om9at$ vital1 &1 be+ peculi> to ! /ate ( life1 !y af=d *>act]s by :i* ! liv+ be+ is di/+ui%$ f ! inorganic body4 ,9 l mann] ! di/9ction betwe5 an animal & a plant is1 t ! animal possesses prop]ties ( :i* ! plant is de/itute4 ,x is end[$ ) two new & sup]ior p[]s1 to :i* !re is no?+ analog\s 9 ! plant2 namely1 ! p[] ( s5sation1 & ! p[] ( volunt>y motion2 ! capacity ( feel+1 & ! capacity ( mov+ f place to place z its feel+ prompts4 ,! animal1 l ! plant1 receives food1 trans=ms its food into its own prop] sub/ance1 builds ?is sub/ance up into /ructure1 g5]ates1 & ma9ta9s a c]ta9 temp]ature1 d]ives its exi/5ce f a p>5t1 produces an (fspr+ l itself1 & t]m9ates its exi/5ce 9 dea?4 ,up to ?is po9t ! vital ph5om5a exhibit$ by bo? ord]s ( liv+ creatures are alike3 b at ?is po9t ! vital processes ( ! plant t]m9ate1 :ile ^? ( ! animal are ext5d$ & exalt$ by ! ex]cise ( ! di/9ct & sup]ior end[m5ts ( s5sation & volunt>y motion4 ,to feel1 & to move spontane\sly1 9 accordance ) t feel+1 are prop]ties possess$ by ! animal1 b n by ! plant2 & !re=e ^! prop]ties af=d *>act]s by :i* ! animal is di/+ui%$ f ! plant4 ,! two great classes ( liv+ be+s p]=m1 !n1 two di/9ct sets ( actions3 ! fir/ set is common to all liv+ creatures2 ! second is peculi> to "o class3 ! fir/ set is indisp5sable to life2 ! second is necess>y only to "o k9d ( life1 namely1 ! animal4 ,! actions includ$ 9 ! fir/ set1 be+ common to all liv+ or organiz$ creatures1 are call$ ,,organic2 ! actions includ$ 9 ! second class1 belong+ only to "o "p ( liv+ or organiz$ creatures1 namely1 animals1 are call$ ,,animal4 ,! ,,organic actions consi/ ( ! processes by :i* ! exi/5ce ( ! liv+ be+ is ma9ta9$1 & ! p]petuation ( its species secur$3 ! ,,animal actions consi/ ( ! processes by :i* ! liv+ be+ is r5d]$ p]cipi5t1 & capable ( spontane\s motion4 ,! ,,organic processes compreh5d ^? ( nutrition1 respiration1 circulation1 secretion1 excretion1 & reproduction2 ! fir/ five relate to ! ma9t5ance ( ! life ( ! individual be+2 ! la/ to ! p]petuation ( its species4 ,! ,,animal processes compreh5d ^? ( s5sation & ( volunt>y motion1 (t5 d5om9at$ processes ( relation1 because !y put ! individual be+ 9 communication ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,!re is no vital action p]=m$ by any liv+ creature :i* may n be includ$ 9 "o or o!r ( ^! processes1 or 9 "s modification ( "s "o ( !m4 ,!re is no action p]=m$ by any inorganic body :i* possesses ev5 a remote analogy to ei!r ( ^! vital processes4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! organic & ! inorganic _w is1 !re=e1 cle> & broad2 & ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! two great divisions ( ! organic _w1 betwe5 ! inanimate & ! animate1 t is1 betwe5 plants & animals1 is no less decid$3 =1 ( ! two sets ( actions :i* h be5 enum]at$1 ! "o1 z has j be5 /at$1 is common to ! :ole class ( liv+ be+s1 :ile ! second set is peculi> to "o division ( t class4 ,! plant p]=ms only ! organic actions3 all ! vital ph5om5a x exhibits are includ$ 9 ?is s+le circle2 x is1 !re=e1 said to possess only organic life3 b ! animal p]=ms bo? organic & animal actions1 & is !re=e said to possess bo? organic & animal life4 ,bo? ! organic & ! animal actions are accompli%$ by means ( c]ta9 in/rum5ts1 t is1 organiz$ bodies :i* possess a def9ite /ructure1 & :i* are m\ld$ into a peculi> =m4 ,su* an in/rum5t is call$ an organ1 & ! action ( an organ is call$ its function4 ,! leaf ( ! plant is an organ1 & ! conv]sion ( sap by ! leaf into ! prop] juice ( ! plant1 by ! process call$ respiration1 is ! function ( ?is organ4 ,! liv] ( ! animal is an organ2 & ! conv]sion ( ! blood t circulates ?r\gh x into bile1 by ! process ( secretion1 is its function4 ,! bra9 is an organ2 ! s5ti5t n]ve 9 communication ) x is also an organ4 ,! extremity ( ! s5ti5t n]ve receives an impression f an ext]nal object1 & conveys x to ! bra91 :]e x becomes a s5sation4 ,! transmission ( ! impression is ! function ( ! n]ve2 ! conv]sion ( ! impression into a s5sation is ! function ( ! bra94 ,! liv+ body consi/s ( a cong]ies ( ^! in/rum5ts or organs3 ! con/itu5t matt] ( ^! organs is always p>tly 9 a fluid & p>tly 9 a solid /ate4 ,( ! fluids & solids :i* ?us inv>iably ent] 9 comb9ation into ! composition ( ! organs1 ! fluids may be reg>d$ z ! prim>y & ess5tial elem5ts1 = !y are ! s\rce & ! support ( ! solids4 ,!re is no solid :i* is n =m$ out ( a fluid2 no solid :i* does n always conta91 z a con/itu5t "p ( x1 "s fluid1 & none :i* is capable ( ma9ta9+ its integrity )\t a cont9ual supply ( fluids4 ,:atev] be ! intimate composition ( ! fluids out ( :i* ! solids are =m$1 ! inve/igation ( :i* is m difficult ?an t ( ! solids & ! nature ( :i* is !re=e less cle>ly asc]ta9$1 x is c]ta9 t all ! matt] :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! solid is dispos$ 9 a def9ite ord]4 ,x is ?is disposition ( ! con/itu5t matt] ( ! liv+ solid 9 a def9ite ord] t con/itutes ! arrangem5t s *>act]i/ic ( all liv+ sub/ance4 ,def9ite arrangem5ts are comb9$ 9 def9ite modes1 & ! result is :at is t]m$ organization4 ,f v>i$ arrangem5ts result diff]5t k9ds ( organiz$ sub/ances1 ea* end[$ ) diff]5t prop]ties1 & exhibit+ peculi> *>act]s4 ,by ! recomb9ation ( ^! sev]al k9ds ( organiz$ sub/ances1 9 diff]5t proportions & diff]5t modes1 are =m$ ! special in/rum5ts1 or organs1 ( :i* we h j spok52 :ile x is ! comb9+1 or ! build+ up ( ^! diff]5t organiz$ sub/ances into organs1 t con/itutes /ructure4 ,9 ! liv+ body1 n only is ea* di/9ct organ alive1 b1 ) exceptions s slight t !y ne$ n be notic$ "h1 e solid :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! organ is end[$ ) vital prop]ties4 ,?is is probably ! case ) ! prim>y sub/ances or tissues :i* compose ! sev]al organs ( ! plant2 b t ! animal solids are alive is indubitable2 nay1 ! evid5ce is complete1 t _m ev5 ( ! animal fluids possess vitality4 ,! blood 9 ! animal is z truly alive z ! bra91 & ! bone z ! fle%4 ,! organiz$ body1 consid]$ z a :ole1 is ! seat ( life2 b life also resides 9 almo/ e compon5t "p ( x4 ,yet ! matt] out ( :i* ^! liv+ sub/ances is =m$ is n alive4 ,by processes ( :i* we "k no?+1 or1 at lea/1 ( :i* we see only ! fir/ /eps1--matt]1 :olly de/itute ( life1 is conv]t$ into liv+ sub/ance4 ,! inorganic matt]1 :i* is ! subject ( ?is wond]ful trans=mation1 is resolvable into a v few elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,9 ! plant1 ^! sub/ances consi/ ( ?ree only1 namely1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon4 ,! fir/ two are ari=m or gase\s bodies2 ! la/ is a solid sub/ance1 & x is ( ?is t ! plant is *iefly compos$3 h5ce ! basis ( ! plant is a solid4 ,! elem5t>y bodies1 into :i* all animal sub/ance is resolvable1 are f\r1 namely1 azote1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon4 ,into e animal fluid & solid ?is new sub/ance azote ent]s s l>gely1 t x may be consid]$ z ! fundam5tal & di/9ctive elem5t ( ! animal organization3 h5ce ! basis ( ! animal is an ari=m or gase\s fluid4 ,! animal is compos$ ( air1 ! plant ( solid matt]2 & ?is diff]5ce 9 _! elem5t>y nature gives orig9 to sev]al di/9ctive *>act]s betwe5 ! plant & ! animal1 9 addition to ^? :i* h be5 already /at$4 ,?us ! *>act]s ( ! plant are solidity1 h>dness1 fix$ness1 & durability2 :ile ! animal is comp>atively fluid1 s(t1 volatile1 & p]i%able2 & ! reason is n[ manife/4 ,! basis ( ! animal be+ an ari=m fluid1 its consi/5ce is s(t] ?an t ( ! plant1 ! basis ( :i* is a firm solid2 &1 at ! same "t1 ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! animal be+ m num]\s ?an ^? ( ! plant1 & ! fluidity ( ^! elem5ts1 & ( ! comp\nds !y =m1 greatly fav\r+ _! action & reaction on ea* o!r & on ext]nal ag5ts1 ! animal body is m volatile & p]i%able dur+ life1 & m readily decompos$ aft] dea?4 ,x has be5 /at$1 t ! object ( e /ructure or organ ( ! liv+ body1 is ! p]=mance ( "s special action or function1--! ultimate object ( ! fluids be+ ! production ( ! solids2 ! ultimate object ( ! solids be+ ! =mation ( organs2 ! ultimate object ( organs be+ ! p]=mance ( actions or functions2 :ile x is 9 ! p]=mance ( actions or functions t life consi/s4 ,functions c>ri$ on by organs2 organs 9 action2 special organs p]=m+ def9ite actions1 ?is x is t con/itutes ! /ate ( life4 ,e p>ticle ( matt] :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! liv+ body has ?us its own place1 =m+1 or de/9$ to =m1 a con/itu5t "p ( "s organ2 e organ has its own action2 all ! organs ( ! body =m ! body2 & all ! actions ( all ! organs con/itute ! aggregate ( ! vital ph5om5a4 ,e organ is excit$ to action1 or its function is call$ into op]ation by means ( "s ext]nal body4 ,! ext]nal bodies capable ( excit+ & ma9ta9+ ! functions ( liv+ organs1 consi/ ( a def9ite class4 ,because ^! bodies belong to t dep>tm5t ( sci5ce :i* is call$ physical1 !y are t]m$ physical ag5ts4 ,!y are air1 wat]1 heat1 cold1 electricity1 & light4 ,)\t ! liv+ organ1 ! physical ag5t c excite no vital action3 )\t ! physical ag5t1 ! liv+ organ c c>ry on no vital process4 ,! plant _c p]=m ! vital process ( respiration )\t ! leaf1 nor1 ) ! leaf1 )\t air4 ,! physical ag5t acts ^u ! liv+ organ2 ! liv+ organ reacts ^u ! physical ag5t1 & ! action betwe5 bo? is def9ite4 ,9 ! lung ( ! animal a c]ta9 pr9ciple ( ! air unites1 9 def9ite proportions1 ) a c]ta9 pr9ciple ( ! blood2 ! oxyg5 ( ! air comb9es ) ! c>bon ( ! blood2 ! air is *ang$ by ! ab/raction ( its oxyg52 ! blood is *ang$ by ! ab/raction ( its c>bon4 ,atmosph]ic air goes to ! lung1 b atmosph]ic air does n return f ! lung2 x is conv]t$ into a new sub/ance by ! action ( ! organ3 x is *ang$ into c>bonic acid by ! union ( a giv5 quantity ( oxyg51 :i* x transmits to ! organ1 ) a giv5 quantity ( c>bon :i* ! organ conveys to x4 ,v5\s blood goes to ! lung1 b v5\s blood does n return f ! lung2 x is conv]t$1 by ! in/rum5tality ( ! organ1 into a new sub/ance1 into art]ial blood1 by giv+ to ! air c>bon1 & by receiv+ f ! air oxyg54 ,9 ?is mann] ! *ange 9 ! physical ag5t is def9ite & uni=m2 & ! *ange 9 ! liv+ sub/ance is equally def9ite & uni=m4 ,x is ?is det]m9ate int]*ange ( action betwe5 ! liv+ organ & ! physical ag5t t con/itutes :at is t]m$ a vital process4 ,all vital processes are c>ri$ on by liv+ organs2 ! mat]ials employ$ 9 all vital processes are physical ag5ts2 ! processes !mselves are vital functions4 ,all ! *anges produc$ by all ! organs ( ! plant ^u physical ag5ts1 & all ! *anges produc$ by all physical ag5ts ^u ! organs ( ! plant1 con/itute all ! vital processes ( ! plant--compreh5d ! :ole sum ( its vital ph5om5a4 ,! root1 ! trunk1 ! woody sub/ance1 ! b>k1 ! asc5d+ vessels be>+ sap1 ! desc5d+ vessels be>+ secret$ fluids1 ! leaves1 ! fl[]s1 ^! are ! liv+ organs ( ! plant4 ,air1 wat]1 heat1 cold1 electricity1 light1 ^! are ! physical ag5ts :i* produce 9 ^! organs def9ite *anges1 & :i* are !mselves *ang$ by !m 9 def9ite modes2 & ! :ole ( ^! *anges1 tak5 toge!r1 compreh5d ! circle ( actions1 or ! range ( functions p]=m$ by ?is liv+ be+4 ,9 ! /ate ( life1 dur+ ! int]*ange ( action :i* ?us incessantly goes on betwe5 physical ag5ts & vital organs1 ! laws to :i* inorganic matt] is subject are resi/$1 controll$1 & modifi$4 ,physical & *emical attractions are br\ght "u ! influ5ce ( a new & sup]ior ag5cy1 ) ! laws ( :i* we are imp]fectly acqua9t$1 b ! op]ation ( :i* we see1 & :i* we call ! ag5cy ( life4 ,air1 wat]1 heat1 electricity1 are physical ag5ts1 :i* subv]t ! mo/ intimate comb9ations ( inorganic bodies1 resolv+ !m into _! simple elem5ts1 & recomb9+ ^! elem5ts 9 v>i\s modes1 & ?us =m+ new bodies1 end[$ ) totally diff]5t prop]ties2 b ! physical & *emical ag5cies by :i* ^! *anges are wr\ght 9 ! inorganic1 are resi/$1 controll$1 & modifi$ by ! liv+ body3 resi/$1 = ^! physical ag5ts d n decompose ! liv+ body2 controll$ & modifi$1 = ! liv+ body conv]ts ^! v ag5ts into ! mat]ial = su/a9+ its own exi/5ce ,( all ! ph5om5a includ$ 9 t circle ( actions :i* we designate by ! g5]al t]m life1 ?is p[] ( resi/+ ! effects univ]sally produc$ by physical ag5ts on inorganic matt]1 & ( br++ ^! v ag5ts "u subjection to a new ord] ( laws1 is "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial & di/9ctive4 ,all vital processes are processes ( supply1 or processes ( wa/e4 ,by e vital action p]=m$ by ! organiz$ body1 "s portion ( its con/itu5t matt] is exp5d$4 ,num]\s vital actions are con/antly c>ri$ on = ! sole purpose ( comp5sat+ ?is exp5diture4 ,e mom5t old p>ticles are c>ri$ out ( ! sy/em2 e mom5t new p>ticles are introduc$ into x4 ,! matt] ( :i* ! organiz$1 & m especially ! animal1 body is compos$1 is ?us 9 a /ate ( p]petual flux2 & 9 a c]ta9 space ( "t x is completely *ang$1 s t ( all ! matt] t con/itutes ! animal body at a giv5 po9t ( "t1 n a s+le p>ticle rema9s at ano!r po9t ( "t at a giv5 di/ance4 ,all ! wants ( ! economy ( ! plant are satisfi$ by a due supply ( air1 wat]1 heat1 cold1 electricity1 & light4 ,"s ( ^! physical ag5ts con/itute ! crude alim5t ( ! plant2 o!rs produce 9 ?is alim5t a s]ies ( *anges1 by :i* x is conv]t$ f crude alim5t into prop] nutrim5t1 :ile o!rs act z /imulants1 by :i* movem5ts are excit$1 ! ultimate object ( :i* is ! di/ribution ( ! nutrim5t to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! economy ( ! plant4 ,! same physical ag5ts are indisp5sable to ! support ( ! animal body2 b ! animal _c be su/a9$ by ^! physical ag5ts alone2 = ! ma9t5ance ( animal life1 9 "s %ape or o!r1 vegetable or animal matt]1 or bo? 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( comb9ation1 mu/ be sup]add$3 h5ce ano!r di/9ction betwe5 ! plant & ! animal1--! necessity1 on ! "p ( ! animal1 ( an elaborat$ alim5t to ma9ta9 its exi/5ce4 ,by ! vital processes ( its economy1 ! plant conv]ts inorganic into organic matt]2 by ! vital processes ( its economy1 ! animal conv]ts matt]1 already r5d]$ organic1 into its own prop] sub/ance4 ,! plant is ?us purveyor to ! animal3 b x is m ?an purveyor to x2 = :ile x provides1 x also prep>es its food2 x saves ! animal "o process1 t ( ! transmutation ( inorganic into organic matt]4 ,! ultimate end1 or ! f9al cause ( ! vital processes p]=m$ by ! fir/ class ( liv+ be+s1 is ?us ! elaboration ( alim5t = ! second3 ! inf]ior life is sp5t 9 m9i/]+1 & ! great object ( its be+ is to m9i/] to ! exi/5ce ( ! sup]ior4 ,at ! po9t at :i* organization comm5ces /ructure is s simple t !re is no manife/ di/9ction ( organs4 ,sev]al functions are p]=m$ app>5tly by "o s+le organiz$ sub/ance4 ,! l[e/ plants & ! l[e/ animals are equally )\t any sep>ate organs1 z f> z x is 9 our p[] to di/+ui% !m1 = c>ry+ on ! vital actions !y p]=m4 ,an organiz$ tissue1 app>5tly ( an homog5e\s nature1 conta9+ fluid matt]1 is all t c be made out by :i* ! mo/ simply-con/ruct$ plant c>ries on its s+le set1 & by :i* ! mo/ simply-con/ruct$ animal c>ries on its d\ble set1 ( actions4 ,b ?is simplicity ( /ructure exi/s only at ! v comm5cem5t ( ! organiz$ _w4 ,e advancem5t 9 ! scale ( organization is indicat$ by ! con/ruction ( organs manife/ly sep>ate = ! p]=mance ( individual functions2 &1 inv>iably1 ! high] ! be+1 ! m complete is ?is sep>ation ( function f function1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! great] ! multiplication ( organs1 & ! m elaborate & complex ! /ructure2--& h5ce ano!r di/9ction betwe5 ! plant & ! animal4 ,! simplicity ( ! /ructure ( ! plant is 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! complexity ( ! /ructure ( ! animal2 & ?is diff]5ce is n arbitr>y2 x is a matt] ( absolute necessity1 & ! reason ( ?is necessity x w be in/ructive to contemplate4 ,! plant1 z has be5 %[n1 p]=ms only "o set ( functions1 ! organic2 :ile ! animal p]=ms two sets ( functions1 ! organic & ! animal4 ,! animal1 !n1 p]=ms m functions ?an ! plant1 & functions ( a high] ord]2 x c>ries on its functions ) a great] degree ( en]gy2 its functions h a m ext5d$ range1 & all its functions be> a c]ta9 relation to ea* o!r1 ma9ta9+ an h>moni\s action4 ,! numb]1 ! sup]iority1 ! relation1 ! range1 & ! en]gy ( ! functions p]=m$ by ! animal are1 !n1 s _m conditions1 :i* r5d] x absolutely indisp5sable t x %\ld possess a great] complexity ( /ructure ?an ! plant4 #a4 ,to build up /ructure is to create1 to arrange1 & to connect organs4 ,organs are ! in/rum5ts by :i* functions are p]=m$1 & )\t ! in/rum5t !re c be no action4 ,) z _m m organs ?an ! plant possesses ! animal mu/1 !re=e1 be provid$1 z are necess>y to c>ry on ! additional functions x p]=ms4 ,organs1 = its organic functions1 x mu/ h z well z ! plant2 b to ^! mu/ be sup]add$ organs ( ano!r class1 = :i* ! plant has no ne$1 namely1 organs = its animal functions4 ,two sets ( organs mu/1 !re=e1 be provid$ = ! animal1 :ile ! plant requires b "o4 #b4 ,"s functions p]=m$ by ! animal are ( a high] ord] ?an any p]=m$ by ! plant1 & ! sup]ior function requires a high] organization4 ,! con/ruction ( an organ is complex z its action is elevat$2 ! in/rum5t is elaborately prep>$ 9 proportion to ! nobl5ess ( its (fice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,i4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,iii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,iv4 #c4 ,b ?is is n all2 = ! addition ( a sup]ior function requires n only ! addition ( an organ hav+ a correspond+ sup]iority ( /ructure1 b x requires1 fur!r1 t a c]ta9 elevation ( /ructure %\ld be communicat$ to all ! organs ( all ! inf]ior functions1 on acc\nt ( ! relation :i* x is necess>y to e/abli% betwe5 function & function4 ,unless ! organ ( an inf]ior function be con/ruct$ ) a p]fection correspond+ to t ( ! organ ( a sup]ior function1 ! inf]ior w be incapable ( work+ 9 h>mony ) ! sup]ior4 ,take1 = example1 ! inf]ior function ( nutrition3 nutrition is an organic function equally necess>y to ! plant & to ! animal1 & requir+ 9 bo? organs = p]=m+ x2 b ?is function _c be p]=m$ 9 ! animal by organs z simple z suffice = ! plant4 ,nutrition1 9 ! plant1 is c>ri$ on 9 ! foll[+ mode3--,! root ( ! plant is divid$1 l ! trunk1 into num]\s bran*es 7fig4 ,i4 #a74 ,^! bran*es divide & subdivide into small] & small] bran*es1 until at la/ !y rea* an extreme degree ( m9ut5ess 7fig4 ,i4 #b #b74 ,! smalle/ ( ^! divisions1 call$1 f _! hair-l t5uity1 capill>y 7fig4 ,i4 #b #b71 are provid$ ) a peculi> /ructure1 :i* is end[$ ) a specific function4 ,9 mo/ plants ?is peculi> /ructure is f\nd at ! t]m9al po9t ( ! rootlet 7fig4 ,i4 #b #b72 b 9 "s plants ! capill>y bran*es ( ! rootlets are provid$ ) di/9ct bodies 7fig4 ,,ii4 #a #b71 sc>cely to be disc]n$ :5 ! root has be5 remov$ "s "t f ! soil1 & has become dry 7fig4 ,,ii4 #b #b72 b :i*1 9 a few m9utes aft] ! root has be5 plung$ 9 wat]1 provid$ ! plant be /ill alive1 become turgid ) fluid1 &1 consequ5tly1 di/9ctly visible 7fig4 ,,ii4 #a #a #a74 ,^! bodies1 :5 !y exi/1 or ! t]m9al po9t ( ! rootlet :5 ^! bodies are abs5t1 are t]m$ spongeol1 or spongeoles2 & ! /ructure & function ( ! organ1 9 bo? cases1 are conceiv$ to be precisely ! same4 ,9 bo? ! organ consi/s ( a m9ute cellul> /ructure4 ,fig4 ,,iii4 #a1 %[s ?is /ructure z x appe>s :5 ! object is magnifi$4 ,! (fice ( ?is organ is to absorb ! alim5t ( ! plant f ! soil2 & s great is its absorb+ p[]1 t1 z is prov$ by direct exp]im5t1 x absorbs ! col\r+ molecules ( liquids1 ?\gh ^! molecules w n ent] ! ord9>y pores1 :i* are ( mu* great] magnitude4 ,) ! spongeoles are connect$ vessels :i* pass ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! /em or trunk to ! leaf4 ,fig4 ,,iii4 #b1 %[s ^! tubes spr++ f ! cellul> /ructure ( ! spongeole1 & pass+ up to ! /em or trunk4 ,fig4 ,,iv4 #b1 exhibits a magnifi$ view ( ! appe>ance ( ! m\?s ( ^! tubes on mak+ an horizontal section ( ! spongeole4 ,fig4 ,v4 #a #a #a1 exhibits a view ( ^! tubes pass+ to ! leaf4 ,figs4 ,,vi4 & ,,vii4 #a #a #a #a1 %[ ^! vessels spread out ^u1 & ramify+ ?r\gh1 ! leaf4 ,! crude alim5t1 borne by ^! tubes to ! leaf1 is !re conv]t$ into prop] nutrim5t2 & f ! leaf1 :5 duly elaborat$1 ?is prop] nutrim5t is c>ri$ out by ducts to ! v>i\s organs ( ! plant1 9 ord] to supply !m ) ! alim5t !y ne$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,v4 ,n[1 = c>ry+ on ! process ( nutrition 9 ?is mode1 !re mu/ be organs to absorb ! crude alim5t1 organs to convey ! crude alim5t to ! laboratory1 ! leaf1 9 :i* x is conv]t$ into prop] nutrim5t2 &1 f9ally1 organs = c>ry+ out ?is prop] nutrim5t to ! sy/em4 ,complication ( /ructure1 to ?is ext5t1 is indisp5sable2 &1 accord+ly1 ) spongeol1 ) sap-vessels1 ) leaves1 ) di/ributive ducts1 ! plant is provid$4 ,)\t all ! p>ts ( ?is app>atus x c\ld n c>ry on its function3 any fur!r complication w\ld be useless4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,vi4 ,b1 suppose a new & sup]ior function to be add$ to ! plant2 suppose x to be end[$ ) ! p[] ( locomotion1 :at w\ld be ! consequ5ce ( communicat+ to x ?is high] p[]8 ,t its =m] /ate ( simplicity w\ld no long] suffice = ! inf]ior function4 ,:y8 because ! ex]cise ( ! sup]ior w\ld int]rupt ! action ( ! inf]ior function4 ,nutrition by imbibition1 & ! ex]cise ( locomotion1 _c g on simultane\sly 9 ! same be+4 ,! plant is fix$ 9 ! soil by its roots2 & f ?is1 its /ate ( immobility1 results ?is mo/ important consequ5ce1 t its spongeol are always 9 contact ) its food4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,vii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,viii4 ,b we may imag9e a plant n fix$ to ! soil2 a plant s con/itut$ z to be capable ( mov+ f place to place2 su* a plant w\ld n be always 9 contact ) its food1 & !re=e1 z x ex]cis$ its faculty ( locomotion1 x c\ld n b int]rupt or susp5d its function ( nutrition4 ,9 a be+ capable ( c>ry+ on ^! two functions simultane\sly1 ! entire app>atus ( ! function ( nutrition mu/ !n be modifi$4 ,in/ead ( hav+ spongeol fix$ immovably 9 ! e>?1 & spread out 9 a soil adapt$ to transmit to ^! organs nutri5t matt] 9 a /ate fitt$ = absorption1 x mu/ be provid$ ) a res]voir = conta9+ its food1 9 ord] t x may c>ry its alim5t ab\t ) x 9 all its *anges ( place4 ,& su* is ! modification uni=mly f\nd 9 all animals3 an int]nal res]voir = conta9+ its food is provid$1 p]haps1 = e animal )\t exception4 ,ev5 ! simple/ & m9ute/ creatures ) :i* ! microscope has made u acqua9t$1 ! l[e/ tribes ( ! ,infusoria 7fig4 ,,viii471 ! s5ti5t1 self-mov+ cellules1 plac$ at ! v bottom ( ! animal scale1 possess ?is modification ( /ructure4 ,= a long "t x 0 conceiv$ t ^! m9ute & simple creatures 7 )\t di/9ction ( p>ts1 t !y _h no sep>ate organs = ! reception & dige/ion ( _! food2 t !y absorb$ _! alim5t ?r\gh ! por\s tissue ( :i* _! body is compos$2 t ?us1 in/ead ( hav+ a sep>ate /oma*1 _! entire body is a /oma*1 & in/ead ( hav+ ev5 z mu* z a sep>ate organ = absorption1 l ! m p]fect plant1 ! :ole body might be consid]$ z a s+le spongeole4 ,b1 by a simple & beautiful exp]im5t1 a ,g]man physiologi/ has %[n ! incorrectness ( ?is op9ion1 & has e/abli%$ ! fact1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! plant & ! animal1 "h cont5d$ =1 is f\nd ev5 at ! v l[e/ po9t ( ! animal scale4 ,l o!r physiologi/s1 conceiv+ t ! difficulty ( discov]+ ! /ructure ( ! l[] tribes ( ! animalculi might be ow+ to ! transp>5cy or ! tissues ( :i* !y are compos$1 x /ruck ,ehr5b]g1 t if he c\ld fe$ !m ) col\r$ sub/ances1 he might obta9 "s insight into _! organization4 ,9 8 fir/ endeav\rs to accompli% ?is object he fail$1 = he employ$ ! pigm5ts 9 ord9>y use2 b ei!r ! animals w\ld n t\* alim5t ?us adult]at$1 or ^? t did s 7 in/antly kill$4 ,x !n occurr$ to him1 t ^! col\rs are adult]at$ ) lead & o!r sub/ances1 9 all probability noxi\s to ! little subjects ( 8 exp]im5t4 ,:at ,i require1 said he1 is "s vegetable or animal col\r+ matt] p]fectly pure4 ,he !n tri$ p]fectly pure indigo & p]fectly pure c>m9e4 ,8 success 0 n[ complete3 9 a m9ute or two1 aft] mix+ ) _! food pure vegetable col\r+ matt]1 he obs]v$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! body ( ^! creatures m9ute spots ( a def9ite figure1 & ( ! col\r ( ! pigm5t employ$ 7fig4 ,,viii4 #a #a #a #a74 ,! =m & magnitude ( ^! spots 7 diff]5t 9 diff]5t tribes1 b ! same 9 ! same individual1 & ev5 9 ! same species 7fig4 ,,ix4 #a #a1 fig4 ,x4 #a #a74 ,no o!r p>ts ( ! body 7 t+$ ) ! col\r1 ?\gh ! animals rema9$ 9 ! col\r$ fluid = days toge!r4 ,?is 0 decisive4 ,?is physiologi/ _h n[ obta9$ an in/rum5t capable ( reveal+ to him ! int]ior organization ( a class ( be+s1 ! /ructure ( :i* _h h]et(ore be5 :olly unkn[n4 ,on apply+ x to ! ,,monas ,,t]mo 7fig4 ,,viii471 ! animat$ po9t1 or cellule1 :i* /&s at ! bottom ( ! animal scale1 he discov]$1 9 ! po/]ior portion ( its body1 sev]al col\r$ spots :i* con/itute its /oma*s 7fig4 ,,viii4 #a #a #a #a74 ,! diff]5t situations & diff]5t =ms ( ! /oma* 9 diff]5t tribes ( ^! creatures1 are repres5t$ by ! col\r$ portions 7fig4 ,,viii4 #a1 fig4 ,,ix4 #a1 fig4 ,x4 #a71 9 :i* ! curr5ts ( fluid fl[+ to _! m\?s are se5 7fig4 ,,ix4 #b1 fig4 ,x4 #b74 ,^! exp]im5ts g f> t[>ds e/abli%+ ! fact1 t e animal1 ev5 ! v l[e/1 has an ext]nal m\? & an int]nal /oma*1 & t x takes its food by an act ( volition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,ix4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,x4 ,b if ! pro( ( ?is mu/ be admitt$ to be /ill imp]fect ) reg>d to ! l[e/ tribes ( animals1 x is c]ta9 t1 z we asc5d 9 ! scale ( organization1 ! nutritive app>atus is uni=mly arrang$ 9 ?is mode4 ,e animal ( e class l>ge en\gh to be di/9ctly visible1 & ! /ructure ( :i* is n r5d]$ inappreciable by ! transp>5cy ( its solids & fluids1 is manife/ly provid$ ) a di/9ct int]nal res]voir = conta9+ its food4 ,on ! int]nal surface ( ?is res]voir op5 ! m\?s ( vessels1 m9ute 9 size b c\ntless 9 numb]1 :i* absorb ! food f ! /oma*4 ,fig4 ,,xi4 %[s ^! vessels op5+ on ! inn] surface ( ! /oma*1 ! :ite po9ts repres5t+ _! m\?s1 turgid ) ! food !y h absorb$4 ,fig4 ,,xii4 exhibits magnifi$ views ( ! same vessels1 ! po9ts repres5t+ _! op5 m\?s1 & ! l9es ! vessels !mselves 9 cont9uation ) _! m\?s4 ,fig4 ,,xiii4 %[s ! appe>ance ( ! inn] surface ( ! inte/9e soon aft] ! animal has tak5 food2 ! small] :ite l9es 7#a #a #a #a7 repres5t+ ! absorb5t vessels full ( dige/$ food1 & ! l>g] l9es 7#b #b #b #b7 ! trunks ( ! absorb5t vessels =m$ by ! union ( _m ( ! small]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xii4 ,f ?is acc\nt1 x is cle> t ! absorb+ vessels ( ! /oma* p]=m an (fice precisely analog\s to t ( ! spongeoles ( ! root4 ,:at ! soil is to ! plant1 ! /oma* is to ! animal4 ,! absorb+ vessels diffus$ ?r\gh ! /oma*1 z long z ! /oma* conta9s food1 are 9 exactly ! same condition z ! spongeoles ( ! root spread out 9 ! soil2 & ! absorb+ vessels ( ! /oma* are z mu* & z con/antly 9 contact ) ! alim5t1 :i* x is _! (fice to take into ! sy/em1 z ! spongeoles ( ! root4 ,su*1 !n1 is ! exp$i5t adopt$ to r5d] ! function ( nutrition compatible ) ! function ( locomotion4 ,a res]voir ( food is plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! animal1 provid$ ) absorb5t vessels :i* are always 9 contact ) ! alim5t4 ,9 ?is mode1 contact ) alim5t is n di/urb$ by cont9ual *ange ( place2 ! organic process is n int]rupt$ by ! ex]cise ( ! animal function4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xiii4 ,b ! m elaborate organization :i* x is necess>y to imp>t to ! app>atus ( ! inf]ior function1 9 consequ5ce ( ! communication ( a sup]ior faculty1 is n complet$ simply by ! addition ( ?is new organ1 ! /oma*4 ,o!r complications are indisp5sable2 = if food be conta9$ 9 an isolat$ organ1 plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! body1 means mu/ be provid$ = convey+ ! food into ?is organ2 h5ce ! necessity ( an app>atus = deglutition4 ,moreov]1 ! food hav+ be5 convey$ to ! /oma*1 & hav+ und]gone !re ! requisite *anges1 means mu/ next be provid$ = convey+ x f ! /oma* to ! o!r p>ts ( ! body2 h5ce ! necessity ( an app>atus = ! circulation4 ,b food1 h[ev] elaborately prep>$ by ! /oma*1 is incapable ( n\ri%+ ! body1 until x has be5 submitt$ to ! action ( atmosph]ic air2 h5ce ! necessity ( an additional app>atus1 ei!r = convey+ food to ! air1 or = transmitt+ air to ! food1 or = br++ bo? ! food & ! air into contact 9 ! same organ4 ,&1 :5 /ructure aft] /ructure has be5 built up1 9 ord] to c>ry on ?is ext5d$ s]ies ( processes1 ! numb] ( provisions requir$ is n ev5 yet complete2 = ( ! mo/ nutriti\s fond ! :ole mass is n nutritive2 & ev5 ! :ole ( t portion ( x :i* is actually appli$ to ! purpose ( nutrition1 becomes1 aft] a "t1 worn out1 & mu/ be remov$ f ! sy/em2 h5ce ! necessity ( a fur!r app>atus = excretion4 ,t nutrition & locomotion may g on toge!r1 x is cle>1 !n1 t !re mu/ be provid$ a di/9ct app>atus = conta9+ food1 a di/9ct app>atus = deglutition1 a di/9ct app>atus = circulation1 a di/9ct app>atus = respiration1 a di/9ct app>atus = excretion1 & s on2 & t1 9 ?is mann]1 ! communication ( a s+le function ( a sup]ior ord] r5d]s a modification n m]ely ( "o b ( _m inf]ior functions absolutely indisp5sable1 9 ord] to adju/ ! "o to ! o!r1 & to enable !m to act 9 h>mony4 ,b ! necess>y complication ( /ructure does n /op ev5 "h2 = ! communication ( "o function ( a sup]ior ord] imposes ! necessity ( communicat+ /ill ano!r4 ,locomotion _c be ex]cis$ )\t p]ception2 s5sation is indisp5sable to volition1 & volition1 ( c\rse1 to volunt>y motion4 ,a be+ end[$ ) ! p[] ( mov+ f place to place1 )\t possess+ ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ ext]nal objects1 mu/ be spe$ily de/roy$4 ,! communication ( s5sation to a creature fix$ immovably to a s+le spot1 consci\s ( ! approa* ( bodies1 b incapable ( avoid+ _! contact1 w\ld be n only useless b p]nici\s1 s9ce x w\ld be to make a co/ly provision = ! production ( pa91 & no?+ else2 b ! communication ( locomotion )\t s5sation w\ld be z unwisely defective1 z ! =m] w\ld be p]nici\sly exp5sive2 s9ce x w\ld be to end[ a be+ ) a faculty1 ! ex]cise ( :i* w\ld be fatal to x = ! want ( a second faculty to guide ! fir/4 ,nor c\ld ! possession ( locomotion1 )\t ! fur!r possession ( s5sation1 be o!rwise ?an fatal1 = ano!r reason4 ,consci\sness is n necess>y to nutrition z p]=m$ by ! plant1 b x is indisp5sable to nutrition z p]=m$ by ! animal3 = if ! food ( ! animal be n always on ! same spot ) itself2 if x be "u ! necessity ( se>*+ = x1 & ( convey+ x1 :5 f\nd1 into ! int]ior ( its body1 x mu/1 ( c\rse1 possess ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ x :5 )9 its rea*1 & ( appreh5d+ & appropriat+ x by an act ( volition1 ( none ( :i* actions is x capable )\t ! possession ( s5sation4 ,aga91 !n1 we see t1 9 ord] to secure h>moni\s action1 function mu/ be put 9 relation ) function4 ,9 ord] to prev5t j>r+ & mutually-de/ructive action1 function mu/ be sup]add$ to function1 & ?r\gh\t ! animal creation ! complication ( /ructure1 :i* is necess>y = ! accompli%m5t ( ^! ends1 is giv5 )\t p>simony1 b )\t pr(usion3 no?+ is giv5 :i* is n ne$$1 no?+ is )held :i* is requir$4 #d4 ,z we asc5d 9 ! scale ( organization1 num]\s functions be+ c>ri$ on1 & num]\s organs con/ruct$ = p]=m+ !m1 x is obvi\s t ! range ( ea* function mu/ be proportionally ext5d$2 ! range necess>ily increas+ ) ! multiplication ( organ & function3 & ?is is ano!r cause ( ! unavoidable complication ( /ructure4 ,slight consid]ation w suffice to %[ ! necess>y connexion betwe5 an ext5d$ range ( action & complication ( /ructure4 ,take1 z an example1 ! organic function ( respiration3 respiration is ! function by :i* air is br\ght into contact ) food2 x is ! completion ( dige/ion4 ,! sole end ( all ! app>atus t belongs to ?is function is to br+ ! air & ! food into a c]ta9 degree ( proximity4 ,n[1 :5 all ! sub/ances t ent] into ! composition ( ! body ( an animal are slight1 delicate1 & p]meable to air 7z 9 fig4 ,,xiv471 & :5 ! body is always surr\nd$ by air1 air mu/ at all times be 9 contact ) ! p>ticul> organ t conta9s ! food1 no less ?an ) ! g5]al sy/em to :i* ! food is di/ribut$4 ,9 ?is case1 to con/ruct a sep>ate app>atus = conta9+ air w\ld be useless1 because :]ev] food is1 !re air mu/ be1 s9ce x con/antly p]meates e "p ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xiv4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! tissues are s firm & d5se z to be imp]meable2 :5 !y are fold$ into bulky & complex organs1 & :5 ^! organs are plac$ 9 situations to :i* ! ext]nal air _c rea*1 ! con/ruction ( a sep>ate app>atus = respiration is indisp5sable4 ,! respiratory app>atus consi/s ei!r ( organs = c>ry+ air to ! food1 or ( organs = c>ry+ food to ! air4 ,! "o or ! o!r is adopt$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! body4 ,if ! size ( ! animal be small2 if ! tissues :i* =m ! solid portion ( its body be delicate 9 texture2 if1 at ! same "t1 ! wants ( its economy require t its food %\ld be highly arat$ 7= !re is ! close/ connexion betwe5 en]gy ( function & p]fect aration ( ! food71 an app>atus ( suffici5t magnitude to arate ! food 9 a high degree w\ld occupy ! entire bulk ( ! body4 ,9 su* a case1 x is easi] to c>ry air to ! food ?an food to ! air2 x is bett] to make ! entire body a respiratory organ1 ?an to con/ruct a respiratory organ disproportion$ to ! magnitude ( ! body4 ,air-tubes diffus$ ?r\gh e "p ( ! body1 & op5+ on its ext]nal surface1 w\ld obvi\sly af=d to e po9t ( ! sy/em an easy access ( air4 ,by an exp$i5t ( ?is k9d ! sy/em might be highly arat$1 :ile ! respiratory app>atus w\ld occupy b a comp>atively small space2 ! function might be p]=m$ on an ext5d$ scale1 :ile !re w\ld be no necessity = encumb]+ a m9ute body ) a bulky organ4 ,& ?is is ! mode 9 :i* respiration is c>ri$ on 9 l>ge tribes ( creatures1 ^: body is small 9 size & delicate 9 texture1 & ! functions ( ^: economy are p]=m$ ) en]gy 7fig4 ,,xv474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xv4 ,! ,a*illes ,butt]fly ( ,s\? ,am]ica 7,papilio ,a*illes71 %[+ ! tra*e on ! upp] & "u side ( ! w+s4 ,b ?is contrivance w n d :5 ! animal is ( l>ge magnitude2 :5 its body is divid$ into num]\s comp>tm5ts2 :5 ^! comp>tm5ts ext5d f> b5ea? ! ext]nal surface2 :5 important organs are plac$ 9 deeply-seat$ cavities2 & :5 ! sub/ances t compose ! organs are d5se1 h>d1 ?ick1 & convolut$4 ,to con/ruct air-tubes ( ! requisite diamet] & l5g?1 always op51 always 9 a condition to p]mit ! +ress & egress ( an adequate curr5t ( air to & f ! remote/ nook & corn] ( a body su* z ?is1 w\ld be difficult1 if n impossible4 ,at all ev5ts1 x is easi]1 9 su* a case1 to c>ry ! food to ! air1 ?an ! air to ! food4 ,b1 = ! accompli%m5t ( ?is purpose1 :at is necess>y8 ,an organ = conta9+ food2 an organ = conta9+ air2 vessels to c>ry food to & f ! receptacle ( ! alim5t2 vessels to c>ry air to & f ! receptacle ( ! air2 exp$i5ts to expose a /ream ( food to a curr5t ( air2 &1 f9ally1 tubes to c>ry out to ! sy/em ! product ( ?is complicat$ op]ation4 ,accord+ly1 a res]voir ( food & a res]voir ( air2 an app>atus by :i* bo? are convey$ to _! respective receptacles2 & an app>atus by :i* bo? are br\ght into contact suffici5tly close to admit ( _! mutual action1 are all comb9$ 9 ! lung ( ! animal1 & 9 ! me*anism by :i* its movem5ts are effect$4 ,! object is accompli%$1 b ! app>atus by :i* x is effect$ is z complex 9 /ructure z x is effici5t 9 action2 ! result simple2 ! means by :i* ! result is secur$1 highly complicat$4 ,& if ?is be true ( an inf]ior or organic function1 x is /ill m /rik+ly true ( a sup]ior or animal function4 ,! relation is /ill /rict] betwe5 ! complexity ( ! app>atus ( s5sation & ! range ( feel+1 ?an betwe5 ! complexity ( ! app>atus ( respiration & ! range ( ! respiratory process4 ,! great] ! numb] ( ! s5ses1 ! great] ! numb] ( ! organs ( s5se2 ! m accurate & v>i$ ! impressions convey$ by ea*1 ! m complex ! /ructure ( ! in/rum5t by :i* !y are communicat$2 ! m ext5d$ ! range ( ! intellectual op]ations1 ! l>g] ! bulk ( ! bra91 ! great] ! numb] ( its di/9ct p>ts1 & ! m exquisite _! organization4 ,f ! po9t ( ! animal scale1 at :i* ! bra9 fir/ becomes di/9ctly visible1 up to man1 ! basis ( ! organ is ! same2 b1 z ! range ( its function ext5ds1 "p aft] "p is sup]add$1 & ! /ructure ( ea* "p becomes progressively m & m complex4 ,! evid5ce ( ?is1 af=d$ by comp>ative anatomy1 is irresi/ible1 & ! int]e/ connect$ ) ! /udy ( x c sc>cely be exce$$4 #e4 ,9 ! la/ place1 /ructure is complex 9 proportion to ! en]gy ( function4 ,! great] ! p[] ) :i* volunt>y motion is capable ( be+ ex]t$1 ! high] ! organization ( ! app>atus by :i* x is p]=m$2 ! m compact & d5se ! %ell1 ! c>tilage1 ! bone1 ! firm] ! fibre ( ! muscle1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! great] its comp>ative bulk4 ,! w+ ( ! eagle is z mu* m develop$ ?an ! w+ ( ! wr51 z its flight is high]1 & its spe$ swift]4 ,! muscles :i* give to ! tig] ! rapidity & /r5g? ( its spr+ possess a m int5se organization ?an ^? :i* sl[ly move on ! t>digrade slo?4 ,! /ructure ( ! bra9 ( man is m exquisite ?an t ( ! fi%1 z 8 p]ceptions are m acute1 & capable ( great] comb9ation1 compreh5sion1 & cont9uity4 ,?us we see t ! organization ( ! animal is m complex ?an t ( ! plant1 n f an arbitr>y disposition1 b f absolute necessity4 ,! few & simple functions p]=m$ by ! plant require only ! few & simple organs ) :i* x is provid$3 ! num]\s & complicat$ functions p]=m$ by ! animal require its num]\s & complicat$ organs3 ! plant1 simple z x is 9 /ructure1 is de/itute ( no organ requir$ by ! nature ( its economy2 ! animal1 complex z x is 9 /ructure1 is 9 possession ( no organ :i* x c\ld disp5se )3 f ! "o1 no?+ is )held :i* is ne$$2 to ! o!r1 no?+ is giv5 :i* is sup]flu\s3 9 ! "o1 !re is economy )\t nigg>dl9ess2 9 ! o!r1 munific5ce )\t wa/e4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,two di/9ct lives comb9$ 9 ! animal--,*>act]s ( ! app>atus ( ! organic life--,*>act]s ( ! app>atus ( ! animal life--,*>act]i/ic diff]5ces 9 ! action ( ea*--,progress ( life--,progress ( dea?4 ,( ! two sets ( functions c>ri$ on by liv+ be+s1 x has be5 %[n1 t ! plant p]=ms only "o1 :ile ! animal ex]cises bo?4 ,! two lives ?us 9 cont9ual play 9 ! animal diff] f ea* o!r z mu* z ! process ( vegetation diff]s f t ( ?\ght1 yet !y are unit$ s closely1 & act s h>moni\sly1 t _! exi/5ce z di/9ct /ates is n only n app>5t to ord9>y obs]vation1 b ! v discov]y ( ! fact is ( rec5t date1 & =ms "o among ! spl5did triumphs ( mod]n physiology4 ,_! action is p]fect1 yet _! sep>ate id5tity is s di/9ctly pres]v$1 t ea* has its own app>atus & its own action1 :i* are n only n ! same1 b1 9 _m int]e/+ circum/ances1 are 9 /rik+ contra/ to ea* o!r4 #a4 ,9 g5]al ! organs t belong to ! app>atus ( ! organic life are s+le1 & n symmetrical2 ! organs t belong to ! app>atus ( ! animal life are ei!r d\ble1 or symmetrical1 or bo?4 ,z w be %[n h]eaft]1 ! he>t1 ! lungs1 ! /oma*1 ! inte/9es1 ! liv]1 ! pancreas1 ! sple51 ! in/rum5ts by :i* ! mo/ important functions ( ! organic life are c>ri$ on1 are s+le organs4 7,*ap4 #e47 ,! figure ( ea* is m or less irregul>1 s t if a l9e 7 c>ri$ ?r\gh _! c5tre1 x w\ld n divide !m into two equal & precisely correspond+ portions4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! organs ( ! animal life are symmetrical4 ,! bra9 & ! sp9al cord are divisible into two p]fectly equal p>ts4 7,*ap4 #e47 ,! n]ves :i* g (f f ^! organs = ! mo/ "p g (f 9 pairs equal 9 size & simil> 9 di/ribution4 7,ibid47 ,! trunk1 s important an in/rum5t ( volunt>y motion1 :5 well =m$1 is divisible into two p]fectly correspond+ portions4 7,ibid47 ,! muscul> app>atus ( "o half ( ! body is ! exact c\nt]p>t ( t ( ! o!r2 :ile ! arms1 ! h&s1 & ! l[] extremities are n only d\ble1 b ! organization ( ! "o is precisely simil> to t ( its fell[4 #b4 ,9 g5]al1 ! app>atus ( ! organic life is plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! body1 :ile t ( ! animal life is plac$ on ! ext]nal surface4 ,! organic organs are ! in/rum5ts by :i* life is ma9ta9$4 ,!re is no action ( any "o ( !m t c be susp5d$ ev5 = a %ort space ( "t )\t ! inevitable ext9ction ( life4 ,b ! animal organs are n s mu* in/rum5ts ( life z means by :i* a c]ta9 relation is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! liv+ be+ & ext]nal objects4 ,& ?is diff]5ce 9 _! (fice is ! reason ( ! diff]5ce 9 _! position4 ,exi/5ce dep5d+ on ! action ( ! organic organs1 !y are plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! body2 !y are fix$ firmly 9 _! situation 9 ord] t !y may n be di/urb$ by ! movem5ts ( locomotion2 !y are envelop$ 9 membranes1 cov]$ by muscles1 plac$ "u ! %elt] ( bones1 & e possible c>e is tak5 to secure !m f accid5t & to %ield !m f viol5ce4 ,exi/5ce n be+ imm$iately dep5d5t on ! action ( ! organs ( ! animal life1 !y d n ne$ to be protect$ f ! contact ( ext]nal objects ) extraord9>y c>e1 b x is necess>y to ! p]=mance ( _! functions t !y %\ld be plac$ at ! ext]ior ( ! body4 ,& !re !y are plac$1 & s plac$ z to af=d an effectual def5ce to ! organic organs4 ,?us ! gr\ndwork ( ! animal is made ! bulw>k ( ! organic life4 ,! muscles1 ! imm$iate ag5ts by :i* volunt>y motion is effect$1 & ! bones1 ! fix$ po9ts & ! lev]s by :i* t motion acquires ! nice/ precision & ! mo/ prodigi\s rapidity & p[]1 are s dispos$ t1 :ile ! latt] accompli%1 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann]1 _! prim>y & ess5tial (fice 9 relation to ! muscles1 !y s]ve a second>y b sc>cely less important (fice 9 relation to ! int]nal visc]a4 ,z we advance 9 our subject1 we %all see t a beautiful illu/ration ( ?is is af=d$ 9 ! /ructure & action ( ! trunk2 t ! trunk is moveable2 t x is compos$ ( p[]ful muscles1 & ( firm & compact bones2 & t :ile its movem5ts are effect$ by ! action ( ! muscles :i* are atta*$ to ! bones1 ^! bones enclose a cavity1 9 :i* are plac$ ! lungs1 ! he>t1 ! great trunks ( ! v5\s sy/em1 ! great trunks ( ! art]ial sy/em1 & ! ma9 trunk ( ! ?oracic duct1 ! vessel by :i* ! dige/$ alim5t is c>ri$ into ! blood4 7,*ap4 #e47 ,?us1 by ^! /rong & firm bones1 toge!r ) ! ?ick & p[]ful muscles t re/ ^u !m1 is =m$ a secure %elt] = a ma9 portion ( ! app>atus ( ! organic functions ( respiration1 circulation1 & dige/ion4 ,! bones & muscles ( ! ?orax1 !mselves p]=m+ an important "p 9 ! function ( respiration1 af=d to ! lungs ! *ief organ ( ?is function1 compos$ ( t5d] & delicate tissues1 easily injur$1 & ! slighte/ injury p]ill+ life1 a free & secure place to act 94 ,! fragile "p ( ! app>atus is def5d$ by ! osse\s portion ( x1 ! play ( ! latt] be+ equally ess5tial to ! function z t ( ! =m]4 ,9 l mann] ! t5d] & delicate sub/ance ( ! bra9 & sp9al cord1 ! c5tral seat ( ! animal life1 ) :i* all ! s5ses are 9 intimate communion1 is protect$ by bones & muscles :i* p]=m important volunt>y movem5ts :ile ! organs ( s5se :i* put u 9 connexion ) ! ext]nal _w1 :i* r5d] u susceptible ( pleasure1 & :i* give u notice ( ! approa* ( objects capable ( excit+ pa91 are plac$ :]e ext]nal bodies may be br\ght mo/ conv5i5tly & completely into contact ) !m2 & :]e alone !y c be effici5t z ! s5t9els ( ! sy/em4 ,= ?is reason1 ) ! exception ( ! s5se ( t\*1 :i*1 ?\gh plac$ especially at ! extremities ( ! f+]s1 is also diffus$ ov] ! :ole ext]nal surface ( ! frame1 all ! s5ses h _! sev]al seats 9 ! head1 ! mo/ elevat$ "p ( ! body1 ( an ovoid figure1 capable ( mov+ indep5d5tly ( ! re/ ( ! fabric1 & :i*1 be+ support$ on a pivot1 is enabl$ to describe at lea/ two-?irds ( a circle4 ,su* is ! diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure & position ( ! app>atus ( ! two lives1 b ! diff]5ce 9 _! action is /ill m /rik+4 #a4 ,! action ( ! app>atus ( ! organic life :5 s\nd is )\t consci\sness2 ! object ( ! action ( ! app>atus ( ! animal life is ! production ( consci\sness4 ,! f9al cause ( ! action ( ! app>atus ( ! organic life is ! ma9t5ance ( exi/5ce2 ! f9al cause ( ! action ( ! app>atus ( ! animal life is ! production ( consci\s exi/5ce4 ,:at purpose w\ld be answ]$ by connect+ consci\sness ) ! action ( ! organic organs8 ,7 we s5sible ( ! organic processes2 did we "k :5 ! he>t beats1 & ! lung plays1 & ! /oma* dige/s1 & ! excretory organ excretes1 ! consci\sness c\ld n promote1 b might di/urb ! due & ord]ly c\rse ( ^! processes4 ,moreov] !y w\ld s occupy & engross our m9ds t we %\ld h little incl9ation or "t to att5d to o!r objects4 ,b5efic5tly !re=e are !y plac$ equally beyond our obs]vation & control4 ,nev]!less1 :5 our consci\sness ( ^! processes may be ( s]vice2 :5 !y are go+ wrong2 :5 _! too feeble or too int5se action is 9 dang] ( de/roy+ exi/5ce1 ! animal life is made s5sible ( :at is pass+ 9 ! organic1 9 ord] t ! =m] may take b5eficial cognizance ( ! latt]1 may d :at exp]i5ce may h taught to be conducive to ! re/oration ( ! diseas$ organ to a s\nd /ate1 or avoid do+ :at may conduce to ! increase or ma9t5ance ( its morbid condition4 ,b :ile ! action ( ! organic organs is ?us kept alike f our view & feel+1 ! sole object ( ! action ( ! animal organs is to produce & ma9ta9 a /ate ( v>i$ & ext5d$ consci\sness4 ,we d n "k :5 ! he>t dilates to receive ! vital curr5t1 nor :5 x contracts to propel x ) r5ew$ impetus ?r\gh ! sy/em2 nor :5 ! blood ru%es to ! lung to give out its useless & noxi\s p>ticles2 nor :5 ! air ru%es to ! blood to take up ^? p>ticles1 to replace !m by o!rs1 & ?us to purify & r5ovate ! vital fluid4 ,_m processes ( ?is k9d are cont9ually go+ on )9 u dur+ e mom5t ( our exi/5ce1 b we are no m consci\s ( !m ?an we are ( ! motion ( ! fluids 9 ! blade ( grass on :i* we tread4 ,on ! contr>y :5 an ext]nal object produces1 9 a s5ti5t n]ve1 t *ange ( /ate :i* we d5ote by ! words an impression2 :5 ! s5ti5t n]ve transmits ?is impression to ! bra92 :5 ! bra9 is !reby br\ght into ! /ate ( p]ception1 ! animal life is 9 active op]ation1 & p]cipi5t or consci\s exi/5ce takes place4 ,consci\sness does n belong to ! organic1 x is ! animal life4 #b4 ,! functions ( ! organic life are p]=m$ ) un9t]rupt$ cont9uity2 to ^? ( ! animal life re/ is indisp5sable4 ,! action ( ! he>t is unceas+2 x takes n & ne$s n re/4 ,on x goes1 = ! space ( eighty or n9ety ye>s1 at ! rate ( a hundr$ ?\s& /rokes e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 hav+ at e /roke a great resi/ance to ov]come1 yet x cont9ues ?is action = ?is l5g? ( "t )\t int]mission4 ,alike incessant is ! action ( ! lung1 :i* is always receiv+ & always emitt+ air2 & ! action ( ! sk91 :i* is always transpir+ & always absorb+2 & ! action ( ! alim5t>y canal1 :i* is always comp5sat+ ! loss :i* ! sy/em is always su/a9+4 ,b ( ?is cont9uity ( action ! organs & functions ( ! animal life are incapable4 ,no volunt>y muscle c ma9ta9 its action beyond a giv5 "t2 no ef=t ( ! w c keep x 9 a /ate ( un9t]rupt$ contraction2 relaxation mu/ alt]nate ) contraction2 & ev5 ?is alt]nate action _c g on long )\t re/4 ,no organ ( s5se c cont9ue to receive impression aft] impression )\t fatigue4 ,by protract$ ex]tion ! e> loses its s5sibility to s\nd1 ! eye to light1 ! tongue to sav\r1 & ! t\* to ! qualities ( bodies ab\t :i* x is conv]sant4 ,! bra9 _c c>ry on its intellectual op]ations ) vig\r beyond a c]ta9 p]iod2 ! tra9s ( ideas ) :i* x works become1 aft] a "t1 indi/9ct & confus$2 nor is x capable ( react+ ) en]gy until x has rema9$ 9 a /ate ( re/ proportion$ to ! duration ( its prec$+ activity4 ,& ?is re/ is sleep4 ,sleep is ! repose ( ! s5ses1 ! re/ ( ! muscles1 _! support & su/5ance4 ,:at food is to ! organic1 sleep is to ! animal life4 ,nutrition c no m g on )\t alim5t1 ?an s5sation1 ?\ght1 & motion )\t sleep4 ,b x is ! animal life only t sleeps3 dea? w\ld be ! consequ5ce ( ! mom5t>y slumb] ( ! organic4 ,if1 :5 ! bra9 betook itself to repose1 ! eng9e t moves ! blood ceas$ to supply x ) its vital fluid1 nev] aga9 w\ld x awake4 ,! animal life is active only dur+ a portion ( its exi/5ce2 ! activity ( ! organic life is nev] = a mom5t susp5d$2 & 9 ord] to end[ its organs ) ! p[] ( cont9u+ ?is un9t]rupt$ action1 !y are r5d]$ incapable ( fatigue3 fatigue1 on ! contr>y1 is insep>able f ! action ( ! organs ( ! animal life2 fatigue imposes ! necessity ( re/1 re/ is sleep1 & sleep is r5ovation4 #c4 ,betwe5 all ! functions ( ! organic life !re is a close relation & dep5d5ce4 ,)\t ! circulation !re c be no secretion2 )\t secretion1 no dige/ion2 )\t dige/ion1 no nutrition2 )\t nutrition1 no new supply ( circulat+ matt]1 & s ?r\gh ! entire circle4 ,b ! functions ( ! animal life are n ?us dep5d5t on ea* o!r4 ,"o ( ! circle may be disord]$ )\t mu* di/urbance ( ! re/2 & "o may cease altoge!r1 :ile ano!r cont9ues 9 vigor\s action4 ,s5sation may be lo/1 :ile motion cont9ues2 & ! muscle may contract ?\gh x _c feel4 ,"o organ ( s5se may sleep :ile ! re/ are awake4 ,"o intellectual faculty may be 9 op]ation :ile o!rs slumb]4 ,! muscle ( volition may act1 :ile !re is no consci\sness ( w4 ,ev5 ! organs ( ! voice & ( progression may p]=m _! (fice :ile ! s5sorium is deeply lock$ 9 sleep4 #d4 ,! two lives are born at diff]5t p]iods1 & ! "o is 9 active op]ation be=e ! o!r is ev5 9 exi/5ce4 ,! fir/ action obs]vable 9 ! embryo is a m9ute pulsat+ po9t4 ,x is ! "y he>t propell+ its infant /ream4 ,be=e bra91 or n]ve1 or muscle c be di/+ui%$1 ! he>t is 9 exi/5ce & 9 action2 t is1 ! app>atus ( ! organic function ( ! circulation is built up & is 9 op]ation be=e !re is any trace ( an animal organ4 ,art]ies & ve9s circulate blood1 capill>y vessels receive ! vital fluid1 & out ( x =m bra9 & muscle1 ! organs ( ! animal1 no less ?an ! v>i\s sub/ances t compose ! organs ( ! organic life4 ,! organic is n only ant]ior to ! animal life1 b x is by ! action ( ! organic t exi/5ce is giv5 to ! animal life4 ,! organic life is born at ! fir/ mom5t ( exi/5ce2 ! animal life n until a p]iod comp>atively di/ant2 ! epo* emphatically call$ ! p]iod ( bir?1 namely1 ! p]iod :5 ! new be+ is deta*$ f its "m2 :5 x fir/ comes into contact ) ext]nal objects2 :5 x c>ries on all ! functions ( its economy by its own organs1 & consequ5tly enjoys indep5d5t exi/5ce4 #e4 ,! functions ( ! organic life are p]fect at once4 ,! he>t contracts z well1 ! art]ies secrete z well1 ! respiratory organs "w z well ! fir/ mom5t !y beg9 to act z at any subsequ5t p]iod4 ,!y require no tea*+ f exp]i5ce1 & !y pr(it no?+ f its lessons4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! op]ations ( ! bra91 & ! actions ( ! volunt>y muscles1 feeble & unc]ta9 at fir/1 acquire /r5g? by sl[ degrees1 & atta9 _! ultimate p]fection only at ! adult age4 ,h[ indi/9ct & confus$ ! fir/ s5sations ( ! infant6 ,be=e x acquire accuracy1 precision1 & tru?1 h[ imm5se ! lab\r sp5t ^u p]ception6 ,s5sations are succe$$ by ideas2 s5sations & ideas coalesce ) s5sations & ideas2 comb9ations ?us =m$ sugge/ o!r comb9ations previ\sly =m$1 & ^! a ?ird1 & ! ?ird a f\r?1 & s is con/itut$ a cont9u\s tra9 ( ?