,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,good ,,and ,,wholesome ,,bread ,,of ,,wheat1 ,,oats1 ,,rye1 ,,barley1 ,,and ,,other ,,farinaceous ,,grain ,,exhibiting ,,the ,,alimentary ,,properties ,,and ,,chemical ,,constitution ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,bread ,,corn1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,substitutes ,,used ,,for ,,bread1 ,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,illustration ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum1 ,,operative ,,chemist1 ,lecturer on ,practical ,chemistry1 on ,mineralogy1 and on ,chemistry applied to the ,arts and ,manufactures2 ,member of the ,royal ,irish ,academy2 ,fellow of the ,linnan ,society2 ,member of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 and of the ,royal ,society of ,arts of ,berlin1 c4 c4 ------- ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,thomas ,,boys1 #g1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,by ,c4 ,green1 ,leicester ,street1 ,leicester ,square4 #ahba4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ---------- ,,london1 ,,compton ,,street1 ,,soho4 ,the object of this ,treatise is to exhibit the chemical principles of the art of making good and wholesome ,bread1 of ,wheat1 ,oats1 ,rye1 ,barley1 ,rice1 ,potatoes1 and other farinaceous substances used for this purpose in different parts of the world4 ,i have first taken a view of the chemical constitution of the ,alimentary ,substances derived from the vegetable kingdom1 and have added an ,historical ,sketch of the ,art of ,making ,bread4 ,i have elucidated the chemical constitution of the substances of which ,bread is made among civilized nations1 as well as of various nutritive materials1 besides ,bread ,corn1 which are used in different countries as substitutes for ,bread4 ,i have described the chemical analysis of ,bread ,flour1 its immediate constituent parts1 their proportions in different kinds of grain1 and the method of separating them4 ,i have pointed out the materials more particularly fitted for the fabrication of ,bread2 ,i have explained the reason why a variety of ,alimentary ,farinaceous ,seeds1 in common use1 cannot be made into light and porous loaf-bread1 although they are well calculated1 under other forms1 of being converted into highly nutritious food4 ,i have explained the chemical distinction which exists between bread made with yeast1 as well as with leaven1 and bread made without either of these species of ferment2 and1 lastly1 ,i have given specific directions for making the different kinds of ,bread prepared from ,wheat1 ,oats1 ,rye1 ,barley1 ,rice1 ,maize1 ,buck-wheat1 ,potatoes1 and other farinaceous substances1 as practised in various countries4 ,,fredrick ,,accum4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents4 ------- ,,page ,,preface i ,,contents #a ,,preliminary ,,observations1 ,,chiefly ,,with ,,regard ,,to #g ,,the ,,chemical ,,constitution ,,and ,,nutritive ,,quality ,,of ,,the ,,substances ,,of ,,food ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom ,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,bread #be ,,bread ,,corn #cj ,,the ,,bread-,,fruit #ci ,,sago ,,bread1 and ,,sago #da ,,casava ,,bread1 and ,,tapioca #dc ,,plantain ,,bread #de ,,banana ,,bread #df ,,bread ,,of ,,dried ,,fish #dg ,,bread ,,made ,,of ,,moss #di ,,bread ,,made ,,of ,,earth #ej -------------- ,,analysis ,,of ,,bread ,,flour #eb ,,quantity ,,of ,,flour ,,obtainable ,,from ,,various ,,kinds ,,of #ee ,,cereal ,,and ,,leguminous ,,seeds ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,fabrication ,,of ,,bread1 ,,and ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,flour ,,manufactured ,,from ,,wheat ,,reason ,,why ,,oats1 ,,pease1 ,,beans1 ,,rice1 ,,maize1 #eh ,,millet1 ,,buckwheat1 ,,and ,,other ,,nutritive ,,grains ,,cannot ,,be ,,made ,,into ,,light ,,and ,,porous ,,bread ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,panification ,,of ,,bread ,,flour #fa -------------- ,,unleavened ,,bread #ff ,,oatmeal ,,cakes #fh ,,mixed ,,oatmeal ,,and ,,pease ,,bread #fi ,,unleavened ,,maize ,,bread #gj ,,unleavened ,,bean-,,flour ,,bread #ga ,,unleavened ,,buckwheat ,,bread #ga ,,unleavened ,,acorn ,,bread #gb ,,sea ,,biscuit #gc -------------- ,,leavened ,,bread #gi ,,leavened ,,rye ,,bread #hc ,,hungarian ,,rye ,,bread #he -------------- ,,bread ,,made ,,with ,,yeast #hh ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,wheaten ,,bread1 ,,as ,,practised ,,by #ic ,,the ,,london ,,bakers ,,quantity ,,of ,,bread ,,obtainable ,,from ,a ,,given ,,quantity #ig ,,of ,,wheaten ,,flour ,,home-,,made ,,wheaten ,,bread #ajj ,,to ,,make ,,pan-,,bread #ajb ,,brown ,,wheaten ,,bread #ajc ,,mixed ,,wheaten ,,bread #ajd ,,rolls #aje ,,french ,,bread #aje ,,muffins ,,and ,,crumpets #aje ,,barley ,,bread #aji ,,mixed ,,barley ,,bread #aaa ,,rye ,,bread #aab ,,turnip ,,bread #aad ,,rice ,,bread #aaf ,,potatoe ,,bread #aba ,,potatoe ,,rolls #abd ,,apple ,,bread #abe ,,domestic ,,oven ,,for ,,baking ,,bread #abf ,,popular ,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,bread #acc ,,laws ,,prohibiting ,,the ,,adulteration ,,of ,,bread ,,and #adi ,,bread ,,flour ,,economical ,,application ,,of ,,yeast #afb ,,economical ,,preparation ,,of ,,yeast #afe ,,economical ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,yeast1 ,,recommended ,,by #afe ,,dr4 ,,lettsom ,,potatoe ,,yeast #aff ,,method ,,of ,,preserving ,,yeast #afg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,good and ,wholesome ,bread4 ------- ,,preliminary ,,observations4 ,to most animals nature has designed a limited range of aliment1 when compared to the extensive choice allotted to man4 ,if we look into the history of the human race1 inhabiting the different parts of the globe1 as far as we are acquainted with it1 we find1 that man appears to be designed by nature to eat of all substances that are capable of nourishing him3 fruits1 grains1 roots1 herbs1 flesh1 fish1 reptiles1 and fowls1 all contribute to his sustenance4 ,he can even subsist on every variety of these substances1 under every mode of preparation1 dried1 preserved in salt1 hardened in smoke1 pickled in vegetable acids1 c4 ,the ,author of ,nature has so constructed our organs of digestion1 that we can accommodate ourselves to every species of aliment2 no kind of food injures us2 we are capable of being habituated to every species1 and of converting into nutriment almost every production of nature4 ,when we enquire more minutely into the chemical constitution of the different alimentary materials1 which promote the growth1 support the strength1 and renew the waste of our body1 we find that animal substances are not suited to form the whole of our daily food2 and that1 in fact1 if long and extensively used1 their stimulating effects at length exhausts and debilitates the system1 which it at first invigorated and supported4 ,those1 accordingly1 who have lived for any great length of time on a diet composed entirely of animal matter1 become oppressed1 heavy1 and indolent1 the tone and excitability of their frame are impaired1 they are affected with indigestion1 the breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise1 the gums become spongy1 the breath is ftid1 and the limbs swell4 ,we recognize in this description the approach of scurvy1 a disease familiar to sailors1 to the inhabitants of besieged towns1 and1 in general1 to all who are wholly deprived of a just proportion of vegetable aliment4 ,on the other hand1 vegetable food being less stimulating is also less nourishing2 besides1 this kind of aliment is1 upon the whole1 of more difficult assimilation than the food derived from the animal kingdom4 ,hence it is1 perhaps1 that nature has provided a greater extent of digestive organs for animals wholly herbivorous4 ,it is insufficient to raise the human system to all the strength and vigour of which it is susceptible4 ,flatulency of the stomach1 muscular and nervous debility1 and a long series of disorders1 are not unfrequently the consequences of this too sparing diet4 ,some ,eastern nations1 indeed1 live almost entirely on vegetable substances2 but these1 it is remarked1 are seldom so robust1 so active1 or so brave1 as men who live on a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food4 ,few1 at least1 in the countries of ,europe can be sufficiently nourished by vegetable food alone2 and even those nations1 and individuals1 who are said to live exclusively on vegetables1 because they do not eat the flesh of animals1 generally make use of milk at least1 of eggs1 and butter and cheese4 ,food composed of animal and vegetable materials is1 in truth1 that which is best suited to the nature and condition of man4 ,the proportions in which these should be used it is not easy to determine1 but generally the quantity of vegetables should exceed that of animal food4 8,on this head10 says ,dr4 ,fothergill1 8,i have only one short caution to give4 ,those who think it necessary to pay any attention to their health1 at table1 should take care that the quantity of bread1 of meat1 and of pudding1 and of greens1 should not compose1 each of them1 a meal1 as if some only were thrown in to make weight1 but carefully to observe that the sum of1 altogether1 do not exceed due bounds or incroach upon the first feeling of satiety40 ,all the products of the vegetable kingdom1 used as aliment1 are not equally nutritious4 ,when we contemplate with a chemical eye the nutritive principles contained in vegetable substances1 we soon perceive that they are but few in number1 namely1 starch1 gluten1 mucilage1 jelly1 fixed oil1 sugar1 and acids2 and the different vegetable parts of them are nutritious1 wholesome1 and digestible1 according to the nature and proportion of their principles contained in them4 ,the starch and gluten appear the most nutritious1 and together with mucilage at the same time1 the most abundant ingredients contained in those vegetables from which man derives his subsistence4 ,hence1 from time immemorial1 and in all parts of the earth1 man has used farinaceous seeds as part of his food1 for they contain the above-mentioned materials in the greatest abundance4 ,of these the most nutritive are the seeds of the ,cerealia1 under which title are commonly comprehended the ,gramine1 or ,culminiferous plants4 ,whilst the seeds of the ,gramine supply the most important part of food furnished by the vegetable kingdom1 in almost every part of the world1 their leaves and young shoots support that class of animals hence called graminivorous1 whose flesh is most generally eaten4 ,these vegetables are distributed so universally over the face of the earth1 and have become to such a degree the object of culture1 that they are very generally made into bread1 or are employed instead of it2 and1 upon the whole1 it appears that they are nutritive merely in the proportion to the quantity of farinaceous matter contained in them2 but this substance exists in different combinations in different cereal and leguminous seeds4 ,it is combined with gluten in wheat1 with a saccharine matter in oats1 and in many leguminous seeds1 such as ,harricot beans and pease1 and with viscous mucilage in rye and ,windsor beans4 ,next to the ,cerealia and ,leguminos may be ranged the oily farinaceous seeds1 such as almonds1 walnuts1 filberts1 c4 ,these abound in starch and mucilage4 ,the use of chocolate1 which is prepared from the chocolate nut1 growing in the ,west ,indies1 ground into a paste1 with or without sugar1 is in itself a nutritious substance1 and to those with whom it agrees1 it may be considered as a wholesome nutritious aliment4 ,yet the vegetable farina1 in this state of existence1 though highly nutritious1 and to many palates very agreeable1 is more difficult of digestion1 and does not1 upon the whole1 afford a very wholesome alimentary substance4 ,when too freely used1 those kinds of seeds are sure to disagree1 more especially if from age the oil has become rancid4 ,they must be considered rather as a delicacy than as fitted to form a portion of our daily food1 and with some particular stomachs they never agree4 ,of the alimentary farinaceous roots1 the potatoe1 boiled or roasted1 is one of the most useful1 and perhaps after the ,cerealia1 one of the most wholesome and most nutritious vegetables in common use2 its nourishing powers1 there can be no doubt1 depend upon the amylaceous fecula of which it is chiefly composed4 ,the ,jerusalem artichoke deserves likewise to be noticed here1 as being a highly alimentary root1 chiefly composed of farinaceous matter4 ,of the fruits rich in farinaceous and mucilaginous matter1 few are indigenous4 ,the chesnut1 when roasted1 affords an alimentary food1 but in the ,east and ,west ,indies the bread fruit1 bananas1 and the fruit of the plantain tree1 are the substitutes for bread4 ,scarcely any of the various alimentary substances employed by man are consumed in the raw and crude state in which they are presented to us by nature4 ,almost all of them are previously subjected to some kind of preparation1 or change1 by which for the most part they are rendered more wholesome and more digestible1 and sometimes more nutritive4 ,accordingly1 the observations we have made on the properties of different vegetable aliments1 are to be considered as applied to them in the state in which they are commonly used among us4 ,when in the preparation of bread a baking heat is applied to the flour dough1 a complete change is produced in the constitution of the mass4 ,the new substance of bread differs materially from flour1 it no longer forms a tenacious mass with water1 nor can starch and gluten be any more separated from it4 ,by the application of heat to vegetables the more volatile and watery parts are in some cases dissipated4 ,the different principles1 according to their peculiar properties1 are extracted1 softened1 dissolved1 or coagulated2 but most commonly they are changed into new combinations1 so as to be no longer distinguishable by the forms and chemical properties which they originally possessed4 ,in like manner the leguminous seeds1 and farinaceous roots are greatly altered by the chemical action of heat4 ,the raw potatoe is ill-flavoured1 extremely indigestible1 and even unwholesome4 ,by roasting1 or boiling1 it becomes farinaceous1 sweet1 and agreeable to the taste1 wholesome1 digestible1 and highly nutritious4 ,little is lost1 and nothing is added to the potatoe by this process1 yet its properties are greatly changed2 its principles1 in short1 have suffered very remarkable chemical changes4 ,even in the simple boiling of the various leguminous seeds1 pot-herbs1 and esculent roots1 the effect does not seem confined to the mere softening of the fibres1 the solution of some1 and coagulation of other of their juices and principles2 not only their texture1 but their flavour1 and other sensible qualities have undergone a change1 by which their alimentary properties have been improved2 the farinaceous matter by boiling is rendered soluble1 the vegetable fibre softened4 ,saccharine matter is often formed1 mucilage and jelly extracted and combined1 and the product is rendered more palatable1 wholesome1 and nourishing4 ,and1 although every country has its own favourite articles of food1 and modes of preparing them1 and there is perhaps no subject in regard to which local prejudices are so strong1 yet there can be no reason why the farinaceous matter of cereal seeds should always be consumed in the state of bread2 many of them are not less agreeable1 and not less wholesome in other forms of food4 ,in ,scotland nine-tenths of those in the more humble walks of life live upon barleybroth1 and there are not more healthy people to be found any where4--,cullen's ,materia ,medica1 v4 ,i4 p4 #bhg4 ,it is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing any other kind of food1 and that bread1 from its portability and convenience of always being ready1 has become the principal sustenance1 but it is far from being the most economical method of using farinaceous grain4 ,there can be no doubt that the same quantity of farinaceous matter made into bread might1 in other forms1 be used to a much greater advantage2 for the great art of preparing good and wholesome food is to convert the alimentary matter into such a substance as to fill up the stomach and alimentary canal without overcharging it with more nutritive matter than is requisite for the support of the animal1 and this may be done either by bread1 or by converting the mealy substance of which it is composed into other forms1 of which there is a great variety4 ,persons who have travelled much on the continent are well aware that our neighbours have the art of throwing much more variety and gratification of the palate into the article of subsistence which has been emphatically called the staff of life1 than we possess4 ,the ,french and ,germans convert the farinaceous flour of vegetables into a variety of excellent articles of food1 and not serving1 like our own1 as a mere companion to pair off with so many mouthfuls of meat4 ,in speaking thus of the use of bread1 ,i do not mean to deny that bread is highly alimentary1 its nourishing powers are undoubtedly very great4 ,the finest bread1 says an eminent physician 7,dr4 ,buchan71 is not always the best adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition4 ,household bread1 which is made by grinding the whole grain1 and only separating the coarse bran1 is1 without doubt1 the most wholesome4 ,the people of ,south ,britain generally prefer bread made of the finest wheat flour1 while those of the ,northern countries eat a mixture of flour and oatmeal1 or rye bread4 ,the common people of ,scotland also eat a mixed bread1 but more frequently bread made of oatmeal only4 ,in ,germany the common bread is made of rye4 ,the flour of millet is made in ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy1 into wholesome and nourishing pastry and puddings4 ,the ,american and ,west ,indian labourer thinks no bread so strengthening as that which is made of ,indian corn4 ,the inhabitants of ,westphalia1 who are a hardy and robust people1 capable of enduring the greatest fatigues1 live on a coarse brown rye bread1 which still retains the opprobrious name once given to it by a ,french traveller1 8,bon pour ,nicole--good for his horse ,nichol40 ,the great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious2 but bread is often spoiled to please the eye4 ,i have elsewhere#a shewn1 that in the making of bread1 more especially in ,london1 various ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough4 ,the baker is obliged to suit the caprice of his customers1 to have his bread light and porous1 and of a pure white colour4 ,it is impossible to produce this sort of bread from flour alone1 unless it be of the finest quality4 ,the best flour1 however1 being mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry cooks1 it is only from the inferior sorts that bread is made2 and it becomes necessary1 in order to have it of that light and porous quality1 and of a fine white1 to mix alum with the dough4 ,without this ingredient the flour used by the ,london bakers would not yield so white a bread as that sold in this metropolis1 and herein consists the fraud1 that the baker is enabled by the use of this ingredient to produce1 from bad materials1 bread that is light1 white1 and porous1 but of which the quality does not correspond to the appearance1 and thus to impose upon the public4 ,footnote #a3 ,adulterations of ,food and ,culinary ,poisons1 #bnd ,edit4 #ahbj1 p4 #acj4 ,in the following pages ,i have enumerated the methods by which all the different kinds of farinaceous substances are made into good and wholesome bread1 and are used in different countries as articles