,transcriber's ,note ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores4 ,small capitals have been replace with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,superscript texts are transcribed as text4 ,sidenotes are surrounded by tildes4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,class ,,book ,,for ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,musketry ,,hythe4 ,,prepared ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,officers4 ,,by ,,colonel ,e4 ,c4 ,,wilford1 ,assistant-,commandant and ,chief ,instructor4 ,,hythe3 ,w4 ,s4 ,,paine1 ,,stationer1 ,,post ,,office1 ,,high ,,street4 #ahfa4 ,,introduction4 ,the ,school of ,musketry was founded in #ahec1 by the then ,commander-in-,chief1 the late ,viscount ,hardinge1 as a normal school of instruction in ,musketry4 ,it has for its especial object the formation of officers and non-commissioned officers to act as instructors in the several battalions throughout the ,army4 ,in the book of 8,regulations for conducting the ,musketry ,instruction of the ,army10 promulgated by order of ,his ,royal ,highness the ,commander-in-,chief1 it is ordered at page #cc1 and paragraph #ce1 that1 8,the ,commanding ,officer is to assemble the officers of the battalion at least once in each half-year1 and to cause the non-commissioned officers and men to be assembled occasionally by squads or companies1 at other times than when the annual course is proceeding1 when the officer-instructor1 having previously explained the theoretical principles detailed in the foregoing lessons1 will be at liberty to advance deeper into the subject1 developing to a degree proportionate to the rank and intelligence of his auditors1 the whole history of small arms1 from the first invention of gunpowder1 and the successive steps by which the rifle-musket has attained its present efficiency2 in order that the officers and soldiers1 by acquiring a thorough knowledge of the subject theoretically1 may take a greater interest in the practical part of this most important branch of their duty40 ,the following ,lectures have been prepared for the use of officers qualifying at the ,school of ,musketry for the positions of ,instructors in their respective ,regiments4 ,they are not to be considered as complete treatises or histories1 but merely as 8aids0 to instruction1 which can be expanded by the ,instructor in viva voce ,lectures1 and if bound with an alternate ruled blank leaf1 they may be corrected and enlarged when desirable1 to suit the various improvements in arms1 c41 introduced from time to time4 ,these ,lectures are a mere compilation1 extracted from a vast amount of interesting and valuable matter1 systematically arranged4 ,the names of the various authors upon whom wholesale plunder has been committed are mentioned in the course of the work1 and the compiler hopes this general confession may secure their pardon4 ,the ,theory of ,gunnery has been very slightly touched upon3 it cannot be pursued by any persons unless well grounded in ,mathematics1 and the short time passed by officers at ,hythe wholly precludes so abstruse a study4 ,our ,school is decidedly a practical institution2 to acquire an art or skill is our object1 and we only broach the subject of ,theory to soldiers1 so far as to enable them to understand the reasons for all those rules which have to be attended to in practice4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,wilford1 ,,colonel4 ,,hythe1 ,january1 #ahfa4 ,,contents ,,page4 ,history of ,gunpowder #a ,manufacture of ,gunpowder #g ,foreign ,gunpowder #bj ,explosive force of ,gunpowder #bi ,experiments with ,gunpowder #cf ,magazines #bc ,lightning ,conductors #bd ,greek ,fire #d ,ancient ,engines of ,war #ci ,on ,artillery #fb ,portable ,fire ,arms #gc ,the ,rifle #hf ,the ,bayonet #hc ,accoutrements #hd ,breech-loaders #ib ,on ,rifling #ie ,on ,rifle ,projectiles #aja ,theoretical ,principles #aaj ,gravity #aac ,atmosphere #aae ,form of ,bodies #aai ,causes of ,deviation #aba ,windage #aba ,rotation #abb ,on ,eccentric ,projectiles #abd ,extended ,table of ,contents ,,errata4 ,page #f1 para4 #e1 line #f1 for 8have before stated0 read 8shall state40 ,page #bj1 last line but one1 for 8altogether0 read 8all together0 ,page #be1 para4 #c1 line #e1 for 8descriptive0 read 8disruptive40 ,page #cj1 para4 #c1 line #i1 for 8expansive0 read 8expansion40 ,page #ca1 para4 #c1 line #a1 for 8art0 read 8act40 ,page #cb1 para4 #g1 line #i1 for 8considerable0 read 8considerably40 ,page #cb1 para4 #g1 line #aj1 for 8,robert0 read 8,piobert40 ,page #ce1 para4 #c1 line #a1 for 8sulphurate of ,potassia0 read 8sulphide of ,potassa40 ,page #cf1 para4 #d1 lines #a and #b1 for 8which is a mortar0 read 8the chamber being40 ,page #dj1 last line but #c1 for 8,polyreetes0 read 8,polyorcetes40 ,page #da1 para4 #d1 line #aj1 for 8ix0 read 8xii40 ,page #ec1 para4 #b1 line #i1 for 8incredible0 read 8incredibly40 ,page #ff1 para4 #f1 line #b1 after 8has0 insert 8a0 ,page #gh1 para4 #e1 line #c1 for 8#gec;in410 read 8#gec;in40 ,page #gh1 para4 #e1 line #c1 for 8#af0 read 8#ad40 ,page #gi1 line #d1 for 8#fjj0 read 8#f1jjj40 ,page #hd1 para4 #b1 line #a1 for 8,latinat0 read 8,catinat40 ,page #hd1 para4 #c1 line #a1 for 8masquitairy0 read 8mousquetaires40 ,page #hf1 para4 #aj1 line #b1 for 8,carabins ragees10 read 8,carabines rayes40 ,page #hf1 para4 #ab1 line #a1 for 8subaltern officers0 read 8,non-,commissioned ,officers40 ,page #hi1 line #c1 for 8range0 read 8ray40 ,page #hi1 line #c1 for 8ball culot0 read 8balle culot40 ,page #ia1 para4 #d1 last line1 for 80 read 80 ,page #ic1 para4 #h1 line #a1 for 8wounds0 read 8rounds40 ,page #ih1 para4 #a1 lines #f and #g1 for 8possible4 ,for10 read 8possible2 for0 ,page #ajc1 para4 #c1 line #g1 for 8proportionary0 read 8proportionate40 ,page #ajc1 para4 #e1 line #d1 for 8reserved0 read 8reversed40 ,page #aje1 para4 #f1 line #c1 for 8horn-wood0 read 8hora1 wood40 ,page #aab1 para4 #a1 line #h1 after 8direction10 insert 8b40 ,page #aad1 para4 #b1 line #g1 for 8#af-dh-hj0 read 8#afdhhj40 ,page #aae1 para4 #b1 line #b1 for 8sine0 read 8tangent40 ,page #aae1 para4 #b1 for 8plate #ba1 fig4 #c10 read 8plate #bb1 fig4 #c40 ,page #aai1 para4 #c1 line #a1 after 8moving10 insert 8in40 ,plate #ba1 fig4 #e1 should be lettered as fig4 #d4 plate #bb4 ,,history ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,the ,history of ,gunpowder may well form a prelude to that of ,fire ,arms1 as the existence of the latter is wholly dependent on the discovery of the former4 ,of all the discoveries which have been made1 there is1 perhaps1 none which has produced more important consequences to mankind than the discovery of ,gunpowder1 as by introducing fire-arms1 and a new method of fortifying1 attacking1 and defending ,towns1 it wrought a complete change in the whole art of war4 ,knock's opinion4 ,the invention of ,gunpowder is completely involved in obscurity1 and this very fact is one great proof of its antiquity4 ,knock observes that the invention of ,gunpowder comprises several discoveries1 which it is necessary to distinguish from each other4 ,order of discovery4 #ast4--,the discovery of ,nitre1 the principal ingredient1 and the cause of its detonation4 #bnd4--,the mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal1 which1 properly speaking1 form gunpowder4 #crd4--,the application of powder to fire-works4 #dth4--,its employment as a propelling agent for throwing stones1 bullets1 c4 #eth4--,its employment in springing mines and destroying fortifications4 ,all these discoveries belong to different periods4 ,mr4 ,duten's account4 ,mr4 ,dutens carried the antiquity of gunpowder very high2 and refers to the accounts given by ,virgil1 and others1 of ,salmonens' attempt to imitate thunder1 presuming from hence that he used a composition of the nature of ,gunpowder4 ,known in ,china1 ,a4 ,d4 #he4 ,it has been said that it was used in ,china as early as the year ,a4 ,d4 #he1 and that the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the ,arabs1 on the return of the ,crusaders to ,europe4 ,known in ,india1 ,a4 ,d4 #bej4 ,the ,brahmas and ,indians1 whose practice is recorded by ,philostratus1 in his life of ,appolonius ,tyanus1 written about #afjj years ago4 8,these truly wise men10 says he1 8dwell between the rivers ,hyphasis and ,ganges2 their country ,alexander never entered1 their cities he never could have taken1 for they come not out to the field to fight those who attack them1 but they overthrow their enemies with tempests and thunderbolts1 shot from their walls40 ,this is a most striking illustration of the antiquity of ,gunpowder1 for if some such composition be not implied in the foregoing quotation1 it must remain for ever perfectly unintelligible4 ,saltpetre1 which is the principal ingredient of ,gunpowder1 is found in its natural state in the ,east1 and from this it seems highly probable they were acquainted with the composition of ,gunpowder before the ,europeans4 ,powder at siege of ,mecca1 ,a4 ,d4 #fij4 ,the ,arabs are said to have employed ,gunpowder at the siege of ,mecca1 ,a4 ,d4 #fij4 ,oldest book on gunpowder ,a4 ,d4 #ijj4 ,there is a manuscript book still extant1 entitled ,liber ,ignium1 written by ,marcus ,grcus1 who lived about the end of the eighth century1 and the composition there prescribed is #flbs4 saltpetre1 #blbs4 charcoal1 #alb4 sulphur1 to be well powdered and mixed in a stone mortar4 ,work on gunpowder in ,escurial ,collection ,a4 ,d4 #abdi4 ,there is in the ,escurial ,collection a treatise on ,gunpowder1 written in #abdi4 ,roger ,bacon on powder1 ,a4 ,d4 #abfg4 ,our countryman1 ,roger ,bacon1 who was born #abad1 and published works at ,oxford #abfg1 expressly mentions the ingredients of ,gunpowder1 not as any new discovery1 but as a well known composition1 used for recreation4 ,he describes it as producing a noise like thunder1 and flashes like lightning1 but more terrible than those produced by nature2 and adds that it might be applied to the destruction of an army or a city4 ,bacon1 in his treatise 8,de ,secretis ,operibus10 says that from saltpetre1 sulphur1 and wood coals1 we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we please4 ,tradition of ,schwartz1 ,a4 ,d4 #acbj4 ,mortar4 ,the common tradition of ,bartholdus ,schwartz having invented ,gunpowder and ,artillery1 about #acbj1 is without the slightest foundation1 but he might possibly have suggested the simplest application of it to warlike purposes1 in consequence of some accidental explosion while mixing the ingredients in a mortar4 ,indeed1 the name1 as well as the form of the old species of artillery1 which was employed to throw large bullets at an elevation1 strongly corroborate this conjecture2 but ,schwartz cannot lay any claim to originality of invention4 ,powder made in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 #acgh4 ,gunpowder was made in ,england in the fourteenth century1 as ,richard ,,ii4 commissioned ,sir ,thomas ,norwich to buy1 in ,london1 or in any other place1 certain quantities of 8sulphur1 saltpetre1 and charcoal10 for making ,gunpowder4 ,tartaglia on ,powder1 ,a4 ,d4 #aejj4 ,tartaglia1 at the commencement of the sixteenth century1 sets down twenty-three different compositions1 made use of at different times1 the first of which1 being the most ancient1 consists of equal parts of nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal4 ,ancient gunpowder weak4 ,gunpowder1 for some time after the invention of artillery1 was of a composition much weaker than what we now use1 or than that ancient one mentioned by ,marcus ,grcus2 but this1 it is presumed1 was owing to the weakness of their first pieces1 rather than to the ignorance of a better mixture4 ,graining4 ,the change of the proportion of the materials composing it was not the only improvement it received4 ,the invention of graining it is doubtless a considerable advantage to it2 for powder1 at first1 was always in the form of fine meal1 such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials together4 ,it is doubtful whether the first graining of powder was intended to increase its strength1 or only to render it more convenient for the filling into small charges1 and the charging of small arms1 to which alone it was applied for many years1 whilst meal-powder was still made use of in cannon4 ,but at last the additional strength which the grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains1 occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid aside4 ,tartaglia wrote1 #aecg4 ,william ,bourne1 #aegg4 ,that powder was first used in meal1 and continued in its old form for cannon long after the invention of graining it for small arms1 are facts not to be contested4 ,tartaglia expressly asserts that in his time cannon-powder was in meal1 and the musket-powder grained4 ,and our countryman1 ,william ,bourne1 in his 8,art of ,shooting in great ,ordnaunce10 published forty years after ,tartaglia1 tells us1 in chap4 ,i1 that serpentine powder1 7which he opposes to corn1 or grained-powder7 should be as fine as sand1 and as soft as flour3 and in his third chapter he says that two pounds of corn-powder will go as far as three pounds of serpentine-powder4 ,tartaglia on the proportions4 ,we learn from ,tartaglia1 that the cannon-powder was made of four parts saltpetre1 one part sulphur1 and one part charcoal2 and the musket-powder of forty-eight parts saltpetre1 seven parts sulphur1 and eight parts charcoal2 or of eighteen parts saltpetre1 two parts sulphur1 and three parts charcoal4 ,these compositions for musket powder are very near the present standard2 the first having1 in one hundred pounds of powder1 about one pound of saltpetre more than is at present allowed1 and the second three pounds more4 ,nye's treatise on the proportions4 ,nye1 in his treatise on fireworks1 gives the proportions of the ingredients1 and the dates when they are used1 thus in #achj equal parts of each were employed4 ,this would be about as efficient as a common squib of the present time4 ,in #adaj1 three parts saltpetre1 two sulphur1 and two charcoal4 ,in #aebj1 for the best powder1 four parts saltpetre1 one sulphur1 and one charcoal1 and afterwards1 five saltpetre1 one sulphur1 and one charcoal4 ,early gunpowder mere mixture4 ,in fact1 ,gunpowder was merely those substances1 combined1 with little or no purification4 ,it was not at first corned or grained1 as at present1 but remained in its mealed state1 and was called 8serpentine powder10 in several accounts of stores in the time of ,edward ,,vi41 and ,elizabeth4 ,two kinds4 ,soon after this two kinds of powder were used for the same gun1 one in its mealed state 7for priming only7 as being more readily ignited by the match1 the other1 corned or grained1 for the charge in the gun barrel4 ,powder first used to explode mines in #aeth century4 ,the application of powder to mines1 and to the destruction of fortifications1 does not appear to have been in practice before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,elizabeth had powder made1 #aeeh to #afjc4 ,camden1 in his life of ,queen ,elizabeth1 says that she was the first who procured ,gunpowder to be made in ,england1 that she might not pray and pay for it also to her neighbours2 but it has been stated that it was previously made in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 ,charles ,i4 from ,a4 ,d4 #afbe to #afdi4 ,sir ,henry ,manwayring1 in his ,seaman's ,dictionary1 presented to the ,duke of ,buckingham1 in the time of ,charles #ast1 under the word powder1 tells us1 8,there are two kinds of powder1 the one serpentine-powder1 which powder is dust 7as it were7 without corning4 ,the other is 8corn-powder20 though he informs us the serpentine-powder was not used at sea4 ,indeed1 when that book was written1 it is believed powder was usually corned1 for the foreign writers on artillery had long before recommended its general use4 ,causes which checked the progress of ,fire-,arms4 ,fire-,arms supposed to extinguish bravery1 and to be contrary to humanity4 ,fire-,arms expensive and powder difficult to procure4 ,various circumstances tended to check the progress of fire-arms1 and the improvement of artillery1 for a long period after the invention of gunpowder4 ,custom made most people prefer the ancient engines of war4 ,the construction of artillery was very awkward and imperfect2 and the bad quality and manufacture of gunpowder1 so that it could produce but little effect2 and there was a general aversion to the newly invented arms1 as calculated to extinguish military bravery1 and as being contrary to humanity2 but above all1 the knights 7whose science was rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire-arms7 opposed1 with all their might1 this invention1 to which may be added the great cost and difficulty of procuring gunpowder4 ,rockets in ,india4 ,it is known that iron rockets have been used in ,india as military weapons1 time out of mind4 7,see plate #d1 fig4 #c47 ,,greek ,,fire4 ,discovered by ,callinicus4 ,a4 ,d41 #fag4 ,the ,greek ,fire has been highly extolled for its wonderful effects1 but it owed much of its effect to the terrors and imagination of the beholders4 ,it is said by the ,oriental ,greeks1 to have been discovered by ,callinicus1 an architect of ,heliopolis or ,balbeck1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,constantine ,pogonatus1 who1 it is said1 forbad the art of making it to be communicated to foreigners1 but it was at length known1 and in common use1 among the nations confederated with the ,byzantines4 ,known in ,china1 #iag4 ,it is also said to have been known in ,china in #iag1 being #cjj years after ,constantine ,pogonatus1 under the name of 8,the oil of the cruelfire10 and was carried thither by the ,kitan ,tartars1 who had it from the ,king of ,ou4 ,wild fire from the ,saracens4 ,it was thrown by machines1 by the hand1 and by cross bows1 fastened to the heads of arrows4 ,the ,crusaders obtained a knowledge of a sort of wild fire from the ,saracens1 which could only be extinguished by dust or vinegar4 ,it was composed of the gum of resinous trees1 reduced to powder with sulphur1 to which was added naptha1 and other bitumens1 and probably nitre4 ,wild fire in the ,holy ,wars4 ,geoffrey de ,vinesauf's account4 ,father ,daniel's account4 ,used at the siege of ,dieppe4 ,it is much spoken of in all the ,holy ,wars1 as being frequently employed by the ,saracens against the ,christians4 ,procopius1 in his history of the ,goths1 calls it ,media's oil1 considering it an infernal composition prepared by that sorceress4 ,geoffrey de ,vinesauf1 who accompanied ,richard ,i4 to the ,crusades1 says that it could not be extinguished by water1 but that sand thrown upon it abated its virulence1 and vinegar poured upon it put it out4 ,father ,daniel says this wild fire was not only used in sieges1 but even in battles1 and that ,philip ,augustus1 ,king of ,france1 having found a quantity of it ready prepared at ,acre1 brought it with him to ,france1 and used it at the siege of ,dieppe1 for burning the ,english vessels in that harbour4 ,greek fire and gunpowder1 both used at the siege of ,ypres1 #achc4 ,the ,greek fire was used long after the invention of firearms2 when the ,bishop of ,norwich besieged ,ypres1 #achc1 the garrison is said by ,walsingham to have defended itself so well1 with stones1 arrows1 lances1 and certain engines called guns1 that they obliged the ,english to raise the siege with such precipitation1 that they left behind them their great guns1 which were of inestimable value4 ,greek fire was probably a more recent invention than ,gunpowder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,powder used by ,arabs1 #adth century4 ,it is ascertained that ,gunpowder was employed by the ,arabs as an agent for throwing bolts and stones1 about the commencement of the fourteenth century1 and that the ,moors first availed themselves of its advantages in their wars with the ,spaniards4 ,from ,spain1 the use of ,gunpowder and ,artillery gradually extended itself to ,france1 and thence over the other ,states of ,europe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some idea of the importance of ,gunpowder may be formed by the estimate of the enormous quantity employed in sieges1 and warfare generally4 ,quantity used in sieges4 ,at the siege of ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 ,january1 #ahab1 #gd1ighlbs4 were consumed in #cj hours2 at ,badajos1 ,march1 #ahab1 #bbh1hcjlbs4 in #ajd hours1 and this from the great guns only4 ,san ,sebastian and ,zaragoza4 ,at the two sieges of ,san ,sebastian1 #ejb1aajlbs4 ,at ,zaragoza1 the ,french exploded #de1jjjlbs4 in the mines1 and threw #af1jjj shells4 ,sebastopol4 ,during the siege of ,sebastopol1 extending over a period of eleven months1 the enormous quantity of #b1gge1cfjlbs41 or #a1bci tons of gunpowder1 were expended by ourselves alone2 #i1jgf tons of shot and shell having been launched by us on that memorable occasion1 from #dgf pieces of heavy ordnance2 of which only #aa actually burst1 though #bfi were rendered unserviceable4 ,quantity made4 ,some of our private manufactories make from #h to #aj1jjj barrels of powder a year in time of peace1 and from #aj to #ad1jjj during war4 ,quantity proved by ,government4 ,quantity in store in #aghc4 ,the quantity of powder received and proved from ,faversham1 at the ,royal ,magazines1 and from the several powder makers contracting with ,government1 amounted1 during the several years from #aggf to #aghb inclusive1 to #bdd1cdi barrels of #ajj lbs4 each1 being equal1 on an average1 to #c1dij1gjjlbs4 annually4 ,the quantity of powder in store in ,great ,britain1 ,guernsey1 ,jersey1 and the ,isle of ,man1 in #aghc1 was about #hj1jjj barrels4 ,gunpowder used for works of peace4 ,sir ,george ,staunton observes1 that gunpowder in ,india and ,china seems coeval with the most distant historic events1 and that the ,chinese have at all times applied it to useful purposes1 as the blasting of rocks1 and also in the preparation of fireworks1 in which they greatly excel other nations4 ,powder used at ,woodhead tunnel4 ,in blasting the ,woodhead tunnel1 in the county of ,chester1 not less than three thousand five hundred barrels of gunpowder1 weighing about one hundred and sixty tons1 were used in its formation4 ,the average number of men employed was about a thousand2 and during the six years the works were in progress1 twenty-six men were killed4 ,there were about #djj minor accidents1 many of them attended with loss of limb1 and the sum total of the casualties1 in proportion to the men employed1 was greater1 according to ,mr4 ,edwin ,chadwick1 than was suffered by the ,british army in the battles of ,talavera1 ,salamanca1 ,vittoria1 and ,waterloo4 ,powder used on ,s4 ,eastern ,railway4 ,in the formation of the ,south-,eastern ,railway1 the blasts of the cliffs between ,dover and ,folkestone have astonished even scientific men4 ,on one occasion #ah1ejj pounds of gunpowder were ignited by galvanic action at the same instant1 which severed from the ,round-down cliff1 the height of which is #cge feet above the level of the sea1 more than #a1jjj1jjj tons of chalk4 ,the fallen mass extended #abjj feet into the ocean1 and covered a space of #ah acres4 ,by another statement1 the quantity of earth moved by the explosion was #djj1jjj cubic yards1 and was a saving to the ,company of #g1jjj4 ,no4 of men employed at ,waltham ,abbey4 ,quantity made4 ,there are #acd men employed in the ,government works at ,waltham ,abbey in the manufacture of gunpowder1 who make about #i1jjj barrels a year4 ,the premises are near two miles long1 consisting of detached mills1 c41 on a small stream1 which runs through the whole length of the premises and communicates with the ,thames1 whereby there is water-carriage to the ,government ,powder ,magazines at ,purfleet4 ,the barges conveying powder are not allowed to anchor in the river off ,london during the night4 ,where two buildings are adjacent1 there are frequently heavy buttresses of masonry between them1 and lightning conductors are placed in great numbers4 ,saving to ,government4 ,there is a great saving1 amounting to upwards of #cjj1jjj1 in the cost of powder1 when compared to the price paid to the merchants in seven years of the war from #ahji to #ahae1 from the ,government having ,waltham ,abbey1 ,faversham1 and ,ballincollig4 ,improved ,quality4 ,at ,waltham ,abbey1 in a very few years after it was constructed1 the powder was so improved1 that the charge of powder to the weight of shot was reduced from one-half to one-third2 therefore two barrels were used instead of three--an advantage in stowing on board ship as well as in the field4 ,made by ,contract4 ,a great part of the powder for ,h4 ,m4 ,government has at present to be supplied by merchants4 ,the contracts are made out sometimes for them to supply their own saltpetre1 and at others for the ,government to furnish it pure1 at the rate of #gge lbs4 per barrel of #ajj lbs41 they finding the other materials and manufacture1 a corresponding reduction in price being made3 as1 however1 it has to come up in nearly all respects to the sample1 the requirements of which we shall state1 certain proofs have to be undergone before being received for the different services4 ,,note4--,the foregoing is mainly compiled from ,robins's ,new ,principles of ,gunnery1 by ,hutton2 ,engines of ,war1 by ,wilkinson2 and ,projectile ,weapons of ,war1 by ,j4 ,scoffern1 ,m4,b4 ,,on ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,composition of powder4 ,gunpowder is an explosive propellant agent2 a mechanical combination and intimate mixture of saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 in certain fixed proportions1 the result of successive experiments4 ,ought to keep without deterioration4 ,to be effective1 ,gunpowder should1 #ast4--,preserve itself in a good state1 whether in magazine or in carriage4 ,leave no residue4 #bnd4--,leave as little residue as possible after ignition4 ,combine quickness and power4 #crd4--,should combine a certain quickness of combustion with great explosive force4 ,,saltpetre1 ,,or ,,nitre4 ,nitre4 ,where found4 ,unfit in natural state4 ,the principal ingredient in ,gunpowder is an abundant production of ,nature1 and is a combination of nitric acid with the vegetable alkali4 ,it is never found pure1 being always contaminated with other salts and earthy matter4 ,it is principally found in the ,east ,indies1 ,ceylon1 and ,south ,america1 and is sometimes produced from decayed animal and vegetable matter4 ,it is totally unfit for ,gunpowder until it has been refined2 for1 being combined with muriates of soda1 lime1 magnesia1 and other salts1 which absorb moisture1 the close contact of the ingredients would be deranged by their presence1 the strength of the powder weakened1 and the power of resisting the action of the atmosphere greatly lessened4 ,as for the efflorescent salts it may contain1 they are noxious only inasmuch as1 possessing no particular useful property1 they interpose their atoms between the more combustible ingredients1 and impede the rapidity of deflagration4 ,two methods of refining4 ,there are two methods of refining saltpetre at ,waltham ,abbey3--#ast1 the ,old ,method1 of re-crystallizing three times2 and #bnd1 the ,new ,method1 which has only just been adopted1 both of which we shall here briefly describe4 ,,old ,,method4 ,old method4 ,saltpetre fuzes at #fjj4 ,about #ce cwt4 of the grough saltpetre1 as it is termed1 viz41 as it is imported in its impure state1 is put into a copper capable of holding #ejj gallons1 with #bgj gallons of water1 in the proportion of about #albs4 of nitre to #alb4 of water1 7which proportion varies with the quality of the saltpetre74 ,this is allowed to boil1 and the impurities are skimmed off as they appear on the surface4 ,cold water is occasionally thrown in to precipitate portions of the chloride1 which otherwise would remain on the top by the action of boiling4 ,after being allowed to boil from three and a half to four hours1 the furnace doors are thrown open1 when the chlorides and salts fall to the bottom4 ,in about two hours1 a copper pump is lowered into the liquor1 which is pumped out into a wooden trough1 having four or five brass cocks1 under which are suspended canvas filtering bags in the shape of a ,v4 ,the solution is then filtered1 and run off into pans1 containing about #cf gallons1 and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours1 to crystallize1 when they are set up on edge1 to drain off the liquor which remains uncrystallized1 and which is called mother liquor4 ,the saltpetre thus obtained is called once-refined1 and undergoes the same process twice again1 the only difference being that there is a greater proportion to the water each time1 viz4 #alb4 to #alb4 of water the second time1 and #blb4 to #alb4 of water the third time3 moreover1 the third time1 a small quantity of ground charcoal is put into the solution1 and it passes through double filters1 which brings it to a very fine pure white colour when melted4 ,the mother water which remains in the pans after each crystallization is conveyed away by gutters to cisterns under the building2 it is then evaporated in iron pots to one quarter of its original bulk1 filtered1 and allowed to crystallize4 ,the saltpetre obtained from the first mother water is considered one stage inferior to grough2 that from the second1 equal to grough2 that from the treble-refined1 equal to once-refined saltpetre4 ,the water left from every stage is treated in the same way1 so that actually nothing is lost of the pure material4 ,saltpetre treble-refined by this process is perfectly pure1 and fit for the manufacture of ,gunpowder2 and in order to free it from moisture1 as well as for the convenience of storage and transport1 it is melted in iron pots holding about #d cwt41 by raising it to a temperature of #fjj ,fahrenheit1 and cast into gun-metal circular moulds holding about #chlbs4 each4 ,it must be observed that it requires about two hours to bring the saltpetre into a liquid state1 and that1 after this1 the furnace doors are thrown open1 to lower the heat to the proper temperature for casting into the moulds4 ,when the cakes are cold1 they are packed away in barrels containing #a cwt41 #a qr4 each1 and put into store4 ,care must be taken1 in melting the saltpetre1 not to raise it to too high a temperature1 as this would reduce the quantity of oxygen1 and form nitrite of potash1 which would render it unfit as an ingredient in the composition of ,gunpowder4 ,a neutral salt4 ,saltpetre is a neutral salt1 the constituents of which are #df4ee potash1 and #ec4de nitric acid2 the latter consisting of two volumes nitrogen and five of oxygen4 ,it is white1 and of a fresh1 sharp1 and slightly bitter taste4 ,it crystallizes in six-sided prisms4 ,exposed to the air1 it remains permanent unless impure1 or that the atmosphere is very moist4 ,,new ,,method4 ,new method4 ,forty cwt4 of the grough saltpetre is put into a copper with #bgj gallons of water1 and treated in precisely the same way as we have before described for the first refining2 it is then filtered and run off into large troughs1 about #aj feet long by #f feet wide1 and #i inches deep1 lined with sheet copper2 this liquor is then kept in a state of agitation by a wooden rake1 until nearly cold4 ,by this process a large quantity of very minute crystals are formed1 which are collected as they form by a wooden hoe1 and shovelled with a spade on to a framework covered with copper sieving resting on the opposite sides of the trough1 and allowed to drain4 ,these fine white crystals1 which have exactly the appearance of snow1 when they have drained sufficiently1 are raked over in a washing cistern adjoining1 which is about #f feet long1 #d feet wide1 and #c;ft4 #f;in4 deep1 and fitted with a false wooden bottom that can be removed at pleasure4 ,cold water is allowed to run on to the saltpetre in this cistern till it is nearly level with the top4 ,after remaining for an hour it is drained off1 and filled again with fresh water1 which is drained off after about another hour4 ,the saltpetre thus obtained is perfectly pure1 and equal in every respect to the treble-refined by the old method4 ,the water remaining in the cisterns after agitation1 is left till the next morning1 when a quantity of larger crystals are formed on the bottom and sides2 these are equal to once-refined by the old method1 and are used with grough2 the mother-liquor is then drained off1 and evaporated in the usual way4 ,the water from each washing is conveyed into cisterns1 and used with grough saltpetre instead of water2 but1 as it contains a small portion of saltpetre in solution1 a lesser quantity of grough is used to make the proportions correct4 ,drying4 ,the saltpetre flour1 however1 contains a certain degree of moisture1 which has to be dried off in the following way3 two large copper trays1 about #aj feet by #f feet1 with a #c-;inch rim1 are fixed over flues heated by a furnace1 #d inches of sand being between the flues and the bottom of the trays2 the saltpetre is spread about #b inches deep all over1 and raked about till dry2 it is then barrelled up for use4 ,it takes about two hours to dry #e cwt4 ,comparison of the two methods4 ,on comparing the two systems1 there cannot for one moment be a doubt as to the immense advantages of the latter over the former4 ,as an example1 in the refinery where this new process is carried on1 the result 7that is to say1 pure saltpetre7 is obtained in one day instead of six1 with less than one half the amount of labour and coals4 ,why new method best4 ,on reflection1 the reason of the great gain of time by this process will suggest itself4 ,in the former method1 when allowed to remain quiet1 the crystals formed are very large1 and the spaces left in them always contain a certain amount of mother-water1 which necessitates its being crystallized three times to perfectly free it from the liquor4 ,in the latter1 the crystals are so minute that there is practically no space for the mother-water to collect2 consequently1 by careful washing1 the saltpetre is obtained perfectly pure4 ,,charcoal4 ,charcoal4 ,object of charring4 ,best wood for charcoal4 ,wood charcoal is the woody fibre that remains after the liquid and more volatile parts have been driven off by the fire in the process of charring4 ,the temperature resulting from the combustion of charcoal is much higher than that from burning wood1 in consequence of the absence of the large quantity of water which wood contains1 amounting to between #ej and #fj per cent42 the object1 therefore1 of charring wood is the removal of moisture1 and also1 what is of great importance1 the expulsion of those matters contained in it which become volatile before they are burned1 thus rendering a large amount of heat latent4 ,the woods generally used in this country in making charcoal for gunpowder are the alder1 willow1 and dogwood4 ,there are about #fj acres of wood grown for charcoal at ,waltham ,abbey4 ,the alder is cut every eight years1 and the willow in six years4 ,it is used after one year4 ,other woods are sometimes used by ,english and foreign manufacturers1 but none produce a powder of such quality as obtained from the above4 ,it is usually considered that better charcoal is distilled when the wood is allowed to season for a time2 but recent experience has shown that wood only lately cut and peeled1 after being desiccated in a hot chamber1 will make equally good charcoal with that which has been seasoning for three or four years4 ,first process4 ,all the wood which is cut in the ,government grounds or purchased from merchants1 is stripped of the bark1 on account of its being impregnated with salts and gummy substances1 cut into lengths of #c feet for the convenience of loading the iron slips1 which are a little above this length1 and stacked in the wood-yard4 ,cylinder charcoal4 ,quantity produced4 ,qualities4 ,kept dry4 ,absorbs4 ,cylindrical cases of the required size1 fitted with lids1 are filled with wood4 ,these cases are made to fit easily1 and slide horizontally into iron retorts built in the wall1 which admit of the accurate regulation of heat 7communicated to them by furnaces underneath7 throughout the operation of charring4 ,a great saving of time and heat is effected by their use1 as when the wood has been properly charred the case or slip containing it may be easily withdrawn1 and another containing a fresh charge at once introduced into the retort1 without allowing the latter to cool down1 as would otherwise be necessary4 ,when it has been sufficiently charred 7which is known by experience1 in watching the burning of the gas that is produced and is conducted into the fire71 the slip is withdrawn by tackling1 and at once lowered down into iron coolers or cases1 which are immediately covered up with close-fitting lids1 and then allowed to remain until all fire is extinguished4 ,the goodness of charcoal is an essential point in the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,about twenty-five to thirty per cent4 is obtained2 and one cord will produce about four cwt4 of charcoal4 ,if properly charred1 it should have a jet black appearance1 and when powdered a lustre resembling velvet2 it should be light and sonorous when gently dropped1 and its fracture should exhibit the same appearance throughout2 it should be so soft as not to scratch polished copper1 and ought not to exhibit any alkali when treated with pure distilled water4 ,charcoal is very porous1 and absorbs very greedily gases and moisture from the atmosphere2 no large store therefore is ever kept1 and particular care is taken to prepare it only in proportion as it is required for use4 ,at all times it must be kept exceedingly dry2 when whole it will absorb about eight per cent4 its weight of moisture1 and when in powder #ae per cent41 so that the fresher the charcoal is the better for the powder4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur4 ,how purified4 ,flowers of sulphur unsuitable4 ,sulphur is a simple1 combustible1 solid1 non-metallic1 elementary body4 ,it is found generally in great quantities in the neighbourhood of volcanoes4 ,it is also obtainable from metallic ores1 and readily fuzes4 ,at #agj ,fahrenheit it begins to evaporate2 at #ahe to #aij it melts2 at #bbj it is perfectly fluid2 and at #fjj it sublimes4 ,sulphur is purified simply by melting3 that which is supplied to ,waltham ,abbey has been once refined1 and the following is a description of the apparatus and method for purifying and rendering it fit as an ingredient in ,gunpowder4 ,a large iron pot is set about three feet off the ground1 or about the height that an ordinary boiling copper is placed1 having a furnace underneath4 ,this pot has a movable lid1 which is fixed into the top of the pot with clay1 and in which lid is an iron conical plug that can be removed at pleasure4 ,from the pot lead two pipes1 one to a large circular dome1 and another to an iron retort1 rather below its level4 ,the last-mentioned pipe has a casing1 or jacket1 round it1 which can be filled with cold water4 ,the communication of these pipes with the melting pot can be shut off or opened1 as occasion requires1 by a mechanical arrangement4 ,about #e to #f cwt4 of the once-refined sulphur is broken up into small pieces1 placed in the iron melting pot1 and subjected to the action of the furnace4 ,the plug in the lid1 and the pipe leading to the dome are now left open1 but the pipe to the retort closed4 ,after from two to three hours a pale yellow vapour rises1 when the plug is put in1 and the vapour conducted into the dome1 where it condenses in the form of an impalpable powder1 commonly called flowers of sulphur4 ,a small pipe leads from the bottom of the dome1 on the opposite side1 into water1 to allow the escape of the air1 and sulphuric acid is taken up by this water4 ,in about one and a half to two hours after1 the vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour1 when the communication with the dome is shut1 and the one to the retort opened2 at the same time1 cold water from a tank above is allowed to pass into the jacket we have before mentioned1 surrounding this pipe4 ,the vapour then which distils over is condensed in the pipe1 and runs into the retort below in the form of a thick yellow fluid4 ,when nearly all has distilled1 which can be known by the jacket getting cold1 the communication is again closed with the retort1 and the fluid sulphur left an hour1 to get sufficiently cool to ladle out into moulds1 the furnace door and the communication with the dome at the same time are again thrown open1 that the rest of the vapour may pass into the latter4 ,the flowers of sulphur thus obtained are used for laboratory purposes1 being unfit for the manufacture of ,gunpowder1 from the acid they contain1 and the crystalline sulphur1 after being allowed to cool in the moulds1 is barrelled up and used as the third ingredient in ,gunpowder4 ,,pulverizing ,,the ,,ingredients4 ,grinding4 ,screening4 ,the three ingredients are now ground separately to a very fine powder4 ,the mills 7vide plate #a7 which effect this1 and incorporate1 are so similar1 that a description will be given under the head of 8,incorporation40 ,after being ground in this way1 the saltpetre is passed through a slope cylindrical reel1 covered with copper sieving wire of #fj meshes to the inch1 which1 as it revolves1 sifts it to the required fineness1 being then received in a box or bin underneath4 ,the charcoal and sulphur are likewise passed through similar reels of #cb and #fj-mesh wire respectively1 and that which remains without passing through1 is ground again under the runners4 ,a very excellent machine has been invented by ,mr4 ,hall1 the engineer1 of ,dartford1 for grinding charcoal1 which makes a most useful addition to the ,gunpowder factory4 ,it consists of a conical drum1 working in a conical box1 on the same principle as a coffee-grinding machine1 the axis being vertical4 ,the mill is fed with charcoal by a hopper1 and1 as it passes through in fine powder1 falls into a revolving reel1 which sifts it in the same manner as before described1 the whole being covered in1 to prevent the great annoyance of dust1 which was felt until lately1 from the old charcoal mill4 ,the three ingredients having been pulverized1 are now fit for the mixing process4 ,,mixing ,,the ,,ingredients4 ,mixing and proportions4 ,green charges4 ,the ingredients are now weighed out very accurately1 in the proportion of #ge nitre1 #ae charcoal1 and #aj sulphur1 in #dblb4 charges1 viz41 nitre1 #calbs4 #hoz41 charcoal1 #flbs4 #doz4 #ac;drs41 sulphur1 #dlbs4 #coz4 #c;drs41 and thoroughly mixed in a machine1 which consists of a cylindrical gun-metal or copper drum1 about two feet in diameter1 with an axle passing through its centre1 on which there are metal flyers1 like forks4 ,the machinery is so arranged that the flyers and drum revolve in opposite directions when in motion1 at a rate of about one hundred revolutions per minute4 ,five minutes is sufficient for a thorough mixture4 ,the composition is then drawn off by a slip into canvas bags the proper size to hold the #dblb4 charges1 which are tightly tied1 and taken to small magazines4 ,these are called green charges1 and are now ready for the next process1 incorporation4 ,,the ,,incorporating ,,mill4 ,incorporation4 ,the ,incorporating ,mill consists of an iron or stone circular flat bed1 about seven feet in diameter1 fixed very firmly in the floor of the building which covers it1 whereon two iron or stone cylindrical runners1 from five to seven feet in diameter1 fourteen to eighteen inches wide1 and each weighing from #c to #d tons1 revolve4 ,they have a common axle1 and a vertical shaft passing through the centre of the bed is connected with this axle1 and to machinery above or below1 which communicates the motion4 ,these runners are not equidistant from the centre1 by which arrangement in their revolution every part of the composition on the bed is subjected to their action1 which is threefold1 viz41 crushing1 grinding1 and mixing2 crushing1 from the weight of the cylinders2 grinding1 from the twisting motion which they are forced into from so large a diameter revolving in so small a circle2 and mixing1 from a combination of the two former motions4 ,to prevent the powder from falling over the side of the bed1 a wooden rim1 about two feet in height1 is placed at an angle of forty-five degrees with it1 like the side of a funnel1 and fitted closely all round its circumference4 ,this is called the 8curb20 and in the centre of the bed a gun-metal ring1 or 8cheese10 as it is termed1 about two feet in diameter1 and five inches high1 concentric with the bed1 prevents the powder working beyond in that direction4 ,moreover1 two scrapers1 or 8ploughs10 connected by stays with the horizontal axle1 revolve with the runners1 one rubbing against the inner1 and the other the outer circle4 ,these ploughs are made of hard wood1 shod with leather and felt1 and their use is continually to disturb and rout about the composition1 and keep it under the path of the runners1 so that every part should get its share of incorporation4 ,the houses or sheds which cover these buildings have hitherto been constructed of wood1 with either corrugated iron or wooden roofing4 ,the new incorporating mills in this factory1 which are just completed1 are built with three sides of strong three-foot brickwork1 and the fourth side and roof of corrugated iron and glass4 ,they are also placed in a line contiguous to each other1 the alternate ones only facing the same way1 so that an explosion from one would probably communicate no further1 and the lighter parts of the building would blow away1 leaving the rest entire4 ,most of the machinery in the factory is driven by water-wheels2 the motive power of these mills is steam4 ,a horizontal shaft1 worked by the engine1 passes underneath the entire length of the building in a cast-iron tank1 and a bevel wheel on this shaft is geared into another one on the vertical shaft under the centre of each bed1 which1 communicating with the runners1 gives the necessary motion4 ,water-tanks to prevent explosions4 ,in order1 as much as possible1 to guard against any explosion spreading1 above each bed1 placed so as just to clear the runners1 is suspended or balanced a copper tank1 holding about forty gallons of water4 ,on one side of the tank is fixed a small shaft1 which communicates with similar cisterns over the beds of the mills on either side4 ,the other end of the tank rests on a flat board1 which is subjected to a great part of the force of an explosion4 ,this consequently lifts1 disengaging the support of the tank1 the contents of which drench the bed which has just exploded1 thereby putting out all fire1 and cooling the machinery1 besides having a similar effect on the mills right and left1 preventing1 by this means1 any extension of fire4 ,,incorporating ,,the ,,ingredients4 ,incorporation4 ,mill cake4 ,proof of mill cake4 ,the charge is spread pretty evenly over the surface of the bed1 and moistened with from four to six pints of distilled water2 the quantity varying according to the state of the atmosphere2 the runners are then set in motion1 and run from seven to eight revolutions per minute for three and a half hours1 during which time the powder is often routed up by a copper-shod spud1 and watered slightly with a fine rose watering pot1 according to the experience of the millman2 at the end of this time the mixture is thoroughly incorporated1 possesses all the chemical properties of ,gunpowder1 and is taken off the bed in the form of a cake1 varying from a quarter to half an inch in thickness1 and of a blackish-grey colour4 ,this is called 8,mill ,cake10 and when broken1 the fracture should exhibit the same uniform appearance1 without presenting any sparkling or yellow specks2 should this1 however1 be the case1 it is a sign of the ingredients not being sufficiently incorporated4 ,in this stage it undergoes certain proofs2 samples of the cake are taken from every charge that is worked1 dried in an oven1 and granulated2 half a drachm of this is fired in a vertical eprouvette1 which it ought to raise #c4e inches2 and half an ounce is flashed on a glass plate4 ,if very little residue or ash is left1 it is an additional proof of its being well incorporated1 and that the millman has done his work properly4 ,importance of incorporation4 ,incorporation is by far the most important process in the manufacture of ,gunpowder2 for1 however carefully the other part of the fabrication is carried on1 should there be a failing in this1 the powder will be worth nothing4 ,object of manufacture4 ,the great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of ,gunpowder is1 to produce that which shall give equal results with equal charges2 the greatest regularity should therefore be observed in this stage4 ,the millman should have great experience2 the runners and beds should be1 as nearly as possible1 the same size and weight1 and driven at the same speed throughout the factory2 at any rate1 each charge should be worked to the same number of revolutions2 the motion of the runners should also be as uniform as possible1 which is very satisfactorily accomplished by each water-wheel being regulated by a governor4 ,,breaking ,,down ,,the ,,mill ,,cake4 ,breaking down the mill cake4 ,object of mealing4 ,the mill cake1 after it comes off the bed of the incorporating mill1 is placed in wooden tubs1 and taken to small-expense magazines1 and from there1 in about twelve hours1 to the breaking-down house2 the object of the machine from which this takes its name1 is to reduce the cake to a convenient size for the hydraulic-press box1 and also that1 by being crushed again to meal1 it may get a more even pressure4 ,it consists of a strong gun-metal framework1 in which are fixed two pairs of fine-toothed or plain rollers1 which revolve towards each other1 working in spring collars1 so that on any hard substance getting in by mistake1 they would open1 and allow it to pass through1 thereby preventing the dangerous friction which would otherwise result4 ,a hopper1 or upright wooden funnel1 capable of holding about #ejj lbs4 is fixed at one end of the machine1 and an endless canvass band #b;ft4 #f;in4 wide1 having strips of leather sewn across at intervals of four inches1 passes over one roller at the bottom of the hopper1 and one at the top of the machine4 ,when set in motion1 this conveys the cake from the hopper to the highest point of the band2 it then falls through the first pair of rollers1 and from thence through the second1 passing in the form of meal into small wooden carriages underneath1 which1 as they are filled1 move forward by a self-acting motion1 making room for others4 ,the mill cake thus broken down1 is fit for the press4 ,,pressing ,,the ,,meal ,,by ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,press4 ,hydraulic ,pressure4 ,the meal is now subjected to very powerful pressure2 and1 in order to explain the way in which this is effected1 a short description of the apparatus must be given4 ,the principle of the hydraulic press is so familiar to most1 that it will be unnecessary to do more than show how the power is applied 7vide plate #b74 ,description of box4 ,a very strong oak box1 #b feet #f inches square1 and #b feet #i inches deep1 is constructed so that two of the sides of the lid will fall back on hinges1 or form a compact solid box when screwed firmly together4 ,forty-six copper plates1 #b feet #e inches square1 slide vertically into this box1 and are kept five-eighths of an inch apart by two metal slips with corresponding grooves1 which can be removed when necessary4 ,quantity pressed4 ,amount of pressure4 ,about #hjj lbs4 of the meal is put into this box while the plates are in the position we have described4 ,when full1 the slips are withdrawn1 the plates being then only separated by the powder between them3 the lid is now firmly screwed down1 and the box turned over by an arrangement of pulleys1 so that the plates which were vertical will now be horizontal4 ,the present upper side is then unscrewed1 and a travelling crane1 moving on a rail overhead1 is lowered till the claws attached to it hook on to two trunnions fixed on the sides of the box2 it is now hoisted by means of a handwheel windlass1 and the box being suspended1 is pushed easily by means of the rail1 and deposited in this position on to the table of the ram under the press block4 ,the pumps are now set in motion by a water-wheel1 and are allowed to work up to the required pressure1 which is about seventy tons to the square foot2 it is then conveyed from under the block in the same manner1 and very easily unloaded4 ,the press cake is then taken out in layers between each plate1 resembling dark pieces of slate1 about half an inch in thickness4 ,after a day or