\ght4 ,b ! infantile associations betwe5 s5sation & s5sation1 betwe5 idea & idea1 & betwe5 s5sations & ideas1 are1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 incorrect1 & to a /ill great] ext5t inadequate2 & ! misconception necess>ily result+ f ?is e>ly imp]fection 9 ! intellectual op]ations is capable ( correction only by subsequ5t & m ext5d$ impressions4 ,dur+ its mak+ h\rs1 a l>ge portion ( ! "t ( ! infant is sp5t 9 receiv+ impressions :i* come to x e in/ant f all directions1 & :i* x /ores up 9 its little treasury2 b a l>ge portion is also consum$ 9 ! f> m s]i\s & difficult bus9ess ( discrim9ation & correction4 ,c\ld any man1 aft] hav+ atta9$ ! age ( manhood1 rev]se ! ord] ( ! c\rse ?r\gh :i* he has pass$2 c\ld he1 ) ! p[] ( obs]vation1 toge!r ) ! exp]i5ce t belong to manhood1 retrace ) p]fect exactness e /ep ( 8 s5ti5t exi/5ce1 f ! age ( =ty to ! mom5t t ! air fir/ came into contact ) 8 body at ! mom5t ( 8 leav+ 8 mat]nal dwell+1 among ! tru?s he w\ld le>n1 ! mo/ int]e/+1 if n ! mo/ surpris+1 w\ld be ^? :i* relate to ! mann] 9 :i* he dealt ) 8 e>lie/ impressions2 ) ! mode 9 :i* he comb9$ !m1 recall$ !m1 laid !m by = future use2 made 8 fir/ g5]al d$uction2 obs]v$ :at subsequ5t exp]i5ce taught to be con=mable1 & :at n con=mable1 to ?is g5]al inf]5ce2 8 emotions on detect+ 8 fir/ errors1 & 8 contra/$ feel+s on discov]+ ^? compreh5sive tru?s1 ! c]ta9ty ( :i* became confirm$ by e subsequ5t impression4 ,?us to live backw>ds w\ld be1 9 fact1 to g ?r\gh ! analysis ( ! intellectual comb9ations1 &1 consequ5tly1 to obta9 a p]fect insight into ! con/itution ( ! m9d2 & among ! curi\s results :i* w\ld !n become manife/1 p]haps few w\ld appe> m surpris+ ?an ! true action ( ! s5ses4 ,! eye1 :5 fir/ impress$ by light1 does n p]ceive ! objects t reflect x2 ! e>1 :5 fir/ impress$ by s\nd1 does n di/+ui% ! sonor\s body4 ,:5 ! op]ation = cat>act has be5 successfully p]=m$ 9 a p]son born bl9d1 ! eye imm$iately becomes s5sible to light1 b ! impression ( light does n imm$iately give in=mation relative to ! prop]ties ( bodies4 ,x is gradually1 n in/antane\sly2 x is ev5 by sl[ degrees t lum9\s objects are disc]n$ ) di/9ctness & accuracy4 ,to see1 to he>1 to smell1 to ta/e1 to t\*1 are processes :i* appe> to be p]=m$ in/antane\sly1 & :i* actually are p]=m$ ) a/oni%+ rapidity 9 a p]son :o obs]ves !m 9 himself2 b !y 7 n always p]=m$ ?us rapidly3 !y are processes acquir$1 bus9esses le>nt2 processes & bus9esses acquir$ & le>nt1 n )\t ! co/ ( _m ef=ts & mu* lab\r4 ,b ! s5ses af=d m]ely ! mat]ials = ! intellectual op]ations ( memory1 comb9ation1 comp>ison1 discrim9ation1 induction1 op]ations ! progress ( :i* is s sl[1 t !y acquire precision1 en]gy1 & compreh5siv5ess only aft] ! culture ( ye>s4 ,& ! same is true ( ! muscles ( volition4 ,h[ _m ef=ts are made be=e ! p[] ( di/9ct articulation is acquir$6 h[ _m be=e ! infant c /&6 h[ _m be=e ! *ild c walk6 ,! organic life is born p]fect2 ! animal life becomes p]fect only by s]vitude1 & ! aptitude :i* s]vice gives4 #f4 ,! organic life may exi/ aft] ! animal life has p]i%$4 ,! animal life is ext+ui%$ :5 s5sation is aboli%$1 & volunt>y motion c be p]=m$ no m4 ,b disease may aboli% s5sation & de/roy ! p[] ( volunt>y motion1 :ile circulation1 respiration1 secretion1 excretion1 9 a ^w1 ! entire circle ( ! organic functions cont9ues to be p]=m$4 ,9 a s+le in/ant apoplexy may r$uce to drivell+ fatuity ! mo/ exalt$ intellect1 & r5d] p[]less & motionless muscles ( gigantic /r5g?2 :ile ! action ( ! he>t & ! involunt>y contractions ( ! muscles may n only n be weak5$1 b may act ) pret]natural en]gy4 ,9 a s+le in/ant1 apoplexy may ev5 completely ext+ui% ! animal life1 & yet ! organic may g on = h\rs1 days1 & ev5 weeks2 :ile catalepsy1 p]haps ! mo/ s+ul> disease to :i* ! human frame is subject1 may :olly aboli% s5sation & volition1 :ile x may imp>t to ! volunt>y muscles ! p[] ( contract+ ) su* unnatural en]gy & cont9uity1 t ! head1 ! trunk1 ! limbs may become immoveably fix$ 9 :atev] attitude !y happ5 to be at ! mom5t ! p>oxysm comes on4 ,9 ?is extraord9>y condition ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 h[ev] long ! p>oxysm la/1 & h[ev] complete ! abolition ( consci\sness1 ! he>t cont9ues to beat1 & ! pulse to ?rob1 & ! lungs to respire1 & all ! organic organs to p]=m _! ord9>y functions4 ,dr4 ,jebb gives ! foll[+ description ( ! condition ( a "y lady :o 0 ! subject ( ?is curi\s malady4 ,my pati5t 0 seiz$ ) an attack j z ,i 0 ann\nc$4 ,at t mom5t %e 0 employ$ 9 nett+2 %e 0 9 ! act ( pass+ ! ne$le ?r\gh ! me%2 9 t position %e became immoveably rigid1 exhibit+1 9 a pleas+ =m1 a figure ( dea?-l sleep1 beyond ! p[] ( art to imitate1 or ! imag9ation to conceive4 ,h] =ehead 0 s]5e1 h] features p]fectly compos$4 ,! pal5ess ( h] col\r1 & h] brea?+1 :i* at a di/ance 0 sc>cely p]ceptible1 op]at$ 9 r5d]+ ! similitude to m>ble m exact & /rik+4 ,! position ( h] f+]s1 h&s1 & arms 0 alt]$ ) difficulty1 b pres]v$ e =m ( flexure !y acquir$3 nor 7 ! muscles ( ! neck exempt$ f ?is law1 h] head ma9ta9+ e situation 9 :i* ! h& c\ld place x1 z firmly z h] limbs4 ,9 ?is condition ( ! sy/em ! s5ses 7 9 a /ate ( pr(\nd sleep2 ! volunt>y muscles1 on ! contr>y1 7 9 a /ate ( viol5t action2 b ?is action n be+ excit$ by volition1 nor "u its control1 ! pati5t rema9$ z motionless z %e 0 ins5sible4 ,! bra9 0 9 a /ate ( tempor>y dea?2 ! muscle 9 a /ate ( int5se life4 ,& ! conv]se may happ53 ! muscle may die1 :ile ! bra9 lives2 contractility may be de/roy$1 :ile s5sibility is p]fect2 ! p[] ( motion may be lo/1 :ile t ( s5sation may rema9 unaffect$4 ,a case is on record1 :i* af=ds an illu/ration ( ?is condition ( ! sy/em4 ,a woman _h be5 = "s "t conf9$ to h] b$1 lab\r+ "u sev]e indisposition4 ,on a sudd5 %e 0 depriv$ ( ! p[] ( mov+ a s+le muscle ( ! body2 %e attempt$ to speak1 b %e _h no p[] to articulate2 %e endeav\r$ to /ret* out h] h&1 b h] muscles refus$ to obey ! comm&s ( h] w1 yet h] consci\sness 0 p]fect1 & %e reta9$ ! complete possession ( h] intellectual faculties4 ,%e p]ceiv$ t h] att5dants ?\ght h] dead1 & 0 consci\s ( ! p]=mance ^u h] own p]son ( ! s]vices usually paid to ! dead2 %e 0 laid out1 h] toes 7 b\nd toge!r1 h] *9 0 ti$ up2 %e he>d ! arrangem5ts = h] fun]al discuss$1 & yet %e 0 unable to make ! slighte/ sign t %e 0 /ill 9 ! possession ( s5se1 feel+1 & life4 ,9 "o =m ( disease1 !n1 ! animal life1 bo? ! s5sitive & ! motive portions ( x1 may p]i%2 & 9 ano!r =m ( disease1 ei!r ! "o or ! o!r "p ( x may be susp5d$1 :ile ! organic life cont9ues 9 full op]ation3 x foll[s t ! two lives1 bl5d$ z !y are1 are di/9ct1 s9ce ! "o is capable ( p]i%+ )\t imm$iately & inevitably involv+ ! de/ruction ( ! o!r4 #g4 ,&1 f9ally1 z ! organic life is ! fir/ born1 s x is ! la/ to die2 :ile ! animal life1 z x is ! late/ born1 & ! la/ to atta9 its full developm5t1 s x is ! e>lie/ to decl9e & ! fir/ to p]i%4 ,9 ! process ( natural dea?1 ! ext9ction ( ! animal is always ant]ior to t ( ! organic life4 ,real dea? is a lat]1 & sometimes a mu* lat] ev5t ?an app>5t dea?4 ,an animal appe>s to be dead :51 toge!r ) ! abolition ( s5sation & ! loss ( volunt>y motion1 respiration1 circulation1 & ! re/ ( ! organic functions c no long] be di/+ui%$2 b ^! functions g on "s "t aft] !y h ceas$ to af=d ext]nal indications ( _! action4 ,9 man1 & ! w>mblood$ animals 9 g5]al1 susp5sion or subm]sion ext+ui%es ! animal life1 at ! late/1 )9 ! space ( f\r m9utes f ! "t t ! atmosph]ic air is completely exclud$ f ! lung2 b did ! organic functions also cease at ! same p]iod1 x w\ld be impossible to re/ore an animal to life aft] app>5t dea? f dr[n+ & ! l4 ,b h[ev] complete & protract$ ! abolition ( ! animal functions1 re-animation is always possible z long z ! organic organs are capable ( be+ re/or$ to _! usual vig\r4 ,! cessation ( ! animal life is b ! fir/ /age ( dea?1 f :i* recov]y is possible2 dea? is complete only :5 ! organic toge!r ) ! animal functions h :olly ceas$1 & are incapable ( be+ re-e/abli%$4 ,9 man1 ! process ( dea? is seldom altoge!r natural4 ,x is g5]ally r5d]$ premature by ! op]ation ( circum/ances :i* de/roy life o!rwise ?an by t progressive & sl[ decay :i* is ! inevitable result ( ! action ( organiz$ /ructure4 ,dea?1 :5 natural1 is ! la/ ev5t ( an ext5d$ s]ies1 ( :i* ! fir/ t is appreciable is a *ange 9 ! animal life & 9 ! noble/ portion ( t life4 ,! high] faculties fail 9 ! rev]se ord] ( _! developm5t2 ! retrogression is ! inv]se ( ! progression1 & ! noble/ creature1 9 return+ to ! /ate ( non-exi/5ce1 retraces /ep by /ep ea* successive /age by :i* x rea*$ ! summit ( life4 ,9 ! advanc+ s]ies1 ! animal is sup]add$ to ! organic life2 s5sation1 ! l[e/ faculty ( ! animal life1 prec$es ratioc9ation1 ! highe/4 ,! s5ses call$ into play at ! mom5t ( bir? soon acquire ! utmo/ p]fection ( :i* !y are capable2 b ! intellectual faculties1 lat] develop$1 are /ill lat] p]fect$1 & ! highe/ ! late/4 ,9 ! desc5d+ s]ies1 ! animal life fails be=e ! organic1 & its nobl] p[]s decay soon] & m rapidly ?an ! subord9ate4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! impressions :i* ! organs ( s5se convey to ! bra9 become less num]\s & di/9ct1 & consequ5tly ! mat]ial on :i* ! m9d op]ates is less abundant & p]fect2 b at ! same "t1 ! p[] ( work+ vigor\sly ) ! mat]ial x possesses m ?an proportionally dim9i%es4 ,memory fails2 analog\s ph5om5a are less readily & less completely recall$ by ! pres5ce ( ^? :i* %\ld sugge/ ! entire tra92 ! connect+ l9ks are dimly se5 or :olly lo/2 ! tra9 itself is less vivid & less coh]5t2 tra9 succe$s tra9 ) pret]natural sl[ness1 & ! consequ5ce ( ^! gr[+ imp]fections is t1 at la/1 induction becomes uns\nd j z x 0 9 e>ly y\?2 & = ! same reason1 namely1 because !re is n 9 ! m5tal view an adequate range ( individual ph5om5a2 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ! range compreh5d$ 9 ! view ( ! old man is too n>r[1 because t :i* he _h le>nt he has =gott52 :ile 9 ! y\? x is too n>r[1 because t :i* x is necess>y to le>n has n be5 acquir$4 ,& ) ! dim9ution ( intellectual p[] ! s5ses cont9ue progressively to fail3 ! eye gr[s m dim1 ! e> m dull1 ! s5se ( smell less delicate1 ! s5se ( t\* less acute1 :ile ! s5se ( ta/e imm$iately subs]vi5t to ! organic function ( nutrition is ! la/ to dim9i% 9 int5sity & correctness1 & :olly fails b ) ! ext9ction ( ! life x s]ves4 ,b ! s5ses are n ! only s]vants ( ! bra92 ! volunt>y muscles are s equally2 b ^! m9i/]s to ! ma/]-p[]1 no long] kept 9 active s]vice1 ! =m] no long] employ$ to convey new1 v>i$1 & vivid impressions1 ! latt] no long] employ$ to execute ! comm&s ( new1 v>i$1 & int5se desires1 become successively feebl]1 sl[]1 & m unc]ta9 9 _! action4 ,! h& trembles1 ! /ep tott]s1 & e movem5t is t>dy & un/eady4 ,& ?us1 by ! loss ( "o intellectual faculty aft] ano!r1 by ! oblit]ation ( s5se aft] s5se1 by ! progressive failure ( ! p[] ( volunt>y motion2 9 a ^w1 by ! decl9+ en]gy & ! ultimate ext9ction ( ! animal life1 man1 f ! /ate ( maturity1 passes a second "t ?r\gh ! /age ( *ildhood back to t ( infancy2 lapses ev5 into ! condition ( ! embryo3 :at ! ftus 01 ! man ( extreme old age is3 :5 he began to exi/1 he possess$ only organic life2 & be=e he is ripe = ! tomb1 he returns to ! condition ( ! plant4 ,& ev5 ?is m]ely organic exi/5ce _c be long ma9ta9$4 ,sl[ may be ! wa/e ( ! organic organs2 b !y d wa/e1 & t wa/e is n repair$1 & consequ5tly _! functions langui%1 & no am\nt ( /imulus is capable ( invigorat+ _! fail+ action4 ,! art]ies are rigid & _c n\ri%2 ! ve9s are relax$ & _c c>ry on ! mass ( blood t oppresses !m2 ! lungs1 p>tly *ok$ up by ! deposition ( adv5titi\s matt]1 & p>tly incapable ( exp&+ & collaps+ by reason ( ! feeble action ( ! respiratory app>atus1 imp]fectly arate ! small quantity ( blood t fl[s ?r\gh !m2 ! he>t1 depriv$ ( its wont$ nutrim5t & /imulus1 is unable to contract ) ! en]gy requisite to propel ! vital curr5t2 ! v>i\s organs1 no long] suppli$ ) ! quantity & quality ( mat]ial necess>y = c>ry+ on _! respective processes1 cease to act2 ! ma*9]y /ops1 & ?is is dea?4 ,& n[ ! processes ( life at an end1 ! body falls )9 ! dom9ion ( ! p[]s :i* preside univ]sally ov] matt]2 ! tie t l9k$ all its p>ts toge!r1 hold+ !m 9 union & keep+ !m 9 action1 9 direct opposition to ^? p[]s dissolv$1 x feels & obeys ! new attractions to :i* x has become subject2 p>ticle aft] p>ticle t /ood 9 beautiful ord] fall f _! place2 ! wond]ful /ructures !y compos$ melt away2 ! v sub/ances ( :i* ^? /ructures 7 built up are resolv$ into _! primitive elem5ts2 ^! elem5ts1 set at lib]ty1 ent] into new comb9ations1 & become con/itu5t p>ts ( new be+s2 ^? new be+s 9 _! turn p]i%2 f _! dea? spr+s life1 & s ! *anges g on 9 an ev]la/+ circle4 ,z f> z relates to ! organiz$ /ructures 9 :i* life has its seat1 & to ! op]ations ( life dep5d5t on ^? /ructures1 su* is its hi/ory2 a hi/ory n m]ely curi\s1 b ab\nd+ ) practical sugge/ions ( ! la/ importance4 ,! usefulness ( a famili> acqua9tance ) ! ph5om5a :i* h n[ be5 elucidat$ w be app>5t at e /ep z we proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,ultimate object ( organization & life--,s\rces ( pleasure--,special provision by :i* ! organic organs influ5ce consci\sness & af=d pleasure--,po9t at :i* ! organic organs cease to affect consci\sness1 & :y--,! animal appetites3 ! s5ses3 ! intellectual faculties3 ! selfi% & sympa!tic affections3 ! moral faculty--,pleasure ! direct1 ! ord9>y1 & ! gratuit\s result ( ! action ( ! organs--,pleasure conducive to ! developm5t ( ! organs1 & to ! cont9uance ( _! action--,progress ( human k--,progress ( human happ9ess4 ,! object ( /ructure is ! production ( function4 ,( ! two functions comb9$ 9 ! liv+ animal1 "o is :olly subs]vi5t to ! o!r4 ,to build up ! app>atus ( ! animal life1 & to ma9ta9 x 9 a condition fit = p]=m+ its functions1 is ! sole object ( ! exi/5ce ( ! organic life4 ,:at !n is ! object ( ! animal life8 ,t object1 :atev] x be1 mu/ be ! ultimate end ( organization1 & ( all ! actions ( :i* x is ! seat & ! in/rum5t4 ,two functions1 s5sation & volunt>y motion1 are comb9$ 9 ! animal life4 ,( ^! two functions1 ! latt] is subs]vi5t to ! =m]3 volunt>y motion is ! s]vant ( s5sation1 & exi/s only to obey its comm&s4 ,is s5sation1 !n1 ! ultimate object ( organization8 ,simple s5sation _c be an ultimate object1 because x is inv>iably att5d$ ) an ultimate result2 = s5sation is ei!r pleasurable or pa9ful4 ,e s5sation t]m9ates 9 a pleasure or a pa94 ,pleasure or pa91 ! la/ ev5t 9 ! s]ies1 mu/ !n be ! f9al end4 ,is ! production ( pa9 ! ultimate object ( organization8 ,t _c be1 = ! production ( pa9 is ! indirect1 n ! direct1--! extraord9>y1 n ! ord9>y1 result ( ! actions ( life4 ,x foll[s t pleasure mu/ be ! ultimate object1 = !re is no o!r ( :i* x is possible to conceive4 ,! end ( organic exi/5ce is animal exi/5ce2 ! end ( animal exi/5ce is s5ti5t exi/5ce2 ! end ( s5ti5t exi/5ce is pleasurable exi/5ce2 ! end ( life !re=e is enjoym5t4 ,life comm5ces ) ! organic processes2 to ! organic are sup]add$ ! animal2 ! animal processes t]m9ate 9 s5sation2 s5sation ends 9 enjoym5t2 x foll[s1 t enjoym5t is ! f9al end4 ,= ?is e organ is con/ruct$2 to ?is e action ( e organ is subs]vi5t2 9 ?is e action ultimately t]m9ates4 ,& )\t a s+le exception 9 ! entire range ( ! s5ti5t creation1 ! high] ! organiz$ /ructure ! great] ! enjoym5t1 m$iately or imm$iately1 to :i* x is subs]vi5t4 ,f its mo/ simple to its mo/ complex /ate1 e successive addition to /ructure1 by :i* function is r5d]$ m elevat$ & p]fect1 proportionally increases ! exquisit5ess ( ! pleasure to :i* ! function m9i/]s1 & 9 :i* x t]m9ates4 ,pleasure is ! result ( ! action ( liv+ organs1 :e!r organic or animal2 pleasure is ! direct1 ! ord9>y1 & ! gratuit\s result ( ! action ( bo? sets ( organs2 ! pleasure result+ f ! action ( ! organs is conducive to _! complete developm5t1 & !reby to ! increase ( _! capacity = af=d+ enjoym5t2 ! pleasure result+ f ! action ( ! organs1 & conducive to _! developm5t1 is equally conducive to ! p]petuation ( _! action1 & consequ5tly to ! ma9t5ance ( life2 x foll[s n only t enjoym5t is ! end ( life1 b t x is ! means by :i* life is prolong$4 ,( ! tru? ( ea* ( ^! propositions1 x w be int]e/+ to contemplate ! pl5itude ( ! pro(4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 pleasure is ! result ( ! action ( ! organic organs4 ,x has inde$ be5 %[n t ! v "* by :i* ! action ( ^! organs is di/+ui%$ is t !y are unatt5d$ ) consci\sness4 ,nev]!less1 by a special provision1 consci\sness is indirectly connect$ ) ! processes ( ?is class1 limit$ 9 ext5t inde$1 & uni=mly t]m9at+ at a c]ta9 po9t2 b ! ext5t & ! limitation alike conduc+ to ! pleasurabl5ess ( its nature4 ,& ?is is an adju/m5t 9 ! con/itution ( our frame :i* is well des]v+ ( att5tion4 ,organic processes are dep5d5t on a peculi> influ5ce d]iv$ f t portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em di/+ui%$ by ! t]m organic4 ,! organic n]ves1 di/ribut$ to ! organic organs1 take _! orig9 & h _! *ief seat 9 ! cavities t conta9 ! ma9 in/rum5ts ( ! organic life1 namely1 ! *e/ & abdom5 7see *ap4 v474 ,z w be fully %[n h]eaft]1 ^! n]ves encompass ! great trunks ( ! blood-vessels t convey art]ial blood to ! organic organs4 ,9 all its ramifications ?r\gh an organic organ1 an art]ial vessel is accompani$ by its organic n]ve2 s t :]ev] ! capill>y art]ial bran* goes1 secret+ or n\ri%+1 !re goes1 insep>ably unit$ ) x1 an organic n]ve1 excit+ & gov]n+4 ,among ! peculi>ities ( ?is portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable is1 t x is :olly de/itute ( feel+4 ,s5sibility is insep>ably associat$ ) ! idea commonly =m$ ( a n]ve4 ,b ! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( two portions1 "o presid+ ov] s5sation & volunt>y motion1 h5ce call$ ! s5ti5t & ! motive portions2 ! o!r de/itute ( s5sation1 b presid+ ov] ! organic processes1 h5ce call$ ! organic portion4 ,if ! communication betwe5 ! organic organ & ! organic n]ve be int]rupt$1 ! function ( ! organ1 :atev] x be1 is arre/$4 ,)\t its organic n]ves1 ! /oma* _c secrete ga/ric juice2 ! consequ5ce is1 t ! alim5t is undige/$4 ,)\t its organic n]ves1 ! liv] _c secrete bile1 ! consequ5ce is1 t ! nutritive "p ( ! alim5t is incapable ( be+ sep>at$ f its excrem5titi\s portion4 ,! organic organ receives f its organic n]ve an influ5ce1 )\t :i* x _c p]=m its function2 b ! n]ve belong+ to ?is class nei!r feels nor communicates feel+1 & h5ce x imp>ts no consci\sness ( ! op]ation ( any process dep5d5t ^u x4 ,yet !re is n "o ( ^! processes t does n ex]t a mo/ important influ5ce ov] consci\sness4 ,h[8 ,by a special provision1 z curi\s 9 its nature z x is important 9 its result4 ,bran*es ( s5ti5t n]ves are transmitt$ f ! animal to ! organic sy/em1 & f ! organic to ! animal2 & an intimate communication is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! two classes4 ,! inspection ( fig4 ,,xvi4 w illu/rate ! mode 9 :i* ?is communication is effect$4 ,a ,b repres5ts a portion ( ! sp9al cord 7"o ( ! c5tral masses ( ! s5ti5t sy/em71 cov]$ ) its membranes4 ,! "p "h repres5t$ is a front view ( t portion ( ! sp9al cord :i* belongs to ! back1 & :i* is te*nically call$ ! dorsal portion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xvi4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 ! second1 c4 ribs ) ! correspond+ dorsal 7s5ti5t7 n]ves1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1 go+ out to supply _! respective organs ) s5sation4 ,c ,d ,e1 a portion ( ! ma9 trunk ( ! organic 7non-s5ti5t7 n]ve1 commonly call$ ! ,great ,sympa!tic4 ,f ,g ,h1 ! membrane ( ! sp9al cord cut op5 & expos+ ,i ,k1 ! sp9al cord itself1 ,l1 ! ant]ior bran* ( "o ( ! dorsal n]ves1 aris+ f ! ant]ior surface ( ! sp9al cord by sev]al bundles ( fibres4 ,m1 ! po/]ior bran* ( ! same n]ve1 aris+ 9 l mann] f ! po/]ior surface ( ! sp9al cord by sev]al bran*es ( fibres4 ,! ant]ior & po/]ior bran*es unit+ to =m "o trunk ,n4 ,two bran*es1 ,p ,q1 s5t (f f ! sp9al 7s5ti5t7 trunk to unite ) ! organic 7non-s5ti5t7 trunk4 ,r ,s ,t ,u ,v ,w1 o!r bran*es ( ! s5ti5t1 connect$ ) ! bran*es ( ! non-s5ti5t n]v\s trunks 9 ! same mode4 ,x ,y1 ! ma9 trunk ( ! sympa!tic 7non-s5ti5t7 n]ve cut across & turn$ aside1 9 ord] t ! p>ts b5ea? x 7,p ,n7 may be m di/9ctly se54 ,f ?is description1 x is app>5t t ea* s5ti5t n]ve1 be=e x goes out to ! animal organs1 to :i* x is de/9$ to communicate s5sation1 s5ds (f two bran*es to ! organic or ! non-s5ti5t4 ,^! s5ti5t n]ves mix & m+le ) ! ins5sible n]ves2 accompany !m 9 _! c\rse to ! organic organs1 & ramify ) !m ?r\gh\t _! sub/ance4 ,x is manife/1 !n1 t s5ti5t n]ves1 t n]ves n necess>y to ! organic processes1 hav+1 z f> z is kn[n1 no?+ :atev] to d ) ^? processes1 ent] z con/itu5t p>ts into ! composition ( ! organic organs4 ,:at is ! result8 ,t organic organs are r5d]$ s5ti5t2 t organic processes1 9 _! own nature ins5sible1 become capable ( affect+ consci\sness4 ,:at foll[s8 ,:at is ! consci\sness excit$8 ,n a consci\sness ( ! organic process4 ,( t we /ill rema9 :olly ins5sible4 ,n simple s5sation4 ,! result uni=mly produc$1 z long z ! /ate ( ! sy/em is t ( heal?1 is pleasurable consci\sness4 ,! he>t s5ds out to ! organs its vital curr5t4 ,ea* organ1 ab/ract+ f ! /ream ! p>ticles x ne$s1 conv]ts !m into ! peculi> fluid or solid x is its (fice to =m4 ,! /oma*1 f ! art]ial /reamlets circulat+ ?r\gh x1 secretes ga/ric juice2 ! liv]1 f ! v5\s /reamlets circulat+ ?r\gh x1 secretes bile4 ,:5 ^! dige/ive organs h duly prep>$ _! respective fluids1 !y employ !m 9 ! elaboration ( ! alim5t4 ,we are n consci\s ( ?is elaboration1 ?\gh x g on )9 u e mom5t2 b is consci\sness n affect$ by ! process8 ,mo/ mat]ially4 ,:y8 ,because s5ti5t m+le ) organic n]ves2 because ! s5ti5t n]ves are impress$ by ! actions ( ! organic organs4 ,& h[ impress$8 ,z long z ! actions ( ! organic organs are s\nd1 t is1 z long z _! processes are duly p]=m$1 ! impression communicat$ to ! s5ti5t n]ves is 9 its nature agreeable2 is1 9 fact1 ,,! ,,pleasurable ,,consci\sness ,,:i* ,,con/itutes ,,! ,,feel+ ,,( ,,heal?4 ,! /ate ( heal? is no?+ b ! result ( ! due p]=mance ( ! organic organs3 x foll[s t ! feel+ ( heal?1 ! feel+ :i* is rank$ by e "o among ! mo/ pleasurable ( exi/5ce1 is ! result ( ! action ( organs ( ^: direct op]ations we are unconsci\s4 ,b ! pleasurable consci\sness ?us indirectly excit$ is really ! consequ5ce ( a special provision1 e/abli%$ = ! express purpose ( produc+ pleasure4 ,processes1 9 _! own nature ins5sible1 are r5d]$ s5ti5t expressly = ?is purpose1 t1 ov] & above ! special object !y s]ve1 !y may af=d enjoym5t4 ,9 ?is case1 ! production ( pleasure is n only altoge!r gratuit\s1 n only communicat$ = its own sake1 n only re/$ 9 z an ultimate object1 b x is made to comm5ce at ! v conf9es ( life2 x is int]wov5 ) ! ?read ( exi/5ce3 x is secur$ 9 & by ! actions t build up & t support ! v framework1 ! mat]ial in/rum5t ( our be+4 ,b if ! communication ( s5sibility to processes 9 _! own nature incapable ( excit+ feel+1 = ! purpose ( conv]t+ !m into s\rces ( pleasurable consci\sness1 indicate an express provision = ! production ( enjoym5t1 t provision is no less exemplifi$ 9 ! po9t at :i* ?is sup]add$ s5sibility is made to cease4 ,"s ( ! consequ5ces ( a direct communication ( consci\sness to an organic process h be5 already adv]t$ to4 ,_h ! eye1 besides transmitt+ rays ( light to ! optic n]ve1 be5 r5d]$ s5sible ( ! successive passage ( ea* ray ?r\gh its sub/ance1 ! impression excit$ by lum9\s bodies1 :i* is indisp5sable to vision1 ! ultimate object ( ! in/rum5t1 if n :olly lo/1 mu/ necess>ily h become obscure1 9 direct proportion to ! acut5ess ( ?is s5sibility4 ,! h& ( ! musician c\ld sc>cely h execut$ its v>i$ & rapid movem5ts ^u 8 in/rum5t1 _h 8 m9d be5 occupi$ at "o & ! same in/ant ) ! process ( muscul> contraction 9 ! f+]1 & ! idea ( music 9 ! bra94 ,_h ! communication ( su* a tw(old consci\sness be5 possible1 9 no respect w\ld x h be5 b5eficial1 9 _m x w\ld h be5 highly p]nici\s2 & ! lea/ ( ! evils result+ f x w\ld h be51 t ! inf]ior w\ld h int]rupt$ ! sup]ior faculty1 & ! means det]iorat$ ! end4 ,b 9 "s cases ! evil w\ld h be5 ( a mu* m s]i\s nature4 ,_h we be5 r5d]$ s5sible ( ! fl[ ( ! vital curr5t ?r\gh ! eng9e t propels x2 7 ! di/5sion ( ! delicate valves t direct ! curr5t ev] pres5t to our view2 by "s inw>d feel+ 7 we rem9d$1 m9ute by m9ute1 ( ! progress ( ! alim5t ?r\gh ! dige/ive app>atus1 & 7 ! my/]i\s op]ations ( ! organic n]ves palpable to sight1 ! t]ror ( ! maniac1 :o conceiv$ t 8 body 0 compos$ ( unanneal$ glass1 w\ld be ! ord9>y feel+ ( life4 ,e movem5t w\ld be a matt] ( anxi\s delib]ation2 & ! approa* ( e body to our own w\ld fill u ) dismay4 ,b adju/$ z our consci\sness actually is1 inv>iably ! po9t at :i* ! organic process beg9s is t at :i* s5sation ends4 ,_h s5sation be5 ext5d$ beyond ?is po9t1 x w\ld h be5 productive ( pa93 at ?is po9t x uni=mly /ops4 ,nev]!less1 by ! indirect connexion ( s5sation ) ! organic processes1 a va/ am\nt ( pleasure might be creat$3 a special app>atus is con/ruct$ = ! express purpose ( e/abli%+ ! communication4 ,!re is ?us ! tw(old pro(1 ! positive & ! negative1 ! evid5ce aris+ z well f :at !y d1 z f :at !y ab/a9 f do+1 t ! organic processes are1 & are int5d$ to be1 s\rces ( enjoym5t4 ,b ! production ( pleasure1 comm5c+ at ?is ! l[e/ po9t ( consci\s exi/5ce1 increases ) ! progressive advancem5t ( organization & function4 ,! appetite = food1 & ! volunt>y actions dep5d5t ^u x1 may be consid]$ z ! fir/ advancem5t beyond a process purely organic4 ,! function by :i* new matt] is introduc$ into ! sy/em & conv]t$ into nutrim5t1 is p>tly an animal & p>tly an organic op]ation4 ,! animal "p ( x consi/s ( ! s5sations ( hung] & ?ir/1 by :i* we are taught :5 ! wants ( ! sy/em require a fre% supply ( alim5t1 toge!r ) ! volunt>y actions by :i* ! alim5t is introduc$ into ! sy/em4 ,! organic "p ( ! function consi/s ( ! *anges :i* ! alim5t und]goes aft] its introduction into ! sy/em1 by :i* x is conv]t$ into nutrim5t4 ,s5sations always ( a pleasurable nature arise indirectly 9 ! mann] already expla9$1 f ! due p]=mance ( ! organic "p ( ! function2 b pleasure is also directly produc$ by ! p]=mance ( ! animal "p ( x4 ,:olesome food is grateful2 ! satisfaction ( ! appetite = food is pleasurable4 ,food is necess>y to ! support ( life2 b x is n indisp5sable to ! ma9t5ance ( life t food %\ld be agreeable4 ,appetite !re mu/ be1 t food may be eat52 b ! act ( eat+ might h be5 secur$ )\t connect+ x ) pleasure4 ,pleasure1 h[ev]1 is connect$ ) x1 fir/ directly1 by ! gratefulness ( food1 & secondly indirectly1 by ! due dige/ion ( ! food4 ,& ! annexation ( pleasure 9 ?is tw(old mode to ! p]=mance ( ! function ( nutrition is ano!r case ( ! gratuit\s be/[m5t ( pleasure2 ano!r in/ance 9 :i* pleasure is communicat$ = its own sake1 & re/$ 9 z an ultimate object4 ,pleasures ( ?is class are sometimes call$ l[2 !y are comp>atively l[2 b !y are n ! less pleasures1 because !y are exce$$ 9 value by pleasures ( a nobl] nature4 ,man may reg>d !m ) comp>ative indiff]5ce1 because he is end[$ ) faculties :i* af=d him gratifications sup]ior 9 k9d & l>g] 9 am\nt2 b x is no m>k ( wisdom to despise & neglect ev5 ^!3 = !y are annex$ to ! ex]cise ( a function :i* is ! fir/ to exalt u above a m]ely organic exi/5ce2 !y are ! fir/ pleasures ( :i*1 consid]$ m]ely z s5ti5t creatures1 we are susceptible2 !y am\nt 9 ! aggregate to an imm5se sum2 & !y m>k ! dep? 9 our nature 9 :i* are laid ! f\nta9s ( enjoym5t4 ,organs ( s5se1 intellectual faculties1 social affections1 moral p[]s1 are sup]add$ end[m5ts ( a successively high] ord]3 at ! same "t1 !y are ! in/rum5ts ( enjoym5t ( a nature progressively m & m exquisite4 ,an organ ( s5se is an in/rum5t compos$ ( a peculi> arrangem5t ( organiz$ matt]1 by :i* x is adapt$ to receive f specific ag5ts def9ite impressions4 ,betwe5 ! ag5t t produces & ! organ t receives ! impression1 ! adaptation is su*1 t ! result ( _! mutual action is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! production ( s5sation1 &1 9 ! second place1 ! production ( pleasure4 ,! pleasure is z mu* ! result z ! s5sation4 ,?is is true ( ! eye 9 see+1 ! e> 9 he>+1 ! h& 9 t\*+1 ! organ ( smell 9 smell+1 & ! tongue 9 ta/+4 ,pleasure is l9k$ ) ! s5se2 b !re might h be5 ! s5se )\t ! pleasure4 ,a slight diff]5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( ! organ1 or 9 ! int5sity ( ! ag5t1 w\ld n m]ely h *ang$1 x w\ld ev5 h rev]s$ ! result2 w\ld h r5d]$ ! habitual condition ( ! eye1 ! e>1 ! sk91 n su* z x n[ is 9 heal?1 b su* z x is 9 ! /ate ( inflammation4 ,b ! adju/m5t is su* z habitually to secure t condition ( ! sy/em 9 :i* e action t excites s5sation produces pleasure z its ord9>y concomitant2 & ! am\nt ( enjoym5t :i* is ?us secur$ to e man1 & :i* e man )\t exception actually exp]i5ces 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( an ord9>y life1 x w\ld be beyond 8 p[] to e/imate 7 he always s5sible ( ! boon2 b ! calculation is altoge!r impossible1 :51 z is g5]ally ! case1 he m]ely enjoys )\t ev] ?9k+ ( ! provisions :i* enable him to d s4 ,b if ! pleasures t arise f ! ord9>y op]ations ( s5se =m1 9 ! aggregate1 an incalculable sum1 h[ great is ! accession br\ght to ?is /ock by ! end[m5ts next 9 ord] 9 ! asc5d+ scale1 namely1 ! intellectual faculties6 ,!re is "o effect result+ f ! op]ation ( ! intellectual faculties on ! s5ses t des]ves p>ticul> att5tion4 ,! high] faculties elevate ! subord9ate 9 su* a mann] z to make !m altoge!r new end[m5ts4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is1 x w suffice to notice ! *ange wr\ght1 z if 9 ! v nature ( s5sation1 ! mom5t x becomes comb9$ ) an intellectual op]ation1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! intellectual conception ( beauty1 & ! m]e p]ception ( s5se4 ,! gr\p+ ( ! hills t b\nd t magnific5t valley :i* ,i behold at ?is mom5t spread out be=e my view2 ! %ad[ ( ! trees at ! base ( "s ( !m1 /ret*+ its deep & v>i$ outl9e up ! sides ( o!rs2 ! glanc+ light n[ bright5+ a hundr$ diff]5t hues ( gre5 on ! broad mead[s1 & n[ danc+ on ! upl& fall[s2 ! ev]-mov+1 ev]-*ang+ cl\ds2 ! sc5t$ air2 ! song ( birds2 ! /ill m t\*+ music :i* ! breeze awak5s 9 ! sc>cely trembl+ bran*es ( ^? p9e trees1--! elem5ts ( :i* ?is sc5e is compos$1 ! m]e objects ( s5se1 ! sun1 ! sky1 ! air1 ! hills1 ! woods1 & ! s\nds p\r$ out f !m1 impress ! s5ses ( ! animals t graze 9 ! mid/ ( !m2 b on _! s5ses !y fall dull & )\t effect1 excit+ no p]ception ( _! lovel9ess1 & giv+ no ta/e ( ! pleasures !y are capable ( af=d+4 ,nor ev5 9 ! human be+1 ^: intellectual faculties h be5 uncultivat$1 d !y awak5 ei!r emotions or ideas2 ! cl[n sees !m1 he>s !m1 feels !m no m ?an ! h]ds he t5ds3 yet 9 him ^: m9d has be5 cultivat$ & unfold$1 h[ num]\s & v>i$ ! impressions1 h[ manifold ! comb9ations1 h[ exquisite ! pleasures produc$ by objects su* z ^!6 ,& f ! m purely intellectual op]ations1 f memory1 comp>ison1 analysis1 comb9ation1 classification1 induction1 h[ /ill nobl] ! pleasure6 ,n to speak ( ! happ9ess ( him :o1 by 8 /udy ( natural ph5om5a1 at l5g? arriv$ at ! /up5d\s discov]y t ! e>? & all ! />s ( ! firmam5t move1 & t ! fea!r falls to ! gr\nd1 by ! op]ation ( "o & ! same physical law2 nor ( ! happ9ess ( him :o s5t 8 kite into ! cl\d1 & br\ght d[n f its quiet b$ ! lightn+ :i* he suspect$ 0 slumb]+ !re2 nor ( ! happ9ess ( him :o conc5trat$1 direct$1 & controll$ t mighty p[] :i* has enabl$ ! feeble h& ( man to accompli% works great] ?an h be5 feign$ ( fabl$ giant2 :i* has annihilat$ di/ance2 creat$1 by economiz+ "t2 *ang$ 9 ! %ort space 9 :i* x has be5 9 op]ation ! surface ( ! habitable globe2 & is de/9$ to "w ^u x m & great] *anges ?an h be5 effect$ by all o!r causes comb9$2 nor ( ! happ9ess ( him :o devot$ a long] life ) equal success to a nobl] lab\r1 t ( ,,re>+ ,,! ,,fabric ,,( ,,felicity ,,by ,,! ,,h& ,,( ,,reason ,,& ,,( ,,law4 ,! intellectual pleasures ( su* m5 z ,newton1 ,frankl91 ,watt1 & ,b5?am1 c be equall$ only by ^? :o possess equal intellectual p[]1 & :o put =? equal intellectual en]gy3 to be greatly happy z !y 71 x 7 necess>y to be z highly end[$2 b to be happy1 x is n necess>y to be s end[$4 ,9 ! ord9>y intellectual op]ations ( ord9>y m51 9 _! ord9>y occupations1 !re is happ9ess4 ,e human be+ ^: mom5ts h pass$ ) w+$ spe$1 ^: day has be5 %ort1 ^: ye> is gone almo/ z soon z x seem$ comm5c$1 has d]iv$ f ! ex]cise ( 8 intellectual faculties pleasures c\ntless 9 numb] & ine/imable 9 value4 ,b ! sympa!tic pleasures1 out ( :i* gr[ ! social1 are ( a /ill high] ord] ev5 ?an ! intellectual4 ,! pleasures t result f ! action ( ! organic organs1 f ! ex]cise ( ! sev]al s5ses1 & f ! op]ation ( ! intellectual faculties1 l ! s5sations 9 :i* !y arise1 belong exclusively to ! individual be+ t exp]i5ces !m1 & _c be communicat$ to ano!r4 ,simil> s5sations & pleasures may be felt by be+s simil>ly con/itut$2 b ! actual s5sations & pleasures af=d$ by ! ex]cise ( a p]son's own organs & faculties are no m capable ( becom+ ano!r's ?an 8 exi/5ce4 ,^!1 !n1 are /rictly ! selfi% pleasures2 & ! provision t has be5 made = secur+ !m has be5 %[n4 ,b !re are pleasures ( ano!r class1 pleasures hav+ no relation :atev] to a p]son's own s5sation or happ9ess2 pleasures spr++ f ! p]ception ( ! enjoym5t ( o!rs4 ,! sight ( pleasure n its own affects ! human he>t1 provid$ its /ate ( feel+ be natural & s\nd1 j z x w\ld be affect$ 7 x its own4 ,n m real is ! pleasure aris+ f ! gratification ( appetite1 ! ex]cise ( s5se1 & ! op]ation ( intellect1 ?an t aris+ f ! consci\sness t ano!r s5ti5t be+ is happy4 ,pleasures ( ?is class are call$ sympa!tic1 9 contradi/9ction to ^? ( ! =m] class1 :i* are t]m$ selfi%4 ,!re are !n two pr9ciples 9 cont9ual op]ation 9 ! human be+1 ! selfi% & ! sympa!tic4 ,! selfi% is productive ( pleasure ( a c]ta9 k9d2 ! sympa!tic is productive ( pleasure ( ano!r k9d4 ,! selfi% is prim>y & ess5tial2 ! sympa!tic1 aris+ out ( ! selfi%1 is sup]add$ to x4 ,& s precisely :at ! animal life is to ! organic1 ! sympa!tic pr9ciple is to ! selfi%2 & j :at ! organic life ga9s by its union ) ! animal1 ! m5tal con/itution ga9s by ! addition ( ! sympa!tic to ! selfi% affection4 ,! analogy betwe5 ! comb9ation 9 bo? cases is 9 e respect complete4 ,z ! organic life produces & su/a9s ! animal1 s ! sympa!tic pr9ciple is produc$ & su/a9$ by ! selfi%4 ,z ! organic life is cons]vative ( ! entire organization ( ! body1 s ! selfi% pr9ciple is cons]vative ( ! entire be+4 ,z ! animal life is sup]add$ to ! organic1 ext5d+1 exalt+1 & p]fect+ x1 s ! sympa!tic pr9ciple is sup]add$ to ! selfi%1 equally ext5d+1 exalt+1 & p]fect+ x4 ,! animal life is nobl] ?an ! organic1 :5ce ! organic is subs]vi5t to ! animal2 b !re is n only no opposition1 ho/ility1 or antagonism betwe5 !m1 b ! /ricte/ possible connexion1 dep5d5ce1 & subs]vi5ce4 ,! sympa!tic pr9ciple is nobl] ?an ! selfi%1 :5ce ! selfi% is subs]vi5t to ! sympa!tic2 b !re is n only no opposition1 ho/ility1 or antagonism betwe5 !m1 b ! /ricte/ possible connexion1 dep5d5ce1 & subs]vi5ce4 ,:atev] is conducive to ! p]fection ( ! organic1 is equally conducive to ! p]fection ( ! animal life2 & :atev] is conducive to ! atta9m5t ( ! true end ( ! selfi% is equally conducive to ! atta9m5t ( ! true end ( ! sympa!tic pr9ciple4 ,! p]fection ( ! animal life _c be promot$ at ! exp5se ( ! organic1 nor t ( ! organic at ! exp5se ( ! animal2 nei!r c ! ultimate end ( ! selfi% pr9ciple be secur$ by ! sacrifice ( ! sympa!tic1 nor t ( ! sympa!tic by ! sacrifice ( ! selfi%4 ,any attempt to exalt ! animal life beyond :at is compatible ) ! heal?y /ate ( ! organic1 in/ead ( accompli%+ t end1 only produces bodily disease4 ,any attempt to ext5d ! selfi% pr9ciple beyond :at is compatible ) ! p]fection ( ! sympa!tic1 or ! sympa!tic beyond :at is compatible ) ! p]fection ( ! selfi%1 in/ead ( accompli%+ ! end 9 view1 only produces m5tal disease4 ,oppos+ & j>r+ actions1 antagoniz+ & mutually de/ructive p[]s1 are comb9$ 9 no o!r "w ( nature2 & x w\ld be wond]ful inde$ 7 ! only in/ance ( x f\nd 9 man1 ! noble/ ( h] works1 & 9 ! m9d ( man1 ! noble/ "p ( h] noble/ "w4 ,no "o supposes t !re is any su* inh>moni\s comb9ation 9 ! organization ( 8 physical frame1 & ! notion t x exi/s 9 8 m5tal con/itution1 z x is f\nd$ 9 ! grosse/ ignorance1 s x is productive ( incalculable mis*ief4 ,9 bo?1 inde$1 are manife/ two great p[]s1 ea* di/9ct2 ea* hav+ its own peculi> op]ation2 & ! "o be+ subs]vi5t to ! o!r1 b bo? conduc+ alike to "o common end4 ,by ! addition ( ! app>atus ( ! animal to t ( ! organic life1 a nobl] /ructure is built up ?an c\ld h be5 fram$ by ! organic alone3 by ! addition ( ! sympa!tic to ! selfi% "p ( ! m5tal con/itution1 a happi] be+ is =m$ ?an c\ld h be5 produc$ by ! selfi% alone4 ,& z ! organic might h exi/$ )\t ! animal life1 b by ! addition ( ! animal a new & sup]ior be+ is =m$1 s might ! selfi% "p ( ! m5tal con/itution1 & ! pleasures t fl[ f x1 h exi/$ alone2 b by ! addition ( ! sympa!tic1 a sum is add$ to enjoym5t1 ( ! am\nt ( :i* "s conception may be =m$ by consid]+ :at human life w\ld be1 ) e selfi% appetite & faculty gratifi$ 9 ! fulle/ conceivable degree1 b )\t any admixture :atev] ( sympa!tic or social pleasure4 ,selfi% enjoym5t is n common4 ,if any "o set himself to exam9e :at at fir/ view might seem a purely selfi% pleasure1 he w soon be s5sible t1 ( ! elem5ts compos+ any giv5 /ate ( m9d to :i* he w\ld be will+ to affix ! t]m pleasurable1 a va/ prepond]ance consi/s ( sympa!tic associations4 ,! m accurately he exam9e1 & ! f>!r he c>ry 8 analysis1 ! /rong] w become 8 conviction1 t a purely selfi% enjoym5t1 t is1 a truly pleasurable /ate ( m9d1 9 no degree1 m$iately or imm$iately1 connect$ ) ! pleasurable /ate ( ano!r m9d1 is exce$+ly r>e4 ,b if ! con/itution ( human nature & ! /ructure ( human society alike r5d] x difficult = ! human he>t to be affect$ ) a pleasure 9 no degree d]iv$ f--absolutely & totally unconnect$ ) sympa!tic association1 ( t complex pleasure :i* arises out ( social int]c\rse1 p>tly selfi% & p>tly sympa!tic1 h[ f> sweet] ! sympa!tic ?an ! selfi% "p2 & z ! sympa!tic prepond]ates ov] ! selfi%1 h[ va/ ! increase ( ! pleasure6 ,& :5 matur$1 exalt$ into affection--affection1 t holy emotion :i* ex]ts a trans=m+ influ5ce ov] ! selfi% "p ( human nature1 turn+ x into ! sympa!tic2 affection1 :i* r5d]s ! happ9ess ( ! belov$ object inexpressibly de>] to ! he>t ?an its own2 affection1 among ! b5ignant feel+s ( :i* z !re is none sweet] s !re is none /rong] ?an t ( self-devotion1 nay1 sometimes ev5 ( self-sacrifice2 affection1 :i* is sympa?y pure1 conc5trat$1 int5se--,oh h[ beautiful is ! con/itution ( ?is "p ( our nature1 by :i* ! mo/ transport+ pleasures ! he>t receives are ! direct reflection ( ^? x gives6 ,nor ought x to be ov]look$1 t1 :ile ne>ly all ! selfi%1 l all ! s5sual pleasures1 _c be increas$ beyond a fix$ limit1 _c be protract$ beyond a giv5 "t1 are %ort-liv$ 9 proportion z !y are int5se1 & satiate ! appetite !y gratify1 ! sympa!tic pleasures are capable ( indef9ite augm5tation2 are absolutely inexhau/ible2 no limit c be set to _! numb]1 & no b\nd to _! gr[?2 !y excite ! appetite !y gratify2 !y multiply ) & by p>ticipation1 & ! m is tak5 f ! f\nta9 f :i* !y fl[1 ! deep]1 ! broad]1 & ! full] ! f\nta9 itself becomes4 ,b n only is ! m5tal /ate ( affection 9 all its =ms & degrees highly pleasurable1 b ! v consci\sness ( be+ ! object ( affection is ano!r pleasure p]fectly di/9ct f t aris+ imm$iately f ! affection itself4 ,x has be5 said ( *>ity1 t x is twice bless$1 t x blesses alike him t gives & him t receives2 b love has 9 x a ?reefold bless+3 fir/1 9 ! m5tal /ate itself2 secondly1 9 ! l m5tal /ate :i* ! manife/ation ( x produces 9 ano!r2 & ?irdly1 9 ! m5tal /ate insep>able f ! consci\sness ( be+ ! object ( affection4 ,& ?is reflex happ9ess1 ?is happ9ess aris+ f ! consci\sness ( be+ ! object1 is ev5 sweet] ?an any connect$ ) be+ ! subject ( affection4 ,9 l mann] !re is pleasure 9 ! p]=mance ( b5efic5t actions2 9 en]getic1 con/ant1 & !re=e ultimately successful ex]tions to advance ! great int]e/s ( human k9d1 9 art1 9 sci5ce1 9 philosophy1 9 education1 9 morals1 9 legislation1 9 gov]nm5t2 :e!r ^? ex]tions are put =? 9 ! /udy1 ! s*ool1 ! s5ate1 or any less obs]v$ ?\gh p]haps n less ardu\s nor less important field ( lab\r4 ,ex]tions ( ?is k9d beget 9 ^? = :om1 t[>ds ^? by :om1 !y are made1 b5ignant feel+s--respect1 v5]ation1 gratitude1 love4 ,) su* feel+s ! philosoph]1 ! in/ructor1 ! legislator1 ! /atesman1 ! philan?ropi/1 kn[s t he is1 or t1 soon] or lat]1 he w be reg>d$ by 8 fell[ m52 & 9 ?is consci\sness !re is happ9ess3 b ?is is ano!r s\rce ( happ9ess p]fectly di/9ct f t aris+ f ! p]=mance ( b5efic5t actions2 x is a new happ9ess sup]add$ to ! =m]1 &1 if possible1 /ill m exquisite4 ,?us manifold is ! b5efic5t op]ation ( ! sympa!tic affection3 ?us admirable is ! provision made 9 ! con/itution ( our nature = ! excitem5t & ext5sion ( ?is affection1 &1 ?r\gh its in/rum5tality1 = ! multiplication & exaltation ( enjoym5t6 ,9 affections & actions ( ! class j ref]r$ to1 & 9 ! pleasures t result f !m1 !re is mu* ( ! nature :i* is commonly t]m$ moral4 ,& ! p[] to :i* ! moral affections & actions are ref]r$ is usually & ju/ly consid]$ z ! supreme faculty ( ! m9d2 = x is ! regulator & guide ( all ! o!rs2 x is t by :i* !y atta9 _! prop] & ultimate object4 ,( :atev] pleasure human nature is capable 9 s5sation1 9 idea1 9 appetite1 9 passion1 9 emotion1 9 affection1 9 action2 :atev] is productive ( real pleasure1 9 contradi/9ction to :at only *eats ) ! false hope ( pleasure2 :atev] is productive ( pure pleasure1 9 contradi/9ction to :at is productive p>tly ( pleasure & p>tly ( pa91 & consequ5tly productive n ( pure1 b ( mix$ pleasure2 :atev] is productive ( a great degree ( pleasure 9 contradi/9ction to :at is productive ( a small degree ( pleasure2 :atev] is productive ( la/+ pleasure1 9 contradi/9ction to :at is productive ( tempor>y pleasure2 :atev] is productive ( ultimate pleasure1 9 contradi/9ction to :at is productive ( imm$iate pleasure1 b ultimate pa92 ?is greate/ & mo/ p]fect pleasure x is ! "p ( ! moral faculty to discov]4 ,9 ! degree 9 :i* ! op]ation ( ?is faculty is correct & complete1 x enables ! human be+ to d]ive f e faculty ( 8 nature ! greate/1 ! pure/1 ! mo/ endur+ pleasure2 t is1 ! maximum ( felicity4 ,?is is ! prop] scope & aim ( ! moral faculty2 to ?is its "r ex]cise is uni=mly conducive2 & ?is1 z x is bett] cultivat$ & direct$1 x w accompli% 9 a high] degree1 9 a cont9ual progression1 to :i* no limit c be assign$4 ,b if ! op]ation ( ?is faculty be to r5d] e o!r 9 ! highe/ degree conducive to happ9ess1 con=mity to ! c\rse ( conduct requir$ by x1 mu/ ( c\rse be t highe/ happ9ess4 ,con=mity to ! c\rse ( conduct po9t$ out by ! moral faculty z conducive 9 ! highe/ degree to happ9ess is moral excell5ce1 or1 9 ! def9ite & exact s5se ( ! ^w1 virtue4 ,& 9 ?is s5se x is t virtue is happ9ess4 ,x is because x discrim9ates ! true s\rces ( happ9ess1 t is1 directs e o!r faculty into its prop] c\rse1 & guides x 9 t c\rse to ! atta9m5t ( its ultimate object1 t ! moral faculty is rank$ z ! highe/ faculty ( ! m9d4 ,suppos+ ! op]ation ( ?is faculty to be p]fect1 x is b an id5tical expression to say1 t to foll[ its guidance implicitly is to foll[ ! road t leads to ! mo/ p]fect happ9ess4 ,b1 ov] & above ! happ9ess ?us directly & necess>ily result+ f yield+ uni=m & implicit ob$i5ce to ! moral faculty1 !re is1 9 ! v consci\sness ( su* con=mity1 a new happ9ess1 z pure z x is exalt$4 ,?us1 9 a tw(old mann]1 is ! moral ! highe/ faculty ( ! m9d1 ! s\rce ( its highe/ happ9ess2 & ?us manife/ x is1 f e view t c be tak5 ( ! con/itution ( human nature1 t e faculty ) :i* x is end[$1 f ! highe/ to ! l[e/1 n only af=ds its own prop] & peculi> pleasure1 b t ea*1 z x successively rises 9 ! scale1 is proportionately ! s\rce ( a nobl] k9d1 & a l>g] am\nt ( enjoym5t4 ,& ! pleasure af=d$ by ! v>i\s faculties ) :i* ! human be+ is end[$ is ! imm$iate & direct result ( _! ex]cise4 ,) ! exception ( ! organic organs1 & ! reason = ! exception 9 reg>d to !m has be5 assign$1 ! action ( ! organs is directly pleasurable4 ,f ! ex]cise ( ! organs ( s5se1 f ! op]ation ( ! intellectual faculties1 f appetite1 passion1 & affection1 pleasure fl[s z directly z ! object = :i* ! in/rum5t is expressly fram$4 ,& pleasure is ! ord9>y result ( ! action ( ! organs2 pa9 is sometimes ! result1 b x is ! extraord9>y n ! ord9>y result4 ,:atev] may be ! degree ( pa9 occasionally produc$1 or h[ev] protract$ its duration1 yet x is nev] ! natural1 t is1 ! usual or p]man5t /ate1 ei!r ( a s+le organ1 or ( an app>atus1 or ( ! sy/em4 ,! usual1 ! p]man5t1 ! natural condition ( ea* organ1 & ( ! entire sy/em1 is pleasurable4 ,ab/ract+1 !re=e1 f ! aggregate am\nt ( pleasure1 ! aggregate am\nt ( pa91 ! balance 9 fav\r ( pleasure is imm5se4 ,?is is true ( ! ord9>y exp]i5ce ( ord9>y m51 ev5 tak+ _! physical & m5tal /ates su* z !y are at pres5t2 b ! ord9>y physical & m5tal /ates1 consid]$ z s\rces ( pleasure ( e human be+1 might be prodigi\sly improv$2 & "s attempt w be made1 9 a subsequ5t "p ( ?is "w1 to %[ 9 :at mann] & to :at ext5t4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t !re are cases 9 :i* pleasure is manife/ly giv5 = its own sake2 9 :i* x is re/$ 9 z an ultimate object3 b ! conv]se is nev] f\nd3 9 no case is ! excitem5t ( pa9 gratuit\s4 ,among all ! examples ( secretion1 !re is no in/ance ( a fluid1 ! object ( :i* is to irritate & inflame3 among all ! actions ( ! economy1 !re is none1 ! object ( :i* is ! production ( pa94 ,moreov]1 all su* action ( ! organs1 z is productive ( pleasure1 is conducive to _! complete developm5t1 & consequ5tly to ! increase ( _! capacity = produc+ pleasure2 :ile all su* action ( ! organs z is productive ( pa9 is prev5tive ( _! complete developm5t1 & consequ5tly dim9i%es _! capacity = produc+ pa94 ,! natural t5d5cy ( pleasure is to its own augm5tation & p]petuity4 ,pa91 on ! contr>y1 is self-de/ructive4 ,special provision is made 9 ! economy1 = prev5t+ pa9 f pass+ beyond a c]ta9 limit1 & f endur+ beyond a c]ta9 "t4 ,pa91 :5 x rea*es a c]ta9 int5sity1 dead5s ! s5sibility ( ! s5ti5t n]ve2 & :5 x la/s beyond a c]ta9 "t1 x excites new actions 9 ! organ affect$1 by :i* ! organ is ei!r re/or$ to a s\nd /ate1 or s *ang$ 9 /ructure t its function is :olly aboli%$4 ,b *ange ( /ructure & abolition ( function1 if ext5sive & p]man5t1 are incompatible ) ! cont9uance ( life4 ,if1 !n1 ! actions ( ! economy1 excit$ by pa91 fail to put an end to suff]+ by re/or+ ! diseas$ organ to a heal?y /ate1 !y succe$ 9 putt+ an end to x by t]m9at+ life4 ,pa91 !re=e1 _c be s sev]e & la/+ z mat]ially to prepond]ate ov] pleasure1 )\t soon prov+ de/ructive to life4 ,b ! v rev]se is ! case ) pleasure4 ,all su* action ( ! organs z is productive ( pleasure is conducive to ! p]petuation ( life4 ,!re is a close connexion betwe5 happ9ess & longevity4 ,enjoym5t is n only ! end ( life1 b x is ! only condition ( life :i* is compatible ) a protract$ t]m ( exi/5ce4 ,! happi] a human be+ is1 ! long] he lives2 ! m he suff]s1 ! soon] he dies2 to add to enjoym5t1 is to l5g!n life2 to inflict pa91 is to %ort5 ! duration ( exi/5ce4 ,z !re is a po9t ( wret*$ness beyond :i* life is n desirable1 s !re is a po9t beyond :i* x is n ma9ta9able4 ,! man :o has rea*$ an advanc$ age _c h be51 ^u ! :ole1 an unhappy be+2 = ! infirmity & suff]+ :i* embitt] life cut x %ort4 ,e docum5t by :i* ! rate ( mortality among l>ge numb]s ( human be+s c be correctly asc]ta9$ conta9s 9 x irresi/ible evid5ce ( ?is tru?4 ,9 e c\ntry1 ! av]age duration ( life1 :e!r = ! :ole p or = p>ticul> classes1 is inv>iably 9 ! direct ratio ( _! means ( felicity2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! numb] ( ye>s :i* l>ge portions ( ! population survive beyond ! adult age may be tak5 z a c]ta9 te/ ( ! happ9ess ( ! community4 ,h[ cle> mu/ h be5 ! p]ception ( ?is 9 ! m9d ( ! ,jewi% legislator :5 he made ! promise1 ,,t ,,?y ,,days ,,may ,,be ,,long ,,9 ,,! ,,l& ,,:i* ,,! ,,"l ,,?y ,,god ,,ha? ,,giv5 ,,!e--! sanction ( e religi\s obs]vance1 & ! motive to e moral duty6 ,deeply !n are laid ! f\nta9s ( happ9ess 9 ! con/itution ( human nature4 ,!y spr+ f ! dep?s ( man's physical organization2 & f ! wid] range ( 8 m5tal con/itution !y fl[ 9 /reams magnific5t & glori\s4 ,x is conceivable t f ! fir/ to ! la/ mom5t ( 8 exi/5ce1 e human be+ might dr9k ( !m to ! full ext5t ( 8 capacity4 ,:y does he n8 ,! answ] w be f\nd 9 t to ! foll[+ "q4 ,:at mu/ happ5 be=e ?is be possible8 ,! atta9m5t ( cle> & j conceptions on subjects1 9 relation to :i* ! k hi!rto acquir$ by ! mo/ enlight5$ m5 is imp]fect4 ,physical nature1 e dep>tm5t ( x1 at lea/1 :i* is capable ( influ5c+ human exi/5ce & human s5sation2 human nature1 bo? ! physical & ! m5tal "p ( x2 in/itutions s adapt$ to t nature z to be capable ( secur+ to e individual1 & to ! :ole community1 ! maximum ( happ9ess ) ! m9imum ( suff]+--?is mu/ be kn[n4 ,b k ( ?is k9d is ( sl[ gr[?4 ,to expect ! possession ( x on ! "p ( any man 9 su* a /age ( civilization z ! pres5t1 is to suppose a ph5om5on to :i* !re is no?+ analog\s 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d4 ,! human m9d is equally incapable ( mak+ a viol5t discov]y 9 any dep>tm5t ( k1 & ( tak+ a viol5t b\nd 9 any pa? ( improvem5t4 ,:at we call discov]ies & improvem5ts are cle>1 decid$1 b = ! mo/ "p g5tle1 /eps 9 advancem5t ( ! actual & imm$iately-prec$+ /ate ( k4 ,! human m9d unravels ! great *a9 ( k1 l9k by l9k2 :5 x is no long] able to trace ! connect+ l9k1 x is at a /&2 ! discov]]1 9 common ) 8 contempor>ies1 see+ ! la/ asc]ta9$ l9k1 & f t l$ on by analogies :i* are n p]ceiv$ by1 or :i* d n impress1 o!rs1 at l5g? descries ! next 9 succession2 ?is br+s into view new analogies1 & s prep>es ! way = ! disc]nm5t ( ano!r l9k2 ?is aga9 elicits o!r analogies :i* lead to ! detection ( o!r l9ks1 & s ! *a9 is l5g!n$4 ,& no l9k1 once made out1 is lo/4 ,*emi/s tell u t ! adju/m5t ( ! compon5t elem5ts ( wat] is su*1 t al?\gh !y readily admit ( sep>ation & are subs]vi5t to _! mo/ important uses 9 ! economy ( nature by ?is v facility ( decomposition1 yet t _! t5d5cy to recomb9ation is equal1 s t ! quantity ( wat] actually exi/+ at ?is pres5t mom5t 9 ! globe is j ! same z on ! fir/ day ( ! creation1 nei!r ! op]ations ( nature1 nor ! purposes to :i* x has be5 appli$ by man1 hav+ us$ up1 9 ! s5se ( de/roy+1 a s+le p>ticle ( x4 ,alike inde/ructible are ! sep>ate tru?s t make up ! great mass ( human k4 ,9 _! ready divisibility & _! manifold applications1 "s ( !m may sometimes seem to be lo/2 b if !y disappe>1 x is only to ent] into new comb9ations1 _m ( :i* !mselves become new tru?s1 & s ultimately ext5d ! b\nd>ies ( k4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! case 9 "t pa/1 :5 ! loss ( an important tru?1 satisfactorily & practically e/abli%$1 may be suppos$ possible1 su* an ev5t is inconceivable n[ :5 ! art ( pr9t+ at once multiplies a ?\s& records ( x1 &1 ) a/oni%+ rapidity1 makes x "p & p>cel ( hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( m9ds4 ,a ?