of daily sustenance4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,art of making ,bread4 ------- ,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,bread4 ,nothing appears so easy at first sight1 as to grind corn1 or other farinaceous substances1 to knead the flour with water into dough1 and to convert it1 by baking1 into porous bread4 ,but1 simple as these operations may now appear to us1 the art of making loaf-bread was by no means one of the earliest among human inventions4 ,for1 however essential this species of food may be considered among us as an article of primary subsistence1 it is perfectly certain1 that men had long existed in a state of civilization1 before bread was known among them4 ,it is evident that every species of corn must have been originally the spontaneous production of the earth2 but as the grain1 previous to cultivation1 would grow but scantily1 its importance as food might long escape observation1 and mankind would naturally derive a more obvious1 though less nutritive subsistence1 from acorns1 berries1 and other fruits which were within their reach4 ,ages elapsed ere ,ceres1 according to the ,grecian mythology1 descended from heaven to teach mankind the use of agriculture4 ,in the early ages of society1 according to some historians1 men were satisfied with parching their corn for immediate use as food4 ,the next advance appears to have been1 to pulverize the grain in a mortar or handmill1 and to form it1 by the addition of water or milk1 into a kind of porridge2 or to make the bruised grain into dough1 which was rendered eatable by baking on embers4 ,even after the method of grinding corn into meal1 and separating the bran by sifting1 had become known1 it was long before the art of fermenting the dough1 in order to produce bread full of eyes and of a soft consistence1 was discovered4 ,like most other operations of primary importance1 the origin of the art of making bread is lost in the darkness of ages past4 ,we are1 however1 certain that the ,jews practised this art in the time of ,moses2 for we find in the ,book of ,exodus1 chap4 xii4 v4 #ah1 a prohibition to make use of leavened1 that is1 fermented bread1 during the celebration of the ,passover4 ,but it does not appear that loaf-bread was known to ,abraham1 for in his history we read frequently of cakes1 but not of fermented bread4 ,it is1 therefore1 very probable1 that the art of making fermented bread took its rise in the ,east1 and that the ,jews learned it from the ,egyptians4 ,the ,greeks attribute the art of making bread to the god ,pan4 ,bakers were unknown in ,rome till the year of the city #hej1 or about #bjj years before the ,christian era4 ,the ,roman bakers1 according to ,pliny1 came from ,greece with the ,macedonian army4 ,before this period1 the ,romans were often distinguished by the appellation of eaters of pap4 ,at the time of ,augustus1 there were upwards of #cjj baking houses in ,rome1 almost the whole of which were occupied by ,greeks4 ,the bakers enjoyed in ancient ,rome great privileges4 ,the public granaries were entrusted to their care2 they formed a corporation1 or kind of college1 from which neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw4 ,they were exempted from guardianships and public services1 which might interfere with their occupation4 ,they were eligible to become ,senators2 and those who married the daughters of bakers1 became members of the college4 ,from the establishment of bakers in ,rome1 the art of making loaf1 or fermented bread1 spread amongst the ancient ,gauls2 but its progress in the northern countries of ,europe was slow1 and in some northern districts1 the luxury of eating fermented1 or loaf-bread1 is at this day not in general use4 ,some of the modern ,italians consume the greatest part of their bread-flour in the state of macaroni and vermicelli1 and in other forms of polenta1 or soft pudding2 and even at present millions of people neither sow nor reap1 but content themselves with enjoying the spontaneous productions of the earth4 ,bread ,corn1 ,properly so called1 of which loaf-bread is chiefly made among cultivated nations1 comprehends the seeds of the whole tribe of 7cerealia71 or gramineous plants2 for they all contain a farinaceous substance1 of a similar nature1 and chiefly composed of starch4 ,those of the cerealia in common use are the following3 ,wheat ,triticum hybernum4 ,barley ,hordeum vulgare4 ,rye ,secale cereale4 ,with us1 wheat is chiefly employed for the fabrication of bread4 ,it is1 in fact1 the only grain of which light porous bread can be made2 but rye and barley are also used as bread-corn4 ,the farina of the other cerealia afford also a nutritive and wholesome bread2 though their flour is not so susceptible of the panary fermentation1 it cannot be made into the white texture of the wheaten loaf4 ,the bread formed from them is consequently much inferior to that prepared from wheat4 ,the following seeds are chiefly employed to make a species of bread3 ,oats ,avena ,sativa4 ,maize ,zea ,mays4 ,rice ,oriza ,sativa4 ,millet ,panicum milliaceum4 ,oats are used in the north of ,europe for making a kind of bread1 called oatmeal-cake1 and particularly by the inhabitants of ,scotland4 ,maize is frequently employed as bread-corn in ,north ,america4 ,rice nourishes more human beings than all the other seeds together1 used as food2 and it is by many considered the most nutritive of all sorts of grain4 ,a very ridiculous prejudice has existed with respect to rice1 namely1 that it is prejudicial to the sight1 by causing diseases of the eye2 but no authority can warrant this assertion3 on the contrary1 the opinion of the ablest men 7,cullen's ,mat4 ,med4 v4 i4 p4 #bbi7 may be quoted in favour of rice being a very healthy food3 and the experience of all ,asia and ,america may be adduced with sufficient weight to have answered this objection1 if it had been supported by any thing more than vulgar prejudice1 unsupported by facts4 ,this grain is peculiarly calculated to diminish the evils of a scanty harvest1 an inconvenience which must occasionally affect all countries1 particularly those which are very populous4 ,it is the most fitted of all food to be of use in relieving general distress in a bad season#b1 because it comes from a part of the world where provisions are cheap and abundant2 it is light1 easy of carriage1 keeps well for a long time1 and contains a great deal of wholesome food within a small compass4 ,indeed1 it has been ascertained that one part of rice contains as much food and useful nourishment as six of wheat4 ,footnote #b3 ,reports of the ,society for bettering the ,condition of the ,poor1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #acg4 ,next to the cerealia1 the seeds of leguminous plants may be regarded as substitutes for bread corn4 ,their ripe seeds afford the greatest quantity of alimentary matter4 ,their meal has a sweetish taste1 but they cannot be made into light and porous bread1 without the addition of a portion of wheaten flour4 ,their meal1 however1 though it forms but a coarse and indifferent bread1 neither very palatable nor very digestible1 except by the most robust stomachs1 is yet highly nutritive4 ,it is remarked by ,dr4 ,cullen1 that 8on certain farms of this country1 upon which the leguminous seeds are produced in great abundance1 the labouring servants are much fed upon that kind of grain2 but if such servants are removed to a farm upon which the leguminous seeds are not in such plenty1 and therefore they are fed with the cerealia1 they soon find a decay of strength2 and it is common for servants1 in making such removals1 to insist on their being provided daily1 or weekly1 with a certain quantity of the leguminous meal40 ,we are not1 however1 to conclude from this observation1 that pease-meal bread1 is really more nutritive than wheaten bread1 or than the meal of the other cerealia4 ,we are rather disposed to regard it as an example of the effect of habit4 ,the leguminous seeds employed in the fabrication of bread1 are ,pease ,pisum ,sativum4 ,beans ,vicia faba4 ,kidney ,beans ,phaseolus vulgaris4 ,the whole of this tribe afford a much more agreeable1 though not a more nutritive aliment1 when their seeds are used green1 young1 and tender1 and simply boiled1 than when fully ripened1 and their flour baked4 ,it is remarked1 that all the substances of which bread is made1 as well as the substitutes for it1 when chemically considered1 are chiefly composed of one and the same identical material2 namely1 the farinaceous matter of the seeds1 roots1 fruits1 or other products of vegetables1 of different climates and soils2 and that starch1 or the amylaceous fecula1 forms the most valuable part of all the materials used for making bread1 and its substitutes4 ,this substance forms by far the most abundant1 the most nourishing1 and the most easy to be procured aliment1 obtainable from the vegetable kingdom4 8,whilst immense tribes of creatures devour the amylaceous fecula in the grain1 as nature produces it1 man knows how to give it different forms1 from the most simple boiling to the most complicated delicacies of the arts of the confectioner and pastry-cook4 8,it is singular that man should waste so valuable a substance for the purpose of hair-powder1 a kind of custom perhaps ridiculous1 in which modern nations imitate1 without being aware of it1 those people whom they term barbarous1 and by which custom they lavish away a portion of the subsistence of a great number of families40 ,this nutritive aliment1 we find1 exists in various combinations1 in the roots1 seeds1 in the stems1 and fruits of plants4 ,many roots abounding in the amylaceous fecula1 yields a palatable and highly nutritious aliment4 ,hence the potatoe is a substance largely employed as a substitute for bread4 ,its nutritious qualities are fully ascertained by the experience of all ,europe2 it makes a considerable portion of the food of the poor2 and in ,ireland in particular1 millions of people exist1 who1 from sufficient evidence1 we are pretty certain live for years together almost wholly on this root and water1 without any other seasoning than a little salt4 ,it contains much amylaceous fecula1 and when mixed with wheaten flour1 may be formed into good and palatable bread4 ,other substances1 besides the grains before mentioned1 are in different parts of the world substituted for bread4 ,these are the following3 ,the ,bread-,fruit4 ,the ,bread-fruit ,tree 7,artocarpus incisa7 affords the inhabitants of the ,south ,pacific ,ocean a substance resembling bread4 ,they only climb the tree to gather the fruit1 which is of a round shape1 from five to six inches in diameter2 it grows on boughs like apples1 and1 when quite ripe1 is of a yellowish colour4 ,the bread-fruit has a tough reticulated rind2 there is neither seed nor stone in the inside of it4 ,the eatable part1 which lies between the skin and the core1 is as white as snow1 and of the consistence of new bread4 ,the fruit is roasted on embers1 or baked in an oven1 which scorches the rind and turns it black2 this is rasped off1 and there remains a thin white crust1 while the inside is soft and white1 like crumbs of fine loaf-bread4 ,it is eaten new1 for if it is kept longer than twenty-four hours1 it becomes harsh and unpalatable4 ,it is also boiled1 by which means the interior is rendered white1 like a boiled potatoe4 ,they make three dishes of it1 by putting either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut to it1 then beating it into a paste with a stone pestle1 and afterwards mixing it with banana paste1 which has been suffered to become sour4 ,the bread-fruit remains in season eight months in the year1 during which time the natives eat no other sort of food of the bread kind2 and the deficiency of the other four months of the year1 is made up chiefly with cocoa-nuts1 bananas1 plantains1 bread nuts 7brosimum alicastrum71 and other farinaceous fruits4 ,sago ,bread4 ,the ,sago-,tree 7,cycas ,circinalis71 which grows spontaneously in the ,east ,indies1 and particularly on the ,coast of ,malabar1 furnishes to numerous ,indian tribes their bread4 ,in the ,islands of ,banda and ,amboyna1 they saw the body of the tree into small pieces1 and1 after bruising and beating them in a mortar1 pour water upon the fragments2 this is left for some hours undisturbed1 to suffer the pithy farinaceous matter to subside4 ,the water is then poured off1 and the meal1 being properly dried1 is formed into cakes1 or fermented and made into bread1 which1 it is said1 eats nearly as well as wheaten bread4 ,the ,hottentots make a kind of bread of another species of sago-tree 7,cycas ,resoluta74 ,the pith1 or medulla1 which abounds in the trunk of this little palm1 is collected and tied up in dressed calf's or sheep's skin1 and then buried in the ground for several weeks1 which renders it mellow and tender4 ,it is then kneaded with water into dough1 and made into small loaves or cakes1 which are baked under embers4 ,other ,hottentots1 not quite so nice1 merely dry and roast the farinaceous pith1 and afterwards make it into a kind of frumety or porridge4 ,,sago4 ,the same meal1 or medulla1 of the sago-tree1 reduced into grain1 by passing it whilst still moist through a kind of sieve1 produces the sago of commerce1 which receives its brown colour by being heated on hot stones4 ,casava ,bread4 ,in the ,caribbee ,islands they make bread of a very poisonous root 7,jatropa ,maniat71 rendered wholesome by the extraction of its acrid juice1 which the ,indians use for poisoning their arrows4 ,a tea-spoonful of the juice is sufficient to poison a man4 ,the root of the maniat1 after being crashed1 scraped clean1 and grated in a tub1 is enclosed in a sack of rushes1 of very loose texture1 which is suspended upon a stick placed upon two wooden forks4 ,to the bottom of this sack a heavy vessel is suspended1 which1 by drawing the sack1 presses the grated root and receives the juice that flows out of it4 ,when the starch is well exhausted of its juice1 it is exposed to smoke in order to dry it2 and when well dried it is passed through a sieve4 ,in this state it is termed ,casava4 ,it is baked into cakes1 by spreading it on hot plates of iron or earth1 turning it on both sides1 in order to give it a good reddish colour4 ,,tapioca4 ,the article of commerce1 called tapioca1 is the finest part of the farinaceous pith of the casava4 ,it is separately collected and formed into small tears1 by straining the mass while still moist1 to form it into small irregular lumps4 ,plantain ,bread4 ,the ,plantain ,tree 7,musa ,paradisiaca71 which is a native of the ,east ,indies and other parts of the ,asiatic ,continent1 furnishes the inhabitants with a species of bread4 ,the fruit of the plantain-tree is about a foot long1 and from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter4 ,it is at first green1 but when ripe of a pale yellow4 ,it has a tough skin1 and within is a soft pulp of a sweet flavour4 ,the fruit is generally cut before it is ripe2 the green skin is peeled off1 and the heart is roasted in a clear coal fire for a few minutes1 and frequently turned2 it is then scraped and served up as bread4 ,this tree is cultivated on an extensive scale in ,jamaica4 ,without this fruit1 ,dr4 ,wright says1 the ,islands would be scarcely inhabitable1 as no species of provisions could supply its place4 ,even flour and bread itself would be less agreeable to the labouring ,negro4 ,banana ,bread4 ,the fruit of the ,banana ,tree 7,musa ,sapientum71 differs from the preceding1 being shorter1 straighter1 and rounder4 ,it is about four or five inches long1 of the shape of a cucumber1 and of a highly grateful flavour4 ,bananas grow in bunches that weigh twelve pounds and upwards4 ,this fruit yields a softer pulp than the plantain-tree1 and of a more luscious taste4 ,it is never eaten green1 but when ripe is a very pleasant food1 either raw or fried in slices like fritters4 ,it is relished by all ranks of people in the ,west ,indies4 ,when the natives of the ,west ,indies undertake a voyage1 they take the ripe fruit of the banana and make provisions of the paste2 and1 having squeezed it through a sieve1 form the mass into loaves1 which are dried in the sun or baked on hot ashes1 after being previously wrapped up in leaves4 ,bread of ,dried ,fish4 ,the ,laplanders1 who have no corn of their own1 make a kind of bread of the inner soft bark of a pine tree1 either mixed with the coarsest barley meal1 or with dried fish beaten into powder4 ,the bark is collected when the sap is rising1 it is afterwards dried in the sun1 or over a slow fire1 and then mixed with the coarsest barley meal1 or dried fish beaten into powder4 ,the poorer people grind the chaff1 and even some of the straw along with the barley4 ,another kind of bread is made of dried fish and the root of the water dragon 7,calla palustris71 the root is taken up in the spring1 before the leaves shoot out4 ,it is dried1 pounded1 and boiled1 till it becomes thick1 like flummery1 and after standing three or four days to lose its bitterness it is mixed with the powder of dried fish and the inner bark of the pine tree1 and then made into a stiff paste1 and baked over embers4 ,bread made of ,moss4 ,some species of the tribe of ,lichen1 contain a considerable portion of starch1 as the ,lichen ,rangiferinus1 or rein-deer moss1 which affords food to the stags and other fallow cattle of the ,north of ,europe4 ,the ,icelanders form the lichen islandicus into bread1 which is found to be extremely nutritious4 ,the moss is collected in the summer1 and1 when dry1 ground into powder1 of which bread and gruel1 or pottage1 are made4 ,it is sometimes also put whole into broth1 or is boiled in whey1 till it be converted into a jelly4 ,in general1 it is either previously steeped for some hours in warm water1 or the water of the first boiling is rejected1 in order to remove a part of the bitter extractive matter1 which1 if left1 produces a disagreeable taste1 and is apt to prove purgative4 ,bread made of ,earth4 ,the strangest substitute for bread that has ever been employed1 is a sort of white earth4 ,the poor in the ,lordship of ,moscoa in ,upper ,lusania1 have been frequently compelled to make use of this earth as a substitute for bread4 ,the earth is dug out of a pit where saltpetre had formerly been worked2 when exposed to the rays of the sun it splits and cracks1 and small globules issue from it like meal1 which ferments when mixed with flour4 ,on this earth1 baked into bread1 many persons have subsisted a considerable time4 ,a similar earth is met with near ,genomu1 in ,catalonia4 ,in the western parts of ,luisania too1 the inhabitants have a most extraordinary custom of eating a white earth1 mixed with clay and salt4 ,the rowers also1 who ply on the river ,mississippi1 frequently drink large quantities of muddy water1 which cannot fail to leave in the stomach a considerable quantity of earth4 ,but it cannot be doubted1 that a large quantity of earthy substances taken into the stomach would prove deleterious to health4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,analysis of ,bread ,flour4 ,on examining bread corn1 for instance wheat1 we perceive an outside coating1 which after the grain has been soaked in water1 may readily be peeled off4 ,this forms the bran of the flour4 ,immediately under it1 is that part of the grain which affords the coarsest flour1 it is soft to the touch1 and not easily reduced to an impalpable powder1 and of a sweetish taste4 ,this constitutes about one half of the grain4 ,underneath this substance lies what is called by millers1 the kernel or heart of the wheat1 namely1 a hard mealy substance1 almost transparent4 ,this part of the grain is capable of being speedily reduced to an impalpable powder1 it