so1 this hardens so much as to be difficult to break1 and the appearance of the fracture resembles that of the finest earthenware4 ,many important advantages are gained by this pressure1 of which the following are the principal3-- ,reasons for pressure4 ,first1 the density of the powder is increased1 which prevents it falling to dust in transport1 or by rough usage4 ,secondly1 its keeping qualities are improved1 for it withstands the action of the atmosphere1 and absorbs less moisture than a porous light powder4 ,thirdly1 it produces more grain in the manufacture than mill cake2 and a less proportion1 consequently1 is lost in dust4 ,fourthly1 a closer connection of the ingredients is obtained4 ,fifthly1 a greater volume of inflammable gas is produced from a certain bulk1 than from a corresponding bulk of lighter powder4 ,disadvantages of pressure4 ,the range1 however1 is lessened1 from a greater quantity being blown out of a gun unignited2 but this small loss is more than counterbalanced by the former advantages1 and actually it is only perceptible in newly-made powder2 for a light1 porous powder soon loses its superior range from its absorption of moisture1 while that of the dense powder remains unaltered4 ,,granulating ,,the ,,press ,,cake4 ,mode of granulation4 ,screening4 ,the next process is granulation1 or reducing this press cake into the proper sized grain for cannon1 musket1 or rifle powder4 ,the machine which effects this is very beautifully contrived1 and is entirely self-acting1 obviating the necessity of any one being in the building while it is in motion4 ,it resembles1 in appearance and action1 the breaking-down machine1 except that it is larger1 and is fitted with three pairs of toothed rollers1 of different degrees of fineness1 working in the same kind of collars already mentioned1 so that1 on any hard substance passing through1 they would open accordingly1 and thus prevent friction4 ,at one end of the machine is a wooden hopper1 or funnel1 which is filled with the press cake4 ,this is contrived so as to rise gradually by the motion of the machine1 and constantly to supply an endless band1 similar to the one described in the breaking-down house4 ,when the cake arrives at the highest point of this band1 it falls over1 and is granulated between the first pair of gun-metal rollers4 ,under each pair is a screen1 covered with #h-mesh wire4 ,all that is not sufficiently small to pass through1 is carried on to the next pair of rollers2 and1 in like manner1 that which does not pass through the second screen is carried to the third pair4 ,in addition to these screens1 there are three oblong sieves covered with #h- and #af-mesh wire1 and #ef cloth respectively1 fixed under1 and parallel to1 each other1 each being separated by about four inches of space1 running at an incline just below the three pairs of rollers2 these all lead to little wooden carriages placed on the opposite side of the machine1 which are divided so as to collect the different sized grain as it passes down4 ,to facilitate the separation and sifting of the powder1 and to prevent masses of it forming and clogging up the wire1 a shaking motion is imparted by a circular wheel attached to the framework of these sieves revolving against an octagonal one fixed to the machine4 ,the grains which pass through each screen below the rollers fall on the upper one of these three last-mentioned sieves4 ,that portion which passes through this1 and is retained on the #af-mesh wire1 is cannon powder2 that passing through the #af-mesh sieve1 and retained on the #ef-;cloth1 is fine grain2 and a board1 running also parallel underneath1 retains the dust that passes through the cloth4 ,chucks regranulated4 ,the 8chucks10 as they are called1 or those grains that are too large to pass through these different sieves1 are collected in the same way as the grain1 and undergo the process of granulation again4 ,,dusting ,,large-,,grain ,,powder4 ,object of dusting4 ,how performed for large-grain4 ,glazed at same time4 ,the keeping qualities of powder are very much improved by removing the dust1 which quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere4 ,this operation1 for large-grain1 is performed by cylindrical reels1 about #h;ft4 #f;in4 long1 and #c;ft4 #h;in4 in diameter1 clothed with #bh-mesh canvas1 which revolve at the rate of thirty-eight times per minute4 ,those for large-grain are called horizontal reels1 in contradistinction to those for fine-grain1 that are called slope reels4 ,each is enclosed by a wooden case1 to prevent the dust flying about the house4 ,when the powder has run its time1 one end of the reel is lowered4 ,it then runs out into barrels placed to receive it4 ,this entirely separates the dust1 and imparts a fine black gloss1 which is sufficient glazing for the large-grained powder4 ,,dusting ,,fine-,,grain ,,powder4 ,dusting fine-grain4 ,the fine-grain powder has a much greater proportion of dust when it leaves the granulating house than the large-grain1 and it is found necessary1 on this account1 to use a different kind of reel4 ,they resemble those for the former powder1 except that they are covered with #dd-mesh canvas instead of #bh1 and are placed at an incline which prevents their being choked up with the quantity of dust2 each end is also open1 and a continuous stream of powder1 fed by a hopper1 passes through while they revolve1 and pours out at the lower end into barrels4 ,this process is repeated a second time1 which sufficiently frees it from dust4 ,,glazing ,,fine-,,grain ,,powder4 ,glazing fine-grain4 ,the fine-grain powder thus dusted1 is then glazed for three hours in barrels capable of holding #cjjlbs4 which are #c;ft4 #f-;in4 in length1 and #b;ft4 #h-;in4 in diameter1 revolving at the rate of thirty two times in a minute4 ,by the mere friction of the grains against each other and the inside of the barrel1 a glaze is imparted1 presenting a fine polished surface to the grain4 ,object of glazing4 ,powder glazed in this way withstands the action of moisture to a far greater extent than unglazed powder1 and in transport very little dust is formed4 ,,stoving ,,or ,,drying ,,powder4 ,drying4 ,a drying-room1 heated by steam pipes1 is fitted with open framework shelves1 on which rests small wooden trays about #c;ft4 long1 #a;ft4 #f-;in4 in breadth1 and #b;in4 deep1 having canvas bottoms2 on each is spread #hlbs4 of powder4 ,this room holds about #dj barrels1 or #d1jjjlbs41 which remains in it for twenty four hours1 and is subjected to a heat of #acj ,fahrenheit for sixteen hours1 communicated by steam passing through pipes arranged horizontally on the floor of the room4 ,the temperature is raised and lowered gradually1 otherwise the too sudden change would be likely to destroy the texture of the grain4 ,the ceiling and roof are fitted with ventilators1 through which all the moisture escapes1 so that there is a constant current of hot air circulating through the room4 ,it is of the greatest importance that the vapour should be carried off2 for1 if this is not effectually done1 on the decrease of temperature1 it would return to its liquid state1 and form again on the powder4 ,,finishing ,,dusting4 ,final dusting4 ,barrelling4 ,the action of heat however produces a small portion of dust2 both these powders1 therefore1 when they leave the stove1 are reeled in horizontal reels1 clothed with #bh and #dd-mesh canvas respectively1 for one hour and a half4 ,this perfectly separates any remaining dust1 and gives the finishing glaze to the large-grain powder4 ,this is the final process1 and the powder thus finished is taken to the barrelling-up house2 weighed out into barrels holding #ajjlbs4 each2 marked ,l4 ,g4 7large-grain71 and ,f4 ,g4 7fine-grain71 as the case may be2 and stored in magazines4 ,,examination ,,and ,,proof ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,desired properties of gunpowder4 ,specific gravity4 ,strength4 ,purity4 ,the great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of ,gunpowder is1 not so much to produce that which ranges the highest1 as one that shall be durable in its texture1 not easily deteriorated by atmospheric influence or transport1 and one with which equal charges shall produce equal effects4 ,it should present uniformity in the appearance of its grains1 which should be angular1 crisp and sharp to the touch1 not easily reduced to dust by pressure between the fingers1 or dusty in handling2 its specific gravity should not be under #eelbs4 to the cubic foot1 7that of ,waltham ,abbey is generally #ehlbs47 taking water at #ajjjozs42 its strength is tested by firing three rounds from an #h inch mortar1 throwing a #fh-pounder solid shot with a charge of #boz4 this should give a range of from #bgj to #cjj feet4 ,the distance however1 varies considerably1 according to the state of the atmosphere1 and the density of the powder3 for1 the greater the density1 the less the range in small charges4 ,half an ounce flashed on a glass plate should leave little or no residuum2 should white beads or globules appear1 it is a sign of imperfect incorporation4 ,,proof ,,of ,,merchant',s ,,powder4 ,the following are the different proofs merchant's powder is subjected to3-- ,lots of #ajj barrels are sent in1 marked with the number of the lot and the maker's name on the head of each barrel4 #be per cent4 of these are unheaded in the examining house2 the ,proof ,officer then-- ,if dusty4 ,first1 takes a bowl out of each barrel1 and holding it about three feet above1 pours it out quickly2 should there be a good deal of dust1 it is satisfactorily shown by this means4 ,firmness4 ,size of grain4 ,secondly1 it is handled and pressed between the fingers1 to test the firmness of its grain2 and should there appear to be any great difference in the proportions of different sizes to that laid down as a standard1 it is sifted and compared accordingly1 being rejected should the quantities fall short or exceed the sample in any great degree4 ,density4 ,thirdly1 a barrel or two are selected1 and the powder poured into a hopper1 under which is placed a box very carefully constructed1 so as to hold exactly a cubic foot4 ,a slide is now withdrawn at the bottom of the hopper1 and the powder allowed to run into the box in a continuous even stream until it is piled up2 the hopper is then removed1 and the powder struck off with a straight edge1 level with the top of the box4 ,the weight is now carefully taken1 that of the latter being subtracted2 should this not amount to #eelbs4 it is rejected1 as not being of sufficient density4 ,strength by range4 ,fourthly1 samples are taken from every barrel1 and lot for the firing proof4 ,firing ,proof4--,an average of nine rounds of sample ,waltham ,abbey powder is taken1 three rounds being respectively fired at the beginning1 middle1 and end of the proof1 from the same kind of mortar before mentioned1 with a charge of #boz4 ,an average of three rounds of each lot of the merchant's powder is also taken2 should it fall short by more than #a in #bj1 it is rejected4 ,purity by flashing4 ,fifthly1 to ascertain if any residuum or ash is left after ignition1 about half an ounce is burned on a clean glass plate1 and fired with a hot iron4 ,the explosion should be sharp1 and produce a sudden concussion in the air2 and the force and power of this concussion should be judged by that of known good quality4 ,few sparks should fly off1 nor should white beads or globules appear1 as it would be a sure indication1 as we have before explained1 of insufficient incorporation4 ,it is also subjected to a second proof4 ,purity by weight after exposure to damp4 ,second proof4--,a sample of #alb4 from each lot1 carefully weighed up1 and a similar sample of the comparison powder1 is exposed for three weeks in a box perforated with holes 7called a damp chest71 to the action of the atmosphere4 ,this box is placed under cover1 so that it is sheltered from the wet1 but that the moisture can get to it4 ,if1 at the end of this time1 there is a greater proportion of difference in range between them than one-twentieth1 it is rejected4 ,the pounds are also very carefully weighed up again1 to ascertain the comparative absorption of moisture4 ,this is called the hygrometric test4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,proof ,,of ,,powder ,,by ,,the ,,eprouvettes4 ,by eprouvettes or pendulum4 ,by comparing the results of the proofs by the eprouvettes with those furnished by the cannon pendulum 7vide plate #a1 fig4 #b and #c71 it will appear that the eprouvettes are entirely useless as instruments for testing the relative projectile force of different kinds of powder1 when employed in large charges in a cannon4 ,powders of little density1 or of fine grain1 which burn most rapidly1 give the highest proof with the eprouvettes1 whilst the reverse is nearly true with the cannon4 ,real use of eprouvettes4 ,the only real use of these eprouvettes is to check and verify the uniformity of a current manufacture of powder1 where a certain course of operations is intended to be regularly pursued1 and where the strength1 tested by means of any instrument1 should therefore be uniform4 ,best proof1 by service charges4 ,the only reliable mode of proving the strength of ,gunpowder is1 to test it with service charges in the arms for which it is designed2 for which purpose the balistic pendulums 7vide plate #c71 are perfectly adapted4 ,best proof for small arms4 ,for the proof of powder for small arms1 the small balistic pendulum is a simple1 convenient1 and accurate instrument4 ,common eprouvette4 ,the common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for determining the relative force of different kinds of ,gunpowder4 ,,of ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,grain ,,for ,,gunpowder4 ,on size of grain4 ,with regard to the particular size of grain for ,gunpowder1 ,i am confident great improvements might be made1 both in obtaining greater regularity of effect and propelling force1 by the adoption of a more uniform even grain4 ,there are at present half-a-dozen different sizes in our cannon and musket powder2 and ,i think it stands to reason1 that the more equal the size1 the more uniform will be the ignition of all the grains1 and consequently the effect of the same charges will be much more regular4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,,and ,,america4 ,it may not be uninteresting to have a slight knowledge of the method employed on the ,continent1 c41 for the production of ,gunpowder4 ,proportion of the ingredients4 ,the proportions of the three ingredients vary slightly all over the ,continent and ,america1 being as follows3-- ,,saltpetre4 ,,charcoal4 ,,sulphur4 ,france #ge #ab4e #ab4e ,belgium ,russia #gc4gh #ac4ei #ab4fc ,prussia #ge #ac4e #aa4e ,austria #ge4e #ac4b #aa4c ,spain #gf4dg #aj4gh #ab4ge ,united ,states #gf #ad #aj ,,production ,,and ,,purification ,,of ,,the ,,ingredients4 ,production and purification of the ingredients4 ,the nitre is purified in a similar way to the new method employed at ,waltham ,abbey1 though it is seldom obtained with so faint a trace of chlorides1 owing probably to its being of an inferior quality1 and of higher refraction when it is imported4 ,the sulphur is supplied to the manufactories in ,france in the form of roll sulphur1 from ,marseilles and ,bordeaux1 where there are very large refineries4 ,the charcoal is prepared from dogwood1 alder1 willow1 hazel1 and poplar1 sometimes in pits1 and occasionally in cylinders1 as at ,waltham ,abbey4 ,at ,wetteren1 and in some parts of ,france1 it is distilled by the action of steam4 ,the 8charbon roux0 taking its name from its brownish-red tinge1 from being only partially burned1 was used formerly more than now1 as the powder made from it was found to injure and exert very pernicious effects upon fire-arms4 ,,pulverizing ,,and ,,mixing ,,the ,,ingredients4 ,pulverizing and mixing the ingredients4 ,the ingredients are generally pulverized in copper drums1 capable of holding #bbd kilogrammes4 ,part of the charcoal is mixed with the sulphur1 and part of the sulphur with the saltpetre4 ,they are then put into separate drums1 which revolve about twenty-five times per minute for three hours1 and in which are about #ejj gun-metal or bronze balls1 the size of good large marbles4 ,the ingredients are brought to the most minute state of division by these means1 and are then mixed all together1 for one hour1 in similar drums covered with leather1 containing wooden balls4 ,,incorporating ,,process4 ,incorporation4 ,the fine powder thus obtained is sometimes merely moistened1 so as to form a stiff paste1 and passed through rollers1 the cake formed1 being dried and granulated4 ,the incorporating cylinders are used occasionally1 but the more usual plan adopted on the ,continent to effect this operation is the stamping-mill1 which requires a short description4 ,it is nothing more nor less than the pestle-and-mortar principle1 each mill consisting of from six to twelve bronze or wooden mortars bedded in the floor of the building2 they are the shape of the frustum of a cone1 the mouth being much narrower than the base2 the pestles1 or stampers as they are called1 are made of wood1 shod with either very hard wood or bronze1 on which project wooden teeth about twelve inches long2 a vertical movement is imparted to them by a shaft worked by the water-wheel having similar teeth attached2 in its revolution it raises the stamper about eighteen inches1 which falls again as the projection is disengaged1 twenty five times in a minute4 ,this operation is carried on for twelve hours1 during which period the charge 7about #aelbs47 is moistened at intervals1 and routed up with a copper-shod spud2 at the end of this time the cake is taken out1 and left to dry and harden2 it seldom receives any pressure--although1 in some manufactories1 presses are being erected4 ,,granulating4 ,granulation4 ,the cake is then granulated in sets of sieves fitting one into the other1 having perforated zinc bottoms of different degrees of fineness1 which are suspended from the ceiling of the room by ropes1 an ash spring being attached to each box holding the sieves1 the cake is put into the uppermost one with some gun-metal balls1 and shaken backwards and forwards1 which motion the spring facilitates2 it is thus broken up into different sized grains1 which are separated by passing through the several meshes4 ,the grain formed is then dusted in bags or shaking-frames covered with canvas1 and then glazed in barrels4 ,,stoving ,,or ,,drying4 ,drying4 ,comparative merits of foreign and ,english gunpowder4 ,in summer the process of drying is often performed in the sun1 and in winter by the steam stove1 in the following way4 ,the powder is spread about three or four inches thick on a large canvas tray1 under which is an arrangement of pipes1 which convey the hot air forced by a fan through a cylinder heated by steam3 it is considered to be sufficiently dried in from three to four hours1 during which time it is occasionally raked about4 ,in some manufactories it undergoes a further operation of being dusted1 and is then barrelled up for use4 ,generally the great failure in the foreign manufacture is the neglect of the principal stage of the fabrication1 viz4 incorporation2 with the old stamping-mill1 it is quite impossible that the process can be carried out to the necessary extent4 ,the ,continental powder is usually very soft in its grain1 dusty1 and quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere2 its density is below the ,english powder1 on account of its never being subjected to pressure2 consequently it is not so durable1 and forms a good deal of dust in transport2 a great amount of residue is generally left in the gun1 and its strength1 as a propelling agent1 is far inferior to our powders4 ,on being flashed on a glass plate1 instead of producing a sudden concussion1 like the sharp rap of a hammer1 it burns more like composition1 throwing off a quantity of sparks4 ,,new ,,rifle ,,powder4 ,the following mode of manufacturing rifle powder1 appeared in ,garrison ,orders at ,woolwich1 #cast ,december1 #ahei3 ,composition in #ajj parts3-- ,saltpetre #ge ,charcoal #ae ,sulphur #aj --- #ajj ,the charcoal to be prepared from dogwood1 burned slowly in cylinders three hours4 ,the composition to be worked under the runners for five and a half hours1 and submitted to a pressure of about #ej tons to the square foot4 ,the size of the grain to be that collected between sieves of #af and #bd meshes4 ,the grain to be glazed for five hours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4--,the foregoing1 on the manufacture of gunpowder1 is principally taken from an article in the ,aide ,memoire 7#ahfj71 by ,major ,baddeley1 ,royal ,artillery2 ,captain ,instructor1 ,waltham ,abbey4 ,,on ,,magazines4 ,it is impossible to make powder magazines too dry1 and every care should be taken to ventilate them as much as possible during dry weather1 by opening all doors1 windows1 loopholes1 c4 ,magazines are generally made bomb-proof1 and are furnished with lightning conductors4 ,they are divided into chambers1 and these again divided by uprights into bays4 ,at ,purfleet1 which is the grand dept for gunpowder in ,england1 there are five magazines capable of containing #i1fjj whole barrels each4 ,each magazine is divided into two chambers1 and each chamber into #bd bays1 and in each bay is placed #bjj whole1 #djj half1 or #hjj quarter barrels of powder4 ,total in the five ,magazines1 #dh1jjj barrels1 equal to #d1hjj1jjj pounds4 ,,lightning ,,conductors4 ,principles and ,instructions relative to their application to ,powder ,magazines1 by ,,sir ,w4 ,,snow ,,harris1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,extracted from ,army ,list for ,july1 #ahei4 #a4--,thunder and lightning result from the operation of a peculiar natural agency through an interval of the atmosphere contained between the surface of a certain area of clouds1 and a corresponding area of the earth's surface directly opposed to the clouds4 ,it is always to be remembered that the earth's surface and the clouds are the terminating planes of the action1 and that buildings are only assailed by ,lightning because they are points1 as it were1 in1 or form part of1 the earth's surface1 in which the whole action below finally vanishes4 ,hence buildings1 under any circumstances1 will be always open to strokes of ,lightning1 and no human power can prevent it1 whether having ,conductors or not1 or whether having metals about them or not1 as experience shows4 #b4--,whenever the peculiar agency1 7whatever it may be71 active in this operation of nature1 and characterized by the general term ,electricity1 or ,electric ,fluid1 is confined to substances which are found to resist its progress1 such1 for example1 as air1 glass1 resinous bodies1 dry wood1 stones1 c41 then an explosive form of action is the result1 attended by such an evolution of light and heat1 and by such an enormous expansive force1 that the most compact and massive bodies are rent in pieces1 and inflammable matter ignited4 ,nothing appears to stand against it4 ,granite rocks are split open1 oak and other trees1 of enormous size1 rent in shivers1 and masonry of every kind frequently laid in ruins4 ,the lower masts of ships of the line1 #c feet in diameter1 and #aaj feet long1 bound with hoops of iron half an inch thick and #e inches wide1 the whole weighing about #ah tons1 have been1 in many instances1 torn asunder1 and the hoops of iron burst open and scattered on the decks4 ,it is1 in fact1 this terrible expansive power which we have to dread in cases of buildings struck by ,lightning1 rather than the actual heat attendant on the discharge itself4 #c4--,when1 however1 the electrical agency is confined to bodies1 such as the metals1 which are found to oppose but small resistance to its progress1 then this violent expansive or disruptive action is either greatly reduced1 or avoided altogether4 ,the explosive form of action we term ,lightning1 vanishes1 and becomes1 as it were1 transformed into a sort of continuous current action1 of a comparatively quiescent kind1 which1 if the metallic substance it traverses be of certain known dimensions1 will not be productive of any damage to the metal4 ,if1 however1 it be of small capacity1 as in the case of a small wire1 it may become heated and fused4 ,in this case1 the electrical agency1 as before1 is so resisted in its course as to admit of its taking on a greater or less degree of explosive and heating effect1 as in the former case4 ,it is to be here observed1 that all kinds of matter oppose some resistance to the progress of what is termed the ,electrical ,discharge1 but the resistance through capacious metallic bodies is comparatively so small1 as to admit of being neglected under ordinary circumstances2 hence it is that such bodies have been termed ,conductors of ,electricity1 whilst bodies such as air1 glass1 c41 which are found to oppose very considerable resistance to electrical action1 are placed at the opposite extremity of the scale1 and termed ,non-conductors or ,insulators4 ,the resistance of a metallic copper wire to an ordinary electrical discharge from a battery1 was found so small1 that the shock traversed the wire at the rate of #egf1jjj miles in a second4 ,the resistance however1 through a metallic line of ,conduction1 small as it be1 increases with the length1 and diminishes with the area of the section of the ,conductor1 or as the quantity of metal increases4 #d4--;,it follows from these established facts1 that if a building were metallic in all its parts1 an iron magazine for example1 then no damage could possibly arise to it from any stroke of ,lightning which has come within the experience of mankind2 e4g41 a man in armour is safe from damage by ,lightning2 in fact1 from the instant the electrical discharge in breaking with disruptive and explosive violence through the resisting air1 seizes upon the mass in any point of it1 from that instant the explosive action vanishes1 and the forces in operation are neutralized upon the terminating planes of action1 viz41 the surface of the earth1 and opposed clouds4 #e4--;,all this plainly teaches us1 that in order to guard a building effectually against damage by ,lightning1 we must endeavour to bring the general structure as nearly as may be1 into that passive or non-resisting state it would assume1 supposing the whole were a mass of metal4 #f4--,to this end1 one or more conducting channels of copper depending upon the magnitude and extent of the building should be systematically applied to the walls2 these conducting channels should consist either of double copper plates united in series one over the other1 as in the method of fixing such ,conductors to the masts of ,her ,majesty's ,ships1 the plates being not less than #c inches wide1 and of th and th of an inch in thickness1 or the ,conductors may with advantage be constructed of stout copper pipe not less than ths of an inch thick1 and #a to #b inches in diameter3 in either case the ,conductors should be securely fixed to the walls of the building1 either by braces1 or copper nails1 or clamps2 they should terminate in solid metal rods above1 projecting freely into the air1 at a moderate and convenient height above the point to which they are fixed1 and below they should terminate in one or two branches leading outward about a foot under the surface of the earth2 if possible1 they should be connected with a spring of water or other moist ground4 ,it would be proper in certain dry situations1 to lead out in several directions under the ground1 old iron or other metallic chains1 so as to expose a large extent of metallic contact in the surface of the earth4 #g4--;,all the metals in the roof and other parts of the building of whatever kind1 should so far as possible have metallic communication with these ,alarm ,conductors1 and in case of any prominent elevated chimney1 it would be desirable to lead a pointed conducting tube along it to the metals of the roof2 all of which satisfies the conditions above specified4 #h4--,remark #a4--;,it is now proved beyond all questions1 that the electrical discharge never leaves perfect conducting lines of small resistance1 in order to pass out upon bad conducting circuits1 in which the resistance is very great1 that is an established law of nature2 hence a stroke of ,lightning upon such conducting lines will be confined to the ,conductors as constituting a line of discharge of less resistance than any other line of discharge through the building1 which can be assigned4 ,the apprehension of 8,lateral ,discharge0 therefore1 from the ,conductor1 is quite absurd2 and is not countenanced by any fact whatever2 if any doubt could possibly exist1 it would be now most completely set at rest by the experience of the permanent ,conductors1 applied to the masts of ,her ,majesty's ships4 ,in very many instances furious discharges of ,lightning have fallen on the masts with a crash as if the ship's broadside had been fired1 and the solid point aloft has been found melted2 in all these cases electrical discharge robbed by the ,conductor of its explosive violence1 has traversed the line of action to the sea1 through the ship1 and through the copper bolts1 driven through the ship's solid timbers1 without the least damage to the surrounding masses1 whether metallic1 as in the case of the massive iron hoops on the lower masts1 or not4 ,persons have either been close by or actually leaning against the ,conductors at the time1 without experiencing any ill consequence4 #i4--,remark #b4--;,it has also been incontestably shown1 that metallic bodies have not any specific attractive force or affinity for the matter of ,lightning2 metals are as little attractive of lightning as wood or stone4 ,all matter is equally indifferent to ,electricity so far as regards a specific attraction1 hence the idea that metals attract or invite ,lightning is a popular but very unlearned error contradicted by the most satisfactory evidence1 and the whole course of experience2 in short1 we find that ,lightning falls indiscriminately upon trees1 rocks1 and buildings1 whether the buildings have metals about them or not4 #aj4--,remark #c4--;,a building that is hence clear1 may be struck and damaged by ,lightning without having a particle of metal in its construction2 if there be metals in it1 however1 and they happen to be in such situations as will enable them to facilitate the progress of the electrical discharge1 so far as they go1 then the discharge will fall on them in preference to other bodies offering more resistance1 but not otherwise2 if metallic substances be not present1 or if present1 they happen to occupy places in which they cannot be of any use in helping on the discharge in the course it wants to go1 then the electricity seizes upon other bodies1 which lie in that course1 or which can help it1 however small their power of doing so1 and in this attempt such bodies are commonly1 but not always1 shattered in pieces4 ,the great law of the discharge is1--progress between the terminating planes of action1 viz3--the clouds and earth1 and in such line or lines as upon the whole1 offer the least mechanical impediment or resistance to this operation1 just as water falling over the side of a hill in a rain storm1 picks out or selects as it were by the force of gravity1 all the little furrows or channels which lie convenient to its course1 and avoids those which do not4 ,if in the case of ,lightning you provide through the instrumentality of efficient ,conductors1 a free and uninterrupted course for the electrical discharge1 then it will follow that course without damage to the general structure2 if you do not1 then this irresistible agency will find a course for itself through the edifice in some line or lines of least resistance to it1 and will shake all imperfect conducting matter in pieces in doing so2 moreover it is to be specially remarked in this case1 that the damage ensues1 not where the metals are1 but where they cease to be continued1 the more metal in a building therefore the better1 more especially when connected by an uninterrupted circuit with any medium of communication with the earth4 ,such is1 in fact1 the great condition to be satisfied in the application of ,lightning ,conductors1 which is virtually nothing more than the perfecting a line or lines of small resistance in given directions1 less than the resistance in any other lines in the building1 which can be assigned in any other direction1 and in which by a law of nature the electrical agency will move in preference to any others4 #aa4--;,it follows from the foregoing principles1 that a magazine constructed entirely of iron or other metal1 would be infinitely more safe in ,lightning storms than if built with masonry in the usual way2 metallic roofs for magazines1 with capacious metallic ,conductors to the earth1 would be unobjectionable1 and a source of security4 ,metallic gutters and ridges having continuous metallic connection with the earth are also unobjectionable4 ,a good method of ,conductors for magazines built of masonry1 would be such as already described1 regard being had to the position of the building1 its extent1 and most prominent points1 also to the nature1 state1 and condition of the soil1 whether it be moist or dry1 alluvial calcareous1 or of hard rock2 we must also consider the extent1 disposition1 and peculiar position of the metallic bodies entering into the general structure of the building1 whether the roof be flat1 pointed1 or angular in various parts4 ,the pointed projecting extremities of the two ,conductors1 one or more as the case may be1 will be commonly sufficient2 but1 in buildings having tall chimneys or other elevated prominent points1 at a distance from the ,main ,conductor1 it will be requisite to guard such chimneys or other parts1 by a pointed rod1 led along them to the metals of the roof1 or directly connected with the ,main ,conductors1 by metallic connections4 #ab4--,pointed terminations of the ,conductors in the air1 are so far important that they tend to break the force of a discharge of ,lightning when it falls on them4 ,in fact1 before the great shock actually takes place1 under the form of a dense explosion1 a very large amount of the discharge1 which otherwise would be concentrated1 runs off1 as it were1 through the pointed ,conductor2 but they have no other influence4 ,with respect to these pointed terminations1 no great care need be taken about them1 except that they should consist of solid copper rod1 of about three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 and about a foot in length1 and be united by brazing to the conducting tube1 elevated at such convenient height above the walls of the building as the case may suggest4 ,as a support to the ,conductor1 when raised above the wall1 we may employ a small staff or spar of wood fixed to the masonry4 #ac4--;,copper linings to the doors and window shutters of magazines are not objectionable1 if requisite1 as a precaution against fire2 but they are useless as a means of keeping out ,lightning2 on the other hand1 it is not easy to conceive a case in which the explosion of the gunpowder is to be apprehended from the action of ,lightning on the doors or windows4 ,supposing1 however1 such metallic linings desirable as a precaution against common cases of fire1 then the masses of metal should1 according to the principles already laid down1 have metallic communication with the general system of conduction in the building and the ,main ,conductor4 ,,on ,,the ,,explosive ,,force ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,advantages of ,gunpowder ,the advantages of ,gunpowder1 as a propelling agent1 over any other explosive material are1 the comparative safety attending its manufacture and transport1 and the gradual nature of its decomposition when compared with those materials1 such as fulminating gold1 silver1 mercury1 c4 c4 ,in gunpowder1 the force resulting from the rapid evolution of gas in a confined space has sufficient time to overcome the inertia of the projectile1 which is not the case with other explosive materials1 the conversion of which gaseous products is so instantaneous that nothing can resist the intensity of their explosive action4 ,other advantages suggest themselves in the use of ,gunpowder1 such as the comparative cheapness of the ingredients composing it1 and the ease with which they may be obtained2 for the sulphur and saltpetre are very abundant productions of nature1 and the charcoal can be manufactured cheaply and with great facility1 and if care is taken in the process of the fabrication of powder1 little deterioration will take place on its exposure to heat or moisture4 ,air ,steam as propellants ,condensed air and steam have been used as propelling agents2 but the great inconvenience attending their use quite preclude the possibility of adapting them to war purposes4 ,force of ,gunpowder4 ,as the force and effect obtained from ,gunpowder is the foundation of all other particulars relating to ,gunnery1 we will briefly consider these points4 ,upon what the action of powder depends4 ,the action of ,gunpowder is dependent upon a purely chemical process4 ,mr4 ,robins proved that the force generated by the combustion of gunpowder1 was owing to an elastic gas which was suddenly disengaged from the powder1 when it was brought to a certain temperature1 and further that this disengaged gas had its elastic force greatly augmented by the heat evolved by the chemical action4 ,ingredients are charged with a large volume of heated gas4 ,the propelling power of ,gunpowder is dependent on the rapid decomposition of the nitre into its component parts2 the oxygen forms carbonic acid with the carbon in the charcoal1 and the heat thus generated by ignition changes both this and the nitrogen into a large volume of heated gas4 ,in a mixture of nitre and charcoal alone1 the oxidation proceeds with comparative slowness2 by the addition of sulphur1 an augmentation of combustibility is gained1 in consequence of its igniting at a very low temperature2 the sulphur1 also1 by its presence1 renders available for the oxidation of the carbon an additional amount of oxygen1 viz3 that which is united with the potassium1 the latter being at once converted into sulphite upon ignition of the powder4 ,weight of gas evolved4 ,volume of gas evolved4 ,heat of gas evolved4 ,pressure of gas generated4 ,strength of powder not affected by density of air1 but by damp4 ,it appears that the weight of gas generated is equal to three tenths of the weight of the powder which yielded it1 and that its bulk when cold1 and expanded to the rarity of ,common air was #bdj times that of the powder2 the barometer standing at about #cj inches4 ,from this ,robins concluded that if the fluid occupied a space equal to the volume of the gunpowder1 its elastic force1 when cold1 would be #bdj times the pressure of the atmosphere1 when the barometer stands as above4 ,mr4 ,robins also considered that the heat evolved was at least equal to that of red hot iron1 and he found by experiments that air heated to this temperature had its elasticity quadrupled1 and therefore1 that the force of gas from powder is at least four times #bdj #ifj1 or in round numbers #a1jjj times as great as the elasticity of the air measured by its pressure on an equal extent of surface4 ,from the height of the barometer it is known that the pressure of the atmosphere is about #adlbs4 upon the square inch1 so that the pressure of the elastic gas generated by the combustion of the gunpowder upon the same area would be #ad4ge by #a1jjj or #ad1gejlbs4 at the moment of explosion4 ,he found that the strength of ,gunpowder was the same whatever might be the density of the atmosphere1 but that the moisture of the air effected it considerably1 in fact that the same quantity of powder which would give a bullet an initial velocity of #a1gjj feet per second on a day when the atmosphere was comparatively dry1 would upon a damp day give no more than #a1bjj or #a1cjj feet4 ,velocity of gas ,the velocity of the expansion of the gas is a most important point1 upon which depends1 chiefly1 the peculiar value of the substance as a propelling agent4 ,many of the warlike machines of the ,ancients produced a momentum far surpassing that of our heaviest cannon1 but the great celerity given to the bodies projected from guns by gunpowder cannot be in the least approached by any other means than by the sudden production of an elastic gas4 ,mr4 ,robins found that the flame of gunpowder expanded itself when at the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of #g1jjj feet per second4 ,dr4 ,hutton's calculation as to3--,volume1 ,temperature1 ,pressure4 ,temperature ,expansion4 ,how to calculate expansion ,absolute force of gunpowder cannot be determined4 ,it has been calculated that one cubic inch of powder is converted into #bej cubic inches of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere1 and ,dr4 ,hutton states that the increase of volume at the moment of ignition cannot be less than eight times2 therefore one inch of gunpowder1 if confined1 at the time of explosion exerts a pressure of about #cj1jjjlbs4 being #bej by #h by #ae #cj1jjjlbs4 on the cubic inch1 or #e1jjjlbs4 on the square inch2 and which at once accounts for its extraordinary power4 ,the value of the temperature to which the gases are raised1 on the explosion of the powder1 has been variously estimated and it may be concluded to rise as high as will melt copper1 or #d1jjj ,fahrenheit4 ,all gases expand uniformly by heat1 the expansion having been calculated with great precision1 to be th for each degree of ,fahrenheit4 ,if therefore we take ,dr4 ,hutton's calculations of one volume of powder expanding into #bej volumes of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere1 and if we suppose #d1jjj ,fahrenheit to be the heat to which they are raised on ignition1 the expansion of gunpowder would be calculated4 ,thus1 suppose the gas to be at #fj1 the temperature of the atmosphere1 we must deduct #fj from #d1jjj1 which will give #c1idj1 being the number of degrees remaining to which it is raised1 hence temp4 vol4 temp4 vol4 vol4 #a #cidj #a 3 --- #c1idj 3 ---- #hb #dhj #dhj that is1 each volume of gas would at a temperature of #djjj be increased #hb in volume4 ,gunpowder when at the temperature of the air being expanded #bej times in volume2 therefore #bej by #hb #b1jej as the increased expansion for each volume of gas generated by the explosion of gunpowder at the temperature of #d1jjj ,fahrenheit4 ,lieut-,colonel ,boxer calculates that the heat generated by good dry powder is not under #c1jjj ,fahrenheit4 ,it appears with our present knowledge1 the absolute value of the force of gunpowder cannot be determined4 ,still by careful and extensive experiments no doubt a near approximation to the truth may ultimately be arrived at1 so that although much has already been done by various eminent philosophers1 there is still more to be accomplished2 and the importance of the subject ought to act as a stimulus to the exertions of those belonging to a profession the most interested in the question4 ,loss of velocity by windage4 ,it has been found by experiments that in calculating the initial velocity of a projectile1 one third of the whole force was lost with a windage of th inch with a shot of #aif-;in4 and #ahf-;in4 in diameter4 ,the bore of the gun being #bjb-;in4 ,definition of ignition and combustion4 ,by ignition we understand the act of setting fire to a single grain1 or to a charge of gunpowder1 and by combustion we mean the entire consumption of a grain or of a charge4 ,quickness of combustion4 ,upon the quickness of combustion mainly depends the applicability of gunpowder for ,military purposes4 ,ignition by heat4 ,gunpowder may be inflamed in a variety of ways1 but whatever be the method1 one portion of the substance must in the first instance be raised to a temperature a little above that necessary to sublime the sulphur1 which can be removed from the other ingredients1 by gradually raising the compound to a heat sufficient to drive it off in a state of vapour4 ,the heat required for this purpose is between #fjj and #fhj ,fahrenheit4 ,progressive combustion4 ,when a charge of powder is exploded in the bore of a gun1 to all appearance there would seem to be an instantaneous generation of the whole force4 ,but in fact it is not so1 a certain time being necessary to the complete combustion of the substance4 ,this gradual firing is of the utmost importance1 for were it otherwise1 the gun1 unless of enormous strength1 must be shattered in pieces1 as well as the projectile2 for in such a case1 this great force being suddenly exerted upon one part only of the material1 there would not be time for the action to be distributed over the particles1 at any great distance1 before those in the immediate vicinity of the explosion1 were forced out of the sphere of action of the cohesive force1 and consequently rupture must take place4 ,substances which have a more violent action than powder4 ,the effect of such an action may be observed by exploding detonating powders1 in which are contained chlorate of potash or fulminating mercury4 ,the action of that peculiar substance the chlorite of nitrogen is still more remarkable4 ,there is also another compound1 containing three parts of saltpetre1 one part of carbonate of potash and one part of sulphur1 which when brought to a certain heat will explode with great violence1 its destructive force being very considerable2 and this is principally due to the rapidity of the evolution of the gas1 for its amount is less than that produced from gunpowder1 but the complete decomposition occurs in a much shorter time4 ,in a damp state less quickly fired1 and why4 ,if gunpowder be in a damp state1 the velocity of combustion will be less than when dry1 and also a longer time will be necessary to ignite it1 since the moisture upon its conversion into vapour1 absorbs a certain amount of heat which remains latent1 and of which the useful effects so far as igniting the powder is concerned1 is entirely lost4 ,ignition by percussion4 ,gunpowder may be ignited by the percussion of copper against copper1 copper against iron1 lead against lead1 and even with lead against wood1 when the shock is very great4 ,it is more difficult to ignite gunpowder between copper and bronze1#a or bronze and wood than between the other substances4 ,again1 out of ten samples which were wrapt in paper and struck upon an anvil with a heavy hammer1 seven of grained powder exploded and nine of mealed4 #a ,bronze consists of #gh parts copper to #bj of tin4 ,bell metal--#gh copper and #bb tin4 ,gun metal--#ajj copper to #h to #aj tin4 ,brass--#b copper1 #a zinc and calamine stone1 to harden and colour4 ,influence of shape of grain on ignition4 ,if the part to which the heat is applied be of an angular shape1 the inflammation will take place quicker than if it be of a round or flat form1 on account of the greater surface that is exposed to the increased temperature4 ,the form of the grain influences the velocity of the transmission of flame4 ,if the grains are of a rounded form1 there would be larger interstices1 and a greater facility will be afforded to the passage of the heated gas1 and therefore this shape is most favourable to the rapid and complete inflammation of each grain in the whole charge4 ,on the other hand1 particles of an angular or flat form1 fitting into each other as it were1 offer greater obstruction to this motion1 and the velocity of the transmission of inflammation is thereby diminished4 ,effect of size on the velocity of transmission of inflammation4 ,if the grains be small1 the interstices will be small also1 and the facility to the expansion of the gas thereby diminished4 ,in the experiments with trains of powder1 the increased surface exposed to the heated gas was found to more than compensate for the diminished facility to its expansion1 and generally a train of small-grained powder laid upon a surface without being enclosed1 will be consumed more quickly than a train of large-grained powder4 ,large grain best suited for heavy ordnance4 ,but this is not the case in a piece of ordnance1 a circumstance which amongst others will account for the diminished initial velocity given to the shot by a charge of small-grained musket powder1 below that produced by the large-grained usually adopted for this service4 ,velocity of the transmission of inflammation of the charge4 ,estimate of ,mr4 ,piobert4 ,when a number of grains of powder are placed together as in the charge of a gun1 and a few of them are ignited at one end of the cartridge1 a certain quantity of gas is developed of a temperature sufficiently high to ignite those in their immediate vicinity4 ,this has also such elasticity as to enable it to expand itself with considerable velocity4 ,again1 the grains which are so ignited continue the inflammation to others in the same manner4 ,the absolute velocity of expansion of this gas is very considerable2 but the grains of gunpowder in the charge offer an obstruction to this motion1 the gas having to wind its way through the interstices1 and consequently the velocity is considerably diminished1 but it is quite clear that it must be very much greater than the velocity of combustion4 ,mr4 ,piobert estimates the velocity of transmission of inflammation of a charge in a gun at about #ch feet per second1 and in all probability even this is much under the mark4 ,experiments made on this subject4 ,many experiments have been made by observing the velocity of transmission of inflammation of trains of powder under various circumstances1 but they do not show us what would be the velocity in a confined charge4 ,the velocity increased with the section of the train1 and further when at the end first lighted1 there was an obstruction to the escape of gas1 as in the case of a gun1 a much shorter time was required for complete inflammation4 ,time of decomposition depends upon form of grain4 ,when the charge of powder in a gun is ignited the grains being enveloped by the heated gas1 we may consider that each grain is ignited over its whole surface at once4 ,if the grains of powder were of equal or regular form1 the time each would be consuming1 might be easily calculated1 but since in ordinary cases they are irregular in form1 although the grains may be of the same weight1 the time necessary for their complete decomposition will be very different4 ,circumstances affecting combustion4 ,the quickness of combustion will depend upon the dryness of the powder1 the density of the composition1 the proportion of the ingredients1 the mode of manufacture1 and the quality of the ingredients4 ,combustion of cubical grains considered4 ,were a cubical grain to be ignited upon its whole surface1 the decomposition may be supposed to take place gradually from the surface to the centre1 and the original cubical form to remain until the whole is consumed1 the cube becoming smaller and smaller4 ,if1 then1 the rate of burning be the same throughout1 the quantity of gas generated in the first half portion of the time will evidently be considerably more than in the latter half1 as in the latter case there will be a much lesser surface under the influence of flame4 ,elongated and cylindrical grains4 ,if the form of the grain be elongated1 then will the quantity of gas generated in a given time from a grain of similar weight to that of the cube or sphere1 be increased1 on account of the greater ignited surface1 and consequently the time necessary for its combustion will be diminished4 ,if it be of a cylindrical form for example1 this time must be reckoned from the diameter of the cylinder1 its length not influencing it in the least1 although as we have seen1 it enters into the consideration of the quantity of the gas generated in a given time4 ,large grain4 ,in the ordinary large-grain powder1 the majority of the grains are of the elongated or flat form1 from whence considerable advantage is derived1 particularly in short guns1 since it causes the greatest portion of the charge to be decomposed before the projectile is moved sensibly from its original position4 ,mealed powder4 ,if the charge be composed of mealed powder a longer time is found to be necessary for the complete combustion of the whole than in the case where the substance is granulated1 and the initial velocity of a shot is reduced about one third by employing the substance in that state4 ,the effect of granulating gunpowder4 ,a piece of pressed cake weighing #ajfoz41 was put into a mortar1 and a globe of some light substance1 placed upon it1 and the powder being consumed after ignition without ejecting the ball from the bore of the piece4 ,when an equal quantity was divided into seven or eight pieces1 the globe was thrown out of