\ght m full ( enc\ragem5t to ^? :o lab\r = ! improvem5t ( _! fell[ be+s !re _c be4 ,no onw>d /ep is lo/2 no onw>d /ep is f9al2 e su* /ep facilitates & secures ano!r4 ,! savage /ate1 t /ate 9 :i* gross selfi%ness seeks its object simply & directly by viol5ce1 is pa/4 ,! semi-savage or b>b>\s /ate1 9 :i* ! grossness ( ! selfi%ness is some:at abat$1 & ! viol5ce by :i* x seeks its object 9 "s degree mitigat$1 by ! high] faculties & ! g5tl] affections ( our nature1 b 9 :i* w> /ill pr$om9ates1 is also pa/4 ,to ?is has succe$$ ! /ate 9 :i* we are at pres5t1 ! s-call$ civiliz$ /ate--a /ate 9 :i* ! selfi% pr9ciple /ill pr$om9ates1 9 :i* ! ju/ifiabl5ess ( seek+ ! accompli%m5t ( selfi% purposes by means ( viol5ce1 t ( w> among ! re/1 is /ill recogniz$1 b 9 :i* viol5ce is n ! ord9>y in/rum5t employ$ by selfi%ness1 its ends be+ commonly accompli%$ by ! m sil5t1 /eady1 & p]man5t op]ation ( in/itutions4 ,?is /ate1 l ! prec$+1 w pass away4 ,h[ soon1 9 :at precise mode1 by :at imm$iate ag5cy1 none c tell4 ,b we are already 9 possession ( ! pr9ciple :i* w de/roy ! pres5t & introduce a bett] social condition1 namely1 ! pr9ciple at ! basis ( ! social union1 ,,! ,,maximum ,,( ,,! ,,aggregate ,,( ,,happ9ess2 ,,! ,,maximum ,,( ,,! ,,aggregate ,,( ,,happ9ess ,,s\ght ,,by ,,! ,,promotion ,,( ,,! ,,maximum ,,( ,,individual ,,happ9ess6 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,relation betwe5 ! physical condition & happ9ess1 & betwe5 happ9ess & longevity--,longevity a good1 & :y--,epo*s ( life--,! age ( maturity ! only "o t admits ( ext5sion--,pro( ( ?is f physiology--,pro( f /ati/ics--,explanation ( t]ms--,life a fluctuat+ quantity--,am\nt ( x possess$ 9 anci5t ,rome3 9 mod]n ,europe3 at pres5t 9 ,engl& among ! mass ( ! p & among ! high] classes4 ,life dep5ds on ! action ( ! organic organs4 ,! action ( ! organic organs dep5ds on c]ta9 physical ag5ts4 ,z ea* organic organ is duly suppli$ ) ! physical ag5t by :i* x c>ries on its respective process1 & z x duly appropriates :at x receives1 ! p]fection ( ! physical condition is atta9$2 &1 accord+ to ! p]fection or imp]fection ( ! physical condition1 suppos+ no accid5t int]rupt its regul> c\rse1 is ! l5g? or ! brevity ( life4 ,x is conceivable t ! physical condition might be br\ght to a high degree ( p]fection1 ! m9d rema9+ 9 a /ate b little fitt$ = enjoym5t2 because x is necess>y to enjoym5t t !re be a c]ta9 developm5t1 occupation1 & direction ( ! m5tal p[]s & affections3 & ! m5tal /ate may be neglect$1 :ile att5tion is paid to ! physical processes4 ,b ! conv]se is n possible4 ,! m5tal en]gies _c be fully call$ =? :ile ! physical condition is neglect$4 ,happ9ess presupposes a c]ta9 degree ( excell5ce 9 ! physical condition2 & unless ! physical condition be br\ght to a high degree ( excell5ce1 !re c be no su* developm5t1 occupation1 & direction ( ! m5tal p[]s & affections z is requisite to a high degree ( enjoym5t4 ,t /ate ( ! sy/em 9 :i* ! physical condition is s\nd is 9 itself conducive to enjoym5t2 :ile a p]man5t /ate ( enjoym5t is 9 its turn conducive to ! s\ndness ( ! physical condition4 ,x is impossible to ma9ta9 ! physical processes 9 a natural & vigor\s condition if ! m9d be 9 a /ate ( suff]+4 ,! bills ( mortality conta9 no column exhibit+ ! numb] ( p]sons :o p]i% annually f bodily disease1 produc$ by m5tal suff]+2 b e "o mu/ occasionally h se5 appall+ examples ( ! fact4 ,e "o mu/ h obs]v$ ! alt]$ appe>ance ( p]sons :o h su/a9$ calamity4 ,a mis=tune1 t /ruck to ! he>t1 happ5$ to a p]son a ye> ago2 obs]ve him "s "t aft]w>ds2 he is wa/$1 worn1 ! mis]able %ad[ ( himself2 inquire ab\t him at ! di/ance ( a few mon?s1 he is no m4 ,x is /at$ by ,m4 ,vill]m1 t ! ord9>y rate ( mortality 9 ! prisons ( ,france1 tak+ all toge!r1 is "o 9 tw5ty-?ree--a rate :i* corresponds to ! age ( sixty-five 9 ! common c\rse ( life4 ,b 9 ! va/ majority ( cases ! un=tunate victims ( ! law are no old] ?an f tw5ty-five to =ty-five ye>s ( age4 ,tak+ !m at ! mean age ( ?irty-five1 x foll[s t ! suff]+ f imprisonm5t1 & f ! causes t lead to x1 is equival5t to ?irty ye>s we> & te> ( life4 ,b ?is is n all2 = x is f\nd t1 dur+ imprisonm5t1 ! ord9>y *ances ( dea? are exactly quadrupl$4 ,9 reg>d to ! :ole population ( a c\ntry1 indig5ce may be assum$ to be a fair measure ( unhapp9ess1 & weal? ( happ9ess4 ,if ! rate ( mortality 9 ! indig5t class be comp>$ ) t ( ! weal?y1 accord+ to ,m4 ,vill]m1 x w be f\nd 9 "s cases to be j d\ble4 ,?us x is affirm$ t1 9 "s cases 9 ,france1 tak+ equal numb]s1 :]e !re are "o hundr$ dea?s 9 a poor arrondissem5t1 !re are only fifty 9 a ri*2 & t tak+ toge!r ! :ole ( ! ,fr5* population1 human life is protract$ twelve ye>s & a half among ! weal?y beyond its duration among ! poor3 consequ5tly1 9 ! "o class1 a *ild1 newly born1 has a probability ( liv+ =ty-two & a half ye>s2 9 ! o!r only ?irty ye>s4 ,9 ! great life-insurance e/abli%m5ts 9 ,engl&1 a va/ proportion ( ! p]sons :o insure _! lives are p]sons compell$ to d s by _! cr$itors2 :ile ?ree-f\r?s ( ^? :o volunt>ily insure _! lives are pr(essional m51 liv+ 9 great t[ns1 & exp]i5c+ ! anxieties & fatigues1 ! hopes & disappo9tm5ts ( pr(essional life4 ,9 "o ( ^! e/abli%m5ts 9 ,london1 out ( #ccj dea?s t happ5$ 9 tw5ty-six ye>s prec$+ ! ye> #ahca1 x 0 f\nd t elev5 di$ by suicide1 be+ "o 9 ?irty1 imply+ ! exi/5ce ( an appall+ am\nt ( m5tal suff]+4 ,! numb] ( p]sons belong+ to an insurance (fice :o p]i% by suicide is sure to be accurately kn[n1 dea? by suicide r5d]+ ! policy void4 ,x w\ld be mo/ errone\s to suppose t ^! p]sons put an end to _! exi/5ce "u ! m]e influ5ce ( ! m5tal /ates ( disappo9tm5t & despond5cy4 ,! m9d react$ ^u ! body3 produc$ physical disease1 probably inflammation ( ! bra91 & "u ! excitem5t ( ?is physical disease1 ! acts ( suicide 7 committ$4 ,m ?an "o case has come to my k 9 :i* inflammation ( ! bra9 hav+ be5 excit$ by m5tal suff]+1 suicide 0 committ$ by cutt+ ! ?roat4 ,dur+ ! fl[ ( blood1 :i* 0 gradual1 ! bra9 0 reliev$2 ! m9d became p]fectly rational2 & ! pati5t might h be5 sav$ _h a surgeon be5 ^u ! spot1 or _h ! p]sons ab\t ! pati5t kn[n :]e & h[ to apply ! pressure ( ! f+] to /aun* ! fl[ ( blood1 until surgical aid c\ld be procur$4 ,by a c]ta9 am\nt & int5sity ( mis]y life may be sudd5ly de/roy$2 by a small] am\nt & int5sity1 x may be sl[ly worn out & exhau/$4 ,! /ate ( ! m9d affects ! physical condition2 b ! cont9uance ( life is :olly dep5d5t on ! physical condition3 x foll[s t 9 ! degree 9 :i* ! /ate ( ! m9d is capable ( affect+ ! physical condition1 x is capable ( influ5c+ ! duration ( life4 ,7 ! physical condition always p]fect1 & ! m5tal /ate always t ( enjoym5t1 ! duration ( life w\ld always be ext5d$ to ! utmo/ limit compatible ) t ( ! organization ( ! body4 ,b z ?is =tunate concurr5ce seldom or nev] happ5s1 human life seldom or nev] numb]s ! full measure ( its days4 ,uni=m exp]i5ce %[s1 h[ev]1 t1 provid$ no accid5t occur to int]rupt ! usual c\rse1 9 proportion z body & m9d approximate to ?is /ate1 life is long2 & z !y rec$e f x1 x is %ort4 ,improvem5t ( ! physical condition af=ds a f\ndation = ! improvem5t ( ! m5tal /ate2 improvem5t ( ! m5tal /ate improves up to a c]ta9 po9t ! physical condition2 & 9 ! ratio 9 :i* ?is tw(old improvem5t is effect$1 ! duration ( life increases4 ,longevity !n is a good1 9 ! fir/ place1 because x is a sign & a consequ5ce ( ! possession ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( enjoym5t2 & 9 ! second place1 because ?is be+ ! case1 ( c\rse 9 proportion z ! t]m ( life is ext5d$1 ! sum ( enjoym5t mu/ be augm5t$4 ,& ?is view ( longevity assigns ! cause1 & %[s ! reasonabl5ess ( t desire = long life :i* is s univ]sal & con/ant z to be commonly consid]$ in/9ctive4 ,longevity & happ9ess1 if n inv>iably1 are g5]ally1 co-incid5t4 ,if !re may be happ9ess )\t longevity1 ! conv]se is n possible3 !re _c be longevity )\t happ9ess4 ,unless ! /ate ( ! body be t ( tol]able heal?1 & ! /ate ( ! m9d t ( tol]able enjoym5t1 long life is unatta9able3 ^! physical & m5tal conditions no long] exi/+1 nor capable ( exi/+1 ! desire ( life & ! p[] ( reta9+ x cease toge!r4 ,an advanc$ t]m ( life & decrepitude are commonly conceiv$ to be synonym\s3 ! ext5sion ( life is vulg>ly suppos$ to be ! protraction ( ! p]iod ( infirmity & suff]+1 t p]iod :i* is *>act]iz$ by a progressive dim9ution ( ! p[] ( s5sation1 & a consequ5t & proportionate loss ( ! p[] ( enjoym5t1 ! sans tee?1 sans eyes1 sans ta/e1 sans e ?+4 ,b ?is is s f> f be+ true1 t x is n )9 ! compass ( human p[] to protract 9 any s5sible degree ! p]iod ( old age prop]ly s call$1 t is1 ! /age ( decrepitude4 ,9 ?is /age ( exi/5ce1 ! physical *anges t successively take place clog1 day by day1 ! vital ma*9]y1 until x c no long] play4 ,9 a space ( "t1 fix$ )9 n>r[ limits1 ! flame ( life mu/ !n inevitably expire1 = ! processes t fe$ x fail4 ,b ?\gh1 :5 fully come1 ! t]m ( old age _c be ext5d$1 ! com+ ( ! t]m may be po/pon$4 ,to ! prec$+ /age1 an indef9ite numb] ( ye>s may be add$4 ,& ?is is a fact ( ! deepe/ int]e/ to human nature4 ,! division ( human life into p]iods or epo*s is n an arbitr>y di/9ction1 b is f\nd$ on con/itutional diff]5ces 9 ! sy/em1 dep5d5t on diff]5t physiological conditions4 ,! p]iods ( infancy1 *ildhood1 boyhood1 adolesc5ce1 manhood1 & old age1 are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ext]nal *>act]s1 :i* are b ! outw>d signs ( int]nal /ates4 ,9 physiological condition1 ! infant diff]s f ! *ild1 ! *ild f ! boy1 ! boy f ! man1 & ! adult f ! old man1 z mu* 9 physical /r5g? z 9 m5tal p[]4 ,!re is an appo9t$ ord] 9 :i* ^! sev]al /ates succe$ ea* o!r2 !re is a fix$ "t at :i* "o passes into ano!r4 ,t ord] _c be inv]t$3 no consid]able anticipation or po/ponem5t ( t fix$ "t c be effect$4 ,9 all places & "u all circum/ances1 at a giv5 "t1 ?\gh n precisely at ! same "t 9 all climates & "u all modes ( life1 infancy passes into *ildhood1 *ildhood into boyhood1 boyhood into adolesc5ce1 & adolesc5ce into manhood4 ,9 ! space ( two ye>s f its bir?1 e infant has ceas$ to be an infant1 & has become a *ild2 9 ! space ( six ye>s f ?is p]iod1 e male *ild w h become a boy2 add eight ye>s to ?is "t1 & e boy w h become a "y man2 9 eight ye>s m1 e "y man w h become an adult man2 & 9 ! subsequ5t t5 ye>s1 e adult man w h acquir$ 8 highe/ /ate ( physical p]fection4 ,b at :at p]iod w ?is /ate ( physical p]fection decl9e8 ,:at is ! maximum "t dur+ :i* x c reta9 its full vig\r8 ,is t maximum fix$8 ,is !re a c]ta9 numb] ( ye>s 9 :i*1 by an inevitable law1 e adult man necess>ily becomes an old man8 ,is precisely ! same numb] ( ye>s appo9t$ = ?is transition to e human be+8 ,c no c>e add to t numb]8 ,c no imprud5ce take f x8 ,does ! physiological condition or ! con/itutional age ( any two individuals ev] advance to precisely ! same po9t 9 precisely ! same numb] ( ye>s8 ,physically & m5tally1 are n "s p]sons old] at fifty ?an o!rs are at sev5ty8 ,& d n in/ances occasionally occur 9 :i* an old man1 :o rea*es ev5 8 hundr$? ye>1 reta9s z great a degree ( juv5ility z ! majority ( ^? :o atta9 to eighty8 ,if ?is be s1 :at foll[s8 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ consequ5ces t c be pres5t$ to ! human m9d4 ,! duration ( ! p]iods ( infancy1 *ildhood1 boyhood1 & adolesc5ce1 is fix$ by a det]m9ate numb] ( ye>s4 ,no?+ c /ay1 no?+ ret>d1 ! succession ( ea*4 ,alike incapable ( any mat]ial protraction is ! p]iod ( old age4 ,x foll[s t e ye> by :i* ! t]m ( human exi/5ce is ext5d$ is really add$ to ! p]iod ( mature age2 ! p]iod :5 ! organs ( ! body h atta9$ _! full gr[? & put =? _! full /r5g?2 :5 ! physical organization has acquir$ its utmo/ p]fection2 :5 ! s5ses1 ! feel+s1 ! emotions1 ! passions1 ! affections1 are 9 ! highe/ degree acute1 int5se1 & v>i$2 :5 ! intellectual faculties1 completely unfold$ & develop$1 c>ry on _! op]ations ) ! greate/ vig\r1 s\ndness1 & cont9uity2 9 a ^w1 :5 ! individual is capable ( receiv+ & ( communicat+ ! l>ge/ am\nt ( ! highe/ k9d ( enjoym5t4 ,a consid]ation m full ( enc\ragem5t1 m animat+1 !re _c be4 ,! ext5sion ( human life1 9 :atev] mode & degree x may be possible to ext5d x1 is ! protraction ( t portion ( x1 & only ( t portion ( x1 9 :i* ! human be+ is capable ( ,,receiv+ ,,& ,,( ,,communicat+ ,,! ,,l>ge/ ,,measure ,,( ,,! ,,noble/ ,,k9d ,,( ,,enjoym5t4 ,consid]ations1 purely physiological1 e/abli% ?is indubitably2 b x is curi\s t a class ( facts1 totally diff]5t f ^? ( a physiological nature1 equally prove x2 namely1 ! results obta9$ f ! obs]vation ( ! actual numb]s t die at diff]5t ages1 & ! k consequ5tly acquir$ ( ! progressive decrem5t ( life4 ,mortality is subject to a law1 ! op]ation ( :i* is z regul> z t ( gravitation4 ,! lab\rs ( my valu$ fri5d ,mr4 ,f9laison1 ! actu>y ( ! ,national ,debt1 h n only det]m9$ :at t law is 9 relation to diff]5t nations at diff]5t p]iods ( _! hi/ory1 b ?is celebrat$ calculator has also inv5t$ a /rik+ mode ( express+ & repres5t+ ! fact4 ,he con/ruct$ a *>t on :i* #ajj p]p5dicul> l9es1 answ]+ to ! respective ages ( human life1 are laid d[n & numb]$ 9 succession4 ,^! are cross$ at "r angles by #ejj horizontal l9es2 s t1 9 ! mann] ( musical notation1 a po9t may be laid d[n ei!r on ! horizontal l9e1 or on ! space betwe5 any two ( !m3 & ?us1 #ajjj po9ts may be laid d[n on ea* ( ! p]p5dicul> l9es4 ,! horizontal l9es are 9 l mann] numb]$ f #a to #ajjj1 asc5d+ f ! base4 ,tak+ any obs]vation :i* %[s ! numb] ( liv+ p]sons t comm5ce1 & 9 l mann] ! numb] t die 9 ea* p>ticul> ye> ( human life1 ! calculator r$uc$ by ! rule ( ?ree e su* actual numb] ( liv+ p]sons = e sep>ate ye> to #aj1jjj3 he next %[$ ! correspond+ proportion ( dea?s out ( su* #aj1jjj4 ,^! proportions he repres5t$ on ! *>t by a po9t ins]t$ on ! horizontal l9e or space = ! numb] ( dea?s1 & on ! p]p5dicul> l9e = ! p>ticul> age4 ,he !n connect$ all ! po9ts s laid d[n1 & ! result is a curve1 repres5t+ ! track ( dea? ?r\gh an equal numb] ( human be+s exi/+ at ea* age ( life4 ,z ! curve rises on ! p]p5dicul> l9e1 at any giv5 age1 x indicates by s mu* an increase ( ! mortality at t age2 & z ! curve falls1 ! rev]se is d5ot$4 ,n[1 x is a highly int]e/+ fact1 t ! curves on ?is *>t drawn ^u x be=e ! physiological ph5om5a 7 kn[n to ! op]ator1 plac$ !re because su* he f\nd to be ! actual pa? along :i* dea? m>%als 8 c\rse1 exactly correspond to ! epo*s :i* physiology tea*es to be det]m9ate /ages ( human exi/5ce4 ,! infant1 ! *ild1 ! boy1 ! adolesc5t1 ! man1 ! old man1 are n expos$ to ! same dang]4 ,! liability ( ea* to dea? is n m]ely diff]5t2 x is widely diff]5t2 ! liability ( ea* class is uni=mly ! same1 ! circum/ances influ5c+ life rema9+ ! same2 & "u no kn[n *ange ( circum/ances does ! relative liability ( ! class v>y2 "u no *ange does ! liability ( ! adolesc5t become t ( ! infant1 or ! liability ( ! adult t ( ! ag$4 ,take f any /ati/ical docum5t any numb] ( p]sons2 obs]ve out ( ?is numb] ! proportion t dies at ! diff]5t /ages j enum]at$2 & ! p]iod ( human life :i* admits ( ext5sion w be /rik+ly manife/4 ,take ) ?is view ! ,prussian /ati/ical tables1 ! g5]al correctness ( :i* is admitt$4 ,f ^! tables x appe>s1 & ! correctness ( ! result is confirm$ by a multitude ( o!r tables1 t out ( a million liv+ male bir?s1 !re w die 9 ! fir/ ye> ( life #ahj1dib infants1 & out ( ! l numb] ( liv+ female bir?s1 !re w die #aed1gje infants4 ,let u foll[ up ! decrem5t ( life ?r\gh ! diff]5t epo*s ( human exi/5ce1 conf9+ our obs]vations to ! male sex1 9 :i* ! developm5t is m emphatically m>k$4 ,9 ,mr4 ,f9laison's report1 pr9t$ by ! ,h\se ( ,commons on ! #cj? ( ,m>*1 #ahbi1 !re are six orig9al obs]vations on ! mortality ( z _m sep>ate sets ( annuitants ( ! male sex4 ,f an exam9ation & comp>ison ( ^! obs]vations1 x appe>s--#a/4 ,t ! rate ( mortality falls to a m9imum at ! close ( ! p]iod ( *ildhood4 #b;d4 ,t f ?is po9t ! mortality rises until ! t]m9ation ( adolesc5ce or ! comm5cem5t ( adult age4 #c;d4 ,t f ! comm5cem5t ( adult age ! mortality aga9 decl9es1 & cont9ues to decl9e to ! p]iod ( p]fect maturity4 ,& #d?4 ,t f ! p]iod ( p]fect maturity1 ! mortality rises1 & uni=mly1 )\t a s+le exception1 returns1 at ! age ( =ty-eight1 to ! po9t at :i* x /ood at ! t]m9ation ( adolesc5ce4 ,^! results cle>ly indicate t c]ta9 fix$ p]iods are m>k$ by nature z epo*s ( human life2 & t at ! date ( ! record$ facts :i* furni% ! data = ^! obs]vations1 & z f> z reg>ds ! class ( p]sons to :i* !y relate1 ! age ( =ty-eight 0 ! exact po9t at :i* ! m]idian ( life 0 j pass$1 & a new epo* began4 ,! foll[+ table exhibits at "o view ! exact results ( ea* ( ! obs]vations4 ,= example1 ,accord+ to ,! mortality ,f :5ce ,f ?is ,& f ?is ! is at a x rises po9t x age x aga9 obs]vation1 m9imum at ! until decl9es rises1 b is n ,no4 age ( ! age ( to ! equal to ! age ( mortality 9 ! #b;d column until ! age ( #ae -- #ac -- #bc -- #cd -- #dh #af -- #ac -- #bc -- #ce -- #dh #ag -- #ad -- #bb -- #cc -- #dh #ah -- #ac -- #bc -- #cc -- #dh #ai -- #ac -- #bd -- #cd -- #dh #bj -- #ac -- #bd -- #cd -- #dh ,! obs]vation1 ,no4 #ae1 is f\nd$ on ! l>ge mass ( #i1cdg lives & #d1hgj dea?s4 ,f ?is obs]vation1 x appe>s t1 at ! age ( ?irte51 ! mortality out ( a million is #e1gdb1 be+ #agd1gej less ?an 9 ! fir/ ye> ( infancy ,at ! age ( tw5ty-?ree1 x is #ae1jgd1 be+ #i1ccb m ?an at ! close ( *ildhood4 ,at ! age ( ?irty-f\r1 ! p]iod ( complete manhood1 x falls to #aa1gjg1 be+ #c1cfg less ?an at ! close ( adolesc5ce4 ,at ! age ( =ty-eight1 ! mortality returns to #ad1hgj1 all b id5tically ! same z at tw5ty-?ree1 ! adult age4 ,f ! age ( =ty-eight1 :51 z has be5 /at$1 life j beg9s to decl9e f its m]idian1 ! mortality advances sl[ly1 b 9 a /eady & regul> progression4 ,?us1 at ! age ( fifty-eight x is #bi1ahe1 be+ #ad1cae m ?an at ! prec$+ decade1 or almo/ exactly d\ble4 ,at ! age ( sixty-eight1 x is #fa1gda1 be+ #cb1eef m ?an at ! prec$+ decade1 or m ?an d\ble4 ,at ! age ( sev5ty-eight1 x is #aad1bee1 be+ #eb1ead m ?an at ! prec$+ decade4 ,at ! age ( eighty-eight1 x is #bdf1hjc1 be+ #acb1edh m ?an at ! prec$+ decade4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( infancy1 z has be5 %[n1 ! mortality out ( a million is #ahj1dib4 ,at ! extreme age ( eighty-f\r1 x is #agh1acj1 v ne>ly ! same z 9 ! fir/ ye> ( infancy4 ,greatly z ! mortality ( all ! o!r epo*s ( life is affect$ by c\ntry1 by /ation1 by a multitude ( influ5ces aris+ out ( ^! & simil> circum/ances2 yet ! concurr5t evid5ce ( all obs]vation %[s t at ?is & ! l advanc$ ages ! mean t]m ( exi/5ce is ne>ly ! same 9 all c\ntries1 at all p]iods1 & among all classes ( society4 ,?us1 among ! nobility & g5try ( ,engl&1 ! expectation ( life at eighty-f\r is f\r ye>s2 among ! poor fi%]m5 ( ,o/5d1 x is precisely ! same4 ,m4 ,de ,p>cieux1 :o wrote j n9ety ye>s ago1 e/abli%es ! expectation ( life at t "t 9 ,france1 at ! same age1 to h be5 ?ree & a half ye>s2 & ,halley1 :o wrote #abj ye>s ago1 & ^: obs]vations are d]iv$ f docum5ts :i* g back to ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 /ates ! expectation ( life at eighty-f\r to be two ye>s & n9e mon?s4 ,f ^! /atem5ts1 !n1 x is obvi\s1 t f ! t]m9ation ( infancy at ?ree ye>s ( age1 a decade ( ye>s br+s *ildhood to a close1 dur+ :i* ! mortality1 /eadily decreas+1 comes to its m9imum4 ,ano!r decade t]m9ates ! p]iod ( adolesc5ce1 dur+ :i* ! mortality z /eadily advances4 ,a ?ird decade *anges ! "y adult into a p]fect man1 & dur+ ?is p]iod1 ! gold5 decade ( human life1 ! mortality aga9 dim9i%es2 :ile1 dur+ ano!r decade & a half1 ! mortality sl[ly rises1 & returns at ! close ( ! p]iod to ! precise po9t at :i* x /ood at adult age4 ,?us ! int]val betwe5 ! p]iod ( bir? & t ( adult age includes a t]m ( tw5ty-?ree ye>s4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! p]iod ( adult age & t :5 life j beg9s to decl9e f its m]idian1 includes a t]m ( tw5ty-f\r ye>s3 consequ5tly1 a p]iod m ?an equal to all ! o!r epo*s ( life f bir? to adult age is enjoy$1 dur+ :i* mortality makes no advance :atev]4 ,n[ ! t]m ( ye>s includ$ 9 ! sev]al epo*s t int]v5e betwe5 bir? & adult age is rigidly fix$4 ,?us ! p]iod ( infancy includes precisely ?ree ye>s1 t ( *ildhood t5 ye>s1 & t ( adolesc5ce t5 ye>s4 ,)9 ! space ( "t compreh5d$ 9 ^! int]vals1 physiological *anges take place1 on :i* dep5d e ?+ t is peculi> to ! epo*s4 ,^! *anges _c be anticipat$1 _c be ret>d$1 except 9 a v slight degree4 ,9 all c\ntries1 among all classes1 !y take place 9 ! same ord] & ne>ly 9 ! same space ( "t4 ,9 l mann]1 9 extreme old age1 or ! age ( decrepitude1 :i* may be safely assum$ to comm5ce at ! p]iod :5 ! mortality equals t ( ! fir/ ye> ( infancy1 namely1 ! age ( eighty-f\r1 physiological *anges take place1 :i*1 )9 a giv5 space ( "t1 inevitably br+ life to a close4 ,t space ( "t1 9 all c\ntries1 9 all ranks1 9 all ages1 or r z f> back z any records enable u to trace ! facts1 appe>s to be ! same4 ,z )9 a giv5 "t ! boy mu/ rip5 into manhood1 s )9 a giv5 "t ! man ( extreme old age mu/ be ! victim ( dea?4 ,consequ5tly1 x is ! int]val betwe5 ! adult age & ! age ( decrepitude1 & only ?is1 t is capable ( ext5sion4 ,dur+ ! int]val betwe5 adult age & ! p]fect m]idian ( life1 compreh5d+ at pres5t1 z we h se51 a p]iod ( tw5ty-f\r ye>s1 ! con/itution rema9s /ation>y1 mortality mak+ no s5sible inroad ^u x4 ,b !re is no kn[n reason :y ?is /ation>y or mature p]iod ( life %\ld1 l ! det]m9ate epo*s1 be limit$ to a fix$ t]m ( ye>s4 ,on ! contr>y1 we d 9 fact "k t x is n fix$2 = we "k t ! physiological *anges on :i* age dep5ds are1 9 "s cases1 greatly anticipat$1 & 9 o!rs1 proportionately po/pon$2 s t "s p]sons are y\ng] at sixty1 & ev5 at sev5ty1 ?an o!rs are at fifty2 :]eas1 an analog\s anticipation or po/ponem5t ( ! o!r epo*s ( life is nev] witness$4 ,s complete is ! pro(1 t ! ext5sion ( human life c consi/ 9 ! protraction nei!r ( ! p]iod ( juv5ility1 nor 9 t ( s5ility1 b only 9 t ( maturity4 ,7 x necess>y to adduce fur!r evid5ce ( ?is mo/ int]e/+ fact1 x w\ld be f\nd equally 9 ! /ati/ics ( disease z 9 ^? ( mortality4 ,inde$1 ! evid5ce d]iv$ f bo? ^! s\rces mu/ be analog\s1 because mortality is inv>iably proportionate to ! causes ( mortality1 ( :i* causes1 sickness1 9 all its =ms1 may be tak5 z ! g5]al or collective expression4 ,we d n possess ! same means ( illu/rat+ ! preval5ce ( disease ?r\gh all ! epo*s ( life z we d ( %[+ ! int5sity ( mortality2 yet ! report ( ,mr4 ,f9laison1 already ref]r$ to1 enables u to %[ its comp>ative preval5ce at sev]al ( ^? /ages4 ,?us1 f ?is docum5t1 x appe>s1 t among ! indu/ri\s poor ( ,london1 memb]s ( b5efit societies1 out ( a million ( males1 ! proportion con/antly sick at ! age ( tw5ty-?ree1 is #ai1daj2 at ! age ( tw5ty-eight1 x is #ai1fgj2 at ! age ( ?irty-?ree1 x is #ai1djj2 at ! age ( ?irty-eight1 x is #bc1hgj2 at ! age ( =ty-?ree1 x is #bf1bfj2 at ! age ( =ty-eight1 x is #bf1adj2 at ! age ( fifty-?ree1 x is #bg1jfj2 at ! age ( fifty-eight1 x is #cf1ihj2 at ! age ( sixty-?ree1 x is #eg1jjj2 at ! age ( sixty-eight1 x is #ajh1jdj2 at ! age ( sev5ty-?ree & upw>ds1 x is #cag1bcj4 ,! preval5ce ( sickness is n an exact & inv>iable measure ( ! int5sity ( mortality2 b !re is a close connexion betwe5 !m1 z is manife/ f ! progressively increas+ am\nt ( sickness1 z age advances4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ t5 ye>s f ! age ( tw5ty-?ree to t ( ?irty-?ree1 !re is no increase ( sickness1 its preval5ce is all b id5tically ! same2 9 ! next t5 ye>s f ! age ( ?irty-?ree to t ( =ty-?ree1 ! increase ( sickness1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! prec$+ decade1 is #f1hfj2 9 ! next t5 ye>s f ! age ( =ty-?ree to t ( fifty-?ree1 ! increase is only #hjj2 9 ! next t5 ye>s f ! age ( fifty-?ree to t ( sixty-?ree1 ! increase is #bi1idj1 :ile f ! age ( sixty-?ree to sev5ty-?ree1 x is #bfj1bcj4 ,su* are ! results d]iv$ f ! exp]i5ce ( disease consid]$ 9 ! aggregate1 all its v>i$ =ms tak5 toge!r4 ,i am enabl$ fur!r to pres5t an exact & mo/ in/ructive pro(1 t "o p>ticul> disease :i*1 9 ?is po9t ( view1 may be consid]$ z m important ?an any o!r1 because x is ! gr& ag5t ( dea?1 namely fev]1 c>ries on its ravages 9 a ratio :i* /eadily & uni=mly increases z ! age ( its victim advances4 ,hav+ submitt$ ! exp]i5ce ( ! ,london ,fev] ,hospital = ! t5 ye>s prec$+ ,janu>y #ahcd1 an obs]vation includ+ ne>ly #f1jjj pati5ts affect$ ) ?is malady1 to ,mr4 ,f9laison1 x 0 subject$ by him to calculation4 ,among o!r curi\s & in/ructive results to be /at$ h]eaft]1 x 0 f\nd t ! mortality ( fev] resolves itself into ! foll[+ rem>kable progression4 ,?us suppose #ajj1jjj pati5ts to be attack$ ) ?is disease betwe5 ! ages ( #e & #af1 ( ^! !re w\ld die - #h1bff & ( an equal numb] betwe5 #ae & #bf !re w\ld die #aa1did #be & #cf #ag1jga #ce & #df #ba1ifj #de & #ef #cj1dic #ee & #ff #dj1gjh #fe & upw>ds #dd1fdc ,?us ! risk ( life f ?is malady is twice z great at ! age ( ?irty-"o z x is at elev54 ,x is also ne>ly twice z great at =ty-"o z x is at tw5ty-"o4 ,x is five times z great at sixty-"o z x is at elev51 & ne>ly f\r times z great above sixty-five z x is at tw5ty-"o4 ,f ! :ole ( ! =ego+ /atem5ts1 x is manife/ t life is a fluctuat+ quantity4 ,9 ord] to comp>e ?is fluctuat+ quantity "u diff]5t circum/ances1 writ]s on ?is bran* ( /ati/ics use sev]al t]ms1 ! exact mean+ ( :i* x is desirable to expla94 ,x is1 = example1 v important to h a cle> und]/&+ ( :at is meant by su* expressions z ! foll[+3 ! expectation1 ! probability1 ! value1 ! decrem5t ( life1 & ! law ( mortality4 #a4 ,,! ,,expectation ,,( ,,life4 ,x is important to be> 9 m9d t sev]al expressions 9 common use h a signification p]fectly synonym\s ) ?is3 namely1 %>e ( exi/5ce2 mean duration ( life2 la vie moy5ne4 ,by ^! t]ms is express$ ! total numb] ( ye>s1 includ+ also ! fractional p>ts ( a ye>1 ord9>ily atta9$ by human be+s f & aft] any giv5 age4 ,suppose1 = example1 t "o ?\s& p]sons ent] on ! eighty-six? ye> ( _! age3 suppose ! numb] ( ye>s & days :i* ea* "o ( !m lives aft]w>ds be obs]v$ & record$2 suppose ! numb] ultimately atta9$ by ea* be =m$ into a sum total2 suppose ?is total be divid$ equally among ! ?\s&1 ! quoti5t ( ?is division is said to be ea* "o's %>e ( exi/5ce1 or 8 mean duration ( life1 or 8 expectation ( life4 ,?us1 ( ! ?\s& p]sons 9 ! pres5t case suppos$ to comm5ce ! age ( eighty-five1 suppose ! numb] ( ye>s !y collectively atta9 am\nt to #c1ejj ye>s3 ! "o-?\s&? "p ( #c1ejj is ?ree & a half3 ?ree ye>s & a half !n is said to be ! expectation ( life at ! age ( eighty-five1 because1 ( all ! p]sons orig9ally />t+1 ?is is ! equal %>e ( exi/5ce t falls to ! lot ( ea*4 #b4 ,,probability ,,( ,,life2 or ! probable duration ( life1 la vie probable4 ,^! are synonym\s t]ms1 9 use *iefly among cont95tal writ]s z an expression ( ! comp>ative duration ( life4 ,! tabul> me?ods ( sett+ =? ! duration ( life consi/1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 assum+ t #aj1jjj infants are born2 & t at ! age ( "o1 two1 ?ree1 & ea* successive ye> ( life1 !re are s _m /ill rema9+ 9 exi/5ce4 ,fix on any age2 obs]ve :at numb] rema9 alive to comm5ce t age2 note at :at age ?is numb] decreases to "o-half2 ! age at :i* !y s come to "o-half is call$ ! probable t]m ( life2 because1 say ! cont95tal writ]s1 x is an equal wag] :e!r a p]son %all or %all n be alive at t p]iod4 ,?us1 suppose "o ?\s& males comm5ce toge!r ! age ( eighty-f\r2 suppose ! table indicate t !re w be alive at ! age ( eighty-five1 #hag2 at ! age ( eighty-six1 #fdh2 at ! age ( eighty-sev51 #dic2 at ! age ( eighty-eight1 #ceg1 & s on4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 ! probable duration ( life at eighty-f\r is said to be v ne>ly ?ree ye>s1 because1 at ! age ( eighty-sev5 !re are left alive #dic1 v ne>ly "o-half ( ! ?\s& t orig9ally />t$ toge!r4 #c4 ,,value ,,( ,,life4 ,?is t]m1 :5 us$ accurately1 expresses ! duration ( life z measur$ by "o or o!r ( ! me?ods already exp\nd$4 ,b x is sometimes popul>ly us$ 9 a loose & s+ul>ly inaccurate s5se4 ,?us x is v commonly said--,su* a man's life is n wor? t5 ye>s' pur*ase1 :i* is ! same ?+ z to say1 t an annuity1 suppose a hundr$ p\nds a ye>1 payable dur+ ! life ( ! p]son 9 "q1 is n wor? t5 times its magnitude1 t is "o ?\s& p\nds4 ,if a ?\s& p\nds be put into a bank at "s rate ( int]e/ to be agre$ ^u1 & if a hundr$ p\nds be drawn e ye> f ! /ock1 ! expression "u consid]ation affirms t ! p]son 9 "q w be dead be=e ! pr9cipal & int]e/ are exhau/$4 ,= in/ance1 at f\r p] c5t41 ! value ( an annuity ( "o hundr$ p\nds to a man ( ! age ( tw5ty-five is #afidl41 :i* is #af-i_/aj ye>s' pur*ase2 :]eas1 8 expectation ( life at t age is #ce-i_/aj ye>s4 #d4 ,,law ,,( ,,mortality4 ,by ?is t]m is express$ ! proportion out ( any det]m9ate numb] ( human be+s :o ent] on a giv5 ye> ( age1 t w die 9 t ye>4 ,e obs]vation on ! duration ( life pres5ts c]ta9 numb]s1 :i*1 by record$ facts1 are f\nd to pass ?r\gh ea* ye> ( age1 & also %[s h[ _m h di$ or fail$ to pass ?r\gh e ye> ( age4 ,^? numb]s1 by ! rule ( ?ree1 are conv]t$ into ! proportions :o w\ld die at ea* age out ( "o million ( p]sons1 if su* a numb] _h comm5c$ x4 ,suppose1 !n1 a million ( p]sons to be 9 exi/5ce at ! fir/ ye> ( age2 suppose a million to be 9 exi/5ce at ! second ye> ( age2 suppose a million to be 9 exi/5ce at ! ?ird ye> ( age2 & 9 ?is mann] suppose an equal numb] to be 9 exi/5ce at ! comm5cem5t ( ea* & e ye> to ! extreme t]m ( human life4 ,n[1 ! proportions t by actual obs]vation are f\nd to die at ea* & e ye> out ( ! million t 7 alive at ! comm5cem5t ( x1 =m sep>ately ! law ( mortality = ea* ye>1 & collectively = ! :ole ( life4 #e4 ,,decrem5t ,,( ,,life4 ,assum+1 z be=e1 t a million ( male *ildr5 are born alive 7= ! /ill-born mu/ be exclud$ f ! calculation7 if x be f\nd t #ahj1dib w\ld die 9 ! fir/ ye>1 x foll[s t ! diff]5ce1 namely1 #hai1ejh1 w ent] ^u ! age ( "o ye>4 ,suppose ! law ( mortality indicate t ! proportion t w die1 out ( a million1 betwe5 ! age ( "o & two1 is #cj1jjj2 x is pla9 t ! numb] :o w\ld die out ( #hai1ejh w by ! rule ( ?ree be #bg1hfc1 & consequ5tly t ! residue1 namely1 #gia1fae1 w rema9 alive1 & s ent] on ! age ( two ye>s4 ,?is me?od be+ pursu$ ?r\gh ea* & e age to ! extreme t]m ( life1 :5 none ( ! orig9al million survive1 ! result is a table ( mortality 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is commonly pres5t$ 9 ! works ( writ]s on ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! table ?us con/ruct$ !re is a column conta9+ ! numb] ( liv+ p]sons :o1 out ( ! orig9al million1 liv$ to ent] ^u ea* & e ye>4 ,( ?is rank ( numb]s ! diff]5ce betwe5 ea* t]m & its next succe$+ "o1 is ! numb] :o die 9 t p>ticul> int]val3 t numb] is ! measure ( :at is te*nically call$ ! decrem5t ( life = t p>ticul> ye>1 & ! :ole ( ! decrem5ts = ea* & e ye> tak5 collectively is t]m$ ! decrem5t ( life4 ,! decrem5t ( life1 !n1 is n only n ! same z ! law ( mortality1 b is c>efully to be di/+ui%$ f x4 ,! law ( mortality is d]iv$ f obs]v+ ! numb] :o die out ( "o & ! same numb] :i* is always suppos$ to ent] on ea* & e ye>4 ,! decrem5t ( life con/itutes a rank ( numb]s aris+ out ( ! successive dea?s2 t is1 out ( ! orig9al million 9 ! fir/ ye>2 out ( ! survivors ( t million 9 ! second ye>2 out ( ! survivors ( ^? survivors 9 ! ?ird ye>1 & s on4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! numb] ( ! liv+ is always ! same2 ! numb] t die is ! v>iable quantity3 9 ! second case ! numb] ( ! liv+ is ! v>iable quantity1 :ile ! numb] t die may rema9 pretty mu* ! same = a succession ( ye>s2 & on ca/+ ! eye on ! tables con/ruct$ 9 ! ord9>y mode1 x w be se5 t ! numb] (t5 does rema9 ! same = a consid]able s]ies ( ye>s4 ,we h said t life is a fluctuat+ quantity4 ,x fluctuates 9 diff]5t c\ntries at ! same p]iod2 9 ! same c\ntry at diff]5t p]iods2 9 ! same c\ntry1 at ! same p]iod1 9 diff]5t places2 9 ! same c\ntry1 at ! same p]iod1 9 ! same place1 among diff]5t classes2 9 ! same c\ntry1 at ! same p]iod1 9 ! same place1 among ! same class1 at ! diff]5t det]m9ate /ages ( life4 ,"s few ( ^! fluctuations1 & m especially ! la/1 dep5d on ! prim>y con/itution ( ! organization 9 :i* life itself has its seat1 ov] :i* man has little or no control4 ,! great] "p ( !m dep5d on ext]nal & adv5titi\s ag5cies ov] :i* man has complete control4 ,human ignorance1 apa?y1 & indol5ce1 may r5d] ! duration ( life1 9 reg>d to l>ge classes & entire c\ntries1 %ort2 human k1 en]gy & p]sev]ance1 may ext5d ! duration ( life f> beyond :at is commonly imag9$4 ,x w be int]e/+ & in/ructive to select a few ( ! m /rik+ examples ( ?is f ! records we possess1 few & imp]fect z !y are1 9 relation to ?is subject4 ,( ! duration ( life 9 ! e>li] p]iods ( ! hi/ory ( ! human race we "k no?+ ) exactness1 ?\gh !re are incid5tal /atem5ts :i* af=d ! means ( d$uc+ ) "s probability ! rate ( mortality 9 p>ticul> situations4 ,!re has come d[n to u "o docum5t ?r\gh ,domitius ,ulpianus1 a judge1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! reign ( ,alex&] ,sev]us1 :i* enables u to =m a probable conjecture at lea/ ( ! op9ion ( ! ,roman p ( ! value ( life among ! citiz5s ( ,rome 9 t age4 ,x happ5$ at ,rome z 9 o!r c\ntries1 t :5 an e/ate came into ! possession ( an individual x 0 bur!n$ ) a provision = ano!r p]son dur+ ! life ( ! latt]1 a y\ng] bro!r1 = example4 ,?is provision 0 call$ by ! ,romans an alim5t4 ,no e/ate1 bur!n$ ) su* a provision1 c\ld be sold by ! heir 9 possession1 unless ! pur*as] reta9$ 9 8 h&s s mu* ( ! price z 0 deem$ adequate to secure ! regul> & cont9u\s paym5t ( ! alim5t4 ,?is impos$ ^u ! ,romans ! necessity ( consid]+ :at ! t]m ( life w\ld probably be f & aft] any giv5 age4 ,:at !y did conceive t t]m to be is /at$ 9 a docum5t ( ,ulpianus1 record$ by ,ju/9ian1 & giv5 9 ! note bel[4#a ,?is docum5t imports t f infancy up to ! age ( #bj !re %\ld be all[$ #cj ye>s ,f #bj to #be #bh #be to #cj #be #cj to #ce #bb #ce to #dj #bj -------- ,f #ej to #ee #i #ee to #fj #g ,& at all ages above #fj #e ,b betwe5 #dj & #ej1 z _m ye>s 7 to be all[$ z ! age ( ! p>ty fell %ort ( #fj1 d$uct+ "o ye>4 ,no clue has hi!rto be5 obta9$ to ! discov]y ( ! real mean+ ( ?is docum5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 highly probable t ! ,romans _h fall5 on "o ( ! two me?ods ( measur+ ! value ( life already expla9$2 namely1 t t]m$ ! ,probability ( ,life4 ,( ! two modes ( det]m9+ ! value ( life1 ! probability 0 m likely to occur to a ,roman judge ?an ! expectation4 ,he _h no tables1 no regi/]s to guide him4 ,:at c\rse1 !n1 w\ld he be likely to take8 ,probably he w\ld =m a li/ ( 8 own s*ool-fell[s & o!rs )9 8 own k1 ( ! age1 say1 ( tw5ty4 ,by prevail+ on p]sons ( 8 own age1 on ^: correctness he c\ld rely1 to draw out simil> li/s1 he might accumulate "s ?\s& names4 ,9 ?is li/ x is probable t ! male sex alone w\ld be includ$1 on acc\nt ( ! great] ease ( asc]ta9+ bo? _! exact age & ! exact date ( _! dea?4 ,= ! same reason1 x is probable t ! li/ w\ld consi/ only ( ! nobility & ! inhabitants ( t[ns4 ,hav+ ?us complet$ 8 li/1 ! next /ep w\ld be to frame ano!r li/ ( all :o di$ at ! age ( tw5ty-"o2 & next1 ano!r li/ ( all :o di$ at ! age ( tw5ty-two1 & s on ?r\gh ea* & e ye> ( life4 ,n[ by subtract+ ! numb] 9 ! li/1 ,no4 #a1 t is1 ^? :o di$ betwe5 tw5ty & tw5ty-"o1 f ! numb] :o orig9ally />t$ at tw5ty1 :i*1 9 o!r words1 w\ld be to f9d ! decrem5t ( life1 9 ! mode already expla9$1 he w\ld see h[ _m liv$ to comm5ce ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 & s on1 ?r\gh ea* ye> ( life4 ,b ?is w\ld be to con/ruct a table1 %[+ ! probable duration ( life2 t is1 a table f :i* he c\ld obs]ve at :at advanc$ age ! numb] orig9ally />t+ at tw5ty1 & s on1 came to dim9i% to "o-half1 :5 x w\ld naturally occur to him t x is an equal wag] :e!r su* y\ng] life w\ld or w\ld n be 9 exi/5ce at ! advanc$ age s asc]ta9$4 ,if we suppose ?is to h be5 ! me?od actually adopt$ by ! ,roman judge1 & apply x to ! table ( ,ulpianus1 ! result obta9$ is consi/5t 9 an extraord9>y degree1 & is highly int]e/+4 ,!re is reason to believe t ! mortality at pres5t ?r\gh\t ,europe1 tak+ all c\ntries toge!r1 includ+ t[ns & villages1 & comb9+ all classes into "o aggregate1 is "o 9 ?irty-six4 ,sssmil*1 a celebrat$ ,g]man writ]1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 e/imat$ x at ?is av]age at t p]iod4 ,! result ( all ,mr4 ,f9laison's inve/igations is a conviction t ! av]age = ! :ole ( ,europe does n mat]ially diff] at ! pres5t "t4 ,he has asc]ta9$ by an actual obs]vation1 t 9 ! ye> #ahcb x 0 precisely ?is 9 ! t[n ( ,o/5d4 ,tak+ ?is t[n1 !n1 z ! subject ( comp>ison1 x is f\nd t ! probable duration ( life among ! male sex at ,o/5d exce$s ! ,roman all[ance by ! foll[+ numb] ( ye>s2 namely1 ,at ! age ( #ag1 ! excess 9 r\nd numb]s is #e ye>s4 #bb #e #bg #e #cb #e #cg #c #db #c #dg #e #eb #e #eg #d #fb #d #fg #b #gb #a #gg #j ,b x is n improbable t ! ,romans made "s d$uction f :at !y knew to be ! real value ( life among ! citiz5s ( ,rome1 on acc\nt ( ! use ( ! money appropriat$ to ! alim5t1 :i* ! pur*as] ( ! e/ate reta9$ 9 8 own h&s4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! av]age mortality at pres5t at ,o/5d is "o 9 ?irty-six2 :i* is ! same ?+ z to ass]t t a new-born *ild at ,o/5d has an expectation ( ?irty-five & a half ye>s ( life4 ,! ,roman all[ance f bir?1 prim tate1 0 ?irty ye>s4 ,if we suppose ! ,romans d$uct$ f ! real value ( life five & a half ye>s = ! int]e/ ( money1 x w\ld br+ ! ,roman all[ance & ! duration ( life at ,o/5d to ! same4 ,! l d$uction at ! age ( sev5te5 w\ld likewise br+ ! probability ( life 9 bo? cases to ! same4 ,x is n likely t ! ,romans1 )\t any record ( ! individual facts1 & act+ only on a g5]al pr9ciple ( utility1 ! be/ !y c\ld f9d1 w\ld make any v>iation = ! int]m$iate ye>s ( *ildhood & y\?3 consequ5tly ! presumption is1 t ! duration ( life at ,rome1 #acjj ye>s ago1 0 v mu* ! same z x is ?r\gh\t ,europe at ! pres5t day4 ,?is e/imate1 h[ev]1 = ! reasons already assign$1 includes only ! resid5t citiz5s ( ,rome1 ! male sex1 & ! high] classes4 ,:at ! mortality 0 at ,rome among ! l[] class1 includ+ ! slaves--:at x 0 9 ! ,roman prov9ces1 & 9 ! less civiliz$ c\ntries ( t age--we h no means ( =m+ ev5 a conjecture4 ,:at x 0 9 ,europe dur+ ! succe$+ ages ( b>b>ism we d n "k4 ,9 civiliz$ ,rome1 ! value ( life _h probably rea*$ a v high po9t2 9 b>b>ian ,europe we may be sure x fell to an exce$+ly l[ po9t4 ,f t l[ po9t1 9 civiliz$ ,europe1 x has be5 sl[ly b gradually ris+1 until1 9 mod]n times1 ! :ole mass ( ! ,european population has1 to say ! v lea/1 rea*$ ! highe/ po9t atta9$ by ! select class 9 anci5t ,rome4 ,b 9 "s fav\r$ spots 9 ,europe1 ! :ole mass has advanc$ consid]ably beyond ! select class 9 anci5t ,rome4 ,9 ,engl&1 = example1 ! expectation ( life1 at ! pres5t day1 = ! mass ( ! p1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! mass at ,o/5d1 :i*1 z has be5 %[n1 is ! same z t ( ! :ole ( ,europe1 is z foll[s3-- ,at bir? #da ye>s4 ,at #ab #df #ag #da #bb #ch #bg #ce #cb #cb #cg #bh #db #be #dg #bb #eb #ai #eg #af #fb #ac #fg #aj #gb #h #gg #f ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! females ( ! mass exce$ 9 duration ! lives ( ! males at e age by two or ?ree ye>s4 ,! e>lie/ /ati/ical docum5t be>+ on ! rate ( mortality1 9 any ,european nation1 em]g+ f ! /ate ( b>b>ism1 appe>s to be a manuscript ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 relat+ to ! mortality ( ,p>is1 f :i* ,m4 ,vill]m has calculat$ t ! mortality ( ,p>is at t p]iod 0 "o 9 sixte54 ,h[ ! individual facts conta9$ 9 ?is manuscript 7 collect$1 f :i* ,m4 ,vill]m's calculation is made1 does n appe>2 & x makes ! mortality s excessive z to be altoge!r incr$ible4 ,yet a /atem5t sc>cely less extraord9>y is made ) reg>d to ,/ockholm1 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,f a table giv5 by ,dr4 ,price1 vol4 ii41 p4 #daa1 x appe>s t1 = all ,sw$51 betwe5 ! ye>s #agef & #agfc1 ! expectation ( life ,( males at bir?1 0 ,females1 #cc ye>s4 #ce ye>s4 :ile at ! same "t x 0 at ,/ockholm1 ,= males at bir?1 ,females1 #ad ye>s4 #ah ye>s4 ,:]eas1 = ! tw5ty ye>s prec$+ #ahjj1 x 01 = all ,sw$51 at bir?1 ,males1 ,females1 #cd4 #cg4 ,hi!rto1 9 all places :i* man has made 8 abode1 noxi\s ag5ts h be5 pres5t :i* act injuri\sly ^u 8 body1 t5d+ to di/urb ! actions ( its economy1 & ultimately to ext+ui% life4 ,all ^! noxi\s ag5ts1 ( :atev] "n or quality1 may be includ$ "u ! t]m ,causes ( ,mortality4 ,inh]5t 9 ! con/itution ( ! body are cons]vative p[]s1 ! t5d5cy ( :i* is to resi/ ! influ5ce ( ^! causes ( mortality4 ,! actual mortality at all times w ( c\rse be accord+ to ! relative /r5g? ( ^! de/ructive ag5ts1 & ! relative weakness ( ^! cons]vative p[]s4 ,!re are /ates ( ! sy/em t5d+ to enfeeble ^! cons]vative p[]s4 ,su* /ates become te/s1 (t5 exce$+ly delicate1 ( ! pres5ce & p[] ( ! de/ructive ag5ts to :i* ! body is expos$2 & su*1 m especially1 are1 ! /ates ( p>turition1 infancy1 & sickness4 ,dur+ ! preval5ce ( ^! /ates1 9 :i* ! cons]vative p[]s ( ! body are weak1 life is de/roy$ by causes :i* d n prove mortal 9 o!r conditions ( ! sy/em4 ,accord+ly1 9 e age & c\ntry1 ! rate ( mortality among its ly+-9 wom51 its infants & its sick1 may be tak5 z a measure ( ! degree 9 :i* ! /ate ( ! :ole population is fav\rable or unfav\rable to life4 ,! *ange t has tak5 place 9 ! condition ( ly+-9 wom5 dur+ ! la/ c5tury 9 all ! nations ( ,europe _c be contemplat$ )\t a/oni%m5t4 ,! mortality ( ly+-9 wom5 9 ,france1 at ! ,htel ,dieu ( ,p>is1 9 #aghj1 is /at$ to h be5 "o 9 #ae4 ,9 #ahag1 = ! :ole k+dom ( ,prussia1 includ+ all ranks1 x 0 "o 9 #aab4 ,9 ,engl&1 9 ! ye> #agej1 at ! ,briti% ,ly+-9 ,hospital ( ,london1 x 0 "o 9 #db2 9 #aghj1 x dim9i%$ to "o 9 #fj2 9 ! ye>s betwe5 #aghi & #agih1 x fur!r decreas$ to "o 9 #bhh2 9 #ahbb1 at ! ,ly+-9 ,hospital ( ,dubl91 x 0 no m ?an "o 9 #bbc2 :ile dur+ ! la/ fifte5 ye>s at ,lewes1 a heal?y prov9cial t[n1 out ( #bdaj cases !re h be5 only two dea?s1 t is1 "o 9 #abje4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t ! mortality 9 ! /ate ( p>turition is less at ,lewes ?an 9 any o!r equally heal?y c\ntry-t[n 9 ,engl&4 ,equally /rik+ is ! pro( ( ! dim9i%$ viol5ce ( ! preval5t causes ( disease & dea? d]iv$ f ! dim9i%$ mortality ( *ildr51 ! vital p[] ( resi/ance be+ always comp>atively weak 9 ! human infant1 & consequ5tly1 ! ag5ts t prove de/ructive to life ex]t+ _! ma9 =ce on ! new born1 & on ^? ( t5d] age4 ,f mortu>y tables1 pres]v$ ) consid]able accuracy at ,g5eva s9ce ! ye> #aeff1 x appe>s t at ! "t ( ! ,re=mation "o-half ( ! *ildr5 born di$ )9 ! six? ye>2 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 n till )9 ! twelf? ye>2 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 n until ! tw5ty-sev5? ye>2 consequ5tly1 9 ! space ( ab\t ?ree c5turies1 ! probability t a *ild born 9 ,g5eva w\ld arrive at maturity has increas$ fivefold4 ,9 ! pres5t day1 at ,o/5d1 only half ( ! new-born *ildr5 atta9 ! age ( ?irty2 :]eas1 9 ,engl&1 !y atta9 ! age ( =ty-five4 ,no less rem>kable is ! progressive dim9ution ( mortality among ! sick ( all ages4 ,hippocrates has left a /atem5t1 :i* has come d[n to our times1 ( ! hi/ory & fate ( =ty-two cases ( acute disease4 ,out ( ?is numb]1 ?irty-sev5 7 cases ( cont9u$ fev]2 ( ^! ?irty-sev5 febrile cases tw5ty-"o di$1 above half ( ! :ole4 ,! rema9+ five 7 cases ( local inflammation1 & ( ^! f\r 7 fatal2 ?us1 ( ! :ole numb] ( ! sick 7=ty-two71 tw5ty-five 7 lo/4 ,n[1 ev5 9 ! ,fev] ,hospital ( ,london1 to :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 only ! wor/ cases t occur 9 ! metropolis are s5t1 & ev5 ( ^! _m n until s late a p]iod ( ! disease t all hope ( recov]y is ext9ct1 ! mortality ranges 9 diff]5t ye>s f "o 9 six to "o 9 twelve2 & = a p]iod ( t5 consecutive ye>s1 x is no m ?an "o 9 sev52 :ile1 9 ! ,dubl9 ,fev] ,hospital1 :]e mo/ ( ! cases are s5t v e>ly1 ! av]age mortality f #ahjd to #ahab 0 "o 9 twelve4 ,at ! ,imp]ial ,hospital at ,pet]sburg1 ! av]age mortality = f\rte5 ye>s1 end+ 9 #ahag1 0 "o 9 f\r & a half4 ,9 ! ,*>it ( ,b]l91 on an av]age ( tw5ty ye>s1 f #agif to #ahag1 x 0 "o 9 six4 ,at ,dresd51 x 0 "o 9 sev52 at ,muni*1 x 0 "o 9 n9e1 ! l[e/ ( any hospital ( equal size 9 ,g]many4 ,9 ! ye> #afhe1 ! av]age mortality at ,/4 ,b>?olomew's & ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospitals 0 f "o 9 sev5 to "o 9 t54 ,dur+ ! t5 ye>s f #aggc to #aghc1 x decreas$ to "o 9 f\rte54 ,f #ahjc to #ahac1 x 0 "o 9 sixte54 ,! av]age = fifty ye>s f #agfd to #ahac1 0 "o 9 fifte54 ,9 ! small] t[ns1 ! mortality is /ill less4 ,x is less 9 ,ed9burgh & ,dubl9 ?an 9 ,london2 :ile 9 ! hospital at ,ba? dur+ #ahbg1 ev5 among ! physician's pati5ts1 ! mortality 0 only "o 9 tw5ty4 ,9 ! ,g]man prov9cial t[ns1 ! dim9ution is /ill m rem>kable4 ,9 ! hospital at ,gott+51 = example1 x is only "o 9 tw5ty-"o4 ,if ! accuracy ( ^! /atem5ts c\ld be reli$ on1 !y w\ld n only af=d /rik+ illu/rations ( ! well-kn[n fact t extraord9>y diff]5ces prevail 9 ! rate ( mortality 9 diff]5t places1 at diff]5t p]iods1 & "u diff]5t circum/ances2 b !y w\ld fur!r prove t1 dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 a /eady & progressive dim9ution ( mortality has tak5 place 9 all ! c\ntries ( ,europe4 ,b ( ! tru? ( ?is !re is mu* m c]ta9 evid5ce ?an c be d]iv$ f calculations1 ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! data ( :i* is n e/abli%$1 & ! correctness ( ! calculators n kn[n4 ,bo? ! fluctuations ( mortality & ! increase 9 ! value ( life 9 ! diff]5t c\ntries ( ,europe1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod :5 /ati/ical facts began to be collect$ & comp>$1 are exhibit$ 9 a /rik+ po9t ( view 9 ! foll[+ table1 drawn up by ,mr4 ,f9laison4 ,! facts relat+ to select$ lives & to ! mass ( ! p are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 9 ord] t !y may be contra/$4 ,! data are d]iv$ f ! mo/ au!ntic s\rces1 & ! calculations are made by m5 ( ! highe/ au?ority4 ,let x be conceiv$1 t at ea* #ej #ee #fj #fe #gj #ge #hj #he ( ! foll[+ ages1 viz4 ,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4,yrs4 ,! av]age duration ( ,human ,life ( bo? sexes collectively may !nce=w>d be assum$ at a maximum (#b #bc #ai #af #ac #aa #h #f #c ,by h[ _m weeks does ! av]age duration :i* results f ! mo/ au!ntic ,tables at pres5t kn[n fall %ort ( ! maximum ,t]m ?us assum$8 ,among ! high] classes ( p exclusively4 ,answ]4 ,"n ( ! ,obs]v]4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,wks4 ,9 ,engl&-- ,among ! ,gov]nm5t ,annuitants1 betwe5 #agge & #ahbb ,john ,f9laison4 #ce #a #g #aj #dg #aa #ad #ec ,among ! ,lives assur$ at ! ,equitable ,(fice1 betwe5 #agfj & #ahcd ,ar?ur ,morgan4 #aai #hc #hg #ha #if #cc #aj #bg ,among ! ,nom9ees ( ! ,tont9e ( #afic-- betwe5 t ye> & #agge ,john ,f9laison4 #bfi #aie #agj #ada #aeg #aaj #ij #hi ,9 ,france-- ,among ! ,nom9ees ( ! ,tont9e ( #afic-- betwe5 t ye> & #agde ,m4 de ,p>cieux4 #acc #hh #hg #hf #aah #gj #ee #fe ,9 ,holl&-- ,among ! ,public ,annuitants1 betwe5 #afae & #agdj ,m4 ,k]sseboom4 #ahf #aah #ajd #ge #if #fa #dh #hd ,9 reg>d to ! mass ( ! p4 ,9 ,breslau 9 ,silesia1 betwe5 #agjj & #agbe1 ,dr4 ,halley4 #bge #baa #aha #aej #aff #ajj #cf #acg ,9 ,sw$51 betwe5 #agge & #agie1 ,m4 ,nic&]1 & ,mr4 ,milne4 #bjg #afa #afd #adf #aef #id #fj #fj ,9 ,nor?ampton1 9 ,engl&1 betwe5 #agce & #aghj1 ,dr4 ,price4 #bji #agh #ade #aaj #abe #gf #fe #he ,9 ,c>lisle1 9 ,engl&1 betwe5 #aggi & #aghg1 ,dr4 ,hey%am1 & ,mr4 ,milne4 #ih #gd #hf #fc #id #eb #bf #df ,9 all ,engl& & ,wales1 betwe5 #ahaa & #ahca1 ,john ,f9laison4 #ajj #ei #fe #eh #hg #dh #cg #di ,9 ! t[n ( ,o/5d1 9 ,fl&]s1 betwe5 #ahje & #ahcb1 ,john ,f9laison4 #bgf #baj #ahd #adf #adc #gf #ej #ge ,9 all ,belgium1 betwe5 #agbe & #ahcb1 ,m4 ,quetelet4 #ahc #acc #acc #aag #aab #hd #ej #fa ,let u trace f ?is table ! diff]5ces t h tak5 place1 9 diff]5t c\ntries at diff]5t p]iods1 9 ! duration ( life at a giv5 age4 ,let u take ! age giv5 9 ! fir/ column1 namely1 fifty4 ,assum+1 !n1 ! highe/ degree ( longevity hi!rto atta9$ at ! age ( fifty to be tw5ty-?ree ye>s1 x appe>s t1 betwe5 ! ye>s #agjj & #agbe1 ! mass ( ! p 9 ,breslau1 9 ,silesia1 fell %ort ( rea*+ ?is p]iod by #bge weeks2 ! inhabitants ( ! t[n ( ,o/5d 9 ,fl&]s1 betwe5 #ahje & #ahcb1 by #bgf weeks2 ! nom9ees ( ! tont9e ( ,engl&1 betwe5 ! ye>s #afic & #agge1 by #bfi weeks2 ! inhabitants ( ! t[n ( ,nor?ampton 9 ,engl&1 betwe5 #agce & #aghj1 by #bji weeks2 ! mass ( ! p 9 ,sw$51 betwe5 #agge & #agie1 by #bjg weeks2 ! public annuitants ( ,holl&1 betwe5 #afae & #agdj1 by #ahf weeks2 ! inhabitants ( all ,belgium1 betwe5 #agbe & #ahcb1 by #ahc weeks2 ! p]sons assur$ at ! ,equitable ,(fice1 betwe5 #agfj & #ahcd1 by #aai weeks2 ! inhabitants ( all ,engl& & ,wales1 betwe5 #ahaa & #ahca1 by #ajj weeks2 ! ,engli% gov]nm5t annuitants1 betwe5 #agge & #ahcb1 only by #ce weeks4 ,f ^! /atem5ts1 x appe>s t1 t[>ds ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! duration ( life 9 ,engl& 0 consid]ably less ?an 9 ,france3 less ev5 ?an 9 ,holl& ne>ly a c5tury e>li]4 ,?us1 ! nom9ees ( ! tont9e ( ,france1 betwe5 ! ye>s #afic & #agde1 at ! age ( fifty1 accord+ to ,m4 ,de ,p>cieux1 fell %ort ( ! maximum longevity by #acc weeks2 ! public annuitants ( ,holl&1 sev5ty-eight ye>s be=e1 namely1 betwe5 ! ye>s #afae & #agdj1 accord+ to ,m4 ,k]sseboom1 fell %ort ( ! maximum longevity by #ahf weeks2 :]eas1 ! nom9ees ( ! tont9e ( ,engl&1 betwe5 ! ye>s #afic & #agge1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,f9laison1 fell %ort ( x by #bfi weeks2 a diff]5ce ne>ly d\ble t ( ,holl&1 & q d\ble t ( ,france 9 p]sons ( ! correspond+ rank 9 society4 ,s9ce t p]iod1 surpris+ *anges h tak5 place 9 all ! nations ( ,europe2 b 9 none has ! *ange be5 s great z 9 ,engl&4 ,f t p]iod1 :5 its mortality exce$$ t ( any great & prosp]\s ,european c\ntry1 its mortality has be5 /eadily dim9i%+1 & at ! pres5t "t ! value ( life is great] 9 ,engl& ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry 9 ! _w4 ,n only has ! value ( life be5 regul>ly increas+ until x has advanc$ beyond t ( any c\ntry ( :i* !re is any record2 b ! rem>kable fact is e/abli%$1 t ! :ole mass ( its p n[ live consid]ably long] ?an its high] classes did 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies4 ,?us1 by inspect+ ! prec$+ table1 x w be se5 t betwe5 ! ye>s #afic & #agae1 ! nom9ees ( ! tont9e ( ,engl&1 at ! age ( fifty1 fell %ort ( ! maximum longevity by #bfi weeks2 :]eas1 ! mass ( ! p 9 all ,engl& & ,wales1 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahaa & #ahca1 fell %ort ( x only by #ajj weeks2 ! entire mass hav+ n only rea*$ ! select class1 b absolutely advanc$ beyond x by #afi weeks4 ,!re _c be a m int]e/+ & in/ructive ?