,,death ,,and ,,resurrection4 ,illustration3 ,,gustaf ,,johan ,,bj,,rklund ,death and ,resurrection ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,cell-,,theory ,,by ,,gustaf ,,bj,,rklund ,translated from the ,swedish by ,j4 ,e4 ,,fries ,chicago ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,company ,,london ,,agents ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1 ,,tr,,bner ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #aiaj ,copyright by ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,co4 #aiaj ,,publishers' ,,preface4 ,never in the history of human thought has the interest in the soul and its immortality been greater and keener than now4 ,the leading investigators of the ,society of ,psychical ,research have taken up the problem of enquiring into the facts of spiritual experiences1 telepathy1 forebodings and kindred phenomena4 ,the result has been rather negative1 for1 while we have received innumerable single facts1 they all suffer from the common fault that they are too subjective in their nature to furnish a proof that could be objectively valid4 ,moreover1 many reports come from witnesses whose mental constitution is under the suspicion of being pathological1 and so their value is practically null4 ,of much greater importance would be an investigation as to the possibility of immortality on the basis of scientific data1 but1 strange to say1 this method has been almost entirely lost sight of by leaders of the ,s4 ,p4 ,r4 ,if we could form a definite theory as to the nature of the soul based on exact observation1 we would be enabled1 first1 to explain man's instinctive yearning for immortality2 and1 secondly1 to form a definite idea of the condition of the soul after death4 ,thus we could exclude all the many mistakes which are now made1 and which originate through an erroneous and partly superstitious notion of the relation of the dead to the living4 ,the result is shown in the reports of the ,s4 ,p4 ,r41 abounding in statements of ghost stories1 which can be regarded only as a continuation of folk-lore4 ,as a matter of fact1 the work of the ,s4 ,p4 ,r4 has so far provided very little help toward a better comprehension of immortality4 ,among the men who have done the work of a sympathetic reconstruction of the idea of immortality on the basis of science1 there is to be mentioned1 next to ,fechner1 ,gustave ,bjrklund1 a ,swedish scientist who is well known in his own country1 but who has been almost entirely ignored in other lands4 ,the obvious reason of this is the inaccessibility of his writings1 which have not yet been translated into ,english4 ,we do not believe ,bjrklund's solution is the right one1 but we do believe that he has made a contribution to the philosophy of religion which ought not to be ignored4 ,his case is similar to ,fechner's4 ,we have published ,fechner's book ,on ,life ,after ,death and we are glad to present the views of ,bjrklund on ,death and ,resurrection4 ,dr4 ,carus has sketched his views repeatedly in ,the ,soul of ,man1 in ,whence and ,whither1 and two articles published in ,the ,monist1 with special reference to ,fechner4 ,they show also why ,bjrklund's belief is unacceptable4 ,nevertheless we publish ,bjrklund's book because we heartily sympathize with his endeavor to justify those sentiments which instinctively point out that death is not a finality1 and that the purpose of life is not limited to the span of our days between the cradle and the grave1 but that it has a further and fuller significance4 ,we hope that ,bjrklund's book will be welcomed as the contribution of an earnest and prominent scientific thinker on the important question1 8,if a man die1 shall he live again80 ,,the ,,publishers4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,johan ,gustaf ,bjrklund was born the tenth of ,november1 in the year #ahdf4 ,his parents were farmers in very small circumstances4 ,his father seems to have been endowed with a good business head and1 ultimately1 became a real estate owner on a small scale1 first in one city and then in ,upsala1 the principal university town of ,sweden4 ,poverty was familiar to ,bjrklund throughout his life4 ,doubtless one reason for this was that his consuming interest in sociology and philosophy prevented him from taking those higher examinations1 which in ,sweden are indispensable for obtaining any official position4 ,he studied1 however1 for several years at the ,university of ,upsala1 but followed no recognized course1 and it was only because of the ardent persuasion of his friends that he took a degree as ,b4 ,a4 ,in #ahhd1 ,bjrklund moved to ,stockholm1 where he remained until his death1 in #aijc4 ,at the ,university of ,stockholm1 he took the courses in biology and natural science1 and won for himself the admiration and lasting friendship of many of the professors of that institution4 ,during this time he mainly supported himself by teaching philosophy1 and among other pupils1 afterward renowned1 was ,ellen ,key1 the well-known ,swedish writer on sociology and the woman question4 ,the most absorbing interests during this period were1 however1 sociology and the peace movement4 ,to broaden his views and study social conditions in general1 ,bjrklund undertook several protracted journeys to ,england1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,france4 ,from #ahhg1 ,bjrklund began to publish the fruits of his untiring labor4 ,his first work was1 8,the ,fusion of the ,nations40 ,in that1 as in 8,the ,anarchy of ,evolution0 and 8,peace and ,disarmament10 ,bjrklund throws his overwhelmingly convincing statistical resources and solid scientific learning in favor of an ultimate universal1 but more especially ,european union of the nations4 ,toward this goal it is necessary to steer1 according to ,bjrklund1 if a general 8,anarchy of ,evolution0 is to be avoided2 for that is the condition that will prevail1 if the state neglects to carry out an organization of society that shall keep step with the degree of material culture reached4 8,because during the most profound peace1 a nation suffers from its own army the same impeding influences that in time of war is due to the hostile army40 ,the last mentioned book1 8,peace and ,disarmament10 at once made ,bjrklund famous4 ,it was translated into ,french1 ,german1 ,english1 ,polish1 ,dutch1 ,hungarian and several other languages1 and would no doubt have brought its author a ,nobel prize1 had it appeared fifteen years later4 ,bjrklund was now elected an honorary member of the ,swedish ,peace ,society4 ,at the ,peace ,congress in ,bern 7#ahib7 his treatise1 8,the ,armed ,peace10 was distributed in ,english1 ,german and ,french1 and the ,italian ,society1 8,unione ,operaia ,umberto ,i10 subsequently elected him an honorary member4 ,in his later years ,bjrklund devoted less time to active work in the universal peace movement4 ,he became more absorbed in scientific research and the problems of philosophy4 ,an important impulse to his later development1 he received from a book1 8,significance of ,segmentation in the ,organic ,world0 7,stockholm1 #ahij74 ,here he was brought to serious consideration of the nature of the cell and of its place in life4 ,in the organization of the cells in a human body ,bjrklund saw an example of a universal law1 governing all life4 ,with this thought as a starting point1 he undertook to investigate the problem1 all-important to his philosophy1 of the awakening of self-consciousness in a cell-organization and the relationship between this newborn ego and the cells themselves1 each of which1 to a certain degree1 leads an independent life4 ,the result of his studies was first made known in #ahid in a treatise1 8,the ,relation ,between ,soul and ,body from a ,cytologic ,point of ,view40 ,in the year #aijj1 he published the volume herewith presented to the ,american public1 in which he has partly rewritten the former book1 and further added his latest conceptions of the nature and evolution of life4 ,this work is undoubtedly one of ,sweden's most remarkable and interesting contributions to contemporary philosophy4 ,it is also the last work from ,gustaf ,bjrklund's hand4 ,in ,july1 #aijc1 his earthly existence was brought to an end1 and he was 8fully translated0 to that spiritual world1 the existence of which he was so thoroughly convinced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is true that the philosophical structure that ,bjrklund so successfully commenced to upbuild is far from complete4 ,but the basis he laid is solid and will serve as a foundation for many temples of the future1 whether they who worship therein believe in ,bjrklund's ,god or not4 ,this foundation is the fact overwhelmingly proved by ,bjrklund1 that life is not a quality in matter or physical force1 but must be of immaterial origin and substance4 ,granting that time as well as space are forms in which matter and physical force are comprehended by man on his earthly stage of consciousness1 ,bjrklund has also demonstrated the immortality of life4 ,for if life be a reality1 which is not here denied1 with no roots in matter or physical force1 whether these are identical or not1 this reality exists outside of the forms1 time and space1 in which matter appears4 ,but whether matter and physical force exist per se1 or are mere transient phenomena or what their origin and purpose is1 these are questions that ,bjrklund never was granted the time to discuss4 ,bjrklund's grand conception of the relationship between all living beings and their organic upbuilding of larger conscious units1 where each individual of higher order is the sum total of all its constituent members of lower order1 is certainly a most helpful and inspiring addition to our theory of evolution4 ,but the question why an evolution is necessary at all for beings that are constituent members in ,the ,perfect ,being1 is hardly satisfactorily answered by ,bjrklund4 ,his ingenious explanation1 fully presented toward the end of this volume1 still leaves us in a dilemma4 ,bjrklund holds that ,perfect ,love has left it to time-existent beings to become of ,free ,will what they of eternity have been to the ,all-,spirit2 much as a child1 unless considered merely a mechanical toy1 must of free will1 grow into the man that his father preconceived and all the time sees in it4 ,but even so we are left between ,scylla and ,charybdis1 for either this evolution has a purpose1 which must be reached outside of time--that is1 it will come to a standstill2 an ending in ,nirvana--or else evolution is everlasting1 without final purpose1 and its proper name--delusion4 ,again the time-bound mind meets in this1 as well as in every ethical or metaphysical problem1 if it be pushed to its ultimate consequences1 the same conflict or irrationality that is destined to baffle the space-bound man1 whether his microscope is restlessly at work to solve the riddle of the divisibility of matter1 or his telescope sweeps the heavens in a vain search for the utmost star4 ,this irrationality1 that everywhere surrounds us1 is a chasm that only religion can bridge4 ,from a philosophical point of view1 therefore1 we must be satisfied if our workable hypotheses in philosophy and in natural science do not contradict each other2 and ,gustaf ,bjrklund has shown us a road to reconciliation between idealism and natural science1 that for a long time seemed entirely lost in the jungle of the materialism of the last century4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,fries4 ,for the biographical data of ,bjrklund's life ,i am indebted to ,s4 ,a4 ,fries1 ,d4 ,d41 well known in continental theological circles as a scientist of rank and founder of the international ,congresses in the interest of the ,history of ,religion4 7,see ,theologische ,literatur ,kalender #aijf2 ,wer ist's8 #aijh47 ,dr4 ,fries1 who is one of the leading ministers in ,stockholm1 has done more in speech and print than anybody else to introduce ,bjrklund to the reading public4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,,old ,,conceptions ,,of ,a ,,future ,,life #a ,,man',s ,,spiritual ,,body #bf ,,source ,,of ,,spiritual ,,knowledge #cg ,,importance ,,of ,,spontaneous ,,generation #ea ,,materialistic ,,demonstration ,,of ,,spontaneous ,,generation #fg ,,how ,,is ,,organic ,,matter ,,produced8 #hg ,,organic ,,matter ,,as ,a ,,product ,,of ,,art #ajg ,,the ,,soul ,,and ,,the ,,cells #abd ,,fundamental ,,qualities ,,of ,,an ,,organism #ach ,,organic ,,relationship ,,between ,,the ,,soul ,,and ,,the ,,cells #adg ,,resurrection #aff ,,man ,,and ,,infinity #agd ,,recapitulation #ahh ,,death ,,and ,,resurrection4 ,all are but parts of one stupendous whole1 ,whose body ,nature is1 and ,god the soul2 444 ,all ,nature is but ,art1 unknown to thee2 ,all ,chance1 ,direction1 which thou canst not see2 444 ,and spite of ,pride1 in erring ,reason's spite1 ,one truth is clear1 ,whatever is is ,right4 --,alex4 ,pope4 ,essay on ,man1 ,epistle ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,old ,conceptions of a ,future ,life4 ,a consciousness of immortality1 sometimes dim and vague1 sometimes vivid and clear1 seems to be characteristic of the human race4 ,however low man may stand he cannot consider death to be the end of his existence4 ,the conviction that he is immortal is innate to him4 ,annihilation is contrary to the nature and demands of his spirit4 ,it is true that uncertainty and doubt might arise1 but man will never be able wholly to uproot either hope or fear as to the possibility of a future life4 ,experiencing such feelings and presentiments1 man finds himself amidst a world where death and dissolution everywhere surround him4 ,he sees the objects of his love or fear pass away1 and he knows that sooner or later the same fate will befall himself4 ,when he beholds the lifeless body of some near relative1 his presentiment of immortality tells him that the selfsame soul that once animated that body is still alive4 ,in such moments even the man of low cultivation is forced into more or less profound contemplation4 ,the following reflection impresses itself with might and wonder upon him3 8,i feel convinced that the dead is living1 but how can he live without his body and what form does his new life take80 ,in all ages and stages1 men have asked the same or similar questions1 and they will go on asking them as long as belief in a future life obtains4 ,but man does not confine himself to questioning1 he wants answers1 and especially must this be true where the reply is so intimately connected with himself4 ,and these answers have not been lacking2 we find them formulated in those opinions and theories respecting a future life which throughout the ages have gradually appeared and prevailed4 ,the critically thinking public of the present day takes a decidedly skeptical attitude toward all these theories4 ,they assert1 and not without strong arguments1 that it is impossible to know anything4 ,but1 however convinced the public may be of the fruitlessness of discussing the topic1 no one will succeed in pushing it entirely aside4 ,time and again the same questions reappear as dark and threatening clouds on the horizon of our consciousness2 they occupy our thoughts1 take hold upon our feelings and color our sentiments4 ,it would undoubtedly be sufficient at such moments to have1 were it only one fixed point to stand upon2 one established fact to start from and which we could trust would lead our thoughts in the right direction4 ,but such a basis to set out from we have not hitherto been able to find4 ,will this remain the case forever8 ,will science concerning a future life always fail to attain aught but negative results8 ,let us say at once that humanity will probably be able to ascertain as much as it may be necessary or useful for us to know in this world4 ,this hope is founded on our firm belief that at this time a basis such as that above mentioned really exists4 ,natural science has furnished this basis1 though nobody as yet has happened to reflect that the facts upon which this basis rests may have any bearing upon our attitude toward a future life1 much less give answer to questions such as the following3 ,how1 and in what way1 is man to pass from this life into another8 ,it will be the object of the following pages1 then1 to develop further the view just intimated4 ,in prehistoric times men believed in a close relationship between the soul of the deceased and his body in the grave1 and this purely instinctive faith is the more remarkable1 as it prevailed during stages of civilization when differentiation between spiritual qualities and physical matter was almost unknown4 ,the contradistinction between soul and body is certainly a fact1 a general experience4 ,but neither the individual nor the race realizes this fact suddenly or all at once4 ,the knowledge of the distinction between the physical and the spiritual sphere1 with their different characteristics and qualities1 proceeds step by step1 being the result of slowly advancing evolution4 ,the child and the savage remain unconscious of any discrimination between soul and body1 and even for the more cultivated man1 the border between the two is vague and undetermined4 ,according to the psychologic order of man's evolution we might therefore expect that the problem as to this relationship would appear at a comparatively late date1 and even then be of importance only to a reduced number of more cultivated individuals4 ,but1 on the contrary1 experience shows that this question occupies the thoughts of men in very low stages of civilization1 and1 in fact1 that it is of the most general interest4 ,the reason for this evidently lies in the instinctive belief that the body contains something which is immortal1 and which in the life hereafter the soul cannot dispense with4 ,in its first historic form the question concerning the soul's relation to the body deals with this relation after1 not before1 the separation of the soul and body4 ,this latter problem emerges only in very high stages of civilization1 and even then is of scientific interest to an insignificant minority only1 while the question of our existence after death is religious in its nature and of interest to all4 ,in olden times men were more fully convinced of a continued personal existence after death than civilized mankind seems to be nowadays4 ,the same vivid conviction we find even in our age among people in the natural state4 ,from the prehistoric peoples we have no written communication1 but from their graves they speak to the present day intelligibly and plainly of their belief in a life to come4 ,behold the monuments defying time and decay1 which these people have erected in memory of their deceased4 ,the sepulchres of the ,egyptian kings to this very day arouse our amazement and admiration4 ,what was it1 then1 that induced these peoples of early times to bestow such extraordinary labor on the places of their last rest8 ,it certainly was their belief that the graves contained not only the lifeless body1 but also the living soul4 ,the funeral ceremonies evidently show1 as ,fustel de ,coulanges says1 that when the body was laid in the grave it was thought that something yet alive was placed there at the same time4 ,the soul was born simultaneously with the body2 death did not separate them2 they were both enclosed together in the grave4 ,in olden times people felt so fully assured that a man lived in the tomb1 that they never failed to bury with him the things of which he was thought to be in want4 ,they poured wine on the grave in order to quench his thirst2 they brought food to his tomb in order to appease his hunger2 they killed horses and slaves1 believing that1 if enclosed with the dead1 these would serve him in his grave as they had served him during his life4 ,it was also in this conviction that the positive duty of burying the deceased originated4 ,in order to bring rest to the soul in the subterranean dwelling that fitted its new existence1 it was necessary that the body1 to which1 in some way or another1 it still clung1 should be covered with earth4 ,the soul1 denied a grave1 had no dwelling4 ,drifting about1 it sought in vain the desired rest after life's fitful struggle4 ,without shelter1 without offerings or food1 it was condemned to everlasting wandering4 ,therefore1 because the deceased was unhappy1 he became ill-natured4 ,he tormented the living2 sent them diseases2 destroyed their harvests2 haunted them in uncanny visions in order to remind them of their duty to bury the body and thereby secure peace for himself4 ,the old authors give evidence of the degree to which people were vexed by fear that proper ceremonies would not be observed at their burial4 ,it was a constant source of grievous irritation4 ,the fear of death was less prevalent than the fear of being left unburied4 ,naturally so1 for it was a question of eternal happiness4 ,it should therefore not surprise us so much when we see the ,athenians execute generals1 who1 after a naval victory1 had neglected to bury the fallen4 ,these generals1 disciples of the philosophers of their time1 did not believe that the fate of the soul was dependent on that of the body4 ,they had therefore decided not to challenge the tempest for the empty formality of gathering and burying the fallen4 ,but the masses1 even in enlightened ,athens1 still clung to the old conceptions1 and accused the generals of godlessness1 sentencing them to death4 ,by their victory they had saved ,athens1 but by their negligence they had brought perdition upon thousands of souls4 8,these conceptions10 says ,fustel de ,coulanges1 8have governed man and society through many generations1 and have been the source from which the larger part of ancient domestic and public institutions were derived40 ,but this is not all4 ,the primitive ideas1 referred to above1 obtain even today among various nations and tribes all over the earth4 ,from the islands in the ,pacific ,ocean all the way up to the ,polar regions we meet with the same creeds among uncivilized peoples1 the same or similar manner of burial as among the ancients4 ,if we were going to illustrate this1 the ,chinese probably would be the first to attract our attention1 not only because of the antiquity of their civilization1 but because of their great numbers4 ,as is well known1 a third part of the world's population is ,chinese4 ,most of the characteristic peculiarities of this enormous community must be attributed to their death-cultus4 ,every family in ,china lives in continuous communication with its ancestors1 upon whom are bestowed offerings of fruit1 grain1 rice or vegetables1 according to the products of the soil of their home4 ,the soul will lose none of its qualities through the separation from the body4 ,in company with other souls of their kindred it hovers over the family1 partakes of their sufferings1 rejoices in their happiness4 ,if forgotten1 it grows melancholy and ill-natured1 it complains in doleful voice and its moans are ominous4 ,woe unto him who ignores these obligations4 ,the offerings to the souls of his forefathers must not be neglected4 ,their memory must not be allowed to fade away4 ,but who is going to attend to these sacrifices and memorial observances if the family dies out8 ,matrimony1 therefore1 becomes a sacred duty1 the foremost of all duties4 ,to the ,chinese mind there is no grievance greater1 no punishment more terrible1 than expulsion from the family4 ,what would become of a man's soul if his nearest of kin would curse his memory8 ,to rid himself of such a sickening dream he is ready to sacrifice everything1 even life itself4 ,but only when the body is brought to rest in the family grave can the soul enjoy the care of its kindred4 ,it is obvious1 then1 that emigration is looked upon with great apprehension by the faithful ,chinaman4 ,he must either return home during his life or else arrange that his body be brought back if death should overtake him while abroad4 ,we know that the big transoceanic steamship companies faithfully carry out this part of their contracts with those of their ,chinese passengers who meet with unexpected death in ,america4 ,similar ideas are to be found among the negroes of ,africa and ,australia1 and among the ,indian tribes of ,america4 ,these also supply their deceased with such tools and provisions as they are supposed to need in another world4 ,among the ,arctic peoples the same customs and usages prevail4 ,when an ,eskimo is about to die1 he is dressed in his best clothes and his knees are drawn up under him4 ,the grave is lined inside with moss and a skin1 over which stones and peat are spread4 ,if the dead is a man1 his boat1 weapons and tools are laid beside the grave2 if a woman1 her knife and sewing utensils2 if it is a child1 the head of a dog is placed on top of the grave1 that the soul of the dog may show the helpless child a road to the