the mortar2 breaking the cake into twelve pieces2 the ball ranged #cc yards2 being further increased to fifty grains1 it ranged #ajgg yards2 and when the ordinary powder was used1 the ball was projected #efhf yards4 ,action depends upon size and form of grain4 ,it will appear from the above remarks1 that the force generated from the charge of powder in a gun1 will be greatly influenced by the size and form of the grains composing it4 ,density of gunpowder4 ,in order to obtain a gunpowder which shall possess a proper amount of force1 it is necessary that the ingredients should be thoroughly incorporated1 and the process of incorporation will in great measure affect the density of the grains4 ,after going through the process1 it is subjected to a certain pressure1 in order that the substance in travelling may not be reduced to a fine powder1 which would cause the velocity of transmission of inflammation to be diminished4 ,but there is a certain point beyond which it would not be advantageous to increase the density1 and this seems to vary with the size of the grain4 ,with large-grain powder the action in a musket1 or in guns with small charges1 is greatest with a low density2 while with very small grain1 the highest velocities are obtained generally with the gunpowder of great density2 but in heavy guns with ordinary charges1 the large-grained powder should be of considerable density in order to obtain the greatest effect1 though still it must not be too great4 ,advantages of glazing4 ,the principal advantages of glazing are2 first1 that the powder so prepared1 will in travelling1 owing to the smaller amount of destructive force consequent on friction1 produce less mealed powder2 and secondly1 that in a damp country like ,england1 the glazing imparts a preserving power to the powder1 as the polished surface is less likely to imbibe moisture than the rough4 ,disadvantages of glazing4 ,experiments as to glazing4 ,glazing less hurtful to fine grains4 ,the disadvantages of glazing consists in its polishing the surface1 and thus depriving it of those angular projections which cause the ignition and combustion to be carried on with greater rapidity1 by rendering the interstices smaller1 the consequence of which is1 that there is not so much gas produced previously to the projectile leaving the gun1 and in large charges a portion will be blown out unfired4 ,there must be a limit then to glazing1 which it would not be proper to exceed4 ,at an experiment with glazed and unglazed powder1 the ranges on the eprouvette were #ge for glazed1 and #ih for unglazed4 ,this loss of power1 consequent on glazing1 has caused it to be done away with in ,france and ,russia4 ,with fine grain powder it is not of so much consequence1 as it is1 to a certain degree1 corrected by the size of the grain4 ,size of grain determined by size of charge4 ,tight ramming bad4 ,the rapidity with which a charge of gunpowder is consumed will depend not only in a certain degree upon the size of the grain1 but on the manner in which the charge is put together1 for if a charge is closely pressed1 the gases meeting resistance in their endeavours to escape between the interstices1 will not propagate the ignition so rapidly4 ,with large charges1 there exists a positive advantage for the grains to be rather large1 so that the most distant parts of the charge should be reached by the gases as quickly as possible2 whilst with that of a rifle1 the charge being small1 the fineness of the grain does not interfere with the quantity of the gas developed4 ,whence it may rationally be concluded that the dimensions of the grains should increase in proportion to the quantity of the charges into which they are to enter1 that is to say1 in proportion to the interstices4 ,ramming down a charge tightly must therefore interfere with the velocity of combustion4 ,,note--,the foregoing on the explosive force of gunpowder was taken from ,lieut-,colonel ,e4 ,m4 ,boxer's ,treatise on ,artillery4 ,,fouling4 ,produce of decomposed gunpowder4 ,the produce obtained by the decomposition of gunpowder are the gaseous and the solid4 ,the gaseous is chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid4 ,the solid is sulphur and potassium1 mixed with a little charcoal1 but the solid produce is nearly entirely volatilized at the moment of explosion through the high temperature4 ,fouling4 ,fouling is occasioned by the deposition inside the barrel of the solid residue proceeding from the combustion of the powder4 ,conditions of fouling depend on state of atmosphere ,one of the principal of these1 namely1 the sulphide of ,potassa1 is deliquescent1 or attracts water from the atmosphere4 ,hence1 on a clear day1 when the air holds little moisture1 the fouling does not attain that semi-fluid state it so speedily attains in a damp day1 and it is not so easily removed1 and tends to accumulate inside the barrel4 ,fouling may also be increased or diminished1 according to the quality of the powder4 ,effects of ,fouling4 ,fouling occasions loss of power from the increased friction1 and causes inaccuracy in direction and elevation1 by filling the grooves1 and thus preventing the proper spiral motion being imparted to the projectile4 ,,effects ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,on ,,metals4 ,difference of effect on brass and iron guns4 ,the effect produced by ,gunpowder on metals1 in long continued and rapid firing1 is very extraordinary4 ,several of the guns employed at the siege of ,san ,sebastian were cut open1 and the interior of some of the vent holes1 which were originally cylindrical1 and only two-tenths of an inch in diameter1 were enlarged in a curious and irregular manner1 from three to five inches in one direction1 and from two to three inches in another1 but the brass guns were much more affected than the iron4 ,in ,december1 #ahee1 there were lying in the arsenal at ,woolwich several of the heaviest sea mortars1 which had recently been used at the bombardment of ,sweaborg1 and the continuous firing on that occasion had split them into two nearly equal portions from muzzle to breech1 a trunnion being with each half4 ,heavy guns for garrisons1 sieges1 c41 are made of cast iron2 guns for field purposes1 where lightness is required1 are made of gun metal4 ,difference of effect of brass and iron guns ,these guns are generally denominated brass guns4 ,they can be loaded1 properly pointed at an object1 and fired about four times in three minutes1 but they will not stand long continued rapid firing1 or more than #abj rounds a day1 as the metal1 when heated1 softens1 and the shot then injures the bore4 ,heavy iron guns may be loaded1 fired1 c41 once in two minutes4 ,they suffer more from the total number of rounds that have been fired from them1 without reference to the intervals between each round1 than from the rapidity of the firing4 ,four hundred and five hundred rounds per day have not rendered an iron gun unserviceable4 ,,miscellaneous ,,experiments4 ,the following experiments1 extracted from ,mr4 ,wilkinson's 8,engines of ,war10 serve to illustrate the capability of metals to resist the force of gunpowder1 and may be of some practical utility1 as well as prove interesting merely as matter of curiosity4 ,experiment #a4--;,a piece about #e inches long was cut off the breech-end of a common musket barrel4 ,it was screwed at the part cut1 and another plug fitted1 so as to have two plugs1 one at each end1 leaving an internal space of about #c inches4 ,a percussion nipple was screwed into the end of one of these plugs4 ,this being arranged1 one of the plugs was turned out1 and one drachm of gunpowder introduced4 ,the plug was replaced1 and the powder fired by putting a copper cap on the nipple1 and striking it with a hammer4 ,the whole force of the powder escaped at the hole in the nipple4 ,two1 three1 four1 five1 and six drachms were successively introduced1 and fired in the same manner1 without bursting or injuring the piece of barrel4 ,at last1 seven drachms forced out one end1 in consequence of the screw having been carelessly fitted4 ,this defect being repaired1 ,mr4 ,marsh1 of ,woolwich1 repeatedly fired it with five drachms1 merely holding it with a towel in his left hand1 and firing it with a blow of a hammer4 ,six drachms of powder is the full service charge for a flint musket1 and four drachms of a percussion musket2 yet this immense pressure can be resisted by a cylinder of iron not more than one quarter of an inch thick1 and not iron of the best quality4 ,experiment #b4--;,a good musket barrel had a cylinder of brass1 three inches long1 turned to fit the muzzle1 and soldered in1 so as to close it air-tight4 ,the plug1 or breech-screw1 was removed1 and a felt wad was pushed in with a short piece of wood1 marked to the exact depth the charge would occupy1 to prevent the ball rolling forward4 ,a musket ball was then dropped in1 and a cartridge1 containing three drachms of powder1 was introduced4 ,the breech being screwed in1 left the barrel loaded4 ,it was fired by a percussion tube1 but there was no report4 ,on removing the breech-screw1 the ball was found to be flattened4 ,a repetition of this experiment1 with four drachms1 produced a similar result1 but the ball was rather more flattened4 ,with five drachms1 the ball was perfectly round and uninjured4 ,six drachms burst the barrel close under the bayonet stud2 the ball escaped through the opening1 disfigured1 but fell close to the barrel4 ,in these experiments the barrel always advanced1 instead of recoiling1 as usual4 ,experiment #c4--,made at ,woolwich ,arsenal1 with a ,gomer mortar1 the chamber being bored conically1 so that the shell1 when dropped in1 fits closely all round1 instead of being bored cylindrically1 with a chamber in the centre4 ,the mortar being laid at an angle of #de1 one drachm of powder was put into the bottom1 and a #fh-pounder iron shot over it4 ,when fired1 the ball was projected two feet clear of the mortar4 ,a wooden ball1 precisely the same diameter1 but weighing only #elbs41 was scarcely moved by the same charge1 and with two drachms of powder it was just lifted in the mortar1 and fell into its place again4 ,here we find a weight of #fhlbs4 thrown to the distance of two feet by the same power which would not lift #elbs41 and the wooden ball scarcely moved by double the powder4 ,this proves that the firing of gunpowder under such circumstances is not instantaneous4 ,in the first instance1 the small quantity of powder had a large space to fill below the ball1 and a heavy weight to move2 therefore1 could not stir it at all until the whole was ignited1 when the force was sufficient to throw it forward two feet4 ,in the second case1 the first portion of gas that was generated by ignition of the powder1 was sufficient to lift the lighter weight1 just enough to allow all the force to escape round it before it had time to accumulate4 ,experiment #d4--;,a cannon ball1 weighing #bdlbs41 was placed exactly over the vent-hole of a loaded #cb-pounder cannon1 which was fired by a train of gunpowder1 when the rush from the vent projected the #bd-pounder ball to a very considerable height in the air1 although the diameter of the hole was only two-tenths of an inch4 ,experiment #e4--;,a most ingenious method of ascertaining the relative quickness of ignition of different qualities of gunpowder4 ,a gun-barrel mounted on a carriage with wheels1 and moving on a perfectly horizontal railway1 is placed at right angles to another short railway1 at any convenient distance 7suppose fifty feet1 or yards72 on the second railway a light carriage moves freely with any desired velocity1 being drawn forward by means of a weight and pulleys3 a cord is attached to the front of this carriage1 which passes over a pulley at the end of the railroad1 and is continued up a high pole or staff over another pulley at the top1 at which end the weight is attached4 ,a long rectangular frame covered with paper is fixed perpendicularly on the carriage1 so that when it moves forward it passes across the direct line of the barrel1 and forms a long target4 ,a percussion lock is attached to the barrel1 which is fired by a detent1 or hair-trigger1 and the wire which pulls it is disengaged at the same instant to admit of recoil4 ,this wire is carried straight on to the target railroad1 and fixed to a small lever1 against which the front part of the target-carriage strikes as it is carried onwards by the weight4 ,this constitutes the whole apparatus4 ,when required to be used1 the barrel is loaded with gunpowder accurately weighed1 and a brass ball that fits the bore correctly3 the weight is then disengaged1 and the target moves quickly along1 discharging the barrel as it passes1 and the ball goes through it4 ,with the same powder tried at the same time1 the ball constantly goes through the same hole1 or breaks into it4 ,if the next powder tried be slower of ignition than the preceding1 the ball will pass through another part of the target more in the rear2 if quicker1 more in advance2 thus affording a means of ascertaining this important quality of gunpowder with considerable accuracy3 the velocity of the target-carriage can be easily regulated by increasing or diminishing the weight which draws it forward4 ,the differences in the distances between which the balls strike the target with different kinds of powder was frequently as much as ten or twelve inches2 but it is not an apparatus commonly used1 having been merely constructed for experimental purposes4 ,,on ,,the ,,time ,,required ,,for ,,ignition ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,gunpowder like all other inflammable substances requires to be raised to a certain temperature1 before it will ignite1 viz41 to a dull red heat1 or about #fjj ,fahrenheit4 ,if the heat passes with such rapidity through the powder1 so as not to raise the temperature to the necessary degree1 then the powder will not ignite1 from the velocity of transit1 so that it might be possible to calculate theoretically1 the velocity that must be given to a red hot ball to enable it to pass through a barrel of gunpowder without causing explosion4 ,the passage of electric fluid through gunpowder may be adduced in evidence of the ignition being dependent on the degree of velocity4 ,the flame of all fulminating powders will pass through the centre of a box filled with gunpowder without igniting one grain of it4 ,if a train of gunpowder be crossed at right angles by a train of fulminating mercury1 laid on a sheet of paper or a table1 and the powder be lighted with a red hot iron wire1 the flame will run on until it meets the cross train of fulminating mercury1 when the inflammation of the latter will be so instantaneous as to cut off all connection with the continuous train of powder1 leaving the remaining portion of the gunpowder unignited4 ,if on the contrary the fulminating powder be lighted first1 it will go straight on and pass through the train of gunpowder so rapidly1 as not to inflame it at all4 ,were a gun to be charged with gun-cotton and gunpowder1 the latter would be fired out unignited4 ,,effects ,,of ,,accidental ,,explosions ,,of ,,gunpowder4 ,considering the combustible nature of the materials1 accidents very seldom occur2 when they do1 it is more frequently in the process at the ,mill while under the runners4 ,on one occasion at ,waltham ,abbey ,mills1 when the powder exploded1 after having been two hours under the runners1 the doors and windows of the ,mills on the opposite side of the stream1 were forced open outwards1 and the nails drawn4 ,a similar effect took place when the ,dartford ,mills blew up1 ,january #ahcc1 in consequence of an accident in the packing house4 ,a window which had been recently fitted up in ,dartford ,town1 about a mile and a half distant from the works1 was blown outwards into the street1 and a considerable quantity of paper was carried as far as ,eltham and ,lewisham1 distances of eight and ten miles4 ,the sudden rarification of the air may account for this circumstance1 the atmospheric pressure being removed in the vicinity of the doors and windows1 they were forced open outwards by the expansive force of the air contained within the buildings4 ,,on ,,ancient ,,engines ,,of ,,war4 ,war a painful topic4 ,advantages of war being destructive4 ,the ,utopian may shrink from the contemplation of so painful a subject as ,war1 the ,moralist may raise his voice against the justice of it1 but the practical philosopher can see very little chance of its cessation1 and actuated with the very best intentions1 will endeavour to render ,war as terrible as possible1 well knowing1 that as soon as certain death awaits two rival armies1 princes must fight their own battles1 or war must cease4 ,first missile weapons1 sticks and stones4 ,javelin4 ,sling4 ,bow4 ,arbalest4 ,man's first rude attempts at missile weapons were doubtless limited to throwing sticks and stones by the mere aid of his hands2 acts in which the monkey1 the bear1 and even the seal are very successful emulators4 ,a desire of more successful aggression1 together with increased facilities for the destruction of game and wild animals1 doubtless soon suggested to man the use of projectiles more efficient than these4 ,by a very slight change of form1 the simple stick would become a javelin1 capable of being hurled with great force and precision4 ,an aid would suggest itself for casting a stone1 by means of a fillet or band1 subsequently called a sling1 and next would be invented the bow1 which1 in process of time by subsequent additions would become the arbalest or cross-bow4 ,axes used as projectiles4 ,it appears that axes have been used as projectiles3 for ,procopius1 describing the expedition of the ,franks into ,italy1 in the sixth century1 tells us3--,among the hundred thousand men that ,king ,theodobert ,i4 led into ,italy1 there were but few horsemen4 ,the cavalry carried spears4 ,the infantry had neither bow nor spear1 all their arms being a sword1 an axe1 and a shield4 ,the blade of the axe was large1 its handle of wood1 and very short4 ,they hurl their axes against the shields of the enemy1 which by this means are broken2 and then1 springing on the foe1 they complete his destruction with the sword4 ,tomahawk used as a projectile4 ,a hatchet or tomahawk is used as a projectile weapon by the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,the difficulty of throwing such a weapon with effect1 would of course consist in causing the edge to strike the object aimed at4 ,now1 such a hatchet as they usually make use of1 if thrown by its handle1 will revolve in a perpendicular plane about once in every three yards1 irrespective of the force with which it moves4 ,an ,indian judges his enemy to be distant from him any multiple of #c yards as #ae1 #ah1 #ba1 and strikes him full with the edge of his weapon accordingly4 8,chuckur0 or disk used as a projectile4 ,a circular disk or quoit is in use in ,india amongst the ,sikhs1 particularly that sect of them called ,akali1 as a weapon1 and in their warlike exercises2 the species used in war have a triangular section1 those thrown for amusement are flat with a sharp edge4 ,a skilful man will throw one of these chuckers or quoits to a distance of a hundred and thirty yards1 or more1 with very considerable accuracy1 the quoit being at no period of its flight above six feet from the ground4 ,the sharpness of edge1 combined with the rotatory motion of these quoits1 and the difficulty of avoiding them1 renders them formidable weapons in skilled hands4 ,the ,akali wear them on their turbans1 of several different sizes and weights2 a small one is often worn as a bracelet on the arm4 ,many of these fanatics took part in the last ,sikh war1 and severe wounds made with these weapons were by no means uncommon4 ,armour and fortifications4 ,by the time portable weapons would have been brought to some degree of perfection1 man's increasing sciences and civilization would have led him to make armour1 to build cities1 and enclose them with walls4 ,now would arise the necessity for other projectiles of greater force1 inasmuch as in the event of war1 the armour should be penetrated1 and walls1 c41 would have to be demolished4 ,improved projectiles4 ,change to heavy projectiles4 ,catapulta4 ,balist4 ,sling principles4 ,the transition from portable projectiles to those of a heavier class was obvious enough4 ,enormous javelins and darts were hurled by cross-bows of corresponding size1 termed ,catapult1 7plate x471 and stones1 c41 were thrown by ,balist 7plate ix4 and xii72 and secondly1 instruments formed on the principle of the sling4 ,projectiles used with ,catapulta4 ,these machines threw not only large darts and stones1 but also the bodies of men and horses4 ,athenus speaks of a ,catapulta which was only one foot long1 and threw an arrow to the distance of half a mile4 ,other engines1 it is said1 could throw javelins from one side of the ,danube to the other4 ,balist threw great beams of wood1 lances twelve cubits long1 and stones that weighed three hundred pounds4 ,millstones1 c41 used in ,england4 ,our forefathers used to cast forth mill-stones4 ,holinshead relates that when ,edward ,i4 besieged ,stively ,castle1 he caused certain engines to be made1 which shot off stones of two or three hundred weight4 ,b4 ,c4 #adea4 ,b4 ,c4 #hji4 ,first mention of ,artillery4 ,the first intimation of trees being cut down 8to build bulwarks against the city till it be subdued10 occurs in ,deut4 xx41 #ai1 #bj1 but the earliest precise mention of ,artillery is in #bnd ,chron41 xxvi1 #ae1 where we are told that ,uzziah 8made in ,jerusalem engines invented by cunning men1 to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks1 to shoot arrows and great stones withal20 and ,josephus relates that ,uzziah 8made many engines of war for besieging cities1 such as hurl stones and darts with grapplers1 and other instruments of that sort40 ,he must therefore be considered the inventor of them1 and from that time they began to be employed in attacking and defending towns4 ,balist at ,regium1 ,b4 ,c4 #chh4 ,at ,motya ,b4 ,c4 #cgj4 ,the earliest instances of projectile machines in profane history appear to be at the siege of ,regium and ,motya by ,dionysius1 where1 having battered the walls with his rams1 he advanced towards them towers rolled on wheels1 from whence he galled the besieged with continual volleys of stones and arrows1 thrown from his ,balist and ,catapult4 ,at ,rhodes ,b4 ,c4 #cjc4 ,the next memorable instance is the siege of ,rhodes by ,demetrius ,polyorcetes1 who brought forward a newly invented machine1 called ,helepolis1 7taker of ,cities71 with a variety of other engines1 and employed #cj1jjj men in the management of them4 ,balist at ,cremona4 ,tacitus mentions an extraordinary engine1 used by the #aeth ,legion at the battle of ,cremona1 against the troops of ,vespasian4 ,it was a ,balista of enormous size1 which discharged stones of weight sufficient to crush whole ranks at once4 ,inevitable ruin would have been the consequence1 had not two soldiers1 undiscovered1 cut the ropes and springs4 ,at length1 after a vigorous assault from ,antonius1 the ,vittelians1 unable to resist the shock1 rolled down the engine1 and crushed numbers of their assailants1 but the machine1 in falling1 drew after it a neighbouring tower1 the parapet1 and part of the wall1 which afforded the besiegers easier access to the city4 ,balist at siege of ,jotapata4 ,dead men and horses projected4 ,josephus relates that at the siege of ,jotapata1 8a stone from one of the ,roman engines carried the head of a soldier1 who was standing by him1 three furlongs off20 that 8lances were thrown with great noise1 and stones1 weighing #aadlbs4 troy1 8together with fire and a multitude of arrows40 ,the dead bodies of men and horses were also thrown at this siege1 and at that of ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 to inspire terror4 ,form of ,balist4 ,the earliest form of ,balist appears to have been a very long beam1 suspended in a frame on a centre of motion1 one end being considerably longer than the other4 ,to the short end was attached a great weight1 such as a chest filled with earth or stones4 ,to the longer end a sling was affixed1 in which1 after being drawn down1 a stone was placed1 and on being suddenly let go1 the long end flew up1 and discharged the stone with great violence4 ,form of ,catapult4 ,catapult were sometimes constructed to discharge a flight of arrows at once1 by placing them on a rack1 and causing a strong plank1 previously drawn back1 to strike against their ends4 ,the more perfect engines of the ,romans were all dependent on the elasticity of twisted cords made of flax1 hemp1 the sinews or tendons of animals1 from the neck of the bull1 or legs of the deer species1 and ropes formed of human hair were preferred to all others1 as possessing greater strength and elasticity4 ,catapult were immensely powerful bows1 drawn back by capstans1 levers1 or pulleys1 having only a single cord for the arrow1 7plate x471 but the ,balist had a broad band1 formed of several ropes to project the stone1 which was placed in a kind of cradle1 like a cross-bow4 7plate xii47 ,balist at battle of ,hastings #ajff ,the ,normans appear to have introduced a kind of ,field-,artillery1 consisting of instruments or machines1 from which darts and stones were thrown to a considerable distance1 as they occur at the battle of ,hastings4 ,they also employed arrows1 headed with combustible matter1 for firing towns and shipping4 ,fiery darts1 ,a4 ,d4 #fd4 ,we read in the ,scriptures of 8,fiery ,darts40 ,ephns4 vi41 #af4 ,fire from ,balist4 ,our ancestors derived the knowledge of some composition from the ,saracens1 which resembled ,greek-fire1 and was often thrown in pots from the ,balist4 ,fire by ,arabs commencement of #acth century4 ,from a treatise on the 8,art of ,fighting10 by ,hassan ,abrammah1 we learn that the ,arabs of the #acth century employed their incendiary compositions in four different ways4 ,they cast them by hand2 they fixed them to staves1 with which they attacked their enemies2 they poured forth fire through tubes2 and they projected burning mixtures of various kinds by means of arrows1 javelins1 and the missiles of great engines4 ,bombs of glass1 c4 ,fire-mace4 ,vessels of glass or pottery1 discharged by hand or by machines1 were so contrived1 that on striking the object at which they were aimed1 their contents spread around1 and the fire1 already communicated by a fusee1 enveloped everything within its reach4 ,a soldier1 on whose head was broken a fire-mace1 became suddenly soaked with a diabolic fluid1 which covered him from head to foot with flame4 ,bombs from ,balist4 ,bombs were also thrown from ,balist4 ,an engine was constructed at ,gibraltar1 under the direction of ,general ,melville1 at the desire of ,lord ,heathfield1 for the purpose of throwing stones just over the edge of the rock1 in a place where the ,spaniards used to resort1 and where shells thrown from mortars could not injure or annoy them4 ,onager4 ,of machines formed on the sling principle1 that called ,onager 7plates vii4 and viii47 may be regarded as typical of all the rest4 ,its force entirely depended upon the torsion of a short thick rope1 acting upon a lever which described an arc of a vertical circle4 ,the lever had attached to its free extremity a sling1 or sometimes it merely terminated in a spoon-shaped cavity4 ,when bent back1 it was secured by a catch or trigger1 and charged with a stone4 ,on starting the catch by a blow with a mallet1 the lever described its arc of a circle with great velocity1 and projected the stone to a considerable distance4 ,i shall now briefly describe some of the portable missive weapons which have been used by different nations4 ,javelin4 ,arms of the early ,romans4 ,aid to projection4 ,the ,javelin1 or dart1 variously modified1 is known under several names4 ,the ancients were well acquainted with it4 ,in the ,scriptures1 we have frequent notice of it2 and the ancients instituted javelin matches4 ,it would appear that the javelin used on horseback was about five feet and a half long1 and headed with steel1 usually three-sided1 but sometimes round4 ,the ,roman ,cavalry1 after the conquest of ,greece1 were armed much like the ,infantry1 carrying swords1 shields1 and javelins with points at both ends4 ,sometimes1 in order to launch it with greater force1 it was not propelled by the unaided arm1 but by the assistance of a thong fastened to its butt end2 and we are informed that the ,greeks and ,romans projected darts and javelins by the assistance of a sling or strap1 girt round their middle4 ,djereed4 ,pilum4 ,australian mode4 ,harpoon4 ,at the present time1 a javelin1 termed ,djereed1 is used with considerable effect by certain oriental nations1 who invariably employ it on horseback4 ,the ,roman infantry possessed a weapon of the javelin kind1 termed ,pilum1 every man of the legionary soldiers carrying two4 ,the point of this weapon being very long and small1 was usually so bent at the first discharge as to be rendered useless afterwards4 ,with every improvement that the javelin was susceptible of1 it never could acquire a long range2 hence we find1 that as ,archery became developed1 the use of the weapon declined4 ,amongst savage nations1 the use of the javelin is very common1 but the inhabitants of ,australia have a manner of throwing it altogether peculiar to themselves1 not throwing it while poised at the balance1 but projecting it by means of a stick applied at the butt end4 ,this contrivance accomplishes a great increase of range1 but does not contribute to accuracy of direction4 ,at short distances1 the penetrating force of the javelin is considerable1 as is learned from the act of harpooning a whale1 a harpoon being merely a javelin4 ,,the ,,sling4 ,slings mentioned in ,judges4 ,b4 ,c4 #adjf4 ,slings used ,b4 ,c4 #adjf4 ,means by which stones would be thrown by greater force than the hand1 would naturally be resorted to2 accordingly we find the sling ranks amongst the first of ancient offensive weapons4 ,numerous examples are mentioned in ,scripture1 as in ,judges xx41 #af1 8,among all this people1 there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed2 every one could sling stones at a hair breadth and not miss20 and also that of ,david and ,goliath1 c4 ,siege of ,troy between #hjj and #ijj ,b4 ,c4 ,battle of the ,granicus ,b4 ,c4 #ccd4 ,first ,punic war #bda to #bfc ,b4 ,c4 ,at the siege of ,troy1 the masses were organized into two kinds of infantry3 one light and irregular1 carrying horn bows1 short darts1 and slings2 the other regular and heavy1 armed with spears4 ,at the battle of the ,granicus1 ,b4 ,c4 #ccd1 ,alexander the ,great had in his army light infantry1 consisting of slingers1 bow-men1 and javelin-men4 ,the ,carthagenians had slingers in their pay before the first ,punic ,war4 ,slings common in ,greece4 ,slingers in ,roman armies4 ,the ,sling was very common in ,greece1 and used by the light armed soldiers4 ,arrows1 stones1 and leaden plummets1 were thrown from them1 some of which weighed no less than an ,attic pound4 ,seneca reports that its motion was so vehement that the leaden plummets were frequently melted666 ,the ,romans had slingers in their armies1 for the most part inhabitants of the ,islands of ,majorca1 ,minorca and ,ivica4 ,invention ascribed to ,phnicians and also to inhabitants of ,balearic islands4 ,pliny ascribes the invention of slings to the ,phnicians1 but ,vegetius to the inhabitants of the ,balearic ,islands1 who were famous in antiquity for using them4 ,it is said1 those people bore three kinds of slings1 some longer and others shorter1 to be used as their enemies were nearer or more remote2 the first served them for a head band1 the second for a girdle1 and the third they always carried in their hands4 ,in fight they threw large stones with such violence1 that they seemed to be projected from some machine1 and with such exactness1 as rarely to miss their aim2 being constantly exercised from their infancy1 their mothers not allowing them to have any food1 until they struck it down from the top of a pole with stones thrown from their slings4 ,materials of slings4 ,slings with cup4 ,staff-sling4 ,the ,latin for our ,english word farm is fundus1 which originally signifies a 8stone's-throw of land10 or as much land as could be included within the range of a stone thrown from a sling4 ,the materials of which slings were composed1 were either flax1 hair or leather1 woven into bands or cut into thongs1 broad in the centre to receive the load1 and tapering off to the extremities4 ,slings have been made with three strings1 with a cup let into the leather to hold the bullet or stone1 and were called 8,fronde cult40 ,in plate xiii1 fig4 #c1 there is a representation of a slinger of the early part of the thirteenth century1 whose weapon differs from that of the ,anglo-,saxon or common sling1 in having a cup for the reception of the projectile4 ,slings were sometimes attached to sticks to increase their power1 as1 besides the ancient cord sling1 there appears in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century a variety of this arm2 the 8,staff ,sling40 7plate xiii1 fig4 #b47 ,it seems to have been in vogue for naval warfare1 or in the conflicts of siege operations4 ,force of slings4 ,used for the ,english1 ,a4 ,d4 #acdb4 ,bullets out of slings4 ,the slings projected their missiles with such force that no armour could resist their stroke4 ,slings never appear to have been much used by the ,english1 although ,froissart mentions an instance of their having been used for them by the people of ,brittany1 in a battle fought in that province during the reign of ,philip de ,valois1 between the troops of ,walter de ,manin1 an ,english knight1 and ,louis d',espagne1 who commanded six thousand men on behalf of ,charles de ,blois1 then competitor with the ,earl of ,montford for the ,duchy of ,brittany4 ,froissart says1 that what made ,louis lose the battle was1 that during the engagement the country people came unexpectedly and assaulted his army with bullets and slings4 ,slings at the siege of ,sancere1 #aegb4 ,range4 ,slings last used1 #ahad4 ,according to the same author1 slings were used in naval combats1 when stones were also sometimes thrown by hand4#b ,slings were used in #aegb1 at the siege of ,sancere by the ,huguenots1 in order to save their powder4 ,they were also used by the people of ,brittany to such an extent against the ,roman ,catholic party1 that the war was called 8,guerre de ,fronde40 ,with respect to the range of this projectile1 it is said1 that a good slinger could project a stone #fjj yards4 ,this seems doubtful4 ,the most recent instance of slings being used in war1 occurs in 8,straith on ,fortification10 page #aba1 and which contains an extract from the siege journal of ,serjeant ,st4 ,jacques of the ,french ,corps de ,genie1 who was most successfully employed with a small ,french garrison in the defence of the ,castles of ,monzowin1 ,arragon1 against the ,spaniards1 #ahad4 #b ,it is stated by ,sir ,robert ,wilson that at the battle of ,alexandria the ,french and ,english threw stones at each other1 during a temporary want of ammunition1 with such effect that a ,serjeant of the #bhth ,regiment was killed1 and several of the men were wounded4 ,stones were thrown by the ,english ,guards at the battle of ,inkerman4 ,,the ,,bow4 ,the bow almost universal4 ,this weapon under some shape or other was employed by most nations of antiquity1 but not always as a warlike instrument4 ,scarcely any two nations made their bows exactly alike4 ,the ,scythian bow we are told1 was very much curved1 as are the ,turkish1 ,persian1 and ,chinese bows 7plate iv4 figs4 #a #b7 at the present day1 whilst the celebrated weapon of our ancestors when unstrung was nearly straight4 ,it is now used among those savage tribes of ,africa and ,america1 to which fire-arms have not yet reached4 ,bows in ,scripture4 ,bows ,b4 ,c4 #ahib4 ,b4 ,c4 #agfj4 ,b4 ,c4 #ajeh4 ,manner of drawing the bow4 ,first used by ,romans4 ,we frequently read of the bow in ,scripture1 and the first passage in which the use of the bow is inferred1 is in ,gen4 xxi4 #bj1 where it is said of ,ishmael1 8,and ,god was with the lad1 and he grew1 and dwelt in the wilderness and became an archer40 ,but in the #afth verse it is said that ,hagar his mother1 8sat her down over against him1 a good way off1 as it were a bow shot2 for she said let me not see the death of the child03--this verse implies an earlier practice with the bow than can be adduced by any profane historian4 ,in ,gen4 xxvii4 #c1 ,isaac directs his son ,esau3 8,now therefore take ,i pray thee thy weapons1 thy quiver and thy bow1 and go out to the field1 and take me some venison2 and make me savory meat1 such as ,i love1 and bring it to me that ,i may eat1 and that my soul may bless thee before ,i die40 ,the overthrow of ,saul was particularly owing to the ,philistine archers2 and 8,david bade them teach the children of ,judah the use of the bow40 ,the companies that came to ,david at ,ziklag were armed with bows1 and 8could use the right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows40 7,i4 ,chron4 xii4 #b47 ,the bow is of very high antiquity among the ,greeks1 whose bows were usually made of wood1 but sometimes of horn1 and frequently in either case beautifully ornamented with gold and silver2 the string generally made of twisted hair1 but sometimes of hide4 ,the ancient ,persians drew the strings towards their ears1 as is the practice still with the ,english4 ,the ancient ,greeks1 however1 drew the bowstring towards their breast1 and represented the fabled ,amazons as doing the same1 and hence the tradition of these people cutting off their right breasts1 in order to give facility for drawing the bow4 ,until the second ,punic war1 the ,romans had no archers in their armies1 except those who came with their auxiliary forces4 ,subsequently they became more employed1 although as far as we can learn1 not by native troops1 but by ,orientals in their pay4 ,bows of ,britons4 ,bows of ,welsh4 ,bows of ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the early ,britons had merely bows and arrows of reed1 with flint or bone heads4 ,arrows were used by the ,welch in ,norman reigns1 who were famous archers2 their bows were made of wild elm1 but stout1 and not calculated to shoot a great distance1 but their arrows would inflict very severe wounds in close fight4 ,their arrows would pierce oaken boards four inches thick4 ,the bow was also a weapon of war among the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the ,salic law shows that both the sling and the bow were used by the contemporary ,franks2 and they even used poisoned arrows4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon bow was of the form of the ,grecian1 but it was only under the ,normans that the bow became a master weapon2 the ,saxons principally using it1 like the people of ,tahiti of the present day1 for killing birds4 ,no bows in ,france ,a4 ,d4 #ead4 ,during the reign of ,clovis1 the ,french made no use of the bow in their armies1 but it was employed during the reign of ,charlemagne1 who flourished in the end of the eighth century2 as a ,count is mentioned1 who was directed on conducting soldiers to the army1 to see they had their proper arms2 that is a lance1 a buckler1 a bow1 two strings1 and twelve arrows4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajff4 ,harold shot with an arrow ,known by ,danes and ,saxons4 ,as a military weapon at the battle of ,hastings4 ,archery encouraged by statute4 ,long bow in conquest of ,ireland #aagb4 ,william the ,conqueror was a skilful archer1 and the battle of ,hastings was decided by the bow1 and we hear that ,harold was shot with an arrow4 ,although the ,anglo-,saxons and ,danes were well acquainted with the bow from the earliest period1 it appears to have been only employed for obtaining food1 or for pastime1 and we are perhaps indebted to the ,norman ,conquest for its introduction as a military weapon4 ,the ,normans at the battle of ,hastings are said to have used the arbalest or cross-bow as well as the long bow4 ,ever after this1 the bow became a favourite weapon4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 archery was much cultivated1 and great numbers of bowmen were constantly brought into the field2 and to encourage its practice1 a law was passed1 which freed from the charge of murder any one who in practising with arrows or darts1 should kill a person standing near4 ,this appears to be the first regulation to be found in our annals1 and was probably founded on the old law of ,rome4 ,the ,english conquests in ,ireland during the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 were principally owing to the use of the long bow in battle1 which the ,irish wanted4 ,the ,invasion of ,ireland was headed by ,richard de ,clare1 ,earl of ,pembroke1 surnamed 8,strong-bow40 ,his force was numerically very small1 consisting chiefly of archers1 and it is stated that such was the advantage their superior arms and military skill gave the invaders1 that #aj knights and #gj archers defeated a body of #cjjj ,irish opposed to them1 on their landing near ,waterford4 ,a4 ,d4 #aaii4 ,the exact time when shooting with the long-bow began in ,england is unsettled1 our chroniclers do not mention archery till the death of ,richard ,i4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 there were among the ,english infantry1 slingers1 archers1 and cross-bow men4 ,cressy #acdf4 ,poictiers #acef4 ,it seems that the long-bow was at its zenith in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 who appears to have taken great pains to increase its efficacy1 and to extend its use4 ,the terrible execution effected by the ,english archers at ,cressy1 and at ,poictiers ten years after1 was occasioned by ,british archers4 ,homelden #adjc4 ,the decisive victory over the ,scots at ,homelden was entirely achieved by them1 and the ,earl of ,douglas found the ,english arrows were so swift and strong1 that no armour could repel them2 though his own was of the most perfect temper1 he was wounded in five places4 ,the ,english men-at-arms1 knights and squires1 never drew sword or couched lance1 the whole affair being decided by the archers4 ,shrewsbury #adjc4 ,agincourt #adae4 ,they again did terrible execution at the battle of ,shrewsbury1 in #adjc1 where ,hotspur was slain1 and the battle of ,agincourt was their undivided conquest4 #bj1jjj bow-men #adee4 ,bow preferred to fire-arms4 ,bows at ,isle of ,r1 #afbg4 ,bows against ,scots1 #afdd to #afdg4 ,bows in ,william #crd's time4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 the ,parliament voted an army of #bj1jjj bow-men for service in ,france4 ,the battle of ,st4 ,albans1 #adee1 seems to have been entirely won by the archers4 ,although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon4 ,indeed1 in the reign of ,elizabeth1 the musket was so unwieldy1 and slow to charge and discharge1 that the bow was considered superior by many4 ,we find that ,queen ,elizabeth1 #aegb1 engaged to furnish ,charles ,,ix4 of ,france with #f1jjj men1 part to be armed with long1 and part with cross-bows2 and in the attack made by the ,english on the ,isle of ,r1 #afbg1 it is said some cross-bow-men were in the army4 ,in #afdc a company of archers was raised for the service of ,charles ,i42 and in a pamphlet printed in #affd1 there is an account of the successes of the ,marquis of ,montrose against the ,scots2 and bow-men are repeatedly mentioned as in the battle4 ,the ,grenadiers of the ,highland ,regiments1 in the time of ,william ,,iii41 when recruiting1 wore the old red bonnet1 and carried bows and arrows with them4 ,the ,highland bow was very short1 and by no means powerful4 ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,bow4 ,range of long-bow4 ,accuracy of long-bow4 ,the ,english could not accomplish more than #fjj yards1 except on a few extraordinary occasions2 our modern archers not more than from #cjj to #ejj yards4 ,the ,turkish ambassador when in ,england in #agie1 sent an arrow upwards of #dhj yards2 and there are two or three instances on record since archery has been merely a pastime1 which have exceeded it by twenty or thirty yards4 ,it is said of ,domitian1 that he would cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance with his hands spread as a mark1 and would shoot his arrows so correctly as to drive them between his fingers4 ,commodus1 with an arrow headed with a semi-circular cutting edge1 could cut or sever the neck of a bird4 ,the story of ,william ,tell1 who struck an apple placed upon his child's head1 is well known1 and generally regarded in the light of an historical fact4 ,it is stated that ,robin ,hood could split a hazel wand4 ,penetration of long-bow4 ,in a journal of ,edward ,,vi41 ,his ,majesty relates that #ajj archers of his guard shot before him two arrows each1 and afterwards altogether4 ,the object aimed at was a well-seasoned deal board1 one inch thick4 ,many pierced it quite through1 and some struck in a board on the other side4 ,the distance is not mentioned1 but we know that ,henry ,,viii4 prohibited any one above the age of #be to shoot at a mark at a less distance than #bjj yards4 ,advantages of the long-bow4 ,the long-bow was light1 inexpensive1 and unaffected by weather1 as the strings could be removed4 ,moreover1 #ab arrows could be fired with accuracy in one minute4 ,two feathers in an arrow were to be white1 and one brown or grey1 and this difference in colour informed the archer in an instant how to place the arrow4 ,disadvantages of the long-bow4 ,although arrows could be shot from a bow with far greater rapidity and precision than balls from a musket1 yet in damp weather the bow and string might become so much relaxed that the efficacy of the instrument became much impaired4 ,a side wind deflected the arrow exceedingly in its flight1 and even against a moderate wind1 it was difficult to shoot at all4 ,our ,forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments1 and by the founders of our public schools4 #a,,st4 ,,by ,,legal ,,enactments4 ,henry #bnd from #aaed to #aahi4 ,we have previously stated that the first law encouraging the practice of archery was passed in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 ,richard #bnd from #acgg to #acii4 ,an ,act of ,parliament was passed in the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 to compel all servants to shoot on ,sundays and holidays4 ,edward #dth from #adfa to #adhc4 ,every man to have a bow4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 an act was passed1 ordaining every ,englishman to have a bow of his own height1 and during the same reign butts were ordered to be put up in every township for the inhabitants to shoot at on feast days1 and if any neglected1 the penalty of one halfpenny was incurred4 ,the same monarch also passed an act1 that bows were to be sold for #es4 #d;d4 ,cross-bows prohibited by ,henry #gth ,henry #hth4 ,henry ,,vii4 prohibited the use of the cross-bow1 and ,henry ,,viii41 less than twenty years after1 renewed the prohibition4 ,he forbad the use of cross-bows and hand guns1 and passed a statute which inflicted a fine of #aj for keeping a cross-bow in the house4 ,every man1 being the ,king's subject1 was obliged to exercise himself in shooting with the long bow1 and also to keep a bow with arrows continually in his house4 ,fathers and guardians were also commanded to teach their male children the use of the long bow4 ,encouraged by ,philip and ,mary4 ,a statute of ,philip and ,mary mentions the quantity and kind of armour and weapons1 to be kept by persons of different estates1 viz3--8,temporal persons having #e and under #aj per annum1 one coat of plate furnished1 one black bill or halbert1 one long bow1 one sheaf of arrows1 and one steel cap or skull40 ,prices fixed by ,elizabeth4 ,an act of ,elizabeth1 fixed the prices for long bows1 at #fs4 #h;d41 #cs4 #d;d41 and a third sort at #bs4 each bow4 ,encouraged by monarchs from ,henry #hth to ,charles #ast4 ,proclamation by ,charles #ast4 ,numerous statutes were passed to encourage archery in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii41 ,elizabeth1 ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 in whose reign the legislature interfered for the last time in #afcc1 when ,charles ,i4 issued a commission for preventing the fields near ,london being so enclosed1 8as to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of 8shooting10 and also a proclamation for the use of the bow and pike together3--8,a4 ,d4 #afcc4--,whereas in former tyme bowes and arrowes have been found serviceable weapons for wars1 whereby great victories and conquests have been gotten1 and by sundry statutes the use thereof hath been enjoined1 c4 c4--and we expect that our loving subjects should conform themselves thereunto1 knowing the exercise of shooting to be a means to preserve health1 strength and agility of body1 and to avoid idleness1 unlawfull disports1 drunkenness1 and such like enormities and disorders1 which are too frequent among our people40 #b,,nd4--,,by ,,the ,,founders ,,of ,,our ,,public ,,schools4 ,estimation of archery by founders of schools4 ,the founders of our ,grammar ,schools appear to have considered that the acquirement of skill in archery by their scholars was no less worthy of attention than their moral and intellectual improvement4 ,they provided by their statutes sound learning and a religious education for all1 but secured the removal of such as shewed no aptitude or disposition to learn4 ,they also prescribed the amusements and exercises of the scholars1 and prohibited such as were calculated to lead to idle and vicious habits4 ,in fact1 as true patriots1 they understood how the sons of free men ought to be educated in youth1 and that 8a complete and generous education is that which fits a man to perform justly1 skilfully1 and magnanimously1 all the offices1 both private and public1 of peace and war40 ,harrow ,school1 founded #aega4 ,the founder of ,harrow ,school1 ,mr4 ,john ,lyon1 prepared a body of statutes to be observed in the management of the ,school4 ,by one of these he limited the amusements of the ,scholars 8to driving a top1 tossing a hand-ball1 running1 shooting1 and no other40 ,by another he ordered3--8,you shall allow your child at all times1 bow-shafts1 bow-strings1 and a bracer1 to exercise shooting40 ,on the entrance-porch to the ,master's house are two shields1 the one bearing the ,lion rampant1 the other1 two arrows crossed1 an ancient device which had its origin in the design of the founder4 ,this device is also impressed on the exterior of all books which are presented by the ,head-,master as prizes to those scholars1 whose improvement entitled them to such rewards4 ,the practice of archery was coeval with the foundation of the ,school1 and was continued for nearly two centuries4 ,every year there was a public exhibition of archery1 when the scholars shot for a silver arrow4 ,the last silver arrow was contended for in #agga4 ,st4 ,albans ,school4 ,at ,st4 ,alban's ,grammar ,school1 one of the articles to be recited to such as offered their children to be taught in the ,school was1--8,ye shall allow your child at all times1 a bow1 three arrows1 bow-strings1 a shooting glove1 and a bracer1 to exercise shooting40 ,wilton ,school4 ,sir ,john ,dean1 who founded1 in #aeeh1 the ,grammar ,school of ,wilton1 in ,cheshire1 framed a body of statutes for the ,school4 ,one of them provides3--8,that upon ,thursdays and ,saturdays1 in the afternoons1 and upon holidays1 the scholars refresh themselves1 and that as well in the vacations as in the days aforesaid1 they use their bows and arrows only1 and eschew all bowling1 carding1 dicing1 cocking1 and all other unlawful games1 upon pain of extreme punishment to be done by the ,schoolmaster40 ,dedham ,school in ,essex4 ,the ,free ,grammar ,school of ,dedham1 in ,essex1 was endowed in #aega1 and confirmed by a ,charter of ,queen ,elizabeth in #aegd4 ,her ,majesty's injunctions to the parents of the boys who should attend the school at ,dedham were3--8,that they should furnish their sons with bows1 shafts1 bracers and gloves1 in order to train them to arms40 ,st4 ,saviour's ,school in ,southwark4 ,one of the statutes at the ,grammar ,school of ,st4 ,saviour1 in ,southwark1 decrees that 8the plays of the scholars shall be shooting in long-bows1 chess1 running1 wrestling1 and leaping3--players for money1 or betters1 shall be severely punished and expulsed40 ,camberwell ,school4 ,a statute in the same words is found in the rules and orders framed for the government of ,camberwell ,grammar ,school1 which was founded in #afae1 by letters patent4 ,,means ,,by ,,which ,,skill ,,in ,,archery ,,was ,,acquired4 ,an archer made by long