+ ?an to connect ^! facts ) _! causes4 ,?is w be attempt$ 9 a subsequ5t "p ( ?is "w2 b ! read] w be incomp>ably bett] prep>$ = ! inve/igation :5 ! processes ( life h be5 expla9$1 & ! influ5ce ( physical & moral ag5ts ^u !m trac$4 ,& ) ?is exposition we n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,ultimate elem5ts ( :i* ! body is compos$--,proximate pr9ciples--,fluids & solids--,prim>y tissues--,comb9ations--,results--,organs 1 sy/ems1 app>atus--,=m ( ! body--,division into head1 trunk1 & extremities--,/ructure & function ( ea*--,regions--,seats ( ! m important int]nal organs4 #a4 ,! ultimate elem5ts ( :i* ! human body is compos$ are azote1 oxyg51 & hydrog5 7gase\s fluids72 & c>bon1 phosphorus1 calcium1 sulphur1 sodium1 potassium1 magnesium1 & iron 7solid sub/ances74 ,^! bodies are call$ elem5t>y & ultimate1 because !y are capable ( be+ resolv$ by no kn[n process into m simple sub/ances4 #b4 ,^! elem5t>y bodies unite ) ea* o!r 9 diff]5t proportions1 & ?us =m comp\nd sub/ances4 ,a c]ta9 proportion ( azote unit+ ) a c]ta9 proportion ( oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon1 =ms a comp\nd sub/ance possess+ c]ta9 prop]ties4 ,ano!r proportion ( azote unit+ ) a diff]5t proportion ( oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon1 =ms ano!r comp\nd sub/ance possess+ prop]ties diff]5t f ! =m]4 ,oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon1 unit+ 9 /ill diff]5t proportions )\t any admixture ( azote1 =m a ?ird comp\nd possess+ prop]ties diff]5t f ei!r ( ! prec$+4 ,! comp\nds ?us =m$ by ! prim>y comb9ations ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances ) ea* o!r are call$ ,,proximate ,,pr9ciples4 #c4 ,ea* proximate pr9ciple con/itutes a di/9ct =m ( animal matt]1 ( :i* ! mo/ important are nam$ gelat91 album51 fibr91 oily or fatty matt]1 mucus1 urea1 pi*romel1 osmazome1 res91 & sug>4 #d4 ,by *emical analysis x is asc]ta9$ t all ! proximate pr9ciples ( ! body1 h[ev] !y may diff] f ea* o!r 9 appe>ance & 9 prop]ties1 are compos$ ( ! same ultimate elem5ts4 ,gelat91 = example1 consi/s 79 #ajj p>ts7 ( azote #af-ihh_/ajjj1 oxyg5 #bg-bjg_/ajjj1 hydrog5 #g-iad_/ajjj1 c>bon #dg-hha_/ajjj p>ts4 ,! elem5t>y bodies unit+ 9 ! above proportions =m an animal sub/ance1 s(t1 tremul\s1 solid1 soluble 9 wat]1 especially :5 heat$1 & on cool+1 :i* may be consid]$ z its di/9ctive prop]ty1 sep>at+ f its solution 9 wat] into ! same solid sub/ance1 )\t und]go+ any *ange 9 its *emical con/itution4 #e4 ,aga91 album5 consi/s ( azote #ae-gje_/ajjj1 oxyg5 #bc-hgb_/ajjj1 hydrog5 #g-edj_/ajjj1 c>bon #eb-hhh_/ajjj1 p>ts4 ,! elem5t>y bodies unit+ 9 ^! diff]5t proportions1 !re results a second proximate pr9ciple1 an adhesive fluid1 transp>5t1 de/itute ( smell & ta/e1 miscible 9 wat]1 b :5 subject$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #afe1 conv]t$ into a solid sub/ance no long] capable ( be+ dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,?is conv]sion ( album5 f a fluid1 :i* is its natural /ate1 into a solid1 by ! application ( heat1 is call$ coagulation4 ,x is a process famili> to e "o4 ,! :ite ( egg is ne>ly pure album51 naturally a gl>y & adhesive fluid3 by boil+1 x is coagulat$ into a :ite & firm solid4 #f4 ,9 l mann]1 fibr9 consi/s ( azote #ai-icd_/ajjj1 oxyg5 #ai-fhe_/ajjj1 hydrog5 #g-jba_/ajjj1 c>bon #ec-cfj_/ajjj p>ts1 =m+ a solid sub/ance ( a pale :iti% col\r & firm consi/5ce1 ! peculi> "* ( :i* is its disposition to arrange itself into m9ute ?reads or fibres4 #g4 ,on ! o!r h&1 fat or oil1 :i* is a fluid sub/ance ( a :iti% yell[ col\r1 inodor\s1 ne>ly insipid1 unctu\s1 insoluble 9 wat] & burn+ ) rapidity1 consi/s ( a l>g] proportion ( hydrog51 a small proportion ( oxyg51 & a /ill small] proportion ( c>bon1 )\t any admixture ( azote4 #h4 ,f ?is acc\nt ( ! composition ( ! proximate pr9ciples1 :i* x is n necess>y to ext5d fur!r1 x is manife/ t all ( !m consi/ ( ! same ultimate elem5ts1 & t !y d]ive _! diff]5t prop]ties f ! diff]5t proportions 9 :i* _! elem5ts are comb9$4 #i4 ,! ultimate elem5ts t compose ! body are nev] f\nd 9 a sep>ate or gase\s /ate1 b always 9 comb9ation 9 ! =m ( "o or o!r ( ! proximate pr9ciples4 #aj4 ,9 l mann]1 ! proximate pr9ciples nev] exi/ 9 a di/9ct & pure /ate1 b ea* is comb9$ ) "o or m ( ! o!rs4 ,no "p consi/s :olly ( pure album51 gelat91 or mucus1 b album5 is mix$ ) gelat91 or bo? ) mucus4 #aa4 ,simple or comb9$1 e proximate pr9ciple assumes ! =m ei!r ( a fluid or ( a solid1 & h5ce ! mo/ g5]al & obvi\s division ( ! body is into fluids & solids4 ,b ! t]ms fluid & solid are relative1 n positive2 !y m]ely express ! fact t "s ( ! sub/ances 9 ! body are s(t & liquid comp>$ ) o!rs :i* are fix$ & h>d2 = !re is no fluid1 h[ev] ?91 :i* does n hold 9 solution "s solid matt]1 & no solid1 h[ev] d5se1 :i* does n conta9 "s fluid4 #ab4 ,fluids & solids are ess5tially ! same 9 nature2 !y diff] m]ely 9 _! mode ( aggregation2 h5ce ! easy & rapid transition f ! "o to ! o!r :i* incessantly takes place 9 ! liv+ body1 9 :i* no fluid long rema9s a fluid1 & no solid a solid1 b ! fluid is con/antly pass+ into ! solid & ! solid into ! fluid4 #ac4 ,! relative proportion ( ! fluids 9 ! human body is always mu* great] ?an t ( ! solids2 h5ce its s(t consi/5ce & r\nd$ =m4 ,! excess1 accord+ to ! l[e/ e/imate1 is z #f to #a1 & accord+ to ! highe/1 z #aj to #a4 ,b ! proportion is nev] con/ant2 x v>ies accord+ to age & to ! /ate ( ! heal?4 ,! y\ng] ! age1 ! great] ! prepond]ance ( ! fluids4 ,! human embryo1 :5 fir/ p]ceptible1 is almo/ :olly fluid3 solid sub/ances are gradually b sl[ly sup]add$1 & ev5 aft] bir? ! prepond]ance is /rictly accord+ to age2 = 9 ! infant1 ! fluids ab\nd m ?an 9 ! *ild2 9 ! *ild1 m ?an 9 ! y\?2 9 ! y\?1 m ?an 9 ! adolesc5t2 9 ! adolesc5t1 m ?an 9 ! adult2 & 9 ! adult1 m ?an 9 ! ag$4 ,?us1 among ! *anges t take place 9 ! physical con/itution ( ! body 9 ! progress ( life1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable is ! successive increase 9 ! proportion ( its solid matt]3 h5ce ! s(tness & r\ndness ( ! body 9 y\?2 its h>d1 unequal1 & angul> surface 9 advanc$ life2 its progressively increas+ fix$ness & immobility 9 old age1 & ultimate inevitable dea?4 #ad4 ,! fluids are n only m abundant ?an ! solids1 b !y are also m important1 z !y af=d ! imm$iate mat]ial ( ! organization ( ! body2 ! m$ia by :i* bo? its composition & its decomposition are effect$4 ,!y be> n\ri%m5t to e "p1 & by !m are c>ri$ out ( ! sy/em its noxi\s & useless matt]4 ,9 ! bra9 !y lay d[n ! s(t & delicate c]ebral sub/ance2 9 ! bone1 ! h>d & compact osse\s matt]2 & ! worn-out p>ticles ( bo? are remov$ by _! in/rum5tality4 ,e "p ( ! body is a laboratory 9 :i* complicat$ & trans=m+ *anges g on e in/ant2 ! fluids are ! mat]ials on :i* ^! *anges are wr\ght2 *emi/ry is ! ag5t by :i* !y are effect$1 & life is ! gov]n+ p[] "u ^: control !y take place4 #ae4 ,! fluids1 compos$ pr9cipally ( wat] hold+ solid matt] 9 solution1 or 9 a /ate ( me*anical division1 ei!r contribute to ! =mation ( ! blood1 or con/itute ! blood1 or are d]iv$ f ! blood2 & aft] hav+ s]v$ "s special (fice 9 a p>ticul> "p ( ! sy/em1 are return$ to ! blood2 & accord+ to ! nature & proportion ( ! sub/ances !y conta91 are ei!r aque\s1 album9\s1 muc\s1 gelat9\s1 fibr9\s1 oleag9\s1 res9\s1 or sal9e4 #af4 ,:5 ! analysis ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( animal matt] t ent] into ! composition ( ! body has be5 c>ri$ to its ultimate po9t1 x appe>s to be resolvable into two primitive =ms3 fir/1 a sub/ance capable ( coagulation1 b possess+ no det]m9ate figure2 & secondly1 a sub/ance hav+ a det]m9ate figure & consi/+ ( r\nd$ p>ticles4 ,! coagulable sub/ance is capable ( exi/+ by itself2 ! r\nd$ p>ticles are nev] f\nd alone1 b are inv>iably comb9$ ) coagulat$ or coagulable matt]4 ,alone or comb9$ ) ! r\nd$ p>ticles1 ! coagulable matt] =ms1 :5 liquid1 ! fluids1 :5 coagulat$1 ! solids4 #ag4 ,:5 solid1 ! coagulable sub/ance is dispos$ 9 "o ( two =ms1 ei!r 9 t ( m9ute ?reads or fibres1 or 9 t ( m9ute plates or lam92 h5ce e solid ( ! body is said to be ei!r fibr\s or lam9at$4 ,! fibres or lam9 are v>i\sly int]wov5 & int]lac$1 s z to =m a net-"w or me%2 & ! int]spaces betwe5 ! fibres or lam9 are commonly d5om9at$ areol or cells 7fig4 ,,xvii74 #ah4 ,?is concrete sub/ance1 fibr\s or lam9at$1 is v>i\sly modifi$ ei!r alone or 9 comb9ation ) ! r\nd$ p>ticles4 ,^! diff]5t modifications & comb9ations con/itute diff]5t k9ds ( organic sub/ance4 ,:5 s di/9ct z obvi\sly to possess a peculi> /ructure & peculi> prop]ties1 ea* ( ^! modifications is consid]$ z a sep>ate =m ( organiz$ matt]1 & is call$ a ,,prim>y ,,tissue4 ,anatomi/s & physiologi/s h be5 at great pa9s to discrim9ate & classify ^! prim>y tissues2 = x is f\nd t :5 employ$ 9 ! composition ( ! body1 ea* pres]ves its peculi> /ructure & prop]ties :]ev] plac$1 h[ev] comb9$1 & to :atev] purpose appli$1 und]go+ only su* modification z its local connexions & specific uses r5d] indisp5sable4 ,consid]+ e sub/ance employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! body1 n v obvi\sly alike1 z a di/9ct =m ( organiz$ matt]1 ^! prim>y tissues may be said to consi/ ( five1 namely1 ! membran\s1 ! c>tilag9\s1 ! osse\s1 ! muscul>1 & ! n]v\s4 #ai4 ,! fir/ prim>y tissue is ! peculi> sub/ance t]m$ ,,membrane4 ,x has be5 already /at$ 7#af7 t "o ( ! ultimate =ms ( animal matt] is a coagulable sub/ance1 becom+ concrete or solid "u ! process ( coagulation4 ,! comm5cem5t ( organization seems to be ! arrangem5t ( ?is concrete matt] into /raight ?ready l9es1 at fir/ s small z to be imp]ceptible to ! nak$ eye4 ,va/ numb]s ( ^! ?reads successively unit+1 at l5g? =m a s+le ?read ( suffici5t magnitude to be visible1 b /ill small] ?an ! f9e/ ?read ( ! silkworm4 ,if ! l5g? ( ^! ?reads be great] ?an _! bread?1 !y are call$ fibres2 if1 on ! contr>y1 _! bread? exce$ _! l5g?1 !y are t]m$ plates or lam94 ,by ! approximation ( ^! fibres or plates 9 e possible direction1 & by _! accumulation1 comb9ation1 & cond5sation1 is con/itut$ ! simple/ =m ( organiz$ sub/ance1 ! prim>y tissue call$ membrane4 #bj4 ,membrane once =m$ is ext5sively employ$ 9 ! composition ( ! body3 x is inde$ ! mat]ial pr9cipally us$ 9 produc+1 cov]+1 conta9+1 protect+1 & fix+ e o!r compon5t "p ( x4 ,x =ms ! ma9 bulk ( ! c>tilag9\s tissue2 x receives into its cells ! e>?y matt] on :i* dep5d ! /r5g? & h>dness ( ! osse\s tissue2 x composes ! canals or %ea?s 9 :i* are deposit$ ! delicate sub/ance ( ! muscul>1 & ! /ill m t5d] pulp ( ! n]v\s tissue2 x gives an ext]nal cov]+ to ! entire body2 x l9es all its int]nal surfaces2 x envelopes all int]nal organs2 x ent]s l>gely z a compon5t elem5t into ! sub/ance ( e organ ( e k9d2 x almo/ :olly con/itutes all ! int]nal p\*es & sacs1 su* z ! /oma*1 ! inte/9es1 ! bladd]2 & all tubes & vessels1 su* z art]ies1 ve9s1 & lymphatics2 x furni%es ! common sub/ance 9 :i* all ! p>ts ( ! body are1 z x 71 pack$2 x fills up ! int]/ices betwe5 !m2 x fixes !m 9 _! sev]al situations2 x connects !m all toge!r2 9 a ^w1 x =ms ! basis ^u :i* ! o!r p>ts are sup]9duc$2 or r ! m\ld into :i* _! p>ticles are deposit$2 s t 7 x possible to remove e o!r k9d ( matt]1 & to leave ?is prim>y tissue unalt]$ 9 figure & undim9i%$ 9 bulk1 ! g5]al =m & outl9e ( ! body1 z well z ! =m & outl9e ( all its individual p>ts1 w\ld rema9 un*ang$4 #ba4 ,! prop]ties :i* belong to membrane are cohesion1 flexibility1 ext5sibility1 & ela/icity4 ,by its prop]ty ( cohesion1 ! sev]al p>ts ( ! body are held toge!r2 by its comb9$ prop]ties ( cohesion1 flexibility1 & ext5sibility1 ! body 9 g5]al is r5d]$ /rong1 light1 & yield+1 :ile p>ticul> p>ts ( x are made capable ( free motion4 ,b ela/icity1 t prop]ty by :i* p>ts remov$ f _! situation 9 ! necess>y actions ( life are re/or$ to _! natural position1 may be reg>d$ z its specific prop]ty4 ,! v>i$ purposes accompli%$ 9 ! economy by ! prop]ty ( ela/icity w be app>5t z we advance 9 our subject4 ,meantime1 x w suffice to obs]ve t x is indisp5sable to ! action ( ! art]y 9 ! function ( ! circulation2 to ! action ( ! ?orax 9 ! function ( respiration2 to ! action ( ! jo9ts 9 ! function ( locomotion3 9 a ^w1 to ! work+ ( ! entire me*anism by :i* motion ( e k9d & degree is effect$4 ,all ^! prop]ties are physical1 n vital2 vital prop]ties d belong ev5 to ?is prim>y =m ( animal matt]2 b !y are comp>atively obscure4 ,9 ! tissue ) :i* organization comm5ces1 & :i* is ! lea/ remov$ f an inorganic sub/ance1 ! prop]ties t are prom95t & ess5tial are m]ely physical4 #bb4 ,by *emical analysis1 membrane is f\nd to conta9 b a small proportion ( azote1 ! peculi> elem5t ( animal matt]4 ,its proximate pr9ciples are gelat91 album51 & mucus4 ,9 infancy & y\?1 gelat9 is ! mo/ abundant +r$i5t2 at a m advanc$ p]iod1 album5 pr$om9ates#c4 ,gelat9 diff]s f album5 9 conta9+ a less proportion ( azote & a great] proportion ( oxyg52 on bo? acc\nts x mu/ be reg>d$ z less animaliz$4 ,?us animalization be>s a c]ta9 relation to organization4 ,! simple/ animal tissue is ! lea/ animaliz$1 & ! lea/ ( all at ! e>lie/ p]iod ( life4 ,n only are ! physical & m5tal p[]s less develop$ 9 ! "y ?an 9 ! adult1 b ! v *emical composition ( ! prim>y tissue ( :i* ! body is con/ruct$ is less *>act]i/ic ( ! p]fect animal4 #bc4 ,membrane exi/s "u sev]al di/9ct =ms2 a k ( ! peculi>ities ( :i* w mat]ially assi/ u 9 und]/&+ ! composition ( ! body4 ,! simple/ =m ( membrane1 & t :i* is conceiv$ to con/itute ! orig9al /ructure f :i* all ! o!rs art produc$1 is t]m$ ! cellul>4 ,:5 9 ?9 slices1 cellul> membrane appe>s z a semi-transp>5t & col\rless sub/ance2 :5 exam9$ 9 ?ick] masses1 x is ( a :iti% or greyi% col\r4 ,x consi/s ( m9ute ?reads1 :i* cross ea* o!r 9 e possible direction1 leav+ spaces betwe5 !m1 & ?us =m+ a me% or net-"w 7fig4 ,,xvii471 n unlike ! spid]'s web4 ,! t]m cells1 giv5 to ^! int]spaces1 is employ$ r 9 a figurative s5se ?an z ! expression ( ! fact2 = !re are no su* di/9ct p>titions z ! t]m cell implies4 ,! be/ conception t c be =m$ ( ! arrangem5t ( ! compon5t p>ts ( ?is /ructure is1 to suppose a sub/ance consi/+ ( an inf9ite numb] ( sl5d] ?ready l9es cross+ ea* o!r 9 e possible direction 7fig4 ,,xvii474 ,! int]spaces betwe5 ^! l9es dur+ life1 & 9 ! /ate ( heal?1 are fill$ ) a ?9 exhalation ( an aque\s nature1 a vap\r r ?an a fluid1 r5d]+ & keep+ ! tissue always moi/4 ,?is vap\r consi/s ( ! ?9n] "p ( ! blood1 p\r$ into ^! int]/itial spaces by a process h]eaft] to be describ$1 t]m$ secretion4 ,:5 occupy+ ^? spaces1 x makes no long abode )9 !m1 b is spe$ily remov$ by ! process ( absorption4 ,9 heal?1 ^! two op]ations exactly equal ea* o!r2 b if any cause arise to di/urb ! equilibrium1 ! vap\r accumulates1 cond5ses & =ms an aque\s fluid1 :i* di/5ds ! cells & gravitates to ! mo/ dep5d+ p>ts4 ,slightly organiz$ z ?is tissue is1 & indi/9ct z its vita functions may be1 x is obvi\s t x mu/ be ! seat ( at lea/ two vital functions1 secretion & absorption4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xvii4 ,a s+le film ( ! cellul> tissue lift$ up & slightly di/5d$4 #bd4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! int]spaces or cells ( ?is membrane h no det]m9ate =m or size1 t !y communicate freely ) ea* o!r1 & t ?is communication ext5ds ov] ! :ole body2 = if a limb :i* has be5 infiltrat$ be froz51 a ?\s& small icicles w be =m$1 assum+ ! %ape ( ! conta9+ cells1 "s ( :i* are f\nd to be circul> & o!rs cyl9drical1 & s on4 ,if air or wat] escape into any p>ticul> "p ( ! body1 x is (t5 effus$ ov] ! :ole ext5t ( x1 & but*]s are obs]v$ to inflate animals by mak+ a puncture 9 "s "p :]e ! cellul> tissue is loose1 & f ?is "o ap]ture ! air is =c$ to ! mo/ di/ant p>ts ( ! body4 #be4 ,cellul> membrane1 v>i\sly modifi$ & dispos$1 =ms ! ma9 bulk ( all ! o!r solid p>ts ( ! body1 con/itut+ _! common envelope & bond ( union1 & fill+ up all _! int]/ices4 ,x is d5se or loose1 co>se or f9e1 accord+ to its situation & (fice4 ,:]ev] x is subject to pressure1 x is d5se & firm1 z 9 ! palm ( ! h& & ! sole ( ! foot2 ar\nd ! int]nal organs x is m loose & delicate1 & x becomes f9] & f9] z x divides & subdivides1 9 ord] to envelope ! s(t & t5d] /ructures ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xviii4 ,a portion ( cellul> tissue1 v highly magnifi$1 %[+ ! /r+s ( globules ( :i* its ultimate fibres are by "s suppos$ to consi/4 #bf4 ,accord+ to "s :o h c>efully exam9$ ) ! microscope its compon5t ?reads1 !y consi/ ( m9ute p>ticles ( a globul> figure 7fig4 ,,xviii472 o!r microscopical obs]v]s reg>d ! cellul> ?reads z coagulat$ or cond5s$ animal sub/ance1 p]fectly amorph\s 7)\t =m74 #bg4 ,e "p ( ?is tissue is p5etrat$ by art]ies1 ve9s1 absorb5ts1 & n]ves1 end[+ x ) prop]ties truly vital1 ?\gh 9 a less degree ?an any ( ! o!r prim>y tissues2 & v>i$ & important z ! uses are :i* x s]ves 9 ! economy1 ! mo/ manife/1 ?\gh c]ta9ly n ! only ones1 are ^? :i* dep5d ^u its physical prop]ties ( cohesion1 flexibility1 ext5sibility1 & ela/icity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xix4 #a1 ,a portion ( adipose tissue2 #b1 m9ute bags conta9+ ! fat2 #c1 a clu/] ( ! bags1 sep>at$ & susp5d$4 #bh4 ,! tissue :i* conta9s ! fat1 t]m$ ! adipose1 is ! second =m ( membrane2 x is obvi\sly a modification ( ! cellul>1 f :i* x diff]s bo? 9 ! magnitude ( its fibres1 :5ce x con/itutes a t\gh] & co>s] web1 & 9 _! arrangem5t2 = x is s dispos$ z to =m di/9ct bags 9 :i* ! fat is conta9$4 ,adipose tissue consi/s ( r\nd$ packets1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by furr[s 7fig4 ,,xix4 #b1 #b72 ea* packet is compos$ ( small sph]oidal p>ticles 7fig4 ,,xix4 #b1 #b72 ea* p>ticle is aga9 divisible into /ill small] gra9s1 :i*1 on m9ute inspection1 pres5t ! appe>ance ( vesicles fill$ ) ! adipose matt] 7fig4 ,,xix4 #c74 #bi4 ,! cells ( ! cellul> tissue1 z has be5 %[n 7#bd71 are cont9u\s ov] ! :ole body2 b ea* adipose vesicle is a di/9ct bag1 hav+ no communication :atev] ) any o!r 7fig4 ,,xix4 #b1 #b74 ,! cellul> tissue is univ]sally diffus$2 b ! adipose is plac$ only 9 p>ticul> p>ts ( ! body2 pr9cipally b5ea? ! sk91 & m especially betwe5 ! sk9 & ! abdom9al muscles1 & ar\nd "s ( ! organs conta9$ 9 ! *e/ & abdom51 z ! he>t1 ! kidneys1 ! mes5t]y1 & ! om5ta4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! situations "s portion ( x is g5]ally f\nd1 :atev] be ! degree ( leanness to :i* ! body may be r$uc$2 :ile 9 ! cranium1 ! bra91 ! eye1 ! e>1 ! nose1 & sev]al o!r organs1 !re is none1 :atev] be ! degree ( corpul5cy4 ,! uses ( ! fat1 :i* are v>i\s1 w be /at$ h]eaft]4 #cj4 ,! ?ird =m ( membrane is t]m$ ! s]\s4 ,l ! adipose1 s]\s membrane is a modification ( ! cellul>1 &1 l x also1 x is limit$ 9 its situation to p>ticul> p>ts ( ! body1 t is1 to its ?ree great cavities1 namely1 ! head1 ! *e/1 & ! abdom54 ,to ! two latt] x af=ds an int]nal l9+1 & to all ! organs conta9$ 9 all ! ?ree cavities1 x af=ds a cov]+4 ,by its ext]nal surface x is unit$ to ! wall ( ! cavity or ! sub/ance ( ! organ x inve/s2 by its int]nal surface x is free & unatta*$2 :5ce ?is surface is 9 contact only ) itself1 =m+ a close cavity or %ut sac1 hav+ no communication ) ! ext]nal air4 ,smoo? & poli%$ 7fig4 ,,xx471 x is r5d]$ moi/ by a fluid :i* is suppos$ to be exhal$ 9 a gase\s /ate f ! s]um ( ! blood2 & f ?is s]\s fluid ! membrane d]ives its "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xx4 ,a portion ( inte/9e1 %[+ its ext]nal surface or s]\s coat4 #ca4 ,?\gh ?91 s]\s membrane is d5se1 compact1 & ( great /r5g? 9 proportion to its bulk3 x is ext5sible & ela/ic2 ext5sible1 = x exp&s ) ! dilatation ( ! *e/ 9 inspiration2 ela/ic1 = x contracts ) ! dim9i%$ size ( ! *e/ 9 expiration4 ,9 l mann]1 x /ret*es ) ! enl>gem5t ( ! /oma* dur+ a he>ty meal1 & contracts z ! /oma* gradually dim9i%es on empty+ itself ( its cont5ts4 ,x is furni%$ ) no blood-vessels l>ge en\gh to admit ! col\r+ matt] ( ! blood2 b x is suppli$ ) a great numb] ( ! col\rless vessels t]m$ exhal5ts1 ) ! vessels t]m$ absorb5ts1 & ) a few n]ves4 ,x indicates no vital prop]ties1 b ^? :i* are common to ! simple =m ( ! prim>y tissue4 ,its specific uses are to af=d a l9+ to ! int]nal cavities2 to furni% a cov]+ to ! int]nal organs2 by its poli%$ & smoo? surface1 to all[ a free motion ( ^? organs on ea* o!r1 & by ! moi/ure ) :i* x is lubricat$1 to prev5t !m f adh]+ toge!r1 h[ev] closely1 or = h[ev] long a p]iod !y may be 9 contact4 #cb4 ,! f\r? =m ( membrane1 ! fibr\s1 nam$ f ! obvi\s arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ts1 consi/s ( longitud9al fibres1 l>ge en\gh to be visible to ! nak$ eye1 plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r1 & closely unit$4 ,sometimes ^! fibres are comb9$ 9 su* a mann] z to =m a cont9u\s & ext5d$ surface1 con/itut+ a ?91 smoo?1 d5se1 & /rong membrane1 su* z t :i* l9es ! ext]nal surface ( bones t]m$ ,,p]io/eum1 or ! int]nal surface ( ! skull 7dura mat]74 ,at o!r times1 !y =m a firm & t\gh expansion 7aponeurosis7 :i* desc5ds betwe5 c]ta9 muscles1 sep>at+ !m f ea* o!r1 & af=d+ a fix$ po9t = ! orig9 or ins]tion ( neighb\r+ muscles2 or :i* is /ret*$ ov] muscles1 & sometimes ov] ev5 an entire limb1 9 ord] to conf9e ! muscles firmly 9 _! situation1 & to aid & direct _! action 7fig4 ,,xxvii474 ,fibr\s membrane also con/itutes ! compact1 /rong1 t\gh1 & flexible b&s us$ = ty+ p>ts firmly toge!r1 t]m$ ,,ligam5ts1 pr9cipally employ$ 9 connect+ ! bones ) ea* o!r1 & p>ticul>ly ab\t ! jo9ts2 & la/ly1 fibr\s membrane =ms ! r\nd$ :ite cords 9 :i* muscles (t5 t]m9ate1 call$ ,,t5dons 7fig4 ,,xxv41 ,,xxvi471 ! pr9cipal use ( :i* is to connect ! muscles ) ! bones1 & to s]ve z cords or ropes to transmit ! action ( ! muscle to a di/ant po9t1 9 ! accompli%m5t ( :i* purposes _! op]ation appe>s to be entirely me*anical4 #cc4 ,! fif? =m ( membrane1 ! muc\s 7fig4 ,,xxi471 d]ives its "n f ! peculi> fluid ) :i* its surface is cov]$1 call$ mucus1 & :i* is secret$ by num]\s m9ute gl&s1 imb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! membrane4 ,z s]\s membrane =ms a %ut sac1 completely exclud+ ! air1 muc\s membrane1 on ! contr>y1 l9es ! v>i\s cavities :i* are expos$ to ! air1 su* z ! m\?1 ! no/rils1 ! w9d-pipe1 ! gullet1 ! /oma*1 ! inte/9es1 ! ur9>y organs1 & ! ut]9e sy/em4 ,its int]nal surface1 or t by :i* x is atta*$ to ! passages x l9es1 is smoo? & d5se2 its ext]nal surface1 or t :i* is expos$ to ! contact ( ! air1 is s(t & pulpy1 l ! pile ( velvet 7fig4 ,,xxi474 ,x be>s a consid]able resemblance to ! ext]nal surface ( ! r9d ( ! ripe pea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxi4 ,a portion ( ! /oma*1 %[+ its int]nal surface or muc\s coat4 ,unlike all ! o!r tissues ( ?is class1 ! muc\s membranes are ! imm$iate seat ( "s ( ! mo/ important functions ( ! economy2 9 ! lung1 ( respiration2 9 ! /oma*1 ( dige/ion2 9 "o "p ( ! inte/9e1 ( *ylification2 9 ano!r1 ( excretion2 :ile 9 ! m\? & nose1 !y are ! seat ( ! animal functions ( ta/e & smell2 & !y are highly organiz$ 9 accordance ) ! importance ( ! functions !y p]=m4 #cd4 ,! la/ =m ( membrane :i* x is necess>y to our pres5t purpose to p>ticul>ize1 is t :i* con/itutes ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! body1 & :i* is call$ ! sk94 ,! sk9 is ev]y:]e directly cont9u\s ) ! muc\s membranes t l9e ! int]nal passages1 & its /ructure is p]fectly analog\s4 ,bo? ! ext]nal & ! int]nal surface ( ! body may be said !re=e to be cov]$ by a cont9u\s membrane1 possess+ ess5tially ! same organization1 & almo/ id5tically ! same *emical composition4 ,! sk9 is an organ :i* p]=ms exce$+ly v>i$ & important functions 9 ! economy1 to ! und]/&+ ( :i* x is necess>y to h a cle> conception ( its /ructure2 "s fur!r acc\nt ( x w !re=e be requir$2 b ?is w be m advantage\sly giv5 :5 ! (fices x s]ves are expla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxii4 ,portions ( c>tilage1 se5 9 section4 #ce4 ,su* is ! /ructure1 & su* are ! prop]ties1 ( ! fir/ di/9ct =m ( organiz$ matt]4 ,! second prim>y tissue1 t]m$ ! ,,c>tilag9\s 7fig4 ,,xxii471 is a sub/ance int]m$iate betwe5 membrane & bone4 ,! nature ( its organization is n cle>ly asc]ta9$4 ,by "s anatomi/s1 x is reg>d$ z a uni=m & homog5e\s sub/ance1 l firm jelly1 )\t fibres1 plates1 or cells2 o!rs /ate t !y h be5 able to detect 9 x longitud9al fibres1 int]lac$ by o!r fibres 9 an oblique & transv]se direction1 b )\t det]m9ate ord]4 ,all are agre$ t x is )\t visible vessels or n]ves3 n t x is suppos$ to be de/itute ( !m1 b t !y are s m9ute z to elude obs]vation4 ,its manife/ prop]ties are :olly me*anical4 ,x is d5se1 /rong1 inext5sible1 flexible1 & highly ela/ic4 ,x is *iefly by its prop]ty ( ela/icity t x accompli%es ! v>i\s purposes x s]ves 9 ! economy4 ,x is plac$ at ! extremities ( bones1 especially ab\t ! jo9ts1 :]e1 by its smoo? surface1 x facilitates motion1 &1 by its yield+ nature1 prev5ts ! %ock or j> :i* w\ld be produc$ 7 ! same k9d & degree ( motion effect$ by a rigid & inflexible sub/ance4 ,:]e a c]ta9 degree ( /r5g? ) a consid]able degree ( flexibility are requir$1 x supplies ! place ( bone1 z 9 ! sp9al column1 ! ribs & ! l>ynx4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxiii4 ,membran\s portion ( bone2 ! osse\s portion be+ s completely remov$1 t ! bone is capable ( be+ ti$ 9 a knot4 #cf4 ,! ?ird di/9ct =m ( organiz$ matt] is t]m$ ! ,,osse\s tissue4 ,bone is compos$ ( two di/9ct sub/ances1 an animal & an e>?y matt]3 ! =m] organic1 ! latt] inorganic4 ,! animal or organic matt] is analog\s bo? 9 its nature & 9 its arrangem5t to cellul> tissue2 ! e>?y or inorganic matt] consi/s ( phosphoric acid comb9$ ) lime1 =m+ phosphate ( lime4 ,! cellul> tissue is aggregat$ into plates or lam91 :i* are plac$ "o ^u ano!r1 leav+ betwe5 !m int]spaces or cells1 9 :i* is deposit$ ! e>?y matt] 7phosphate ( lime74 ,if a bone1 = example1 ! bone call$ ! radius1 "o ( ! bones ( ! =e-arm1 be imm]s$ 9 dilut$ sulphuric1 nitric1 muriatic1 or acetic acid1 x reta9s its orig9al bulk & %ape2 x loses1 h[ev]1 a consid]able portion ( its weight1 :ile x becomes s s(t & pliable1 t x may be ti$ 9 a knot 7fig4 ,,xxiii474 ,9 ?is case1 its e>?y matt] is remov$ by ! ag5cy ( ! acid1 & is held 9 solution 9 ! fluid2 :at rema9s is membran\s matt] 7cellul> tissue74 ,if ! same bone be plac$ 9 a *>coal fire1 & ! heat be gradually rais$ to :it5ess1 x appe>s on cool+ z :ite z *alk2 x is extremely brittle2 x has lo/ mu* ( its weight1 yet its bulk & %ape cont9ue b little *ang$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! membrane\s matt] is :olly consum$ by ! fire1 :ile ! e>? is left un*ang$ 7fig4 ,,xxiv474 ,e con/itu5t atom ( bone consi/s1 !n1 ess5tially ( animal & e>?y matt] intimately comb9$4 ,a little m ?an "o-?ird "p consi/s ( animal matt] 7album571 ! rema9+ two-?irds consi/ ( e>?y matt] 7phosphate ( lime72 o!r sal9e sub/ances1 z ! fluate ( lime & ! phosphate ( magnesia1 are also f\nd 9 m9ute quantity1 b !y are n peculi> to bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxiv4 ,e>?y portion ( bone4 #cg4 ,9 g5]al1 ! osse\s tissue is plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,ev5 :5 bone approa*es ! surface1 x is always cov]$ by s(t p>ts4 ,x is suppli$ ) b few blood-vessels1 ) /ill few] n]ves1 ) no absorb5ts l>ge en\gh to be visible1 s t ?\gh x be truly alive1 yet its vital prop]ties are n greatly develop$4 ,! arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ticles is highly curi\s2 ! /ructure1 ! disposition1 & ! connexion ( individual bones af=d /rik+ examples ( me*anism1 & accompli% mo/ important uses 9 ! economy2 b ^? uses are dep5d5t r ^u me*anical ?an vital prop]ties4 ,! *ief uses ( bone are-- #a4 ,by its h>dness & firmness to af=d a support to ! s(t p>ts1 =m+ pill>s to :i* ! m delicate & flexible organs are atta*$ & kept 9 _! relative positions4 #b4 ,to def5d ! s(t & t5d] organs by =m+ a case 9 :i* !y are lodg$ & protect$1 z t =m$ by ! bones ( ! cranium = ! lodgm5t & protection ( ! bra9 7fig4 ,,xlvii472 by ! bones ( ! sp9al column = ! lodgm5t & protection ( ! sp9al cord 7fig4 ,,xlviii472 by ! bones ( ! ?orax 7fig4 ,,lix471 = ! lodgm5t & protection ( ! lungs1 ! he>t1 & ! great vessels connect$ ) x 7fig4 ,,lix474 #c4 ,by af=d+ fix$ po9ts = ! action ( ! muscles1 & by assi/+ 9 ! =mation ( jo9ts to aid ! muscles 9 accompli%+ ! function ( locomotion4 #ch4 ,all ! prim>y tissues :i* h n[ be5 consid]$ consi/ ( precisely ! same proximate pr9ciples4 ,album5 is ! basis ( !m all2 ) ! album5 is always mix$ m or less gelat91 toge!r ) a m9ute quantity ( sal9e sub/ance3 to ! osse\s tissue is sup]add$ a l>ge proportion ( e>?y matt]4 ,) ! exception ( ! muc\s1 ! organization ( all ^! tissues is simple2 _! vital prop]ties are l[ 9 k9d & 9 degree2 _! decid$ prop]ties are physical1 & ! uses !y s]ve 9 ! economy are almo/ :olly me*anical4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxv4 ,portion ( a muscle2 %[+ 7a7 ! muscul> fibres & _! p>allel direction2 & 7b7 ! t]m9ation ( ! fibres 9 t5don4 #ci4 ,b we next come to a tissue widely diff]5t 9 e "o ( ^? circum/ances1 a tissue consi/+ ( a new k9d ( animal matt]1 & end[$ ) a prop]ty n only peculi> to itself1 b prop] to liv+ sub/ance1 & *>act]i/ic ( a high degree ( vital p[]4 ,,muscul> ,,tissue1 ! f\r? di/9ct =m ( animal matt]1 commonly kn[n "u ! "n ( fle%1 is a sub/ance resembl+ no o!r 9 nature4 ,x consi/s ( a s(t & pulpy sub/ance1 hav+ little cohesive p[]1 arrang$ into fibres :i* are di/9ctly visible to ! nak$ eye1 & :i* are dispos$ 9 a regul> & uni=m mann]1 be+ plac$ close & p>allel to ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,xxv474 ,^! fibres are e :]e pretty uni=mly ! same 9 %ape1 size1 & g5]al appe>ance1 be+ delicate1 s(t1 flatt5$1 & ?\gh consi/+ only ( a t5d] pulp1 /ill solid 7fig4 ,,xxv474 ,:5 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 fibres1 :i* to ! nak$ eye appe> to be s+le ?reads1 are se5 to divide successively into small] ?reads1 ! m9ute/ or ! ultimate division n exce$+1 z is suppos$1 ! #dj1jjj? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fibres :i* are l>ge en\gh to be visible to ! nak$ eye1 are obvi\sly aggregat$ into bundles ( diff]5t magnitude 9 diff]5t muscles1 b always ( ! same uni=m size 9 ! same muscle 7fig4 ,,xxv474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxvi4 ,two portions ( muscle2 "o ( :i*1 a1 is cov]$ ) membrane2 ! o!r1 b1 is uncov]$2 c1 ! muscul> fibres t]m9at+ 9 t5don4 #dj4 ,! ultimate ?read1 or ! m9ute/ division ( :i* ! muscul> fibre is susceptible1 is call$ a filam5t2 ! smalle/ ?read :i* c be di/+ui%$ by ! nak$ eye is t]m$ a fibre 7fig4 ,,xxvi472 & ! bundle :i* is =m$ by ! union ( fibres is d5om9at$ a fasciculus4 ,! prop] muscul> sub/ance is ?us arrang$ into ?ree di/9ct =ms progressively increas+ 9 size1--! filam5t1 ! fibre1 & ! fasciculus4 ,! filam5t1 ! fibre1 ! fasciculus1 z well z ! muscle itself1 =m$ by ! aggregation ( fasciculi1 is ea* inclos$ 9 its own di/9ct %ea? ( cellul> membrane 7fig4 ,,xxvi4 a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxvii4 ,portion ( a muscle enclos$ 9 a %ea? ( fascia or aponeurosis4 #da4 ,! composition ( ! ultimate filam5t has be5 v c>efully exam9$ by _m di/+ui%$ physiologi/s ) microscopes ( high magnify+ p[]4 ,"u "s ( ^! microscopes ! filam5t appe>s to consi/ ( a s]ies ( r\nd$ p>ticles or globules ( ! same size z ! p>ticles ( ! blood :5 depriv$ ( _! col\r+ matt]1 s t x looks l a /r+ ( pe>ls 7fig4 ,,xxviii471 ea* globule be+ commonly /at$ to be ab\t ! #bjjj? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,b x is n[ pretty g5]ally agre$ t ?is globul> appe>ance ( ! ultimate muscul> fibre vani%es "u ! m improv$ microscopes ( ! pres5t day1 &1 z view$ by ! latt]1 appe>s z a peculi> pulpy sub/ance arrang$ into ?reads ( extreme m9ut5ess1 plac$ close & p>allel to ea* o!r1 int]sect$ by a great numb] ( delicate l9es pass+ transv]sely across ! muscul> ?reads 7fig4 ,,xxix471 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxviii4 ,ultimate fibres ( muscle1 v greatly magnifi$2 %[+ ! /r+s ( globules ( :i* !y are suppos$ by "s to consi/4 #db4 ,) ! exception ( ! organs ( s5se1 ! muscul> tissue is m abundantly suppli$ ) art]ies1 ve9s1 & n]ves1 ?an any o!r sub/ance ( ! body4 ,e ultimate ?read or filam5t appe>s to be provid$ ) ! ultimate bran* ( an art]y1 ve91 & n]ve4 ,^! vessels are se5 ramify+ on ! surface ( ! delicate web ( membrane t incloses ! pulp1 b _c be trac$ into x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxix4 ,! appe>ance ( ! ultimate muscul> fibres & ( _! transv]se l9es1 z se5 "u ! microscope ( ,mr4 ,li/]1 :5 ! object is magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s4 #dc4 ,! proximate pr9ciple ( :i* ! muscul> pulp is compos$ is fibr94 ,f ! pulp1 :5 inclos$ 9 its %ea? ( membrane1 album51 jelly1 v>i\s salts1 & a peculi> animal extract call$ osmazome1 are also obta9$2 b ^! sub/ances are probably d]iv$ f ! membran\s1 n ! muscul>1 matt]4 ,fibr9 conta9s a l>g] proportion ( azote1 ! elem5t peculi> to ! animal body1 & by ! possession ( :i* its *emical composition is di/+ui%$ f t ( ! vegetable1 ?an any o!r animal sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxx4 ,portion ( ! trunk ( a n]ve2 divid+ into bran*es4 #dd4 ,muscul> tissue possesses a slight degree ( cohesion1 a high degree ( flexibility & ext5sibility1 b no degree ( ela/icity2 = al?\gh muscle1 consid]$ z a comp\nd ( muscul> sub/ance & membrane1 be highly ela/ic1 yet ?is prop]ty is probably altoge!r ow+ to ! membran\s matt] 9 :i* x is envelop$4 ,its peculi> & di/9ctive prop]ty is vital1 n physical1 & consi/s 9 ! p[] ( dim9i%+ its l5g?1 or ( contract+ or %ort5+ itself on ! application ( a /imulus4 ,?is prop]ty1 :i* is t]m$ contractility1 is ! great1 if n ! sole s\rce ( motion 9 ! body4 ,)\t d\bt1 ela/icity & gravity1 "u ! g5]at+ & controll+ p[d] ( contractility1 aid 9 accompli%+ v>i\s k9ds ( motion4 ,?us membranes1 t5dons1 ligam5ts1 c>tilages1 & bones1 by _! physical & me*anical prop]ties1 modify1 economize1 facilitate1 conc5trate & direct ! motive p[] g5]at$ by ! pure muscul> sub/ance2 b /ill ! only real s\rce ( motion 9 ! body is muscul> tissue1 & ! only mode 9 :i* motion is g5]at$ is by contractility4 ,?is w be m fully und]/ood h]eaft]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxi4 ,ultimate fibres ( n]ve1 v highly magnifi$2 %[+ ! /r+s ( globules ( :i* !y consi/4 #de4 ,! la/ prim>y tissue1 t]m$ ! ,,n]v\s1 is equally di/9ct 9 nature & peculi> 9 prop]ty4 ,x consi/s ( a s(t & pulpy matt]1 ( a br[ni% :ite col\r 7fig4 ,,xxx474 ,accord+ to "s1 ! n]v\s1 l ! muscul> pulp1 is compos$ ( m9ute globules1 arrang$ 9 ! same mann] l a /r+ ( pe>ls 7fig4 ,,xxxi472 accord+ to o!rs1 x consi/s ( solid elongat$ ?reads1 ( a cyl9drical =m1 diff]+ 9 ?ickness f t ( a hair to ! f9e/ fibre ( silk4 ,! pulp1 :atev] its =m ( aggregation1 is inclos$ 9 a %ea? ( delicate cellul> tissue4 ,?is ext]nal or conta9+ membrane is call$ ! neurilema1 or ! n]ve-coat2 ! int]nal or conta9$ sub/ance1 ! prop] n]v\s matt]1 is t]m$ ! n]ve-/r+4 ,! n]ve-/r+1 envelop$ 9 its n]ve-coat1 con/itutes ! n]v\s filam5t4 ,z 9 ! muscle1 s 9 ! n]ve1 _m filam5ts unite to =m a fibre1 _m fibres to =m a fasciculus1 & _m fasciculi to =m ! l>ge cord t]m$ a n]ve4 ,moreov]1 z 9 ! muscle1 s 9 ! n]ve1 ! filam5t1 ! fibre1 ! fasciculus1 ! n]v\s cord itself1 are ea* envelop$ 9 its own di/9ct %ea? ( cellul> membrane2 b ! arrangem5t ( ! n]v\s fibres diff]s f t ( ! muscul> 9 ?is1 t ?\gh ! n]v\s fibres are plac$ 9 juxtaposition1 yet !y d n1 l ! muscul>1 ma9ta9 ?r\gh _! entire c\rse a p>allel disposition1 b cross & p5etrate ea* o!r1 s z to =m an intimate int]lacem5t 7fig4 ,,xxxii474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxii4 ,n]v\s fibres1 depriv$ ( _! neurilema & unravell$1 %[+ ! small] ?reads1 or filam5ts1 ( :i* ! fibres consi/4 #df4 ,! n]v\s pulp is at lea/ z lib]ally suppli$ ) blood-vessels z ! muscul>2 ! vessels are spread out ^u ! n]ve-coat1 9 :i* !y divide into innum]able bran*es ( extreme m9ut5ess1 ! di/ribution ( :i* is s p]fect1 t !re is n a p>ticle ( n]v\s matt] :i* is n suppli$ bo? ) an art]ial & a v5\s vessel4 ,h5ce ! neurilema is n m]ely a %ea? conta9+ & protect+ ! n]v\s pulp1 b x af=ds an ext5d$ me*anical surface = su/a9+ ! art]ial vessels1 f :i* ! pulp is probably secret$1 & c]ta9ly n\ri%$4 #dg4 ,album51 9 conjunction ) a peculi> fatty matt]1 con/itutes ! *ief proximate pr9ciples ( :i* ! n]v\s tissue is compos$4 ,to ^! are add$ a small proportion ( ! animal sub/ance t]m$ osmazome1 a m9ute quantity ( phosphorus1 "s salts1 & a v l>ge proportion ( wat]2 = out ( "o hundr$ p>ts ( n]v\s sub/ance1 wat] con/itutes z mu* z eighty4 ,its peculi> vital prop]ty is s5sibility2 & z all motion dep5ds on ! contractility ( ! muscul> fibre1 s all s5sation dep5ds on ! s5sibility ( ! n]v\s sub/ance4 #dh4 ,su* are ! prim>y tissues1 or ! sev]al k9ds ( organiz$ matt] ( :i* ! body is compos$2 & f ?is acc\nt x is obvi\s t !y consi/ ( ?ree only--namely1 ! concrete matt] =m+ ! basis ( membrane1 ! pulpy matt] =m+ ! prop] muscul> sub/ance1 & ! pulpy matt] =m+ ! prop] n]v\s sub/ance4 ,( ^! ?ree k9ds ( animal matt] ! compon5t p>ts ( ! body consi/4 ,9 comb9+ to =m ! diff]5t /ructures1 ^! prim>y sub/ances are int]mix$ & arrang$ 9 a great v>iety ( modes2 & f ^! comb9ations & arrangem5ts result ei!r an organ1 a sy/em1 or an app>atus4 #di4 ,z filam5ts unite to =m fibres1 & fibres to =m tissues1 s tissues unite to =m organs3 t is1 bodies hav+ a det]m9ate size & figure1 & capable ( p]=m+ specific actions4 ,! cellul>1 ! muscul>1 & ! n]v\s tissues are n organs2 membranes1 muscles1 & n]ves are organs4 ,! tissue1 ! simple animal sub/ance1 is m]ely "o ( ! elem5ts ( :i* ! organ is compos$2 ! organ is comp\nd$ ( sev]al ( ^? simple sub/ances1 arrang$ 9 a det]m9ate mann]1 & m\ld$ into a giv5 %ape1 & s con/itut+ a specific in/rum5t4 ,! basis ( ! muscle is muscul> tissue2 b to ?is are add$1 inv>iably1 membrane1 (t5 t5don1 & always vessels & n]ves4 ,x is ?is comb9ation t =ms ! specific in/rum5t call$ a muscle1 & t r5d]s x capable ( p]=m+ its specific action4 ,& e su* comb9ation1 ) its appropriate end[m5t1 con/itutes an organ4 #ej4 ,organs are arrang$ into gr\ps or classes1 accord+ z !y possess an analog\s /ructure1 & p]=m an analog\s function2 & ?is assemblage con/itutes a ,,sy/em4 ,all ! muscles ( ! body1 = example1 :atev] _! size1 =m1 situation1 or use1 h an analog\s /ructure1 & p]=m an analog\s function1 & h5ce are class$ toge!r "u ! "n ( ! muscul> sy/em4 ,all ! bones1 :atev] _! figure1 magnitude1 d5sity1 position1 or (fice1 are analog\s 9 /ructure & function2 & h5ce are class$ toge!r "u ! "n ( ! osse\s sy/em4 ,= ! same reason1 all ! c>tilages1 ligam5ts1 vessels & n]ves1 =m respectively ! c>tilag9\s1 ligam5t\s1 vascul> & n]v\s sy/ems4 #ea4 ,an ,,app>atus1 on ! contr>y1 is an assemblage ( organs1 x may be diff]+ widely f ea* o!r 9 /ructure1 & ex]cis+ v>i\s & ev5 opposite functions2 b all nev]!less concurr+ 9 ! production ( "s common object4 ,! app>atus ( nutrition consi/s ( ! organs ( ma/ication1 deglutition1 dige/ion1 absorption1 & assimilation4 ,among ! individual organs :i* concur 9 c>ry+ on ^! functions may be reckon$ ! lips1 ! tee?1 ! tongue1 ! muscles connect$ ) ! jaws1 ! gullet1 ! /oma*1 ! duod5um1 ! small inte/9es1 ! pancreas1 ! liv]1 ! lacteal vessels1 ! mes5t]ic gl&s1 & ! lungs4 ,_m ( ^! organs h no simil>ity 9 /ructure1 & few h any ?+ analog\s 9 function2 yet all concur1 ea* 9 its appropriate mode & measure1 to ! conv]sion ( ! alim5t into blood4 ,9 ! app>atus ( respiration1 9 t ( circulation1 ( secretion1 ( excretion2 9 ! app>atus ( locomotion1 9 ! app>atus ( s5sation1 & m especially 9 ! app>atus ( ! specific s5sations1--vision1 he>+1 smell1 ta/e1 t\*1 organs are comb9$ :i* h no?+ 9 common b _! concurr5ce 9 ! production ( a common end3 b ?is concurr5ce is ! pr9ciple ( _! comb9ation2 & ! individual organs hav+ ?is conjo9t op]ation1 tak5 toge!r1 con/itute an app>atus4 #eb4 ,a cle> idea may n[ be affix$ to ! t]ms /ructure & organization4 ,/ructure may be consid]$ z synonym\s ) arrangem5t2 ! disposition ( p>ts 9 a det]m9ate ord]2 t :i* is con/ruct$ or built up 9 a def9ite mode1 accord+ to a det]m9ate plan4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! ?reads ( ! cellul> web into areol or cells2 ! comb9ation ( ! prim>y ?reads into fibres or lam92 ! disposition ( ! muscul> pulp into filam5ts1 plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r2 ! inve/m5t ( ! filam5ts 9 membrane\s %ea?s2 ! comb9ation ( ! filam5ts1 includ$ 9 _! %ea?s1 into fibres2 ! aggregation ( fibres into fasciculi2 & ! analog\s arrangem5t & comb9ation ( ! n]v\s pulp1 are examples ( /ructure4 ,b :5 ^? /ructures are appli$ to p>ticul> uses2 :5 !y are s comb9$ & dispos$ z to =m a peculi> in/rum5t1 end[$ ) a specific function2 :5 ! cellul> fibres1 = example1 are s arrang$ z to make a ?91 d5se1 & exp&$ tissue2 :5 to ?is tissue are add$ blood-vessels1 absorb5ts1 & n]ves2 :51 9 a ^w1 a membrane is con/ruct$1 an organ is =m$2 :51 9 l mann]1 to ! muscul> & ! n]v\s fibres1 arrang$ & m\ld$ 9 ! requisite mode1 are add$ blood-vessels1 absorb5ts1 & n]ves1 o!r organs are con/ruct$ capable ( p]=m+ specific functions3 & ?is is organization--! build+ up ( organs--! comb9ation ( def9ite /ructures into special in/rum5ts4 ,/ructure is ! prep>atory process ( organization2 ! "o is ! m]e arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial2 ! o!r is ! appropriation ( ! prep>$ mat]ial to a specific use4 #ec4 ,! t]m organization is employ$ 9 ref]5ce bo? to ! compon5t p>ts ( ! body1 & to ! body consid]$ z a :ole4 ,we speak ( an organiz$ sub/ance & ( an organiz$ body4 ,an organiz$ sub/ance is "o 9 :i* !re is n only a def9ite arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ts 7/ructure71 b 9 :i* ! p>ticul> arrangem5t is su* z to fit x = accompli%+ "s special use4 ,e organiz$ sub/ance is !re=e ess5tially a special organ2 limit$ 9 its object x may be1 & p]haps only conducive to "s fur!r object2 b /ill its di/9ctive "* is1 t x has a peculi> /ructure1 fitt+ x = ! accompli%m5t ( "s appropriate purpose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an organiz$ body is a cong]ies ( organs--! aggregate ( ! individual organs4 ,att5tion 0 direct$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is "w to "o peculi> & ess5tial "*1 by :i* su* an organiz$ is di/+ui%$ f an unorganiz$ body4 ,betwe5 ! individual p>ts ( ! organiz$ body !re is s close a relation1 t no "o ( !m c be remov$ or injur$1 or 9 any mann] affect$ )\t a correspond+ affection ( ! :ole4 ,! action ( ! he>t _c cease )\t ! cessation ( ! action ( ! lung2 nor t ( ! lung )\t t ( ! bra92 nor t ( ! bra9 )\t t ( ! /oma*2 9 a ^w1 !re is no organ 9 :atev] di/ant nook ( ! sy/em x be plac$1 or h[ev] app>5tly insignificant its function1 t is n necess>y to ! p]fection ( ! :ole4 ,b into :atev] numb] ( portions an unorganiz$ body may be divid$1 ea* portion reta9s ! prop]ties ( ! mass1 & con/itutes 9 itself a p]fect exi/5ce2 !re be+ no relation betwe5 its individual p>ts1 except+ t ( physical attraction3 on ! contr>y1 ea* compon5t "p ( an organiz$ body1 be+ end[$ ) "s appropriate & specific p[]1 on ! ex]cise ( :i* ! p[]s ( all ! o!r p>ts are m or less dep5d5t1 ! :ole mu/ necess>ily suff] if b "o "p fail4 #ed4 ,f ! :ole1 !n1 we see t ! human body is a cong]ies ( organs2 t ^? organs are con/ruct$ ( a few simple tissues2 & t all its p>ts1 num]\s1 div]sifi$1 & complex z !y are1 are compos$ ( b ?ree prim>y =ms ( animal matt] v>i\sly modifi$ & comb9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxiii4 ,muscles ( ! back & %\ld]s2 %[+ _! symmetrical disposition4 #ee4 ,b ?\gh by ! analysis ( its compon5t p>ts1 ?is ma*9e1 s complex 9 its con/ruction1 & s wond]fully end[$1 may be r$uc$ to ?is /ate ( simplicity2 & al?\gh ?is analytical view ( x be highly useful 9 enabl+ u to =m a cle> conception ( ! nature ( its composition2 yet x is only by consid]+ its individual p>ts su* z !y actually are1 & by /udy+ _! situation1 connexion1 /ructure1 & action1 t we c und]/& x z a :ole1 & apply our k ( x to any practical use4 #ef4 ,view+ !n ! human body z a complicat$ :ole1 z a cong]ies ( organs made up ( v>i\s comb9ations ( simple tissues1 x may be obs]v$1 9 ref]5ce to its ext]nal configuration1 t x is r\nd$4 ,?is r\nd$ =m is pr9cipally ow+ to ! l>ge proportion ( fluids :i* ent] into its composition4 ,! r\ndness ( ! face1 limbs1 & entire surface ( ! *ild1 are 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! unequal & irregul> surface ( ! old man1 ^: hum\rs are comp>atively v mu* small] 9 quantity4 #eg4 ,! l5g? ( ! human body exce$s its bread? & ?ickness2 ! degree ( ! excess v>y+ at diff]5t p]iods ( life1 & accord+ to ! peculi> con/itution ( ! individual4 ,9 ! extremities1 ! bones1 muscles1 vessels1 & n]ves1 are especially di/+ui%$ by _! l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxiv4 ,front view ( ! skeleton4 #a4 ! head2 #b4 ! trunk2 #c4 ! sup]ior extremities2 #d4 ! inf]ior extremities4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxv4 ,back view ( ! skeleton4 #a4 ! head2 #b4 ! trunk2 #c4 ! sup]ior extremities2 #d4 ! inf]ior extremities4 #eh4 ,! =m ( ! human body is symmetrical1 t is1 x is capable ( be+ divid$ into two lat]al & correspond+ halves4 ,suppose a m$ian l9e to pass f ! v]tex ( ! head ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! sp9al column 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #a1 #b72 if ! body be well =m$1 x w be divid$ by ?is l9e into two exactly equal & correspond+ portions 7fig4 ,,xxxv4 #a74 ,?is symmetrical disposition ( ! body is n conf9$ to its ext]nal configuration4 ,x is true ( _m ( ! int]nal organs2 b pr9cipally1 z has be5 already /at$1 ( ^? t belong to ! animal life4 ,! bra9 & ! sp9al cord are divisible into two exactly equal halves 7figs4 ,,xlviii4 d1 & ,,xlix4 #a1 #b1 #c72 ! organs ( s5se are d\ble & symmetrical3 ! muscles ( "o side ( ! body exactly correspond to ^? ( ! o!r 7fig4 ,,xxxiii472 ! two h&s & arms & ! two l[] extremities are alike 7figs4 ,,xxxiv41 ,,xxxv472 b = ! mo/ "p1 ! organs ( ! organic life1 ! /oma*1 ! inte/9es1 ! liv]1 ! sple51 = example1 are s+le1 & n symmetrical4 #ei4 ,! human body is divid$ into ?ree great portions1 ! head1 ! trunk1 & ! extremities 7figs4 ,,xxxiv4 & ,,xxxv4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d74 #fj4 ,by ! ,,head is meant all t "p ( ! body :i* is plac$ above ! fir/ bone ( ! neck 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #a74 ,x is ( a sph]oidal figure1 broad] & deep] beh9d ?an be=e1 some:at l an egg 9 %ape1 ) ! broad end beh9d2 x is flatt5$ at its sides 7figs4 ,,xxxv4 #a1 & ,,xxxvi4 #b1 #d74 ,its peculi> figure r5d]s x at once /rong] & m capaci\s ?an x c\ld h be5 _h x possess$ any o!r =m4 ,x is support$ by its base on ! sp9al column1 to :i* x is atta*$ by ! peculi> /ructure t]m$ a jo9t 7fig4 ,,xxxiv471 & fa/5$ by ligam5ts ( exce$+ /r5g?4 #fa4 ,! head conta9s ! c5tral organ ( ! n]v\s sy/em2 ! organs ( ! s5ses1 ) ! exception ( t ( t\*2 & ! organs ( ma/ication4 ,x compreh5ds ! cranium & ! face4 ,bo? are compos$ p>tly ( s(t p>ts1 z ! tegum5ts1 namely1 sk91 fat1 c41 & muscles2 & p>tly ( bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxvi4 #a4 ,frontal bone2 #b4 p>ietal bone2 #c4 occipital bone2 #d4 temporal bone2 #e4 nasal bone2 #f4 mal> bone2 #g4 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #h4 inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxvii4 ,bones ( ! skull1 sep>at$2 front view4 #a4 ,frontal bone2 #b4 portions ( ! p>ietal bones2 #c4 mal> or *eek bones2 #d4 nasal bones2 #e4 sup]ior maxill>y or bones ( ! upp] jaw2 #f4 ! vom]2 #g4 ! inf]ior maxill>y or bone ( ! l[] jaw4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxviii4 ,bones ( ! skull sep>at$2 side view4 #a4 ,frontal bone2 #b4 p>ietal bone2 #c4 occipital bone2 #d4 temporal bone2 #e4 nasal bone2 #f4 mal> bone2 #g4 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #h4 ! unguis2 #i4 ! inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xxxix4 ,bones =m+ ! base ( ! skull2 view$ f ! inside4 #a4 ,occipital bone2 #b4 temporal bones2 #c4 sph5oid bone2 #d4 e?moid bone2 #e4 sup]ior maxill>y bones1 or bones ( ! upp] jaw2 #f4 mal> or *eek bones2 #g4 =am5 magnum4 #fb4 ,! bones ( ! cranium are eight 9 numb]1 six ( :i* are prop] to ! cranium1 & two are common to x & to ! face4 ,! six bones prop] to ! cranium are ! frontal 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #a71 ! two p>ietal 7fig4 ,,xxxvi4 #b71 ! two temporal 7fig4 ,,xxxviii4 #d71 & ! occipital 7fig4 ,,xxxviii4 #c72 ! two common to ! cranium & face are ! e?moidal 7fig4 ,,xxxix4 #d71 & ! sph5oidal 7fig4 ,,xxxix4 #c74 ,! frontal bone =ms ! entire =ep>t ( ! vault 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #a72 ! two p>ietal =m ! upp] & middle "p ( x 7fig4 ,,xxxviii4 #b72 ! two temporal =m ! l[] "p ( ! sides 7fig4 ,,xxxviii4 #d72 ! occipital =ms ! :ole h9d] "p1 toge!r ) a portion ( ! base 7figs4 ,,xxxviii4 #c1 ,,xxxvi4 #c1 ,,xxxix4 #a72 :ile ! e?moidal =ms ! =ep>t1 & ! sph5oidal ! middle "p ( ! base 7fig4 ,,xxxix4 #c1 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xl4 #b #a ,portions ( ! bones ( ! cranium2 %[+ ! correspond+ inequalities 9 _! m>g9s3 :i* m>g9s1 :5 9 apposition1 con/itute ! mode ( union t]m$ suture4 #a4 ,ext]nal surface ( ! bone2 #b4 int]nal surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xli4 #a ,fig4 ,,xlii4 #b #a4 ,side view ( ! adult skull1 %[+ ! sev]al bones unit$ by suture2 #b4 side view ( ! ftal skull1 %[+ ! bones imp]fectly ossifi$1 sep>at$ to "s ext5t f ea* o!r1 ! int]space be+ occupi$ by membrane4 ,! small size ( ! face comp>$ ) t ( ! cranium is /rik+ly app>5t4 #fc4 ,^! bones are firmly unit$ toge!r4 ,! union ( bones is te*nically call$ an articulation or jo9t4 ,all jo9ts are ei!r immoveable or moveable4 ,! union ( ! bones ( ! cranium af=ds an example ( an immoveable articulation4 ,prom95ces & ind5tations1 l ! tee? ( a saw1 are =m$ 9 ! m>g9s ( ! contigu\s bones 7figs4 ,,xxxviii4 & ,,xl474 ,at ^! inequalities ( surface1 :i* are exactly adapt$ to ea* o!r 7figs4 ,,xxxviii4 & ,,xl471 ! two bones are 9 imm$iate apposition 9 su* a mann] z to preclude ! possibility ( motion1 & ev5 to r5d] ! sep>ation extremely difficult4 ,?is mode ( articulation is t]m$ a suture4 ,!re are c]ta9 advantages 9 con/ruct+ ! cranium ( sev]al di/9ct bones1 & 9 unit+ !m 9 ?is peculi> mode4 #a4 ,! walls ( ! vault are /rong] ?an !y c\ld h be5 _h !y be5 =m$ ( a s+le piece4 #b4 ,9 ! ftus1 ! bones are at "s di/ance f ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,xlii472 at bir?1 !y yield & ov]lap "o ano!r2 & 9 ?is mann] !y conduce to ! security & ease ( t ev5t4 #c4 ,m9ute vessels pass abundantly & securely ?r\gh ! int]/ices ( ! sutures to & f ! int]ior ( ! cranium2 9 ?is mann]1 a free communication is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! vessels )9 & )\t ?is cavity4 #d4 ,x is probable t ! %ock produc$ by ext]nal viol5ce is dim9i%$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! int]ruption ( ! vibration occasion$ by ! suture2 x is c]ta9 t fracture is prev5t$ by x f ext5d+ z f> z x w\ld d 9 "o cont9u$ bony sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xliii4 ,section ( ! skull4 #a4 ,cavity ( ! cranium occupi$ by ! bra92 #b4 cut edge ( ! bones ( ! cranium1 %[+ ! two tables ( compact bone & ! int]v5+ spongy texture call$ diplo4 #fd4 ,! vault ( ! cranium =ms a cavity :i* conta9s ! bra9 7fig4 ,,xliii4 & ,,xlviii47 ,! size ( ?is cavity is inv>iably proportion$ to t ( ! organ x lodges & protects4 ,! =m & magnitude ( ! cavity1 & consequ5tly ! %ape & size ( ! cranium1 dep5d ^u ! bra91 & n ( ! bra9 ^u ! cranium4 ,! s(t p>ts model & adapt to !mselves ! h>d1 & n ! h>d ! s(t4 ,! =mation ( ! bra9 9 ! ftus is ant]ior to t ( ! case :i* ultimately conta9s x2 & ! h>d bone is m\ld$ ^u ! s(t pulp1 n ! pulp ^u ! bone4 ,at e p]iod ( life1 on ! inn] surface ( ! cranium !re are visible impressions made by ! convolutions ( ! bra91 & ! ramifications ( ! art]ies 7figs4 ,,xxxix4 #a1 #b1 & ,,xl4 #b71 & on its ext]nal surface are depressions occasion$ by ! action ( ! ext]nal muscles4 ,nor does ! modify+ p[] ( ! bra9 ov] ! bones ( ! cranium t]m9ate at bir?4 ,! =mation ( bone1 always a sl[ process1 is nev] complet$ until ! *ild has atta9$ its ?ird or f\r? ye>1 & (t5 n until a mu* lat] p]iod4 ,at ?is t5d] age1 ! bones1 :i* 9 advanc$ life are h>d & rigid1 are comp>atively s(t & yield+1 & consequ5tly m readily receive & reta9 ! impression ( ! convolutions & ( ! o!r project+ p>ts ( ! bra91 by :i* !y are sometimes s deeply m>k$1 t an att5tive exam9ation ( ! inn] surface ( ! cranium is ( itself suffici5t to det]m9e n only t "s "p1 b to indicate ! v "p ( ! bra9 :i* has be5 pret]naturally active4 ,at ?is t5d] age1 pressure1 int]nal or ext]nal1 g5]al or p>tial1 may readily *ange ! =m ( ! cranium4 ,if1 by a p>ticul> po/ure1 ! head ( a *ild be unequally balanc$ on ! sp9e1 ! bra9 w press m on t side ( ! cranium ?an on ! o!r2 ! organ w exp& 9 ! direction to :i* x incl9es2 t portion ( x w become pret]naturally develop$1 & consequ5tly ! balance ( its functions w be di/urb$4 ,an awkw>d way ( /&+ or sitt+1 p]haps contract$ inadv]t5tly & kept up by habit2 a wry neck2 any cause t keeps ! head con/antly incl9$ to "o side1 may produce ?is result1 examples ( :i* & ( its consequ5ces w be giv5 h]eaft]4 #fe4 ,trac+ !m f )\t inw>ds we see1 !n1 t ! v>i\s cov]+s af=d$ to ! bra91 ! c5tral organ ( ! animal life1 seat$ 9 its vault$ cavity1 are3 #a4 ,! tegum5t1 consi/+ ( ! sk9 & ( cellul> & adipose membrane4 #b4 ,b5ea? ! tegum5t1 muscles1 9 ! =ep>t & at ! v]tex1 comp>atively sl5d] & delicate2 at ! sides & po/]iorly1 ?ick1 /rong1 & p[]ful 7fig4 ,,xliv474 #c4 ,b5ea? ! muscles1 a ?9 b d5se membrane1 t]m$ ! p]icranium1 l9+ ! ext]nal surface ( ! cranial bones4 #d4 ,b5ea? ! p]icranium1 ! bony sub/ance ( ! cranium1 consi/+ ( two firm & h>d bony plates1 ) a spongy1 bony /ructure1 call$ diplo1 int]pos$ betwe5 !m 7fig4 ,,xliii4 #b74 #e4 ,imm$iately 9 contact ) ! inn] surface ( ! bony sub/ance ( ! cranium1 & =m+ its int]nal l9+1 ! d5se & /rong membrane1 call$ ! dura mat]1 n only af=d+ a g5]al cov]+ to ! bra91 b s5d+ firm p>titions betwe5 individual portions ( x 7fig4 ,,xlviii4 c474 #f4 ,a s]\s membrane l9+ ! int]nal surface ( ! dura mat]1 & reflect$ ov] ! entire surface ( ! bra91 t]m$ ! ara*noid tunic4 #g4 ,a ?9 & delicate membrane 9 imm$iate contact ) ! sub/ance ( ! bra91 desc5d+ betwe5 all its convolutions1 l9+ all its cavities & envelop+ all its fibres1 call$ ! pia mat]4 #h4 ,an aque\s fluid1 conta9$ betwe5 ! ara*noid membrane & ! pia mat]4 ,sk91 muscle1 p]icranium1 bone1 dura mat]1 ara*noid membrane1 pia mat]1 & aque\s fluid1 sup]impos$ "o ^u ano!r1 =m1 !n1 ! cov]+ & def5ce ( ! bra92 s great is ! c>e tak5 to protect ?is s(t & t5d] sub/ance4 #ff4 ,! bones ( ! face consi/ ( f\rte51 namely1 ! two sup]ior maxill>y or jaw-bones 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #e71 ! two mal> or *eek bones 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #c71 ! two nasal bones 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #d71 ! two palate bones1 ! two ossa unguis 7fig4 ,,xxxviii4 #h71 ! two inf]ior turb9at$ bones1 ! vom] 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #f71 & ! inf]ior maxilla or ! l[] jaw 7fig4 ,,xxxvii4 #g47 ,?is irregul> pile ( bones is divid$ into ! sup]ior & inf]ior maxilla or jaws2 ! sup]ior maxilla be+ ! upp] & immoveable portion ( ! face2 ! inf]ior maxilla be+ ! l[] & moveable portion ( x4 ,besides ^! bones1 ! face conta9s ?irty-two tee?1 sixte5 9 ea* jaw4 ,! bones ( ! upp] jaw are unit$ toge!r by sutures1 & ! union is s firm1 t !y h no motion b :at !y possess 9 common ) ! cranium4 ,! l[] jaw is unit$ by a di/9ct articulation ) ! cranium 7figs4 ,,xxxiv4 & ,,xxxv474 #fg4 ,besides ! bones & ! tegum5ts1 ! face conta9s a numb] ( muscles1 :i* = ! mo/ "p are small & delicate 7fig4 ,,xliv471 toge!r ) a consid]able portion ( adipose matt]2 :ile1 z has be5 /at$1 ! face & head toge!r conta9 all ! s5ses1 ) ! exception ( t ( t\*1 :i* is diffus$1 m or less1 ov] ! entire surface ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xliv4 ,muscles ( ! face4 #fh4 ,! second great division ( ! body1 t]m$ ! ,,trunk1 ext5ds f ! fir/ bone ( ! neck to t call$ ! pubis 9 front1 & to ! l[] end ( ! coccyx beh9d 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #b74 ,x is subdivid$ into ! ?orax1 ! abdom51 & ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv474 #fi4 ,! ?orax or *e/ ext5ds above f ! fir/ bone ( ! neck1 by :i* x is connect$ ) ! head1 to ! diaphragm bel[1 by :i* x is divid$ f ! abdom5 7figs4 ,,xlv4 & ,,lxi474 ,x consi/s p>tly ( muscles & p>tly ( bones2 ! muscul> & ! osse\s portions be+ 9 ne>ly equal proportions4 ,bo? toge!r =m ! walls ( a cavity 9 :i* are plac$ ! c5tral organs ( circulation & respiration 7fig4 ,,lx4 #b1 #e74 ,! *ief b\nd>ies ( ! cavity ( ! ?orax be=e1 beh9d1 & at ! sides1 are osse\s 7fig4 ,,xlv472 be+ =m$ be=e1 by ! /]num or brea/-bone 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #f72 beh9d1 by ! sp9al column or back bone 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d72 & at ! sides1 by ! ribs 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g74 ,bel[1 ! b\nd>y is muscul>1 be+ =m$ by ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b71 :ile above ! ?orax is s mu* contract$ 7fig4 ,,xlv471 t !re is m]ely a space left = ! passage ( c]ta9 p>ts :i* w be notic$ imm$iately4 #gj4 ,! figure ( ! ?orax is t ( a cone1 ! apex be+ above 7fig4 ,,xlv471 ?r\gh ! ap]ture ( :i* pass ! tubes t lead to ! lungs & /oma*1 & ! great blood-vessels t g to & f ! he>t 7fig4 ,,lx474 ,! base ( ! cone is slant+1 & is consid]ably %ort] be=e ?an beh9d1 l an oblique section ( ! cone 7fig4 ,,xlv474 #ga4 ,! osse\s portion ( ! walls ( ! ?orax is =m$ beh9d by ! sp9al column1 a range ( bones common inde$ to all ! divisions ( ! trunk2 = x con/itutes alike ! po/]ior b\nd>y ( ! ?orax1 abdom51 & pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d1 #f74 ,x is compos$ ( ?irty di/9ct bones1 tw5ty-f\r ( :i* are sep>ate & moveable on "o ano!r1 & on ?is acc\nt are call$ true v]tebr 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d72 ! o!r five1 ?