,,the ,,young ,,mechanic ,,containing ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,tools1 ,,and ,,for ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,steam ,,engines ,,and ,,mechanical ,,models1 ,,including ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,turning ,,in ,,wood ,,and ,,metal4 ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,lathe ,,and ,,its ,,uses0 8,,the ,,amateur ,,mechanic',s ,,workshop10 c4 ,,from ,,the ,,english ,,edition1 ,,with ,,corrections1 c4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,new ,,york #bg ,,west ,,twenty-,,third ,,st4 ,,london #bd ,,bedford ,,st41 ,,strand ,the ,knickerbocker ,press #ahif ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahga1 by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam ,,sons1 in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress at ,washington4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,american ,,edition4 ,in presenting the ,american edition of this little work to the public1 we believe we are supplying a want that has long been felt by the ,young ,mechanics of this country1 and many others who desire to become versed in the practical use of tools4 ,we know of no other book published in this country or ,england1 in which the method of using tools is so clearly explained2 and although written more especially for boys and beginners1 it contains much information that will be of great value to the practical mechanic4 ,the author is evidently thoroughly acquainted with his subject1 and understands how to communicate his ideas in a simple and concise manner4 ,the first six chapters are devoted to the description of ,tools for working wood and the manner of using them1 beginning with the simplest operations1 requiring but few tools1 and gradually leading on to the more difficult1 giving examples of all the methods of joining and finishing work that are in common use among good workmen1 and in this connection we would like to call attention to the small number of tools the author requires for performing all these different operations1 the idea among amateurs and boys generally being1 that if you only have tools enough you can make anything4 ,this is not so1 and if the beginner will follow the advice of the author1 and buy a few good tools1 and learn the use of them thoroughly1 and gradually add to his stock as his knowledge of their use increases1 he will find it greatly to his advantage4 ,the next five chapters relate to the lathe1 and the art of turning4 ,the author follows the same plan as in the first part of the book1 and gives more practical information in these few pages than we have seen in any other book on the subject1 most of them being written apparently for finished mechanics1 and not for beginners4 ,the ,art of ,turning as an amusement1 is beginning to attract considerable attention in this country1 but not so much as it deserves and would obtain1 if it were more generally known how many beautiful and useful articles can be produced in the lathe4 ,the expense of the necessary tools has deterred many from attempting to learn this branch of mechanics2 but we believe if any one has the time and patience to devote to the work1 they will never have occasion to regret the money spent for this purpose4 ,the last four chapters contain practical instruction in model-making and working in metal4 ,this part of the book we would particularly recommend to inventors who desire to make their own models1 as it contains information in regard to files1 drills1 and the various small tools used on metal1 and also directions for laying out work1 which are invaluable to a novice in such operations1 and will save him much time and trouble4 ,as this book was originally published in ,london1 where the facilities for getting many kinds of small tools are better than in this country1 perhaps a little advice as to the best way of getting such tools as may be required will not be out of place4 ,in most of the large ,hardware ,stores1 carpenters' tools will be found1 put up in chests1 at prices varying from five to fifty dollars or more2 but we should not advise the amateur to buy any of these1 as the quality of the tools is not always reliable1 and as they are usually fitted up to make as much show as possible for the money1 they contain many tools which are of very little use4 ,the best way is to make a list of the tools required1 and select them for yourself4 ,the most important thing is to have the ,cutting tools of good quality4 ,we give below the names of some of the best makers of tools2 if you purchase any of these1 you may be sure of the quality4 ,on ,saws1--,,henry ,,disston1 ,,groves ,,son4 ,on ,chisels and ,gouges1--,,buck ,,bros41 ,,moulson ,,bros4 ,on ,plane ,irons1--,,moulson ,,bros41 ,,wm4 ,,butcher4 ,on ,files1--,p4 ,s4 ,,stubs1 ,,greaves ,,son1 ,,earl ,,co4 ,on ,rules and ,squares1--,,stanley ,,rule ,,and ,,level ,,co4 ,if you live in the ,city1 you will probably find no difficulty in procuring some of the above makes2 but if you cannot find them there are some others that are good1 and you must rely somewhat on the dealer4 ,in regard to the probable cost of the tools1 a set such as is described on pages #bi and #cj1 would cost from fifteen to twenty dollars4 ,of ,foot ,lathes1 the following are some of the makers3 ,n4 ,h4 ,,baldwin1 ,laconia1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,goodnow ,,wightman1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,american ,,tool ,,co4 0 0 ,g4 ,l4 ,,cady1 ,lowell1 ,mass4 ,,exeter ,,machine ,,co41 ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,jas4 ,,stewart',s ,,sons1 ,new ,york4 ,from some of the above the amateur will probably be able to select a ,lathe to suit him in size and price4 ,the lowest price at which a serviceable lathe can be bought is about forty dollars this is without tools or chucks4 ,about fifteen dollars more would be required for these4 ,lathes can be bought from this price up to hundreds of dollars1 according to the style of lathe and the number of chucks1 but of course the beginner would not need an expensive lathe1 and seventy-five to one hundred dollars would buy a lathe and tools suitable for all kinds of small work in wood1 ivory1 or metal4 ,this volume being an exact reprint of the ,english edition1 it may be well to explain that the material called ,deal in ,england is much the same as our ,pine4 ,the article called in ,england a 8,carrier10 is with us called a dog 7see pp4 #aab1 #aad1 #aae74 ,articles priced in ,english currency would cost here now about #ce cents to the ,english shilling1 or #g per stg4 ,,preface4 ,of all people in the world who must not be neglected are1 first and foremost1 8,our ,boys10 and1 of all boys1 mechanical boys deserve a very high place in our estimation4 ,whatever others may be1 these1 at any rate1 are possessed of sound heads1 and willing hands4 ,therefore1 to help these to carry out their designs1 appears to be a special duty of those who1 once mechanical boys themselves1 have lived to become the progenitors of others4 ,in fulfilment of this very duty ,i have taken up the pen1 and with special reference to young mechanics1 but without entirely forgetting those of maturer growth1 ,i have thrown together a few hints upon that absorbing question1 8,how to make and how to use80 ,in doing this1 ,i have endeavoured to carry out the plan of small beginnings1 going from the simplest and easiest to the more complicated and difficult work1 although here and there1 of sheer necessity1 a somewhat different order has been observed4 ,the workshops of ,king's ,college ,school prove the capabilities of boys to do high-class mechanical work when their efforts are rightly directed by a master's hand4 ,where the latter cannot be obtained1 guide-books must1 however insufficiently1 take his place2 but whether instruction in mechanical art be oral or otherwise1 practice and perseverance are the secrets of success4 8,qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam1 ,multa tulit fecitque puer2 sudavit et alsit40 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,introductory1 #a ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,cage1 #ae ,,iii4 ,,mortice ,,and ,,tenon ,,jointing1 #bi ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,table1 #di ,v4 ,,dovetailing ,,and ,,mitring1 #ff ,,vi4 ,,rebating1 ,,tongueing1 ,,and ,,grooving1 #hi ,,vii4 ,,the ,,young ,,mechanic ,,at ,,the ,,lathe1 #ajc ,,viii4 ,,on ,,woods ,,and ,,materials ,,for ,,turning1 #abb ,,ix4 ,,sharpening ,,and ,,setting ,,tools1 #add ,x4 ,,hand-,,turning ,,in ,,wood1 #afc ,,xi4 ,,hard-,,wood ,,turning1 #bjc ,,xii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,steam-,,engine1 #bbf ,,xiii4 ,,watt',s ,,engine1 #bfd ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,engine1 #bha ,,xv4 ,,hardening ,,and ,,tempering ,,tools1 #cbe ,,chapter ,i4 ,there never was a time when a taste for practical mechanics was so general among boys as it is now1 in this year of grace #ahgj4 ,there are comparatively few homes in which evidences of this hobby are not apparent in every odd nook and corner1 in the shape of carpenter's tools1 not always in first-rate condition1 nor by any means generally in their proper places4 ,a saw here1 a hammer there1 a gimlet1 bradawl1 or chisel elsewhere4 ,this probably results from the giant strides which have been made of late years in mechanical enterprise1 and the introduction of machinery into every department1 as a means of saving labour and facilitating the production of the various necessaries of life4 ,man is an imitative animal1 and in this as in other things 8the child is father to the man20 and hence it comes to pass that the boy whose eyes are continually resting upon machinery of one sort or another 7agricultural implements1 if a villager2 engines for planing1 sawing1 turning1 and so forth1 if resident in a town7 sooner or later feels an innate desire to construct models of these gigantic mechanical labourers1 by whose incessant but unfelt toil our several daily needs are so cheaply and plentifully supplied4 ,even if the youthful mind does not always display highly-developed inventive faculties1 there is very generally manifested a desire of personally constructing some one or more of those articles which conduce to the gratification of a particular hobby4 ,if the boy has a taste for natural history1 cases and cabinets will be made1 for the reception of eggs1 butterflies1 and insects1 or to contain stuffed specimens of animals and birds4 ,if he has within him the elements of a sailor1 his ingenuity will be exercised upon model boats and ships4 ,if fond of dumb pets1 rabbit hutches1 dove-cots1 or cages will afford him opportunities for the exercise of his constructive powers1 and thus the young mechanic frequently lays the foundation of future eminence in that particular line of life to which his tastes naturally lead him4 ,there are few boyish hobbies in which assistance has not of late years been given by instruction books and guides of a high degree of excellence--natural history1 botany1 gardening1 rearing and breeding all manner of pets--to each of these1 well-written volumes have been devoted by able and experienced writers1 but mechanical and constructive art has been somewhat neglected4 ,here and there1 in periodical magazines1 a few pages are dedicated to the subject1 but no book about practical mechanics1 written expressly for boys1 has yet appeared4 ,the author of the present volume1 himself father of four lads1 all of whom in turn occasionally try their hands at this kind of work1 and who has himself for many years practised the mechanical arts of carpentry1 turning1 and model-making1 hopes that the hints contained herein may prove valuable to those young friends whom he now addresses4 ,some of the following chapters will be arranged for very little boys1 some for those who are older1 while it is believed that other parts of the work may not prove altogether useless to those who have dropped jacket and knickerbockers and rejoice in the vigour of manhood4 ,thus the little boy1 who receives the book as a present1 will find it a fast and faithful friend as his years1 and1 we trust1 knowledge and bodily powers increase4 8,small boys need few tools1 but much perseverance40 ,let this be their motto1 as it will stand them in good stead4 ,a pocket-knife1 gimlet1 hammer1 and a few nails will generally serve their purpose2 but there is one other tool1 namely1 a square1 which is of great importance1 and of which it is well to learn the use as early as possible4 ,a small saw and a bradawl may also be added to the list1 and likewise a chisel half an inch wide4 ,thus equipped1 a very youthful carpenter can do a good deal1 and1 let me tell him1 a good deal has been often done without even this moderate supply of tools4 ,it must be taken for granted that the knife and chisel are sharp1 because blunt tools make bad work1 and by far the best plan for small boys is to get some friend to sharpen them when blunt1 as the operation is not easy and requires practice4 ,it is a very foolish plan to try and work with a blunt knife1 for the fingers are just as much in danger2 and a boy who intends to learn how to use tools must learn at the commencement to use them with due care1 so as not to damage himself4 ,there are small boxes of tools sold1 containing generally a wooden mallet1 saw1 plane1 chisel1 and gimlet1 at about #cs4 #f;d4 or even #es4 ,such a box is simply useless4 ,the tools are of iron--will not take a good edge1 and are generally disposed to bend and twist4 ,avoid these1 and buy1 or get a friend to buy1 those ,i have named1 of good quality1 and be sure to take care of them1 for which purpose you may try your hand at making a box4 ,for this purpose1 you will require some thin board 7half-inch thick7 planed on both sides4 7,the carpenter will prepare this for you47 ,let us see how much you will need4 ,measure your longest tool1 the chisel or saw1 if the latter is quite a small one fit to go into a little box2 if not1 it can be hung on a nail1 and you can make your box to contain your knife and chisel and gimlets4 ,i daresay if the box is #i inches long1 #d inches wide1 and #c inches deep1 it will be large enough to take these few tools1 for ,i have just now measured such a hammer and chisel as ,i have recommended1 and find them each about #i inches in length4 ,the top and bottom of a box should project a little all round1 so that you will want them about an inch and a half wider and longer1 which will also allow for the thickness of the wood2 for you must remember we have given the size of the box inside4 ,to make this clear1 ,i shall here give a plan of the bottom of the box 7,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,it is #aj inches long1 and #e inches wide4 ,the broad black line shows where the edges of the sides and ends will come1 these being half an inch thick1 so that there is a quarter of an inch all round the outside as a border4 ,reckon across and you will understand this better4 ,a quarter of an inch outside1 half an inch for the black line 7equals three-quarters of an inch71 #d inches for the inside width1 half an inch again for the black line1 and a quarter of an inch outside as before1--altogether making #e inches4 ,now reckon the length4 ,a quarter-inch border1 half an inch for the black line1 #i inches inside1 half inch for the second black line1 and another quarter outside--making #aj inches4 ,you require1 therefore1 two boards #aj inches long and #d wide for the top and bottom4 ,now the two long sides and the ends are to be #c inches wide to form the depth of the box1 and here you want no extra width1 but as the inside of your box is to be #i inches long1 and the sides are usually nailed over the ends1 like ,fig4 #b1 where ,i have shown them put together1 you see that you must have the sides as much longer than #i inches as will allow them to lap over the ends2 that is1 half an inch at each end where ,i have made them black1 or altogether1 one inch2 so that you will want two pieces #aj inches long and #c wide4 ,the ends will be also #c inches wide and #d inches the other way1 and here no additional size is needed4 ,now1 the usual way to cut the sides is to get a narrow strip of board of the required width and thickness1 and long enough to make both the sides and ends1 just such a piece as ,fig4 #c1 on which are marked the lines where it will have to be cut across1 and you will easily perceive that you require #bh inches in length and #c in width4 ,but you must understand that when you cut with a saw you waste a little of the wood1 which falls in the shape of sawdust1 and so if you did not allow for this1 your box would be too small4 ,the waste depends on the thickness of the edge of the saw1 where you will1 if you examine it1 see that the teeth spread out right and left to prevent it from sticking fast as it is used4 ,probably1 you would waste three-eighths of an inch1 which is nearly half an inch in cutting off the pieces1 so that instead of a piece exactly #bh inches long1 you must have it #bh inches1 or even a little more4 ,i want you to understand all this before you set to work1 even though at first you may get a carpenter to measure and cut it for you2 because most small boys take no trouble of this kind1 and consequently they are sure to make their boxes too large or too small1 and they look very bad when done4 ,however1 as ,i said before1 ,i expect my young readers to understand what they are about1 and they must set out their work carefully1 or they will never get on so as to be able to make good use of the later chapters of this book4 ,a carpenter's rule is made like this 7,fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,sometimes there is a brass slide1 to add to its length when necessary1 and sometimes it is hinged so as to fold up again4 ,if you want one for your box1 you can get it so made1 when it will go in nicely4 ,it is #b feet long--#a foot on each side of the central joint4 ,a foot is #ab inches2 the whole rule1 therefore1 is #bd inches4 ,now1 you will see that each of these inches is divided by short lines into eight equal parts1 called eighths2 at the second1 the line is rather longer1 this being a quarter of an inch2 at the fourth1 there is a still longer line1 this being the half-inch2 then comes another eighth1 then the three-quarters1 another eighth1 and the inch is made up1--eight-eighths being equal to one whole inch4 ,very likely you will find one edge of the rule1 or sometimes only one inch1 divided into smaller parts1 which are sixteenths1 or half-eighths2 and sometimes1 but not very often1 divisions still smaller are used1 which are half-sixteenths1 or thirty-seconds1 because thirty-two such divisions make the complete inch4 ,three feet make one yard1 but carpenters always reckon by the foot and inch1 and by eighths and sixteenths of an inch4 ,in some trades the inch is divided into a hundred parts1 and work is measured up and fitted so carefully1 that it would be considered faulty if a mistake of less than a thousandth of an inch were made2 but you will not yet understand how it is possible even to measure so very small a quantity4 ,you should certainly learn and understand how to measure with a common two-foot rule1 and when you can add one to your box of tools1 do so4 ,now1 let us examine the tool called a square1 without which the marks could not readily be drawn as a guide for the saw1 where the strip of board is to be cut to make the sides and ends of the proposed box4 ,here is a drawing of one 7,fig4 #e74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,it is a handle and a blade1 like a knife half opened1 the one being fixed exactly square1 or at right angles with the other4 ,the blade is thinner than the handle1 and when the latter is placed as in ,fig4 #f1 a line marked across the board against the edge of the blade will be1 of course1 square to the side1 so that when cut off1 the piece will be like the end of ,fig4 #f4 ,this is not the shape which the sides of boxes generally have when made by small boys1 because they have not a square1 and do not know how to work properly4 ,nevertheless1 if one end of a board is cut square1 you might get the piece right by measuring the same distance on each side 7say #aj inches71 and drawing a line across from point to point1 as a guide for the course of the saw4 ,but1 then1 as it is absolutely necessary that the end of the board should be square to the side1 to do this you had better get a proper square at once1 and learn how to use it4 ,you will1 indeed1 find this tool most necessary for all kinds of work1 and you will be quite unable to do without it1 even though you only have1 besides1 a knife and gimlet4 ,now1 if you want to cut off a piece of board with the saw1 you must never cut out the line you have marked as a guide by the help of your square1 because if you do1 you will get the piece too short1 owing to the width of the saw-cut which ,i explained before4 ,cut1 therefore1 just beyond it1 leaving it upon the piece you are going to use for the side of your box1 or other article4 ,at first1 you will find it difficult to saw neatly and close to the line1 but you will get used to it very soon2 and if the saw does not go quite straight1 you can trim the piece with a sharp knife neatly up to the line1 which you see you could not do if you cut out that line by sawing exactly upon it4 ,all these directions in little matters are very important1 because you will find that1 by attending to them1 you will work well1 and the various things you make will look neat and trim1 and be fit to show to your friends4 ,now1 let us go on with the box1 which was laid down just to allow a little explanation about the carpenter's rule and square4 ,i shall suppose you to have cut off all the pieces quite squarely and neat1 and that the edges are also square to the sides1 which you must take care to insure by keeping the blade of the saw upright when you use it4 ,it is a good plan to measure and mark both sides of your board for this purpose1 and to mark the edges from one of these lines to the other4 ,you will then have guide-marks all round1 and1 by keeping close to these1 you will be sure to cut your work truly4 ,it would not so much signify if the long sides were cut a trifle too long1 as ,i shall explain presently2 but the ends must be square and true to measure1 #d inches by #c inches4 ,you must now proceed to nail them together4 ,this must be done with small brads1 which are fine nails1 and which for the present purpose may be one inch long4 ,if your pieces are all exact to measure1 draw a pencil line across the two side pieces1 a quarter of an inch from the ends1 by the help of the square1 as if you wanted to cut off a quarter of an inch at each of those parts1 and with your bradawl make two or three holes 7three will be best7 along those lines4 ,do not make the first and last too near the edges1 or you will split the wood1 and spoil the box4 ,now set up one of the short pieces1 and place upon it the piece which you have bored holes in4 ,if you have a bench with a vice1 you can screw up the short piece into it2 but it will stand up very well upon the bench if you have no vice4 ,it is now in the position of ,fig4 #g1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,hold it thus1 and run the bradawl a little way into the lower piece1 through the holes already made in the upper4 ,drive a brad through the middle hole first1 which will hold it together1 and then through the other two holes4 ,if you have been careful1 you will find this corner square and neat1 and the wood not split in the least4 ,do the same with the other short piece1 and then nail on the long side that is left4 ,the frame of the box will now be complete4 ,i told you a short time ago1 that it would not much signify if the sides were cut too long4 ,the reason is this3 ,suppose ,b to be the side half an inch too long4 ,you would mark off #i inches of the middle by two lines drawn with the square as before1 which would be the length of the inside of the box2 you would then place the inner edges of the end pieces against these lines1 and nail them on like ,a1 and afterwards neatly saw off the two pieces which lap over these at each end4 ,if the wood is likely to split when the holes are made for the nails1 or if the workman is pressed for time1 he very frequently does his work in this way1 and then cuts it off and planes it neatly4 ,it is1 however1 better to work as directed1 only be sure to bore holes carefully for the nails1 so as never to split the wood4 ,no very special directions are needed about putting on the bottom4 ,leave all round an exactly even border of a quarter of an inch1 and after it is nailed1 you may neatly round off all its edges1 to give it a finished appearance4 ,the cover is1 of course1 to be attached by a pair of small hinges4 ,brass hinges are the neatest1 and when you buy them1 ask for screws to match4 ,the hinges may be three-quarters of an inch long1 and they will be1 when shut1 about half an inch wide1 which is the size you need4 ,lay them 7shut up7 upon the edge of the back1 about two inches from the ends1 and with a hard pencil cut to a fine point1 or with the point of your bradawl1 make a mark at each end1 as if you were measuring the length of the hinges on the edge of the box4 ,between these marks you have to cut out pieces like ,fig4 #h1 which will be just the length of the hinges1 and deep enough to allow them1 when shut up1 to fit and lie even with the top edge of the box4 ,open them1 make holes with the bradawl1 and put in the screws4 ,if you have not a screwdriver1 you can turn them with the end of an old knife2 but you may as well get a small screwdriver1 for if you intend to do good work1 you will often use screws instead of nails4 ,hinges are always screwed on4 ,now lay the cover in place carefully1 mark its position1 so that you have some sort of guide-line to direct you1 and then by laying the cover flat on the bench1 and standing the 7open7 box on its side1 you can screw on the hinges upon the cover4 ,round all the edges of the cover as you did the bottom1 but keep the edges of the box square and sharp2 and so you have now a really well-made little tool-chest4 ,a little brass hook and eye will do to fasten it1 for a lock is rather difficult for a small boy to put on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the method of constructing a simple box has been given in the first chapter1 because so many other articles are made upon exactly similar principles4 ,the rules laid down comprise two or three essential points1 the neglect of which render the ordinary carpentry of boys so essentially bad4 ,foremost of these is the use of the square4 ,there is no tool of more general use in the hands of workmen in wood and metal1 and yet1 generally speaking1 either none at all1 or a very faulty one is added to the collection of tools ordinarily supplied to boys4 ,in the next place1 ,i have insisted upon accuracy in measurement4 ,the carpenter's rule is not at all difficult for a young boy to understand2 but even if he is not in possession of such at his first attempts1 he should always be induced to work by measure of some kind4 ,this causes him of necessity to exercise his mind as well as his hands1 and teaches him to consider well at starting as to what he must allow for thickness of wood1 the difference between inside and outside measurement1 and so forth2 all this will greatly conduce to his success1 and consequently satisfaction in his work1 and will lessen the chances of his beginning a number of articles and casting them aside unfinished--a propensity too common in all boys4 ,i shall now resume my directions in the first person1 which ,i think is the more easy method both for master and pupil4 ,the next specimen ,i propose1 because it requires even more care than a box1 but is at the same time perfectly within a boy's powers1 is a birdcage4 ,of these there are such a number of varieties that it is difficult to settle upon the best kind to begin upon4 ,i think1 however1 a wire cage will on the whole be the easiest to construct1 only you must take great care in boring holes in the thin strips of wood1 and1 indeed1 if you can get a birdcage-maker's awl besides the one you have1 it will save both time and trouble4 ,it is not made round with a flat end1 but is three-cornered with a sharp point1 so that it has three edges1 and when it is carefully used and twirled round and round by the fingers in making holes1 it will hardly ever split even very thin strips and pieces of wood4 ,however1 if you cannot get one never mind1 you must use the common bradawl according to directions here given4 ,i shall suppose you now in possession of a carpenter's rule1 and that you have carefully learned all ,i told you of the inches and eighths1 so that you may be able to measure and mark your work very truly4 ,the front of the cage is represented in ,fig4 #i1 before the projecting roof-boards have been put on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,here you see two upright strips at the corners1 which shall be #h inches long4 ,these are #ab inches apart1 outside measure4 ,they are 7three-eighths7 of an inch square1 and you must get them ready planed from the carpenter4 ,there will be four of them required1 as they are at the four corners of the cage2 so that1 as they are each #h inches long1 you can get a strip #cf inches in length by three-eighths wide1 and this being #d inches more than you need1 will allow for waste4 ,at the lower part of the drawing1 you see the edge of the bottom board1 which projects a little all round4 ,as the outside of the front pillars are #ab inches apart1 this board may be #ac inches long1 which will allow a border of an inch 7half an inch71 and it may be #h inches wide4 ,it need not be thicker than a quarter of an inch4 ,a little above this board 7say half an inch7 is another board from one pillar to another1 which is to be #a inches wide and three-eighths of an inch thick4 ,as the pillars are also three-eighths thick1 and their outside edges #ab inches apart1 you must take #f_/h 7six-eighths7 of an inch from #ab inches to find the length of this board4 ,if you look at the divisions upon your rule1 you will see that six-eighths of an inch amounts to exactly 7three quarters71 so that your board must be #aa inches and one quarter long4 ,this will also be the length of the board at the top where it falls between the pillars1 and this too must be three-eighths thick4 ,i shall now show you how to mark and cut this top piece into the shape here sketched4 ,cut the board first of all into an oblong1 and mind that you mark it by your square1 so that the ends shall be square to the sides4 ,let it be #b inches wide4 ,here it is 7,fig4 #aj74 ,measure a length of #f inches from either end to the middle at ,a1 and make a mark at that place4 ,draw a line1 ,c ,b1 one inch from the opposite side1 the whole length of the board1 and mind you draw it correctly4 ,you should measure an inch at ,b1 and at ,c1 and then draw a line from one point to the other along the edge of your rule4 ,you must now draw two lines from the spot you marked at ,a to the ends of this line 7where you see the dotted lines74 ,in order to cut this piece1 you must begin at ,a1 not at ,b or ,c1 or else if the saw should stick you will be sure to split off a strip right across the piece2 but if it should stick when you are cutting from ,a1 you will only split off a bit of one of the three-cornered outside pieces1 which would not signify at all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,when you are sawing1 be sure1 as ,i told you before1 not to cut into the line you have marked1 but saw just outside it1 so that the lines will be left upon the two sloping sides of the board4 ,you may cut as close to it as you can1 but you must not destroy it1 and then you can with your knife neatly shave off the rough edges which the saw has made1 until you have pared the wood quite neatly all along the line4 ,if you cut this line out1 you will no longer have any guide to work by4 ,cutting out guide lines is a very common fault1 not confined to small boys or big ones4 ,you will find it easy to pare this sloping side if you begin to work from ,a downwards to ,b and ,c1 but you cannot cut it in the other direction4 ,a carpenter would1 of course1 run his plane down the slope1 and so will you by and by2 but planing is difficult1 and it is better you should wait for a time before you buy a plane2 for1 remember1 those foolish little things in boys' tool-boxes are no use at all4 ,you had better now prepare the holes into which the wires are to be put as you see in the drawing4 ,you can use either iron wire or brass1 but the first is cheapest4 ,these will have to be a quarter of an inch apart4 ,both the top and bottom strips1 you will remember1 are #aa 7eleven and a quarter7 inches long4 ,now1 #aa inches will be #dd quarters1 and one more will be #de2 but as the first hole must be a quarter of an inch from the ends1 you will find that #dd holes will be required4 ,look at your rule and count this4 ,you must mark all these by little dots with a pencil on one piece1 and then laying the other upon it1 mark the rest exactly even with the first4 ,do this with great care1 or the wires will not stand upright when the cage is finished4 ,the space between the top and bottom pieces will be #e inches1 so that if you allow the wires to enter a quarter of an inch at the top and bottom1 you will want #dd wires #e inches in length--you may say1 #f inches4 ,you can have them all cut and straightened for you1 but if you have a pair of pliers with cutting edges1 you can do it yourself1 and it is almost necessary you should get a pair1 or borrow them1 if you intend to construct wire birdcages4 ,you will want a few less in each side of this cage1 as it will not be there so wide as it is in front4 ,we shall presently see how many it will require4 ,you may put together the front of the cage at once and set it aside1 or proceed to cut out the rest of it4 ,generally speaking1 it is the best plan to cut out and prepare all the main parts of your work before proceeding to fix them in their respective places2 but the front of such a cage as ,i am describing1 being complete in itself1 you may do as you like about it4 ,we will begin with the wires4 ,insert the ends one after the other in a row in one of the pieces1 laying it upon the bench1 or fixing it on its edge in a vice1 but taking care not to bend them4 ,when one piece is thus stuck full of wires1 lay it flat on its side1 and put the other piece in its place1 and one by one insert into it the other ends of the wires4 ,a pair of pliers will help you greatly in doing this4 ,i daresay the two pieces of wood will not be very parallel1 but will be closer at one end than at the other4 ,this does not matter1 because you will set it right in nailing on the upright strips or corner pillars4 ,this1 therefore1 is the next thing you must do2 and you must have two brads top and bottom1 each an inch long1 but as fine as you can get4 ,nail to the top board first1 and then place the other in position half an inch from the bottom of the pillars4 ,if you have no carpenter's vice1 you had better work with the front of the cage laid down flat and near the right hand edge of the bench or table1 so that the pillar almost overlaps it4 ,in this position1 you can bore the two holes and nail it together2 but be guarded as to splitting the pillars4 ,you ought now to have the front well and firmly put together and standing square and true as in the sketch2 only the bottom board1 of which you see the front edge1 is not to be attended to at present4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,there is another way of going to work1 namely1 to put the whole framework of the cage together and add the wires afterwards4 ,in this case 7the holes having all been made beforehand as directed here7 the wires are in turn inserted at the top1 and then being slightly bent are put in place in the bottom piece--each wire being completely fixed before the next is added4 ,either way may be tried1 but in that given above the wires are not bent at all1 and therefore have not to be straightened4 ,adding them1 however1 afterwards is the common practice among the cage-makers4 ,indeed1 it generally happens in large establishments that one set of workmen make the woodwork1 and another set add the wires--such division of labour proving more advantageous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,attention is now to be given to the sides1 of which ,fig4 #aa is a drawing4 ,here you need not make any corner pillars4 ,you have only to cut out the top and bottom strips--the lower one1 #a inch wide1 to match that in front3 the top1 #a inch wide1 to match the straight part of the ends of the upper front piece or gable1 as you see in ,fig4 #ab4 ,you will also see by this drawing that you must nail the side pieces inside the corner pillars1 and not upon them1 so that the nails go in from the front of the cage into the ends of the two side pieces which carry the wires4 ,i have shown by dots 7,fig4 #ab7 where the nail holes are1 and they must be carefully made1 avoiding the places where the other two nails come1 which you hammered in when you fitted together the front4 ,the side strips1 ,a ,b 7,fig4 #aa71 may be #h inches long4 ,both sides of the cage are to be made exactly alike4 ,i have told you to make the lower side-rails #a inch wide1 because they must come to the bottom of the pillars1 for no half-inch space is required at the sides between these rails and the bottom of the cage4 ,it is so left in the front1 because a tray1 or cleaning-board1 has to be slid in there4 ,you had certainly better put together the side pieces by means of the wires1 as in ,fig4 #aa1 before you nail them in their places4 ,you now require a piece of board for the back1 and quarter-inch stuff will do very well4 ,bought cages are made of much thinner wood1 generally mahogany1 but at first it will be easier for you to use thicker boards4 ,if you round off the edges1 they will not appear so thick4 ,very thin deal will warp or bend after it is made up2 and1 indeed1 it is quite possible the back of this cage will do so4 ,get the wood1 however1 as dry as you can1 and the top boards1 when nailed on1 will probably prevent it4 ,to cut out this back board1 you may lay down upon the piece from which it is to be cut the whole front of the cage1 and draw a pencil round it1 only1 when you come to the bottom of the side pillars1 you must draw a line straight across from one to the other4 ,then cut from the point at the top1 as you did before4 ,let the grain of the wood run up and down1 not across1 the back4 ,nail the back thus cut to the side strips1 as you nailed on the front1 and you will then only have the roof to put on1 and the bottom4 ,this roof may consist simply of a thin board1 cut square and true1 nailed on to the two gables1 and it will look much prettier if it is made to project beyond the front4 ,if you measure down the slope of the front or back top-piece1 you will find it #f inches long1 and a little more4 ,your board should therefore be #g or #h inches wide1 because1 although the roof pieces meet at the top1 they should come down a little beyond the sides of the cage4 ,as the sides are #h inches wide1 cut the top #aa inches long1 which will allow it to project in front #c inches4 ,if you look at the cage at the end of these directions1 you will understand this4 ,you must slope1 or bevel off1 the top edges of these roof boards1 to make them fit neatly together along the ridge2 and as you will paint the cage1 you can glue on a narrow strip of paper1 to make it quite water-tight4 ,the door of these cages is generally in the back4 ,you merely mark and cut out a square hole about #c inches square4 ,you then fit a piece in1 and hinge it either with wire1 or 7which is easier7 by sticking on a strip of calico down the edge of it1 and fasten with a wire hook4 ,as the back is but a quarter of an inch thick1 you will be able to cut out the hole 7before nailing on the back71 with a sharp pocket-knife2 and again ,i say1 don't cut out the guide-lines--cut inside them1 and then neatly pare exactly up to them4 ,make the bottom #ac inches long1 and #aj wide1 which will allow it to project in front1 and also half an inch on each side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,you have now to make the tray1 to slide into the space left in the front below the bottom front rail4 ,this is to hold sifted sand1 and is made loose1 because it requires to be taken out and cleaned every day 7,fig4 #ac74 ,it is merely a flat thin board 7one-eighth of an inch will be quite thick enough71 with a strip nailed on1 or glued on1 in front1 to fit the space left for it1 and other smaller strips glued on all round it1 so as to form a very shallow tray or drawer4 ,the small strips can be glued on flat upon the top of the board1 but to fasten on the front1 you must first glue on a similar strip to those round the sides1 and just such as you made the pillars of1 but not quite so thick1 and then glue1 or nail on with very small brads1 the front piece1 nailing or gluing it to this strip4 ,this will make it very firm1 and will do well enough for your first cage4 ,a1 ,fig4 #ac1 shows a part of the drawer1 ,c is the front1 and ,d the strip it is glued to4 ,the handle of this drawer or tray is to be made of wire1 unless you can find some little knob or other that will do4 ,if you succeed in making this cage1 you will have learned a good deal1 because1 although not really difficult1 it requires care and consideration2 and if you are in a hurry1 you will split the wood1 or make it crooked1 or cut the pieces too short4 ,it should be neatly painted in oil-colour--green is a favourite colour--but the top boards may be red1 and the wires should be left clean and bright1 because the bird often pecks at them4 ,if you paint the inside of the woodwork1 it should be white4 ,i have not here put any feeding-boxes1 or seed-drawers1 because glasses are the best2 but you will see two holes 7,fig4 #aa71 one inch across1 in the lower side pieces1 for the bird to put its head through to get at the seed and water4 ,a bit of wire1 forming half a hoop1 supports the glasses or trays4 ,these ought to be cut with a centrebit--a tool you have not1 and the carpenter had better do it for you4 ,here is the cage complete 7,fig4 #ad74 ,you can do without making holes in the sides1 if you put two wires longer than the rest1 and bend them1 as you see at ,b in ,fig4 #ac1 before putting them in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the previous chapters were devoted to such exceedingly simple and easy specimens of carpentry as can be made by any boy of eleven or twelve years of age1 or even younger1 who has the necessary perseverance1 and will take sufficient care in measuring and fitting4 ,in both and all similar cases1 it is better for such to buy pieces of board already planed1 and of nearly the desired size2 but ,i shall no longer presuppose such necessity1 but advance the young mechanic to the dignity of a plane1 and a few more of the more necessary and useful tools4 ,the list may therefore now comprise-- #a ,,hand ,,saw1 #af inches or so in length1 a full-sized one being almost beyond the powers of a boy4 #c ,,firmer ,,chisels1 quarter1 half1 and one inch wide4 #a ,,mallet4--,chisel handles should never be struck with a hammer1 which splits the handles4 #a ,,hammer4--,this should be light4 ,the best way is to buy a hammer-head1 and make the handle4 ,a heavy one can be added1 but will hardly be required at first1 and is useless for light work4 #a ,,jack ,,plane1 #a ,,smoothing ,,do4--,the jack plane is not usually added to a boy's tool-chest1 but it is impossible to plane up a long straight edge without it2 and as these planes can be had from #ab inches in length1 ,i should certainly recommend one1 say #ab to #ae inches4 #c ,,gimlets1 #c ,,bradawls4--,one of each of these should be as small as can be obtained4 ,add a medium and a larger one4 #a ,,screwdriver1 #a ,,pincers1 #a ,,cutting ,,pliers4--,screwdriver should be of a medium size2 the pliers such as are used by bellhangers4 #a ,,compasses4--,these should be light carpenter's compasses1 not such as are made of brass and steel4 ,they are very useful4 #b ,,gouges4--,carpenter's gouges1 not turner's4 ,they will answer for the present1 in many cases1 to make round holes in boards4 ,the centrebits and braces are expensive4 #a ,,oil-,,stone4--,there is a cheap and quick-cutting stone called ,nova ,scotia which will answer the purpose well4 ,,mortice-,,gauge4--,the use of this will be shown presently4 #a ,,square1 #a #b-;,,foot ,,rule1 ,,glue ,,pot1 and ,,brush4--,these are1 as before stated1 indispensable4 ,the rule need not have a brass slide2 the square may be made entirely of wood1 or with a metal blade #f to #i inches in length4 ,the above1 with the addition of a carpenter's brace and bit1 two or three augers1 about three mortice chisels1 and a hatchet1 would suffice for a very large amount of good work4 ,indeed1 it represents almost a complete set of tools1 the only additional ones that are at all likely to be needed being a longer 7trying7 plane1 rebate plane1 and pair of match1 or tongue and groove planes4 ,without any of the latter1 the young carpenter will find it easy to carry out a good many light specimens of his ingenuity4 ,it is much better1 in general1 to work with a few tools1 and contrive to make them answer all sorts of purposes1 than to lay in a larger and more expensive set at starting1 for the latter are sure to be abused and kept in bad order1 because if one chisel gets blunt1 another is taken up1 instead of sharpening the first2 and planes and other tools are treated in a similar manner1 and a carelessness is engendered fatal to success4 ,it is astonishing how much may be done with few and inefficient tools1 but then the utmost patience and industry have to be exercised1 much as we see prevailing among the native workmen of ,india and ,america1 who execute the most beautiful and delicate work with tools which1 in the hands of a ,european1 would be generally simply useless4 ,the next work that should be attempted by the young mechanic should be mortice and tenon jointing1 as used in constructing frames of various kinds for doors1 window-sashes1 tables1 and other articles of everyday use4 ,perhaps one of the simplest and easiest examples will be a towel-horse1 which1 at any rate1 will be of use when completed4 ,now1 it may be at once stated1 that for work of this kind especially1 but generally also for all work1 it is essential to be able to square up truly the several pieces required4 ,this will require practice--long and careful practice--and the beginner will meet here with his first and chief difficulty1 but he must not despair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,it has been presupposed that a strong work-bench1 table-plank mounted upon trestles1 or some sort of tolerably efficient and firm bench has been obtained1 or is accessible1 and1 in addition1 a strong stool upon which to saw1 cut out mortices1 and so forth4 ,a small carpenter's bench1 with a wooden vice1 is most handy and serviceable1 but is not absolutely necessary4 ,it will be easy to make one by and by2 for the present1 any available substitute must be used4 ,the height of the proposed towel-rail may equal the length4 ,about #b feet #f inches will be a fair size1 and it may be of the simplest possible form1 such as is here delineated 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the upright sides may be made of strips of pine1 one inch wide and three-quarters of an inch thick--the rails #a wide and three eighths of an inch thick4 ,the feet will be considered presently4 ,if careful attention is given to the following directions1 not only will the result be certainly satisfactory1 but the way will be paved for the workmanlike construction of a great number of similarly useful articles4 ,the size of the rough material must always be greater than that ultimately needed1 to allow of the necessary waste in sawing and planing4 ,pine boards1 however1 are usually cut of certain general widths and thicknesses2 and although we have here set down stuff of one inch by three-quarters1 it may be cut from inch board1 because very little will be wasted by the plane1 and the finished work will be sufficiently near to the above measure for the intended purpose1 one-sixteenth of an inch or so being of no practical importance in the construction of such an article as a towel-rail4 ,get1 therefore1 from the carpenter1 a strip of pine #a inch wide and #f feet in length1 cut from a board #a inch thick1 and also a strip for the rails 7of which there will be three71 #d inches wide and #b feet #i inches long1 cut from a half-inch board4 ,the rails you are to saw yourself from the latter strip1 which will give you practice in sawing a straight course1 and the work is easy in half-inch stuff4 ,you may therefore begin by cutting these1 for which purpose you will want guide-lines dividing the strip into three of equal width4 ,there is a very simple way of marking these by means of a chalk line1 which ,i will here describe4 ,the width of the board ,i set down at #d inches1 because the rails1 when finished1 will be #a inches each1 or1 in all1 #c inches4 ,as each contains eight eighths1 as already explained1 #d inches will contain thirty-two eighths4 ,dividing by #c1 we shall have ten eighths for each strip1 or #a inches1 and two eighths1 or a quarter of an inch1 to spare for waste4 ,take the compasses1 therefore1 and open them to #a and a little over 7rather less than to the next division on the rule71 and take it off at each end of the board 7,fig #af1 ,a ,b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,take off1 again1 from this to mark the width of the next strip1 and the board will be divided with sufficient accuracy for our present purpose4 ,take a piece of twine1 long enough to stretch from end to end of the plank1 and something over1 and tie a knot at one end4 ,stick a bradawl through the string1 close to this knot and into the board1 as seen at ,c of the same figure4 ,take a lump of chalk1 and chalk the line from end to end4 ,then strain it down the board1 holding it by the left hand1 so that it is stretched from one mark to the other1 where the saw-cut is to be made4 ,with the finger and thumb of the other hand1 raise it a little in the middle1 and let it suddenly go1 when it will make a perfectly clear and straight line upon the board4 ,make a similar and parallel line for the next saw-cut4 ,in the present case1 you need not mind cutting this chalk mark out4 ,try and saw right down1 so as to split it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,you now have your strips cut out1 but they require to be planed4 ,you might1 indeed1 with advantage1 have planed the whole strip on both sides before marking and cutting it1 but it is equally easy to do it afterwards4 ,the jack plane is the one to be used for this purpose4 ,i must suppose it to be sharp and in good order2 if not1 ask some carpenter to set it for you for the present1 but ,i will soon tell you how to do it for yourself4 ,indeed1 you will have to learn how to sharpen all your tools before you can be called a good workman4 ,if the plane is properly set1 the cutting edge will project very slightly only from the bottom2 so that when held as in ,fig4 #ag1 and the eye directed along the sole1 only a narrow shining slip of metal will appear4 ,if too far out1 it will hitch and make bad work2 if not far enough1 it will not cut at all2 but the common fault of beginners is to have it too far out1 because from their imperfect handling of this tool they often fail to make it cut1 when in the hands of a carpenter it would work well4 ,now1 if the iron projects too far1 hold it as shown1 so that you look along the sole1 and give it a tap with your wooden mallet on the upper face at ,a1 and this is also the way to loosen the wedge and irons for removal4 ,by a blow at ,b1 you can send the cutting edge forward to cut more deeply1 or in this case you may tap the iron itself with a metal hammer1 but tapping the end of the wood is better4 ,to plane the edges of these strips1 you ought to have a bench with a vice1 but there are ways and means to do without it1 and one is so good that ,i shall speak of it here1 although it necessitates a somewhat abrupt break-off in my description of the towel-rail4 ,it is a kind of vice that is fixed to a board which is laid upon the work-bench when required4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,in ,fig4 #ah is a drawing of one of two kinds of such vices which ,i will explain4 ,this first consists of two pieces of wood 7ash will be better than pine7 about #i inches long and #b inches thick4 ,they are cut in the shape given in the drawing1 and screwed to the board1 not tightly1 but so as to move freely upon the screws4 ,the board should be an inch thick to give the screws a firm hold4 ,you can see by the figure that the tails of the pieces cross each other sometimes when in use4 ,to allow of this1 they are cut like ,b and ,c1 so that one can go inside the other4 ,now1 if you consider a little1 you will understand that if we stand a strip of board between the two1 and push it forward against the insides of the tails of these curiously-shaped blocks1 it will make the opposite knobbed ends close nearer together1 and these will grip the piece of wood1 and the harder we push it forward1 the more closely it will be gripped and held2 but the moment we draw back the piece1 the two jaws will open to let it go free4 ,you can try first of all upon a thin piece1 which can be shaped by your knife1 and make a model of this vice1 and then if you can't manage to cut out such a one of thick wood1 the carpenter would do it for you1 and it will be handy for many purposes4 ,if you have nothing of this kind1 nor a vice to your bench1 drive in two pins or pegs of wood1 or two nails1 a little way apart1 so as to allow your strip of wood to stand upon edge between them1 and drive two more a little way from these2 then one at the end to form a planing stop4 ,a tap at the sides of these nails will cause them to hold the strip edgewise1 quite well enough to allow you to plane it4 ,there are other ways1 and ,i shall describe them by and by4 ,in the meantime use nails1 or any other plan that will answer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,i shall suppose1 therefore1 that one of the narrow strips is thus set on edge upon your bench ready to be planed4 ,grasp the handle of your plane firmly with the right hand1 and lay hold of it in front of the iron with the left4 ,draw it back1 and then send it steadily forward1 pressing it downwards at the same time4 ,now the advantage of a long plane is1 that it does not descend into the hollows of the work1 but rests upon the projections1 as in ,fig4 #ai1 ,a4 ,a short plane