ferments more readily than the outer layers1 and it is this which produces the finest and best kind of wheaten flour4 ,such is the mechanical constitution of the grain4 ,when chemically examined we find that the flour of wheat1 rye1 and barley1 is composed of three ingredients1 or immediate constituent parts1 which may be separated by simple processes1 viz4 starch1 gluten1 and saccharine mucilage4 ,the proportion of these differ materially in different kinds of corn4 ,the method of separating them is as follows3 ,make any quantity of wheaten flour into a stiff paste with cold water1 and let it be kneaded and wrought in the hands under water2 or put the flour into a coarse linen bag1 and knead it between the hands whilst a small rill of cold water is suffered to pass over it4 ,the water will carry away the starch in the form of a white powder1 and the dough become more and more elastic1 in proportion as the water carries off the starch2 continue kneading the mass till the water runs off from the kneaded dough colourless4 ,it will also be observed1 that in proportion as the water carries off the starch1 the paste in the bag assumes a more grey colour1 less brilliant1 as it were semi-transparent1 and of a softer consistence1 but1 at the same time1 more tenaceous1 more viscid1 more gluey1 and more elastic4 ,thus the flour is separated into three substances1 by a method incapable of decomposing or altering any of its immediate constituent parts4 ,the starch is precipitated in a white powder at the bottom of the water1 from which it may readily be separated by suffering it to subside1 and the supernatant liquid1 contains in solution the saccharine mucilage2 this may be obtained in the form of a syrup1 by evaporating slowly in a warm place the clear decanted fluid2 and the third substance1 the gluten1 remains in the bag1 in the state of a soft1 cohesive1 and elastic substance4 ,in a similar manner the analysis of any species of bread corn may be effected4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,flour ,,obtainable ,,from ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,cereal ,,and ,,leguminous ,,seeds ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,fabrication ,,of ,,bread1 ,,and ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,flour ,,manufactured ,,from ,,wheat4 ,the ,board of ,agriculture1 in order to ascertain what each of the various sorts of grain employed as substitutes for bread-corn would produce1 when ground into flour1 with only the broad bran taken out1 caused a bushel of each of the undermentioned sorts of seeds to be ground for their inspection3 the weight of the grain1 as well as the bran and the flour1 was as follows3 ,weight ,weight ,weighed4 of ,flour4 of ,bran4 ,one ,bushel of lb4 lb4 lb4 oz4 oz4 ,barley #df #ch #aj #e #aj ,buckwheat #df #ch #i #e #e ,rye #ed #dc #j #i #e ,maize #ec #dd #j #h #aj ,rice #fa #fj #e #j #j ,oats #ch #bc #e #ac #aj ,beans #eg #dc #e #ab #e ,pease #fa #dg #j #ab #e ,a bushel of wheat1 upon an average1 weighs sixty-one pounds2 when ground1 the meal weighs #fj lbs42 this on being dressed1 produces #df lbs4 of flour of the sort called seconds1 which alone is used for the making of bread in ,london1 and throughout the greater part of this country2 and of pollard and bran #ab lbs41 which quantity1 when bolted1 produces #c lbs4 of fine flour2 this when sifted produces in good second flour #a lb4 lbs4 ,the whole quantity of #dh bread-flour obtained from the bushel of wheat1 weighs lbs4 ,fine pollard #d ,coarse pollard #d #aa ,bran #b -- ,the whole together #ei ,to which add the loss of #b weight in manufacturing the bushel of wheat -- ,produces the original weight #fa ,,reason ,,why ,,oats1 ,,pease1 ,,beans1 ,,rice1 ,,maize1 ,,millet1 ,,buckwheat1 ,,and ,,other ,,nutritive ,,grains ,,cannot ,,be ,,made ,,into ,,light ,,and ,,porous ,,bread4 ,every person is acquainted with the difference there is between light well fermented bread1 and that which is sodden1 heavy1 and badly risen1 and the decided preference given to the former over the latter1 as the most palatable1 and easy of digestion4 ,the only substances for making loaf bread1 by which term is meant1 bread which is light1 white1 and porous1 is the flour of wheat2 and it is to the larger quantity of gluten1 that wheat flour owes the property of being converted into loaf-bread4 ,the average quantity of gluten contained in wheat flour1 amounts to about one-fifth of the whole weight of the meal2 but it varies in quantity in different kinds of wheat1 according to the soil and season in which the corn has been reared1 culture1 and various other circumstances4 ,wheat kept in damp storehouses affords scarcely any gluten1 and hence1 in proportion as the flour of wheat is altered and deteriorated1 which happens1 as it is known1 when it is kept too much compressed1 without being occasionally stirred up and aired in hot and close granaries2 in a word1 as it undergoes a chemical change1 its property of making good bread is diminished2 and chemical analysis shows the quantity of gluten has become lessened under such circumstances2 and when it is greatly diminished the meal forms no longer a tenaceous ductile dough4 ,the spoiled flour produces a kind of bread which is heavy1 harsh1 and difficult of digestion4 ,the greater the proportion of gluten1 the easier the panification of bread-flour is effected1 and the better is the bread4 ,the wheat of the ,south of ,europe generally contains a larger quantity of gluten1 and is therefore more excellent for the manufacture of ,maccaroni1 ,vermicelli1 and other alimentary substances1 requiring a glutenous paste4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy found the flour of the wheat of this country to consist of from twenty to twenty-four per cent4 of gluten4 ,barley contains six1 and rye five per cent4 of gluten4 ,we may now understand why potatoes1 rice1 beans1 pease1 buckwheat1 millet1 oats1 and other nutritive cereal grains1 abounding in starch1 cannot be made into light and porous bread1 although they are well calculated for being made into wholesome puddings1 and why they only form crude1 heavy1 insipid cakes1 when made into dough and baked1 and not light porous loaf-bread4 ,in further confirmation of this statement it may be remarked1 that if gluten of wheat1 or only a portion of wheaten flour be incorporated by kneading with the before-named kinds of flour1 a fermentable cohesive paste is produced1 from which perfect bread may be made4 ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,panification ,,of ,,bread ,,flour4 ,bread1 when chemically examined1 is very different from flour2 it no longer forms with water a tenaceous ductile mass1 nor can starch1 gluten1 and saccharine mucilage be separated from it4 ,the chemical changes that take place in the panification of bread-flour1 are by no means well understood4 ,the saccharine mucilage1 it appears1 commences the fermentative chemical action that takes place in the dough1 for without this substance1 a mixture of flour1 yeast1 and water1 cannot be made into true bread4 ,the fermenting process when once commenced1 is kept up by the gluten1 forming the body of the paste through which the fecula and saccharine matter are diffused2 and when the slight fermentation which it suffers1 from changes in the saccharine matter1 and supported by the presence of the gluten1 has commenced1 the paste becomes spongy and porous1 from the disengagement of carbonic acid gas1 while it still retains in some measure its elasticity2 hence the lightness and porosity of well-baked wheaten bread2 and hence bread1 possessing these qualities1 cannot be prepared from the flour of oats1 barley1 rye1 or rice1 or from any of the nutritive roots1 as in all of these the quantity of gluten is considerably less1 or entirely wanting1 and no gluey elastic dough can be formed4 ,the starch1 which was merely diffused through the gluey dough1 combines1 during the baking1 with a portion of water1 into a stiff jelly1 which renders the bread more digestible1 and the gluten wholly disappears4 ,a portion of carbonic acid gas1 which becomes disengaged during the fermenting process1 enlarges the bulk of the dough1 which is thus rendered light1 porous1 and full of eyes1 or cavities1 in consequence of the extraction of the air bubbles1 in the viscid glutenous matter2 and the porosity of the bread is in proportion to the extent to which the rising of the dough is suffered to proceed4 ,some chemists persuade themselves that the fermentation of the flour dough differs materially from the fermentation of saccharine substances2 namely1 that the vinous1 acetous1 and putrefactive stages of the fermenting process take place simultaneously in the dough4 ,they imagine the vinous fermentation to take place in the saccharine mucilage1 the acetous in the starch1 and the putrefactive in the gluten at the same time1 and from the modification of each by the others1 they consider that peculiar action to originate which converts paste into bread4 ,against this opinion1 however1 the following objections may be urged4 ,in the first place1 the quantity of saccharine mucilage is so extremely small as to produce no sensible effect alone on the whole mass1 and what little there is probably passes speedily into the acetous fermentation4 ,secondly1 the temperature that is required for bread-making is considerably lower than that at which starch dissolves in water1 and where this is the case no alteration will take place1 even in a long course of time3 this is clearly shown by the usual process of starch-making1 in which the bruised wheat is fermented for several days in large vats1 in order to destroy the gluten1 after which the starch is procured by simple deposition from the washings of the residue2 and thirdly1 no vestige whatever of the products evolved during the putrefactive fermentation of gluten1 can be traced in any stage of the panification of bread flour4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,unleavened ,bread4 ,bread prepared by baking from the meal of farinaceous seeds kneaded with water into a dough and baked1 is divided into three sorts1 namely2--#a4 ,unleavened bread2 #b4 ,leavened bread2 and1 #c4 ,bread made with yeast4 ,unleavened bread contains all the component parts of the flour but little altered4 ,the meal is simply mixed with water1 and baked into cakes4 ,it is heavy1 dry1 friable1 and not porous4 ,the oatmeal bread of ,scotland1 is unleavened bread2 as also sea biscuit1 and all other kinds of biscuit4 ,the bread that is eaten by the ,jews during the passover is unleavened4 ,the usage of which was introduced in commemoration of their hasty departure from ,egypt1 ,exodus1 chap4 #ab1 v4 #ad to #ag4 when they had not leisure to bake leavened bread1 but took the dough before it was fermented and baked unleavened cakes4 ,in ,roman catholic countries it is still used1 and prepared with the finest wheaten flour1 moistened with water1 and pressed between two plates1 graven like wafer moulds1 being first rubbed with wax to prevent the paste from sticking1 and when dry it is used4 ,unleavened bread is hardly less nutritious than loaf or fermented bread1 but it is generally speaking neither so wholesome nor so digestible4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,to make ,oatmeal ,cakes4 ,to a peck of oatmeal add a few table-spoonsful of salt2 knead the mixture into a stiff paste1 with warm water1 roll it out into thin cakes1 and bake it in an oven or on embers4 ,in some cottages oatmeal bread undergoes a partial fermentation1 whereby it is rendered lighter2 but the generality of the people in the more humble walks of life1 where oatmeal bread is eaten1 merely soften their oatmeal with water1 and having added to it a little salt1 bake it into cakes4 ,to strangers oatmeal bread has a dry1 harsh1 unpleasant taste1 but the cottagers of ,scotland1 in particular1 most commonly prefer it to wheaten bread4 ,mixed ,oatmeal and ,pease ,bread4 ,to a peck of pease flour1 and a like quantity of oatmeal1 previously mixed by passing the flour through a sieve1 add three or four ounces of salt1 knead it into a stiff mass with warm water1 roll it out into thin cakes1 and bake them in an oven4 ,in some parts of ,lancashire and ,scotland1 this kind of bread is made into flattened rolls1 and the cottagers usually bake them in an iron pot4 ,in ,norway they make unleavened bread of oatmeal and barley1 which keeps thirty or forty years1 and is considered the better for being old1 so that at the baptism of a child1 bread is sometimes used which has been baked perhaps at the baptism of its great grandfather4 ,unleavened ,maize ,bread4 ,the bread made of maize flour1 which is in common use in ,north ,america1 is unleavened bread4 ,the maize flour is kneaded with a little salt and water into a stiff mass2 which1 after being rolled out into thin cakes1 is usually baked on a hot broad iron hoe4 ,another kind of unleavened maize cakes1 which is a ,north ,american bread1 called ,hoe cake1 is made in the following manner4#c ,take maize1 boil it with a small proportion of kidney beans1 until it becomes almost a pulp1 and bake it over embers into a cake4 ,footnote #c3 ,this and several other of the directions here given1 for making various species of bread1 are taken from ,edlin's excellent ,treatise on bread making1 a small work1 long ago out of print4 ,unleavened ,bean-,flour ,bread4 ,take a quarter of a peck of bean-flour and one ounce of salt1 mix it into a thick batter with water1 pour a sufficient quantity to make a cake into an iron kettle1 and bake it over the fire1 taking care to turn it frequently4 ,unleavened ,buckwheat ,bread4#d ,footnote #d3 ,from the ,reports of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,take a gallon of water1 set it over a fire1 and when it boils1 let a peck of the flour of buckwheat be mixed with it1 little by little1 and keep the mixture constantly stirred1 to prevent any lumps being formed till a thick batter is made4 ,then add two or three ounces of salt1 set it over the fire again1 and allow it to boil an hour and a half1 pour the proper proportion for a cake into an iron kettle and bake it4 ,unleavened ,acorn ,bread4 ,take acorns1 fully ripe1 deprive them of their covers and beat them into a paste1 let them lay in water for a night1 and then press the water from them1 which deprives the acorns entirely of their astringency4 ,then dry and powder the mass for use4 ,when wanted1 knead it up into a dough with water1 and roll it out into thin cakes1 which may be baked over embers4 ,bread made after this method is by no means disagreeable1 and even to this day1 it is said to be made use of in some countries4 ,sea ,biscuit4 ,the process of biscuit-baking for the ,british navy is as follows1 and it is equally simple and ingenious4 ,the meal1 and every other article1 being supplied with much certainty and simplicity1 large lumps of dough1 consisting merely of flour and water1 are mixed up together2 and as the quantity is so immense as to preclude1 by any common process1 a possibility of kneading it1 a man manages1 or1 as it is termed1 rides a machine1 which is called a horse4 ,this machine is a long roller1 apparently about four or five inches in diameter1 and about seven or eight feet in length4 ,it has a play to a certain extension1 by means of a staple in the wall1 to which is inserted a kind of eye1 making its action like the machine by which they cut chaff for horses4 ,the lump of dough being placed exactly in the centre of a raised platform1 the man sits upon the end of the machine1 and literally rides up and down throughout its whole circular direction1 till the dough is equally indented2 and this is repeated till it is sufficiently kneaded2 at which times1 by the different positions of the lines1 large or small circles are described1 according as they are near to or distant from the wall4 ,the dough in this state is handed over to a second workman1 who slices it with a prodigious knife2 and it is then in a proper state for the use of those bakers who attend the oven4 ,these are five in number2 and their different departments are as well calculated for expedition and correctness1 as the making of pins1 or other mechanical employments4 ,on each side of a large table1 where the dough is laid1 stands a workman2 at a small table near the oven stands another2 a fourth stands by the side of the oven1 to receive the bread2 and a fifth to supply the peel4 ,by this arrangement the oven is as regularly filled and the whole exercise performed in as exact time1 as a military evolution4 ,the man on the further side of the large table1 moulds the dough1 having previously formed it into small pieces till it has the appearance of muffins1 although rather thinner1 and which he does two together1 with each hand2 and1 as fast as he accomplishes this task1 he delivers his work over to the man on the other side of the table1 who stamps them with a docker on both sides with a mark4 ,as he rids himself of this work1 he throws the biscuits on the smaller table next the oven1 where stands the third workman1 whose business is merely to separate the different pieces into two1 and place them immediately under the hand of him who supplies the oven1 whose work of throwing1 or rather chucking1 the bread upon the peel1 must be so exact1 that if he looked round for a single moment1 it is impossible he should perform it correctly4 ,the fifth receives the biscuit on the peel1 and arranges it in the oven2 in which duty he is so very expert1 that though the different pieces are thrown at the rate of seventy in a minute1 the peel is always disengaged in time to receive them separately4 ,as the oven stands open during the whole time of filling it1 the biscuits first thrown in would be first baked1 were there not some counteraction to such an inconvenience4 ,the remedy lies in the ingenuity of the man who forms the pieces of dough1 and who1 by imperceptible degrees1 proportionably diminishes their size1 till the loss of that time1 which is taken up during the filling of the oven1 has no more effect to the disadvantage of one of the biscuits than to another4 ,so much critical exactness and neat activity occur in the exercise of this labour1 that it is difficult to decide whether the palm of excellence is due to the moulder1 the marker1 the splitter1 the chucker1 or the depositor2 all of them1 like the wheels of a machine1 seeming to be actuated by the same principle4 ,the business is to deposit in the oven seventy biscuits in a minute2 and this is accomplished with the regularity of a clock2 the clack of the peel1 during its motion in the oven1 operating like the pendulum4 ,the biscuits thus baked1 are dried in lofts over the oven till they are perfectly dry1 to prevent them getting mouldy when stored for use4 ,one-hundred and twelve pounds of flour produce one hundred and two pounds of perfectly dry biscuits4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,leavened ,bread1 ,or bread made with a portion of fermented sour dough1 obtained by keeping some bread dough till the acetous fermentation takes place1 when it swells1 rarifies1 and acquires a taste somewhat sour1 and rather disagreeable4 ,this fermented dough is well worked up with some fresh dough1 which is1 by that mixture and moderate heat1 disposed to ferment2 and by this fermentation the dough is attenuated and divided1 carbonic acid is extricated1 which being incapable of disengaging itself from the tenaceous and solid dough1 forms it into small cavities1 and raises and swells it2 hence1 the small quantity of fermented dough which disposes the rest of the mass to ferment is called leaven4 ,most of the bread used by the people in the lower walks of life in ,france1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and other ,european countries1 is made in this manner4 ,leavened bread1 therefore1 differs from unleavened bread1 in being fermented by means of leaven1 which is nothing more than a piece of dough kept in a warm place1 till it undergoes a process of fermentation1 swelling1 becoming spongy1 and full of air bubbles1 and at length disengaging an acidulous vapour1 and contracting a sour taste4 ,leaven must1 therefore1 be considered as dough which has fermented and become sour1 but which is still in its progress towards greater acidity4 ,the addition of leaven1 or this species of ferment to fresh dough1 produces an important change in the bread1 for when a small portion of leaven is intimately mixed with a large proportion of fresh dough1 it gradually causes the whole mass to ferment throughout1 a quantity of carbonic acid gas is extracted from the flour1 but remaining entangled by the tenacity of the mass in which it is expanded by heat1 this raises the dough1 and as soon as the mass has acquired a due increase of bulk from the carbonic acid gas which endeavours to escape1 it is judged to be sufficiently fermented and fit for the oven1 the heat of which1 by driving off the water1 checks the fermentation1 and forms a bread full of small cavities1 entirely different from the heavy1 compact1 viscous masses1 made by baking unfermented dough4 ,a great deal of nicety is required in conducting this operation1 for if it is continued too long1 the bread will be sour1 and if too short a time has been allowed for the dough to ferment and rise1 it will be heavy4 ,bread raised by leaven is usually made of a mixture of wheat and rye1 not very accurately cleared of the bran4 ,it is distinguished by the name of rye bread2 and the mixture of these two kinds of grain is called bread-corn1 in many parts of the kingdom1 where it is raised on one and the same piece of ground1 and passes through all the processes of reaping1 thrashing1 grinding1 c4 ,a mixture of one-hundred pounds of equal parts of wheat and rye flour1 produce from one-hundred and fifty-four to one-hundred and fifty-six pounds of leavened bread4 ,leavened ,rye ,bread4 ,take a piece of dough1 of about a pound weight1 and keep it for use--it will keep several days very well4 ,mix this dough with some warm water1 and knead it up with a portion of flour to ferment2 then take half a bushel of flour1 and divide it into four parts2 mix a quarter of the flour with the leaven1 and a sufficient quantity of water to make it into dough1 and knead it well4 ,let this remain in a corner of your trough1 covered with flannel1 until it ferments and rises properly2 then dilute it with more water1 and add another quarter of the flour1 and let it remain and rise4 ,do the same with the other two quarters of the flour1 one quarter after another1 taking particular care never to mix more flour till the last has risen properly4 ,when finished1 add six ounces of salt2 then knead it again1 and divide it into eight loaves1 making them broad1 and not so thick and high as is usually done1 by which means they will be better baked4 ,let them remain to rise1 in order to overcome the pressure of the hand in forming them2 then put them in the oven1 and reserve a piece of dough for the next baking4 ,the dough thus kept1 may with proper care1 be prevented from spoiling1 by mixing from time to time small quantities of fresh flour with it4 ,it requires some attention to be able to determine the exact quantity of leaven necessary for the proper fermentation of the dough4 ,when it is deficient in quantity1 the process of fermentation is interrupted1 and the bread thus prepared is solid and heavy1 and if too much leaven be used1 it communicates to the bread a disagreeable sour taste4 ,hungarian ,rye ,bread4 ,two large handfuls of hops are boiled in four quarts of water3 this is poured upon as much wheaten bread as it will moisten1 and to this are added four or five pounds of leaven4 ,when the mass is warm1 the several ingredients are worked together till well mixed4 ,it is then deposited in a warm place for twenty-four hours1 and afterwards divided into small pieces1 about the size of a hen's egg1 which are dried by being placed on a board1 and exposed to a dry air1 but not to the sun2 when dry1 they are laid up for use1 and may be kept half a year4 ,the ferment1 thus prepared1 is applied in the following manner3 for baking six large loaves1 six good handfuls of these balls are dissolved in seven or eight quarts of warm water2 this water is poured through a sieve into one end of the bread trough1 and after it three quarts of warm water2 the remaining mass being well pressed out4 ,the liquor is mixed up with flour1 sufficient to form a mass of the size of a large loaf2 this is strewed over with flour3 the sieve1 with its contents1 is put upon it1 and the whole is covered up warm1 and left till it has risen enough1 and its surface has begun to crack2 this forms the leaven4 ,fifteen quarts of warm water1 in which six handfuls of salt has been dissolved1 are then poured upon it through the sieve2 the necessary quantity of flour is added1 and mixed and kneaded with the leaven3 this is covered up warm1 and left for about half an hour4 ,it is then formed into loaves1 which are kept for another half-hour in a warm room2 and after that they are put into the oven1 where they remain two or three hours1 according to their size4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,bread made with ,yeast4 ,the principal improvement that has been made in the art of fabricating bread1 consists in the substitution of yeast1 7or the froth that rises to the surface during the fermentation of malt liquors17 instead of common flour dough1 in a state of acescency1 called leaven1 to rise the bread dough1 made of flour and water1 before it is baked4 ,this substance very materially improves the bread4 ,yeast makes the dough rise more effectually than ordinary leaven1 and the bread thus produced is much lighter1 and free from that sour taste which may often be perceived in bread raised with leaven2 because too much has been added to the paste1 or because the dough has been allowed to advance too far in the process of fermentation before it was baked4 ,the discovery of the application of yeast1 to improve the panification of bread flour1 was made and first secretly adopted by the bakers of ,paris2 but when the practice was discovered1 the ,college of ,physicians there1 in #afhh1 declared it prejudicial to health1 and it was not till after a long time that the bakers succeeded in convincing the people1 that bread made with yeast was superior to bread made with sour dough or leaven4 ,the bread used in this metropolis and in most other large towns in ,england1 is made of wheaten flour1 water1 yeast1 and salt4 ,the average proportion are two pints by weight1 of water1 to three of flour1 but the proportions vary considerably with the diversity of climate1 years1 season1 age1 and grinding of the wheat4 ,there are some kinds of wheat flour that require precisely three-fourths of their weight of water4 ,that flour is always the best which combines with the greatest possible quantity of water4 ,bakers and pastry-cooks judge of the quality of flour from the characters of the dough4 ,the best flour forms instantly by the addition of water a very gluey elastic paste1 whereas bad flour produces a dough that cannot be elongated without breaking4 ,the flour1 in this case1 being seldom mixed up oftener than twice1 that is1 the yeast previously diluted with water1 is added to a part of the flour1 and well kneaded2 in a short time1 swells and rises in the baking trough1 and is called by the bakers1 setting the sponge4 ,the remainder of the flour is afterwards added1 with a sufficient quantity of warm water to make it into a stiff dough1 and then allowed to ferment4 ,it is of essential consequence that the whole of the yeast should be intimately mixed with the two-thirds of the quantity of the flour put into the kneading trough1 in order that the fermentation of the dough may commence in every part of the mass at the same time4 ,the dough is then covered up1 and the water which is mixed with the yeast being warm1 speedily extricates air in an elastic state1 and as it is now by kneading1 diffused through every part of the dough1 every particle must become raised1 and the viscidity of the mass retains it1 when it is again well kneaded and made up into loaves1 and put into the oven4 ,the heat converts the water also into an elastic vapour1 and the loaf swells more and more1 till at last it is perfectly porous4 ,during the baking1 a still greater quantity of gazeous matter is extricated by the increased heat2 and as the crust of the bread becomes formed1 the air is prevented from escaping1 the water is dissipated1 the loaf rendered somewhat dry and solid1 and between every particle of bread there is a particle of air1 as appears from the spongy appearance of the bread4 ,it is curious that new flour does not afford bread of so good a quality as that which has been kept some months4 ,the flour of grain too1 which has suffered incipient germination1 is much inferior in the quality of bread prepared from it3 and from this principally appears to arise the injury which wheat sustains from a wet harvest4 ,various methods have been employed to remedy the imperfections of bread from inferior flour1 such as washing the grain with hot water if it is musty1 proposed by ,mr4 ,hatchet2#e drying and heating it even to a certain extent2 adding various substances1 such as magnesia1 c4 ,some experiments on this subject have been given by ,mr4 ,e4 ,davy4 ,see a ,treatise on ,adulterations of ,food1 ,second ,edition1 p4#acg4 ,footnote #e3 ,see a ,treatise on ,adulterations of ,food and ,culinary ,poisons1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #adc4 ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,wheaten ,,bread1 ,,as ,,practised ,,by ,,the ,,london ,,bakers4 ,to make a sack of flour into bread1 the baker pours the flour into the kneading trough1 and sifts it through a fine wire sieve1 which makes it lie very light1 and serves to separate any impurities with which the flour may be mixed4 ,two ounces of alum are then dissolved in about a quart of boiling water1 and the solution 7technically called liquor17 is poured into the seasoning-tub4 ,four or five pounds of salt are likewise put into the tub1 and a pailful of hot water4 ,when this mixture has cooled to the temperature of about #hd1 from three to four pints of yeast are added2 the whole is mixed1 strained through the seasoning sieve1 emptied into a hole made in the mass of the flour1 and mixed up with the requisite portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter4 ,some dry flour is then sprinkled over the top1 and it is covered up with sacks or cloths4 ,this operation is called setting quarter sponge4 ,in this situation it is left three or four hours4 ,it gradually swells and breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface4 ,an additional quantity1 7about one pailful17 of warm 7liquor7 water1 in which one ounce of alum is dissolved1 is now added1 and the dough is made up into a paste as before2 the whole is then covered up4 ,in this situation it is left for four or five hours4 ,this is called setting half sponge4 ,the whole is then intimately kneaded with more water1 7about two pails full17 for upwards of an hour4 ,the dough is cut into pieces with a knife1 and penned to one side of the trough2 some dry flour is sprinkled over it1 and it is left to prove in this state for about four hours4 ,it is then kneaded again for half an hour4 ,the dough is now taken out of the trough1 put on the lid1 cut into pieces1 and weighed1 in order to furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf4 ,the operation of moulding is peculiar1 and can only be learnt by practice2 it consists in cutting the mass of dough destined for a loaf1 into two equal portions3 they are kneaded either round or long1 and one placed in a hollow made in the other1 and the union is completed by a turn of the knuckles on the centre of the upper piece4 ,the loaves are left in the oven about two hours and a half1 or three hours1 when taken out of the oven1 they are turned with their bottom side upwards to prevent them from splitting4 ,they are then covered up with a blanket to cool slowly4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,bread ,,obtainable ,,from ,a ,,given ,,quantity ,,of ,,wheaten ,,flour4 ,a sack of flour1 weighing two hundred and eighty pounds1 is made with five pounds of salt1 and from three to four pints of yeast1 into dough1 with the requisite quantity of water1 which varies according to the quality of the flour4 ,the older the flour1 provided the wheat has been sound1 and the flour well preserved1 the greater will be the quantity of water required to convert it into a stiff dough1 and the greater the produce of bread4 ,the quantity of flour for a quartern loaf is reckoned at an average1 three pounds and a half1 which produces1 if the flour be of the best quality1 five pounds avoirdupoise of dough4 ,the quartern loaf produced from this quantity of flour weighs four pounds1 five ounces and a half1 and hence the dough loses1 during baking1 eleven ounces and a half4 ,the quantity of bread obtainable from the same quantity of flour is1 however1 much influenced by the manner in which the dough is fermented1 and the skilful regulation of the heat employed for baking the bread4 ,a variation of temperature also makes a considerable difference to the baker's profit or loss4 ,in summer1 a sack of flour will yield a quartern loaf more than in winter2 and the sifting it1 before it is wetted1 if it does not make it produce more bread1 certainly causes the loaves to be larger4 ,the loss of weight occasioned by the heat is proportional to the extent of the surface of the loaf1 and to the length of time it remains in the oven4 ,hence the smaller the surface1 or the nearer the figure of the loaf approaches to a globe1 the smaller is the loss of weight sustained in baking2 and the longer the loaf continues in the oven the greater is the loss4 ,a loaf that weighed just four pounds when taken out of the oven1 after the usual baking1 was put in again1 and after ten minutes was found to have lost two ounces1 and in ten minutes more it lost another ounce4 ,the longer bread is kept the lighter it is1 unless it be kept in a damp place1 or wrapt round with a wet cloth1 which is an excellent method of preserving bread fresh and free from mould1 for a long time4 ,home-made ,wheaten ,bread4 ,take a bushel of wheaten flour1 and put two third parts of it in one heap into a trough or tub2 then dilute two pints of yeast with three or four pints of warm water1 and add to this mixture from eight to ten ounces of salt4 ,make a hole in the middle of the heap of flour1 pour the mixture of yeast1 salt1 and water into it1 and knead the whole into an uniform stiff dough1 with such an additional quantity of water as is requisite for that purpose1 and suffer the dough to rise in a warm place4 ,when the dough has risen1 and just begins again to subside1 add to it gradually the remaining one third part of the flour2 knead it again thoroughly1 taking care to add gradually so much warm water as is sufficient to form the whole into a stiff tenaceous dough1 and continue the kneading4 ,at first the mass is very adhesive and clings to the fingers1 but it becomes less so the longer the kneading is continued2 and when the fist1 on being withdrawn1 leaves its perfect impression in the dough1 none of it adhering to the fingers1 the kneading may be discontinued4 ,the dough may be then divided into loaf pieces1 7of about #elb4 in weight74 ,knead each piece once more separately1 and having made it up in the proper form1 put it in a warm place1 cover it up with a blanket to promote the last rising2 and when this has taken place1 put it into the oven4 ,when the loaves are withdrawn they should be covered up with a blanket to cool as slowly as possible4 ,to make ,pan ,bread4 ,mix up the flour1 salt1 and yeast1 7,see page #ig71 with the requisite portion of warm water1 into a moderately stiff paste2 but instead of causing part of the flour to ferment1 7or setting the sponge71 as stated in the preceding process1 suffer the whole mass to rise at once4 ,then divide it into earthenware pans1 or sheet iron moulds1 and bake the loaves till nearly done1 in a quick oven2 at that time remove them out of the pans1 or moulds1 and set them on tins for a few minutes1 in order that the crust may become brown1 and when done wrap them up in flannel1 and rasp them when cold4 ,bread made in this manner is much more spongy or honeycombed1 than bread made in the common way4 ,it is essential that the dough be not so stiff1 as when intended for common bread1 moulded by the hand4 ,brown ,wheaten ,bread4 ,suppose a ,winchester bushel of good wheat weighs fifty-nine pounds1 let it be sent to the mill and ground2 including the bran1 the meal will weigh fifty-eight pounds1 for not more than a pound will be lost in grinding4 ,mix it up with water1 yeast1 and salt1 like the dough of common bread1 7,see page #ig72 the mass1 before it is put into the oven1 will weigh about eighty-eight pounds4 ,divide it into eighteen loaves1 and put them into the oven2 when thoroughly baked1 and after they are drawn out and left two hours to cool1 they will weigh seventy-four pounds and a half4 ,mixed ,wheaten ,bread4 ,take a peck of wheaten flour1 the same quantity of oatmeal1 and half a peck of boiled potatoes1 skinned and mashed2 let the mass be kneaded into a dough1 with a proper quantity of yeast1 salt1 and warm milk2 make the dough into loaves1 and put them into the oven to bake4 ,the bread1 thus prepared1 rises well in the oven1 is of a light brown colour1 and by no means of an unpleasant flavour2 it tastes so little of the oatmeal1 as to be taken1 by those who are unacquainted with its composition1 for barley or rye bread4 ,it is sufficiently moist1 and1 if put in a proper place1 keeps well for a week4 ,rolls1 ,french ,bread1 ,muffins and ,crumpets4 ,the dough of which rolls are made by the generality of the ,london bakers1 is suffered to prove1 that is to rise more1 than dough intended to be made into loaf-bread4 ,it is1 therefore1 left in the kneading trough1 whilst the loaves made of the same dough are in the oven4 ,during this period it rises more1 and the fermentation is further promoted1 by placing the rolls1 when moulded1 in a warm place1 to cause the dough to expand as much as possible4 ,when this has taken place1 they are put in the oven to be baked1 which is effected in about twenty or thirty minutes4 ,when taken out of the oven they are slightly brushed over with a buttered brush1 which gives the top crust a shining appearance1 they are then covered up with flannel to cool gradually4 ,i have witnessed at a baker's1 who has the reputation for making excellent rolls1 forty-eight pounds of dough moulded into one hundred 7penny7 rolls2 they weighed1 when drawn out of the oven1 twenty-six pounds4 ,the bread called in this metropolis ,french rolls1 and ,french bread1 is made precisely in the same manner1 namely1 from common bread dough1 but of a less stiff consistence2 they are suffered to rise to a greater extent than dough intended for loaf-bread4 ,some bakers make rolls and ,french bread of a superior kind1 for private families1 in the following manner3 ,put a peck of flour into the kneading trough1 and sift it through a wire sieve1 then rub in three quarters of a pound of butter1 and1 when it is intimately blended with the flour1 mix up with it two quarts of warm milk1 a quarter of a pound of salt1 and a pint of yeast2 let these be mixed with the flour1 and a sufficient quantity of warm water to knead it into a