\gh sep>ate at an e>ly p]iod ( life1 are subsequ5tly unit$ into a s+le solid piece1 call$ ! sacrum 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e74 ,! bones compos+ ?is solid piece1 z !y admit ( no motion on ea* o!r1 are call$ false v]tebr 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e74 ,to ! extremity ( ! sacrum is atta*$ ! la/ bone ( ! s]ies1 t]m$ ! coccyx 7fig4 ,,xxxv474 #gb4 ,f above d[nw>ds1 t is1 f ! fir/ bone ( ! neck to ! fir/ bone ( ! sacrum1 ! sep>ate bones =m+ ! column progressively increase 9 size2 = ?is column is ! *ief support ( ! weight ( ! head & trunk1 & ?is weight is progressively augm5t+ to ?is po9t 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d74 ,f ! sacrum to ! coccyx1 ! bones successively dim9i% 9 size1 until1 at ! extremity ( ! coccyx1 !y come to a po9t 7fig4 ,,xxxv474 ,! sp9al column may !re=e be said to consi/ ( two pyramids unit$ at _! base 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #d1 #e74 ,! sup]ior pyramid is equal 9 l5g? to ab\t "o ?ird ( ! height ( ! body1 & x is ?is portion ( ! column only t is moveable4 #gc4 ,! two surfaces ( ! sp9al column1 ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior1 pres5t a /rik+ contra/ 7figs4 ,,xxxiv4 & ,,xxxv474 ,! ant]ior surface1 :i* 9 its :ole ext5t is r\nd$ & smoo?1 is broad 9 ! region ( ! neck1 n>r[ 9 ! region ( ! back1 & aga9 broad 9 ! region ( ! lo9s 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d474 ,x pres5ts ?ree curvatures 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d72 ! convexity ( t ( ! neck be+ =w>ds1 t ( ! back backw>ds1 & t ( ! lo9s aga9 =w>ds 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d74 #gd4 ,f ! po/]ior surface ( ! column1 :i* is e :]e irregul> & r\gh1 spr+1 along ! m$ian l9e1 9 regul> s]ies1 /rong1 %>p1 & po9t$ projections ( bone 7fig4 ,,xxxv471 :i* f be+ %>p & po9t$1 l elongat$ sp9es1 are call$ sp9\s processes1 & h giv5 "n to ! :ole *a9 ( bones4 ,^! processes af=d fix$ po9ts = ! action ( p[]ful muscles4 ,ext5d+ ! :ole l5g? ( ! column1 f ! base ( ! skull to ! sacrum1 on ea* side ( ! sp9\s processes1 are deep excavations1 :i* are fill$ up ) ! p[]ful muscles t ma9ta9 ! trunk ( ! body erect4 #ge4 ,f ! lat]al surfaces ( ! column likewise spr+ %ort b /rong projections ( bone1 t]m$ transv]se processes1 :i* also give atta*m5t to p[]ful muscles 7fig4 ,,xlvi474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xlv4 ,bones ( ! trunk4 #a4 ,sp9al column2 #b4 ! sev5 c]vical v]tebr2 #c4 ! twelve dorsal v]tebr2 #d4 ! five lumb> v]tebr2 #e4 ! sacrum2 #f4 ! /]num2 #g4 ! true ribs2 #h4 ! false ribs2 #i4 ! clavicle2 #aj4 ! scapula2 #aa4 ! ilium2 #ab4 ! is*ium2 #ac4 ! pubes2 #ad4 ! acetabulum2 #ae4 ! brim ( ! pelvis4 #gf4 ,! sep>ate bones ( ! s]ies h a k9d ( turn+ motion on ea* o!r2 h5ce ea* is call$ a v]tebra1 & ! "n ( v]tebral column is (t5 giv5 to ! entire s]ies1 z well z t ( sp9al column4 ,t portion ( ! column :i* =ms ! neck consi/s ( sev5 di/9ct bones1 call$ c]vical v]tebr 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b72 t portion :i* =ms ! back consi/s ( twelve1 call$ dorsal v]tebr 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #c72 t portion :i* =ms ! lo9s consi/s ( five1 call$ lumb> v]tebr 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #d74 ,betwe5 ea* ( ^! classes ( v]tebr !re are specific diff]5ces1 b !y ne$ n be describ$ "h3 all t is necess>y to ! pres5t purpose is an acc\nt ( ! /ructure :i* is common to e v]tebra4 #gg4 ,by inspect+ fig4 ,,xlvi4 #a1 x w be se5 t ! upp] & "u edges ( ea* v]tebra consi/ ( a r+ ( bone1 ( a firm & compact texture1 r5d]+ :at may be call$ ! body ( ! v]tebra exce$+ly /rong 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #c74 ,?is r+ ( bone =ms a sup]ficial depression 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #b71 = ! reception ( a peculi> sub/ance1 imm$iately to be describ$1 :i* is int]pos$ betwe5 ea* v]tebra 7fig4 ,,xlvii4 #b74 #gh4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! body ( ! v]tebra is convex 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #c72 its po/]ior surface is concave 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #d72 f ! po/]ior surface spr+s a bony ar* 7figs4 ,,xlvi4 #e & ,,liii4 #a71 :i*1 toge!r ) ! po/]ior concavity1 =ms an ap]ture ( consid]able magnitude 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #f71 a portion ( ! canal = ! passage ( ! sp9al cord 7figs4 ,,xlvii4 #c1 & ,,xlix4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xlvi4 ,view ( "s ( ! v]tebr1 :i* by _! union =m ! sp9al column4 a4 ,a v]tebra ( ! neck2 b4 a v]tebra ( ! back2 a v]tebra ( ! lo9s4 #a4 ,r+ ( compact bone =m+1 #c1 ! body ( ! v]tebra2 #b4 sup]ficial depression = ! reception ( ! int]v]tebral c>tilage2 #c4 ant]ior surface ( ! body ( ! v]tebra2 #d4 po/]ior surface2 #e4 bony ar*2 #f4 op5+ = ! passage ( ! sp9al cord2 #g4 op5+ = ! passage ( ! sp9al n]ves2 #h4 articulat+ processes by :i* ! v]tebr are jo9$ to ea* o!r2 #i4 two dorsal v]tebr unit$1 %[+ ! arrangem5t (1 #aj1 ! sp9\s processes2 #aa4 a portion ( a rib articulat$ ) ! side ( ! v]tebra4 #gi4 ,bo? ! upp] & "u edges ( ! ar* =m a not* 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #g471 :i*1 toge!r ) a correspond+ not* 9 ! contigu\s v]tebra1 completes ano!r ap]ture r\nd] & small] ?an ! =m]1 b /ill ( consid]able size 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #g471 ! passage ( ! sp9al n]ves 7fig4 ,,xlvii4 #c74 #hj4 ,f bo? ! upp] & "u sides ( ! ar* proce$ two %ort b /rong projections ( bone 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #h471 t]m$ ! articulat+ processes1 because x is *iefly by ^! processes t ! v]tebr are connect$ toge!r4 ,f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! s]ies1 ! two upp] processes ( ! "o v]tebra are unit$ ) ! two l[] processes ( ! v]tebra imm$iately above x 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #i71 & ar\nd ! edges ( all ! articulat+ processes are visible r\gh l9es1 :i* m>k ! places to :i* ! articulat+ ligam5ts are atta*$4 #ha4 ,no v]tebra1 except ! fir/1 re/s imm$iately ^u its contigu\s v]tebra 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d74 ,ea* is sep>at$ f its fell[ by a sub/ance ( a peculi> nature int]pos$ betwe5 !m1 t]m$ ! int]v]tebral sub/ance 7figs4 ,,xlvii4 #b1 & ,l4 #b74 ,?is sub/ance p>takes p>tly ( ! nature ( c>tilage1 & p>tly ( t ( ligam5t4 ,x is compos$ ( conc5tric plates1 =m$ ( oblique fibres :i* int]sect ea* o!r 9 e direction4 ,?is sub/ance1 = ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* f its circumf]5ce t[>ds its c5tre1 is t\gh1 /rong1 & unyield+2 !n x becomes s(t]1 & is manife/ly ela/ic2 & s x cont9ues until x approa*es ! c5tre1 :5 x becomes pulpy1 & is aga9 inela/ic4 ,! ext]ior t\gh & unyield+ matt] is = ! firmness ( ! connexion ( ! sev]al v]tebr ) ea* o!r2 ! int]ior s(t] & ela/ic matt] is = ! easy play ( ! v]tebr ^u ea* o!r2 ! "o = security1 ! o!r = pliancy4 ,& ! adju/m5t ( ! "o to ! o!r is su* z to comb9e ^! prop]ties 9 a p]fect1 mann]4 ,! quantity ( ! unyield+ sub/ance is n s great z to produce rigidity2 ! quantity ( ! ela/ic sub/ance is n s great z to occasion insecurity4 ,! firm union ( its solid matt] r5d]s ! entire column /rong2 ! aggregate ela/icity ( its s(t] sub/ance r5d]s x spr+y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xlvii4 #a4 ,"o ( ! ,lumb> v]tebr4 #b4 ,int]v]tebral sub/ance4 #c4 ,a portion ( ! sp9al cord 9 its canal4 #hb4 ,! column is n con/ruct$ 9 su* a mann] z to admit ( an equal degree ( motion 9 e "p ( x4 ,e ?+ is contriv$ to give to t portion :i* belongs to ! neck fre$om ( motion1 &1 on ! contr>y1 to r5d] t portion :i* belongs to ! back comp>atively fix$4 ,9 ! neck ! me*anism ( ! articulat+ processes is su* z to admit ( an equal degree ( slid+ motion =w>ds1 backw>ds1 & f side to side1 toge!r ) a turn+ motion ( "o bone ^u ano!r2 at ! same "t1 ! int]v]tebral sub/ance betwe5 ! sev]al v]tebr is ?ick4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is me*anism1 we c t\* ! brea/ ) ! *91 ! back ) ! h9d head1 & ! %\ld]s ) ! e>1 :ile we c make ! head describe m ?an a semicircle4 ,b1 9 ! back1 ! articulat+ processes are s connect$ z to prev5t ! possibility ( any motion1 ei!r =w>ds or backw>ds1 or any turn+ ( "o v]tebra ^u ano!r1 :ile ! int]v]tebral sub/ance is comp>atively ?9 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d74 ,t portion ( ! column :i* belongs to ! back is int5d$ to af=d a fix$ support = ! ribs1 a support :i* is indisp5sable to _! action 9 ! function ( respiration4 ,9 ! lo9s1 ! articulat+ processes are s connect$ z to admit ( a consid]able degree ( motion 9 ! horizontal direction1 & f side to side1 & ! int]v]tebral sub/ance "h progressively increases 9 ?ickness to ! po9t at :i* ! upp] portion ( ! column is unit$ to ! sacrum 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b1 #d71 :]e ! degree ( motion is ext5sive4 #hc4 ,! canal = ! sp9al cord1 =m$ p>tly by ! concavity 9 ! po/]ior surface ( ! v]tebra1 & p>tly by ! ar* t spr+s f x 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #f471 is l9$ by a cont9uation ( ! d5se & /rong membrane t con/itutes ! int]nal p]io/eum ( ! cranium1 ! dura mat] 7fig4 ,,xlviii4 c71 :i*1 pass+ out ( ! op5+ 9 ! occipital bone1 call$ ! =am5 magnum 7figs4 ,,xxxix4 #g1 & ,,xlix4 #c71 af=ds a smoo? cov]+ to ! canal ?r\gh\t its :ole ext5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xlviii4 a4 ,! scalp1 turn$ d[n4 b4 ,! cut edge ( ! bones ( ! skull4 c4 ,! ext]nal /rong membrane ( ! bra9 7,dura ,mat]7 susp5d$ by a hook4 d4 ,! left hemisph]e ( ! bra91 %[+ its convolutions4 e4 ,! sup]ior edge ( ! "r hemisph]e4 f4 ,! fissure betwe5 ! two hemisph]es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xlix4 #a4 ,hemisph]es ( ! bra9 prop]1 or c]ebrum2 #b4 hemisph]es ( ! small] bra91 or c]ebellum2 #c4 sp9al cord cont9u\s ) ! bra91 & ! sp9al n]ves proce$+ f x on ea* side4 #hd4 ,! sp9al cord itself1 cont9u\s ) ! sub/ance ( ! bra91 passes also out ( ! cranium ?r\gh ! =am5 magnum into ! sp9al canal 7fig4 ,,xlix4 #c71 envelop$ 9 ! delicate membranes t cov] x1 & surr\nd$ by ! aque\s fluid conta9$ betwe5 ^? membranes4 ,! size ( ! sp9al canal1 accurately adapt$ to t ( ! sp9al cord1 :i* x lodges & protects1 is ( consid]able size1 & ( a triangul> %ape 9 its c]vical portion 7fig4 ,,xlix4 #c71 small] & r\nd$ 9 its dorsal portion 7fig4 ,,xlix4 #c71 & aga9 l>ge & triangul> 9 its lumb> portion 7fig4 ,,xlix4 #c74 #he4 ,! sp9al column p]=ms sev]al diff]5t1 & app>5tly incompatible1 (fices4 ,fir/1 x af=ds a support & buttress to o!r bones4 ,x su/a9s ! head 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #a72 x is a buttress to ! ribs 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #g72 ?r\gh ! /]num & ribs x is also a buttress to ! sup]ior1 & ?r\gh ! pelvis1 to ! l[]1 extremities 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #b1 #c1 #d74 ,secondly1 x af=ds a support to p[]ful muscles1 p>tly to ^? t ma9ta9 ! trunk ( ! body 9 ! erect po/ure aga9/ ! =ce ( gravitation1 & p>tly to ^? t act ^u ! sup]ior & inf]ior extremities 9 ! v>i$1 en]getic1 & sometimes long-cont9u$ movem5ts !y execute4 ,?irdly1 x =ms "o ( ! b\nd>ies ( ! great cavities t conta9 ! *ief organs ( ! organic life4 ,to ! support & protection ( ^? organs x is specially adapt$2 h5ce ! surface 9 imm$iate contact ) !m is ev5 & smoo?2 h5ce its diff]5t curvatures1 convexities1 & concavities1 h all ref]5ce to _! accommodation2 h5ce 9 ! neck x is convex 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #b71 9 ord] to af=d a firm support to ! esophagus1 ! w9d-pipe1 ! aorta1 & ! great trunks ( ! v5\s sy/em 7fig4 ,,lx4 #c1 #d72 9 ! back x is concave1 9 ord] to enl>ge ! space = ! dilatation ( ! lung 9 ! act ( inspiration 7figs4 ,,xlv4 #c1 & ,,lx4 #e72 9 ! lo9s x is convex1 9 ord] to su/a9 & fix ! loose & float+ visc]a ( ! abdom5 7figs4 ,,xlv4 #d1 & ,,lx4 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i72 9 ! pelvis x is concave1 9 ord] to enl>ge ! space = lodg+ ! num]\s delicate & highly-important organs conta9$ 9 t cavity 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e74 ,f\r?ly1 x =ms ! osse\s walls ( a canal 7figs4 ,,xlvi4 #f1 & ,,xlvii4 #c7 = ! lodgm5t & protection ( ! s(t & t5d] sub/ance ( ! sp9al cord1 "o ( ! great c5tral masses ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! seat ( ! animal life 7fig4 ,,xlix4 #c74 ,fif?ly1 x af=ds 9 its osse\s walls secure ap]tures = ! passage ( ! sp9al n]ves 7figs4 ,,xlvi4 #g1 & ,,xlix4 #c71 by :i* impressions are transmitt$ f ! organs to ! sp9al cord & bra91 9 ! function ( s5sation2 & f ! sp9al cord & bra9 to ! organs 9 ! function ( volition4 #hf4 ,= ! due p]=mance ( ^! (fices1 x is indisp5sable t x %\ld be firm1 rigid1 /rong1 & yet to a c]ta9 ext5t readily flexible 9 e direction4 ,by :at me*anism is x end[$ ) ^! app>5tly incompatible prop]ties8 #hg4 ,by means ( ! r+ ( compact bone1 :i* =ms s l>ge a "p ( its body 7fig4 ,,xlvi4 #a7 x is r5d]$ firm1 rigid1 & /rong4 ,by means ( its num]\s sep>ate pieces1 exactly adju/$ to ea* o!r1 & dove-tail$ into "o ano!r1 an increase ( /r5g? is ga9$1 su* z x w\ld n h be5 possible to communicate to a s+le solid piece4 ,by ! same me*anism1 "s degree ( flexibility is also obta9$2 ea* sep>ate bone yield+ to "s ext5t1 :i*1 ?\gh slight 9 a s+le bone1 becomes consid]able 9 ! tw5ty-f\r4 #hh4 ,b ! flexibility requir$ is mu* great] ?an c\ld be obta9$ by ?is exp$i5t alone4 ,a rigid & immoveable pile ( bones1 9 ! position ( ! sp9al column1 on :i* all ! o!r p>ts ( ! body re/1 & to :i* !y are directly or indirectly atta*$1 w\ld necess>ily h r5d]$ all its movem5ts /iff & me*anical2 & e movem5t ( e k9d impossible1 b 9 a giv5 direction4 ,t ! movem5ts ( ! body may be easy1 free1 & v>i$2 t x may be possible to br+ into play new & complex comb9ations ( motion at any in/ant1 ) ! rapidity ( ! *anges ( ?\ght1 at ! comm& ( ! impulses ( feel+1 x is indisp5sable t ! sp9al column be flexible 9 e direction1 =w>ds1 backw>ds1 & at ! sides3 x is equally indisp5sable t x be ?us capable ( yield+1 )\t injur+ ! sp9al cord2 )\t injur+ ! sp9al n]ves2 )\t injur+ ! ?oracic & abdom9al visc]a2 & )\t injur+ ! muscles ( ! trunk & extremities4 ,! degree 9 :i* x possesses ?is p[] ( flexibility1 & ! ext5t to :i*1 by ! cultivation ( x1 x is sometimes actually br\ght1 is exemplifi$ 9 ! positions & contortions ( ! po/ure-ma/] & ! tumbl]4 ,x is acquir$ by means ( ! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 ! compressible & ela/ic matt] int]pos$ betwe5 ! sev]al v]tebr4 ,s compressible is ?is sub/ance1 t ! human body is half an in* %ort] 9 ! ev5+ ?an 9 ! morn+1 hav+ lo/ by ! ex]tions ( ! day s mu* ( its /ature2 yet1 s ela/ic is ?is matt]1 t ! /ature lo/ dur+ ! day is rega9$ by ! repose ( ! night4 ,! weight ( ! body press+ 9 all directions ^u ! sp9al column2 muscles1 bones1 c>tilages1 ligam5ts1 membranes1 ) all _! vessels & all ! fluids conta9$ 9 !m2 ! weight ( all ^! compon5t p>ts ( ! head1 trunk1 & extremities1 press+1 )\t ! cessation ( an in/ant1 dur+ all ! h\rs ( vigilance1 ^u ! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 compresses x2 b ?is weight1 be+ tak5 (f dur+ ! night1 by ! recumb5t po/ure ( ! body1 ! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 9 consequ5ce ( its ela/icity1 rega9s its orig9al bulk1 & ( c\rse ! sp9al column its orig9al l5g?4 #hi4 ,b ! flexibility acquir$ ?r\gh ! comb9$ prop]ties ( compressibility & ela/icity is exce$+ly increas$ by ! action ( ! pulpy & inela/ic matt] 9 ! c5tre ( ! int]v]tebral sub/ance2 ?is matt] s]v+ z a pivot to ! v]tebr1 facilitat+ _! motion on ea* o!r4 ,its effect has be5 comp>$ to t ( a bladd] p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 plac$ betwe5 two tr5*]s2 9 ?is case1 ! approximation ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! two tr5*]s on "o side1 w\ld in/antly displace a portion ( ! wat] on t side1 :i* w\ld occupy ! increas+ space on ! o!r1 ) ! effect ( facilitat+ ! *ange1 9 e possible direction1 ( ! position ( ! two tr5*]s 9 relation to ea* o!r4 ,to ?is effect1 h[ev]1 x is indisp5sable t ! matt] imm$iately ar\nd ?is c5tral pivot %\ld be1 n l itself1 rigid & unyield+1 b compressible & ela/ic4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 t s9ce ?is illu/ration 0 sugge/$1 x has be5 discov]$ t ?is v arrangem5t is actually adopt$ 9 ! animal body4 ,9 c]ta9 animals1 9 ! v c5tre ( _! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 !re has be5 actually f\nd a bag ( wat]1 ) a sub/ance imm$iately surr\nd+ ! bag1 s exce$+ly ela/ic1 t :5 ! bag is cut1 ! fluid conta9$ 9 x is project$ to ! height ( sev]al feet 9 a p]p5dicul> /ream4 #ij4 ,b besides secur+ fre$om & ext5t ( motion1 ! int]v]tebral sub/ance s]ves /ill ano!r purpose1 :i* well des]ves att5tion4 ,firmness & /r5g? are indisp5sable to ! fundam5tal (fices p]=m$ by ! column2 & to end[ x ) ^! prop]ties1 we h se5 t ! ext]nal conc5tric lay]s ( ! int]v]tebral sub/ance are exce$+ly t\gh & t !y are atta*$ to ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 :i* are compos$ ( d5se & compact bone4 ,b ?an d5se & compact bone1 no?+ c be conceiv$ bett] calculat$ to receive & transmit a %ock or j> on ! application ( any degree ( =ce to ! column4 ,yet su* =ce mu/ necess>ily be appli$ to x 9 e direction1 f _m po9ts ( ! body1 dur+ almo/ e mom5t ( ! day2 & did x actually produce a correspond+ %ock1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be fatal3 ! sp9al cord & bra9 w\ld be inevitably kill$2 = ! dea? ( ^! t5d] & delicate sub/ances may be produc$ by a viol5t j>1 al?\gh n a p>ticle ( ! sub/ances !mselves be t\*$4 ,a bl[ on ! head may de/roy life in/antane\sly1 by :at is t]m$ concussion2 t is1 by ! communication ( a %ock to ! bra9 ?r\gh ! bones ( ! cranium4 ,! bra9 is kill$2 b on c>eful exam9ation ( ! c]ebral sub/ance aft] dea?1 n ! slighte/ morbid appe>ance c be detect$3 dea? is occasion$ m]ely by ! j>4 ,a special provision is made aga9/ ?is evil1 9 ! /ructure ( ! bones ( ! cranium1 by ! int]position betwe5 its two compact plates ( ! spongy sub/ance call$ diplo 7fig4 ,,xliii4 #b72 & ?is is suffici5t to prev5t mis*ief 9 ord9>y cases4 ,a great degree ( viol5ce appli$ directly to ! head is n common3 :5 x occurs x is accid5tal3 ?\s&s ( p pass ?r\gh life )\t ev] hav+ suff]$ f x on a s+le occasion3 b e h\r1 9 ! ord9>y movem5ts ( ! body1 & mu* m 9 ! viol5t movem5ts :i* x occasionally makes1 a degree ( =ce is appli$ to ! sp9al column1 & ?r\gh x transmitt$ to ! head1 su* z1 did x produce a proportionate %ock1 w\ld inevitably & in/antly de/roy bo? sp9al cord & bra94 ,! evil is obviat$ p>tly by ! ela/ic1 & p>tly by ! non ela/ic prop]ties ( ! matt] int]pos$ betwe5 ! sev]al lay]s ( compact bone4 ,by means ( ! ela/ic prop]ty ( ?is matt]1 ! head rides ^u ! summit ( ! column z ^u a pliant spr+1 :ile ! canal ( ! sp9al cord rema9s secure & un9vad$4 ,by means ( ! s(t & pulpy portion ( ?is matt]1 ! vibrations excit$ 9 ! compact bone are absorb$ po9t by po9t z !y are produc$3 z _m lay]s ( ?is s(t & pulpy sub/ance1 s _m po9ts ( absorption ( ! tremors excit$ 9 ! compact bone2 s _m b>ri]s aga9/ ! possibility ( ! transmission ( a %ock to ! delicate n]v\s sub/ance4 #ia4 ,alike admirable is ! me*anism by :i* ! sep>ate pieces ( ! column are jo9$ toge!r4 ,if b "o ( ! bones 7 to slip (f its correspond+ bone1 or to be displac$ 9 any degree1 incurable p>alysis1 foll[$ ultimately by dea?1 or in/antane\s dea?1 w\ld happ52 = pressure on ! sp9al cord 9 a c]ta9 "p ( its c\rse is incompatible ) ! p[] ( volunt>y motion1 & ) ! cont9uance ( life = any protract$ t]m2 & 9 ano!r "p ( its c\rse1 ) ! ma9t5ance ( life beyond a few mom5ts4 ,to prev5t su* consequ5ces1 s great is ! /r5g?1 s p]fect ! atta*m5t1 s unconqu]able ! resi/ance ( t portion ( ! int]v]tebral sub/ance :i* surr\nds ! edge ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 t x w all[ ! bone itself to give way r ?an yield4 ,yet su* is ! importance ( security to ?is portion ( ! frame1 t x is n tru/$ to "o exp$i5t alone1 adequate z t might seem4 ,besides ! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 !re is ano!r di/9ct provision = ! articulation ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr4 ,comm5c+ at ! second c]vical v]tebra1 9 its =e "p1 & ext5d+ ! :ole l5g? ( ! column to ! sacrum1 is a p[]ful ligam5t1 compos$ ( num]\s di/9ct longitud9al fibres 7fig4 ,l471 :i* are p>ticul>ly exp&$ ov] ! int]vals betwe5 ! bones occupi$ by ! int]v]tebral sub/ance 7figs4 ,l4 #a1 & ,,li4 #b1 #b74 ,?is ligam5t is t]m$ ! common ant]ior v]tebral1 b5ea? :i*1 if x be rais$ f ! int]v]tebral sub/ance1 may be se5 small decussat+ fibres1 pass+ f ! l[] edge ( ! v]tebra above1 to ! upp] edge ( ! v]tebra bel[ 7fig4 ,l4 #c71 f :i* circum/ance ^! fibres are t]m$ crucial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,l4 #a4 ,common ant]ior ligam5t2 #b4 int]v]tebral sub/ance4 ,! ant]ior ligam5t is remov$ to exhibit 7#c47 ! crucial fibres pass+ ov] x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,li4 #a4 ,portion ( ! occipital bone2 #b4 common ant]ior ligam5t4 #ib4 ,correspond+ ) ! ligam5t on ! ant]ior1 is ano!r on ! po/]ior "p ( ! sp9e 7fig4 ,,lii4 #a71 :i* takes its orig9 f ! =am5 magnum 7fig4 ,,lii4 #a72 desc5ds f !nce1 )9 ! v]tebral canal1 on ! po/]ior surface ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebra 7fig4 ,,lii4 #a71 & ext5ds to ! sacrum4 ,?is ligam5t is t]m$ ! common po/]ior v]tebral1 :i*1 besides add+ to ! /r5g? ( ! union ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 prev5ts ! column itself f be+ b5t too mu* =w>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lii4 #a4 ,po/]ior v]tebral ligam5t4 #ic4 ,moreov]1 ! bony ar*es ( ! v]tebr 7fig4 ,,liii4 #a7 are connect$ by means ( a sub/ance p>tly ligam5t\s1 & p>tly c>tilag9\s 7fig4 ,,liii4 #b71 :i*1 :ile x is extremely ela/ic1 is capable ( resi/+ an extraord9>y degree ( =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,liii4 #a4 ,ar*es ( ! v]tebr se5 f )92 #b4 ligam5ts connect+ !m4 #id4 ,& 9 ! la/ place1 ! articul> processes =m s _m di/9ct jo9ts1 ea* be+ furni%$ ) all ! app>atus ( a moveable jo9t1 & ?us possess+ ! ord9>y provision = ! articulation ( bones1 9 addition to ! :ole ( ! =ego+ securities4 #ie4 ,9 ! mo/ ext5sive motion ( :i* ! sp9al column is capable1 t ( flexion1 ! common ant]ior ligam5t is relax$2 ! =e "p ( ! int]v]tebral sub/ance is compress$1 & its back "p /ret*$2 :ile ! common po/]ior ligam5t is 9 a /ate ( ext5sion4 ,9 ! ext5sion ( ! column ! /ate ( ! ligam5ts is rev]s$2 ^? :i* 7 ext5d$ be+ 9 _! turn relax$1 :ile ! common ant]ior v]tebral is n[ put ^u ! /ret*4 ,9 ! lat]al incl9ation ( ! column1 ! int]v]tebral sub/ance is compress$ on t side to :i* ! body is b5t4 ,9 ! rotatory motion ( ! column1 :i* is v limit$ 9 all ! v]tebr1 b m p>ticul>ly 9 ! dorsal1 9 consequ5ce ( _! atta*m5t to ! ribs1 ! int]v]tebral sub/ance is contort$1 z are likewise all ! ligam5ts4 ,all ! motions ( ! column are capable ( be+ aid$ to a great ext5t by ! motion ( ! pelvis ^u ! ?ighs4 #if4 ,! numb] & bread? ( ! atta*m5ts ( ^! bones1 says an accompli%$ anatomi/ & surgeon1#d _! firm union by ligam5t1 ! /r5g? ( _! muscles1 ! v inconsid]able degree ( motion :i* exi/s betwe5 any two ( !m1 & la/ly1 ! obliquity ( _! articul> processes1 especially 9 ! dorsal & lumb> v]tebr1 r5d] dislocation ( !m1 at lea/ 9 ^? regions1 impossible )\t fracture2 & ,i mu* d\bt :e!r dislocation ev5 ( ! c]vical v]tebr ev] occurs )\t fracture1 ei!r ?r\gh _! bodies or _! articul> processes4 ,! effects ( ea* ( ^! accid5ts w\ld produce precisely ! same injury to ! sp9al m>r[1 & symptoms ( great] or less importance1 accord+ to ! "p ( ! sp9al column t is injur$4 ,dea? is ! imm$iate consequ5ce if ! injury be above ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra1 ! necess>y p>alysis ( ! p>ts to :i* ! phr5ic & int]co/al n]ves are di/ribut$ caus+ respiration in/antly to cease4 ,if ! injury be su/a9$ bel[ ! f\r? c]vical v]tebra1 ! diaphragm is /ill capable ( action1 & dissolution is protract$4 ,! symptoms1 9 fact1 are less viol5t 9 proportion z ! injury to ! sp9al m>r[ is fur!r remov$ f ! bra92 b dea? is ! inevitable consequ5ce1 & t 9 e case at no v di/ant p]iod4 #ig4 ,s ! object ( ! con/ruction ( ! sp9al column be+ to comb9e ext5t & fre$om ( motion ) /r5g?1 & x be+ necess>y to ! accompli%m5t ( ?is object to build up ! column ( sep>ate pieces ( bone1 ! connect+ sub/ances by :i* ! diff]5t bones are unit$ are con/itut$ & dispos$ 9 su* a mann] z to prove absolutely /rong] ?an ! bones !mselves4 ,su* is ! /ructure ( ?is important portion ( ! human body consid]$ z a piece ( m]e me*anism2 b our conception ( its beauty & p]fection w\ld be mo/ inadequate if we did n be> 9 m9d1 t :ile ! sp9al column p]=ms (fices s v>i$ & app>5tly s incompatible1 x =ms an integrant portion ( a liv+ ma*9e3 x is itself alive3 e in/ant1 blood-vessels1 absorb5ts & n]ves1 are n\ri%+1 remov+1 r5ew+1 & animat+ e "p & p>ticle ( x4 #ih4 ,! ant]ior b\nd>y ( ! ?orax is =m$ by ! bone call$ ! /]num1 or ! brea/-bone1 :i* is broad & ?ick at its upp]1 & ?9 & elongat$ at its l[] extremity 7figs4 ,,xlv4 #f1 & ,,liv471 :]e x gives atta*m5t to a c>tilag9\s app5dix1 :i* be+ po9t$ & some:at l a broadsword1 is call$ ! ensi=m c>tilage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,liv4 ,ant]ior view ( ! /]num4 #ii4 ,its position is oblique1 be+ ne> ! v]tebral column at ! top1 & di/ant f x at ! bottom 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #f74 ,its m>g9s are ?ick1 & m>k$ by sev5 depressions1 = ! reception ( ! c>tilages ( ! sev5 true ribs 7fig4 ,,liv74 ,its ant]ior surface is imm$iately subjac5t to ! sk91 & gives atta*m5t to p[]ful muscles1 :i* act on ! sup]ior extremities3 its po/]ior surface is slightly holl[$ 9 ord] to enl>ge ! cavity ( ! ?orax 7fig4 ,,lv474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lv4 ,po/]ior view ( ! /]num4 #ajj4 ,! ?orax is b\nd$ at ! sides by ! ribs1 :i* ext5d l s _m ar*es betwe5 ! sp9al column & ! /]num 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g1 #h74 ,!y are 9 numb] tw5ty-f\r1 twelve on ea* side1 ( :i* ! sev5 upp] are unit$ to ! /]num by c>tilage1 & are call$ true ribs 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g72 ! c>tilages ( ! rema9+ five are unit$ ) ea* o!r & are n atta*$ to ! /]num2 ^! are call$ false ribs 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #h73 all ( !m are connect$ beh9d to ! sp9al column 7fig4 ,,xxxv474 #aja4 ,! ribs successively & consid]ably increase 9 l5g? z f> z ! sev5?1 by :i* ! cavity !y encompass is enl>g$2 f ! sev5? !y successively dim9i% 9 l5g?1 & ! capacity ( ! correspond+ "p ( ! cavity is less5$4 ,! direction ( ! ribs f above d[nw>ds is oblique 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g1 #h74 ,_! ext]nal or ant]ior surface is convex 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g1 #h72 _! int]nal or po/]ior surface is concave3 by ! fir/ _! /r5g? is increas$2 by ! second ! g5]al cavity ( ! ?orax is enl>g$ 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g1 #h74 ,_! upp] m>g9 is smoo? & r\nd$1 & gives atta*m5t to a d\ble lay] ( muscles1 call$ ! int]co/al1 plac$ 9 ! int]vals t sep>ate ! ribs f ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,lix474 ,along ! l[] m>g9 is excavat$ a deep groove1 = ! lodgm5t & protection ( ! int]co/al vessels4 #ajb4 ,! ribs are connect$ ) ! sp9al column *iefly by :at is t]m$ ! ant]ior ligam5t 7fig4 ,,lvi4 #a71 :i* is atta*$ to ! head ( ! rib 7fig4 ,,lvi471 & :i*1 divid+ into ?ree portions 7fig4 ,,lvi4 #a71 firmly unites e rib to two ( ! v]tebr1 & to ! int]v]tebral sub/ance 7fig4 ,,lvi4 #a74 ,?is articulation is =tifi$ by a second ligam5t 7fig4 ,,lvi4 #b71 also atta*$ to a head ( ! rib1 t]m$ ! int]>ticul> 7fig4 ,,lvi4 #b71 & by ?ree o!rs1 "o ( :i* is atta*$ on ! =e "p1 & ! two o!rs 9 ! back "p1 to ! neck ( ! rib 7fig4 ,,lvii4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lvi4 ,ligam5ts connect+ ! ribs to ! sp9al column4 #a4 ant]ior ligam5ts2 #b4 int]>ticul> ligam5t2 #c4 ligam5ts ( ! necks ( ! ribs4 ,! c>tilages ( ! sev5 sup]ior ribs are atta*$ to ! /]num by a d\ble lay] ( ligam5t\s fibres1 t]m$ ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior ligam5ts ( ! /]num 7fig4 ,,lviii474 ,s /rong are ! b&s :i* ?us atta* ! ribs to ! sp9al column & ! /]num1 t ! ribs _c be dislocat$ )\t fracture4 ,su* at lea/ is ! case 9 exp]im5ts ^u ! dead body1 :]e1 ?\gh ! rib be subject$ to ! application ( =ce by means ( an in/rum5t be/ calculat$ to deta* its head f ! articulation1 yet x is always brok54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lvii4 #a1 c4 ,ligam5ts connect+ ! ribs to ! v]tebr beh9d4 ,:ile ?us firmly atta*$ to _! po9ts ( support1 ! ligam5ts1 :i* fix !m1 are s dispos$ z to r5d] ! ribs capable ( be+ readily mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds3 upw>ds 9 inspiration2 d[nw>ds 9 expiration2 & x is by ?is alt]nate action t !y enl>ge & dim9i% ! cavity ( ! ?orax 9 ! function ( respiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lviii4 ,ligam5ts jo9+ ! c>tilages ( ! ribs to ! /]num4 #ajc4 ,su* are ! b\nd>ies ( ! cavity ( ! ?orax z f> z its walls are solid4 ,! int]spaces betwe5 ^! solid portions at ! sides are fill$ up by muscles1 pr9cipally by ^? t]m$ ! int]co/al 7fig4 ,,lix472 bel[1 ! b\nd>y is =m$ by ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b72 :ile above1 z has be5 already /at$ 7#fi71 ! cavity is s contract$ z only to leave an op5+ = ! passage ( c]ta9 p>ts to & f ! *e/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lix4 ,a view ( ! muscles call$ ,int]co/als1 fill+ up ! spaces betwe5 ! ribs4 #ajd4 ,! inn] surface ( ! walls ( ! ?orax1 9 its :ole ext5t1 is l9$ by a s]\s membrane1 exce$+ly ?9 & delicate1 b /ill firm1 call$ ! pleura4 ,! same membrane is reflect$ ov] ! organs ( respiration conta9$ 9 ! cavity1 s z to give !m an ext]nal coat4 ,! membrane itself is e :]e cont9u\s1 & e :]e ! same1 :e!r x l9e ! conta9+ or ! conta9$ p>ts2 b x receives a diff]5t "n z x cov]s ! "o or ! o!r3 t portion ( x :i* l9es ! walls ( ! cavity be+ call$ ! co/al pleura 7fig4 ,,lxi4 a71 :ile t :i* cov]s ! organs conta9$ 9 ! cavity is t]m$ ! pulmon>y pleura 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e1 #a74 #aje4 ,a fold ( ea* pleura passes directly across ! c5tral "p ( ! cavity ( ! ?orax2 ext5d+ f ! sp9al column to ! /]num1 & divid+ ! g5]al cavity into two4 ,?is portion ( ! pleura is call$ ! m$ia/9um1 f its situation 9 ! c5tre ( ! ?orax1 & x s completely divides ! ?oracic cavity into two1 t ! organs on "o side ( ! *e/ h no communication ) ^? ( ! o!r2 s t !re may be ext5sive disease 9 "o cavity 7= example1 a l>ge accumulation ( wat]17 :ile ! o!r may be p]fectly s\nd4 #ajf4 ,! ma9 organs conta9$ 9 ! cavity ( ! ?orax are ! lungs ) _! air tube2 ! he>t ) its great vessels2 & ! tube pass+ f ! m\? to ! /oma* 7fig4 ,,lx474 #ajg4 ,! two lungs occupy ! sides ( ! *e/ 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e74 ,!y are completely sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ! membran\s p>tition j describ$1 ! m$ia/9um4 ,betwe5 ! two folds ( ! m$ia/9um1 namely1 9 ! middle ( ! *e/1 b incl9+ some:at to ! left side1 is plac$ ! he>t1 envelop$ 9 ano!r s]\s membrane1 ! p]ic>dium 7fig4 ,,lx4 #b1 #a74 #ajh4 ,! lungs are m\ld$ to ! cavities !y fill2 :5ce _! figure is conical1 ! base ( ! cone be+ d[nw>ds1 re/+ on ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e1 b72 & ! apex upw>ds1 t[>ds ! neck 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e74 #aji4 ,t surface ( ea* lung :i* corresponds to ! walls ( ! *e/ is convex 9 its :ole ext5t 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e72 on ! contr>y1 t surface :i* corresponds to ! m$ia/9um is flatt5$ 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e74 ,! basis ( ! lung is concave1 adapt$ to ! convexity ( ! diaphragm on :i* x re/s 7fig4 ,,lx4 #e74 #aaj4 ,! air-vessel ( ! lungs1 t]m$ ! bron*us1 toge!r ) ! blood-vessels & n]ves1 ent] ! organ at its flatt5$ side1 n exactly 9 ! middle1 b r t[>ds ! upp] & back "p4 ,?is portion is t]m$ ! root ( ! lung4 #aaa4 ,! lungs are atta*$ to ! neck by ! tra*ea 7fig4 ,,lx4 #d71 ! cont9uation ( :i* =ms ! bron*us2 to ! sp9al column by ! pleura1 & to ! he>t by ! pulmon>y vessels 7fig4 ,,lx4 #c1 d73 _! rema9+ portion is free & unatta*$4 #aab4 ,9 ! liv+ body1 ! lungs on ea* side completely fill ! cavity ( ! *e/1 foll[+ passively ! movem5ts ( its walls1 & accurately adapt+ !mselves to its size1 :e!r its capacity enl>ge 9 inspiration1 or dim9i% 9 expiration1 s t ! ext]nal surface ( ! lung 7! pulmon>y pleura7 is always 9 imm$iate contact ) ! l9+ membrane ( ! walls ( ! cavity 7! co/al pleura72 consequ5tly1 dur+ life1 !re is no cavity1 ! *e/ be+ always completely full4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lx4 a4 ,! cut edges ( ! ribs1 =m+ ! lat]al b\nd>ies ( ! cavity ( ! ?orax4 b4 ,! diaphragm1 =m+ ! inf]ior b\nd>y ( ! ?orax1 & ! division betwe5 ! ?orax & ! abdom54 c4 ,! cut edges ( ! abdom9al muscles1 turn$ aside1 expos+ ! g5]al cavity ( ! abdom54 #a4 ,! cut edge ( ! p]ic>dium turn$ aside4 #b4 ,! he>t4 #c4 ,! great vessels 9 imm$iate connexion ) ! he>t4 #d4 ,! tra*ea1 or w9d-pipe4 #e4 ,! lungs4 #f4 ,! liv]4 #g4 ,! /oma*4 #h4 ,! l>ge inte/9e4 #i4 ,! small inte/9es4 #aj4 ,! ur9>y bladd]4 #aac4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! p]ic>dium1 ! bag :i* envelopes ! he>t1 lies imm$iately beh9d ! /]num1 & ! c>tilages ( ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? ribs1 cov]$ at its sides by ! pleura1 & firmly atta*$ bel[ to ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lx4 #a74 #aad4 ,surr\nd$ by its p]ic>dium1 )9 ! m$ia/9um1 ! he>t is plac$ ne>ly 9 ! c5tre ( ! *e/1 b its direction is some:at oblique1 its apex be+ directly opposite to ! int]val betwe5 ! fif? & six? ribs on ! left side 7fig4 ,,lx4 #b72 :ile its basis is direct$ upw>ds1 backw>ds1 & t[>ds ! "r 7fig4 ,,lx4 #b74 ,t portion ( its surface :i* is pres5t$ to view on op5+ ! p]ic>dium is convex 7fig4 ,,lx4 #b72 b its opposite surface1 namely1 t :i* re/s ^u ! "p ( ! p]ic>dium :i* is atta*$ to ! diaphragm1 is flatt5$ 7fig4 ,,lx4 #a74 ,x is fix$ 9 its situation p>tly by ! p]ic>dium & p>tly by ! great vessels t g to & f x4 ,b "u ! diff]5t /ates ( expiration & inspiration1 x accompanies1 9 "s degree1 ! movem5ts ( ! diaphragm2 & 9 ! v>i$ po/ures ( ! body1 ! he>t deviates to a c]ta9 ext5t f ! exact position "h describ$4 #aae4 ,! second division ( ! trunk1 ! abdom51 is b\nd$ above by ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b71 bel[ by ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #c71 beh9d & at ! sides by ! v]tebr & muscles ( ! lo9s 7fig4 ,,lxiii471 & be=e by ! abdom9al muscles 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #i74 #aaf4 ,! organ :i* =ms ! sup]ior b\nd>y ( ! abdom51 ! diaphragm 7midriff71 is a circul> muscle1 plac$ transv]sely across ! trunk1 ne>ly at its c5tre 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b74 ,x =ms a vault$ p>tition betwe5 ! ?orax & ! abdom5 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b74 ,all ar\nd its bord] x is fle%y 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b72 t[>ds its c5tre x is t5d9\s 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b72 ! surface t[>ds ! abdom5 is concave 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b72 t t[>ds ! ?orax convex 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b72 :ile its middle t5d9\s portion asc5ds into ! ?orax z high z ! f\r? rib 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxi4 ,view ( ! diaphragm4 #a4 ,cavity ( ! ?orax2 #b4 diaphragm sep>at+ ! cavity ( ! ?orax f t ( ! abdom52 #c4 cavity ( ! pelvis4 #aag4 ,! diaphragm is p]=at$ by sev]al ap]tures1 = ! transmission ( tubes & vessels1 :i* pass reciprocally betwe5 ! ?orax & abdom5 7fig4 ,,lxii474 #a4 ,a sep>ate ap]ture is =m$ to af=d an exit f ! ?orax ( ! aorta1 ! common s\rce ( ! art]ies 7fig4 ,,lxii4 #b71 & an entrance into ! ?orax ( ! ?oracic duct1 ! tube t be>s ! dige/$ alim5t to ! he>t4 #b4 ,a little to ! left ( ! =m]1 !re is ano!r ap]ture1 ?r\gh :i* passes ! esophagus or gullet 7fig4 ,,lxii4 #c71 ! tube t conveys ! food f ! m\? to ! /oma*4 #c4 ,on ! "r side1 9 ! t5d9\s portion ( ! diaphragm1 v c>efully con/ruct$1 is a ?ird ap]ture = ! passage ( ! v5a cava 7fig4 ,,lxii4 #d71 ! great vessel t returns ! blood to ! he>t f ! l[] p>ts ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxii4 ,view ( ! diaphragm ) ! tubes t pass ?r\gh x4 #a4 ,ar* ( ! diaphragm2 #b4 ! trunk ( ! aorta pass+ f ! *e/ into ! abdom52 #c4 ! esophagus pass+ f ! *e/ ?r\gh ! diaphragm to ! /oma*2 #d4 ! v5a cava1 ! great ve9 t returns ! blood to ! he>t f ! l[] p>ts ( ! body1 pass+ f ! abdom51 into ! *e/1 9 its way to ! "r side ( ! he>t2 #e4 #f4 muscles t arise 9 ! int]ior ( ! trunk & t act ^u ! ?igh2 #e4 ! muscle call$ psoas2 #f4 ! muscle call$ iliacus4 #aah4 ,! p>tition =m$ by ! diaphragm betwe5 ! ?orax & abdom51 ?\gh complete1 is moveable2 = z ! diaphragm desc5ds 9 inspiration & asc5ds 9 expiration1 x proportionally enl>ges or dim9i%es ! cavities betwe5 :i* x is plac$2 consequ5tly1 ! actual magnitude ( ^! cavities v>ies e mom5t1 & ! size ( ! "o is always 9 ! inv]se ratio ( t ( ! o!r4 #aai4 ,betwe5 ! abdom5 & ! pelvis !re is no sep>ation2 "o cavity is directly cont9u\s ) ! o!r 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #c72 b along ! inn] surface ( ! exp&$ bones1 :i* =m a "p ( ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! abdom51 !re is a prom95t l9e1 t]m$ ! brim ( ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ae71 m>k+ ! po9t at :i* ! abdom5 is suppos$ to t]m9ate & ! pelvis to comm5ce4 #abj4 ,beh9d & at ! sides ! walls ( ! abdom5 are complet$ p>tly by ! lumb> portion ( ! sp9al column & p>tly by ! lumb> muscles 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #d71 & be=e by ! abdom9al muscles 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #i74 #aba4 ,! inn] surface ( ! walls ( ! abdom5 is l9$ ?r\gh\t by a s]\s membrane1 t]m$ ! p]itoneum 7fig4 ,,lxiii474 ,f ! walls ( ! abdom51 ! p]itoneum is reflect$ ^u ! organs conta9$ 9 ! cavity1 & is cont9u$ ov] !m s z to =m _! ext]nal coat4 ,! p]itoneum also desc5ds betwe5 ! sev]al organs1 connect+ !m toge!r1 & hold+ !m firmly 9 _! situation2 & x likewise =ms num]\s folds1 9 :i* are emb$d$ ! vessels & n]ves t supply ! organs4 ,x secretes a s]\s fluid1 by :i* its own surface & t ( ! organs x cov]s is r5d]$ moi/1 poli%$1 & gli/5+1 & by means ( :i* ! organs glide smoo?ly ov] x1 & ov] "o ano!r 9 ! v>i\s movem5ts ( ! body1 & are 9 con/ant contact )\t gr[+ toge!r4 ,9 /ructure1 di/ribution1 & function1 ! p]itoneum is ?us p]fectly analog\s to ! pleura4 #abb4 ,l ! ?orax1 ! abdom5 is always completely full4 ,:5 ! diaphragm is 9 action1 x contracts4 ,:5 ! diaphragm is 9 ! /ate ( contraction1 ! abdom9al & lumb> muscles are 9 ! /ate ( relaxation4 ,by ! contraction ( ! diaphragm1 ! organs conta9$ 9 ! abdom5 are pu%$ d[nw>ds1 & ! ant]ior & lat]al walls ( ! cavity be+ at ?is mom5t 9 a /ate ( relaxation1 !y readily yield1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! visc]a are protrud$ =w>ds & at ! sides4 ,b ! abdom9al & lumb> muscles 9 _! turn contract1 ! diaphragm relax+2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! visc]a1 =c$ f ! front & sides ( ! abdom51 are pu%$ upw>ds1 toge!r ) ! diaphragm1 into ! cavity ( ! ?orax4 ,a firm & uni=m pressure is ?us at all times ma9ta9$ ^u ! :ole cont5ts ( ! abdom53 !re is an exact adaptation ( ! conta9+ to ! conta9$ p>ts1 & ( "o organ to ano!r4 ,no space int]v5es ei!r betwe5 ! walls ( ! abdom5 & ! organs !y enclose1 or betwe5 "o organ & ano!r3 s t ! t]m cavity does n d5ote a void or empty space1 b m]ely ! ext5t ( ! b\nd>y )9 :i* ! visc]a are conta9$4 #abc4 ,! cont5ts ( ! abdom5 consi/ ( ! organs :i* belong to ! app>atus ( dige/ion1 & ( ^? :i* belong to ! app>atus ( excretion4 #abd4 ,! organs :i* belong to ! app>atus ( dige/ion are--#a4 ,! /oma* 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #b7 #b4 ,! duod5um 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #d74 #c4 ,! jejunum 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #e74 #d4 ,! ilium 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #e74 ,! ?ree la/ organs are call$ ! small inte/9es1 & _! (fice is p>tly to c>ry on ! dige/ion ( ! alim5t comm5c$ 9 ! /oma*1 & p>tly to af=d an ext5d$ surface = ! absorption ( ! nutrim5t z x is prep>$ f ! alim5t4 #e4 ,! pancreas 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #e74 #f4 ,! liv] 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #b74 #g4 ,! sple5 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #d74 ,! ?ree la/ organs truly belong to ! app>atus ( dige/ion1 & _! (fice is to co-op]ate ) ! /oma* & ! small inte/9es 9 ! conv]sion ( ! alim5t into nutrim5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxiii4 #a4 ,esophagus2 #b4 /oma*2 #c4 liv] rais$1 %[+ its "u surface2 #d4 duod5um2 #e4 small inte/9es2 #f4 ccum2 #g4 colon2 #h4 ur9>y bladd]2 #i4 gall bladd]2 #aj4 abdom9al muscles divid$ & reflect$4 #abe4 ,! organs :i* belong to ! app>atus ( excretion are--#a4 ,! l>ge inte/9es consi/+ ( ! ccum 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #f74 #b4 ,! colon 7fig4 ,,lxiii4 #g74 #c4 ,! rectum 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #aj74 ,x is ! (fice ( ^! organs1 :i* are call$ ! l>ge inte/9es1 to c>ry out ( ! sy/em t portion ( ! alim5t>y mass :i* is n conv]t$ into n\ri%m5t4 #d4 ,! kidneys 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #f71 ! organs :i* sep>ate 9 ! =m ( ! ur9e an excrem5titi\s matt] f ! blood1 9 ord] t x may be convey$ out ( ! sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxiv4 ,g5]al view ( ! visc]a ( ! abdom54 #a4 ,/oma* rais$2 #b4 "u surface ( liv]2 #c4 gall bladd]2 #d4 sple52 #e4 pancreas2 #f4 kidneys2 #g4 uret]s2 #h4 ur9>y bladd]2 #i4 portion ( ! inte/9e call$ duod5um2 #aj4 portion ( ! inte/9e call$ rectum2 #aa4 ! aorta4 #abf4 ,! la/ division ( ! trunk1 call$ ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,lxi4 #c71 consi/s ( a circle ( l>ge & firm bones1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! l[] portion ( ! trunk & ! inf]ior extremities 7fig4 ,,xlv474 ,! bones t compose ! circle1 di/9ct 9 ! *ild1 are firmly unit$ 9 ! adult into a s+le piece2 b z ! orig9al sep>ation betwe5 ea* rema9s manife/1 !y are always describ$ z sep>ate bones4 ,!y are ! sacrum 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e71 ! coccyx 7fig4 ,,xxxv471 ! ilium 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #aa71 ! is*ium 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ab71 & ! pubis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ac74 #abg4 ,! sacrum1 plac$ l a w$ge betwe5 ! moveable portion ( ! sp9al column & ! l[] extremities1 =ms ! po/]ior b\nd>y ( ! pelvis4 ,! figure ( ?is bone is triangul> 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e72 its ant]ior surface is concave & smoo?1 = enl>g+ ! cavity ( ! pelvis & su/a9+ ! organs conta9$ 9 x 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e72 its po/]ior surface is convex1 irregul>1 & r\gh 7fig4 ,,xxxv471 giv+ orig9 to ! great muscles t =m ! cont\r ( ! hip1 & to ! /rong muscles ( ! back & lo9s t raise ! sp9e & ma9ta9 ! trunk ( ! body erect4 #abh4 ,! base or upp] "p ( ! sacrum receives ! la/ v]tebra ( ! lo9s on a l>ge & broad surface 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #d71 =m+ a moveable jo9t2 & ! degree ( motion at ?is po9t is great] ?an x is at ! high] po9ts ( ! sp9al column4 ,firmly unit$ at its sides ) ! haun* bones1 x admits !re ( no degree ( motion4 #abi4 ,! coccyx1 s nam$ f its resemblance to ! beak ( ! cuckoo1 :5 elongat$ by a succession ( additional bones1 =ms ! tail 9 quadrup$s2 b 9 man x is turn$ inw>ds to support ! p>ts conta9$ 9 ! pelvis1 & to contract ! l[] op5+ ( ! cavity4 ,by means ( a lay] ( c>tilage1 ! m$ium by :i* ?is bone is connect$ ) ! sacrum1 x =ms a moveable articulation1 cont9u+ moveable 9 m5 until ! age ( tw5ty-five1 & 9 wom5 until ! age ( =ty-five2 cont9u+ moveable 9 wom5 ?us long1 9 ord] t by yield+ to ! =ce :i* t5ds to pu% x backw>ds dur+ ! p]iod ( lab\r1 x may enl>ge ! l[] ap]ture ( ! pelvis1 & s facilitate ! process ( p>turition & dim9i% its suff]+4 #acj4 ,! lat]al b\nd>ies ( ! pelvis are =m$ by ! ilium1 ! haun* bone 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #aa71 & by ! is*ium1 ! hip bone 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ab74 ,! ilium =ms ! l[] "p ( ! abdom5 & ! upp] "p ( ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #aa72 its broad exp&$ w+ supports ! cont5ts ( ! abdom51 & gives atta*m5t to ! muscles t =m ! ant]ior portion ( its walls 7figs4 ,,xlv4 #aa1 & ,,lxiii4 #i72 its ext]nal convex surface su/a9s ! p[]ful muscles t ext5d ! ?igh2 & along its int]nal surface is ! prom95t l9e :i* m>ks ! brim ( ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ae71 & :i* divides ?is cavity f t ( ! abdom54 #aca4 ,! is*ium or hip bone is ! l[] "p ( ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ab72 at its und]mo/ portion is a r\nd$ prom95ce call$ ! tub]osity 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ab71 9 its natural condition cov]$ ) c>tilage1 ^u :i* is sup]impos$ a cu%ion ( fat4 ,x is ?is "p on :i* ! body is support$ 9 a sitt+ po/ure4 #acb4 ,! pubis or %>e bone =ms ! upp] & =e "p ( ! pelvis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ac71 & toge!r ) ! two =m] bones1 completes ! l>ge & deep socket1 t]m$ ! acetabulum 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #ad71 into :i* is receiv$ ! head ( ! ?igh-bone 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d74 ,! m>g9 ( ! acetabulum & ! great] "p ( its int]nal surface is l9$ ) c>tilage1 s t 9 its natural condition x is mu* deep] ?an x appe>s to be :5 ! bones alone rema94 #acc4 ,! l[] ap]ture ( ! pelvis1 :i* appe>s l>ge :5 all ! s(t p>ts are remov$1 is n really l>ge1 = 9 its natural /ate x is fill$ up p>tly by muscles & p>tly by ligam5ts1 :i* su/a9 & protect ! pelvic organs1 leav+ only j space en\gh = ! passage to & f ^? :i* h _! op5+ on ! ext]nal surface4 #acd4 ,! cavity ( ! pelvis1 toge!r ) all ! organs conta9$ 9 x1 are l9$ by a cont9uation ( ! membrane t inve/s ! abdom5 & its cont5ts4 #ace4 ,! organs conta9$ 9 ! pelvis are ! rectum 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #i71 :i* is m]ely ! t]m9ation ( ! l>ge inte/9es1 ! ur9>y bladd] 7fig4 ,,lxiv4 #h71 & ! int]nal "p ( ! app>atus ( reproduction4 #acf4 ,! l>ge & /rong bones ( ! pelvis n only af=d lodgm5t & protection to ! t5d] organs conta9$ 9 its cavity1 b su/a9 ! entire weight ( ! body1 ! trunk re/+ on ! sacrum z on a solid basis 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #e71 & ! l[] extremities be+ support$ 9 ! sockets 9 :i* ! heads ( ! ?igh-bones play1 9 ! v>i$ movem5ts ( locomotion 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d74 #acg4 ,! la/ division ( ! body compreh5ds ! sup]ior & ! inf]ior extremities4 #ach4 ,! sup]ior extremities consi/ ( ! %\ld]1 arm1 =e-arm1 & h&4 #aci4 ,! s(t p>ts ( ! ,,%\ld] are compos$ *iefly ( muscles2 its bones are two1 ! scapula or ! blade bone1 & ! clavicle or ! coll> bone 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #b1 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxv4 #a4 ,/]num2 #b4 clavicle2 #c4 ribs2 #d4 ant]ior surface ( scapula2 #e4 coracoid process ( scapula2 #f4 acromion process ( scapula2 #g4 m>g9 ( gl5oid cavity ( scapula2 #h4 body ( ! hum]us or bone ( ! arm2 #i4 head ( ! hum]us4 #adj4 ,! ,,scapula is plac$ ^u ! upp] & back "p ( ! ?orax1 & occupies ! space f ! second to ! sev5? ribs 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #d7 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxvi4 #a4 ,po/]ior surface ( scapula2 #b4 m>g9 ( scapula2 #c4 acromion process2 #d4 m>g9 ( gl5oid cavity2 #e4 clavicle2 #f4 body ( hum]us2 #g4 head ( hum]us4 ,unlike t ( any o!r bone ( ! body1 x is emb$d$ 9 muscles1 )\t be+ atta*$ to any bone ( ! trunk1 except+ at a s+le po9t4 ,f ! bones ( ! ?orax x is sep>at$ by a d\ble lay] ( muscles1 on :i* x is plac$ z ^u a cu%ion1 & ov] ! smoo? surface ( :i* x glides4 ,orig9ally1 l ! bones ( ! skull1 x consi/$ ( two tables ( compact bone1 ) an int]m$iate lay] ( spongy bony sub/ance 7diplo72 b1 by ! pressure ( ! muscles t act ^u x1 x gradually gr[s ?9n] & ?9n]1 until1 z age advances1 x becomes 9 "s p>ts q transp>5t & z ?9 z a %eet ( pap]4 #ada4 ,! figure ( ! scapula is t ( an irregul> triangle 7fig4 ,,lxvi474 ,its ant]ior surface is concave 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #d71 correspond+ to ! convexity ( ! ribs 7fig4 ,,xlv4 #g72 its po/]ior surface is v irregul> 7fig4 ,,lxvi4 #a71 be+ 9 "s p>ts concave & 9 o!rs convex1 giv+ orig9 especially to two l>ge processes 7figs4 ,,lxv4 #e1 & ,,lxvi4 #c72 "o ( :i* is t]m$ ! acromion 7fig4 ,,lxvi4 #c71 & ! o!r ! coracoid process ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #e74 ,! m>g9s ( ! bone1 :atev] ! ?9ness ( "s portions ( x1 are always comp>atively ?ick & /rong 7fig4 ,,lxvi4 #b71 af=d+ po9ts ( orig9 or ( ins]tion to p[]ful muscles4 ,at :at is call$ ! ant]ior angle ( ! bone !re is a %all[ oval depression cov]$ ) c>tilage & deep5$ by a c>tilag9\s m>g91 call$ ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula 7figs4 ,,lxv4 #g1 & ,,lxvi4 #d71 :i* receives ! head ( ! hum]us or bone ( ! arm 7figs4 ,,lxv4 #i1 & ,,lxvi4 #g1 #f74 #adb4 ,! clavicle1 ! second bone ( ! %\ld]1 is a long & sl5d] bone1 ( ! =m ( an italic ,illu/ration1 project+ a little =w>ds t[>ds its middle1 s z to give a slight convexity ( outl9e to ! top ( ! *e/ & ! bottom ( ! neck 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #b74 ,x is atta*$ by "o extremity to ! /]num 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #b7 & by ! o!r to ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #b71 by moveable jo9ts4 ,! nature ( an immoveable jo9t has be5 expla9$ 7#fc74 ,9 ! connexion ( ! bones ( ! trunk1 :ile ! ma9 object is to secure firmness ( atta*m5t1 "s degree ( motion is at ! same "t obta9$ 7#ha et seq473 b ! mode 9 :i* ! sev]al bones ( ! extremities are connect$ ) ea* o!r & ) ! trunk1 admits ( s great a degree ( motion1 t ^! articulations are pre-em95tly entitl$ to ! "n ( moveable jo9ts4 ,! compon5t p>ts ( all moveable jo9ts are bone1 c>tilage1 synovial membrane1 & ligam5t4 ,! great "* ( a moveable jo9t is ! approximation ( two or m bones2 yet ^! bony surfaces are nev] 9 actual contact1 b are inv>iably sep>at$ f ea* o!r by c>tilage4 ,! c>tilage ei!r cov]s ! entire ext5t ( ! articulat+ surface ( ! bones1 z 9 ! %\ld]-jo9t1 :]e bo? ! head ( ! hum]us & ! cavity ( ! scapula t receives x are envelop$ 9 ?is sub/ance 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #g4 #i71 or a portion ( x is plac$ betwe5 ! articulat+ surfaces ( ! bones1 z 9 ! jo9t betwe5 ! clavicle & /]num 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 a72 :i*1 :5 s plac$1 is t]m$ an int]>ticul> c>tilage 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 a74 ,by its smoo? surface c>tilage less5s friction2 :ile by its ela/icity x facilitates motion & prev5ts concussion4 ,slightly organiz$ c>tilage is provid$ ) comp>atively few blood-vessels & n]ves4 ,_h x be5 vascul> & s5sible l ! sk9 & ! muscle1 ! =ce appli$ 9 ! movem5ts ( ! jo9t w\ld h /imulat$ ! blood-vessels to inord9ate action1 & ! s5sibility ( ! n]ves w\ld h be5 ! s\rce ( con/ant pa93 e motion ( e jo9t w\ld h be5 productive ( suff]+1 & h laid ! f\ndation ( disease4 ,! facility & ease ( motion obta9$ by ! smoo?ness1 ela/icity1 & comp>ative ins5sibility ( c>tilage are /ill fur!r promot$ by ! fluid :i* lubricates x1 t]m$ synovia1 secret$ by a membrane call$ synovial1 :i* l9es ! int]nal surface ( ! jo9t1 & :i* be>s a close resemblance to ! s]\s 7#cj74 ,synovia is a viscid fluid ( ! consi/5ce ( album5 7#e74 ,x is to ! jo9t :at oil is to ! :eel1 prev5t+ abrasion & facilitat+ motion2 b x is =m$ by ! jo9t itself1 at ! mom5t :5 ne$$1 & 9 ! quantity requir$4 ,! motion ( ! jo9t /imulates ! synovial membrane to secretion1 & h5ce ! great] ! degree ( motion1 ! l>g] ! quantity ( lubricat+ fluid t is suppli$4 ,! sev]al p>ts ( ! app>atus ( moveable jo9ts are reta9$ 9 _! prop] position by ligam5t\s sub/ance1 :i*1 z has be5 %[n 7#if & #ig71 is (t5times s /rong t x is easi] to fracture ! bone ?an to te> ! ligam5t1 & 9 e case ! k9d & ext5t ( motion possess$ by ! jo9t are dep5d5t ma9ly on ! =m ( ! articulatory surfaces ( ! bones & on ! disposition ( ! ligam5ts4 #adc4 ,9 ! jo9t =m$ by ! clavicle & ! /]num 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 a7 an int]>ticul> c>tilage is plac$ betwe5 ! two bones :i* are unit$1 fir/ by a /rong fibr\s ligam5t1 :i* envelops !m z 9 a capsule 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 #a72 by a second ligam5t1 :i* ext5ds f ! c>tilage ( ! fir/ rib to ! clavicle 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 #d71 by :i* ! atta*m5t ( ! clavicle to ! /]num is mat]ially /r5g!n$2 & by a ?ird ligam5t :i* passes transv]sely f ! head ( "o clavicle to t ( ! o!r 7fig4 ,,lxvii4 #c74 ,! jo9t ?us =m$1 ?