would do as seen at ,b1 and therefore would never make a long straight edge4 ,you have two special points here to attend to4 ,you have to plane a level line from end to end1 and also keep the edges square to the sides1 which is by no means easy at first4 ,you must keep trying it with your square1 as ,i have shown you in ,fig4 #bj1 and not rest satisfied until the handle fits close to the side of the strip1 and the edge lies also close upon that of the strip anywhere along its length4 ,i daresay you will think this of no importance in such a common thing as a pine towel-horse2 but ,i may tell you this is the very secret of carpenter's work1 and when you can saw and plane truly1 and work 8to square10 you can make almost anything4 ,it is true that the strips for the rails are not of great importance in this case1 but the upright side pieces are1 and if these are out of truth1 the holes cut through them for the rails1 which are called mortices1 will be out of truth also1 and you will see the towel-horse1 when it is made1 all twisted and awry1 and nothing you can do will make it stand firm or look well4 ,it is1 in short1 no use to pretend to learn carpentry unless you at once make up your mind to succeed1 and therefore you must always use the square and try your work as you go on4 ,all the difference between the usual work of carpenters1 and that of boys or men who do not know how to work1 consists of the squareness and good fit of what the former make4 ,boys never seem to trouble themselves about such things1 and so you see their boxes and rabbit-hutches look twisted1 and being badly fitted1 they soon go to pieces4 ,having planed up the sides and edges of the rails as square and true as you can1 cut the other long strip in half1 and square up this also1 taking care that both pieces are alike and both truly worked4 ,if your bench is sufficiently long to take the whole strip1 plane it up before you cut it across1 and you will be sure to have the sides of your towel-rail equal in size4 ,you have now to make your first essay in cutting mortices4 ,follow these directions1 and you will not fail4 ,i shall not limit the description to these special mortices1 but give you general directions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,fig4 #ba represents a bar of wood--the side of the towel-horse1 for instance--with a mortice cut through it at ,a1 and others marked out at ab1 cd4 ,below1 at ,b1 is a gauge1 of which the construction and use will be explained presently4 ,f shows how the feet are to be attached and cut4 ,they are morticed while in a 8squared-up0 condition1 and shaped afterwards according to fancy2 sometimes they are left square1 and knobs screwed below to make two feet4 ,these mortices may1 of course1 be of any desired length or width4 ,those required for the towel-rail sides will be #a inch long by half an inch wide nearly4 ,the planing of the strips may have reduced them more or less below the exact size specified1 try therefore with the compasses what the precise thickness is of the ends1 and measure that thickness on your two-foot rule4 ,you now want to draw the lines a t1 which ,i have represented as extending the whole length of the strip1 and as all the mortices are to be alike1 you may so mark them4 ,the gauge ,b is of two parts1 a sliding piece1 ,c1 and a rectangular bar of wood about #i inches long and half an inch square4 ,this slides stiffly through the mortice in ,c1 and is fixed at any part by the small wedge ,d4 ,this gauge you can easily make4 ,it is not a mortice gauge properly so called1 because the latter has two marking points instead of the one seen at h1 and which may be the point of a brad driven in and filed up to an edge4 ,loosen the wedge slightly1 and draw back the rectangular bar1 or push it forward1 until you think that the space between the sliding piece and the point is about that which is required on each side of the mortices1 so that if you set the wedge firm1 and resting the sliding piece against the edge of the board1 cause the point to make a mark1 and repeat this on the other side of the same face of the wood1 there will be left between the marks thus made the exact width of the required mortice4 ,try it1 and if not1 give a tap to the instrument1 and adjust it until the space is exactly correct4 ,then fix all firm1 and holding it so that the little point will mark the wood1 while the head or sliding piece is against the side of the board1 run the tool from end to end1 or run it along just where the mortices are required1 using both hands4 ,you will thus make the two long lines between which the mortices have to be cut4 ,now turn the wood over1 and do the same on the other side4 ,you are now quite sure that these lines1 on opposite sides of the piece1 agree exactly in position1 which is the object of using a gauge2 and as you have planed up a second strip to exactly the size of this first1 you have but to repeat the process 7no measuring being necessary7 upon that2 and you may be satisfied that thus far the two sides of the towel-rail will tally4 ,you now set off with the compasses upon one of these lines the lengths of the mortices in their proper places1 and at the points thus marked1 using your square for the purpose1 mark the end lines of these mortices2 but when so doing1 carry the lines across1 as a b1 c d1 and down the sides and across the opposite side4 ,with the square this will be easily done1 the blade of it being laid flat1 so that its edge becomes the ruler1 while the handle becomes the guide or gauge resting against the side of the wood4 ,at ,e1 ,fig4 #ba1 this position of the square is shown4 ,by thus carrying round all the lines1 you will have the mortices marked on both sides in exactly the same relative position1 so that you can 7and must7 cut them half from one side and half from the other1 using the chisel nearest to the size required1 but always of less width 7or length7 than the mortice1 because you must never cut out the guide lines1 but must keep within them1 only carefully paring the wood at last close to them4 ,you will never cut mortices correctly1 unless you thus mark the position on both sides1 and work as directed4 ,the ends of the cross rails will not have to be cut into tenons1 as they will fit as they are1 only requiring to be glued into their places1 when1 if you have worked carefully1 the whole will look well1 and will be square and true1 without twist2 but if you did not plane up the sides square1 you will find the towel-rail awry and unworkmanlike4 ,although1 however1 there is no necessity to make regular tenons in the present case1 the usual way is to do so1 and to fix with wedges1 as in ,fig4 #ae4 ,after a mortice has been cut straight through a piece as directed1 this mortice is slightly eased1 or sloped off1 as seen at a b1 which is a section of one4 ,the rail or tenon c is put through after being brushed with glue2 and when in exact position1 two wedges are glued and driven in at each end1 as seen in the drawing4 ,after all is dry1 these wedges being firmly united to the rail1 as seen at k1 prevent it from being drawn back or moved4 ,nearly all mortice and tenon joints are fixed in this way4 ,as ,i am describing this kind of work1 ,i may as well explain the method of marking and cutting tenons1 as it will answer not only for affixing the feet1 as shown in ,fig4 #ba1 but for all similar work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,in ,fig4 #bb1 ,i have illustrated the mode of marking out tenons1 and at ,d is a double tenon1 which is in wide pieces often substituted for the single1 and makes an excellent joint4 ,the longitudinal lines e1 f1 g1 h1 are marked as before with the gauge1 whether for single or double tenons2 the line a b1 with the assistance of the square2 the cheeks1 c and d1 are then cut off entirely with a fine saw1 called on this account a tenon-saw1--and care must be taken as before not to cut out the guide lines4 ,if1 instead of the outer cheeks1 the piece between them is to be removed to make a double tenon1 this must be done with mallet and chisel1 after carefully sawing down the lines x y2 and the chisel is to be used first on one side and then on the other1 by which means the shoulder will be cut true to the guide lines4 ,if1 however1 the cut across should curve a little downwards like n1 it will not much matter1 so long as the edges fit closely4 ,it is nevertheless better to cut straight across4 ,the outer cheeks of this will be marked and cut as in the single mortice 7,fig4 #bb74 ,if a workman has to cut many mortices on pieces of the same size1 he frequently constructs a rough mortice gauge with double points1 which marks both sides of the mortice at once1 like ,k4 ,a fixed block at ,k1 the right distance from the points1 l m1 of two nails1 is sufficient when all the mortices are to be alike4 ,there is1 however1 a regular double-pointed gauge1 made generally of ebony1 plated with brass1 and a brass rule to which one of the points is fixed1 and which is acted on by a screw at the end1 which can be turned by the thumb and finger4 ,this has the effect of separating or closing the two points according to the desired width of the mortice1 its distance from the side of the piece being regulated as before by the sliding head fixed by a wedge4 ,this is an expensive tool1 and need not be purchased4 ,there are also1 let me add1 many costly tools of various forms and uses2 but let the boy's motto 7and man's1 too1 for all that7 be1 8,do as well as you can without40 ,you have no idea how a little ingenuity and contrivance will save your pockets1 and that1 too1 without in the least tending to spoil your work4 ,all you require are a few of the most generally useful tools in first-rate condition--chisels1 saws1 and planes1 sharp and well set1 and fit for work at any moment4 ,with regard to uniting two pieces of wood or other material with glue1 it must be remembered that if you use this substance in a thick semifluid state1 and in quantity1 its effect will be lost4 ,make it a rule to put on as thin a coat as possible1 and let it be not thicker than cream1 so that it will freely flow into corners1 and spread evenly over the surfaces to be united4 ,make the wood also quite warm1 so that the glue shall not be suddenly chilled1 and let it be used boiling4 ,always heat it either in a proper glue-pot1 or at any rate1 place the vessel which contains it 7a small gallipot1 for instance7 inside another vessel in which water can be kept boiling4 ,the glue1 which should be thin and transparent1 being broken into small pieces1 should be put into such a vessel as suggested1 and covered with cold water1 and it should be allowed to remain thus until swollen and softened4 ,then bring the water in the outer vessel to the boiling point1 and do not use the glue until it is entirely dissolved and of one uniform consistence4 ,it should be stirred while boiling with a piece of stick1 and a brush used to lay it upon the pieces to be joined4 ,it very generally happens that pieces glued by boys fall apart almost directly4 ,this is almost entirely due to the fact that the glue is used thick and clotty1 and in too great quantity1 while the wood is never made warm as it should be4 ,if two pieces are properly joined in this way1 it is almost impossible to separate them at the joint--the wood itself will give way and split before the glue will yield to the strain4 ,carpenters use various forms of clamps or vices to hold work together until the glue shall be dry2 but for boys by far the best plan1 where any such holdfast is needed1 is to bind the parts together with twine1 and then to set them aside for twelve hours at least4 ,it is seldom that articles once united by glue and separated will unite firmly a second time4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the exercise of a boy's mechanical tastes upon works of practical utility is1 of course1 far preferable to its expenditure upon mere trifles1 made one day to be cast aside and destroyed the next2 and as there is scarcely any household that does not need its furniture repaired or added to from time to time1 ,i shall now give directions for the construction of one or two articles that seem to be within fair scope of a young mechanic's abilities4 ,the first is a plain1 useful table1 without a drawer1 and with square legs1 because without a lathe the latter cannot be made ornamental2 and lathe work will occupy some future pages1 since it is necessary first to give the young mechanic a fair insight into the principles and practice of plain carpentry and joinery4 ,the very young mechanic1 so far as my experience of him goes 7and it is rather extensive71 makes his early attempt by sticking the points of four nails into the corners of any tolerably square piece of board he can lay hands on4 ,his next attempt1 when he has risen to the dignity of a knife and gimlet1 is to place four wooden legs at the corners of a similar board1 which1 if the said legs are glued in 7by which a wonderful mess is always made of the structure71 is considered a great feat1 and worthy of the admiring patronage of fond parents and playmates4 ,now1 a table does not consist of any such arrangement of pieces1 although ,i certainly have seen sometimes1 in the cottages of the poor1 a three-legged affair of this nature1 which is just nothing more than a magnified milking-stool4 ,we cannot content ourselves now with anything of the kind4 ,we shall have to work away with plane and chisel and square1 and with neat tenon and mortice joints first construct the frame upon which the top will be placed1 and then finish it secundum artem1 the ,english of which1 as ,i am writing to boys1 ,i shall not reveal4 ,the table shall be #c feet long1 #a foot #h inches wide1 #b feet #d inches high2 the top board being half an inch thick when planed and fitted1 for which it will therefore be required to be three-quarters of an inch in the rough4 ,the legs demand attention first4 ,plane up strips cut from a #b-;inch board1 and let them be exactly #b inches wide4 ,these must be worked up with the greatest possible accuracy1 or it will be impossible to fit the framework so as to make the table stand truly or bear inspection4 ,after four such strips have been planed up1 cut a piece from a half-inch board1 or from a board that will plane to half an inch4 ,let this be #d inches wide and #i feet long1 and be sure to plane this also truly1 and to make the edges square to the sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,if you have no strip that will answer of #i feet long1 you can cut two or more instead1 remembering that you will require two pieces each #ah inches long and two of #b feet #i at the least1 all as nearly alike in width as possible4 ,you have now all that you will need for the framework of your table--the top may be left till the rest is fitted4 ,now you may proceed to cut the requisite mortices in the legs1 which you will understand by sketch ,fig4 #bc1 which represents one corner of the table before the top is added4 ,there is no more difficulty in this than in the previous work1 except perhaps that somewhat more care is requisite in squaring up the several pieces and cutting the mortices with accuracy4 ,use the gauge as before in marking the mortices1 trying it until it is so fixed that it will leave the proper width of the holes1 namely1 half an inch 7which is the thickness of the strips which are to form the framework74 ,this is upon the supposition that your gauge has but one marking point3 but to explain its use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,i shall now introduce to your notice a regular mortice-gauge of two points1 which is vastly more convenient4 ,this is represented in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the main stem is grooved along its length on one side with a dovetailed slit1 that is1 a groove which is wider below than above4 ,this is generally made in a brass plate attached to the stem of the gauge1 but sometimes in the wood itself4 ,in this slides a slip of brass which can be drawn back by pulling the knob ,a1 or by turning a thumbscrew at one end1 as in the more expensive gauges4 ,one of the marking points is fixed in the end of this slide1 the other in the wood 7or metal7 beyond it1 at ,b1 and when these are allowed to be together they form but one point1 being flattened on one side1 so that they will fit accurately against each other4 ,thus it is easy to separate the two points at pleasure to the exact width of the required mortice4 ,by means of the wedged sliding piece ,c1 we now have merely to determine how far the edge of the mortice is to be from one side of the piece4 ,thus1 suppose that in the present case we should prefer to have the side of the frame nearer to the outside edge of the legs than to the inside1 we can so arrange it easily2 but we must then take care to gauge all alike1 either from the inside edge or the outside4 ,we do not1 therefore1 with this kind of gauge work from both edges1 and leave the space between the lines for the width of the mortice1 but we work from one edge only of the piece of wood1 and mark the mortice at once in any desired position4 ,i need hardly repeat1 that for any particular job1 a very good substitute for such gauge can be made by driving two small nails into a strip of wood cut with a projecting piece to serve instead of the movable head4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,let us now proceed with the work in hand4 ,one of the legs of the table1 before being worked into shape1 is shown in ,fig4 #be2 the dotted lines show how it will be eventually sloped off below the mortices which carry the top frame4 ,these mortices must not now go through the legs1 and therefore you will have to be very careful to hold the chisel upright1 so as to insure the squareness of the frame when put together4 ,the mortices being in adjacent sides1 will of course meet1 but it will be advantageous to cut those which are intended to receive the two longest strips1 viz41 the front and back1 rather deeper than the other two4 ,first set off an inch from the top of the leg at the line ,a ,b4 ,if less than this intervenes between the top of the mortice and the end of the leg1 you will probably break the piece out and spoil your work4 ,as the side boards are #d inches wide1 and must come flush with the top of the legs1 you will have to cut them like ,c1 and there will be #c inches left for the tenon1 all of which may be left1 as the wider this is the more hold it will have on the legs into which it is to be glued4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that the mortice will be #c inches long and half an inch wide2 and when you have marked it to this size1 take care to cut it accurately1 because if it is too small1 you will break out the piece between the mortices when you try to force in the frame pieces1 and if too large1 you will scarcely get the whole to remain secure4 ,work therefore exactly to gauge4 ,it is usual to keep these side and end pieces more to the outside of the legs than the inside1 as ,f1 where you are supposed to be looking at the inside corner2 and if you look at ,d 7which shows the top or cross section of a leg1 as if after the pieces were fitted you had sawn off the leg close down to the mortices1 exposing them to view71 you will see that by thus keeping near the outside edges you get both mortices deeper than if you cut them1 like ,e1 in the middle of the sides of the leg4 ,of course1 the deeper these tenons are let into the legs1 the stronger their hold will be4 ,there will now only remain to warm all the pieces and glue them into their respective places1 with the precautions before stated as to the thinness of the glue and speed of the operation4 ,see that all stands square and true2 if not1 a tap here and there as required will set it straight1 and then let all stand till dry4 ,i have told you to cut the side and end pieces #ah inches and #b feet #i respectively1 so that if the mortices are #a inches or so deep1 your frame will be about #a foot #f inches wide1 and #b feet #f inches long4 ,the top1 which is to overlap as usual1 will be now prepared as follows4 ,it will not be possible to make this of a single width of board2 and nothing will more fully test the young workman's skill1 than planing the edges of two pieces so that they shall fit accurately together4 ,it must1 nevertheless1 be attempted4 ,cut two pieces of three-quarter-inch board1 and plane the sides as accurately as possible4 ,then set them up edgewise1 either singly or together1 and plane the edges with steady1 long strokes of the longest plane you have1 set fine--that is1 with the cutting edge projecting but slightly4 ,try each singly with the square from end to end1 and then lay them on any perfectly flat surface1 as on your bench1 or on a table1 and see whether the edges lie close all along4 ,remember1 too1 that they may do so when one surface is upwards1 and not when turned over1 as will occur when the edges are not square to the sides4 ,in cutting out the pieces1 therefore1--which1 when finished1 are to be together #a foot #h inches1--you should make them #a foot #i1 so as to allow you a whole inch to waste in planing and fitting4 ,when both are as true as you can get them1 lay them down near together1 and brush the edges with boiling hot glue4 ,then immediately put them together1 and rub them a few seconds one against the other1 till they seem to stick slightly4 ,then leave them in their exact position1 and drive a couple of nails into the bench against the outside edges1 so as to keep them together1 or in any other way wedge them tightly in position until they are quite dry4 ,when the glue is hard which has been squeezed out along the joint1 you may run a plane all over the united boards1 and you ought hardly to see the joint1 which will be nearly as strong as any other part4 ,this top has now to be attached to the frame1 as follows4 ,cut some pieces like ,k in ,fig4 #be1 and glue them here and there along the inside edges of the frame1 so that one side of them shall come quite flush with the upper edge4 ,to these the top has to be glued4 ,lay it1 therefore1 with its under side upwards1 upon the floor 7,i suppose the short pieces glued and dry on the frame71 and having also glued the sides of the short pieces which will touch the under side of the table top1 turn the whole upside down1 with its legs in the air1 adjusting it quickly4 ,its own weight will keep it in position until dry2 or1 if not1 it is easy to lay an odd board or two across1 and put some weights upon them4 ,when dry1 turn over your table1 and plane round the edges where necessary2 and1 if it does not stand very well1 trim the bottoms of the legs4 ,clean off glue1 and rub any rough places with sandpaper or glasscloth1 filling up any accidental holes with putty1 after which it will be fit for receiving paint or stain1 if it is not considered desirable to leave it white4 ,the corners and edges of the top may be rounded off1 to give a finished appearance4 ,i showed by dotted lines the usual shape of the squared legs4 ,they are planed off1 tapering from below the frame1 and this should be done after the mortices are cut1 and before fitting the parts together4 ,the best way to insure equal taper of all the legs1 is to prick off at the bottom of each equal widths from the corners or edges1 and to run a pencil line from the point where the taper is to begin to these marks4 ,then plane exactly to the lines thus made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,let us now consider what errors of construction are most likely to occur in working out these directions4 ,first1 it is possible that the framework may be out of square4 ,this may proceed from two causes4 ,in the first place1 the side or end pieces may not be of equal length between the legs1 owing to some one or two being driven further into their mortices than the others4 ,to avoid this1 which is not uncommon in many works of a similar nature1 it is well always to mark the length that each is to be1 irrespective of the part within the mortices1 as ,fig4 #bf1 ,a and ,b4 ,if the space on each between the dotted lines 7carefully marked by means of a square7 is equal1 it is no matter whether ,c and ,d are also equal4 ,we have only to take care to let them into the mortices to a greater or less depth1 until the line comes exactly even with the inside edge of the legs4 ,again1 it is possible that when the table is placed upon its legs1 these may not rest truly on the floor4 ,probably one or two of the frame pieces run up like ,e1 instead of standing at right angles to the legs4 ,this results from the mortice not being cut correctly2 and as you cannot1 in this case1 mark both sides and cut from both1 as you did in making the towel-horse1 this is not unlikely to happen4 ,it will not1 therefore1 signify much if you purposely cut your mortices a little too long1 and then1 when you have placed the table on its legs1 after gluing up the frame1 and before it is dry1 you can force it to stand truly1 and then wedge up with glued wedges where necessary4 ,you cannot1 however1 do this with the sides of your mortices1 because you require these to fit exactly2 you must therefore use extra care in keeping these as true as possible4 ,in many cases you can wedge the ends of tenons to correct a bad fit1 but never the sides4 ,these are the probable1 or ,i will say possible1 faults against which to be on your guard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,in making a similar table with a drawer1 the same operations have to be gone through1 but the upper frame is somewhat differently constructed1 and the corners of the drawer are united with dovetails4 ,plane up the legs as before1 but cut mortices as at ,a4 ,fig4 #bg1 which represents the right-hand hinder leg as you would see it standing in front of the table1 and before the framework had been fitted in its place4 ,b is the other hind leg1 with the tenoned strips just ready to be driven in4 ,the piece ,e is made as before1 as is also ,c and its opposite piece at the ends of the table4 ,but this pair of mortices1 you see1 are made shorter than before1 and the strip ,c is notched at the bottom as well as at the top1 forming a regular tenon1 as it is called4 ,below this first is a second mortice1 cut the other way1 the longest side standing across the leg to receive a strip1 ,d1 upon which afterwards another strip1 ,x1 will be nailed or glued1 forming the rebate in which the drawer will slide1 and of which the upper surface must be level with that of the strip ,m4 ,there is a plane for cutting out rebates without the necessity of adding a strip1 but ,i do not suppose you as yet to have such a one4 ,when these pieces1 ,c and ,d1 are driven up close into their places1 they will touch along their sides1 so that on the outside they will appear as one piece4 ,of course there will be a similar pair on the right-hand side of the table4 ,d ought to be tenoned1 so that the side on which ,x is to be nailed will lie flush or level with the corner of the leg1 so that the strip ,x shall project wholly beyond it4 ,the left-hand front leg is shown at ,p1 with its mortices1 and the tenoned strips between which the front of the drawer will lie1 closely fitting when shut4 ,these front strips should be each #b inches wide1 the mortices #a inch long1 or as long as you can safely cut them2 you must tenon the cross pieces1 of course1 to fit these4 ,all the rails may be of half-inch board4 ,mark all tenons across with the square as before1 so as to give the exact inside dimensions1 and you cannot well go wrong4 ,these lines1 too1 will guide you in keeping the framework square and true2 for if you have planed the legs correctly1 and your strips are inserted exactly to the aforesaid lines1 it stands to reason the work will be satisfactory4 ,to make the drawer1 observe1 first1 that it is not like a box as most boys would make it1 for when turned upside down1 as in ,fig4 #bh1 ,fig4 ,b1 you will find the sides projecting beyond the bottom1 which projections rest in the rebate1 ,x1 of the last figure1 and take the whole weight of the drawer1 enabling it to slide easily and smoothly in and out1 especially if those surfaces which are in contact are rubbed with soap or blacklead1 or a mixture of the two4 ,at ,c you have a drawing of the same1 with the bottom removed4 ,this1 you see1 is a square or oblong frame dovetailed together1 and when it is glued and dry1 the bottom is slid in along the grooves in the sides 7one of which is seen at x x71 and a couple of brads driven through it into the back rail1 ,k1 fixes it completely4 ,the front board of the drawer is cut and planed to fit exactly between the two rails which were morticed into the legs1 as shown in the last fig41 and is always of thicker stuff than the sides or bottom4 ,it may1 in the present case1 be half-inch1 and the rest quarter-inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,if you look at ,c1 you will observe that the front and sides of the drawer are of the same depth1 and that only the back is narrower4 7,remember that in this cut the drawer is seen from below1 the groove x x being near the bottom of the sides1 and level with the bottom of the back47 ,to cut dovetails is not difficult1 but requires neatness and care--a fine saw 7dovetail or light tenon-saw7 and a really sharp chisel2 and1 above all things1 remember not to cut out the lines which have been drawn as guides4 ,h is the end of the front of the drawer2 ,l the left side4 ,having cut out the latter1 and planed it up nicely1 draw a line1 by the aid of the square1 one quarter or three eighths of an inch from the end across it4 ,this will be the line o p of the bottom of the dovetails4 ,then mark and cut out two or three1 as seen in the drawing1 using the saw where you are able1 and clearing out with the chisel in other places4 ,from o p1 measure the exact inside width of your drawer1 and beyond the second line made across at that distance1 leave a quarter of an inch for the second dovetails1 and cut them out as you did the first4 ,now1 prepare a second precisely similar piece for the opposite side4 ,next lay ,l in place upon ,h very truly1 and with a fine-pointed hard pencil1 or a scriber 7a sharp-pointed steel marker71 trace round the dovetails1 marking them on the end of ,h1 and with a sharp chisel cut them in a quarter of an inch deep1 which will allow them to take the side piece exactly flush and level4 ,mark these two which have been so fitted1 and proceed to do the same at the other end of the front piece1 tracing these1 as before1 from the dovetails of the opposite side1 which are to be there inserted4 ,you do exactly the same with the back piece2 but as this is both narrower and thinner1 the dovetails will be cut quite through it1 and will be seen on both pieces after being glued up1 and there will only be room for one dovetail1 instead of two4 ,when all are cut1 lay the pieces in position1 glue quickly1 press all together1 and contrive to wedge up or bind round the whole until dry1 testing with the square and adjusting1 as maybe necessary4 ,we shall return to dovetailing again1 but these not requiring excessive neatness1 will be a good beginning1 and show you in what special points care is needed in such work4 ,nothing remains but to plane a piece for the bottom1 and slide it into place4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,in the last chapter we entered a little upon the matter of dovetails1 but as the mode of uniting the angles of boxes1 drawers1 and such like1 is of almost universal application1 it will be as well to devote a separate short chapter to the subject4 ,there are several different kinds of dovetails used1 according as it may be desired to let them appear upon the finished work1 or wholly or in part to conceal them4 ,carpenters generally use the kind which is visible on both sides1 cabinetmakers1 as a rule1 take special pains to conceal it1 only using the other form upon work that is to be afterwards covered with veneer 7a thin covering of some ornamental and more expensive wood glued upon the surface of that which is of less value1 and of which the article is made74 ,the dovetail described in the last chapter1 as proper for the attachment of the sides to the front of a drawer1 is not that which is ordinarily used by the carpenters1 but the following1 which is somewhat more easy to make1 and is the same as would be used for the other corners of such a common drawer as that described4 ,i must at the outset remind my young readers once again of the standard rule1 without due attention to which they have no hope of success in this neat and delicate operation of carpentry4 ,never cut out your guide lines1 but leave them upon your work1 and use your square diligently upon the edges of your work1 the bottom of the dovetails1 sides of the same1 and upon the sides of the pins4 ,never mind the time necessary for this4 ,you are doing work1 remember1 that is to bear inspection1--work that will stand wear1 and be really useful in the household to which you have the honour to belong4 ,you would not therefore like to see open spaces here and there1 requiring to be filled up with putty1 or the side of the box not truly square to the back and front4 ,and it may be noted here1 that if dovetails are properly fitted together1 the box or other article will stand firm1 even before the glue is added2 but if the same are badly cut1 and put together carelessly1 no amount of glue will avail to hold the work securely2 and it would have been as well or better never to have attempted dovetailing1 as such bad work would be stronger united by nails1 and in any case is but a disgrace to the young amateur mechanic1 whose motto should always be1 8,whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,you will remember how you were taught to wedge up mortice and tenon joints with glued wedges1 which1 becoming part of the tenon1 and rendering it larger below than above1 prevents it from being withdrawn from the mortice4 ,now1 a single dovetail has the same effect1 and is in point of fact of the same shape and size as the tenon with its wedges attached4 ,see ,fig4 #bi1 ,a and ,b1 the first being a wedged tenon1 the second a dovetail4 ,we shall begin with a single dovetail1 which is applied to the construction of presses used by bookbinders and others1 and also domestically for house-linen4 ,in these there is a strong tendency to draw the sides upwards1 and to tear them from the bottom--a strain which this form of joint is exactly calculated to withstand4 ,the same is also used in making many kinds of frames1 where similar strength in one direction is necessary4 ,if you have no special need of such at present1 you should nevertheless make one or two for practice1 and to give you a better insight into their construction4 ,indeed1 if you cannot make single dovetails well1 you will hardly succeed in making a whole row of them exactly alike1 for joining together other articles1 as drawers1 boxes1 and cabinets4 ,c of this fig4 represents a bar of wood truly squared up1 and ready for being marked out4 ,the square is laid across it as seen1 and a line drawn on each side by its assistance1 as far from one end as is the thickness of the other piece to which it is to be attached1 and a little over 7say one-eighth of an inch7 which will afterwards be neatly planed off4 ,this is allowed merely because the extreme angles at e e sometimes get damaged in cutting out the dovetail1 and if they are1 they will have to be removed4 ,having drawn the above line all round the piece1 divide it into three by the aid of your compasses1 as shown1 on what we may call the front and back1 and then on both these sides draw lines1 e e1 to the angle4 ,you now have the dovetail1 or rather the pin of the dovetail1 marked1 and with a fine saw you have only to cut out this piece as you see at ,d1 taking great care to cut accurately close to the lines1 but to leave them1 nevertheless1 on the edge of the piece you are about to use4 ,if you can saw truly1 you should not have to touch these pieces with a chisel1 but if not1 you must take a very sharp one1 and pare the wood exactly true to the lines which you have marked4 ,now the dovetail made by dividing the width of the stuff into three1 as given here1 will not answer so well for pine1 which is liable to split off in the line ,h ,h of the fig4 ,d2 but for ash1 beech1 elm1 and such like1 it is a good proportion4 ,if the material1 therefore1 is pine1 divide it into four instead of three1 as seen at ,e1 and draw lines to the angles from the two outer marks2 or1 without any such division1 set out equal distances from each side1 so as to give about this proportion to the pieces which are to be cut out4 ,where there are a row of dovetails to be made 7as in cabinet work71 even this latter measurement into four would make them too angular1 as you will learn presently4 ,you must now fix upright in your vice the piece in which is to be cut the dovetail to receive this pin2 and laying the latter in place as it will be when the frame or other work is put together1 draw round it with a sharp pencil or scriber1 as seen on the end of ,k 7the lines c d1 at such distance from the end of the piece as is the thickness of the pin1 and the perpendiculars1 a b1 are to be drawn with the square72 and if the angles of such pin do not reach the angles of that in which the dovetail is to be cut1 as will often be the case1 the lines on the opposite side similar to a b must be also drawn with the square4 ,so you see that ,i was quite right in directing you to add a square to your box of tools1 even before many other requisites of carpentry4 ,if it is not considered desirable that the dovetail should reach the extreme angles of the pieces1 as a b1 fig4 ,k1 the pin piece is first marked as if for an ordinary tenon1 and the dovetailed pin marked on this1 as ,m4 ,when the fellow-piece is cut out1 it will then appear as ,n4 ,the effect will be the same as the last1 except that the end of the pin will be more conspicuous4 ,a great deal depends upon the material1 and on the intended use of the finished article1 therefore you must use your own judgment1 or consult that of others better acquainted with the art than yourself4 ,l shows the dovetailed joint complete as last described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,we now recur to the row of dovetails and pins--or dovetails and sockets1 as the part is often called which is to receive the pins4 ,the most common kind is that represented by ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #cj2 and as you ought now to be thinking of a larger tool-box1 and would not like it roughly nailed together like the first1 you might try your skill by constructing one more worthy of the name1 and with a drawer or two in it4 ,you must begin1 as before1 by marking the two lines across your work by the edge of the square1 or1 if you prefer it1 by your gauge1 which1 when set to the thickness of one piece1 will mark the others correctly2 and remember to mark both sides4 ,then set out your dovetails1 but do not make them so angular as you did the single one2 for remember you have a whole row of them to assist in holding the work together1 and when glued1 this will be of necessity a very strong and reliable joint1 if well made4 ,always make the pins before the sockets1 and mark round them as closely as possible1 and take great care when sawing not to break them1 and if possible keep their angles also very sharp and clean4 ,it is solely care in these particulars1 and accurate cutting just to the gauge lines and no further1 that makes carpenters' work generally so superior to that of amateurs1 and boys especially are generally careless1 and in too great a hurry to get the work done1 that they may go to something else4 ,remember1 therefore1 that when you begin to hurry your work1 you begin to spoil it4 ,i have made the drawings of the three principal dovetailed joints so plain as to render special description almost unnecessary after the remarks already made4 ,the second and third1 however1 may need a few words1 as they differ slightly from that used in the drawer1 of which a description has been given1 chiefly because the piece in which the dovetails are1 is1 in this case1 as thick as that used for the sockets4 ,suppose the dovetails and pins marked out ready to be cut4 ,take your marking-gauge and set the slide about a quarter of an inch from the point1 and run a line across the ends of the two pieces at ,a ,b1 and at ,c ,d1 and also at ,e ,f4 ,stop at ,a ,b when you cut the sockets1 and take care to get the bottoms of these quite square and even4 ,cut the dovetails or pins as directed in making the drawer1 but stop on the lines e f and g h 7the latter also to be made with the gauge on both edges of the work71 thus the two pieces will1 of necessity1 fit nicely together1 and only a single line will appear a little way from one corner4 ,if all lines are made with gauge and square1 this form of dovetail may require neatness and care1 but will not be beyond the skill even of a young mechanic4 ,i should indeed advise that every opportunity be taken of joining pieces of wood with tenon or with dovetail1 because1 after all1 these are the chief difficulties to be encountered4 ,if you can square up your work1 and make true-fitting joints1 there is little in carpentry and joinery that you cannot accomplish4 ,the third example is worked exactly like the second1 but instead of leaving square the pieces projecting beyond the dovetails and pins1 these are sloped off or bevelled carefully from the extreme corners down to the pins and sockets4 ,the result is1 that when put together1 no joint appears1 as it is exactly upon the angle4 ,there is no neater or stronger method than this of joining the sides of drawers1 boxes1 trays1 and such like articles4 ,the cabinetmaker employs no other for heavy work2 only when it is very light does he make use of a plan1 the appearance of which is 7when finished7 like the last-described1 but it is less trouble to make1 and less strong1 yet sufficiently so for many purposes4 ,this method is called mitring1 and is accomplished in the following way4 ,the wood 7let it be for a small tray7 is prepared as usual1 truly and evenly1 and the ends exactly square to the sides4 ,if you use stuff about a quarter or half an inch thick1 or even an eighth 7the first or last being suitable for such light work71 you can make a mitred joint with the help of the gauge alone1 but frequently a mitre-board or mitre-box is used1 which saves some trouble in measuring and marking4 ,it is well1 however1 that you should begin with this trouble1 and take up the easier method afterwards2 especially as it will in this case give you a simple lesson in mathematics1 and teach you some of the properties of the figure called a square4 ,let us commence with this lesson4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,fig4 #ca1 is a square2 the lines at the opposite sides are parallel1--that is1 they are exactly the same distance apart from one end to the other4 ,to make this clear1 ,e and ,f are given1 which are not parallel1 for they are further apart at one end than they are at the other4 ,and as ,a ,b is parallel to ,c ,d1 and ,a ,c parallel to ,b ,d1 so ,a ,b is perpendicular to ,b ,d and to ,a ,c1 or what we have called square to it1 as you would find with your square1 which is made1 as you know1 to prove your work in this respect4 ,the consequence is1 that the angles 7or corners7 are all alike1 and are called right angles4 ,understand what is meant by angles being the same size or alike4 ,m and ,h are alike1 though the lines of one are a great deal longer than those of the other2 but though the lines of ,k and ,h are the same length1 the angle ,k is much smaller than that at ,h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,as ,i have gone a little into this subject1 ,i will go a little further1 for it is as well that you should learn all about the sizes of angles1 and ,i only know of one way in which to make the matter clear4 ,every circle1 no matter how small or large1 is supposed to be divided into #cfj equal parts1 called degrees4 ,that large circle which forms the circumference of the earth is considered to be so divided4 ,now1 if we draw lines from all these divisions to the centre1 they will meet there1 and form a number of equal angles4 ,i have not divided the circle ,p all round1 because it would make so many angles that you could not see them clearly2 but ,i have put #cfj at the top1 and then #de1 which means1 that if ,i had marked all the divisions1 there would be #de up to that point4 ,then at #de more ,i have marked #ij1 and so on1 marking each #deth division1 and from these ,i have drawn lines to the centre of the circle4 ,now1 if you understand me so far1 we shall get on famously4 ,look at the line from #cfj to the centre1 and that from #ij1 and see where they join4 ,this is a right angle1 and this is the angle at each corner of a square4 ,at ,n1 ,i have drawn this separately to make it clear1 and you see ,i have taken a quarter of the circle1 or the quadrant1 as it is called1 of #ij4 ,and you now see that ,i might extend the lines beyond the circle to any extent1 but it would make no difference1--we should still have #ij of a circle1 only the circle would be larger1 as those which are partly drawn with the dotted lines4 ,now1 all angles are thus measured by the divisions of a circle2 the line at #de1 which meets the line from #cfj at the centre1 makes with it an angle of #de1 which is half a right angle4 ,a line drawn at #cj would make an angle of #cj with the same line from #cfj1 and so on right round2 only when two lines come exactly opposite one another1 as #cfj and #ahj1 or #bgj and #ij1 these make no angles--they are but one straight line passing through the centre1 and are called diameters of the circle1 a word which means measure through1 or across the circle4 ,now1 the corners of a square frame1 or of a drawer or box1 are right angles of #ij4 ,at ,r1 ,i have drawn such a corner of a frame1 and if ,i place one point of a pair of compasses at e1 and draw a circle cutting through the lines of the sides of the frame1 you see ,i should make it #ij1 or a quadrant1 like ,n4 ,moreover1 if ,i draw the sides of the frame as if they crossed as at e ,r1 ,i draw a small square1 and the line e ,r is the diagonal of such square3 e ,r is the mitred joint ,i have to cut4 ,look at ,t ,s and you will see this1 as here the two sides of the frame are represented as cut ready to be joined together4 ,a square has another quality3 all its sides are equal1 and this is very important1 and will help us in cutting out the work4 x ,y represents the strip of wood to be properly sloped off for a mitred joint4 ,with a gauge such as that just above x1 or your regular marking gauge1 set off on the side ,y a distance equal to x x 7the width of the pieces72 join x b by a line1 and you will have the right slope4 ,why8 ,because when you measured with the gauge you marked the two equal sides of a square1 and x b is the diagonal of it1 which is exactly the same as you had at e ,r4 ,by measuring in this way1 therefore1 you can1 if your strips are already truly squared up1 always mark out a mitred joint correctly4 ,the two little angles at x and b are also1 ,i should point out1 equal--each half of a right angle or #de1 and the other strip or side of the frame will make up the other half right angle1 or complete the exact square of #ij4 ,in all this ,i have clearly laid down the principles of mitred joints1 and given you a lesson in mathematics4 ,i shall now1 therefore1 go on to the work of practical construction 7,fig4 #cb74 ,you must be very careful to make the edge ,b square to the side ,a1 as in all other work which ,i have explained to you2 or1 if this side is moulded like the front of a picture-frame1 you must square the edge with the back4 ,after having cut all the pieces1 you have to glue them and fasten them together4 ,warm them1 and use the glue boiling1 as directed before1 and quickly lay the pieces together4 ,to do so effectually1 you must place them flat on a board or on your bench1 and having adjusted them1 you can tie a strong cord round the whole1 putting little bits of wood close to the corners1 so that the string shall not mark your work1 if such marks would be of consequence4 ,or you can wedge up strongly in another way4 ,if you look at ,c you will see a square representing a frame with eight spots round it4 ,these are nail heads1 and mark the position of eight nails driven round but not touching the frame into the bench4 ,then1 having prepared eight small wedges1 drive them in between the frame and the nails4 ,you will find this as simple and easy a way of keeping the frame together as any1 and all must remain till the glue is dry and hard--probably till the same hour on the following day8 ,then remove the wedges and take up your frame1 which should be trim and strong4 ,nevertheless1 you are now to add considerably to the strength of it in one or both of the following ways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,with a mitre-saw or tenon-saw cut one or two slits at each angle1 as seen at ,d1 ,fig4 #cb1 e and f4 ,cut little pieces of thin wood1 and having glued them1 drive them into these slits4 ,if you saw them slanting1 some tending upwards and some downwards1 it will be better than cutting straight into the frame4 ,then1 when all is dry1 neatly trim off these pieces even with the frame4 ,you may also1 if the work is of a more heavy kind1 as a large picture-frame1 finish with keyed mitres1 g4 ,cut a place with a chisel of the shape here shown1 about one-eighth of an inch deep1 half into one piece and half into the other4 ,then cut out a key of the same form of thin hard wood1 to fit exactly1 and glue it in4 ,the shape of the key prevents the joint from coming apart1 and makes it very strong and durable4 ,a very large number of light boxes are made with mitred joints1 as workboxes1 water-colour boxes1 compass-boxes1 and such like2 and you can examine these for yourself2 but you will not often see the keys at the angles1 because most of such boxes are veneered1 or covered when finished with a thin layer of some ornamental wood4 ,i shall now proceed to show you how these joints can be cut at once without the trouble of gauging and measuring to find the proper angle4 ,therefore ,i shall let you into the secret of mitring boxes and mitring boards1 which1 if you had much to do of this kind1 would shorten your work considerably4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,a1 represents a mitring-board1 ,b a mitring-box4 ,we must go into a little mathematics again1 and try to understand these1 because1 if you do so1 you may devise others1 occasionally more suitable for any special work you have in hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,first1 look at ,d of this figure4 ,you have a line1 a b1 standing upon another ,c ,d1 and perpendicular to it--that is1 it leans neither to the right nor to the left4 ,it makes two angles at b1 one on each side of a b1 and these are angles of #ij1 or right angles1 as ,i explained4 ,now1 if one line like a b stands on another1 these two angles are together equal to #ahj1 or twice #ij1 whether this line is or is not upright or perpendicular to the other4 ,look at fig4 ,c4 ,here you have the line x x1 and standing on it several others2 one1 a b1 is upright or perpendicular1 making with it two angles of #ij each1 or #ahj together4 ,now1 take f b1 and suppose this to make #de on the right-hand side1 you see it makes therefore a proportionately larger angle on the other4 ,it makes1 in fact1 an angle of #ace4 ,but #ace added to #de equals #ahj1 which is the same as before1 and whichever line you take1 the angles together made by it at b will equal #ahj of the circle--that is1 they will equal two right-angles4 ,now1 if ,i take the fig4 ,d again1 and carry on the line a b right through c d1 where it is dotted1 two angles will be made on the other side of c d1 which will each be right angles of #ij as before1 so that all the four angles thus made are equal4 ,it follows from this1 that whenever any two lines cut each other--,e ,q and ,r ,s for instance--the angles at ,t equal four right angles1 no matter whether the lines are or are not perpendicular to each other3 and what is more 7and what ,i specially want you to note71 the opposite angles are equal--i4e41 the two small ones1 or the two large ones4 ,the action of a mitre-block or mitre-box depends upon the principles here laid down1 so you see that although few carpenters understand much about mathematics1 and simply work as they were taught1 without knowing or caring why1 those who planned the method of work1 and invented mitre-boards and such like devices to shorten work and lessen labour1 must have understood a great deal about such things4 ,and so it is generally1 as you will find with inventions3 things look easy enough1 and natural enough1 when we see them every day2 but it has taken a great deal of thought and sound knowledge to invent them in the first place1 and a great deal of practical experience to construct them so neatly4 ,even a common pin goes through such a number of processes as would surprise you1 if you have never been able to see them made4 ,look carefully at ,a4 ,it represents a block of wood1 about #a or #b inches thick1 and #c or #d wide1 firmly screwed on the top of a board #a inch thick4 ,the length is about #ah inches4 ,two saw-cuts are made with a tenon-saw1 right through the block to the board1 at angles of #de with the line a b4 ,these are guides for the saw to work in4 ,the wood to be cut is laid against the edge of the block1 and rests on the board1 and the saw is then applied in one of the grooves while the wood is being cut by it4 ,let ,h be such a piece4 ,if the saw is put in the left-hand slit1 it will cut it like y2 if in the other1 it will cut it the other way1 like x2 and thus1 if a piece is taken off at each end1 it will be as you see1 ready to become one side of a frame4 ,now1 examine ,k1 which shows all the lines or edges of the mitring-board1 as seen from above1 with the strip a b sawn across in the line c a4 ,the lines a b and c a cross each other1 making the opposite angles equal2 and as one angle is #de the other must be #de also1 so that the right-hand side of the strip is correctly cut4 ,but so also is the other end1 and if we turn it over1 it will exactly fit1 and the two will form two sides of a square4 ,i could prove to you that the second strip contains angles exactly similar to the first1 but you ought to be able now to detect the reason for yourself1 and ,i do not want to teach you more mathematics at present1 as ,i am afraid you are tired of these1 and will want to go on with the real work of fitting and making4 ,i have1 however1 said enough1 ,i think1 to make you comprehend why the two saw-cuts must be at an angle of #de with the edge of the top board4 ,perhaps you wish to make your own board1 