dough2 suffer it to stand two hours to prove1 and then mould it into rolls1 which are to be placed on tins1 and set for an hour near the fire or in the proving closet4 ,they are then put into a brisk oven for about twenty minutes1 and when drawn1 the crust is rasped4 ,the cakes1 called in this metropolis1 muffins and crumpets1 are baked1 not in an oven1 but on a hot iron plate4 ,for muffins1 wheaten flour is made with water1 or milk1 into a batter or dough4 ,to a quarter of a peck of flour is usually added three quarters of a pint of yeast1 four ounces of salt1 and so much water 7or milk7 slightly warmed1 as is sufficient to form a dough of rather a soft consistence4 ,small portions of the dough are then put into holes1 previously made in a layer of flour1 about two inches thick1 placed on a board1 and the whole is covered up with a blanket and suffered to stand near a fire1 to cause the muffin dough to rise4 ,when this has been effected1 the small cakes will exhibit a semi-globular shape4 ,they are then carefully transferred on the heated iron plate to be baked1 and when the bottom of the muffin begins to acquire a brown colour1 they are turned and baked on the opposite side4 ,crumpets are made of a batter composed of flour1 water 7or milk71 and a small quantity of yeast4 ,to one pound of the best wheaten flour is usually added three table-spoonsful of yeast4 ,a portion of the liquid paste1 after having been suffered to rise1 is poured on a heated iron plate1 and quickly baked1 like pancakes in a frying pan4 ,barley ,bread4 ,barley1 next to wheat1 is the most profitable of the farinaceous grains1 and when mixed with a small proportion of wheat flour1 may be made into bread4 ,barley bread is not spongy1 and feels heavier in the hand than wheaten bread4 ,to remedy this defect in part1 it is always best to set the sponge with wheat flour only1 for barley flour does not readily ferment with yeast1 and adding the barley flour1 when the dough is intended to be made4 ,bread made in this way requires to be kept a longer time in the oven than wheaten bread1 and the heat of the oven should also be somewhat greater2 but barley bread is sometimes made without the addition of wheaten flour4 ,suppose a bushel of barley to weigh fifty-two pounds and a half to be made into bread2 let it be sent to the mill1 and have the bran taken out1 which1 with what is lost in grinding and dressing1 will probably reduce it to forty-four pounds4 ,if the meal be kneaded into dough1 with water1 yeast1 and salt1 suffered to rise1 and then divided into eight loaves1 and thoroughly baked1 they will weigh about sixty pounds1 after drawn out of the oven1 and left two hours to cool4 ,barley bread is eaten by many of the farmers and labourers in husbandry1 also by the miners in ,devonshire and ,cornwall4 ,mixed ,barley ,bread4 ,take four bushels of wheat ground to form one sort of flour1 extracting only a very small quantity of the coarser bran4#f ,add to it three bushels and a half of barley flour1 mix up the flour into a dough in the usual manner1 with salt1 yeast1 and warm water1 7,see page #ig71 let it be divided into loaves1 and put them into the oven made hotter than it would be for baking wheaten bread4 ,let them remain in the oven three hours and a half4 ,in ,yorkshire1 bread made from a mixture of these grains is esteemed more wholesome to those who are used to it1 than bread made from wheat alone4 ,footnote #f3 ,from the ,reports of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,rye ,bread4 ,rye is a grain whose cultivation is not much encouraged in this kingdom1 but in the northern parts of ,europe it is in very extensive use as a nourishing food for mankind4 ,when made into bread alone1 it is of a dark brown colour1 and sweetish taste1 and if eat by people unaccustomed to its use1 it is found to have a laxative effect4 ,in some parts of this kingdom1 a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an excellent bread4 ,in ,yorkshire1 bread made from a mixture of these two grains is esteemed4 ,the following method of making household rye bread1 has been recommended by the board of agriculture4#g ,footnote #g3 ,account of ,experiments tried by the ,board of ,agriculture1 p4 #ab4 ,suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty pounds1 add to it a fourth part1 or fifteen pounds of rice2 this when ground has only the broad bran taken out1 which seldom exceeds four and a half or five pounds for that quantity2 it is thus directed to be prepared for household rye bread4 ,take fourteen pounds of the mixed flour1 a sufficient quantity of yeast1 salt1 and warm water1 and let it be made in a dough1 and baked in the usual way4 ,it will produce twenty-two pounds weight of bread1 which is a surplus of three pounds and a half in fourteen pounds1 over and above what is usually produced in the common process of converting household wheat flour into bread4 ,turnip ,bread4 ,a very good turnip bread may be made by the following process3 ,let the turnips be pared and boiled4 ,when they are soft enough1 for being mashed1 the greater part of the water should be pressed out of them1 and they should be mixed with an equal quantity in weight of wheat flour4 ,the dough may then be made in the usual manner1 with yeast1 salt1 and warm water4 ,it will rise well in the trough1 and after being kneaded1 it may be formed into loaves1 and put into the oven4 ,it requires to be baked rather longer than ordinary bread1 and when taken from the oven is equally light and white1 rather sweeter1 with a slight but not disagreeable taste of the turnip4 ,after it has been allowed to stand twelve hours1 this taste is scarcely perceptible1 and the smell is totally lost1 and after an interval of twenty-four hours1 it cannot be known that it has turnips in its composition1 although it has still a peculiar sweetish taste1 but by no means unpalatable4 ,it keeps for upwards of a week4 ,rice ,bread4 ,rice1 though one of the roughest and driest of farinaceous vegetables1 is converted by the ,americans into a very pleasant fermented bread4 ,the process is as follows3 ,the grain is first washed by pouring water upon it1 then stirring it1 and changing the water until it be sufficiently cleansed4 ,the water is afterwards drawn off1 and the rice1 being sufficiently drained1 is put1 while yet damp1 into a mortar1 and beaten to powder2 it is now completely dried1 and passed through a common hair sieve4 ,the flour1 thus obtained1 is generally kneaded with a small proportion of ,indian corn meal1 and boiled into a thickish consistence2 or sometimes it is mixed with boiled potatoes1 and a small quantity of leaven1 or yeast1 is added to the mass4 ,when it has fermented1 sufficiently1 the dough is put into pans1 and placed in an oven4 ,the bread made by this process is light and wholesome1 pleasing to the eye1 and agreeable to the taste4 ,but rice flour will make excellent bread1 without the addition of either potatoes1 or any kind of meal4 ,let a sufficient quantity of the flour be put into a kneading trough2 and at the same time let a due proportion of water be boiled in a cauldron1 into which throw a few handfuls of rice in grain1 and boil it till it break4 ,this forms a thick and viscous substance1 which is poured upon the flour1 and the whole kneaded with a mixture of salt and yeast2 the dough is then covered with warm clothes1 and left to rise4 ,in the process of fermentation1 this dough1 firm at first1 becomes liquid as soup1 and seems quite incapable of being wrought by the hand4 ,to obviate this inconvenience1 the oven is heated while the dough is rising2 and when it has attained a proper temperature1 a tinned box is taken1 furnished with a handle long enough to reach to the end of the oven2 a little water is poured into this box1 which is then filled with dough1 and covered with cabbage leaves and a leaf of paper4 ,the box is thus committed to the oven1 and suddenly reversed4 ,the heat of the oven prevents the dough from spreading1 and keeps it in the form which the box has given it4 ,this bread is both beautiful and good2 but when it becomes a little stale1 loses much of its excellence4 ,it comes out of the oven of a fine yellow colour1 like pastry which has yolks of eggs in it4 ,other methods of making rice bread are the following3 #a4 ,boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it is quite soft2 then put it on the back part of a sieve to drain1 and when it is cool1 mix it up with three quarters of a pound of wheaten flour1 a spoonful of yeast1 and two ounces of salt4 ,let it stand for three hours1 then knead it well1 and roll it in about a handful of wheaten flour1 so as to make the outside dry enough to put it in the oven4 ,about an hour and a quarter will bake it1 and it will produce one pound fourteen ounces of very good white bread1 but it should not be cut till it is two days old4 ,another way is the following3 #b4 ,take half a peck of rice flour1 and one peck of wheaten flour1 mix them together and knead the dough up with a sufficient quantity of salt1 yeast1 and warm water1 as stated in page #ig4 ,suffer it to ferment1 divide it into eight loaves1 and bake them4 #c4 ,take a peck of rice1 boil it over night till it becomes soft1 then put it in a pan1 and the next morning it will be found to have swelled prodigiously4 ,a peck of potatoes should now be boiled1 skinned1 and mashed into a fine pulp1 and while hot1 be well kneaded up with the rice1 and a peck of wheaten flour2 a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt must now be added1 and the dough left in the kneading trough to prove or ferment2 and when well risen it may be divided into loaves and baked in the usual way4 ,potatoe ,bread4 ,potatoes1 mixed in various quantities1 with flour1 make a wholesome1 nutritive1 and pleasant bread4 ,various methods are employed for preparing the potatoes4 #a4 ,pare a peck of potatoes1 put them into a proper quantity of water1 and boil them till they are reduced to a pulp1 then beat them up into a smooth mass with the water they boiled in1 and knead the mass1 with two pecks of wheaten flour1 with a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt1 into a dough2 cover it up1 and allow it to ferment like common wheaten bread1 then make it up into loaves and bake them4 ,another method is the following3 #b4 ,take twelve pounds of the most mealy sort of peeled potatoes1 boil and press them through a fine wire sieve1 in such a manner as to reduce the roots1 as nearly as possible1 to a state of dry flour4 ,mix it up with twenty pounds of wheaten flour2 and of this mixture make1 and set the dough in the same manner as if the whole were wheaten flour4 ,see page #ig4 #c4 ,take three pounds of potatoes1 boil1 skin1 and mash them1 and whilst warm1 bruise them with a spoon1 and put them into a dish before the fire1 to let the moisture evaporate1 stirring them frequently1 that no part grows hard2 when dry1 rub them as fine as possible and add nine pounds of wheaten flour1 and with a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt1 knead it up as other dough2 lay it a little while before the fire to ferment1 and then divide it into loaves and bake them in a very hot oven4 ,another method is the following3 #d4 ,boil and peel the potatoes as for eating1 reduce them without any water to a fine meal or stiff paste4 ,add to two parts by weight of the paste1 one part of potatoe starch1 and half a part of wheaten flour1 and having added to it salt and yeast1 suffer it to ferment2 mould the dough into loaves1 and bake them in the usual manner4 ,m4 ,parmentier found1 from a variety of experiments1 that good bread might be made from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and wheaten meal1 with the addition of yeast and salt2 and ,dr4 ,darwin asserts1 that if eight pounds of good raw potatoes be grated into cold water1 and after stirring the mixture the starch be left to subside1 and when collected1 mixed with eight pounds of boiled potatoes1 the mass will make as good bread as that from the best wheaten flour4 ,potatoe ,rolls4 ,bruise four pounds of boiled and skinned potatoes1 with as much milk as will just produce a mass1 which readily may be squeezed through a cullender1 add this mass to wheaten flour paste of a middling stiffness1 obtained from six pounds of wheaten flour2 put it before a fire to rise1 make it into rolls1 and bake them in a quick oven4 ,the rolls thus made will be more porous and light than common rolls4 ,apple ,bread4 ,m4 ,duduit de ,maizieres1 a ,french officer of the king's household1 has invented and practised with great success1 a method of making bread of common apples1 very far superior to potatoe bread4 ,after having boiled one third of peeled apples1 he bruised them1 while quite warm1 into two-thirds of flour1 including the proper quantity of yeast1 and kneaded the whole without water1 the juice of the fruit being quite sufficient4 ,when this mixture had acquired the consistency of paste1 he put it into a vessel1 in which he allowed it to rise for about twelve hours4 ,by this process he obtained a very excellent bread1 full of eyes1 and extremely palatable and light4 ,domestic ,oven for ,baking ,bread4 ,the figure on the title page exhibits a convenient culinary oven for families who bake their own bread4 ,it is usually erected on one side of the kitchen fire-place1 and heated by a flue that passes from the fire-grate under the bottom of the oven4 ,although this is in many respects a convenient and neat way of heating the oven1 yet the manner of managing the fire renders it only economical in families where a large fire is always kept up in the kitchen-grate4 ,in small families it is far more economical to heat the oven by means of a separate fire-place built underneath it4 ,a fire-place six inches wide1 nine inches long1 and six inches deep1 is sufficient to heat an oven eighteen inches wide1 twenty-four inches long1 and from twelve to fifteen inches high1 which is a convenient size for the baking of bread4 ,the grate should be placed at least twelve inches below the bottom of the oven when the fuel employed is pit-coal2 and1 in order to prevent the fire from operating with too much violence upon any part of the oven1 the brick-work should be sloped outwards and upwards on every side1 from the top of the burning fuel1 to the ends and sides of the bottom of the oven1 that the whole may be exposed to the direct rays of the fire4 ,if the fire-place be built in this manner1 and properly managed1 it is almost incredible how small a quantity of fuel will answer for heating the oven1 and keeping it hot4 ,in this small fire-place there is always a very strong draft of air passing into it1 and this circumstance1 which is unavoidable1 renders it necessary to keep the fire-place door constantly closed1 and to leave but a small opening1 for the passage of the air1 through the ash-pit4 ,if these precautions are neglected1 the fuel will be consumed very rapidly1 the bottom of the oven will be burnt1 and the oven get chilled as soon as the fire-place ceases to be filled with burning fuel4 ,in an oven of this description1 ,i have baked two loaves1 each weighing five pounds1 and fifteen rolls weighing two pounds1 by means of half a peck 7ten pounds7 of coal4 ,the figures on the plate facing the titlepage,see ,note exhibit an oven to be heated with pit-coal for baking bread1 now generally employed in this metropolis4 ,the oven from which this design has been made1 is eight feet wide1 and seven deep4 ,the fire-place1 called by the bakers1 the furnace1 for heating the oven1 is placed at the side1 and enters the oven diagonally2 it is furnished with a grate1 ash holes1 and iron door1 similar to a common fire-place for heating a boiler1 but having a partition to separate it from the oven1 and to allow the fire to enter into the oven2 it1 therefore1 forms a canal1 by which the flame is directed into the oven4 ,over the fire-place or furnace is erected1 and lets into the brick-work1 a boiler furnished with a pipe1 to supply warm water as occasion may require4 ,when the oven is required to be heated1 the boiler is filled with water1 and the fire being kindled in the furnace1 the flame passes into the oven1 and the smoke escapes into the chimney4 ,the sides of the oven are nearly straight1 and turned as sharp as possible at the shoulder1 for this form has been found better calculated to retain the heat than any other4 ,the flues to carry off the smoke is over the entrance door1 as shown by the dotted line a of the figure here exhibited1 exhibiting the plan of the oven4 ,illustration ,a piece of cast iron covers the space before the door of the oven1 exactly level with its floor2 the opening underneath is applied to no particular use1 but is generally made a receptacle for coal4 ,fig4 #a1 is an elevation of the oven4 ,the mouth is closed with a cast iron door1 in which is a small sight-hole with a slide valve4 ,to heat the oven1 the door is thrown back1 and a blower is applied to the mouth1 so contrived1 as not only to cover the mouth of the oven completely1 but to enclose also the throat of the chimney2 by this contrivance the draft is quickly so much increased1 that the oven becomes speedily heated1 and if at anytime it is too hot1 it is only necessary to throw open the door of the fire place1 and to put up the blower for a few minutes2 the current of cool air which is thus made to pass through it1 soon lowers the heat to the temperature required4 ,in the blower is also an opening of the same kind as that in the oven door1 which may be opened and shut at pleasure2 the course of the flue is described by the dotted lines at 7b74 ,fig4 #b1 is the blower before mentioned for regulating the heat of the oven4 ,fig4 #c1 is a transverse section from ,a to ,b on the plan1 looking towards the opening1 the fire-place entering the oven at c1 the crown of the oven is turned with the bricks on end1 and in building the oven instead of centering the arch1 the whole space is filled with sand1 which is well trod down and shaped to the shape which it is intended the crown of the oven shall be of4 ,when the upper work is finished1 the sand is dug out at the mouth of the oven4 ,fig4 #d1 is a longitudinal section of the oven from ,c to ,d4 ,in this sketch the situation of the flue is evident1 and the sectional line of the blower1 fig4 #b1 when in its place1 is shown by the dotted line d1 the open space a1 under the oven1 has been before spoken of4 ,popular ,errors concerning the ,quality of ,bread4 ,the great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious4 ,every part of the wheat1 which may be called flour1 was not only intended to be eaten by man1 but it really makes the best bread4 ,the delusion1 however1 by which so many persons are misled to think that even the whole flour is not good enough1 obliges them to pay much dearer for their bread than they need1 to gratify a perverted and fanciful appetite4 ,had it not been for the custom of eating whiter bread than the whole of the flour can make1 the miller and baker would not have employed their art to render the bread as white as possible1 and to make the consumer pay for the artificial whiteness4 ,the average quantity of flour1 from an unvaried series of experiments1 made from age to age1 through the course of many hundred years1 appears to be three-fourth parts in weight of the whole grain of wheat1 taking all wheats together1 being more in the finer sorts1 and less in the coarser2 and the bread made from this flour has always been deemed the standard of the food of bread corn4 ,but1 by insensible degrees1 the manufacture of bread became separated into two distinct employments4 ,in consequence of this alteration1 the baker1 having no further connexion with the market for corn1 became dependant solely on the mealman for supplying