\gh s /rong & firm t ! dislocation ( x is exce$+ly r>e1 yet admits ( "s degree ( motion 9 e direction1 upw>ds1 d[nw>ds1 =w>ds1 & backw>ds2 & ?is articulation is ! sole po9t by :i* ! scapula is connect$ ) ! trunk1 & consequ5tly by :i* ! upp] extremity c act1 or be act$ ^u1 by ! re/ ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxvii4 #a4 ,! fibr\s capsule ( ! /]num & clavicle2 #b4 ! same laid op51 %[+ a1 ! int]>ticul> c>tilage2 #c4 ! ligam5t connect+ ! two clavicles2 #d4 ! ligam5t jo9+ ! clavicle to ! fir/ rib2 #e4 ligam5ts pass+ d[n 9 front ( ! /]num4 #add4 ,! scapul> extremity ( ! clavicle 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #f7 is atta*$ to ! processes ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #d4 #c7 by sev]al ligam5ts ( great /r5g? 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #g1 #h1 #i74 ,fir/ by v /rong fasciculi :i* pass f ! upp] surface ( ! clavicle to ! acromion ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #f72 & secondly by two ligam5ts :i* unite ! clavicle ) ! coracoid process ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #h1 #i74 ,^! ligam5ts are s p[]ful t !y resi/ a =ce capable ( fractur+ ! clavicle2 & !y ne$ to be ?us /rong1 = ! clavicle is a %aft :i* su/a9s ! scapula1 & ?r\gh ! scapula ! :ole ( ! upp] extremity2 & ! ma9 object ( ! jo9t by :i* ^! bones are unit$1 is to af=d a firm atta*m5t ( ! scapula to its po9t ( support4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxviii4 #a4 ,! clavicle2 #b4 ! ant]ior "p ( ! scapula2 #c4 ! coracoid process2 #d4 ! acromion process2 #e4 ! hum]us2 #f4 ligam5ts b9d+ ! scapul> end ( ! clavicle to ! acromion2 #g4 #h4 #i4 ligam5ts pass+ f "o process ( ! scapula to ! o!r2 #aj4 ! fibr\s capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t4 #ade4 ,! clavicle s]ves ! foll[+ uses3 x su/a9s ! upp] extremity2 x connects ! upp] extremity ) ! ?orax2 x prev5ts ! upp] extremity f fall+ =w>ds ^u ! ?orax2 & x af=ds a fix$ po9t = /eady+ ! extremity 9 ! p]=mance ( its v>i\s actions4 #adf4 ,! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #g7 receives ! head ( ! hum]us1 ! bone ( ! arm 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #i71 & ! two bones be+ unit$ by ligam5t =m ! %\ld]-jo9t 7fig4 ,,lxviii474 ,?is jo9t is :at is t]m$ a ball & socket jo9t1 ! peculi>ities ( :i* are two3 fir/1 beyond all o!rs ?is mode ( articulation admits ( free & ext5sive motion2 9 ! pres5t case1 !re is ! utmo/ fre$om ( motion 9 e direction1 upw>ds1 d[nw>ds1 backw>ds1 & =w>ds4 ,9 ! second place1 ?is mode ( articulation admits ( ! motion ( ! limb )\t t ( ! body1 or ( ! motion ( ! body )\t t ( ! limb4 ,:5 at re/1 ! arm may be mov$ 9 almo/ any direction )\t di/urb+ ! position ( any o!r "p ( ! frame2 ! manifold advantages ( :i* are obvi\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 by c>eful managem5t1 v consid]able v>iations 9 ! po/ure ( ! body may be effect$ )\t ! communication ( any degree ( motion to ! limb2 an unspeakable advantage :5 ! limb has su/a9$ injury1 or is suff]+ f disease4 #adg4 ,x does n seem possible to con/ruct a jo9t ( great /r5g?1 capable1 at ! same "t1 ( ! degree ( motion possess$ by ! jo9t ( ! %\ld]4 ,s %all[ is ! socket ( ! scapula1 & s l>ge ! head ( ! hum]us1 t x seems z if ! slighte/ movem5t mu/ dislodge x f its cavity 7fig4 ,,lxvi4 #d4 #g74 ,= su/a9+ heavy weights or resi/+ a great am\nt ( pressure1 appli$ to x sudd5ly & 9 v>i\s directions1 ! arm is obvi\sly unfitt$4 ,b ?is is n its (fice4 ,! sup]ior extremities are ! organs ( appreh5sion--! in/rum5ts by :i* ! m9d executes ! comm&s ( ! w4 ,!y d n ne$ ! /r5g? requir$ by ! organs t su/a9 ! weight ( ! body & t p]=m ! function ( locomotion2 b !y d ne$ fre$om & ext5t ( motion3 to ?is /r5g? may be sacrific$1 & s x is2 yet :at c be done to comb9e /r5g? ) mobility is effect$4 ,l>ge & /rong processes ( bone1 proce$+ z has be5 %[n 7#ada71 f ! convex surface ( ! scapula 7figs4 ,,lxv4 & ,,lxvi471 ov]hang1 & to a consid]able ext5t surr\nd1 ! head ( ! arm-bone1 especially resi/+ ! =ce t w\ld dislodge x f its socket & drive x upw>ds1 inw>ds1 & backw>ds 7fig4 ,,lxv471 ! directions 9 :i* =ce is mo/ commonly appli$ to x4 ,by ^! processes ( bone ! jo9t is greatly /r5g!n$1 especially 9 ^? directions4 ,moreov]1 a /rong ligam5t1 t]m$ ! fibr\s capsule 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #aj7 envelops ! jo9t4 ,?is ligam5t1 aris+ f ! neck ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #aj71 exp&s itself 9 su* a mann] z completely to surr\nd ! head ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #aj72 & !n aga9 contracts 9 ord] to be ins]t$ into ! neck ( ! bone 7fig4 ,,lxviii4 #aj74 ,?is ligam5t is /r5g!n$ by ! t5dons ( no less ?an f\r muscles :i* are exp&$ ov] x1 z well z by ! p[]ful sub/ance t]m$ fascia :i* is reflect$ ^u x f bo? ! processes & ligam5ts ( ! scapula4 ,9 addition to all ^! exp$i5ts = =tify+ ! jo9t1 x receives a fur!r security 9 ! position ( ! scapula1 :i* is loose & unatta*$2 :i* slides easily ov] ! ribs ^u its cu%ion ( fle%2 :i* ?us obta9s1 by its facility ( yield+1 "s comp5sation = its want ( /r5g?1 elud+ ! =ce :i* x _c resi/4 #adh4 ,! arm consi/s ( num]\s & p[]ful muscles1 & ( a s+le bone1 ! hum]us1 :i* belongs to ! class ( bones t]m$ cyl9drical 7#ahe74 #adi4 ,! upp] end ( ! hum]us t]m9ates 9 a circul> head 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #i71 :i* is receiv$ into ! socket ( ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #i4 #g7 t]m$1 z has be5 /at$ 7#ada71 its gl5oid cavity4 ,! middle portion ( ! bone1 or :at is t]m$ its %aft 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #h71 dim9i%es consid]ably 9 magnitude1 & becomes some:at r\nd$ 7fig4 ,,lxv4 #h71 :ile its l[] end aga9 enl>ges1 & is spread out into a flatt5$ surface ( great ext5t 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #a1 #c1 #b1 #d74 ,( ?is broad flatt5$ surface1 ! middle portion is groov$ 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #b73 x is cov]$ ) c>tilage2 x =ms ! articulat+ surface by :i* ! arm is connect$ ) ! =e-arm4 ,on ea* side ( ?is groove !re is a projection ( bone or tub]cle1 t]m$ condyle 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #c1 #d71 ! inn] 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #c7 be+ mu* l>g] ?an ! out] 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #d74 ,! inn] condyle gives orig9 to ! muscles t b5d1 ! out] to ^? t ext5d ! =e-arm & ! f+]s 7figs4 ,,lxxxiv4 #a1 #b1 & ,,lxxxv4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxix4 #a4 ,l[] extremity ( ! hum]us2 #b4 groov$ surface2 #c4 int]nal condyle2 #d4 ext]nal condyle2 #e4 ! upp] "p ( ! ulna2 #f4 ! head2 #g4 ! neck2 #h4 ! tub]cle ( ! radius4 #aej4 ,! muscles t act ^u ! arm arise f ! back 7fig4 ,,lxxii4 #b71 ! *e/ 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 ! clavicle 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 & ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #c72 & !y move ! arm ) fre$om & p[] upw>ds1 d[nw>ds1 =w>ds1 backw>ds1 inw>ds1 & outw>ds4 ,! *ief muscle t raises ! arm is ! deltoid 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #c71 :i* arises p>tly f ! clavicle & p>tly f ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #c74 ,x has ! appe>ance ( ?ree muscles proce$+ 9 diff]5t directions1 ! diff]5t portions be+ sep>at$ by slight fissures 7figs4 ,,lxxi4 #c1 & ,,lxxii4 #c74 ,! fibres conv]g+ unite & =m a p[]ful muscle :i* cov]s ! jo9t ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #c74 ,x is implant$ by a %ort & /rong t5don into ! middle ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #d74 ,its manife/ action is to pull ! arm directly upw>ds4 ,its action is assi/$ by ! muscles t cov] ! back ( ! scapula1 :i* are 9 l mann] ins]t$ into ! hum]us1 & :i*1 at ! same "t t !y elevate ! arm1 support x :5 rais$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxi4 ,view ( ! muscles on ! =e "p ( ! *e/ t act ^u ! arm4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ ! great pectoral2 #b4 ! small pectoral2 #c4 ! deltoid2 #d4 ! hum]us4 #aea4 ,! pr9cipal muscle t c>ries ! arm d[nw>ds is ! latissimus dorsi 7fig4 ,,lxxii4 #b71 ! broade/ muscle ( ! body1 :i*1 aft] hav+ cov]$ all ! l[] "p ( ! back & lo9s1 t]m9ates 9 a ?9 b /rong t5don :i* /ret*es to ! arm1 & is implant$ into ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxxii4 #b71 ne> ! t5don ( a muscle imm$iately to be describ$1--! great pectoral4 ,:5 ! arm is rais$ by ! deltoid & its assi/ant muscles1 ! latissimus dorsi c>ries x d[nw>ds ) =ce1 & its p[]ful action is increas$ by t ( o!r muscles :i* arise f ! scapula & are ins]t$ into ! arm4 #aeb4 ,! pr9cipal muscle t c>ries ! arm =w>ds t[>ds ! *e/1 is ! great pectoral 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 :i*1 aris+ p>tly f ! clavicle 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 p>tly f ! /]num 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 & p>tly f ! c>tilages ( ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 fif?1 & six? ribs 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a71 cov]s ! great] "p ( ! brea/ 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a74 ,its fibres1 conv]g+1 t]m9ate 9 a /rong t5don1 :i* is ins]t$ ne> ! t5don ( ! longissimus dorsi into ! hum]us1 ab\t f\r in*es bel[ its head 7fig4 ,,lxxi4 #a74 ,^! two muscles =m ! axilla or armpit1 ! ant]ior bord] ( ! axilla consi/+ ( ! pectoral muscle4 ,?\gh ea* ( ^! muscles has its own peculi> (fice1 yet !y (t5 act 9 conc]t1 !reby greatly increas+ _! p[]1 & ! result ( _! comb9$ action is to c>ry ! arm ei!r directly d[nw>ds or to ! side ( ! *e/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxii4 ,view ( ! muscles seat$ on ! back "p ( ! trunk t act ^u ! %\ld] & arm4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ ! trapezius2 #b4 ! latissimus dorsi2 #c4 ! deltoid4 #aec4 ,"s ( ! muscles t elevate ! arm c>ry x inw>ds1 & o!rs outw>ds2 ! muscles t c>ry x =w>ds likewise c>ry x inw>ds2 :ile ( ! muscles t pull x d[nw>ds1 "s direct x =w>ds & inw>ds1 & o!rs backw>ds & outw>ds 7#aea & #aeb74 #aed4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t ! %\ld]-jo9t is completely surr\nd$ by ! muscul> fibres or ! t5d9\s expansions ( sev]al ( ^! p[]ful muscles1 :i* h a f> great] effect 9 ma9ta9+ ! head ( ! hum]us 9 its socket ?an ! fibr\s capsule ( ! jo9t2 ! latt] be+ necess>ily loose1 9 ord] to all[ ( ! ext5d$ & v>i$ motions ( ! arm1 :]eas ! muscles t encompass ! jo9t adh]e closely & firmly to x4 ,moreov]1 by virtue ( _! vital p[] ^! muscles act ) an effici5cy :i* a m]e ligam5t\s b& is incapable ( ex]t+2 = !y apportion ! /r5g? ( resi/ance to ! sep>at+ =ce1 & react ) an en]gy proportion$ to ! viol5ce appli$4 #aee4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm are two1 ! ulna & ! radius 7figs4 ,,lxix4 & ,,lxxiii474 ,! ulna is ess5tially ! bone ( ! elb[ 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #e1 & ,,lxxiii4 #c72 ! radius t ( ! h& 7fig4 ,,lxxv474 ,suppos+ ! arm to hang by ! side ( ! body1 & ! palm ( ! h& to be turn$ =w>ds1 ! ulna1 9 apposition ) ! little f+]1 occupies ! inn]2 & ! radius1 9 apposition ) ! ?umb1 occupies ! out] "p ( ! =e-arm 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxiii4 #a4 ,! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us2 #b4 ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us2 #c4 ! olecranon process ( ! ulna2 #d4 ! head ( ! radius4 #aef4 ,! upp] end ( ! ulna belong+ to ! elb[ is l>ge 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #e1 & ,,lxxiii4 #c74 ,x s5ds backw>ds ! l>ge projection commonly nam$ ! elb[ or olecranon 7fig4 ,,lxxii4 #c71 9 ! c5tre ( :i* !re is a smoo? & some:at triangul> surface 7fig4 ,,lxxiii4 #c7 :i* is always cov]$ by sk9 ( a co>se texture1 l t plac$ ov] ! l[] "p ( ! knee-pan1 z if nature int5d$ ?is = a "p on :i* we may occasionally lean & re/4 ,l>ge at ! elb[1 ! ulna gradually gr[s small] & small] z x desc5ds t[>ds ! wri/1 :]e x ends 9 a small r\nd head 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #b71 beyond :i*1 on ! inn] side1 or t correspond+ to ! little f+]1 x projects d[nw>ds a small r\nd$ po9t1 t]m$ ! /yloid process 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #c74 ,z ! /yloid process & ! olecranon1 ! two extremities ( ! ulna 7figs4 ,,lxxiii4 #c1 & ,,lxxii4 #c71 are easily & di/9ctly felt1 ! l5g? ( ?is bone 0 primitively us$ z a measure1 call$ a cubit1 :i* 0 ! anci5t "n ( ! bone4 #aeg4 ,! radius1 ! second bone ( ! =e-arm1 plac$ along its out] "p next ! ?umb1 is small at its upp] end 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #f1 & ,,lxxiii4 #d72 b its body is l>g] ?an t ( ! ulna2 :ile its l[] end1 next ! wri/ to :i* x prop]ly belongs1 is v bulky 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #a74 ,its upp] end is =m$ into a small circul> head1 :i* is unit$ by di/9ct jo9ts bo? to ! hum]us & to ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #f74 ,! top ( its r\nd$ head is excavat$ into a %all[ cup 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #f1 & ,,lxxiii4 #d7 :i* receives a correspond+ convexity ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #b71 & its l[] extremity is excavat$ into an oblong cavity1 :i* receives two ( ! bones ( ! wri/ 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #a4 #d74 #aeh4 ,! jo9t ( ! elb[ is compos$ above ( ! condyles ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #c4 #b71 & bel[ by ! heads ( ! ulna & radius 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #e4 #f74 #aei4 ,! upp] surface ( ! ulna is s accurately adapt$ to ! l[] surface ( ! hum]us t ! "o seems to be m\ld$ on ! o!r 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #e1 & ,,lxxiii4 #c71 & ! =m ( ^! correspond+ surfaces1 :i* are ev]y:]e cov]$ ) c>tilage1 is su* z to admit ( free motion backw>ds & =w>ds1 t is1 ( ext5sion & flexion2 b to prev5t any degree ( motion 9 any o!r direction4 ,! jo9t is !re=e a h+e-jo9t1 ( :i* ! two motions ( flexion & ext5sion are ! prop] motions4 ,?is h+e is =m$ on ! "p ( ! hum]us by a groov$ surface1 ) lat]al projections 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #b1 #c1 #d71 & on ! "p ( ! ulna by a middle projection ) lat]al depressions 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #e73 ! middle projection ( ! ulna turn+ readily on ! groov$ surface ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #b74 #afj4 ,! bones are held 9 _! prop] situation1 fir/1 by a ligam5t on ! =e "p ( ! arm1 call$ ! ant]ior 7fig4 ,,lxxiv4 #f71 :i* arises f ! l[] extremity ( ! hum]us1 & is ins]t$ into ! upp] "p ( ! ulna & ! coron>y ligam5t ( ! radius 7fig4 ,,lxxiv4 #f4 #h72 secondly1 by ano!r ligam5t on ! back "p ( ! arm1 call$ ! po/]ior ligam5t 7fig4 ,,lxxv4 #h71 plac$ 9 ! cavity ( ! hum]us t receives ! olecranon ( ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxv4 #h72 & ?irdly1 by two o!r ligam5ts at ! sides ( ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxv4 #f1 #g74 ,! ulna & radius are unit$1 fir/1 by a ligam5t call$ ! coron>y1 :i*1 aris+ f ! ulna1 passes completely ar\nd ! head ( ! radius 7fig4 ,,lxxvi4 #c71 & ! atta*m5t ( :i*1 :ile suffici5tly close to prev5t ! sep>ation ( ! two bones1 is yet n adh]5t to ! radius1 = a reason imm$iately to be assign$2 secondly1 by ano!r ligam5t :i* passes 9 an oblique direction f "o bone to ! o!r 7fig4 ,,lxxvi4 #d72 & ?irdly1 by a d5se & broad ligam5t1 t]m$ ! int]osse\s 7figs4 ,,lxxiv4 #aj1 & ,,lxxvi4 #e71 :i* fills up ! space betwe5 ! two bones ne>ly 9 _! :ole ext5t4 ,?is ligam5t s]ves o!r (fices besides t ( =m+ a bond ( union1 af=d+1 m especially1 a great] ext5t ( surface = ! atta*m5t ( muscles1 & sep>at+ ! muscles on ! ant]ior f ^? on ! po/]ior "p ( ! limb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxiv4 ,ant]ior view ( ! ligam5ts ( ! elb[-jo9t4 #a4 ,! l[] portion ( ! hum]us2 #b4 ! upp] portion ( ! radius2 #c4 ! upp] portion ( ! ulna2 #d4 ! int]nal condyle2 #e4 ! ext]nal condyle2 #f4 ! ant]ior ligam5t2 #g4 portion ( ! int]nal lat]al ligam5t2 #h4 portion ( ! coron>y ligam5t2 #i4 ! oblique ligam5t2 #aj4 upp] portion ( ! int]osse\s ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxv4 ,po/]ior view ( ! ligam5ts ( ! elb[-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! hum]us2 #b4 int]nal condyle2 #c4 ext]nal condyle2 #d4 ! olecranon process ( ! ulna2 #e4 ! upp] portion ( ! radius2 #f4 ! int]nal lat]al ligam5t2 #g4 ! ext]nal lat]al ligam5t2 #h4 ! po/]ior ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxvi4 ,view ( ! ligam5ts connect+ ! ulna & radius at _! upp] "p4 #a4 ,! radius2 #b4 ! ulna2 #c4 ! coron>y ligam5t surr\nd+ ! head ( ! radius2 #d4 ! oblique ligam5t pass+ f ! ulna to ! tub]cle ( ! radius2 #e ! upp] portion ( ! int]osse\s ligam5t4 #afa4 ,at _! inf]ior extremities ! ulna & radius are unit$ p>tly by ! int]osse\s ligam5t 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #a7 & p>tly by ligam5t\s fibres :i* pass transv]sely f "o bone to ! o!r 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #b7 on ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior surface ( ! =e-arm4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #a4 ,int]osse\s ligam5t2 #b4 transv]se fibres pass+ betwe5 ! radius & ulna1 & unit+ ! two bones2 #c4 #d4 #e4 po/]ior & lat]al ligam5ts ( ! wri/ jo9t2 #f4 ligam5ts unit+ ! bones ( ! wri/ ) "o ano!r2 #g4 #h4 ligam5ts :i* atta* ! metac>pal to ! c>pal bones2 #i4 transv]se ligam5ts = ! atta*m5t ( ! phalanges ( ! f+]s2 #aj4 lat]al ligam5ts = ! atta*m5t ( ! phalanges ( ! f+]s #aa4 ligam5ts ( ! ?umb4 #afb4 ,! l[] extremity ( ! radius is also unit$ to ! wri/2 & ! h& be+ atta*$ to ! wri/1 ! junction ( ! h& & ! =e-arm is effect$ by ! articulation ( ! wri/ ) ! radius 7fig4 ,,lxxvii474 ,! ligam5ts :i* connect ! bones ( ! wri/ ) ! radius are b&s ( exce$+ /r5g? 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #c74 #afc4 ,! muscles t act ^u ! =e-arm are plac$ ^u ! arm 7fig4 ,,lxxviii474 ,! jo9t ( ! elb[ be+ a h+e-jo9t1 ! =e-arm c admit only ( two motions1 namely1 flexion & ext5sion4 ,! muscles by :i* ^! motions are effect$ are f\r1 two = ea*2 ! two flexors be+ plac$ on ! =e "p 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b4 #d71 & ! two ext5sors on ! back "p ( ! arm 7fig4 ,,lxxix4 #e74 #afd4 ,! two flexor muscles ( ! =e-arm are t]m$ ! biceps & ! bra*ialis 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b1 #d74 ,! biceps is s call$ because x has two di/9ct heads or po9ts ( orig9 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b71 bo? ( :i* arise f ! scapula 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b74 ,ab\t a ?ird "p d[n ! hum]us ! two heads meet1 unite & =m a bulky muscle 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b71 :i*1 :5 x contracts1 may be felt l a firm ball on ! =e "p ( ! arm1 ! upp] "p ( ! ball m>k+ ! po9t ( union ( ! two heads 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #b74 ,! muscle gradually becom+ small]1 at l5g? t]m9ates 9 a r\nd$ t5don 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #c71 :i* is implant$ into ! tub]cle ( ! radius a little bel[ its neck 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #c74 ,x is an exce$+ly ?ick & p[]ful muscle1 & its manife/ action is to b5d ! =e-arm ) great /r5g?4 ,b s9ce its t5don is ins]t$ into ! radius1 besides b5d+ ! =e-arm1 x assi/s o!r muscles t also act ^u ! radius 9 ! p]=mance ( a function to be describ$ imm$iately 7#afh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxviii4 ,view ( ! flexor muscles ( ! =e-arm4 #a4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! scapula2 #b4 ! muscle call$ biceps2 #c4 t5don ( ! biceps pass+ to ! tub]cle ( ! radius2 #d4 ! muscle call$ bra*ialis4 #afe4 ,! second flexor ( ! =e-arm1 t]m$ ! bra*ialis1 is plac$ imm$iately "u ! biceps1 & is conceal$ by x = a consid]able "p ( its c\rse 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #d74 ,aris+ f ! hum]us1 on ea* side ( ! ins]tion ( ! deltoid1 x cont9ues its atta*m5t to ! bone all ! way d[n ! =e "p ( ! hum]us1 to )9 in* ( ! jo9t2 x !n passes ov] ! jo9t1 adh]+ firmly to ! ant]ior ligam5t 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #d71 & is ins]t$ by a /rong t5don into ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxviii4 #d74 ,x is a ?ick & fle%y muscle1 p[]fully assi/+ ! action ( ! biceps4 #aff4 ,! two ext5sor muscles are nam$ ! triceps & ! ancone\s 7fig4 ,,lxxix474 ,! triceps1 seat$ on ! back "p ( ! arm1 d]ives its "n f hav+ ?ree di/9ct po9ts ( orig91 or ?ree sep>ate heads 7fig4 ,,lxxix4 #e72 "o ( :i* arises f ! scapula & two f ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxxix4 #e74 ,all ^! heads adh]e firmly to ! hum]us1 z ! bra*ialis does on ! =e "p ( ! arm1 d[n to )9 an in* ( ! jo9t 7fig4 ,,lxxix4 #e71 :]e !y =m a /rong t5don1 :i* is implant$ into ! olecranon ( ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxix4 #c72 ! projection ( :i* af=ds a lev] = increas+ ! action ( ! muscle4 ,9 all animals t leap & b\nd1 ?is process ( ! ulna is increas$ 9 l5g? 9 proportion to _! p[] ( p]=m+ ^! movem5ts4 ,! triceps =ms an exce$+ly ?ick & /rong muscle1 :i* envelops ! :ole ( ! back "p ( ! arm 7fig4 ,,lxxix472 its action is simple & obvi\s2 x p[]fully ext5ds ! =e-arm4 ,! ancone\s1 a small muscle ( a triangul> =m1 aris+ f ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us1 & ins]t$ into ! ulna a little bel[ ! olecranon1 assi/s ! action ( ! triceps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxix4 ,view ( ! ext5sor muscles ( ! =e-arm4 #a4 ,! scapula2 #b4 ! upp] "p ( ! hum]us2 #c4 upp] end ( ! ulna2 #d4 upp] end ( ! radius2 #e4 ! muscle call$ triceps1 ! ext5sor ( ! =e-arm4 #afg4 ,su* are ! motive p[]s :i* act ^u ! =e-arm1 & :i* produce all ! motions ( :i* ! h+e-jo9t ( ! elb[ r5d]s x capable4 ,b besides flexion & ext5sion1 ! =e-arm is capable ( ! motion ( rotation1 :i* is accompli%$ by means ( ! radius4 ,x has be5 %[n 7#aeg7 t ! top ( ! r\nd$ head ( ! radius is excavat$ into a %all[ cup 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #f1 & ,,lxxiii4 #d7 :i* receives a correspond+ convexity ( ! hum]us 7figs4 ,,lxix4 #b1 & ,,lxxiii4 #b74 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is articulation ) ! hum]us1 ! radius1 l ! ulna1 c move backw>ds & =w>ds 9 flexion & ext5sion1 ! prop] movem5ts ( ! h+e-jo9t2 b t portion ( ! m>g9 ( ! h+e ( ! radius :i* is 9 apposition ) ! ulna is convex 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #f71 & is receiv$ into a semilun> cavity holl[$ out 9 ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #e74 ,9 ?is cavity ! r\nd$ head ( ! radius revolves1 ! two bones be+ held toge!r by ! ligam5t already describ$ 7#afj71 :i* surr\nds ! head ( ! radius 7fig4 ,,lxxvi4 #c71 & :i* holds x firmly )\t be+ adh]5t to x1 & )\t imp$+ 9 any degree ! rotatory motion ( ! radius4 ,bel[1 ! surface ( ! radius next ! ulna is holl[$ out into a semilun> cavity 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #a71 :i* receives a correspond+ convex surface ( ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #b71 ^u :i* convex surface ! radius rolls 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #a74 ,?us1 by ! mode 9 :i* x is articulat$ ) ! ulna above1 ! radius turns ^u its own axis4 ,by ! mode 9 :i* x is articulat$ ) ! ulna bel[1 ! radius revolves ^u ! head ( ! ulna2 &1 9 consequ5ce ( bo? articulations1 is capable ( p]=m+ ! motion ( rotation4 ,moreov]1 ! h& be+ atta*$ to ! radius ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! wri/ 7figs4 ,,lxxxii4 #a4 #d4 & ,,lxxxiii4 #a4 #d7 mu/ necess>ily foll[ e movem5t ( ! radius2 ! rotation ( :i* br+s ! h& into two opposite positions4 ,9 ! "o1 ! palm ( ! h& is direct$ upw>ds 7fig4 ,,lxxxii472 9 ! o!r1 x is turn$ d[nw>ds 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii474 ,:5 ! h& is turn$ upw>ds1 x is said to be 9 ! /ate ( sup9ation 7fig4 ,,lxxxii472 :5 d[nw>ds1 9 t ( pronation 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii474 ,a di/9ct app>atus ( muscles is provid$ = effect+ ! rotation ( ! radius1 9 ord] to br+ ! h& into ^! opposite /ates3 "o set = produc+ its sup9ation1 & ano!r its pronation4 #afh4 ,! pr9cipal sup9ators arise f ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxxx471 & are call$ long & %ort 7fig4 ,,lxxx4 #d1 #e74 ,! long sup9ator ext5ds z f> z ! l[] end ( ! radius1 into :i* x is ins]t$ 7fig4 ,,lxxx4 #d73 ! %ort sup9ator surr\nds ! upp] "p ( ! radius1 & is atta*$ to x 9 ?is situation 7fig4 ,,lxxx4 #e474 ,moreov]1 ! triceps1 be+ ins]t$ into ! radius 7#afd71 (t5 coop]ates ) ! sup9ators & p[]fully assi/s _! action4 #afi4 ,! pr9cipal pronators are also two1 call$ ! r\nd & ! squ>e 7figs4 ,,lxxxi4 & ,,lxxxvi4 #a74 ,! r\nd pronator arises f ! int]nal condyle1 & pass+ d[nw>ds1 is ins]t$ into ! middle ( ! radius 7fig4 ,,lxxxi4 #d72 ! squ>e pronator is a small muscle betwe5 ! radius & ulna1 at _! l[] extremities be+ atta*$ to ea* 7fig4 ,,lxxxvi4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxx4 ,view ( ! sup9ators ( ! radius & h&4 #a4 ,! hum]us2 #b4 ! ulna2 #c4 ! radius2 #d4 ! muscle call$ ! long sup9ator pass+ to be ins]t$ into ! l[] portion ( ! radius2 #e4 ! muscle1 call$ ! %ort sup9ator1 surr\nd+ ! upp] "p ( ! radius4 #agj4 ,! action ( ^! muscles 9 produc+ ! rotation ( ! radius1 & s r5d]+ ! h& sup9e or prone1 is suffici5tly manife/ f ! m]e inspection ( ! diagrams 7fig4 ,,lxxxi4 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxi4 ,view ( ! pronators ( ! h&4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! hum]us2 #b4 ! radius2 #c4 ! ulna2 #d4 ! muscle call$ ! r\nd pronator1 "o ( ! p[]ful pronators ( ! h&4 #aga4 ,! h& is compos$ ( ! c>pus1 metac>pus1 & f+]s4 #agb4 ,! c>pus 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #d7 consi/s ( eight small w$ge-%ap$ bones1 plac$ 9 a d\ble r[1 ea* r[ conta9+ an equal numb]1 & ! :ole dispos$ l /ones 9 an ar* 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #d74 ,!y d 9 fact =m an ar*1 ! convexity ( :i* is upw>ds1 on ! dorsal surface 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #d72 & ! concavity d[nw>ds1 on ! palm> surface 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #d74 ,b !y diff] f ! /ones ( an ar* 9 ?is1 t ea* bone is jo9$ to its fell[ by a di/9ct moveable jo9t1 ea* be+ cov]$ ) a smoo? articulat+ c>tilage4 ,at ! same "t all ( !m are ti$ toge!r by ligam5ts ( prodigi\s /r5g?1 :i* cross ea* o!r 9 e direction 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #f71 s t ! sev]al sep>ate jo9ts are consolidat$ into "o great jo9t4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is me*anism is t "s degree ( motion is capable ( tak+ place betwe5 ! sev]al bones1 :i*1 :5 multipli$ toge!r1 gives to ! two r[s ( bones su* an ext5t ( motion1 t :5 ! wri/ is b5t ! ar* ( ! c>pus =ms a k9d ( knuckle4 ,by ?is con/ruction a facility & ease ( motion1 & a p[] ( accommodation to motion & =ce1 are obta9$1 su* z belong to no ar* contriv$ by human +5uity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #a4 ,l[] extremity ( ! radius2 #b4 l[] extremity ( ! ulna2 #c4 /yloid process ( ! ulna2 #d4 bones ( ! c>pus or wri/2 #e4 metac>pal bones2 #f4 fir/ phalanges ( ! f+]s2 #g4 second phalanges ( ! f+]s2 #h4 ?ird phalanges ( ! f+]s4 #agc4 ,! metac>pus 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #e71 ! middle portion ( ! h&1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! wri/ & ! f+]s1 is compos$ ( five bones1 :i* are plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #e74 ,!y are convex outw>dly1 =m+ ! back 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #e71 & concave inw>dly1 =m+ ! holl[ ( ! h& 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #e74 ,!y are l>ge at ea* end1 to =m ! jo9ts by :i* !y are connect$ ) ! wri/ & f+]s 7figs4 ,,lxxxii4 & ,,lxxxiii473 !y are small 9 ! middle1 9 ord] to af=d room = ! lodgm5t & arrangem5t ( ! muscles1 t move ! f+]s f side to side 7fig4 ,,lxxxvi4 #b74 ,_! ends1 :i* are jo9$ to ! c>pus1 are connect$ by ne>ly plane surfaces 7figs4 ,,lxxxii4 & ,,lxxxiii473 _! ends1 :i* support ! f+]s1 are =m$ into r\nd$ heads1 :i* are receiv$ into correspond+ cup-%ap$ cavities1 excavat$ 9 ! top ( ! fir/ bones ( ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #e474 ,! p[]ful ligam5ts t unite ^! bones pass1 bo? on ! dorsal & ! palm> surface1 f ! inf]ior extremity ( ! second r[ ( ! c>pal to ! bases ( ! metac>pal bones 7fig4 ,,lxxvii1 #g1 #h74 ,! ligam5ts are arrang$ 9 su* a mann] z to limit ! motions ( ! jo9ts *iefly to ^? ( flexion & ext5sion1 all[+1 h[ev]1 a slight degree ( motion f side to side4 #agd4 ,ea* ( ! f+]s is compos$ ( ?ree sep>ate pieces ( bone1 call$ phalanges2 ! ?umb has only two 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #f1 #g1 #h73 ! phalanges are convex outw>dly 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #f1 #g1 #h7 = increas+ _! /r5g?1 & flatt5$ inw>dly 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #f1 #g1 #h7 = ! conv5i5ce ( grasp+4 ,! la/ bones ( ! f+]s1 :i* are small1 t]m9ate at _! "u ends1 9 a some:at r\nd$ & r\gh surface 7fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #h71 on :i* re/s ! vascul>1 pulpy1 & n]v\s sub/ance1 con/itut+ ! special organ ( t\*1 plac$ at ! po9ts ( ! f+]s1 & gu>d$ on ! upp] surface by ! nail 7fig4 ,,lxxxii4 #h74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxiii4 #a4 ,l[] extremity ( ! radius2 #b4 l[] extremity ( ! ulna2 #c4 /yloid process ( ! ulna2 #d4 bones ( ! c>pus2 #e4 metac>pal bones2 #f4 #g4 #h4 fir/1 second1 & ?ird phalanges ( ! f+]s4 #age4 ,! r\nd inf]ior extremity ( ! metac>pus is admitt$ into ! cavity ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! five f+]s 7figs4 ,,lxxxii4 & ,,lxxxiii471 & _! jo9ts are connect$ by lat]al & transv]se ligam5ts ( great /r5g? 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #i74 ,! situation & direction ( ! ligam5ts :i* unite ! sev]al phalanges ( ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #i7 are precisely ! same z ^? ( ! articulation ( ! phalanges ) ! metac>pus 7fig4 ,,lxxvii4 #g1 #h72 & ! articulation ( ^! bones ) "o ano!r is su* z to admit only ( ! motions ( flexion & ext5sion4 #agf4 ,! muscles :i* p]=m ^! motions are seat$ = ! mo/ "p on ! =e-arm4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! sup9ators & pronators :i* h be5 already describ$ 7#afg et seq471 !re are di/9ct sets ( muscles = b5d+ & ext5d+ ! wri/ & ! f+]s4 ,! flexors arise f ! int]nal1 & ! ext5sors f ! ext]nal1 condyle ( ! hum]us 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #c1 #d74 ,! int]nal condyle is l>g] & long] ?an ! ext]nal 7fig4 ,,lxix4 #c1 #d72 = ! flexors require a l>g] po9t ( orig9 & a long] fulcrum ?an ! ext5sor muscles2 because to ! actions ( flexion1 su* z grasp+1 b5d+1 pull+1 m p[] is necess>y ?an to ! action ( ext5sion1 :i* consi/s m]ely 9 ! unfold+ or ! op5+ ( ! h& previ\sly to ! r5ewal ( ! grasp4 #agg4 ,= ! same reason1 two muscles are provid$ = flex+1 :ile only "o is provid$ = ext5d+ ! f+]s4 ,! flexors1 bulky1 ?ick1 & /rong1 are plac$ on ! =e "p ( ! =e-arm 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv474 ,! fir/1 nam$ ! sup]ficial flexor 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #a71 ab\t ! middle ( ! arm1 divides into f\r fle%y portions1 ea* ( :i* ends 9 a sl5d] t5don 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #a74 ,z ^! t5dons approa* ! f+]s !y exp& 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #a71 & :5 9 apposition ) ! fir/ phalanx1 split & =m di/9ct %ea?s = ! reception ( ! t5dons ( ! second flexor 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #c74 ,aft] complet+ ! %ea?1 ! t5dons proce$ =w>d along ! second phalanx1 into ! =e "p ( :i* !y are implant$1 & ! *ief (fice ( ?is p[]ful muscle is to b5d ! second jo9t ( ! f+]s ^u ! fir/1 & ! fir/ ^u ! metac>pal bone4 ,its action is assi/$ by a second muscle1 call$ ! deep or pr(\nd flexor 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #b71 because x lies b5ea? ! =m]2 or ! p]=ans1 because x pi]ces x4 ,bulky & fle%y1 ?is second flexor1 l ! fir/1 ab\t ! middle ( ! arm1 divides into f\r t5dons1 :i*1 ent]+ ! %ea?s prep>$ = !m 9 ! =m] muscle 7:]e ! t5dons are small & r\nd$ = _! easy transmission & play71 pass to ! root ( ! ?ird phalanx ( ! f+]s into :i* !y are implant$ 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 ,view ( ! flexor muscles ( ! f+]s4 #a4 ,! sup]ficial flexor1 divid$ & turn$ aside1 to %[1 #b4 ! deep flexor2 #c4 %ea?s = ! t5dons ( ! deep flexor1 =m$ by ! splitt+ ( ! t5dons ( ! sup]ficial flexor2 #d4 ! ant]ior annul> ligam5t1 divid$ & turn$ aside4 #aah4 ,! muscle t ext5ds ! f+]s1 call$ ! common ext5sor1 is plac$ on ! back "p ( ! =e-arm 7fig4 ,,lxxxv471 ab\t ! middle ( :i* x divides into f\r portions :i* t]m9ate 9 s _m t5dons 7fig4 ,,lxxxv4 #b74 ,:5 !y rea* ! back ( ! metac>pal bones1 ^! t5dons become broad & flat1 & s5d t5d9\s expansions to ea* o!r1 =m+ a /rong t5d9\s %ea? :i* surr\nds ! back ( ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxv4 #b74 ,^! t5d9\s expansions are ins]t$ into ! po/]ior "p ( ! bones ( ! f\r f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxv4 #b72 & _! (fice is p[]fully to ext5d all ! jo9ts ( all ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxv4 #b74 #agi4 ,on bo? ! palm> & dorsal regions ( ! wri/ are plac$ ligam5ts = ty+ d[n ^! t5dons1 & prev5t+ !m f />t+ f _! situation dur+ ! action ( ! muscles 7figs4 ,,lxxxiv4 & ,,lxxxv474 ,on ! palm> region an exce$+ly /rong ligam5t passes ant]iorly to ! concave ar* ( ! c>pus 7fig4 ,,lxxxiv4 #d7 = ! purpose ( ty+ d[n ! t5dons ( ! flexor muscles4 ,on ! dorsal surface 7fig4 ,,lxxxv471 a simil> ligam5t1 pass+ 9 an oblique direction f ! /yloid process ( ! radius to ! /yloid process ( ! ulna 7fig4 ,,lxxxv4 #c71 p]=ms ! same (fice 9 ty+ d[n ! t5dons ( ! ext5sor muscle4 ,bo? ^! ligam5ts are call$ annul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxv4 ,view ( ! ext5sor muscles ( ! f+]s4 #a4 ,! common ext5sor1 s5d+ 7#b #b #b #b7 t5dons to ea* f+]2 #c4 ! po/]ior annul> ligam5t4 #ahj4 ,9 ! palm ( ! h& are plac$ additional muscles :i* assi/ ! flexors ( ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxvi4 #b71 be+ *iefly useful 9 enabl+ ! f+]s to p]=m ) /r5g? & precision %ort & quick motions4 ,!re are especially f\r small & r\nd$ muscles 7fig4 ,,lxxxvi4 #b71 resembl+ ! e>? worm 9 =m & size1 & h5ce call$ lumbricales2 b z _! *ief use is to assi/ ! f+]s 9 execut+ %ort & rapid motions1 !y h also receiv$ ! bett] "n ( ! musculi fidic9ales4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxvi4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ ! squ>e pronator2 #b4 muscles seat$ 9 ! palm ( ! h&1 by :i*1 *iefly1 ! f+]s execute %ort & rapid motions4 #aha4 ,! ?umb1 9 consequ5ce ( ! comp>ative loos5ess ( its ligam5ts1 is capable ( a mu* great] ext5t ( motion ?an ! f+]s1 & c be appli$ to any "p ( ea* ( ! f+]s1 to diff]5t p>ts ( ! h&1 & 9 direct opposition to ! p[] ex]t$ by ! :ole ( ! f+]s & h&1 9 ! act ( grasp+4 ,! muscles :i* enable x to p]=m ^! v>i$ motions1 & :i* act p[]fully 9 almo/ e ?+ we d ) ! h&1 =m a mass ( fle% at ! ball ( ! ?umb 7fig4 ,,lxxxvii4 #a71 almo/ entirely surr\nd+ x4 ,! little f+] is also provid$ ) a di/9ct app>atus ( muscles 7fig4 ,,lxxxvii4 #b71 :i* surr\nds its root1 j z ^? ( ! ?umb surr\nd its ball1 9 ord] to keep x firm 9 opposition to ! p[] ( ! ?umb 9 ! act ( grasp+1 & 9 v>i\s o!r motions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxvii4 #a4 ,! mass ( muscles =m+ ! ball ( ! ?umb2 #b4 ! mass ( muscles =m+ ! ball ( ! little f+]2 #c4 t5dons ( "o ( ! flexor muscles ( ! f+]s2 #d4 %ea?s =m$ by ! t5dons ( ! sup]ficial flexor = ! reception ( ! t5dons ( ! deep flexor4 #ahb4 ,! upp] extremity is cov]$ by a t5d9\s expansion or fascia :i* envelopes ! :ole arm1 encloses its muscles z 9 a %ea?1 & af=ds !m1 9 _! /rong actions1 t k9d ( support :i* workm5 feel 9 b9d+ _! arms ) ?ongs4 ,?is fascia likewise desc5ds betwe5 _m ( ! muscles1 =m+ /rong p>titions betwe5 !m1 & af=d+ po9ts ( orig9 to _m ( _! fibres1 sc>cely less fix$ ?an bone itself4 #ahc4 ,f ! :ole1 x appe>s1 t ! fir/ jo9t ( ! upp] extremities1 t ( ! %\ld]1 is a ball & socket jo9t1 a jo9t admitt+ ( motion 9 e direction2 t ! second jo9t1 t ( ! elb[1 is p>tly a h+e-jo9t1 admitt+ ( flexion & ext5sion1 & p>tly a rotation jo9t1 admitt+ ( a turn+ or rotatory motion2 & t ! jo9ts ( ! wri/ & ( ! f+]s are likewise h+e-jo9ts1 admitt+ at ! same "t ( "s degree ( lat]al motion4 ,:5 ^! v>i\s motions are comb9$1 ! result is t ! h& c apply itself to bodies 9 almo/ e direction1 9 any "p ( ! area describ$ by ! arm1 :5 all ! jo9ts are mov$ to _! utmo/ ext5t4 ,!re is ?us =m$ an in/rum5t ( consid]able /r5g?1 capable ( a surpris+ v>iety & complexity ( movem5ts1 capable ( seiz+1 hold+1 pull+1 pu%+ & /rik+ ) great p[]1 yet at ! same "t capable ( appreh5d+ ! m9ute/ objects1 & ( guid+ !m ) ! utmo/ g5tl5ess1 precision1 & accuracy1 s t !re are few conceptions ( ! design+ m9d :i* _c be execut$ by ! skilful h&4 #ahd4 ,! l[] extremities consi/ ( ! ?igh1 leg1 & foot4 #ahe4 ,! osse\s "p ( ! ?igh consi/s ( a s+le bone1 call$ ! femur 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d71 ! longe/1 ?icke/1 & /ronge/ bone 9 ! body4 ,x su/a9s ! entire weight ( ! trunk1 & occasionally mu* heavi] loads sup]impos$ ^u x4 ,x is con/ruct$ 9 su* a mann] z to comb9e /r5g? ) lightness4 ,?is is effect$ by r5d]+ ! bone :at is te*nically call$ cyl9drical2 t is1 a bone 9 :i* ! osse\s fibres are arrang$ ar\nd a holl[ cyl9d]4 ,!re are two v>ieties ( osse\s matt]1--! compact1 9 :i* ! fibres are d5se & solid 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #a71 & ! spongy1 9 :i* ! fibres are comp>atively t5d] & delicate 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #b74 ,bo? v>ieties are1 inde$1 comb9$1 m or less1 9 e bone1 ! compact sub/ance be+ always ext]nal1 & ! spongy int]nal2 b 9 ! cyl9drical bones ! arrangem5t is peculi>4 ,e long or cyl9drical bone consi/s ( a body or %aft 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #d471 & ( two extremities 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #e74 ,! body is compos$ pr9cipally ( compact sub/ance1 :i* on ! ext]nal surface is s d5se & solid1 t sc>cely any di/9ct arrangem5t is visible2 b t[>ds ! int]ior ?is d5sity dim9i%es2 ! fibres become di/9ct 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #e71 & =m an exp&$ tissue ( a cellul> appe>ance 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #e71 ! cells be+ call$ cancelli1 & ! /ructure cancellat$4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! bone ev5 ! cancelli disappe>2 ! osse\s fibres t]m9ate2 & a holl[ space is left fill$ up1 9 ! natural /ate1 by an inf9ite numb] ( m9ute membran\s bags :i* conta9 ! m>r[ 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #c74 ,9 ! body ( ! bone1 to :i* /r5g? is requisite1 t "p be+ ! mo/ expos$ to ext]nal viol5ce1 ! compact matt] is arrang$ ar\nd a c5tral cavity4 ,by ?is means /r5g? is secur$ )\t any addition ( weight2 = ! resi/+ p[] ( a cyl9drical body increases 9 proportion to its diamet]2 consequ5tly ! same numb] ( osse\s fibres plac$ ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( a circle produce a /rong] bone ?an c\ld h be5 con/ruct$ _h ! fibres be5 consolidat$ 9 ! c5tre1 & _h ! diamet] be5 proportionally dim9i%$4 ,! holl[ space ?us ga9$ 9 its c5tre1 r5d]s ! bone light] by ! subtraction ( ! weight ( z _m fibres z w\ld h gone to fill up t space2 :ile its /r5g? is n only n dim9i%$ by ?is arrangem5t1 b positively increas$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 at ! extremities ( ! bone1 space1 n /r5g?1 is requir$2 requir$ = ! atta*m5t & arrangem5t ( ! t5dons ( ! muscles t act ^u x1 & = ! =mation ( jo9ts 7fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 #e74 ,accord+ly1 at its extremities ! bone swells out into bulky surfaces2 b ^! surfaces are compos$1 n ( d5se & solid sub/ance1 b ( spongy tissue1 cov]$ by an exce$+ly ?9 cru/ ( compact matt]1 & s1 z by ! =m] exp$i5t /r5g? is secur$ )\t increase ( weight1 by ?is1 space is obta9$ )\t increase ( weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxviii4 ,a section ( ! femur1 %[+1 #a4 ! compact bony sub/ance2 #b4 ! spongy or cancellat$ /ructure2 #c4 ! int]nal cavity conta9+ ! m>r[2 #d4 body2 #e1 extremities ( ! bone4 #ahf4 ,! ?igh-bone1 plac$ at ! "u & out] "p ( ! pelvis1 has an oblique direction1 ! "u be+ consid]ably ne>] its fell[ ?an ! upp] end 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d71 9 ord] to af=d space = ! passages at ! bottom ( ! pelvis1 & also to fav\r ! action ( walk+4 ,! body ( ! bone1 :i* is ( a r\nd$ =m 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d71 is smoo? on its ant]ior surface 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d71 :]e x is always slightly convex1 ! convexity be+ =w>ds 7fig4 ,,xxxiv4 #d71 :ile its po/]ior surface is irregul> & r\gh1 & =ms a %>p prom95t l9e1 t]m$ ! l9ea asp]a 7fig4 ,,xxxv4 #d71 giv+ atta*m5t to num]\s muscles4 #ahg4 ,! sup]ior extremity ( ! femur t]m9ates 9 a l>ge ball or head1 :i* =ms ne>ly two-?irds ( a sph]e 7fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #d474 ,x is smoo?1 cov]$ ) c>tilage1 & receiv$ into ! socket ( ! ilium call$ ! acetabulum1 :i*1 deep z x is1 is /ill fur!r deep5$ by ! c>tilage :i* bord]s ! brim 7fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #c74 ,! brim is p>ticul>ly high 9 ! upp] & out] "p1 because x is 9 ?is direction t ! reaction ( ! gr\nd aga9/ ! desc5d+ weight ( ! trunk t5ds to dislodge ! ball f its socket4 #ahh4 ,pass+ obliquely d[nw>ds & outw>ds f ! ball1 is t "p ( ! femur :i* is call$ ! neck 7fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #e74 ,x spreads out ar*like betwe5 ! head & ! body ( ! bone1 & is m ?an an in* 9 l5g? 7fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #e74 ,x is ?us long 9 ord] t ! head ( ! bone may be set deep 9 its socket1 & t its motions may be wide1 free1 & unemb>rass$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #a4 ,l[] portion ( ! ilium2 #b4 tub]osity ( ! is*ium3 #c4 socket = ! head ( ! femur1 or ?igh-bone2 #d4 head ( ! femur2 #e4 neck ( ! femur2 #f4 ! great process ( ! femur call$ ! tro*ant] major2 #g4 ! body ( ! femur4 #ahi4 ,f ! ext]nal surface ( ! femur1 ne>ly 9 a l9e ) its axis1 proce$s ! l>ge/ & /ronge/ bony process ( ! body :i* gives ins]tion to its mo/ p[]ful muscles1 namely1 ^? t ext5d ! ?igh & t turn x ^u its axis 7fig4 ,,lxxxix4 #f74 ,because1 f its oblique direction1 x rotates ! ?igh1 ?is process is call$ ! tro*ant]1 &1 f its size1 ! tro*ant] major4 ,at ! "u & inn] "p ( ! neck on ! po/]ior surface ( ! bone1 is a simil> process1 b mu* small]1 call$ ! tro*ant] m9or 7fig4 ,,xxxv4 #d71 into :i* are ins]t$ ! muscles t b5d ! ?igh4 #aij4 ,! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur1 mu* broad] & ?ick] ?an ! sup]ior 7fig4 ,,xc4 #a71 is t]m9at$ by two em95ces1 ) smoo? surfaces1 t]m$ condyles 7fig4 ,,xc4 #b71 :i*1 articulat$ ) ! tibia1 & ! patella1 =m ! jo9t ( ! knee 7figs4 ,,xc4 #b1 #d1 #e1 & ,,xci4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xc4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! femur2 #b4 condyles ( ! femur2 #c4 upp] end ( ! tibia2 #d4 articul> surfaces on ! head ( ! tibia on :i* ! ?igh-bone plays2 #e4 ! patella1 or knee-pan2 #f4 upp] end ( ! fibula1 n ent]+ into ! knee-jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xci4 ,po/]ior view ( ! bones =m+ ! knee-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! femur2 #b4 upp] end ( ! tibia2 #c4 articul> surfaces on ! head ( ! tibia1 on :i* ! ?igh-bone plays2 #d4 upp] end ( ! fibula1 n ent]+ into ! knee jo9t4 #aia4 ,! bones ( ! leg1 two 9 numb]1 consi/ ( ! tibia 7fig4 ,,xc4 #c7 & fibula 7fig4 ,,xc4 #f74 ,! tibia1 next to ! femur1 ! longe/ bone 9 ! body1 is situat$ at ! inn] side ( ! leg 7fig4 ,,xc4 #c74 ,its sup]ior extremity is bulky & ?ick 7fig4 ,,xc4 #c74 ,! top ( x =ms two smoo? & slightly concave surfaces1 adapt$ to ! convex surfaces ( ! condyles ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,xc4 #d1 #b74 ,on its out] side !re is a smoo? surface1 to :i* ! head ( ! fibula is atta*$ 7fig4 ,,xc4 #f74 ,its l[] extremity1 :i* is small1 =ms a concavity adapt$ to ! convexity ( ! bone ( ! t>sus1 call$ ! a/ragalus1 ) :i* x is articulat$ 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #d47 ,its inn] "p is produc$ s z to =m ! inn] ankle 7figs4 ,,xcii4 #b1 & ,,xciii4 #c73 its out] side is excavat$ into a semilun> cavity1 = receiv+ ! "u end ( ! fibula1 :i* =ms ! out] ankle 7figs4 ,,xcii4 #c1 & ,,xciii4 #d74 #aib4 ,! fibula1 9 proportion to its l5g? ! mo/ sl5d] bone ( ! body1 is situat$ at ! out] side ( ! tibia 7fig4 ,,xc4 #f74 ,its upp] end =m$ into a head1 ) a flat surface on its inn] side 7figs4 ,,xc4 #f1 & ,,xci4 #d71 is firmly unit$ to ! tibia 7fig4 ,,xc4 #d74 ,its l[] end =ms ! out] ankle1 :i* is l[] & f>!r back ?an ! inn] 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #c1 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcii4 ,ant]ior view ( ! bones =m+ ! ankle-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! tibia2 #b4 production ( ! tibia1 =m+ ! inn] ankle2 #c4 l[] end ( ! fibula1 =m+ ! out] ankle2 #d4 upp] "p ( ! a/ragalus3 ^! ?ree bones =m ! ankle-jo9t2 #e #e #e1 o!r bones ( ! t>sus2 #f #f #f #f #f metat>sal bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xciii4 ,po/]ior view ( ! bones =m+ ! ankle-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! tibia2 #b4 l[] end ( ! fibula2 #c4 int]nal malleolus or ankle2 #d4 ext]nal malleolus or ankle2 #e4 "o ( ! t>sal bones1 call$ ! a/ragalus1 ) :i* ! tibia & fibula are articulat$2 #f4 ! os calcis or heel4 #aic4 ,! patella1 or knee-pan 7fig4 ,,xc4 #e71 is a light b /rong bone1 ( ! figure ( ! he>t z pa9t$ on play+-c>ds1 plac$ at ! =e "p ( ! jo9t ( ! knee1 & atta*$ by a /rong ligam5t to ! tibia1 ! motions ( :i* x foll[s 7fig4 ,,xc4 #e74 ,x is lodg$1 :5 ! knee is ext5d$1 9 a cavity =m$ = x 9 ! femur 7fig4 ,,xc472 :5 b5t1 9 a cavity =m$ = x at ! =e "p ( ! knee 7fig4 ,,xc4 #e74 #aid4 ,! foot consi/s ( ! t>sus1 metat>sus1 & toes4 #aie4 ,! t>sus1 or in/ep1 is compos$ ( sev5 /rong1 irregul>-%ap$ bones1 dispos$ l ^? ( ! c>pus1 9 a d\ble r[ 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #d1 #e74 ,! arrangem5t ( ! t>sal bones is su* z to =m an ar*1 ! convexity ( :i* above1 con/itutes ! upp] surface ( ! in/ep 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #d1 #e73 9 ! concavity bel[ are lodg$ ! muscles1 vessels1 & n]ves t belong to ! sole4 #aif4 ,! metat>sus consi/s ( five bones1 :i* are plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #f71 & :i* ext5d betwe5 ! t>sus & ! prop] bones ( ! toes 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #f74 ,_! extremities1 especially next ! t>sus1 are l>ge1 9 ord] t !y may =m secure articulations ) ! t>sal bones 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #f74 ,_! bodies are ar*$ upw>ds 7fig4 ,,xcii4 #f71 slightly concave bel[1 & t]m9ate =w>ds 9 small1 neat1 r\nd heads1 :i* receive ! fir/ bones ( ! toes1 & ) :i* !y =m jo9ts1 admitt+ ( a mu* great] degree ( rotation ?an is ev] actually ex]cis$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! practice ( we>+ %oes4 ,! natural1 free1 wide-spread+ =m ( ! toes1 & ! consequ5t security ) :i* !y grasp ! gr\nd1 is greatly impair$ by ?is cu/om4 ,tak5 toge!r1 ! bones ( ! metat>sus =m a second ar* correspond+ to t ( ! t>sus 7fig4 ,,xcviii4 #b74 #aig4 ,ea* toe consi/s ( ?ree di/9ct bones1 call$1 l ^? ( ! f+]s1 phalanges 7fig4 ,,xcviii471 b ! great toe1 l ! ?umb1 has only two 7fig4 ,,xcviii474 ,t extremity ( ! fir/ phalanges :i* is next ! metat>sal bones is holl[$ into a socket = ! head ( ! metat>sal bones4 #aih4 ,besides ! bones already describ$1 !re are o!r small bones1 ( ! size & figure ( flatt5$ peas1 f\nd 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! extremities1 nev] 9 ! trunk1 call$ sesamoid1 f _! resemblance to ! se$ ( ! sesamum4 ,!y belong r to ! t5dons ( ! muscles ?an to ! bones ( ! skeleton4 ,!y are emb$d$ )9 ! sub/ance ( t5dons1 are f\nd especially at ! roots ( ! ?umb & ( ! great toe1 & are always plac$ 9 ! direction ( flexion4 ,_! (fice1 l t ( ! patella1 :i* is1 9 tru?1 a bone ( ?is class1 is to increase ! p[] ( ! flexor muscles by alt]+ ! l9e ( _! direction1 t is1 by remov+ !m f>!r f ! axis ( ! bone on :i* !y are int5d$ to act4 #aii4 ,! ligam5ts :i* connect ! bones ( ! l[] extremities are ! firme/ & /ronge/ 9 ! body4 ,( ^!1 ! fibr\s capsule ( ! hip-jo9t 7fig4 ,,xciv4 #a71 :i* secures ! head ( ! femur 9 ! cavity ( ! acetabulum 7fig4 ,,xciv471 is ! ?icke/ & /ronge/4 ,x completely surr\nds ! jo9t 7fig4 ,,xciv4 #a74 ,x arises f ! :ole circumf]5ce ( ! acetabulum1 &1 proce$+ 9 a direction outw>ds & backw>ds1 is atta*$ bel[ to ! neck ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,xciv4 #a74 ,x is ?ick]1 /rong]1 & mu* m closely atta*$ to ! bones ?an ! fibr\s capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t 7#add71 because ! hip-jo9t is =m$1 n l ! %\ld]-jo9t1 = ext5t ( motion1 b = /r5g?4 ,its int]nal surface is l9$ by synovial membrane1 & its ext]nal surface is cov]$ & /r5g!n$ by ! ins]tion ( muscles t move ! ?igh-bone4 ,! jo9t is /r5g!n$ by ano!r ligam5t1 :i* passes f ! inn] & =e "p ( ! cavity ( ! acetabulum 7fig4 ,,xcv47 to be ins]t$ into ! head ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,xciv471 call$ ! r\nd ligam5t1 ! (fice ( :i* obvi\sly is to hold ! head ( ! femur firmly 9 its socket4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xciv4 #a4 ,! fibr\s capsule ( ! hip-jo9t1 laid op5 & turn$ aside to %[1 #b4 ! r\nd ligam5t 9 its natural position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcv4 ,a view ( ! head ( ! femur drawn out ( its socket1 & susp5d$ by ! r\nd ligam5t1 to %[ m cle>ly ! action ( ! ligam5t 9 reta9+ ! head ( ! femur 9 its socket4 #bjj4 ,num]\s & complicat$ ligam5ts connect ! bones t =m ! knee-jo9t 7fig4 ,,xcvi471 & ! /r5g? ( ^! p[]ful b&s is greatly increas$ by ! t5dons t move ! leg 7fig4 ,,xcvi4 #e71 :i* pass ov]1 & m or less surr\nd1 ! jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcvi4 ,g5]al view ( ! ligam5ts ( ! knee-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! femur2 #b4 upp] end ( ! tibia2 #c4 upp] end ( ! fibula2 #d4 ! patella2 #e4 unit$ t5dons ( ! ext5sor muscles2 #f4 ligam5ts ( ! patella2 #g4 ! capsul> inve/m5t ( ! knee2 #h4 ! int]nal lat]al ligam5t2 #i4 ! ext]nal lat]al ligam5ts2 #aj4 ! po/]ior ligam5t2 #aa4 ! ligam5t connect+ ! tibia & fibula2 #ab4 a portion ( ! int]osse\s ligam5t4 #bja4 ,/rong ligam5ts ma9ta9 9 _! prop] position ! bones t =m ! ankle-jo9t 7fig4 ,,xcvii471 connect ! bones ( ! t>sus & metat>sus ) "o ano!r 7fig4 ,,xcviii4 #a71 & articulate ! sev]al phalanges ( ! toes 7fig4 ,,xcviii4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcvii4 ,g5]al view ( ! po/]ior ligam5ts ( ! ankle-jo9t4 #a4 ,l[] end ( ! tibia2 #b4 l[] end ( ! fibula2 #c4 a/ragalus2 #d4 os calcis2 #e4 ligam5t betwe5 ! tibia & fibula2 #f4 ligam5t pass+ f ! fibula to ! a/ragalus2 #g4 ligam5t pass+ f ! fibula to ! os calcis2 #h4 ligam5t pass+ f ! tibia to ! a/ragalus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcviii4 ,g5]al view ( ! ligam5ts ( ! sole ( ! foot4 #a4 ,ligam5ts connect+ ! bones ( ! t>sus2 #b4 ligam5ts connect+ ! bones ( ! toes4 #bjb4 ,! jo9t ( ! hip1 l t ( ! %\ld]1 is capable ( flexion1 ext5sion1 & rotation2 b its rotatory motions are to a mu* less ext5t1 on acc\nt ( ! great] dep? ( ! acetabulum & ! /rong] & %ort] fibr\s capsule4 ,:5 ! femur is flex$1 ! ?igh is b5t ^u ! pelvis1 & its inf]ior extremity is c>ri$ =w>ds4 ,:5 x is ext5d$1 ! ?igh is c>ri$ backw>ds4 ,! two ?ighs may be sep>at$ f ea* o!r lat]ally 7abduction71 or br\ght ne> to ea* o!r 7adduction71 or ! "o may be made to cross ! o!r1 & !y may be rotat$ outw>ds or inw>ds4 #bjc4 ,! app>atus ( muscles t produces ^! v>i$ motions is seat$ p>tly on ! trunk & p>tly on ! pelvis4 ,?us1 ! p[]ful muscle t flexes ! ?igh1 or t c>ries x =w>ds1 t]m$ ! psoas 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #a71 arises f ! la/ v]tebra ( ! back1 & successively f ea* v]tebra ( ! lo9s 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #a71 & is ins]t$ into ! less] tro*ant] ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #c74 ,its action is assi/$ fir/ by a l>ge & /rong muscle nam$ ! iliacus 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #b71 :i* occupies ! :ole concavity ( ! ilium 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #b71 & :i*1 l ! psoas1 is ins]t$ into ! less] tro*ant] ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,xcix4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,xcix4 ,view ( ! muscles t b5d ! ?igh4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ psoas2 #b4 ! muscle call$ iliacus2 #c4 t5dons ( ^! muscles1 go+ to be ins]t$ into ! tro*ant] m9or ( ! femur4 #bjd4 ,! muscles t ext5d ! ?igh1 or t c>ry x backw>ds1 nam$ ! gluti1 ! mo/ p[]ful muscles ( ! body1 are plac$ 9 successive lay]s1 "o ^u ! o!r1 on ! back "p ( ! ilium 7fig4 ,c4 #a1 #b1 #c71 & are ins]t$ into ! l9ea asp]a ( ! femur4 ,!y con/itute ! mass ( fle% :i* =ms ! hip1 & _! p[]ful action 9 draw+ ! ?igh backw>ds is assi/$ by sev]al o!r muscles 7fig4 ,c4 #d1 #e1 #f74 ,_! action is nev] p]fectly simple & direct2 = ^? :i* move ! ?igh =w>ds sometimes c>ry x inw>ds1 & sometimes outw>ds2 & 9 l mann]1 ^? :i* move x backw>ds1 at "o "t c>ry x inw>ds & at ano!r outw>ds1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! fibres ( ! muscle & ! position ( ! limb :5 ^? fibres act2 :ile "s ( !m1 & m especially ^? :i* c>ry x backw>ds1 at ! same "t rotate x1 or roll x ^u its axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,c4 ,view ( ! muscles t ext5d ! ?igh4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ glutu maximus1 remov$ f its orig91 #b1 #b1 to %[ ! muscles :i* lie b5ea? x2 #b4 cut edge %[+ ! orig9 ( ! same muscle2 #c4 ! muscle call$ glutu m$ius2 #d1 #e1 #f4 small] muscles1 assi/+ ! action ( ! gluti4 #bje4 ,! knee is a h+e-jo9t1 admitt+ only ( flexion & ext5sion1 & is !re=e provid$ only ) two sets ( muscles1 "o = b5d+ & ! o!r = ext5d+ ! leg4 ,! flexors ( ! leg arise f ! "u & back "p ( ! pelvis1 are seat$ on ! back "p ( ! ?igh1 & are ins]t$ into ! upp] "p ei!r ( ! tibia or ( ! fibula 7fig4 ,,ci74 ,!y consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( ?ree muscles1 nam$ ! semi-t5d9osus1 ! semi-membranosus 7fig4 ,,ci4 #c71 & ! biceps ( ! leg 7fig4 ,,ci4 #a74 ,! t5dons ( ! two =m] muscles1 9 pass+ to be ins]t$ into ! leg1 =m ! inn]1 & t ( ! latt] ! out]1 ham/r+s 7fig4 ,,ci4 #d1 #e74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cii4 ,view ( ! flexor & ext5sor muscles ( ! leg4 #a4 ,! biceps ( ! leg2 #b4 t5don ( ! biceps1 ins]t$ into ! head ( ! fibula2 #c4 ! semi-membranosus1 pass+ to be ins]t$ into ! head ( ! fibula2 #d4 t5don ( ! semi-membranosus =m+ ! inn]1 & #e4 t5don ( ! biceps =m+ ! out]1 ham/r+2 #f4 upp] "p ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle2 #g4 ! f\r l>ge muscles :i* unite to =m ! great ext5sor muscle ( ! leg1 ins]t$ into #h4 ! patella2 #i4 a portion ( ! glutu maximus conceal+ ! o!r muscles ( ! hip4 #bjf4 ,f\r l>ge muscles1 bl5d$ toge!r 9 su* a mann] z to =m "o muscle ( prodigi\s size1 t]m$ ! quadriceps cruris 7fig4 ,,ci4 #g71 occupy+ ne>ly all ! =ep>t & ! sides1 & a consid]able portion ( ! back "p ( ! ?igh1 con/itute ! great flexor ( ! ?igh4 ,?is enorm\s mass ( muscle arises p>tly f ! is*ium1 & p>tly f ! upp] "p ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,ci4 #g71 & is all ins]t$ into ! patella 7fig4 ,,ci4 #h71 :i* con/itutes a pulley = ! purpose ( assi/+ ! action ( ^! p[]ful muscles4 #bjg4 ,! muscles :i* b5d ! toes & ext5d ! foot1 t]m$ ! ga/rocnemii 7fig4 ,,cii4 #a1 #b71 are plac$ on ! back "p ( ! leg1 & =m ! mass ( muscle :i* con/itutes ! calf ( ! leg 7fig4 ,,cii4 #a1 #b74 ,!y arise p>tly f ! l[] extremity ( ! femur 7fig4 ,,cii47 & p>tly f ! upp] & back "p ( ! fibula & tibia2 & !y =m ! l>ge/ & /ronge/ t5don 9 ! body1 t]m$ ! t5do a*illis 7fig4 ,,cii4 #c71 :i* is implant$ into ! heel 7fig4 ,,cii4 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cii4 ,view ( ! muscles :i* b5d ! toes1 & :i*1 by lift+ ! heel1 ext5d ! foot4 #a4 ,! muscle call$ ga/rocnemius ext]nus1 :i*1 unit+ ) #b4 ! ga/rocnemius int]nus1 =ms #c4 ! t5do a*illis1 :i* is ins]t$ into #d4 ! heel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,ciii4 ,view ( ! muscles :i* ext5d ! toes & b5d ! foot4 #a4 ,! common ext5sor2 #b4 ! t5dons ( ! same muscle ins]t$ into ! toes2 #c4 ! ant]ior annul> ligam5t ( ! foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,civ4 ,view ( ! muscles 9 ! sole ( ! foot4 #a ,! muscle :i* draws ! great toe f ! o!r toes2 #b4 ! muscle :i* draws ! little toe f ! o!r toes2 #c4 ! muscle call$ ! %ort flexor ( ! toes1 :i* assi/s 9 b5d+ ! f\r small] toes4 #bjh4 ,! muscles :i* ext5d ! toes & b5d ! foot are seat$ on ! =e "p ( ! leg 7fig4 ,,ciii472 split into t5dons l ! analog\s muscles ( ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,ciii4 #b72 & are b\nd d[n by a ligam5t 7fig4 ,,ciii4 #c71 exactly ! same 9 "n1 disposition1 & (fice1 z t :i* belongs to ! h& 7fig4 ,,ciii4 #c74 ,num]\s m9ute muscles are plac$ 9 ! sole ( ! foot 7fig4 ,,civ471 :i* act on ! toes z ! small muscles 9 ! palm ( ! h& act on ! f+]s 7fig4 ,,lxxxvi474 #bji4 ,su* are ! mov+ p[]s :i* put 9 action ! complicat$ me*anism provid$ = ! function ( locomotion4 ,& ^! p[]s are adequate to _! (fice2 b !y are :at may be t]m$ exp5sive p[]s2 ag5ts requir+ a high degree1 ( organization & ! utmo/ res\rces ( ! economy to support & ma9ta9 !m4 ,h5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( ! framework ( ! ma*9e :i* !y h to move1 :atev] me*anical contrivance may economize _! lab\r1 is adopt$4 ,! con/ruction1 =m1 & disposition ( ! sev]al p>ts ( t framework h all ref]5ce to two objects3 fir/1 ! comb9ation ( /r5g? ) lightness2 & secondly1 security to t5d] organs1 ) ! p[] ( execut+ rapid1 en]getic1 &1 sometimes1 viol5t motions4 ,! comb9ation is effect$ & ! object atta9$ 9 a mode complicat$ 9 ! detail1 simple 9 ! design1 & p]fect 9 ! result4 ,! weight ( ! body transmitt$ f ! ar* ( ! pelvis to a second ar*1 =m$ by ! neck ( ! ?igh-bone1 & f ?is1 9 a p]p5dicul> direction1 to a ?ird ar* =m$ by ! foot1 is ultimately receiv$ by ! heel beh9d1 & by ! metat>sal bones & ! fir/ phalanges ( ! toes be=e1 & m especially by ! metat>sal jo9ts belong+ to ! great & little toe1 :i* h a special app>atus ( muscles1 = ! purpose ( pres]v+ /eadily _! relative situation to ! heel4 ,! weight ( ! body is ?us su/a9$ on a s]ies ( ar*es1 f :i* x is1 9 succession1 transmitt$ to ! gr\nd1 :]e x ultimately re/s ^u a tripod3 =ms kn[n & select$ z ! be/ adapt$ to af=d support1 & to give security ( position4 ,columns ( compact bone sup]impos$ "o ^u ano!r1 & unit$ at diff]5t po9ts by b&s ( prodigi\s /r5g?1 =m ! pill>s ( support4 ,b ^! bony columns nev] t\* ea* o!r2 are nev] 9 actual contact2 are all sep>at$ by lay]s ( ela/ic matt] :i*1 :ile !y assi/ 9 b9d+ ! columns toge!r1 enable !m to move "o ^u ano!r1 z ^u s _m pliant spr+s4 ,! lay]s ( c>tilage int]pos$ betwe5 ! sev]al v]tebr2 ! lay] ( c>tilage int]pos$ betwe5 ! v]tebral column & ! pelvis2 ! lay] ( c>tilage t l9es ! acetabulum & t cov]s ! head ( ! femur2 ! lay] ( c>tilage t cov]s ! l[] extremity ( ! femur & ! upp] extremity ( ! tibia & fibula & ! t>sus2 ! successive lay]s ( c>tilage int]pos$ betwe5 ! sev]al bones ( ! t>sus2 & f9ally1 ! lay] ( c>tilage t cov]s bo? ! t>sal & ! digital extremities ( ! metat>sal bones2 are s _m special provisions to prev5t ! weight ( ! body f be+ transmitt$ to ! gr\nd ) a %ock2 &1 at ! same "t1 s _m b>ri]s e/abli%$ betwe5 ! gr\nd & ! sp9al cord1 ! bra9 & ! s(t & t5d] organs conta9$ 9 ! ?oracic & abdom9al cavities1 to prev5t ^! organs f be+ injur$ by ! reaction ( ! gr\nd ^u ! body4 ,! excell5ce ( ?is me*anism is se5 9 its results2 9 contemplat+ f :at heights we c leap--to :at heights we c spr+--to :at di/ances we c b\nd--h[ swiftly we c run--h[ firmly we c /&--h[ nimbly we c dance--& yet h[ p]fectly we c balance ourselves ^u ! smalle/ surfaces ( support6 #baj4 ,x is necess>y1 9 ord] to complete ?is g5]al view ( ! /ructure ( ! human body1 & ( ! comb9ation & arrangem5t ( its v>i\s p>ts1 to d5ote ! sev]al regions into :i*1 = ! purpose ( describ+ ) accuracy ! situation & relation ( its m important organs1 ! body is divid$4 ,x is n ne$ful to ! pres5t purpose to describe ! regions ( ! head1 because its int]nal cavity conta9s only "o organ1 ! bra91 & its ext]nal divisions d n diff] mat]ially f ^? :i* are common & famili>2 b ! *e/1 ! abdom51 & ! upp] & l[] extremities are mapp$ out into regions1 ( :i* x is v important to h an exact k1 :i* may be acquir$ by ! /udy ( ! annex$ diagrams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cv4 ,ant]ior view ( ! regions ( ! body4 #a4 ,region ( ! neck2 #b4 region ( ! *e/ or ?orax4 ,abdom9al regions3 #c4 epiga/ric2 #d4 umbilical2 #e4 hypoga/ric region4 ,regions ( ! upp] extremities4 #f4 %\ld]2 #g4 arm2 #h4 elb[2 #i4 =e-arm2 #aj4 wri/2 #aa4 ball ( ?umb2 #ab4 ! axilla or armpit4 ,regions ( ! l[] extremities3 #ac4 ?igh2 #ad4 knee2 #ae4 leg2 #af4 ankle2 #ag4 in/ep & foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cvi4 ,po/]ior view ( ! regions ( ! body3 #ah4 region to ! scapula2 #ai4 ( ! back2 #bj4 ( ! lo9s2 #ba4 ( ! hips2 #bb4 ( ! ham2 #bc4 ( ! calf ( ! leg2 #bd4 ( ! heel & foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cvii4 ,lat]al view ( ! regions ( ! body3 #be4 ar* ( ! foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cviii4 ,ant]ior view ( ! situation ( ! m important int]nal organs3 #a4 lungs1 "r & left2 #b4 he>t2 #c4 l9e repres5t+ ! edge ( ! diaphragm2 #d4 liv]2 #e4 /oma*2 #f4 small inte/9es2 #g4 colon2 #h4 ur9>y bladd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cix4 ,po/]ior view ( ! situation ( ! m important int]nal organs3 #i4 kidnies1 "r & left2 #aj4 ! c\rse ( ! sp9al cord4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cx4 ,lat]al view ( ! situation ( ! m important int]nal organs4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,blood4 ,physical *>act]s ( ! blood3 col\r1 fluidity1 specific gravity1 temp]ature3 quantity--,process ( coagulation--,con/itu5ts ( ! blood3 proportions--,con/itu5ts ( ! body conta9$ 9 ! blood--,vital prop]ties ( ! blood--,practical applications4 #baa4 ,suppos+ ! human body to h be5 built up 9 ! mann] n[ describ$1 & to be 9 ! full ex]cise ( all its functions1 ! integrity ( its v>i\s /ructures is ma9ta9$1 & _! due action excit$ by ! blood4 ,out ( ?is sub/ance is =m$ ! bl&e/ fluid1 z ! milk1 & ! firme/ solid1 z ! compact bone4 ,! he>t1 capable ( untir+ action1 z long z ! blood is 9 contact ) its int]nal surface1 becomes immovable soon aft] ! supply ( ?is fluid is )drawn2 & 9 less ?an "o m9ute f ! "t x ceases to fl[ 9 due quantity & ( prop] quality ?r\gh ! vessels ( ! bra91 ! eye is no long] capable ( see+1 nor ! e> ( he>+1 nor ! bra9 ( c>ry+ on any intellectual op]ation4 #bab4 ,at ! mom5t1 & = "s "t aft] x has issu$ f its vessel1 ! appe>ance ( ! blood is t ( a ?ick1 viscid1 & t5aci\s fluid2 yet x is ess5tially a solid1 compos$ ( sev]al sub/ances1 ea* possess+ its own di/9ct & peculi> prop]ties1 ! relation & comb9ation ( :i* _c be consid]$ )\t excit+ ! feel+ t our admiration ( ! /ructure ( ! animal frame ought n to be conf9$ to ! me*anism ( its solid p>ts1 b t ! :ole is admirable1 f ! common mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$1 to its mo/ delicate & elaborate in/rum5t4 #bac4 ,! col\r ( r$ness is univ]sally associat$ ) ! idea ( blood2 b r$ness ( col\r is n ess5tial to blood4 ,!re are _m animals ) true1 yet )\t r$1 blood2 & !re is no animal 9 :i* ! blood is r$ 9 all ! p>ts ( its body4 ,! blood ( ! insect is transp>5t2 t ( ! reptile is ( a yell[i% col\r2 t ( ! fi%1 9 ! great] "p ( its body1 is col\rless4 ,ev5 ! r$ blood ( ! human body is n equally r$ 9 e "p ( x1 !re be+ two di/9ct sy/ems ( blood-vessels1 di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by c>ry+ blood ( diff]5t col\rs4 #bad4 ,9 ! /ate ( heal?1 ! specific gravity ( human blood1 wat] be+ #ajjj1 is #ajhj2 f :i* /&>d x is capable ( v>y+ f #aabj1 ! maximum1 to #ajbf1 ! m9imum4 #bae4 ,! natural temp]ature ( ! human blood is #ih4 ,f ?is x is capable ( v>y+ f #ajd1 ! maximum1 to #hf1 ! m9imum2 ^! *anges be+ always ! effect ( disease4 #baf4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! fluids circulat+ 9 ! adult man am\nt to ab\t fifty p\nds2 ( ^! x is calculat$ t tw5ty-eight consi/ ( r$ blood4 #bag4 ,fluid & homog5e\s z ! blood appe>s :ile fl[+ 9 its vessel1 :5 a mass ( x is collect$ & all[$ to /& at re/1 x soon und]goes a v rem>kable *ange4 ,fir/1 a ?9 film is =m$ ^u its surface2 ?is is foll[$ by ! conv]sion ( ! :ole mass into a s(t jelly3 ?is jelly sep>ates into two portions1 a fluid & a solid portion4 ,! solid portion aga9 sep>ates into two p>ts1 into a sub/ance ( a yell[i%-:ite col\r1 occupy+ ! upp] surface1 & into a r$ mass always f\nd at ! "u surface4 #bah4 ,! process by :i* ! con/itu5ts ( ! blood are ?us spontane\sly disunit$1 & af=d$ 9 a sep>ate =m1 is d5om9at$ ,,coagulation2 ! fluid portion sep>at$ by ! process is t]m$ ! ,,s]um2 ! solid portion ! ,,coagulum or ,,clot2 ! :ite sub/ance =m+ ! upp] "p ( ! clot1 ! ,,fibr92 & ! r$ mass =m+ ! "u "p ( x1 ! ,,r$ ,,p>ticles4 #bai4 ,probably ! process ( coagulation comm5ces ! mom5t ! blood leaves its liv+ vessel4 ,9 ?ree m9utes & a half x is visible to ! eye2 9 sev5 m9utes ! mass is =m$ into a jelly2 9 f t5 to twelve m9utes ! s]um sep>ates f ! clot2 9 ab\t tw5ty ! clot is divid$ into fibr9 & r$ p>ticles1 :5 ! coagulation is complete2 b occasionally ! clot cont9ues to gr[ firm] & firm] = ! space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 #bbj4 ,z soon z ! coagulation comm5ces1 & dur+ all ! "t ! blood pres]ves its heat1 an aque\s vap\r arises f x1 t]m$ ! ,,halitus4 ,! halitus consi/s ( wat] hold+ 9 solution a small quantity ( animal & sal9e matt]1 :i* communicate to x a ftid od\r ( a /rong & peculi> nature1 manife/ on approa*+ a slaught]-h\se1 & /ill m manife/ 9 ! slaught]-h\se ( human be+s1 a field ( battle4 #bba4 ,dur+ ! process ( coagulation1 z 9 e o!r 9 :i* a fluid is conv]t$ into a solid1 caloric is evolv$4 #bbb4 ,dur+ ! process ( coagulation c>bonic acid is also extricat$4 #bbc4 ,! process ( coagulation af=ds ?ree di/9ct sub/ances1 ! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! blood1 namely1 s]um1 fibr91 & r$ p>ticles4 #bbd4 ,! s]um1 ! fluid portion ( ! blood1 :5 obta9$ p]fectly pure1 is ( a light /raw col\r1 t+$ ) gre54 ,its ta/e is sal9e1 & its consi/5ce adhesive4 ,x is compos$ pr9cipally ( wat] hold+ 9 solution animal & sal9e matt]4 ,! animal matt] gives x its adhesive consi/5ce1 & ! sal9e its peculi> salt ta/e4 ,! *ief animal matt] conta9$ 9 x is ! proximate pr9ciple t]m$ album51 :i* may be sep>at$ f ! wat] t holds x 9 solution by ! application ( heat & by c]ta9 *emical ag5ts4 ,heat be+ appli$1 :5 ! temp]ature rea*es #afj1 fluid s]um is conv]t$ into a :ite opaque solid sub/ance ( firm consi/5ce4 ,?is is f\nd to be album51 :i* may be also sep>at$ f ! wat]y portion by ! application ( spirits ( w9e1 acids1 oxymuriate ( m]cury1 & sev]al o!r *emical sub/ances4 ,! quantity ( album5 conta9$ 9 #ajjj p>ts ( s]um v>ies f ab\t #gh1 ! maximum1 to #eh1 ! m9imum4 #bbe4 ,if ! album5 yield$ by ! s]um be subject$ to pressure1 or be cut into small pieces1 !re fl[s f x a wat]y fluid :i* is t]m$ ! s]osity4 ,9 meat dress$ = ! table1 ! s]um ( ! blood conta9$ 9 ! blood-vessels is conv]t$ by ! heat into solid album51 f :i*1 :5 cut1 ! s]osity fl[s 9 ! =m ( gravy4 #bbf4 ,besides album51 s]um holds 9 solution bo? a fatty & an oily matt]1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t "o "p ( ea* to #ajjj p>ts ( s]um4 ,! proportion ( its sal9e sub/ances is ab\t t5 9 #ajjj p>ts4 ,accord+ to ,m4 le ,canu1 :o has made ! mo/ rec5t *emical analysis ( s]um1 #ajjj p>ts conta91 ( ,wat] #ijfjj ,album5 #ghjj ,animal matt]1 soluble 9 wat] & alcohol #afi ,album5 comb9$ ) soda #baj ,cry/allizable fatty matt] #abj ,oily matt] #ajj ,hydro*lorate ( soda & pota% #fjj ,subc>bonate & phosphate ( soda1 & sulphate ( pota% #baj ,phosphate ( lime1 magnesia1 & iron1 ) subc>bonate ( lime & magnesia #ia ,loss #ajj #bbg4 ,all ! animal & sal9e matt] held 9 solution 9 ! s]um be+ remov$1 ! fluid t rema9s is wat]1 ! proportion ( :i* 9 #ajjj p>ts v>ies f #hec1 ! maximum1 to #ggi1 ! m9imum4 #bbh4 ,! second con/itu5t ( ! blood1 ! fibr91 is ! mo/ ess5tial portion ( x1 be+ inv>iably pres5t1 :atev] o!r con/itu5t be abs5t4 ,:ile circulat+ 9 ! liv+ vessel1 fibr9 is fluid & transp>5t2 by ! process ( coagulation1 x is conv]t$ into a solid & opaque sub/ance ( a yell[i% :ite col\r1 consi/+ ( /r+y fibres1 dispos$ 9 /ri1 :i* occasionally =m a complete net-"w 7fig4 ,,cxi474 ,^! fibres are exce$+ly ela/ic4 ,9 _! g5]al aspect & _! *emical relations !y be> a close resemblance to pure muscul> fibre1 t is1 to muscul> fibre depriv$ ( its envelop+ membrane & ( its col\r+ matt]1 & !y =m ! basis ( muscle4 ,accord+ to ,m4 le ,canu1 ! proportion ( ! fibr9 v>ies f sev5 p>ts 9 #ajjj1 ! maximum1 to "o "p 9 #ajjj1 ! m9imum1 ! m$ium ( tw5ty exp]im5ts be+ f\r p>ts 9 #ajjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxi4 ,a portion ( ! fibr9 ( ! blood1 %[+ its fibr\s /ructure & ! /riat$ or net-l arrangem5t ( its fibres4 #bbi4 ,! ?ird con/itu5t ( ! blood1 ! matt] ^u :i* its r$ col\r dep5ds1 ?\gh1 z has be5 /at$1 entirely abs5t 9 c]ta9 classes ( animals1 & 9 all animals 9 "s p>ts ( _! body1 seems to be ess5tial1 at lea/ to ! organic organs1 :5ev] !y p]=m _! functions ) a high degree ( p]fection4 ,?us 9 ! l[e/ class ( v]tebrat$ animals1 ! fi%1 :ile ! pr9cipal "p ( its body receives only a col\rless fluid1 its organic organs1 z ! he>t1 ! gills1 ! liv]1 are provid$ ) r$ blood4 #bcj4 ,! r$ matt]1 :]ev] pres5t1 is inv>iably heavi] ?an ! fibr91 & consequ5tly1 dur+ ! process ( coagulation1 x gradually subsides to ! l[] surface1 & is always f\nd =m+ ! bottom ( ! clot4 ,its proportion to ! o!r con/itu5ts v>ies v rem>kably1 ! maximum be+ #adh1 ! m9imum #fh1 & ! m$ium #ajh1 9 #ajjj p>ts ( blood4 #bca4 ,all obs]v]s are agre$ t ! r$ matt] ( ! blood consi/s ( m9ute p>ticles1 hav+ a peculi> & def9ite /ructure2 b 9 reg>d to ! nature ( t /ructure1 !re is consid]able div]sity ( op9ion1 :i* is n wond]ful1 s9ce ! p>ticles 9 "q are s m9ute t !y c be di/+ui%$ only by ! microscope1 & s9ce1 ( all microscopical objects1 !y are p]haps ! mo/ difficult to exam9e1 because1 be+ s(t & yield+1 _! figure is apt to *ange1 & because !re is reason to suppose t _! sub/ance is n uni=m 9 its refractive p[]4 #bcb4 ,! e>li] obs]v]s describe ! r$ p>ticles z be+ ( a globul> figure1 & accord+ly "n !m globules4 ,!y conceive t ea* globule consi/s ( a c5tral solid p>ticle1 envelop$ 9 a transp>5t vesicle4 ,rec5tly1 ,sir ,ev]>d ,home & ,mr4 ,bau] 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ,,mm4 ,prevo/ & ,dumas on ! cont95t1 h reviv$ ?is op9ion1 & describe ! r$ p>ticle z consi/+ ( a c5tral solid :ite corpuscle conta9$ 9 an ext]nal envelop ( a r$ col\r4 ,:5 ! blood is obs]v$ ) ! microscope 9 a liv+ animal1 fl[+ 9 its vessels1 only two sub/ances c be di/+ui%$1 namely1 a transp>5t fluid & ! r$ corpuscles4 ,,mm4 ,prevo/ & ,dumas cont5d t ^! two sub/ances are ! only compon5t p>ts ( ! blood4 ,:5 ! blood coagulates1 !y conceive t ! r$ envelop sep>ates f ! c5tral :ite corpuscle2 t ^! :ite corpuscles unite toge!r2 t ! aggregates result+ f ?is comb9ation are dispos$ 9 ! =m ( filam5ts1 :i* filam5ts con/itute ! fibr91 :ile ! r$ matt] at ! bottom ( ! clot is no?+ b ! dis9tegrat$ envelops ( ! c5tral p>ticle4 ,b ?is view is n ! common "o4 ,9 g5]al1 physiologi/s conceive ! fibr9 to be "o con/itu5t & ! r$ p>ticles to be ano!r con/itu5t ( ! blood4 ,mr4 ,li/]1 :o has successfully lab\r$ to improve ! microscope1 & :o1 toge!r ) 8 fri5d ,dr4 ,hodgk91 h v c>efully exam9$ ) _! improv$ in/rum5t ! r$ p>ticles1 cont5d t ! figure ( ^! bodies is n globul>1 al?\gh !y /ate t ! in/ant ! p>ticles are remov$ f ! liv+ blood-vessels _m ?+s are capable ( mak+ !m assume a globul> appe>ance2 su*1 = example1 z ! application ( wat]4 ,) a rapidity :i*1 9 spite ( e precaution1 ! eye 9 va9 attempts to foll[1 ! p>ticles *ange _! real figure = a globul> =m on ! application ( ! smalle/ quantity ( pure wat]2 :ile1 if ! wat] conta9 a solution ( sal9e matt]1 little alt]ation is occasion$ 9 ! figure ( ! p>ticles4 ,accord+ to ^! obs]v]s1 ! r$ p>ticles are flatt5$ cakes1 hav+ r\nd$ & v slightly ?ick5$ m>g9s 7fig4 ,,cxii4 #a74 ,! ?ickness ( ! m>g9 gives to bo? surfaces ! appe>ance ( a slight depression 9 ! middle 7fig4 ,,cxii4 #a71 s t ! p>ticles be> a close resemblance to a p5ny piece4 ,!re is no appe>ance ( an ext]nal envelop4 ,! circul> & flatt5$ cake is transp>5t2 :5 se5 s+ly x is ne>ly if n q col\rless 7fig4 ,,cxii4 #a72 x assumes a r$di% t+e only :5 aggregat$ 9 consid]able masses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxii4 #a4 ,a p>ticle ( ! human blood z x appe>s :5 transp>5t & float+2 #b4 ! same dry1 se5 z opaque1 illum9at$ by a leib]kuhn2 #c4 ! same z x appe>s :5 half ! leib]kuhn is d>k5$2 #d4 a p>ticle ( ! frog's blood float+2 #e4 ! same se5 on its edge4 ,all ! above objects are magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s#e4 #bcc4 ,! r$ p>ticle ( ! human blood is circul> 7fig4 ,,cxii4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,x is circul> also 9 all animals belong+ to ! class mammalia2 b 9 ! ?ree l[] classes ( v]tebrat$ animals1 ! bird1 ! reptile1 & ! fi%1 x is elliptical 7fig4 ,,cxii4 #d1 #e74 #bcd4 ,! magnitude ( ! r$ p>ticle ( ! human blood is v>i\sly e/imat$ f ! two-?\s&? to ! six-?\s&? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,bau] e/imates x at ! two-?\s&?1 ,hodgk9 & ,li/] at ! ?ree-?\s&?1 ,kat] at ! f\r-?\s&?1 ,wolla/on at ! five-?\s&?1 & ,"y at ! six-?\s&? "p ( an in*4 ,its magnitude is uni=mly ! same 9 all individuals ( ! same species1 b diff]s exce$+ly 9 ! diff]5t classes4 ,! elliptical p>ticles are l>g] ?an ! circul>1 b proportionally ?9n]2 l>g] 9 fi%es ?an 9 any o!r class ( animals1 & l>ge/ ( all 9 ! skate4 #bce4 ,:5 p]fect & entire1 ! r$ p>ticles indicate a disposition to arrange !mselves 9 a def9ite mode4 ,!y comb9e spontane\sly into columns ( v>iable l5g? 7fig4 ,,cxiii474 ,9 ord] to obs]ve ?is t5d5cy1 a small quantity ( blood1 ! mom5t x is tak5 f its liv+ vessel1 %\ld be plac$ betwe5 two /rips ( glass or cov]$ ) a bit ( talc & plac$ "u ! microscope4 ,:5 ?us arrang$1 a consid]able agitation at fir/ takes place among ! p>ticles4 ,z soon z ?is motion subsides1 ! p>ticles apply !mselves to ea* o!r by _! broad surfaces1 & ?us =m piles or columns ( ,consid]able l5g? 7fig4 ,,cxiii474 ,! columns (t5 aga9 comb9e "o among ano!r1 ! end ( "o be+ atta*$ to ! side ( ano!r1 sometimes produc+ v curi\s ramifications 7fig4 ,,cxiii474 ,9 l mann]1 ! elliptical p>ticles apply !mselves to ea* o!r by _! broad surfaces1 b !y are n s exactly mat*$ z ! circul>1 "o p>ticle p>tially ov]lapp+ ano!r1 s t !y =m less regul> columns ?an ! circul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxiii4 ,column> arrangem5t :i* ! p>ticles ( ! human blood assume imm$iately aft] x is drawn f its vessel4 #bcf4 ,! r$ p>ticles1 z f> z is kn[n1 con/itute a di/9ct & peculi> =m ( animal matt]3 ! r$ col\r1 accord+ to "s1 dep5d+ on an impregnation ( iron2 accord+ to o!rs1 on an animal sub/ance ( a gelat9\s nature4 #bcg4 ,! exact proportion ( ! diff]5t sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! blood1 accord+ to ! mo/ rec5t analysis ( x1 t by ,m4 le ,canu1 is z foll[s1 namely1 ,wat] #ghfejj ,album5 #fidae ,fibr9 #cefe ,col\r+ matt] #aaifbf ,cry/allizable fatty matt] #dcjj ,oily matt] #bbgj ,extractive matt]1 soluble 9 alcohol & wat] #aibj ,album5 comb9$ ) soda #bjaj ,*loruret ( sodium & potassium1 alkal9e phosphate1 sulphate1 & subc>bonates #gcjd ,subc>bonate ( lime & magnesia1 phosphates ( lime1 magnesia & iron1 p]oxide ( iron #adad ,loss #behf -------- #ajjj #bch4 ,f ! results ( ?is analysis x is manife/ t all ! proximate pr9ciples ( :i* ! diff]5t tissues are compos$ exi/ 9 ! blood1 namely1 album51 ! proximate pr9ciple =m+ ! basis ( membrane2 fibr91 ! proximate pr9ciple =m+ ! basis ( muscle2 fatty matt]1 =m+ ! basis ( n]ve & bra92 & v>i\s sal9e & m9]al sub/ances1 =m+ a l>ge "p ( bone1 & ent]+ m or less into ! composition ( e fluid & solid4 #bci4 ,! blood1 :i* conta9s all ! proximate con/itu5ts ( ! body1 & :i*1 by di/ribut+ !m to ! v>i\s tissues & organs1 ma9ta9s _! integrity & life1 is itself alive4 ,! vitality ( ! blood is prov$1-- #bdj4 i4 ,by its und]go+ ! process ( dea?1 :i* x does j z mu* z ! he>t or ! bra91 e "t x is remov$ f ! body4 ,:ile fl[+ 9 its liv+ vessel1 ! blood is p]man5tly fluid4 ,its fluidity dep5ds on a =ce ( mutual repulsion ex]t$ by its p>ticles on ea* o!r4 ,t repulsive =ce is a vital end[m5t1 probably d]iv$ f ! organic n]ves s abundantly di/ribut$ to ! inn] coat ( ! blood-vessels4 ,:5 ?is vital influ5ce is )drawn1 :i* happ5s on ! removal ( ! blood f its vessel1 ! mass is no long] capable ( rema9+ fluid2 ! fibr9 is conv]t$ into a solid2 ! r$ p>ticles1 in/ead ( repell+1 attract ea* o!r1 =m+ ! crude aggregate at ! bottom ( ! clot2 coagulation is ?us a process ( dea?2 its comm5cem5t indicates a dim9ution ( ! vital en]gy ( ! blood2 dur+ its progress t en]gy is con/antly gr[+ less & less2 ! blood is dy+2 & :5 complete1 ! blood is dead4 #bda4 ,h5ce 9 e /ate ( ! sy/em 9 :i* ! vital en]gy ( ! blood is pret]naturally increas$1 coagulation is proportionably sl[2 9 e /ate 9 :i* its en]gy is dim9i%$1 coagulation is rapid4 ,by copi\s & repeat$ blood-lett+1 ! vital en]gy is rapidly exhau/$4 ,! effect ( blood-lett+ on coagulation is det]m9$ by exp]im5ts in/itut$ = ! express purpose ( asc]ta9+ x4 ,blood 0 receiv$ f a horse at f\r p]iods1 ab\t a m9ute & a half int]v5+ betwe5 ! fill+ ( ea* cup4 ,m9utes4 ,seconds4 ,9 cup ,no4 #a4 coagulation began 9 #aa #aj #b4 #aj #e #c4 #i #ee #d4 #c #aj #bdb4 ,9 l mann] ?ree cups 7 fill$ ) ! blood ( a %eep1 at ! int]val ( half a m9ute4 ,m9utes4 ,seconds4 ,9 cup ,no4 #a4 coagulation began 9 #b #aj #b4 #a #de #c4 #j #ee ,! same result 0 obta9$ 9 blood tak5 f a human subject4 ,a p\nd & a half ( blood 0 remov$ f ! arm ( a woman lab\r+ "u fev]1 a portion ( :i*1 receiv$ into a tea-cup on ! fir/ effusion1 rema9$ fluid = ! space ( sev5 m9utes2 a simil> quantity1 tak5 imm$iately be=e ty+ up ! arm1 0 coagulat$ 9 ?ree m9utes ?irty seconds4 ,^! exp]im5ts demon/rate t coagulation is rapid or sl[ z ! vital en]gy ( ! blood is exhau/$ or unexhau/$1 or t 9 proportion to ! degree ( life possess$ by ! blood is ! space ( "t x takes 9 dy+4 #bdc4 ,?is result is ref]able to ! pr9ciple already %[n to be *>act]i/ic ( liv+ sub/ance1--namely1 ! p[] ( resi/+1 )9 a c]ta9 range1 ! ord9>y influ5ce ( physical ag5ts4 ,! op]ation ( ?is p[] is illu/rat$ 9 a beautiful mann] 9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts p]=m$ by ,mr4 ,hunt] on ! egg & on blood4 ,?is physiologi/ expos$ a live1 t is1 a fre% egg to ! temp]ature ( ! #ag? & ! #ae? degrees ( ,fahr5heit2 x took half an h\r to freeze x4 ,! egg 0 !n ?aw$ & expos$ to #aj less cold1 namely1 to ! #be? degree ( ,fahr5heit2 x 0 n[ froz5 9 a qu>t] ( an h\r4 ,a liv+ egg & "o t _h be5 kill$ by hav+ be5 fir/ froz5 & !n ?aw$1 7 put toge!r into a freez+ mixture at #ae3 ! dead 0 froz5 tw5ty-five m9utes soon] ?an ! liv+ egg4 ,! undim9i%$ vitality ( ! fre% egg enabl$ x to resi/ ! l[ temp]ature = ! space ( tw5ty-five m9utes2 ! vitality ( ! froz5 egg hav+ be5 de/roy$1 x yield$ at once to ! influ5ce ( ! physical ag5t4 ,on subject+ blood to analog\s exp]im5ts1 ! result 0 f\nd to be ! same4 ,blood imm$iately tak5 f ! liv+ vessel1 & blood previ\sly froz5 & !n ?aw$1 be+ expos$ to a freez+ mixture1 a mu* %ort] p]iod & a mu* less degree ( cold 7 requir$ to freeze ! latt] ?an ! =m]4 #bdd4 ii4 ,! vitality ( ! blood is prov$ by ! *ange x und]goes 9 becom+ a con/itu5t "p ( an organiz$ tissue4 ,! blood conveys to ! sev]al tissues ! con/itu5ts ( :i* !y are compos$2 ea* tissue selects f ! mass ( blood its own con/itu5ts & conv]ts !m into its own sub/ance1 9 :i* conv]sion1 s9ce ! blood always goes to ! tissue 9 a fluid =m1 ! blood mu/ necess>ily pass f a fluid into a solid4 ,9 ! vessels ! vital end[m5t ( ! blood ma9ta9s x p]man5tly fluid2 9 ! /ructures ! same p[] makes x & keeps x solid4 ,"o & ! same sub/ance 9 "o & ! same body1 9 "o "p is always fluid1 9 ano!r always solid2 ! fluid is e mom5t pass+ into ! solid & ! solid into ! fluid1 )\t int]mixture & )\t int]f]5ce4 ,no?+ analog\s to ?is is ev] witness$ 9 inorganic matt]1 9 physical me*anism2 x is peculi> to ! organiz$ body & di/9ctive ( ! me*anism ( life4 ,sometimes 9 physical me*anism we c p]ceive ! me*anical arrangem5ts & di/9ctly trace !m f beg9n+ to end3 9 vital me*anism1 ev5 :5 we c disc]n ! me*anical arrangem5ts1 we c seldom trace !m beyond a /ep or two1 & nev] f beg9n+ to end2 b arrangem5t & adaptation we "k !re mu/ be 9 t :i* goes beyond1 no less ?an 9 t :i* keeps )91 our p]ception1 & we ought sc>cely to "q ! exi/5ce ( adju/m5ts1 because !y elude our s5se1 :5 probably ! v reason :y !y d s is t _! delicacy & p]fection immeasurably exce$ any ) :i* s5se has made u acqua9t$4 #bde4 iii4 ,! vitality ( ! blood is prov$ by ! process ( organization4 ,we c trace only a few /eps ( ?is process1 b ^! are suffici5t to e/abli% ! po9t 9 "q4 ,blood effus$ f liv+ vessels into ! sub/ance1 or ^u ! surface ( liv+ organs1 solidifies )\t los+ vitality4 ,if a clot ( blood be exam9$ "s "t aft] x has ?us become solid1 x is f\nd to ab\nd ) blood-vessels4 ,"s ( ^! vessels are obvi\sly d]iv$ f ! surr\nd+ liv+ p>ts4 ,! m9ute vessels ( ^! p>ts1 z c be di/9ctly trac$1 elongate & %oot into ! clot4 ,! clot ?us acquires blood-vessels ( its own4 ,by degrees a complete circulation is e/abli%$ )9 x4 ,! blood-vessels ( ! clot act ^u ! blood !y receive j z ! vessels ( any o!r "p act ^u _! blood1 t is trans=m x into ! animal matt] x is _! (fice to elaborate4 ,9 ?is mann] a clot ( blood is conv]t$ into a compon5t "p ( ! body1 & acquires ! p[] ( ex]cis+ its own peculi> & appropriate functions 9 ! economy4 #bdf4 ,b :ile1 9 ?is process1 "s ( ! vessels ( ! clot c be di/9ctly trac$ f ! surr\nd+ liv+ p>ts1 o!rs appe> to h no communication ) ^? p>ts1 at all ev5ts no su* communication c be trac$4 ,^! vessels1 ! orig9 ( :i* _c be f\nd ext]nal to ! clot1 are suppos$ by "s physiologi/s to be =m$ )9 x4 ,)9 ! liv+ egg1 dur+ incubation1 c]ta9 motions or actions are obs]v$ spontane\sly to arise1 :i* t]m9ate 9 ! developm5t ( ! *ick4 ,analog\s motions aris+ )9 ! clot t]m9ate1 x is conceiv$1 9 ! developm5t ( blood-vessels4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 a simultane\s action takes place 9 ! clot1 & 9 ! liv+ "p ) :i* x is 9 contact2 ea* %oot+ out vessels :i* elongate1 approximate1 unite1 & ?us e/abli% a direct vital communication4 ,:e!r ?is view ( ! process ( organization be ! correct "o or n does n affect ! pres5t argum5t4 ,x is c]ta9 t a clot ( blood surr\nd$ by liv+ p>ts becomes organiz$2 x is c]ta9 t no dead sub/ance surr\nd$ by liv+ p>ts becomes organiz$2 x foll[s t ! blood possesses life4 #bdg4 ,heal? & life dep5d on ! quantity1 quality1 & di/ribution ( ! blood4 ,! *ief s\rce f :i* ! blood itself is d]iv$ is ! *yle3 h5ce too mu* or too little food1 or too great or too little activity ( ! organs t dige/ x1 may r5d] ! quantity ( ! blood pret]naturally abundant or defici5t2 or ?\gh !re be nei!r excess nor defici5cy 9 ! quantity ( n\ri%m5t =m$1 p>ts ( ! blood :i* ought to be remov$ may be reta9$1 or p>ts :i* ought to be reta9$ may be remov$1 & h5ce ! actual quantity 9 ! sy/em may be sup]abundant or insuffici5t4 #bdh4 ,! relative proportion ( e con/itu5t ( ! blood is capable ( v>y+2 & ( c\rse 9 ! degree 9 :i* ! heal?y proportion is d]ang$1 ! quality ( ! mass mu/ und]go a correspond+ det]ioration4 ,! wat]y portion is sometimes s defici5t1 t ! mass is obvi\sly ?ick5$2 :ile at o!r times ! fluid prepond]ates s mu* ov] ! solid con/itu5ts1 t ! blood is ?9 & wat]y4 ,! album51 ! quantity ( :i* v>ies consid]ably ev5 9 heal?1 9 disease is sometimes twice z great1 & at o!r times is less ?an half its natural proportion4 ,9 "s cases ! fibr9 prepond]ates s mu*1 t ! coagulum =m$ by ! blood is exce$+ly coh]5t1 firm & d5se2 9 o!r cases ! quantity ( fibr9 is s small1 t ! coagulation is imp]fect1 =m+ only a s(t1 loose & t5d] coagulum1 & 9 extreme cases ! blood rema9s :olly fluid4 ,:5 ! vital en]gy ( ! sy/em is great1 ! r$ p>ticles ab\nd2 :5 x is depress$1 !y are defici5t4 ,9 ! =m] /ate1 !y are ( a bright r$ col\r2 9 ! latt]1 dusky1 purple1 or ev5 black4 ,:5 ! depression ( ! vital en]gy is extreme1 ! p[] ( mutual repulsion ex]t$ by ! p>ticles w\ld seem to be s f> de/roy$ z to admit ( _! adh]+ to ea* o!r p>tially 9 c]ta9 organs2 :ile 9 o!r cases !y seem to be actually disorganis$1 & to h _! /ructures s brok5 up1 t !y escape f ! curr5t ( ! circulation z if dissolv$ 9 ! s]um1 ?r\gh ! m9ute vessels int5d$ only = ! exhalation ( ! wat]y "p ( ! blood4 ,?is fe>ful *ange is conceiv$ to h an intimate connexion ) a dim9ution ( ! proportion ( ! sal9e con/itu5ts4 ,out ( ! body1 z has be5 %[n1 ! r$ p>ticles *ange _! figure in/antane\sly1 & are rapidly dissolv$ :5 9 contact ) pure wat]2 :ile !y und]go little *ange ( =m if ! wat] hold sal9e matt] 9 solution4 ,x w\ld seem t "o use ( ! sal9e con/itu5ts ( ! blood is to pres]ve entire ! figure & con/itution ( ! r$ p>ticles4 ,x is c]ta9 t any *ange 9 ! proportion ( ! sal9e con/itu5ts produces a mo/ p[]ful effect on ! condition ( ! r$ p>ticles4 ,x is no less c]ta9 t *anges d take place 9 ! proportion ( ! sal9e con/itu5ts4 ,9 ! /ate ( heal?1 ! ta/e ( ! blood is di/9ctly salt1 dep5d+ *iefly on ! quantity ( muriate ( soda conta9$ 9 x4 ,9 c]ta9 viol5t & malignant diseases1 su*1 = example1 z ! malignant =ms ( fev]1 & m especially t =m ( x t]m$ pe/il5tial *ol]a1 ?is salt ta/e is sc>cely1 if at all1 p]ceptible2 & x is asc]ta9$ t1 9 su* cases1 ! proportion ( sal9e matt] is s5sibly dim9i%$4 #bdi4 ,! quality ( ! blood may be also ess5tially *ang$ by ! di/urbance ( ! balance ( c]ta9 organic functions3 dige/ion1 absorption1 circulation1 respiration1 are indisp5sable to ! =mation ( ! blood & to ! n\ri%m5t ( ! tissues4 ,absorption1 nutrition1 secretion1 circulation1 r5d] ! blood impure1 ei!r by directly communicat+ to x hurtful +r$i5ts1 or by all[+ noxi\s matt]s to accumulate 9 x1 or by de/roy+ ! relative proportion ( its con/itu5ts4 ,organs are specially provid$1 ! ma9 function ( :i* is to sep>ate & remove f ! blood ^! injuri\s sub/ances4 ,organs ( ?is class are call$ depurat+1 & ! process !y c>ry on is d5om9at$ t ( depuration4 ,! lungs1 ! liv]1 ! kidneys1 are depurat+ organs1 & "o result at lea/ ( ! functions !y p]=m is ! purification or depuration ( ! blood4 ,if ! lung fail to elim9ate c>bon1 ! liv] bile1 ! kidney ur9e1 c>bon1 bile1 ur9e1 or at lea/ ! con/itu5ts ( :i* ^! sub/ances are compos$1 mu/ accumulate 9 ! blood1 contam9ate x1 & r5d] x incapable ( duly n\ri%+ & /imulat+ ! organs4 #bej4 ,b ?\gh ! blood be good 9 quality & j 9 quantity1 heal? & life mu/ /ill dep5d ^u its prop] di/ribution4 ,x may be s5t out to ! sy/em too rapidly or too sl[ly4 ,x may be di/ribut$ to diff]5t portions ( ! sy/em unequally2 too mu* may be s5t to "o organ1 & too little to ano!r3 consequ5tly1 :ile ! latt] langui%es1 ! =m] may be oppress$1 ov]:elm$ or /imulat$ to viol5t & de/ructive action4 ,9 ei!r case heal? is di/urb$ & life endang]$4 #bea4 ,( ! mode & degree 9 :i* food1 air1 moi/ure1 temp]ature1 repletion1 ab/95ce1 ex]cise1 indol5ce1 influ5ce ! quantity1 quality1 & di/ribution ( ! blood2 ( ! mode 9 :i* ! condition ( ! blood modifies ! actions bo? ( ! organic & ! animal organs2 ( ! reason :y heal? & disease are :olly dep5d5t on ^? /ates & actions1 a cle> & j conception may be =m$ :5 ! sev]al functions h be5 describ$1 & ! precise (fice ( ea* is und]/ood4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,circulation4 ,vessels connect$ ) ! he>t3 *amb]s ( ! he>t--,position ( ! he>t--,pulmonic circle3 sy/emic circle--,/ructure ( ! he>t1 art]y1 & ve9--,consequ5ces ( ! discov]y ( ! circulation to ! discov]]--,action ( ! he>t3 s\nds occasion$ by its diff]5t movem5ts--,contraction3 dilatation--,disposition & action ( ! valves--,p[]s t move ! blood--,=ce ( ! he>t--,action ( ! art]ial tubes3 ! pulse3 action ( ! capill>ies3 action ( ! ve9s--,self-mov+ p[] ( ! blood--,vital end[m5t ( ! capill>ies3 functions--,practical applications4 #beb4 ,! blood1 be+ necess>y to n\ri% ! tissues & to /imulate ! organs1 mu/ be 9 motion 9 ord] to be borne to !m4 ,an app>atus is provid$ p>tly = ! purpose ( orig9at+ an impell+ =ce to put ! blood 9 motion1 & p>tly = ! purpose ( convey+ ! blood :5 9 motion to ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 #bec4 ,! he>t is ! impell+ organ2 ! great vessels 9 imm$iate connexion ) x are ! transmitt+ organs 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #a1 #b74 ,! he>t is divid$ into two sets ( *amb]s 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #d1 #aj1 #aa71 "o = ! reception ( ! blood f ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #aj72 ! o!r = ! communication ( ! impulse :i* keeps ! blood 9 motion 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #d1 #aa74 ,! *amb] :i* receives ! blood is t]m$ an auricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #aj71 & is connect$ ) a vessel t]m$ a ve9 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #a1 #b1 #i72 t :i* communicates impulse to ! blood is t]m$ a v5tricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #d1 #aa71 & is connect$ ) a vessel t]m$ an art]y 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #g1 #ab74 ,! ve9 c>ries blood to ! auricle2 ! auricle transmits x to ! v5tricle2 ! v5tricle propels x into ! art]y2 ! art]y1 c>ry+ x out f ! v5tricle1 ultimately s5ds x aga9 into ! ve91 ! ve9 returns x to ! auricle1 ! auricle to ! v5tricle1 ! v5tricle to ! art]y1 & ?us ! blood is con/antly mov+ 9 a circle2 h5ce ! "n ( ! process1 ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxiv4 ,view ( ! he>t ) its sev]al *amb]s expos$1 & ! great vessels 9 connection ) !m4 #a4 ,! sup]ior v5a cava2 #b4 ! inf]ior v5a cava2 #c4 ! *amb] call$ ! "r auricle2 #d4 ! *amb] call$ ! "r v5tricle2 #e4 ! l9e m>k+ ! passage betwe5 ! two *amb]s1 & ! po9ts ( atta*m5t ( "o m>g9 ( ! valve2 #f4 ! septum betwe5 ! two v5tricles2 #g4 ! pulmon>y art]y aris+ f ! "r v5tricle1 & divid+ at #h1 into "r & left = ! correspond+ lungs2 #i4 ! f\r pulmon>y ve9s br++ ! blood f ! lungs into #aj1 ! left auricle2 #aa4 ! left v5tricle2 #ab4 ! aorta aris+ f ! left v5tricle1 & pass+ d[n beh9d ! he>t to di/ribute blood1 by its divisions & subdivisions1 to e "p ( ! body4 #bed4 ,9 n\ri%+ ! tissues & /imulat+ ! organs1 ! blood p>ts ) its nutritive & /imulat+ con/itu5ts1 & receives 9 return "s +r$i5ts :i* c no long] be usefully employ$ 9 ! economy1 & o!rs :i* are positively injuri\s4 ,an app>atus is e/abli%$ = its r5ovation & depuration2 ?is organ is t]m$ ! lung 7fig4 ,,lix4 #e71 & to ?is organ ! blood mu/ 9 l mann] be convey$4 ,?us ! blood moves 9 a d\ble circle1 "o f ! he>t to ! body & f ! body back to ! he>t1 t]m$ ! sy/emic circle2 ! o!r f ! he>t to ! lung & f ! lung back to ! he>t1 t]m$ ! pulmonic circle4 ,h5ce 9 ! human body ! he>t is d\ble1 consi/+ ( two correspond+ p>ts precisely ! same 9 "n1 9 nature1 & 9 (fice2 ! "o appropriat$ to ! great]1 or ! sy/emic1 & ! o!r to ! less]1 or ! pulmonic circulation 7fig4 ,,cxiv474 #bee4 ,!re is a complete sep>ation betwe5 ^! two portions ( ! he>t 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #f71 =m$ by a /rong muscul> p>tition :i* prev5ts any communication betwe5 !m except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( vessels4 #bef4 ,! he>t is situat$ betwe5 ! two lungs 7fig4 ,,lix4 #b1 #e71 9 ! l[] & =e "p ( ! *e/1 ne>ly 9 ! c5tre1 b incl9+ a little to ! left side4 ,its position is oblique 7fig4 ,,lix4 #b1 #e74 ,its basis is direct$ upw>ds1 backw>ds1 & t[>ds ! "r 7fig4 ,,lix4 #b72 its apex is direct$ d[nw>ds1 =w>ds1 & t[>ds ! left1 opposite to ! int]val betwe5 ! c>tilages ( ! fif? & six? ribs 7fig4 ,,lix4 #b74 ,x is inclos$ 9 a bag t]m$ ! p]ic>dium 7fig4 ,,cxv471 :i* consi/s ( s]\s membrane4 ,! p]ic>dium is consid]ably l>g] ?an ! he>t1 all[+ abundant space = ! action ( ! organ 7fig4 ,,cxv474 ,"o "p ( ! p]ic>dium =ms a bag ar\nd ! he>t 7fig4 ,,cxv472 ! o!r "p is reflect$ ^u ! he>t s z to =m its ext]nal cov]+ 7fig4 ,,cxv471 & is cont9u$ = a consid]able di/ance ^u ! great vessels t g to & f ! he>t 9 su* a mann] t ?is bag1 l all ! s]\s membranes1 con/itutes a %ut sac4 ,bo? t portion ( ! p]ic>dium :i* is reflect$ ^u ! he>t1 & t :i* =ms ! int]nal surface ( ! bag ar\nd x1 is moi/5$ dur+ life by a s]\s fluid1 :i*1 aft] dea?1 is cond5s$ into a small quantity ( transp>5t wat]4 ,t portion ( ! p]ic>dium :i* re/s on ! diaphragm 7fig4 ,,lxx4 #a7 is s firmly atta*$ to x t x _c be sep>at$ )\t lac]ation1 & by ?is atta*m5t1 toge!r ) ! great vessels at its base1 ! he>t is firmly held 9 its situation1 al?