training1 c4 ,a successful archer could only be constituted by long training1 strength1 and address1 we need not therefore wonder that the practice of the long-bow was not more copied by our neighbours1 as the ,french pertinaciously adhered to the use of the cross-bow4 ,every man had arms4 ,etienne di ,perlin1 a ,frenchman who wrote an account of a tour in ,england in #aeeh1 says3--8,the husbandmen leave their bucklers and swords1 or sometimes their bow1 in the corner of the field1 so that every one in this land bears arms20 and it is also stated that all the youth and manhood of the yeomanry of ,england were engaged in the practice of the long-bow4 ,public matches4 ,public exhibitions of shooting with the bow continued during the reigns of ,charles ,,ii4 and ,james ,,ii41 and an archer's division1 at least till within these few years1 formed a branch of the ,artillery ,company4 ,the most important society of this kind now existing is 8,the ,royal ,company of ,archers1 the ,king's body-guard of ,scotland40 ,the exact time of its institution is unknown1 but it is referred by the ,scottish antiquarians to the reign of their ,james ,i4 ,causes of bad shooting4 ,roger ,ascham1 in 8,toxophilos10 states that the main difficulty in learning to shoot1 arises from having acquired and become confirmed in previous bad habits2 so that1 8use is the onlye cause of all faultes in it1 and therefore children more easelye and soner may be taught to shoote excellently then men1 because children may be taught to shoote well at the first1 menne have more paine to unlearne their ill uses than they have labour afterwarde to come to good shootinge20 and after having enumerated a long list of faults ordinarily committed1 he thus proceeds to describe the secret of shooting straight with the long-bow4 ,shooting depends on the eye4 ,the hand obeys the eye4 8,for having a man's eye alwaye on his marke1 is the onlye waye to shoote straighte1 yea1 and ,i suppose so redye and easye a waye1 if it be learned in youth and confirmed with use1 that a man shall never misse therein4 ,men doubt yet in loking at the marke what way is best1 whether betwixt the bow and the stringe1 above or beneath his hande1 and manye wayes moo4 ,yet it maketh no greate matter which waye a man loke at his marke1 if it be joined with comlye shooting4 ,the diversitye of mens standing and drawing causeth divers men loke at their marke divers wayes2 yet they all had a mans hand to shoote straighte if nothinge els stoppe4 ,so that cumlynesse is the onlye judge of best lokinge at the marke4 ,some men wonder whye in castinge a man's eye at the mark1 the hande should go streight4 ,surely if he considered the nature of a man's eye1 hee woulde not wonder at it4 ,for this ,i am certaine of1 that no servaunt to his maister1 no child to his father1 is so obedient as everye joynte and peece of the bodye is to do whatsoever the eye biddes4 ,the eye is the guide1 the ruler1 and the succourer of all the other parts4 ,the hande1 the foote1 and other members dare do nothinge withoute the eye1 as doth appear on the night and darcke corners4 ,the eye is the very tongue wherewith witte and reason doth speake to everye parte of the bodye1 and the witte doth not so soone signifye a thinge by the eye1 as every part is redye to followe1 or rather prevent the bidding of the eye4 ,this is plaine in manye thinges1 but most evident in fence and feighting1 as ,i have heard men saye4 ,there every parte standing in feare to have a blowe1 runnes to the eye for help1 as younge children do to the mother2 the foote1 the hande1 and all wayteth upon the eye4 ,if the eye bid the hand eyther beare of or smite1 or the foote eyther go forward or backeward1 it doth so4 ,and that which is most wonder of al1 the one man lokinge stedfastlye at the other mans eye and not at his hand1 wil1 even as it were1 rede in his eye wher he purposeth to smyte next1 for the eye is nothing els but a certain windowe for wit to shoote out her heade at4 ,this wonderfull worke of ,god in making all the members so obedient to the eye1 is a pleasant thing to remember and loke upon3 therefore an archer may be sure in learninge to loke at his marke when hee is younge alwayes to shoote streight40 ,the following description of the ,english archer is from an ancient treatise on ,martial ,discipline3-- ,archer to wear easy dress4 ,captains to see that bows c41 were in good order4 ,twenty-four arrows to each man4 8,the yeoman hadde1 at those dayes1 their lymmes at libertye1 for their hoseyn were then fastened with one point1 and their jackes were long1 and easy to shote in1 so that they mighte draw bowes of great strength1 and shote arrowes of a yarde long4 ,captens and officers should be skilful of that most noble weapon1 and to see that their soldiers according to their draught and strength have good bows1 well nocked1 well strynged1 everie stringe whippe in their nocke1 and in the myddes rubbed with wax1 braser and shuting glove1 some spare strings trymed as aforesaid1 everie man one shefe of arrows1 with a case of leather defensible against the rayne1 and in the same shefe fower and twentie arrows1 whereof eight of them should be lighter than the residue1 to gall and astoyne the enemy with the hailshot of light arrows1 before they shall come within range of their harquebuss shot40 ,encouraged from the pulpit4 ,the subject of archery was not deemed1 in those days1 an unsuitable theme for the pulpit1 as may be seen by the following extract from one of the seven sermons 7the sixth7 preached before ,edward ,,vi41 within the preaching place in the palace of ,westminster1 on the #abth of ,april1 #aedi1 by that patriotic reformer1 ,bishop ,latimer4 ,with honest1 plain spoken words1 in the midst of his discourse he breaks off-- ,training of ,bishop ,latimer4 8,men of ,england1 in times past1 when they would exercise themselves1 7for we must needs have some recreation1 our bodies can not endure without some exercise71 they were wont to goe abroad in the fieldes a shooting2 but now it is turned into glossing1 gulling1 and whooring within the house4 ,the arte of shooting hath bene in times past much esteemed in this realme1 it is a gift of ,god that ,he hath geven us to excell all other nations withall1 it hath been ,god's instrument whereby ,he hath geven us many victories against our enemies4 ,but now we have taken up whooring in townes1 instead of shooting in the fieldes4 ,a wonderous thing that so excellent a gift of ,god should be so little esteemed4 ,i desire you1 my ,lordes1 even as ye love the honour and glory of ,god1 and entend to remove his indignation1 let there be sent forth some proclamation1 some sharpe proclamation to the justices of peace1 for they doe not thier dutie1 justices now be no justices1 there be many good actes made for this matter already4 ,charge them upon their allegiance that this singular benefite of ,god may be practised1 and that it be not turned into bolling1 glossing1 and whooring within the townes3 for they be negligent in executing these laws of shooting4 ,in my time my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote as to learne me any other thing1 and so ,i think other men did their children4 ,he taught me how to draw1 how to lay my body in my bow1 and not to draw with strength of armes as other nations doe1 but with strength of the body4 ,i had my bowes bought me according to my age and strength1 as ,i encreased in them1 so my bowes were made bigger and bigger3 for men shall never shoot well except they be brought up in it4 ,it is a goodly arte1 a wholesome kinde of exercise1 and much commended in phisicke40 ,the following is another extract from the same sermon3-- ,how estimated by the people4 8,i came once myself to a place1 riding on a journey homeward from ,london1 and ,i sent word over night into the towne that ,i would preach there in the morning1 because it was a holiday1 and methought it was an holidayes work4 ,the church stood in my way1 and ,i took my horse and my company1 and went thither1 7,i thought ,i should have found a great company in the church17 and when ,i came there1 the church door was fast locked4 ,i tarryed there halfe an houre and more1 at last the key was found1 and one of the parish comes to me and said3 #8,sir1 this is a busie day with us1 we cannot heare you1 it is ,robin ,hood's day4 ,the parish are gone abroad to gather for ,robin ,hood4 ,i pray you let them not4' ,i thought my rochet should have been regarded1 though ,i were not3 but it would not serve1 it was faine to give place to ,robin ,hood's men40 ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,archery4 ,by names of places4 ,there is little at the present day in ,england to afford any adequate idea of the high importance1 the great skill1 and the distinguished renown of the ,english archers4 ,some few places still retain names which tell where the bowmen used to assemble for practice1 as 8,shooter's ,hill10 in ,kent2 8,newington ,butts10 near ,london2 and 8,st4 ,augustine's ,butts10 near ,bristol4 ,the ,butts will be found applied to spots of land in the vicinity of schools1 as for instance1 the ,college ,school of ,warwick4 ,the fields situated to the east of the playing-fields at ,eton1 and known by the name of 8,the ,upper and ,lower ,shooting-fields10 were probably so named from the ancient exercise of archery on these grounds4 ,armorial ,bearings4 ,many of the noble and county families of ,great ,britain and ,ireland have the symbols of archery charged on their escutcheons2 as1 for instance1 the ,duke of ,norfolk1 the ,marquis of ,salisbury1 ,lord ,grey de ,wilton1 the ,earl of ,aberdeen1 the ,earl of ,besborough1 the ,earl of ,portarlington1 the ,baronetal family of ,hales1 ,sir ,martin ,bowes1 and also on the arms of ,sydney ,sussex ,college1 in ,cambridge1 and the seal of the ,sheffield ,grammar ,school4 ,government brand4 ,the mark or brand used by the ,government of the present day1 to identify public property1 is an arrow-head1 commonly called 8,the ,king's broad arrow40 ,surnames of families4 ,there are also existing families which have derived their surnames from the names of the different crafts formerly engaged in the manufacture of the bow and its accompaniments2 as1 for instance1 the names of ,bowyer1 ,fletcher1 ,stringer1 ,arrowsmith1 ,arrow1 ,bowman1 ,bowwater1 c4 ,national proverbs4 ,if reference be made to our language1 there will be found many phrases and proverbial expressions drawn from or connected with archery2 some suggesting forethought and caution1 as 8,always have two strings to your bow20 8,get the shaft-hand of your adversaries20 8,draw not thy bow before thy arrow be fixed20 8,kill two birds with one shaft40 ,to make an enemy's machination recoil upon himself1 they expressed by saying1 8,to outshoot a man in his own bow40 ,in reference to a vague foolish guess1 they used to say1 8,he shoots wide of the mark20 and of unprofitable silly conversation1 8,a fool's bolt is soon shot20 and as a proof of exaggeration1 8,he draws a long bow40 ,the unready and unskilful archer did not escape the censure and warning of his fellows1 although he might be a great man and boast that he had 8,a famous bow1 but it was up at the castle40 ,of such they satirically used to remark1 that 8,many talked of ,robin ,hood1 who never shot in his bow40 ,our ancestors also expressed liberality of sentiment1 and their opinion that merit belonged exclusively to no particular class or locality1 by the following pithy expressions1 8,many a good bow besides one in ,chester10 and 8,an archer is known by his aim1 and not by his arrows40 ,to these may be added1 8,testimony is like the shot of a long-bow1 which owes its efficacy to the force of the shooter2 argument is like the shot of a cross-bow1 equally forcible1 whether discharged by a dwarf or a giant40 ,,military ,,and ,,political ,,consequences ,,of ,,skill ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,bow4 ,commenced at the battle of ,hastings4 ,achievement lasted through a period of #ejj years4 ,england had a voluntary army4 ,from the time of the battle of ,hastings the ,english archers began to rise in repute1 and in course of time proved themselves1 by their achievements in war1 both the admiration and terror of their foes1 and excelled the exploits of other nations4 ,the great achievements of the ,english bowmen which shed lustre upon the annals of the nation1 extended over a period of more than five centuries1 many years after the invention and use of fire-arms4 ,england1 therefore1 in those times1 possessed a national voluntary militia1 of no charge to the ,government1 ready for the field on a short notice1 and well skilled in the use of weapons4 ,hence sprung the large bodies of efficient troops which at different periods of ,english history1 in an incredibly short time1 were found ready for the service of their country4 ,these men were not a rude1 undisciplined rabble1 but were trained1 disciplined men1 every one sufficiently master of his weapon to riddle a steel corslet at five or six score paces1 or in a body1 to act with terrible effect against masses of cavalry2 while most of them could bring down a falcon on the wing by a bird-bolt1 or with a broad arrow transfix the wild deer in the chase4 ,archers defeated men-at-arms4 ,value in sieges4 ,before the simple weapon of the ,british archer1 itself but a larger form of the simplest plaything of a child1 all the gorgeous display of knighthood1 the elaborated panoply of steel1 the magnificent war-horse1 the serried ranks1 the ingenious devices of tacticians and strategists1 at once gave way2 nothing can withstand the biting storm of the 8cloth-yard shaft40 ,it was equally efficacious in the field and in the siege4 ,the defender of town or castle could not peep beyond his bretche or parapet1 but an ,english arrow nailed his cap to his head4 ,in a field1 provided the archers were1 by marsh1 wood or mountain1 secured from a flank attack1 they would bid defiance to any number of mounted men-at-arms4 ,their shafts1 falling thick as hail among the horses1 soon brought them to the ground1 or threw them into utter disorder2 then the armed footmen advanced and commenced a slaughter which was scarcely stayed but by weariness of slaying2 the archers meantime continuing their ravages on the rear of the enemy's cavalry by a vertical attack1 prolonged1 when the ordinary supply of their quivers had been exhausted1 by withdrawing them arrows from their slain enemies1 to be sent forth on new missions of death3--here is encouragement for our modern marksmen who are armed with a far more deadly weapon4 ,opinion on ,english archers by ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,destroyed the prestige of cavalry4 ,estimation of infantry by continental nations4 ,the most complete and philosophic digest1 which relates to the system of ,british archery1 considered from a military point of view1 is that given by the present ,emperor of the ,french in his treatise 8,sur le ,pass et l',avenir de l',artillerie40 ,that the ,british victory at ,cressy was wholly attributable to the prowess of ,british archers1 is well known2 not so well1 a circumstance pointed out by the ,emperor of the ,french1 that thenceforward1 and in consequence of that victory1 the prestige of cavalry declined4 ,now1 there is a political1 no less than military significance in this lowering of the esteem in which cavalry had previously been held4 ,horsemen were gentlemen1 and infantry men of inferior degree4 ,whenever and wherever ,british archery were not brought to bear1 horsemen were omnipotent1 and infantry of little avail4 ,during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries--the golden age of archery in this land1 when yeomen or archers were in such high repute1--,france and continental nations generally1 treated foot soldiers with disdain4 ,the ,emperor of the ,french1 in his systematic book just adverted to1 mentions several examples where foot soldiers were ruthlessly cut down and ridden over by their own cavalry--the men-at-arms2 not that the infantry fought ill1 but that they fought too well4 ,they were slaughtered lest the men-at-arms should have no scope for the exercise of their skill4 ,archer a yeoman4 ,political results4 ,english men-at-arms never sullied their fame by cruel acts like these2 not that they were better at heart3 seeing that human nature is everywhere1 and under all circumstances1 pretty much alike4 ,english infantry1 mainly composed of archers1 were far too valuable to be thus used4 ,they bore the first brunt of battle1 and not unfrequently decided it4 ,at the time when every other foot soldier in ,europe was the merest serf1 the ,british archer was a yeoman4 ,he had a fixed heraldic rank2 the first of low degree4 ,he was above the handicraftsman1 however skilful1--above the merchant--taking his rank immediately after the gentry4 ,the excellence of ,british archery1 then tended to bring about a political result2 helping to establish that middle-class which1 ever since its consolidation1 has been one of the sheet-anchors of our glorious constitution4 ,,the ,,arbalest1 ,,or ,,cross-,,bow4 ,cross-bow1 modification of long4 ,in process of time a modification of the bow was invented4 ,in place of the original instrument1 a much shorter and stiffer bow1 usually of steel1 was placed transversely in a stock1 bent by a lever1 and discharged by a trigger1 after the manner since used for a gun4 ,invented in ,crete or ,sicily4 ,the cross-bow1 or arbalest1 called in ,latin1 arcus balistarius1 or balista manualis1 and in ,french arbalt1 is said by some to be of ,sicilian origin2 others ascribe its invention to the ,cretans4 ,it is supposed to have been introduced into ,france by the first crusaders1 and is mentioned by the ,abb ,suger in his life of ,louis le ,gros1 as being used by that ,prince1 in the beginning of his reign1 which commenced in the year #aajh4 ,to ,england by ,saxons4 ,verstigan seems to attribute the introduction of this weapon into ,england to the ,saxons1 under ,hengist and ,horsa1 but cites no authority in support of that supposition4 ,in a print representing the landing of those generals1 the foremost of them is delineated with a cross-bow on his shoulder1 and others are seen in the hands of the distant figures of their followers1 landed and landing from their ships4 ,the ,normans got cross-bows from ,italy4 ,it would appear that the ,normans derived the cross-bow1 with its name1 from ,italy4 ,in ,domesday ,book mention is made of ,odo1 the arbalester1 as a tenant in capite of the king of lands in ,yorkshire2 and the manor of ,worstead1 ,norfolk1 was at the time of ,domesday survey1 held of the ,abbot of ,st4 ,benet at ,holme1 by ,robert the cross-bow man4 ,the names show them to have been ,normans1 and these instances are sufficient to prove the introduction of the weapon1 though the few that may have been used at the battle of ,hastings might occasion its not being represented in the ,bayeux tapestry4 ,no cross-bow among ,romans4 ,the absence of the cross-bow in early ,roman monuments leaves it a matter of doubt1 whether an arbalester would not simply mean the engineer of a catapult4 ,there is no mention made of the hand cross-bow in very ancient authorities4 ,william ,,ii surnamed ,rufus1 from #ajhg to #aajj ,the cross-bow has been used in ,england 7at least1 on hunting excursions7 in the time of ,rufus1 for ,wace tells us1 that 8,prince ,henry1 going the same day to ,new ,forest1 found the string of his cross-bow broken1 and taking it to a villain to be mended1 saw an old woman there1 who told him he should be king40 ,henry ,i1 #aajj to #aace4 ,cross-bow in war4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,i4 the cross-bow seems to have been principally used in the chase4 ,the projectile was in form of a short arrow1 with a pyramidical head1 called a quarrel1 7plate #ad1 fig4 #b and #d74 ,simeon of ,durham speaks of it in the time of ,henry ,i4 thus3--8,he raised a machine from whence the archers and cross-bowmen might shoot40 ,genoese celebrated for the use of4 ,the ,genoese were at all times most celebrated for the skilful management of the cross-bow4 ,the success which attended the ,christians at the siege of ,jerusalem1 #aajj1 is attributed principally to the mechanical talents of this people4 ,use of forbad4 ,the use of the cross-bows was general in ,italy in #aaci1 for at that time ,pope ,innocent ,,ii4 particularly forbad them4 ,the ,german ,emperor ,conrad did the same1 as we learn from ,william de ,dole1 who lived in the latter part of the #abth century1 they not being looked upon as a fair weapon4 ,richard ,i from #aahi to #aaii4 ,siege of ,acre ,universal in ,crusades4 ,richard killed by4 ,it is said of ,richard ,i43--8,truly he revived the use of this kind of shooting1 called cross-bow shooting1 which had long since been laid aside1 whence he became so skilful in its management1 that he killed many people with his own hand40 ,it is supposed that ,richard ,i4 first used the cross-bow as a weapon of war at the siege of ,acre4 ,in every action1 however1 of which we read in the history of the second crusade1 as well as the third1 in which ,richard participated1 cross-bows1 as well as other bows1 are repeatedly noticed4 ,it is stated that he was killed by an arrow1 said to have been shot from a cross-bow at the ,castle of ,chaluz4 ,genoese cross-bow men4 ,mounted ,arbalists #abbe4 ,from the beginning of the #acth1 and until the middle of the #aeth century1 cross-bow men are uniformly mentioned as part of the ,genoese troops4 ,from ,justinius we learn1 that in #abbe 8,twenty ,arbalestes mounted1 and one hundred on foot1 with cross-bows of horn1 were then employed in the army of the state40 ,the cross-bow man was an essential component of the host during all this period4 ,he was in the van of the battle4 ,battle near ,damietta #abcg4 ,in the battle near ,damietta1 in #abcg1 8more than a hundred knights of the ,temple fell1 and three hundred cross-bow men1 c41 c40 ,campaign in ,italy #abci4 ,the ,emperor ,frederic1 in #abci1 giving an account of his ,italian campaign to the king of ,england1 writes3 8,after we had1 by our knights and cross-bow men1 reduced all the province of ,liguria10 c4 ,genoese #abde4 ,treatment of4 ,five hundred ,genoese cross-bow men were sent against the ,milanese in #abde1 and these unfortunate men being placed in front of the line1 were taken prisoners by the enemy1 who1 to revenge themselves for the havoc done by their bows1 cruelly punished each with the loss of an eye1 and amputation of an arm4 ,cross-bows at ,cressy #acdf4 ,there were #ae1jjj ,genoese cross-bow men in the front rank of the ,french army at the battle of ,cressy1 #acdf4 ,at siege of ,le ,roche de ,rin4 ,the next year we find that ,charles1 ,earl of ,blois1 had at the siege of ,le ,roche de ,rin no less than #b1jjj in his army4 ,corporation of ,arbalisters #acei4 ,the 8,corporation des ,arbalestriers de ,paris10 in #acei1 consisted of two hundred members4 ,in #acgc1 their number1 as fixed by a royal ordinance1 was eight hundred4 ,they were not bound to serve beyond the limits of their district without the consent of the ,provost of ,paris4 ,there were both foot and mounted cross-bowmen in this body4 ,cross-bow encouraged by ,edward ,,iii4 ,no ,english in wars of ,edward ,,iii4 ,genoese mercenaries4 ,edward ,,iii41 though he wished principally to encourage the long-bow1 could not help seeing the advantages which might be derived from the cross-bow1 from the accuracy of its shot1 and its convenience on horseback4 ,it does not appear that1 in the long wars of ,edward with the ,french in this century1 cross-bowmen were raised in ,england1 though they were supplied by ,genoese contractors on various occasions for service at sea4 ,in #acfc the king caused public proclamation to be made1 in order to encourage its use4 ,matches4 ,there were also matches made in different parts of ,europe1 at which prizes were given to the most skilful cross-bowmen4 ,mounted cross-bow men in ,france #acgc4 ,in the list of the ,grand ,masters of the ,arbalesters of ,france under ,charles ,v41 in #acgc1 appears 8,marc de ,grimant1 ,baron d',antibes1 ,captain-,general of ,arbalesters1 both foot and horse1 in the service of the king40 ,and a similar notice occurs in the reign of ,king ,john1 ,baudoin de ,lence being ,grand ,master2 but it would appear that the mounted cross-bowmen were retained in much smaller numbers than the foot4 8,pavisers40 ,during the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 cross-bowmen seem first to have been protected by 8,pavisers10 7plate #ae71 or men who held before them a large shield called a 8,pavise40 ,pavisers by ,english #adjd4 ,on the attack by the ,french and ,spaniards upon the ,isle of ,portland in #adjd1 the ,english formed pavisers to protect themselves from the cross-bow bolts1 by taking the doors from their houses1 and fixing them upright by props4 ,under this cover the archers plied their arrows4 ,cross-bow not esteemed by ,english4 ,forbad by ,henry ,,vii #aejh #aeae4 ,forbad by ,henry ,,viii #aece4 ,decline of cross-bow4 ,the ,english never had much esteem for the cross-bow in the field4 ,among the #aj1ejj men led out of ,england by ,henry ,,vi41 in #adae1 there were only ninety-eight ,arbalesters1 of whom eighteen were horsemen2 nevertheless1 ,henry ,,vii4 found it necessary to prohibit the use of the cross-bow in #aejh1 and1 seven years after1 another statute was passed1 renewing the prohibition4 ,this interference1 however1 of the legislature does not seem to have produced the intended effect1 for in less than twenty years later the use of the cross-bow had become so prevalent1 that a new statute was judged requisite1 which inflicted on every person that kept one in his house1 the penalty of twenty pounds4 ,it is from this period1 therefore1 that we may date the decline of the arbalest in this country1 as these statutes produced by degrees the reformation sought for4 ,not a single cross-bow man is to be seen in the paintings belonging to the ,society of ,antiquaries1 nor at ,cowdray ,house1 representing the battles of ,henry ,,viii41 and painted at the period2 and1 to give a finishing blow1 another statute soon followed1 still more decisive4 ,,description ,,of ,,cross-,,bow4 ,description4 ,the ancient cross-bow1 which differed in many particulars from those of late times1 is thus described by ,father ,daniel1 who formed his description from one or more then before him4 ,the cross-bow was an offensive weapon1 which consisted of a bow fixed to the top of a sort of staff1 or stock of wood1 which the string of the bow1 when unbent1 crossed at right angles4 ,stock4 ,trigger4 ,the handle or bed1 which was called the stock of the cross-bow1 had towards the middle a small opening or slit1 of the length of two fingers1 in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel2 through the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis2 this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock1 and had a notch1 or catch1 which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent4 ,in the opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch1 by the means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer1 and in its place2 this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow4 ,under the stock1 near the handle1 was the key of the trigger1 like that of the serpentine of a musket2 by pressing this key with the hand1 to the handle of the cross-bow1 the spring released the wheel that held the string1 and the string by its motion drove forward the dart4 ,back-sight4 ,fore-sight4 ,upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper1 which lifted up and shut down1 and was fixed by its two legs1 with two screws to the two sides of the stock2 this was a back-sight2 it was pierced above by two little holes1 one over the other1 and when the plate was raised1 these two holes answered to a globule1 which was a small bead1 no bigger than that of a chaplet1 that was suspended at the end of the cross-bow by a fine wire1 and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron1 one on the right1 the other on the left1 and this little globule1 answering to the holes in the plate1 served to direct the aim1 whether for shooting horizontally1 upwards1 or downwards4 ,cord4 ,the cord or string of the bow was double1 each string separated by two little cylinders of iron1 equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre2 to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord1 which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent4 ,between the two cords in the centre of the string1 and immediately before the ring1 was a little square of cord1 against which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart1 to be pushed forward by the cord4 ,bent by hand4 ,by foot ,by pulley4 ,the smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand2 the larger ones were at first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup1 attached to the end of the bow2 a cord was then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock1 the other end being fastened to a waistbelt4 ,a pulley1 running upon the cord1 was hooked to the bowstring1 and the bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm4 ,by moulinet4 ,the cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys1 7plate #ac7 which after the bow had been bent1 could be removed for the discharge2 these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal1 made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions1 and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock4 ,on each side of this cap was a small pulley1 the wheel of which was one inch and a half in diameter1 having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel1 returned over the first1 and then went round one double in diameter1 situated beyond the second1 and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet1 by winding which1 the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth4 ,attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw1 made to slide on the plane of the stock1 which1 catching hold of the bowstring1 drew it up to the nut4 ,an improvement of the moulinet was1 that the handles of the cylinder were both made in the same line1 instead of being one up and the other down4 ,by windlass4 ,at a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass1 which consisted of a bar of iron1 shaped at its end into a claw1 and having teeth the whole length of one edge4 ,this slipped through an iron box1 containing a wheel1 the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar1 and as a handle was fixed to the axle1 on turning it the string was wound up4 ,this apparatus was attached by a loop1 which slipped over the stock1 and was kept in its place by two iron pins1 that projected from the side1 and then1 when bent1 it could be easily removed4 ,by steel lever4 ,another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever1 called the goat's-foot lever1 which was moveable4 ,this was formed of two legs1 a catch and a handle1 all acting on one pivot4 ,the legs were applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock1 and then the purchase was very great4 ,latch4 ,prodd4 ,there were two principal varieties of cross-bows1 viz41 the 8,latch10 with grooved stock1 for 8quarrels10 and the 8,prodd10 for bullets4 7,plate #ad1 fig4 #a and #b47 ,dimensions and form of latch4 ,quarrels viretons4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood1 ornamented with ivory4 ,they were about three feet three inches long1 the bow of steel1 about two feet eight inches from end to end1 weighing in all about fifteen pounds4 ,the length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches4 ,the arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons1 7plate #ad1 fig4 #b and #d17 some with feathers1 others without4 ,the vireton is a ,french name2 the feathers being set on a little curved1 made it spin round as it passed through the air4 ,arquebus or barrelled cross-bow4 ,slit in tube4 ,fired leaden balls4 ,it is stated by ,captain ,pant1 that the ,arquebus was in use before the invention of powder1 and was but an improvement on the arbalest1 or cross-bow4 ,the ,arquebus1 like the cross-bow1 had a stock1 upon which was fixed a tube1 intended to receive the projectile4 ,this tube was split1 for the passage of a cord1 which was held back by a kind of sheave or pulley1 which communicated motion to the projectile1 on the trigger being pulled4 ,in general1 leaden balls were fired from the arquebus4 ,the barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the 8balista grossa de arganellis10 which was furnished with tubes for ejecting ,greek fire4 ,repeating cross-bow4 ,in the ,united ,service ,museum1 ,whitehall1 there is a cross-bow of ,cingalese manufacture4 ,it strings itself1 and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession1 until the magazine is exhausted1 which contains twelve arrows1 and may be replenished in a moment4 ,range in ,henry ,v4 ,it is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range4 ,thus1 in ,henry #eth's time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods 7#bbj yards71 and it never appears to have been more powerful than at that period4 ,range in ,elizabeth's4 ,m4 de ,bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at #ajj or #bjj paces1 which gives a great range to the arbalests of ,elizabeth's time4 ,sir ,john ,smith1 however1 in his observations1 not long after this1 very much contracts the distance of their shot1 for he says that 8a cross-bow will kill point-blank between #dj and #fj yards1 and1 if elevated1 #abj1 #adj1 or #afj yards1 or further40 ,the former probably alluded to the prod1 the latter to the latch4 ,,comparative ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,and ,,cross ,,bow4 ,how inefficient the cross-bow was found1 when opposed by ,english archery1 appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century4 ,why long-bow superior4 ,the superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of the archer1 while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of the cross-bow1 with much less training2 and the success of the ,english archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more 8rapid0 fire of the former4 ,celerity the great advantage of the long-bow4 ,it is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while the cross-bow discharged one2 and1 8with such odds against them1 it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops1 whether at ,cressy or elsewhere1 to make a stand against their opponents04 ,cross-bow best on horseback4 ,on the other hand1 the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on horseback than the long-bow4 ,,comparative ,,merits ,,between ,,bows ,,and ,,early ,,fire-,,arms4 ,the invention of gunpowder1 and its application to artillery and small arms1 did not produce that sudden change in the art of war1 or in weapons1 that might1 on a first consideration1 have been expected4 ,many of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms1 nor does it appear that the government of those days were decided upon it1 as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction4 ,long-bow preferred in ,edward ,,iii4 ,joshua ,barnes1 in his life of ,edward ,,iii41 observes1 that 8without all question1 the guns which are used now-a-days1 are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do2 for bullets1 being not seen1 only hurt where they hit1 but arrows enrage the horse1 and break the array1 and terrify all that behold them in the bodies of their neighbours4 ,not to say that every archer can shoot thrice to a gunner's once1 and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time1 when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once4 ,also1 that whereas guns are useless when your pikes join1 because they only do execution point-blank1 the arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms40 ,long-bow the favourite in ,henry ,,viii4 ,although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon4 ,merits balanced in ,queen ,mary's reign4 ,so indifferent were the ministers of ,queen ,mary respecting them1 that in her ordinance respecting armour and weapons1 the alternative is left to the choice of the people1 whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows1 or a haquebutt1 in every case where they were by law charged with the latter4 ,the lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth1 the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that the bow was considered superior by many2 and ,mons4 de ,bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows1 c41 as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition1 he would prefer the former weapon over the latter4 ,arrows make more severe wounds than bullets4 ,the effects of arrows sticking in horses1 are said to have been frightful4 ,this can be easily imagined4 ,a fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of anguish4 ,he goes steadily on his previous course1 and makes no sign4 ,however fatal of necessity1 a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain4 ,not so the arrow4 ,planted never so lightly in a horse's neck or flank1 the animal grew furious4 ,starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting1 the animal had no respite for his agony4 ,the wilder the pace1 the greater the pain4 ,far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be1 sore against his will1 rushed the mail-clad knight4 ,plunging and rearing1 the steed would throw him at last1 amidst the dead and dying2 himself to die4 ,though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once1 few1 nevertheless1 recovered4 ,the barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous1 imbedded in the flesh1 than a mere lump of lead4 ,hundreds of men1 hale and well to-day1 have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years4 ,not so in the time of archery4 ,the arrow-head must be extracted1 or mortification came on1 and soon a cruel death4 ,neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the results4 ,it would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now1 with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand4 ,arrow wounds more fatal4 ,another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this3 men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners4 ,arrows were expensive ammunition4 ,the battle over1 detachments were sent out to collect them2 and the collection was not done too tenderly4 ,to regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an enemy4 ,the throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut1 that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted4 ,bows useless in wind4 ,in rain4 ,the defects of archery were these3--the ammunition was expensive1 and when lost1 not easily replaced4 ,the flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day1 from whatever direction the wind may blow4 ,rain relaxes the bow and bowstring1 so that archery then is of little use4 ,all these are serious defects2 but there was another of more importance still4 ,when the archer's ammunition was all expended1 he was nearly powerless4 ,a sword1 indeed1 he carried1 for close fighting2 and each archer stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry4 ,hand-gun most penetration4 ,silent discharge in favor of bows4 ,the great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration1 as no armour could keep out balls1 but the silent discharge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals1 and the prodd has continued in use to the present day1 for the purpose of killing deer1 rooks1 and rabbits4 ,,note4--,the articles on ancient ,engines of ,war1 and upon the ,bow1 are principally taken from the following works1 viz3--8,military ,antiquities10 by ,f4 ,grose1 ,esq42 8,a ,critical ,inquiry into ,ancient ,armour10 by ,sir ,s4 ,r4 ,meyrick2 8,ancient ,armour and ,weapons in ,europe10 by ,john ,hewitt2 8,projectile ,weapons of ,war10 and 8,report of the ,rifle ,match at ,wimbledon ,common10 by ,j4 ,scoffern1 ,m4 ,b42 8,engines of ,war10 by ,h4 ,wilkinson1 and 8,the ,long-,bow of the ,past and the ,rifle for the ,future10 by ,h4 ,britannicus4 ,,history ,,of ,,artillery4 ,fate of nations depends on arms4 ,there is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world1 from the remotest antiquity than the history of ,arms1 the fate of nations having always depended either on the superiority of the ,arms employed1 or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used them1 wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed4 ,artillery includes all war-engines4 ,before the introduction of gunpowder1 all kinds of weapons1 both offensive and defensive1 were included in the term 8,artillery10 which has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms1 such as guns1 mortars1 howitzers1 rockets1 c4 ,thus we find in the ,i4 ,saml4 xx41 #dj1 8,and ,jonathan gave his artillery to his lad10 when speaking of bows and arrows4 ,again1 in the #bjth1 ,henry ,,viii41 a patent was granted to ,anthony ,knevt and ,peter ,mentas1 8to be overseers of the science of ,artillery20 and in an enumeration of the different species of ,artillery1 printed in #aeid1 are reckoned 8long-bows1 cross-bows1 slur-bows1 stone-bows1 scorpions1 and catapultas40 ,definition of ,artillery4 ,the root of the word 8artillery10 is the ,latin word 8ars10 an 8art40 ,it has been fantastically derived from the ,italian arte di tirare1 the art of firing4 ,in the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was called artemonie1 and its productions artillerie1 from the old ,french word artiller1 8to employ art40 ,some writers state that the word 8artillery10 is derived from arcus 8a bow10 the earlier species of artillery being termed arcualia4 ,first invention unknown4 ,names of gun--from old machines4 ,it is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder and its resultants1 fire-arms1 were first employed for the purposes of war in any part of the world2 and this difficulty is increased1 at least1 as far as regards ,europe1 from the fact1 that the first engines of war1 depending on the use of gunpowder1 were named after the old machines for throwing darts1 stones1 c4 ,first mention of guns4 ,the earliest account which we have of gunpowder1 where it is mentioned as applied to fire-arms1 exists in a code of ,gentoo ,laws1 and is thought by many to be coeval with the time of ,moses4 ,the notice occurs in the ,sanscrit preface to the ,code of ,gentoo ,laws1 translated by ,halhed1 at page #ec1 viz3--8,the ,magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine1 or with poisoned weapons1 or with cannon or guns1 c40 ,halhed observes3 8,it will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity1 and he will probably hence renew the suspicion1 which has long been deemed absurd1 that ,alexander the ,great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in ,india1 as a passage in ,quintus ,curtius seems to ascertain40 ,greek fire1 earliest ,european combustible4 ,gunpowder known before in ,china4 ,chinese explosive shell4 ,early ,chinese cannon4 ,the ,greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in ,europe at the manufacture of a military combustible2 but there is some reason to believe that the ,chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed substance2 and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in its manufacture1 or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use4 ,amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people1 was one called 8the thunder of the earth10 which is thus described by ,m4 ,reinaud2 and ,m4 ,fav3 8,a hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder1 mixed with fragments of metal1 and was so arranged1 that it exploded on the approach of an enemy1 so as to cause great destruction in his ranks40 ,the 8impetuous0 dart of the ,chinese1 was a round bamboo1 about two and a half feet in length1 lashed with hempen cords to prevent its splitting1 and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end1 thus making its entire length about five feet4 ,this was then charged with powder of different kinds1 arranged in layers1 over which were placed fire balls1 which being thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge1 consumed any combustible materials they might come in contact with4 ,guns in ,china1 #fah ,b4 ,c4 ,a late writer1 ,m4 ,paravey1 has in a great measure established the fact1 that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the ,chinese long before the ,christian era2 and it is mentioned in ,chinese writings1 that in the year #fah ,b4 ,c41 a gun was in use1 bearing this inscription1 8,i hurl death to the traitor1 and extermination to the rebel40 ,a4 ,d4 #geg4 ,guns are said to have been constructed in ,china1 in #geg ,a4 ,d41 for the purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of #cjj paces4 ,whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the ,chinese1 it is almost beyond question1 that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the #acth century1 as we have access to various reliable accounts1 establishing this fact4 ,artillery at ,saragossa1 ,a4 ,d41 #aaah4 ,at ,niebla1 ,a4 ,d41 #aaeg4 ,cond1 in his history of the ,moors in ,spain1 states that artillery was used by them against ,saragossa in #aaah ,a4 ,d41 and that in #aaeg1 ,a4 ,d4 they defended themselves in ,niebla1 against the ,spaniards1 by means of machines1 which threw darts and stones1 through the agency of fire4 ,used against the ,moguls1 ,a4 ,d4 #abcb4 ,in #abcb ,a4 ,d4 cannon throwing stone shot were used against the ,moguls1 and during this war1 certain machines were also employed1 which being filled with powder1 and ignited at the proper time1 burst with a noise like thunder1 and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded4 ,cannon bearing date #abeh found in ,france4 ,a small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of the ,castle de ,clucy1 in ,france1 with the date #abeh upon it4 ,cannon used against ,cordova1 ,a4 ,d4 #abhj4 ,iron shot1 #adth century4 ,in #abhj ,a4 ,d41 cannon were used against ,cordova1 after which period1 they are frequently mentioned in the records of ,spain4 ,iron shot appear to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the #adth century4 ,cannon used by ,arabians1 #acab4 ,cannon are described by ,arabian authors as early as #acab4 ,the first mention we have of the use of fire arms1 after this period1 is in the life of ,robert ,bruce1 by ,john ,barbour1 ,archdeacon of ,aberdeen1 in which certain engines termed1 8crakeys of war10 are spoken of1 as having been used by ,edward ,,iii41 in his campaign against the ,scots1 in #acbg4 ,cannon in ,france1 #acch4 ,it is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in ,europe since #acch1 as they were used by the ,french in that year to demolish some castles4 ,siege of ,algesiras1 #acdb to #acdd4 ,gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of ,algesiras by ,alphonse of ,castile against the ,moors1 #acdb to #acdd4 ,cannon at ,cressy1 #acdf4 ,edward ,,iii4 had four guns at the battle of ,cressy1 #acdf4 ,froissart mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts1 now preserved in the library of ,amiens4 ,a free translation of the passage referred to would run as follows3 8,and the ,english caused to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle1 to astonish 7or confound7 the ,genoese40 ,vilani1 a ,florentine historian1 also confirms this statement1 as well as a passage in the chronicles of ,st4 ,denis1 which speaks of the use of cannon by the ,english at ,cressy4 ,an ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and artillerymen1 whom ,edward ,,iii4 employed when he landed before ,calais in #acdf1 and the several stipends each soldier received4 ,the sentence runs thus3 8,masons1 carpenters1 engineers1 gunners1 and artillerymen1 the sum of #ab1 #aj1 #f1 and #c pence per diem40 ,cannon of two kinds4 ,used by the ,black ,prince1 #acef4 ,at ,st4 ,valery1 #aceh4 ,the first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds2 a larger one for discharging stones1 called a bombard1 7plate #ah1 fig4 #c7 and a smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls1 both of which were used in #acef1 by the ,black ,prince1 to reduce the castle of ,romozantin2 and two years later1 the artillery of ,st4 ,valery did great execution among its besiegers4 ,cannon made in ,england1 #acgg ,cannon were made in ,england in the fourteenth century1 and ,richard ,,ii4 commissioned ,sir ,thomas ,norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in ,london1 or in any other place2 and also #fjj balls of stone for cannon and for other engines1 to be sent to the ,castle of ,bristol4 ,cannon at ,st4 ,malo4 ,when the ,english unsuccessfully besieged ,st4 ,malo1 #djj cannon are said to have been used1 but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind1 called hand cannon1 or culverins1 which were carried by two men1 and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground4 ,cannon general4 ,bombards made of iron4 ,bronze4 ,leather1 rope1 c4 ,wood4 ,from this period1 cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations of war2 though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm for field operations4 ,the earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombard4 ,those first employed were clumsy1 7plate #af7 and ill contrived1 wider at the mouth than at the chamber4 ,they merely consisted of bars of iron1 arranged in such a manner that their internal aspects should form a tube4 ,the bars were not welded together1 but merely confined by hoops4 ,they were also made of iron bars over a cylinder of copper1 strengthened by iron hoops1 driven on red hot1 and others were entirely composed of copper4 ,bronze was also employed in the manufacture of artillery1 as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together2 and guns made of leather1 and coiled rope1 over a cylinder of copper or gun metal1 were also introduced1 and continued in use for a considerable time4 ,guns also appear to have been made of wood4 ,rope mortar at ,venice4 ,in the arsenal at ,venice there is an ancient mortar1 constructed of leather and rope1 used in the siege of the island of ,chioggia1 near ,venice1 against the ,genoese1 #achj4 ,the shot is of stone1 #ad;in4 in diameter4 ,cannon of paper4 ,it has been heard recently1 that the ,chinese constructed their cannon of prepared paper1 lined with copper4 ,field cannon to keep up with army1 #achj4 ,as early as #achj it is said the ,french were able to procure for the invasion of ,italy1 a great number of brass cannon1 mounted on carriages1 and drawn by horses1 instead of oxen2 these pieces threw balls of from #djlbs4 to #fjlbs4 in weight and could always keep pace with the army4 7,plate #ah1 fig4 #a1 #c1 and #d47 ,large cannon #adjj4 ,a cannon taken at the siege of ,dien in #aedf1 by ,john de ,castro1 and now in ,lisbon1 is #bj feet #g;in4 in length1 #f feet #c;in4 in diameter in the middle1 and threw a ball of #ajjlbs4 ,a ,hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in #adjj4 ,bolts and quarrels shot1 #adac4 ,red-hot iron balls used at ,cherbourg1 #adah4 ,slow to discharge4 ,bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of ,henry ,v42 these were succeeded by stones1 as he ordered in #adah1 8labourers to make #g1jjj stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of ,maidstone40 ,we learn from ,elam's life of ,henry ,v41 that when an ,english army1 commanded by the ,duke of ,gloucester1 besieged ,cherbourg in #adah1 the besieged discharged red-hot balls of iron from their cannon into the ,english camp1 to burn the huts4 ,so much time elapsed between the loading and discharging the great guns1 that the besieged had sufficient time to repair at their leisure1 the breaches made by the enormous stones1 c41 thrown from them4 ,cannon at ,meaux1 #adbb4 ,five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the 8,muse de l',artillerie10 at ,paris2 which were1 it is said1 abandoned by the ,english1 at the town of ,meaux1 in #adbb4 ,cannon cast1 #adej4 ,about the middle of the fifteenth century1 the ancient method of constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting4 ,a hard or mixed metal was invented called 8font metal0 or bronze1 and cannon were then cast in one piece1 and instead of fanciful names1 they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball1 as at present4 ,siege of ,constantinople1 #adec4 ,small guns with several barrels4 ,large brass gun1 cast at ,adrianople4 ,at the siege of ,constantinople1 by ,mahomet ,,ii41 stones were thrown weighing #a1bjjlbs46 ,the cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four times a day4 ,this siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern artillery2 the small arms of the ,christians discharged five1 or even ten balls at