him with flour1 who1 not considering himself amenable to the then existing assize laws1 made different kinds of flour1 some extremely fine and white1 while others were very coarse and unpalatable4 ,these artificial whites1 when made into bread1 were so pleasing to the eye and taste1 that1 in the course of a few years1 they got into such general use that the people refused any longer to purchase the bread made of the whole of the grain4 8,our forefathers#h never refined so much3 they never preyed so much on each other2 nor1 ,i presume1 made so many laws necessary for their restraint1 as we do40 ,footnote #h3 ,the great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread1 comprehending the heart of the wheat with all its flour4 ,shewing how this may be a means of promoting health and plenty1 preserving infants from the grave1 by destroying the temptation to the use of alum and other ingredients in our present wheaten bread4 ,by an advocate for the trade4 ,london1 #aggc4 ,see also ,important considerations upon the act of the thirty-first of ,george ,,ii4 relative to the assize of bread4 ,london3 ,t4 ,becket1 ,strand1 #agfh4 8,in looking back1 for some hundred years1 it appears that they adopted a certain plan1 supposing that nature had given nothing in vain1 and that every part of the wheat which may be called flour1 was not only intended to be eaten by men1 but that it really made the best bread1 as that might be called the best1 which is best adapted to general use1 and in itself so fine1 as to contain no parts of the coat1 or husks of grain40 8,the inference which ,i mean to draw from what is premised1 is to remind my fellow citizens of the unfortunate delusion of thinking that even the whole flour of the wheat is not good enough for them2 that part of it must be taken away1 and given to birds or beasts40 8,by this delusion1 supposing a certain quantity of wheat appropriated to their use1 7and this is the view they should see it in17 they lose one third part of the flour1 and consequently have so much the less bread to supply their wants40 8,is it not then monstrous to hear them complain8 ,is it not absurd to talk of poverty1 and yet pay a seventh or eighth part more than they need1 to gratify a fantastic appetite8 ,had it not been from the custom of eating whiter bread than the whole flour of the wheat will make1 should we have thus imposed on ourselves8 ,would the miller or baker employ all his art to make the bread as white as possible1 and oblige us to pay for this artificial whiteness8 ,they tell the consumer1 the whiter it is1 the finer2 and the finer1 the more nutritive4 ,thus we become dupes so far as to overlook the essential good properties of genuine bread1 made of all the flour of the wheat1 and likewise the difference in the price40 8,we are taught to favour a gross delusion at the suggestion of interested persons1 against our own substantial welfare4 ,it is the interest of every one to be honest1 and say nothing contrary to his real sentiments1 as it is the duty of those who have knowledge1 to inform such as are ignorant4 ,those who have never eaten bread of all the flour in a pure state1 with the native taste of wheat1 and the moisture which it preserves1 can know nothing of the comparative excellence of it with respect to the whitened city bread which they have been accustomed to eat all their lives40 8,the dictates of the understanding will ever yield to the pleasures of the imagination3 and the provident will be attentive to take the advantage of the extravagant4 ,thus it happens that the poor have been bewildered1 and deprived of the object they sought40 8,the event depends on the good sense of masters and mistresses of families1 and their right understanding of what they mean to eat1 that is1 of what parts of the wheat the bread they consume is made4 ,if they are satisfied that the bread is more pure than what they used to eat1 and sufficiently fine1 we may presume1 if they are in their right minds1 they will prefer it for domestic use4 ,every family of fourteen or fifteen persons1 consuming at the rate of one pound each1 in a day1 pays near #afs4 a week3 if they can save #bs4 #f;d4 or #as4 #f;d4 it is an object3 to a poor man who spends #es4 in bread1 if he can save eight or ten pence1 it may purchase two or three pounds of animal substance towards making one feast in a week40 8,in regard to the patriotic miller1 he does not pretend to consult our good in preference to his own2 on the contrary1 he reasons very deeply1 as if it were best for us to live on the essence of a leg of mutton1 brought within the compass of a pint1 than feed on such porterly food as the mutton prepared in the ordinary way of roasting or boiling4 ,he maintains1 that the finer the bread1 though the quantity be smaller1 the more nutritive40 ,the wheaten bread1 of the ,london baker1 is acknowledged to be whitened by a mixture of alum1 which serves to keep the loaf in better shape1 renders it the whiter1 and causes it to imbibe the more water to increase the quantity of the bread4 ,thus he consults his interest1 without regard to the consumer3 the whiter it is1 the more adulterated2 and1 as constant experience proves1 such bread1 after it is two days old1 becomes dry and husky40 8,if bread1 made in a private family1 of the same flour as the baker uses1 will not be so white1 we must suppose that there is an art of whitening2 and that this would be no secret1 if it were not pernicious40 8,the bread recommended1 made of all the flour of the wheat1 retains all the good properties of bread2 it is eatable at the distance of eight or ten days3 is it not on this account the most eligible80 8,take a loaf of the wheaten ,london bread1 made by the baker in his usual way2 let the same baker make another with all the flour of the wheat1 without any attempt to whiten or otherwise adulterate it4 ,let him keep both in the same temperature of air1 and produce a specimen of each at any reasonable distance of time1 and it will be easily seen what the difference is4 ,this arises not only from mixtures1 but the peculiar manner of raising the sponge40 8,in regard to the difference of consuming new bread of the first day1 and that which has been made for three1 four1 or five days1 it is computed to be at least a fourth part4 ,if our present wheaten bread cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the second day1 it is not wonderful to discover at last that we are lighting our candle at both ends40 8,that the vitiated bread agrees with some people1 whether by the force of habit1 or the mixtures it contains1 is not disputed2 but in general it is very hurtful40 8,great numbers of our fellow-subjects eat their bread much coarser than the ,londoners3 are they weaker8 they are generally stronger4 ,some part of the advantage must be carried to this account40 8,let us have time to subdue our prejudices1 and we shall find that bread of all the flour of the wheat1 for the general use1 is better both in quality and price than the present wheaten bread40 8,in regard to the ,london baker1 ask him of what parts of the wheat his bread is made1 and he frankly acknowledges he cannot tell2 and how should he8 ,he can buy only what is to be sold2 and the quality is not ascertained with any such precision as to enable him to answer the question4 ,he1 poor man does the best he can1 not to give a sweet wholesome aliment1 but something which is white4 ,he knows that bread made of a proper proportion of the wheat1 not only differs in colour1 but is moister at the end of eight days than his the third day2 he likewise knows that it is sweeter1 and has the native grateful flavour of the wheat1 as the ,god of ,nature hath given it1 and not as it hath been adulterated40 8,if the parliament had required us to eat plum-cake1 seed-cake1 or sugar-cake1 we should have known that plums1 seed1 and sugar1 constituted the difference2 but from the moment the law made distinctions in the division of the flour for three different kinds of bread for common use1 we were exposed to the mercy of the miller to give the baker what he pleased1 and call it by what name he pleased2 we could only judge whether the bread pleased us or not4 ,the miller and the baker divide and subdivide2 and instead of flour for bread1 and the bran that remained1 according to ancient practice1 whereby the beggar as well as the prince was pleased1 bread became a mystery1 and we no longer knew what we were eating40 8,our misfortune1 in regard to bread1 is1 that we eat it too fine2 we decline the use of barley in bread1 having hardly enough for beer4 ,oats and pease are rejected3 at length we reject even wheaten flour1--unless we are supplied with the finest parts only6--,what will befall us in the end80 8,custom often makes a law more forcible than ,law-givers1 and we have now to contend with custom4--,the first consideration should be1 that the flour which represents three-fourths of the wheat1 shall be really such1 and brought to market in sacks1 marked ,standard3 the value of it may be more easily ascertained1 than that of which is made the wheaten bread we now eat40 8,the baker may be a little the more reluctant to come into this salutary proposal1 as knowing that if he is to decline the use of alum1 flour that is in any degree musty1 or made of wheat that has grown or vegetated before gathered in1 as sometimes happens1 he cannot work it up so advantageously in the bread now proposed to be made1 as in the wheaten bread4--,be this as it may1 as soon as the baker finds this standard flour is vendable in bread1 he will buy it2 and knowing what part of the wheat it ought to be1 he will work it into bread with so much the more satisfaction2 and being sensible that we mean to eat genuine bread1 he will cease to whiten it by any hurtful art4 ,we shall all understand what we eat1 and the trade will be familiar to us2 we shall be so much happier as we become so much the more honest1 and more healthy than we were before4 ,such is the serious light in which ,i see the subject before me40 8,every occupation hath its mystery2 and the professors are gratified in thinking themselves wiser than the rest of the world in their own way4 ,every professed cook of the first rate can melt down a large ham into the contents of half a pint4 ,the confectioner uses bitter almonds1 which are poisonous2 the oilman colours his pickles with copper1 to render them green2 and the baker uses alum to whiten his bread1 and make his flour imbibe the more water1 by which he makes the more bread out of the same quantity of flour4 ,this1 and other occasional mixtures of the flour of different grains1 renders his bread husky1 dry1 and disagreeable the third day4--,are we the better for any such mysteries80 8,whether the wheat be all of one kind1 or married1 which is the phrase for mixing of wheats of different kinds1 it will be easy for people of condition1 by experiment1 or by the comparison with genuine bread made in their families1 to know whether justice be done2 though we may easily discover that the baker for the public1 is generally a better master of his trade than most housewives are4 ,the mystery may be thus developed2 our health and pleasure promoted2 and our bread be as much cheaper than it is now1 as the gain on the flour will make it1 by using all that the wheat produces40 8,every one may try by grinding and bolting his own grain1 and baking his own bread1 and the manufacturers of bread may find nearly as good account in bread of all the flour1 which can be so easily ascertained2 as they do in the wheaten1 which is involved in difficulties40 8,the public have administered to their own delusion1 their eyes are shut to their own advantage4 ,if the wealthy will adopt the use of the bread in question1 the labouring part of our fellow-subjects will certainly follow the example2 and as to paupers1 they will gladly comply40 8,common sense1 in all ages1 has achieved wonders40 ,laws prohibiting the ,adulteration of ,bread and ,bread ,flour4 ,the adulteration of bread and bread flour is forbidden by law1 as is obvious from the following acts of parliament3 8,no person shall put into any corn1#i meal1 or flour1 which shall be ground1 dressed1 bolted1 or manufactured for sale1 any ingredient or mixture whatsoever1 whereby the same may be adulterated1 or shall sell any flour of one sort of grain as for the flour of another1 but shall only sell the real genuine meal or flour of the grain the same shall import to be1 under the penalty of five pounds for every such offence40 ,footnote #i3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hhc4 8,if any person have cause to suspect that any miller#aj who grinds1 dresses1 or bolts any grain for toll or reward1 or manufactures any flour for sale1 or that any baker mixes up with his flour any mixture or ingredient1 not the genuine produce of the grain1 so that the purity of the meal in any wise be adulterated1 and reports the same on oath to a magistrate1 then1 in that case1 such magistrate1 or a peace-officer duly authorized by him1 shall enter the premises of such suspected person1 and search or examine whether such mixture or ingredient1 not the genuine produce of the grain1 is in the possession of such miller1 mealman1 or baker2 and such meal and flour as shall be deemed to have been adulterated may be seized1 together with the base mixtures2 and if seized by a peace-officer1 it is to be carried before a magistrate1 but if seized by the magistrate1 he may immediately dispose of it as he shall think fit4 ,and the person on whose premises such mixture or ingredient shall be found1 and adjudged to be intended to be used in adulterating the flour1 shall forfeit a sum not exceeding ten pounds1 and have his name1 offence1 and place of abode published in some newspaper that is printed or circulated near his place of abode1 unless he shall make it appear1 to the satisfaction of the magistrate1 that the same was not lodged there with the intention of adulterating the flour1 but for some other lawful purpose40 ,footnote #aj3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hhh4 8,that if any person shall wilfully obstruct#aa or hinder any search being made for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate the meal or flour1 or shall oppose their being carried away1 such person shall forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds1 nor less than forty shillings40 ,footnote #aa3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hhi4 8,and that the good design of these regulations may be more effectually accomplished1 it shall be lawful for the several wardmote#ab inquests of the city of ,london1 or any magistrate#ac or peace-officer authorized by a warrant from such magistrate1 without the jurisdiction of the city of ,london1 to enter into any bake-house or shop1 at all seasonable times1 to search for and weigh all the bread therein2 and if any of the loaves are found wanting in the goodness of the stuff of which they should be made1 or deficient in the due baking or working thereof1 or shall be wanting in the weight1 or shall not be truly marked1 such persons may seize such bread2 and1 if a magistrate is not present1 it shall be taken before one1 who may dispose of it as he shall think fit40 ,footnote #ab3 #cg ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ih4 sec4 #bb4 ,footnote #ac3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hij4 8,that if any person shall wilfully#ad obstruct or hinder any such search1 or prevent the carrying the same away1 he shall1 on conviction before a magistrate1 be fined a sum not exceeding five pounds1 nor less than twenty shillings40 ,footnote #ad3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hij4 8,that it shall be lawful for any magistrate#ae1 or peace-officer1 authorised by a warrant1 and accompanied by one or more master bakers1 to enter1 at seasonable times1 any shop or bake-house within the city of ,london1 or within ten miles of the ,royal ,exchange1 to search and examine whether any alum1 or other ingredients1 shall have been mixed up with1 or put into1 any meal1 flour1 dough1 or bread1 in the possession of any such baker1 and also to search for alum1 or any other ingredients1 which may be intended to be used for the purpose of adulterating the bread2 and if1 on enquiry1 they find any alum1 or other unlawful ingredients1 or that any flour1 meal1 dough1 or bread1 contains any preparation of alum1 such shall be immediately seized1 and carried before some magistrate within whose jurisdiction the baker lives1 and who shall dispose of it as he shall think fit4 ,and if the magistrate is satisfied that such pernicious ingredients were put into the bread with the consent or privity of the baker1 or if he acknowledges it himself1 or one or two credible witnesses certify1 on oath1 that they know he uses alum1 such baker shall forfeit any sum of money not exceeding twenty pounds1 or be committed to1 and kept at hard labour in1 the house of correction1 or some other prison1 for six calendar months1 unless he can prove1 to the satisfaction of the magistrate1 that the alum1 or other ingredients1 were designed for some lawful purpose4 ,and further1 the magistrate is expressly required to cause the offender's name1 place of abode1 and offence1 to be published in some newspaper which shall be printed or published in or near the city of ,london1 or the liberties thereof40 ,footnote #ae3 #ch ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ee4 sec4 #ad and #ae4 8,that if any person or persons shall wilfully obstruct#af or hinder such search or seizure1 as above described1 he or they shall1 for every offence1 forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding ten pounds1 nor less than five1 at the discretion of the magistrate before whom the offender or the offenders shall be convicted40 ,footnote #af3 #ch ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ee4 sec4 #af4 8,that where any baker#ag shall make a complaint before a magistrate1 and make it appear that any offence he was charged with1 and paid the penalty of1 was occasioned by the wilful neglect or default of his journeyman1 or other servant1 the magistrate shall issue his warrant for apprehending the party1 and if1 on examining into the matter1 it appears that such was the case1 such journeyman1 or other servant1 shall be directed immediately to pay to his master a reasonable recompence in money1 and1 on non-payment thereof1 he shall be committed to the house of correction1 or some other prison1 and kept to hard labour1 for any time not exceeding one calendar month1 unless payment be sooner made40 ,footnote #ag3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hia4 and #ch ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ee4 sec4 #ag4 8,and1 for the better and more easy recovery of the several penalties#ah incurred by disobedience to the several acts1 all offences may be heard and determined in a summary way1 by the ,lord ,mayor1 or any other magistrate or magistrates1 within their several jurisdictions1 who shall summon the offenders before them1 and if they do not appear1 or offer a reasonable excuse1 they may cause them to be apprehended2 and when the matter is enquired into1 and the party convicted1 if he does not pay the penalty within twenty-four hours1 such magistrate shall issue a warrant of distress and sale on the goods of the offender2 and1 should the goods of the party be removed into another jurisdiction1 the magistrate thereof is to back the warrant1 and the distress1 if not redeemed within five days1 is to be appraised and sold1 and all expences thereby incurred are to be deducted thereout4 ,and if the offender is possessed of no goods or chattels that can be seized1 then he shall be committed to the house of correction1 or some other prison1 for one