second life4 ,if a mother dies while nursing a babe1 it is1 as a rule1 buried alive with her4 ,in a ,samoyede grave1 ,nordenskold found among other things parts of an iron pot1 an ax1 a knife1 a drill1 a bow1 a wooden arrow1 some copper ornaments1 etc4 ,even rolls of birch bark were found in the coffin1 in all probability to be used for making fire in another world4 ,beside the grave a sleigh was placed upside down1 evidently in order to provide a vehicle for the deceased1 and we may assume that reindeers were slaughtered at the funeral4 ,the essential1 fundamental thought in this conception which causes the uncultivated peoples in our days to treat their deceased in the same way as the ancients did1 is the belief that the body contains something which the soul cannot do without in the future life4 ,soul and body are and remain a unit even beyond the grave4 ,as death means a violent tearing apart of these two factors1 the soul cannot be wholly satisfied without its natural relationship to the body4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that to the ancient world life in the lower regions seemed dismal and repulsive4 ,achilles would rather be a day-laborer on earth than king of the hosts in ,hades4 ,life there passed in a shadowy inactivity amidst all wealth1 a desolate emptiness in all superfluity1 so that the soul could not help but suffer a ceaseless regret whether it moved in the halls of ,valhalla or in the ,elysian fields4 ,glorious meadows1 crystal waters1 streams of milk and honey1 could not obliterate the craving of the soul for its corporeal existence4 ,it returns time and again to the body in the grave to enjoy the sacrifices and cares of the surviving4 ,this mourning for the body and continuous longing for the sunny life on earth made death seem something terrible that fretted and tormented men4 ,was it not natural1 then1 that the mental disharmony caused by the thought of death1 should sooner or later bring about a reaction2 give birth to the hope of a reunion of the soul with the body on a resurrection day of the dead8 ,at some such conclusion several religions have arrived4 ,we need mention only the ,norse sagas1 ,islam1 ,parseeism and ,judaism4 ,a resurrection1 everywhere taught in almost identical terms1 is placed at the end of the present system of the world in connection with a cosmic catastrophe out of which new heavens and a new earth with an ennobled humanity will emerge4 ,the bodily resurrection on the day of judgment is a doctrine also in the ,christian faith1 as it is interpreted by the orthodox creeds4 ,but this dogma has entirely lost its former authority4 ,it is repeated at each ,church burial1 but the reading has now become a mere formality4 ,we do not believe any more in a resurrection in the old sense4 ,what factor in our time has been sufficiently powerful to overturn conceptions so deeply rooted in human nature8 ,it is the scientific spirit as acknowledged even by faithful theologians4 ,science has shown that man's body is renewed several times during life and that even the bones1 placed in the grave1 soon 8arise0 through nature's forces themselves and take part again in the universal circulation of matter4 ,in face of all the evidence for this truth1 it is impossible to believe in the old doctrine of a physical resurrection4 ,another question is1 whether this ancient belief could disappear without leaving traces in contemporary consciousness4 ,can man have changed so radically in a century1 or rather in a few decades1 that the conviction of the body's importance to the soul after death will no longer find an echo in his religious instincts8 ,by no means4 ,we are the same human beings and have the same human nature as our forefathers4 ,forms of conception may go1 but not the instincts to which they once gave a satisfactory expression4 ,we may therefore rest assured that the important change of attitude in this question forcefully reacts on religious life in our day4 ,the reaction does not necessarily mean progress at first4 ,evolution does not follow a straight line2 a step forward is generally immediately followed by phenomena in the opposite direction4 ,the religious instincts1 underlying the conception of the body's importance to the soul in a future life1 must create new expressions1 and the logic of the old conceptions themselves indicates what forms they would take4 ,when the belief in a restoration of the union between the two factors in a human being was suddenly and almost violently shaken by natural science1 there seemed at first no other way out of the difficulty than to choose between them and declare either the soul or the body as the essential part4 ,those who felt inclined toward the former alternative evidently found themselves confined to a one-sided idealism of little vitality1 because an existence without body seems as shadowy and unsatisfactory to man in the present as in ancient times4 ,an increasing weakening of the intensity of religious life would be the natural consequence4 ,those again who1 because of a more realistic tendency1 insisted upon the essentiality of our body1 were logically driven to a gross materialism4 ,if science had proved that the belief in a bodily resurrection is untenable1 why should it not be able to demonstrate that all religious doctrines were delusions8 ,this reasoning seemed to many so natural that many scientific facts contributed evidence in their favor even when these facts pointed entirely in the opposite direction4 ,there was1 however1 no necessity to think and reason as these two main schools in our age have done4 ,one might also from the beginning1 have taken the same road and arrived at the same conclusion as1 for instance1 ,granfelt in his 8,christian ,dogmatic40 8,it has been demonstrated beyond doubt by natural science10 says this prominent theologian1 8that the matter of a human body is1 even here on earth1 in continuous circulation1 so that in the course of a few weeks all atoms of the whole body are replaced by new atoms4 ,the only lasting attribute of the soul during this process is the spiritual body1 which assimilates1 typically forms1 and again secretes the earthly matter4 ,it must be this spiritual body1 then1 that constitutes the combining element between man's earthly body and his glorified body in the eternal life40 ,christianity speaks not only of a material resurrection on the day of judgment2 it also says that man possesses within him a spiritual body1 which after death immediately arises to everlasting life4 ,this latter conception is not confined to ,christianity4 ,in all religions we find two tendencies side by side1 the one idealistic and the other more realistic1 which indeed are not really opposed to each other1 inasmuch as the belief in a spiritual body may be said to constitute the basis even for the realistic conception that places the spirit in co-relation with the body in the grave4 ,the idealistic tendency may be traced away back even to prehistoric times and has generally been connected with some other burial methods1 among which cremation was the most common4 ,the place cremation occupied in ancient thought and the connection fancied by our forefathers between the elements which make up man's spiritual body1 may be gathered from ,victor ,rydberg's researches in ,germanic mythology4 8,the popular ecclesiastical dualism of soul and body10 says ,rydberg1 8was as foreign to the ,veda-,aryans as to the heathen ,germanic race4 ,according to the latter1 man consisted of six different elements3 ,first1 the earthly element of which the visible body is made2 second1 a vegetative2 third1 an animal2 fourth1 the so-called liten 7litr71 an inner body shaped after the gods1 and invisible to earthly eyes2 fifth1 the soul2 sixth1 the spirit40 ,the earthly and the vegetative elements were already joined in the trees1 ,ask and ,embla1 when the gods came and changed them into the first human pair4 ,each of the three gods gave them separate gifts4 ,from ,lodur they received la1 that is the blood1 and laeti1 that is the power of intentional movement inherent in the blood1 which attributes have been considered by all peoples as the characteristics that distinguish animal from vegetable life4 ,lodur gave them further the god-image1 liter goda1 by the power of which man's earthly substance receives the form in which it appears to the senses4 ,the ,germanic race1 like the ,hellenes and the ,romans1 believed that the gods had human form1 so that this form originally belonged to the gods4 ,to the ,germanic hierologists and bards man was formed in effigiem deorum and possessed in his nature a liter goda1 a god image in the literal sense of the word4 ,this image may for a short time be separated from the other human elements1 so that a person may assume the appearance of another without changing his spiritual identity4 ,the soul1 odr1 is the gift of ,hner1 while the spirit1 nd1 is the contribution of ,odin4 ,earthly death consists in the separation of the higher elements1 spirit1 soul and liten1 which form a unity for themselves1 from the lower elements and a removal of the former to ,hades4 ,the lower elements1 the earthly1 the vegetal and the animal1 continue in the grave for a longer or shorter time to co-operate and form a certain unity1 which1 from the higher elements1 retain something of the living man's personality and qualities4 ,this lower unity is the ghost1 the wraith1 which usually sleeps during the day in the grave1 but in the night might wake either spontaneously or by other people's prayers and sorcery4 ,the ghost possesses the nature of the deceased2 it is good and benevolent1 or evil and dangerous1 according to his disposition4 ,because animal and vegetal elements form part of his nature1 he is tormented by a craving for nourishment if he wakes from his slumber4 ,these conceptions of a dualistic life after death1 common among the ,veda-,aryans1 as well as among the heathen ,norsemen1 were closely allied with the idea of cremation4 ,agni1 the god of fire1 removed the dead man to a better world1 while the coarser body1 with its faults and defects1 was consumed by the flames4 ,it was a matter of doubt1 however1 whether liten1 the inner body1 would suffer injury in the pyre4 ,but this doubt was removed partly by certain formulas1 believed to be protective2 partly by burning a buck together with the body as compensation to the 8flesh-eating fire10 the elementary ,agni 7the hymns distinguish between the two71 so that he should not touch the subtler body of the corpse4 ,through the combustion1 the lower elements were enabled to immediately follow the soul of the deceased1 and it was thought that two advantages were gained thereby3 ,first1 the second ego of the dead was liberated from its grave-dwelling1 which was monstrous if his sleep were disturbed either by craving for nourishment or through the acts of ,nirrtis and sorcerers2 second1 the surviving were relieved from their dread of evil ghosts4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,man's ,spiritual ,body4 ,if we survey the stages of evolution through which humanity hitherto has passed1 we find that all peoples1 from prehistoric times up to our own days1 have believed in a spiritual body which is essential to the soul in a future life4 ,is humanity then mistaken in this universal manifestation of religious intuition8 ,on this question we need no longer remain uncertain1 no longer believe2 we know that man possesses such a spiritual body4 ,for many years1 even centuries1 this has been a fully demonstrated fact1 which may be directly observed1 and which also has been the subject of scientific research4 ,but what do we mean by spiritual body8 ,the term conveys something of a dim and vague1 and at the same time unmistakable suggestion which characterizes all we comprehend by our emotional faculties4 ,spiritual body means what the words say1 a spirituality derived from1 or belonging to1 the body4 ,but as no spirituality exists which is not individualized or is not a quality of a living being1 this spiritual body must be identical with either one single unit or with a multitude of living units4 ,one single unit it cannot be1 because this unity would then be identical with the soul1 while on the contrary1 the spiritual body should be independent1 existing per se4 ,it remains then a multitude of spiritual units1 which is precisely what natural science has proved to be the case1 and these units in man's spiritual body are identical with the living cells4 ,before the discovery of the cell1 our knowledge of the human body was confined to such phenomena as could be observed with the naked eye4 ,the organism from that standpoint was necessarily a unit of members and organs whose functions1 and even coarser anatomic structure1 were beyond any accurate investigation4 ,the elementary parts of the organic tissues cannot1 of course1 be observed in this stage4 ,they appear first under the microscope and it is therefore with the discovery of this epoch-making instrument that the science of organisms enters into a new era4 ,toward the end of the seventeenth century1 ,malpighi and ,grew found that organic tissues1 placed under the microscope1 did not consist of homogeneous substance as they appear to the naked eye1 but of small particles separated from each other1 which particles have been called cells4 ,but although the cells were discovered1 their real importance was far from being understood1 or even surmised4 ,this was no doubt the reason for the small interest given to the cell during the eighteenth century1 and the small progress cytology made during this whole period4 ,from #afgj to #ahcj1 or more than a century and a half1 the cell was known mainly as a saccate body1 resembling a hollow tube1 and became the subject of more or less wild speculations4 ,a wider interest for the substance and nature of the cell was evoked in the beginning of the nineteenth century by the works of ,brisseau de ,mirbel1 ,treviranus1 ,moldenhaver and several others4 ,many different parts began to be distinguished within the cells1 such as membrane1 protoplasm1 chlorophyll1 etc4 ,these parts were later found to be as many organs in the cell performing different functions1 which are at present to some extent defined4 ,the cell previously considered as a saccate body proved to constitute a being endowed with organs1 a living organism4 ,according to modern cytology1 the cell is a living individual2 an elementary organism4 ,although these beings are so exceedingly minute that the naked eye can observe them only in combinations of thousands and millions1 yet each and every one of them not only possesses individual life1 but also the organs necessary for sustaining individual existence4 ,innumerable quantities of such tiny beings build up the organisms of plants and animals4 ,as human individuals form the building material of the body of a community1 so the cells form the building material of the bodies of plants and animals4 ,since the cells bear the same relation to plants and animals as human individuals to a community1 every plant and animal then may be considered as a community1 a cell-state1 where the cells are the citizens4 ,every organism1 therefore1 is a community1 and vice versa1 every community is an organism4 ,so far as we have knowledge of the organisms they are all similar in this respect4 ,plants and animals are communities of individually living cells in the same sense as nations and states are communities of human beings4 ,the individuals in these different communities are of different kinds and degrees of development1 but the composition of the organic edifice is in all essential features exactly the same4 ,the differences are literally only apparent1 being due as they are to the different aspect they present to our observation4 ,while we at first apprehend animals and plants as units1 not seeing the individual cells by which they are composed1 we1 in the national organisms1 on the contrary1 first perceive the cells themselves--the human individuals--but are unable to grasp the nations as individually living organisms4 ,on the one hand we see directly only the social side1 on the other1 only the organic4 ,if there are beings observing the human community as we see plants and animals1 they would comprehend society as a unit composed of different trades and industries1 but not as composed of men1 who are the building material in these members4 ,if such postulated observers made an invention corresponding to our microscope1 they would be surprised to find the social organism composed of human individuals1 which fact would seem just as mystical to them as the cells seemed at first to us4 ,so far as we have derived from experience a knowledge of organic structure1 it reveals itself to us as an individual composed of more primitive and elementary individuals4 ,these elementary units of lower kind and order might consequently be called a spiritual body in a literal sense4 ,from the point of view of the elementary constituent1 each organism is a community1 a unit of similar1 independently living1 individuals2 from the point of view of the organs and of the whole1 this community itself is a living individual of higher potency and may in its turn enter as an elementary organism in a spiritual body of still higher power1 and so on1 in a geometric series4 ,man enters into the social organism1 but is himself composed of cell-organisms1 which in turn consist of more primary units4 ,organic structure shows everywhere the same general qualities1 the same fundamental features4 ,each higher and more complex organism repeats in a more perfect way and in a higher potency exactly the same general forms of organization as its elementary constituents have shown in their own sphere4 ,hence the surprising similarity in the structure of the organisms4 ,when we know one we know all4 ,this would1 of course1 be neither possible nor conceivable if the spiritual bodies1 which form their corporal structure1 did not possess corresponding similar fundamental qualities4 ,in what relationship do these cells stand to man8 ,do they enter into his being as essential or only as incidental constituents8 ,in other words1 does man act as organ for the cells and the cells as organs for man only here in time2 or1 such existence being for the present postulated1 is their union extended even to a future existence8 ,this question is of extraordinary importance because it may entirely change our conception of death4 ,with this question settled1 we should be in possession of a fact from which we could draw reliable conclusions1 and this fact is briefly as follows3 ,within each living being a continuous renovation takes place1 a successive replacing of the individuals which belong to that being's spiritual body4 ,human beings constitute1 as already pointed out1 the cells or the spiritual body1 in an organism of a higher order1 viz41 of humanity4 ,in this organism1 an incessant renewal takes place1 as we know1 inasmuch as new generations continuously succeed each other4 ,the same is the case with man's own spiritual body4 ,as the human generations in the social body1 so the cell-generations in man's body replace each other while the man1 himself1 all the time1 remains the identical individual4 ,the same holds good in regard to the cytoplasm1 or the lower units that build up the cells4 ,everywhere we meet with the same phenomenon of renewal and everywhere with the same identity of the complex individual4 ,this latter originates1 develops1 and passes away with a lifetime that bears a certain proportion to its complexity4 ,while man counts his existence and development in years1 the evolution of society is reckoned in hundreds and thousands of years4 ,the cells in their turn have a lifetime measured in days1 and the units forming the cytoplasm possess an individual existence perhaps lasting but a few minutes or seconds4 ,the circulation in the body1 therefore1 is not confined to the material particles but comprises the spiritual body1 the living units1 as well4 ,now1 the question is3 ,what is the relationship between man living in time and these dying and unborn generations of cells1 that form his body8 ,can we show that these living units1 this spiritual body1 is as necessary for man in a future existence as here in time8 ,then death must evidently be something else1 something infinitely more than we have hitherto imagined or surmised4 ,the point is to investigate what is mortal in man and what is immortal1 and on this problem we will now proceed to concentrate our whole attention4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,source of ,spiritual ,knowledge4 ,the critically thinking public today might be said to have long ago relinquished the hope of obtaining a sure and decisive answer to the question1 whether there is an existence beyond the grave4 ,some people confine themselves to a faith founded on a smaller or greater probability for either conception4 ,we want palpable evidence4 ,to many it even appears necessary to have a look behind the veil of visible matter in order to satisfy themselves as to whether anything exists within the void4 8,nobody has returned to tell us how it is10 we are often reminded1 and this expression clearly means that complete certainty requires the testimony of eye-witnesses4 ,such a procedure would be at least radical if it were possible4 ,but even if it were1 should we then be nearer the goal8 ,the whole mode of thinking is nave1 but merits attention especially because it demonstrates how uncertain the information would be that we would obtain through this channel4 ,if somebody returned1 little or nothing would1 in all probability1 be gained4 ,in the first place how could we know that it was the same person that returned8 ,it would1 perhaps1 be best if the soul took possession of the same body4 ,the absence would then be comparable to1 or essentially analogous with1 the condition of the apparently dead4 ,but to begin with1 we could1 for good reasons1 only ascribe a small value to experience gained under such conditions1 and1 further1 such an absence would evidently mean no real separation of soul and body1 no real death1 and therefore no real experience of the very thing under consideration4 ,but how1 and under what conditions1 would an event of this kind be conceivable8 ,should the person in question suddenly disappear from our sight and then just as suddenly reappear among us8 ,endowed with his present organs and senses1 which are closely adapted to earthly conditions1 such a person could see and comprehend only such objects as differed little or non-essentially from those in the world where we now live4 ,he would possibly be able to observe conditions on other planets in the universe1 but he would be utterly unable to comprehend the things of a world abstracted from the limitations of planetary life4 ,if such a world exists1 and some one of us were suddenly removed to it1 such a one1 amidst all glories with seeing eyes1 would yet see nothing2 with hearing ears1 hear nothing2 and with feeling senses1 feel nothing4 ,in order to see and grasp what may exist and happen1 the observer himself must have gone through a corresponding radical change4 ,the conditions for the functioning of bodily organs do not exist there4 ,he must develop new and more perfect senses2 higher1 spiritual and bodily faculties which differ from his present ones as much as the objects of this higher world differ from the things of earth4 ,a direct transposition would therefore be without value4 ,in order to make investigations1 a radical metamorphosis is an indispensable condition4 ,the soul must be separated from its earthly clothing and pass through all the transformations which commence with natural death4 ,in order to return here1 this person must again go through the same processes in reverse order4 ,at his re-birth upon earth he would not1 in all probability1 differ from other people4 ,he would know as much or as little as we do4 ,but even if we assume the improbable and imagine that this person returned to us with the memory of all he had lived through and that he tried to relate his impressions and experiences1 such a report would be of no use because it would deal with ideas and conceptions entirely incomprehensible to us4 ,the explanation of this is that man is unable to comprehend things and phenomena which have not acted upon his present organs4 ,if we take pains to analyze our boldest and most unrealistic fancies1 we will find that their substance and ingredients are only greatly enlarged or reduced images of an already experienced reality4 ,we have never possessed that man's higher senses1 never experienced the things which those higher faculties are able to grasp1 and we are therefore not in a position to form any idea whatever about such a world4 ,his speech would sound like a foreign language that we could not possibly