however1 and would like to know an easy way to get the saw-cuts at the right angle8 ,i shall therefore show you how to do this1 but you must be very exact in your workmanship4 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #cd1 is the piece of thick board as seen from above1 and close to it is a perspective view of the same which shows the thickness4 ,set off a distance1 ,a ,e1 equal to ,a ,c1 and join ,c ,e4 ,the dotted line shows you that ,c ,e is the diagonal of a square1 and the angles at ,c and ,e are consequently each #de2 but we do not want this line to end at ,c1 it is too exactly at the corner for convenience4 ,measure1 therefore1 a distance1 ,e b and ,c a1 equal1 and join a b1 which will be the place for the saw-cut2 and the other can be marked out in exactly the same way4 a x1 in the perspective view1 must be carefully marked by the help of the square4 ,take care to mark the line on the bottom board1 where the edge of this upper thick piece will fall1 and screw the two firmly together4 ,if the edge and face of the thick piece are not truly square to each other1 the mitres cut thus will not be correct2 but1 if all is well made1 they may be glued at once together1 no paring of the chisel being necessary or desirable4 ,the mitre-box1 ,fig4 #cc1 ,b1 is on precisely the same principle1 but is chiefly used to cut narrow strips not over #b inches wide2 it should be neatly made of mahogany1 half an inch thick4 ,there is also generally made a saw-cut straight across1 at right angles to the length of the box or board1 which is convenient in sawing across such strips of wood1 as it saves the necessity of marking lines against the edge of the square3 of course1 it is specially used where a large number of strips have to be cut square across4 ,in all these you observe one saw-cut leaning to the right1 the other to the left4 ,this is necessary when picture-frames or moulded pieces have to be cut to #de1 because you cannot1 of course1 turn such pieces over and use either side1 which you can do when the piece has no such mouldings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,several modifications exist of mitring-boards2 some arranged for sawing1 and some for planing2 and where thousands of frames have to be cheaply made1 the angles are cut off with circular saws1 of which ,i need not speak particularly here1 but which ,i shall probably have to describe in a future page4 ,in ,fig4 #cd1 ,k1 ,i have shown one corner of a simple picture-frame1 covered with what is called rustic work1 that is--short pieces of oak1 ash1 or other wood cut from the tree1 left with the bark on1 or peeled and varnished4 ,these are nailed on with small brads2 and1 if well assorted and arranged1 this will have a very neat appearance1 suiting well for rooms fitted up in oak1 as many studies and libraries are4 ,in picture-frames1 however1 a rebate 7called rabbit7 has to be made at the back1 like ,l1 in which the picture with its glass and back-board has to rest2 and this requires a special plane4 ,the front also is always either sloped off or moulded4 ,i shall therefore make this kind of work the subject of my next chapter1 and describe the operations of rebating1 grooving1 tongueing1 and moulding4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,these operations1 which are frequently required in carpentry1 are done on a small scale by planes4 ,on a larger scale1 circular saws and other machinery are widely and extensively made use of for the same purpose1 as being much more rapid and economical4 ,of course1 the young mechanic will employ the more usual method1 and the present chapter will therefore treat of the planes necessary for the above work1 and the method of using them4 ,the common rebate or rabbit plane comes first4 ,this is of various widths2 an inch being a very useful size4 ,it is different in many respects from the smoothing-plane1 being made with a single iron only1 which is so arranged as to reach into angular recesses1 which could not be touched by the ordinary plane1 of which the iron does not extend quite to either side of the sole4 ,fig4 #ce1 ,a and ,b1 will illustrate this4 ,a represents the plane as seen from above and at one side1 ,b gives the perspective view of the sole1 ,c represents the iron1 ,d the wedge4 ,let us suppose a rebate required upon a strip #a inch thick1 the same to be half an inch wide and deep4 ,a gauge is first set to the required distance1 and a line is marked on both faces1 as a guide for the action of the plane4 ,after a little practice it will be found easy to guide the entry of the plane with the left hand1 grasping it so as partly to overlap the sole1 and thus determine the width of the cut1 which must not at first be carried to the full width required1 but may be brought within an eighth of an inch of such gauge line1 and the material removed sometimes from one face of the rebate and sometimes from the other1 taking care to keep it nicely square4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,at first it is an easier plan to nail on with brads a strip of wood accurately planed1 which in this case1 as the sole of the plane is #a inch wide1 must cover it from end to end to a width of half an inch4 ,this will prevent the possibility of going too deep into cut1 and insure the correctness of the rebate1 ,fig4 #ce1 ,h4 ,the injury to the sole will not be great if small brads are used1 but at the same time it is better to learn the art of using the hand as a guide1 which is the more general method of the working carpenter4 ,as for the use of rebates1 there are few pieces of cabinet-work or joinery in which they are not found1 and as stated in the previous chapter1 no picture-frame can be made without them4 ,the shavings which escape from the rebate-frame do not rise out of the top1 as in the smoothing-plane1 but from the side1 which is hollowed out for the purpose1 as seen in the drawing4 ,the skew rebate-plane is made like the preceding one1 but the iron1 instead of standing at right angles to the sides1 is placed at an angle4 ,with this you can plane across the grain of the wood4 ,the next plane to be noticed1 is that with which grooves are cut1 such as you will often see in the sides of book-shelves1 in which the several shelves slide4 ,the same is done where two boards are to be joined lengthwise1 and there is danger of their becoming separated as the wood shrinks in drying4 ,the panels of doors1 too1 are slid into similar grooves in the styles and rails of the framework1 and there are innumerable other cases in which this mode of work is carried out4 ,these grooves are generally cut with the plough1 a curious-looking tool1 by no means like a plane in appearance1 but of great use to the carpenter4 ,of course1 we require various widths of such grooves1 according to the special purpose intended1 and these are determined by various widths of the cutting irons1 which1 however1 all fix into the same stock2 a dozen or more of such irons are sold with a single plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,in ,fig4 #cf is a set of drawings explanatory of the above tool4 ,the central part1 or stock1 is that which corresponds to the same in other planes1 and it is only modified to suit the other parts1 which simply act as guides or gauges regulating the distance of the grooves from the edge of the board1 and the depth to which they are to be cut4 ,when the arms1 ,a ,a1 are removed1 you have the plane as it appears with a brass fence1 b1 at one side1 which can be raised or lowered at pleasure1 and set at any point by the screw ,c2 d is an iron plate which acts as the sole of the plane1 the cutting edge being set to project a very little way below it4 ,the arms ,a ,a carry the fence g1 which is flat on the inside next the plane1 and moulded 7merely for appearance sake7 on the outside4 ,the arms slide in two holes in the body of the plane1 and can be drawn out at pleasure1 and fixed by little wooden wedges1 e e4 ,thus1 while in use1 the fence rubs along the edge of the board1 while the groove is being cut at such distance as the fence is fixed1 and to such a depth as is allowed by the position of the brass check or guide4 ,complex1 therefore1 as this tool appears1 it is not so in reality4 ,we shall presently describe a chest of drawers or cabinet calculated to receive small tools1 or specimens of coins1 shells1 and such like1 in which another kind of grooving-plane has to come into use1 called 7with its fellow1 which makes a tenon to fit such groove7 a match plane4 ,this is of extensive use1 less expensive than the plough1 and on the whole more likely to be useful to the young mechanic4 ,indeed1 although the plough has been here described and illustrated1 it is not by any means to be considered essential1 and its purchase may well be deferred until other tools of greater importance has been effected4 ,the side or sash fillister to be presently described1 for instance1 would be more useful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,fig4 #cg is such a cabinet1 with six drawers1 dovetailed at the corners as usual4 ,the bottom1 however1 projects beyond the sides1 so that the latter are not made lower than the back1 as was the case with the table-drawer previously described4 ,the top and sides may be of mahogany1 the back and bottom of pine 7stained or not at pleasure71 or if cost is an object1 the whole may be of any other wood2 but the grooves in which the drawers slide1 can be cut more sharply and neatly in harder wood than pine--birch1 for instance1 which is very fit for the purpose1 and will take a good polish4 ,the outer case is first made like an open box4 ,the dimensions may be regulated according to the intended use1 but generally the drawers increase in depth downwards4 ,the top and bottom overlap the sides1 the latter to a somewhat greater width than the former4 ,the sides can therefore only be dovetailed to the back2 the bottom may be attached with screws1 and the top likewise1 but the holes must then be plugged to conceal them4 ,if the whole is of deal1 and to be painted or veneered1 this would be the best plan2 but if the top is of mahogany1 it is not so easy to fill up the holes above the heads of the screws so as to thoroughly conceal them4 ,if1 however1 you have no plough to cut a groove to let the sides and back a little way into the top1 glue alone will not hold sufficiently4 ,in this case smaller holes may be made to admit #b-;inch brads to assist the glue1 such holes being easily filled with putty stained to imitate mahogany4 ,the peculiarity of the drawers consists in their meeting each other quite closely when shut1 without the intermediate divisions ordinarily seen4 ,hence the necessity for a different arrangement of the sliding surfaces as before referred to4 ,the insides of the case have five grooves ploughed across them1 as seen at ,c of this figure1 the sixth drawer only being made as usual to slide upon the bottom of the case1 and having its sides made lower than the back for this purpose4 ,in the grooves thus cut1 the projecting part of the bottom of the drawers is made to fit and slide1 and they will run more smoothly if cut so that the grain of the wood shall run across the bottom1 from front to back1 and not from side to side4 ,the bottom of the drawer must not come below the level of the front1 but either the front should be rebated to take one edge of it1 as seen at ,e1 which is the best way1 or a slip of wood should be glued along as at ,f1 on which that edge may rest1 and to which it can be attached4 ,d exhibits this distinctly1 as it is drawn as if the nearest end was removed to show the position of the other parts4 ,the bottom1 therefore1 will be let into the front1 and nailed under the back and sides1 and will project rather less than half an inch each way1 to fit the grooves in which it is to slide4 ,another way to effect the same is to make the drawers as usual1 with no such projections1 and to nail a strip to run in the grooves in the middle of the side pieces1 or1 if preferred1 near the top4 ,the effect is1 of course1 the same1 and such strips being planed up nicely1 with the grain running lengthwise1 will cause the drawers to work in and out very smoothly4 ,there is no neater way than this to make a cabinet2 and sometimes the whole is closed with a panelled door1 for which purpose the case is left to project beyond the drawers4 ,unless well supplied in the matter of planes1 which is hardly to be expected1 you will not be able to cut the grooves in the side of the outer case in any way but the following1 which1 however1 will answer very well when the piece in which they are to be cut is not above #i inches or #a foot wide4 ,mark out the places1 spacing them with the greatest care1 and cut just within the lines with a tenon-saw2 then cut out with a chisel the narrow piece which intervenes4 ,there is a plane called a routing-plane used for this by cabinetmakers and joiners1 but you may as well exercise your ingenuity to do without it4 ,if you have a plough1 you may remove the fence1 and let it follow up the saw and chisel1 but it will be hardly required if you use the chisel carefully4 ,i shall now introduce to your notice another very excellent plane1 called a side or sash fillister1 for cutting rebates of any required depth and width4 ,it is very like the plough in appearance1 with a similar wooden guide or fence on two arms to regulate the width1 and another of metal1 moved by a screw at the top1 to regulate the depth of the cut4 ,fig4 #ch1 ,a1 shows one side of this plane1 and ,b the other4 ,the cutting edge comes down to the level of c d in fig4 ,a2 the fence1 of which the edge is seen at h1 will draw up to the level of a b1 or lower to that of the edge4 ,this plane1 therefore1 is but a more complete rebate-plane1 fitted with guides for depth and width4 ,it does its work very perfectly1 and is of extensive use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,i have given descriptions of these planes1 although the young mechanic will not at first possess them1 as they are somewhat expensive1 because ,i feel it as well to let him know how work is done by the trade1 and why it is that such work is effected more rapidly and better than he himself can do it2 but at the same time it is far better that he should1 for a long time1 work at a disadvantage1 by using few tools1 and those of the simplest construction1 before taking in hand others which cost a good deal of money1 which might often be better spent4 ,a look back over these pages will show that with a long 7or jack7 plane1 a smoothing-plane and a rebate-plane1 all the work previously alluded to can be done4 ,as1 however1 ,i am writing upon the subject of planes1 ,i may as well mention two more--match-planes and beading-planes--to which may be added those for moulding1 being an extension only of the last named4 ,match-planes are always in pairs4 ,their use is to cut1 the one a groove1 ,fig4 #ci1 ,a1 the other a tenon or tongue1 or feather1 as it is sometimes called1 as ,fig4 #ci1 ,b1 down the long sides 7with the grain7 of boards that are to be joined lengthwise 7,fig4 #ci74 ,if the plough is used1 a groove is cut in both pieces1 and a slip of board planed up to fit them2 either method will answer equally well4 ,when boards joined thus shrink1 the tongue or slip fills up space4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,there is no necessity for illustrating the planes used for beading and moulding after the description already given of others4 ,the irons1 instead of being flat1 are filed into grooves and hollows of the required pattern1 and of course transfer their own form to the wood upon which they are used4 ,they are held on the slope of the moulding to be cut4 ,when blunt1 they have to be sharpened with slips of oilstone1 which can be had for the purpose1 of square and round section2 sometimes they are sufficiently soft to be filed into shape1 but a keen edge cannot thus be obtained4 ,mouldings1 however1 are generally finished off with fine sandpaper4 ,they are always planed lengthwise of the grain in long strips1 and are cut to the required lengths 7generally with mitres74 ,when very broad1 they are made up of several narrower ones1 glued side by side4 ,the young mechanic had better get them cut for him by some friendly carpenter1 as it is hardly worth his while to buy planes for which he will have comparatively little use4 ,i shall conclude these papers on carpentry by describing the method of making such a door as would suit the cabinet already described1 especially as it will explain the way in which all panelling is done1 whether for doors1 shutters1 or other similar articles4 ,panelling is indeed of very general application in every household1 and it is well worth while even for the young mechanic to learn how it is accomplished4 ,it is absolutely necessary1 however1 that he should be possessed either of a plough or match-planes for routing out the grooves in which the panels slide4 ,nearly all panels have a beading or a moulding running round them as a finish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,fig4 #dj illustrates the method of panelling4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c are the styles1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g the rails4 ,the mortices and tenons are cut as usual4 ,the inside edges of ,c1 ,b1 ,d1 ,g are then grooved with the plough1 and both edges of the other pieces4 ,the panels are carefully squared up1 and then bevelled off at the edges so as to fit the grooves4 ,to put such a door together1 ,a1 ,d1 ,g1 ,e1 and ,f would be first arranged1 then the panels slid in from the outside1 and afterwards the styles ,b and ,c put in place4 ,the part beyond the outer mortices in the latter pieces1 which are left for safety in cutting these mortices1 and to prevent splitting when ,d and ,g are driven home1 are not cut off until the glue is dry4 ,the process is simple1 but it requires great care1 both in setting out the various measurements1 and in squaring up the different pieces composing the whole4 ,after the whole is dry1 strips of moulding1 cut to mitre-joints at the corners1 are nailed on with brads round the panels to give the whole a finished appearance4 ,in the above examples1 in which ,i have gone from the more simple to the more complicated1 are comprised the main principles of the art of carpentry4 ,at any rate1 when the young mechanic can do as much1 he will be able to accomplish a great deal more4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,there are a number of useful and ornamental articles which cannot be made with the carpenter's tools alone1 but which need a lathe for their construction4 ,wooden boxes of circular section1 wooden and metal wheels and pulleys1 ornamental chair and table legs1 and a countless number of similar articles1 all depend upon the skill of the turner4 ,models too of engines and machinery of all sizes and shapes1 bring the lathe into constant requisition4 ,no one can say to whom this machine is to be attributed4 ,probably it has been developed by slow and imperceptible steps1 from the potter's wheel to its present elaborate and perfect form4 ,as for the part that old ,ddalus had in it1 ,i believe he had just as much to do with it as he had with the saw1 which he is said to have invented from seeing the backbone of a fish4 ,now1 the backbone of a fish is not a bit like a saw1 but the jaw of a shark is1 and very quickly it amputates legs1 arms1 and heads1 when unfortunately the chance is given to it4 ,we need not1 however1 stay to discuss this unimportant point2 we will leave it to the researches of the ,antediluvian ,society1 or ,noahican ,brethren1 or any other known or unknown learned body1 and proceed to consider the lathe as it is now generally constructed--the ambition of boys1 the delight of adult possessors1 and1 to the writer1 8gem of gems60 ,at the very time ,i write1 ,i am engaged in fitting up two lathes2 one of which is for just such a 8young mechanic0 as this book is intended to instruct4 ,the bed will be of dry hard beech1 the fly-wheel of iron turned up with five grooves or speeds1 as they are called4 ,the heads1 which are the only really important part1 are to be made by a well-known ,london maker1 whose work is sure to be the best possible at the price afforded4 ,nevertheless1 this lathe will cost several pounds1 although it is to be fitted for hand-turning only1 and it is possible in ,london to find a much cheaper 7not better7 article4 ,when ,i was myself a 8young mechanic10 so many years ago that ,i find ,i do not quite like to count them1 ,i had a lathe at #b1 rather shaky1 wooden fly-wheel1 wooden head--not at all the thing to recommend4 ,then ,i had another made by a gunsmith--all iron--for it was what is called a triangle-bar lathe2 the bed being a bar of triangular section1 on which the heads or poppits slid1 and also the rest4 ,i think now it was not a bad lathe2 but ,i am afraid the work ,i did on it was scarcely first-class2 and ,i sold the machine one fine day under the impression that if ,i had a better ,i should do better work4 ,this1 however1 proved a terrible fallacy2 so ,i set myself upon high as a warning to young mechanics1 who always fancy that their clumsy1 bad work is due to some fault in their tools1 whereas1 after all1 it is generally their own4 ,well1 ,i had a succession of lathes1 after that triangle-bar one had passed into oblivion1 by various makers2 some good1 some indifferent1 some for heavy1 and some for light work2 and ,i fancy ,i am now fairly able to give an opinion upon the merits or demerits of any particular lathe which may come under my notice4 ,i was going to write a piece of advice1 8,don't give too much for a lathe10 when ,i remembered that ,i was scribbling for the edification first of boys2 and experience tells me the caution is by no means generally necessary1 few boys' pockets being very heavily lined1 owing to the constant claims upon them for peg-tops1 knives1 string1 and etceteras--not to say lollipops and bulls' eyes1 and similar unwholesome luxuries4 ,i suppose1 however1 ,i must give some idea of cost1 if only as a partial guide2 but all depends upon the special object for which the lathe is to be used4 ,if for models1 for instance1 it would not be so expensive as if it was desired for elaborate ornamental work in wood or ivory1 when the young mechanic has grown whiskers1 and become an adult enthusiast at this delightful recreation4 ,for there are all kinds of lathes to be had2 some that will answer well for beginners1 and for rough work in after years2 some beautifully finished1 intended to be used first for simple hand-turning1 but which are of best construction1 and therefore worth adding to from time to time2 and if carefully used1 will descend in good order from father to son4 ,then there are lathes for heavier work1 and for screw cutting and engine making1 fit for engineers2 and others of minute size and exquisite finish1 adapted to the special requirements of watch and clock makers--lathes you could put in your waistcoat pocket4 ,now1 if ,i were sure you would be very1 very careful1 ,i should like to recommend a good lathe1 worth adding to as you grew more and more experienced2 but these1 even of simplest make1 are costly1 and not within reach of half my readers4 ,i shall therefore say--get a good1 plain1 strong tool that will bear a little rough usage1 and which will cost you as little as it is possible to make them for3 and if you find1 after a year or two1 that you are becoming a proficient1 and therefore not so likely to damage a good lathe1 you can set this1 your first1 on one side1 and let it become your hack to do any odd jobs1 and buy yourself both a larger and a better one4 ,i know this will be a double outlay2 but experience tells me it will be the best way and the cheapest in the long run4 ,perhaps you may like to go on as you are4 ,your small lathe may prove an accurate one1 and quite sufficient for your need4 ,in such case1 of course1 a new one will not be required at all4 ,but if it should be otherwise1 and circumstances allow you to improve upon it1 you may rest assured your old friend will be ever a handy assistant1 and save your better lathe very considerably in many ways4 ,you can get a lathe for about #bj to #be1 with iron bed complete2 and ,i really think it impossible to obtain a cheaper one4 ,of course it will be small1 and of the plainest possible construction4 ,it will1 nevertheless1 answer for light work in wood and metal1 being designed to assist the young mechanic in making model engines and similar curiosities4 ,from this you may go1 pound by pound1 to good1 serviceable tools2 and these to a #cjj lathe for rose engine-work1 and elaborate ornamentation in ivory and other costly materials4 ,most probably ,i shall be able to give you a catalogue or two at the end of this book1 published by makers of such lathes1 and you can then judge of the probable cost of your workshop4 ,the drawing of the lathe 7,fig4 #da7 will be readily understood even by those boys who have had no opportunity of seeing any work of this kind4 ,there are1 however1 few towns or villages in which a lathe does not exist1 and may not be examined by any boy who desires to learn its construction and use4 ,its object is to give rotary movement to any material it is desired to form into a circular or cylindrical shape4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,motion being given to the fly-wheel by means of the treadle and crank1 is communicated to the pulley upon the mandrel4 ,upon the screw of this mandrel1 ,b1 the work is fixed2 being usually held in a chuck suited to its particular form1 but sometimes it is screwed directly upon the mandrel4 ,the rest1 ,c1 is then fixed near it1 and the tool is supported thereon and held firmly while the work revolves against it4 ,all this is easy to understand--it is not so easy to carry it into practice4 ,attention to the following directions will enable the young mechanic to become a good turner in course of time2 but the art cannot be practically learned in a day1 and it needs experience and considerable practice to become anything like a proficient4 ,if the construction of the lathe itself is understood1 the first consideration is what tools and chucks are necessary4 ,i shall speak of the latter first1 as little or nothing can be done without them4 ,first comes the prong-chuck1 for soft wood 7,fig4 #da1 ,a74 ,this1 like all others1 is made to screw upon the mandrel4 ,its use is to hold one end of any piece of wood while the other is supported by the point1 ,e1 of the poppit1 ,h1 which poppit can be moved at pleasure along the lathe-bed1 and fixed at any given place by a hand-nut below4 ,the point itself can be advanced or drawn back by turning the handle1 ,k4 ,a piece of wood thus mounted must of necessity revolve with the mandrel1 because1 although it can and will turn round upon the point of the back poppit1 it cannot do so upon the fork or prong1 which enters and holds it securely4 ,this chuck1 or one of the same nature1 is always used for cylinders of soft wood1 which can be supported at both ends1 such as tool-handles1 chair-legs1 and other work not requiring to be hollowed out4 ,it sometimes happens1 however1 especially if the work is at all rough1 or considerably out of truth1 that the piece slips round upon the fork or prong1 especially if it does not enter deeply enough2 and in addition1 tool-handles and round rulers1 and many articles that have to be similarly supported at both ends1 are made of hard wood1 into which this prong will not readily enter4 ,in such cases1 and indeed as a general substitute for the first1 a chuck called a 8cross-chuck0 is to be used 7,fig4 #da1 ,l1 ,m74 ,the centre of the little cross 7which is of steel1 and fits into the same square or round hole in the socket which carries the prong1 and which is also used to hold drills1 pieces of iron rod which are to be turned1 and other articles7 is made to revolve in the precise axial line of the mandrel1 or to run true with it1 as it is called4 ,the arms of the cross are to be imbedded in the work1 which is best effected by making in the latter two saw-cuts at right angles with each other 7,fig4 #da1 ,n71 which represents a piece ready for mounting4 ,the next chuck is equally necessary 7,fig4 #da1 ,o74 ,it is a taper screw of steel1 fixed in a socket which can be attached to the mandrel4 ,two sizes of this chuck would be useful for a large lathe1 but for such a one as will probably be purchased by the young amateur1 one only1 with a screw of medium size1 will suffice4 ,the use of this chuck is to hold pieces which only require to be supported at one end1 so that a tool can be used to work upon the other1 either to mould it into the required form1 or to hollow it out for a box or bowl4 ,of course you might screw such work on the mandrel-nose itself1 but it would make a very large hole in the end1 whereas this taper screw only requires a moderately sized gimlet-hole4 ,it is therefore a much more convenient way of attaching work to the mandrel1 and is of extensive use4 ,the cup-chuck is the last required4 ,it is sketched at ,p1 and is sometimes of iron1 but generally of brass4 ,there are several sizes made and sold with lathes1 but you need not have at most more than one or two1 as ,i shall show you how to make wooden ones1 which answer as well1 if not better4 ,the flat plates1 ,r1 ,r1 can scarcely be called chucks1 but they generally come into the list of such4 ,the latter has five projecting points1 which1 sticking into such a thing as a flat-board 7like a bread-platter1 or round pulley71 hold it sufficiently firm when the back centre is brought up against the other side of the piece1 to allow of its being turned4 ,the other is merely a flat plate with holes in it1 through which screws can be passed from behind into any odd bit of wood of #b or #c inches in thickness1 whereby a chuck can be quickly made to suit any required purpose4 ,two or three of these would be convenient1 one of which should be nearly as large as the lathe will carry2 and in this one a great many holes and slots should be made4 ,this is called a face-plate1 and1 in addition to the ordinary screws1 whereby pieces of wood are attached to it1 it is fitted with clamps and bolts of various forms1 for the purpose of holding securely upon its face all kinds of flat works in wood or metal1--such as cog-wheels1 which have to be bored out and faced4 ,the young model-maker will find a face-plate of great service4 ,the larger one should be of iron1 as it will be cheaper than brass4 ,we now pass on to chucks for metal turning4 ,these are of various shapes4 ,first in order comes the centre chuck and dog1 for holding rods of iron which can be supported at both ends4 ,the commonest form is represented in ,fig4 #da1 ,s1 ,t4 ,s is such a face-plate almost as ,i have described1 but it has a pin projecting from it1 and also a steel centre-point4 ,the latter is often made to screw out and in1 which is the best plan4 ,the pin can be slid to any point in the face-plate1 and clamped by a nut at the back4 ,t is called a dog1 and of these two at least will be required1 if the young mechanic intends to work in metal4 ,the way of using these is shown at ,t4 ,the rod of iron has a hole drilled at each end1 as nearly in the centre as possible4 ,it is first indented with a punch1 then a drill is put into the drill chuck1 and one end of the rod brought against it as it revolves1 while the back poppit centre-point is screwed against the indentation at the other end4 ,a little oil is applied to the drill to assist its working1 and the rod itself is prevented from turning round either by grasping it with the hand or screwing a hand-vice upon it1 so that this comes against the bed or the rest2 or it can be held in the hand1 which has one advantage1 namely1 that the operator can feel exactly what is the resistance caused by the drill1 and can regulate the pressure accordingly4 ,the screw of the poppit is1 of course1 to be very slowly and steadily advanced during the process4 ,all drilling in the lathe is done in this way1 but in boring out long holes1 the action is often reversed1 the work being kept in motion while the tool is advanced1 without being allowed to revolve4 ,you need not bore more than one-eighth of an inch for light work1 but must do the same at each end of the rod4 ,the holes thus made should be of such a size as not to let the extreme end of the back centre-point touch the bottom1 or it will soon be worn down and blunted2--remember this in all future work4 ,supposing the rod to be thus bored at each end1 place the centre-chuck upon the mandrel1 instead of the drill-chuck1 and mount the bar between this and the point of the back-centre4 ,thus placed1 it will be accurately supported1 but if the lathe is put in motion1 it will not turn round4 ,now come into use the little dogs4 ,remove the bar1 and choosing a dog of which the open part is tolerably near the size of it1 slip it over the end about half an inch1 and there fix it by tightening the little screw1 which1 you observe1 will drive the bar as far as possible towards the smaller part of the opening1 and when it can go no farther1 will secure it as in a vice4 ,it is a good plan to file a slight flat upon the bar1 just where the screw of the carrier will come4 ,now replace the bar1 and when the lathe is put in motion1 the tail of the carrier should come against the projecting pin in the face of the face-plate1 which will compel the iron to go round with it4 ,this is the way all bars of metal are mounted4 ,i shall not tell you yet how they are to be turned1 because this would interfere with the order of my description4 ,to mount in the lathe such pieces as cylinders of engines1 which require to be bored1 or any other objects which have to be turned on one or both faces1 the young mechanic must make wooden chucks1 and bore them out exactly to fit the article and hold it securely4 ,there are metal chucks expressly made to take all work of this kind1 and which are so contrived that they will also hold it truly central1 but they are costly1 and need not be obtained with the first lathe--at any rate1 not until absolutely required1 and that will be1 ,i know1 a long time hence2 ay1 a very long time1 for many good workmen have never even seen1 much less possessed one of them4 ,perhaps ,i may draw and explain one in a future page1 as well as some other chucks1 which it is not necessary to notice here4 ,the chucks then absolutely necessary are these-- #a4 ,,square ,,hole ,,chuck1 which will take the prong1 the cross1 the drills1 and short bits of iron to be turned4 #b4 ,,the ,,taper ,,screw4 #c4 ,,flange or ,,face ,,chucks1 one with five points1 and two with holes for screws1 also one larger for a face-plate4 #d4 ,two or three ,,cup-,,chucks 7,i can1 however1 scarcely call these absolutely necessary74 #e4 ,,chuck ,,for ,,iron1 viz41 face-plate with centre-point1 and two dogs to take iron from #a inch diameter down to quarter-inch4 ,these should have pear-shaped openings1 not round2 any blacksmith can make them1 but somehow they do such work generally in a clumsy fashion2 and they cost but #ce to #ge cents1 according to size1 beautifully made with turned screws4 ,now as to tools4 ,their name is legion--tools for iron1 brass1 ivory1 hard and soft wood2 and many an odd shilling will be well laid out from time to time in adding to the stock4 ,happily those most needed are not costly--about #c a dozen without handles1 which latter may be had at #aj cents each and upwards1 according to the material and finish1 all with iron or brass ferules1 so necessary to prevent splitting4 ,you may buy your first few simple tools handled1 but after you have these you can turn as many handles as you like1 and you can buy ferules of all sizes at any regular tool-shop4 ,i may as well tell you that in a great many country towns you will be unable to obtain turning tools except gouges and chisels1 so that when you buy your lathe in ,london1 as you will find the best plan 7or in ,manchester1 ,birmingham1 or other manufacturing town1 if nearer to you71 you must lay in a little stock of tools at the same time1 and take future opportunities of getting more4 ,in regular tool-shops you will have them laid before you by dozens of every conceivable shape and size1 so that your great difficulty would be what to pick out if it were not for some such directions as ,i am now about to give you4 ,first1 you will want gouges and chisels4 ,begin with two sizes of each--one of half an inch1 the other of #a inch in width4 ,these are to be mounted in long handles4 ,now1 with these alone you can do all the plain work in soft wood which does not require to be hollowed out1 tool-handles1 chair-legs1 legs of towel-horses1 round rulers1 and all sorts of things1 and to a certain extent you can turn out the insides of wooden chucks1 bowls1 and boxes1 but not very easily with these alone4 ,hence you must add some of those shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,these ,i shall endeavour to assort as follows3-- ,a to ,f are for hollowing out hard woods2 ,g and ,h are hook-tools 7very difficult to use7 for hollowing out soft wood boxes and bowls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,i and ,k show the edge and side of a parting tool for cutting off the ends of cylindrical pieces1 separating the turned from the unturned parts1 and for all similar work4 ,a tenon-saw held still against a piece revolving in the lathe will often serve to cut it in two1 but parting tools must also be had1 and two are better than one1 as a thick one should be kept for common woods1 and a thin one for ivory and precious materials2 sometimes one with a notched edge is used for cutting off soft wood4 ,l to ,o are for turning iron and steel4 ,the first is a graver1 of which all sizes are made2 one of a quarter inch width on either face is large enough4 ,it is a square bar of steel ground off cornerwise so as to form a lozenge-shaped face4 ,this is an essential tool for iron1 and will do all sorts of work4 ,m is a hook or heel tool1 made sometimes with a flat edge and sometimes with a rounded one1 the latter being most useful4 ,it is a very powerful tool1 much used by some1 especially for heavy work--,i don't think you need get one at present4 ,if ,i am able to teach you to use a graver it will do almost as much work1 and is a neater tool4 ,if you use a tool of the nature of heel-tools at all1 ,i think1 on the whole1 the nail-head tool1 ,n1 either round or square1 is the best4 ,it is at all events handy for roughing down work1 and when it is reduced nearly to the size required1 and is partly smoothed1 the graver will finish it4 ,o is an inside tool for hollowing out iron4 ,there are different shapes of this used1 each turner giving the preference to some particular pattern to which he has habituated himself4 ,none of these tools for metal have sharp edges--at least they would not appear so to an ordinary observer4 ,the angle of the edge is #fj to #hj1 or even #ij1 which is1 as you know1 a right angle1 and is that most generally used for the cutting edges of tools intended for brass1 as ,u1 ,v1 ,w1 of which ,v is a most useful pattern4 ,those for hard wood have edges a little more keen1 but after all they scrape rather than cut2 the only tools for wood with keen edges being the gouge and chisel4 ,p are callipers for measuring the outside of work of all kinds4 ,q and ,r are the same1 arranged for in and outside work4 ,the first is an ordinary pair closed until the ends have crossed1 which they will all do2 but if the inside of hollow work to be gauged is small1 they will not enter it4 ,in this case none are so generally useful as the in-and-out callipers1 ,r1 for when accurately made 7and if not you can easily correct them with a small file71 the one end will measure the external diameter of work1 and at the same time the other end will be found to have its points separated to such a distance1 that if you were to turn a box or chuck to this inside measure1 the cylinder first turned will exactly fit it4 ,thus if you turn a box-cover1 and take the size of it with the straight end of the callipers1 and then turn down the rim of the box until it is just the size indicated by the curved ends1 the one will exactly fit the other4 ,in turning a piston to fit the cylinder of an engine1 you would work with this useful tool4 ,s is the turner's square4 ,the blade slides stiffly and accurately in a slot in the brass1 being kept by a spring at one side from working loose4 ,this square is used to gauge the depth of boxes and other works which are to be turned to an exact size1 and it also serves to test the squareness of many kinds of work4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you had turned a box1 you would put the blade of this tool against the bottom and press upon it till the brass rested across the rim1 touching it in two opposite places4 ,now possibly the inside may be smaller at the bottom than at the top4 ,test it by bringing the steel blade edgewise against it4 ,you will see whether the brass still touches in two places across the mouth of the box4 ,the squareness of the outside with the top or bottom can be tested in a similar way4 ,we shall have occasion to recur to this when we come to boring and fitting engine cylinders4 ,s is another small square1 which is often serviceable where the carpenter's square cannot be used4 ,if you intend to make models1 you will want both of these2 at the same time1 it is quite possible to make the latter of iron1 or even thick tin1 if you have the former1 as an accurate guide to work by4 ,t represents a pair of spring-compasses or callipers4 ,they are used to set off distances1 and have the advantage of not being liable to shift their position when once they are set to any required width4 ,you will require a pair of compasses of some sort1 and if not already provided1 these are the best you can have4 ,there are many other tools1 which1 though not absolutely turning tools1 are more or less used in connection with the lathe1 but these need not now be further alluded to1 and ,i shall go on to describe as clearly as possible the method of working at the lathe with hand-tools1 commencing with the operation of turning soft wood with the gouge and chisel2 but ,i must first give a short chapter upon the nature of woods used4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,as different materials require somewhat different management1 and even in the matter of wood alone this rule holds good1 it may be as well to have some idea of what is meant by hard and soft wood4 ,the young mechanic has most likely hitherto considered all wood under one head2 but there is a vast difference1 nevertheless1 in the internal structure1 even of such kinds as grow in ,england2 and the woods of foreign countries differ again from these1 some being of such close texture that it is almost impossible to work them with ordinary tools1 and some 7such as the palm7 being little else than gigantic ferns1 and in structure like that much-dreaded implement of flagellation--the schoolmaster's cane4 ,in ,england the hardest wood found is that of the box-tree1 the chief place of which is in ,surrey1 at ,box ,hill2 it is1 nevertheless1 found scattered here and there in all parts of the country1 but not generally of a size greater than #c inches in diameter4 ,it is of very slow growth1 and our own country would not nearly satisfy the demand made for it by various trades4 ,hence a large quantity of box1 of larger growth1 and generally of harder and better quality1 is imported every year from ,turkey1 to be used in the construction of blocks for engravers1 who alone require many tons weight annually1 and for carpenters' rules1 mallets1 turned boxes1 and tool-handles2 to which ,i may add the important item of peg-tops4 ,i fear some of my readers may think ,i should have placed these first on the list6 ,opinions1 however1 ,i imagine1 differ in this particular1 as in most others1 and upon all subjects4 ,the grain of boxwood is so close and even that it is one of the most valuable turning materials we possess4 ,it takes excellent screw-threads1 provided they are not too fine2 is a very general material for boxes of all kinds1 and also for chucks1 although there is really no reason why it should be wasted in so applying it1 when other woods of less value make such efficient substitutes4 ,probably its use for this purpose arose from the facility with which a screw can be cut in it to fit that on the mandrel1 and that it is so hard as not to allow the collar beyond the screw to make much impression upon it4 ,in consequence1 when it is well fitted1 such a chuck can be screwed on many times exactly to the same point1 and will continue to run true4 ,but ,i myself have found that if the mandrel-screw is not very coarse1 the threads cut in the inside of the chuck are apt to break off4 ,somewhat similar in texture1 though by no means generally used1 is the wood of the ,,elder1 which is quite different1 be it observed1 from the ,,alder1 although ,i often hear the names confounded together4 ,the wood ,i allude to is that of the tree which bears umbels of sweet1 white blossoms1 which give place to those jet-black berries we find upon them late in summer1 and which are made into elder-wine1 for home consumption at ,christmas1 when1 no doubt1 most of my readers have drunk it1 hot and spicy and sugary1 to keep out the wintry cold4 ,from the same tree are commonly made those harmless engines of mimic warfare--pop-guns6 ,if it were not for the presence of the pith1 which is in fact the very quality which makes it valuable to boys for the latter purpose1 this wood would certainly have been eagerly seized upon by turners4 ,even with this defect1 it is used instead of box for the inferior kinds of carpenter's rules and other purposes1 and the larger pieces will make very good chucks1 if a little care is exercised to prevent splitting them4 ,it is indeed a wood that might be far more extensively used in this way than it is4 ,the ,,yew1 perhaps1 should come next in order1 for this too is very close-grained and very beautiful1 and when highly polished it will bear comparison with many foreign woods which we import at a high price2 it is1 however1 brittle and apt to splinter4 ,,walnut varies considerably in quality1 some being harder and richer in grain than others4 ,this wood1 however1 is not to be classed among those which are properly speaking hard1 as it can be cut with ease1 and can only be planed and worked as deal would be1 viz41 with the grain2 whereas the hard woods work with almost equal facility in either direction4 ,this indeed in a great measure constitutes the difference between soft and hard woods1 in the turner's sense of the words4 ,if you were to hold a chisel flat on the rest1 so as to let it scrape a cylinder of wood as it revolved in the lathe1 you would find in some cases that it would tear out the fibres in shreds--these are soft woods4 ,in other cases it would leave the surface rough but otherwise tolerably even1 and with some it would leave the same fairly turned4 ,i cannot call to mind any ,english wood but box that can be turned by a chisel held so as to scrape it1 but the greater number of foreign woods are always turned in this manner1 being hard and close in the grain4 ,,birch4--,oh1 once-dreaded tree6 birch6 with its long1 swaying1 switchy boughs1 drooping as in sorrow at the mean uses to which it was applied6 ,it is nevertheless a very useful tree1 and the young mechanic can take full revenge upon it by cutting1 and chipping1 and turning it into all sorts of useful articles4 ,it is1 however1 now more generally used in cabinetmaking1 for wardrobes1 bedsteads1 chests of drawers1 and such like1 as it looks very neat when planed and varnished4 ,perhaps1 as a wood for the exercise of the turner's art1 it must give place to ,,beech1 which is a common and excellent material for the essays of beginners1 who can turn tool handles especially from the small trimmed billets of it which are kept by the chairmakers1 and which can generally be bought for a trifling sum in any town1 and in many villages4 ,if not1 the wheelwright may be applied to for a supply1 as he uses it rather extensively for the felloes of his wheels4 ,it is peculiarly liable to the attacks of the little worm1 weevil or maggot1 who drills such innumerable and such beautifully round holes in furniture that stands long unused4 ,beech is often used for the screws of carpenters' benches1 as it takes very well a thread of such size as is required for that purpose4 ,it will also1 for the same reason1 answer very well for chucks1 for which it has the recommendation of cheapness and toughness4 ,,ash seems to come next upon the list4 ,it is probably the most useful of all ,english woods1 and where toughness1 pliability1 with moderate hardness1 are valuable qualities1 no ,english wood can exceed it4 ,for frames of carts and carriages1 shafts1 agricultural implements1 wheelbarrows1 and smaller articles of husbandry1 it is precisely what is needed1 and in the workshop of the turner it is equally valuable4 ,tool-handles of ash are very durable1 and hold the tool with great firmness1 owing to the natural elasticity of the material4 ,it may be stained and polished1 and is then1 for real work1 preferable to the more costly hard woods of which handles are very generally made for the workshops of rich amateur mechanics4 ,,oak is little used for turning1 the grain being too coarse4 ,the young mechanic need never make use of it for this purpose1 and the same may be said of the elm4 ,,elm is1 nevertheless1 used by turners for the wooden buckets of pumps1 and is a generally useful wood4 ,bulk for bulk1 it is lighter than beech1 and it makes a good material1 it is said1 for lathe beds1 though beech is more frequently used4 ,it will answer for chucks1 as indeed most woods will that can be cut into screws2 it is very tough4 ,,evergreen ,,oak1 or ,,holm ,,oak1 as it is called1 is very different to the forest tree1 and might be classed among shrubs4 ,when dry1 it is by no means a bad wood to turn1 and will take a good screw thread1 and make excellent chucks4 ,,acacia is an excellent wood4 ,it is of a yellowish brown colour1 tolerably hard1 and will take a good polish4 ,it is most certainly to be set down among the woods valuable to the turner4 ,,sycamore is white1 very soft until old1 when it becomes much harder4 ,this is also a turner's wood1 and used extensively for wooden bowls1 backs of brushes1 turned boxes1 and what is generally called 8turnery40 ,a little of this will be useful to the young mechanic4 ,it will make excellent bread platters1 stands for hot water jugs1 and such like4 ,,holly4--,the ,christmas garland1 with its red berries decorating even the poorest homes in midwinter1 is a tree well worth the attention of the young mechanic4 ,it is his substitute for the more precious material ivory1 and from it he will turn the white draught or chess men1 boxes1 and many small articles4 ,but it is necessary that this material should be perfectly dry1 and to get it in perfection1 carefully preserved to insure its whiteness1 it will be generally necessary to procure it ready for the lathe at some lathemaker's1 or at first-class cabinetmakers'4 ,if cut green1 it requires long seasoning1 during which it shrinks considerably4 ,in fact1 it takes some years entirely to rid it of the great quantity of moisture which it contains4 ,it is well worth procuring1 nevertheless1 for it is nearly as white and free from grain as ivory4 ,many of the fruit-trees of our orchards and gardens supply good material to the turner4 ,,apple1 ,,pear1 ,,cherry1 ,,plum1 and some others1 are all more or less useful4 ,the grain of the first is rather dark1 the fibres often twisted4 ,it looks well when polished4 ,,pear has a very fine1 even grain1 and is largely used for making the curved templates 7or patterns of curves for architects and engineers72 it will make good boxes1 and is fairly serviceable to the turner4 ,its colour is light brown1 but darkens by exposure4 ,the ,,plum has a wood veined very like that of the elm1 but is a finer and better wood for the lathe4 ,this is the wild plum1 and not the grafted fruit-tree of our gardens1 which is not nearly so good4 ,the wild plum is excellent for small boxes1 and looks well when nicely turned and polished4 ,,cherry is a very excellent wood1 and naughty1 fast boys1 who take to smoking1 like young ,americans1 when they ought to be filling their young brains with knowledge instead of narcotics1 know very well that it is made into pipes and stems of pipes4 ,happily this is not its only use1 for it is fit for many other purposes2 and for light1 elegant furniture1 it is scarcely to be equalled4 ,dipped in lime-water1 it darkens1 and by doing this here and there1 a beautiful mottled appearance is given to it4 ,it takes an excellent polish1 and should be among the stores of the young mechanic4 ,we now come to another soft1 white wood4 ,the ,,lime1 which1 as it is more even in grain1 more easily cut in any direction than most woods1 is greatly used by carvers and pattern-makers 7i4e41 those who make wooden patterns of wheels1 or lathes1 or machinery1 which are to be cast in metal74 ,the pattern is pressed into damp sand1 and then removed1 and the melted metal is then poured into the impression thus made4 ,if the sand is too wet1 the process will not only fail1 but the hot metal will be scattered on all sides1 inflicting dreadful burns and injuries2 but with care1 the young amateur may make castings in tin or lead1 as will be explained by and by4 ,even with a penknife alone1 very pretty ornaments may be carved from the wood of the lime1 and also from that which follows4 ,,willow4--,this is even softer than the last1 and will plane into long1 thin shavings1 which are made into hats4 7,once on a time ,i should have said 8and bonnets10 but in these days no one would recognise such articles4 ,they are fast fading out of existence2 but ,i think quite as much sound sense used to be found under them as is now found under the very inefficient substitutes worn by ladies of the present day47 ,this wood will1 of course1 turn very easily1 but requires very keen tools4 ,in fact1 sharp gouges and chisels are invariably necessary for soft wood turning4 ,get some dry willow by all means1 if you can4 ,the last wood of ,english growth which the young mechanic is likely to meet with is the thorn4 ,this grows to a tolerably large size1 and is hard1 close-grained1 white1 and altogether a good and serviceable wood4 ,it will make capital chucks1 taking a clean screw-thread1 is easily procured1 and is therefore strongly recommended to the notice of the young mechanic4 ,the woods above named1 except box1 are all to be considered soft woods1 and will work with gouge and chisel2 but box1 thorn1 elder1 and one or two of the more close-grained1 will turn pretty well1 and can be smoothly hollowed out1 with hard wood tools held