calendar month1 unless payment be sooner made40 ,footnote #ah3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hib4 and #ch ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ee4 sec4 #ai4 8,that if information#ai1 on oath1 is offered to any magistrate1 that any one within his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give material evidence in behalf of the prosecutor of any offender1 and refuses voluntarily to come forward1 such magistrate shall issue a summons to cause him to appear1 and if he still refuses1 to grant a warrant to compel his attendance1 and then if he refuses to be examined1 he may be committed to some public prison for fourteen days40 ,footnote #ai3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hid4 ,that no certiorari#bj1 letters of advocation1 or of suspension1 shall be granted1 to remove any conviction or other proceedings had therein2 but if any person is punished1 and he thinks himself aggrieved by the judgment of a magistrate1 he may appeal to the next quarter sessions1 and1 in such case1 the execution of the judgment shall be suspended1 upon his entering into a recognisance1 with two sufficient sureties1 in double the sum such person shall be adjudged to forfeit1 to prosecute the appeal1 and abide the determination of the justices at the said quarter sessions2 and if he makes good his appeal1 he shall be discharged the conviction1 and reasonable costs awarded him1 which shall be paid by the person who lodged the information40 ,footnote #bj3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hie4 8,that no person shall be convicted#ba of any offence under these acts1 unless the prosecution shall be commenced against him within fourteen days after the offence is committed1 except in cases of perjury#bb2 and no person who shall be prosecuted to conviction for any offence done or committed against these acts1 shall be liable to be prosecuted for the same offence under any other law40 ,footnote #ba3 #cg ,geo4 #c4 c4 #ih4 sec4 #bh4 ,footnote #bb3 #ch ,geo #c4 c4 #ee4 sec4 #bj4 8,that all penalties1 when recovered in pursuance of these regulations1 shall be disposed of in the manner following3 that is to say1 one#bc moiety thereof to be paid to the informer1 and the other moiety to the poor of the parish where such offence shall be committed2 and1 in case there is no informer1 then the whole sum shall be given to the poor of the parish1 or applied in such a way as the magistrate1 in his discretion1 shall think fit40 ,footnote #bc3 #ca ,geo4 #b4 c4 #bi4 p4 #hig4 ,economical ,application of ,yeast4 ,it frequently happens1 in the summer season1 that the brewers1 in order to render their beer less liable to spoil1 use more hops than usual2 the consequence of which is1 that the yeast becomes very bitter1 and gives a disagreeable flavour to the bread4 ,to obviate this inconvenience1 ,mr4 ,stone has recommended the following method of raising a bushel of flour with only a tea-spoonful of yeast4 ,suppose a bushel of flour be put it into the kneading trough1 then take about three quarters of a pint of warm water1 and one tea-spoonful of yeast4 ,stir it in till it is thoroughly mixed with the water2 and make a hole in the middle of the flour1 large enough to contain two gallons of water4 ,pour in the yeast and add some of the flour until it is a thick liquid paste2 strew some of the dry flour over it1 and let it stand an hour4 ,then take a quart more of warm water1 and pour it in3 in about an hour it will be seen that the small quantity of yeast has raised the mixture so1 that it will break through the dry flour placed over it2 and when the warm water has been added1 take a stick and stir in more flour until it is as thick as before2 then shake again some dry flour over it1 and leave it for two hours more1 the mass will rise and break through the dry flour again2 you may then add three quarts or a gallon of water1 and stir in the flour1 and make it into a soft paste1 taking care to cover it with dry flour again1 and in about three or four hours more the dough may be mixed up1 and covered up warm2 and in four or five hours more it may be made up into loaves1 and put in the oven2 and in this manner may be produced as light a bread as though a pint of yeast had been used4 ,it does not take above a quarter of an hour more than the usual way of baking1 for there is no time lost but that of adding the water at three or four times4 ,the author of this method assures us that he constantly bakes in this way4 ,in the morning1 about six or seven o'clock1 he puts the flour in the trough1 and mixes up the spoonful of yeast with the warm water2 in an hour's time he adds more flour1 in two hours1 again more1 and about noon makes up the dough1 and about six in the evening it is put into the oven3 he has always good bread4 ,economical ,preparation of ,yeast4 ,the following economical method of making yeast is recommended by ,dr4 ,lettsom4 ,thicken two quarts of water with four ounces of fine flour1 boil it for half an hour1 then sweeten it with three ounces of brown sugar2 when almost cold1 pour it with four spoonfuls of baker's yeast into an earthen jug1 deep enough for the fermentation to go on without running over2 place it for a day near the fire1 then pour off the thin liquor from the top1 shake the remainder1 and close it up for use1 first straining it through a sieve4 ,to preserve it sweet1 set it in a cool cellar1 or hang it some depth in a well4 ,keep always some of this to make the next quantity of yeast that is wanted4 ,mr4 ,i4 ,kerby recommends the following method of obtaining yeast from potatoes4 ,potatoe ,yeast4 ,boil potatoes of the mealy sort1 till they are thoroughly soft1 skin and mash them very smooth1 and put as much hot water on them as will make a mash of the consistency of common beer yeast1 but not thicker4 ,add to every pound of potatoes1 two ounces of treacle1 and when just warm1 stir in for every pound of potatoes1 two large spoonfuls of yeast4 ,keep it warm till it has done fermenting1 and in twenty-four hours it will be fit for use4 ,a pound of potatoes will make near a quart of yeast1 which has been found to answer the purpose so well1 as not to be able to distinguish the bread made with it1 from bread made with brewer's yeast4 ,method of ,preserving ,yeast4 ,when yeast is plentiful1 take a quantity and work it well with a whisk until it becomes thin2 then procure a large wooden dish or platter1 clean and dry1 and with a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the dish1 and turn the top downwards to keep out the dust1 but not the air1 which is to dry it4 ,when the first coat is dry1 lay on another1 and let that dry1 and so continue till the quantity is sufficient2 by this means it may soon be made two or three inches thick1 when it may be preserved in dry tin canisters or stopped bottles1 for a long time1 good4 ,when used for baking1 cut a piece off and dissolve it in warm water1 when it will be fit for use4 ,,finis4 ,c4 ,,green1 ,,leicester ,,street1 ,,leicester ,,square4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,notice4 ,the ,public are respectfully informed1 that a new ,edition1 considerably enlarged 7price #is471 has lately been published1 ,,of ,,accum',s ,treatise on ,adulterations of ,food1 ,,and ,,culinary ,,poisons2 ,exhibiting the fraudulent ,sophistications of ,bread1 ,beer1 ,wine1 ,spirituous ,liquors1 ,tea1 ,coffee1 ,cream1 ,confectionary1 ,vinegar1 ,mustard1 ,pepper1 ,cheese1 ,olive ,oil1 ,pickles1 and other ,articles employed in ,domestic ,economy2 and ,method of detecting them4 7,copied from the ,british ,review1 ,no4 ,,xxix4 p4 #aga47 ,mr4 ,accum seems determined that even the outside of his book shall awaken our fears4 ,the cover of our copy bears a death's head emblazoned upon a pall1 and1 underneath1 the motto 8there is death in the pot40 ,the pall is supported by the point of a dart4 ,four other darts support the four corners of the device4 ,twelve serpents1 with forked tongues and tails entwined1 form a terrific wreath around2 while the middle is occupied with a large cobweb1 delineated with much attention to detail1 in the centre of which a spider1 full as large as a moderate sized hazel nut1 and so frightful that more than one young lady of our acquaintance would think it necessary to scream at the sight of it1 holds in its envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly1 which is sinking under the loss of blood1 and buzzing in the agonies of death4 ,we are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular clamour2 but ,mr4 ,accum certainly advances some weighty charges1 and his work comes with an advantage in bearing a name not unknown to the scientific world4 ,of the adulterations specified1 some are deleterious1 and others merely fraudulent4 ,accordingly1 we shall offer a few extracts1 both from the original matter of ,mr4 ,accum1 and from his citations drawn from previous authors4 8,among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now very generally found sophisticated1 may be distinguished1--tea1 coffee1 bread1 beer1 wine1 spirituous liquors1 salad oil1 pepper1 vinegar1 mustard1 cream1 and other articles of subsistence4 ,indeed it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state4 ,and there are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine40 7,p4 #c47 ,but we pass on from the general statements at the beginning of the work to particulars4 ,water1 by standing in leaden reservoirs1 acquires a highly deleterious property4 ,in some particular cases1 the consequences have been most fatal4 8#8,a gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring1 having had one and twenty children1 of whom eight died young1 and thirteen survived their parents4 ,during their infancy1 and indeed until they had quitted the place of their usual residence1 they were all remarkably unhealthy1 being particularly subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels4 ,the father1 during many years1 was paralytic2 the mother1 for a long time was subject to cholics and bilious obstructions4'0 7,p4 #gh1 #gi47 ,these effects were traced to a leaden pump1 in the cylinder of which there were found several perforations1 while the cistern 8was reduced to the thinness of common brown paper1 and was full of holes like a sieve40 7,p4 #gi47 ,we now come to the adulteration of wine2 to many of our readers1 probably1 a far more interesting concern than that of water4 8,all persons moderately conversant with the subject are aware1 that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines1 for the purpose of brightening the colour2 that ,brazil-wood1 or the husks of elderberries and bilberries1 are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale1 feint colour2 that gypsom is used to render cloudy white wines transparent2 that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood sawdust1 and the husks of filberts1 and that a mixture of spoiled foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in this town by the name of genuine old ,port4444 ,a nutty flavour is produced by bitter almonds2 fictitious ,port wine is flavoured with a tincture drawn from the seeds of raisins1 and the ingredients employed to form the bouquet of high-flavoured wines1 are sweet brier1 orris-root1 clary1 cherry-laurel-water1 and elder flowers4 ,the flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers1 may all be purchased by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the trade4 ,and even a manuscript receipt-book for preparing them1 and the whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines1 may be obtained on payment of a considerable fee40 7,p4 #ie1 #ig47 8,the particular and separate department in this factitious wine-trade1 called crusting1 consists in lining the interior surface of empty wine bottles1 in part1 with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash1 by suffering a saturated1 hot solution of this salt1 coloured with a decoction of ,brazil-wood1 to chrystallize within them40 7,p4 #aja1 #ajb47 ,but the crusting is not confined to the bottle4 8,a correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask2 the whole interior of which is stained artificially with a chrystalline crust of super-tartrate of potash1 artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar to that before stated4 ,thus the wine-merchant1 after bottling off a pipe of wine1 is enabled to impose on the understanding of his customers1 by taking to pieces the cask1 and exhibiting the beautiful dark-coloured and fine chrystalline crust1 as an indubitable proof of the age of the wine2 a practice by no means uncommon to flatter the vanity of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines40 7,p4 #ajc1 #ajd7 ,this our readers will excuse1 for it is pleasing to read of impositions which are practised on the sagacious4 ,but1 says ,mr4 ,accum1 8,several well-authenticated facts have convinced me1 that the adulteration of wine with substances deleterious to health is certainly practised oftener than is1 perhaps1 suspected40 7,p4 #ajd1 #aje47 ,presently follows the story of the passengers by the coach1 who dined at ,newark4 ,half a bottle of port made them all ill1 one dangerously4 ,part of the other half caused the death of an inhabitant of the place1 on whom an inquest was held1 and a verdict returned1 of--,died by poison4 ,a gentleman having been taken severely ill on two successive days1 after drinking each day a pint of ,madeira from the same bottle1 his apothecary ordered that it should be examined4 8#8,the bottle happened to slip out of the hand of the servant1 disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up circumference of it4 ,on examining the beads of shot1 they crumbled into dust1 the outer crust 7defended by a coat of black lead with which the shot is glazed7 being alone unacted on1 whilst the remainder of the metal was dissolved4 ,the wine1 therefore1 had become contaminated with lead and arsenic1 the shot being a compound of these metals1 which no doubt had produced the mischief4'0 7,p4 #aac1 #aad47 ,for detecting the presence of lead or any other deleterious metal in wine1 ,mr4 ,accum recommends the wine test4 ,we now come to that part of the subject1 which1 as some persons have thought1 is merely the business of ale-drinkers1 and their brethren1 the porter-drinkers4 8,the fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by narcotic substances1 appears to have flourished during the period of the late ,french war4 ,for1 if we examine the importation lists of drugs1 it will be noticed that the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a given time prior to that period1 will bear no comparison with the quantity imported in the same space of time during the war1 although an additional duty was laid upon this commodity4 ,such has been the amount brought into this country in five years1 that it far exceeds the quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch4 ,the price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings to seven shillings the pound4444 ,it was at the period to which we have alluded that the preparation of an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared1 as a new saleable commodity1 in the price-currents of brewers' druggists4 ,it was at the same time also that a ,mr4 ,jackson1 of notorious memory1 fell upon the idea of brewing beer from various drugs1 without any malt and hops4 ,this chemist did not turn brewer himself1 but he struck out the more profitable trade of teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome fee4 ,from that time forward1 written directions and receipt books1 for using the chemical preparations to be substituted for malt and hops1 were respectively sold4 ,and many adepts soon afterwards appeared every where to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice first pointed out by ,mr4 ,jackson4 ,from that time1 also1 the fraternity of brewers' chemists took its rise4 ,they made it their chief business to send travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting the price and quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use of brewers only4 ,their trade spread far and wide1 but it was amongst the country brewers chiefly that they found the most customers4 ,and it is among them up to the present day1 as ,i am assured by some of these operators1 on whose veracity ,i can rely1 that the greatest quantities of unlawful ingredients are sold40 7,p4 #aeg-afj47 ,part of these evils the porter-drinkers bring upon themselves4 8,one of the qualities of good porter1 is1 that it should bear a fine frothy head1 as it is technically termed3 because professed judges of this beverage1 would not pronounce the liquor excellent1 although it possessed all other good qualities of porter1 without this requisite4--,to impart to porter this property of frothing when poured from one vessel into another1 or to produce what is also termed a cauliflower head1 the mixture called beer-heading1 composed of common green vitriol 7sulphate of iron7 alum and salt1 is added4 ,this addition to the beer is generally made by the publicans40 7,p4 #ahb1 #ahc47 ,it is added in a note3--0',alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer1 and is penetrating to the palate4'--,s4 ,child on ,brewing1 p4 #ah40 8,the great ,london brewers1 it appears1 believe that the publicans alone adulterate the beer40 7,p4 #baa47 8,capsicum and grains of paradise1 two highly acrid substances1 are employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer4 ,of late1 a concentrated tincture of these articles1 to be used for a similar purpose1 and possessing a powerful effect1 has appeared in the price-currents of brewers' druggists4 ,ginger root1 coriander seed1 and orange peels1 are employed as flavouring substances chiefly by the ale brewers40 7,p4 #ahd1 #ahe47 ,we find the following articles1 in a list of illegal ingredients1 seized at various breweries and brewers' druggists4 8,multum1 #hd lbs42 cocculus indicus1 #ab lbs42 colouring1 #d galls2 honey1 about #ahj lbs42 hartshorn shavings1 #ad lbs42 ,spanish juice1 #df lbs42 orange powder1 #ag lbs42 ginger1 #ef lbs42 grains of paradise1 #dd lbs42 quassia1 #aj lbs42 liquorice1 #fd lbs42 carraway seeds1 #dj lbs42 multum1 #bf lbs40 8,capsicum1 #hh lbs42 copperas1 #caj lbs42 colouring and drugs1 #hd lbs42 mixed drugs1 #bdj lbs42 coriander seed1 #b lbs42 beer colouring1 #bd gallons40 7,p4 #ahf-ahi47 ,the list which includes these articles is copied from the minutes of the committee of the ,house of ,commons4 ,some of the substances above enumerated may be thought comparatively harmless4 ,but others are absolutely poisonous4 8,to increase the intoxicating quality of beer1 the deleterious vegetable substance1 called cocculus indicus1 and the extract of this poisonous berry1 technically called black extract1 or by some1 hard multum1 are employed4 ,opium1 tobacco1 nux vomica1 and extracts of poppies1 have also been used4--,this fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by unprincipled brewers4 ,and it is a lamentable reflection to behold so great a number of brewers prosecuted1 and convicted of this crime4 ,nor is it less deplorable to find the names of druggists1 eminent in trade1 implicated in the fraud1 by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers for fraudulent purposes40 7,p4 #bje1 #bjf47 ,then follows a list of thirty-four convictions of brewers1 for receiving or using illegal ingredients4--,we perfectly agree with the following observations4 8,that a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient1 daily taken in beer1 cannot fail to be productive of mischief1 admits of no doubt3 and there is reason to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance 7and cocculus indicus is a powerful narcotic71 daily taken into the stomach1 together with