ever learn to understand4 ,only in case the person in question could adapt himself to our present way of thinking and understanding1 would such a revelation be of any importance4 ,but then again the question arises1 what confidence could we have in this man who pretended to possess knowledge about things entirely concealed from us8 ,we have no means of verifying the information thus received4 ,it must be taken in good faith1 and so the gates to doubt would again be thrown open4 ,if someone returned1 then1 little or nothing would be gained4 ,in this1 as in other cases1 there is no royal road to truth4 ,only a painstaking research will lead to the goal1 if indeed it can ever be attained4 ,the question is1 can investigation in this direction accomplish anything8 ,if so1 we must at least not entertain or present any unreasonable demands4 ,such an unreasonable demand would be1 for instance1 to expect science to explain the concrete forms which life would take in a transcendental world4 ,no man ever has or ever will make such observations4 ,it is even questionable whether such knowledge would be useful or beneficial to us if obtained4 ,we have enough to occupy us in our daily cares and earthly tasks4 ,a complete knowledge of life in a future existence would probably disturb and distract us to such a degree that we would lose interest for our present evolution in this existence4 ,it may be sufficient for us to know whether there be another life1 and if so1 whether our dealings and actions in the present life are of any importance for that life4 ,it would1 no doubt1 suffice if we could acquire a knowledge with regard to that life corresponding to what we know about those distant worlds in space which we discern with our bodily eyes and which we further investigate with our astronomical resources4 ,the following conditions must be fulfilled in order to make the cases similar3 ,first of all1 such a transcendental world must exist1 and emit rays of light4 ,further1 we must be equipped with some special organ1 a spiritual eye1 which we could direct towards it and by which we could make our investigations here on earth4 ,do we possess such a spiritual eye8 ,we answer that our conscience1 our religious intuition and the eternal and invariable laws of thinking are just such organs4 ,that an ideal world exists1 radiating a light of its own1 we are able to conclude from perceptions received through our conscience and our religious intuition4 ,our conscience gives us rigorous directions and commandments1 which sometimes seem to counteract our earthly happiness and show themselves detrimental to our present success4 ,if our life were confined to this world1 the demands of our conscience were not only useless and injurious but also in themselves inexplicable4 ,that man1 in his religious intuition1 also apprehends a reality of a different kind from the material one1 appears from the fact that all peoples1 in all times and in all stages of evolution1 have possessed a religion1 as we now do1 a certain conception of supernatural things4 ,it may be granted that a great amount of delusion enters into all religions4 ,nevertheless1 religious errors would be inconceivable if man did not apprehend something supernatural which he wrongly interpreted4 ,superstition would not exist at all1 because1 as we have already pointed out1 nobody can think1 speak or form any idea whatever of things that are entirely beyond all experience4 ,to argue with a person about such never-apprehended realities1 would be like discussing colors with the blind4 ,but now it is a fact that apprehensions of immaterial substance are so common to man's consciousness that if we could find somebody who did not understand what we said and meant in speaking about these things1 we should be safe in asserting that such a man was not a normal person4 ,but if all men have an immaterial experience1 why do ideas and opinions differ so about the same experience1 and above all why do some people even deny its existence8 ,the explanation of this surprising contradiction may be understood when we consider that man also possesses a special faculty1 his reason1 which he must likewise employ4 ,with his reason1 man examines and studies all his experiences and strives to bring them into agreement with the laws of thinking4 ,in other words1 he strives to systematize them into a philosophy4 ,but this is a hard and laborious task4 ,it is difficult as it is to arrive at right conclusions in regard to the material world to which our senses are responsive4 ,how much more must this be the case in regard to the immaterial world4 ,the evolution of our reason1 therefore1 is a slowly advancing historical process1 presenting a continuous change in opinions1 although1 at the same time1 an inner continuity may be traced1 an evolution pointing towards a definite goal4 ,the harmony which man is striving to establish between his reason and his other faculties can obtain only during comparatively short intervals of time4 ,our reason grows in power and keenness2 new observations and discoveries are almost constantly made2 old ideas and opinions do not1 upon closer investigation1 satisfy the more developed demands of our thinking2 doubts arise1 and this is a necessary condition for all theoretical progress4 ,such a doubt1 not of the immaterial experience which we all have1 but of the way in which this experience is to be explained1 has been expressed in the theory called materialism1 which is a widely spread doctrine in our time4 ,natural science in itself is never materialistic in the sense in which this word is here used1 because natural science does not concern itself with anything immaterial4 ,but if this be the case1 how is it possible that science can have anything in common with materialism which1 strictly speaking1 is a doctrine about spiritual things8 ,we answer that life in this world is joined to and revealed through the material world4 ,a more complete knowledge of the nature of matter ought1 therefore1 to bring about a decision by and by as to whether the soul is a bodily function or a substance differing from matter4 ,in other words1 natural science must sooner or later arrive at a stage when it either verifies materialism or gives us tangible and obvious evidence for the truth of idealism4 ,it was to such a point that science arrived in the last century when ,bchner presented his well known 8,force and ,matter10 in which he endeavors to prove that the soul is an attribute of the body1 religion1 immortality and so on being only illusions4 ,had natural science then finally found materialism to be the highest expression of truth8 ,in reality this was so far from being the case1 that natural science1 just at that time1 had given entirely new impulses to a higher evolution of religious conceptions4 ,how then could ,bchner1 with natural science as a basis1 deny all religion1 and how can materialism1 in our days1 live with undiminished force and vitality8 ,no other explanation is possible than the one we have already proposed4 ,when it remained unnoticed that natural science had discovered the inner1 spiritual body1 which is the very kernel of the belief in the body as an eternal part of man's nature1 then materialism was the only possible alternative for all those who were convinced that the body contained something imperishable4 ,materialism1 in our days1 springs from the same instinct as the death-cultus in ancient times4 ,it has1 therefore1 integrally1 something correct and true as a basis1 which not only explains the rapid and wide expansion of this doctrine1 but also the fact that the materialists are continually using data and evidence which clearly and plainly disprove their own position1 although they do not perceive it themselves4 ,as probably no one has treated this theme in a manner more characteristic of materialism than ,bchner1 we will1 in the following study1 use his work above mentioned1 which may be said to be typical for the materialist's mode of thinking and reasoning4 ,it will here be evident1 we hope1 that the modern natural science does not limit but1 on the contrary1 widens the boundaries of existence1 as we receive from precisely this science the palpable demonstration of the thesis that all life on this earth has its origin in a higher1 immaterial world4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,importance of ,spontaneous ,generation4 ,the manner in which this problem1 from a materialistic point of view1 can and must be treated1 is not so complicated as we might imagine4 ,the central thought in all materialistic discussions and investigations may be briefly expressed as follows3 ,life is a material force and nothing else4 ,if this be true1 then of course materialism is the only true religion4 ,whether ,god or some other higher being exists1 must then become a question of little or no consequence4 ,man knows in any case his own origin and fate4 ,the fundamental religious doctrines will then read3 ,in matter alone dwell all the forces of nature and spirit2 in matter alone can these forces appear and reveal themselves2 nature knows of no supernatural beginning or continuation2 it produces everything2 consumes everything2 is itself beginning and end1 cradle and grave2 by its own power nature produces man1 by its own power it receives him back again4 ,against these and similar statements there would be no objection1 if it could be shown that life really has its source in the material world4 ,but if it can be demonstrated that life never does1 nor ever could by any possibility1 originate in lifeless matter1 then it is evident that we must look for some other source4 ,let it be our object1 then1 fully to investigate this problem4 ,if living beings are produced by material forces1 experience must verify the fact that matter really creates life of itself4 ,in other words1 the 8to be or not to be0 of materialism is identical with the old question of generatio aequivoca or spontanea1 i4 e41 whether there exists in nature a spontaneous or parentless generation of living beings4 ,generatio aequivoca covers the entire ground of the materialists4 ,here the doctrine has not only its principal roots but all of them4 ,if the materialists lose this foothold1 all their natural science resources are emptied at once1 so important is generatio spontanea for materialism4 ,only under this form and with this substance can natural science have anything in common with materialism1 which latter1 strictly speaking1 is only a religious doctrine1 although as such purely negative4 ,but just for this reason science has for centuries labored to decide whether this doctrine is false or true4 ,the question is1 does or does not this spontaneous generation exist8 ,scientific research has1 in all times1 occupied itself with this question in different forms and modes4 ,the farther we go back in time the more general we find the opinion that life may arise spontaneously from inorganic matter4 ,that such an idea should prevail1 is1 of course1 easy to understand4 ,very little was known about the propagation of the lower animals and plants4 ,especially the very peculiar and complicated development of the parasites and their passive migrations were practically unknown4 ,it seemed impossible to understand whence these beings had come1 so the nearest explanation was resorted to1 that is to say1 that wherever they were found1 they had come into existence 8of themselves40 ,neither was it so clearly understood then as now that eggs and seeds are living beings as well as the fully developed animals and plants4 ,it was thought that grain must decay in the earth1 yea1 that this was the necessary condition for the growth of the plant4 ,thus people had daily before their eyes cases where living beings were generated by substances that seemed inert and dead4 ,but with a better and more complete knowledge of organisms and especially of the extremely complicated mode of propagation characteristic of insects1 doubts as to generatio spontanea increasingly arose4 ,it was1 however1 at a comparatively late time1 or in the middle of the seventeenth century1 that ,harvey formulated his famous thesis1 8omne virum ex oro10 or1 as it has been later said1 8omne vivum ex vivo10 which we may translate thus3 8,life implies life2 all living beings descend from previous existing parents10 or negatively1 8,no living being is generated from lifeless matter40 ,thus1 for the first time1 the idea was pronounced by natural science that life is a specific force2 an independent principle1 that has not its roots in the material world4 ,as generatio aequivoca leads to materialism1 so ,harvey's formula leads to pure idealism4 ,that these consequences should have been seen from the beginning1 was so much the less to be expected since even today no such discovery has been made or could have been made1 simply because no attention has been given to it4 ,hitherto the only question has been3 ,is ,harvey's formula a fact verified by natural science or not8 ,in this form the battle has raged for over two centuries1 often with great vehemence1 and victory has leaned now to one side1 now to the other4 ,finally1 it was agreed that parentless generation was not to be found among the higher forms of animals and plants which could be observed with the naked eye4 ,bchner himself says it has not hitherto been discovered that any higher or more developed organism may be created by inorganic matter and forces alone4 8,today10 he says1 8it seems to be a general law of the inorganic world that everything living originates from a parental embryo or else is directly segregated from the mother-body40 ,but although spontaneous generation of the higher animals and plants seemed doubtful even to ,bchner1 nothing was at this time settled in regard to the origin of the lower organisms4 ,with the discovery of the microscopical organic world1 a new field and one more difficult of access was opened for research4 ,it was now the sudden and unexpected appearance of bacteria1 aspergillus and infusoria in places where their previous existence could not be imagined1 that maintained the belief in generatio spontanea4 ,but by and by we learned to understand the propagation and life also of these low organisms1 their ability to withstand very high or very low temperatures1 and the facility with which they are spread by the air and1 above all1 their rapid propagation4 ,it commenced to be more and more evident that even in the micro-organic world no parentless generation exists4 ,the investigations by ,spallanzani1 and later by ,schultze1 ,schwann1 von ,dusch and ,schrder1 were epochal for the establishing of this fact4 ,their method1 however1 left some room for criticism which was forcefully pointed out by a great number of scientists1 especially by the ,englishman ,needham4 ,during all these disputes ,harvey's formula had1 however1 won such a stability and approbation that ,bchner himself under its pressure formulated his position in the following cautious words3 8,even if recent scientific researches have more and more limited the ground for spontaneous generation1 it is nevertheless not improbable that it even now takes place among the lowest and least developed organisms40 ,it may willingly be conceded that this assertion was in its time by no means without foundation4 ,but scarcely could ,bchner or anybody else at that moment imagine how soon the hour of decision would strike4 ,shortly after #ahfj the many centuries old question was finally settled almost simultaneously by ,hoffman and ,pasteur4 ,through the latter's masterly investigations it was fully demonstrated that parentless generation does not exist in the micro-organic world either4 ,before ,pasteur's simple and clear evidence1 opposition was silenced even so far that the question has almost entirely ceased to occupy our attention4 ,omne vivum ex vivo appears now to be an unchallenged truth4 ,life implies life4 ,but although science thus rejected generatio spontanea1 the materialists nevertheless occupy a very strong position on the selfsame foundation as formerly1 and continue the defense apparently not without some success4 ,in spite of ,bchner's real1 or perhaps partly pretended1 confidence1 he seems to have had a presentiment of how weak the support of generatio spontanea was1 and we find him therefore suddenly reasoning as if its cause were already lost4 ,thus he makes the entirely sound remark that even if at the present time all animals and plants must have parents1 yet nothing whatever is thereby demonstrated in regard to the very first appearance of life in the universe4 8,if all organic beings have parents1 how1 then1 did the first parents come into existence80 he asks4 8,when all outer conditions were favorable1 might they not have appeared spontaneously1 accidentally or necessarily8 ,or must the first organisms have been created through the intervention of some higher power80 ,bchner concedes that this question is extremely complicated1 and at first glance may appear unsolvable without the assumption of some such higher being who of his own will created the first organisms as it pleased him and endowed them with the faculty of propagation4 8,orthodox scientists point with satisfaction also to this state of affairs10 says ,bchner1 8and they remind us at the same time of the artful and complicated structure of the world1 and warmed by their conviction they see therein the wise arrangements of a higher1 personal creator1 who built the world according to his personal intentions40 ,we might1 according to ,bchner1 dismiss these orthodox thinkers with the assumption 8that the first elements endowed with the idea of the race have been present in space from all eternity in formless chaos out of which the universe slowly consolidated1 and accidentally developed after the formation and cooling of the planet wherever conditions were favorable40 ,but such fictitious reasonings or pretexts1 ,bchner assures us1 are not necessary4 ,scientific facts1 he says1 indicate with great distinctness that the organic beings on our earth owe their generation and propagation to the co-operation of physical substances and forces alone4 ,after such an introduction we proceed with interest to learn about these scientific facts1 but how great is our disappointment when we find that ,bchner here takes up an entirely different subject1 which1 if it has any connection with the question at issue1 goes to prove just the reverse of what he intended4 ,the whole long series of facts to which he now points is1 in a few words1 nothing but ,darwin's theory in a paleontological light4 ,what ,bchner shows by numerous examples from fossil deposits1 is that higher forms of animals and plants have slowly developed from lower forms4 ,but what has this fact to do with generatio spontanea8 ,that higher forms have developed from lower forms only confirms the dictum that life implies life2 in other words1 supports ,harvey's law4 ,but it is something else that ,bchner should have demonstrated4 ,he should instead have shown us that the first organisms owe their existence to physical forces alone4 ,but on this subject he uses only vague expressions1 void of any real significance1 about the slow cooling off of the earth2 about the length of the geological periods1 and about favorable conditions2 but not a line to explain what this word 8favorable0 stands for4 ,although ,bchner here inadvertently supports something different from what he intended1 his remark nevertheless remains true that the present mode of propagation proves nothing in regard to the generation of the first organisms4 ,other scientists have gone further than ,bchner and believed themselves justified in extending ,harvey's law to cover not only the present time1 but all times4 ,and the problem as to the first organisms has been answered in various ways4 ,sir ,william ,thomson believes that such might have come to the earth with some meteoric stone1 possibly a moss-clad fragment1 from another planet in the universe that had met with a cosmic catastrophe1 and1 further1 he has even tried to show that this hypothesis does not involve any physical impossibility4 ,opinions seem to be divided1 then1 as to the validity of ,harvey's law4 ,this again indicates a deficiency in the law itself1 and it is true that such a deficiency really exists4 ,harvey's formula is not a law2 it is1 as yet1 only an empirical hypothesis4 ,it is true that life presupposes life in all the cases we have been able to investigate4 ,these cases are exceedingly numerous because on the disbelief in generatio spontanea rests a whole modern industry1 the art of preserving1 which in millions of cases daily verifies the hypothesis4 ,but our experience1 in spite of this1 does not reach far4 ,if we continue our observations1 who can guarantee that we would not finally discover that ,bchner1 after all1 was right1 and one single case would suffice4 ,the utmost we can attain by observation is a certain degree of probability1 and if we undertook to prove ,harvey's hypothesis to be a law in this way1 our experiments must be extended in infinitum4 ,in order to reach certainty only under present conditions1 we must study the generation of every now living organism1 animals1 plants1 bacteria and the like4 ,if it were found then that all these beings have had parents it would still be impossible to draw absolutely sure conclusions in regard to previous generations4 ,we should be obliged to extend our researches through antiquity and primeval ages4 ,if then no gap was to be found in the series and we perhaps finally traced life back to the 8moss-clad fragment0 from another world1 we would again face the question1 how the beings on that planet1 once in time1 had come into existence8 ,perhaps there the elements and forces of nature were such as to create life spontaneously4 ,this question1 of course1 could not be decided except through continued observations1 which would be obliged to extend to every point of an infinite universe and back to the dawn of time4 ,first1 then1 we should know that ,harvey's hypothesis was a law1 valid without limitations in the past--but also only in the past--and valid with one single exception1 namely1 the very first organism1 of which we presently shall speak4 ,in regard to the law's validity in the future1 we should no doubt possess a knowledge that approached certainty1 but it could not be called absolutely sure4 ,because1 even granted that no living being hitherto was without parents1 it is not logically impossible that sometime in the future1 lifeless matter might undertake to create organisms4 ,to obtain certainty we must continue our observations until the end of time4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,materialistic ,demonstration of ,generatio ,spontanea4 ,this whole method is consequently unsatisfactory4 ,with ,harvey's law proved in the empirical way1 the only way hitherto tried1 we are still unable to decide how the first organism came into existence1 and this is probably after all the most important question4 ,because1 as ,bchner rightly points out3 8,if life has a supernatural beginning1 it has also a supernatural subsequent existence40 ,even if we were observing with our own eyes the creation of the first organism we would not be able to say whether it were the result of natural or supernatural forces4 ,the moment our study commenced1 the mystic act of creation would already have taken place1 an act which lies beyond the boundaries of research1 and which we never shall be able to penetrate1 however minute or comprehensive our observations4 ,an entirely different method is here necessary4 ,our endeavor must be to find the innermost cause of the whole series of generations evolving throughout the ages4 ,in other words1 we must derive ,harvey's law from the inner nature of matter itself1 show that this matter has such qualities that it cannot1 never could1 and never will1 be able to produce a single living being4 ,only then shall we have demonstrated that ,harvey's formula is a universal1 natural law1 and then it will be not only our right but our duty to draw its logical consequences4 ,is it possible to show that matter possesses such qualities8 ,in regard to the matter of which our earth is composed we are at least able to closely investigate its qualities4 ,but our earth is only an insignificant point in the universe and we must search the entire cosmos4 ,is not this impossible8 ,we answer that in many ways1 especially through the spectral analysis1 we already know that nature's elements everywhere are the same and that they everywhere have the same qualities4 ,if ,harvey's law can be deduced from the matter we are able to investigate1 we have at the same time shown its validity for the whole of the universe without limitations as to time and space2 because then we may apply in regard to organic substance ,bchner's true remark