horizontally upon the rest4 ,,hard ,,woods4 ,all those woods1 properly called hard1 including the best box1 are of foreign growth1 mostly coming from the ,tropics4 ,i do not know why they should be so much harder than those of temperate climes1 but so it is4 ,there are1 however1 woods in ,new ,zealand1 of which the temperature is similar to that of our own country1 which are also exceedingly hard and difficult to work4 ,a very large number of foreign woods are yearly brought to ,england in logs or billets or planks1 some of very large size1 and all of great weight4 ,they are mostly liable to one defect1 viz41 rottenness of the core or heart1 which limits the size of the pieces which can be cut from them4 ,they can all be procured from the ,london lathe and tool shops1 and there are also dealers in these woods 7,jacques of ,covent ,garden1 ,mundy ,berrie of ,bunhill ,row1 and some others74 ,it is almost impossible to procure them in the country1 but rosewood1 ebony1 kingwood1 c41 may be sometimes had in such small pieces as the young mechanic may require1 at the cabinetmakers'4 ,among the most useful are-- ,,ebony1 of which there are two or three kinds1 some harder and more close-grained and blacker than others1 and one which is called green ebony1 which is like lignum-vit 7an ,english wood1 but which grows to a larger size abroad2 indeed1 many so called ,english woods are not really so1 but have been brought from other countries to be grown here74 ,the general colour is green1 but the veins are rather darker4 ,bowls and skittle-balls are made of it4 ,it is not1 however1 of the same general use as the black ebony1 which is very largely used both for cabinet-work and turning4 ,,black ,,ebony is very close and hard1 and1 of course1 proportionately heavy4 ,it splits readily1 but when chopped1 the chips come off more like charcoal1 showing no consistency4 ,this is the kind imported from the ,indies1 and especially from ,madagascar and ,mauritius1 and is the best for all kinds of turned work4 ,portugal affords another kind1 which bears the same name1 but is more brown than black1 and softer1 less compact in grain1 and generally of less value4 ,ebony will bear eccentric work1 and all kinds of beautiful carving and ornamentation in the lathe4 ,,rose-,,wood is very commonly used for furniture and turned work4 ,it is a rich red wood1 grained with black4 ,it is not very hard1 less so than ebony1 and has more evident grain or fibre4 ,it turns well1 and some pieces are very handsome4 ,,african ,,black-,,wood is in appearance similar to ebony1 but it is even more close and compact1 and is the most valuable of all to the ornamental turner4 ,when this or ebony is set off by being inlaid with ivory1 or even holly1 it is very lovely in its intense and brilliant blackness4 ,either this or ebony is used for black pieces for the chessboard or draughtboard1 though stained boxwood1 being less costly1 is sometimes made to take its place4 ,,african ,,cam-,,wood is a very beautiful material when first cut4 ,its rich red tint is diversified with the most brilliant yellow streaks4 ,unfortunately1 however1 these are not lasting4 ,exposed to the air1 they gradually become darker1 until they become red like the rest of the wood4 ,this material1 however1 has a fine1 close grain1 is a genuine hard wood1 and of general use to the turner for ornamental articles of various kinds4 ,,tulip-,,wood is not very hard4 ,cut across the log1 the appearance is fine1 owing to the rings of growth being wavy and irregular1 in dark and light red alternations1 that reminds one of the flower after which it is called4 ,this tree1 indeed1 which grows to a large size1 bears flowers similar to those of our gardens imported from ,holland1 which grow upon short perpendicular stems4 ,the centre or core of tulip-wood is generally rotten4 ,it sucks up a good deal of polish before the grain shows out brightly and strongly1 from being less hard and more fibrous than many others named above4 ,,partridge-,,wood is a nice1 hard1 and very pretty wood1 rather dark or gray4 ,the fibres seem to run both ways1 giving a mottled appearance when turned4 ,,coral-,,wood is bright red1 hard1 and close in grain1 well suited for red chessmen1 where that colour is preferred to black4 ,it looks very handsome in the midst of other coloured specimens2 otherwise1 like all material of one tint and free from veined lines1 there is too much uniformity of appearance to make it pleasing to the eye of one who is gifted with appreciation of colour4 ,it is not necessary for me to go in order through a long list of foreign woods4 ,the very young mechanic1 unless living in ,london1 will seldom meet with many of them2 and a very good selection for the advanced turner will be composed of the following3-- ,,black ,,ebony4 ,,cocoa or ,,cocus1 which is not the cocoa-nut tree1 this being a palm1 the wood of which is stringy like a fern or a cane2 whereas1 cocoa or cocus is firm1 hard1 and excellent4 ,,black-,,wood1 which cuts finely with tools for eccentric work4 ,,king-,,wood1 a good and useful wood1 something akin in appearance to rosewood4 ,,satin-,,wood1 pale yellow grain1 like watered silk1 turns very well1 but is by no means hard2 there is also a red satinwood4 ,,rose-,,wood1 already described2 it loses colour after exposure1 and is most beautiful newly cut4 ,if the above are added to the most useful of the ,english woods described above1 it will scarcely be worth while to add to them except as specimens4 ,it is1 however1 very interesting to collect and arrange these1 and it is an employment well worthy of the attention of the young mechanic4 ,thin slices cut across the grain1 and sometimes1 or in addition1 slices cut with the grain1 should be arranged in order after being trimmed to shape 7round1 square1 or triangular1 or even six-sided74 ,they should be very carefully polished to bring up the grain1 and labelled with the common and ,latin 7or botanical7 name4 ,the country from which procured1 with short notes relative to the size and general growth of the tree1 should be added4 ,this will compel inquiry1 and a great deal of information will be thus gained and stored up4 ,a similar collection of ,english woods may be made1 and1 of course1 with much greater ease4 ,it will be observed that ,i have said nothing of the pines1 deal1 and larch4 ,they are extensively turned in the lathe1 the greater part of the common painted furniture being made therefrom2 but deal is1 nevertheless1 not a turning wood4 ,it splits easily1 has an open grain1 with fibres loosely connected1 and although it can be cut into mouldings with sharp chisels and gouges1 it generally needs a little rubbing with ,dutch rush1 fish-skin1 or glass-paper2 after which1 a handful of its own shavings held against it as it revolves rapidly in the lathe1 is the best polisher4 ,of course1 however1 it may be varnished1 and of late years it has become fashionable1 when thus finished1 for bedroom furniture4 ,it is1 however1 in this case generally improved and embellished1 by having thin strips of coloured woods inlaid in its surface4 ,it is useless for hollow work2 and wood that cannot be hollowed out satisfactorily1 is not to be classed among those suitable for the turner4 ,whenever you have time to spare1 and are not inclined to turn1 yet feel disposed to wander into your workshop1 it is a good plan to trim and prepare pieces of wood for the lathe4 ,you need a chopping-block1 which is the end of a stick of timber sawn evenly across1 and stood up in some out-of-the-way corner where chips will not be much in the way1 and a light axe or adze1 which latter is said to be the best4 ,it is called the bassoohlah or ,indian adze1 but ,i never had one1 nor ever saw it mentioned1 except in one very excellent book by the late ,charles ,holtzappffel of ,london1 who1 indeed1 keeps these tools4 ,but a light axe is easily obtained1 and will do very well4 ,take care to saw the pieces off truly square--,i mean straight across the log1 and not slanting either way4 ,cut some from your evergreen oak1 or beech1 or elm1 for chucks1 remembering to have length for the mandrel screw1 beyond what you will probably need for hollowing out1 to take the pieces to be turned4 ,cut some longer than others1 and from larger or smaller pieces2 from #b-;inch diameter to #d1 which is a useful general size4 ,but your lathe of #e-;inch centre will take chucks or work of nearly #aj inches1 so you can cut some few pieces rather larger4 ,probably1 your only work of #f to #i inches diameter will be an occasional bread-platter1 or a stand of some sort2 your general work will be much less4 ,besides chucks1 of which the number is in time very great1 you will be constantly wanting tool-handles4 ,cut some for these1 and placing one end on the chopping-block1 trim them to something like the required size1 but a good deal larger round than you think necessary1 because you will find that the size will deceive you frequently4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,for finally trimming up short pieces1 a peculiar knife is used by the lathe and tool makers2 and when you can spare the money you should get one1 as you will find it easy to use1 and it will save you many a cut from the axe4 ,in fact1 ,i never advise very young mechanics to make use of the latter tool4 ,it requires practice1 strength1 and a good deal of skill to use it well2 and nothing is more easy than to lop off the end of a finger or thumb1 and1 unfortunately1 nothing is more difficult than to repair the damage4 ,the paring-knife for short thick pieces mentioned above1 is made like ,d1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,it consists of a long and curved handle1 turned up at one end to fit under a staple1 ,e1 with a cross piece of wood for the hand at the other end1 and a broad strong blade with one bevel in the middle--7by one bevel ,i mean1 that the edge is not like that of an axe1 but like that of a carpenter's chisel1 the bevel or sloping part being outside74 ,c is the piece of wood to be pared1 ,a the bottom board or platform1 ,b a block fastened to it1 and made on a slope to prevent the tendency of the wood to slip away from the knife4 ,the whole of this may be screwed down to the bench1 or to a heavy stool when in use4 ,the hook and ferule should not be made so large and loose as in the drawing1 and a better joint is that of an ordinary hinge4 ,if made loosely1 the blade twists about too much from side to side1 escaping from the wood4 ,there is no danger to the fingers from this useful tool1 which the young mechanic should add to his workshop as soon as he can4 ,another useful and easily-constructed apparatus for the preparation of long pieces is the shave-stool1 used by coopers and chairmakers to hold the pieces securely while they are being shaped by the double-handled shave or drawknife1 as it is often called1 a tool omitted from our list1 but very useful all the same4 ,this is sketched at ,b1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,it is often very roughly made1 the chief necessity being that it shall be strong4 ,it answers also for a sawing-stool4 ,upon the stool or bench1 ,a1 is fixed a sloping block1 ,b4 ,a swinging frame1 ,c1 is hinged or pivoted at ,d1 so that if the lower part is pushed back from left to right1 the upper cross-bar1 ,e1 will come forward and almost touch the highest part of the sloping block1 ,b1 so that any piece of wood1 such as ,f1 will thereby be pinched and held tightly between the rail1 ,e1 and the block4 ,the workman sits astride of the stool at ,a1 facing the block1 and his feet are placed on the bar ,c4 ,when he wishes to hold the wood which is to be shaved by the drawknife ,c1 he presses from him with his feet the lower part of the frame1 and he can instantly loosen the wood by drawing his feet towards him4 ,the movement is made in a moment1 and the wood shifted round as required1 and alternately turned about and held tight1 while the drawknife is used almost ceaselessly4 ,a very few minutes generally suffices thus to pare down a rough piece for the lathe4 ,the cross-bar1 ,e1 should be tolerably strong1 and is better if not rounded very nicely1 as the edges help to hold the wood4 ,the latter is sure not to slip away1 because the pull of the drawknife tends to draw it up higher on the slope of the block1 which pulls it into a still narrower opening4 ,nothing can exceed the ease with which this appliance is used1 and the rapidity with which the required operation can be carried on4 ,no wood-turner's shop should be without one4 ,,order ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,i must say a word or two as to neatness and order1 especially in the arrangement of tools and appliances for the lathe4 ,whether you have a dozen tools or a hundred1 always put them in the same place1 so that any particular article can be found instantly1 no time being wasted hunting up and down1 or examining a long row of tools for the one required at that particular time4 ,turning tools1 moreover1 should be kept distinct from those used for carpentry1 and in a special rack by themselves4 ,the best tool-rack1 ,i think1 which can be made1 is one like ,fig4 #dd4 ,this may be made of deal1 but the pieces between the holes are thus liable to get split off1 and beech or ash is therefore preferable4 ,the whole frame is made to be screwed to the wall2 or1 if the latter is damp1 the frame should be first screwed to a board covered with baize1 and this1 in turn1 fixed to the wall4 ,thus arranged1 it will have a very neat appearance1 and the tools being kept dry1 will remain generally free from rust4 ,they should1 nevertheless1 be carefully looked over once a week and wiped1 when those requiring to be ground should be subjected to that operation1 and thus be ready for future use when required4 ,they are bad workmen who allow blunt or damaged tools to accumulate1 instead of at once setting them in order4 ,the horizontal bars are bored with holes by means of a centrebit4 ,the holes must be arranged as to size by the measurement of the ferules of the tool handles1 some being larger and some smaller1 so that when the tool is placed in any hole1 the handle will drop in to the depth of the ferule and fit4 ,thus the tools will all stand upright1 instead of leaning from one side or the other4 ,after the holes are made1 a piece is cut out 7see fig4 ,b7 at the front edge1 because the blades of some tools are wider than the ferules1 and1 in addition1 if this were not done1 the different tool-rails must be as far apart as the whole length of the tool 7handle and all included71 to allow of the latter being lifted sufficiently high to drop into the holes4 ,the strips for the holes should be about #b inches wide1 the lower one1 for the larger chisels and gouges1 rather wider than the upper ones4 ,sometimes these tool-racks are fitted up inside a cabinet1 whose doors have similar racks2 thus all can be shut in out of the reach of dust and dirt4 ,holtzappffel1 the great lathemaker of ,london1 fits up such cabinets complete in oak or mahogany1 all the tools being handled in hard wood and turned to one pattern4 ,the cost1 however1 #e and upwards1 renders such less desirable to the young mechanic1 who can rig up a common tool-rack1 which will serve his purpose equally well4 ,it is also far more satisfactory1 in looking round your workshop1 to feel that you have at all events been as little extravagant as possible1 for amateurs get no return for outlay as tradesmen do4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,there is no operation in which the young mechanic is so much at fault as in that of grinding and setting in order the various tools he has to use4 ,nevertheless he will never become either an independent workman or a good one1 if he has to depend upon others for this necessary labour4 ,no doubt1 to sharpen a tool which is in very bad order is a tedious and tiresome job2 but it is not so wearisome an affair to keep tools in condition for work1 after they have been once thoroughly sharpened by one who understands how to do it4 ,never1 therefore1 use a blunt tool1 but at once go to the hone or grindstone with it1 and put it in first-rate order4 ,time thus employed is never wasted1 but rather saved2 and the result will appear invariably in the work which you are engaged upon4 ,you must1 in the first place1 understand precisely what it is you have to do2 and although the following details may be by some considered more adapted for advanced students than for young mechanics1 a little attention to the explanations will render the matter clear to any boy of age and intelligence to take in hand1 with reasonable prospect of success1 the tools of the carpenter1 turner1 and fitter4 ,i can only say1 that boys of this generation are wonderfully well off in having these things explained to them4 ,twenty years ago young mechanics had to grope along in the dark1 ignorant to a great extent of the principles of work1 and almost equally uninstructed in the practical part of it4 ,in ,fig4 #de are represented similar angles to those already explained to you1 and you will quickly understand how useful is a little knowledge of the elements of mathematics4 ,suppose ,a to be a tool1 the angle of the point is a right angle1 or #ij4 ,b is another of #fj at the point1 and ,i have drawn a line across to show you that the three sides of this figure 7called a triangle7 are equal4 ,so remember that if you want an angle of #fj1 you have only to draw a triangle of three equal sides1 and each of these angles will be #fj4 ,again1 ,i may as well remind you that three times #fj equals #ahj1 which is equal to two right angles1 so we find here that the three angles of an equal-sided triangle equal two right angles1 and even if the sides are not equal1 the same thing is true4 ,for instance1 look at the first tool1 across which ,i have also drawn a line to make a triangle4 ,the point we know is #ij1 and if the sides1 a b1 are equal 7although the third line is not equal to either71 the two small angles are each #de1 i4e41 #ij between them1 so the three angles again equal #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,the third tool 7which we may suppose a turner's chisel held edgewise7 is shown to have an angle of #cj1 and ,i have added one more which has an angle of #de4 ,now all tools1 if well ground1 are ground to a certain known angle1 according to the material which they are intended to cut4 ,tools intended to cut soft woods1 like deal1 are ground to an angle of #bj to #cj1 like the chisel seen edgewise4 ,i shall have a word to say presently as to the direction in which such tools are to be held1 in order to make them cut as well as possible4 ,a tool for hard wood is given next at ,e4 ,the angle is now at least #dj1 and it ranges up to #hj1 giving a stronger1 thicker edge1 but not so keen a one4 ,we have1 therefore1 more of a scraping tool than a cutting one1--at least1 in the way it is usually held4 ,then we come to the tools with which iron is turned and steel also4 ,fig4 ,f is one of these1 and the usual angle is #fj1 and thence it ranges to #ij4 ,thus you see1 advancing from soft wood tools to those for hard wood1 and thence to a substance still harder1 we have increased the angle of the edge1 beginning at #cj and ending with #hj or #ij4 ,but now we come to a material which is harder than wood and not so hard as iron1 yet we use tools with an angle of #ij1 which is still greater1 and #gj is the least angle ever used for this metal4 ,experience only has taught the proper angle for tools1 and it is found1 that if brass and gun-metal are turned with tools of a less angle than #gj1 they only catch into the material1 and do not work at all satisfactorily4 ,you can1 however1 scrape brass1 as a finish1 with the thin edge of a common chisel2 but then the tool is held so as to scrape very lightly and polish2 and its edge will not remain many minutes1 unless the maker 7intending it to be so used7 has made it much harder than he would make it for soft wood cutting4 ,if you buy your tools at any good shop1 you will find that they are already ground to nearly the angles named1 and when you re-grind them1 you must endeavour to keep them to the same4 ,the bevel1 as it is called1 of many tools need not be ground at all1 as they may be sharpened solely by rubbing the upper face on a hone1 or grinding it1 holding it so that the stone shall act equally on all parts of it4 ,if1 however1 the tool should become notched1 you must grind the bevel of it1 and then you must try and keep the intended angle4 ,one tool1 however1 or rather one pair of tools1 viz41 turning-gouges and chisels1 are very seldom ground with a sufficiently long bevel when they first come from the maker4 ,the usual shape of the edge is like ,g1 whereas the angle should be much less1 as seen at ,h4 ,this you must correct when you first grind the tools for use1 and keep the same long bevel and small angle of edge continually afterwards1 for you will never make good work on soft wood if your chisels and gouges are ground with too short a bevel4 ,i must also guard you against another common error1 which1 however1 is very difficult to avoid at first1 and only long practice will enable you entirely to overcome it4 ,i1 is the chisel 7held edgewise as before7 ground as it ought to be2 ,k is the same tool ground as it generally is by young hands1 or1 even if it is correctly formed at the grindstone1 one or two applications to the oilstone almost invariably round it off as shown4 ,the bevel of all tools must be kept quite flat and even1 and when the tool is afterwards rubbed on the oilstone to give a finish to the edge1 another flat1 even bevel should be made4 ,in the same figure at ,l is an exaggerated view of the chisel1 with its first long bevel formed at the grindstone1 and the second very small bright bevel seen at the extreme edge of all such tools when they have been set upon the oilstone4 ,this second bevel1 slight as it is1 you will at once understand makes the angle of the edge a little larger1 therefore you must allow for it1 and grind a little keener edge than you really require4 ,now1 all this is very simple and easy to understand1 and when you have mastered this much1 you will be in a fair way to understand more4 ,the second part of the subject1 nevertheless1 requires very close attention1 and very likely may not become quite clear to you when explained4 ,i shall therefore draw a line here1 and make this lesson a special paragraph1 which you can look back to some other day1 when you are grown from a boy-mechanic to a man1 and have had more experience in cutting and turning wood and metal4 ,the tools above described have their cutting edges formed by the meeting of two planes at a given angle1--these planes being the flat bevels 7or the flat top and one bevel7 formed by the grindstone4 ,but in some tools three planes meet to form an edge instead of two1 and the angle of the cutting edge is not the same as that of either of these1 although it depends upon them1 and can be nicely calculated4 ,this calculation1 however1 requires a knowledge of some higher branches of mathematics than the young mechanic is supposed to be acquainted with1 and therefore a table is added instead1 by which1 when the angles of two of these planes are known1 the third may be at once seen1 which last determines1 of course1 the angle of the edge4 ,as an example1 take the graver1 of which you will find a drawing among the other tools1 but which ,i give again in this place4 ,m1 ,fig4 #de1 is the tool1 looking at the face or bevel which has been ground upon it1 making a lozenge-shape or diamond4 ,but this face is a third plane1 and the cutting edges1 a and b1 depend for their angles upon all three of these4 ,now1 for iron we want an angle of #fj4 ,how are we to make the edges1 a b1 of that exact size8 ,the bar is first of all square in section1 like ,n1 which would be its shape before the third face or bevel is ground1 and all the angles are now right angles of #ij each4 ,but instead of this1 we want two of them #fj1 the other two being of no importance4 ,we simply proceed thus3--,determine which angle is to become the point of the tool 7it is no matter in the present case1 as all are alike71 then grind away underneath till the new bevel forms an angle of #de with the back 7by which ,i mean the edge which runs along from the sharp point towards the handle--the edge x in fig4 ,o74 ,trigonometry enables us to find out that an angle of #de is the one required1 but you will find it in the table annexed to this chapter1 and an explanation of this table is also given to enable you to use it easily4 ,thus ground1 the edges a b of fig4 ,o will be each formed of two planes meeting at an angle of #fj4 ,you can make a gauge of card or tin1 ,p1 to work by1 of the required angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,in order to understand the use of this table1 it is necessary to give names to the several angles of a tool4 ,that upon the front or face of the tool1 as ,a of the point-tool1 is called the plan-angle2 that made by the upper surface and the front edge1 as ,b 7a1 being the angle in question71 is called the section angle1 because1 if you were to saw right through the central line lengthwise1 this is the angle that would appear at the point1 viewing it sideways4 ,now1 if we look at ,c1 ,fig4 #dg1 we shall be able to understand how the front line1 b c1 is obtained1 which constitutes one side of the section angle of a tool4 ,it results from the meeting of the two diamond-shaped planes at the sides formed by the grindstone1 but is dependent also on the plan-angle4 ,these two side-planes are to be generally ground at an angle of about #c from the vertical1 which is to give the clearance of the tool if held in a fixed position1 as in the tool-holder of a slide-rest1 the tool being supposed horizontal4 ,this is in accordance with what ,i have before told you1 viz41 that the cutting edge should be presented to the work at the smallest possible angle1 #c being very small indeed4 ,this angle is generally measured by placing the side ground in contact with a cone of wood or metal1 turned to an angle of #c1 such as ,d1--k being a tool the front of which is evidently #c2 or a piece of tin1 l1 cut to the same angle1 and stood on its edge1 will answer the same purpose4 ,by #c1 ,i mean an angle of #c measured on the circumference of a circle1 as ,i have already explained in a former page1 such angle being of course at the centre of the circle where the lines drawn from the several degrees on the circumference meet4 ,now1 when you have ground these two surfaces1 the line b c of ,b 7or ,c7 will have a certain slope or inclination depending on the plan-angle of the point4 ,the exact inclination of it may be therefore said to be accidental2 but1 whatever it is1 it becomes of great importance in the final result1 being one side of the angle which will give any particular angle of cutting edge4 ,and here the table comes into use3--,suppose ,i wish to have an edge of #fj1 for cutting iron4 ,measure the plan-angle1--say it is #ij1 which is that of the graver2 then1 on the table1 under the words 8plan angle10 you will see #ij1 and opposite1 above #fj of 8cutting edges10 you will see #de4 ,you have only to grind back the upper face of the tool1 until it makes an angle of #de 7section angle7 with the front edge or line1 b c1 and the edges x x will be angles of #fj4 ,or take the tool ,e1 of which the plan angle is #abj1 and suppose you want cutting edges of #hj1 for brass1 opposite #abj1 and above #hj1 is #gh #e4 ,grind back the top face to an angle of #gh #e 7or #gh7 with the point line1 and it is done4 ,until you have practically proved it1 you can have no idea of the vast importance of having correctly-formed cutting edges1 and of placing them within a hair's-breadth of the proper position4 ,but it is in slide-rest work especially1 and in cutting metal with tools held rigidly in one position1 that this is of such paramount importance4 ,it makes all the difference between cutting off a clean shaving1 and tearing from the material by main force a quantity of disjointed particles1 the latter process leaving a rough unfinished surface1 the former producing one as smooth and polished as a sheet of glass2 and the advantage of this short table is1 that you can at any time shape your own tools for the particular work in hand4 ,after you have had some practice in turning1 you should certainly learn to shape your tools from square bars of steel1 worn files1 and broken steel tools of various kinds2 and before you have arrived at sufficient dexterity to do this entirely by yourself1 you will get them roughly shaped for you by the blacksmith1 and then with grindstone and file you will further perfect the angles for use4 ,steel does not require1 and must on no account be subjected to1 a white heat1 or you will spoil it hopelessly2 and you can always heat it in a common fire1 or in the little stove that ,i shall describe in a subsequent chapter1 to a temperature that will allow you to bend it into any required form with the hammer and anvil--a bright red being the utmost heat it must be brought to4 ,,position ,,of ,,cutting ,,tools4 ,we must now consider the mode of applying the edge of a tool to the work1 so as to produce the best effect4 ,first1 we will consider the case of a gouge and chisel acting upon soft wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,in ,fig4 #dh1 ,a represents a piece of wood in the lathe1 as you would see it if you stood at one end of it1 and a chisel is being held against it4 ,the arrow shows the direction in which the wood is supposed to be revolving4 ,held thus1 the chisel would scrape1 and its edge would be carried off at once2 it could not possibly cut4 ,but1 held as at ,b1 it would cut off a clean and continuous shaving as the wood revolved against it1 and this shaving would slide off along the upper face1 b1 of the tool1 so that you can see that this face ought to offer the least possible resistance to it4 ,the tool acts1 in fact1 like a very thin1 sharp wedge1 which divides the material by pressure1 which has to be great or slight according as the edge is sharp and thin or the contrary4 ,now1 if you again look at ,a1 you will see that this wedge-like action cannot take place1 so that the tool is in its worst possible position4 ,between the two positions1 however1 here shown1 are several others at a greater or less angle to the surface of the wood2 but the smallest possible angle it can make is the best1 so long as the thickness of shaving removed will suffice for your purpose4 ,this rule holds good with all tools1 whether carpenters' or turners'1 which are made with sharp-cutting edges4 ,care must be taken1 however1 that the lower face of the tool does not rub against the work1 which1 again1 it is evident1 limits to a given degree the angle at which the cutting edge is to be applied to the work4 ,we now pass on to ,c1 which represents the ordinary tool for turning iron1 held flat upon the rest1 the position it usually occupies4 ,we see at once that in this case also we have a scraping tool only1 and that1 although the angle of the edge is far greater than that of the chisel1 it must soon be ground off by the action of the metal to which it is applied1 or of the hard wood1 which is also cut in this way4 ,but with this form of tool we shall find it impossible to apply it so as to cut in the best way2 because if we lower the handle1 as we did that of the chisel1 the part below the edge will rub against the work1 while the edge itself will be moved out of contact with it4 ,thus we are obliged to hold the tool in the position first shown2 but we may therefore conclude that the tool itself is a badly formed one for the intended purpose2 and so it is1 although you will see it in almost every workshop in the kingdom4 ,let us see what can be done to improve it4 ,at ,d1 ,i have represented the same tool1 but the blackened part shows what has been filed away from the upper face1 and the dotted lines show that1 when this has been done1 a tool is made very similar to the chisel for wood1 and that it is also now in a good position for cutting 7not scraping71 although it is still held horizontally upon the rest4 ,shavings of iron curl off the upper face of this1 as wood shavings curl off upon a chisel4 ,if the angle1 however1 is too small1 the edge will soon be broken off1 and the tool will dig into the work2 hence the necessity of knowing at what angle a tool ought to be ground to cut any particular metal successfully4 ,such a tool as the last named1 which is intended only to cut with the front edge1 and which is represented in ,e1 is called a single-edged one1 because it only cuts in one direction1 but many others are double-edged1 cutting the shaving at once on the flat and edge--that is1 paring it off from the material below and also from the side4 ,for instance1 ,f is a cylinder of iron1 from which a shaving is supposed to be in process of being cut4 ,it has to be removed from the shoulder to which it is represented as still adhering1 and also from the flat surface1 e b1 around which it was1 as it were1 once coiled4 ,but this requires two cutting edges1 both acting at the same time1 but in different directions2 and good mechanics therefore so form the tools1 and so use them1 as to cut in both directions1 which leaves the work beautifully smooth and even4 ,these tools are mostly used in the slide-rest1 where their true position1 once determined1 can be accurately maintained2 and it is1 perhaps1 only with the slide-rest that perfect work can be done4 ,there is1 however1 no reason why you should not use tools of all kinds intelligently1 and understand exactly how they should be formed1 and how held4 ,suppose you have a tool correctly made by the aid of the table of tool angles already explained1 still looking at fig4 ,f1 you can see that the smaller part of the roller is that which is to be left finished1 and that it ought to be quite smooth1 but the shoulder at a is not of the same degree of importance4 ,a tool fit for such work would evidently be shaped on its plan-angle or face1 like ,h in fig4 ,c or ,i2 and1 if held as seen1 both edges would be brought into action at the same time1 as will be at once evident on inspection4 ,in practice1 however1 the two edges would not be allowed to touch for their whole length1 or the angle on the right would leave a scratch upon the finished work2 therefore it would be eased off a little1 as at ,k1 ,l4 ,but this is evidently as nearly as possible the shape and position to be given to such a tool1 and the edge which has to leave the finished surface should1 as it were1 follow the other2 the right-hand angle being just and only just kept out of cut4 ,the hand-tools you will generally use are the heel-tool1 ,m1 held on the rest as shown1 which1 you see1 brings the edge into cut at the least possible angle to the work1 and the nail-head1 which is in fact a heel-tool of four faces1 or1 if round1 a heel-tool all edge1 and which can be rolled over as it gets blunted4 ,to these add the graver1 of which ,i have already spoken4 ,i have tried to show its position at ,o1 with the bevel of the face pointed in the direction of the shoulder1 and downwards2 but it can be held face upwards also1 and in one or two other positions4 ,always remember that the cutting edge is to be presented at a small angle with the work1 and you cannot go wrong if the tool is well formed4 ,the nail-head and heel-tools are single edged1 and easily ground without the table of angles1 but the graver is a double-edged tool1 properly speaking1 although only one edge may perhaps be used4 ,having explained the principles upon which you have to work as regards grinding your tools and holding them when in use1 ,i shall merely add a few remarks as to the action of the grindstone and oilstone1 and the proper way of using them4 ,always let the stone revolve towards you1 as if you had to turn it smooth with the tool you have to sharpen1 except when you cannot possibly do so without cutting grooves in it4 ,chisels1 knives1 axes1 planes1 and all similar tools with flat edges1 are to be ground with the stone running in that direction1 by which means you will avoid giving them a wire edge1 as it is called 7i4e41 a ragged-looking edge71 and it will instead be even and sharp2 the filament of metal being1 as it were1 driven back into the substance of the tool1 instead of drawn away from it4 ,gouges may be ground in the same way1 but must be rolled about to keep up the form of edge4 ,it is indeed the easiest way with these to hold them across the stone1 in the same direction as its axis1 and then1 by rolling them over backwards and forwards1 you can give a very good shape to the edge1 which should run slightly to a point1 or rather tend to one4 ,they are never to be ground square across1 like that of the carpenter4 ,it is generally necessary to have some sort of rest upon which to lay the tools during the operation of grinding1 but do not trust to special contrivances for holding them at the precise angle needed2 rather trust to your own skill1 which will increase more and more by being severely exercised4 ,always remember to grind your tools to a sharper angle than will be ultimately required1 that the final angle may be given by the oilstone4 ,of the latter there are many kinds4 ,nothing probably can surpass a ,turkey stone1 if good1 but this varies considerably in hardness and other qualities4 ,there is a very quick-cutting1 slightly coarse stone from ,nova ,scotia1 which is very serviceable1 as it does this tedious work with great rapidity1 not1 however1 putting on the tools a very fine edge1 but one that admirably suits for such as are to be used on metal4 ,with the rest1 a rub or two on ,turkey1 or ,arkansas1 or ,chorley ,forest stone1 will impart a finish4 ,arkansas stone1 however1 may be had coarse as well as fine2 it is much liked by some1 but ,i prefer the ,nova ,scotia1 as it cuts more keenly1 and even with the sharpest stone1 setting tools is a most laborious process4 ,the young mechanic will find it very difficult at first to hold the tool steady1 and to move it to and fro upon the oilstone so as not to give it any rolling movement1 by which the edge and bevel would be rounded1 as ,i before explained1 which would in effect enlarge the angle of the cutting edge1 besides preventing it from being held at a sufficiently small angle to the work to cut effectively4 ,nothing but practice will overcome this difficulty2 ,i shall not therefore attempt to describe exactly how the tool should be held and the sharpening effected1 such description being not only difficult1 but1 as experience has proved to me1 impossible4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,we now enter upon the actual work of the lathe1 which should be comparatively easy to understand after the foregoing observations4 ,your raw material having been chopped or shaved into a rough cylindrical form1 you have to mount it in the lathe4 ,i may suppose it a piece of beech for a tool-handle4 ,if you have the cross-chuck1 you should use it2 if not1 you may use the prong instead4 ,in either case1 centre the wood as truly as you can1 so that1 when the rest is fixed near it1 the piece may not be much farther from it1 as it revolves1 in one place than another4 ,mind and screw down the back poppit tightly upon the lathe-bed1 and also the rest1 putting the latter as near the work as you can without touching it4 ,now set the lathe in motion1--this is tolerably easy1 but to keep it in motion will probably not be easy at all4 ,it is one of those operations which require practice1 because while your leg is at work upon the treadle1 your body must be firm and still1 so that you feel yourself free to use the tools without giving much attention to what your leg is doing4 ,after a while you will do this with perfect ease4 ,the wood is1 of course1 to rotate towards you1 and the surface will come in contact with the edge of the tool as the latter is held tightly down on the rest4 ,now1 this is1 after all1 the real difficulty1 for every projection striking the tool tends to jerk it off the rest1 and this has to be resisted with some force4 ,there is1 however1 this advantage in hand-tools1 viz41 that they may be held rigidly yet be allowed some slight play1 according to the peculiar exigencies of the work2 and at first you will save the tool by allowing it to yield slightly until the roughest part has been cut away4 ,afterwards1 there is to be no movement except that required to make it follow the curves or level parts of the work4 ,do your best first to produce a cylinder1 i4e41 a straight1 even piece of wood1 as long as the required handle1 and as large round as the largest part proposed to be given it4 ,it is the best plan at first to copy a well-shaped handle1 and to turn as many as you want of that size exactly to the same pattern4 ,this will give you such an amount of practice in copying form1 as will stand you in good stead in after days2 for it is not easy at first to turn even two things exactly to pattern and to size4 ,you must not expect to be able to run your tools along the work like a professional or old hand at the lathe2 you must do the best you can4 ,hold the handle in the right hand1 and with the left grasp both rest and tool together1 and you will hold it firmly4 ,then you ought to run it along right or left at the right speed and the right angle1 but you will be unable to do so yet2--never mind4 ,remember the principle ,i have laid down as to the position and angles of cutting tools1 and trust to time and perseverance to make you a good workman4 ,the gouge is the easiest and best tool to use at first2 and you can do a fair amount of smooth work with it if you know how1 although smoothing and levelling is the special work of the chisel4 ,the gouge1 however1 is used for all sorts of curves and hollows1 and though the actual point will only turn a groove if held still1 the side of the cutting part will1 if the tool is steadily advanced1 turn very fair surfaces indeed4 ,i strongly advise practice with this tool before attempting to use any other4 ,your early work is of little importance1 and you may make up your mind to cut several pieces into shavings and chips without very grand success1 even though you use a chisel2 so ,i repeat1 stick to the gouge only for some time1 until you can use it towards left or right1 and with either hand grasping the handle4 ,with the chisel1 far more care is required than with the last named4 ,it is altogether a more difficult tool to use4 ,its position may be described as follows1 but practice alone will render its use easy4 ,lay it first flat on the rest as you would the gouge1 and let it point upwards at a similar angle1 until it also is in the position the gouge would take1 ready to cut the piece of wood in the lathe1 already turned to the cylindrical form by the latter tool4 ,you will find one point or angle of the edge1 the sharpest1 reach the wood before the other1 and will see at once that this would be liable to catch in1 if the lathe were in motion--and so it would4 ,i shall suppose that this sharpest angle is on the right-hand side as it lies flat on the rest1 and against the wood4 ,raise that angle so that the tool lies a little edgewise on the rest instead of quite flat1 when the angle of the tool that is highest on the wood will be also raised off it2 the lower angle and remainder of the edge still being in contact with it4 ,this is its proper position1 with the upper angle out of contact with the work4 ,you may turn it over so that the keenest angle is the lower one1 but then you must raise the other1 which is now the upper one1 for under no circumstances must the one that is uppermost touch the wood4 ,the chisel1 therefore1 never lies flat on the rest or on the work1 but always slightly raised to clear the upper point1 and in this position you have to keep it1 making it descend into hollows1 and rise over mouldings1 and cut level places1 almost without stopping an instant2 and for wood1 especially soft wood1 the lathe is always itself to be run at a very high speed1 by putting the cord on the largest part of the fly-wheel and smallest part of the pulley4 ,to return to the supposed tool-handle4 ,having turned a cylinder1 begin at the ferule1 which you must cut off a brass or iron tube1 or1 which is easier1 buy by the dozen or by the pound ready cut4 ,you will want them three-quarters of an inch for your largest tools1 and about three-eighths for the smallest1 with some of half an inch1 and you can then bore your tool-rack exactly true with centrebits of these sizes4 ,turn the place down for the ferule1 and take care that you make a tight fit4 ,gauge with the callipers first of all1 and turn almost to size1 then try it on once or twice until it fits exactly4 ,if you use the cross-chuck1 you have this one great advantage--you can take out your work to put on the ferule1 and replace it exactly as it was before1 and it will continue to run true4 ,as1 however1 the piece in the present case is but partially turned1 it can be replaced with sufficient accuracy upon the prong-chuck1 especially if you mark the side of the chuck1 and of the piece of wood1 and take care to replace them in the same relative position4 ,you must now try with gouge and chisel to imitate the pattern handle1 remembering always to work downwards from right and left into the various hollows--7you cannot cut the fibres neatly if you try to go up-hill72 and where the two cuts meet in the hollows1 you must do your best not to leave the least ridge or mark4 ,you will be sure to need a little glasscloth to finish off your work1 but do without it as much as possible1 because it spoils the shape of mouldings1 rubbing off the sharp angles1 which in many cases add beauty to the work4 ,if the piece of wood is longer than necessary1 cut it off with the chisel4 ,in any case1 you must cut off a piece at the chuck end2 and this being the end of the handle which you will hold in your hand1 the ferule being at the end next to the back poppit1 you will cut it off neatly with the chisel in finishing it to the required shape4 ,you would hardly suppose it possible to turn off the end of a piece squarely and accurately with the gouge1 but it is a good tool for the purpose4 ,you must lay it on its side upon the rest1 so that its back or bevel rests flat against the end of the piece from which the superfluous wood is to be taken2 the edge or point of the tool is then allowed to cut the work by a slight movement of the handle4 ,you can only do it in this way1 with the bevel against the piece from which the cut is to be taken4 ,turned over to its usual position1 it will hitch in and spoil the work in a moment4 ,in the same way you can face up a bread-platter or similar flat work2 but such articles as these are not mounted between centres1 but screwed upon the taper screw-chuck or the flat plate with the screw-holes1 so that you can get to the face of them4 ,at first1 however1 until the work gets tolerably level1 you may bring up the back-centre1 which will prevent the taper screw of the chuck from being accidentally bent2 and when all the rough part is cut away1 and the rim turned down1 you can remove the back-centre to finish the facing up4 ,in this work1 however1 the back and face do not need much turning1 because the platter is turned from plank wood1 planed up truly on each side1 and cut roughly into the form of a circle4 ,if accurately planed1 it will run true at once1 and the small amount of facing may be done with the gouge held as directed4 ,afterwards it may be necessary to take a light scrape with a carpenter's chisel1 which answers well for this4 ,then finish up with glass or sand paper4 ,take care to make a neat moulding to the edge1 which will be about an inch thick1 and will therefore look very heavy unless turned off so as to thin it down4 ,a platter is a very good and useful work for a beginner4 ,in turning a platter you will certainly learn one lesson in mechanics4 ,you will find that it is very hard work to turn anything that is larger than the pulley of your lathe1 and you will only be able to take a very light cut4 ,probably you will find it the easiest plan to set the lathe in rapid movement1 and apply the turning-tool only for an instant1 and then to remove it until the work has recovered its impetus1 thus cutting it1 as it were1 by repeated brief applications of the tool1 instead of by one continuous cut4 ,i do not mean that the tool is to be removed from the rest1 but only eased off for a second from the work4 ,if the latter is very large1 and the pulley on the mandrel much less in size1 you can only work in this way1 finishing with a very light cut4 ,there is a tool for the face of such flat works1 called a broad4 ,it is like a broad chisel with the end turned up at right angles to the side1 only the edge is a bevelled one and thick4 ,they work well in hands accustomed to them1 but the gouge and chisel are sufficient for your present need4 ,i shall sketch here 7,fig4 #di7 one or two articles not requiring to be much hollowed out1 which will help you to decide upon such work as is suitable to a young mechanic desiring1 by steady practice and application1 to become a proficient at the lathe1 and as soft-wood turning will teach you more than that in hard wood1 ,i shall direct all the following to be made of it by gouge and chisel alone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,these examples are not given as specimens of the rich work which can be done in the lathe1 but as easy examples of elementary turning4 ,no4 #a is a stand for an urn or hot water jug1 and a slight recess may be made in the upper surface1 in which a piece of cloth1 or carpet1 or oilcloth can be glued1 which will make a neat finish4 ,no4 #b is a bread-platter1 showing how a little neat moulding takes away the clumsy appearance of the thick board necessary for this purpose4 ,no4 #c is a candlestick4 ,the lower part or stand is to be turned from a separate piece of thick board screwed upon the taper-screw chuck4 ,while it is in the lathe1 the hole must be made in the centre 7or marked1 if the piece is not very thick7 by holding a pointed tool a little on one side of the centre1 so as to describe a circle of the requisite size4 ,into this will be fitted a tenon1 fig4 #c ,b1 which is turned on the pedestal1 and which is to be glued into its place4 ,by and by you will learn how to cut a screw upon such a tenon1 which is a far more satisfactory method of proceeding2 at present glue will answer just as well4 ,you can make the upper part separate1 forming the junction at the line ,c 7,fig4 #di1 ,no4 #c71 if you prefer it1 or if your wood is not long enough2 but as you will not hollow out the top1 you may as well let it be cut out of one piece with the pedestal4 ,turn the top quite level1 drive in a piece of stout wire1 and point the end of it4 ,cut out a round piece of tin to fit1 and make a hole in the middle of it to let the wire through2 drop it over the point1 and let it rest on the candlestick2 a wax candle can be spiked upon the wire1 and will stand firm4 ,figs4 #g and #h are drawings of tool-handles4 ,these are the best shape to grasp in the hand1 and they look neat in the tool-rack4 ,tool-handles with a number of mouldings1 are not only absurd1 but are uncomfortable to hold1 and not at all suited to their intended purpose4 #i and #aj are other forms of mouldings1 and are given merely to show how angular and rounded forms should be combined to produce a good effect4 ,if these were to be made in hard wood1 they might be turned with beading and moulding tools similar to those at ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d of this figure2 such tools are bevelled only on one side1 and being held flat upon the rest1 cut the curves and hollows rapidly1 and clean4 ,sometimes a number of these are arranged side by side1 so as together to make up the outline of the intended moulding1 and being held in position by a handle designed for the purpose1 are presented all at once to the work as it revolves4 ,in other cases1 a flat plate of steel is filed into shape1 and bevelled to form a compound moulding tool4 ,of course1 such contrivances greatly help the turner1 especially if he has to turn a number of articles of exactly the same pattern1 such as the pawns of a set of chessmen1 or a set of draughtsmen2 but none of these tools answer upon soft wood1 because1 as already explained1 tools which have to be held horizontally will cut and tear up the fibres of all woods that are not very hard and compact in grain4 ,fig4 #f is a profile of a draughtsman1 and fig4 #f ,b shows how they ought to be made1 but for this you cannot use soft wood1 and had better make them of box and ebony1 or holly and ebony--7and1 by and by1 of black-wood and ivory74 ,a cylinder is first turned1 then marked off as shown with grooves cut by a parting-tool4 ,the pieces are then separated with a fine saw1 and a chuck is hollowed out to fit them so that each can be readily turned upon the face4 ,the desired mouldings having been made on one side1 the disc is turned over in the chuck1 and the other side operated upon in the same manner4 ,it is quite possible1 you must understand1 to cut these out of soft wood1 even pine or deal4 ,we often see boxes of toys1 children's wooden plates and cups1 turned very neatly of this material2 but it is not worth while to use it if you can obtain boxwood4 ,moreover1 box can be stained black to imitate ebony1 and is very often made to serve instead of it4 ,figs4 #d and #e are ring-stands for the toilette-table--very useful presents these to mothers1 sisters1 and1 last but not least1 lady cousins1 and other young ladies too1 perhaps1 who are not cousins4 ,these can be made in a variety of ways1 and give great scope for the exercise of your powers of design4 ,the first is a simple pedestal on a stand1 turned quite smooth in an elegant and simple curve4 ,the stand is also made without elaborate mouldings1 giving altogether a chaste and elegant appearance to the design4 ,the extremity is tipped with ivory1 and an ivory ring surrounds the bottom of the pedestal4 ,if this is made in plain deal1 and thoroughly well finished and varnished1 it will look very well4 ,the nicest soft ,english wood1 however1 for this is certainly yew1 some of which is beautifully fine in grain2 and as it will take an excellent polish1 it always looks well2 moreover1 it can be turned entirely with gouge and chisel4 ,this ring-stand will be made in two parts2 the pedestal being separately turned at one end1 a tenon will have to be made as in the case of the candlestick1 and just above it the wood is to be turned off a little as if you were going to make a larger tenon4 ,over this a ring of ivory may be slipped and glued on1 and the two can then be turned together4 ,a carpenter's chisel will do for the ivory1 which will be scraped into form by it4 ,it may be polished with a little chalk on a moist rag or