\gh 9 ! v>i$ movem5ts ( ! body x is capable ( deviat+ to a slight ext5t f ! exact position "h describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxv4 ,view ( ! he>t envelop$ 9 its p]ic>dium1 ! =e "p ( ! latt] be+ cut op5 & reflect$ back4 #beg4 ,:5 ! int]ior ( ! he>t is laid op5 !re are br\ght into view f\r *amb]s 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #d1 #aj1 #aa71 two = ea* circle4 ,^? belong+ to ! pulmonic circle are on ! "r 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #d71 ^? to ! sy/emic on ! left side ( ! body 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #aj1 #aa72 h5ce ! t]ms "r & left are appli$ to ^! respective p>ts ( ! he>t4 #beh4 ,! ve9s :i* c>ry ! blood to ! "r or ! pulmonic *amb]s are two1 "o ( :i* br+s x f ! upp]1 & ! o!r f ! l[] p>ts ( ! body3 ! fir/ is call$ ! sup]ior & ! second ! inf]ior v5a cava 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #a1 #b74 ,bo? p\r _! blood into ! fir/ *amb]1 t]m$ ! "r auricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c72 f ! "r auricle ! blood passes into ! second *amb]1 d5om9at$ ! "r v5tricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #d73 f :i* spr+s ! art]y :i* c>ries ! blood f ! he>t to ! lung1 ! pulmon>y art]y 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #g74 ,?is is ! pulmonic circle4 ,f ! lung ! blood is return$ to ! he>t by f\r ve9s1 t]m$ ! pulmon>y ve9s 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #i71 :i* p\r ! blood into ! ?ird *amb] ( ! he>t1 ! left auricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #aj74 ,f ! left auricle x passes into ! f\r? *amb]1 ! left v5tricle 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #aa71 f :i* spr+s ! art]y :i* c>ries out ! blood to ! sy/em1 t]m$ ! aorta 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #ab1 & ,,cxvii4 #aa74 ,?is is ! sy/emic circle4 ,9 ! sy/em ! m9ute bran*es ( ! aorta unite ) ! m9ute bran*es t =m ! v5 cav1 :i* return ! blood to ! "r auricle ( ! he>t1 & ?us ! d\ble circle is complet$4 #bei4 ,! two *amb]s call$ ! auricles occupy ! basis ( ! he>t 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 #aj74 ,! "r auricle is situat$ at ! basis ( ! "r v5tricle 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #c1 & ,,cxvi4 #d74 ,x is p>tly membran\s & p>tly muscul>4 ,at its upp] & back "p is ! op5+ ( ! v5a cava sup]ior 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #a71 :i* returns ! blood to ! he>t f ! head1 neck1 & all ! upp] p>ts ( ! body4 ,at its l[] "p is ! op5+ ( ! v5a cava inf]ior 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #b71 :i* returns ! blood f all ! l[] p>ts ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxvi4 ,view ( ! he>t ) ! great vessels 9 connection ) x1 on ! "r side1 its diff]5t *amb]s be+ laid op5 & its /ructure %[n4 #a4 ,! v5a cava sup]ior2 #b4 ! v5a cava inf]ior2 #c4 cut edge ( ! "r auricle turn$ aside to %[1 #d4 ! cavity ( ! "r auricle into :i* ! two v5 cav p\r ! blood return$ f all p>ts ( ! body2 #e4 hook susp5d+ ! reflect$ portion ( ! wall ( ! auricle2 #f4 ! "r v5tricle2 #g4 cut edge ( ! wall ( ! v5tricle1 a portion ( :i* has be5 remov$ to %[ #h4 ! cavity ( ! v5tricle2 #i4 situation ( ! op5+ betwe5 ! auricle & v5tricle1 call$ ! auricul> orifice ( ! v5tricle2 #aj4 valve plac$ betwe5 ! auricle & v5tricle1 "o m>g9 be+ firmly atta*$ to ! auriculo-v5tricul> op5+ 9 its entire ext5t1 ! o!r ly+ loose 9 ! cavity ( ! v5tricle2 #aa4 probe pass$ f ! auricle into ! v5tricle und]nea? ! valve1 %[+ ! c\rse ( ! blood f ! =m] *amb] to ! latt]2 #ab4 ! column c>ne atta*$ by "o extremity to ! walls ( ! v5tricle1 ! o!r extremity end+ 9 t5d9\s ?reads atta*$ to ! loose m>g9 ( ! valve2 #ac4 passage to ! pulmon>y art]y2 #ad4 ! ?ree semilun> valves plac$ at ! comm5cem5t ( #ae4 ! pulmon>y art]y2 #af4 ! two great bran*es into :i* ! trunk ( ! pulmon>y art]y divides1 "o bran* go+ to ea* lung4 #bfj4 ,! auricle communicates ) its correspond+ v5tricle by a l>ge op5+1 t]m$ ! auricul> orifice ( ! v5tricle 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #e1 & ,,cxvi4 #i74 ,all ar\nd ! op5+ is plac$ a ?9 b /rong membrane 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #aj71 "o m>g9 ( :i* is firmly atta*$ to ! wall ( ! v5tricle 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #e1 & ,,cxvi4 #i71 :ile ! o!r is free 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #aj74 ,?is membrane receives ! "n1 &1 z w be se5 imm$iately1 p]=ms ! (fice ( a valve4 #bfa4 ,! v5tricle is mu* ?ick] & proportionally /rong] ?an ! auricle 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #c1 #f74 ,x is compos$ almo/ entirely ( muscul> fibre4 ,ov] ne>ly ! :ole ext5t ( its int]nal surface are plac$ irregul> masses ( muscul> fibres1 _m ( :i* /& out f ! wall ( ! v5tricle l columns or pill>s 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #ab72 h5ce !y are call$ fle%y columns 7column c>ne74 ,"s ( ^! fle%y columns are adh]5t by "o extremity to ! wall ( ! v5tricle1 :ile ! o!r extremity t]m9ates 9 t5d9\s ?reads :i* are atta*$ to ! membrane t =ms ! valve 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #ab74 #bfb4 ,f ! upp] & "r side ( ?is *amb] spr+s ! pulmon>y art]y 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #ae72 at ! entrance ( :i* are plac$ ?ree membranes ( a cresc5t or semilun> %ape1 t]m$ ! semilun> valves 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #ad74 #bfc4 ,! /ructure ( ! left side ( ! he>t is p]fectly analog\s to t ( ! "r4 ,its auricle1 l t on ! left side1 is plac$ at ! base ( ! v5tricle 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #aj1 & ,,cxvii4 #b71 & l x also is ?91 be+ compos$ *iefly ( membrane4 ,at its upp] & back "p 7figs4 ,,cxiv4 #i1 & ,,cxvii4 #a7 are ! op5+s ( ! f\r pulmon>y ve9s1 two f ! "r1 & two f ! left lung4 #bfd4 ,at ! passage ( communication betwe5 ! left auricle & v5tricle is plac$ a valve analog\s to t on ! "r side 7fig4 ,,cxvii4 #g74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxvii4 ,view ( ! he>t ) ! great vessels 9 connection ) x1 on ! left side1 its *amb]s be+ laid op5 z 9 ! prec$+ figure4 #a4 ,! f\r pulmon>y ve9s op5+ into1 #b4 ! cavity ( ! left auricle2 #c4 ! cut edge ( ! wall ( ! auricle2 #d4 ! app5dix ( ! auricle2 #e4 ! cavity ( ! left v5tricle2 #f4 ! cut edge ( ! wall ( ! v5tricle1 ! great] portion ( ! wall hav+ be5 remov$ to %[ ! int]ior ( ! *amb]2 #g4 valve plac$ betwe5 ! auricle & v5tricle2 #h4 column c>ne t]m9at+ 9 t5d9\s ?reads atta*$ to ! loose m>g9 ( ! valve2 #i4 probe pass$ und]nea? ! valve & its t5d9\s ?reads1 rais+ !m f ! wall ( ! v5tricle simil> to a reflu5t curr5t ( blood2 #aj4 passage to #aa4 ! aorta2 #ab4 two ( ! semilun> valves plac$ at ! m\? ( ! aorta1 ! ?ird hav+ be5 cut away2 #ac4 ar* ( ! aorta2 #ad4 ! ?ree semilun> valves at ! comm5cem5t ( ! pulmon>y art]y se5 9 action1 completely clos+ ! m\? ( ! vessel4 #bfe4 ,! walls ( ! left v5tricle are ne>ly z ?ick aga9 z ^? ( ! "r1 & its fle%y columns are mu* l>g] & /rong]4 ,f ! upp] & back "p ( ?is f\r? *amb] 7fig4 ,,cxvii4 #aa7 spr+s ! great sy/emic art]y1 ! aorta1 ar\nd ! m\? ( :i* are plac$ ?ree semilun> valves 7fig4 ,,cxvii4 #ab71 simil> to ^? at ! m\? ( ! pulmon>y art]y4 #bff4 ,! p>tition :i* divides ! two sets ( *amb]s f ea* o!r 7fig4 ,,cxiv4 #f7 is :olly compos$ ( muscul> fibres1 & is call$ ! septum ( ! he>t4 #bfg4 ,! ext]nal surface ( ! he>t is cov]$ by a ?9 b /rong membrane cont9u$ ov] x f ! p]ic>dium4 ,betwe5 ?is membran\s cov]+ & its fle%y sub/ance is lodg$1 ev5 :5 ! body is r$uc$ to ! greate/ degree ( ?9ness1 a quantity ( fat4 ,imm$iately b5ea? ?is fat are ! fle%y fibres t compose ! ma9 bulk ( ! organ4 ,^! fibres are arrang$ 9 a peculi> mann]4 ,! arrangem5t is n p]ceptible :5 ! he>t is exam9$ 9 its natural /ate1 b aft] x has be5 subject$ to long-cont9u$ boil+1 :i*1 besides sep>at+ extrane\s matt]s f ! fibres1 h>d5s & loos5s )\t displac+ !m1 ! mann] 9 :i* !y are dispos$ is manife/4 ,j at ! po9t :]e ! muscul> fibres t con/itute ! septum ( ! auricles are set ^u ^? :i* =m ! septum ( ! v5tricles1 & p>allel ) ! orig9 ( ! aorta1 ! he>t is n muscul> b t5d9\s4 ,! sub/ance call$ t5don1 x has be5 %[n1 is (t5 employ$ 9 ! body to af=d orig9 or ins]tion to muscul> fibres1 p]=m+1 9 fact1 ! ord9>y (fice ( bone1 & sub/itut$ = x 9 situations :]e bone w\ld be inconv5i5t4 ,f ! t5d9\s matt] j indicat$ mo/ ( ! fibres t con/itute ! muscul> walls ( ! he>t take _! orig94 ,f ?is po9t ! fibres proce$ 9 diff]5t directions3 ^? :i* g to =m ! wall ( ! auricles asc5d2 ^? :i* =m ! wall ( ! v5tricles pursue an oblique c\rse d[nw>ds1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! :ole is su*1 t a g5]al contraction ( ! fibres mu/ necess>ily br+ all ! p>ts ( ! he>t t[>ds ?is c5tral t5d9\s po9t4 ,! object & ! result ( ?is arrangem5t w be manife/ imm$iately4 #bfh4 ,! int]nal surface ( ! *amb]s ( ! he>t1 9 its :ole ext5t1 is l9$ by a f9e transp>5t s]\s membrane1 :i* r5d]s x smoo? & moi/2 &1 l all o!r organs :i* h important functions to p]=m1 x is pl5tifully suppli$ ) blood-vessels & n]ves4 #bfi4 ,su* is ! /ructure ( ! organ t moves ! blood4 ,! art]y1 ! tube t c>ries x out f ! he>t1 is a vessel compos$ ( ?ree di/9ct lay]s ( membrane sup]impos$ "o ^u ano!r1 & intimately unit$ by delicate cellul> tissue4 ,^! lay]s are t]m$ tunics or coats4 ,! ext]nal coat 7fig4 ,,cxviii4 #c71 :i* is also call$ ! cellul>1 consi/s ( m9ute :iti% fibres1 :i* are d5se & t\gh1 & closely int]lac$ toge!r 9 e direction4 ,!y =m a membrane ( great /r5g?1 ! ela/icity ( :i*1 especially 9 ! longitud9al direction1 is su* t1 9 addition to its o!r names1 x has receiv$ t ( ! ela/ic coat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxviii4 ,portion ( an art]y1 %[+ ! sev]al coats ( :i* x is compos$ sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 #a4 ,! int]nal or s]\s coat2 #b4 ! middle or fibr\s coat2 #c4 ! ext]nal or cellul> coat4 #bgj4 ,! middle or ! fibr\s tunic is compos$ ( yell[i% flatt5$ fibres :i* pass 9 an oblique direction ar\nd ! calibre ( ! vessel1 =m+ segm5ts ( circles1 :i*1 unit+1 produce complete r+s 7fig4 ,,cxviii4 #b74 ,?is tunic is ?ick1 consi/+ ( sev]al lay]s ( fibres :i* x is easy to peel (f 9 succession4 ,!y =m a firm1 solid1 ela/ic1 b1 at ! same "t1 brittle membrane4 #bga4 ,! inn] tunic1 ?91 col\rless1 ne>ly transp>5t1 & p]fectly smoo?1 is moi/5$ by a s]\s fluid1 & is !nce call$ ! s]\s coat 7fig4 ,,cxviii4 #a74 ,to ! nak$ eye x pres5ts no appe>ance ( fibres1 yet not)/&+ its extreme delicacy1 x is s /rong t1 aft] ! o!r coats ( ! art]y h be5 entirely remov$ 9 a liv+ animal1 x is capable ( resi/+ ! impetus ( ! circulation1 & ( prev5t+ ! dilatation ( ! art]y4 ,! art]ies !mselves are suppli$ ) art]ies1 vessels t n\ri% _! tissues1 & :i* are s5t to !m f neighb\r+ bran*es1 seldom or nev] f ! vessel itself to :i* !y are di/ribut$4 ,ea* individual "p ( an art]y is suppli$ by its own appropriate vessels1 :i* =m b few communications above & bel[1 s t if c>e be n tak5 9 surgical op]ations to di/urb ^! nutri5t art]ies v little1 ! vessel w p]i% = want ( su/5ance4 #bgb4 ,! ve91 ! tube t c>ries back ! blood to ! he>t1 is compos$ ( ! same numb] ( tunics z ! art]y1 :i*1 ) ! exception ( ! middle1 are ess5tially ! same 9 /ructure1 b !y are all mu* ?9n]4 ,! ext]nal tunic consi/s ( a less d5se & /rong cellul> membrane2 ! middle tunic1 in/ead ( be+ =m$ ( ela/ic r+s1 is compos$ ( s(t & yield+ fibres1 dispos$ 9 a longitud9al direction2 :ile ! inn] coat1 :i* is /ill m delicate ?an t ( ! art]y1 is arrang$ 9 a peculi> mann]4 ,! inn] coat ( mo/ ve9s1 at slight int]vals1 is =m$ into folds 7fig4 ,,cxx4 #e71 "o m>g9 ( :i* is firmly adh]5t to ! circumf]5ce ( ! vessel1 :ile ! o!r m>g9 is free & turn$ 9 ! direction ( ! he>t4 ,^! membran\s folds are t]m$ valves4 ,9 all ve9s ! diamet] ( :i* is less ?an a l9e ! valves are s+le2 9 mo/ ve9s ( great] magnitude !y are plac$ 9 pairs1 :ile 9 "s ( ! l>g] trunks !y are triple1 & 9 a few in/ances quadruple1 & ev5 qu9tuple4 ,! ve9s1 l ! art]ies1 are suppli$ ) nutri5t vessels & n]ves4 #bgc4 ,all ! art]ies ( ! body proce$ f ! two trunks already describ$2 t connect$ ) ! pulmonic circle1 ! pulmon>y art]y1 & t connect$ ) ! sy/emic circle1 ! aorta4 ,^! vessels1 z !y g out f ! he>t & proce$ to _! ultimate t]m9ation1 are arboresc5t1 t is1 !y successively increase 9 numb] & dim9i% 9 size1 l ! bran*es ( a tree go+ (f f ! trunk 7fig4 ,,cxix4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,ea* trunk usually ends by divid+ into two or m bran*es 7fig4 ,,cxix4 #a1 #b71 ! comb9$ area ( :i* is always great] ?an t ( ! trunk f :i* !y spr+1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t "o & a half to "o4 ,z ! bran* proce$s to its ultimate t]m9ation x divides & subdivides1 until at l5g? ! vessel becomes s m9ute1 t x c no long] be di/+ui%$ by ! eye4 ,^! ultimate bran*es are call$ capill>y vessels1 f _! hair-l smallness 7fig4 ,,cxix4 #d72 b ?is t]m does n adequately express _! m9ut5ess4 ,x has be5 /at$ 7#bcd7 t ! r$ p>ticle ( ! blood1 at ! m$ium calculation1 is n m ?an ! ?ree-?\s&? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]2 yet va/ numb]s ( ! capill>y vessels are s small t !y are incapable ( admitt+ "o ( ^! p>ticles1 & receive only ! col\rless portion ( ! blood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxix4 ,view ( ! mann] 9 :i* an art]y divides & subdivides into its ultimate bran*es4 #a4 ,trunk ( ! art]y2 #b4 l>ge bran*es into :i* x subdivides2 #c4 small bran*es1 successively becom+ small] & small] until !y t]m9ate 9 #d4 ! capill>y bran*es4 #bgd4 ,e portion ( an art]y1 by reason ( ! ela/icity ( its coats1 pres]ves ne>ly a cyl9drical =m1 & z ! area ( ! bran*es is great] ?an t ( ! trunks1 ! blood1 9 proce$+ f ! he>t to ! capill>ies1 ?\gh pass+ ?r\gh a s]ies ( desc5d+ cyl9d]s1 is really fl[+ ?r\gh an enl>g+ space4 #bge4 ,! disposition ( ! ve9s1 l t ( ! art]ies1 is arboresc5t1 b 9 an inv]se ord]2 = ! c\rse ( ! ve9s is f capill>y vessels to visible bran*es1 & f visible bran*es to l>ge trunks 7fig4 ,,cxx4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,9 e "p ( ! body :]e ! capill>y art]ies t]m9ate ! capill>y ve9s beg91 & ! bran*es unit+ to =m trunks1 & ! small to =m l>ge trunks1 & ! trunks always advanc+ t[>ds ! he>t1 & always increas+ 9 magnitude z !y approa* x1 =m at l5g? ! two ve9s :i* x has be5 /at$ 7#beh7 return all ! blood ( ! body to ! "r auricle ( ! he>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxx4 ,view ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! m9ute bran*es ( ! ve9 unite to =m ! l>g] bran*es & ! trunks4 #a4 ,capill>y v5\s bran*es2 #b4 small bran*es =m$ by ! union ( ! capill>y2 #c4 l>g] bran*es =m$ by ! union ( ! small] & gradually increas+ 9 size1 to =m ! great trunk1 #d4 a portion ( :i* is laid op5 to %[ its inn] surface & ! arrangem5t ( #e4 ! valves =m$ by its inn] coat4 #bgf4 ,! ve9s are v mu* m num]\s ?an ! art]ies1 = !y (t5 consi/ ( d\ble sets1 & !y are at ! same "t m capaci\s & m ext5sible4 ,reckon+ ! :ole ( ! blood at "o-fif? ( ! weight ( ! body1 x is e/imat$ t1 ( ?is quantity1 ab\t "o-f\r? is 9 ! art]ial & ! rema9+ ?ree-f\r?s 9 ! v5\s sy/em4 ,! comb9$ area ( ! bran*es ( ! ve9s is mu* great] ?an t ( ! two trunks 9 :i* !y t]m9ate 7fig4 ,,cxx4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d73 ! blood1 !re=e1 9 return+ to ! he>t1 is always fl[+ f a l>ge into a small] space4 #bgg4 ,! divisions & subdivisions ( ! art]y freely communicate 9 all p>ts ( ! body by means ( :at are call$ ana/omos+ bran*es1 & ?is communication ( bran* ) bran* & trunk ) trunk is t]m$ ana/omosis4 ,! same int]communication1 b ) /ill great] fre$om & frequ5cy1 takes place among ! bran*es ( ve9s4 ,9 bo? ord]s ( vessels ! communication is frequ5t 9 proportion to ! m9ut5ess ( ! bran* & its di/ance f ! he>t4 ,x is also m frequ5t 9 proportion z a "p is expos$ to pressure2 h5ce ! m9ute art]ies & ve9s ab\t a jo9t are di/+ui%$ = ! multitude ( _! ana/omos+ bran*es2 & above all1 x is frequ5t 9 proportion to ! importance ( ! organ2 h5ce ! mo/ rem>kable ana/omosis 9 ! body is 9 ! bra94 ,by ?is provision c>e is tak5 t no "p be depriv$ ( its supply ( blood2 = if "o *annel be block$ up1 a hundr$ m are op5 to ! curr5t1 & ! transmission ( x to any p>ticul> region or organ by two or m *annels1 in/ead ( ?r\gh "o trunk1 is a "p ( ! same provision4 ,?us ! =e-arm possesses f\r pr9cipal art]ies ) correspond+ ve9s1 & ! bra9 receives its blood ?r\gh f\r totally indep5d5t canals#f4 #bgh4 ,t ! blood is really a fl[+ /ream1 & t x pursues ! c\rse describ$ 7#beh71 is indubitable4 ,=1 7#a47 ,) ! microscope1 9 ! transp>5t p>ts ( animals1 ! blood c be se5 9 motion 7fig4 ,,cxxi472 & if its c\rse be att5tively obs]v$1 its r\te may be cle>ly trac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,,cxxi4 ,view ( ! circulation ( ! blood z se5 "u ! microscope 9 ! web ( ! frog's foot4 7#b47 ,! membranes t]m$ valves are s plac$ z to all[ ( ! free/ passage to ! blood 9 ! circle describ$1 :ile !y ei!r altoge!r prev5t or exce$+ly imp$e its movem5t 9 any o!r direction4 7#c47 ,! effect ( a ligature plac$ ar\nd a ve9 & an art]y1 & ( a puncture made above ! ligature 9 ! "o vessel & bel[ x 9 ! o!r1 demon/rate bo? ! motion ( ! blood & ! c\rse ( x4 ,:5 a ligature is plac$ ar\nd a ve91 t "p ( ! vessel :i* is mo/ di/ant f ! he>t becomes full & turgid on acc\nt ( ! accumulation ( blood 9 x2 :ile ! "p ( ! vessel :i* is betwe5 ! ligature & ! he>t becomes empty & flaccid1 because x has c>ri$ on its cont5ts to ! he>t1 & x c receive no fre% supply f ! body4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 a ligature is plac$ ar\nd an art]y1 t portion ( ! vessel :i* lies betwe5 ! ligature & ! he>t becomes full & turgid1 & ! o!r portion empty & flaccid4 ,?is c only be because ! cont5ts ( ! two vessels move 9 opposite directions1--f ! he>t to ! art]y1 f ! art]y to ! ve91 & f ! ve9 to ! he>t4 ,at ! same "t1 if ! ve9 be punctur$ above ! ligature1 !re w be little or no loss ( blood2 :ile if x be punctur$ bel[ ! ligature1 ! blood w cont9ue to fl[ until ! loss ( x occasions dea?1 :i* c\ld n be unless ! blood 7 9 motion1 nor unless ! direction ( its c\rse 7 f ! art]y to ! ve9 & f ! ve9 to ! he>t4 7#d47 ,if fluids be inject$ into ! ve9s or art]ies1 :e!r ( ! dead or ( ! liv+ body1 !y readily make _! way & fill ! vessels1 if ?r[n 9 ! direction /at$ to be ! natural c\rse ( ! circulation2 b !y are /rongly resi/$ if =c$ 9 ! opposite direction4 #bgi4 ,su* is ! description1 & ) ! exception ( ! fir/ pro(1 su* ! evid5ce ( ! circulation ( ! blood 9 ! human body1 pretty mu* z x 0 giv5 by ! discov]] ( x1 ! illu/ri\s ,h>vey4 ,be=e ! "t ( ,h>vey1 a vague & indi/9ct conception t ! blood 0 n )\t motion 9 ! body _h be5 =m$ by sev]al anatomi/s4 ,x is analog\s to ! ord9>y mode 9 :i* ! human m9d arrives at discov]y 7*ap4 iii41 p4 #ajc71 t _m m9ds %\ld h an imp]fect p]ception ( an unkn[n tru?1 be=e "s "o m9d sees x 9 its complet5ess & fully discloses x4 ,hav+1 ab\t ! ye> #afbj1 succe$$ 9 completely trac+ ! circle 9 :i* ! blood moves1 & hav+ at t "t collect$ all ! evid5ce ( ! fact1 ) a r>e degree ( philosophical =be>ance1 ,h>vey /ill sp5t no less ?an eight ye>s 9 re-exam9+ ! subject1 & 9 matur+ ! pro( ( e po9t1 be=e he v5tur$ to speak ( x 9 public4 ,! brief tract :i* at l5g? he publi%$ 0 writt5 ) extreme simplicity1 cle>ness1 & p]spicuity1 & has be5 ju/ly *>act]is$ z "o ( ! mo/ admirable examples ( a s]ies ( argum5ts d$uc$ f obs]vation & exp]im5t t ev] appe>$ on any subject4 #bhj4 ,cotempor>ies are seldom grateful to discov]]s4 ,m ?an "o in/ance is on record 9 :i* a man has injur$ 8 =tune & lo/ 8 happ9ess ?r\gh ! elucidation & e/abli%m5t ( a tru? :i* has giv5 him immortality4 ,x may be t !re are physical tru?s yet to be br\ght to light1 to say no?+ ( new applications ( old tru?s1 :i*1 if !y c\ld be ann\nc$ & demon/rat$ to-day1 w\ld be ! ru9 ( ! discov]]4 ,x is c]ta9 t !re are moral tru?s to be discov]$1 exp\nd$1 & en=c$1 :i*1 if any man _h n[ p5etration en\gh to see !m1 & c\rage en\gh to express !m1 w\ld cause him to be reg>d$ by ! pres5t g5]ation ) horror & dete/ation4 ,p]haps1 dur+ ^? eight ye>s ( re-exam9ation1 ! discov]] ( ! circulation sometimes endeav\r$ 9 imag9ation to trace ! effect :i* ! /up5d\s fact at ! k ( :i* he _h arriv$ w\ld h on ! progress ( 8 fav\rite sci5ce2 &1 x may be1 ! hope & ! expectation occasionally arose t ! ine/imable b5efit he 0 ab\t to conf] on 8 fell[ m5 w\ld secure to him "s portion ( _! e/eem & confid5ce4 ,:at mu/ h be5 8 disappo9tm5t :5 he f\nd1 aft] ! publication ( 8 tract1 t ! little practice he _h _h z a physician1 by degrees fell (f4 ,he 0 too speculative1 too !oretical1 n practical4 ,su* 0 ! view tak5 ev5 by 8 fri5ds4 ,8 enemies saw 9 8 tract no?+ b indications ( a presumptu\s m9d t d>$ to call 9 "q ! rev]$ au?ority ( ! anci5ts2 & "s ( !m saw1 moreov]1 indications ( a malignant m9d1 t conceiv$ & def5d$ doctr9es :i*1 if n *eck$1 w\ld und]m9e ! v f\ndations ( morality & religion4 ,:5 ! evid5ce ( ! tru? became irresi/ible1 !n ^! p]sons sudd5ly turn$ r\nd & said1 t x 0 all kn[n be=e1 & t ! sole m]it ( ?is vaunt$ discov]] consi/$ 9 hav+ circulat$ ! circulation4 ,! pun 0 n fatal to ! future fame ( ?is truly great man1 nor ev5 to ! gradual ?\gh sl[ return ( ! public confid5ce ev5 dur+ 8 own "t2 = he liv$ to atta9 ! summit ( reputation4 #bha4 ,x is !n indubitably e/abli%$ t ! :ole blood ( ! body 9 successive /reams is collect$ & conc5trat$ at ! he>t4 ,! object ( ! accumulation ( a c]ta9 mass ( x at ?is organ is to subject x to ! action ( a /rong muscle1 & !reby to det]m9e its transmission ) adequate =ce & precision ?r\gh ! diff]5t sets ( capill>y vessels4 #bhb4 ,9 ! accompli%m5t ( ?is object ! he>t p]=ms a tw(old action2 t ( contraction & t ( dilatation4 ,! auricles contract & !reby dim9i% _! cavities1 !n dilate & !reby exp& !m1 & ! "o action alt]nates ) ! o!r4 ,!re is ! l alt]nate contraction & dilatation ( ! v5tricles4 ,! fir/ action is t]m$ sy/ole1 ! second dia/ole1 & bo? are p]=m$ ) =ce4 #bhc4 ,:5 ! he>t is laid op5 to view 9 a liv+ animal1 & its movem5ts are c>efully obs]v$1 x is app>5t t ! two auricles contract toge!r2 t ! two v5tricles contract toge!r2 t ^! motions alt]nate ) ea* o!r1 & t !y proce$ 9 regul> succession4 ,! int]val betwe5 ^! alt]nate movem5ts is1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly %ort1 & c sc>cely be p]ceiv$ :5 ! he>t is act+ ) full vig\r2 b x is evid5t :5 its action is some:at languid4 #bhd4 ,:5 ! v5tricles contract1 ! apex ( ! he>t is drawn upw>ds1 & at ! same "t rais$ or tilt$ =w>ds4 ,x is dur+ ?is sy/ole ( ! v5tricles1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ?is result ( _! action1 t ! apex ( ! he>t gives t impulse aga9/ ! walls ( ! *e/ :i* is felt 9 ! natural /ate betwe5 ! fif? & six? ribs1 & :i* j p]ceptibly prec$es ! pulse at ! wri/4 #bhe4 ,:5 ! e> is appli$ to ! human *e/1 ov] ! situation ( ! he>t1 a dull & some:at prolong$ s\nd is he>d1 :i* prec$es & accompanies ! impulse ( ! he>t aga9/ ! *e/4 ,?is dull s\nd is imm$iately succe$$ by a %ort] & %>p] s\nd3 aft] ?is !re is a %ort pause2 & !n ! dull s\nd & impulse are aga9 r5ew$4 ,! dull] s\nd & /rong] impulse are ascrib$ to ! contraction ( ! v5tricles1 & ! %>p] s\nd & feebl] impulse to t ( ! auricles4 #bhf4 ,! movem5t ( ! he>t is effect$ by ! contraction ( its muscul> fibres4 ,^? fibres re/1 z ^u a firm support1 on ! t5d9\s matt] to :i* !y are atta*$1 f :i* !y div]ge1 & t[>ds :i* _! contraction mu/ necess>ily br+ all ! p>ts ( ! he>t 7#bfg74 ,! result ( _! contraction is ! p[]ful compression ( all ! *amb]s ( ! he>t1 & !reby ! =cible ejection ( _! cont5ts ?r\gh ! natural op5+s4 #bhg4 ,b ! *amb]s1 alt]nately ) =cible contraction1 p]=m ! action ( =cible dilatation4 ,?is movem5t ( dilatation is effect$ by ! reaction ( ! ela/icity ( ! t5d9\s matt] on :i* ! muscul> fibres are support$ 7#bfg74 ,?is highly ela/ic sub/ance1 by ! contraction ( ! fibres1 is br\ght into a /ate ( extreme t5sion4 ,! contraction ( ! fibres ceas+1 t mom5t ! t5se t5don recoils ) a =ce exactly proportionate to ! degree ( t5sion into :i* x _h be5 br\ght4 ,?us ! v ag5t t is employ$ =cibly to close ! *amb] is made ! ma9 in/rum5t ( secur+ its in/antane\s re-op5+4 ,a vital en]gy is appo9t$ to accompli% :at is indisp5sable1 & :at no?+ else c effect1 ! orig9ation ( a motive p[]2 a physical ag5t is conjo9$ to p]=m ! easi] task to :i* x is compet5t2 & ! two p[]s1 ! vital & ! physical1 "w 9 h>mony1 ea* act+ alt]nately1 & ea*1 ) undeviat+ regul>ity & unfail+ en]gy1 fulfill+ its appropriate (fice4 #bhh4 ,:5 ! *amb]s ( ! he>t :i* op5 into ea* o!r1 & :i* z freely communicate ) ! great vessels t ent] & proce$ f !m1 are =cibly clos$1 & ! blood !y conta9 is project$ f !m1 h[ is "o uni=m =w>d direction giv5 to ! curr5t8 ,:y1 :5 ! "r v5tricle contracts1 is ! blood n s5t back into ! "r auricle1 z well z =w>d into ! pulmon>y art]y8 ,!re is b "o mode ( prev5t+ su* an ev5t1 :i* is to place a flood-gate betwe5 ! two *amb]s2 & !re a flood-gate is plac$1 & t flood-gate is ! valve4 ,z long z ! blood proce$s onw>ds 9 ! direct c\rse ( ! circulation1 x presses ?is membrane close to ! side ( ! he>t1 & !reby prev5ts x f occasion+ any imp$im5t to ! curr5t4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 ! blood is =c$ backw>ds1 & attempts to re-ent] ! auricle1 be+ ( c\rse driv5 9 all directions1 "s ( x passes betwe5 ! wall ( ! v5tricle & ! valve4 ,! mom5t x is 9 ?is situation x raises up ! valve1 c>ries x ov] ! m\? ( ! passage1 & %uts up ! *annel4 ,!re _c be a m p]fect flood-gate4 #bhi4 ,?is is beautiful me*anism2 b !re is ano!r arrangem5t :i* surpasses m]e me*anism1 h[ev] beautiful4 ,x has be5 %[n 7#bfj7 t "o edge ( ! membrane t =ms ! valve is firmly adh]5t to ! wall ( ! v5tricle1 :ile ! o!r edge1 :5 n 9 action1 appe>s to lie loosely 9 ! v5tricle 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #aj74 ,7 ?is edge really loose ! reflu5t curr5t w\ld c>ry x back completely into ! auricle1 & s c\nt]act its action z a valve2 b x is atta*$ to ! t5d9\s ?reads proce$+ f ! fle%y columns t /& along ! wall ( ! v5tricle 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #ab74 ,by ^! t5d9\s ?reads1 z by s _m /r+s1 ! membrane is firmly held 9 its prop] position 7fig4 ,,cxvi4 #aj1 #ab72 & ! reflu5t curr5t _c c>ry x into ! auricle4 ,?us f> ! arrangem5t is me*anical4 ,b ea* ( ^! fle%y columns is a muscle1 ex]t+ a prop] muscul> action4 ,among ! /imulants :i* excite ! contractility ( ! muscul> fibre1 "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful is di/5sion4 ,! reflu5t curr5t di/5ds ! membrane2 ! di/5sion ( ! membrane /ret*es ! t5d9\s ?reads atta*$ to x2 ! /ret*+ ( its t5d9\s ?reads /ret*es ! fle%y column2 by ?is di/5sion ( ! column x is excit$ to contraction2 by ! contraction ( ! column its ?read is %ort5$2 by ! %ort5+ ( ! ?read ! valve is tight5$1 & t 9 ! exact degree 9 :i* ! ?read is %ort5$4 ,s1 ! great] ! impetus ( ! reflu5t blood1 ! great] ! di/5sion ( ! membrane2 & ! great] ! di/5sion ( ! membrane1 ! great] ! excitem5t ( ! fle%y column2 ! great] ! en]gy ) :i* x is /imulat$ to act1 ! great]1 !re=e1 ! security t ! valve w be held j 9 ! position t is requir$1 ) exactly ! =ce t is ne$$4 ,"h1 !n1 is a flood-gate n only well con/ruct$ z f> z reg>ds ! me*anical arrangem5t1 b s end[$ z to be able to act ) additional =ce :5ev] additional =ce is requisite2 to put =? on e occasion1 z ! occasion arises1 j ! degree ( /r5g? requir$1 & no m4 #bij4 ,! contraction ( ! he>t is ! p[] t moves ! blood2 & ?is contraction g5]ates a =ce :i* is adequate to impel x ?r\gh ! circle4 ,f exp]im5ts p]=m$ by ,dr4 ,hales x appe>s t if ! art]y ( a l>ge animal1 su* z ! horse1 be made to communicate ) an upright tube1 ! blood w asc5d 9 ! tube to ! height ( ab\t t5 feet above ! level ( ! he>t1 & w aft]w>ds cont9ue !re ris+ & fall+ a few in*es ) ea* pulsation ( ! he>t4 ,9 ?is animal1 !n1 ! he>t acts ) a =ce capable ( ma9ta9+ a column ( t5 feet4 ,n[ a column ( t5 feet indicates a pressure ( ab\t f\r p\nds & a half 9 a squ>e in* ( surface4 ,suppose ! human he>t to be capable ( support+ a column ( blood eight feet high1 ?is w indicate a pressure ( f\r p\nds to ! squ>e in*2 b ! left v5tricle ( ! he>t1 :ile x injects its column ( blood into ! aorta1 has to ov]come ! in]tia ( ! quantity ( blood project$2 ( ! mass already 9 ! art]y1 & ( ! ela/icity ( ! vessel yield+ to a mom5t>y increase ( pressure3 x is probable1 !re=e1 t ! he>t acts ) a =ce ( six p\nds on ! in*4 ,! left v5tricle1 :5 di/5d$1 has ab\t t5 squ>e in*es ( int]nal surface2 consequ5tly ! :ole =ce ex]t$ by x may be ab\t sixty p\nds4 ,accord+ to ! calculation ( ,hales1 x is fifty-"o & a half4 ,n[1 x is prov$ by num]\s exp]im5ts1 t1 aft] dea?1 a slight impulse ) ! syr+e1 c]ta9ly mu* less ?an t :i* is act+ ^u ! blood 9 ! same art]y dur+ life1 is suffici5t to propel a solution ( indigo1 or fre% drawn blood1 f a l>ge art]y into ! extreme capill>y4 ,if1 !re=e1 aft] dea?1 a slight =ce w fill ! capill>ies1 a =ce dur+ life equal to sixty p\nds mu/ be adequate to d s4 #bia4 ,! he>t1 ) a =ce equal to ! pressure ( sixty p\nds1 propels into ! art]y two ounces ( blood at e contraction4 ,x contracts f\r ?\s& times 9 an h\r4 ,!re passes ?r\gh ! he>t1 !re=e1 e h\r1 eight ?\s& ounces or sev5 hundr$ p\nds ( blood4 ,x has be5 /at$ 7#baf7 t ! :ole mass ( blood 9 an adult is ab\t tw5ty-eight p\nds3 on an av]age ! entire circulation is complet$ 9 two m9utes & a half2 consequ5tly a quantity ( blood equal to ! :ole mass passes ?r\gh ! he>t f tw5ty to tw5ty-f\r times 9 an h\r4 ,b ?\gh ! av]age space ( "t requisite to accompli% a complete circulation may be two m9utes & a half1 yet :5 a /ream ( blood leaves ! he>t1 diff]5t portions ( x mu/ f9i% _! circle at v diff]5t p]iods1 dep5d+ 9 "p ^u ! l5g? ( ! c\rse :i* !y h to g1 & 9 "p ^u ! degree ( resi/ance t ob/ructs _! passage4 ,a "p ( ! /ream1 x is obvi\s1 f9i%es its c\rse 9 circulat+ ?r\gh ! he>t itself2 ano!r portion takes a long] circuit ?r\gh ! *e/2 ano!r ext5ds ! circle r\nd ! head2 & ano!r visits ! "p plac$ at ! remote/ di/ance f ! c5tral mov+ p[]4 ,su* is ! velocity ) :i* ! curr5t sometimes goes1 t1 9 ! horse1 a fluid inject$ into ! great ve9 ( ! neck1 on "o side1 has be5 detect$ 9 ! ve9 on ! opposite side1 & ev5 9 ! ve9 ( ! foot1 )9 half a m9ute4 #bib4 ,x has be5 %[n 7#bhb7 t ! diff]5t *amb]s ( ! he>t h a t5d5cy to p]=m _! movem5ts 9 a uni=m mann]1 & 9 a successive ord]2 t !y contract & dilate 9 regul> alt]nation1 & at equal int]vals2 b1 moreov]1 !y cont9ue ^! movem5ts equally )\t re/ & )\t fatigue4 ,on g ! motions1 night & day1 = eighty ye>s toge!r1 at ! rate ( a hundr$ ?\s& /rokes e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 alike )\t disord]1 cessation1 or we>9ess4 ,! muscles ( ! arm tire aft] an h\r's ex]tion1 are exhau/$ aft] a day's lab\r1 & c by no ef=t be made to "w beyond a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,!re is no appreciable diff]5ce betwe5 ! muscul> sub/ance ( ! he>t & t ( ! arm4 ,x is true t ! he>t is plac$ "u "o condition :i* is peculi>4 ,muscles contract on ! application ( /imuli2 & diff]5t muscles are ob$i5t to diff]5t /imuli1--! volunt>y muscles to ! /imulus ( volition1 & ! he>t to t ( ! blood4 ,! ex]tion ( volition is n con/ant1 b occasional2 ! muscle acts only :5 x is excit$ by ! application ( its /imulus3 h5ce ! volunt>y muscle has consid]able int]vals ( re/4 ,! blood1 on ! contr>y1 is convey$ to ! he>t )\t ceas+1 9 a det]m9ate mann]1 9 a successive ord]2 & ?is is ! reason :y ?r\gh life its action is uni=m3 x uni=mly receives a due supply ( its appropriate /imulus4 ,b :y x is unwe>i$1 :y x nev] requires re/1 we d n "k4 ,we "k ! necessities ( ! sy/em :i* r5d] x indisp5sable t x %\ld be capable ( untir+ action1 = we "k t ! fir/ h\r ( its repose w\ld be ! la/ ( life2 b ( ! mode 9 :i* ?is wond]ful end[m5t is communicat$1 or ( ! relations ^u :i* x is dep5d5t1 we are :olly ignorant4 #bic4 ,! =ce ex]t$ by ! he>t is vital4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f me*anical =ce 9 be+ produc$ by ! v eng9e t ex]ts x4 ,9 ! be/-con/ruct$ ma*9]y !re is no real g5]ation ( p[]4 ,!re is m]ely conc5tration & direction ( x4 ,9 ! recoil ( ! spr+1 9 ! reaction ( cond5s$ /eam1 ! en]gy ( ! expansive impulse is nev] great] ?an ! =ce employ$ to compress or cond5se1 & ! mom5t ?is p[] is exp5d$ all capacity ( motion is at an end4 ,b ! he>t produces a =ce equal to ! pressure ( sixty p\nds by ! g5tle/ application ( a bl& fluid4 ,"h no =ce is communicat$ to be aga9 giv5 out1 z 9 e me*anical mov+ p[]2 b x is new p[]1 p[] really & prop]ly g5]at$2 & ?is p[] is ! result ( vital action1 & is nev] 9 any case ! result ( action t is n vital4 #bid4 ,! he>t projects ! blood ) a giv5 =ce into ! art]ial tubes4 ,! art]ies 9 ! liv+ body are always fill$ to di/5sion1 & some:at beyond x1 by ! quantity ( blood t is 9 !m4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! ela/icity ( _! coats is su* z to give to !m1 ev5 aft] dea?1 ! =m ( op5 holl[ cyl9d]s 7#bgd74 ,dur+ life !y are kept 9 a /ate ( di/5sion by ! quantity ( blood !y conta94 ,by virtue ( _! ela/icity !y react ^u _! cont5ts ) a =ce exactly proportion$ to ! degree ( _! di/5sion1 t is1 ) a =ce at lea/ adequate to keep !m always op5 & rigid4 #bie4 ,^! op5 & rigid tubes1 already fill$ to di/5sion1 & some:at beyond x1 receive at e contraction ( ! he>t a =cible injection ( a new wave ( blood4 ,! fir/ effect ( ! injection ( ?is new wave into a tube previ\sly full to di/5sion1 is to cause ! curr5t to proce$ by j]ks or jets1 ea* j]k or jet correspond+ to ! contraction ( ! he>t4 ,&1 accord+ly1 by ?is jet-l motion1 ! fl[ ( ! blood 9 ! art]y is di/+ui%$ f t 9 ! ve91 9 :i* latt] vessel ! curr5t is an equal & tranquil /ream4 #bif4 ,! second effect ( ?is new wave is to occasion "s fur!r di/5sion ( ! already di/5d$ art]y1 & accord+ly1 :5 ! vessel is expos$ 9 a liv+ animal1 & its action c>efully obs]v$1 a slight augm5tation ( its diamet] is di/+ui%able at e contraction ( ! he>t4 ,?is new wave :ile x di/5ds mu/ at ! same "t slightly elongate ! vessel2 cause its /raight portions to b5d a little1 & its curv$ portions to b5d /ill m2 &1 consequ5tly1 9 "s situations1 to lift x a little f its place1 giv+ x a slight degree ( locomotion2--& ^! two causes comb9$ produce ! pulse4 ,:5 ! f+] is press$ g5tly on an art]y1 at ! in/ant ( ! contraction ( ! he>t1 ! vessel is felt to b\nd aga9/ ! f+] ) a c]ta9 degree ( =ce3 ?is1 z j /at$1 is ow+ to a slight di/5sion ( ! vessel by ! new wave ( blood1 toge!r ) a slight elongation ( x1 & a g5tle ris+ f its situation4 #big4 ,! blood1 9 fl[+ ?r\gh ! art]ial trunks & bran*es to ! capill>ies1 ?r\gh ! art]ial to ! v5\s capill>ies1 & ?r\gh ! v5\s bran*es & trunks back to ! he>t1 is expos$ to num]\s & p[]ful causes ( ret>dation3 su*1 = example1 z ! friction betwe5 ! blood & ! sides ( ! vessels1 ! num]\s curves & angles =m$ by ! bran*es 9 spr++ f ! trunks1 ! tortu\s c\rse ( ! vessels 9 _m p>ts ( ! body1 & ! increas+ area ( ! art]ial bran*es z !y multiply & subdivide4 ,yet ! extraord9>y fact has be5 rec5tly discov]$1 t ! blood moves ) ! same mom5tum or =ce 9 e "p ( ! art]ial sy/em1 9 ! aorta1 9 ! art]y 9 ! neck :i* c>ries ! blood to ! head 7! c>otid art]y71 9 ! art]y ( ! arm 7! hum]al art]y71 9 ! art]y ( ! l[] extremity 7! femoral art]y72 9 a ^w1 9 ! m9ute & remote capill>y1 & 9 ! l>ge trunk ne> ! he>t4 ,hav+ contriv$ an in/rum5t by :i* ! =ce ( ! blood z x fl[s 9 its vessel c\ld be accurately indicat$ by ! rise ( m]cury 9 a tube1 ,m4 ,poiseuille f\nd t ! elevation ( ! m]cury is uni=mly ! same 9 ! diff]5t art]ies ( ! same animal1 :atev] ! size ( ! art]y & its di/ance f ! he>t4 ,?is tube 0 ins]t$1 = example1 into ! common c>otid art]y ( a horse3 ! diamet] ( ! vessel 0 #cd_/ajj?s ( an in*2 its di/ance f ! he>t 0 ?irty-n9e in*es2 ! height to :i* ! m]cury rose 9 ! graduat$ tube 0 accurately m>k$4 ,! tube 0 !n ins]t$ into a muscul> bran* ( ! art]y 9 ! ?igh3 ! diamet] ( ?is vessel 0 #g_/ajj?s ( an in*1 & its di/ance f ! he>t #fg in*es4 ,accord+ to ! mean ( n9e obs]vations1 ! m]cury rose 9 bo? tubes to precisely ! same elevation4 ,"h is ano!r in/ance ( ! beautiful adju/m5ts ev]y:]e e/abli%$ 9 ! liv+ economy4 ,! blood is s5t by a liv+ eng9e1 mov+ "u laws peculi> to ! /ate ( life1 into liv+ vessels1 :i* 9 _! turn act+ "u laws peculi> to ! /ate ( life1 s accommodate !mselves to ! curr5t z absolutely to (f] no resi/ance to its progress2 s accommodate !mselves to ! mov+ p[]1 z completely & ev]y:]e to obviate ! physical imp$im5ts to motion insep>able f inorganic matt]4 #bih4 ,t ! art]ial tubes d possess & ex]t a truly vital p[]1 modify+ ! curr5t ( ! blood !y conta91 is indubitably e/abli%$4 #a4 ,if 9 a liv+ animal ! trunk ( an art]y be laid b>e1 ! m]e exposure ( x to ! atmosph]ic air causes x to contract to su* a degree1 t its size becomes obvi\sly & /rik+ly dim9i%$4 ,?is c result only f ! ex]tion ( a vital prop]ty1 = no dead tube is capable 9 su* a mann] ( dim9i%+ its diamet]4 #b4 ,if dur+ life an art]y be op5$ & ! animal be l>gely bl$1 ! art]ies become progressively small] & small] z ! quantity ( blood 9 ! body dim9i%es4 ,if ! ble$+ be cont9u$ until ! animal dies1 & ! art]ies ( ! sy/em be imm$iately exam9$1 !y are f\nd to be r$uc$ to a v small size2 if aga9 exam9$ "s "t aft] dea?1 !y are f\nd to h become l>g]1 & !y g on gr[+ successively l>g] & l>g] until !y rega9 ne>ly _! orig9al magnitude1 :i* !y reta9 until !y are decompos$ by putrefaction4 #c4 ,m4 ,poiseuille di/5d$ ) wat] ! art]y ( an animal j kill$4 ,?is wat] 0 urg$ by ! pressure ( a giv5 column ( m]cury4 ,! =ce ( ! reaction ( ! art]y 0 n[ measur$ by ! height ( a column ( m]cury :i* ! wat] expell$ f ! art]y c\ld support4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! art]y react$ ) a =ce great] ?an t employ$ to di/5d x1 & great] ?an ! same art]y c\ld ex]t "s "t aft] dea?2 b s9ce me*anical reaction c nev] be great] ?an ! =ce previ\sly ex]t$ ^u x 7#bic71 x foll[s t ! excess ( ! reaction indicat$ 9 ?is case 0 vital4 #d4 ,if an art]y be expos$ & a me*anical or *emical /imulus be appli$ to x1 its diamet] is alt]$1 sometimes becom+ l>g] & sometimes small]1 accord+ to ! k9d ( ag5t employ$4 #bii4 ,any "o ( ^! facts1 tak5 by itself1 af=ds a demon/ration t ! art]ial trunks & bran*es are capable ( enl>g+ & dim9i%+ _! diamet] by virtue ( a vital end[m5t4 ,!re is complete evid5ce t ! ex]tion ( ?is vital p[] on ! "p ( ! art]ial trunk is n to communicate to ! blood ! smalle/ impulsive =ce2 ! eng9e con/ruct$ = ! express purpose ( work+ ! curr5t g5]ates all ! =ce t is requir$2 b ! lab\r ( ! eng9e is economiz$ by imp>t+ to ! tubes t receive ! /ream a vital prop]ty1 by :i* !y :olly remove ! physical ob/ructions to its motion4 #cjj4 ,driv5 by ! he>t ?r\gh ! art]ial bran*es into ! capill>ies1 ! blood c\rses along ^! m9ute vessels urg$ by ! same p[]4 ,! mo/ c>eful obs]v]s1 f ,hall] & ,spalanzani d[n to ! pres5t "t1 concur 9 /at+ t ! pulsatory movem5t communicat$ by ! he>t to ! blood 9 ! great art]ies is di/9ctly visible "u ! microscope 9 ! capill>ies4 ,i h (t5 obs]v$ 9 frogs & tadpoles1 & once 9 ! bat1 says ,w$emey]1 t :5 ! circulation 0 becom+ feeble1 ! blood 9 ! f9e/ capill>ies advanc$ by j]ks1 correspond+ ) ! contractions ( ! he>t4 ,i rem>k$ ! same appe>ance 9 ! f9e ve9s sev]al times 9 ! toad & tadpole1 & once 9 ! frog4 ,if an exp]im5t] s dispose ! circulation ( ! limb ( an animal t ! fl[ ( blood be conf9$ to ! bran*es ( a s+le art]y1 & a correspond+ ve91 x is f\nd t ! blood /agnates 9 ! ve9 :5ev] ! curr5t 9 ! art]y is /opp$ by a ligature1 b no soon] is ! ligature remov$ f ! art]y1 ?an ! blood beg9s aga9 to fl[ freely along ! ve91 ! capill>ies ( ! art]y :i* h to s5d on ! curr5t to ^? ( ! ve9 be+ n[ aga9 )9 ! influ5ce ( ! he>t4 ,& if ! impulse ( ! he>t be remov$ f ! capill>y sy/em1 by plac+ a ligature ar\nd ! aorta1 ! capill>y circulation is uni=mly & completely /opp$4 #cja4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,dr4 ,hales1 t1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 ! blood rises 9 a tube connect$ ) a ve9 to ! height only ( six in*es1 :ile x has be5 %[n 7#bij7 t 9 ! art]y x asc5ds z high z t5 feet4 ,?is prodigi\s diff]5ce betwe5 ! v5\s & ! art]ial t5sion l$ to ! conclusion t ! impulsive =ce ( ! he>t 0 all b exhau/$ be=e ! blood rea*$ ! ve9s1 & set physiologi/s on ! se>* = o!r p[]s to c>ry on ! v5\s circulation4 ,x 0 ov]look$ t ! blood has an op5 & ready escape f ! great trunks ( ! ve9s ?r\gh ! "r *amb]s ( ! he>t1 & t 9 consequ5ce ( ?is free escape ( _! fluid1 ^! vessels indicate no great] t5sion ?an is j suffici5t to lift ! blood to ! he>t1 & to ov]come friction#g4 ,m4 ,mag5die hav+ laid b>e ! *ief art]y & ve9 ( a liv+ limb1 & hav+ rais$ ! vessels 9 su* a mann] t he c\ld place a ligature ar\nd ! =m]1 )\t includ+ ! latt]1 f\nd t ! fl[ ( blood f a puncture made bel[ a ligature on ! ve91 0 rapid or sl[1 accord+ z ! he>t 0 all[$ to produce a great] or less degree ( t5sion 9 ! art]y1 :i* t5sion 0 regulat$ by compress+ ! art]y betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,aft] a simil> prep>ation ( a limb1 a ligature 0 plac$ ar\nd ! ve92 a tube 0 !n ins]t$ into x2 x 0 f\nd t ! blood asc5d$ 9 ! tube f ! ob/ruct$ ve9 j z high z f ! art]y4 #cjb4 ,?us we are able to trace ! action ( ! he>t f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! circle4 ,( ?is circle x is ! sole mov+ p[]2 b x is a liv+ eng9e act+ 9 comb9ation ) liv+ vessels4 ,! =ce x ex]ts is a vital =ce1 economiz$ by ! ag5cy ( a vital prop]ty communicat$ to ! vessels1 by virtue ( :i* !y spontane\sly & completely remove all physical ob/ruction to ! progress ( ! /ream ?r\gh its *annels4 #cjc4 ,"s ,g]man physiologi/s ( great em95ce1 aft] a c>eful & pati5t obs]vation ( ! blood1 h satisfi$ !mselves t 9 addition to ! contraction ( ! he>t1 x is necess>y to admit a second orig9al & indep5d5t motive =ce1 namely1 a self-mov+ p[] inh]5t 9 ! p>ticles ( ! blood itself4 ,! blood we "k is a liv+ sub/ance4 ,no reason c be assign$ :y ! p[] ( orig9at+ motion %\ld n be communicat$ to su* a sub/ance z well z to ! muscul> fibre1 ( :i*1 inde$1 "o con/itu5t ( ! blood af=ds ! basis4 ,su* a p[]1 if f\nd to be inh]5t 9 ! p>ticles ( ! blood1 w\ld expla9 "s ph5om5a connect$ ) ! circulation n yet cle>ly elucidat$2 b ! pro( ( ! self-mov+ p[] ( ! blood does n yet seem to be complete4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! circulation1 or to obta9 a satisfactory view ( "s ( ! o!r functions ( ! economy1 )\t suppos+ ! p>ticles ( ! blood to be end[$ ) a vital p[] ( repulsion1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* !y are prev5t$ f unit+ :5 9 contact1 & ! fluidity ( ! mass is ma9ta9$4 ,9 ?is acc\nt ( ! p[]s t move ! blood1 no notice has be5 tak5 ( ! physical ag5ts suppos$ to act z auxili>ies to ! he>t1 9 c>ry+ on ! circulation1 su* z ! suction p[] ( ! ?orax1 & ( ! auricles ( ! he>t1 & ! capill>y attraction ( ! vessels2 because1 )\t que/ion+ ! exi/5ce ( su* ag5ts1 or d5y+ t advantage may be tak5 ( !m1 x seems pretty cle> t _! influ5ce is b trivial1 & !y assum$ importance only :5 ! vital end[m5ts ( ! tissues 7 n well und]/ood4 #cjd4 ,! ultimate end = :i* ! app>atus ( ! circulation is con/ruct$1 & = :i* all its action is ex]t$1 is to convey art]ial blood to ! capill>y art]ies4 ,^! vessels are totally di/9ct 9 /ructure & 9 (fice f ! l>g] art]ial tubes4 ,all ! tunics ( ^! m9ute vessels dim9i% 9 ?ickness & /r5g? z ! tubes less5 9 size1 b m especially ! middle or ! fibr\s coat2 :i*1 accord+ to ,w$emey]1 may /ill be di/+ui%$ by its col\r 9 ! transv]se section ( any vessel ^: int]nal diamet] is n less ?an ! t5? ( a l9e2 b t x entirely disappe>s 9 vessels too small & too remote to receive ! wave ( blood 9 a manife/ jet4 ,b :ile ! membran\s tunics dim9i%1 ! n]v\s filam5ts di/ribut$ to !m increase3 ! small] & ?9n] ! capill>y1 ! great] ! proportionate quantity ( its n]v\s matt]2 & ?is is mo/ manife/ 9 organs ( ! greate/ irritability4 ,! coats ( ! capill>ies successively becom+ ?9n] & ?9n]1 at l5g? disappe> altoge!r1 & ! vessels ultimately t]m9ate 9 membraneless canals =m$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! tissues4 ,! blood 9 ! f9e/ capill>ies1 says ,w$emey]1 no long] fl[s )9 actual vessels2 x is n conta9$ 9 tubes ^: p>ietes are =m$ by a membran\s sub/ance di/+ui%able by its texture & compactness f ! adjo9+ cellul> tissue3 x is conta9$ 9 ! diff]5t tissues 9 *annels :i* x =ms 9 !m = itself2 &1 "u ! microscope1 ! /ream is se5 easily & rapidly to "w out = itself a new passage 9 ! tissues :i* x p5etrates4 #cje4 ,"s ( ^! f9e capill>ies1 be=e !y entirely lose _! membran\s tunics1 communicate directly ) ve9s4 ,( ! capill>ies :i* t]m9ate by direct communication ) ve9s1 "s are l>ge en\gh to admit ( ?ree or f\r ( ! r$ p>ticles ( ! blood abrea/2 ! diamet] ( o!rs is suffici5t to admit only ( "o2 :ile o!rs are s small t !y c transmit no?+ b ! s]um ( ! blood4 ,z long z ! capill>y is ( suffici5t magnitude to receive ?ree or f\r ( ! p>ticles abrea/1 x is evid5t t x possesses regul> p>ietes2 b by f> ! great] numb]1 be=e !y communicate ) ve9s1 lose altoge!r _! membran\s coats4 ,!re are no visible op5+s or pores 9 ! sides or ends ( ! capill>ies by means ( :i* ! blood c be extravasat$1 prep>atory to its be+ imbib$ by ! ve9s4 ,!re is n[h]e app>5t a sudd5 passage ( ! art]ial into ! v5\s /ream2 no abrupt b\nd>y betwe5 ! division ( ! two sy/ems4 ,! art]ial /reamlet w9ds ?r\gh long r\tes1 & describes num]\s turns be=e x assumes ! nature & takes ! direction ( a v5\s /reamlet4 ,! ultimate capill>y r>ely passes f a l>ge art]ial into a l>ge v5\s bran*4 #cjf4 ,! vital p[] :i* x has be5 %[n 7#bih7 is possess$ by ! art]ial trunks & bran*es1 is /ill m int5se 9 ! m9ute capill>ies4 ,if alcohol1 /rong acetic acid1 naph?a1 & o!r /imulat+ fluids1 be inject$ into ! art]ies ( a liv+ animal1 x is f\nd t !y are n transmitt$ ?r\gh ! capill>ies at all1 or1 at all ev5ts1 t !y make _! way ?r\gh !m ) extreme difficulty2 :]eas mild1 unirritat+ fluids pass ) rapidity & ease4 ,w$emey] expos$ & divid$ ! ma9 art]y 9 ! =e-leg ( a horse1 toge!r ) ! correspond+ ve9 9 ! %\ld]4 ,sev]al syr+es-full ( tepid wat] 7 n[ inject$ into ! l[] end ( ! art]y4 ,! g5tle/ pressure 0 suffici5t to =ce ! fluid ?r\gh ! capill>ies4 ,at ea* injection ! wat] issu$ 9 a full /ream f ! ap]ture ( ! ve91 ! fl[ ( ! fluid ceas+ z soon z ! injection 0 /opp$4 ,next1 in/ead ( wat]1 f\r syr+es-full ( pure cold br&y 7 inject$4 ,to propel ?is fluid ?r\gh ! capill>ies1 s z to r5d] its smell & ta/e p]ceptible at ! ap]ture ( ! ve91 requir$ a great degree ( pressure2 & :5 at la/ ! fluid issu$ f ! ve91 x m]ely trickl$ 9 a feeble /ream4 ,! exp]im5t be+ repeat$ on ano!r horse ) v9eg>1 six syr+es-full ( :i* be+ inject$ 9 rapid succession1 at fir/ ?is fluid pass$ z easily z wat]1 aft]w>ds x fl[$ ) great] difficulty & 9 a small /ream2 be=e long ! =ce requir$ to propel x 0 extreme1 & at la/ ! ob/ruction to its passage became complete1 s t no fluid :atev] issu$ f ! ve94 ,^! exp]im5ts1 :5ev] repeat$1 af=d$ ! same result1 & !y demon/rate t ! capill>ies are capable ( be+ /imulat$ to contract ^u _! cont5ts1 & t !y c contract ) su* =ce z to /op ! curr5t4 ,x is manife/ t ! p[] by :i* !y d ?is is vital1 because aft] dea? all fluids1 ! milde/ & ! mo/ acrid1 pass ?r\gh !m ) equal facility4 #cjg4 ,drs4 ,?ompson1 ,philip1 ,ha/+s1 & o!rs 9 ?is c\ntry1 h appli$ /imulants ( v>i\s k9ds to ! capill>y art]ies1 9 ord] to obs]ve ) ! microscope ! *anges :i* ! vessels und]go4 ,! results ( ^! exp]im5ts1 p]=m$ indep5d5tly1 agree ) ea* o!r2 & all ! obs]v]s concur 9 /at+ t ^? results are s obvi\s & decisive z to admit ( no "q4 ,w$emey]1 fully aw>e ( all t _h be5 done on ?is subject by ! ,engli% physiologi/s1 repeat$ _! exp]im5ts ) 8 usual pati5ce & c>e1 vigilantly wat*+ ! effects ) 8 microscope4 ,8 obs]vations completely co9cide ) ^? ( our c\ntrym54 ,! circulation be+ obs]v$ 9 ! mes5t]y ( ! frog & 9 ! web ( its foot1 x 0 app>5t t no *ange :atev] took place 9 ! diamet] ( ! small art]ies1 nor 9 t ( ! capill>ies1 z long z ! circulation 0 all[$ to g on 9 its natural /ate2 b z soon z /imulants 7 appli$ to !m1 an alt]ation ( _! diamet] 0 visible4 ,alcohol1 )\t mu* app>5t contraction ( ! vessels1 /opp$ ! fl[ ( ! blood4 ,muriate ( soda1 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree or f\r m9utes1 caus$ ! vessels to contract "o-fif? ( _! calibre1 :i* contraction 0 foll[$ by dilatation & gradual ret>dation & /oppage ( ! blood4 ,ammonia caus$ imm$iate & direct dilatation1 & ! effect ( galvanism 0 /ill m /rik+4 ,9 a space ( "t v>y+ f t5 to ?irty seconds1 nay1 sometimes imm$iately aft] ! completion ( ! galvanic circle1 ! vessels contract$1 "s a f\r?1 o!rs half1 & o!rs ?ree-f\r?s1 ( _! calibre4 ,! fl[ ( ! blood ?r\gh ! contract$ vessels 0 accel]at$4 ,! contraction sometimes la/$ a consid]able "t1 occasionally sev]al h\rs2 9 o!r in/ances ! contraction ceas$ 9 t5 m9utes1 & ! vessels resum$ _! natural diamet]4 ,a second application ( galvanism to ! same capill>ies seldom caus$ any mat]ial contraction4 #cjh4 ,! evid5ce1 !n1 is abundant t /imulants are capable ( modify+ to a great ext5t ! action ( ! capill>y art]ies1 sometimes caus+ !m to contract1 at o!r times to dilate2 sometimes quick5+ ! fl[ ( blood ?r\gh !m1 at o!r times ret>d+ x1 & frequ5tly altoge!r arre/+ its motion4 ,?is contractile p[] ( ! capill>ies mu/ be a vital end[m5t1 = no su* prop]ty is possess$ by any sub/ance de/itute ( life1 & !re is satisfactory evid5ce t x is communicat$1 regulat$1 & controll$ by ! organic n]ves1 :i*1 z has be5 %[n1 increase z ! size ( ! vessels & ! ?ickness ( _! membran\s tunics dim9i%4 ,! p[]ful influ5ce ( ^! n]ves ^u ! capill>y vessels is plac$ beyond d\bt or controv]sy by ! obvi\s local *anges produc$ 9 ! capill>y circulation by sudd51 & ev5 by m5tal1 impressions1 by ! flu% ( ! *eek & ! sp>kle ( ! eye1 at a ?\ght conceiv$ or a s\nd he>d2 *anges :i* c be effect$1 z f> z we h any k1 by no m$ium except+ t ( ! n]ves4 ,! "p p]=m$ by electricity1 ! physical ag5t by :i* x is conceiv$ ! n]ves op]ate1 w be consid]$ h]eaft]4 #cji4 ,ex]t+ ^u ea* o!r a vital =ce ( repulsion1 "u a vital influ5ce d]iv$ f ! organic n]ves1 urg$ by ! vital contraction ( ! he>t1 ! p>ticles ( ! blood rea* ! extreme capill>ies4 ,mo/ ( ^! capill>ies t]m9ate 7#cjd7 9 canals1 :i* !y "w out = !mselves 9 ! sub/ance ( ! tissues4 ,! tissues are end[$ ) a vital attractive =ce1 :i* !y ex]t ^u ! blood--an elective z well z an attractive =ce3 = 9 e "p ( ! body1 9 ! bra91 ! he>t1 ! lung1 ! muscle1 ! membrane1 ! bone1 ea* tissue attracts only ^? con/itu5ts ( :i* x is itself compos$4 ,?us ! common curr5t1 ri* 9 all ! proximate con/itu5ts ( ! tissues1 fl[s out to ea*4 ,z ! curr5t approa*es ! tissue1 ! p>ticles appropriate to ! tissue feel its attractive =ce1 obey x1 quit ! /ream1 m+le ) ! sub/ance ( ! tissue1 become id5tifi$ ) x1 & are *ang$ into its own true & prop] nature4 ,meantime1 ! p>ticles :i* are n appropriate to t p>ticul> tissue1 n be+ attract$ by x1 d n quit ! curr5t1 b pass+ on1 are borne by o!r capill>ies to o!r tissues1 to :i* !y are appropriate1 & by :i* !y are appreh5d$ & assimilat$1 ,:5 x has giv5 to ! tissues ! con/itu5ts ) :i* x ab\nd$1 & receiv$ f !m p>ticles no long] useful1 & :i* w\ld become noxi\s1 ! blood fl[s into ! ve9s to be return$ by ! pulmonic he>t to ! lung1 :]e1 p>t+ ) ! useless & noxi\s matt] x has accumulat$1 &1 repl5i%$ ) new proximate pr9ciples1 x returns to ! sy/emic he>t1 by :i* x is aga9 s5t back to ! tissues4 #caj4 ,p>ticles ( blood are se5 to quit ! curr5t & m+le ) ! tissues2 p>ticles are se5 to quit ! tissues & m+le ) ! curr5t4 ,b all t we c see1 ) ! be/ aid we c get1 does b br+ u to ! conf9es ( ! gr& op]ations t g on1 ( :i* we are altoge!r ignorant4 ,art]ial blood is convey$ by ! art]ies to ! capill>ies2 b be=e x has pass$ f "u ! influ5ce ( ! capill>ies x has ceas$ to be art]ial blood4 ,art]ial blood is convey$ by ! c>otid art]y to ! bra92 b ! c]ebral capill>ies d n deposit blood1 b bra94 ,art]ial blood is convey$ by its nutri5t art]ies to bone1 b ! osse\s capill>ies d n deposit blood1 b bone4 ,art]ial blood is convey$ by ! muscul> art]ies to muscle1 b ! muscul> capill>ies d n deposit blood1 b muscle4 ,! blood convey$ by ! capill>ies ( bra91 bone1 & muscle is ! same1 all comes alike f ! sy/emic he>t1 & is alike convey$ to all tissues2 yet 9 ! "o x becomes bra91 9 ! o!r bone1 & 9 ! ?ird muscle4 ,out ( "o & ! same fluid ^! liv+ *emi/s manufacture cuticle1 & membrane1 & muscle1 & bra91 & bone2 ! te>s1 ! wax1 ! fat1 ! saliva1 ! ga/ric juice1 ! milk1 ! bile1 all ! fluids1 & all ! solids ( ! body4 #caa4 ,& !y d /ill m2 = !y are ar*itects z well z *emi/s2 aft] !y h manufactur$ ! tissue1 !y con/ruct ! organ4 ,! capill>ies ( ! eye n only =m its diff]5t membranes & hum\rs1 b arrange !m 9 su* a mann] z to con/itute ! optical in/rum5t2 & ! capill>ies ( ! bra9 n only =m c]ebral matt]1 b build x up into ! in/rum5t ( s5sation1 ?\ght1 & motion4 #cab4 ,! practical applications ( ^! ph5om5a are num]\s & mo/ important2 b !y c be cle>ly & impressively /at$ only :5 ! op]ation ( ! physical ag5ts :i* influ5ce ! circulation1 & :i* proportionally affect life & heal?1 has be5 expla9$4 ,,footnotes4 #a ,computationi 9 alim5tis faci5d hanc =mam esse ,ulpianus scribit1 ut prim tate usque ad annum vicesimum quantitas alim5torum trig9ta annorum computetur1 ejusque quantitatis ,falcidia pr/etur3 ab annis v] vig9ti usque ad annum vicesimumqu9tum annorum vig9ti octo3 ab annis vig9tiqu9que usque ad annos trig9ta1 annorum vig9tiqu9que3 ab annis trig9ta usque ad annos trig9taqu9que annorum vig9ti duo2 ab annis trig9taqu9que usque ad annos quadrag9ta annorum vig9ti3 ab annis quadrag9ta usque ad annos qu9quag9ta tot annorum computatio fit quot tate ejus ad annum sexagesimum de]it1 remisso uno anno3 ab anno v] qu9quagesimo usque ad annum qu9quagesimumqu9tum annorum novem3 ab annis qu9quag9taqu9que usque ad annum sexagesimum annorum septem3 ab annis sexag9ta1 cujuscunque tatis sit1 annorum qu9que2 eoque nos jure uti ,ulpianus ait1 et circa compu tationem ususfructus faci5dam4 ,solitum e/ tam5 prim tate usque ad annum trigesimum computationem annorum trig9ta fi]i3 ab annis v] trig9ta tot annorum computationem inire1 quot ad annum sexagesimum deesse vid5tur2 nunquam ergo amplius quam trig9ta aunorum computatio initur4 ,sic d5ique1 et si ,reipublic ususfructus egetur1 sive simplicit]1 sive ad ludos1 trig9ta annorum computatio fit4 ,si quis ex h]$ibus rem propriam esse cont5dat1 de9de h]$it>iam esse conv9catur3 quidem putant ejus quoque ,falcidiam non posse ret9]i2 qui nihil int]sit1 subtrax]it an h]$it>iam esse negav]it4 ,quod ,ulpianus rect improbat4 7,vide ,ju/94 ,p&ect4 lib4 #ce1 tit4 #b1 ad ,legem ,falcidiam47 #b ,:i* maximum is a little above ! highe/ po9t hi!rto any :]e atta9$4 #c ,h5ce 9 ! prep>ation ( jelly z an article ( diet1 ! p>ts ( "y animals1 z ! feet ( ! calf1 are pr9cipally employ$2 :]eas s\ps made f beef conta9 a l>ge proportion ( album51 :ile 9 ^? made f veal ! proportion ( jelly prepond]ates4 #d ,treatise on ,ligam5ts1 by ,bransby ,b4 ,coop]1 ,esq4 #e ,= ^! illu/rations ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,li/]1 :o has be5 s k9d z to make draw+s ( ! objects = me4 #f ,:5ev] !re is any int]ruption to ! ord9>y fl[ ( ! circulat+ fluids1 ! p[]s ( ! ana/omos+ circulation are capable ( be+ increas$ to a surpris+ ext5t4 ,! aorta itself has frequ5tly be5 ti$ 9 animals ( consid]able size )\t de/roy+ life2 9 ! human body x has also be5 f\nd oblit]at$ by disease 9 diff]5t p>ts ( its c\rse1 9 "o case z high z ! t]m9ation ( its curvature4 ,9 ! cure = aneurism ! ext]nal iliac art]y has be5 ti$ by ,mr4 ,ab]ne?y ) success2 ! subclavian art]y bel[ ! clavicle by ,mr4 ,keate2 ! common c>otid by ,sir ,a/ley ,coop]2 ! subclavian art]y above ! clavicle by ,mr4 ,ramsd52 ! int]nal iliac art]y by ,dr4 ,/ev5s2 ! art]ia innom9ata by ,dr4 ,mott1 ( ,new ,york2 & la/ly1 ! abdom9al aorta itself1 by ,sir ,a4 ,coop]4 ,mr4 ,gra+] ti$ ! abdom9al aorta ( a dog2 :5 ! animal _h recov]$ f t op]ation1 ! c>otids & ! great trunks ( ! ant]ior extremities 7 ti$3 9 ?is mann] ! :ole c\rse ( ! circulation 0 alt]$4 ,! dog1 :i* 0 ( v l>ge size1 surviv$ all ^! op]ations1 & appe>$ to enjoy its ord9>y heal?4 ,gra+]'s ,g5]al ,anatomy1 p4 #bea-bec4 #g ,see ?is matt] v ably discuss$ 9 ,dr4 ,arnott's excell5t "w on ! ,elem5ts ( ,physics1 vol4 i4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ by ,w4 ,,cl[es & ,,sons1 ,/am=d ,/reet4 ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes4 #a4 7,figure ,,lxxiv47 0 incorrectly label$ z 7,figure ,,lxxvi474 ,?is has be5 correct$4 #b4 ,no ,figure ,,lxx 9 orig9al book4