as to the products of nature in times past4 8,the natural forces10 he says1 8that governed the universe formerly are the same as those whose results we now witness every day and moment4 ,earth's past time is to our thought nothing but an unrolling of its present4 ,the geologists1 guided by their knowledge of nature and its present laws1 have been able with increasing accuracy to trace back evolution to the most distant ages4 ,meanwhile it has been established that everywhere and during all time only those elements and forces have been active which surround us today4 ,nowhere has a point been found where research had to be thrown overboard and an interference of unknown forces substituted2 and nowhere and never will this happen4 ,everywhere the same laws were in force and the same matter was found4 ,historical research has demonstrated that past and present are subject to the same evolution1 rest on the same basis40 ,and different it could not be1 reasons ,bchner1 since life knows no exceptions1 does not shirk any inorganic forces1 but is itself only the result of the activity of these forces4 ,to obtain a definite understanding of the origin of life it is therefore sufficient to examine the origin of organic matter in our days1 and for such an analysis there is at least no lack of material4 ,wherever a tree or a grass blade grows or a seed sprouts there dead substance is transformed into living2 wherever an animal or a plant is decaying1 there organic matter is again turned into inorganic4 ,the result obtained through such investigations already made1 stood in direct opposition to the immediate observations4 ,although ,harvey's formula finally was accepted1 it was nevertheless taught that no specific life-force exists4 ,this contradiction was never fully understood or emphasized during the last century1 and the reason was that the materialistic tendency was so predominant that nobody noticed that the question of life-force is the innermost main point1 around which not only generatio spontanea and omne vivum ex vivo1 but also their consequences1 materialism and idealism1 are centered4 ,but in order to deny life-force as an independent principle1 some scientific facts to build upon were necessary and these were not lacking4 ,before we state these facts we will in a few words describe the historical situation4 ,according to the previously prevailing vitalistic doctrine a specific life-force existed1 present and active in all organic processes4 ,the conceptions in regard to these processes were1 however1 very dim1 and the reason was that the problem of combustion had not yet been solved4 ,this problem may be said to be the very key to the chemical explanation of an organism4 ,the ancient mystery of fire was first solved by ,lavoisier after ,scheele and ,priestly had discovered oxygen4 ,the solution of this complicated question not only became the starting point for a new and rapid evolution of chemistry1 it also almost immediately threw a clear light on the innermost recesses of the organism4 ,the elementary constituents of the organism and their origin were known before1 and it now became also possible to explain the great store of energy that the living being possesses4 ,to assume a specific life-force seemed superfluous4 ,life-force1 from having been the indispensable explanation of organic phenomena1 commenced more and more to be regarded as a 8back-way for ignorance10 one 8of those many side doors that dull heads employ when they find it too laborious to think about something that they do not understand40 ,it was natural that the materialists would eagerly embrace these ideas4 ,from the few words with which ,bchner introduces his chapter about life-force1 we obtain a clear insight into the opinions that are held on this subject in the world of natural science4 8,the mystic notions10 says ,bchner1 8that have confused the philosophy of science were invented by a time possessing but a slight knowledge of nature4 ,to these notions1 which have been thrown overboard by a later exact scientific research1 belongs first of all the so-called life-force4 ,scarcely has there ever existed an hypothesis more detrimental to the cause of science than this singular organic force presented in contradistinction to the inorganic forces1 gravity1 affinity1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 etc4 ,if science were forced to acknowledge such an hypothesis1 all we have said about the immutability of the natural laws and of the mechanical order of the universe would collapse1 and we would be forced to admit that a higher hand interferes in the course of nature1 dictating exceptional laws that defy all calculations4 ,a break would be found in the natural structure of the world1 science would despair1 and all physical and psychical research cease4 ,fortunately science has not been obliged to yield to the irrational pressure of the dynamists1 but1 on the contrary1 has won everywhere a splendid victory2 it has lately gathered such a mass of self-evident facts to its support that life-force nowadays wanders an empty shadow along the boundaries of natural science4 ,all those who have made a closer study of any of the branches of science that deal at all with the organic world1 agree1 almost to a man1 in the condemnation of life-force1 and the very word is so detested by science that it is always purposely avoided40 ,we may now let ,bchner present the real1 scientific evidence why life-force must be charged to the ignorance of a time when knowledge of nature was but slight4 ,in this way the reader will perhaps obtain a more direct and at the same time an historic view of the materialistic mode of thinking4 ,above all1 says ,bchner1 it is the province of chemistry to show that the elements of matter are everywhere the same in the inorganic as well as in the organic world1 and that life substance is unable to present one single atom not found in inorganic nature and therefore not partaking in the general flux 7,stoffwechsel7 of matter4 ,chemistry has decomposed organic bodies into their elements exactly as it did before with the inorganic4 ,all known inorganic forces act identically with respect to living as to dead nature4 ,we have seen that forces are nothing but qualities and motions of the smallest particles of matter1 the atoms1 with which these forces are invariably and inseparably conjoined4 ,an atom therefore under all circumstances can only perform the same work1 develop the same forces1 produce the same effects1 whether it belongs for the moment to an organic or to an inorganic composition4 ,respiration1 digestion1 the process of growing and segregation are all chemical reactions4 ,oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon and nitrogen are composed and decomposed within the organic body in accordance with the same laws that govern them outside4 ,we have also learned more perfectly how nourishment is transformed into organic tissues1 and we know that through different channels it leaves the body in precisely the same quantity as it entered1 partly unmodified and partly in other forms and compositions4 ,no one atom has meanwhile been lost or become another4 ,digestion is a purely chemical process4 ,the stomach of an animal may well be compared to a chemical retort1 where the substances there mixed are decomposed and composed exactly according to the general laws of chemical affinity4 ,these facts1 which may be multiplied ad infinitum1 enable us to understand that the difference between organic and inorganic is non-essential1 and that therefore every living being may be considered a chemical laboratory1 whence we arrive at the following result3 ,because daily experience teaches us that all organisms consist of the same atoms as does inorganic nature1 although in different compositions1 therefore no specific organic force1 no life-force1 can exist4 ,this latter is not a principle1 but a result4 ,when organic substance assimilates inorganic and brings it into its own characteristic condition1 this is not done through a specific force1 but through a kind of infection1 whereby the molecular conditions in the organic substance are transferred to the inorganic4 ,but not only does organic matter consist of the same elements that are to be found in inorganic nature1 but the organism as a whole is nothing but a bodily mechanism not differing from other machines except in its more complicated construction4 ,water1 says ,bchner1 which must be considered as the foremost and most important part in all organic beings1 and without which all animal and plant life were impossible1 water penetrates1 flows and sinks according to the laws of gravity1 not differing by the breadth of a hair in its action within and without the organism4 ,the circulation of the blood is as mechanical as we could wish1 and the anatomic contrivance that causes it bears a surprising likeness to mechanical apparatus made by man's hand4 ,the heart is provided with valves just as a steam engine2 the valve movements produce audible sounds4 ,the rise of the blood from the lower parts of the body to the heart against gravity can only be made possible by a mechanical arrangement4 ,the bowels convey their content mechanically2 mechanically the muscle movements take place1 and mechanical motility characterizes men and animals4 ,the human eye obeys the same laws as a camera obscura and the ear catches the sound waves in same way as does any other vault1 and so on4 ,science1 therefore1 entertains no doubt that the living organism is a machine as well as the steam engine1 i4 e41 a system where chemical affinity produces heat1 electricity and muscular energy4 ,now1 are these facts1 pointed out by ,bchner1 true and correct8 ,undoubtedly they are in all essential respects eternal truths1 and we may add that they are just as important foundations for idealism as the materialists have claimed them to be for their opinion4 ,but before we take up this subject let us see how the materialists derive their philosophy from the facts mentioned4 ,there are many other objects in this world1 of which we might almost verbally repeat what ,bchner says about organic matter2 for instance1 windows1 doors1 locks1 bricks1 houses1 etc4 ,in these objects also there is not one atom to be found which was not present in the raw material of which they were made4 ,but does the raw material itself produce these things8 ,so ,bchner reasons4 ,he says3 8,because all organic matter consists of inorganic raw material1 therefore the raw material1 itself1 has made the organic matter4 ,because the organism is essentially like a steam engine1 the building material itself has made the organism40 ,this headlong way of reasoning and concluding is not characteristic of ,bchner alone1 but applies equally to the whole materialistic school during the past century4 ,we have not said that inorganic raw material is unable to produce organic substance spontaneously1 which substance later upbuilds the organism1 but for the present this remains an open question to which as yet the materialists have not given an answer4 ,but before we enter the discussion of this extremely important question1 we will in this connection mention another discovery of natural science which seems exactly to support the materialistic trend of thought1 a fact1 therefore1 that crowns1 so to speak1 their whole philosophy4 ,up to the year #ahbh it was thought that organic substance could be created only by the force of life4 ,but ,whler unexpectedly succeeded in producing organic compositions from inorganic substances1 a discovery which was followed by a series of others in the same direction4 ,it is with evident satisfaction that ,bchner calls our attention to these facts4 ,in order to show the necessity for assuming a life-force1 he says1 people have reminded the chemists that they are unable to produce organic compositions1 that is1 the peculiar grouping of the elements into those ternary and quaternary compounds which owe their existence to an organic being1 endowed with life and life-force1 and they have added the amusing remark that the chemists must produce living beings in their retorts--make men--if there be no life-force and if life be only the result of chemical processes4 ,the chemists have not been at a loss for an answer4 ,they have made dextrose1 several organic acids and bases1 and recently they have also succeeded in producing hydrates of carbon4 ,evolution has proceeded rapidly in this direction1 and today alcohol and precious perfumes are made from coal1 candles from slate1 ,berlin blue1 taurin and innumerable other bodies--formerly believed to be exclusively of animal or plant origin--from the simple material that inorganic nature offers us4 ,the materialists have a custom of not considering themselves under obligation to do more than point to some scientific facts1 without investigating whether these facts support their speculations or not4 ,faithful to this custom1 ,bchner stops just where his own researches should have commenced4 ,bchner has not written a textbook on physics or chemistry4 ,he has undertaken the extremely serious task of investigating whether modern natural science has produced results which show that nothing but matter and its forces1 and consequently no soul1 no eternal life1 etc41 exist4 ,our first demand of such an analysis would be1 to put it moderately1 that the facts cited really prove what they are put forward to prove4 ,but to this demand neither ,bchner nor his followers pay any attention4 ,bchner might1 for instance1 in regard to the facts last mentioned1 have taken the following questions as the starting point for his investigations3 ,it is true that the chemists have produced artificially certain organic compounds of inorganic elements1 and they will probably go much further in this direction4 ,but is this really something to be wondered at1 when all organic substance is composed of inorganic elements which1 wherever they exist1 possess the same qualities8 ,the question is how this organic substance is formed4 ,does it appear spontaneously in the chemist's laboratory while he himself stands idle1 observing the phenomenon1 or must he interfere1 guide and plan the activity of the chemical forces in order to obtain these artificial compounds8 ,why should not something similar take place in the laboratory of inorganic nature8 ,there is1 as far as our experience goes1 no organic substance to be found due to the spontaneous action of known natural laws4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,how is organic matter formed in nature8 ,and1 further1 is there no difference between the organic matter produced by the chemists and that present in living nature8 ,and if this difference proves to be that the former is not organized while the latter always is1 why cannot the chemists produce organized matter8 ,if ,bchner had proposed these or similar questions and taken time to think them over1 he would have obtained a different result1 but instead he breaks off his argumentation just where it should have commenced4 ,consequently the fault in the materialists' process of thinking does not lie in the facts used as foundation for their argument4 ,the premises and the beginning are correct4 ,just because organic matter consists of the same elements as inorganic1 just for this reason natural science can decide whether the physical laws are able spontaneously to produce such matter and such machines4 ,the materialists have stopped after providing the introduction2 the continuation and the end are lacking4 ,they have overlooked the whole series of scientific facts that stand in necessary correlation to the starting point4 ,we have therefore only to resume the interrupted demonstration and will then endeavor to make the latter part as simple and comprehensible as ,bchner made the former4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,how ,is ,organic ,matter ,produced8 ,the essential in matter is force4 ,strictly speaking1 we comprehend nothing but forces4 ,every body manifests itself as resistance necessary to overcome if we wish to remove it from its place4 ,what remains of the body if we think of it as deprived of this counter force8 ,at least nothing remains that we can touch or by which we may obtain palpable evidence of its existence4 ,neither does there remain anything that we can see1 as seeing depends upon resistance to light1 reflection of the ether-waves4 ,if the mountain exerted no resistance we would pass through it without feeling or seeing anything whatever4 ,true1 there is perhaps matter--for instance1 the ether--which we neither see nor feel1 but which still exists4 ,this matter is then qualified by some other form of energy by which it manifests itself4 ,thus we comprehend ether as light1 heat and colors1 all forces1 as well as gravity1 electricity1 etc4 ,already from these suggestions it is evident that force is the only substantial thing in the material world4 ,without force1 matter is nothing that may be comprehended either by the senses or by the reason4 ,what we call matter is nothing but different kinds of energy4#a ,we have space-occupying energy1 chemical1 electrical1 mechanical forms of energy1 and so forth4 ,how are these forms of energy related to each other8 ,between forms so different as tones and light1 colors and mechanical work1 there is at least no connection apparent to external observation4 ,for a long time it was also believed that no such relation existed4 ,it was only after #ahdj that several scientists made the startling discovery almost simultaneously that physical forces may be transformed one into another4 ,it proved possible to transform a certain quantity of heat into an equal quantity of mechanical energy1 which again might be turned into equivalent quantities of electricity1 light1 chemical energy1 etc4 ,it was further found that these processes might be undertaken in the reverse order1 so that the original form of energy could be restored in unchanged quantity and with unmodified qualities4 ,nothing was lost and nothing was added4 ,recent science is founded entirely on these facts1 which later generations probably will consider as the greatest of all the discoveries of the last century4 ,this law of the permanence and the mutability of force is of immediate importance to materialism4 ,as long as it was thought that the forces of nature were separate and different from each other1 it was easy to imagine that the more inaccessible or mystic forms stood nearer life1 yea1 were life itself4 ,the absurdity of such an idea is now obvious1 since it has been shown that the physical forces may be transformed into one another and therefore are not intrinsically separate1 but fundamentally the same force1 acting differently under different conditions4 ,now1 if life were a form of material energy1 any form of physical force might be transformed into life and consciousness1 into spiritual and moral forces4 ,life and consciousness might then be artificially produced1 and we would rack our brains in order to find the mechanical equivalent of the intellect1 try to measure it in amperes and volts1 etc4 ,but nothing of this kind is done1 simply because it is impossible1 as presently we shall see4 ,life cannot be transformed into any form of material energy1 and1 vice versa1 no form of material energy can be transformed into life4 ,life and physical force are1 as to nature and substance1 essentially different principles4 ,although the law just referred to about the permanence and the mutability of physical forces thus seems rather to disprove materialism1 it was not for this reason chiefly that we have related it4 ,our purpose is to find a basis in this fact from which the fundamental contrariety between organic and inorganic matter most easily may be explained1 and thereafter to enter into this differentiation just as far as is necessary to decide the main point as to whether one form of matter can spontaneously produce another4 ,we recollect that the materialists endeavored to make the difference between organic and inorganic compounds as slight as possible4 ,the former consisted of exactly the same elements as the latter and these elements had exactly the same qualities in one compound as in another4 ,however true this may be1 is not meat nevertheless something different from limestone1 although limestone may easily be found that contains nearly all the elements present in the meat8 ,in starch1 sugar1 fat1 etc41 precisely the same elements enter as in water and carbonic acid1 but no materialist denies that there are important differences between these two groups of substances4 ,what is it1 then1 that essentially separates the two classes of matter 7nothing but the most essential factors concerns us here78 ,if we ask this question of chemistry1 we are answered that this quality is combustibility4 ,organic matter is combustible2 inorganic is not4 ,but why should organic matter be combustible8 ,because fuel is as necessary to the organism as to the steam engine4 ,to both their physical source of power is heat1 and even the engine receives it through the combustion of organic substances4 ,all the fuel that is generally used is of organic origin1 although we seldom think of this fact4 ,but why can we not fire an engine with inorganic products8 ,because these cannot burn1 and the reason again is1 that they are already burned4 ,if this be true1 they must once have been fuel themselves1 must once have been in a burning state4 ,how do we know this8 ,because the inorganic world consists almost entirely of chemical compounds that are only formed by combustion1 when this word is used in its widest sense4 ,if these suggestions are correct1 organic matter is to inorganic as fuel to the products of combustion4 ,in the inorganic world the latter have been transformed to fuel which in a renewed combustion reproduces the same products as those of which it once was formed4 ,if this be the case our problem may be thus formulated3 ,can inorganic products of combustion again form combustibles spontaneously8 ,can carbonic acid or water through the spontaneous activity of physical forces be transformed into sugar1 starch1 fat1 etc48 ,in order to decide if this be possible we must first know what combustion is1 and we will therefore briefly explain what this term means4 ,combustion is a chemical process1 it is said1 and this definition may be true1 although it may also be misleading4 ,in daily speech combustion is generally identified with the phenomena of light and the generation of heat1 which we immediately observe1 but chemical processes can neither be seen nor felt1 because they take place in the inner world of matter which hitherto has proved inaccessible to human observation4 ,yea1 chemical processes are so foreign to the experiences of our senses that chemistry1 the science of these processes1 is entirely founded on the deductions of our reason4 ,the premises that our reason uses for its conclusions belong to the physical world which is the outer side of matter that faces us4 ,the phenomena that accompany combustion belong to this world and are1 therefore1 strictly speaking1 not chemical but physical phenomena4 ,but even if these phenomena of light and heat1 of which the latter especially interests us here1 belong to the world comprehensible to our senses1 they must nevertheless be intimately connected with the inner chemical process because heat is developed in nearly every chemical reaction4 ,heat is not created from nothing2 there must be a cause for this force1 and the cause cannot be anything but the chemical energy which in the chemical process is transformed into heat4 ,in few words3 ,what we generally term combustion cannot be identical with the actual chemical process4 ,the light and the heat must1 on the contrary1 be considered as the external results of the chemical process1 its physical effect4 ,by a close study of this physical effect we have also been able to explain what happens within matter itself4 ,as it is necessary to understand this in order to comprehend how heat is developed1 we will endeavor shortly to outline the present scientific conception of the chemical process called combustion4 ,from the qualities of matter we have concluded that the bodies we see are composed of extremely tiny particles called molecules1 which1 however1 are so small that with our optical resources we never shall be able to observe them4 ,even the smallest particle of dust visible to the eye must be considered as containing an enormous number of them4 ,with molecules1 however1 we have not reached the limit of the divisibility of matter4 ,they may themselves be divided by chemical forces into smaller material units called atoms1 and these latter are therefore the building stones of which matter is ultimately composed4 ,now neither the atoms within the molecule1 nor the molecules within the visible body1 are packed