flannel4 ,you can buy odds and ends of ivory from the turners in rings and solid pieces1 which will come in for all sorts of decorations1 and you should save all old handles of knives1 tooth-brushes1 and such like1 for a similar purpose4 ,both ivory and bone smell very disagreeably when in process of being turned4 ,to tip such articles with ivory1 you can drill a small hole in the top of the pedestal with great care1 and fit the ivory after being turned into it2 or you can1 if the work is larger1 bore the ivory and slip it on the wood2--much depends upon the size and nature of the work4 ,the second ring-stand is of rather more elaborate construction4 ,the baskets are made of little turned pedestals fitted into a round piece of wood to form the bottom1 and into a ring which makes the rim4 ,baskets of this form 7even apart from the ring-stand7 are very neat and useful4 ,it is very easy to turn rings of any size4 ,mount a piece of board in the lathe on the taper screw chuck--it need not even be cut to a round form2 then determine the size of the proposed ring1 and1 holding a parting-tool upon the rest turned round to face the work1 mark two circles1 and deepen the cuts1 until the ring falls off4 ,take care that the outer one is cut through first4 ,the ring thus cut may be afterwards placed upon a cylinder turned to fit it1 and finished upon the outside1 and then placed inside a chuck of wood bored out to suit the work1 and neatly rounded off upon the interior surface4 ,of course1 if you have to make rings of bone or ivory which are already hollow1 you can at once run a mandrel or spindle of wood or metal through them and subject them to the various operations required4 ,mandrels1 or tapered cylinders of brass or iron1 fitted as chucks to the mandrel of the lathe1 are sold on purpose for this work1 but a wooden rod answers just as well1 and costs nothing4 ,turn such a rod a little tapering1 and take care not to drive the work too far upon it1 because1 although at first you can safely drive it on very tightly1 if it is of ivory or bone1 you will frequently find your ring suddenly split and open when its thickness has been reduced to the required standard4 ,if a number of equal rings are required1 it is the best plan to turn a hollow cylinder and then saw off the rings as you are directed to saw off the draughtsmen4 ,they will1 of course1 have to be finished in a chuck4 ,if you look round any fancy warehouse in which ,swiss carvings are sold1 you will see how beautifully soft white pine can be worked in the lathe by keen tools and clever hands4 ,in ,tunbridge1 too1 many thousands of soft-wood articles are manufactured yearly1 some plain and merely varnished1 and some curiously inlaid with coloured woods1 so that you need not despise such materials as willow and sycamore and the various pine woods1 which are all capable of being made into pretty articles of one kind or another4 ,the varnish1 however1 for these is such as to coat them with a glassy layer which does not sink into the wood4 ,common rosin dissolved in turpentine or in linseed oil1 kept on the hob so as to get warm1 answers well for these deal articles1 and is extensively used where the slight tinge of yellow is not considered important4 ,there are many other much paler varnishes for works of greater value1 or where the white wood is to be carefully preserved4 ,any of these can be had at oil and colour shops4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,you will certainly find a difficulty in turning all exactly alike the little pillars of these baskets4 ,you should turn several at once out of the same piece1 separating them afterwards4 ,thus your pattern will always be close to the half-executed copy1 which will somewhat assist you4 ,do your best in this respect1 but be specially careful1 at any rate1 to make all exactly the same length4 ,one pillar is shown separate1 but you can design a pattern for yourself4 ,begin by turning a long cylinder2 then set off the respective lengths of the pillars4 ,turn one complete as a pattern1 and set the callipers to the largest part of it4 ,then go to work upon a second1 using callipers freely at all parts of it4 ,as these pillars will all be slender1 you will be in great danger of breaking them2 therefore use your tools lightly1 taking only a very slight cut4 ,but with all your care you will find it difficult to turn a row of more than two or three of the size wanted for such little baskets4 ,i shall therefore show you how to make a support to fit at the back of the bar you are at work upon to support it against the pressure of the tool4 ,fig4 #ej gives a representation of one or two such supports1 which are often required in turning4 ,the first is the most simple1 and is the one most generally in use1 because easy to make and to apply1 and it answers tolerably well4 ,a is merely a piece of wood1 about three-quarters of an inch thick1 cut as shown4 ,this is stood up between the lathe-beds1 like ,c1 and fastened with a wedge before and behind4 ,it allows the work in the lathe to revolve in the notch which is cut in it1 as is evident from the drawing4 ,one1 two1 or more such may be used if necessary4 ,they must be carefully adjusted1 so as not to bend the piece which is to be turned1 and which is to be just supported1 but no more4 ,where the back-stay1 as this contrivance is called1 comes in contact with the work1 the latter is to be left of the size it was when this was adjusted to it as long as possible4 ,it must then be shifted a little1 and that part which formerly rested against it finished4 ,b is another simple form of back-stay1 capable of nicer adjustment4 ,the foot is that of a common rest1 but if you have not a spare one1 any wooden support is quite as good4 ,into this fits a turned part of the upright x y1--the upper part1 y1 of this being planed flat4 ,neither should be of deal2 ash or elm is preferable4 ,thus the part x y can be raised and lowered at pleasure in the rest-socket4 ,the top part is made of a half-inch board1 about #b or #b inches wide2 a slit is cut in it1 and it is fastened to x y by a short bolt and nut4 ,thus it is easy to raise and lower the end of this part1 and to put it nearer to1 or farther from1 the work in the lathe1 against which it can be adjusted with great nicety4 ,although there are several forms of back-stay1 of more or less complicated construction1 ,i know of none more generally serviceable than this last1 which the young mechanic can make for himself4 ,the notch should be lubricated with soap1 or1 if the blackness is not of importance 7as when this part1 which rotates in the notch1 has finally to be cut away71 with a mixture of soap and blacklead4 ,this1 remember1 is always to be applied to wooden surfaces that are to work easily upon each other4 ,it will sometimes happen that you require to bore a hole through a long piece of wood1 as would be the case in making a wooden pipe1 flute1 bodkin-case1 and many similar articles4 ,to hold these in a chuck only would be often impossible1 because the hole in the chuck would have to be as deep at least as half the length of the piece to be bored4 ,for this kind of work1 therefore1 and for turning up a point on the end of a cylinder of iron or steel1 like that of your back poppit1 the following contrivance is used1 which is called a boring-collar or cone-plate4 ,it is represented in ,fig4 #ej1 ,d and ,e4 ,this consists of a circular plate of metal1 three-quarters of an inch thick1 turning upon a large screw or pivot at its centre1 by which pivot it is attached to a short poppit head1 fitting between the bearers of the lathe as usual4 ,there are six or eight conical holes bored round the circular plate1 each of a different size2 and these are so arranged as to height1 or distance from the centre1 that the top one 7being in a perpendicular line passing through its centre and that of the bolt7 is exactly as high as the axis of the mandrel4 ,thus1 if it is clamped in that position1 with the largest side of the conical holes next the mandrel1 a piece of wood might be held at one end in a chuck1 while the other might rest in such hole as was best suited to its size1 not actually passing through it1 but resting in the inside of the conical hole1 in which it would rotate almost as freely and as truly as if it were supported by the ordinary point of the back poppit4 ,sometimes it may be preferred to allow the end of such a piece of work to project through the cone-plate1 a collar being turned on it to prevent it from going too far4 ,a tool-handle1 for instance1 of the pattern before given1 may be beautifully bored in the lathe by allowing the ferule to rotate in one of the holes of the cone-plate1 the shoulder behind preventing it from going too far4 ,the rest is brought round in front of the end of the handle1 and a hole bored by a drill for wood2 or1 the point of a drill is brought against it1 while the other end 7having had a slight hole made by a centre-punch for the purpose7 is allowed to centre itself on the point of the back poppit4 ,the screw of the latter is then advanced1 and the drill being prevented from itself revolving either by being grasped by the hand or a vice1 a beautifully straight and even hole is rapidly made4 ,fig4 #ej1 ,f1 shows the position of the various pieces4 ,the drill is here kept from rotating by a small spanner1 the handle of which comes against the bed of the lathe4 ,a great deal of work1 both in wood and metal1 is always drilled in this way4 ,for wood1 a small nose-bit1 or auger-bit1 or one of the ,american twist-drills1 can be used1 and this may be succeeded by a larger1 until the hole will allow of the introduction of a finishing-tool of some kind1 held in the hand4 ,of course the latter is not necessary in boring out handles for the tang of a tool1 but only in turning boxes for pencils1 needles1 or other articles1 which require to be neatly finished inside as well as out2 all these are to be bored before the work is cut free from the superfluous wood out of which it was turned4 ,you can even use the cross-chuck for this work4 ,it matters little1 when using the cone-plate1 whether you finish the turning of the outside before or after the boring is done4 ,very generally the box or other article is bored first1 quite in its rough state1 except that a short piece is turned down to fit into a hole of the cone-plate2 and1 keeping the latter in its place all the while1 the wood is turned down and polished before removing it from the lathe4 ,sometimes1 especially with metal1 which is in no danger of splitting1 the cone-plate is removed as soon as the hole has been made and replaced by the back-centre1 the point of which1 entering the hole1 retains the work in its place while the outside is being fashioned4 ,this of course insures the exterior surface being exactly concentric with the inside1 which is often absolutely necessary in parts of machinery2 but if wooden articles are finished in this way1 there is great danger of their being split by the pressure of the back-centre as the work grows thinner and thinner under the action of the tools4 ,moreover1 it must be remembered that the back-centre1 being itself of a conical form1 will injure the form of the hole in metal by making it wider at the mouth if used in this way1 and sometimes this may be of importance4 ,there is a fault in the cone-plate which boys will understand1 and men1 too1 ,i imagine4 ,it costs money6 ,therefore ,i shall now show you how to make a substitute1 which will cost something under a shilling1 if you do not mind a little trouble2 but1 if you do1 you will never make a good workman1 nor will you be good for much1 ,i fear1 in any way6 ,a metal cone-plate for a #e-;inch lathe costs #b at least4 ,i shall suppose you want a cone-plate in which to bore your tool-handles1 for it is not easy to do this with a gimlet1 so that the tools1 when inserted1 shall stand straight in their handles4 ,if you have a #e-;inch centre lathe1 i4e41 a lathe in which the central line or axis of the mandrel is #e inches from the lathe-bed 7in which case you can turn anything nearly #aj inches in diameter71 cut out of a piece of beech1 #c inches thick1 a short poppit #c inches high1 of some such shape as seen in the fig4 ,g2 and in the lower part 7which must be cut to fit between the lathe-bearers1 and must be made square at the sides and true1 so that the whole will stand squarely across the lathe-bed71 either cut a mortice1 a1 for a wedge1 or bore a hole for a screw1 which must have a plate and nut to fasten under the bed like other poppits4 ,near the top1 and exactly in the centre1 bore a hole to receive the bolt ,k1 similar to that in the metal cone-plate already described1 and which will be tightened by a nut at the back4 ,this supplies the place of the short iron poppit1 and now you have to contrive something to replace the circular plate of holes4 ,cut two or three strips of any tolerably hard wood1 ,h 7beech will answer very well71 #f inches long1 half an inch thick1 and #b inches wide4 ,cut in these a slot and a round hole1 which must be carefully made with a centrebit4 ,this hole is to be for one of those in the usual round plate1 so be careful in making it4 ,work thus3 ,plane up the piece from wood rather more than the half inch required2 draw a line exactly down the middle of it on both sides e1 f2 choose a centrebit of the size you require2 put the point upon this line1 about #a inches or more1 according to the size of the required hole1 and bore steadily a little way into the wood4 ,then turn it over1 measure carefully so as to get the precise spot right1 and finish from that side4 ,if the centrebit is sharp1 and the wood sound1 you will now have a neat round hole4 ,let the slot be also cut from both sides of the piece of wood with a sharp chisel1 taking care that the centre of it agrees with the line that you made for a guide4 ,three or four of these should be made1 each with a different sized hole1 or more if required2 but you can add new ones at any time4 ,the bolt1 ,k1 is to be made with a large head flat on the under side1 and the upper part1 above the screw1 is to be square for three-eighths of an inch1 and the slot in the pieces of wood must just fit this squared part4 ,now1 as this is three-eighths only1 and the thickness of the wood is four-eighths or half an inch1 it is plain that the nut will draw1 and the head of the screw clamp this tightly4 ,you can1 if you like1 however1 make the hole in the poppit square also1 and then let the squared part of the screw be long enough to reach almost entirely through both pieces4 ,then slip a washer 7an iron plate with a hole in it like ,l7 over the end of the screw1 and fix all with the nut4 ,thus you have a boring collar with one hole1 and this you can raise or lower the length of the slot so as to get it exactly the right height1 and when it is so arranged1 one turn of the nut at the back will fix it4 ,this you will find a very simple form of boring-collar1 easy to make1 and of practical use4 ,if you really take all the care you can1 and follow the directions ,i have given1 ,i do not see how you can possibly fail in constructing one4 ,you should have a sliding-plate with a hole for each size of tool-handle ferule used1 as you will frequently be making these4 ,,hollowing ,,out ,,work4 ,as ,i have spoken of boring1 ,i will go on to treat now of the general practice of hollowing out chucks and boxes1 and such like4 ,if this is to be done in soft wood1 such as willow1 no tool will answer so well as the hook-tools1 of which ,i have given drawings4 ,but these are very difficult indeed to use1 owing to their tendency to catch in1 or take suddenly a deeper cut than was intended4 ,nothing but practice will teach exactly how to use these tools2 but then1 when the difficulty of so doing is once mastered1 nothing can be more rapid or more satisfactory than the work which they will do4 ,small bowls are hollowed almost instantaneously by their means in skilled hands2 whereas1 with other tools1 it becomes not only a tedious job1 but if it is done at all1 it is but roughly1 the wood having to be rather scraped out than cut4 ,using1 however1 the back of the gouge as explained before1 in the directions given for squaring up the end of a cylinder with this tool1 it is possible to hollow out soft wood with it1 but not very satisfactorily4 ,in any case1 other tools 7generally a carpenter's chisel7 must be used to work into the angle which neither the gouge nor hook-tool can1 of course1 reach4 ,hence it is generally so much easier to cut out boxes and such like articles in box or hard wood1 that this is nearly always used by amateurs4 ,the ordinary way to turn a box is as follows3--,prepare the wood as usual1 turning it cylindrical1 using any chuck you please for this work2 cut off with the parting-tool rather more than the box and its cover together will require1 and drive the piece thus separated into a cup-chuck4 ,you may1 if you prefer it1 screw upon the nose of the mandrel1 or upon the taper screw-chuck1 the rough piece of the proper length1 instead of first turning a cylinder to cut from4 ,if you have several boxes to make of one size1 the cylinder method is to be preferred4 ,turn it up again quite true1 for although it was correct before you cut it off1 it will not be so now4 ,square up the end1 and turning round the rest so as to stand across the face of the wood1 begin to hollow out the cover4 ,use either the round end or pointed tool at first1 and then a carpenter's chisel or flat tool to finish4 ,be very careful that the sides 7,i must call it by this name1 although a circle has not more sides than a plum-pudding7 are turned square to the bottom1 or else1 when the cover is put on1 it will perhaps fit just at the entry1 and be quite loose when fairly on2 or1 it may be that it will be easy at first1 and when you press it on1 it will be tighter and become split1--a very common but unpleasant occurrence4 ,do not1 moreover1 turn down these sides as thin as they will ultimately be2 because1 after the box is hollowed and the cover fitted on1 both will have to be slightly turned together to finish them nicely4 ,moreover1 you may not wish your box to have plain sides1 but may prefer to mould them into a more elegant form4 ,all these little questions have to be duly considered in turning1 for a mistake is often made1 and the work spoiled1 for want of a little timely consideration4 ,the next point on which you have to be on your guard is this1--having turned out the cover1 you have to cut it off1 not with a saw1 but with your parting-tool4 ,now1 be sure to leave thickness enough for the top of the cover2 or1 just as you think you have nearly severed the latter from the rest of the piece of wood1 you will see a beautiful little ring tumble off1--sad relict of your box cover1 which has come to an untimely end4 ,the sliding square of the turner1 of which ,i gave a description among the list of tools1 will always enable you to gauge both the depth to which the work is hollowed out1 and also the squareness of the inside to the bottom4 ,but if you have no turner's square1 you can easily gauge the depth inside1 and thus see how much is necessary to be allowed for the thickness of the top4 ,keep the parting-tool edgewise on the rest1 which should be raised to such a height that1 when this tool is laid horizontally across it1 it will point nearly to the centre of the work1 i4e41 the axis of it4 ,after the parting-tool has cut into the wood a little way1 widen the groove a little1 and continue to give the tool a little play right and left1 unless its end is so much wider than its blade generally that it will clear itself perfectly as it goes deeper and deeper into cut4 ,if it should bind1 it is almost certain to break1 for it is a very thin tool2 and it is better to waste a little more of your material than to have to replace a spoiled tool4 ,i shall suppose that you have now succeeded in cutting off the cover2 pick it up and lay it near you4 ,directions are given generally to turn down next the flange upon which the cover of the box is to be fitted1 but this is not to be wholly done yet1 and you may proceed to hollow it out as soon as you have turned down just so much of this flange as will show you how much to leave in hollowing out the box4 ,if you fit the cover before you have hollowed out the box1 you will have the mortification of finding it a great deal too loose when the box is finished1 because the latter will contract in size as soon as ever the solid core is removed from it4 ,after you have hollowed it out1 you must gauge the inside of the cover1 and the outside of the place that it is to occupy1 with the in-and-out callipers1 or with a common pair1 and turn the flange till it is almost correct to this gauge1 and only a very little larger than it ought to be4 ,when this is the case1 do not trust any longer to the callipers1 but try on the cover again and again until you get a nice fit4 ,you must finish the flange with a chisel1 held flat2 and again ,i repeat the caution about keeping it truly square1 so that the cover will hold equally tight in all positions4 ,when this is the case1 leave it on1 and give a last touch to both box and cover together1 when you ought barely to be able to see the joint4 ,you have now only to cut off the box as you did the cover1 using the same precautions4 ,before it is quite severed1 however1 you should give it a polish4 ,pick up a handful of shavings1 and while the work is revolving as rapidly as possible1 hold them with some pressure against it4 ,every fibre will be at once laid smooth1 and it will look nice and bright at once4 ,you can varnish it afterwards if you like1 or ,french-polish it4 ,varnish is best for boxwood1 and ,french-polishing requires special directions1 which ,i shall give you separately in a future page4 ,to be able to make a box well1 with its cover well fitted1 is to be able to do all kinds of similar work4 ,yet in these may be special details deserving notice4 ,probably1 therefore1 when speaking in a future page of particular objects which have to be turned1 such special details will be more fitting than if given here4 ,i shall therefore pass on to another part of the subject1 namely1 screwed and twisted work4 ,,screws ,,and ,,twists4 ,neither of these can be very accurately made without special and somewhat expensive apparatus2 but both can with practice be done tolerably well by the young mechanic with ordinary simple means4 ,i need not describe a screw1 for all boys know what it is2 and sporting boys1 of which in these days there are many1 know what sort of animal a screw is4 ,well1 never mind4 ,i am always riding a screw1 ,i believe1 for it is my hobby1 and there is a great deal of science in a screw2 and as for the variety of the manufactured article1 there is plenty of it4 ,there is the corkscrew1 which is1 after all1 not a screw1 but a twist1--and this is often the means of making men screwed2 and the miserly screw1 who skins fleas for the sake of their fat2 and there is the mythical1 invisible1 moral 7and im-moral7 screw1 which hard-fisted men inflict upon their weaker brethren2 and there is the gigantic screw of the ,great ,eastern steamship2 and the minute1 microscopic screw of the lady's tiny jewelled watch4 ,there are several modes of cutting screws1 in the lathe and out of it4 ,the small ones required for holding together the different parts of machinery1 as well as larger ones for the same purpose1 are always cut with stock and dies4 ,the very small ones used by watchmakers1 and all below one-eighth of an inch diameter1 are made by the screw-plate4 ,but when either large or small screws are required of great accuracy1 they are invariably cut in the lathe1 and with the aid of mechanical appliances of the most delicately accurate description4 ,these are all metal screws4 ,but the young mechanic will often wish to put screwed covers to his boxes1 and to join various parts of his work by screwed connections instead of glue2 and all these may be cut in the lathe by simple hand-tools skilfully applied1 although the operation is sufficiently fraught with difficulty to require a great deal of practice before it can be done with certainty of success4 ,at the same time1 my young friends cannot possibly do better than practise this operation1 for there are numberless cases in which screws cannot be conveniently cut in any other way1 and it is1 further1 an accomplishment that will at once stamp them as skilful workmen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the tools required are represented at ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,a is an outside1 and ,b an inside screw chasing-tool4 ,these are always made in pairs1 of exactly the same pitch1 i4e41 the outside tool being applied to the inside1 the respective notches and points will exactly fit into each other4 ,if you were to examine the under side of these tools1 shown at ,c1 you would notice that the notches do not run straight1 but slanting4 ,they are in fact parts of screw threads2 and you could make a tool of this kind out of a common screw nut1 as ,i have shown you at ,d1 only it would be too much hollowed out to make a good tool4 ,now1 supposing you were to hold the tool ,a flat on the rest1 while a cylindrical piece of wood revolved in contact with it1 you would cut a series of rings only2 but if you were at the same time to slide the tool sideways upon the rest1 so that by the time the wood had revolved once1 the first point of the tool would have just reached the spot which was occupied by the second when you started1 you would have traced a screw thread of that particular pitch4 ,this is what you have to learn to do always1 and with certainty1 no matter what pitch of tool you may be using1 and it is easy to understand how difficult the operation must be to a beginner4 ,indeed1 there are numbers of otherwise good turners who have never succeeded in mastering this work4 ,nevertheless it can be done1 and1 although difficult1 it is not so much so as might be supposed4 ,indeed1 at first sight it would hardly be believed possible1 because each different pitch of tool1 and each different-sized piece of work1 requires a different speed of traverse to be given to the tool4 ,but a practised hand will strike thread after thread without failure1 and those whose trade is to make all sorts of screw-covered boxes and similar articles1 will execute the work with as much speed and apparent ease1 as they would any ordinary operation of turning4 ,i shall tell you by and by1 however1 of several ways to escape this difficulty of screw-cutting1--lathes being fitted in various ways to insure good work1 in some cases by carrying forward the tool at exactly the right rate of traverse1 and at others by moving along the work itself at the proper speed1 while the cutting tool is held immovably fixed in one position1--and ,i will give one tool of great service which will guide you in starting the ordinary chasing-tool2 and a good start is here truly 8half the battle40 ,the chasing-tool must run from right to left for an ordinary right-handed screw 7and a left-handed one is very seldom required71 so that the young mechanic need not trouble himself about it4 ,precise directions cannot be given further than to have a rest with a very smooth and even edge1 which will not in the least hinder the traverse of the chasing-tool1 and to get the lathe into steady1 equable motion4 ,then hold the tool lightly1 but firmly1 keeping it at right angles with the work4 ,allow it only just to touch until you find you have got into the right swing4 ,it is all a matter of knack and practice2 and if you succeed quickly1 you may congratulate yourself4 ,the inside chasing-tool is used in precisely the same way1 running it from the outer edge of the hole inwards4 ,to some this is an easier tool to use than the outside chaser4 ,i cannot say that ,i find it so2 especially as one has to work more in the dark2 unless the work is of large diameter like the cover of a box1 and even then the work is sufficiently difficult owing to the shallowness of the lid1 which necessitates the instant stopping of the tool for a fresh cut4 ,for you must understand that you have to deepen the screw-threads very gradually1 and it will take several traverses of the tool to cut them to a sufficient depth4 ,the chasers require to be very sharp to cut wooden screws neatly1 but observe you must only rub the upper flat face upon the oilstone1 or1 if a notch has been made by using the tools upon metal 7they will cut brass well with care71 grind them in the same way2 the great secret being to hold the tool quite flat on the stone4 ,you will thus1 even by continual grinding1 only thin the blade of the chaser1 which will thus last for a long time4 ,a practised hand will even cut a good thread with any flat piece of steel filed into equal notches1 but a screw-chaser is the only tool really fit for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the most effectual remedy for the screw-cutting difficulty1 is unfortunately rather expensive in its best form4 ,but in another1 it is by no means costly2 and although it may not look so well as the first1 it is equally effective1 and extensively used by the turners at ,tunbridge ,wells1 who make those beautiful little inlaid boxes and other articles4 ,i shall explain this to you1 therefore1 first3-- ,a1 is a lathe-head1 something like the one ,i have already described1 but you will notice that the mandrel is a much longer one1 and has several short screws cut upon it1 each one being of a different 8thread0 or 8pitch40#a ,this mandrel runs through two collars1 so that1 besides turning round1 it can be pushed endwise4 ,now1 supposing ,i was to hold the point of a tool firmly against either of the screws1 and at the same time was to turn the pulley and mandrel1 you will understand that it would run backwards or forwards in its collars1 at such a rate as the screw-thread compelled it to move4 ,this is the plan of the traversing mandrel2 and now supposing that you had a box held as usual in a chuck1 and while the mandrel was compelled to move endwise as described1 you were to hold a pointed tool against it1 the tool would evidently cut a screw-thread of exactly the same pitch as that upon the mandrel against which the pointed tool first spoken of was applied4 ,but in practice1 a single-pointed tool held against the mandrel would not answer very well1 and so the following plan is adopted instead1 which answers perfectly4 ,fig4 #eb1 ,c1 is called a half-nut4 ,it has a set of screw-threads1 cut where the semicircular hollow is1 which threads fit one of the screws on the mandrel4 ,a whole row of these half-nuts are fitted to turn at one end upon a long bar1 so that either one can be raised up at pleasure to touch the screw upon the mandrel1 which has threads of the same pitch as itself1 ,b4 ,these1 then1 are ranged under the mandrel1 and when it is desired to make it traverse in its collars1 one of these half-nuts is raised and kept up by a wedge placed underneath it4 ,when no screw is required1 a somewhat similar half-nut1 but with merely a sharp edge instead of a thread1 is raised1 and this edge falls into a notch or groove turned upon the mandrel1 or sometimes a back centre-screw is added like ,d1 and when no screw has to be cut1 this is run up against the mandrel like an ordinary lathe4 ,in the more expensive traversing mandrels1 although the principle is the same1 there is a little difference in the arrangement of the different parts4 ,the mandrel is not very much longer than usual2 and it has no screw-threads cut upon it4 ,but a number of ferules like ,k1 are made each with a screw upon its edge1 and one of these of the desired pitch is slid upon the end of the mandrel at b1 fig4 ,p1 and is there held by a nut or otherwise1 so that it cannot move out of its place4 ,the half-nut is seen at a4 ,it consists of a piece of brass or steel of the form shown with a hole in the middle1 and a screw cut upon each hollow1 so that it is a circle or set of half-nuts of different pitches4 ,this slips over a pin at a1 and when the screw b is turned1 it draws up this pin and the nut attached1 until the latter comes in contact with the ferule upon the end of the mandrel4 ,this is very neat but expensive4 ,now1 by far the cheapest and best way for the young mechanic1 is to set boldly to work to conquer the difficulty of chasing screws by hand4 ,there are even disadvantages in the expensive form of a traversing mandrel1 which render it by no means a desirable mode of fitting up a lathe1 and after all1 the length of screw which it enables one to cut is very limited1 and in addition1 it is not every day1 nor probably once a month1 that screw-cutting will be necessary at all4 ,my advice1 therefore1 is1 do not get a traversing mandrel until you can cut screws well with the chaser4 ,when you can do this1 you will be able to judge of the advantage or disadvantage of one4 ,by far the greater number of common screws are cut without the lathe1 by screw-plates1 or stocks and dies1 and the nut1 or hole into which such screws are to fit1 is cut with a tap4 ,a screw-plate is a simple affair1--a mere flat plate of steel1 in which several holes are drilled1 which are afterwards threaded by screwing into them taps1 or hard cutting steel screws of the size required2 the plate is then hardened by being heated red-hot and suddenly cooled1 after which being much harder than brass1 iron1 or steel which has not gone through such process1 it will in turn cut a thread upon any of these by simply screwing them into it4 ,but although this will answer for small and common screws1 it is not at all suitable for better ones1 because the thread is burred up1 not cut cleanly as it would be with a proper tool4 ,a far better plan is a stock and dies2 the latter being practically a hardened steel nut sawn in half1 and fitted so that the two halves can be pressed nearer and nearer together as the screw thread becomes deeper4 ,the dies are screwed up by means of a thumbscrew opposite to the handle4 ,to use it1 a piece of iron is filed up or turned to the required size1 which must be exactly that of the finished screw4 ,the dies are then loosened and slipped on to the end of this screw-blank as it is called1 and are then slightly tightened upon it4 ,all that is now required is to keep turning the tool round and round upon the pin1 which it will soon cut into a screw thread4 ,when the stock is at the bottom or top1 you may tighten the dies1 and so work up or down2 but never tighten them in any other part4 ,if iron or steel is to be cut1 use oil with the tool1 but brass may be dry4 ,if the screw is of steel1 heat it red-hot and let it cool very gradually1 to make it as soft as possible4 ,the hole or nut1 into which the screw is to fit1 is to be drilled so as just to allow the taper tap to enter about a couple of threads2 a wrench1 or1 if small1 a hand-vice is then applied to twist it forcibly into the hole1 when the thread will be completed4 ,take great care to hold the tap upright1 or else1 if it is a screw with a flat head which has to fit into it1 it will not lie correctly1 but one side of the head will touch while the other is more or less raised4 ,there are other modes of screw cutting1 but at present ,i need only mention one1 which is used for wooden screws alone4 ,it is called a screw-box1 and is only made to cut one size1 a tap being always sold to match4 ,you can1 however1 purchase any size you like1 from a quarter of an inch to #b or #c inches2 but the latter are only intended for very large screws1 such as are used for carpenters' benches and various kinds of presses4 ,a screw-box looks like a small block of wood with a hole in it1 but if you take out two screws you will find a blade of a peculiar shape1 which forms the thread by cutting the wood as it is screwed into the hole in the box4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,hard-,,wood ,,turning4 ,we now discard almost entirely the gouge and chisel used for soft woods1 and fall back upon an entirely different set of tools1 similar to those used for metal1 but ground to rather more acute angles4 ,these tools are held horizontally upon the rest1 because depressing the handles causes the bevel below the edge to rub upon the work2 and in addition1 the grain of hard foreign woods is such that it cannot well be cut by placing the tool at a more acute angle1 as would theoretically be required4 ,hence we can only regard these as scraping tools2 but as such they will do excellent work in skilful hands4 ,i have said that we discard the gouge1 but there are some woods that will bear this tool1 to take off the roughest parts of the work1 before the application of others4 ,the roughing-tool1 however1 may now be considered to be the point-tool1 and the round-end tool1 or 8round0 as it is often called2 a narrow one makes a good tool for this purpose4 ,hard wood is easier on the whole to work than soft1 because we have for the purpose a large stock of tools of all shapes1 suitable to the various mouldings required4 ,hollows1 round-beading tools1 compound and simple moulding tools of various sizes1 to say nothing of those which are made for use with ornamental apparatus1 such as are required for fluting1 beading1 and eccentric work1 spirals1 and so forth4 ,it is indeed in hard wood that most amateurs are accustomed to work2 ebony and ivory1 singly or in combination1 being more extensively used than any other4 ,to turn a cylinder1 or any work requiring to be held at both ends1 you will invariably find the cross-chuck the best to use1--the fork or prong not taking hold in the hard material4 ,rough down to shape as before1 using the gouge if it will work1 but keeping the rest as close as possible1 and only taking a light cut4 ,then finish roughing with a round-tool1 and proceed generally as in soft wood turning1 except inasmuch as you have to scrape instead of cutting the work into form4 ,in addition to the tools already described1 you will have to obtain a few beading-tools1 if you want to do very good work1 for these give far more beautiful mouldings than you can cut in any other manner4 ,fig4 #ec1 ,a to ,c1 represent these4 ,the bevel is on the under side1 and it is better to interfere with it as little as possible1 by always sharpening the flat face only4 ,if it should be necessary1 however1 to touch the bevel1 it must be rubbed by a slip of oilstone1 rounded on the edge1 as used for sharpening gouges4 ,conical grinders1 revolving in the lathe1 are also used1 especially for small beading-tools1 to be fixed in the slide-rest4 ,in the same figure1 ,d and ,e represent another useful hard-wood and ivory tool4 ,it is called the side-parting tool2 and it is usual to have several of these1 the hooks increasing in length4 ,the edge is only on the extreme end of the hook4 ,these tools are used for economy's sake to cut solid blocks of ivory and hard-wood from the inside of boxes1 instead of cutting the material into a heap of useless shavings4 ,similar tools1 ,g1 ,h1 curved instead of rectangular1 serve to cut out a solid piece from the inside of a bowl4 ,in ivory work it is essential to use these tools1 because such material is very costly2 #b4ej a lb41 and upwards1 being a common price4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,k is given to show what are meant by beadings4 ,if these are exactly semicircular in section1 they are far more beautiful in appearance than if of such curves as can be roughly cut by a chisel4 ,the bead-tools are beautifully formed for this very purpose4 ,to use the same side-parting tool1 you must proceed as follows1 which you will understand by the fig4 ,l3--,a common straight parting-tool or narrow chisel is first applied to the face of the work to cut a deep circular groove or channel1 as shown by the white space at ,n1 and in section at ,l4 ,this allows the narrowest of the hooked tools to be applied to under-cut the solid core x4 ,this being withdrawn1 a rather longer hook is applied1 the hook being held downwards as at ,o1 until it reaches the spot where it is to work1 when it is gradually turned up 7bevel below74 ,eventually1 it is plain that the solid core or centre block x will fall out entire1 which may be used for other purposes4 ,m shows how a similar but curved block can be removed from the inside of a cup or bowl1 the curved tool not requiring an entry to be made for it1 as it cuts its own way entirely from first to last4 ,p and ,q show a ring-tool and the method of using it4 ,a recess is turned in the face of a piece of wood as if it was intended to hollow out a box4 ,the ring-tool is then applied bevel downwards1 and with the left cutting edge a bead is cut half-through from the inside4 ,the right edge is then applied to the outside1 and when the cuts meet the ring neatly finished1 will fall off4 ,with this tool you can turn them very rapidly1 and they will require only a rub of sand-paper to finish them4 ,r1 ,s1 ,t are three more tools for hard wood4 ,the first two cut on the outside of the curved part all round4 ,these would be used to hollow out humming-tops and all similar articles1 and to finish the insides of bowls1 for which ,t is also designed4 ,indeed1 ,i might go on to describe all possible shapes of curved tools1 each intended for some special work2 but you will not do better than to go to ,fenn1 ,buck1 or any tool-maker in ,london1 or elsewhere1 and pick out at #gs41 or so1 per dozen1 all shapes and sizes1 or if you live at a distance and write to either of the above1 they will select you the most useful2 and you can trust these tradesmen and all first-class ones to send you no tools which are not of the best quality4 ,in finishing best work in hard wood1 be very careful of all sharp edges of mouldings4 ,sand and glass paper round off these1 and spoil the beauty of the work4 ,if you are obliged to use such substances1 touch off again the edges with very keen tools1 which ought to leave brighter and more beautiful surfaces than any sand-paper can produce4 ,indeed1 the secret of finished work in hard wood is to have tools whose edges and bevels are polished4 ,in ornamental eccentric and rose-engine turning1 where to use sand-paper would be to ruin the appearance of it1 the little drills and cutters pass through three stages of sharpening1 being ground on the oilstone1 finished on a slab of brass1 fed with oil and oilstone powder1 and polished on a slab of iron with oil alone or oil and rouge4 ,after this every cut that is made with them reflects the light2 and as the surface is otherwise purposely grailed or dulled by cutting a series of fine light rings with a point tool1 the pattern itself shows out clearly and lustrously4 ,,turning ,,brass ,,and ,,other ,,metals4 ,i shall now teach you how to turn iron and brass1 which1 though harder than wood1 are not very difficult to cut1 if you go to work in a proper manner and understand how to use your tools4 ,what these are like ,i have already told you1 and also how to mount a bar in the lathe by using the driver or point-chuck with a carrier4 ,if the piece to be turned is not a bar1 you will have to drive it into a chuck of wood1 or clamp it upon a face-plate1 or in a self-centring chuck if you have one4 ,i shall suppose1 first of all1 a mere straight bar of iron1 centred at the ends1 as ,i have shown you4 ,take off the lathe-cord that you use for wood1 and fit one to go upon the largest part of the mandrel pulley1 and the smallest upon the fly-wheel4 ,when you now put your foot upon the treadle to work at your usual speed1 you will find the mandrel turn quite slowly2 but ,i may at once tell you1 that what you lose in speed you gain in power4 ,set your rest for iron 7which is not that used for wood1 but one with a broad1 flat top7 so that it stands a little below the central line of the lathe mandrel and work1 which will bring the edge of the tool exactly upon that line4 ,this is always the position of the tool for metal-turning1 at any rate for iron4 ,begin by trimming the end of the bar next to the back centre4 ,use a graver1 held as ,i directed you2 that is1 with the bevel flat upon the face of the iron1 which is in this case the end of it4 ,only let the point cut1 and a very little of the edge beyond it1 and do not expect to take a deep cut so as to bring off a thick shaving4 ,in metal work you will always have to proceed slowly1 but nothing is more pleasant when once you can do it well4 ,you will at first have to experimentalise a little as to the exact angle at which to hold the tool1 but you will soon find out this2 and the advantage of hand-tools is1 that you can always feel as well as see how they are working1 and can ease them here and there to suit the material4 ,it is rather difficult at first to hold the tool still in metal-working1 but1 like all else1 it becomes easy by practice2 so much so1 that to hold the tool steadily in one hand is not only possible1 but is the mode always followed by watchmakers4 ,while you are about it1 you should turn the graver over and try it in other positions2 for although the two sides of the bevel nearest to the point are the only ones to be used1 these may be applied in either direction1 because they are both sharpened to angles of #fj1 and so long as you present them at the correct angle 7the smallest possible in respect of the work71 it matters not which face of the tool lies uppermost4 ,after squaring off one end1 the approved plan is to remove the carrier1 reverse the bar1 and do the same to the other end4 ,then begin to turn from the right hand4 ,place the graver as before1 with the point overlapping the end very slightly 7so as only to use the extremity of the cutting edge close to the point71 and take off a light shaving along the bar for a distance of about half an inch1 or even a quarter1 keeping the edge of the graver which is on the rest in one position1 and moving the tool1 not by sliding it along the rest1 but by using the point upon which it lies as a pivot4 ,it is very difficult to describe this exactly1 but ,fig4 #eb1 ,o1 will help to explain it4 ,the tool is to rest upon one spot1 and the point to move in short curves like the dotted lines1 being shifted to a new position as you feel it get out of cut4 ,the left hand should grasp the blade and hold it tightly down upon the rest1 while the right moves the handle to and fro as required4 ,the curved dotted lines are necessarily exaggerated1 but the principle of the work is this1 whether you use a graver or a heel-tool4 ,you should turn about half an inch quite round1 and then go on to the next1 by which you will always have a little shoulder upon the work for the tool to start upon1 and this will be nice1 clean1 bright metal1 and will not blunt the tool4 ,but if you go to work differently1 so that the edge of the tool comes continually in contact with the rough outside of the iron caused by the heat of the fire1 and which is exceedingly hard1 the point of the tool will be quickly ground down1 while the iron will not be cut into at all4 ,i need tell you no more about turning a bar of iron in the lathe1 because the above directions apply in all cases2 but if you have to turn the face of a piece of metal that is carried in a chuck of some kind1 you should always work from the middle towards the edge1 and if the graver is used1 its bevelled face will lie towards you during the process4 ,take care to chuck the metal very firmly1 for it is most annoying to have it suddenly leave the chuck or shift its position after you have been at the trouble of turning part of it truly4 ,in such case it is very difficult to replace it exactly as it was before1 and all your work has in consequence to be gone over again4 ,when taking the final cut1 or before1 if you like1 dip the end of the tool into water1 or soap and water1 and see the effect4 ,the surface turned in this way will be highly polished at once1 and the tool will cut with much greater ease1 so that a large1 clean shaving will come off4 ,when using a slide-rest1 you will find it always better to keep water just dripping upon the work and point of the tool2 but there is a drawback1 nevertheless1 to this plan1 for1 as might be expected1 it makes a mess and rusts the lathe1 and sometimes the work as well1 so the water must be constantly wiped off it4 ,,the ,,slide-,,rest4 ,i shall now pass on to describe a mechanical arrangement called a slide-rest1 of which there are two separate and distinct forms1 one for metal and one for ornamental turning in ivory and hard wood4 ,the ornamental work that can be done ,i shall pass by for the present1 because few boys are provided with the costly apparatus required1 and ,i am rather addressing those young mechanics whose tastes incline them to model machinery and to practise the various operations of mechanical engineering on a small scale4 ,to such a slide-rest is an almost necessary addition to the lathe1 for there is a great deal of work which1 ,i may say1 cannot be done without it2 for instance1 boring the cylinders of engines 7except small ones of brass71 turning the piston-rods and various pieces which require to be accurately cylindrical and of equal size1 perhaps for the length of a foot or more4 ,hand-work has accomplished something in this way in olden days1 but the inability of workmen to advance beyond a certain standard of perfection with hand-tools alone1 became such a hindrance to the manufacture of the steam-engine1 as improved by ,watt and others1 that had not ,maudsley1 ,naysmith1 and others developed the principle of the slide-rest and planing machine1 we should not yet have lived to see those gigantic engines which tear along like demon horses with breath of fire1 at the rate of sixty miles or more in as many minutes4 ,so likewise would various other machines1 which now appear absolutely necessary to supply our various wants1 have stood in their primitive and imperfectly developed forms2 for it is necessary1 before constructing a machine1 to have the means of turning cylindrical parts truly1 and producing perfectly level plates where required4 ,the object of a slide-rest is to provide means for holding a tool firmly1 and giving it a power to traverse to and fro and from side to side1 so that by the first we may be able to cause such tool to approach or recede from the work1 and by the second we may cause it to move in a perfectly straight line along its surface from end to end4 ,this is accomplished in the following manner3--,the drawing being a representation of one of the first machines constructed for the purpose4 ,a rectangular frame1 ,a1 of iron is carried by a pair of strong uprights1 ,b ,b1 fixed to the sole-plate1 ,c1 by which it is attached by a bolt to the bed of the lathe4 ,lengthwise of this frame runs a screw1 prevented by collars from moving endwise1 but which can be turned round by the winch-handle1 ,d4 ,thus a nut through which this screw passes1 and which only has endwise motion1 will1 when the latter is turned by its handle1 traverse it from end to end in either direction1 according as the screw may be turned from right to left or the contrary4 ,this nut is attached to the under part of a sliding-plate1 ,e1 which has a part projecting between the sides of the frame1 and also two others on its outside1 by which it grasps the same with great accuracy1 and is prevented from any shake or play as the whole with the nut is made to traverse to and fro along the frame4 ,lengthwise of this sliding-plate1 that is1 in a direction the opposite to that of its own traverse1 are two bars bevelled underneath1 fixed exactly parallel to each other1 which are so arranged to guide the cross traverse of another plate with chamfered edges to fit the bevels of the guide bars4 ,this second plate has on its upper surface two clamps which secure the tool4 ,it is plain1 then1 that by this arrangement the two required movements are attained1 the lower plate sliding along in one direction parallel with the lathe-bed1 and the other across it4 ,in the original rests1 this upper plate with the tool was moved by hand1 and in the modern rest for ornamental turning 7which this was also constructed for7 the same is done1 but a hand-lever is added for the purpose4 ,but although a similar arrangement is needed for metal1 it is plain that the top plate should have a more easily regulated motion1 and that we should be able to advance the tool as near the work as may be desired1 and then to retain it securely at that distance while giving the necessary movement in the direction of the length of the object to be turned4 ,the method of effecting this is at once suggested by the screw and nut of the lower part1 and by merely adding to the top a similar arrangement1 the desired end is at once attained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the actual construction of such rest varies somewhat1 but ,fig4 #ed1 ,h1 shows it in its most ordinary form4 ,the lower part is1 of course1 to be clamped down securely to the lathe-bed1 there being a projection below which is made to fit accurately between the bearers similar to that beneath the poppits4 ,this projection secures the correct position of the rest1 of which one frame or plate will travel lengthwise of the bed1 while the other will move exactly at right angles to it4 ,but in the compound slide-rest1 which is very general1 there is also a third circular motion1 by which the upper part can be set at any angle with the lower1 instead of being permanently fixed at right angles to it4 ,by this the tool can be made to approach the work more and more as it passes along it2 and it will therefore cut deeper at one end of its traverse than at the other4 ,the result will be that what is thus turned will not be a true cylinder1 but a cone1 i4e41 it will be larger at one end than the other1 although otherwise smooth and even4 ,we are thus provided with the most valuable addition to the lathe ever devised by mechanics1 and it is no longer a question of the strength and skill of the workman whether we can produce a perfect piece of work1 but simply of the accuracy with which the lathe and rest are constructed1 and of the form and condition of the tools to be used4 ,the latter are not exactly like those ordinarily used1 although the principle of the cutting angles already laid down needs to be adhered to even with more unfailing attention than that required for the correct formation of hand-tools4 ,moreover1 it is plain that--here we shall no longer feel whether the tool is working as it ought to do--we shall be unconscious of the precise amount of strain that is being brought to bear against its edge1 and if it is by chance working in a bad position1 at a wrong angle1 we cannot re-adjust it in a moment as we could a hand-tool by a slight movement of the fingers or wrist4 ,hence you will see at once how very important it is that tools for the slide-rest should be shaped with the most rigid adherence to correct principles2 and1 further1 that they should be so fixed in the slide-rest as to meet the work at the precise