the same time1 as large as walnuts2 and one piece made for the ,turks1 by ,urban1 a ,dane1 cast a stone bullet weighing #fjjlbs41 which could be discharged seven times a day1 but it ultimately burst4 ,this gun was cast of brass at ,adrianople1 of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude2 twelve palms is assigned to the bore4 ,a vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first experiment1 but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear1 a proclamation was issued that the cannon would be discharged on the following day4 ,the explosion was felt or heard in a circuit of #ajj furlongs1 the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in the ground4 ,a carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along1 and drawn by a team of sixty oxen2 #bjj men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight1 #bej workmen marched before it to smooth the way1 and repair the bridges1 and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of #aej miles4 ,this enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude1 and fourteen batteries1 mounting #acj guns1 were brought to bear upon the place4 ,the cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts4 ,artillery of ,scots #adif4 ,breech-loaders4 ,the ,scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves1 called 8,carts of ,war40 ,they are described in an ,act of ,parliament1 thus 8ilk ,cart twa gunnis and ilk ane to have twa ,chalmers and an ,cumrand man to shute theme40 ,these were breech-loaders1 and in #adga1 the ,barons were commanded to provide such 8,carts of ,war0 against their old enemies the ,english4 7,plate #ah1 fig4 #a47 ,cannon named4 ,it was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon2 thus ,louis ,,xii4 had twelve brass ones cast in #aejc1 of enormous size1 which he named after the twelve ,peers of ,france2 the ,spaniards and ,portugese christened theirs after their ,saints1 and the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 had twelve when he went against ,tunis1 which he named after the ,twelve ,apostles4 ,cause of improvements4 ,iron balls in ,england1 #aeth century4 ,as a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased1 great improvements took place with regard to projectiles2 and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those formed of stone1 being introduced into ,england in the sixteenth century4 ,iron guns cast4 ,hand-culverines4 ,organ-guns4 ,iron guns were not cast in this country until the year #aedg1 foreigners being generally employed to manufacture them4 ,both ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom2 and to this end1 had a number of ,flemish gunners in their daily pay2 in fact1 it is said1 that the latter monarch himself1 invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons4 ,the earlier species of field artillery1 embraced among others1 a small kind of ordnance called1 8hand cannon10 or culverins1 which were so light and portable1 that they could be carried and served by two men2 they were fired from a rest1 placed on the ground2 also 8ribandequins0 or organ guns2 these latter consisted of a number of tubes1 placed in a row1 like those of an organ1 and appear to have been of ,french origin1 as were many of the improvements which took place about that period1 including the invention of wall pieces1 throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound4 ,mortars1 ,henry ,,viii4 ,shells4 ,varieties of cannon4 ,queen ,elizabeth's ,pocket-pistol4 ,for mortars we are indebted to workmen of ,henry ,,viii4 as 8one ,peter ,bawd and one ,peter ,vancollen1 both the king's feed men1 devised and caused to be made certain mortar pieces1 being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide1 and also certain hollow shot of cast iron1 to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire1 for to break in pieces the same hollow shot40 ,and in the first year of ,edward ,,vi4 the said ,peter ,bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms1 as fawconet1 fawkons1 minions1 sakers1 c4 ,his servant1 ,j4 ,johnson1 did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection1 to the great use of this land4 ,his son ,thomas ,johnson1 in #aeic1 made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the ,earl of ,cumberland1 demi cannon1 weighing #e1jjjlbs4 or three tons the piece4 ,at ,dover there is a culverine1 presented to ,queen ,elizabeth1 by the ,states ,general of ,holland1 and called ,queen ,elizabeth's ,pocket-pistol4 ,it is #bd feet long1 diameter of bore #d inches1 weight of shot #ablbs42 it was manufactured in #aedd1 and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in #ahbg1 at the ,royal ,carriage ,department1 ,woolwich ,arsenal4 7,plate #ag1 fig4 #b47 ,mons ,meg4 ,there is a large gun at ,edinburgh ,castle1 called ,mons ,meg2 it measures about #ac feet #d inches in length1 the diameter of the bore is about #a foot #f inches2 it has a chamber about #d feet long and #f inches in diameter4 7,plate #ag1 fig4 #c47 ,field-guns1 #aeed4 ,the battle of ,remi1 in #aeed1 was the first action in which light field guns1 having limbers1 were used1--these guns accompanied the cavalry4 ,red-hot shot1 #aehj4 ,pere ,daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by ,marshal ,matignan1 during the siege of la ,fre1 in #aehj4 ,calibre1 time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,in a table of ordnance1 given by ,fosbrooke1 as being a list of the guns used in the time of ,elizabeth1 and immediately preceding her1 we find how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries1 as these guns have all their antitypes among those of the present day4 ,origin of canister and grape4 ,improved mode of loading1 by ,gustavus ,adolphus4 ,the beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history of artillery2 and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession1 by ,henry ,,iv41 of ,france1 ,maurice1 of ,nassau1 and ,gustavus ,adolphus of ,sweden4 ,the former of these distinguished leaders1 introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles2 such as tin cases1 filled with steel bolts or darts2 canvas cartridges1 containing small balls1 and hollow shot or shells1 filled with combustible materials4 ,gustavus ,adolphus1 introduced really serviceable field guns1 of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of1 and he also adopted the use of cartridges1 with shot attached1 so that these pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired six4 ,it is said that he chiefly owed his victory at ,leipzig1 in #afca1 to guns made of leather and coiled rope1 over a cylinder of copper or gun metal4 ,on the whole1 the artillery of ,gustavus was admirably organized2 and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated masses1 a principle1 now so fully recognized by all artillerists4 ,bombs at sea4 ,bombs were first used at sea1 by the ,french1 in the bombardment of ,algiers1 ,oct4 #bhth1 #afha1 in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the largest gun4 ,one of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at ,bejapoor1 called 8,moolik-i-,meidan10 or 8,the ,lord of the ,plain40 ,it was cast in commemoration of the capture of that place by the ,emperor ,alum ,geer1 in #afhe4 ,its length is #ad;ft4 #a;in41 diameter about #e;ft4 #h;in41 diameter of bore1 #b;ft4 #d;in41 interior length of bore1 #aj;ft42 length of chamber unknown2 shape of gun nearly 8cylindrical20 description of shot1 stone4 ,an iron shot for this gun1 of proper size1 would weigh #afjjlbs4 ,it is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of the city4 ,the trunnions are broken off1 and there is a ring on each side of it1 as well as two ,persian inscriptions on the top4 ,it is placed on three heavy beams of wood1 packed round with large stones4 ,a number of stone shot1 of #b;ft4 #b;in4 in diameter1 are scattered about4 ,this gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world4 ,it weighs about forty-two tons4 ,an ,italian of ,otranto1 who served in the ,mogul armies under the title of ,renni ,khan1 had it in his park of artillery1 and used it at several battles1 occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it4 7,plate #ah1 fig4 #b47 ,gun at ,moorshedabad4 ,there is a remarkable gun near the palace of the ,nawab of ,moorshedabad1 which measures #ag;ft4 #h;in4 in length1 #e;ft4 in circumference at the smallest part near the muzzle1 while it is only #f;in4 in the diameter of the bore1 and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the muzzle4 ,after the battle of ,khallissie1 which was fought about #be miles from here1 it is supposed to have been buried under a tree4 ,the tree1 having grown since then1 has forced the gun above the ground about three feet1 where it now remains1 partly encircled by the roots and trunk4 ,it has no name2 the natives call it 8the gun in the tree40 ,it is made of cast iron1 and is evidently of ,indian manufacture1 having ,hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it1 but no date4 ,size and expense of cannon1 #afhh4 ,bishop ,wilkins says1 8,these ,gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive1 as a whole cannon commonly weighs #hjjjlbs41 requiring #ij men1 or #af horses1 with a charge of #djlbs4 of powder1 and a ball weighing #fdlbs04 ,length and weight gradually reduced4 ,the length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced1 experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to their safety1 or to the effects they were intended to produce4 ,horse artillery by ,frederick the ,great4 ,frederick the ,great of ,prussia made some improvements with regard to the calibre of field guns1 and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of ,horse ,artillery4 ,guns bored4 ,guns1 at this period1 were cast hollow by means of a core1 which was kept suspended in the centre of the mould1 while the metal was being run in4 ,owing1 however1 to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true position1 several artillerists deliberated whether guns1 cast hollow or solid1 had the preference1 and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter1 the result of which was1 that ,maritz1 who had a foundry at ,geneva1 informed the ,court of ,france1 in #agci1 that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid4 ,he was at once invited to ,france1 where1 first at ,lyons1 and afterwards at ,strasbourg1 he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance1 which1 on trial1 proved perfectly satisfactory4 ,guns of ice4 ,in the year #agdj1 a curious experiment in artillery was made at ,st4 ,petersburgh1 where guns were cut out of solid ice1 from which balls of the same substance were fired repeatedly1 without bursting4 ,improvements4 ,axle-trees4 ,high limbers4 ,reduction of windage4 ,from this period1 the science of artillery progressed rapidly1 and various improvements were made in this arm of the service1 such as the introduction of iron axle-trees1 and high limbers for the carriages of field guns4 ,the reduction of windage1 7mainly owing to the invention of carronades71 and the use of cartridges and elevating screws1 which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and regular4 ,rifled ordnance #aggd4 ,the invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a ,dr4 ,lind and a ,capt4 ,a4 ,blair1 late #fith regt4 ,experiments were made at ,landguard ,fort1 #bfth ,august1 #aggd1 by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing #dblbs41 in the shape of a pear1 would do as much execution1 fired out of an #ah pounder1 with a third of the quantity of powder1 as could be effected by round balls of the same weight1 fired from a #db pounder4 ,perforated and fluted shot4 ,sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre1 and spirally fluted on the surface1 suggested by ,professor ,anderson1 of ,glasgow1 in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot4 ,leaden projectiles4 ,breech-loading ,rifled cannon4 ,there were different modes of charging the rifled guns2 one was1 after the powder was put in1 to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun1 and grease it well2 in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end1 the spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet1 and caused it to turn round in going down1 and on being shot out1 it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight4 ,another mode was to charge them at the breech1 where an opening for the reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw2 but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged1 where they were made stronger than common4 ,congreve's rockets4 ,the adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war1 by ,sir ,william ,congreve1 in #ahjf1 introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries4 ,mr4 ,monk's improvements4 ,recently1 at the suggestion of a ,mr4 ,monk1 of ,woolwich ,arsenal1 a quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions1 and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end1 where alone it was wanted4 ,mallet's monster mortar4 ,the monster mortars recently constructed by ,mr4 ,mallet1 of separate compound hoops1 must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill4 ,the shell is #cj inches in diameter1 holding a bursting charge of #dhj lbs41 and weighing when charged #a tons 7#c1cfj lbs474 ,value of shell charged1 #be4 ,weight1 without bed1 #db tons4 ,weight of bed1 #h tons4 ,total1 #ej tons4 ,cavalli's and ,wahrendorff's ,in #ahdf1 two rifled cannon were invented1 one by ,major ,cavalli1 of the ,sardinian ,artillery2 and the other by ,baron ,wahrendorff1 a ,swedish nobleman4 ,both of these were iron breech-loading guns1 having two grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their projectiles4 ,experiments to test4 ,experiments were carried on at ,shoeburyness1 in #ahej1 with these guns4 ,the deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles2 but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object4 ,the ,cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds1 by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of the bore being damaged4 ,the ,wahrendorff gun stood well1 the wedge resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the ,cavalli gun4 ,lancaster's rifle gun4 ,mr4 ,lancaster's novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon1 may be described as 8a two-grooved rifle in disguise10 having a 8gaining twist10 the bore being an ellipse4 ,defects of4 ,the chief defect in the ,lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in the bore1 both in loading and firing1 the former rendering the loading difficult1 while the latter endangers the safety of the gun4 ,in consequence of several of these guns bursting1 and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from them1 the ,lancaster guns were removed from the service after the ,crimean war4 ,sir ,w4 ,armstrong4 ,sir ,w4 ,armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the ,duke of ,newcastle1 then ,minister at ,war1 towards the end of #ahed2 his proposal being accepted1 and a gun accordingly constructed1 it was submitted to numerous trials1 both at ,shoeburyness1 and near ,sir ,w4 ,armstrong's private factory at ,newcastle4 ,this gun is now made entirely of wrought iron1 although the original one had a steel bore4 ,it is a built-up gun1 that is to say1 it is composed of separate pieces1 each piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or failure4 ,by this mode of construction1 great strength1 and consequently1 great lightness1 are secured4 ,the shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell1 i4e41 it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object1 or as it strikes it4 ,moreover1 it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun1 in which case1 the pieces spread out like a fan1 and produce the usual effect of grape or canister4 ,armstrong's guns are now 7#ahfj7 being employed in ,china4 ,whitworth4 ,mr4 ,whitworth's rifled gun1 with which experiments were lately made near ,liverpool1 is also a breech-loading piece1 and of the following construction4 ,the form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral1 the corners of which are rounded off4 ,the inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore1 but is in all these guns very great1 the projectiles being comparatively long4 ,french rifled ordnance4 ,rifled ordnance were introduced into the ,french service just previous to the commencement of the late ,italian war of #ahei1 and aiming at the greatest practical simplicity1 the ,french government adopted only one nature of gun for field service1 and one for siege purposes1 both made of bronze4 ,the ,french rifled cannon are muzzle loading1 and those first introduced had two or three grooves1 but the field pieces used in ,italy had six grooves1 their inclination being about one turn in #ei inches4 ,a number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves1 and have been placed on board ,french ships of war2 and these1 unless strengthened1 could be used but with very small charges4 ,advantages of rifled guns4 ,the advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifled guns-- ,great accuracy of fire1 ,long range1 ,penetration1 ,small charge1 ,simplicity of equipment and ammunition1 ,lightness of gun4 ,classification of artillery4 ,artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery 7including artillery of position71 siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons1 fortresses1 and coast defences2 its equipment is a combination of men1 materiel1 and horses necessary for these services4 ,three kinds of guns4 ,all ordnance employed in the service1 may be divided into three classes1 viz41 ,guns1 ,mortars1 and ,howitzers4 ,carronades discontinued4 ,carronades may be considered obsolete1 although a certain number are still supplied to the navy1 and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast batteries4 ,classification of guns and their uses4 ,guns are used for projecting shot and shell1 horizontally or at very low angles1 and as they are fired with large charges of powder1 which are fixed for each nature of gun1 very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction4 ,guns are of two kinds1 viz41 7solid7 shot guns1 and shell guns4 ,some guns are also classed as heavy1 medium1 and light4 ,those generally employed for field service1 are made of bronze or gun-metal2 all guns of higher calibre1 of cast-iron4 ,mortars4 ,mortars are short pieces of ordnance1 used to throw shells at high angles 7vertical fire71 generally #de1 the charge varying with the range required2 they are distinguished by the diameters of their bores4 ,mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze2 the former being principally intended for garrisons1 battering trains1 the navy1 c41 and the latter1 which are of small calibre1 and very light1 are chiefly employed in sieges4 ,howitzers4 ,howitzers resemble guns in form1 but are much shorter and lighter in proportion to their calibre1 and are1 consequently1 fired with less charges of powder2 shells and case are fired from them1 but not solid shot4 ,use of ,howitzers4 ,superseded by shell guns4 ,these pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low angles1 and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present centuries4 ,since1 however1 the introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased1 for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and range than the howitzer1 those being in the present day of greater importance than small weight4 ,artillery from the ,east4 ,the ,germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman1 ,bartholdus ,schwartz1 who is said to have discovered it in #accf1 but seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in ,europe in those countries which mixed with the ,saracens1 we are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in ,europe1 but introduced from the ,east4 ,this part of our subject might be much enlarged1 but we have merely attempted to give heads of information1 which can be pursued by those who desire to do so4 ,we must now leave it1 in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to officers of infantry1 viz41 the history of portable fire-arms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following extract from an account of the furniture of the ship1 called the 8,harry ,grace de ,dieu10 will give a good idea of the state of the ordnance at the time of ,henry ,,viii43-- ,gonnes of ,brasse4 ,cannons1 ,di4 cannons1 ,culveryns1 ,d4 culveryns1 ,sakers1 ,cannon perers1 ,fawcons1 ,gonnes of ,yron4 ,port pecys1 ,slyngs1 ,di4 slyngs1 ,fowlers1 ,baessys1 ,toppe peces1 ,hayle shotte pecys1 ,hand gonnes complete4 ,another account of ancient ,english ordnance in ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 mentions the following3-- ,bombards1 ,bombardilles1 ,cannon royal1 ,cannon1 ,cannon serpentine1 ,bastard cannon1 ,demi cannon1 ,cannon petre1 ,culverin1 ,basilisk1 ,demi culverin1 ,bastard culverin1 ,sacar1 ,minion1 ,faulcon1 ,falconet1 ,serpentine1 ,rabinet4 ,,etymologies4 ,,cannon4--,from the ,latin word canna1 signifying a tube or cane4 ,,howitzer4--,from the ,german word haubitz1 7derived from haube1 top of a furnace71 in ,french1 obus1 or obusier4 ,,carronade4--,from ,carron ,ironworks1 near ,stirling1 where it was invented in the year #aggd4 ,,bombard4--,from the ,greek word bombos1 or noise4 ,,bombardille4--,a smaller kind of bombards4 ,,basilisk4--,the name of a snake4 ,,culverin4--,from the ,french couleuvrine1 from couleuvre1 a snake4 ,,saker4--,from ,saker1 or ,sacre1 a bird of the falcon species4 ,,falcon4--,from the bird of that name4 ,,cannon ,,perers4--,stone-throwers1 from the ,french word pierre1 a stone4 ,,toppe ,,peces4--,to be used in the tops1 i4e41 the stands on the ship's masts4 ,,note4--,the ,history of ,artillery is mainly compiled from the following3--8,engines of ,war10 by ,wilkinson2 8,ancient ,armour and ,weapons in ,europe10 by ,john ,hewitt2 8,military ,antiquities10 by ,f4 ,grose2 8,critical ,inquiry into ,ancient ,armour10 by ,meyrick2 8,elementary ,lectures on ,artillery10 by ,major ,c4 ,h4 ,owen and ,capt4 ,t4 ,l4 ,dames1 ,r4,a42 and 8,our ,engines of ,war10 by ,capt4 ,jarvis1 ,m4,p41 ,royal ,artillery4 ,,history ,,of ,,portable ,,fire-,,arms4 ,form of early hand-guns4 ,the earliest hand-guns differed in nothing but in size from the small cannon of the day3 they consisted of a metal tube fixed in a straight stock of wood2 the vent was at the top of the barrel2 there was no lock of any kind4 ,the barrels were short and made of iron or brass2 they were occasionally furnished with moveable chambers4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #a47 ,with trunnions4 ,breech-loader4 ,a specimen of hand-cannon of the early part of the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 is made of iron1 and furnished with trunnions1 which from this specimen1 appear to have been appropriated to small fire-arms before they were adopted for artillery4 ,the breech is made of a separate piece and screwed on to the tube1 on the further end of which is a sight4 ,it was placed on a stock or club1 and fired by hand with a match4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #b47 ,invented #adth century4 ,that hand-guns were invented1 though but rarely appearing1 in the fourteenth century1 seems very probable from several cotemporary evidences4 ,an inquisition taken in #acge1 at ,huntercombe1 7a place belonging to the ,abbey of ,dorchester7 and now preserved among the records at the ,chapterhouse1 ,westminster1 states that one ,nicholas ,huntercombe1 with others1 to the number of forty men1 armed with 8haubergeons1 plates1 bacenettes1 cum aventayles1 paletes1 lanceis1 scutis1 arcubus1 sagittis1 balistis1 et gonnes1 venerunt ad ,manerium de ,huntercombe1 and there made assault10 c4 ,it appears very improbable that a body of men making a sudden attack upon an abbey manor-house1 would be armed with any kind of 8gonnes0 except hand-guns4 ,bohemia #acdj4 ,lithuanians #achc4 ,mons4 ,mangeot states that 8canons de fusil0 were said to have been first invented in ,bohemia1 #acdj1 but that it is safer to fix the date at #acgh1 when mention is made of the 8arquebuse mche0 in ,germany4 ,in the year #acha1 the inhabitants of ,augsburg had thirty six arquebusiers1 and in the following year they had portable fire-arms at the battle of ,rosabecque4 ,in #achc the ,lithuanians were acquainted with hand fire-arms1 and used them at the siege of ,froski4 ,all these arms had straight stocks4 ,in the excavations of the ,castle of ,tannenberg1 dismantled in #acii1 there was found a hand-gun of brass1 with part of the wooden stock remaining1 and the iron rammer belonging to it4 ,an early mention of the hand-gun is that of ,juvenal des ,ursins1 who tells us1 under the year #adad1 that they were used at the siege of ,arras4 ,siege of ,lucca #adcj4 ,said to have been invented in ,italy4 ,billius1 a learned and noble ,milanese1 who lived at the time1 says that hand-guns were first used at the siege of ,lucca1 in #adcj4 ,the ,florentines were provided with artillery1 which1 by the force of gunpowder1 discharged large stones1 but the ,luccquese perceiving that they did very little execution1 came at last to despise them1 and every day renewed their sallies to the great slaughter of their enemies1 by the help of small fire-arms1 to which the ,florentines were strangers1 and which before this time were not known in ,italy4 ,billius explains this by saying1 8,that besides darts and balistas for arrows1 they invented a new kind of weapon4 ,they carried in their hand a club1 a cubit and a half long1 to which were affixed iron barrels4 ,these they filled with sulphur and nitre1 and by the power of fire1 iron balls were thus ejected40 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #a and #aj74 ,scorpion4 ,about this time the scorpion 7afterwards a piece of ordnance7 was a tube for firing gunpowder1 held in the hand1 and called by the ,english1 hand-cannon1 and also hand-culverines4 ,made of brass4 ,from a roll of purchases for ,holy ,island #addf is1--8bought #aa hand gunnes de ere10 from whence we learn that they were made of brass4 ,edward ,,iv4 ,harquebus invented4 ,stock1 c41 from cross-bow4 ,match-lock4 #adgh4 ,hand-guns1 or hand-cannons were used in the early part of the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 and towards the close of it1 we learn from ,philip de ,comines1 that the harquebus was invented2 this seems to have been an improvement on the hand-gun4 ,the ,latin word used for this weapon was arcusbusus1 evidently derived from the ,italian1 arca-bouza1 a bow with a tube or hole2 to that people1 therefore1 are we to ascribe the application of the stock and trigger in imitation of the cross-bow4 ,hitherto the match had been applied by the hand to the touch-hole1 but the trigger of the arbalest suggested the idea of one to catch into a cock1 which having a slit in it1 might hold the match1 and by the motion of the trigger be brought down on a pan which held the priming1 the touch-hole being no longer at the top but at the side4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #i74 ,hand-gun improvements4 ,sighted4 ,the hand-gun was cast in brass1 and1 as a tube1 was of greater length than the hand cannon2 a flat piece of brass1 made to turn upon a pin1 covered the pan which contained the powder2 it had also a piece of brass fixed on the breech1 and perforated to ensure the aim4 ,hand-guns in ,england #adga4 ,made in ,england1 #adgd4 ,the first introduction of hand-guns into ,england1 we find1 was soon after their invention in ,italy2 in the year #adga1 ,king ,edward ,,iv41 landed at ,ravenspurg1 in ,yorkshire1 and brought with him1 among other forces1 three hundred ,flemings1 armed with 8hange-gunnes40 ,in #adgd1 he directed 8all the bombs1 cannon1 culverines1 fowlers1 surpentines1 and all other cannon whatsoever1 as also powder1 sulphur1 saltpetre1 stones1 iron1 lead and other materials1 fit and necessary for the same cannon1 wherever found1 to be taken and provided for his use1 paying a reasonable price for the same40 ,harquebusiers4 ,morat #adgf4 ,arquebusiers1 or harquebusiers1 are mentioned as troops1 by ,philip de ,comines1 in these words1 where he speaks of the battle of ,morat1 fought on the #bbnd of ,june1 #adgf4 8,the said towns had in their army1 as some that were in the battle informed me1 #ce1jjj men1 whereof fower thousand were horsemen1 the rest footmen1 well chosen and well armed1 that is to say1 #aj1jjj pikes1 #aj1jjj halberds1 and #aj1jjj harquebusiers40 ,improvements4 ,held to breast4 ,bent butt4 ,hackbutt4 ,hitherto the harquebuss had only a straight stock1 but now it had a wide butt end1 which might be placed against the right breast1 and thus held more steadily4 ,many ancient pieces were held to the breast instead of the shoulder1 which will account for their being so short in the stock4 ,a notch was made in the butt for the thumb of the right hand1 in order to hold the piece more firmly4 ,when the butt was bent down or hooked as it was at a later period1 it was called1 from the ,german word ,hake1 a hackbutt1 haggebut or hagbut1 the small sort being denominated demi-hags4 ,mounted ,harquebussiers4 ,philip de ,commines mentions that there were at the battle of ,fournie1 in #adie1 ,german harquebusiers1 on foot and on horseback4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #f47 ,arms in time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the small arms in the time of ,henry ,,viii41 were hand-guns1 haguebuts1 demi-hagues and the pistol1 and it was enacted1 8that no hand-gun should be used1 of less than one yard1 gun and stock included1 and the haguebut was not to be under three-quarters of a yard40 ,the demi-hagues were still smaller1 and gave occasion for the origin of pistols1 which were invented in the latter part of this reign1 at ,pistoria in ,tuscany4 ,the dag1 dagger1 or tache1 differed from the pistol merely in the shape of its handle4 ,inconveniences of match4 ,objections to fire-arms4 ,rest4 ,wheel-lock1 #aeag4 ,used at ,parma1 #aeba4 ,in ,england1 #aecj4 ,serpentine and wheel4 ,the match was a constant source of trouble to the soldier1 both from the difficulty of keeping it alight in bad weather1 and from the length of time it sometimes took to ignite the charge4 ,it was therefore not without justice that many persons clamoured about this time against the introduction of fire-arms4 ,they contended that upon no point1 save that of penetration1 was the harquebuss superior or equal to the long-bow2 its great weight #af or #ahlbs4 7seldom less than #ablbs47 obliged it to be supported by a rest1 which had a kind of fork to receive the musket1 and at the bottom a sharp metal spike1 to strike into the ground2 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #e1 #g1 and #h74 ,when the harquebuss was shouldered the rest was carried in the right hand1 and subsequently hung upon it1 by means of a string or loop4 ,the difficulty of keeping the powder and match dry1 the time taken to load1 and its comparative inaccuracy1 rendered it of low reputation4 ,nevertheless it held its ground1 and the next improvement was the wheel-lock1 by which a more instantaneous ignition of the charge was secured2 it was invented at ,nuremberg1 #aeag4 ,it consisted of a little solid wheel of steel1 fixed against the plate of the lock of the harquebuss or pistol2 it had an axis that pierced it in its centre2 at the interior end of this axis which went into the lock1 a chain was fastened1 which twisted round it on the wheel being turned1 and bent the spring by which it was held2 to bend this spring a key was made use of1 into which the exterior end of the axis was inserted4 ,by turning this key from left to right1 the wheel was made to revolve1 and by this movement a little slider of copper1 which covered the pan with the priming1 retired from over it2 and by the same movement the cock1 armed with a flint like the cock of a fusil1 was in a state to be discharged on pulling the trigger with the finger2 the cock then falling on the wheel1 produced fire1 and communicated it to the priming4 ,the wheel-lock was first used at the siege of ,parma1 #aeba1 and was brought to ,england #aecj4 ,it was however complicated and difficult to repair1 for which reason it could not always be depended upon1 as is proved by some fire-arms of this description at the ,tower1 which are made with a serpentine1 as well as with a wheel1 both acted upon by the same trigger4 ,musket in ,spain4 ,at ,pavia1 #aebe4 ,low ,countries1 #aefg4 ,the inconsiderable execution done by pieces of small calibre probably caused the introduction of the muskets or mosquet1 which originated in ,spain about the time of ,francis ,i4 ,they are said to have been first employed extensively at the battle of ,pavia1 #aebe2 but1 if we believe ,brantome1 it was the ,duke d',alva who first brought them into use in the armies1 when during the reign of ,philip ,,ii41 he went to take upon him the government of the ,low ,countries in the year #aefg2 but that only means1 he brought them more into fashion than they were till that time1 and that till then they were rarely used1 at least in the field1 on account of their cumbrous nature4 ,a ,spanish army of #aj1jjj men sailed from ,carthagena1 #bgth ,april1 #aefg1 en route for the ,netherlands1 to do which they had to cross the ,alps4 ,it was a picked body of troops1 of whom about #a1cjj were cavalry4 ,the ,duke d',alva formed them into three divisions1 and dispensed with artillery1 not wishing to embarrass his movements4 ,each company of foot was flanked by a body of soldiers1 carrying heavy muskets with rests attached to them4 ,lephanto1 #aega4 ,at the battle of ,lephanto #aega1 fought between the ,venetians and ,turks1 it is stated by the historian1 that one chief reason why so few ,christians were killed in comparison1 was because the ,turks used for the most part bows and arrows1 whereas the former were supplied with muskets4 ,caliver4 ,a lighter kind of musket was called a caliver or calliver1 which was only a corruption of calibre1 denoting that they were all of one guage1 as the original harquebuses were not of any particular length or bore2 the caliver was fired without a rest4 ,dimensions1 #afba4 ,sir ,thomas ,kellie in his 8,art ,militaire10 published in #afba1 says1 8,the barrel of a musket should be four feet in length1 the bore capable of receiving bullets twelve whereof weigh a pound1 previous to this some had carried ten to the pound40 ,hand-mortar1 #aeid4 ,from butt of musket4 ,by hand4 ,from muzzle4 ,the hand-mortar for throwing grenades are said to have been first used in #aeid1 and gave origin at a later date to the troops thence denominated1 grenadiers4 ,they appear to have been fired from the shoulder4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #c47 ,in the reign of ,james ,,ii41 a flint-lock-musket was adapted to fire grenades from the butt1 the small of which was made to resemble a chambered mortar2 the heel of the butt formed a cover1 which opened with a spring on a hinge2 the priming was put into the usual pan1 and a small piece of metal moved so as to open a communication with the powder in the chamber4 ,a rest was formed by a slender iron rod1 about three feet long1 and when not required let into the stock1 in the place usually occupied by the ramrod1 and turning upon a pivot placed a few inches in front of the guard-brass4 ,the scouring rod is run through metal loops on one side of the stock4 ,afterwards grenades were thrown by hand1 the musket being slung over the soldier's back1 and more recently experiments were made with an iron tube about four inches long1 placed on the muzzle in the same manner as the bayonets4 ,match-locks and rest1 ,james ,i4 ,in the time of ,james ,i41 part of the infantry were armed with calivers or muskets and rests1 both of which were fired with match-locks1 the soldier carrying the match lighted at both ends4 ,trickerlock1 #afbi4 8,a match trickerlock compleat10 occurs in a schedule of #afbi4 ,this was the adoption of what is now called a hair trigger1 which was added to the former one1 and gives a more instantaneous discharge4 ,a tricker wheel lock of ,charles ,i41 a tricker match-lock of ,charles ,,ii41 and a tricker fire-lock of ,james ,,ii41 are preserved in ,sir ,s4 ,meyrick's collection4 ,fowling pieces4 ,the ,earl of ,albermarle in #afdf1 says1 8,it is very fit likewise that you have in each company six good fowling pieces1 of such a length that the soldier may well be able to take aim and shoot off at ease2 being placed six on each flank of a division of foot to skirmish with an enemy4 ,these soldiers ought to have command1 when they come within distance1 that they shoot at officers only40 ,we have here plainly the origin of riflemen4 ,tin tube for match4 ,first fire-lock4 ,each musketeer formerly carried a tin tube1 pierced full of holes1 to contain the match1 and prevent his being discovered2 in wet weather it was necessary to carry it in the crown of his cap1 to prevent it from being extinguished4 ,one of the earliest attempts to overcome this difficulty is in the ,arsenal1 at ,dresden1 where there is an old buchse1 with a piece of pyrites fixed opposite to the touch-hole1 and which requires to be rubbed with a file1 chained to it1 until sparks are elicited sufficient to fire the powder4 ,snaphaunce4 ,the next improvement upon the wheel-lock was the snaphaunce2 a flat piece of steel1 furrowed in imitation of the wheel1 was placed on a steel post1 which being screwed beyond the pan1 was made moveable2 the pan had a cover which required to be pushed off by the thumb1 and the furrowed piece being then brought to stand over it1 on pulling the trigger1 the flint1 which was substituted for pyrites1 struck against it1 and gave the spark4 ,flint lock4 ,the next step in the improvement of the musket was the introduction of the flint-lock1 now so well known1 that ,i need not enter into the details of its mechanism4 ,in ,france1 #afcj4 ,in ,england1 #afgg4 ,earl ,orrery's opinion4 ,it was used in ,france as early as #afcj1 but was not employed in the army until #afgj or #hj1 when it took the name of 8fusil40 ,it was not employed in ,england until about #afgg1 and its advantages over the matchlock are thus described in a work addressed to ,king ,charles ,,ii41 in #afgg1 by the ,earl of ,orrery3--8,first it is exceedingly more ready1 for with the fire-lock you have only to cock1 and you are prepared to shoot1 but with the matchlock1 you have several motions1 besides if you fire not the matchlock as soon as you have blown your match1 7which often1 particularly in hedgefights and sieges1 you cannot do7 you must a second time blow your match4 ,the match is very dangerous1 either when bandoliers are used1 or when soldiers run hastily in fight to the budge barrel1 to refill their bandoliers4 ,i have often seen sad instances thereof4 ,marching in the nights to avoid an enemy or to surprise one1 or to assault a fortress1 the matches often discover you1 whereby you suffer much1 and he obtains much4 ,in wet weather1 the rain deads the powder and the match too1 and the wind sometimes blows away the powder1 ere the match can touch the pan2 nay1 in very high winds1 ,i have seen the sparks blown from the match1 fire the musket ere the soldier meant it1 and either thereby lose his shot1 or kill some one before him4 ,whereas in the firelock1 the motion is so sudden1 that what makes the cock fall on the hammer1 strikes the fire and opens the pan at once4 ,lastly1 the quantity of match does much add to the baggage1 it naturally draws the moisture of the air1 which makes it less fit1 and if you march without close waggons1 it is the more exposed1 and without being dried again in ovens is but of half the use which otherwise it would be of1 and which is full as bad as the skeans you give the corporals1 and the sinks you give the private soldiers1 being rendered useless if damp2 nothing of all which can be said of the flint1 but much of it to the contrary40 ,bows to be replaced by muskets1 #aeif4 ,in a proclamation of ,queen ,elizabeth dated #aeif1 it is stated1 8,you shall bring with you all such furniture and weapon for footmen as you stand charged withall by statute1 or have formerly shewed at other musters heretofore1 changinge your billes into pikes1 and your bowes into muskettes accordinge to our sayde former letters40 ,muskets with two locks4 ,match-lock preferred4 ,match made of4 ,in ,france1 as late as #agjb1 when the flint had wholly superseded the pyrites1 and the structure differed very little from our present musket-locks1 an additional cock was attached to the end of the lock-plate1 and a sliding cover placed over a hole in the hammer-seat1 for the purpose of lighting the powder by a match1 if the flint failed4 ,the match was therefore from its simplicity1 preferred from all others for a considerable period1 and is still used by the ,chinese1 ,tartars1 ,persians1 and ,turks1 in some provinces either wholly1 or partially4 ,the match itself was made of cotton or hemp1 spun slack1 and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre1 or in the lees of wine4 ,iron ramrod #agdj4 ,in the time of ,frederick the ,great1 7#agdj to #aghf71 the invention of the iron ramrod by the ,prince of ,dessau1 trifling matter as it seems1 doubled the value of the fire of infantry4 ,prior to this the rammer had been made of wood1 and was called the scouring stick4 ,dimensions1 c4 of ,english musket1 in #ahjj4 ,charge4 ,priming1 #ast4 mode4 ,priming1 #bnd mode4 ,at the commencement of this 7#aith7 century1 the weight of the ,english musket and bayonet was1 #aalbs4 #dozs41 bayonet #alb4 #bozs41 length of barrel #c;ft4 #c-;in41 bore #gec-;in41 bullets #ad to the pound4 ,charges of powder #f drs41 ,f4,g4 ,every soldier was furnished with three flints for #fj rounds4 ,originally it had been necessary to put the priming into the pan from a flask1 containing a finer grained powder1 called 8,serpentine powder10 but in the early flint-lock musket this was rendered unnecessary1 as in loading1 a portion of the charge passed through the communication hole into the pan1 where it was prevented from escaping by the hammer4 ,latterly a portion of the cartridge was bitten off1 and the pan filled with priming before loading4 ,objections to flint-lock4 ,priming by detonation1 #ahjg4 ,experiments1 #ahcd4 ,advantages of percussion4 ,reduced charge4 ,reduced pull of trigger4 ,the objections to the flint-lock were1 that it did not entirely preserve the priming from wet4 ,sometimes the flint failed to ignite the charge1 and it was necessary to change it frequently4 ,owing to these imperfections1 in #ahjg1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,forsyth obtained a patent for priming with fulminating powder4 ,the composition consisted of sulphate of potash1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 and exploded when struck by any metal or hard substance4 ,this composition was considered too corrosive1 but was subsequently improved1 and finally applied to the musket1 in the form of the present percussion cap1 which consists of chlorate of potash1 three parts2 fulminating mercury two parts2 and ground glass one part4 ,the experiments for ,mr4 ,forsyth's invention1 commenced in #ahcd4 ,six thousand rounds were fired from each description of arm1 and the experiments conducted in all weathers1 six of each kind of arm being used4 ,the result proved exceedingly favourable to the percussion principle1 and may be briefly summed up as follows3--#ast1 out of #f1jjj rounds from the flint-lock1 there were #ibb missfires1 being #a in #f1 whereas in the percussion musket there were only #cf misses in #f1jjj rounds1 or #a in #aff4 ,with the flint-lock there were #c1fhj hits out of the #f1jjj1 and with the percussion #d1jdg hits1 being #g per cent4 in favour of the latter4 ,to fire #ajj rounds with the flint required #cb minutes #ca seconds1 whereas the percussion occupied only #cj minutes #bd seconds4 ,another advantage of the percussion musket1 was that it was capped after being loaded4 ,hitherto a certain amount of powder had been allowed for priming1 but as this vestige of the hand-gun could be dispensed with1 a reduction of charge could be made2 a total reduction however was made from #f to #d drs41 which caused a diminution of recoil4 ,the #d drs4 then recommended was known to be more than was necessary for the projection of the bullet1 but an extra dr4 was retained to allow for the effect of damp or waste on service4 ,in the course of these experiments1 it was found that the considerable force required to pull the trigger might be advantageously reduced1 and that increased accuracy would ensue1 therefore the pull of the trigger was lessened to #glbs4 ,new model musket4 ,the advantages of the percussion system having been satisfactorily shown1 it was decided to convert a portion of the old flint-locks into percussions1 and to establish a new model percussion musket for the ,english army4 ,percussion at ,canton4 ,the following anecdote illustrates the weak points of the flint-lock4 ,during the ,chinese war1 a company of the #cgth ,madras ,native ,infantry had been detached to the left1 when1 the evening closing1 the order was given to rejoin1 and the whole were to retire upon ,canton1 and just as it was being carried into execution1 a tremendous storm of wind and rain arose1 making the air so dark1 that no one could see #bj yards4 ,the detached company retired sounding bugles and beating drums1 which were drowned by the tempest1 and they could not find the battalion4 ,in a few minutes the enemy got between this company and the retreating force4 ,the muskets would not go off1 and several attempts of the enemy to close were with difficulty repulsed with the bayonet4 ,in the meantime1 the enemy contrived to fire off their own matchlocks1 and some of the sepoys' muskets of men who had dropped in the retreat1 by applying matches to them4 ,the square into which the company was formed1 was thus being diminished1 while the only return that could be made1 was an occasional shot from a solitary musket1 which the three officers of the company managed to clean out1 under cover of great coats held over the muzzle4 ,a company of ,marines was dispatched for the #cgth party1 armed with percussion muskets1 scarcely one of which missed at the first fire1 and a few volleys sufficed to clear the way1 and both detachments reached the camp in safety1 with but little loss4 ,this happened in the early part of #ahda4 ,percussion introduced1 #ahdb4 ,sighted for #aej yards4 ,after a 8hang-fire0 of about #bjj years1 a new pattern percussion musket was issued in #ahdb4 ,its weight was greater than that of the old flint-lock1 being with the bayonet about #aa-lbs41 #f-oz41 bayonet #a-lb41 #j-oz41 #h-;drs41 bore #gec1 barrel #c-;ft4 #c-;in41 length1 with bayonet #f feet1 length without #d-;ft4 #f-;in41 a block sight for #aej yards1 and a percussion lock4 ,for many years prior to #ahci no sight at all was thought necessary for the musket1 the bayonet stud being sufficient1 but which was totally obscured when fired with fixed bayonets4 ,this arm continued as the approved weapon for our infantry without improvement until #ahea1 when the ,mini rifle was partially introduced4 ,comparison with foreign muskets4 ,brown ,bess advocated4 ,the ,english musket 7#ahdb7 differed from all those in use on the ,continent1 in having1 #ast1 the least accuracy1 #bnd1 reduced range1 #crd1 heavier1 #dth1 shorter1 #eth1 larger bore1 #fth1 greater windage1 #gth1 double the charge of powder1 #hth1 the greatest recoil1 and #ith1 the most expensive6 i4 e41 as compared with those of ,france and ,belgium1 ,prussia1 ,austria1 or even with the old ,sikh matchlock66 ,and yet a 8stand up fight0 was stoutly maintained for this most inefficient arm1 by many military men1 as may be seen from the following extract from a note in ,part ,,ii41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 of the 8,aide ,memoire to the military sciences30--8,erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants of the service with regard to the musket1 and its proper qualities and utility in the field1 as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new percussion musket of #ahdb1 for the infantry of the line4 ,it is stated that it is too heavy and of imperfect construction4 ,some prefer the ,french pattern1 and others would lessen the weight and calibre still more1 reducing also the windage3 as1 however1 the new regulation has brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets1 and has been approved by the highest authorities1 some considerations are necessary before a radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy of fire4 #ast1 ,what are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of the line8 #bnd1 ,the application of the musket to the infantry soldier4 ,it is evident that the most essential points are strength1 and facility of pouring into your enemies' ranks a powerful fire4 ,troops do not halt to play at long bowls2 a field of battle presents a series of movements for the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy1 and when within two hundred yards1 to deliver your fire with effect4 ,firing at #ejj or #fjj yards is the business of artillery1 and1 therefore1 to fire at #cjj or #djj yards is a misapplication of the musket1 a loss of time1 a waste of ammunition1 and tends to make men unsteady in the ranks40 ,brown ,bess tried at ,chatham4 ,merits of 8,brown ,bess0 illustrated4 ,the shooting powers of the musket 7#ahdb7 are stated in the report on ,experimental ,musketry firing carried on by ,captain 7now ,lieut4-,colonel7 ,mc,kerlie1 ,royal ,engineers1 at ,chatham1 in #ahdf1 which concludes as follows3 8,it appears by these experiments1 that as a general rule1 musketry fire should never be opened beyond #aej yards1 and certainly not exceeding #bjj yards4 ,at this distance1 half the number of shots missed a target #aa-;ft4 #f-;in41 and at #aej yards a very large proportion also missed4 ,at #ge and #ajj yards every shot struck the target1 only #b-;ft4 wide1 and had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot ought to have struck the target #f-;ft4 wide at #bjj yards1 instead of this1 however1 some were observed to pass several yards to the right and left1 some to fall #cj yards short1 and others to pass as much beyond1 and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the range increased4 ,it is only then under peculiar circumstances1 such as when it may be desirable to bring a fire on ,field ,artillery when there are no other means of replying to it1 that it ought ever to be thought of using the musket at such distances as #djj yards40 ,in fact1 it has been stated that the probability of hitting one man with a musket ball at #ejj yards would be as one farthing to the ,national ,debt6 ,on a recent occasion1 at the ,cape1 #hj1jjj rounds were fired to kill #be men66 ,to put a man 8hors de combat0 requires his weight in lead1 and six times his weight in iron666 ,price4 ,fastened by bands4 ,bands unsightly66 ,supposed profit of large bore4 ,our musket cost #c1 the ,french and ,belgian #a #hs4 #f;d4 ,in foreign arms the barrel is fastened to the stock by bands1 binding the two together1 and thus adding greatly to their strength4 ,this mode1 although acknowledged to be infinitely superior for military purposes1 by our ,inspector of small arms1 was condemned as unsightly66 ,the ,french musket1 although three inches longer1 is beautifully poised1 being lightened forward4 ,our bore being larger was considered an advantage1 as their balls could be fired out of our barrels1 while our balls could not out of their muskets4 ,it was generally thought that the greater weight of the ,english ball produced an increased range and momentum1 but this was counteracted by the excess of windage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,various forms of early fire-arms4 ,in former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices1 and also combined with other weapons of attack and defence4 ,there is in the arsenal at ,venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels1 ten gun barrels1 about #b feet long1 and ten pistol barrels half that length4 ,the match exploded a gun and pistol barrel together4 ,the ,chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock revolvers1 and also of another matchlock1 consisting of several barrels1 placed on a common stock1 diverging from each other1 and fired simultaneously4 7,plate #d1 fig4 #d and #e47 ,shield fire-arms4 ,breech-loaders4 ,soon after the invention of fire-arms1 the boss1 or spike1 issuing from the centre of the targets or shields1 was superseded by one or more short barrels1 fired by a matchlock1 and having an aperture covered with a grating above1 for the purpose of taking aim4 ,these barrels were loaded at the breech1 