closely together4 ,they are separated by comparatively great spaces4 ,but if these building stones are separated from each other we might expect that they would behave like the grains in a sand heap4 ,how can material bodies then be solid1 hard1 tough1 etc48 ,the reason is that the spacing in question is regulated by other forces of essentially different kind4 ,we have attracting as well as repelling forces1 such as tend to increase as well as to reduce the distances between the particles4 ,we shall first consider the attracting forces1 and these are called cohesion and adhesion when exerted between molecules4 ,the mutual attraction between the atoms within the molecules has been named affinity or chemical energy4 ,turning again to the form of energy acting in the opposite direction1 we find just the force we are in search of--heat1 which is the physical source of energy of all living beings4 ,that heat increases the distances between molecules is already evident from the fact that all bodies increase in volume when heated1 a process which may be continued by further supply of heat until the solid becomes a fluid1 and the fluid a gas4 ,in solid bodies the attracting forces have predominance4 ,the molecules are arranged with definite spacing and in definite positions so that the body assumes a certain external shape4 ,if such a body is exposed to heat the molecules are removed from each other and the cohesion becomes correspondingly feebler4 ,finally a point is reached when the molecules are so far unfettered that they are at liberty to move with respect to each other4 ,the solid has then become a fluid and may through continued heating enter the gaseous state4 ,the cohesion is then entirely conquered so that the molecules move freely in all directions independent of each other4 ,similarly1 heat influences the atoms of which the molecules are composed4 ,even chemical attraction gives way to heat so that all bodies at sufficient temperature are decomposed into free atoms or elementary constituents4 ,we have seen that heat performs mechanical work in so far as it separates masses from each other4 ,but heat not only performs this work but is the work itself1 or is identical with the movement of these particles4 ,consequently a certain quantity of mechanical work is equivalent to a certain quantity of heat and vice versa1 and it is this transformation from one form of energy into another that takes place during a chemical reaction4 ,the mechanical energy of the atoms is here converted into heat which may again be used for the other forms of mechanical activity4 ,through the chemical reaction that heat is regained which previously was utilized in separating the atoms or sustaining their movement1 and this explains why heat is developed in chemical processes4 ,if this development of heat is increased to a certain point1 or1 which is the same1 if the reaction takes place with greater violence1 the common phenomena of fire and light appear4 ,but even without these1 every chemical process may be called combustion in a wider sense1 that is1 if we consider the production of heat as the characteristic external effect of the chemical force4 ,at sufficiently high temperature1 then1 all matter must be in an incandescent gaseous state1 and vice versa at a low temperature it is a solid mass4 ,with these short notes we have also outlined the history of our own earth4 ,the same gaseous state in which our sun is at present belonged once to the earth according to science of today4 ,during enormous periods of time the incandescent matter of the earth radiated light and heat into the cold universe4 ,finally so much heat was lost that chemical attraction could assert itself4 ,regarded as a sun1 the earth was then dying and it entered upon the chemical era4 ,during this state the elements combined with each other according to general chemical laws into such compounds as were the necessary outcome of their atomic weights1 valence1 and positive or negative qualities4 ,in this connection it is sufficient to point out that these processes must go on incessantly until compounds have been formed in which the chemical forces have reached equilibrium and rest4 ,in the case of our planet these products formed the solid crust of the earth1 the primeval rock1 the mineral world1 further water and finally air1 the oxygen and nitrogen of which may be considered as remains of the elements4 ,furthermore1 according to a law known to science as that 8of the least resistance10 chemical reactions proceed from compounds which have more energy to such as have less1 wherefore it follows that each product was as poor in energy as the conditions at the time permitted4 ,if we now especially give our attention to the combustion taking place in chemical processes1 this era may also be called the period of combustion or the general world-fire1 names which are exact even if we use combustion in the common1 limited sense of oxidation4 ,oxygen is considered to constitute about one-half of the solid crust of the earth1 and when to this quantitative preponderance is added its extraordinarily strong affinity to other elements1 these must with necessity burn into oxides just as has been the case4 ,it is therefore with the products of combustion1 that is to say1 the ashes and the remains from a general colossal world-fire1 that the earth enters its planetary state1 at which stage it becomes suitable for the creation and evolution of living beings4 ,it is from burnt substances that the organisms must form the combustible matter that constitutes their material clothing4 ,how can this be done8 ,in the only possible way2 that is1 by again decomposing the products of combustion into their elements and bringing them into such combinations that a new combustion may take place4 ,are the products of combustion able to perform this transformation spontaneously8 ,they have just lost the fund of energy that could have made them combustible and this lost heat must again be stored up and therefore taken from some other source1 as no heat can be created from nothing4 ,when the chemical forces had once reached equilibrium and rest1 the earth might then be compared to an immense corpse thrown into space and which must remain in the same state eternally1 or until it met with a cosmic catastrophe4 ,not the slightest movement or variation could now take place spontaneously on its surface4 ,if a change happened it must have had its cause in another source of power1 and two such sources existed4 ,one was the earth's own internal heat1 and the other the sun1 and we must therefore consider if either of these1 or both together could produce combustible organic substance4 ,in regard first to the earth's internal heat we might immediately eliminate this source of energy1 as it has no direct connection whatever with the origin of organic matter1 an assertion so commonly agreed upon that we need not dwell further upon it4 ,infinitely more important is the sun1 which has been and is the cause of most of the changes taking place on the earth's surface after its cooling off4 ,the sun causes the circulation of the air and water and thereby the whole series of disintegration and decay1 the history of which is written with indelible letters in our geological sediments and formations4 ,these formations tell us that new oceans and continents1 new minerals and rocks have successively been formed1 but nowhere that organic substances were ever built up spontaneously under the sun's influence4 ,the processes of decay1 on the contrary1 proceed in the entirely opposite direction4 ,through them nothing is formed but compounds poorer in energy than before4 ,in decaying1 the products of combustion absorb1 if possible1 more oxygen1 become more burnt or oxidized1 so that this whole process may be called an after-burning1 a more thorough combustion of the remnants from the first general world-fire4 ,the spontaneous activity of nature's forces1 then1 go in a direction just opposite to the one necessary for the production of organic substances4 ,and anything else was not to be expected4 ,the products of combustion resemble fallen weights1 slack bow-strings1 water below the fall1 etc41 whereas combustible organic matter might be compared to lifted weights1 set bow-strings1 water above the fall1 etc4 ,if matter has once fallen from a higher to a lower level of energy it can never spontaneously return1 especially as it has just lost the necessary store of energy4 ,as impossible as it is for the swift current to turn its course1 or for the fallen weight to lift itself or for the discharged bow-string to set itself again1 so impossible is it for the products of combustion spontaneously to turn into combustible substances4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,organic ,matter as a ,product of ,art4 ,from the previous chapter we now draw the extremely important conclusion that all organic matter is a product of art1 that is1 a product which the forces of nature cannot produce4 ,spontaneously these forces only create natural products4 ,products of art belong to an entirely different category2 they owe their existence to a foreign interference in the natural order of the world and have a cause that does not fall within the limits of a mere mechanical causality4 ,but before we discuss this subject1 let us first thoroughly understand what we mean by saying that organic matter is a product of art4 ,materialists have shown that the organism closely resembles a steam engine1 but they have neglected to point out that the similarity extends also to the mode in which they are produced4 ,everybody is probably convinced that the forces of nature have never made and never will make a steam engine4 ,if the same might be said in regard to the machines which we call organisms1 then materialism would be disproved4 ,but why1 to begin with1 cannot the forces of nature build steam engines8 ,we must be able to present the reasons for this statement4 ,if we first consider the building material1 we find this in the factories in the form of plates1 bars and ingots of iron1 copper1 lead1 tin1 etc4 ,where do these metals come from8 ,nowhere in nature is such material found4#b ,humanity had inhabited the earth thousands of years without having an idea of the existence of such substances as iron1 copper1 lead1 etc4 ,the metals are chemical ingredients in our minerals and from these minerals they are extracted by complicated1 artificial processes4 ,the ore is often lifted out of the depths of the mountains2 it goes through a series of treatments which the forces of nature cannot spontaneously undertake4 ,we will here give only a moment's attention to the process of reduction1 or the separation of the metal from its natural compounds4 ,this1 as we know1 is done in our blast furnaces1 where the iron is reduced through the presence of coal and other suitable substances in certain proportions4 ,if we now remember that the heat in our furnaces often reaches about #bjjj ,centigrade we see at once that the sun may shine on our mountains throughout eternity without ever producing the temperature necessary for the reduction4 ,but the engine is not yet completed4 ,the plates must be first rolled and shaped1 the ingots must be melted and cast into frames1 shafts1 bearings1 etc42 in short1 the raw material must be formed into all those numerous parts of which the machine is composed4 ,the engine is from beginning to end a product of art4 ,there is especially one circumstance pertaining to all these transformations that merits a closer attention4 ,if we remember that all the material used in a product of art is taken from nature1 and besides that1 all the processes in making and shaping the raw material are carried out through the employment of natural laws1 we might still ask the question1 why physical forces should not enter spontaneously into the necessary artificial combinations for producing this result4 ,until we have pointed out the quality in matter which prevents this1 we have not completely demonstrated the inability of natural forces to build an engine spontaneously4 ,this quality has been named vis inertiae1 the inertia of matter1 one of the most important natural laws that exist4 ,what does this law teach us8 ,it says that matter cannot itself change its condition4 ,if a body is in motion it can never come to rest unless another force at least equal to the primary opposes the motion4 ,if it be at rest1 it cannot impart motion unto itself2 energy1 applied from without1 is necessary4 ,inertia keeps the earth moving around the sun2 a stone thrown into the air would proceed everlastingly with its initial velocity if the attraction of the earth did not interfere4 ,because of this quality1 then1 matter remains in its natural equilibrium4 ,an engine would never be built because the ore would stay in the mountains and the metals forever remain in their compounds4 ,every product of art requires a foreign interference in the material world2 matter1 in consequence of its inertia1 presents a determined and often very energetic resistance to such an intervention4 ,exactly the same reasons that prevent natural forces from building a steam engine1 cause also their inability to produce an organism1 and this in a much higher degree because the organism is in a still fuller sense a product of art4 ,the organic building material1 instead of being plates and ingots of iron1 copper1 lead1 etc41 consists of carbon1 hydrogen1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 chlorin1 potassium1 sodium1 magnesia1 etc41 or both metals and metalloids of which the former1 on account of their negative1 and the latter because of their positive qualities cannot exist in a free state4 ,from the minerals found in nature these substances must be extracted for organic purposes4 ,the elements are different1 but otherwise we may verbally repeat in regard to organic substance what has been previously said about the steam engine4 ,it is the creation of organic matter by art that the materialists have neglected to take into account4 ,therefore they look upon the organism just as a new race1 suddenly succeeding humanity1 would view our steam engines4 ,these machines would certainly appear very mysterious to the earth's new inhabitants4 ,but a growing civilization would undoubtedly discover that all the material used in the engine is taken from ores to be found in nature4 ,if now somebody would draw the conclusion that these ores themselves had made the engine he would reason as do the materialists today in regard to the organism4 ,the parallel does not halt in any respect1 but it is sufficient in this connection to call attention only to one or two of the more important components of the organism4 ,organic matter1 or combustible substance1 consists of carbon and hydrogen which in an organism are comparable to the iron in a steam engine4 ,but nowhere in nature is free hydrogen or free inorganic carbon to be found4 ,the carbon was burned to carbonic acid in earth's first combustion1 and similarly the hydrogen was burned to water long before the conditions for organic life existed on the earth4 ,from these original products of combustion1 burnable organic matter is formed by decomposition of carbonic acid and water into their elements1 carbon and hydrogen1 and by their subsequent combination through feebler chemical forces into sugar1 starch1 etc41 which substances through a new combustion are again turned into carbonic acid and water4 ,the natural forces cannot spontaneously undertake these transformations that only take place because of artificial arrangements4 ,the processes of nature go in the entirely opposite direction1 as we have seen4 ,as a matter of fact1 the reduction of carbonic acid and water is done through the direct assistance of living beings4 ,from the sun they take their power4 ,but how ineffective the sun would be1 left to itself1 is seen already by the fact that carbonic acid is disintegrated at a temperature of #acjj ,c4 and water only at #aejj4 ,products of art must be resorted to1 and we know that by lenses1 burning mirrors1 photographic cameras and the like the sun may be forced to accomplish results that otherwise would be impossible4 ,such artificial apparatus1 then1 must be the chlorophyll granules in the cells4 ,more strikingly yet1 these organs of the cell may be compared to our blast-furnaces1 as it is just in the chlorophyll granules that the reduction of carbonic acid and water1 according to science1 takes place4 ,if these artificial devices1 invented and constructed by the lower living units that constitute the cell1 did not exist1 the sun might shine throughout eternity on water and carbonic acid without producing organic building material4 ,this material is and must be the product of art4 ,if the forces of inorganic nature spontaneously produced sugar1 starch1 etc41 these substances must have the same quality as our rocks1 minerals1 etc41 of being products of combustion1 which in such a supposed case1 perhaps1 would be made burnable if transformed into water and carbonic acid4 ,we would obtain a creation turned upside down and analogous to a world where the bodies we now use as weights would remain unsupported at certain distances from our earth4 ,if we were to use such a body as a weight in a clock1 we would have to wind it down instead of up4 ,because organic compounds are products of art1 living beings find themselves obliged to direct the physical forces to destroy these compounds or restore them to their inorganic state more speedily than these forces would have done if left unaided4 ,the processes of decay1 performed by micro-organisms1 are as necessary in the economy of life as the reverse processes4 ,otherwise the earth would soon be so covered by corpses that life must cease simply for lack of inorganic raw material4 ,it is true that we might imagine living beings as adapting their organization to this condition and for some time directly utilizing the accumulated stores of organic matter2 but such periodical interruptions and changes would disturb the continuity of life's evolution4 ,to avoid this1 there is no way open to restore equilibrium except the one in which it is now done4 ,no effect1 whatever its nature1 can exist without cause2 and further1 every effect must have a sufficient cause4 ,if1 therefore1 we have established that natural forces can no more produce organisms than steam engines1 we have also proved that these things would never have come into existence if the organic forces had been left to themselves4 ,neither organisms nor engines would exist1 because they have no cause in the material world4 ,the products of art are due not only to other causes1 but the relationship between cause and effect is also different with them from what it is with the products of nature4 ,every product of nature has its cause in a previous condition of matter4 ,the cause goes before and the effect comes after in time4 ,the connection between cause and effect is so intimate and complete with regard to natural products1 that we may trace the series of occurrences backward and forward in time without other limitations than those imposed by a deficient knowledge of the qualities of matter4 ,such a connection between cause and effect has been termed mechanical causality1 which reigns without exception in the material world4 ,of entirely different kind and nature is the series of causes pertaining to the production of objects of art4 ,in their capacity of purpose they are themselves the physical cause of all the work that precedes their birth4 ,when the product of art is finally ready1 the effect has then gone before the cause4 ,such a connection is called teleological causality in contradistinction to the mechanical one1 where the cause always precedes the effect4 ,but although the product of art is the nearest cause of its own production1 it is not the primary one2 it is itself the result1 not of a cause to be found in the material world1 but of a foreign interference in the mechanical causality1 and points therefore to a supernatural ground which1 by a closer investigation1 will be found identical with a living will4 ,the will feels the want of other things than those which natural forces can spontaneously produce4 ,natural products act as incentives on the will1 spur it to break through mechanical causality so that physical laws by a judicious guidance may be forced to produce artificial products that better satisfy the desires of the will4 ,if natural laws could comprehend and judge these things1 they would consider them all as miracles1 whereas1 from the point of view of the will1 they are so much the more natural as they are exact expressions of the needs and desires of the will4 ,but not only the order of cause and effect1 even the tie between the two is entirely different in teleological causality from that in mechanical4 ,while the natural product is an effect that cannot fail to appear1 the product of art1 on the contrary1 is an effect that primarily never could be expected1 because it has no cause in the material world2 but further1 if it is forthcoming1 the tie between cause and effect is so loose that such a product may be left and will remain in any stage of its production4 ,it may be just commenced1 half ready1 or nearly completed2 be better or worse1 be a failure1 and so on1 whereas the natural product springs forth of physical necessity from its cause and never can be different from what it is4 ,wills and physical forces then stand against each other as two fundamentally and radically different causes4 ,a will may neglect to do what it ought to1 may be idle1 industrious1 undecided2 a physical force cannot leave undone what it has to do1 can never be called idle1 industrious or undecided4 ,that man is able to produce objects of art we have sufficient evidence in material invention1 from the simple stone-ax up to the most complicated machines4 ,but if man can create products of art he must himself be a supernatural cause1 as natural products produce nothing but their own kind4 ,and not only he but also the beings that build up his organism must be supernatural causes1 as we have seen that all organic matter ipso facto are products of art4 ,in all these different forms and species of products of art we possess1 therefore1 boundless masses of obvious and visible evidence that life is not a quality of matter4 ,in order to break through the mechanical causality and introduce into the material world effects which never could be spontaneously forthcoming1 life must have a supernatural origin1 must be a principle independent of matter4 ,by resuming the demonstration that the materialists had broken off1 we arrive therefore at the same conclusion that natural science had already drawn before from external observation1 and with which the question of the nature of life-force is inseparably connected4 ,the qualities of matter itself demonstrate clearly that spontaneous generation never has been1 is not and never will be possible1 and the tremendous labor spent during centuries to prove this by external observation seems almost a waste of time4 ,we might as well pick out a table full of stones and sit down expecting some of them to undertake a flight around the room1 as to expect living substance to come forth spontaneously from dead matter4 ,the intrinsic qualities of matter tell us that only hope for the former occurrence can warrant faith in the latter4 ,we thus consider it demonstrated that ,harvey's formula is a universal natural law and we may now draw its logical consequences3 ,life is not a material force2 no living being can therefore arise from dead matter2 all life has a supernatural origin in a higher immaterial world4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,soul and the ,cells4 ,living beings are alive because the very substance in them is living4 ,life belongs to this substance exactly as materiality belongs to matter4 ,as living substance can exist only in the form of living individuals1 all living beings fall outside the limitations of time and possess individual immortality without exception4 ,the cell1 therefore1 is as immortal as man4 ,but if this is the case1 the fact that the duration of the earthly life of man is different from that of the cell must now at last appear in its full significance4 ,during man's life a series of cell-generations have lived1 acted and disappeared1 although the phenomenon here1 as in the body of society1 passes comparatively unnoticed because the cell is invisible to the naked eye4 ,of course we observe a daily growth of nails1 hair and of the whole outer skin4 ,this outer layer consists exclusively of dead cells1 which daily scale off by the millions through wear1 washing or otherwise1 and are replaced by other dying cells from the inner living tissues4 ,the same process of dying and renewal takes place in the organs of