angle1 and at the height exactly suited to the material of which it is composed4 ,as regards the latter point1 it may be taken as an almost invariable rule that the work should be attacked on its axial line 7that is1 a line that would run from end to end of it dividing it lengthwise into equal parts1 or1 as it would commonly be named1 its middle line74 ,if the tool meets it above this1 it is most likely that it will rub against it1 and the point will be out of cut4 ,if it meets it below1 there will be a tendency for the point to catch in1 and the work to roll up upon the face of the tool1 which1 in fact1 it very often does with careless workmen1 and then there comes a smash of some kind--lathe centres snapped off1 the tool broken1 the bar bent beyond remedy1 and possibly the operator's toes made unpleasantly tender4 ,the most common slide-rest tool for outside work is that given at ,h4 ,it is made straight1 as shown1 or bent sideways to right or left to cut shoulders on the work1 or enter hollows1 or creep sneakingly round corners1 or any other of those crooked ways in which man delights2 but whether straight or not1 these tools have all most commonly the cranked form shown here4 ,this gives the tools a slight degree of elasticity--not very much1 because that would only injure the perfection of the work2 therefore they are not very considerably cranked4 ,the angles are ground as directed in the table of tool-angles1 and if the point is too low1 slips of iron are placed below the shank upon the tool-plate of the slide-rest2 if too high1 the grindstone must be resorted to2 and the advantage of these cranked tools is1 that they can be ground down several times without being brought too low to be packed up with iron slips to the right level4 ,thus a cranked tool is by far more advantageous for the slide-rest than one made straight like those used for hand-turning4 ,for inside work1 however1 or 8holing10 the crank form is not possible1 unless the hole is of large size1 and so1 for this purpose1 straight side-tools are used1 like ,k4 ,if the tool is well placed1 as well as correctly made1 nothing can be more easy and delightful than slide-rest work4 ,you merely advance the tool to take the required cut 7beginning generally at the right-hand end of the bar71 and then gently turning the other handle1 you will see it traverse along1 as if work was a pleasure to it1 as it ought to be to all young mechanics4 ,not infrequently1 however1 instead of this even1 steady work1 the tool jumps and catches1 or rubs and shrieks3 it is out of temper1 ,i suppose2 at any rate1 in some one or more particulars it needs correction4 ,although with the slide-rest you can generally venture upon taking a deeper cut than you could with hand-tools1 it is by no means well to hurry the work4 ,at first1 especially before it has become cylindrical1 the tool will only cut partly round its surface1 and the work is done in an uncomfortable1 jerking1 dissatisfied sort of way1 and the deeper you drive the tool the worse it is2 but as soon as the outer skin is off1 and the work has become cylindrical1 a long1 clear1 bright shaving curls off pleasantly from end to end1 and the surface ought1 if the tool is wetted1 to become at once of a finished appearance4 ,you should always1 with a slide-rest1 take the whole run of the piece from end to end to a certain depth1 and then1 commencing again at the end1 repeat the same process1 and so on until the required size is almost attained4 ,when it is1 take out the tool with the pointed end which has been in use1 and insert one freshly sharpened with a broad point1 getting it so placed as to cut the shaving both from the surface below1 and from the shoulder to which it is attached at the side1 as ,i explained to you in the chapter on grinding and setting tools1 and which must be well understood before you can hope to make good work with tools rigidly fixed in a slide-rest4 ,with this tool1 kept wet with soap and water 7or soda water1 which is better for this than for your stomach71 take a very light shaving from end to end1 taking especial care to turn the handle which gives the traverse slowly and evenly4 ,if you stop1 or almost stop1 the tool will be sure to draw a little deeper into cut1 which will make a scratch upon the work1 or1 it may be1 plough a groove1 and so far spoil the appearance of it4 ,whenever you finish turning any bar that has been centred at each end1 be careful to leave the centre marks just as they were when the work was in the lathe4 ,the ends will have been otherwise trimmed off at the very commencement1 and it may happen that at some future day it may be desired to re-mount the piece for repair1 when1 if these marks are gone1 and new centres have to be drilled1 the whole will run so much out of truth that it will have to be entirely re-turned from the commencement4 ,do not1 therefore1 fancy that these centre marks are unsightly1 and forthwith file them out1 but be content to leave them4 ,slide-rest tools1 made in the ordinary way1 are so far troublesome in use that if they get broken you must have them re-forged1 and few country smiths know anything about such matters4 ,i have a tool now lying by me made by a smith 7true1 it was a ,welsh smith71 and although ,i stood by and explained how it should be done1 and cut one out of a piece of wood1 it never arrived at a proper shape1 and was never even placed upon the rest4 ,i keep it as old ,izaak ,walton kept the ,londoner's artificial fly1 viz41 8to laugh at10 and as a caution to all concerned1 never to go to a country blacksmith for slide-rest tools4 ,the following plan answers very well for many kinds of outside work1 and is on the whole a plan that may be satisfactorily followed by the young mechanic4 ,instead of having the tools constructed from a large bar of steel half an inch or so in the square1 they are made of short pieces about an inch long1 fitted into a peculiar holder4 ,the advantage of this arrangement consists in the ease with which you can make your own tools out of broken round1 triangular1 or square pillar files1 small chisels and such like4 ,these can be shaped by the grindstone alone1 and the blacksmith will not have to be called into requisition4 ,i shall give you two forms of tool-holders1 more or less simple1 because ,i may suppose my young mechanic to be fast growing into an old hand1 and able to appreciate differences in these arrangements4 ,fig4 #ee1 ,a1 ,b1 represents two of such holders1 one for round1 the other for flat steel cutters4 ,you can see at once that when these are upon the bed of the rest1 they form a tool with cranked end1 as previously described1 and can therefore be used in precisely the same manner4 ,i shall give no directions for making these tool-holders1 which are1 nevertheless1 very simple affairs1 and can be readily understood from the drawings here given4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,another form is shown at ,c4 ,the part d e is a clamp1 which is separately drawn at f4 ,this1 like the last1 enables one to use all sorts of odds and ends for tools4 ,there are several other patterns of tool-holders1 arranged either to use the little pieces of square1 round1 or triangular steel bars1 so that one side1 at least1 of these may remain without grinding1 and others in which two entirely new faces must be given to the tool by the grindstone4 ,the latter are1 perhaps1 generally the best1 because you can then1 with the aid of the table of tool-angles1 shape your cutters very accurately to the work required of them4 ,although such tool-holders and cutters are generally used for metals1 there are others intended for wood2 and constructed to hold miniature gouges and chisels1 which perform their work admirably4 ,a capital tool for outside work1 ,fig4 #ee1 ,e1 which was used extensively at ,portsmouth dockyard for brass turning1 is made simply by filing off at an angle of about #de a round short bar of steel4 ,this angle1 however1 is unusually small for brass and gun-metal1 #hj being better4 ,for iron it will answer better1 because though filed1 or rather ground at #de1 the cutting edge1 a little way from what may be called the point of the tool1 is nearer #fj4 ,similar to these last are the tube gouges1 short bits of steel tube ground off and sharpened4 ,these fixed in a holder answer beautifully for soft wood1 and do not 8catch in40 ,if the holder is bent so as to bring the tool into proper position1 inside work can be rapidly effected by these1 such as hollowing out large bowls and similar heavy work4 ,all this can1 of course1 be done rapidly with the slide-rest1 so far as regards the removal of the greater part of the wood4 ,but in the case of a bowl1 in which a curve predominates over a straight line1 hand-tools must be used to finish it 7generally the inside hook-tool74 ,this last is1 in fact1 almost identical with the tube gouge2 for the slide-rest1 and that which makes it so difficult a tool to use1 is that1 being a hand-tool1 and subject to slight unintentional changes of position upon the part of the workman1 it catches in1 and is either wrenched out of the hand1 or a piece is chopped off the wood4 ,rigidly held in the slide-rest1 the exact angle1 once found1 is of course maintained4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,i now propose to assist the young mechanic in special work1 instead of continuing general directions4 ,this will enable me to explain to him various lathe appliances1 and other details of mechanical work hitherto passed by4 ,of all models which boys 7and very big boys too7 are desirous to construct1 the steam-engine holds the chief place1 and deservedly so2 for every boy calling himself mechanical1 ought to know how this is made1 and the general principles of its construction as well4 ,however1 ,i am aware1 from experience1 that many a youngster1 who is even in possession of a model engine1 is utterly ignorant of the cause of its motion2 although it is a great delight to them to see the steam puffing out1 and the wheel revolving 8nineteen to the dozen10 as schoolboys say4 ,now1 an engine is a very simple affair1 and can be easily explained2 and1 as ,i wish my readers to work rationally1 ,i shall show them what they have to do before ,i tell them how to do it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,a1 ,fig4 #ef1 represents a cubical vessel of tin or any other substance4 ,by cubical1 ,i mean that all its sides are squares1 and all exactly equal2 each side in the present case is to be #a inch wide and long1 or a square inch4 ,b is a similar vessel1 #a foot cube4 ,it contains1 therefore1 #agbh cubic inches1 or is #agbh times as large in capacity as the first4 ,now1 if ,i were to fill the little vessel with water and tip it into the second1 and put a lamp under it1 the water would all soon boil away1 as it is called4 ,it would be converted into steam2 and the quantity of steam it would produce would exactly fill the larger vessel1 without exciting any particular pressure upon its sides4 ,steam1 thus allowed plenty of elbow room1 is like a lazy boy2 it will play and curl about very prettily1 but will do no work4 ,we must put some sort of pressure1 therefore1 upon it--confine it1 and we shall soon see that1 by struggling to escape1 it will serve our purpose1 and become a most obedient workman4 ,we have1 therefore1 only to put double the quantity of water into our larger vessel1 that is1 two cubic inches4 ,we will put on a cover tightly1 adding a pipe through which to pour in the water4 ,soon we shall have the steam formed as before2 but it has no longer room enough1 and out it comes fizzing and roaring1 very savage at having been shut up in so small a cage4 ,and we can make it work too1 for if we set up a little fan-wheel of tin right in its way1 we shall see it spin round merrily enough2 or if we cork the tube lightly1 we shall find this cork soon come out with a bang4 ,we have1 in fact1 already constructed a steam-engine and a steam-gun on a small scale4 ,the pressure in this case is1 indeed1 not great1 but what it is ,i must now try to explain4 ,the air or atmosphere1 which surrounds us on all sides1 exercises a pressure upon everything of #ae lbs4 on every square inch of surface4 ,if our little cubical inch box of tin had no air inside it1 and no steam1 but was absolutely empty1 each side1 and top1 and bottom would have #ae lbs4 pressure upon it2 which would be evident if it were not very strong1 for it would sink in on all sides directly1 just as much as if you were to add a weight of #ae lbs4 when it was full of air1 as it would ordinarily be4 ,when ,i spoke of the larger box being exactly filled with steam from the evaporation of the cubic inch of water poured from the smaller box1 ,i supposed it empty of air4 ,the steam from that quantity of water1 occupying the place of the air1 would also be of the same pressure1 #ae lbs4 per square inch of surface2 and as this only balances the pressure of the atmosphere1 which would be1 in such a case1 pressing in on all sides1 the steam would not show any pressure2 just as1 if you put equal weights into each scale of a balance1 the beam of it would remain horizontal1 neither scale showing to the outward senses that it had any pressure upon it4 ,but in the second case1 we have doubled the quantity of steam1 but compelled it to occupy the same space2 therefore we have now real1 visible pressure of #ae lbs4 upon each square inch2 and if we again halve the space which the steam has to occupy1 or double the quantity of water1 we shall obtain a pressure of #cj lbs4 beyond the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,let us now disregard atmospheric pressure1 and fit up such an apparatus as ,fig4 #ef1 ,d4 ,here we have first our small box1 closed on all sides1 and from it a small tube rising and entering into the bottom of a larger one1 which is very smooth in the inside2 in this is a round plate or disc1 called a piston1 which fits the tube nicely1 but not so tight as to prevent it from moving up and down easily2 and let a weight of #ae lbs4 be laid upon it4 ,let us suppose this large tube or cylinder to be #agjj times larger than the cubic inch box1 into which water is to be poured till full4 ,now we heat it as before1 and when #bab of heat are attained by the water 7which is its boiling-point7 when it begins to be converted into steam1 the piston will be seen to rise1 and will gradually ascend1 until quite at the top of the tube1 because the steam required exactly that amount of room4 ,now we have arrived at the same conclusion which we came to before2 for you see that not only has the cubic inch of water become a cubic foot of steam 7about #agjj to #agbh of its former volume71 but it is supporting #ae lbs4 weight1 which represents that of the atmosphere1 and if we could get rid of the latter1 a solid weight of #ae lbs4 would be thus supported4 ,now1 still neglecting the atmospheric pressure1 suppose instead of #ae lbs4 we add another #ae lbs41 making the weight #cj lbs41 down goes our piston again1 and stands at about half the height it did before4 ,we have thus1 as we had previously1 a cubic foot of steam made to occupy half a cubic foot of space1 giving a pressure 7which is the same as supporting a weight7 of #cj lbs4 ,i ought1 perhaps1 to add in this place1 however1 that under #cj lbs4 pressure1 or atmospheric weight and #ae lbs4 additional1 the water would not become steam at a temperature of #bab1 but it would have to be made much hotter1 until a thermometer placed in it would show #beb4 ,so far we have seen what a cubic inch of water will do when heated to a certain degree1 and at first sight it may not seem a great deal4 ,far from being light work1 however1 this is actually equal to the work of raising a weight of #a ton a foot high4 ,let us prove the fact4 ,suppose the tube or cylinder to be square instead of round1 and that its surface is exactly #a square inch1 how can we give #agjj times the room which is occupied by the water8 ,it is plain that the piston must rise #agjj inches in the #a-;inch cylinder or tube1 carrying with it1 as before1 its weight of #ae lbs4--that is1 it has raised #ae lbs4 #agjj inches1 or about #adb feet4 ,but this is the same as #ae times #adb feet raised #a foot1 which is #bacj lbs4 raised #a foot1 very nearly a ton1 the latter being #bbdj lbs4 ,so1 after all1 you see that our little cubic inch of water is a very good labourer1 doing a great deal of work if we supply him with sufficient warmth4 ,now this is exactly the principle of the ordinary steam-engine3 we have a cylinder in which a piston is very nicely fitted1 and we put this cylinder in connection with a boiler1 the steam from which drives the piston from one end of the cylinder to the other4 ,in the first engine that was made1 the cylinder actually occupied the very position it does in our sketch2 it was made to stand upon the top of the boiler1 a tap being added in the short pipe below the cylinder1 so that the steam could be admitted or shut off at pleasure4 ,but it is plain that although our little engine has done some work1 it has stopped at a certain point2 there is the piston at the top1 and it cannot go any farther2 we must get it down again before it can repeat its labour4 ,how would you do this1 boys8 ,push it down1 eh8 ,if you did1 you would find it spring up again when you removed your hand1 just as if there were underneath it a coiled steel spring2 by which1 however1 you would learn practically what is meant by the elasticity of steam4 ,besides this1 if you push it down1 you become the workman1 and the engine is only the passive recipient of your own labour4 ,try another plan2 remove the lamp1 and see the result--gradually1 very gradually1 the piston begins to descend4 ,take a squirt or syringe1 and squirt cold water against the apparatus4 ,presto6 down it goes1 now very quickly indeed1 and is soon at the bottom of the cylinder4 ,but we may as well try to get useful work done by the descent of the piston as well as by its ascent4 ,set it up like ,fig4 #ef1 ,e4 ,here is a rod or beam1 b a c1 the middle of which is supported like that of a pair of scales4 ,from one end we hang a scale1 and place in it #ae lbs42 and as the piston sinks the weight is raised1 and exactly the same work is done as before4 ,thus was the first engine constructed2 but instead of the scale-pan and weight1 a pump-rod was attached1 and as the piston descended in the cylinder this rod was raised1 and the water drawn from the well4 ,this1 however1 was not called a steam-engine1 because the work is not really the effect of the steam1 which is only used to produce what is called a vacuum 7i4e41 an empty space1 devoid of air7 under the piston4 ,in fact1 the up-stroke of the piston was only partly caused by steam1 and the rod of the pump was weighted1 which helped to draw it up4 ,i must get you to understand this clearly1 so that the principle may become plain--8clear as mud10 as ,paddy would say4 ,i told you that the air pressed on every square inch of surface with a force of about #ae lbs4 ,we do not feel it1 because we are equally pressed on all sides--from within as well as from without--so that atmospheric pressure is balanced4 ,sometimes this is a very good thing4 ,we should1 ,i think1 hardly like to carry about the huge weight pressing upon our shoulders1 if something did not counteract it for us1 so that we cannot feel it4 ,indeed1 if it were otherwise1 we should become flat as pancakes in no time--8totally chawed up40 ,but sometimes we should prefer to get rid of the air altogether--and ,i can tell you it is not easy to do so1 unless we put something into its place2 and we want perhaps simply to get rid of it1 and make use of the room it occupied4 ,we require to do this in the present instance1 and in fact we have just done it4 ,if the whole space below the piston1 when we begin to work1 is filled with water1 it is plain there can be no air below it2 and when the steam has raised it1 there is still no air below it1 but only steam4 ,we then apply cold to the cylinder by removing the lamp and squirting cold water against it1 which has the effect of reducing the steam to water again1 which will occupy #a inch of space only4 ,we1 therefore1 now have a space of #afjj cubic inches with neither air nor water in it2 and so1 if the piston is #a inch in size1 there will be the #ae lb4 pressure of the atmosphere upon it1 and nothing below to balance it1 for we have formed a vacuum below it1 and of course this #ae lb4 weight will press it rapidly down4 ,it did so2 and we therefore were enabled to raise #ae lb4 in the scale-pan4 ,you will know1 therefore1 henceforth1 exactly what ,i mean by a vacuum and atmospheric pressure4 ,it is1 you see1 the latter which does the work when a vacuum is formed as above2 but you can easily understand that it might be possible to use both the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of steam as well1 which is done in the condensing steam-engine4 ,in the earliest engine1 called the ,atmospheric for the reason above stated1 the top of the cylinder was left entirely open1 as in our sketch2 but the condensing water was not applied outside the cylinder1 but descended from a cistern above1 and formed a little jet or fountain in the bottom of the cylinder at the very moment that the piston reached its highest point4 ,down it1 therefore1 came1 drawing up the pump-rod4 ,when at the bottom the jet of water ceased4 ,steam was again formed below the piston1 which raised it as before2 and the process being repeated1 the required work was done4 ,a boy1 to turn a couple of taps1 to let on or off the water or steam1 was all the attendance required4 ,for some time the atmospheric engine1 the invention of ,newcomen1 was the only one in general use2 and even this was1 in those days 7#agje-agbj71 so difficult to construct that its great power was comparatively seldom resorted to1 even for pumping1 for which it was nevertheless admirably suited4 ,the huge cylinder required to be accurately bored1 while there were no adequate means of doing such work2 and although the piston was 8packed10 by being wound round with hemp1 it was difficult to keep it sufficiently tight1 yet at the same time to give it adequate 8play40 ,then1 another drawback appeared1 which1 though of less importance in some districts1 absolutely prevented the introduction of this engine into many parts of the country4 ,the consumption of coal was enormous in proportion to the power gained4 ,we can easily understand the reason of this1 when we consider the means used for producing a vacuum in the cylinder below the piston4 ,the water introduced for the purpose1 chilled1 not only the steam1 but cylinder and piston also2 and therefore1 before a second stroke could be made1 these had to be again heated to the temperature of boiling water4 ,the coal required for the latter purpose was therefore wasted1 causing a dead loss to the proprietor4 ,so matters continued for some time1 until a mathematical instrument-maker of ,glasgow1 named ,watt1 about the year #agfj1 began to turn his attention to the subject2 and having to repair a model of ,newcomen's engine belonging to the ,university of ,glasgow1 the idea seems to have first struck him of condensing the steam in a separate vessel1 so as to avoid cooling the cylinder after each upward stroke of the piston4 ,this was the grand secret which gave the first impetus to the use of steam-engines2 and from that day to this these mighty workmen1 whose muscles and sinews never become weary1 have been gradually attaining perfection4 ,yet it may be fairly stated that the most modern form of condensing engine in use is but an improvement upon ,watt's in details of construction and accuracy of workmanship4 ,for ,watt did not stand still in his work2 but after having devised a separate condenser1 he further suggested the idea of closing the top of the cylinder1 which had hitherto been left open to the influence of the atmosphere2 and rejecting the latter as the means of giving motion to the piston1 he made use of the expansive power of steam on each side of the piston alternately1 while a vacuum was also alternately produced on either side of it by the condensation of the steam4 ,the atmospheric engine was thus wholly displaced4 ,the saving of fuel in the working of the machine was so great1 that the stipulation of the inventor1 that one-third of the money so saved should be his1 raised him from comparative poverty to affluence in a very short time4 ,watt1 however1 had still to contend with great difficulties in the actual construction of his engines4 ,he was in the same 8fix0 as some of my young readers1 who are very desirous to make some small model1 but have little else than a pocket-knife and gimblet to do it with4 ,for there were no large steam-lathes1 slide-rests1 planing and boring machines1 procurable in those days1 and even the heaviest work had to be done by hand1 if indeed those can be called hand-tools which had frequently to be sat upon to keep them up to cut4 ,it was therefore impossible for ,watt to carry out his designs with anything like accuracy of workmanship1 else it is probable that he would have advanced the steam-engine even further towards perfection than he did4 ,in spite of these drawbacks1 however1 this great inventor lived to see his merits universally acknowledged1 and to witness the actual working of very many of these wonderful and useful machines4 ,the first necessity which occurred from closing the cylinder at both ends was the devising some means to allow the piston-rod to pass and repass through one end without permitting the steam to escape4 ,this was effected by a stuffing-box1 which is represented in ,fig4 #eg1 ,a1 ,b1--the first being a sectional drawing1 which you must learn to understand1 as it is the only way to show the working details of any piece of machinery4 ,we have here a cylinder cover1 a1 which bolts firmly to the top of the cylinder1 there being a similar one 7generally without any stuffing-box7 at the other end or bottom of the same4 ,on the top of this you will observe another piece1 which is marked b1 and which is indeed part of the first and cast in one piece with it4 ,through the cylinder cover1 a1 is bored a hole of the exact size of the rod attached to the piston1 which has to pass through it1 but which hole1 however well made1 would allow the steam to leak considerably during the working of the piston-rod4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,to obviate this1 the part b is bored out larger1 and has a cup-shaped cavity formed in it1 as you will see by inspecting the drawings4 ,into this cavity fits the gland1 c1 which also has a hole in it1 to allow of the passage of the piston-rod4 ,this gland is made to fit into the cavity in b as accurately as possible2 and it can be held by bolts as in the fig4 ,a1 or be screwed on the surface as shown at ,b1 in which latter case the greater part of the interior of b is screwed with a similar thread4 ,the piston-rod being in place1 hemp is wound round it 7or india-rubber packing-rings are fitted over it71 and the gland is then fitted in upon it1 and screwed down1 thus squeezing the hemp or rubber tightly1 and compelling it to embrace the piston-rod so closely1 that leakage of steam is wholly prevented4 ,whenever you have1 therefore1 to prevent steam or water escaping round a similar moving-rod in modelling pumps or engines1 you will have to effect it in this way4 ,the piston was also packed with hemp or tow1 either loosely-plaited or simply wound round the metal in a groove formed for the purpose4 ,in ,fig4 #eg1 ,c and ,d1 ,i have added drawings of a piston1 so made1 partly for the purpose of again explaining the nature of sectional drawings4 ,in this one1 ,c1 you are shown the end of the piston-rod passing through the piston1 and fastened by a screwed nut below1 a shoulder preventing the rod from being drawn through by the action of this nut4 ,the hemp packing is also shown in section1 but in the drawing ,d the groove is left for the sake of clearness4 ,in all your smaller models you will have to pack your piston in this way1 except in those where you entirely give up all idea of power4 ,the little engines1 for example1 sold at #a and upwards1 with oscillating cylinders1 have neither packed pistons nor stuffing-boxes2 the friction of those would stop them1 and escape of steam is of no great consequence4 ,it will1 however1 be found advantageous to turn a few shallow grooves round these unpacked pistons after they have been made to fit their cylinders as accurately as possible1 like fig4 ,c4 ,these fill with water from the condensation of steam1 which always occurs at first until the engine gets hot2 and thus a kind of packing is made which is fairly effectual4 ,in ,fig4 #eh ,i have given a drawing of ,newcomen's engine1 in case you would like to make a model of one2 but ,i do not think it will repay you as well for your labour as some others4 ,there is the difficulty of the cistern of cold water and the waste-well2 and the condensation of the steam is a troublesome affair in a small model1 so that1 on the whole1 ,i should not recommend you to begin your attempts at model-making with the construction of one of these4 ,i shall1 however1 add a few directions for this work1 because what ,i have to say about boring1 screwing1 and so forth1 will apply to all other models you may desire to construct4 ,the cylinder1 in this case1 will be more easily made by obtaining a piece of brass tubing1 which can be had of any size1 from #c or #d inches diameter to the size of a small quill4 ,the first you will often use for boilers1 the latter for steam or water pipes4 ,you can also obtain at the model makers--,bateman1 for instance1 of ,high ,holborn--small taps and screws1 and cocks for the admission of water and steam1 and all kinds of little requisites which you would find great difficulty in making1 and which would cost you more in spoiling and muddling than you would spend in buying them ready made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,the drawing is given on purpose to show the best and easiest arrangement for a model4 ,it has all parts1 therefore1 arranged with a view to simplicity4 ,a is the boiler made of a piece of #c-;inch brass tubing1 as far as a1 b1 c1 d1 the bottom being either of brass or copper at the level of a1 b2 the upper domed part may be made by hammering a piece of sheet brass1 copper1 or even tin1 with a round-ended boxwood mallet upon a hollowed boxwood block1 of which ,t1 ,t is a section4 ,you should make one of these if it is your intention to make models your hobby1 as it will enable you to do several jobs of the same kind as the present4 ,probably you will not be able to make the dome semicircular1 or rather hemispherical2 but at all events1 make it as deeply cupped as you can--after which1 turn down the extreme edge one-sixteenth of an inch all round to fit the cupped part exactly4 ,this requires a good deal of care and some skill4 ,if you find that you cannot manage it1 make your boiler with a flat top instead4 ,whichever way you make it1 a very good joint to connect the parts is that shown in section at ,v4#b ,the edge of the lower part is turned outwards all round2 that of the upper part is also turned outwards1 first of all to double the width of the other1 and is then bent over again1 first with a pair of pliers and afterwards with a hammer1 a block or support being placed underneath it4 ,all this is done by the manufacturer with a stamping machine on purpose1 and would be completed by the ,birmingham brass-workers before ,i could write the description4 ,it can1 however1 be done without any more tools than shown4 ,you will often need a tinman's boxwood mallet with one rounded end and one flat one1 which1 of course1 you can now turn for yourself1 as it is an easy bit of work4 ,with the rounded end you can cup any round piece of tin2 but it requires gentle work2 do it gradually by hammering the centre more than the edges4 ,i will show you presently how to do similar work by spinning in the lathe1 which is a curious but tolerably easy method of making hollow articles of many kinds from round discs of metal without any seam4 ,after you have hammered the joint of the upper and middle parts together1 you must solder them all round with tinman's solder4 ,for this purpose you require a soldering-iron represented at ,w4 ,this is a rod of iron1 flattened and split at the end1 holding between the forked part a piece of copper1 which is secured to the iron by rivets4 ,i should not recommend a heavy one1 not so heavy nearly as what you may see at any blacksmith's or tinman's shop1 because your work will be generally light1 and such irons are all top heavy to use4 ,the end1 which may be curved over as shown1 will require to be tinned1 for without this it will not work at all well4 ,file the end bright1 and heat it in the fire nearly red hot4 ,get a common brick1 and with an old knife or anything else1 make a hollow place in it--a kind of long-cupped recess like a mussel shell1 if you know what that is1 and put a little rosin into it4 ,take your iron from the fire1 and holding it down close to the brick1 touch it with a strip of solder1 which will melt and run into the cavity4 ,now rub the iron well in the solder and rosin1 rub it pretty hard upon the brick1 and presently you will see it covered with bright solder1 from which wipe what remains in drops with a piece of tow4 ,the iron is now fit for immediate use2 but remember1 the first time you heat it red-hot1 you will burn off the tinning1 and you must file it bright again1 and repeat the process4 ,so when you want to solder1 heat the iron in a clean fire1 until1 when you hold it a foot from your nose1 you find it pretty warm2 and avoid a red heat4 ,you will now find1 that when the soldering-iron is hot1 it will not only melt but pick up the drop of solder2 and as you draw it slowly along a joint 7previously sprinkled with powdered rosin1 or wetted with chloride of zinc1 or with ,baker's soldering fluid71 the solder will gradually leave the iron1 and attach itself to the work in a thinly-spread1 even coat4 ,the secret of soldering is to have the iron well-heated1 and wiped clean with a bit of tow1 and to apply it along the joint so slowly and steadily that the tin or other metal will become hot enough just to melt solder4 ,try to solder1 for instance1 a thick lump of brass2 file it bright if at all tarnished--for this must invariably be done with all metals4 ,you will be unable to do it at first1 for the moment the solder touches it1 it will be chilled1 and rest in lumps1 which you can knock off directly when cold4 ,now place the brass on the fire for a few seconds until hot1 and try again2 the solder will flow readily as the iron passes along it1 for it is kept up to the melting-point until it has fairly adhered4 ,this is why in heavy work a large iron is required2 it retains heat longer1 and imparts more of it to the metal to be soldered4 ,but you will find it often better to use a light soldering-iron1 and to place the brass-casting upon the bar of the grate for a short time4 ,you may1 indeed1 often work without any soldering-iron as follows3-- ,heat the pieces to be soldered 7suppose them castings and not thin sheets of metal7 until they will melt solder4 ,take a stick of the latter1 and just dip it in one of the soldering solutions named1 and rub it upon the work previously brightened4 ,the solder will adhere to both such pieces4 ,now1 while still hot1 put them together and screw in a vice1 or keep them pinched in any way for a few minutes1 and you will find them perfectly secured4 ,in making chucks for the lathe1 and in forming many parts of your models1 you will find it advantageous to work in this way2 but1 notwithstanding1 you will often require a light soldering-iron1 and sometimes also a blowpipe1 which ,i shall likewise teach you to use1 as also how to make a neat little fireplace or furnace to stand on your bench by which to heat the iron4 ,i must now suppose that you have carefully soldered the dome to the middle of your boiler2 and as the solder will be underneath1 the joint will be concealed even if 7as is likely7 you should not have made a very neat piece of work4 ,before you put on the bottom of the boiler1 you will have to make two holes in the top--one for the steam-pipe three-eighths of an inch in diameter1 the other for the safety-valve also three-eighths--because this will require a plug of brass to be soldered in1 which plug will have a hole drilled through it of a quarter of an inch diameter4 ,these may be punched through from the inside1 or drilled2 they are easily made1 but should be as round and even as possible4 ,take a piece of three-eighths-inch tubing1 with a stop-cock soldered into the middle of it4 ,i shall suppose you have bought this4 ,it need not be over an inch in length altogether2 and you must put it through the hole in the top of the boiler1 and solder it round on the inside of the same4 ,the nearer you can get the stop-cock to the bottom of the cylinder the better the engine will work1 because the steam will have to rise through whatever water is left in this pipe from the jet used to cool the steam4 ,you will see that it cannot run off by the pipe ,c into the pump well1 like that which collects in the cylinder itself4 ,in a real engine the steam-tap was a flat plate which slid to and fro sideways1 level with the bottom of the cylinder2 but this you would not make easily at present4 ,the plug for the safety-valve you must turn out of a little lump of brass4 ,it must be about three-eighths of an inch long2 and you must drill a quarter-inch hole through it1 and countersink one end of the hole 7that is1 make it wider and conical by turning a rosebit or larger drill round in it a few times71 to make a nice seat1 as it is called1 for the valve itself1 which need not be now attended to4 ,remember you can buy at ,bateman's1 or any model-maker's in ,london1 beautiful safety-valves ready-made1 as well as any part of a model engine that you cannot make yourself2 and indeed it is so far a good plan at first that it saves you from becoming tired and disgusted with your work1 owing to repeated failures4 ,if you buy them1 therefore1 you must do so before you make the holes above alluded to1 but in some respects it will be more to your advantage to try and make all the details for yourself4 ,i cannot call it making an engine1 if1 like many1 you buy all the parts and have little left to do but screw them1 or solder them1 together4 ,don't do this1 or you will never become a modeller4 ,your boiler from c to a is1 in height1 maybe #b inches1 the dome #a or thereabout4 ,this will slip inside the part that you see in the drawing1 and which ,i here sketch again separately4#c ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,a is the boiler lifted out of ,b1 the outer case or stand1 which you can make out of tin1 and paint to imitate bricks4 ,it is almost a pity to waste sheet-brass upon it1 because it is not very important1 its object being only to carry the boiler4 ,it is like ,d before being folded round and fastened 7not with solder1 which would soon melt1 but7 by a double fold of the joint1 similar to that which you made round the boiler itself1 but turned over once more and hammered down4 ,the holes are punched with any round or square punch with a flat end1 and are intended to give more air to the lamp ,c1 which should have three wicks1 or two at the least1 to keep up a good supply of steam4 ,i have shown the flat piece of tin with three legs only1 which is as well as if it were made with four2 but you can please yourself in this matter4 ,the lamp ,i need hardly tell you how to make1 for it is easier than the boiler1 being merely a round tin box1 in the top of which are soldered three little bits of brass tube for the wicks1 and a fourth for the oil to be poured in--the latter being stopped with a cork4 ,you should remember that no soldered work1 like the inside of the boiler1 must come in contact with the heat of the lamp1 unless it has water about it1 because if the water should at any time entirely boil away1 the boiler will leak and be spoiled4 ,a little care in this respect will insure the preservation of a model engine for a long time2 but boys generally destroy them quickly by careless treatment4 ,let us now turn our attention to the cylinder4 ,cut off a piece of three-quarter-inch brass tube1 #b inches in length--you can do this with a three-square file--mount it in the lathe by making a chuck like ,fig4 #ei1 ,e1 of wood1 the flange of which is just able to go tightly into one end of the tube4 ,the other end will probably centre upon the conical point of the back poppit1 over which it will go for only a certain distance4 ,if your back centre will not answer on account of its small size1 you must make a similar flange to go into the other end2 but take care that when the back centre is placed against it1 it runs truly4 ,if the chuck is well made1 it will do so4 ,you can now with any pointed tool turn off the ends of the tube quite squarely to the side2 but you should only waste one-quarter of an inch altogether1 leaving it #b inches long4 ,when this is done1 take it out of the lathe1 and in place of it1 mount a disc of brass rather more than one-eighth of an inch thick1 or if you have none at hand1 take an old half-penny or penny piece1 which is of copper1 and lay it upon the flat face of a wooden chuck1 driving four nails round its edge to hold it1 and with a point-tool cut out neatly the centre1 of a size to fit inside your tube4 ,you will scarcely1 however1 effect this perfectly without further turning2 so take care to cut it too large2 but before you cut it completely through1 make the hole for the tube which you soldered into the top of the boiler1 which is three-eighths diameter4 ,this you can do beautifully in the lathe with a pointed tool1 or with a drill1 centred against the point of the back poppit1 as ,i showed you before4 ,cut the disc quite out 7too large1 mind7 and then turn a spindle like ,g1 mount the disc upon it as shown1 by its central hole1 and turn the edge with a graver or flat tool1 such as is used for brass1 until it will exactly fit the brass tube4 ,you can cut out round discs of one-eighth or one-fourth sheet-brass by mounting any square piece on a wooden face chuck1 keeping it down by four nails or screws1 and then with a point-tool cutting a circle in it until the disc falls out4 ,you will often save time by so doing4 ,you now have a disc of brass or copper with a hole three-eighths of an inch wide in it2 and as the disc is three-fourths of an inch in diameter 7i4e41 six-eighths71 you will have three-eighths remaining1 or three-sixteenths1 each way on the diameter between the edge of the hole and that of the disc4 ,this will just give room for the two small holes required1 one on each side of the central one1 for the pipes from the cold-water cistern and to the well below the pump4 ,these must both be of brass2 and the first should be turned up and end in a jet1 like a blowpipe1 so as to make the water rise in a spray under the piston2 the other should be as long as can be conveniently arranged4 ,the bottom of the cold-water cistern is drawn a little above the top of the cylinder1 which is #b inches high4 ,a jet would theoretically rise in the cylinder to nearly the height of the level of water in the cistern2 but with a small pipe1 and other drawbacks inseparable from a model1 you must not reckon on more than about half that height1 which should be sufficient to condense the steam4 ,the piston had better be nicely fitted1 but not packed4 ,you cut a disc of brass as before1 drill the hole for the piston1 make a spindle1 or put in the piston-rod1 and centre this as a spindle1 which is the best plan1 and then with a flat brass tool turn the piston accurately to fit the tube4 ,or1 if you think it easier1 or wish to fasten the piston with a nut1 as drawn1 you can1 if you like1 turn it on a separate spindle2 and thirdly1 you may tap the hole in the piston1 and screw the end of the piston-rod4 ,the great thing to attend to is1 to turn the edge of the piston square to the sides4 ,for the piston-rod1 a steel knitting needle or piece of straight iron wire will do very well2 but it will have to be flattened at the upper end1 or screwed into a little piece of brass1 which must be sawn across to make a fork by which the chain can be attached which goes over the beam4 ,do not solder the cistern pipes in just yet1 but go on to other parts4 ,the cistern itself can be made out of any tin box4 ,a seidlitz-powder box will answer well1 or you can make one about that size1 say #d inches long1 #b wide1 and #b deep4 ,the cistern for the pump will1 of course1 require to be the same size or a little larger2 it may stand on legs or be fastened to the bed-plate direct4 ,this bed-plate is shown below the picture of the engine4 ,it is merely an oblong plate of iron one-sixteenth inch thick1 or in this particular engine may be of tin neatly fastened to a half-inch mahogany board1 which will keep all firm4 ,the white places show the position of the boiler and of the pump cistern1 the inner rounds indicating the lamp1 and pump1 and cylinder4 ,the square is merely made to show a boiler of that shape1 which some prefer2--it is not so good as a cylindrical one4 ,whenever you have to make an engine1 you should draw upon the bed-plate the position of each part1 as ,i have done here1 because it will serve you as a guide for measurement of the several pieces4 ,the four small circles at ,s ,s show the positions of the legs of the support ,c1 which carries the beam4 ,in the drawing only two are given1 but there would be a similar triangular frame upon this side4 ,this may be made very well of stout brass wire1 but in a bought engine it would be a casting of brass1 painted or filed bright4 ,the beam itself should be of mahogany1 #f inches long1 half an inch wide 7on the side71 and a quarter of an inch thick4 ,the curved pieces you will turn as a ring #c inches diameter with a square groove cut in the edge for the chain4 ,you can then saw into four1 and use two of these1 morticing the strip of mahogany neatly into them4 ,then finish with four brass wires1 as shown1 which will keep the curved ends stiff and give a finished appearance4 ,the pin in the centre should be also of brass1 as a few bright bars and studs of this metal upon the mahogany give a handsome look to the engine4 ,the pump will be of brass tube1 made like the cylinder1 but the bucket may be of boxwood1 and so may the lower valve1 each being merely a disc with a hole in it1 and a leather flap to rise upwards4 ,the bucket1 however1 should have a groove turned in its edge1 to receive a ring of india-rubber1 or a light packing of tow4 ,the end of the pump-rod must be split to make a fork like ,y1 to allow the valve to rise4 ,you can get just such a fork ready to hand out of an umbrella1 if you can find an old one2 if not1 and you cannot split the wire1 make the rod rather stouter1 and bend it1 as shown1 so as to form only one side of a fork1 which will probably answer the same purpose in so light a pump4 ,the valve in both of these may be made of a flap of leather--bookbinder's calf1 or something not too thick--and it may be fastened at one edge by any cement that will not be affected by water1 or by a small pin1--cut off the head of a pin with half an inch of its shank1 and point it up to form a small tack4 ,if the valve-box is of boxwood1 you must drill a hole2--you may make it1 if preferred1 of softer wood4 ,there is no support shown in the drawing for the cold-water cistern2 but you must stand it on four stout wires1 or on a wooden 7mahogany7 frame1 which can be attached to the bed-plate4 ,as this last is always of some importance1 ,i shall add it again in this place 7,fig4 #fj71 to a scale of three-quarters of an inch to the foot1 showing the position of each part4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,always begin with a centre line and take each measure from it1 and draw another across for the same purpose1 at right angles to the first4 ,you will quickly see the use of this4 ,we draw two lines as described ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 crossing in o4 ,the longest is the centre line of beam1 cylinder1 and pump4 ,the beam is to be #f inches long to the outside of the middle of each arc1 whence the chain is to hang4 ,we1 therefore1 from the centre point1 set off #c inches each way4 ,at the exact #c inches will be the centres of the cylinder and pump2--set these off1 therefore1 on the plan4 ,the end of the tank we must have near the cylinder1 because we have to bring a pipe from it into the bottom of the cylinder4 ,set off1 therefore1 the end of the tank #b inches--i4e41 #a on each side of the central line1 and draw it #d inches in length4 ,n shows the position of the pipe close to the end and on the line4 ,the centre of the boiler is the same as that of the cylinder1 so we draw a circle round it with a radius of #a inches1 which gives us the #c-;inch circle of the boiler4 ,then we may set off equal distances1 ,n1 ,n1 for the extremities of the legs of the frame which is to support the beam1 and we complete our plan4 ,m is the waste pipe1 and ,k is the opening for the water to flow into the tank4 ,we now find1 therefore1 that the bed-plate must be #ac inches long and #f inches wide to take the engine of the proposed size1 and we may1 of course1 extend this a little1 if thought desirable4 ,mark off on the bed all the lines of the plan as here given1 and always start any measurement from one of the two foundation lines1 or else1 if you make one false measure1 you will carry it on1 probably increasing the amount of error at every fresh measurement4 ,let this be with you a rule without exception4 ,it is plain that if you work all parts of your engine to size1 you can set it up on the marked bed-plate with perfect accuracy4 ,the description ,i have given will not only enable you to make a ,newcomen engine with very little difficulty1 but will give you an insight generally into this kind of work2 and you will learn1 too1 a practical lesson in soldering1 turning1 and fitting4 ,i must1 nevertheless1 help you a little in putting your work together4 ,you had better begin by soldering into the bottom of the cylinder the end of the steam-pipe1 which you have already fixed upright in the middle of the dome of the boiler1 taking care that it stands squarely across the pipe1 or your cylinder will not be upright4 ,then place the boiler in position1 and you may fix it by turning out slightly the ends of the legs1 and putting a tack through1 or screwing1 if the bed-plate is of iron1--or with help of ,baker's fluid you can solder2 but this is hardly safe work1 and you had better have a wooden plate1 covered with tin1 and tack down the legs4 ,i have drawn you a circular lamp1 and given three and four legs to the boiler-stand2 but take care that you so arrange size of lamp and openings of the stand as to enable you to withdraw the former for trimming and filling4 ,now fit in the two small pipes1 previously bent as required4 ,to bend them1 if hard soldered or brazed1 fill with melted lead1 and then bend2 after which melt out the lead again4 ,if soft soldered1 you must fill with a more fusible metal4 ,there is a composition called 8fusible metal10 very convenient for this work1 and well worth making1 because you will often need to bend small pipes into various forms4 ,melt zinc1 #a oz42 bismuth and lead1 of each the same quantity--this will melt in hot water2 #h parts bismuth1 #e lead1 and #c tin1 will melt in boiling water4 ,you can buy these at any operative chemist's1 either mixed1 ready for use1 or separately4 ,rosin and sand are also used for bending tin pipes1 the sole object being so to fill them that they will become like a solid strip of metal1 and thus bend slowly and equally1 with rounded and not sharp angles4 ,pass the two pipes through from beneath the bottom of the cylinder1 and solder them on the upper side of it1 so that when the cylinder itself is added these two joints will not be visible4 ,then set up the cold-water cistern2 block it up with anything you like so as to keep it in position1 and1 inserting the pipe from below1 solder this also from above1 i4e41 on the inside of the cistern4 ,now1 arrange the frame that is to support it1 either stout wire or wood1 and set it up so as finally to secure it in its place4 ,now1 you had better set up the pump cistern1 so as to secure the other small pipe in position1 and prevent it from becoming displaced by any accidental blow4 ,fix this cistern therefore also1 but leave the cover off for the present1 that you may be able to solder the small pipe inside it4 ,you will now1 at all events1 have secured the position of the most important parts1 and you may drop the cylinder into place1 and solder this also round the bottom4 ,this would be facilitated by turning a slight rebate1 ,fig4 #fj1 ,s1 round the disc which forms the bottom of the cylinder1 so that the smaller part of it will just fit inside it2 but you will be able to manage it without4 ,let the cylinder project a very little beyond the bottom1 just to allow a kind of corner for the solder to run in2 it will not show when all is fixed4 ,do this as quickly as you can1 so as not to melt off the solder round the small pipes4 ,now1 make the pair of ,a-shaped supports for the beam4 ,measure the height of your cylinder top1 above the bed-plate1 and allow about another inch1 and you will get the perpendicular height to the axis of the beam4 ,allow #c inches more for each side1 that is1 in all for each side1 #c inches longer than if it was to be perpendicular instead of spreading4 ,take enough brass wire1 about as thick as a small quill1 to make two such legs4 ,bend it in the middle1 like ,t1 ,fig4 #fj1 and flatten the bent part by hammering1 so as to allow you to drill a hole to take the pivot on which the beam is to oscillate4 ,if you like to flatten all of it1 and then touch it up with a file1 so as to get quite straight edges1 it will look much more handsome4 ,make two such pieces exactly alike1 and1 at distances alike in each1 put cross-bars4 ,file a little way into each1 making square1 flat notches1 which will just take two flattened bars of the same wire2 heat them1 and solder very neatly1 so that no solder appears on the outside2 file all flat and true4 ,in this way you can make almost as neat supports as if they were of cast brass1 and you are saved all the trouble of making patterns4 ,by and by1 nevertheless1 you must do better4 ,as ,i have directed you in this instance to put a wooden bed-plate to your engine1 you may point the ends of the wires1 and1 making holes sloping at the same angle in the wooden stand1 drive the wires into them4 ,you have an advantage here1 inasmuch as you can raise or lower your stand until the position of the beam comes exactly right1 and you find the ends drop over the centre of the cylinder and