the charge being put into an iron tube1 or short barrel1 which was pushed in at the end1 and retained there by shutting down a lid or spring4 ,cross-bow and pistol united4 ,there were cross-bows1 which combined a pistol and cross-bow1 the wheel-lock being placed about the centre of the handle on one side1 whilst on the other was the string of the bow1 and the windlass for drawing it up4 ,pike and pistol4 ,pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes1 and also1 in the reign of ,edward ,,vi41 in the handle of the battle-axe1 the spiked club1 the martlet1 and other weapons1 even the dagger4 ,carabines with joint4 ,heel plate to draw out4 ,in the time of ,charles ,i4 there were esclopette carbines1 made with the butt to double back on a hinge1 in order to get them into a holster2 and a little later the butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap which formed its cover1 now called heel plate4 ,revolvers in ,charles ,i4 ,double-barrelled pistols4 ,in the reign of ,charles ,i4 there were also revolvers1 with eight chambers to hold the charges2 and in the time of ,cromwell and ,charles ,,ii4 we find self-loading and self-priming guns4 ,pistols were made both double-barrelled and revolving4 ,arrows fired out of muskets1 #aeia4 ,in ,sir ,richard ,hawkins' account of his voyage in the ,south ,sea1 #aeia1 mention is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success at shipping3 8for the upper works of their ships being musket proof1 they passed through both sides with facilitie1 and wrought extraordinary disasters1 which caused admiration to see themselves wounded with small shot when they thought themselves secure40 ,these wooden arrows were called sprites or sprightes4 ,lord ,verulam says1 8it is certain that we had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call sprights1 without any other head save wood sharpened1 which were discharged out of muskets1 and would pierce through the sides of ships1 when a bullet would not pierce40 ,sprites required wads4 ,sir ,richard ,hawkins informs us1 that in a discourse which he held with the ,spanish ,general1 ,michael ,angell1 the latter demanded1 8for what purpose served the little short arrowes which we had in our shippe1 and those in great quantity4 ,i satisfied him that they were for our muskets4 ,hereof they prooved to profit themselves after2 but for that they wanted the tampkins1 which are first to be driven home1 before the arrow be put in1 and as they understood not the secret1 they rejected them as uncertaine1 and therefore not to be used2 but of all the shot used now adayes1 for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea1 few are of greater moment for many respects1 which ,i hold not convenient to treat of in public40 ,thus it appears that bullets of metal1 have been fired out of bows and slings1 stone balls out of guns1 and arrows from muskets4 ,the following are the names of different descriptions of small arms1 viz3-- ,hand-cannon ,hand-gun ,arquebus ,caliver ,petronel ,scorpion ,dragon ,musketoon ,hague ,demi-hague ,esclopette ,currier ,fusil ,hand-mortar ,blunderbuss ,musket ,pistol ,dag ,tack ,,the ,,bayonet4 ,pointed stake4 ,it was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground to protect themselves against cavalry4 ,on the arquebus replacing the bow the same practice was continued4 ,pike4 ,from the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry with pikes1 and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in armies1 it was found impossible to dispense with this weapon2 for some time after the introduction of fire-arms1 only a portion of the infantry were armed with them1 and the remainder were pikemen4 ,the proportion of each varied at different times1 from one half to two thirds1 but as the proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive some method1 by which they could defend themselves4 ,marlets-de-fer with touch4 ,rest1 with touch4 ,swines' feathers4 ,in the latter part of the reign of ,james ,i41 some attempts were made to convert the musketeer's rest into a defence against cavalry4 ,marlets-de-fer and small pole-axes had a touch enclosed in them1 which by touching a spring opened a small valve and sprung out4 ,the musket rest1 instead of having a wooden shaft1 was now made of a thin tube of iron1 like these pole-axes covered with leather1 and armed with the touch4 ,rests thus armed were said to contain ,swedish or ,swines' feathers4 ,it was found however that the musketeer could not do his duty when armed with musket1 sword1 and rest1 7especially if he had a ,swedish feather to manage with them7 which led to the abandonment of the rest during the ,protectorate4 ,sword stuck in muzzle4 ,bayonets in ,france1 #afga4 ,to remedy the inconvenience of a ,musketeer being compelled to draw his sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece1 and to render him more competent to act against the pikemen1 a long thin rapier blade fixed into a handle1 and carried in a sheath called a ,swine's feather1 was drawn out of its scabbard1 and fixed into the muzzle of his gun1 which gave him a weapon of great length4 7,plate #ai1 fig4 #aa474 ,and this dagger or sword1 stuck into the muzzle of the gun1 gave origin to the bayonet1 which was first made at ,bayonne1 and introduced into the ,french army in #afga4 ,swords discontinued1 #agde4 ,improved bayonet4 ,bayonet in ,flanders1 ,william ,,iii4 ,bayonet at ,killicrankie4 ,swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since the year #agde1 and about #agfb by the grenadiers4 ,as a still further improvement the bayonet was made to fit on to the side of the barrel1 so as to leave it clear4 ,an early application of the improved bayonet took place in the campaigns of ,william ,,iii41 in ,flanders4 ,three ,french regiments thus armed1 marched with fixed bayonets1 and one of them against the #beth regiment4 ,lieut-,colonel ,maxwell ordered his men to screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them2 but to his great surprise when they came within the proper distance1 the ,french threw in such a heavy fire1 as for the moment to stagger his people1 who by no means expected such a greeting1 not conscious how it was possible to fire with fixed bayonets4 ,macaulay in the #crd volume of his ,history1 states 8,that at the battle of ,killicrankie1 the ,king's army being drawn up in position1 the ,highlanders advanced to the attack1 and immediately after having delivered their fire1 threw away their muskets and rushed on to the charge with ,claymores4 ,it took the regular musketeer two or three minutes to alter his missile weapon into one with which he could encounter an enemy hand to hand1 and during this time the battle of ,killicrankie had been decided40 ,mackay therefore ordered all his bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the barrel4 ,bayonets1 ,marsaglia1 #afic1 and ,spiers1 #agjc4 ,pike abolished1 #agjc4 ,earl ,orrery in favour of pike versus musket1 #afgg4 ,bayonets were employed by ,marshal ,catinat at the battle of ,marsaglia1 when the slaughter was immense4 ,also at the battle of ,spiers1 in #agjc4 ,thus improved1 the bayonet came into general use1 and the pike was abolished in ,france by ,royal ,ordinance #agjc1 with the advice of ,marshal ,vauban4 ,before the introduction of the improved bayonet1 ,lord ,orrery1 in #afgg1 thus speaks in favour of the pike3--8,but what need ,i more say of the usefulness of the pike above the musket1 than that all persons of quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly the honour to be the noblest weapon1 since the bravest choose and fight with it4 ,i wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes1 for they are not only always in readiness but need no ammunition1 which cannot be said of the musket which requires powder1 bullet1 and match1 and in wet or windy weather often disappoints the service40 ,m4 ,mallet1 pike versus musket1 #afhd4 ,mons4 ,mallet in his 8,travaux de ,mars10 speaks lightly of the 8mousquetaires10 without pikemen2 he says1 8,a horse wounded by a fire-arm is only more animated1 but when he finds himself pierced by a pike1 all the spurs in the world will not make him advance40 ,gen4 ,loyd1 pike versus bayonet1 #agff4 ,pike recently discontinued4 ,even so recently as about ninety-two years ago1 and ninety-five years after the introduction of the improved bayonet1 ,general ,loyd in his history of the war in ,germany1 recommends the abandonment of the system of arming the whole of the infantry with fire-arms1 8which he says are useful only in defensive warfare1 and even then not more than one shot in four hundred takes effect40 ,for many years after pikes were discontinued by our infantry1 the officers carried a short one1 and the sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years4 ,the soldiers of artillery when in ,holland under the late ,duke of ,york1 carried short pikes for the defence of their field guns4 ,,accoutrements ,,and ,,ammunition4 ,armament of infantry soldier4 ,bandolier4 ,bandolier abandoned in ,france1 #afhd4 ,flask resumed4 ,patrons4 ,cartridges4 ,besides his matchlock1 the soldier carried a powder horn or flask1 a ball bag1 slow match1 a rest1 and a sword4 ,the two last changed for a bayonet4 ,in order to accelerate the loading1 a large leather belt1 called bandolier1 was worn over the shoulder4 ,to this were hung twelve wooden cases1 each of which contained one charge1 with a case of finer powder for priming1 and at the lower end a bag for balls4 ,this system was soon found to be inconvenient1 as the cases were apt to get entangled in passing through woods1 c4 ,it was therefore abandoned in ,france in #afhd1 and the flask resumed4 ,sir ,james ,turner1 speaking of the pistol1 says1 8,all horsemen should always have the charges of their pistols ready in patrons1 the powder made up compactly in paper1 and the ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread40 ,in this description we have evidently the cartridge1 though not expressed by name4 ,it is a curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry1 and that the general adoption of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of the modern firelock4 ,the ,patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of steel1 with a cover moving on a hinge1 filled with a block of wood with five perforations1 to hold as many pistol cartridges4 ,earl of ,orrery in favour of pouches4 ,the ,earl of ,orrery1 in #afgg1 writes1 8,i am1 on long experience1 an enemy to bandoliers1 but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them1 as by biting off the bottom of the cartridge1 you charge your musket for service with one ramming4 ,i would have these boxes of tin1 because they are not so apt to break as the wooden ones are1 and do not1 in wet weather1 or lying in the tents1 relax4 ,besides1 ,i have often seen much prejudice in the use of bandoliers1 which are often apt to take fire4 ,they commonly wound1 and often kill he that wears them1 and those near him1 for likely if one take fire1 all the rest do in that collar4 ,they often tangle when they have fired1 and are falling off by the flanks of the files of the intervals to get into the rear to load again4 ,their rattling in the night often discovers the designs2 and if the weather be windy1 their rattling also often hinders the soldier from hearing1 and1 consequently1 obeying the word of command4 ,whereas the cartridge boxes exempt those who use them from all these dangers and prejudices4 ,they enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously4 ,they are also usually worn about the waist of the soldier1 the skirts of whose doublet and whose coat doubly defend them from all rain1 that does not pierce both1 and being worn close to his body1 the heat thereof keeps the powder dryer4 ,besides all this1 whoever loads his musket with cartridges1 is sure the bullet will not drop out1 though he takes his aim under breast high2 whereas those soldiers on service who take the bullets out of their mouths1 which is the nimblest way1 or out of their pouches1 seldom put any paper1 tow1 or grass1 to ram the bullet in1 whereby if they fire above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy1 and if they aim low the bullet drops out1 ere the musket is fired1 and it is to this that ,i attribute the little execution ,i have seen musketeers do in time of fight1 though they fired at great battalions1 and those also reasonably near40 ,the preceding article on ,portable ,fire-,arms is principally compiled from 8,military ,antiquities10 by ,francis ,grose2 8,ancient ,armour and ,weapons of ,war10 by ,john ,hewitt2 8,engraved ,illustrations of ,ancient ,armour10 by ,joseph ,skelton1 ,f4,s4,a42 8,a ,critical ,enquiry into ,ancient ,armour10 by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,meyrick1 ,knt42 and 8,deane's ,manual of ,fire-arms40 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,rifle4 ,invention of the rifle4 ,we shall now direct our attention to the rifle1--its invention is ascribed to ,gaspard ,zollner1 of ,vienna1 towards the end of the fifteenth century4 #adff4 ,the first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at ,ble1 in ,switzerland4 ,rifles at ,leipsic1 #adih4 ,in the practice of firing at a mark1 at ,leipsic1 #adih1 the greater part of the ,sharpshooters or ,marksmen1 were armed with the ,rifles4 ,rifles used first for amusement4 ,at first1 ,rifle arms were used only for amusement1 and sometimes for the defence of places1 but very rarely as weapons of war in the field4 ,rifles used in war4 ,their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,landgrave of ,hesse1 #afca4 ,in #afca1 the ,landgrave ,william of ,hesse had three companies of ,chasseurs1 armed with rifles4 ,elector ,maximilian1 #afde4 ,in #afde1 the ,elector ,maximilian of ,bavaria formed three regiments of ,chasseurs1 armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in the minor operations of war4 ,frederick ,william of ,prussia1 #afgd4 ,in #afdg1 ,frederick ,william of ,prussia1 in his campaign on the ,rhine1 distributed in each company of infantry1 some light infantry and ,riflemen4 ,frederick the ,great in ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,by ,austrians ditto4 ,frederick the ,great1 in order to counterbalance the ,austrian ,light ,troops1 more particularly the ,tyrolese ,marksmen1 whose fire was exceedingly deadly1 felt obliged during the seven years' war to add a company of trained light infantry to the effective strength of each battalion4 ,rifles in ,france1 #afgd4 ,in ,france the ,cavalry were supplied with rifles before the ,infantry4 ,towards #afgd ,louis ,,xiv4 created some squadrons of ,cavalry armed with 8,carabines rayes40 ,the name was given in ,france to all arms which were grooved1 and it also served for the name of the corps which were first armed with them1 viz41 8,carabins40 ,rifles in ,english ,life ,guards4 ,in #afhj eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of ,english ,life ,guards4 ,rifles in ,sweden1 #afia4 ,in #afia the ,non-,commissioned ,officers of the ,swedish ,dragoons received the rifled carabin1 and in #agjj those of the ,prussian ,cavalry received the same rifled arms4 ,experiments in ,england1 #aggf4 ,experiments were tried with rifled small arms in ,england in the year #aggf4 ,we read in the ,scots' ,magazine1 vol4 #cf1 that 8the ,guards are every day practising the use of the ,rifle ,gun in ,hyde ,park4 ,on ,saturday1 ,april #bgth1 #aggf1 their ,majesties attended a ,review of the ,rifle-men yesterday1 and were much pleased with the dexterity of the officer1 who loaded and fired several times in a minute1 and hit the mark each time4 ,he lies upon his back when he discharges his piece40 ,rifles in ,austria1 #aggh4 ,austria kept #bjjj ,sharpshooters1 having double carbines1 which were supplied with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting4 ,only one of the barrels was rifled4 ,rifles in ,french infantry1 #agic4 ,in #agic the first model carbine for ,french ,infantry was made at ,versailles2 at the same time the model for ,cavalry was also fixed4 ,rifles were soon abandoned in the ,french ,army2 they deemed them of more trouble than profit4 ,rifles1 ,english1 #agid4 ,in #agid the ,english adopted the ,rifle1 which1 ,i fancy1 was first used by a ,battalion of the #fjth1 or ,royal ,american ,regiment4 ,rifles numerous in ,austria1 #agif4 ,in #agif there were in the ,austrian ,army #ae ,battalions of ,light ,infantry1 the greater part of whom were armed with ,rifles4 ,rifles for the #ieth regt41 #ahjj4 ,in #ahjj1 ,rifles were placed in the hands of the #ieth ,regiment1 now the ,rifle ,brigade of four ,battalions4 ,these ,rifles weighed about #ajlbs4 each1 with the sword4 ,they were sighted for #ajj and #bjj yards1 with seven grooves1 having a quarter turn in the length of the barrel1 which was about #b feet #f inches1 the length of the ,rifle #c feet #aj inches1 weight of sword #alb41 diameter of bore #fbc4 ,the locks were excellent1 and had a detent1 to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock1 and it had a bolt1 to prevent its going off at half cock4 ,the ball was spherical1 and driven in with a mallet1 which was afterwards dispensed with1 and a greased patch substituted4 ,rifle ball in two sizes4 ,range of ,english rifle4 ,during the ,peninsular ,war1 our ,riflemen were supplied with balls of two sizes1 the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of loading was required4 ,baker1 who made these ,rifles1 says in his ,work1 #ahbe1 8,i have found #bjj yards the greatest range ,i could fire to any certainty4 ,at #cjj yards ,i have fired very well at times1 when the wind has been calm4 ,at #djj yards1 and at #ejj yards1 ,i have frequently fired1 and have sometimes struck the object1 though ,i have found it to vary much40 ,rifles in #gth and #ajth ,dragoons4 ,colonel ,dickson1 ,r4,a41 says1 8,in the early part of the present century1 there was also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry4 ,the barrel #bj inches1 calibre #bj bore1 grooves #g1 having the same pitch as those for the infantry2 the #gth and #ajth light cavalry were the only regiments armed with them1 but they were soon discontinued from being considered as unfit for cavalry service40 ,brunswick rifle4 ,the ,brunswick rifle was introduced in #ahcf4 ,weight with bayonet #aalbs4 #eoz41 length of barrel #b;ft4 #f-;in41 bore #gjd4 ,two deep spiral grooves with one turn in the length of the barrel4 ,sighted for #ajj1 #bjj1 and #cjj yards4 ,bullet spherical and belted1 diameter #fif4 ,weight of bullet #eeg grains4 ,the shooting of this arm was superior to our first rifle1 although the loading was not so easy as was desired1 and a great disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the soldier's pouch1 the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the ordinary rifle1 the projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the grooves1 the ball was wrapped in a linen patch dipped in grease4 ,it was found that1 although the rifle loaded easily at first1 after constant firing the barrel became very foul1 rendering loading nearly as difficult as under the old system of the indented ball4 ,the belt on the ball caused considerable friction while passing through the air4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #a74 ,merits of the ,brunswick rifle4 ,by a committee of officers assembled at ,enfield1 it was determined that all firing with the ,brunswick beyond #djj yards was too wild to give a correct angle of elevation4 ,it was tested at ,antwerp in #ahdd1 in an experiment extending to #dd1jjj rounds1 and declared to be the worst tried4 ,improvements from ,france4 ,from ,france chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in fire-arms4 ,french at discount without rifles4 ,captain ,delvigne's first step to restore rifles in ,france4 ,the ,french desired to be on an equality with ,arabs4 ,expansion by chamber4 ,defects of chambered rifle4 ,poncharra ,delvigne rifle #ahcc4 ,the original ,french rifle 7like our own7 was loaded by force with a strong ramrod and mallet1 and they found that it gave precision with diminution of range4 ,for these reasons during the early campaigns of the ,french ,revolution1 the rifle was given up in the ,french army2 but as their ,chasseurs were found to be unequally matched against those of other armies1 who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen1 a series of experiments were carried on at different times1 with a view to its reintroduction into their service4 ,no satisfactory result was obtained until the occupation of ,algeria1 when ,mons4 ,delvigne1 of the ,guarde ,royale1 took the first step in its restoration4 ,in the flying wars kept up against them by ,abd-el-,kader1 they found that masses of their men were struck by ,arab balls at distances where the ,french muskets were apparently powerless1 and this they afterwards found arose from the long matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than was ever thought of by ,european troops4 ,in order to put themselves on an equality with their enemies1 ,mons4 ,delvigne showed in #ahbh how the rifle bullet could be made to enter the piece easily1 and quit it in a forced state2 a method of loading as easy and simple as that of a smooth-bore arm4 ,expansion was obtained by the introduction of a chamber in the bore1 which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet1 and on its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the grooves4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #b74 ,the objection to the chambered rifle1 was that after frequently firing1 a residuum collected which eventually left the powder less room in the chamber1 and of necessity it then reached above the shoulder of the latter1 so that the ball resting upon the powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber1 was not so readily dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves4 ,to remedy this defect the wooden sabot and greased patch 7plate #bj1 fig4 #c7 were suggested by ,colonel ,poncharra1 in #ahcc1 introduced into the ,french army #ahci1 and employed in ,algeria1 #ahdj1 but several inconveniences attended its use4 ,carabine ,tige1 #ahdb4 ,defects of ,tige4 ,tige introduced1 #ahdf4 ,colonel ,thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing at the bottom of the bore an iron shank1 around which was placed the powder4 ,this stem1 7plate #bj1 fig4 #d7 stopping the bullet1 allowed it to be struck in such a manner as to cause the lead to penetrate into the grooves4 ,there is much fouling at the breech1 and around the pillar of these rifles4 ,they are difficult to clean1 the soldier having to carry an instrument for this purpose4 ,the ,chasseurs and ,zouaves of the ,african ,army were armed with the tige in #ahdf4 ,at first a spherical ball had been used1 and then a solid cylindro-conical bullet was resorted to2 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #f47 ,messrs4 ,delvigne and ,mini having long previously experimented with hollow cylindro-conical projectiles4 ,mini iron cup4 ,french army #ahej4 ,some years after these experiments1 ,captain ,mini proposed the adoption of a bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in the hollow of the base1 which should be driven up by the gas1 and force the walls of the cavity outwards1 thus making them enter the grooves4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #g47 ,in #ahej the ,fusil ray with balle culot was put into the hands of some ,french regiments of the line1 and since then the ,french ,imperial ,guard have been armed with the old musket rifled1 and a hollow bullet without a cup4 ,at present it is understood that the ,french are rifling all their smooth bore arms1 and the ,russians are doing the same4 ,prussian4 army4 ,russian riflemen4 ,austrian riflemen4 ,belgium4 ,portugal4 ,the ,prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a breech-loading long range ,rifle4 ,the ,russian ,army is to have fifty-four rifle regiments1 with a rifle company to each other regiment of ,infantry4 ,the ,austrians are busy at work1 according to their means4 ,the ,tyrol has always supplied them with a large number of marksmen4 ,the ,belgians are1 ,i believe1 universally armed with rifles1 and even the little ,kingdom of ,portugal has ordered #bh1jjj rifles from ,belgium4 ,conoidal bullet1 with ,brunswick4 ,mini rifle1 introduced1 #ahea4 ,performance and angle of ,mini4 ,subsequent to the ,french experiments with the conoidal bullet1 and the great results obtained over the spherical from it1 it was proposed to adapt a conoidal bullet to the ,brunswick ,rifle4 7,plate #bj1 fig #e47 ,this was done as an experiment1 and succeeded very well1 but at the same time the new arm1 called the ,mini pattern1 #ahea1 was also tried1 and the shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm4 ,nothing further was done with the ,brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet2 and the 7then called7 8new regulation ,mini10 was introduced into the service by the late ,marquis of ,anglesea1 ,master-,general of ,ordnance1 with the approval of the late ,duke of ,wellington4 ,its weight with bayonet1 was #ajlbs4 #hozs41 bore #gjb1 four spiral grooves1 with one turn in #f feet #f-;in41 powder1 #b drs41 bullet1 #fhj grs41 with iron cup1 diameter of bullet1 #fij1 windage1 #jab4 ,when the axis is parallel to the ground at #d feet #f-;in4 above it1 the first graze is about #agg yards1 and the angle of elevation at #hjj yards1 is #c #be4 ,consequences of improvements in military rifles4 ,a few years previous to the ,russian war1 rifles had attained to a degree of improvement in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of war1 which threatened subversion to the established notions of the military world4 ,probable effect on artillery4 ,on cavalry4 ,mini in ,kaffir war4 ,bullet improved4 ,the artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and precision1 with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it2 one which not alone would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to within the 8shortest range10 but also impress a more than wonted respect upon the best led and most daring cavalry1 for even the thinnest formation of that arm1 which it had hitherto been taught to despise4 ,the ,mini was first used in the ,kaffir war1 and next at ,alma and ,inkerman1 when it proved that the gallant ,marquis had advanced a step in the right direction2 who had ordered #bh1jjj1 but quarrels taking place among the contractors this order was never completed4 ,the accuracy of firing from the ,mini was improved by altering the form of the bullet from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal1 7plate #bj1 fig4 #h47 and the iron cup from hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex4 ,lord ,hardinge's desire for improvement4 ,experiments at ,enfield4 ,lord ,hardinge1 succeeding to the post of ,master-,general1 and after to that of ,commander-in-,chief1 zealously followed out the prosecution of the now becoming fixed idea1 the general adoption for ,british infantry1 of a pattern rifle-musket1 which should combine lightness with solidity1 precision1 and superior range4 ,lord ,hardinge opened competition to the leading ,british gun makers1 when the following sent in muskets for trial1 viz3--,purdy1 ,westley ,richards1 ,lancaster1 ,wilkinson1 and ,greener4 ,the ,mini pattern1 7#ea71 and ,brunswick1 7#cf71 were also subjected to a course of trial before the committee assembled at ,enfield1 in #aheb1 for the purpose of determining the best description of fire-arm for military service4 ,merits of the ,brunswick4 ,the ,brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of range to every arm hitherto tried4 ,the loading was so difficult1 that it is wonderful how the rifle regiments can have continued to use it so long1 the force required to ram down the ball was so great as to render a man's hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting4 ,colonel ,gordon1 says1 8,it should be noticed here with the exception of ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during the trials1 thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time originally intended40 ,all had reduced bores4 ,elongated bullets4 ,reversed cartridge4 ,best shooting from short rifle4 ,advantage of small bore4 ,disadvantages of small bore4 ,the diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that hitherto in use1 all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for expansion1 being metallic1 or in one case a horn plug1 one pattern had cannelures and the whole required the cartridge to be reversed in loading4 ,it is worthy of remark that the best shooting at these trials was from a short rifle made at ,enfield1 which was named the artillery carbine1 but not the one now used by the ,royal ,artillery4 ,the barrel was only #b feet #f-;in4 long1 and the projectile cylindro-conoidal1 with an iron cup weighing #fbj grains2 thus proving that great length of barrel is not absolutely necessary in a rifle2 but a certain length of barrel is required to fire in double ranks1 and so that the weapon may be effectually used as a pike4 ,with a small bore1 a greater number of rounds of ammunition may be carried1 greater penetration1 velocity1 lower trajectory1 and more accuracy1 than with larger projectiles of equal weight4 ,the alleged disadvantages of small bore are1 the slender form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man's body1 as stated to be proved in the case of wild animals1 in proof of which it is said that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball1 than they do with a large one2 but this reasoning does not seem applicable to the human race1 for it is presumed that few men would be found willing to move far when wounded by a musket ball1 whether the hole in their body was #gjb or #ecj of an inch in diameter4 ,objection to reversing the cartridge4 ,an absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge1 viz3--that drill with blank would be performed in a different manner to firing ball1 and that in action the soldier would forget to reverse his cartridge1 and put in the ball first4 ,as we now always perform our drill1 and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or will not ignite1 this objection is removed4 ,it also was said that mice1 rats1 c41 c41 would eat off the lubricating mixture66 ,it was proposed to give the ,enfield1 7#ahec17 a back sight to #ijj yards1 when an outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to every common soldier a delicately made back sight1 whether he knew how to use it or not666 and those rifles first issued1 were only sighted to #cjj yards4 ,the ,enfield rifle4 ,at the conclusion of the trials at ,enfield1 in ,august1 #aheb1 two rifles were made at the ,royal ,manufactory1 in which were embodied the improvements and alterations suggested by the experience obtained during the course of the trials1 and which was hoped would possess the necessary requirements for a military weapon1 and which proved superior to the ,mini1 the ,brunswick1 and all those presented for trial by the different manufacturers4 ,dimensions1 c41 of ,enfield4 ,this beautiful rifle though #blbs4 less than the old musket1 is fully as strong1 and as capable of rough usage4 ,weight1 including bayonet1 #ilbs4 #c ozs41 bore1 #egg1 length of barrel1 #c feet #c-;in41 weight of barrel1 #dlbs4 #f ozs41 three grooves with spiral of one turn in #f feet #f-;in42 the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands4 ,the bayonet to be fixed by means of a locking ring4 ,the lock to have a swivel4 ,the bullet was of a pattern suggested by ,mr4 ,pritchett4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #i47 ,attempts to improve the bullet4 ,description of ,pritchett4 ,lord ,hardinge1 desirous to improve the projectile1 and if possible to get rid of the cup1 having requested the leading gun makers to lay any suggestions before the small arms committee1 none were submitted but one by ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 which was not a compound4 ,it was solid with two deep cannelures1 but it lost its accuracy when made up into a cartridge1 and made very wild practice beyond #cjj yards4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #aj47 ,subsequently a bullet was proposed by ,mr4 ,pritchett1 being cylindro-conoidal in form1 with a small hollow at the base1 which was made more to throw the centre of gravity forward than to obtain expansion thereby4 ,this bullet weighed #ebj grains1 or #bd guage1 and excellent practice was made with it at ,enfield1 from #ajj1 to #hjj yards1 and it was accordingly introduced into the service1 to the suppression of the ,mini1 with iron cup2 and for which ,mr4 ,pritchett1 received #a1jjj4 ,lancaster smooth bore rifles4 ,shortly after the establishment of the ,school of ,musketry1 in ,june1 #ahec1 twenty ,enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with the ,mini1 and also with 8,lancaster's smooth bore eliptical rifle1 with increasing spiral and freed at the breech10 when the ,enfield was found to be superior to both4 ,it is stated that ,mr4 ,lancaster's invention is intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the rifle ridges1 by the ramrod1 c42 these rifles are also easily cleaned1 the difference in width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse was1 of an inch4 ,engineer ,carbine4 ,carbines on this principle are now carried by the ,royal ,engineers1 and shoot well1 and by some persons are thought to be superior to the ,enfield1 #ahec2 they fire the same ammunition1 and there is no question but that their firing is much more accurate from using the improved wooden plug bullet4 ,failure of the ,pritchett4 ,in ,may1 #ahee1 the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory state and unfit to be used1 there being bullets of various diameters in many of the packages of the cartridges4 ,the correct size of the ,pritchett bullet viz41 #efh1 was found to produce accurate shooting1 at #fjj yards1 while bullets of a smaller diameter fired very badly4 ,return to iron cup4 ,to get out of this difficulty1 ,colonel ,hay recommended the application of the iron cup to the bullet1 which was approved1 when more uniform expansion resulted and greater accuracy4 ,thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover any trifling inaccuracy in manufacture1 in diameter of either bullet or bore4 ,woolwich account for bad ammunition4 ,the ,woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making bullets1 and which were made small at first as they gradually wore larger2 when any one die became too large it was destroyed1 and replaced by a smaller one4 ,to this cause they imputed the failure of our ,pritchett ammunition4 ,it was afterwards suggested from the ,school of ,musketry1 to procure expansion by using a wooden plug1 and after most extensive experiments1 this was found to be superior to any description of bullet yet tried at ,hythe1 and the wooden plug has accordingly been established for the ,british army4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #aa47 ,on expansion4 ,uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a sufficient and uniform expansion into the grooves1 so that the projectiles get such an amount of rotation as shall last until they have reached the object fired at4 ,the more perfect the expansion1 the less the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is further increased4 ,the ,enfield has frequently been fired to #bjj rounds and the loading continued easy4 ,progressive grooving #aheh4 ,early in #aheh1 the regulation rifle1 7#ec71 was changed from grooves of uniform1 #jad in depth1 to #jje at muzzle1 increasing in depth to #jae at the breech2 while new1 these rifles shoot well1 but they require increased elevation at long ranges4 ,how far these shallow grooves will answer1 or how long it will take to convert these aims into smooth bores at the muzzle1 by the continued friction of the ramrod1 remains to be seen4 ,origin of progressive grooving4 ,advantages4 ,captain ,panot1 of the ,french service1 states1 8it is but a few years since all our smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry the spherical ball of #ffi1 instead of #fda4 ,it was afterwards determined to convert these arms into rifles4 ,to prevent weakening the reamed up barrels1 ,m4 ,tamisier proposed to vary the depth of the grooves1 making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle40 ,grooves thus made1 are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the ball perfectly tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at the muzzle4 ,this is called 8progressive grooving40 ,rifles upon this principle require to be fired at an increased elevation1 attributed to the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while passing down the barrel4 ,short ,enfield4 ,rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a weapon requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm1 but six inches shorter1 being mounted in steel1 with a sword bayonet4 ,royal ,navy rifle4 ,a five 8grooved progressive0 carbine has recently been given to the ,royal ,marine ,artillery and the ,royal ,navy1 with the same bore as the ,enfield4 ,,rifled ,,breech-,,loaders4 ,early guns loaded at the breech4 ,it is worthy of notice that1 while numerous attempts are now making to perfect the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes1 our early cannon and first hand guns were loaded at the breech1 and if all mechanical difficulties could be overcome1 the breech-loading principle for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference4 ,we can easily understand why it did not continue in favour in early days1 as this mode includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship1 and to which the ancient gun maker was a stranger4 ,disadvantages of breech-loaders4 ,the great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the expense1 their intricate construction1 the escape of gas1 and the probable waste of ammunition1 in the hands of an uneducated soldier4 ,it may be briefly answered4 #ast4 ,as to expense4 #ast4--,as to expense1 the most destructive weapon1 by preventing and curtailing war1 must in the long run be the cheapest4 #bnd4 ,as to intricacy4 #bnd4--,as to intricacy of construction1 the soldier is the user1 not the maker of his gun2 it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch may be1 the only question is1 does it continue to go well66 ,and who dare say that the brains of man shall never suggest a simple mode of construction4 ,of course anything fragile would be totally unfit for military purposes4 ,the escape of gas has been entirely overcome4 #crd4 ,as to waste of ammunition4 #crd4--,as to waste of ammunition1 is it absolutely necessary that a soldier should remain uneducated8 ,are not soldiers men8 ,and men can be taught almost anything1 or are they incapable of being taught8 ,does a soldier fire how1 when and where he chooses8 ,is it too high an aspiration that the ,british army should carry the best arm that can be made1 to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful soldier1 acting under the guidance and control of intelligent officers8 ,breech-loaders highly improved4 ,ammunition the difficulty4 ,as far as the arm only is concerned1 breech-loaders have now 7#ahfj7 attained a high degree of perfection1 as is proved by the deserved celebrity of that made by ,mr4 ,westley ,richards4 ,the only remaining difficulty is one of ammunition4 ,loose powder cannot be employed in loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader4 ,we are up to this time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge1 this of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy2 there is also increased difficulty in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge paper4 ,capt4 ,brown's compressed powder4 ,recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder contained in a charge into one mass1 so that every description of rifle may be rapidly loaded without any paper1 has been invented by ,captain ,brown1 ,r4 ,n41 and ,i have every hope and confidence that the only remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be considered overcome4 ,advantages of breech-loaders4 #ast4 ,celerity4 #bnd4 ,load lying down4 #crd4 ,easily cleaned4 #dth4 ,solid ball4 ,the advantages of breech-loaders1 are1 #ast4--,celerity of fire1 about ten rounds a minute have been attained4 #bnd4--,the soldier can load while lying flat on the ground4 #crd4--,the barrel can be easily cleaned and examined as to its state4 #dth4--,a solid ball can be fired1 and with less windage4 ,self capping4 ,various modes of self capping have been brought forward1 but that by ,maynard seems to merit the preference2 time is further economized1 and the powers of the breech-loader thereby increased4 ,cavalry have breech-loaders4 ,our cavalry regiments in ,india1 are partially armed with breech-loading rifles1 and all their pistols are rifled1 and upon the tige principle4 ,rifles universal in ,english army4 ,the whole of our ,guards1 regular ,infantry1 ,royal ,marines1 ,militia1 and ,royal ,engineers1 are armed with rifles1 and the ,carabine used by the ,royal ,artillery1 is also rifled4 ,all our ,colonial corps are supplied with rifled arms1 with the exception of the ,native corps1 serving in the ,east ,indies and ,ceylon4 ,in larger numbers4 ,taught to use4 ,prizes4 ,thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in the armies of ,england1 in proportion to their numbers1 than amongst any other nation4 ,while more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our soldiers efficiently to use them4 ,in illustration of which1 it is only needful to call attention to the simple fact that #bj1jjj per annum is distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the ,british army1 for which boon all honour to our ,royal ,commander-in-,chief4 ,explosive shells4 ,the idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of ,infantry1 by furnishing them with shells1 with which they may explode ammunition waggons1 artillery limbers1 c41 c41 to the distance of #a1jjj yards4 ,captain ,norton1 ,mr4 ,dyer1 ,colonel ,jacobs1 and ,mr4 ,whitworth1 have directed their minds to this most important subject4 ,,on ,,rifling4 ,it has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled at ,woolwich1 for the carrying on of experiments in #ahea1 no two agreed upon any one thing2 and in #ahfj1 it may still be averred1 with almost equal truth1 and that it yet remains an unsettled question as to the form1 width1 depth1 number or degree of spirality of the grooves1 as also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves1 diameter of bore1 the form and weight of projectile1 and the quality and quantity of charge4 ,description of ,rifles4 ,advantages of a rifle4 ,robins1 in #agdb1 says1 8rifles though well known on the continent1 being but little used in ,england1 it is necessary to give a short description of their make4 ,the rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral channels1 so that it is in reality a female screw1 varying from the fabric of common screws1 only in this1 that its threads or rifles are less deflected and approach more to a straight line40 ,the advantage of a rifle 7with a round bullet71 is that the axis of rotation not being in any accidental position1 as in a smooth bore1 but coincident with the line of its flight1 it follows that the resistance on the fore part of the bullet is equally distributed round the centre of gravity1 and acts with an equal force on every side of the line of direction1 and also should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the other from irregularities on its surface1 as this part continually shifts its position round the line in which it is proceeding1 the deflections which this irregularity would occasion are neutralized4 ,with an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round its shorter axis4 ,rifling invented in ,germany4 ,rifles used #adih4 ,straight grooves4 ,it is to the artizans of ,germany1 that the rifle owes its origin1 as at the close of the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were used by the citizens of ,leipsic1 at target practice1 in #adih1 and the invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally supposed to be the result more of accident than theory4 ,in ,dean's ,manual of fire-arms1 it is stated that1 8the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the axis of the barrel to receive the residium of the powder1 and thereby1 not only facilitate the loading1 but increase both the bite or forcing of the ball1 by impressing upon it the grooves1 and thus maintain it during its passage through the barrel in a direction more in harmony with the line of fire1 was doubtless a conception based upon no previous theory or practice now to be traced1 but was formed in that suggestiveness which in the individual founds for itself a theory based upon the likelihood of possible result4 ,upon trial also of the straight grooves a greater precision for short distances would have been observed than with the smooth bore40 ,this must of itself therefore have led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it was endeavoured to amplify by various means1 such as increasing the number of grooves1 then of changing the inclination of grooves from the straight line to the spiral4 ,to deem that the practised crack 8shots and armourers of a time when target practice was the constant recreation of the citizen1 and his pride to excel in1 were so brainless as to conceive no theory1 unelaborated though it may have been1 and that all their even now admired efforts in ,germany1 were the products of mere accident1 is therefore scarcely a rational supposition40 ,spiral grooves1 by ,koster1 of ,nuremberg in #aebb4 ,it is stated that ,koster1 of ,nuremburg1 in #aebb1 first suggested giving a spiral form to the grooves1 and experience proved that much greater accuracy of shooting was the result4 ,damer of ,nuremberg1 #aeeb4 ,in #aeeb1 ,damer1 of ,nuremburg1 made some great improvements in rifles1 but we are not aware of their precise nature4 ,koster of ,nuremberg1 #afbj4 ,koster1 of ,nuremburg1 who died #afcj1 by some authorities is said to have discovered that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their inventor1 and to have been the first who suggested spiral grooves in #afbj4 ,robins first explained action of grooves4 ,robins structure of rifles4 ,modes of loading4 ,the important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of the true value of spiral grooves4 ,the honor of this entirely belongs to our countryman1 ,benjamin ,robins1 who in his ,principles of ,gunnery1 gives a complete and satisfactory explanation of the action of the grooves in determining the flight of the bullet4 ,robins states that 8the degree of spirality1 the number of threads1 the depth the channel are cut down to1 are not regulated according to any invariable rule1 but differ according to the country where the work is performed1 and the caprice of the artificer4 ,the most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball with a strong rammer and mallet4 ,but in some parts of ,germany and ,switzerland1 an improvement is made by cutting a piece of very thin leather or fustian in a circular shape1 somewhat larger than the bore1 which being greased on one side is laid upon the muzzle with its greasy part downwards1 and the bullet being placed upon it1 is then forced down the barrel with it4 ,when this is practised the rifles are generally shallow1 and the bullet ought not to be too large4 ,early rifles1 breech-loaders4 ,as both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time2 the rifled barrels which have been made in ,england1 7for ,i remember not to have seen it in any foreign piece17 are contrived to be charged at the breech1 where the piece is made larger1 and the powder and bullet are put in through an opening in the side of the barrel1 which1 when the piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw4 ,and perhaps somewhat of this kind1 though not in the manner now practised1 would be of all others the most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of barrels40 ,,on ,,the ,,number1 ,,form c41 c41 c41 ,,of ,,the ,,grooves4 ,number of grooves4 ,degree of spirality4 ,almost every description of twist1 number1 c41 c41 of grooves have been tried1 according to the individual tastes and theories of the manufacturers4 ,it is absolutely necessary to have two grooves1 as a single one would give a wrong direction4 ,rifles have been made with1 from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves1 and in the majority of cases1 an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number4 ,in ,dean's ,manual it is stated1 that 8in the numerous collections of arms that have at various times come under our personal notice1 some were rifled with straight1 but the majority with grooves in a spiral line1 sometimes with a half1 sometimes a three quarter1 and seldom more than a whole turn in a length of two1 two and a half and three feet2 deviations based upon no principle transmitted to us1 but requiring nevertheless a decided research for principles upon which to establish a theory2 we have also met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of groove1 c41 c41 which have been arrogated as modern conceits and discoveries40 ,spirality4 ,some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech2--sharp breech twist decreasing to the muzzle2 an increase of twist in the middle of the barrel decreasing at both extremities4 ,modification in ,france4 #agdj4 ,in ,france a modification of the ,carabine took place in #agdj2--the grooves were made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle1 the unrifled part being of the same calibre as the bottom of the grooves1 so that the bullet might pass easily2 thus also facilitating the loading of the weapon4 ,rifled only at muzzle4 ,there is an old rifle in the ,united ,service ,institution1 and also a barrel brought from ,lucknow1 7in the ,model ,room of the ,school of ,musketry17 grooved only for about one foot from the muzzle1 the remainder of the barrels are smooth bored4 ,degree of spirality4 ,the degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in #a foot #e-;in41 to a whole turn in #aa feet4 ,depth of spiral4 ,the depth of grooves vary from #jje of an inch1 to about #abe2 and some rifles have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove4 ,form of grooves4 ,grooves have been made round1 circular1 triangular1 rectangular1 and indefinite1 alternate round and angular1 elliptical1 polygonal2 and some cut deep only on one side4 ,proportion of groove to land4 ,some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion of groove or furrow than of land or plain surface1 because they say the ball is thus more firmly held1 while others maintain that by diminishing the number of the grooves1 the accuracy and range would be increased1 and this has led to the opposite theory1 that perhaps if anything1 the plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved4 ,form of early grooves straight4 ,the earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each other1 the bullet being spherical1 and furnished with small circular knots of lead1 large enough to fill the creases4 ,form c41 of ancient rifles4 ,the greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn1 with an odd number of deep and rounded grooves2 hence we may infer these were considered the best forms4 ,objects of rifling4 ,as accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis coincident with the flight of the bullet1 communicated to it by the grooves1 it is clear that the depth1 number1 and form of the grooves should be such as will hold the bullet firmly1 and prevent all tendency to strip4 ,on the degree of spirality4 ,sharp twist and large charge not cause stripping4 ,the degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile point foremost during the whole of its flight4 ,it was at one time supposed that if the spiral turn was great1 and the charge strong1 the bullet would not conform1 but strip1 and that the same results would occur even with grooves but little curved4 ,unquestionably this would prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded4 ,a false conclusion was built upon this theory1 viz41 that the greater the spiral turn the less the charge should be2 and that therefore in rifles intended for war1 the greatest initial velocity being required to produce the greatest range1 the groove should have as little turn as possible2 for extreme ranges have been obtained with ,jacob's1 ,whitworth's1 and ,lancaster's rifles2 the first has a full turn in #bd;in4 the second in #bj;in4 ,these rifles perform well with #ij grains of powder1 and both ,whitworth's and ,lancaster's might even fire better were the charge of powder