the cell4 ,as man's lifetime often depends on the trade he has chosen1 so it is with the cells in his organism4 ,those that perform heavy work1 as for instance glandular cells1 often die in the moment their mission is filled4 ,this process commences even in the individual's embryonic state4 ,with lower animals1 whose generation takes place outside the mother-body1 we can often observe with the naked eye how whole organs normally die and disappear4 ,if the cells as well as men are immortal beings1 the question naturally arises3 what becomes of these incessantly dying cell generations8 ,the answer must necessarily be apparent if we can show1 ,first1 that the tie between the soul and the cells is indissoluble so that man's organism1 i4 e41 his spiritual body1 consists of the same cell-individuals in a future life as here in time2 ,second1 that the cells at the same time are self-existent and so independent of the soul1 that in a future existence also1 as here in time1 they can and must build up man's organism independently4 ,in such case no reason can be advanced that would prevent the dying cell-generations from immediately arising to a new and higher evolution1 which1 as we will endeavor to prove1 must be identical with the upbuilding of the higher1 transfigured body which man shall possess in a future life4 ,this form of resurrection must be common to all organisms because they are all built according to the same general plan and are consequently subject to the same general process of evolution4 ,men are themselves the cells in another higher organism1 humanity1 which entity cannot rise to a richer life in another world otherwise than through its upbuilding by the dying human generations under the new conditions that exist over there4 ,as a preliminary experiment in order to find out if the soul is indispensable to the life of the organism1 or if the cells possibly might do without the soul1 we may appropriately remove the latter from an organism and thus directly observe the importance of the soul for the cells4 ,but how can this be done1 or at least1 how may we deprive the organism of all influence from the soul8 ,the physiologists have proved the possibility of such an experiment4 ,it is fully established that the soul communicates with the body through the brain proper1 or the cerebrum1 and experience shows that this important organ may be removed and yet the body continue to live4 ,we will here give briefly the results of such experiments made with animals4 ,if the brain be removed from a dove or a hen1 the bird often recovers from the radical operation and may remain alive for months and even years4 ,but the dove has become an entirely different being4 ,immobile she sits on the same place4 ,if she were not heard to breathe she might be taken for a stuffed bird4 ,she lacks ability to judge her position and resembles a living machine that breathes1 and swallows the food brought into her bill4 ,the higher qualities of the dove are entirely lost4 ,she shows no signs of fear and is incapable of initiative4 ,she remains sitting in the same place and will not even fly down from small heights4 ,if thrown into the air1 she flies until her wings are tired or until she strikes an obstacle that she makes no effort to avoid4 ,from the first day she must be fed artificially1 but she digests her food as usual4 ,the heart1 the circulation of the blood1 the respiration1 in short1 all the vegetative functions of life continue regularly4 ,such a state has been characterized by ,flourens as a continuous sleep without dreams4 ,the same observations have been made with regard to dogs that have been deprived of a large part of the brain4 ,with lowered head and dead eyes1 such a dog moves about indifferent to everything taking place around him4 ,he shows no signs of fear1 envy or joy4 ,neither threats nor friendly speech impress him4 ,he never partakes in the barking of other dogs and is1 as a rule1 mute4 ,only should he be hungry he might set up a howl4 ,although indifferent to the strongest light or sound1 he is not entirely blind or deaf4 ,at the stronger sounds he might move his head slightly4 ,all higher life is lost1 but he digests his food and all vegetative functions continue just as regularly as if he were in normal condition4 ,observation of the effect of certain accidents and diseases intimates that man forms no exception but that the same results would probably be obtained from similar experiments with him4 ,though such experiments are out of the question1 we can1 however1 in many different ways ascertain that the soul of man is also inactive in the vegetative functions of his organism4 ,in earliest childhood this is perfectly evident4 ,to possess a soul that has no functions is1 as far as the result is concerned1 identical with possessing no soul4 ,if we observe a child during the very earliest period of its life we will find that it behaves essentially just as the animals referred to above4 ,even the child remains in the position it is given and is unable to comprehend what happens around him4 ,the child would likewise starve to death unless food were brought to his mouth1 but he swallows and digests the nourishment normally4 ,the movements of the heart1 the circulation of the blood and respiration all take place as normally as with the fully developed man during sleep when his soul also ceases to function4 ,the fact that the vegetative processes of the organism are not governed and controlled by the soul may be observed by anyone also during his conscious state4 ,in regard to respiration we may repress it only for a few minutes4 ,a command is soon given by certain cells in the central nerve-system which against the soul's will brings the organ in question into action4 ,experience tells us that strong agitations generally disturb the vegetative processes4 ,sudden fear1 for instance1 accelerates the heart's motion4 ,therefore these processes take place more evenly with animals deprived of their brain just because disturbing influences from the soul are then impossible4 ,thus it is certain beyond doubt that the cells not only execute but regulate and control through the central nerve-system a multitude of functions in which the soul does not take part4 ,but just as certain it is that there are many functions which the cells could not perform without the co-operation of the soul4 ,vision1 hearing1 smelling1 tasting and feeling would be entirely meaningless to the cells without the aid of the soul4 ,the same is the case in a high degree with the motions of the body which also require such a higher guidance4 ,the dove could fly1 the dog walk1 and so forth1 but the motions were relatively purposeless4 ,the predetermined plan was lacking4 ,the cells could assimilate the food1 when brought into the body1 but they could not search it in nature4 ,such action requires a power of combination that exceeds their measure of intelligence4 ,we see consequently that the cells may do without the soul in such functions as are not related to the exterior world comprehensible through our senses4 ,here they need the guidance of a higher1 more developed intelligence4 ,in the outside world with its more complicated relations1 the soul is to the cells very nearly what we mean by the word ,providence4 ,the soul performs1 in the interest of the cells1 such a higher1 regulating and guiding function4 ,the organism1 then1 is divided into two sections1 separated by a sharply defined boundary4 ,as independent and autocratic as the cells are in one of them1 is the soul in the other4 ,this bisection in two widely separated spheres is in itself remarkable1 but may be explained1 if we remember that the organism is an individual composed of lower individuals4 ,as different as these classes of individuals are in their nature and faculties1 equally incongruous are also the realms in which they dwell4 ,the cells move in the atomic and molecular world4 ,to them the molecules and atoms appear with a clearness comparable to the plainness with which the exterior world reveals itself to us4 ,it is natural then that the cells attend to the vegetative functions of the organism which just fall within their sphere of life1 a sphere of which the soul can obtain knowledge only indirectly by way of deductions4 ,equally obvious it is that only the soul can employ the organs of the body1 the functions of which fall within the visible world4 ,we have now endeavored to obtain an understanding of the importance of the soul to the cells by depriving the latter of the direct influence of the former4 ,this resulted from the removal of the brain1 the organ by which the soul more directly expresses itself4 ,but the soul is not actually removed from the body4 ,it still remains in the whole cell-mass4 ,the brain itself consists of cells1 in which the soul is not present except as in all the other cells4 ,the difference is only that the brain-cells are developed for the functions of thought1 whereas the cells in the other organs are intended for their specific purposes4 ,in order to remove the soul from the body we must remove the life from every cell4 ,the soul1 as we intend to show1 is inseparably connected with every particular cell-individual4 ,but in order to understand how the cells may be at once independent of1 and yet intimately united with the soul1 we must first know what an organism really is4 ,its nature and fundamental idea is the only thing that can explain this remarkable relationship4 ,but it is just here as to the essential qualities of an organism that the conceptions are generally very dim and vague4 ,commonly the organism is thought of as a very complicated mechanism whose members and organs mutually depend upon each other4 ,the organism is what the word implies1 a tool4 ,but every tool is intended for somebody's use4 ,who this one is1 is not said1 simply because it is considered self-evident4 ,if it be a human organism1 it is obviously the man who uses it2 if it be an animal organism1 it is the animal1 and so on4 ,that this is a truth1 cannot be denied2 but still it expresses only half the truth and scarcely that4 ,every organic body is used directly by the individuals that form its building material4 ,the human organism is a society of cells1 and it is these latter that first of all use the body's organs for their purposes4 ,but so dominating are the old ideas about the body1 that even the cytologists themselves have not been able to shake them off4 ,the cells are continually studied from man's point of view1 but what man may be from the cell's point of view is never thought of4 ,we do not hereby deny all justification to the old conception4 ,the body is also an organ for the soul4 ,the latter1 as experience shows1 uses the body for its own specific purposes4 ,but this takes place only to a somewhat limited extent4 ,the incomparably larger part of the soul's work1 cares1 and endeavors1 is devoted to finding means to satisfy bodily wants4 ,but so far as the soul provides for the necessities of the body1 it acts as organ for the cells4 ,when man believes that he is running his own errands1 he is in reality carrying out the missions of those beings that compose his body4 ,these latter demand for their purposes1 if not all1 yet at least the largest part of all the work the soul performs in this world4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,fundamental ,qualities of an ,organism4 ,in order to illustrate the fundamental characteristics of an organic structure in general1 we will begin with comparing it with what it most resembles1 namely1 a complicated mechanism4 ,the likeness is so striking that the very dissimilarities become instructive4 ,first of all we notice the parts of which the machine is composed4 ,what these parts are to the machine the members and organs are to the organism4 ,every part1 like every organ1 has a certain duty to perform which it incessantly repeats4 ,the work of the machine is divided among the parts as that of the organism among the organs4 ,as the organ1 so the part of the machine can do its share only when in right position and in right order4 ,the most obvious similarities are now exhausted4 ,the parts of the machine are actuated by external1 but the organs by internal1 forces4 ,the organism is a living machine4 ,no organism1 whether organic or mechanic1 labors for its own sake4 ,every such apparatus exists for somebody's use4 ,but while those that employ a machine stand in outer relation to the same1 those who utilize an organism are beings that themselves constitute the organic machine-parts4 ,these are not composed of dead atoms1 but of living individuals4 ,the organism is a society which puts the organic machinery into service4 ,it is the social tie that connects the individuals which otherwise would be a multitude of isolated beings4 ,in all organisms there are as many organs as actual wants among the individuals that compose it4 ,because these individuals are kindred1 they have common needs and are therefore able to use the same organ4 ,every particular individual requires the assistance of all the organs and must therefore stand in such relation to them all that he can utilize the work of any one4 ,but he himself enters as a working member only in one organ1 whose work is the only one he can immediately press into his service1 and even this only in certain cases4 ,all other organs stand in more or less distant relation to him4 ,how1 then1 will he be able to utilize them8 ,only so that the organs make themselves present in his own organ1 and1 so to speak1 reach him their different products4 ,like every citizen in a community1 each organ ought to have a system of circulation throughout all the other organs to transfer the results of its work where it is needed4 ,if1 however1 each organ were provided with such a distribution agency this would be an extravagance inconsistent with the concentration of forces that the very idea of an organism implies4 ,instead of many such systems we find therefore in every organism but one1 whose sole purpose is to circulate the products of the various organs1 and thus1 so to speak1 make each organ represented in every part of the whole community4 ,we find that every organic building is constructed in this way to suit the individuals that form its building-material1 and so of course it must be1 since it was built for that purpose by the same individuals4 ,the consequence is that the degree of development an organism possesses is closely related to the state of evolution reached by the individuals which constitute it4 ,the more perfected the organism1 the higher and more developed also are the necessities it is able to satisfy4 ,the way in which independent living beings build such an organic machine may be defined as 8division of labor40 ,every organism is a union1 founded on the division of labor1 between a multitude of kindred individuals which thus combine their isolated forces4 ,but a large mass of individuals cannot merge at once into an all-embracing entity4 ,this result can only be reached by a series of higher and lower intermediary units1 each defined by its particular share of the total labor4 ,a closer study of the organisms will show that they all without exception are composed in this way4 ,the cells in any organism in nature combine into higher and higher units as follows3 ,the primary unions of the cells are the tissues1 where all the cells perform the same function in the same way4 ,of these tissues is formed the nearest higher unit1 the organ4 ,as the tissue was a union of cells1 the organ is a union of tissues4 ,then we have a system of organs4 ,to each such higher system a more comprehensive function is assigned4 ,by distributing the total labor among the different systems these merge into the organism which unites the whole cell-mass into one well-organized community of working cell-individuals4 ,human society is similarly composed4 ,the difference is only that in one case the citizens are cells1 and in the other they are men4 ,of an organism in nature we only see the members and organs1 but not the cells2 in human society1 on the other hand1 we only observe the cells or the human individual1 but not the body of society4 ,the cells combine into a solid body2 humanity is spread over a surface4 ,human individuals1 because of their greater perfection1 move in space more freely and independently of each other than do the cells in their realm4 ,these and other differences do not1 however1 disturb the general organic structure4 ,this has everywhere the same fundamental qualities4 ,society is essentially only a vastly enlarged copy of the same model that man traces in his own bodily organism4 ,through a similar division of labor the work of the community is split into trades1 corresponding to the tissues in the natural organism4 ,as the cells in one tissue1 so the men in one trade are incessantly occupied with the same work4 ,out of several trades are formed the social organs4 ,a social organ consequently is a certain community or district performing a certain part of an industry4 ,this has been called 8territorial division of labor40 ,several such communities make up an organ-system or an industry4 ,a few such larger units merge into the single unit1 the entire mass of human individuals as a whole4 ,the cells of the individuals in an organism are consequently at once building-material and builders1 and in their latter capacity are endowed with wants and aspirations that with natural necessity force them to organization without conscious plan or purpose4 ,necessity is the teacher that tells them how to organize4 ,some speak of a social instinct that man does or should possess2 but its existence has never been shown4 ,on the contrary1 it is only by those needs that can only be satisfied by a community that men are driven to unite socially4 ,similarly with the cells4 ,only by building up an organism are they able to satisfy their common wants4 ,what society is to human individuals1 the natural organism is to the cells4 ,no trade or industry can be found in the state that does not serve to provide for some common want of the people1 and no tissue nor organ exists in the natural organism but for satisfying collective needs of the cells4 ,these collective needs are at the same time the higher needs of the individuals4 ,the organism provides the power that the isolated individual does not possess4 ,organization allows that specializing of effort which so essentially contributes to the productivity of labor4 ,the more limited the operations each individual has to perform1 the more rapidly and perfectly are they done4 ,although the cell lives in a world inaccessible to our immediate comprehension1 we still possess means to ascertain that it has the same fundamental qualities as man4 ,we observe manifestations of life in the cell corresponding to those of sensitivity1 feeling and will-power in man4 ,the cell's comprehending faculty has been termed irritability and its power of action spontaneity4 ,from certain physiological phenomena the conclusion has also been drawn that the cell likewise possesses memory4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,the ,organic ,relationship ,between the ,soul and the ,cells4 ,hitherto only little study has been given to the spiritual qualities of the cells1 and such investigations must always meet with certain insurmountable difficulties4 ,the reason is that we only judge others by ourselves and we are therefore unable to understand the spiritual life of any being that is not one of our kin4 ,if a being stands higher or lower than ourselves its spiritual experiences1 if not entirely different from ours1 are at least limited and modified by the being's own power of comprehension4 ,if1 however1 these beings show manifestations of life that we understand1 we must conclude that their spiritual or mental life is correspondingly active4 ,such a position we occupy with regard to the beings called cells4 ,from the result of their activities we conclude that they1 like men1 are endowed with aspirations capable of the highest conceivable evolution4 ,what economic necessities are to man1 the arterial blood is to the cell4 ,the blood is an artificial product which nature no more gives to the cell than it gives clothes1 food1 houses and the like to man4 ,nature provides the raw material and cell and man alike must learn how to adapt it for the necessities of life4 ,this operation1 however1 involves great difficulties4 ,all such artificial products stand in inverse proportion to the power of the individual4 ,the more perfect they are the more impossible it is for the individual to produce them4 ,only as citizens in a community1 that is1 through organization1 are the individuals able to produce such products as exceed their isolated forces4 ,although we cannot comprehend the inner life of the cell1 nor the world in which it dwells1 we are able to judge1 from the wonderful perfectness of the organisms built by cells1 that they have reached in their world and measured by their power a higher state of development than man4 ,it is not only possible but highly probable that the human individuals will sometime build an organism of the same perfectness1 but as yet they have not done so4 ,the cells have long ago passed the stage of organization that characterizes human society at present4 ,from the fact that the first purpose of every organic structure is to serve the individuals of which it is composed1 it follows that nobody1 except these same individuals1 can build the organism in question4 ,independently the cells build the human body here in time and they must do the same in the future life4 ,the organism cannot exist in other surroundings than those for which its organs are adapted4 ,but this adaptation can only be effected by the individuals that form the building material of the organs1 because the organs just express their relations to the world in which they exist4 ,thus it follows of necessity that man's resurrection or transition from one world to another must be identical with the dying cells' upbuilding of that organism which man shall possess in a future life4 ,any other form of resurrection is neither possible nor conceivable4 ,it is further confirmed by the relation that exists between the soul and the cells4 ,this relationship1 as we intend to show1 is such that the soul receives its entire individuality1 all its forces and faculties1 from the cell-organism1 the previous resurrection of which therefore is an indispensable condition for man's own rise to another life4 ,if the mass of a body is living the body itself is alive4 ,the whole receives its qualities from its elementary components4 ,the organism itself is a living being4 ,from the point of view of the building material the organism is a society composed of independently living individuals2 from the point of view of the whole again it is a living individual of higher order than the individuals that form its social side4 ,man is a cell in the social body1 but is himself composed of lower individuals1 which again consist of more primary units4 ,man1 considered as being possessed of a body1 is an individual composed of lower individuals4 ,we now ask the question3 ,what is the relation between the higher individual and the lower ones8 ,this is only another and more exact form of the question3 ,what is the relation between the soul and the body8 ,because1 what is the body and what is the soul8 ,the body is the sum of the lower individuals1 or1 in other words1 it is the organized mass of cells4 ,the soul1 as the feeling1 thinking and willing principle1 is the real spiritual unity in this mass1 or just what we denote by the word man1 or the higher individual4 ,to ask1 what is the relationship between the higher individual and its lower constituents is therefore the same as to ask1 what is the relation between the soul and the cells8 ,take away the latter1 and there is nothing left of the body4 ,the cells mean here everything1 and it is to them consequently that the soul can be thought to stand in relation4 ,formerly the problem was to explain how soul and body as two substantially different entities were related to each other4 ,they had then nothing in common1 nothing to encourage an interaction4 ,if now the relation holds between the soul and the cells we have at least commensurable quantities to deal with4 ,so far all is well4 ,but now other difficulties arise4 ,we can and must ask1 how an interaction is possible between the soul and the cells even if they are formally1 according to their inner nature1 kindred beings8 ,in other respects they are not so separated and different that a spiritual intercourse is inconceivable4 ,as inaccessible as is the inner life of the cell to man1 so incontiguous is the spiritual life of man to the cell4 ,these beings are so widely separated that they cannot possibly communicate directly with