pump-barrel as it ought to do4 ,when this is the case1 you can cut off any wire that projects below the stand and file it level1 for it will not be likely to need more secure fixing4 ,the pump may now be soldered into the cover of the cistern 7before the cover itself is fastened on71 and a hole must be then cut to receive the water that will flow from the spout1 and then the cover can be fitted on4 ,there is no need to solder it1 if it is made to fit over-tightly2 and you may wish1 perhaps1 to get at the lower valve of the pump now and then4 ,the only thing left to do is to arrange the safety-valve of the boiler1 which is in many cases the place through which the water is poured to charge it4 ,in this engine it is1 however1 plain that you can fill the boiler by turning both the taps at the same time4 ,a little will run off by the waste-pipe1 but not enough to signify1 because the tube below the cylinder is so much the larger of the two4 ,the safety-valve is a little bit of brass turned conical to fit the 8seat10 made by counter-sinking the hole4 ,it is shown at ,k1 ,fig4 #ei1 ,n being the seat1 ,o ,p the dome of the boiler1 and close to ,o is the gauge-tap for ascertaining the height of water in the boiler4 ,l ,m is a lever of flattened wire1 pivoted to turn on a pin at ,l1--,l ,o being an upright wire soldered to the boiler4 ,a notch is filed across the top of the valve1 on which the lever1 ,l ,m1 rests4 ,the weight is at ,m4 ,one1 as large as a big pea1 hung at the end of a lever #b inches long1 the valve at half an inch from the other end1 will probably suffice for this engine4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,watt',s ,,engine4 ,i have already told you that ,watt suggested the use of steam alternately on each side of the piston2 and carried it out by closing the top of the cylinder1 and allowing the rod of the piston to pass through a stuffing-box or gland4 ,i now have to explain to you how this alternate admission of the steam may be effected4 ,you evidently require first an opening at the top and bottom of the cylinder1 communicating with the boiler1 one only being open at a time2 but in this case1 where is the steam to escape that was on one side of the piston when the opposite side was being acted upon8 ,it must go somewhere1 but evidently must not return to the boiler4 ,hence1 some method has to be contrived by which1 when one end of the cylinder is open to the boiler1 the other may be open to the air or to the condenser 7in which the steam is cooled under ,watt's plan74 ,fig4 #fa will1 ,i think1 render clear one or two of these arrangements4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,the first is the four-way cock1 a very simple contrivance1 easily and frequently used in models4 ,you must first understand how a common water or beer tap is made4 ,fig4 #fa1 ,a1 represents one in section1 turned so as to open the passage along the pipe to which it is attached2 ,c is the pipe in which is the tap1 a conical tube of brass set upright1 and with a hole right and left made through it1 fixed into a short horizontal tube 7generally cast with it in one piece74 ,into this fits very exactly the conical plug ,b1 also with a hole through it sideways4 ,when this is put into place1 no water or other liquid can pass1 unless the hole in the plug is in the same direction with the hollow tube forming an open passage4 ,if a key is put on the square part of the plug1 and it is turned half round1 the passage through the pipe will be closed4 ,a steam tap would be made in a similar manner1 if its only office were to open and close a passage in a tube4 ,but we now want two passages closed and two opened1 and then the alternate pair closed and opened4 ,this is cleverly effected by a four-way cock4 ,at ,d is shown a section of the steam cylinder and piston1 with the stuffing-box and all complete4 ,a pipe enters this at the top and bottom1 and another crosses it in the middle1 making four passages4 ,shaded black is the four-way cock1 the white places showing the open channels through the plug4 ,when this plug stands as at ,d1 steam can pass from the boiler to the top of the cylinder only1 above the piston1 which it drives downward2 the steam below the piston escapes through the other open-curved channel into the air1 or to the condenser4 ,just as the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder1 the tap is turned1 and the passage stands as seen at ,e4 ,steam now passes to the bottom below the piston1 driving it upward1 and the steam above it1 which has done its work1 passes outward through the other open channel of the tap4 ,you must understand that when ,newcomen first set up his engine1 a man had to turn the taps at the proper moment2 and it is said that one ,humphrey ,potter1 a boy1 being left in charge1 and getting tired of this work1 first devised means to make the engine itself do this1 by connecting strings tied to the handles of the taps to the beam that moved up and down above his head4 ,beighton and others improved on this1 and very soon it became unnecessary for the attendant to do anything but keep up a good fire1 and attend to the quantity of water in the boiler1 and the pressure of the steam4 ,in the model ,i gave you of ,newcomen's engine1 ,i purposely left the taps to be moved by hand2 but ,f of the present figure shows how1 by bringing them near together1 and adding cogged wheels or pulleys1 you would make one handle answer for both2 and ,i shall leave you to devise an easy method of making the engine work this one handle for itself4 ,when ,watt made his first engine1 therefore1 this work had been already done1 and he only had to improve upon it1 and to make it work more accurately to suit the engine designed by himself4 ,if you should chance to pay a visit to the ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 you may see1 ,i believe1 ,watt's original engine1 if not ,newcomen's4 ,the cylinders are so large and cumbrous1 that the wonder is they were ever bored by the inefficient means then in use2 and the beam is a most unwieldy mass of timber and iron1 that looks as if no power of steam could ever have made it oscillate4 ,yet it was in its day a successful engine1 the wonder of the age2 and did good work for its inventor and purchaser4 ,i strongly advise my readers to try and visit ,kensington1 for there are many interesting models there1 besides engines and appliances of older days4 ,they will thus learn what rapid progress has been made since the days of ,savery1 ,newcomen1 and ,watt2 not only in the improvement of the arrangement of the parts1 but in the workmanship1 which last is mainly due to the invention of the slide-rest and planing-machine4 ,we must now return to the double-acting or real steam engine1 and consider a second means whereby the steam can be alternately admitted and exhausted4 ,the four-way cock1 already explained1 was found to wear very considerably in practice1 and hence work loose1 and a new contrivance1 called the slide-valve1 soon took its place4 ,of this there are two patterns1 the long ,d-valve and the short one1 which latter is used for locomotives4 ,there is also a form called a tappet-valve1 often used for large stationary engines1 but which is noisy and subject to rapid wear4 ,i shall describe the long ,d first1 in the form in which it would be most easily made for a model engine4 ,the two ports by which steam passes to the cylinder are shown at d1 e1 of ,h1 ,fig4 #fa4 ,c is the passage to the boiler1 ,k is that to the condenser4 ,these are openings in a tube smoothly bored within1 and having at the top a stuffing-box like that on the cylinder4 ,within this tube works an inner one1 b1 having rings or projections at the ends fitting perfectly1 and which are packed with india-rubber1 hemp 7or1 in modern days1 with metal71 to make a close fit4 ,in a model1 two bosses of brass1 ,k1 soldered on the tube and then turned1 make the best packing4 ,these packed portions of the inner tube form the stoppers to the steam ports1 e e1 alternately1 at the top and bottom4 ,the upper part of the inner tube has a cross arm1 #c1 affixed1 from the centre of which rises the valve-rod by which it is moved up and down4 ,in the position #a1 the steam can pass from c round the tube to d1 and thence to the top of the cylinder to which d is attached4 ,the exhaust steam passes from e below the piston by k to the condenser4 ,in the second position1 #b1 the steam is evidently shut off from d1 but can pass out at e e below the cylinder1 while the communication is still open to the condenser from d1 through the middle of the tube to ,k4 ,this is a very good form of valve1 because the exhaust is always open1 and the motion is smooth and equal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,there are many modifications of the long ,d-valve1 but the principle of all is the same2 ,i shall therefore describe the short slide-valve which is nearly always used in the models which are purchased at the shops4 ,this1 too1 is the usual form of valve in locomotives1 traction-engines1 and the majority of those in use for agricultural and similar purposes4 ,a1 ,fig4 #fb1 is the cylinder as before in section with piston4 ,a thick piece is cast with the cylinder1 on one side of it1 having steam ports also cast in it1 which are here left white4 ,the two as before go to the top and bottom of the cylinder1 and have no communication with the central one1 which is bored straight into the boss1 and generally is turned at right angles and connected with the condenser1 or with a pipe opening into the chimney of the engine to increase the draught by means of the jets of steam1 as is the case always in locomotives1 or into the air1 which is less usual4 ,seen from behind1 these ports are like ,b1 being cast and cut rectangular2 and the face1 ,b1 is planed quite level1 which is absolutely necessary to the proper action of the slide-valve which has to work upon it4 ,this valve is a box of iron1 ,c1 with a wide flange or rim1 this flange being of sufficient width to close either port4 ,if this valve is placed as it stands when the engine is at rest1 b covers the upper steam port1 and a the lower2 while the exhaust or middle port is open to the hollow part of the box4 ,now1 if we slide the valve downwards until the upper port is open1 the other two will be in communication1 being united by being both together in the inside of this box or valve4 ,suppose the valve then cased in1 and that steam is admitted from the boiler into the case1 it is evident that such steam could freely pass to the top of the cylinder above the piston to force it downwards1 while that which was below would escape by the lower port into the box1 and thence pass to the condenser4 ,if1 instead of pushing down the valve1 we had drawn it upwards1 the lower port would have been opened1 and the upper and middle would have been brought into communication inside the valve1 and the contrary effect would have been produced upon the piston4 ,this is the arrangement adopted1 and which will be clearly understood from the following sectional drawing1 ,d4 a1 a1 is the thick casting upon the cylinder1 with the upper and lower steam ports1 which end towards the middle of the cylinder1 with the third port lying between2 then b is a section of the valve1 in such a position that the flange of it no longer covers the lower steam port1 while the other two are open together on the inside of the valve4 ,the latter is cased in by the valve-box1 e e1 in the back of which is the steam pipe f coming from the boiler4 ,the valve-rod1 which is moved by the engine1 passes at o through a stuffing-box4 ,it is evidently necessary that this slide-valve should fit1 and work very smoothly and correctly against the face of the ports1 so as not to allow any escape of the steam4 ,it is not1 however1 packed in any way at the back 7although springs have been sometimes added71 because1 as the back is subjected to the full pressure of the steam from the boiler1 this keeps it quite close to its seat4 ,the rod1 however1 by which it is worked1 might prevent this close contact of the two surfaces if it was screwed into the valve2 it is therefore made with a cross1 ,e1 at the end1 which falls into a notch in a boss cast upon the back of the valve as seen at ,f4 ,this allows a certain degree of play in one direction1 and permits the steam to press it close even after it has become worn by use4 ,you will1 ,i think1 now clearly understand how steam can be admitted alternately to the top and bottom of a cylinder1 and how the exhausted steam that has done its work escapes4 ,i must therefore now tell you how the rod of the slide-valve is moved up and down by the engine1 but to do this1 ,i must draw such engine complete4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,the cylinder1 ,a1 is screwed down on its side upon the bed-plate1 ,r ,r1 out of which are cut two holes1 one for the fly-wheel1 ,p1 of which part only appears for want of space1 the other for the crank1 ,l1 on the end of the axle1 ,m ,m1 running through bearings1 ,n ,n4 ,the slide-valve-box is at ,b1 ,c being the steam-pipe from the boiler4 ,the piston-rod has necessarily to move only in a straight line in the direction of its length1 but the crank which it has to work to turn the fly-wheel must needs move round in a circle4 ,hence1 a poker-and-tongs joint1 ,f ,o ,f1 is arranged4 ,the connecting-rod1 ,h1 which is attached to the crank by brasses at ,k1 divides or is attached to a forked piece1 at the lower end of which are a pair of bearings or brasses1 ,f ,f4 ,the piston-rod carries the piece ,o1 the cross-bar of which is turned1 being1 in fact1 the pin which passes into these bearings at ,f ,f4 ,this forms1 therefore1 a hinge-joint at this place1 so that although the piston-rod cannot leave the right line1 and can only slide in the guide1 ,e1 the rod1 ,h1 has an up-and-down motion upon this hinge1 allowing the revolution of the crank-pin to take place4 ,d is the valve-rod1 in which is a hinge at ,s1 which suffices for the slight movement required in the rod1 as it rises and falls by the action of the eccentric1 ,t1 the motion and effect of which ,i now have to explain4 ,v is a round disc of metal with a recess on its edge1 so that it is like an ordinary pulley1 but large in proportion to its thickness4 ,a hole for the main crank axle1 to which it has to be firmly keyed1 is made through it1 but not in its centre 7hence its name1 eccentric--out of the centre74 ,as the axle revolves1 it is evident that this disc revolving with it will carry any point1 ,y1 of its surface round in a circle2 the centre of which is on the central line or axis of the crank-shaft4 ,i have drawn such circle as described by the point ,y1 farthest from the axis2 but any and all points describe larger or lesser circles round the same centre4 ,the point ,y may1 therefore1 be considered as the centre of a crank-pin2 and the eccentric might1 so far as its effects are concerned1 be replaced by a crank4 ,now1 if you turn the fly-wheel of your lathe by hand1 the crank will revolve1 but the treadle will rise and fall only in a straight line2 and you will presently see how the eccentric1 in its revolution1 gives just such a to-and-fro motion to the rod ,d1 and consequently also to the slide-valve1 which it has to move4 ,round the disc ,v1 closely encircling it1 is a flat ring1 shown separately at ,x1 with a rod1 ,w1 attached to and part of it4 ,this ring is generally made in separate halves1 united by bolts passing through projecting lugs or ears4 ,the ring also fits into the groove turned on the edge of the disc ,v1 so that it cannot slip off sideways4 ,this outer ring is turned quite smooth and true on the inside1 so that the eccentric disc can revolve within it4 ,in doing so1 it is plain that the whole ring will rise and fall1 and that the rod ,w will move up and down1 or to and fro1 like the treadle of the lathe1 thereby giving motion to the valve-rod1 which is a continuation of the rod ,w4 ,as the upper end1 however1 of this rod has an oscillating1 or up-and-down motion1 this is imparted1 in a certain degree1 to its other end1 at the farthest distance from the eccentric2 and hence the necessity for a hinged joint at ,s1 to prevent the valve-rod from partaking of this movement4 ,it is1 however1 very slight1 so that the rod of the valve is not often made to pass through guides like the piston4 ,the whole movement of the valve-rod is very limited1 its traverse only being required to be sufficient to shift the valve the width of one of its ports at each stroke4 ,the length of stroke or traverse which can be obtained by the eccentric is always equal to twice the distance between its real centre1 and that on which it turns1 which will always be a guide to you in making an engine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,the drawing here described is a plan1 i4e41 a drawing viewed directly from above2 therefore ,i cannot show you the perspective view of the parts1 which are1 indeed1 in many cases only suggested by the shading4 ,i have1 therefore1 added a second drawing of the several details4 ,this engine is1 in construction1 the simplest that can be devised with a slide-valve1 there being no additions beyond what are absolutely necessary to make it work2 the exhaust-port is below1 opposite to the letter ,b on the valve-box4 ,a1 ,fig4 #fd1 is the forked connecting-rod1 marked ,h in the previous drawing4 ,this is cast with forked ends1 x1 and x ,y 7the latter being ,f ,f of ,fig4 #fc74 ,these ends receive brasses in the following way1 the end x being represented on a larger scale at ,b1 with such brasses in place2 of these there are two shaped like ,d4 ,one of these lies in the fork of the connecting-rod end4 ,a second similar one lies in the strap of iron ,c1 which reaches beyond the first4 ,a cotter or key1 which is1 in fact1 a wedge of iron1 is then passed through a slot in the strap1 and a similar one in the rod2 and being driven home1 draws the two brasses tightly together1 causing them to embrace the crank-pin1 ,l1 ,fig4 #fc1 or any similar bearing4 ,all shafts that revolve in bearings are made to pass through brasses1 and whenever these occur at the end of a rod1 they are fitted as here described4 ,e is another bearing of cast-iron1 also fitted with brasses2 but in a case like this1 a plate lies on the upper one1 and is screwed down by bolts and nuts as required4 ,this bearing would do very well at ,e1 ,fig4 #fc1 as a guide for the piston-rod2 but in models such guide is commonly made without brasses1 like ,f or ,g of the present drawing4 ,at ,h1 ,i have shown the part ,f ,o ,f of the drawing #fc4 ,the middle is of brass or iron2 if of the former1 g g must be separate1 as these gudgeons would not be substantial enough1 unless of iron or steel4 ,it is essential that ,k ,l1 the piston-rod1 should be in one right line2 but1 if this is attended to1 they need not necessarily be one piece2 and frequently the piston-rod1 ,l1 is fixed into one end of the central casting1 and another rod1 ,k1 is screwed into the other4 ,in a model1 the piston-rod should pass quite through1 and g g should be two separate gudgeons screwed in1 and then turned together in the lathe1 to insure their being exactly in one line4 ,these go into the brasses in the forked ends of the connecting-rod1 to form a hinge at that part1 as will be understood by a reference to ,fig4 #fc4 ,at ,m1 ,i have shown another simple eccentric and rod1 which is less trouble to make in a model than the other4 ,in this the ring is made in one piece1 with a round rod screwing into it4 ,the disc has a slight groove turned in its edge1 and a small screw1 ,p1 passes through the ring and falls into this groove4 ,this suffices to prevent the ring from falling off sideways1 and of course is not screwed down so tight as to prevent the disc from revolving4 ,this is a very easy way to fit the eccentric1 and is generally followed in small engines4 ,the lattice eccentric rod is nearly always used in large beam engines4 ,i do not think the reader will now have any difficulty in understanding the precise arrangement of the various parts in the simple horizontal engine of which ,i have given a sketch4 ,it is a neat and convenient form1 easily arranged as a model1 and ,i shall proceed at once to the practical work of constructing this1 and engines in general1 presupposing a knowledge of the use of the lathe1 and of the few tools required4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,engine4 ,the very first mechanical work of difficulty1 but of pre-eminent importance1 in making an engine1 is boring the cylinder1 that is1 if the same is a casting1 and not a piece of tube ready made and smooth on the inside4 ,this is1 properly speaking1 lathe work1 yet may be done in a different way4 ,suppose you have bought your entire set of castings1 which is the best way1 and that the cylinder is half an inch diameter inside1 which is a manageable size to work upon4 ,get a half-inch rosebit1 which is very like the countersinks sold with the carpenter's brace and bits4 ,mount it in the lathe in a chuck1 ,a1 ,fig4 #fe4 ,unscrew the point of the back poppit1 and slip over the spindle a boring-flange1 ,b1 which is merely a flat plate like a surface chuck1 only the socket is not screwed but bored out1 generally large enough to slip over the spindle4 ,sometimes there is1 however1 a screw at the back1 to screw into the spindle1 the same as the points or centres4 ,on the face of this lay a piece of board of equal thickness1 but it is as well if not planed1 as its object is partly to prevent the cylinder from slipping about during the operation1 as it is sometimes inclined to do upon the smooth metal flange1 and partly to prevent the borer or rosebit from coming in contact with the flange when it has passed through the cylinder4 ,grasp the latter in the left hand1 and you can easily prevent it from revolving with the drill1 which will go through rapidly1 and leave the hole beautifully finished and quite true from end to end1--indeed1 ,i have bored iron also1 rapidly and with great ease1 with this tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,it is absolutely necessary1 remember1 that this hole bored in the cylinder should be at right angles to the ends of the same1 and to secure this you must now make use of it to mount the cylinder in the lathe to turn these ends or flanges4 ,i will show you a simple and easy way to do this4 ,c is a bar of iron or steel1 preferably of the latter1 about #f inches long1 and three-eighths diameter1 filed into six sides4 ,it is a good plan to have three or four sizes of such bars1 with centre holes drilled carefully into each end1 so that you can mount them with a carrier-chuck1 as you would if you were going to turn them4 ,taking one of about the size named1 mount upon it a piece of wood1 and turn this down until your cylinder will just go tightly upon it4 ,being a six-sided bar1 it is easy to mount the wood upon it by boring the latter with a gimlet and then driving the bar into it4 ,it will hold tightly1 and not turn round upon the metal4 ,the cylinder being fixed in this way1 you must turn the two flanges with a graver if the cylinder is of iron1 but with a flat tool or the four-sided brass tool if of the latter metal2 and also turn the edges of the flanges4 ,the rest of the cylinder will be left in the rough1 and may be painted green or black4 ,i should advise you always to bore the cylinder first when possible1 and then to mount it as described and turn it on the ends1 which are thus sure to be correctly at right angles to the bore4 ,some cylinders1 however1 especially short ones1 may be squared up first1 and then mounted on a face-plate and bored4 ,unless1 however1 you have either a grip-chuck1 which is self-centring1 or some clamps properly constructed for this particular work1 you will find the first method the easiest1 especially for small light work4 ,you should now make the ports for steam and exhaust4 ,mark them upon the flat part of the casting1 after you have filed this as level as you can1 and do not mark them so long as not to leave you room beyond the ends of the ports for the steam-box or case which has to be placed here4 ,the upper and lower ports are to be the same size1 but the middle one may be a trifle larger with advantage4 ,in larger engines these are cast in the metal1 and have only to be trimmed and faced2 but in the small models you have to drill them out in the boss cast on the cylinder4 ,drill down from the top1 as shown at ,d by the dotted lines1 but take great care not to go farther than the outer ports1 which are to be therefore first made1 so that you can tell when the drill has gone far enough4 ,if you pierce the middle port from either end1 the cylinder is spoiled4 ,to cut the middle one1 you merely drill a hole straight in towards the cylinder1 and meet it by another drilled from the side1 into which the pipe for the exhaust is to be screwed4 ,you also drill straight through into the cylinder at a b1 and you then plug the end of f1 and that at the other end of the cylinder4 ,your port faces1 however1 are generally oblong1 and not round4 ,make a row of holes with the drill1 and then1 with a little narrow steel chisel and light hammer1 chip out the superfluous metal1 and finish with a small file4 ,you can always make narrow channels with squared sides by thus drilling two or more holes1 and throwing them into one with a file2 but in reality1 for these small engines1 it is very little matter whether the ports are round in section or square4 ,the bottom and top of the cylinder demand our next attention4 ,e and ,f show these4 ,they are easily and instantly mounted in a self-centring chuck1 but can be held very well in one of wood carefully bored with a recess of the right size and depth4 ,you must here1 nevertheless1 be very particular1 else you will get your work untrue at this point1 and then your piston-rod will stand awry1 and all your subsequent fitting will be badly done4 ,i therefore give you at ,g a section of the chuck bored to take the cover truly4 ,recess the part down to the line a b1 to fit the cover exactly1 taking care to level very carefully the bottom of the recess4 ,below this cut a deeper hole1 to allow the flange in which the stuffing-box will be to go into it4 ,it need not1 however1 fit the flange4 ,the rough casting will hold very well in a chuck like this1 even if it is of iron4 ,you now carefully face the bottom of the cover1 and turn the slight flange exactly to fit into the cylinder2 then reverse it in the chuck1 so as to get the stuffing-box outside2 and in doing so1 take the greatest care that it beds flat upon the bottom of the chuck4 ,turn off level the top of the flange first at x of fig4 ,e1 and then place a drill with its point against the middle of this1 and its other end 7with a little hole punched in it to keep it steady7 against the back poppit centre1 and carefully drill a hole down to the level of c1 large enough to admit the gland of the stuffing-box or nearly so2 but remember that you must not go too far1 because the rest of the hole must only just allow the piston-rod to go through it4 ,therefore1 after you have drilled about three-fourths of the distance1 replace this drill by a smaller one1 and with it bore quite through4 ,the advantage of beginning in this way is1 that you can now bring up the back centre of your lathe to steady the cylinder cover while you finish turning it2 and as you will have to make a chuck only to take hold of the flange b1 while you turn the edge1 you will need probably some extra support of this kind4 ,i have1 nevertheless1 turned an iron cylinder cover #b inches diameter without any such support2 the actual strain not being very severe1 provided you understand how a tool should be made and held4 ,the above directions apply equally to the cylinder bottom1 the great secret in this and all similar work being to take care to bed the work well and truly against the bottom of the recess1 turned in the chuck2 this being neglected1 will result in the two faces not being parallel1 which will terribly throw out of truth the rest of your work4 ,indeed1 in all fitting of this kind1 it is absolutely necessary to be exact in the squaring and truing of each several piece that has to be turned or filed2 otherwise no planning or clumsy arrangement will make your mechanism work as it ought to do4 ,take a week1 if necessary1 over any part1 and don't be content until it is well done4 ,your cylinder ought now to have a finished appearance when the cover and bottom are placed in position1 but the latter have to be permanently attached by small screws1 and these ,i strongly advise you to buy4 ,they cost about #ej cents a dozen1 including a tap with which to make a thread in the holes made to receive them2 or1 if you prefer it1 you can buy miniature bolts and nuts at almost as cheap a rate1 which would cost you much time and trouble to make for yourself1 if1 indeed1 you succeeded at all4 ,you will want four of these for the top1 and the same for the bottom1 the holes for which you will make with a small archimedean or other drill4 ,the mention ,i have made of this reminds me that ,i am gradually adding considerably to your list of tools1 and it is necessary to do so if you take up model-making4 ,set down1 at any rate1 the following3-- ,,archimedean ,,drill-,,stock and #f ,,drills4 ,,table-,,vice4 ,,hand-,,vice or ,,pin-,,vice4 ,,small ,,brass-,,back ,,saws for ,,metal4 ,,pair of ,,small ,,pliers4 ,and for use in the lathe1 either two or three sizes of rose-bits1 or engineer's half-round boring bits1 of which ,i shall have to speak presently2 and1 unless you buy all screws and nuts1 you will want screw-plate and taps1 or small stock and dies4 ,files of square1 round1 and oblong section are matters of course4 ,remember1 too1 that after a file has been used on iron and steel1 it is useless for brass2 so use new ones on the latter metal first1 and after such use they will answer for cast iron and then for wrought iron4 ,you will find the cost of files rather heavy unless you attend to this4 ,have neat handles to all your smaller files1 with ferules to prevent splitting4 ,when you purchase the castings of the engine1 you will find a valve-box to enclose the slide and become a steam-chest1 as explained4 ,it is like a box with neither top nor bottom1 but with a flange1 or turned-out edge all round1 for the screws by which it is to be attached to the valve-facings of the cylinder4 ,this box must have its flanges filed up bright on their flat sides and edges--the rest may be painted4 ,it will exercise your skill to get the two faces flat and true1 to fit upon the cylinder2 and at last you will find it expedient to put a brown paper rim or washer between the surfaces1 or a bit of very thin sheet lead1 to make a steam-tight joint4 ,do not solder it1 if it is possible to use screws1 because this is nearly certain to get melted off2 and1 if not1 it is not nearly so neat and workmanlike a way of uniting the parts4 ,you should1 indeed1 in all models1 put them together in such a way as to be able at any time to separate the different pieces again1 either for the purpose of cleaning or repair2 and1 if you solder1 you cannot easily do this4 ,the valve-casing and its back are generally put on together2 four screws at the corners passing through the back and both flanges into the flat side of the cylinder4 ,this depends1 however1 upon the exact shape of these different pieces2 and ,i can give you no special directions for a particular case unless ,i could see the castings which you have to fit together4 ,the stuffing-box you will make quite separate1 both its outer and inner part1 and screw or solder the former into place4 ,it is seldom cast upon the valve-casing1 because of the difficulty of chucking a cubical object safely so as to turn any part of it4 ,you are not to screw or solder the valve-box to the cylinder until you have carefully filed up the valve itself to slide upon the port face1 without the possibility of any escape of steam taking place4 ,this needs the greatest possible care2 and probably1 after doing what you can with a flat file1 you will have to put a little emery and oil between the surfaces1 and grind them to a perfect fit1 by rubbing them together4 ,this grinding with emery is an operation frequently required in mechanical engineering4 ,lathe-mandrels are fitted in this way into the collars2 the cylinder is also ground into the back poppit-head4 ,it is not a very long or difficult operation1 but whenever you have had to use it1 take care to wipe off the emery1 or it will keep on grinding4 ,it is indeed very difficult to do this perfectly2 and for very fine work1 such as fitting the mandrel of a screw-cutting lathe 7i4e41 a traversing mandrel71 oilstone powder and crocus are used1 in place of emery4 ,these1 however1 cut very slowly1 making the operation of grinding exceedingly tedious2 and in the present instance1 emery will answer quite well enough4 ,in very small engines1 a stroke or two of a file is all that is needed to fit the valve1 which is so small as hardly to be worthy of the name2 but in an engine with cylinder of #a or #b-;inch bore1 it will be impossible to do with file alone1 as well as you can with grinding4 ,the piston and piston-rod should be turned at the same time1 as already suggested in treating of the atmospheric engine of ,newcomen4 ,by this1 you will avoid getting the piston 8out of square0 with its rod1 as if you had bored the hole for the latter askew--a not unusual occurrence4 ,i do not mean to say that it is absolutely necessary for you to turn the piston-rod at all1 for1 in models1 it is generally of round iron or steel-wire1 which is as cylindrical as you can possibly make it4 ,knitting-needles are in general use for this1 as being well finished and equalised from end to end4 ,but these are rather hard1 being tempered only to about the degree of steel-springs2 therefore you must never attempt to cut a screw on them until you have first heated the end to be screwed red-hot1 and allowed it to cool again very slowly4 ,if you do this1 a screw-plate will put a sufficiently good thread to allow you to attach either the piston1 or the small piece of brass necessary to form the hinge1 upon the other end of the rod--that is to say1 the piece marked ,h in ,fig4 #fd4 ,leave this for the present1 however1 not attempting at present to cut either the piston-rod or valve-rod to its intended length4 ,you cannot do this until you have laid down the exact plan of the engine1 and marked on the bed-plate the position of all the parts4 ,i shall now suppose that you have finished the cylinder1 with its slide-valve1 casing1 stuffing-boxes1 and piston1 so that you have these in exactly the state in which you might buy them at ,bateman's and elsewhere1 if you preferred1 to spare yourself the trouble of boring the cylinder and fitting it4 ,you can buy them just in this condition1 with the rest of the castings in the rough2 but ,i rather hope you may prefer to try and do for yourself the not very heavy or difficult work which ,i have described4 ,i suppose you1 indeed1 to have bought the forked connecting-rod1 either arranged for brasses1 or with holes drilled 7or to be drilled7 in the ends1 which would probably be the case for a model of the size named1 and also the various bearings1 guides1 and so forth required--some of which would have to be turned1 and some filed1 but which ought now to present little difficulty to our young mechanic4 ,try to keep sharp edges to all your filed work1 unless evidently intending to round them2 for surfaces pretending to be flat1 but partaking of a curved sectional form1 characterise the workman as undeniably a bad hand with the file1 and not worth his wages4 ,still ,i may tell you at once that nothing is so difficult as to use a file well4 ,it has a knack of rounding off edges1 which always get more than their proper share of its work4 ,but this being the case1 you will know what to try and avoid4 ,therefore1 always endeavour in filing a flat surface to make it slightly hollow in the middle1 which it is scarcely possible1 however1 for you to do2 but the endeavour to effect this by filing the middle more than the edges will help you wonderfully in keeping the latter sharp4 ,those1 for instance1 on the fork of the connecting-rod1 especially the inside ones1 should be as straight and sharp as possible2 and if you round the outside edge1 take care to do it so that it shall be evident you intended it2 and so with all edges1 whether turned or filed4 ,the disc of the eccentric can only be turned by letting it into a chuck to something less than half its thickness1 and levelling one side and half the edge1 and then reversing it2 unless you prefer to drill and mount it on a spindle upon its centre4 ,if you do this1 you will of course eventually have two holes in it2 because this first one is not that by which it will be mounted when in place4 ,this second hole is not1 however1 of the least importance1 and may be left without plugging1 and1 if preferred1 may become in part ornamented by drilling additional holes1 and filing them into some pattern2 or if it is desired to conceal the one it was turned upon1 this can be plugged and faced off1 and will then not be the least apparent4 ,if the outer ring1 or strap1 as it is called1 is to be made in two pieces1 with projecting lugs1 it is evident the outside edge cannot well be turned2 and1 unless you have that most useful addition to the lathe1 a grip or jaw-chuck1 you will have some little difficulty in letting the ring into a wooden chuck1 so as to turn the inside4 ,the solid ring is1 therefore1 preferable 7if you use the first1 however1 you turn it up as a single ring1 and then saw it across through the lugs71 which can be let into a common chuck1 with a place chiselled out to allow the boss to project1 into which the eccentric rod has to be screwed4 ,this boss also has to be drilled and turned on the outside4 ,there are several modes of chucking it which can be applied1 but the simplest is to use the carrier-chuck1 and to let the ring become its own carrier by coming against the pin1 as shown in ,fig4 #ff1 ,a4 ,when the ring is very small1 ,i should first drill the hole for the wire rod1 and then screw and mount it upon a little wire spindle1 as in fig4 ,b1 aiding this1 if necessary1 by the back centre4 ,but the smallest models require to be put into a watchmaker's lathe or throw1 and1 except as curiosities1 are scarcely worth making4 ,i have already told you never to undertake engine-making without first laying down a full-sized plan on paper1 with centre lines through the principal parts1 from which to take all measurements1 and to mark these upon the base-plate1 as a guide to the perfect adjustment of the various parts4 ,some of these are capable of a little extra adjustment after being put in place3 the eccentric rod1 for instance1 can be lengthened or shortened by screwing into or out of the eccentric ring2 and the piston-rod1 too1 may be similarly lengthened or shortened slightly2 but try to work as near as you can to precise measure without such adjustment4 ,to turn the fly-wheel1 which is the last operation 7including the crank-axle71 it is better carefully to drill the boss1 if not already done1 marking the centre on each side1 and working half through from each1 so as to insure the squareness of the hole with the side of the wheel1 which is very important4 ,then mount it at once upon its axle1 previously turned slightly conical1 where the wheel is to be placed1 and run both together in the lathe4 ,this will insure the wheel running true when the engine is put together4 ,in the horizontal engine which ,i have sketched1 the crank is quite separate from the axle2 and this is the easiest way to make it4 ,the crank itself is filed up1 like ,c of fig4 #ff1 and drilled for the axle and the pin upon which the brasses on the connecting-rod work4 ,turn down the end of the crank-shaft very slightly conical1 until the crank will almost go over it4 ,then heat the crank1 which will expand it and enable you to slip it on the shaft4 ,dip it in cold water1 and it will be as firm as if made in one piece with the axle4 ,this is called shrinking it on1 and the operation will often stand you in good stead1 and save the trouble of filing key-ways and making the small wedges called keys4 ,the pin ,d can in this case be turned up separately1 and screwed in1 which will complete the work4 ,the eccentric must evidently be placed in position before the crank is added1 and this1 too1 might be shrunk on1 were it not that it cannot easily be fixed in a model until the engine is set up4 ,the best way1 therefore1 is1 in this case1 to turn the eccentric with a little projecting boss to take a set screw1 ,e1 ,fig4 #ff4 ,where the axle has to pass through bearings1 it must be turned down at these parts1 so that the whole will be like ,f4 ,first on the right is the journal1 e1 then the place for the fly-wheel1 d1 very slightly conical--the smallest part being towards e--then the second journal1 and then another slightly conical part1 the smallest end towards a1 to take the eccentric and crank4 ,the fly-wheel you will key on shaft1 thus3--,g represents the boss or centre of the wheel bored for the axle1 and a key-way or slot filed on one side at a4 ,there is a flat place filed on the axle1 and the wheel is turned round to bring this opposite to the key-way4 ,a wedge or key1 b1 is then driven in1 which keeps the wheel secure1 and prevents it from turning round or working loose on the axle4 ,if inconvenient to turn a boss and add a set-screw to the eccentric1 this also may be keyed in its place after its position has been found2 but1 for the latter purpose1 it should fit rather tightly on the axle1 so that it can be just moved round with the finger stiffly until its position with respect to the crank is ascertained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,this position ,i shall now endeavour to explain1 using a diagram from an ,american work1 in which this generally supposed difficult point is thus ably and satisfactorily explained4 ,first1 put your engine together as if for work1 and having cut the eccentric rod to about the length you seem to require1 judging from your plan drawn upon the bed-plate1 turn round the eccentric1 with your fingers upon the crank-shaft1 and1 having removed the cover of the valve-box1 so that you can see the action on the valve1 watch the motion of the latter4 ,doubtless1 the result will be that one of the steam-ports will be opened clear to the exhaust-port1 while the other is nearly or entirely shut4 ,the rod is then too long or too short4 ,if in a horizontal engine the port nearest to the crank is wide open and the other shut1 the rod is too long1 and must be shortened half the difference only 7you will do this by screwing it farther into the eccentric hoop74 ,when the valve 8runs square10 or opens and shuts the ports correctly1 set the eccentric as in the diagram1 ,h1 in respect to the crank1 i4e41 with its widest part at right angles to it4 ,by running square is meant that when the eccentric is turned round as described1 the valve opens the ports equally1 and does not affect one more than the other4 ,the line a of the diagram shows that the position of the eccentric may advantageously be a little beyond the right angle to the crank1 to give what is called 8lead10 i4e41 to open the valve a little before the piston commences its return-stroke4 ,the boilers of model engines are made of tin1 sheet-brass1 or copper2 seldom of the latter1 which is1 nevertheless1 by far the best material1 and one that you can braze1 rivet1 or solder satisfactorily1 or bend into any shape with a hammer or wooden mallet4 ,when polished1 too1 its rich red colour is very handsome4 ,brass is chiefly used from the facility of obtaining tubes of it ready brazed or soldered1 from which any desired length can be cut4 ,a brazed copper boiler will stand a great deal of pressure2 will tear1 and not fly into pieces when it bursts2 and may be heated after the water has boiled away without suffering any injury4 ,it would certainly not be worth while to make one for a model engine with a half-inch cylinder1 but for one of #a inch diameter and #b stroke2 and for larger sizes1 it will amply repay the trouble2 and ,i will show you how to make one1 with a tube or flue inside to add to the heating surface4 ,i shall endeavour presently to give the proper dimensions of boilers to work cylinders of given diameters1 but the general directions here subjoined apply to all boilers of models1 whether large or small4 ,the main body of the boiler is generally cylindrical1 and is1 in fact1 a tube of sheet-metal1 with riveted1 brazed1 or soldered seams1 the last greatly predominating in the toy engines2 the result of which is1 that the first time the water gets too low1 out drops the bottom1 or1 at the least1 divers leaky places appear1 and the boiler is obliged to go to the tinman's for repair1 its beauty being ever after a thing of the past4 ,it is difficult to braze in an ordinary fire2 because even if1 by blowing it with a pair of bellows1 you get sufficient heat1 you cannot always manage to apply your work in a good position1 as you can over the hot coals of a forge fire1 where there are no bars1 hobs1 or other parts of the grate standing in the way4 ,moreover1 you often want both hands free just as the solder commences to 8run10 and forge-bellows will keep up the blast for a few seconds after your hand is taken from the staff or handle of them4 ,still1 if you have no forge1 which is probable1 you should make a fire of cinders or coke 7the latter if possible72 and if you can contrive a grate by putting together a few bricks in some out-house1 with a bar or two of hoop-iron below for the coke to rest upon1 you will have a far more convenient fire to work at than can possibly be obtained in any ordinary household grate or stove4 ,you will require a pair of light tongs1 which ought to be something like ,a1 ,fig4 #fg2 but it is quite possible to do without these if you can hold your work in any other way2 as1 for instance1 with a loop of iron wire twisted round it and left long enough to form a handle4 ,the first thing to do is to cut a strip of copper large enough to make the required tube4 ,a piece #f inches wide will roll up into a cylinder of about #b inches diameter 7the circumference of a circle being nearly equal in all cases to three times its diameter1 or measure through the centre74 ,if1 therefore1 you want one #f inches across1 which is the smallest size that can be advantageously fitted with a flue or internal tube1 you must cut it out #ah inches wide1 and if it is #h in length to the bottom of the steam dome1 it will be a large and serviceable boiler1 fit to work an engine with a cylinder of #a bore by #b or #c inch stroke1 which would drive a small lathe4 ,but observe that if you really have pluck and skill enough to try your hand upon an engine that will give you real power1 you must take care to remember that 8the strength of anything is the strength of its weakest part40 ,so don't make the very common mistake of having a good boiler and ample cylinder1 and then fit the engine with piston-rod1 valve-rod1 and such like1 too small to bear the strain which you propose to put upon the engine4 ,remember that every screw and nut and pin upon which strain is liable to fall1 must be of sufficient size and strength to bear it safely3 if not1 your engine will not only come to grief in the heavy trial1 but it is quite possible that you also may become subjected to a bad scald or other disagreeable consequence of your error4 ,whatever sized strips of copper you use for a boiler1 the edges have to come together to form what is called a butt-joint2 i4e41 they do not overlap like the ordinary joints you see made in tin4 ,before you coil up the strip into a tubular shape1 you have to cut out holes for any boiler fittings you may wish to add1 such as safety-valve1 steam-dome1 and gauges to ascertain the level of the water4 ,these1 however1 do not all come into the cylindrical part of our present boiler2 the gauge-taps and glass water-gauge alone having to be provided for4 ,the man-hole1 too1 which is added to all large boilers1 may be dispensed with1 its object being to enable one to get at the inside1 which will scarcely be necessary if our work is well done at first4 ,a boiler of the proposed size should be heated with charcoal1 as it would require a very large lamp2 but where gas can be obtained1 it may be preferably used1 a ring gas-burner being placed below within the furnace4 ,the object of a steam-dome1 which1 in a horizontal boiler1 would have to be placed somewhere on the tube itself1 is to prevent what is called priming1 i4e41 the carrying into the cylinder water as well as steam1 which arises from the spurting caused by the violent boiling of the water4 ,the dome merely provides a chamber for dry steam above the general level of the boiler1 the steam-pipe passing from it direct to the cylinders4 ,our present boiler will be vertical like the last1 but with a flue up the middle1 and a grate fitted below4 ,it is shown complete in ,fig4 #fg1 ,b1 with all the fittings usually attached4 ,having coiled up the tube by hammering it over a cylinder of wood turned for the purpose1 a little smaller than the intended size of the boiler 7the edges having been previously filed up bright1 and a width of a quarter of an inch of the upper being similarly cleaned on the inside all along the seam71 a few loops of iron wire are tied round it1 at intervals of #a inch or #a inches2 there being a short piece put round1 and twisted together at the ends by a pair of pliers4 ,the object of these is to prevent the seam from opening on the application of heat1 which it is otherwise certain to do by the expansion of the metal4 ,some borax1 pounded in a mortar1 and heated to drive off the water of crystallisation1 is next mixed with a little water to form a creamy paste1 and smeared along the inside of the tube1 upon the brightened part1 the full length of the seam4 ,it is generally better to heat this salt first sufficiently to dry it 7or rather fuse it71 because it swells prodigiously by the first application of heat1 and if the spelter is laid on it1 it often carries it off2 after once fusing1 it only melts quietly4 ,before applying the little lumps of spelter1 turn over the tube to heat the part opposite to the seam1 so as to equalise the expansion4 ,then hold it in a pair of light tongs1 lay the spelter all along upon the borax1 and expose it without actually touching the coals to the heat of the fire1 urged by a strong blast4 ,continue this until a blue flame arises1 which shows that the spelter has melted2 this blue flame being1 in fact1 that caused by the burning of the zinc in the solder--spelter being copper and zinc fused together1 or1 if required softer1 brass1 tin1 and zinc4 ,the former is generally used1 however1 on copper4 ,when the blue flame arises1 the solder runs into the joint1 and the work is done4 ,with the hardest of these spelters1 a red heat will not seriously affect the joint1 and1 therefore1 if at any time the water should get below the line of this seam1 so that it becomes exposed to the heat1 no harm will be done4 ,nevertheless1 this ought never to occur1 as a gauge should be attached to every boiler to show the exact position of the water at any given time4 ,the inside tube of this boiler will be seen1 from the section1 to be conical up to the level of the lower part of the chimney4 ,this is of copper1 brazed like the cylindrical part1 and is #b inches wide below1 and #a inch above2 consequently1 the strips to make it must be #f inches wide at one end1 and taper to #c inches at the other4 ,if the dome rises #b inches from the level of the top of the cylinder1 it will be sufficient2 and as this is a difficult piece of work for a boy to manage1 a coppersmith should be asked to hammer the dome into the required form1 as he will know from experience the best size of circular disc to use for the purpose4 ,this part is so far removed from the action of the fire that it may safely be soldered1 but it is1 nevertheless1 as well to rivet it1 turning out both the edge of the cylinder and that of the dome4 ,use copper rivets1 and make the holes half an inch apart4 ,if you find any leakage1 you can run a little solder into the joint on the inside4 ,the bottom of the boiler may be quite flat and brazed1 a few rivets being first put in to hold the parts accurately together4 ,the same may be said of the tube which passes through both this and the dome4 ,there is nothing equal to riveting and brazing for this kind of work4 ,i may as well state however here1 that as such a boiler as ,i have now described is worth very good work1 it would be a great pity to spoil it2 and it will be better to content yourself with smaller boilers and engines soldered1 where necessary1 until you have had some practice in brazing4 ,this indeed is not difficult in reality1 but1 at the same time1 requires great care1 because sometimes the solder and the work melt at so nearly the same temperature1 that1 like a bad tinker1 you will sometimes make two holes instead of mending one4 ,the brass1 for instance1 used for beer-taps is very soft1 and contains lead1 and to a certainty would itself melt before ordinary spelter1 and could not therefore be brazed2 but the best ,bristol brass1 or yellow metal1 will braze easily4 ,a blacksmith1 brazing a key or other iron article1 will braze it in a different way1 using brass wire1 with which he will envelop the parts thickly which are to be united1 after securing their position with iron binding-wire4 ,he then sprinkles with borax1 and heats the work until the wire runs into the joint2 after which he files and cleans off level4 ,this makes a very good medium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,i have spoken of riveting in this place4 ,there is no difficulty in this work4 ,you can buy copper rivets of all sizes1 and have only to punch holes1 put a rivet in place1 and hammer it so as to spread the metal to form a second head4 ,if the rivets are heated before being applied1 they will draw the parts closer together1 because they shrink in cooling4 ,all large boilers are made in this way1 but smaller ones of iron are often welded1 where such a mode of junction is possible4 ,when you can rivet boilers water and steam tight1 you will find no difficulty in constructing them1 for you can make riveted joints where brazing would be difficult or impossible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,fig4 #fg1 ,b1 is a half-section of such a boiler as ,i have just described4 ,fig4 #fh1 ,a1 is the lower part1 which is separate1 and forms the furnace in which the boiler stands1 fitting it closely4 ,this is drawn to scale1 and is half the real size4 a is the steam-pipe1 fitted high up in the dome1 the tap1 b1 serving to turn on or off the supply of steam for the cylinder2 