increased to #ajj grains1 the recoil might be objectionable while there would be no symptoms of stripping4 ,on depth of groove4 ,great depth of groove can only be hurtful1 owing to the difficulty of closing up all passage to the gas1 which should not be allowed to escape round the bullet1 as this would cause deviation and shorten range4 ,deep grooves become a receptacle for fouling1 are difficult to clean2 and high projections must offer great resistance to the atmosphere1 and particularly to a side wind4 ,patches4 ,when fustian or leather are used as patches1 they receive and communicate the spiral motion to the bullet1 without the zone of the projectile being at all indented1 but in this case the spiral must be diminished1 otherwise the bullet would not turn with the grooves4 ,if the patches be made of a thick material1 the grooves should be many1 broad1 and not too shallow1 in order to receive the folds of the patch4 ,shallow grooves best4 ,from our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the shallower the grooves are the better1 so that they perform their intended functions4 ,proportion of groove to land4 ,it is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than the lands1 i4e41 that the rifling surface should predominate over the unrifled part of the bore4 ,shallow grooves with rounded edges1 have the advantage of not leaving any angular traces on the surface of the bullet1 besides they afford a greater facility for cleaning4 ,circular grooving4 ,circular grooving is composed of segments of circles1 leaving no sharp edges on the bullet1 and is no doubt a very good form4 ,gaining twist4 ,cause of canting4 ,an ,american gentleman named ,chapman1 who has written a very clever book upon the rifle1 is a strong advocate for the 8gaining twist10 which form prevails generally in ,american rifles4 ,he states1 8,in a rifled barrel1 it is obvious that a bullet instantaneously started from a state of rest1 with a velocity of #e1jjj;ft4 a second1 must exert at the moment of starting1 a tendency to move along the bore in a straight line4 ,however1 meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep it to the twist1 it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in the direction of the twist of the creases1 and this as the angle of the twist increases1 combined with the size of the calibre1 and the weight of the ball40 ,remedy for canting4 8,if the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced1 the bullet at the same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last throughout its flight1 it is certain we shall have less twisting of the rifle in the marksman's hands1 less friction of the bullet against the lands1 less tendency for the bullet to upset1 7or be destroyed17 and consequently1 from obtaining a higher velocity1 7because enabled to use a greater quantity of powder17 less time for the action of regular or irregular currents of air40 ,uniform spiral by ,american ,government4 ,after careful experiments by the ,american ,government1 preparatory to the establishing the model for their ,military ,rifle1 it was decided that the turn for the grooves should be uniform2 and that those with an increasing twist did not give any superiority of accuracy4 ,the 8gaining twist10 although adopted by ,mr4 ,lancaster1 is opposed by ,mr4 ,whitworth1 and all other ,rifle manufacturers1 and our increased experience does not prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality4 ,theory would indicate that it must occasion increased friction4 ,decreasing spiral4 ,mr4 ,greener advocates decreasing spirality4 ,it is to be hoped he is the only advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea4 ,to give a certain measure of spiral turn at the breech1 to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet reaches the muzzle1 is simply ridiculous1 and which1 with other conceits previously referred to1 it is to be hoped are no more to be repeated4 ,polygonal rifling4 ,by the desire of our first ,patron1 the late ,lord ,hardinge1 ,mr4 ,whitworth was induced to turn his mechanical genius to the ,soldier's ,gun1 which resulted in his adopting the polygonal form of bore4 ,his barrel is hexagonal1 and thus1 instead of consisting of non-effective lands1 and partly of grooves1 consists entirely of effective rifling surfaces4 ,the angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded4 ,supposing a bullet of a cylindrical shape to be fired1 when it begins to expand it is driven into the recesses of the hexagon4 ,it thus adapts itself to the curves of the spiral1 and the inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct resistance1 expansion is easily effected4 ,westley ,richards octagonal4 ,mr4 ,westley ,richards has followed ,mr4 ,whitworth1 by using a polygonal bore1 having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to a barrel upon the ,whitworth principle1 of an octagonal form4 ,eliptic rifling4 ,by ,captain ,berner1 #ahce4 ,by ,mr4 ,lancaster4 ,the cardinal feature of this structure is1 that the bore of the barrel is smooth1 and instead of being circular1 is cut into the form of an ellipse1 i4e41 it has a major and minor axis4 ,upon being expanded by the force of the powder1 the bullet is forced into the greater axis of the ellipse1 which performs the office of the grooves1 rifling the projectile1 and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its own axis4 ,in #ahce a ,captain ,berner submitted his elliptical bore musket to the inspection and trial of the ,royal ,hanoverian ,commission1 appointed for that purpose1 and which gave results so satisfactory1 that it was considered admirably adapted for the ,jger and ,light ,infantry ,battalions4 ,this principle has been patented by ,mr4 ,lancaster1 and the advantages of this form have been previously adverted to4 ,odd number of grooves4 ,it is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even1 so that they will be opposite to one another1 the bullet would then require more force to enlarge it1 so as to fill them properly4 ,if the number be unequal1 the lands will be opposite to the grooves1 and the lead1 in forcing1 spreading on all sides1 will encounter a land opposite to each groove1 which will in some measure repel it1 and render its introduction into the opposite groove more complete4 ,this ingenious theory is set at nought by ,whitworth1 ,jacobs1 ,lancaster1 ,w4 ,richards1 c41 c41 who all recommended an even number of grooves1 while the ,government arms have an odd number4 ,drift or cant4 ,if the grooves twist or turn over from left to right1 the balls will be carried to the right2 and if from right to left1 they will group to the left2 and this result will be great in proportion to the degree of spirality4 ,the causes of ,drift or 8,derivation0 will be treated of hereafter4 ,we know from observation that the majority of balls strike to the right of the mark4 ,the recoil and pulling the trigger throw back the right shoulder1 which tend to increase the 8derivation0 to the right4 ,if the twist were1 then1 from right to left1 the drift1 error from pulling1 and from recoil1 would tend to neutralize each other2 the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right to left1 instead of the present universal practice of from left to right4 ,on length of barrel4 ,favors expansion4 ,assists aiming1 firing two deep3 when using bayonet4 ,the barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is generated for the propulsion of the bullet4 ,it is well known that the continued action of a lesser force1 will produce a much greater effect1 than a greater amount of power applied suddenly2 hence mild gunpowder is more suitable for rifle shooting than strong1 or that which evolves the whole of its gas instantaneously4 ,time is necessary for the entire combustion of a charge of gunpowder1 consequently more mild gunpowder can be fired out of a long1 than out of a short barrel1 as if fired out of a short barrel1 some of the grains might be ejected unconsumed4 ,all extra length1 after the last volume of gas is evolved1 can only be injurious1 by causing loss of velocity from friction4 ,a billiard ball would travel none the further nor straighter1 were it to be propelled through a hollow tube1 neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in killing rooks4 ,a barrel favours expansion of the bullet1 which is produced by the force of the generated gas1 opposed by the column of air in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile4 ,facility in aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other4 ,in a military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two deep in the ranks1 and length is also advantageous1 should the rifle be used as a pike4 ,advantages of short rifle4 ,disadvantages of short rifles4 ,the short rifle can be held steadier when standing1 by a weak man1 and during wind1 it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket1 and a very short man has more command of his gun when loading2 but with the sword bayonet1 it is heavier than the long ,enfield and bayonet2 while the sword is very inconvenient when running1 firing kneeling1 or lying down4 ,thickness of barrel4 ,great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate firing1 it being supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel2 this is true within certain limits1 and the heavier the charge1 the heavier the metal ought to be1 especially at the breech1 but diminishing the thickness1 has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy4 ,a heavy barrel also lessens recoil1 but it would be folly to carry more weight than would neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a greater charge of powder than could be consumed in a given length of barrel4 ,size of bore4 ,the two grand requirements of a soldier's gun are1 celerity of loading1 combined with accuracy at long ranges2 and the distance at which he should have the power of firing1 should be limited by the strength of his eye4 ,the weight of the projectile being fixed 7#ecj grs471 good shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by reducing the diameter of the bore1 which1 lessening the frontage of the bullet1 causes it to experience less resistance from the air2 it therefore retains a higher degree of velocity than a larger bullet of the same form and weight1 and therefore travels further and faster4 ,gravity has less time to act upon it1 in a given distance1 and therefore it can be fired at a lower angle1 or has what we call a lower trajectory1 and its accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight1 all other things being equal4 ,best form of rifling still undetermined4 ,while the best form1 c41 c41 for rifles is not yet determined1 there are many points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed1 viz41 reduction of bore to about -in4 in diameter1 fewer grooves1 shorter barrel1 and with increased spirality2 at least1 one may safely say that ideas seem to travel in this direction4 ,,on ,,rifle ,,projectiles4 ,projectiles used in early guns4 ,elliptical iron bullets #agbi4 ,we have learned that out of early ,artillery were fired bolts1 darts1 bombs1 stones and 7more recently7 iron shot4 ,from the harquebus and musket3 arrows1 darts1 quarrels1 sprites1 iron1 and lastly leaden spherical balls4 ,some assert that the idea of lengthened eliptical bullets was enunciated so far back as #agbi1 and that good results followed their employment1 but it is doubtful whether such really did take place4 ,leutman4 ,leutman1 in his 8,history of ,st4 ,petersburgh10 says that 8it is very profitable to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms1 particularly when they are made to enter by force40 ,robins #agdb4 ,robins1 in #agdb1 recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form1 7see plate #bj1 fig4 #ab71 they were to be fired with the heavy end in front1 to keep the centre of gravity forward4 ,beaufoy #ahab4 ,colonel ,beaufoy1 in a work called 8,scloppetaria10 #ahab1 remarks that several experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets1 recommended by ,robins4 ,it was found1 however1 that these bullets were subject to such occasional random ranges1 as completely baffled the judgment of the shooters to counteract their irregularity4 ,their deviations to windward most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the after part1 which1 as being the lightest of the two1 was driven more to leeward1 and consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind4 ,turpin #aggj4 ,in #aggj ,messrs4 ,turpin tried elongated bullets1 at ,la ,fiere1 and at ,metz4 ,rifled guns c41 #aggf4 ,we are informed1 in the ,annual ,register for #aggf1 and also in the ,scots ,magazine for the same year1 that rifled ,ordnance were experimented with at ,languard ,fort1 c41 c41 in #aggd4 ,dr4 ,lind1 one of the inventors1 states that to remedy the deflection of shot1 8,one way is to use bullets that are not round but oblong4 ,but in our common guns that are not rifled1 ,i know no way to prevent deflection1 except you choose to shoot with a rifled bullet40 ,elongated projectiles #aghi4 #ahjj and #ahae4 ,elongated ,projectiles were tried in the years #b1 #f1 and #i of the ,revolution1 by ,mons4 ,guitton de ,moreau4 ,they were proposed by ,mons4 ,bodeau4 ,in #ahjj and #ahae the ,prussians tried ellipsodical bullets4 ,colonel ,miller1 ,colonel ,carron1 ,captain ,blois1 and others1 also experimented with the cylindro-conical form4 ,captain ,norton #ahbd4 ,captain ,norton 7late #cdth ,regt471 the original inventor of the application of the percussion principle to shells for small arms1 in #ahbd1 completed an elongated rifle shot and shell1 the former precisely of the form of the ,mini bullet1 with projections to fit the grooves of the barrel4 ,mr4 ,greener #ahcf4 ,mr4 ,greener1 in #ahcf1 presented an expanding bullet to the ,government for experiment1 7plate #bj1 fig4 #ac74 ,it is oval1 with a flat end1 and with a perforation extending nearly through4 ,a taper plug1 with a head like a round-topped button1 is also cast of a composition of lead and zinc4 ,the end of the plug being slightly inserted in the perforation1 the ball is inserted either end foremost4 ,when the explosion takes place1 the plug is driven home into the lead1 expanding the outer surface1 and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle1 or destroying the windage of the musket4 ,the result was favourable beyond calculation4 ,of about #abj shots by way of experiment1 a man was able to load three times to one of the old musket1 and accuracy of range at #cej yards was as three to one4 ,mr ,greener's invention rejected4 ,mr4 ,greener's invention was rejected1 and the only notice he received from the ,board was1 it being 8a compound10 rendered it objectionable666 ,mr4 ,greener rewarded4 ,the following extract appears in the ,estimates of ,army ,service for #aheg-h4 8,to ,william ,greener1 for the first ,public ,suggestion of the principle of expansion1 commonly called the ,mini principle for bullets in #ahcf1 #a1jjj40 ,wilkinson #ahcg4 ,cork plug #ahea4 ,many experiments were made by ,mr4 ,wilkinson in #ahcg1 with balls precisely similar in shape to the ,mini1 with a conical hole in them1 using a wooden plug2 and in #ahea experiments were tried at ,woolwich with a soft elastic cork1 fitting the aperture in the projectile very closely1 the compression of which it was conceived would sufficiently expand the cylindrical part1 and make it fit the grooves1 c4 ,in some instances it succeeded perfectly1 but in many the cork was driven through the lead4 ,gen4 ,jacobs4 ,form of leaden bullet destroyed4 ,zinc point to bullets4 ,major-,general ,jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments with rifles1 and in #ahdf submitted a military rifle1 with an elongated projectile1 for experiments1 to the ,government at home1 and also to that in ,india4 ,it did not meet with approval in ,england1 and the ,company cut the matter short by stating1 that what was good enough for the ,royal ,army was good enough for theirs4 ,there is nothing peculiar in ,general ,jacob's rifle4 ,he recommends an elongated projectile 7plate #bj1 fig4 #ad7 solid at the base1 cast with four raised flanges to fit into the grooves4 ,general ,jacobs states1 that the desired initial velocity could not be produced with a projectile made entirely of lead1 as a slight increase of charge had the effect of destroying the form of the projectile4 ,he also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls having been attained1 it became necessary to find a method of constructing rifle balls1 so that the fore part should be capable of sustaining the pressure of large charges of fired gunpowder1 without change of form1 and retain that shape best adapted for overcoming the resistance of the air1 on which all accurate distant practice depends2 and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder sufficiently soft and yielding to spread out under its pressure1 so as to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly air tight4 ,and he professes to have solved the problem1 by having the fore part of the bullet cast of zinc1 in a separate mould4 ,expansion by hollow bore4 ,captain ,delvigne1 who had been experimenting since #ahbh1 proposed the adoption of lengthened bullets1 consisting of a cylinder terminated by a cone1 which was subsequently replaced by an ogive4 ,he obtained a patent dated #bast ,june1 #ahda1 8,for having hollowed out the base of my cylindro-conical bullet1 to obtain its expansion by the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder40 ,hollow in case to throw centre of gravity forward4 ,the main object of ,captain ,delvigne in hollowing the base was1 to throw the centre of gravity forward2 but a ,captain ,blois1 in ,france1 had previously tried this important suggestion4 ,captain ,delvigne states1 if the hollow is too deep1 the expansion is too great1 and the consequent friction enormous2 or the gas may pass through the bullet1 and leave a hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel4 ,sometimes the gas will traverse the sides of the bullet1 and consequently the projectile is deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity2 if too small1 the expansion does not take place4 ,capt4 ,mini iron cup4 ,captain ,mini1 an instructor of the ,school at ,vincennes1 merely fitted into this hollow an iron cup1 hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way through the bullet1 and that the iron pressing upon the lead should increase the expansion4 7,plate #bj1 fig4 #g74 ,groove suppressed4 ,a perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered1 of a cylindro-ogival form1 7no part was a true cylinder71 having a groove originally intended to fasten on a greased patch1 and in some cases the cartridge1 but the patch being dispensed with1 and the cartridge reversed1 the groove1 supposed to be useless1 was suppressed4 ,results4 ,people were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its accuracy1 and the groove was replaced2 when it was observed that any variation in its shape and in its position1 materially affected the practice4 ,not only variations in the grooves caused great alteration in the accuracy of fire1 but any modification bearing on the trunk in rear1 or on the fore-ogive1 altered the conditions of the firing1 so that the groove became lost in the midst of so many other principles1 the functions of which were so much unknown4 ,these theoretical considerations served1 however1 as a point of departure for further investigations4 ,tamisier lengthened bullets4 ,captain ,tamisier had not ceased for several years1 concentrating his attention on the subject4 ,he varied the length of the cylindrical part and the angle of the cone1 and tried experiments with bullets of #e-;in4 in length1 and obtained considerable range1 and great accuracy with them2 the recoil however was excessive1 and to use such bullets heavier arms1 a smaller bore1 and other modifications would be necessary4 ,centre of gravity formed by blunting tips4 ,he endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible point forward1 7which ,robins suggested #ajj years before71 but to effect this he was compelled to flatten the fore end of the bullet1 which had the disadvantage of increasing the resistance of the air to the movement of projection4 ,path rectified by resistance in rear4 ,many cannelures4 ,he was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet through each instant of projection1 and which was by creating at the posterior end1 resistances1 which should act in case the axis of the bullet did not coincide with the direction of motion1 and this was carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part1 instead of one1 as many circular grooves of #bh in depth1 as that cylindrical1 or rather1 slightly conical1 part could contain4 ,an increased precision in firing was the immediate result4 7,plate #bj1 fig #ae47 ,shape of cannelures4 ,feeling his way most carefully1 ,captain ,tamisier then made a great number of experiments in this direction1 and perceived that it was important to render the posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as possible1 so as to augment the action of the air2 for these grooves lose their shape1 owing to the lead1 from its malleable nature1 yielding under the strokes of the ramrod4 ,elongated ,projectiles1 whose ,centres of ,gravity do not correspond with ,centre of ,figure4 ,action of the air4 ,elongated projectiles1 whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide with the centre of figure1 when they do not turn over1 tend to preserve their axis in the primary direction which was imparted to them1 in the same manner as an imperfectly feathered arrow flying with little velocity1 the point of the moving body being constantly above the trajectory1 and its axis making a certain angle 7plate #ba1 fig #a7 with the target to the curve4 ,therefore the part ,a4,b4 of the bullet being exposed to the direct action of the air's resistance1 the atmospherical fluid is compressed on the surface ,a4,b41 and rarified upon that of ,a4,c4 ,hence it will be perceived that the compressed fluid supports the moving body1 and prevents its descending as rapidly as would a spherical bullet1 which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from the air4 ,this trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the spherical bullet in question4 ,remedied by the grooves4 ,cause of deviation4 ,remedy4 ,but the resistance of the air1 acting upon the groove of the projectile1 produces1 on the lower part of this groove1 an action which tends to bring back its point upon the trajectory1 yet with so little force1 that often1 in its descent1 the projectile turns over1 and moves breadthways at ranges of #ajjj and #abjj yards4 ,the lower side of the projectile1 therefore1 moving in the compressed air1 and the upper in the rarified air1 deviation must ensue1 for1 as the upper part of the bullet moves from left to right1 the bottom must move from right to left4 ,but the lower resistance to the motion of rotation being produced by the friction of the compressed air1 is greater than the upper resistance1 which depends on the friction of the rarified air4 ,by combining these two resistances1 there results a single force1 acting from left to right1 which produces what ,captain ,tamisier termed 8derivation10 and it was to overcome this derivation that this officer proposed the circular grooves to the bullet1 which he considered would act1 like the feathers of the arrow1 to maintain the moving body in its trajectory4 ,how to obtain knowledge of the bullet's rotation4 ,by the arrow4 ,use of feathers on arrows4 ,if1 however1 we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of a bullet in its path through the air1 let us consider the action of the arrow1 and see how it is constructed1 so that the resistance of the air should not act in an unfavourable manner4 ,first1 nearly all its weight is concentrated at the point1 so that its centre of gravity is close to it4 ,at the opposite end feathers are placed1 the heaviest of which does not affect the centre of gravity1 but gives rise to an amount of resistance in rear of the projectile1 and which prevents its ever taking a motion of rotation perpendicular to its longer axis1 and keeps it in the direction of its projection4 ,this difficulty which the arrow finds in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity1 and must therefore render its trajectory more uniform4 ,similar effects on bullet with grooves4 ,let us1 however1 now come back to the grooves of ,mons4 ,tamisier1 and we shall find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of the resistance of the air1 which we have demonstrated with respect to the arrow4 ,effect of grooves4 ,suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory ,m1 and ,a4,b4 be the position of its axis1 it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet re-establishes the air compressed1 whilst the upper part finds itself in the rarified air4 ,that1 consequently the lower parts of the cannelures are submitted to the direct action of the air's resistance1 whilst their upper parts totally escape this action4 7,plate #ba1 fig4 #b74 ,the resultant of the air's resistance evidently tends to bring back the point of the moving body1 according to the trajectory2 but as this action is produced by the pressure of an elastic fluid1 it results that the point ,b1 after having been an instant upon the trajectory1 will fall below1 in virtue of the velocity acquired2 but then the upper grooves finding themselves acted on by the action of the air's resistance1 this action1 joined to its weight1 will force the point of the projectile upwards1 which will descend to come up again1 so that the projectile will have throughout its flight a vertical swing1 which is seen distinctly enough in arrows4 ,union of ,robins and ,tamisier4 ,let us connect the suggestion of ,robins1 with the experiments of ,captain ,tamisier1 to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the projectile in its true path1 as undoubtedly during the descent of a bullet there is a tendency for the centre of gravity to fall first1 as the ball of the shuttlecock4 ,in the first ,prussian balls1 and in those used in the ,tige1 the centre of gravity being nearer the base1 the rear end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost1 but this is most undoubtedly counteracted by grooves1 while it would be impossible to fire an elongated projectile with its centre of gravity backwards1 with any accuracy out of a smooth-bored gun4 ,cannelures improved shooting4 ,why none in ,english bullet4 ,captain ,jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the accuracy of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous1 is certain1 but the ,british ,committee on small arms justly considered that owing to the careful way in which the bullets are made in ,england by compression1 these grooves might be dispensed with4 ,variety of forms4 ,auxiliaries to expansion1 various4 ,almost every conceivable form of projectile1 internal and external1 have been made and experimented upon4 ,auxiliaries to expansion have been used1 made of metal1 horn1 wood1 and leather1 with plugs1 screws1 or cups of divers shapes4 ,cannelures are used1 of varying forms1 depth and number4 ,rotation from smooth bores4 ,it has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw principle1 so that the projectile should receive spirality from the action of the air upon its outer or inner surface1 when fired out of a smooth bore musket4 ,general characteristics of modern rifles4 ,the general characteristics of the ,european rifles1 up to #ahej1 are a very large calibre1 a comparatively light short barrel1 with a quick twist1 i4e41 about one turn in three feet1 sometimes using a patch1 and sometimes not1 the bullet circular1 and its front part flattened by starting and ramming down4 ,american alterations4 ,it appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel1 reduction in the size of the calibre1 the constant use of the patch1 a slower twist1 generally one turn in #f;ft41 combined with 7what is now known to be a detriment7 great length of barrel1 are exclusively ,american4 ,picket bullet4 ,a round ended picket 7plate #bj1 fig4 #af71 was occasionally used in some parts of the ,states1 until the invention of ,mr4 ,allen ,clarke1 of the flat ended picket1 which allows a much greater charge of powder1 producing greater velocity1 and consequently less variation in a side wind4 ,on the comparative merits of rifles4 ,points in a perfect rifle4 ,a rifle may perform first rate at short ranges1 and fail entirely at long1 while a rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never fail of good shooting at short4 ,in fact certain calibres1 c41 c41 c41 perform best at certain distances1 and in the combinations of a perfect rifle there are certain points to be attended to1 or the weapon will be deficient and inferior4 ,velocity4 ,it is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be started with1 and the limit is the recoil of the gun1 and the liability of the bullets to be upset or destroyed1 for as soon as this upsetting takes place1 the performance becomes inferior1 and the circle of error enlarged4 ,degree of twist4 ,it is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it steady in boisterous and windy weather1 must of necessity have more twist than is actually necessary in a still favourable time2 hence a rifle for general purposes1 should always have too much twist rather than too little4 ,weight of bullet4 ,the weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is intended to be projected with the greatest accuracy2 for it is a law1 that with bodies of the same densities1 small ones lose their momentum sooner than large ones4 ,it would be madness to use a bullet ninety to the pound at nine hundred yards1 merely because it performed first rate at two hundred yards2 or a forty to the pound at two hundred yards1 because it performed well at nine hundred yards4 ,the reason is that a forty to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two hundred yards1 as the ninety to the pound can1 because the ninety uses more powder in proportion to the weight of the bullet than the forty does4 ,again1 the heavier bullet performs better than the lighter one at nine hundred yards1 simply because the momentum of the light ball is nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards1 and its rotatory motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight1 whereas a heavy bullet1 having from its weight more momentum1 preserves for a longer distance the twist and velocity with which it started4 ,calibre4 ,as weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at long ranges1 and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain limit in small arm ammunition1 hence a small bore is an indispensable requisite for a perfect rifle4 ,result of ,mr4 ,whitworth's experiments4 ,in the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which should be possessed by a first class rifle1 we have dealt in generalities1 but we shall now record the experience of ,mr4 ,whitworth1 who has entered into the most minute details1 and has pointed out the harmony which should subsist between the twist1 bore1 c41 and the projectile1 in the combinations of a perfect rifle4 ,bore and weight limited4 ,premising1 that when ,mr4 ,whitworth was solicited by the late honored ,lord ,hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the improvement or perfecting a military weapon1 he was restricted as to length of barrel1 viz41 #c feet #c-;in41 and weight of bullet1 #ecj grains4 ,we shall now proceed and use ,mr4 ,whitworth's words4 ,consideration for curve4 8,having noticed the form 7hexagonal7 of the interior which provides the best rifling surfaces1 the next thing to be considered is the proper curve which rifled barrels ought to possess1 in order to give the projectile the necessary degree of rotation40 ,hexagonal form admits of quick turn4 8,with the hexagonal barrel1 ,i use much quicker turn and can fire projectiles of any required length1 as with the quickest that may be desirable they do not #8strip4' ,i made a short barrel with one turn in the inch 7simply to try the effect of an extreme velocity of rotation7 and found that ,i could fire from it mechanically--fitting projectiles made of an alloy of lead and tin1 with a charge of #ce grains of powder they penetrated through seven inches of elm planks40 ,degree of spiral fixed4 ,diameter of bore determined4 ,after many experiments1 in order to determine the diameter for the bore and degree of spirality1 ,mr4 ,whitworth adds3 8,for an ordinary military barrel1 #ci inches long1 ,i proposed a #de-;inch bore1 with one turn in #bj inches1 which is in my opinion the best for this length4 ,the rotation is sufficient with a bullet of the requisite specific gravity1 for a range of #bjjj yards40 ,under these conditions the projectiles on leaving the gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length4 8,the gun responds to every increase of charge1 by firing with lower elevation1 from the service charge of #gj grains up to #abj grains2 this latter charge is the largest that can be effectively consumed1 and the recoil then becomes more than the shoulder can conveniently bear with the weight of the service musket4 ,advocates of slow turn4 ,effects of quick turn4 8,the advocates of the slow turn of one in #f feet #f inches1 consider that a quick turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the ball to an injurious and sometimes dangerous degree1 and to produce loss of elevation and range2 but my experiments show the contrary to be the case4 ,the effect of too quick a turn1 as to friction1 is felt in the greatest degree when the projectile has attained its highest velocity in the barrel1 that is at the muzzle1 and is felt in the least degree when the projectile is beginning to move1 at the breech4 ,the great strain put upon a gun at the instant of explosion is due1 not to the resistance of friction1 but to the vis inerti of the projectile which has to be overcome4 ,in a long barrel1 with an extremely quick turn1 the resistance offered to the progress of the projectile is very great at the muzzle1 and although moderate charges give good results1 the rifle will not respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation4 ,if the barrel be cut shorter1 an increase of charge then lowers the elevation40 ,objections to increasing spiral4 8,the use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious1 for besides altering the shape of the bullet1 it causes increased resistance at the muzzle1 the very place where relief is wanted40 ,length and spiral increased4 ,diameter decreased4 ,trajectory lowered4 8,finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles1 is overcome by giving sufficient rotation1 and that any weight that may be necessary can be obtained by adding to the length1 ,i adopted for the bullet of the service weight1 an increased length1 and a reduced diameter1 and obtained a comparatively low trajectory2 less elevation is required1 and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight line1 making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within range1 and rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment4 ,the time of flight being shortened1 the projectile is very much less deflected by the action of the wind40 ,proper powder for expanding bullets4 ,powder for hardened bullets4 ,consequences of imperfect expansion4 ,advantages of hexagonal form4 8,it is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper powder must be employed4 ,in many cases this kind of bullet has failed1 owing to the use of a slowly igniting powder1 which is desirable for a hard metal projectile1 as it causes less strain upon the piece1 but is unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile1 for which a quickly igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete expansion1 which will fill the bore4 ,unless this is done the gases rush past the bullet between it and the barrel1 the latter becomes foul1 the bullet is distorted1 and the shooting must be bad4 ,if the projectiles used be made of the same hexagonal shape externally as the bore of the barrel internally1 that is1 with a mechanical fit1 metals of all degrees of hardness1 from lead1 or lead and tin1 up to hardened steel may be employed1 and slowly igniting powder1 like that of the service may be employed40 ,mr4 ,whitworth's claims4 ,mr4 ,whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the polygonal system1 but merely brings it forward1 as the most certain mode of securing spiral motion1 but he deserves to be honored by all ,riflemen1 as having established the degree of spirality1 the diameter of bore1 to ensure the best results from a given weight of lead1 and length of barrel4 ,,conclusion4 ,in achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present day1 it has nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by ,leutman1 the ,academician of ,st4 ,petersburg1 in #agbh1 by ,euler1 ,borda1 and ,gassendi1 and by our eminent but hitherto forgotten countryman ,robins1 who in #agdg1 urgently called the attention of the ,government and the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a military weapon4 ,in the ,war of ,american ,independence1 the rifle1 there long established as the national arm for the chase1 exhibited its superiority as a war arm also1 in so sensible a manner1 that we were constrained to oppose to the ,american hunters the subsidised ,riflemen of ,hesse1 ,hanover1 and ,denmark4 ,robins' prophecy4 ,we shall close by quoting the last words in 8,robins' ,tracts of ,gunnery40 8,whatever ,state shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of rifled barrel pieces1 and having facilitated and completed their construction1 shall introduce into their armies their general use with a dexterity in the management of them2 they will by this means acquire a superiority1 which will almost equal anything that has been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms2 and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first inventors of fire-arms40 ,,note4--,the preceding articles on the ,rifle1 ,rifling1 and ,rifle ,projectiles are mainly compiled from3 8,new ,principles of ,gunnery1 by ,robins10 8,scloppetaria10 8,remarks on ,national ,defence1 by ,col4 the ,hon4 ,a4 ,gordon10 8,dean's ,manual of ,fire ,arms10 8,rifle ,ammunition1 by ,capt4 ,a4 ,hawes10 8,rifles and ,rifle ,practice1 by ,c4 ,m4 ,wilcox10 8,papers on ,mechanical ,subjects1 by ,whitworth10 8,the ,rifle ,musket1 by ,capt4 ,jarvis1 ,royal ,artillery10 8,des ,armes ,rayees1 by ,h4 ,mangeot10 8,cours ,elementaire sur les ,armes ,portatives1 by ,f4 ,gillion10 and 8,cours sur les ,armes a feu ,portatives1 by ,l4 ,panot40 ,,theoretical ,,principles4 ,,definitions4 ,matter4 ,matter1--everything which has weight4 ,body4 ,body1--a portion of matter limited in every direction4 ,mass4 ,mass1--the quantity of matter in any body4 ,particle4 ,particle1--or material point1 is a body of evanescent magnitude1 and bodies of finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite number of particles1 or material points4 ,inertia4 ,inertia1--passiveness or inactivity4 ,attraction4 ,attraction1--a fundamental law of nature1 that every particle of matter has a tendency to be attracted towards another particle4 ,density4 ,density1--is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each other4 ,volume4 ,volume1--the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body1 is its apparent volume or size4 ,elasticity4 ,elasticity1--a body that yields to pressure1 and recovers its figure again2 hence air and gasses are elastic bodies2 lead a non-elastic body4 ,motion4 ,motion1--is the changing of place1 or the opposite to a state of rest4 ,velocity4 ,velocity1--is the rate of motion2 there are four rates of motion1 viz41 ,uniform1 ,variable1 ,accelerated1 and ,retarded4 #ast4 ,uniform4 #ast4 ,uniform1--when a particle traverses equal distances1 in any equal successive portion of time4 #bnd4 ,variable4 #bnd4 ,variable1--when the spaces passed over in equal times1 are unequal4 #crd4 ,accelerated4 #crd4 ,accelerated1--when the distances traversed in equal times are successively greater and greater4 #dth4 ,retarded4 #dth4 ,retarded1--when the distances traversed in equal times are successively less and less4 ,acceleration or ,retardation1 may also be equal or unequal1 that is uniform or variable4 ,friction4 ,friction1--arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon one another4 ,force4 ,force1--any cause which produces1 or tends to produce a change in the state of rest1 or of motion of a particle of matter4 ,measure of force4 ,forces are measured by comparison with weights4 ,thus any forces which will bend a spring into the same positions as weights of #alb41 #blbs41 #clbs41 c41 are called respectively forces of #alb41 #blbs41 #clbs41 c41 c4 ,momentum4 ,momentum1--or quantity of motion4 ,if a body moving at first with a certain velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple this velocity1 the quantity of motion of the body is conceived to be doubled or tripled1 hence the momentum of a body1 depends upon its velocity1 as the quantity of motion of a body is the product of the velocity by the mass or weight4 ,laws of motion4 ,the elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings respecting the motions of bodies1 are called the 8,laws of ,motion10 and as arranged by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 are three in number4 #ast ,law4 #ast4 ,a particle at rest will continue for ever at rest1 and a particle in motion will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line1 until it be acted upon by some extraneous force4 #bnd ,law4 #bnd4 ,when any force acts upon a body in motion1 the change of motion which it produces is proportional to the force impressed1 and in the direction of that force4 #crd ,law4 #crd4 ,action and reaction are equal1 and in contrary directions4 ,in all cases the quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that lost by the other in the same direction4 ,thus1 if a ball in motion1 strikes another at rest1 the motion communicated to the latter will be taken from the former1 and the velocity of the former be proportionately diminished4 ,centre of ,gravity4 ,centre of ,gravity1--is that point at which the whole weight of the body may be considered to act1 and about which consequently1 the body1 when subjected to the force of gravity only1 will balance in all positions4 ,specific ,gravity4 ,specific ,gravity1--the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every different substance1 and is estimated by the quantities of matter when the bulks are the same2 or in other words1 it is the density that constitutes the specific gravity4 ,it is agreed to make pure rain-water the standard1 to which they refer the comparative weights of all other bodies4 ,lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water4 ,initial ,velocity4 ,initial ,velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the muzzle of a gun2 and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired from the musket now used1 you understand #abjj feet per second1 for the ,initial ,velocity4 ,angular ,velocity4 ,angular ,velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is described2 and depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from the axis of rotation4 ,terminal ,velocity4 ,terminal ,velocity3 if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very great height1 it would by the law of gravity1 descend with accelerated motion towards the earth1 but as the resistance of the air increases as the squares of velocities1 a point would be reached when the resistance would be equal to the force of gravity1 from whence it would fall to the earth in uniform motion4 ,eccentric ,body4 ,an ,eccentric ,body1 is one whose centre of figure does not correspond with the centre of gravity4 ,,motion ,,of ,a ,,projectile4 ,modified by ,gravity and air4 ,if no force were acting upon the projectile1 except the explosive force of gunpowder1 it would by the first law of motion1 move on for ever in the line in which it was discharged2 this motion is modified by the action of two forces1 viz41 gravity and the resistance of the air4 ,as the early cannons were of the rudest construction1 and were used only to force open barriers1 or to be employed against troops at a very short range1 it was a matter of secondary consideration what course the bullet took1 indeed it was generally believed1 that it flew for some distance in a straight line1 and then dropped suddenly4 ,acting upon this opinion we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal ring at the muzzle1 so as to render it the same size as at the breech1 and with such as were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight which tied on to the muzzle1 so as to make the line of sight parallel to the axis1 by which they conceived that they might aim more directly at the object which the bullet was designed to hit4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #adeb4 ,the first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot was a celebrated ,italian ,mathematician1 named ,leonardo da ,vinci1 who explains his manner of studying phenomena1 in order to arrive at safe conclusions1 thus3 8,i will treat of the subject1 but first of all ,i will make some experiments1 because my intention is to quote experience1 and then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain manner20 and taking as his motto1 8,science belongs to the ,captain1 practice to the ,soldier10 he boldly asks3 8,if a bombard throws various distances with various elevations1 ,i ask in what part of its range will be the greatest angle of elevation80 ,the sole answer is a small drawing of three curves1 7plate #bj1 fig4 #c471 the greatest range being the curve about midway between the perpendicular and the horizontal4 ,yet this small drawing is very remarkable when we come to examine it4 ,in the first place1 we see that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout its length2 secondly1 that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall again on the spot whence it was fired4 ,simple as they may seem1 these two propositions recognise the force of gravity1 resistance of the air1 and the rotary motion of the earth4 ,tartaglia1 #aecg4 ,the next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another celebrated ,italian ,mathematician1 named ,tartaglia4 ,in the year #aecg1 and afterwards in #aedf1 he published several works relating to the theory of those motions1 and although the then imperfect state of mechanics furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on1 yet he was not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries1 for he determined 7contrary to the opinion of practitioners7 that no part of the track of a bullet was in a straight line1 although he considered that the curvature in some cases was so little1 as not to be attended to1 comparing it to the surface of the sea1 which1 although it appears to be a plain1 when practically considered1 is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre of the earth4 ,it was only by an accident he nearly stumbled upon one truth in the theory of projectiles1 when he stated that the greatest range obtained by equal forces is at #de4 ,calculating that at the angle #j the trajectory was null1 that by raising the trajectory1 the range increased up to a certain point1 afterwards diminished1 and finally became null again when the projective force acted perpendicularly1 he concluded that the greatest range must be a medium between these two points1 and consequently at #de4 ,others thought that a shot1 on leaving the muzzle1 described a straight line2 that after a certain period its motion grew slower1 and then that it described a curve1 caused by the forces of projection and gravity2 finally1 that it fell perpendicularly4 ,tartaglia seems to have originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined the oblique line to the perpendicular1 was the arc of a circle tangent to one and the other4 ,galileo1 #afch4 ,in the year #afch1 ,galileo1 also an ,italian1 printed his dialogues1 in which he was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling bodies2 on these principles he determined1 that the flight of a cannon shot1 or of any other projectile1 would be in the curve of a parabola1 unless it was deviated from this track by the resistance of the air4 ,a parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone1 with a plain parallel to the side of the cone4 ,,gravity4 ,bullet as influenced by powder and gravity only4 ,we will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet1 as affected by two forces only1 viz41 #ast4 ,the velocity communicated to it by the explosion of the powder2 and #bnd4 ,by the force of ,gravity4 ,the attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their quantities of matter4 ,if no air1 all bodies would fall in same time4 ,gold and dry leaf in same time4 ,the difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air1 is due to the resistance of that medium1 whence we may fairly conclude1 that if the air was altogether absent1 and no other resisting medium occupied its place1 all bodies of whatever size1 and of whatever weight1 must descend with the same speed4 ,under such circumstances1 a balloon and the smoke of the fire would descend1 instead of ascending as they do1 by the pressure of the air1 which1 bulk for bulk1 is heavier than themselves4 ,a dry leaf falls very slowly1 and a piece of gold very rapidly1 but if the gold be beaten into a thin leaf1 the time of its descent is greatly prolonged4 ,if a piece of metal and a feather are let fall at the same instant from the top of a tall exhausted receiver1 it will be found that these two bodies1 so dissimilar in weight1 will strike the table of the air-pump1 on which the receiver stands1 at the same instant4 ,supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the onward course of a projectile1 and that the instantaneous force communicated to a bullet1 from the explosion of the gunpowder1 were to project it in the line ,a4,b4 7plate #ba1 fig4 #d47 from the point ,a41 with a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as ,c41 then if there were no other force to affect it1 it would continue to move in the same direction ,b41 and with the same velocity1 and at the next second it would have passed over another space1 ,c4,d41 equal to ,a4,c41 so that in the third second it would have reached ,e41 keeping constantly in the same straight line4 ,bullet under two forces1 powder and gravity4 ,but no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle1 than it immediately comes under the influence of another force1 called the force of gravity1 which differs from the force caused by the explosion of the powder1 which ceases to influence the bullet1 after it has once communicated to it its velocity4 ,an accelerating force4 ,effect of gravity4 ,gravity is an accelerating force1 acting constantly upon1 and causing the bullet to move towards the earth1 with a velocity increasing with the length of time the bullet is exposed to its influence4 ,it has been found from experiment that this increase of velocity will cause a body to move through spaces1 in proportion to the squares of the time taken to pass over the distance4 ,thus1 if a body falls a given space in one second1 in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what it fell through in the first second1 and in the three first seconds it will have fallen through a space equal to nine times that which it fell through in the first second4 ,result of gravity4 ,course of the bullet4 ,the consequence of this principle is1 that all bodies of similar figure1 and equal density1 at equal distances from the earth1 fall with equal velocity2 and if a body describes a space of #af;ft4 in the first second of time1 it will1 in the next second of time1 fall three times #af1 or #dh feet1 and thus will have fallen1 from the time it first dropped1 four times #af feet1 or #fd feet1 because #d is the square of #b1 the time the body was falling4 ,in the third second1 it will fall #e times #af feet1 or #hj feet1 and these sums collectively1 viz41 #af #dh #hj #add feet1 the whole distance described by the falling body in three seconds of time4 ,from this it is evident1 that instead of moving in a straight line ,a4 ,b41 7plate #ba1 fig4 #e471 the bullet will be drawn from that course4 ,parabolic theory4 ,from the point ,c41 draw ,c4 ,f41 equal to the space that the bullet may be supposed to fall in one second of time1 then at the end of the first second of time the bullet will be at ,f41 instead of at ,c41 and will have moved in the direction ,a4 ,f41 instead of ,a4 ,c42 at the end of the next