each other1 and yet in order to establish a mental or spiritual interrelationship1 such communication is just what is necessary4 ,the soul and the cells must have something in common that is of a purely spiritual nature4 ,as the spiritual always is a comprehending substance with nothing but comprehensions as its content1 the something common to both must consequently have the form of common comprehensions4 ,not all comprehensions1 however1 incite to activity and a smaller number yet call forth a co-operation of independently living individuals4 ,but1 obviously1 the perceptions that concern us now must be of the latter kind4 ,the comprehensions in general that induce a being to activity we call wants or appetites4 ,in its desires a being conceives its own ego in want of one thing or other4 ,the feeling of discomfort1 accompanying the want1 naturally causes the endeavor to satisfy the want through a corresponding effort4 ,the incitement to activity then is purely spiritual4 ,are the soul of man and the cells subject to such common needs1 requiring their co-operation8 ,if so1 at least their wants or appetites cannot be wholly congruous4 ,such are only to be found in entirely similar beings4 ,but different wants are satisfied in different ways2 each requires a carefully adapted form of activity4 ,all direct1 immediate co-operation of the soul and the cells is therefore impossible4 ,only man with man1 or cell with cell1 can co-operate in the primary sense of the word4 ,but an indirect working alliance is not yet precluded4 ,though themselves different1 the two beings may comprehend wants identical in substance1 but not in form4 ,the formal discrepancy would require not only different modes of satisfying the need1 but also different kinds of activity2 but the common substance might yet under certain conditions so unite and interlink the different labors1 that the result would show a mutual co-operation4 ,we shall presently see that the soul and the cells are so united with each other that the connecting link is the organism per se4 ,from the point of view of the cells the organism1 with its different members and organs1 was nothing but the collective expressions of individual wants4 ,now man comprehends as his needs only the wants of the organs2 in other words1 the collective wants of the cells are the individual wants of the soul4 ,experience teaches us that the soul has no direct comprehension of the cells1 but only of their organic unions4 ,to prove this it may be sufficient to point out that before the discovery of the microscope1 man knew absolutely nothing of the existence of these beings1 much less that they were the all-governing forces in his own body4 ,but also in other ways we may ascertain that the comprehending power of the soul does not reach beyond the organs4 ,this is apparent from the different significance the physiological processes have for the soul and for the cells4 ,if we consider the most important of them all1 our nutrition1 and ask ourselves for whom the nourishment is really intended1 we find that it is for the cells and for the cells alone4 ,the food benefits the soul only if it is utilized by the cells4 ,but the nourishment that the soul craves does not satisfy the cells4 ,hunger and satisfaction are not even simultaneous in both1 at least not as regards the same food4 ,as a rule1 the soul comprehends hunger when the cells are satisfied and vice versa4 ,the soul's hunger ceases the moment suitable food in sufficient quantity is introduced in the stomach4 ,but this does not help the cells4 ,because1 if the food remained in the stomach1 to the satisfaction of the soul1 the cells would soon die of starvation4 ,the nourishment in the stomach is of the same importance to the cells as the provisions stored in the warehouse of the community are to the human individuals4 ,these also would die from hunger if they let the victuals remain in the stores4 ,the people must undertake to distribute1 prepare and consume the food4 ,similarly the cells would starve to death unless they prepared the food in their common storage to suit their wants4 ,the nourishment must be transformed into blood through the whole complicated process we call digestion4 ,when this is done1 the cells are able to satisfy their craving1 and simultaneously a new hunger-feeling arises in the soul4 ,although it is the same food that satisfies both parties1 it is the same food administered in different forms1 at a different time1 and in a different mode4 ,we are concerned with dissimilar beings possessed of wants at once different and yet most intimately associated4 ,the connection is not difficult to understand4 ,when the soul comprehends the need of the stomach1 it is the collective want of the cells that comes to expression as the individual want of the soul4 ,the different needs receive in different form an identical substance and this fact is obviously the connecting link between the soul and the cells4 ,we might without difficulty carry out the same reasoning in regard to respiration and all the other physiological processes of the body4 ,from what we have said it is evident that the soul and the cells employ the body differently2 but for the sake of clearness this ought perhaps to be further accentuated4 ,the difference may be thus expressed3 ,the soul acts with the members and organs of the body as units1 whereas the cells perform the work of the organs as individuals4 ,it would be easy to explain what this implies if we could point to similar conditions in human society4 ,but no exactly similar institutions exist there1 at least not to the same extent4 ,they would exist if the ideal socialistic state was realized4 ,the cells in their sphere have carried through a communism of the most rigid form4 ,their social organs then do not work at the cell-individual's own initiative1 but only upon the command of the central power and under its guidance and control4 ,but even in the present organization of mankind1 we find a few organs which offer a suggestive comparison4 ,especially is this the case with the defensive organ of society1 the standing army1 which is entirely under the control of the central power and acts only upon its command and under its control4 ,as to its composition the army is a mass of independently living individuals1 co-operating so as to form an organic whole4 ,all the work this unit performs is done by the thousands of soldiers of which it is composed4 ,if the government decides to use this organ1 that is if it declares war1 we know that it leads1 arranges and controls the army as one unit4 ,it is not concerned with the soldiers as individuals1 but only as organized masses4 ,exactly analogous is the relation between the soul and the organs1 composed of cells1 in man's organism4 ,here also the cell-individuals perform the work of the different organs4 ,the soul is not concerned with the cells as individuals4 ,it governs1 guides and superintends the movements of the members as elements2 that is1 commands the cells as organic masses4 ,we now consider the following facts established4 ,the soul and the cells are different beings with different wants4 ,they do not feel or comprehend in the same way and can therefore not have immediate perceptions of each other4 ,however true this is on one side it is on the other just as certain that they are so intimately connected as to form the same organism through the medium of which they feel their mutual wants and therefore must have some comprehension of each other4 ,this strange and1 as it may seem1 contradictory relation depends on the fact that the union between the soul and the cells does not extend to their whole entity4 ,we have seen that the soul comprehended only the collective not the individual wants of the cells4 ,within certain defined limits therefore they have a common substance that causes their marvelous co-operation through the body4 ,to understand and explain this coperation we must make clear how the soul and the cells in their innermost nature are united4 ,and we shall learn this by going to the bottom of the meaning of the expression that a common substance so governs their relationship that the collective wants of the cells become the individual wants of the soul4 ,how then are the soul and the cells intrinsically connected8 ,the answer may be derived in two ways4 ,we might take both the subjective and the objective side of the wants as our point of view4 ,if we first consider the subjective side the relationship between the soul and the cells may be stated as follows3 ,we have previously pointed out that in its wants a living being perceives its own ego as related to something else4 ,this is an axiom that needs no demonstration4 ,if now the soul comprehends the collective wants of the cells as its own1 this can only mean that the soul comprehends that part of the cells' inner nature which expresses itself as their collective wants1 as a part of its own ego4 ,again the cells within the same limits on their part comprehend the soul's inner nature as belonging to their own individuality4 ,the connection within these limits is so intimate that they cannot comprehend themselves without at the same time comprehending each other4 ,the soul must consequently perceive the body as its own body because the same wants that cause the cells to upbuild the soul also belong to the soul's own entity4 ,on the other hand the soul in conceiving itself cannot comprehend the cells as such because the identity is not extended to their whole individuality4 ,when a being conceives the wants of somebody else as its own wants it is at the same time directly influenced by the other4 ,thus the soul and the cells act upon each other throughout the body4 ,a will of the soul takes with natural necessity the form of a common impulse upon the cells bringing them into action in the will's direction4 ,if the soul1 for instance1 wishes to move an arm or a hand1 a collective want is simultaneously created in the cells that form the organ in question to execute that movement4 ,we arrive at the same result by considering the fact that the different wants of the soul and of the cells are identical in substance4 ,the same substance cannot enter into and define different beings unless they themselves enter in and define each other4 ,as now both parties comprehend wants identical in substance1 the soul must necessarily belong to the cells so that it is the ground for their collective wants4 ,but these wants were the cell-individual's higher wants1 manifested in the organization of the body4 ,the soul therefore is potentially present in the cells in the form of their higher wants and is consequently developed along with the upbuilding of the body4 ,only when this is ready is the soul's entity developed4 ,the soul must then comprehend the organism as its particular body when conscious of its own ego1 but the cells do not enter into the soul's entity as individuals and are therefore not present as such in man's consciousness4 ,for this organic co-operation the soul and the cells need no language1 no signs to communicate with each other4 ,it is not even necessary that they are aware of each other's existence4 ,it is sufficient that each party comprehends its own wants and acts for their satisfaction according to its own nature4 ,if they do this their co-operation through the body receives a simple and at the same time complete explanation4 ,but however natural this interaction is1 it is nevertheless a wonder above all wonders4 ,the world that exists to the soul does not exist to the cells1 and vice versa4 ,they have an entirely different conception of the realm in which they live4 ,they have different apprehensions1 feelings and wants and perform accordingly different functions4 ,but in spite of this they are1 as we have seen1 within certain limits so intimately connected that these different comprehensions and labors are interlinked with each other1 regulating each other as accurately as the wheels in a clock4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,resurrection4 ,from the relationship existing between the soul and the cells it appears that the former cannot live a life independent of the latter4 ,the soul receives its entire individuality1 all its qualities1 forces1 and faculties1 through the organism built by the cells1 which therefore must exist before the soul can exist as the real unity in the organism4 ,this does not mean that the soul is an empty form void of independent substance4 ,even before the cells have combined into an organic unit the soul is potentially present in them in the form of the wants that force them to upbuild the organism1 and this organism is that of the soul1 not that of the cells1 of which each possesses its individual organism4 ,but if the soul is potentially present in the cells it is only through them that it can arise to a higher life4 ,we have already shown in another connection that a direct transposition would be useless and meaningless4 ,endowed with his present organs adapted to earthly conditions1 a man suddenly translated into the glories of a higher world would with seeing eyes yet see nothing1 with hearing ears hear nothing and with feeling senses would feel nothing4 ,to comprehend what there exists and happens1 man's own organism must have undergone a corresponding radical transformation4 ,he must have new1 more perfect senses1 higher spiritual and bodily faculties1 differing from his present as far as the objects in this higher world differ from those on earth4 ,this transfigured body can only be organized by the same beings that built it here in time4 ,the soul is inseparably united with these beings and is where they are4 ,here in time man commences with a cell and with a cell he must begin in a future life4 ,this first cell with which man enters his next form of existence cannot logically be any other than the first dying cell-individual4 ,as no atom1 so no elementary unit of the living spiritual body is annihilated4 ,viewed from our present existence death cannot mean anything to the departed cell-generations but the cessation of life and activity in the world responsive to our senses4 ,in reality they rise to a higher evolution under different conditions and this evolution must be identical with the upbuilding of the glorified body man shall possess in a future life4 ,this form of death and resurrection1 natural because it is founded on the idea and nature of the organism1 is common to all living beings and must so be1 as they are all built according to the same general plan and therefore essentially subject to the same evolutionary processes4 ,the birth and death of the lower individuals in whole generations is known to be a universal phenomenon in every organism and we will now endeavor shortly to explain this process4 ,if the soul enters as a real part in every individual cell1 it does not belong differently to the first generation than to the last or to the whole series of intermediary generations4 ,but here in time man lives only in the generation existing at the present moment4 ,the generations that in the past successively formed the spiritual substance of his body have already gone out of time and those that are coming have not yet made their entrance4 ,man's entity is thus split or distributed upon a series of successively existing moments1 each of which contains only a certain limited part of the organism1 and the latter has therefore in reality a far broader extent than is seen at present4 ,but time confines and restricts man not only in this1 but in all respects4 ,to take another example1 we know that man possesses a multitude of different faculties and talents4 ,but in time he cannot utilize them all4 ,as a member of society he devotes himself to a certain trade or profession4 ,now there are thousands of different possible activities and therefore thousands of different talents that every man might develop but never can1 simply for lack of time4 ,time is not even sufficient to fully develop one human talent in one definite direction4 ,man has at his disposal only the present moment1 and in each moment he can only think one thought1 perform one act1 satisfy one need4 ,it is said that man should develop all his faculties evenly1 but so long as he lives in time this is an impossibility4 ,as a matter of fact man can only live this life piecemeal1 and in this time-existence proper we have the explanation of the fact that man distributes his body over a series of cell-generations4 ,the law of the indestructibility of matter and energy is valid also in the ideal world and this necessarily since it is a demand of thought itself4#c ,applied to spiritual substance1 which can exist only in the form of living individuals1 the law may be expressed1 8,all living beings are immortal40 ,if therefore the cell-generations that in the past composed man's organism can no more be annihilated than the future generations can be created from nothing1 this implies that man has an individual existence not only after but before his entrance into this world4 ,if such be the case we must be able to derive and explain our earthly life from this pre-existence4 ,can it now be shown that man's conditions in his pre-existence are such that he needs and must go through an evolution in time8 ,in that case history may perhaps give us a hint how to answer the question1 or would this pre-existence be an entirely new thought8 ,by no means4 ,pre-existence is and must be a fundamental idea in all religions because they all suppose that man emanated from ,god through an original act of creation4 ,that the ,christian religion especially has this basic idea ,victor ,rydberg has fully demonstrated in a treatise entitled 8,man's ,pre-existence40 ,but although we may say that all religions teach a pre-existence we do not mean that this idea has been or even could have been rightly understood4 ,we might expect just the contrary1 as pre-existence is connected with the common conception that man's soul as well as the material world was once created in time1 in which case pre-existence can only mean an existence extending very far back in time4 ,there was a time when ,god existed but not man1 which latter1 as being created1 must have an existence separate from ,god even if he may in other respects be called ,his image4 ,this form of belief in pre-existence shows the same shortcomings and is subject to the same objections as the whole orthodox theory of creation4 ,as we can and must ask how a perfect ,god could create an imperfect1 that is1 an evolutionary world1 we might also ask1 why was man created with the necessity for an evolution in time when he never could develop anything but what ,god had implanted potentially in his being8 ,instead of explaining evolution this theory only makes it so much the more mysterious4 ,besides this conception1 however1 the religious intuition has surmised that the connection between ,god and man is profoundly deeper and more intimate4 ,man does not have an existence separate from ,god4 ,this intuitive thought1 intensified in highly religious souls1 has led them to preach1 that man possesses a life in ,god2 is part of ,his own being1 is a living member in ,his perfect organism4 ,if this be true1 why1 again1 must man go through an evolution8 ,is he not as unchangeable as ,god ,himself8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,man and ,infinity4 ,it is the perennial honor of ,sweden's greatest philosopher1 ,christofer ,jacob ,bostrm1 to have satisfactorily explained the extremely difficult and complicated question with which our last chapter concluded4 ,he has shown that man1 exactly on the supposition that he is an eternal part of ,god's being1 requires and must go through an evolution in time4 ,according to ,bostrm1 religious intuition has found the truth that man is an eternal idea in ,god1 a living member in ,his organism4 ,but ,bostrm has also understood and considered the difference implied in thinking of man as a member in ,god's organism and in thinking of this member as living its independent life4 ,in the former case man possesses the same qualities as ,god2 in the latter1 these qualities with corresponding limitations4 ,for an illustration of how all limited beings are incorporated in an absolute personality1 ,bostrm likes to fall back on the numerical system4 ,spiritual beings form a series1 as it were1 of lower and higher entities1 where the latter contain the former pretty much as higher numbers contain the smaller4 ,bostrm distinguishes between positive and negative attributes1 and means by the former those attributes without which the being cannot be thought1 and which it therefore in one sense contains4 ,so for instance in the number ten1 all the previous numbers are positive attributes because ten cannot be thought without them1 which1 however1 does not imply identity with either of the lower numbers4 ,on the other hand all the following numbers are negative attributes to the number ten because this may well be thought without them4 ,it contains them only if it is considered as one point in the numerical system1 in which case it has them all as attributes4 ,thus1 still referring to the number ten1 this may be considered complete within itself without considering the higher numbers1 whereas if we wish to comprehend it fully we must see it as a link in the numerical system4 ,ten would not be the half of twenty without the latter1 and so on4 ,the existence of the higher is after all required for that of the lower as fully as the existence of the lower is necessary to that of the higher4 ,because each entity is higher according as it has a larger number of the rest as its positive and a smaller number as its negative attributes1 it follows that the highest entity1 or ,deity1 has no negative attributes but only positive ones1 which of course is the true meaning of the expression that ,god is the most perfect being4 ,as a lower being is more perfectly defined when considered included in a higher1 this fact must be the reason why all finite1 rational beings in their evolution try to assert themselves in the higher beings1 up to the highest1 by whom they finally obtain their full scope and in whom only they live their complete life4 ,but if ,bostrm had lived to study the modern cytology he would have found a more adequate comparison within man's organism1 and one that perhaps in several respects would have modified his conception of the world of divine ideas4 ,god is related to man as man is1 not to the cell1 but to the lower units of which the cell is composed4 ,between ,god and man there is at least one other organism that we know of1 namely humanity4 ,but if we overlook this and for simplicity's sake imagine the relationship as that of man to cell it should be evident from what has been previously said that man is and must be something else to ,god than he is to himself4 ,to ,god he is what the cell is to man1 a living part in ,his organism1 and in this capacity he possesses all the perfect qualities of that organism4 ,living his independent life1 man is in the same position as the cell in his own being1 when the cell is thought of as living the life it is confined to by its less perfect organism4 ,although limited to that life the cell may literally be said to be man's image--but an image of a very singular kind4 ,the cell does not reproduce man's traits as does a photograph or a statue1 but within its lower realm it mirrors the fundamental qualities of the original on a very reduced scale4 ,these limitations can not be conceived by the cell as such because they are natural to it and belong to its entity4 ,the cell is and must feel itself as perfect in its realm as man in his4 ,only if the cell could compare its conditions with man's1 these limitations would be apparent to it1 and such a comparison the cell really undertakes within certain limits4 ,into each feeling of want enters a comparison between the possessed and the desired4 ,in the higher wants1 then1 that drive the cells to upbuild man's organism we have a manifestation of such a comparing power of the cell4 ,experience shows that the cell may live in a veritable natural state1 but it is also1 because of the presence of the soul in its innermost being1 capable of a high culture for the development of which it receives constant impulses and stimulations from the soul4 ,in the same sense man may be said to be the image of ,god4 ,living in the world and the natural state1 to which he is confined by his relatively imperfect organism1 man has the qualities of ,god with corresponding limitations4 ,but even in this state he feels the spirit of ,god present in him because he is an original part of ,god's own organism4 ,in his conscience and in his religious feeling man not only comprehends distinctly the presence of ,god in his inner being but constantly receives also impulses1 incitements and inspirations