c is the safety-valve shown in section1 and care must be always taken to make the conical part short and of a large angle1 or it may stick fast1 and cause an explosion2 d is the glass gauge1 to show the exact height of the water in the boiler4 ,its construction will be understood from the other which is attached1 where the boiler is seen in section4 ,there is no need to have two1 and this is added solely to explain the nature of glass-gauges4 ,the top and bottom are of brass1 being tubes screwing into the boiler1 or fastened by a nut inside2 a tube1 g1 of thick glass1 connects these two1 so as to form a continuous tube1 one end of which opens into that part of the boiler which is full of steam1 the other opening below the water-level4 ,thus the tube forms practically part of the boiler1 and the level of the water is clearly seen4 ,the lower tap is used for blowing off water1 to insure the communication being kept open1 as it might get stopped up with sediment4 ,gauge-cocks1 e1 f1 are generally added1 even where the glass water-gauge is used4 ,one of these should always give steam1 the other water1--the level of the latter being between the two4 ,if the upper one gives water1 the boiler is too full2 if both give steam1 the boiler needs to have water added4 ,with these fittings1 even a soldered boiler ought never to get burnt1 and will last a long time with care4 ,the lower part1 ,fig4 #fg1 is made like that before described1 except that1 being intended for charcoal1 a circular grate is used1 which simply rests upon little brackets fixed by rivets for this purpose4 ,the flame and heat play upon the bottom of the boiler1 and also pass up the central tube--the latter adding greatly to the quantity of steam produced4 ,this furnace1 when lighted1 may be fed with bits of coke as well as charcoal1 about the size of filberts1 and will give plenty of heat4 ,if the draught1 however1 is deficient1 turn the waste steam into the tube1 so as to form a jet at each stroke1 and it will greatly increase it4 ,it is in this way that the locomotive engines are always fitted1 ,george ,stephenson having first suggested the arrangement4 ,previously to this a fan had been fitted below the grate1 which was put in rapid motion by the engine1 and thus a sufficient draught was obtained4 ,,the ,,safety-,,valve4 ,to find out what pressure is exerted by the safety-valve1 it must be clearly understood upon what principle it acts4 ,i have in a previous chapter told you that the atmospheric pressure equals #ae lbs4 on each square inch1 so that if the surface of the valve which is exposed to the air is #a inch in area or surface1 it is pressed down with a force of #ae lbs4 ,the steam1 therefore1 inside the boiler will not raise it until its elasticity exceeds this atmospheric pressure4 ,if1 therefore1 we desire to have only just #ae lbs4 per square inch pressing against the inside of the boiler 7i4e41 a pressure of 8one atmosphere10 as it is called71 we have only to load the valve so that1 inclusive of its own weight1 it shall equal #ae lbs4 ,but it is plain that we must not load it at all in reality2 for a flat plate1 #a inch square1 of no weight1 is all that is needed1 the atmosphere itself being the load4 ,suppose1 then1 that we do load it with #ae lbs4 in addition to the #ae lbs4 with which nature has loaded it1 we shall not find the steam escape until it presses with a force of #cj lbs4 on the square inch1 or two atmospheres 7which1 however1 is not #cj lbs4 of useful pressure upon one side of the piston1 if the cylinder is open as in an atmospheric engine1 but only #ae lbs47 ,this is not the strain which the boiler has to stand1 because the atmosphere is pressing upon it and counteracting it up to the #ae lbs41 so that this strain tending to burst it is but #ae lbs4 ,the number of pounds1 therefore1 which is straining the boiler can readily be seen2 being always that with which the safety-valve is loaded1 and this is also the useful pressure for doing any required work4 ,unfortunately1 however1 even in the best constructed engines1 a pressure of #ae lbs4 upon the boiler by no means represents that in the cylinder4 ,now it would be inconvenient to place weights upon the safety-valve itself1 and therefore a lever is added1 as seen in the sketch1 with a weight hung at one end of it4 ,this is shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #fh1 where a section of the valve is given with its stem passing through a guide to insure the correct motion of the valve4 ,the lever is hinged at one end2 and the rule of the pressure or weight which is brought to bear upon the valve is1 that it is multiplied by the distance at which the weight hangs from the valve1 compared with its distance from the hinge or fulcrum4 ,if a weight of #g lbs4 is hung at #a1 i4e41 at a distance as far on that side of the valve as the fulcrum is on the other side of it1 #g lbs4 will be the actual power exerted2 at #b1 where it is twice the distance1 it will be doubled1 and1 as shown in the drawing1 a pressure of #ad lbs4 will be brought to bear upon the valve2 while1 if the weight is hung at #c1 it will exercise a force of #ba lbs4 ,this is very easy to understand and to remember4 ,sometimes 7always in locomotives7 the weight is removed and a spring balance is attached at the long end4 ,upon this is marked the actual pressure exerted2 there being a nut to screw down1 and thus bring any desired strain upon the spring4 ,mind1 however1 in case you should try this in any of your models1 that the scale marked on the balance when you buy it must be multiplied1 as before1 according to the length of your lever4 ,thus1 if ,i attach such a balance at #c of the drawing1 a real weight of #e lbs4 shown by the balance will be #c #e1 or #ae lbs4 upon the valve1 and a balance made for such engine would be marked #ae lbs41 to prevent the possibility of dangerous error4 ,,engines ,,without ,,slide-,,valves ,,easy ,,to ,,make4 ,having been led on from the atmospheric engine to that of ,watt's1 and to slide-valve engines generally1 ,i am now going backward a little to a class easier to make1 because they have no slide-valves1 nor even four-way cocks2 and then ,i shall have done with engines4 ,but ,i dare say some of my readers will wonder why ,i have said so little about condensers and condensing engines4 ,i am sure they will wonder at it if they understood what ,i explained of the advantage of a vacuum under the piston2 so that #ae lbs4 pressure upon the piston means #ae lbs4 of useful work1 instead of #cj lbs4 being required for that purpose4 ,but condensing engines are utterly beyond a boy's power4 ,they require not only a vessel into which the steam is injected at each stroke1 but there must be a pump to raise and inject cold water to condense the steam1 and a pump to extract from the vessel again this water1 after it has been used1 and a cistern1 and cold and hot wells2 and all this is difficult to make so as to act2 and ,i am sure no boy cares for a steam engine that will not work4 ,moreover1 ,i have given you difficult work as it is--work that many of my readers will no doubt be afraid to try--yet ,i did it on purpose2 because if small boys are unequal to some of it1 their big brothers are not1 or ought not to be2 and mechanical boys must look at difficulties as a trained hunter looks at a hedge--viz41 with a strong desire to go over it1 or through it1 or any how and some how to get to the other side of it4 ,indeed1 you must ride your mechanical hobby very boldly and with great pluck1 or you won't half enjoy the ride4 ,however1 ,i am quite aware that ,i have led you into several difficulties1 and therefore now ,i propose to set before you some easy work as a kind of holiday task which will send you with fresh vigour to what is not so easy4 ,the engines without slide-valves have also no eccentrics and no connecting-rods4 ,there is just a boiler1 a cylinder1 piston1 piston-rod1 and crank1 and you have the sum total1 save and except the fly-wheel4 ,these are direct-action engines1 the cylinders of which oscillate like a pendulum1 and the piston-rod itself is connected to the crank1 doing away with the necessity for guides4 ,fig4 #fi1 ,a1 shows one of these engines1 and you see that the cylinder leans to the left when the crank is turned to that side2 and if you turn the wheel to the right1 the crank will presently cause it to lean the other way2 and thus1 as it turns on a pin1 or 8trunnion10 as it is called1 it keeps on swinging from side to side as the wheel goes round4 ,now1 when it is in its first position1 the piston is at the bottom of the cylinder1 and it then needs to have the steam admitted below it to drive up the piston2 but when this has passed its highest position1 and the cylinder is turned a little to the right1 the piston must be allowed to descend1 and1 therefore1 we must let out the steam below it4 ,we ought1 at the same time1 to admit steam above the piston to force it down2 but1 in the simplest models1 which are called single-action engines1 this is not done4 ,the fly-wheel1 having been set in motion1 keeps on revolving1 and1 by its impetus1 sends down the piston quite powerfully enough to overcome the slight resistance which is offered by the friction of the parts4 ,now1 you can1 ,i daresay1 easily understand that it is possible to make this to-and-fro motion of the oscillating cylinder open first a steam-port to allow steam to raise the piston1 and then an exhaust-port to let it blow off into the air4 ,this is exactly what is done in practice1 and it is managed in the following manner3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,b1 of ,fig4 #fi1 shows the bottom of the cylinder1 which is a solid piece of brass filed quite flat on one side1 and turned out to receive the end of the brass tube1 which1 generally speaking1 is screwed into it to form the cylinder1 this being the easiest way to make it4 ,in the middle of the upper part of the flat side you see a white steam-port1 and below it a round white spot1 which is the position of the pin1 or trunnion1 on which it oscillates4 ,fig4 #fi1 ,c1 is a similar piece of brass1 which is fixed to the top of the boiler4 ,in this1 on the left of the upper part1 is also a port1 which is connected with the boiler by a hole drilled below it to admit steam4 ,on the right is also a port1 which is merely cut like a notch1 or it may go a little way into the boss1 and then be met by a hole drilled to meet it1 so as to form the escape or exhaust port4 ,between and below these is the hole for the trunnion4 ,now1 you can1 ,i think1 see that if the cylinder stands upright against this block1 as it does when the crank is vertical 7or upright7 and on its dead points1 the port at the bottom of the cylinder would fall between the two on this block of brass1 and1 as they are both flat and fit closely1 no steam from the boiler can enter the cylinder4 ,nor do we want it to do so1 because1 if the crank is on a dead point1 no amount of steam can make the piston rise so as to move it4 ,but now1 if we move the cylinder to the left1 which we can do by turning the wheel1 we shall presently get the crank at right angles to its former position1 and1 also1 we shall bring the steam-ports in the cylinder and block together1 so that steam will enter below the piston4 ,but1 practically to get as long a stroke as possible1 steam is not allowed to enter fully until the crank is further on than in a horizontal position1 that is1 approaching its lower dead point2 and this is the position in which to put it to start the engine4 ,by altering the shape or the position of the port a little1 we can so arrange matters as to let steam enter at any required moment4 ,steam having entered1 the piston will rise rapidly1 forcing up the piston1 and presently1 by the consequent revolution of the fly-wheel1 the cylinder will be found leaning to the left1 and at this moment the piston must evidently begin to descend4 ,at this very time the steam-ports will have ceased to correspond1 but the port in the cylinder will come opposite the exhaust-port in the brass block1 and this port is made of such size and shape that the two shall continue to be together all the time the piston is descending2 but1 the moment it has reached the end of its downward stroke1 they cease to correspond in position1 and the steam-port begins again to admit a fresh supply of steam4 ,the pillar attached to the brass boss has nothing to do with it1 but is one of the supports of the axle of the fly-wheel1 as you will understand by inspection of ,a of this same drawing4 ,such is the single-action model engine1 of no power1 but a very interesting toy and real steam engine4 ,the double-action engine is very superior to the foregoing1 which1 ,i may remark1 has no stuffing-box1 and of which the piston is never packed4 ,i may also add1 that the crank is formed generally by merely bending the wire that forms the axle of the wheel1 and putting the bent end through the hole of a little boss or knob of brass1 screwed to the end of the piston-rod4 ,here you have no boring of cylinders to accomplish1 but the cylinder cover1 piston1 and wheel 7often of lead or tin7 require the lathe to make them neatly4 ,many an engine1 however1 has been made without a lathe1 and ,i have seen one with a bit of gun-barrel for a cylinder1 and a four-way cock of very rough construction1 that was used to turn a coffee-mill1 and did its work very well too4 ,but ,i must go at once to the double-action oscillating cylinder1 in which1 although a similar mode of admitting steam is used1 it is arranged to admit it alternately above and below the piston1 the exhaust also acting in a similar manner4 ,after the explanation ,i have given you1 however1 of the single-action engine1 you will1 some of you1 ,i think1 jump at a conclusion almost directly1 and perhaps be able to plan for yourselves a very easy arrangement to accomplish the desired end4 ,all boys1 however1 are not 8wax to receive1 and adamant to retain0 an impression2 for ,i have known some who need an idea to be driven into their brains with a good deal of hard hammering4 ,stupid8--,no4 ,dull8--,no1 only slow in getting hold1 and none the worse for that generally1 if the master will but have a little patience2 for when they do get hold1 they are very like bulldogs1 they won't let go in a hurry1 but store up in most retentive minds what they learned with such deliberation4 ,,the ,,double-,,action ,,oscillating ,,engine4 ,the cylinder of the double-action engine is of necessity made with ports very similar to those of the horizontal engine already described4 ,there is a solid piece attached to the cylinder as before1 which is drilled down to the upper and lower part respectively of a central boss1 turned very flat upon the face1 and which has to work against a similar flat surface as in the last engine4 ,but the ports in the latter are four instead of two1 and in an engine with upright cylinder would be cut as follows1 and as shown in ,fig4 #gj1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,those on the right marked st are steam-ports1 which1 being drilled into one behind1 are connected with the boiler4 ,the other two marked ex1 are similarly exhaust-ports opening into the air4 ,the spaces between a b and c d of fig4 ,c must be wide enough to close the steam-ports in the cylinder1 when the latter is perpendicular and the engine at rest4 ,when the cylinder leans to the left1 oscillating on the central pin between the ports in the middle of the circle1 the lower port of it will evidently be in connection with the steam-port in ,c1 while the upper port of the cylinder will be opposite to the exhaust4 ,as the cylinder is carried over towards the right1 the upper steam-ports will come into action in a similar way1 while the lower exhaust-port is also carrying off in turn the waste steam4 ,the impetus1 therefore1 of the fly-wheel has here only to carry the ports over the spaces a b1 c d1 and to prevent the crank stopping on the two dead points4 ,this1 therefore1 is a genuine double-action engine1 and will answer1 even on a large scale1 very satisfactorily4 ,if you do not quite understand the action of these ports1 cut out two pieces of card1 ,e ,f4 ,let ,e represent the cylinder4 ,draw circles1 and cut two ports4 ,cut another piece of card to represent the brass block1 with ports1 c d2 pin them together through the centres of the circles1 and they will easily turn on the pin4 ,mark the ports1 so that you will see at a glance which are steam and which exhaust4 ,now cut out the ports with a penknife1 and as you work the two cards together1 swaying that which represents the cylinder to and fro upon the other1 you will see when the ports in each card agree with one another1 and which are opposite to which4 ,this will teach you far better than any further written explanation4 ,you will also see that1 instead of making the steam and exhaust ports respectively with a division between1 the two steam-ports may be in one curve united1 and likewise the two exhausts2 but take care not to unite the exhaust with the steam-ports4 ,there is no way so easy as this of reversing the action of the steam2 it is1 in fact1 a circular slide-valve1 but wonderfully easy to make1 because you have no steam-case to make1 nor any attachments whatever4 ,the faces of the valve are kept in close contact in one of two ways--either the centre-pin is fixed into the cylinder face1 and after passing through the brass boss with the ports1 is screwed up with a nut at the back2 or else there is fixed a small pillar or upright on the opposite side of the cylinder1 and a little pointed screw passing through this presses against the cylinder1 and makes a point of resistance1 against which it centres1 and on which it turns4 ,this is shown at fig4 ,a4 ,a small indentation is made where the point comes in contact with the cylinder4 ,in a locomotive engine there are two such cylinders1 working against opposite faces of the same brass block containing the ports4 ,the cranks are also two1 on the shaft of the driving-wheels1 and are at right angles to each other2 so that when one piston is at the middle of its stroke1 the other is nearly or quite at the end of it4 ,thus1 between the two there is always some force being exerted by the steam2 and the dead points of one crank agree with the greatest leverage of the other4 ,in locomotives1 too1 the cylinders generally are made as in the present drawing1 viz41 to oscillate on a point at the middle of their length2 but it is just as easy to have the two ports meet at the bottom instead1 so that the point of oscillation may be low down1 like the single-acting cylinders of the last sketch1 and this is generally done when the cylinder is to stand upright4 ,there is no occasion for me to draw an engine with double-acting oscillating cylinders1 because in appearance it would be like the single-acting one2 but whereas the latter is of absolutely no use1 seeing that the greater part of its motion depends on the impetus of the fly-wheel1 the former can be made to do real work1 and is the form to be used for marine and locomotive engines4 ,for the former1 oscillating cylinders with slide-valves are used in practice2 but for real locomotives fixed cylinders are always used4 ,of course either will answer in models1 and it will be good practice to try both4 ,i have now given sufficient explanation of how engines work1 and how they may be made1 to enable my young mechanic to try his hand at such work4 ,the double-action oscillating engines especially are well worthy of his attention1 as he may with these fit up working models of steam-boats and railway trains1 which are far more difficult to construct with fixed cylinders and slide-valves4 ,i shall therefore close this part of my work with a description of one or two useful appliances to help him in the manipulative portion of his labour1--for here1 as in most other matters1 head and hand and heart must work together4 ,the heart desires1 the head plans1 the hands execute4 ,i think1 indeed1 ,i might without irreverence bring forward a quotation1 written a very long time ago by a very clever and scientific man1 in a very ,holy ,book3 8,whatsoever thy hand findeth to do1 do it with all thy might40 ,depend upon it1 success in life depends mainly upon carrying into practice this excellent advice4 ,if you take up one piece of work1 and carelessly and listlessly play at doing it1 and then lay it down to begin with equal indifference something else1 you will never become either a good mechanic or a useful man4 ,if you read of those who have been great men--lights in their generation--you will find generally that they became such simply by their observance of that ancient precept of the wise man4 ,they were not so marvellously clever--they seldom had any unusual worldly advantages2 but they worked 8with all their might10 and success crowned their efforts1 as it will crown yours if you do the same4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,hardening ,,and ,,tempering ,,tools4 ,i promised in a previous page to describe a little stove for heating soldering-irons1 and doing other light work4 ,it is made as follows1 and will be found very useful4 ,fig4 #ga1 ,a1 is a tube of sheet-iron1 which forms the body of the little stove4 ,four light iron rods stand out from it1 which form handles1 but these are forked at the ends1 and thus become rests for the handles of soldering-irons1 or any light bars that are to be heated at the ends4 ,below is a tray1 also of sheet-iron1 upon short legs to keep it off the table--for this is a little table-stove4 ,c is the cast-iron grate4 ,you can buy this for a few pence first of all1 and then you fit your sheet-metal to it4 ,it will rest on three or four little studs or projections riveted to the stove inside2 or you can cut three or four little places like ,d1 not cutting them at the bottom line1 a b1 but only on three sides1 and then bend in the little piece so as to make a shelf4 ,if the stove is about #d inches high above the grate1 and #b or #c inches below it1 and #f inches diameter1 it will be sufficiently large for many small operations2 but that the fuel may keep falling downwards as it burns1 the lower part should be larger than the upper1 and1 to admit plenty of air1 should be cut into legs as shown4 ,round the top are cut semicircular hollows1 in which the irons rest4 ,to increase the heat1 a chimney or blower1 ,b1 is fitted1 which has also openings cut out to match those of the lower part1 so that the soldering-irons can be inserted when this chimney is put on4 ,if1 however1 this is not required1 but only a strong draught1 by turning the chimney a little1 all the openings will be closed4 ,a still longer chimney can be added at pleasure4 ,a hole should be made at the level of the grate to admit the nozzle of an ordinary pair of bellows4 ,this stove you would find of great service1 and it may be fed with coke and charcoal in small lumps4 ,now you may make the above far more useful4 ,it will make a regular little furnace1 and not burn through1 if you can line it with fireclay4 ,in ,london and large towns you can obtain this2 and it only needs to be mixed up with water1 like mortar1 when you can plaster your stove inside an inch thick or more1 making it so much larger on purpose4 ,there is no need to do this below the level of the grate2 but if you cannot get fireclay1 you may do almost as well by getting a blacklead-meltingpot from any ironfoundry1 and boring a few holes round the bottom for air1 and fitting it inside your little iron stove4 ,in this you can obtain heat enough to melt brass1 and it will last a great deal longer than the iron alone1 which will burn through if you blow the fire much2 but for general soldering1 tempering small tools1 and so forth1 you need not blow the fire1 as the hood and chimney will sufficiently increase the heat4 ,there is no danger in the use of this little fireplace1 but of course you would not stand it near a heap of shavings1 unless you are yourself a very careless young 8shaver40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,how ,,to ,,temper ,,tools4 ,there is no reason why the young mechanic should not be told how to make his own tools1 and how to harden and temper them1 because he ought to be a sort of jack-of-all-trades2 and perhaps he may break a drill or other small tool just in the middle of some special bit of work1 or his drill may be just a little too small or too large1 and there he will be stuck fast as a pig in a gate1 and unable to set himself right again any more than the noisy squeaker aforesaid4 ,but to a workman a broken drill means just five minutes' delay1 and all goes on again as merrily as before2 and as we wish to make our young readers workmen and not bunglers1 we will teach them this useful art at once4 ,drills are made of steel wire or rods of various sizes4 ,in old times they were made square at one end1 to fit lathe-chucks or braces1 but now1 for lathe-work1 they are generally made of round steel1 and fastened into the chuck with a set screw on one side4 ,in this way they can be more easily made to run true4 ,but there are so many kinds of drills that ,i suppose ,i had better go into the matter a little--only ,i have not room to say much more4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,look at ,fig4 #gb1 and you will see some of the more usual forms of drills used1 but these are by no means all4 ,you will not indeed require such a collection2 and yet1 if you should grow from a young mechanic into an old one1 ,i daresay you will find yourself in possession of several of them4 ,the first1 labelled #a1 is the little watchmaker's drill1 of which1 nevertheless1 this would be considered a very large size4 ,it is merely a bit of steel wire1 with a brass pulley upon it1 formed into a point at the largest end1 and into a drill at the other4 ,the way it is worked is this3 ,at the side of the table-vice--that is1 at the end of its jaws or chops or chaps--are drilled a few little shallow holes1 in which the watchmaker places the point at the thickest end2 the drill-point rests against the work1 which he holds in his left hand4 ,a bow of whalebone1 a1 has a string of fine gut such as is used for fishing1 or1 if the drill is very small1 a horse-hair2 and this is given one turn round the brass pulley before the drill is placed in position4 ,the bow is then moved to and fro1 causing the drill to revolve first in one direction and then in the other4 ,the general work is in thin brass1 and therefore these little tools are sufficiently strong for the purpose4 ,some of the drills and broaches 7four or five1 or even six sided wires of steel7 are so fine that they will bend about like a hair1 and yet are so beautifully made and tempered as to cut steel4 ,no4 #b is a larger drill1 even now much used4 ,in principle it is exactly similar to the last1 but the pulley is replaced by a bobbin or reel of wood1 made to revolve by a steel bow with a gut string1 or a strong wooden bow4 ,the drills1 too1 are separate1 and fit into a socket at the bottom of the drill-stock4 ,the large end is pointed1 as in the last1 and is made to rest in one of the holes in a steel breast-plate1 b1 which is tied to the chest of the operator1 who1 by leaning against it1 keeps the drill to its work1 while both hands are free to hold the latter steady4 ,there is a modification of this tool1 invented by a ,mr ,freeman1 intended to do away with the bow4 ,the bobbin or reel is turned without raised ends1 and is worked by a flat strip of wood covered with india-rubber1 and turned at one end to form a convenient handle4 ,the having to twist the bow-string round the drill1 which is always a bother1 is thus done away with4 ,no4 #d is a drill-stock similar to the last1 but in place of the breast-plate a revolving head or handle is put to the top1 in which the point works4 ,this is held in one hand1 while the drill-bow is worked by the other4 ,this is also generally held against the chest1 as the hand alone does not give sufficient pressure4 ,heavy work1 however1 cannot well be done by these breast-drills1 and they are liable to cause spitting of blood from the constant pressure in the region of the heart and lungs4 ,no4 #c is the ,archimedean drill-stock1 now very common1 but originally invented by a workman of ,messrs ,holtzappffel's1 the eminent lathemakers of ,london4 ,it now comes to us as an ,american drill-stock4 ,it is a long screw of two or more threads1 with a ferule or nut working upon it4 ,the upper end revolves within the head1 which is of wood2 the lower end is formed into a socket to receive the drills1 which revolve by sliding the ferule up and down4 ,some are #ad inches long1 and others not more than #e4 ,the first are used with the pressure of the chest1 the latter with that of the left hand4 ,for light work these are very useful1 and you will seldom need any other in the models of small engines1 c4 ,no4 #e is another watchmaker's drill1 but serves also as a pin-vice to hold small pieces of wire while being turned or filed in the little lathes which are used in that trade1 and which are worked by a bow with one hand1 while the tool is held in the other4 ,this is by no means a useless tool1 even without the pulley4 ,it is made by taking a round 7or better1 an octagon1 or five or six sided7 piece of steel1 drilling the end a little distance1 and then sawing the whole up the middle4 ,the slit thus made is then filed away to widen it1 and leave two jaws at the end1 which grasp the pin or drill2 a ring slips over1 and keeps the jaws together4 ,we now come to fig4 #f1 which represents the best of all drills for metal4 ,it is really ,american this time1 and does our ,transatlantic cousins great credit1 as does the machinery generally invented or made by them 7the ,wheeler and ,wilson sewing-machines for instance74 ,the steel of which this drill is made is accurately turned in a lathe1 and the spiral groove is cut by machinery4 ,this groove acts in two ways--first1 as allowing the shavings 7not powdery chips7 to escape as the tool penetrates1 but as forming the cutting edges where they 7for there are two7 meet at the point4 ,these1 however1 require a lathe with a self-centring chuck made on purpose4 ,they are sold in sets upon a stand1 chuck and all complete1 and each is one-thirty-second of an inch larger than the other4 ,some are as small as a darning-needle1 or less1 and they run up to an inch or so in diameter4 ,there are large and small sets4 ,we now pass to the old-fashioned smith's brace1 fig4 #g1 shown in position1 drilling the piece e4 ,pressure is kept up either by a weighted lever1 or by a screw1 as shown here4 ,the brace is moved round by the hand of the workman4 ,very often this tool is arranged on the vice-bench1 so that the work can be retained in the jaws of the vice while being drilled4 ,sometimes it is mounted on a separate stand1 having a stool below1 and a special kind of vice or clamp is added4 ,well made1 this is not so bad a tool as it looks1 but those used ordinarily in smiths' shops are very clumsy1 and do not even run true1 and the drills are badly made1 although by sheer force they are driven through the work4 ,whatever form of drill-stock is used1 the main thing is to have the drills properly formed4 ,you will recognise k and n as common forms1 than which m is considerably better4 ,for cast-iron n would not be a bad point1 because the angle is great1 much greater1 you see1 than k2 and the bevels which form the cutting edges of a drill should also not be too sharp1 as they are generally made1 for1 as they only scrape away the metal1 their edges go directly4 ,the common way to make a drill is this3 ,a piece of steel wire of the required size is heated until red hot 7never to a white heat1 or it would be spoiled74 ,the end is then flattened out with a hammer1 and the point trimmed with a file4 ,it is then again heated red hot1 and dipped into cold water for a second4 ,then held where the changes of colour1 which ensue as it cools1 can be seen plainly2 and as soon as a deep yellow or first tinge of purple becomes visible1 it is entirely cooled in water4 ,it is then finished1 except as regards fitting it to the drill-stock1 which may be done before or after it is hardened1 because care is taken only to dip the extreme point4 ,to get proper cutting edges the drill is taken to the grindstone1 and each side of the point is slightly bevelled1 but in opposite directions1 so as to make it cut both ways4 ,it is not1 however1 left of equal width1 like o1 but the flattened sides are ground away1 so as to make more of a point1 like p and n4 ,now1 this is all right enough as regards forging and hardening1 and tempering1 and for the smallest drills this is the only way to make them4 7,only watchmakers heat them in the candle till red1 and then cool and temper by running them into the tallow47 ,but if you want a good drill that will cut well and truly1 you should file away the sides of a round bar like m1 only spreading the point very slightly indeed1 just to prevent the drill sticking fast in the work4 ,another drill1 indeed1 is spoken of very highly1 which is also carefully made like m1 but the places which are here flat are hollowed out or grooved lengthwise1 the section of the point--i4e41 the appearance of the end of the drill--becomes rather curious1 like r4 ,i am assured by those who have used them1 that these cut quite as well as the twist drills which ,i have described already4 ,these which ,i am now speaking of are also ,american2 and ,i don't know how it is1 that somehow ,america is a far better place for improvements in tools and machines than our own ,old ,england4 ,and if ,i had a wonderful invention--a new birch-rod-making and flogging-machine for very troublesome boys1 for instance--,i am afraid ,i should go to ,america to patent it2 but ,i daresay ,english boys would not object to that4 ,to teach an idle boy to read1 ,his mind be sure to jog2 ,but if he's very bad indeed1 ,you'll be obliged to flog4 ,yet if you flog him day by day1 ,he'll never learn to read2 ,for boys require a lot of play ,to make them work with speed4 ,but young mechanics1 if they err ,or join the lazy team1 ,would all1 as ,i suppose1 prefer ,to be well flogged by steam4 ,if not1 they had better not let me patent my flogging-machine4 ,luckily it is not invented yet4 ,the cutting edges of drills come under the same rules as other cutting edges4 ,you might1 for instance1 hold a large drill flat on the rest1 and use either edge as a turning-tool4 ,you will see at once that these edges will not cut if made in the usual way1 but only scrape4 ,the bevel wants to be ground only to #c1 as before explained1 to give the proper clearance1 and the cutting edge requires to be then made by grinding back the upper surface1 which is just the same in effect as is produced by twisting the metal or cutting a spiral groove1 which hollows out this upper surface and gives it cutting power4 ,it is no use grinding a sharper-looking bevel1 or making more of a point--you only weaken the edge2 m or n is quite pointed enough1 though the first is a right angle and the second greater2 and1 for cast-iron1 a rounded point1 showing no angle at all1 will do just as well1 or better1 when once it has begun to penetrate4 ,do not be deceived1 therefore1 by making drills look pointed and keen1 for1 ,i repeat1 they are scraping tools only1 unless you file an edge by bevelling back the upper face of each side of the point4 ,if you were to make a very thick1 strong drill1 you might begin by grinding back the two sides to #c1 to form the accidental front line of the point or section angle1 and then grind back1 at #de from this line1 the upper face1 by which you would do just what you did to give the graver cutting edges of #fj--only a drill thus formed must have a point of #ij4 ,it would cut in two directions1 like one for a drill stock and bow4 ,i hope my bigger boys will not pass over the remarks on cutting edges interspersed in this book1 for1 once understood1 they will be found to be most valuable4 ,indeed1 they cannot work intelligently until they understand exactly the nature and principles of the tools which they have to use4 ,in drilling iron1 use water or oil1 or soap and water1 or soda-water--either will do2 but the holes are drilled in the ships' armour-plating with soap and water to cool the drill2 and very well it answers1 for these plates are several inches thick1 but the holes are soon made4 ,when working in brass and gun-metal1 use no water1 but work the drill quite dry4 ,the same rules1 in short1 apply to drilling as to turning or planing metal2 and if you could see the action of a well-made ,american twist-drill1 you would recognise this similarity1 for you would see the metal come forth in long1 bright curls1 as pretty and shining as those of your favourite young lady or loving sister--one of which you have1 ,i daresay4 ,to give you some idea of what a straight course a drill will take1 if rightly made and skilfully used1 ,i may tell you that a twist-drill has been run through a lucifer-match from end to end without splitting it2 and as to the fineness possible1 ,i have seen a human hair with an eye drilled through it1 by which1 needle-like1 it was threaded with the other end of itself4 ,i told you how to bore a cylinder1 which is but drilling on a larger scale1 and in ,fig4 #fe ,i sketched the method of doing this in the lathe with a rosebit4 ,but ,i did not explain another tool used just in the same way1 but which will bore holes in solid iron wonderfully4 ,fig4 #fe1 ,l1 ,h1 ,k1 is one of these4 ,this is an engineer's boring-bit1 and is made of all sizes1 from that required to bore the stem of a tobacco-pipe--7don't smoke1 boys1 it will dry up your brains7--to that which would bore a cannon4 ,a rod of steel is forged with a boss or larger part at one end4 ,this is centred in the lathe1 and the centre-marks are well drilled1 and not merely punched1 especially that at the small end4 ,the boss is then turned quite cylindrical1 after which it is filed#d away exactly to the diametrical line1 as you will see by inspection of ,l4 ,the end is then ground off a little slanting1 to give1 as before1 about #c of clearance4 ,the cutting edge thus obtained1 and the end in which the centre hole still remains1 are carefully hardened4 ,you thus have a tool which will bore splendidly1 but you must give it entrance by turning a recess first of all in the work1 or drilling1 with a drill of equal size1 a little way into the material4 ,used like the rosebit1 this tool will run beautifully straight1 so that you can bore very deep1 long holes with it1 and cylinders can be most beautifully bored with it4 ,i think you would be able to make these tools with a little care2 but1 when you harden them1 only heat and dip the extremities1 or it is ten to one your steel rod will bend and warp in cooling1 and you will not be able to rectify it4 ,if the ends are quite hard1 it is as well that the rest should be soft1 as the tool will not then be so liable to get broken4 ,there are many other tools used for boring iron and steel1 but you need not trouble yourself at present to learn anything of them--they are no use to you now4 ,i have headed this chapter 8,hardening and ,tempering0 tools1 but as yet ,i have only partially explained the process1 which is a very curious one2 and though the result is highly necessary in many cases1 it is by no means well understood what really takes place in the process1 or why this effect should occur in steel1 but not in iron1 or brass1 or other metals4 ,if you heat a piece of bright steel over a clear gas jet or fire which will not smoke it1 you will see several colours arise as the metal gets hotter and hotter1 until finally it becomes red4 ,these are due to oxidation1 which is so long a word that ,i am not sure ,i can stop to explain it thoroughly4 ,let us see1 however1 what we can make of it4 ,the air we breathe contains two gases1 oxygen and nitrogen1 with a small proportion of a third called carbonic acid4 ,neither of these alone will support life1 or keep the fire burning1 or enable vegetables to live and grow1 but it is the first which is in this the chief support4 ,the second is only used by ,nature as we use water to brandy1 viz41 to dilute it and render it less strong4 ,if we breathed oxygen alone1 we should live too fast1 and wear out our bodies in a few hours4 ,if we breathed nitrogen only1 we should die1 and so of carbonic acid4 ,now this oxygen seizes upon everything in a wonderful and sometimes provoking manner4 ,if you leave a bright tool out of doors to get damp1 down comes our friend oxygen and rusts it4 ,it combines with the iron and makes oxide of iron1 which is what we call rust4 ,i suppose1 however1 this oxygen comes more from the water than the air1 because water is made also of two gases1 hydrogen and this same oxygen4 ,it is certain that oxygen in this case always finds any bright tools that we leave about in the wet1 and coats them with a red jacket very speedily4 ,then if you look at a blacksmith at work1 you will see scales fall from the hot iron as he hammers it4 ,these are black1 but our old friend has been at work1 and united with the red-hot metal and formed another oxide of iron1 called black oxide4 ,we can understand this4 ,if a man eats a good deal1 or drinks a good deal1 he gets red in the face2 if he eats till he chokes himself1 he gets black in the face1 and ,i suppose it is much the same when oxygen eats too much iron4 ,well1 when we begin to heat the steel1 down comes oxygen and begins his work2 and first he looks very pale2 then he gets more bilious and yellower2 then he gets hotter and shows a tinge of red with the yellow forming orange2 then he begins to get purple1 then blue1 then deeper blue2 and finally black before he gets absolutely red and white hot4 ,now to temper steel1 we first heat it red-hot1 not minding these colours1 and then we cool it suddenly in cold water4 ,this renders it very hard indeed4 ,no file will cut it1 or drill penetrate it2 but if we strike it1 behold it breaks like glass6 ,this is too hard for general work1 for the edge will break and chip if it meets with any hard spot in the metal1 or chances to bite in too deep4 ,its teeth are too brittle1 and so get broken off4 ,for this reason we have to 8let down10 or temper1 the tool1 and we proceed as follows3 ,the part to be tempered is ground quite bright4 ,it is then laid upon a bar of iron heated red-hot1 or if small1 it is held over a gas jet or in a candle2 heated1 in short1 in any way most suitable and convenient4 ,and now1 first1 our friend oxygen puts on a pale yellow face as before4 ,this will do for turning steel and iron1 but is still too hard for general work4 ,then comes the orange1 and this presently tends slightly to blue2 at which point1 if the tool is instantly cooled in water1 it will be found to bear a good edge1 hard1 but sufficiently tough for work4 ,most tools for metal and drills are let down to something between the yellow and blue1 and we know that the more they approach blue1 the softer they will be4 ,thus we can easily manage our tools2--some to bear hard blows1 like axes1 which are tempered to a blue colour2 some like files1 which a blow will break1 but which are famous for their own special work--these are let down only to a pale yellow2 others1 like springs and saws1 are let down to a more thorough blue1 because they are required to be elastic and tough1 but are not needed to be so particularly hard4 ,then tools like turnscrews1 and bradawls1 and gimblets are left even softer1 sometimes not tempered or hardened at all1 but just forged and ground to the required shape4 ,now1 ,i fancy some of my sharp boys will say that the first description ,i gave of the mode of hardening and tempering was not exactly like this2 nor was it1 yet in principle it is the same4 ,for instance1 if you give a drill to a smith to make1 he will do as ,i then said4 ,he will heat the extreme point red-hot1 then dip the point in water1 give a rub on the stone or bricks of the forge1 and watch the colours4 ,this can be done when the tool is of sufficient substance to retain heat enough after the edge has been dipped to re-heat that edge sufficiently4 ,in this case there is no need to chill the whole tool and then heat it again4 ,but in the case of small drills and tools1 pen-knife-blades1 and other articles of this nature1 there will not be sufficient heat retained1 after dipping1 to bring up to the surface the desired colours2 for oxygen likes a hot dinner as well as you do1 and if the iron is not hot enough he will have nothing to do with it4 ,one great difficulty you would find if you had much tempering to do1 viz41 that the articles bend under the operation1 some more than others4 ,try this3 ,take a thin knitting-needle when the owner is not looking1 and run off with it2--it is all in the cause of science6 ,heat it red-hot1 and with a pair of pliers take it up and drop it sidewise in a basin of water4 ,it will bend like a bow4 ,heat again1 straighten it1 re-heat1 and this time pop it in lengthwise--endwise1 point first--,i mean 7don't you see that a round needle has no sides1 and puts me into a perfect quagmire of difficulty74 ,however1 you will understand this1 and will find the needle not bent nearly so much as before1 but still it is not straight4 ,as ,i explain most things as ,i go on1 ,i may as well explain why this bending occurs before ,i tell you how to straighten your work again4 ,all metals expand with heat1 and contract with cold4 ,i am sure ,i contract terribly in the winter until ,i have had plenty of hot soup1 and hot roast-beef1 and plum-pudding2 and ,i know my temper improves1 too1 when ,i get expanded and warm4 ,well now1 when you dropped your sister's knitting-needle all hot on its side into the water1 that side contracted before the other1 and consequently the needle bent2 but when you put it in the water1 end on1 it was cooled all round at once1 and if you could but cool a piece of metal equally all over1 inside and out1 at once1 all parts would shrink equally fast1 and the article would remain straight4 ,but there is1 unfortunately1 another cause of this bending1 which is1 that all articles are not of such form that the same quantity of metal is on all sides of the axial line4 ,take a half-round file1 for instance2 one side is flat1 the other curved1 so that taking these two surfaces into consideration1 one contains a great deal more metal than the other1 and will not cool at the same rate4 ,these articles are far more liable to bend than those whose sides are parallel4 ,another result of the hot mass being cooled most quickly on the outside is1 that cracks are produced in the latter1 because1 so to speak1 the skin is contracted1 and can no longer contain all the expanded metal within it4 ,hence1 to make a mandrel for a lathe1 it is common to bore it out first1 before hardening1 to remove this mass of metal1 and to allow the water to touch it inside as well as out4 ,such mandrels seldom crack or bend4 ,the only way to straighten articles which have warped by hardening1 is by what is called hacking or hack-hammering1 which is nothing more than hammering the concave or hollow side with the edge of the steel pane of a hammer4 ,this spreads the metal upon the hammered side1 and1 by expanding it1 straightens the tool1 for the hollow side1 remember1 is that which was too much shrunk or contracted4 ,this is not an operation you will have to do1 especially if you only harden the extreme points of the drills and little tools you make4 ,there is another way of hardening1 not steel1 but iron1 called 8case hardening10 because it puts a case of steel over the surface of the metal4 ,obtain a salt called prussiate of potash4 ,it is yellow1 like barley-sugar1 but is poison4 ,heat the iron red-hot1 and well rub it upon this salt1 and then cool it in water4 ,you will find that now a file will not touch it1 its surface being as hard as glass4 ,it is carbonised on its exterior1 and made into hard steel4 ,this can be done in another way1 as gun-locks1 snuffers1 and many other things are case hardened4 ,they are enclosed in an iron box1 with cuttings of leather and bone-dust1 and the box is luted about with clay and put in the fire4 ,all the pieces get red-hot1 and the leather chars and blackens1 and some of it combines as before with the hot iron1 and makes it into steel4 ,and our friend oxygen is considerably at a loss in this case to find his way in1 or he would make black scales again and spoil the work2 or combine with the carbon 7or charcoal7 and make it into gas4 ,probably1 however1 as we shut up a little oxygen with the contents of the box1 this change ,,does take place1 but just as the gas rises the iron seizes it1 and holds it fast4 ,and now1 boys1 ,i find it necessary to lay down the pen1 which ,i see has almost run away with me1 and written a good many more pages than ,i at first intended4 ,since ,i began to write ,i have visited the workshops at ,king's ,college1 and seen a sight to gladden my eyes4 ,boys carpentering1 boys turning1 boys filing2 engines of real use1 with single and double cylinders1 finished1 and in course of construction1 and all these the work of schoolboys1 whose hands and brains are alike engaged in this delightful branch of industry4 ,let no one1 therefore1 pretend that boys are not capable of executing good work of this kind in a masterly manner1 or that what they do is always child's-play1 or ,i shall take up the cudgels in their behalf4 ,i have also seen1 in the ,working-,men's ,exhibition1 a very neat little engine1 made by a boy only twelve years of age1 which makes me hope and believe that the few hints upon wood and metal work which ,i have here thrown together will neither be unacceptable nor useless to those whom ,i address in these pages4 ,in this hope ,i take my leave1 and sign myself1 with gratification and pride-- ,the boy mechanic's faithful friend1 ,,the ,,author4 ,,footnotes #a ,in the drawing1 they are all accidentally drawn of the same pitch4 #b ,the parts so jointed are highly exaggerated2 when hammered down1 the joint only forms a light beading4 #c ,the bottom joint must therefore be hammered close2 the upper one will become a ledge for the boiler to rest on4 #d ,in large tools this is not done by the file4 ,heroes of the ,nations4 ,,edited ,,by ,,evelyn ,,abbott1 ,m4,a41 ,,fellow ,,of ,,balliol ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,a series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of representative historical characters about whom have gathered the great traditions of the ,nations to which they belonged1 and who have been accepted1 in many instances1 as types of the several ,national ideals4 ,with the life of each typical character will be presented a picture of the ,national conditions surrounding him during his career4 ,the narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities on their several subjects1 and1 while thoroughly trustworthy as history1 will present picturesque and dramatic 8stories0 of the ,men and of the events connected with them4 ,to the ,life of each 8,hero0 will be given one duodecimo volume1 handsomely printed in large type1 provided with maps and adequately illustrated according to the special requirements of the several subjects4 ,the volumes will be sold separately as follows3 ,cloth extra #a #ej ,half morocco1 uncut edges1 gilt top #a #ge ,large paper1 limited to #bej numbered copies for subscribers to the series4 ,these may be obtained in sheets folded1 or in cloth1 uncut edges #c #ej ,the first group of the ,series will comprise twelve volumes1 as follows3 ,nelson1 and the ,naval ,supremacy of ,england4 ,by ,w4 ,,clark ,,russell1 author of 8,the ,wreck of the ,grosvenor10 etc4 ,gustavus ,adolphus1 and the ,struggle of ,protestantism for ,existence4 ,by ,c4 ,r4 ,l4 ,,fletcher1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow of ,all ,souls ,college1 ,oxford4 ,pericles1 and the ,golden ,age of ,athens4 ,by ,,evelyn ,,abbott1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,theodoric the ,goth1 the ,barbarian ,champion of ,civilization4 ,by ,,thomas ,,hodgkin1 author of 8,italy and ,her ,invaders10 etc4 ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 and the ,chivalry of ,england4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,fox-,,bourne1 author of 8,the ,life of ,john ,locke10 etc4 ,julius ,csar1 and the ,organization of the ,roman ,empire4 ,by ,w4 ,,warde ,,fowler1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford4 ,john ,wyclif1 ,last of the ,schoolmen and ,first of the ,english ,reformers4 ,by ,,lewis ,,sargeant1 author of 8,new ,greece10 etc4 ,napoleon1 ,warrior and ,ruler1 and the ,military ,supremacy of ,revolutionary ,france4 ,by ,w4 ,o',,connor ,,morris1 sometime ,scholar of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 ,henry of ,navarre1 and the ,huguenots in ,france4 ,by ,p4 ,f4 ,,willert1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,alexander the ,great1 and the ,extension of ,greek ,rule and of ,greek ,ideas4 ,by ,prof4 ,,benjamin ,i4 ,,wheeler1 ,cornell ,university4 ,charlemagne1 the ,reorganizer of ,europe4 ,by ,prof4 ,,george ,l4 ,,burr1 ,cornell ,university4 ,louis ,,xiv41 and the ,zenith of the ,french ,monarchy4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hassall1 ,m4,a41 ,senior ,student of ,christ ,church ,college1 ,oxford4 ,to be followed by3 ,cicero1 and the ,fall of the ,roman ,republic4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,strachan ,,davidson1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 and the ,adventurers of ,england4 ,by ,a4 ,l4 ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,bismarck4 ,the ,new ,german ,empire3 ,how ,it ,arose2 ,what ,it ,replaced2 and ,what ,it ,stands ,for4 ,by ,,james ,,sime1 author of 8,a ,life of ,lessing10 etc4 ,william of ,orange1 the ,founder of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,by ,,ruth ,,putnam4 ,hannibal1 and the ,struggle between ,carthage and ,rome4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,regius ,prof4 of ,history in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,alfred the ,great1 and the ,first ,kingdom in ,england4 ,by ,f4 ,,york ,,powell1 ,m4,a41 ,senior ,student of ,christ ,church ,college1 ,oxford4 ,charles the ,bold1 and the ,attempt to ,found a ,middle ,kingdom4 ,by ,r4 ,,lodge1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford4 ,john ,calvin1 the ,hero of the ,french ,protestants4 ,by ,,owen ,h4 ,,edwards1 ,fellow of ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford4 ,oliver ,cromwell1 and the ,rule of the ,puritans in ,england4 ,by ,,charles ,,firth1 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,marlborough1 and ,england as a ,military ,power4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,v4 ,,oman1 ,a4,m41 ,fellow of ,all ,souls ,college1 ,oxford4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,new ,,york #bg ,,west ,,twenty-,,third ,,st4 ,,london #bd ,,bedford ,,st41 ,,strand