second it will have fallen a total distance ,d4 ,g41 equal to four times ,c4 ,f41 thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third second a distance ,e4 ,h41 equal to nine times ,c4 ,f41 and it will have moved in the line ,a4 ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 instead of the straight line ,a4 ,b41 in which it would have moved1 had it not been affected by the force of gravity4 ,the curve ,a4 ,h41 is of the form called a ,parabola1 and hence the theory is called the 8,parabolic ,theory40 ,it is founded on the principle that the velocity given to the bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued throughout its course1 but this would only be true in vacuo1 and is therefore of little value in calculating the real course of the bullet in the air4 ,,on ,,the ,,time ,,taken ,,to ,,draw ,a ,,ball ,,to ,,the ,,ground ,,by ,,the ,,force ,,of ,,gravity4 ,if fired with axis parallel to the ground4 #ast ,case4 ,supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is parallel to the ground and #af feet above it1 then the projectile will strike the earth in the same length of time that it would have done1 had it been rolled out of the muzzle1 quite irrespective of the velocity with which it may have been propelled1 or the consequent extent of range2 that is to say the ball will have reached the point ,b41 7plate #bb1 fig4 #a471 in the same length of time that it would require to fall from the muzzle ,a41 to the earth ,c42 i4 e41 in one second4 #bnd ,case4 ,were three guns to be fired at the same instant1 with their three axes parallel to the horizon as before1 and loaded respectively with drm41 #a drm41 and #a drm4 of powder of the same strength1 then1 although the three initial velocities and three ranges would consequently all be different1 yet the three balls would strike the ground at the same time1 i4 e4 at the points ,b4 ,b4 ,b4 in one second4 7,plate #bb1 fig4 #b47 ,if axis at an angle to the ground4 #crd ,case4 ,when a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach the earth in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling the length of the tangent of the angle of projection2 hence supposing ,f4 ,g4 7plate #bb1 fig4 #c47 to be #af feet1 the ball would reach the point ,g4 in one second1 irrespective of the distance from ,d4 to ,g4 ,,atmosphere4 ,let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while under the influence of three forces1 viz41 powder1 gravity1 and air4 ,why named4 ,the atmosphere1 or sphere of gases1 is the general name applied to the whole gaseous portion of this planet1 as the term ocean is applied to its liquid1 and land to its solid portions4 ,being much lighter than either land or water1 it necessarily floats or rests upon them1 and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest mountains1 and to rise nine or ten times their height1 to about #de miles above the sea level1 so as to form a layer over the whole surface1 averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness1 which is about as thick1 in proportion to the globe1 as the liquid layer adhering to the surface of an orange1 after it had been dipped in water4 ,composition of air4 ,it consists essentially of two gases1 called oxygen and nitrogen1 and also contains a variable quantity of aqueous vapour4 ,qualities of air4 ,in common with matter in every state1 the air possesses impenetrability4 ,it can be compressed1 but cannot be annihilated4 ,it has weight1 inertia1 momentum1 and elasticity4 ,in consequence of its weight is its pressure1 which acts uniformly on all bodies1 and is equal to between #adlbs4 and #aelbs4 on every square inch of surface at the sea-level4 ,early idea of air's resistance4 ,how air acts4 ,the first experiments that were made on projectiles1 were carried out on the idea that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the track of a bullet which had great velocity4 ,but the moment a body is launched into space1 it meets with particles of the air at every instant of its movement1 to which it yields part of its velocity1 and the air being a constant force1 the velocity of the body decreases at every instant from the commencement of its motion4 ,,result ,,of ,,the ,,air',s ,,resistance4 ,robins1 #agdb1 showed effect of air's resistance4 ,course of ball was not a parabola4 ,why not a parabola4 ,it remained for ,robins1 #agdb1 in a work then published1 to show the real effect of the atmosphere upon moving bodies4 ,he proved by actual experiment1 that a #bdlb4 shot did not range the fifth part of the distance it should have done according to the parabolic theory4 ,if a cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve1 then from the known properties of that curve1 it was evident that when fired with elevation1 the angle of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which it was projected1 and this he showed was not the case in practice4 ,now ,robins acknowledged the opinion of ,galileo1 as regards the force of gravity1 to be correct2 he could not therefore attribute to him any miscalculation on the score of gravity4 ,he therefore concluded1 that the error of the 8parabolic theory0 arose from the supposition that the bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course4 ,ballistic pendulum4 ,robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum at different distances2 the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to calculate the velocity of the bullet1 at the time it struck the pendulum1 and by this means he ascertained1 that according to his expectations1 the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became more distant from the point at which it was fired4 ,this diminution he attributed to the resistance of the air4 ,trajectory more curved than a parabola4 ,from these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over equal spaces ,a4 ,c41 ,c4 ,d41 ,d4 ,e41 7plate #bb1 fig4 #d71 at each succeeding second of time1 it will require considerably longer to traverse each succeeding distance1 and the force of gravity will consequently have longer time to act upon it1 and will have the effect of lowering the bullet much more than it would do according to the 8parabolic theory20 moreover it is evident1 that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes1 the trajectory or path followed by the bullet1 will become still more incurvated4 ,having now proved the error of the 8parabolic theory10 ,robins began his endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet1 according to this new theory which he had demonstrated1 but this calculation was necessarily attended with great difficulties1 for in so doing a number of circumstances had to be considered4 ,resultant4 ,the resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile1 7plate #bc1 fig4 #a71 viz41 gunpowder1 gravity1 and the resistance of the air1 is a motal force1 diminishing in velocity at every instant1 causing the projectile to describe a curved line in its flight1 the incipient point of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece1 and its continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity1 till the projectile obeys the latter force alone4 ,,experiments ,,in ,,france4 ,angle for greatest range4 ,velocity4 ,it is stated by ,captain ,jervis1 ,r4,a41 in the 8,rifle ,musket10 that 8,from experiments made in ,france1 it has been found that the greatest range of the common percussion musket1 with spherical bullet fired with the regulation charge1 was at #be2 yet1 by theoretical calculation1 it should be #de2 also that the usual velocity was some #ejj yards per second1 whilst in vacuum it would be #ai1gib yards per second4 ,elevation giving certain range4 8,at an angle of from #d to #e1 the real range was about #fdj yards2 without the resistance of the air1 and at an angle of #d1 it would be #c1fgd1 or six times greater40 ,,on ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,upon ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,a ,,projectile4 ,the effect of the air's resistance upon the motion of a projectile4 ,the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a projectile1 is a subject of the greatest importance in gunnery4 ,it has engaged the attention of the most eminent philosophers1 and on account of the great difficulty of determining by experiment1 the correctness of any particular hypothesis1 much difference of opinion is entertained as to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the atmosphere with great velocities2 and although sufficient is known to guide the practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted1 still as a scientific question1 it is one of considerable interest1 but more on account of the difficulty of its solution1 than from its practical importance4 ,mr4 ,robins' discoveries4 ,to our distinguished countryman1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,robins1 is due the credit of not only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect of the resistance of the air in retarding the motions of military projectiles1 but also of pointing out and experimentally proving other facts with regard to this resistance1 which will be noticed when considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended direction4 ,result of ,dr4 ,hutton's experiments4 ,after him1 ,dr4 ,hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same point1 viz41 the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving in that medium1 both with great and small velocities2 and the inferences which he drew from these experiments1 although not absolutely true1 are sufficiently correct for all practical purposes4 ,,on ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,a ,,fluid ,,to ,a ,,body ,,in ,,motion4 ,circumstances affecting the resistance which a body meets with in its motion in a fluid4 ,the resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid will depend upon three principal causes1 viz3-- #ast4 ,its velocity1 and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to the fluid4 #bnd4 ,upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its particles1 and also upon the friction which will be caused by the roughness of the surface of the body4 #crd4 ,upon the degree of compression to which this fluid1 supposed to be perfectly elastic1 is subjected1 upon which will depend the rapidity with which it will close in and fill the space behind the body in motion4 ,the resistance of a fluid to a body as the squares of the velocities4 ,firstly1 with regard to the velocity of the body4 ,it is evident that a plane moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its surface1 must impart to the particles of the fluid with which it comes in contact1 a velocity equal to its own2 and1 consequently1 from this cause alone1 the resistances would be as the velocities2 but the number of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities1 from these two causes combined1 the resistance of a fluid to a body in motion1 arising from the inertia of the particles of the fluid1 will be as the square of the velocity4 ,cohesion of the particles of a fluid1 and friction4 ,secondly1 a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion of those parts which are separated1 and the friction1 both which are independent of the velocity4 ,the total resistance then1 from cohesion1 friction1 and inertia1 will be partly constant and partly as the square of the velocity4 ,result4 ,the resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the same fluid1 and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the densities in different fluids4 ,hitherto1 however1 we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in nature2 that is to say1 a discontinued fluid1 or one which has its particles separated and unconnected1 and also perfectly non-elastic4 ,atmosphere1 and its properties bearing on the question of its resistance4 ,now1 in the atmosphere1 no one particle that is contiguous to the body can be moved without moving a great number of others1 some of which will be distant from it4 ,if the fluid be much compressed1 and the velocity of the moving body much less than that with which the particles of the fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence of the compression1 it is clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost instantaneously filled up1 7plate #bc1 fig4 #b72 and the resistance of such a medium would be less the greater the compression1 provided the density were the same1 because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum will be greater the greater the compression4 ,also1 in a greatly compressed fluid1 the form of the fore part of the body influences the amount of the retarding force but very slightly1 while in a non-compressed fluid this force would be considerably affected by the peculiar shape which might be given to the projectile4 ,resistance increased when the body moves so fast that a vacuum is formed behind it4 ,thirdly4 ,if the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot instantaneously press in behind it1 as is found to be the case in the atmosphere1 the resisting power of the medium must be considerably increased1 for the projectile being deprived of the pressure of the fluid on its hind part1 must support on its fore part the whole weight of a column of the fluid1 over and above the force employed in moving the portion of the fluid in contact with it1 which force is the sole source of resistance in the discontinued fluid4 ,also1 the condensation of the air in front of the body will influence considerably the relation between the resistances and the velocities of an oblique surface3 and it is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe may for slow motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities1 they will for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio4 ,,on ,,the ,,velocity ,,with ,,which ,,air ,,will ,,rush ,,into ,a ,,vacuum4 ,the velocity of the rush of air into a vacuum4 ,when considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion1 it is important that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum should be determined2 and this will depend upon its pressure or elasticity4 ,result4 ,it has been calculated1 that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of about #a1cdd feet per second when the barometer stands at #cj inches1 so that should a projectile be moving through the atmosphere at a greater velocity than this1 say #a1fjj feet per second1 then would there be a vacuum formed behind the ball1 and instead of having merely the resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air1 it would1 in addition1 suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium1 equal to that indicated by the barometer4 ,,upon ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,to ,,bodies ,,of ,,different ,,forms4 ,difficulties of the question4 ,the influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by a fluid1 is a problem of the greatest difficulty2 and although the most celebrated mathematicians have turned their attention to the subject1 still1 even for slow motions1 they have only been able to frame strictly empirical formula1 founded upon the data derived from practice2 while with regard to the resistance at very high velocities1 such as we have to deal with1 very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the subject4 ,compressed fluid4 ,when a body moves in the atmosphere1 the particles which are set in motion by the projectile1 act upon those in proximity to them1 and these again upon others2 and also from the elasticity of the fluid1 it would be compressed before the body in a degree dependant upon the motion and form of the body4 ,moreover1 the atmosphere itself partakes so much of the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid1 as to constantly follow the body without loss of density when the motion is slow1 but not when the velocity is great1 so that the same law will not hold good for both4 ,in an infinitely compressed fluid 7that is1 one which would fill up the space left behind the body instantaneously7 the parts of the fluid which the body presses against in its motion would instantaneously communicate the pressure received by them throughout the whole mass1 so that the density of the fluid would not undergo any change1 either in front of the body or behind it1 consequently the resistance to the body would be much less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere2 and the form of the body would not have the same effect in diminishing or increasing the amount of resistance4 ,when a vacuum is formed behind the ball4 ,when the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a vacuum is formed behind it1 the action of the fluid approaches to that of the discontinued fluid4 ,,results ,,of ,,experiments ,,with ,,slow ,,motions4 ,resistance in proportion to surface4 #ast4 ,it appears from the various experiments that have been made upon bodies moving in the atmosphere1 that the resistance is nearly as the surface1 increasing a very little above that proportion in the greater surfaces4 ,resistance as squares of velocity4 #bnd4 ,that the resistance to the same surface with different velocities1 is in slow motions nearly as the squares of the velocity1 but gradually increasing more and more in proportion as the velocities increase4 ,rounded and pointed ends suffer less resistance4 #crd4 ,the round ends1 and sharp ends of solids1 suffer less resistance than the flat or plane ends of the same diameter4 ,hence the flat end of the cylinder and of a hemisphere1 or of a cone1 suffer more resistance than the round or sharp ends of the same4 ,sharp ends not always least resistance4 #dth4 ,the sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances2 for instance1 the round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the pointed end of a cone1 whose angle with the axis is #be #db4 ,form of base affects resistance4 #eth4 ,when the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms1 the resistances are different1 though the fore parts are the same4 ,hence the resistance to the fore part of a cylinder is less than that on the equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere1 owing to the shape of the base of the cylinder4 ,the base of the hemisphere has less resistance than the cone1 and the round side of the hemisphere less than that of the whole sphere4 ,only proved for slow motions4 ,the above refers only to slow motions1 and the results given1 from experiments with very small velocities2 and it is to be expected1 that with very rapid motions the form of the fore1 as well as the hind part1 of the projectile1 will influence the amount of resistance in a much higher degree4 ,form of hind part4 ,that form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure upon it1 when moving with a certain velocity4 ,best shape for fore and hind part4 ,the ogivale form seems1 from experiment1 to fulfil the former condition4 ,the best form for the hind part1 for rapid motions1 has not been determined2 it may1 however1 be considered to be of much less importance than the shape of the fore part4 ,form determined by extent of range4 ,of course the best form can be determined by extent of range1 but deductions from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances1 the effects of some of which must be entirely hypothetical1 that the correctness of any formul obtained in this manner must be very uncertain4 ,form suggested by ,sir ,i4 ,newton4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in his 8,principia10 has given an indication of that form of body1 which1 in passing through a fluid1 would experience less resistance than a solid body of equal magnitude of any other form4 ,it is elongated4 ,axis of elongated bodies must be fixed4 ,it is plain1 however1 that the minimum of resistance would not be obtained with a shot of an elongated form1 unless the axis can be kept in the direction of the trajectory2 as not only will the axis perpetually deviate from the true direction1 but the projectile will turn over and rotate round its shorter axis1 that is1 if fired out of a smooth bore4 ,advantages of conical bullets4 ,conical bullets have an advantage1 from their pointed end1 which enables them to pass through the air with greater facility2 and for the same reason they are better calculated to penetrate into any matter than spherical ones4 ,disadvantages of conical bullets4 ,a solid bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre of gravity4 ,the sharper the point1 the more it is liable to injury1 and if the apex of the cone does not lie true1 in the axis of the projectile1 then such an imperfection of figure is calculated to cause greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round surface is likely to sustain4 ,in penetrating into solid bodies1 it is also important that the centre of gravity should be near its work4 ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air1 ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,projectiles4 ,resistance overcome by weight4 ,bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air in proportion to their densities4 ,the amount of the air's resistance is in proportion to the magnitude of the surface4 ,contents of circles4 ,the superficial contents of circles are as the squares of their diameters4 ,hence if the ball ,a4 7plate #bc1 fig4 #c7 be #b;in4 in diameter1 and the ball ,b4 #d;in41 the amount of resistance experienced would be as four to sixteen4 ,contents of spheres4 ,the cubical contents1 or weights of spheres1 are in proportion to the cubes of their diameters4 ,hence the power to overcome resistance in the balls ,a and ,b would be as eight to sixty-four4 ,thus the power to overcome resistance increases in much greater proportion than the resistance elicited by increasing the surface4 ,advantages of elongated bullets4 ,suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical portion equal to that of the ball ,a41 i4e41 ,e4,f4 ,c4,d41 7plate #bc1 fig4 #d71 and elongated so that its weight should be equal to that of the spherical shot ,b41 it is evident that it would meet equal resistance from the air1 to the ball ,a41 having1 at the same time1 as much power to overcome resistance as the body ,b4 ,elongated balls1 by offering a larger surface to the sides of the barrel1 are less liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore2 whereas the spherical ball1 pressing only on its tangential point1 will give to any little hollows1 or undulations1 wherever they occur4 ,balls cannot be expanded4 ,elongated projectiles easily expanded4 ,a spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves1 unless there be very little windage1 except by blows from the ramrod1 the gas escaping round the circumference of the ball1 and giving it an irregular motion while passing down the barrel2 but an elongated projectile can be readily expanded1 and the facility of doing so is in proportion to the difference of length between its major and minor axis4 ,,deviations ,,of ,,projectiles ,,from ,,smooth-,,bored ,,guns4 ,causes of deviation of shot4 ,very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles fired from smooth-bored guns4 ,it is a fact well known to all practical artillerists1 that if a number of solid shot or any other projectile be fired from the same gun1 with equal charges and elevations1 and with gunpowder of the same quality1 the gun carriage resting on a platform1 and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each round1 very few of the shot will range to the same distance2 and moreover1 the greater part will be found to deflect considerably 7unless the range be very short7 to the right or left of the line in which the gun is pointed4 ,four causes of deviation4 ,the causes of these deviations may be stated as follows3--#ast1 ,windage2 #bnd1 ,rotation2 #crd1 ,wind2 #dth1 from ,rotation of the ,earth4 #ast ,,cause1 ,,windage4 ,action from windage4 ,false direction4 ,gives rotation4 ,windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile1 from the fact of the elastic gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion1 and driving it against the bottom of the bore2 the shot re-acts at the same time that it is impelled forward by the charge1 and strikes the upper surface of the bore some distance down1 and so on by a succession of rebounds1 until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction1 and with a rotatory motion1 depending chiefly on the position of the last impact against the bore4 ,thus should the last impact of a 7concentric7 shot when fired from a gun be upon the right hand side of the bore1 as represented1 7plate #bc1 fig4 #e72 the shot will have a tendency to deflect to the left in the direction4 ,while at the same time a rotation will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows4 #bnd ,,cause1 ,,rotation4 ,rotation without translation4 ,every body may have a twofold motion1 one by which it is carried forward1 and the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing through its centre1 called a motion of rotation4 ,when a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which it is composed move with equal swiftness1 and also in parallel directions2 and by the first law of motion1 every particle put in such motion will constantly move with the same velocity in the same direction1 unless it be prevented by some external cause4 ,rotation4 ,rotation and translation combined4 ,by a motion of rotation1 a body without changing its place1 turns round on an axis passing through its centre of gravity4 ,a body may have at the same time both a progressive and rotatory motion1 without either disturbing the other1 and one may suffer a change from the action of some external force1 while the other continues the same as before4 ,force through centre of gravity1 causes progressive motion only4 ,if the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity1 it causes a progressive motion only1 that is1 if the body was at rest before1 it will move forward in the direction of the impressed force4 ,effect of force on a body in motion4 ,if a body had a progressive motion before1 then impressed force will cause it to move faster or slower1 or to change its direction1 according as the direction of this second force conspires with or opposes its former motion1 or acts obliquely on its direction4 ,rotation not disturbed by second force in direction of centre of gravity4 ,if a body1 besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also1 this last will not be changed by the action of a new force passing through the centre of gravity4 ,rotation of force does not pass through the centre of gravity4 ,if the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of gravity1 the progressive motion will be altered1 and the body will then also acquire a rotatory motion round an axis passing through the centre of gravity1 and perpendicular to a plane passing through the direction of the force and this centre4 ,,cases ,,bearing ,,upon ,,the ,,foregoing ,,theory4 ,when ball is perfectly round1 centre of gravity coincides with figure1 and no windage4 #ast ,case4 ,suppose the ball to be perfectly round1 its centre of gravity and figure to coincide1 and let there be no windage4 ,in this case the force of the powder not only passes through the centre of gravity of the shot1 but proceeds in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore1 and there would be but small friction due to the weight of the shot4 ,if windage then rotation4 #bnd ,case4 ,but as there is a considerable amount of friction between the bore and the projectile in the case where there is windage1 the direction of this force being opposite to that of the gunpowder1 and upon the surface of the ball1 it will therefore give rotation to the shot4 ,eccentricity causes rotation4 #crd ,case4 ,suppose the ball to be perfectly round1 but its centre of gravity not to coincide with the centre of figure4 ,in this case the impelling force passes through the centre of the ball1 or nearly so1 and acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the piece2 but if the centre of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the force of the powder1 the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity4 ,angular velocity4 ,the angular velocity communicated to the body will depend1 firstly1 upon the length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the direction of the impelling force1 and secondly1 upon the law of density of the material or the manner in which the metal is distributed4 ,the direction of rotations will depend upon the position of the centre of figure with regard to that of gravity4 7,plate #bc1 fig4 #f47 ,robins' remarks4 ,robins remarks1 bullets are not only depressed beneath their original direction by the action of gravity1 but are also frequently driven to the right or left of that direction by the action of some other force4 ,if it were true that bullets varied their direction by the action of gravity only1 then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to the right or left of the mark1 should increase in proportion to the distance of the mark from the firer only4 ,deflection not in proportion to distance4 ,but this is contrary to all experience1 for the same piece which will carry its bullet within an inch at ten yards1 cannot be relied upon to ten inches in one hundred yards1 much less to thirty inches in three hundred4 ,now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being incurvated sideways as well as downwards4 ,the reality of this doubly incurvated track being demonstrated1 it may be asked what can be the cause of a motion so different from what has been hitherto supposed4 #ast cause of increase1 deflection4 #ast ,cause4 ,is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the progressive motion of the body1 and sometimes arises from inequalities in the resisted surface4 #bnd cause1 from whirling motion4 ,direction of a shot influenced by position of axis round which it whirls4 #bnd ,cause4 ,from a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis1 for by this motion of rotation1 combined with the progressive motion1 each part of the bullet's surface will strike the air in a direction very different from what it would do if there was no such whirl2 and the obliquity of the action of the air arising from this cause will be greater1 according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in proportion to its progressive motion2 and as this whirl will in one part of the revolution conspire in some degree with the progressive1 and in another part be equally opposed to it1 the resistance of the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected1 and will be increased in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the progressive2 and diminished where it is opposed to it4 ,and by this means the whole effort of resistance1 instead of being in a direction opposite to the direction of the body1 will become oblique thereto1 and will produce those effects we have already mentioned4 ,for instance1 if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon1 then the incurvation would be to the right or left4 ,if that axis were horizontal to the direction of the bullet1 then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards4 ,but as the first position of the axis is uncertain1 and as it may perpetually shift in the course of the bullet's flight1 the deviation of the bullet is not necessarily either in one certain direction1 nor tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in another1 but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its deflection1 as the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its position during the progressive motion4 ,doubly incurvated track4 ,it is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved line1 either right or left1 the curve rapidly increasing towards the end of the range4 ,this most probably occurs from the velocity of rotation decreasing but slightly1 compared with the initial velocity of the shot1 or1 if a strong wind is blowing across the range during the whole time of flight1 the curve would manifestly be increased according as the velocity of the ball decreased4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,robins' ,,theory ,,of ,,rotation4 ,with ball and double string4 #ast ,illustration4 ,a wooden ball #d inches in diameter suspended by a double string1 nine feet long4 ,it will be found that if this ball receive a spinning motion by the untwisting of the string it will remain stationary4 ,if it be made to vibrate1 it will continue to do so in the same vertical plane4 ,but if it be made to spin while it vibrates it will be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the progressive motion4 ,by firing through screens4 #bnd ,illustration4 ,by firing through screens of thin paper placed parallel to each other1 at equal distances1 the deflection or track of bullets can easily be investigated4 ,it will be found that the amount of deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased distance of the screens4 ,bent muzzle4 #crd ,illustration4 ,to give further light upon this subject1 ,mr4 ,robins took a barrel and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle to the left1 the bend making an angle of #c or #d with the axis of the piece4 ,by firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through the first screens to the left1 it struck the butt to the right of the vertical plane on which aim was taken in line of the axis of the unbent portion of the barrel4 ,this was caused by the friction of the ball on the right side of the bent part of the muzzle1 causing the ball to spin from left to right4 ,,on ,,eccentric ,,projectiles4 ,how to find centre of gravity4 ,sir ,howard ,douglas1 in his 8,naval ,gunnery10 states3--8,the position of the centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in mercury1 and marking its vertex4 ,then mark a point upon the shot diametrically opposite to that point1 which will give the direction of the axis in which the two centres lie4 ,thus the shot can be placed in the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position40 ,effect of eccentricity4 8,on making experiments1 it appeared that not one shot in a hundred1 when floated in mercury1 was indifferent as to the position in which it was so floated1 but turned immediately1 until the centre of gravity arrived at the lowest point1 and consequently that not one shot in a hundred was perfect in sphericity1 and homogeneity4 ,shells can be made eccentric by being cast with a solid segment in the interior sphere1 left in the shell1 or by boring two holes in each shell1 diametrically opposite to one another1 stopping up one with #elbs4 of lead1 and the other with wood4 ,when the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure1 the ranges were the longest1 and when below1 the shortest4 ,when to the right or left hand1 the deviations were also to the right or left4 ,the mean range which1 with the usual shot1 was #afdj yards1 was1 with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident1 the centre of gravity being upwards1 equal to #badj yards1 being an increase of #ejj yards4 ,ricochet of eccentric shot4 8,with respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles1 the rotation which causes deflection in the flight1 must act in the same manner to impede a straight forward graze4 ,when an ordinary well formed homogenous spherical projectile1 upon which probably very little rotation is impressed1 makes a graze1 the bottom of the vertical diameter first touches the plane1 and immediately acquires1 by the reaction1 a rotation upon its horizontal axis1 by which the shot rolls onwards throughout the graze1 probably for a straight forward second flight4 ,but in the case of an eccentric spherical projectile1 placed with its centre of gravity to the right or to the left1 its rotation upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh deflection in its second flight1 and it is only when the centre of gravity is placed in a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun1 that the rotation by touching the ground will not disturb the direction of the graze1 though the extent of range to the first graze will be affected more or less according as the centre of gravity may have been placed upwards or downwards4 ,whether the rebounds take place from water1 as in the experiments made on board the 8,excellent10 or on land1 as those carried on at ,shoeburyness1 the shot1 when revolving on a vertical axis1 instead of making a straight forward graze1 suffered deflection which were invariably towards the same side of the line of fire as the centre of gravity2 and at every graze up to the fourth1 a new deflection took place4 ,knowledge derived from experiments with eccentric shot4 8,the results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully explain the extraordinary anomalies1 as they have heretofore been considered1 in length of range and in the lateral deviations3 these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air1 or the direction of the wind1 to differences in the strength of the gunpowder1 and to inequalities in the degrees of windage4 ,all these causes are1 no doubt1 productive of errors in practice1 but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the shot1 and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the bore4 ,the whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot1 and concentricity of shells1 and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge1 or elevation of the gun40 ,no advantage in using eccentric projectiles4 ,it is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable for general purposes1 on account of the degree of attention and care required in their service1 nor would much advantage be gained by their use1 as the momentum is not altered1 and it is only necessary to give the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike the same object4 ,range of elongated projectiles at certain low elevations greater in air than in vacuo4 ,there is another point of great importance with regard to the range of elongated projectiles4 ,it is asserted by ,sir ,w4 ,armstrong and others1 that at certain low elevations the range of an elongated projectile is greater in the atmosphere than in vacuo1 and the following is the explanation given by the former of this apparent paradox4 8,in a vacuum1 the trajectory would be the same1 whether the projectile were elongated or spherical1 so long as the angle of elevation1 and the initial velocity were constant2 but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes this remarkable difference1 that while it greatly shortens the range of the round shot1 it actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile1 provided the angle of elevation do not exceed a certain limit1 which1 in my experiments1 ,i have found to be about #f4 ,this appears1 at first1 very paradoxical1 but it may be easily explained4 ,the elongated shot1 if properly formed1 and having a sufficient rotation1 retains the same inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight1 and consequently acquires a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of its flight4 ,now the effect of this obliquity is1 that the projectile is in a measure sustained upon the air1 just as a kite is supported by the current of air meeting the inclined surface1 and the result is that its descent is retarded1 so that it has time to reach to a greater distance40 ,charge4 ,the form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the inclination of the grooves1 the charge can be so arranged as to give the necessary initial velocity1 and velocity of rotation2 or if the nature of projectile and charge be fixed1 the inclination of the grooves must be such as will give the required results4 ,the most important consideration is the weight and form of projectile2 the inclination of the grooves1 the charge1 weight of metal in the gun1 c41 are regulated almost entirely by it4 ,the charges used with rifle pieces are much less than those with which smooth-bored guns are fired1 for little or none of the gas is allowed to escape by windage1 there being therefore no loss of force2 and it is found by experience that1 with comparatively low initial velocities1 the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity1 and attain very long ranges4 ,,note4--,the foregoing articles on 8,theory10 are principally extracted from 8,new ,principles of ,gunnery by ,robins10 8,treatise on ,artillery1 by ,lieut4-,colonel ,boxer1 ,r4,a40 8,the ,rifle ,musket1 by ,captain ,jervis1 ,m4,p41 ,royal ,artillery40 8,elementary ,lecturers on ,artillery1 by ,major ,h4 ,c4 ,owen and ,captain ,t4 ,dames1 ,royal ,artillery40 ,,the ,,end4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,powder ,mill4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,old ,eprouvette ,pendulum ,,fig4 #c4 ,new ,pattern ,eprouvette ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,hydraulic ,press ,enlarged section of ,valve ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,robins' ,balistic ,pendulum ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,bow unstrung ,,fig4 #b4 ,bow strung ,,fig4 #c4 ,hand or ,arrow ,rocket ,,fig4 #d4 ,five barrelled ,matchlock ,,fig4 #e4 ,revolving ,barrelled ,matchlock ,,chinese ,,explosive ,,and ,,other ,,weapons4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,asiatic ,bow ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,matchlock ,,fig4 #b4 ,breech loading ,gingal 7,chamber in7 ,,fig4 #c4 ,breech loading ,gingal 7,chamber out7 ,,chinese ,,explosive ,,arms4 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,harry ,vernon dele4 ,,machines ,,for ,,throwing ,,darts ,,and ,,stones4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,onager 7,,slung74 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son1 ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,onager 7unslung74 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,balista ,arthur ,walker ,c4t #gi4th delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,catapulta4 ,dessin par ,arthur ,walker4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,staff slings1 ,longbows1 ,crossbows and ,flail4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,onager4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,trepied4 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,detail of ,springs4 ,balista4 ,harry ,vernon ,staff ,serjt4 del4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,a ,cross bow man and ,slinger4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,cross-bows and ,quarrels4 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,harry ,vernon delt4 ,a ,cross bow man and his ,paviser4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,gun and ,querrel ,temp3 ,edward #crd4 ,sloane ,mss4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,small chambered ,cannon from the ,santini ,mss4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,santini ,mss4 ,early part of #aeth ,centy4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,mode of mounting from ,froissart4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,method of obtaining elevation4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,mode of ,mounting from ,valturius4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,from the wreck of the 8,mary ,rose0 ,temp3 ,henry #hth4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,hooped ,cannon in wooden bed4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,ancient ,screw piece4 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,ancient ,screw ,breech loader4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,chinese ,field piece ,peiho #ahfj4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,ancient howitzer ,cannon for throwing balls ,filled with powder ,arthur ,walker delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,giorgio ,martini1 #aeth4 ,century1 latter part4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,queen ,elizabeth's ,pocket ,pistol4 ,mons ,meg4 ,chamber4 ,pierrier or ,paterera#afth4 ,century4 ,h4 ,cautly del4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,cart of ,war4,temp3 ,henry #hth4 ,,fig4 #b4 8,moolik i ,meidan40 ,,fig4 #c4 ,bombard and ,carriage4#aeth4 ,centy4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,long ,serpentine of ,wrought ,iron4#aeth4 ,centy4 ,r4,g4 ,coles del4t ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,musketeer #afth4 ,centy4 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,earliest form of ,hand ,gun4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,arthur ,walker1 delt4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,arthur ,walker del4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,arthur ,walker ,lt4 #gith4 del4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,harry ,vernon ,staff ,serjt4 del4 ,day ,son ,lithrs4 to the ,queen4 ,extended ,table of ,contents ,page ,,introduction4 i ,,contents iii ,,errata4 iv ,,history ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #a ,,greek ,,fire4 #d ,,on ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #g ,,saltpetre1 ,,or ,,nitre4 #g ,,old ,,method4 #g ,,new ,,method4 #h ,,charcoal4 #i ,,sulphur4 #aa ,,pulverizing ,,the ,,ingredients4 #aa ,,mixing ,,the ,,ingredients4 #ab ,,the ,,incorporating ,,mill4 #ab ,,incorporating ,,the ,,ingredients4 #ac ,,breaking ,,down ,,the ,,mill ,,cake4 #ad ,,pressing ,,the ,,meal ,,by ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,press4 #ad ,,granulating ,,the ,,press ,,cake4 #ae ,,dusting ,,large-,,grain ,,powder4 #af ,,dusting ,,fine-,,grain ,,powder4 #ag ,,glazing ,,fine-,,grain ,,powder4 #ag ,,stoving ,,or ,,drying ,,powder4 #ag ,,finishing ,,dusting4 #ag ,,examination ,,and ,,proof ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #ah ,,proof ,,of ,,merchant',s ,,powder4 #ah ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,proof ,,of ,,powder ,,by ,,the ,,eprouvettes4 #ai ,,of ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,grain ,,for ,,gunpowder4 #ai ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,,and ,,america4 #bj ,,production ,,and ,,purification ,,of ,,the ,,ingredients4 #bj ,,pulverizing ,,and ,,mixing ,,the ,,ingredients4 #bj ,,incorporating ,,process4 #ba ,,granulating4 #ba ,,stoving ,,or ,,drying4 #ba ,,new ,,rifle ,,powder4 #bb ,,on ,,magazines4 #bc ,,lightning ,,conductors4 #bd ,,on ,,the ,,explosive ,,force ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #bi ,,fouling4 #ce ,,effects ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,on ,,metals4 #ce ,,miscellaneous ,,experiments4 #cf ,,on ,,the ,,time ,,required ,,for ,,ignition ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #ch ,,effects ,,of ,,accidental ,,explosions ,,of ,,gunpowder4 #ch ,,on ,,ancient ,,engines ,,of ,,war4 #ci ,,the ,,sling4 #dc ,,the ,,bow4 #dd ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,bow4 #de ,our ,forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments1 and by the founders of our public schools4 #dg #a,,st4 ,,by ,,legal ,,enactments4 #dg #b,,nd4--,,by ,,the ,,founders ,,of ,,our ,,public ,,schools4 #dh ,,means ,,by ,,which ,,skill ,,in ,,archery ,,was ,,acquired4 #di ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,archery4 #eb ,,military ,,and ,,political ,,consequences ,,of ,,skill ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,bow4 #ec ,,the ,,arbalest1 ,,or ,,cross-,,bow4 #ed ,,description ,,of ,,cross-,,bow4 #eg ,,comparative ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,and ,,cross ,,bow4 #ei ,,comparative ,,merits ,,between ,,bows ,,and ,,early ,,fire-,,arms4 #ei ,,history ,,of ,,artillery4 #fb ,,etymologies4 #gb ,,history ,,of ,,portable ,,fire-,,arms4 #gc ,,the ,,bayonet4 #hc ,,accoutrements ,,and ,,ammunition4 #hd ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,rifle4 #hf ,,rifled ,,breech-,,loaders4 #ib ,,on ,,rifling4 #ie ,,on ,,the ,,number1 ,,form c41 c41 c41 ,,of ,,the ,,grooves4 #if ,,on ,,rifle ,,projectiles4 #aja ,,conclusion4 #ajh ,,theoretical ,,principles4 #aaj ,,definitions4 #aaj ,,motion ,,of ,a ,,projectile4 #aaa ,,gravity4 #aac ,,on ,,the ,,time ,,taken ,,to ,,draw ,a ,,ball ,,to ,,the ,,ground ,,by ,,the ,,force ,,of ,,gravity4 #aad ,,atmosphere4 #aae ,,result ,,of ,,the ,,air',s ,,resistance4 #aae ,,experiments ,,in ,,france4 #aaf ,,on ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,upon ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,a ,,projectile4 #aag ,,on ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,a ,,fluid ,,to ,a ,,body ,,in ,,motion4 #aag ,,on ,,the ,,velocity ,,with ,,which ,,air ,,will ,,rush ,,into ,a ,,vacuum4 #aah ,,upon ,,the ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,to ,,bodies ,,of ,,different ,,forms4 #aai ,,results ,,of ,,experiments ,,with ,,slow ,,motions4 #aai ,,resistance ,,of ,,the ,,air1 ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,projectiles4 #aba ,,deviations ,,of ,,projectiles ,,from ,,smooth-,,bored ,,guns4 #aba #ast ,,cause1 ,,windage4 #aba #bnd ,,cause1 ,,rotation4 #abb ,,cases ,,bearing ,,upon ,,the ,,foregoing ,,theory4 #abb ,,illustrations ,,of ,,robins' ,,theory ,,of ,,rotation4 #abd ,,on ,,eccentric ,,projectiles4 #abd ,original ,table of ,contents ,transcriber's ,notes ,the original language has been retained1 including inconsistencies and errors in spelling1 hyphenation1 capitalisation1 etc41 except as mentioned below4 ,depending on the hard- and software used and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,table of ,contents3 as present in the source document4 ,the reason for the order of entries is not clear1 and some chapters are not listed1 nor are the sections4 ,the structure of the text has been determined based on what seemed the most logical interpretation of 7the lay-out of7 the chapter and section headings in the text4 ,the ,extended ,table of ,contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on the basis of this assumed structure4 ,the text refers to the plates by both ,roman and ,arabic numbers4 ,this has not been standardised4 ,the numbering of the actual plates has been standardised4 ,page #bi1 great inconvenience 444 quite preclude3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #bi and #ce 7and ,errata71 sulphite and sulphide3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #cj and #ca1 calculations3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #dd1 ,slings were used in #aegb1 at the siege of ,sancere by the ,huguenots1 in order to save their powder3 there should be a comma after ,sancere1 the ,huguenots were the besieged party4 ,page #dg1 ,our forefathers 444 public schools3 considered to be a section heading4 ,page #ff1 both the king's feed men3 other sources mention ,peter ,bawd and ,peter ,vancollen _/ ,van ,collen as freed men4 ,page #ajg1 weight of bullet1 #ecj grains3 as printed in the source document1 but unlikely to be correct4 ,page #aad1 paragraph on ,parabolic theory3 even with the corrections mentioned in the errata1 some of the reference letters are missing2 ,f1 ,g and ,h are presumably the ends of the vertical lines through ,c1 ,d and ,e respectively4 ,page #aai1 strictly empirical formula3 should probably have been a plural4 ,changes made3 ,sidenotes have been moved to directly before1 footnotes have been moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer4 ,some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,b4,c4_/,b4 ,c4 and ,a4,d4_/,a4 ,d4 have been standardised to ,b4 ,c4 and ,a4 ,d41 respectively4 ,minie1 ,mini 7the spelling used most commonly in this book7 and ,mini have been standardised to ,mini4 ,the 7corrected1 see below7 ,errata have already been applied to the text4 ,errata3 ,page #cb1 para4 #f1 line #aj changed to ,page #cb1 para4#g1 line #aj2 ,,ix and ,,xii changed to ix and xii2 ,page #hd1 para4 #b1 line #a 7#bnd entry7 changed to ,page #hd1 para4 #c1 line #a4 ,subalterns changed to subaltern officers2 ,page #ia1 para4 #e changed to ,page #ia1 para4 #d2 sign changed to sine4 ,page #d3 ,poganatus changed to ,pogonatus as elsewhere ,page #e3 ,talavara changed to ,talavera ,page #ba3 frustrum changed to frustum ,page #cj3 #cdij changed to #cidj ,page #cb1 sidenote3 ,robert changed to ,piobert 7as in text and ,errata7 ,page #ce3 deliquescient changed to deliquescent ,page #ch3 dull read heat changed to dull red heat ,page #eb3 closing quote mark inserted after ,shooting-fields ,page #ed3 yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers ,page #fa3 opening quote mark inserted before ,report of the ,rifle ,match ,page #fe3 opening quote marks inserted before ,muse ,page #gd1 sidenote3 #adia changed to #adga ,page #hf1 ,ble changed to ,ble ,page #hh1 sidenote3 ,carabine a ,tige changed to ,carabine ,tige ,page #aje3 cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes ,page #aae3 ,plate #ba1 fig4 #b changed to ,plate #bb1 fig4 #b ,plate #ah3 opening quote marks inserted before ,moolik4