to develop that perfect life and heavenly kingdom1 of which he is called by his high origin and divine birth to become a citizen4 ,what the conscience and the religious feelings are to the will1 the logical laws of thinking are to the reason1 and in the latter1 man finds ,god as immediately present as in the former4 ,indeed1 logical laws are the form in which ,god himself exists4 ,because of ,god's presence in the eternal laws of our thinking1 man is able to appraise himself and his condition with an absolute measure1 and can in this way obtain a certain knowledge of ,god's world and of his perfect qualities4 ,he has only to abstract all wants and limitations from such qualities as have a positive content1 because lack of want is perfectness4 ,we shall now undertake such a valuation with respect to man's need of evolution here in time1 which quality1 as all the others1 can be explained and understood only through its connection with the corresponding quality in the absolute being4 ,it is as natural to ,god to be without an origin and an evolution as it is to man to have them1 and we might therefore ask how man in this respect can have anything in common with ,god1 a condition which1 as we remember1 was indispensable for any comparison whatever4 ,to make this point clear we may express ourselves in a more familiar way4 ,we might speak of time and existence in time1 instead of origin and evolution1 as the latter are only forms of time4 ,is there then a moment in time that has a corresponding meaning for ,god and the limitations of which we must abstract in order to understand ,god's quality of being eternal8 ,it is by analyzing the relation between time and eternity that we hope to receive an answer to the question why man must undergo an evolution in time4 ,the most conspicuous want in all that exists in time is its lack of duration2 everything has a beginning and an end4 ,with this lack of duration a corresponding lack of reality follows4 ,the real is real1 only as long as it lasts or only in the present moment4 ,everything past has ceased to exist and is therefore no longer real1 and the future is unreal because it has not entered the present4 ,the real in time is identical with the present1 which therefore must be the moment most like eternity and the limitations of which we have to remove4 ,first of all1 the present in time suffers the want of ceasing and sinking back into the past1 into unreality4 ,we can overcome this only by raising everything past from its grave1 so to speak1 and drawing it simultaneously into the present4 ,to the eternally present1 nothing past1 ending or ceasing can exist4 ,on the other hand the present in time suffers the same want in the opposite direction1 inasmuch as everything future is excluded therefrom and this future growing reality must therefore be drawn into the eternal4 ,neither past nor future can exist to ,god2 ,he lives life undividedly1 without limitations1 and needs not1 as man1 plot out his existence in a series of moments4 ,eternity then is not identical with unending time2 it is a different form of existence1 related to time as the perfect to the imperfect4 ,difficult as it is to explain what eternity implies as the perfect form of existence1 it is no less difficult to comprehend the infinite wealth of content that such a form includes4 ,we will therefore give a few brief suggestions in this direction4 ,how poor in content is everything present to man1 and likewise how defective and unsatisfactory is his whole life here in time4 ,as a matter of fact we can in each moment only think one thought1 perform one act1 satisfy one want4 ,we read a book and we are only conscious of one line or one sentence at a time4 ,we listen to a musical creation or admire an exhibition of art1 and we only hear a few harmonies1 or see a few details of one picture1 more distinctly at the time1 and so on4 ,how much richer would not our life be if we could think the book from beginning to end at once1 hear the harmony of the entire oratorio1 now focus the beauties in smallest details of the whole picture-gallery to one point4 ,it even dazzles our spiritual eye if we enlarge the range of such a rich intuition to encompass not only our nearest environments but our whole earth or possibly our entire solar system1 and yet we have only taken one step on a road that has no end4 ,our solar system is only an insignificant point among those innumerable worlds that form the ,milky ,way1 beyond which the astronomers surmise the existence of other hosts of stars without limit4 ,if we now could share in life at every point in this infinity of worlds1 would then our conception of the content of eternity be exact8 ,by no means4 ,we must include in this present moment everything that has happened on these worlds since the dawn of time and similarly all that will occur in the millenniums to come4 ,is the eternal measure now full and overflowing8 ,by no means4 ,above us and below us there are beings to whom other universes exist as infinite in all directions as our own4 ,all these infinities of infinities must be drawn into eternity1 but then1 surely1 the measure must be full4 ,by no means4 ,we have all this time moved within the realm of phenomena1 that is to say1 in the finite world2 all this is only a faint shadow of the wealth that eternity contains4 ,god lives in a light that no man hath seen nor yet can see4 ,in this light1 in this perfectness1 man is a part of the divine entity4 ,this life in ,god's eternal consciousness is man's primary and original existence4 ,only in a secondary meaning is he a self-existent personality and is then no more identical with ,god than the cell is with man4 ,man as an entity for himself must have the natural limitations of the part4 ,conceived by ,god man is eternal in the divine sense1 but conceived by himself man's eternal life is clothed in the limitations we call time4 ,the eternal is a constant present without beginning or end1 without past or future4 ,what is present to man must suffer these limitations2 in other words1 man must be born1 must go through an evolution1 or what is the same1 become to himself what he has been eternally to ,god4 ,in this respect man's relation to ,god may be compared to the relation of a newborn child to its earthly father4 ,to him the nature and scope of the child is perfectly clear1 but the child is unconscious of it and must awaken to an understanding thereof1 that is to say1 must become to itself what it already is to its father4 ,living beings form a continuous series in the absolute organism4 ,this series is such that the higher beings form the conditions and supports of the lower4 ,this connection must be entirely reversed during evolution itself1 which naturally proceeds from the lower to the higher4 ,in time therefore the generation and development of the lower beings must precede that of the higher4 ,we have also seen that the evolution of the former is identical with the upbuilding of the organisms of the latter1 and we understand now that the whole process must essentially follow the course which1 as we have previously shown1 it does in fact1 actually take4 ,it is further the inherent idea of time that man's eternal entity cannot appear whole and undivided4 ,he must plot it out along a series of successive moments which make room for only one cell-generation at a time4 ,as the cell's entity again has a less comprehensive content than man's1 its lifetime must be correspondingly shorter4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,recapitulation4 ,the theory we have here advanced may naturally seem startling2 for what could be more foreign to common conceptions than the assertion that science today gives us full evidence of a death and a resurrection that commence during our life in time8 ,considering this1 it may be appropriate to recapitulate the salient points in our line of thought4 ,from prehistoric times up to our own days all people at all stages of evolution have to a man been convinced that the body in some way and in some form contains an imperishable and essential part which man cannot do without in a future life4 ,with this intuitive and purely instinctive faith as a basis1 the steps in the following historical evolution become fully natural and logical consequences4 ,it is not to be wondered at that this eternal part should at first sight be considered identical with the material body4 ,therefore it was also natural that a cult of the dead would be the stage where all people begin4 ,man sees however that death as a matter of fact separates the immortal soul from that body which the soul cannot dispense with4 ,the separation cannot be complete because the ties cannot be severed4 ,the soul then is attached to the body even after death4 ,consequently it must be the duty of the surviving to provide the body of the deceased with a dwelling as good and suitable as possible and also with the provisions that the body needs4 ,a man could not1 however1 find such a condition satisfactory for any length of time1 and the thought of death gnaws and torments him4 ,shall the soul never regain possession of the body without which even the glories of heaven are pale and shadowy8 ,the doctrine of the bodily resurrection on the day of judgment must be the next great progress in our philosophy of life4 ,but unusually gifted persons1 bent towards idealism1 had already felt instinctively that it was not the exterior1 material covering that was indispensable to the soul4 ,man possessed also another1 a spiritual body which the soul could immediately transfer to another life4 ,we gain a glimpse of the vividness of this intuition in large groups of men1 when we remember that the survivors even sought to annihilate the material body by the flames of the pyre in order to liberate the deceased from his earthly ties4 ,the great masses of the population could not rise to this ideal conception1 and we therefore find the two fundamental ideas prevailing side by side4 ,here the two first epochs in man's history end4 ,they show us the intimate connection between religious conceptions and man's understanding of the exterior world in which he lives and acts4 ,the following stage commences logically with the great advancement of the natural sciences4 ,chemistry partly lifts the veil that hides the innermost nature of matter1 and at the dawn of the new science the old ideas concerning the nature of the body disappear like the shadows of night at the rising of the sun4 ,a bodily resurrection on doomsday is impossible because every dead body sooner or later arises and takes part in the circulation of matter1 so that on the day of judgment it might be found that the same materials had entered over and over again into the composition of a variety of human bodies4 ,it is also a fact that man changes his material clothing several times even during his earthly life4 ,but the belief in the essential value of the body is too deeply rooted to give away entirely and so we meet it again in the modern materialism which perhaps may be said to emphasize the significance of the body even more than the cult of the dead did in ancient time4 ,but while materialism claims as its own the consequences of the revolutionary work of chemistry1 biology lays the firm foundation for a new and higher development of religious conceptions4 ,biology discovers and proves the existence of that spiritual body which humanity has surmised since prehistoric times4 ,it is to this extraordinarily important fact that we desired to call attention4 ,we have endeavored to draw its consequences only as regards the cell-generations which successively rise and die in the human body as in human society4 ,now when it can be shown that these dying generations are eternal and imperishable parts of man's own nature1 the conception of death and resurrection we have here advanced must be the only possible one4 ,the hitherto common ideas regarding the translation of man to another world have upon closer study been found as nave as they are unnatural1 because any such direct transposition of man's entity is impossible and unthinkable4 ,but however simple and scientifically natural the theory here proposed1 it could not have appeared at a much earlier date4 ,it requires not only the results of modern cytology but also the widening of the idea of immortality which natural science suggests and overwhelmingly proves4 ,it presupposes also the law of evolution we have endeavored to make clear1 namely1 that beings endowed with common wants and existing in similar surroundings and conditions cannot develop1 except by the upbuilding of an organism1 and thus entering as organic members in an individual of higher order than themselves4 ,from these premises we might have deduced our theory of death and resurrection and yet the whole process would still have seemed mysterious and inexplicable but for the work of our great predecessor1 ,christofer ,jacob ,bostrm1 that ,plato of the ,north1 so often misunderstood by his contemporaries1 or at least more known on account of certain possible deficiencies in his system than because of its imperishable merits4 ,idealism and materialism have hitherto stood as two absolutely incompatible contrasts and the fierce battle that continuously rages1 even in our days1 between the two world-conceptions can1 according to common notions1 only be brought to an end through the complete defeat of one of the parties4 ,we have endeavored to show that both these philosophies have common deficiencies1 but that each of them possesses an essential part of truth4 ,we cannot deny idealism the merit of having looked far deeper into the nature of things and phenomena4 ,while admitting this we cannot be blind to the fact that this philosophy has left at least one fact of nearly overwhelming importance totally unexplained4 ,if it be true that the soul is the essential part of man and is that to which alone immortality is granted1 how then shall we account for the fact that the soul's evolution1 properly the one principal object of man1 must stand aside for the body to such an extent that the body utilizes1 if not all yet at least the largest part of man's time and energy8 ,to materialism this reply is given1 but then again this philosophy has been unable to answer all those questions which idealism alone could satisfactorily explain4 ,now at last we understand the reason for these contradictions4 ,the two world-conceptions suffer the same essential deficiency of having overlooked the fact that the body contains a spiritual organism1 of the same importance to man's future life as to his present4 ,in the theory here proposed materialism in a purified form melts into idealism1 which latter thus receives the supplement it hitherto has lacked as a universal1 satisfactory world-explanation4 ,we have barely outlined this new1 organic idealism and have treated it somewhat more extensively only with reference to death and resurrection4 ,but also on this point our work1 as all human effort1 is only piecemeal labor4 ,as soon as we have advanced one step1 other entirely new questions arise4 ,we already discern boundless expanses of problems in the same direction and shall here point out one example4 ,the organic changes1 characterizing old age and preceding the so-called natural death1 are comparatively well studied and known4 ,but in spite of this1 natural science is unable to tell us the underlying cause in the inner nature of the organism1 and it is even admitted that we know no reason why the process should not follow an entirely opposite course4 ,from our point of view man has an individual content larger than that included in the successive moments of time1 and death should normally enter with the translation of the last cell-generation4 ,it is true that as civilization advances man's lifetime is constantly increasing1 so that we may look forward to a time when most men will die a natural death4 ,but if we meet a premature death1 as is now generally the case1 can this1 and other disturbing interruptions in the natural process1 afterwards be repaired8 ,let us hope that this is possible1 but a decisive answer we cannot give4 ,our conviction is that ,god does not interfere to help man either in the transition itself or in a future life in any other way than he does here in time4 ,certainly the clerical orthodoxy has rightly understood the divine guidance in its teaching of ,god's general providence1 comprising the whole creation1 ,his special providence in regard to mankind1 and ,his most particular providence1 limited to the faithful2 that is1 to those that let themselves be governed by the divine will4 ,critical experience has never discovered any exterior1 occasional interference1 which moreover is utterly impossible4 ,god is present and active in the eternal and unchangeable laws of nature and spirit4 ,sin and punishment1 virtue and reward1 are connected with each other as reason and conclusion1 cause and effect4 ,man is himself the cause of his acts and they bring their inevitable consequences4 ,the man therefore who consciously and purposely distorts his own natural evolution or that of others stands before himself and before his fellow men burdened with a terrible responsibility4 ,,footnotes #a ,the latest researches in regard to the newly discovered corpuscles show that these 8bodies0 have a mass proportional to the square of their velocity1 thus forcing us to conclude that they at rest have no mass4 ,perhaps1 therefore1 the ancient dualistic world of matter and force is merging into a larger unity where life directs force to serve its specific purposes4--,translator's note4 #b ,chemists understand that the so-called native iron1 found1 for instance1 in ,greenland1 forms no real exception more than the chemical reactions that absorb heat form exceptions to the general law that chemical processes set heat free1 because if the necessary simultaneous reactions are taken into account1 all the reactions as a whole show a surplus of heat4--,translator's note4 #c ,bjrklund might here properly have referred to his previous demonstration of the fact that life has no roots in time1 consequently is independent of this principle--i4 e41 immortal4--,translator's note4 ,,index ,absolute organism1 the1 #ahg4 ,achilles1 #ad4 ,activity1 incitement to1 #aed4 ,adaptation1 #adi4 ,affinity1 #ig4 ,agni1 the elementary1 #bd4 ,annihilation contrary to nature1 #a1 #afh4 ,army organization1 #aei;f4 ,art and organic matter1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aai;f4 ,ask and ,embla1 #ba4 ,athens1 #i4 ,bacteria1 #eg4 ,belief in future life1 #b4 ,biology and the spiritual body1 #aib4 ,bjrklund1 ,johan ,gustaf1 ,,vii4 ,body1 importance of the1 #ah4 ,bostrm1 ,christofer ,jacob1 #agd1 #aid4 ,burial ceremonies1 #i1 #bj4 ,bchner1 #dh;f1 #ef1 #fb1 #fi1 #gc1 #ge1 #hc4 ,causality1 #aah1 #aai4 ,cause1 sufficient1 #aag4 ,cells1 living units1 #bg1 #bi2 man1 a community of1 #cj2 a system of1 #adb4 ,chemical reactions1 #gf1 #hb4 ,chinese civilization1 #aj2 death-cultus1 #aa4 ,chlorophyll1 #aae4 ,christianity1 #af1 #bj4 ,church burial1 #af4 ,circulation1 blood1 #gh4 ,civilization1 antiquity of ,chinese1 #aj4 ,cohesion1 #ig4 ,conscience1 #dd4 ,consciousness1 #de4 ,combustion1 #ib1 #id;ff4 ,communism1 cell1 #aei4 ,coperation1 innermost1 #afa4 ,corporeal existence1 soul's craving for1 #ae4 ,cosmic catastrophe1 a1 #ajc4 ,creation1 orthodox theory of1 #fg1 #agc4 ,cremation1 #ba1 #bd4 ,customs1 grave1 #ac4 ,coulanges1 ,fustel de1 #g1 #aj4 ,cytology1 #bh1 #bi1 #agg1 #aic4 ,darwin's theory1 #fb4 ,death1 and dissolution1 #a2 in mid-ocean1 #ab4 ,death-cultus1 #aa1 #di1 #ahi1 #aib4 ,decay1 #aje1 #aaf4 ,deity1 #agf4 ,dextrose1 #hb4 8,division of labor10 organic1 #ada4 ,dogma1 #af1 #ea4 ,doomsday1 #aia4 ,dove1 #abh4 ,dualism1 ecclesiastical1 #ba1 #hh4 ,dusch1 von1 #eg4 ,duty of matrimony in ,china1 #ab4 ,dying and renewal1 process of1 #abe4 ,earth1 history of our1 #ajj4 ,ego1 perceived as relation1 the1 #afb;f4 ,elysian fields1 #ae4 ,energy of a living being1 the1 #gb4 ,entity1 the soul's1 #afd2 man's1 #afi2 the divine1 #ahe4 ,equivalents of energy1 #hi4 ,eskimo1 the1 #ac4 ,eternal1 the1 #aha1 #ahe;f4 ,eternity1 #ahc4 ,ether1 #hi4 ,evolution1 #ag1 #bf4 ,existence beyond the grave1 #cg4 ,experience1 daily1 #gg4 ,faith1 founded on probability1 #cg4 ,fear1 effect of1 #aca4 ,fechner1 ,gustav1 ,v4 ,flourens1 #abi4 ,folk-lore1 ,,iv4 ,food1 #aef4 ,forces1 inorganic1 #gd2 as qualities1 #gf2 and resistance1 #hg4 ,forms of energy1 #hh4 ,foundation fact1 ,bjrklund's1 ,,xii4 ,fries1 ,s4 ,a4 ,d4 ,d41 ,,vii4 ,fuel1 organic1 #ic4 ,function1 bodily1 #dh4 ,funeral ceremonies1 #g4 ,furnace heat and the sun1 #aji4 ,future life1 modern attitude toward1 #d4 ,geology1 #fb1 #fi4 ,ghosts1 #be4 ,god1 image of1 #bb2 presence of1 in logical laws1 #ahj4 ,granfelt1 #ai4 ,grave1 communications from the1 #g2 in ,china1 #ab4 ,grew1 #bh4 ,harvey's formula1 #ee;f1 #eh1 #fb;ff1 #fg1 #abb4 ,heat1 equivalents of1 #ih;f4 ,historical process1 the1 #df1 #gj1 #ahh;f4 ,hierologists1 ,germanic1 #bb4 ,hoffman1 #eh4 ,hner1 #bb4 ,humanity1 a higher organism1 #abf2 the link between ,god and man1 #agg4 ,hunger1 #aef4 ,hydrates of carbon1 #hb4 ,idea1 man1 ,god's eternal1 #agd4 ,idealism1 #ah1 #aid4 ,image of ,god1 the soul an1 #agb;f1 #agi4 ,immaterial experience1 #de1 #ej4 ,immortality1 instinctive1 #a1 #b2 of the cell1 #abd4 ,incentives1 #aai4 ,indestructibility of matter and energy1 #agj4 ,indian tribes1 #ac4 ,industry1 a common need of1 #ade4 ,inertia1 #aaa4 ,instinct1 faith and1 #d1 #f2 social1 #add4 ,intellect1 mechanical equivalent of1 #ij4 ,intelligence and the soul1 #acb4 ,intuition1 #bf1 #dd1 #agc;f4 ,islam1 #ae4 ,judaism1 #ae4 ,jungle of materialism1 the1 ,,xv4 ,key1 ,ellen1 ,,viii4 ,laboratory results1 #hc1 #hd4 ,language1 cell1 #afd4 ,lavoisier1 #gb4 ,life-force1 so-called1 #ga1 #gc1 #aba4 ,life1 supernatural origin of1 #abc4 ,logical laws the form in which ,god exists1 #ahj4 ,limitations1 man's1 #agh4 ,lodur1 #ba4 ,machine1 the living1 #gi1 #aci4 ,malpighi1 #bh4 ,man1 a social organism of cells1 #cb2 responsibility of1 #aih4 ,material1 organic1 #aab;f4 ,materialism1 #ai1 #di1 #he4 ,matrimony in ,china1 #aa4 ,matter1 #dg1 #fh1 #hh1 #if1 #aah4 ,mechanical toy1 man not a1 ,,xiv4 ,mechanism of the organism1 #ach4 ,memory1 #adf4 ,metamorphosis1 #dj4 ,micro-organic world1 the1 #eh4 ,mid-ocean1 death in1 #ab4 ,microscope1 the1 #bh1 #aee4 ,mirbel1 ,brisseau de1 #bi4 ,mind1 time-bound and space-bound1 ,,xiv4 ,moldenhaver1 #bi4 ,molecules1 #if4 8,moss-clad fragment10 the1 #fe4 ,motility1 mechanical1 #gi4 ,mutability1 #ia4 ,mythology1 ,germanic1 #ba4 ,nations as organisms1 #ca4 ,natural science1 #dh1 #aia4 ,nirvana1 ,,xiv4 ,nobel prize1 the1 ,x4 ,negroes1 immortality ideas among1 #ab4 ,nordenskold1 #ac4 ,norse sagas1 #ae4 ,odin1 #bb4 ,omne vivum ex vivo1 #ei4 ,organic structure1 #cc1 #hc1 #hd4 ,origin of life1 the1 #gj4 ,oxygen1 #ajb4 ,pacific ,ocean1 #aj4 ,parasites1 #ed4 ,parseeism1 #ae4 ,pasteur1 #eh4 ,permanence1 law of1 #hi1 #ia4 ,personal existence after death1 #f4 ,philosophy of science1 the1 #gc4 ,polar regions1 #aj4 ,pre-existence1 #aga4 ,prehistoric beliefs1 #d1 #ahh4 ,present1 the eternally1 #ahb4 ,presentiment1 #b4 ,priestley1 #gb4 ,primitive ideas of immortality1 #aj4 ,principles of life and physical force1 #ij1 #ia1 #aba4 ,propagation1 #ed1 #ee1 #fa4 ,providence1 #acc1 #aig4 ,psychical ,research1 society for1 ,,iii4 ,psychologic order of evolution1 #e4 ,purpose1 organic1 #adi4 ,pyre1 the funeral1 #aij4 ,reasoning1 headlong1 #bj4 ,re-birth1 #dj4 ,recapitulation1 #ahh4 ,religious instincts1 #ag4 ,resurrection1 #ae;f1 #aej1 #aff1 #aij4 ,rydberg1 ,victor1 #ba1 #agb4 ,sagas1 #ae4 ,samoyede grave1 a1 #ac4 ,scheele1 #gb4 ,schrder1 #eg4 ,schultze1 #eg4 ,schwann1 #eg4 ,science and resurrection1 #af1 #bj1 #gd4 ,scylla and ,charybdis of science1 the1 ,,xiv4 ,sin1 #aih4 ,skeptical attitude1 modern1 #c;f4 ,society1 human1 #cb1 #adc1 #aeh4 ,solar system1 the1 #ahd4 ,sorcerers1 #be4 ,soul1 future life of the1 #h1 #ad2 physiologists and the1 #abg2 functions of the1 #acj1 #acd2 a spiritual principle1 #aea4 ,spallanzani1 #eg4 ,spiritual body1 a1 #ai;f1 #bb1 #bf1 #cd;f1 #aij1 #aie2 vision1 #dc2 interaction1 #aeb2 beings1 #age4 ,spontaneous generation1 #ea1 #eb1 #ei1 #aje1 #abb4 ,substance1 living1 #abd2 comprehending1 #aec4 ,sun1 importance of the1 #ajd4 ,supernatural forces1 #de1 #fg4 ,steam engine1 art and the1 #ajh1 #aaj4 ,swedish ,peace ,society1 ,x4 ,teleological causality1 #aah4 ,telepathy1 ,,iii4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,william1 #fc4 ,time1 a form of existence1 #aha4 ,tissues1 the1 #adb4 ,tomb1 life in the1 #g4 ,tool1 the organism a1 #ace4 ,transcendental world1 a1 #db4 ,treviranus1 #bi4 ,units1 organic1 #aea4 ,unity of the organism1 #aff;f4 ,upsala1 ,,vii4 ,veda ,aryans1 #ba1 #bc;f4 ,virtue1 #aih4 ,vis inertia1 #aaj;f4 ,vitalistic doctrine1 #gb4 ,will incentive1 #aai4 ,whler1 #ha4