an intoxicating liquor1 is highly more efficacious than it would be without the liquor4 ,the effect may be gradual2 and a strong constitution1 especially if it be assisted with constant and hard labour1 may counteract the destructive consequences perhaps for many years4 ,but it never fails to show its baneful effects at last40 7,p4 #bji1 #baj47 ,we now come to the business of another small portion of the community1 namely1 the tea-drinkers4 ,perhaps the following descriptions will assist them in forming a diagnosis4 8,all the samples of spurious green tea 7nineteen in number7 which ,i have examined1 were coloured with carbonate of copper1 7a poisonous substance71 and not by means of verdigrise1 or copperas40 7,p4 #bdj47 8,mr4 ,twining asserts1 that #8the leaves of spurious tea are boiled in a copper1 with copperas and sheep's dung4'0 7,p4 #bdj4 ,note47 8,tea rendered poisonous by carbonate of copper1 speedily imparts to liquid ammonia1 a fine sapphire blue tinge4 ,it is only necessary to shake up in a stopped vial1 for a few minutes1 a tea-spoonful of the suspected leaves1 with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia1 diluted with half its bulk of water4 ,the supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue colour1 if the minutest quantity of copper be present4 ,green tea1 coloured with carbonate of copper1 when thrown into water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 immediately acquires a black colour4 ,genuine green tea1 suffers no change from the action of these tests40 7,p4 #bda47 ,the following extracts may perhaps prove interesting to brandy-drinkers4 8#8,it is a custom among retailing distillers1 which ,i have not taken notice of in this directory1 to put one third or one fourth part of proof molasses brandy1 proportionably1 to what rum they dispose of2 which cannot be distinguished1 but by an extraordinary palate1 and does not at all lessen the body or proof of the goods2 but makes them about two shillings a gallon cheaper2 and must be well mixed and incorporated together in your retailing cask4 ,but you should keep some of the best rum1 not adulterated1 to please your customers1 whose judgment and palate must be humoured4--,when you are to draw a sample of goods to show a person that has judgment in the proof1 do not draw your goods into a phial to be tasted1 or make experiment of the strength thereof that way1 because the proof will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong4 ,but draw the pattern of goods either into a glass from the cock1 to run very small1 or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot1 and pour it into your glass1 extending your pot as high above the glass as you can without wasting it1 which makes the goods carry a better head abundantly1 than if the same goods were to be put and tried in a phial4--,you must be so prudent as to make a distinction of the persons you have to deal with4 ,what goods you sell to gentlemen for their own use1 who require a great deal of attendance1 and as much for time of payment1 you must take a considerably greater price than of others2 what goods you sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest1 or at least some hazard of your money1 you may safely sell for more than common profit2 what goods you sell to the poor1 especially medicinally1 7as many of your goods are sanative71 be as compassionate as the cases require4--,all brandies1 whether ,french1 ,spanish1 or ,english1 being proof goods1 will admit of one pint of liquor#8 7water7 #8to each gallon1 to be made up and incorporated therewith in your cask1 for retail1 or selling smaller quantities4 ,and all persons that insist upon having proof goods1 which not one in twenty understand1 you must supply out of what goods are not so reduced1 though at a higher price4'0 7,p4 #bfg-bgj47 ,some of the adulterations of spirituous liquors are exceedingly pernicious4 8,another method of fining spirituous liquors1 consists in adding to it1 first1 a solution of sub-acetate of lead1 and then a solution of alum4 ,this practice is highly dangerous1 because part of the sulphate of lead produced1 remains dissolved in the liquor1 which it thus renders poisonous40 7,p4 #bhd47 8,the cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges of copper40 7,p4 #bhe47 ,gloucester ,cheese has been found contaminated with red lead4 ,the article used in colouring cheese is anotto4 ,in one instance1 the anotto1 being inferior1 had been coloured with vermilion2 and the vermilion adulterated by a druggist1 7who little thought that it would ever enter into the composition of cheese17 with red lead4 ,the account of the whole transaction as given by ,mr4 ,accum1 is worth reading1 but too long to be extracted4 ,cayenne pepper1 8is sometimes adulterated with red lead1 to prevent its becoming bleached on exposure to light40 7,p4 #cje47 ,pickles 8are sometimes intentionally coloured by means of copper40 7,p4 #cjf47 8,mrs4 ,e4 ,raffald directs1 #8to render pickles green1 boil them with halfpence1 or allow them to stand twenty-four hours in copper or brass pans4'0 7,p4 #cji47 8,vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid1 to give it more acidity40 7,p4 #caa47 8,red sugar drops are usually coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion4 ,this pigment is generally adulterated with red lead4 ,other kinds of sweetmeats are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with preparations of copper40 7,p4 #cae1 #caf47 8,the foreign conserves 444 are frequently impregnated with copper40 7,p4 #cag47 8,quantities0 of catsup 8are daily to be met with1 which on a chemical examination1 are found to abound with copper40 7,p4 #cai47 8,the quantity of copper which we have more than once detected in this sauce1 used for seasoning1 and which1 on account of its cheapness1 is much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life1 has exceeded the proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in domestic economy40 7,p4 #cbj47 8,the leaves of the cherry-laurel1 prunus laurocerasus1 a poisonous plant10 are used to flavour custards1 blanc-mange1 and other delicacies of the table4 7,p4 #cbd47 ,an instance is given of the dangerous consequences of this practice4 7,p4 #cbe1 #cbf47 8,the water distilled from cherry-laurel leaves is frequently mixed with brandy and other spirituous liquors40 7,p4 #cbg47 ,several samples of anchovy sauce 8have been found contaminated with lead40 7,p4 #cbh47 ,it is not unusual to employ1 in preparing this sauce1 8a certain quantity of ,venetian red1 added for the purpose of colouring it1 which1 if genuine1 is an innocent colouring substance4 ,but instances have occurred of this pigment having been adulterated with orange lead1 which is nothing else than a better kind of minimum or red oxid of lead40 7,p1 #cbh1 #cbi47 ,in lozenges1 8the adulterating ingredient is usually pipe-clay1 of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar40 7,p4 #ccj47 ,dr4 ,t4 ,lloyd says1 8#8,i was informed1'0 7at a respectable chemist's shop in the city7 8#8that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale1 the one at three-pence the once1 and the other at six-pence2 and that the article furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity4 ,the latter were distinguished by the epithet verum1 they being composed of sugar and ginger only4 ,but the former were manufactured partly of white ,cornish clay1 with a portion of sugar only1 with ginger and ,guinea pepper4 ,i was likewise informed1 that of ,tolu lozenges1 peppermint lozenges1 and ginger pearls1 and several other sorts or lozenges1 two kinds were kept2 that the reduced prices1 as they were called1 were manufactured for those very clever persons in their own conceit1 who are fond of haggling1 and insist on buying better bargains than other people1 shutting their eyes to the defects of an article1 so that they can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap3 and1 secondly1 for those persons1 who being but bad paymasters1 yet as the manufacturer1 for his own credit's sake1 cannot charge more than the usual price of the article1 he thinks himself therefore authorized to adulterate it in value1 to make up for the risk he runs1 and the long credit he must give4'0 7,p4 #ccb1 #ccc47 ,well--there is then some honesty left in the world4 ,what a pleasure it is to have to deal with a respectable man4 ,but we return to the practices of the knaves4 ,olive oil 8is sometimes contaminated with lead40 7,p4 #ccd47 ,the dealers in this commodity assert that lead or pewter 8prevents the oil from becoming rancid4 ,and hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure to remain immersed in the oil40 7,p4 #ccf47 8,the beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated both with copper and lead40 7,p4 #cea47 ,mr4 ,johnston1 of ,greek ,street1 ,soho1 was the first who pointed out the danger to the public4 8,many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated with copper1 in consequence of the employment of cooking utensels made of that metal4 ,by the use of such vessels in dressing food1 we are daily liable to be poisoned40 7,p4 #ceb47 8,mr4 ,thiery1 who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper1 observes that #8our food receives its quantity of poison1 in the kitchen by the use of copper pans and dishes4 ,the brewer mingles poison in our beer1 by boiling it in copper vessels4 ,the sugar-baker employs copper pans4 ,the pastry-cook bakes our tarts in copper moulds4 ,the confectioner uses copper vessels4 ,the oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass vessels1 and verdigrise is plentifully formed by the action of the vinegar upon the metal4'0 7,p4 #cec1 #ced47 ,moreover1 8various kinds of food1 used in domestic economy1 are liable to become impregnated with lead40 7,p4 #cei47 ,mr4 ,accum1 speaking on the subject of ,beer1 says1 8,it will be noticed that some of the sophistications are comparatively harmless1 whilst others are affected by substances deleterious to health40 7,p4 #ahe47 ,we think1 however1 that the candour of ,mr4 ,accum leads him to make too much allowance for this consideration throughout4 ,surely1 though many articles of food be not absolutely poisonous1 a diet consisting of drugs and chemical compounds and articles never intended by nature to be eaten or drunk1 articles for which1 presented simple1 the hungriest stomach would feel no appetite or inclination1 cannot be wholesome4 ,brick and mortar are not poison2 yet we cannot1 like the dragon of ,wantley1 swallow a church1 and pick our teeth with the steeple4 ,many can eat oysters1 but few could manage the oyster-knife4 ,even the ,welshman of ,king ,arthur's court1 fond as he was of toasted cheese1 would inevitably have been choked by the mouse that ran down his throat to eat it1 had he not 8pulled him out by the tail40 ,we could give farther extracts2 but must refer the reader to the work itself1 which contains much interesting matter1 besides what we have selected4 ,,the ,,money ,,that ,,is ,,often ,,laid ,,out ,,in ,,the ,,purchase ,,of ,,cookery ,,books1 ,,which ,,teach ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,exciting ,,disease ,,and ,,pain ,,by ,,dubious ,,combinations ,,and ,,culinary ,,poisons1 ,,might1 ,,we ,,think1 ,,be ,,much ,,better ,,expended ,,upon ,a ,,book ,,like ,,the ,,present2 ,,every ,,page ,,of ,,which ,,gives ,,warning ,,of ,,some ,,danger1 ,,of ,,which ,,we ,,ought ,,all ,,to ,,be ,,aware4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,a ,treatise on ,adulterated ,provisions4 ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum4 ------- ,,there ,,is ,,death ,,in ,,the ,,pot4 ,,ii4 ,,kings--,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,,verse ,,xi4 7,from ,blackwood's ,edinburgh ,magazine1 ,no4 ,,xxxv4 ,page #edb47 ,mr4 ,accum1 it appears1 is one of those very good-natured friends1 who is quite resolved not to allow us to be cheated and poisoned as our fathers were before us1 and our children will be after us1 without cackling to us of our danger1 and opening our eyes to abysses of fraud and imposition1 of the very existence of which we had until now the good fortune to be entirely ignorant4 ,his book is a perfect death's head1 a memento mori1 the perusal of any single chapter of which is enough to throw any man into the blue devils for a fortnight4 ,mr4 ,accum puts us something in mind of an officious blockhead1 who1 instead of comforting his dying friend1 is continually jogging him on the elbow with such cheering assurances as the following4 8,i am sorry there is no hope2 my dear fellow1 you must kick the bucket soon4 ,your liver is diseased1 your lungs gone1 your bowels as impenetrable as marble1 your legs swelled like door-posts1 your face as yellow as a guinea1 and the doctor just now assured me you could not live a week40 ,mr4 ,accum's work is evidently written in the same spirit of dark and melancholy anticipation1 which pervades ,dr4 ,robison's celebrated 8,proofs of a ,conspiracy1 c4 against all the crowned heads of ,europe40 ,the conspiracy disclosed by ,mr4 ,accum is certainly of a still more dreadful nature1 and is even more widely ramified than that which excited so much horror in the worthy professor4 ,it is a conspiracy of brewers1 bakers1 grocers1 wine-merchants1 confectioners1 apothecaries1 and cooks1 against the lives of all and every one of his majesty's liege subjects4 ,it is easy to see that ,mr4 ,accum's nerves are considerably agitated1 that-- 8,sad forebodings shake him as he writes40 ,not only at the festive board is he haunted by chimeras dire of danger--not only does he tremble over the tureen--and faint over the flesh-pot3 but even in his chintz night-gown1 and red morocco slippers1 he is not secure4 ,an imaginary sexton is continually jogging his elbow as he writes1 a death's head and cross bones rise on his library table2 and at the end of his sofa he beholds a visionary tomb-stone of the best granite-- ,,on ,,which ,,are ,,inscribed ,,the ,,dreadful ,,words-- ,illustration3 ,hic ,jacet1 ,,fredrick ,,accum1 ,operative ,chemist1 ,,old ,,compton ,,street1 ,,soho4 ,since we read his book1 our appetite has visibly decreased4 ,at the ,celtic club1 yesterday1 we dined almost entirely on roast beef2 ,mr4 ,oman's ,london-particular ,madeira lost all its relish1 and we turned pale in the act of eating a custard1 when we recollected the dreadful punishment inflicted on custard-eaters1 in page #cbf of the present work4 ,we beg to assure our friends1 therefore1 that at the present moment they may invite us to dinner with the greatest impunity4--,our diet is at present quite similar to that of ,parnel's hermit1 8,our food the fruits1 our drink the crystal well20 though we trust a few days will recover us from our panic1 and enable us to resume our former habits of life4 ,those of our friends1 therefore1 who have any intention of pasturing us1 had better not lose the present opportunity of doing so4 ,so favourable a combination of circumstances must have been quite unhoped for on their part1 and most probably will never occur again4#bd ,v4 ,s4 ,footnote #bd3 ,to save some trouble1 we may announce that we are already engaged to dinner1 on the #bc;d1 #bgth1 and #bhth of this month1 and to evening parties1 on the #bb;d1 #bc;d1 #bfth1 #bhth1 and #bith1 and #c;d of ,march4 ,since1 by the publication of ,mr4 ,accum's book1 an end has been for ever put to our former blessed state of ignorance1 let us arm ourselves with philosophy1 and boldly venture to look our danger in the face2 or1 as the poet beautifully expresses it1 in language singularly applicable1 8,come1 ,christopher1 and leave all meaner things1 ,to low ambition and the pride of kings2 ,let us1 since life can little else supply2 ,than just to swallow poison and to die2 ,expatiate free o'er all this dreadful field1 ,try what the brewer1 what the baker yield2 ,explore the druggists' shop1 the butchers' stall2 ,expose their roguery1 and--damn them all60 ,,pope4 ,melancholy as the details are1 there is something almost ludicrous1 we think1 in the very extent to which the deceptions are carried4 ,so inextricably are we all immersed in this mighty labyrinth of fraud1 that even the venders of poison themselves are forced1 by a sort of retributive justice1 to swallow it in their turn4--,thus the apothecary1 who sells the poisonous ingredients to the brewer1 chuckles over his roguery1 and swallows his own drugs in his daily copious exhibitions of ,brown stout4 ,the brewer in his turn1 is poisoned by the baker1 the wine-merchant1 and the grocer4 ,and1 whenever the baker's stomach fails him1 he meets his coup de grace in the adulterated drugs of his friend the apothecary1 whose health he has been gradually contributing to undermine1 by feeding him every morning on chalk and alum1 in the shape of hot rolls4 ,our readers will now1 we think1 be able to form a general idea of the perils to which they are exposed by every meal4 ,mr4 ,accum's details on the adulteration of wine are extremely ample1 and so interesting1 that we regret our limits prevent our making more copious extracts1 and oblige us to refer our readers for farther information to the work itself4 ,having thus laid open to our view the arcana of the cellar1 ,mr4 ,accum next treats us with an expose of the secrets of the brew-house4 ,verily1 the wine-merchant and brewer are par nobile fratrum2 and after the following disclosures1 it will henceforth be a matter of the greatest indifference to us1 whether we drink ,perry or ,champaigne1 ,hermitage or ,brown stout4 ,latet anguis in poculo1 there is disease and death in them all1 and one is only preferable to the other1 because it will poison us at about one-tenth of the expense4 8,malt liquors1 and particularly porter1 the favourite beverage of the inhabitants of ,london and of other large towns1 is amongst those articles1 in the manufacture of which the greatest frauds are frequently committed4 8,the practice of adulterating beer appears to be of early date4 ,to shew that they have augmented in our own days1 we shall exhibit an abstract from documents laid lately before ,parliament4 8,mr4 ,accum not only amply proves1 that unwholesome ingredients are used by fraudulent brewers1 and that very deleterious substances are also vended both to brewers and publicans for adulterating beer1 but that the ingredients mixed up in the brewer's enchanting cauldron are placed above all competition1 even with the potent charms of ,macbeth's witches3 #8,root of hemlock1 digg'd i' the dark1 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,for a charm of pow'rful trouble4 ,like a hell-broth boil and bubble2 ,double1 double1 toil and trouble1 ,fire burn1 and cauldron bubble4' ,mr4 ,accum very properly gives us a list of those miscreants who have been convicted of adulterating their porter with poisonous ingredients1 and want of room alone prevents us from damning them to everlasting fame1 by inserting their names along with that of the ,rev4 ,sennacherib ,terrot1 in the imperishable pages of this miscellany4 ,mr4 ,accum gives us a long dissertation on counterfeit tea1 and another on spurious coffee2 but as these are impositions by which we are little affected1 we shall not allow them to detain us4 ,the leaves of the sloe-thorn are substituted for the former1 and roasted horse beans for the latter4 ,these frauds1 it appears1 are carried to a very great extent4 ,we must now draw our extracts to a close2 but we can assure our readers1 that we have not yet introduced them to one tythe of the poisonous articles in common use1 detected by ,mr4 ,accum4 ,we shall give the titles of a few to satisfy the curious3--,poisonous confectionary1 poisonous pickles1 poisonous cayenne pepper1 poisonous custards1 poisonous anchovy sauce1 poisonous lozenges1 poisonous lemon acid1 poisonous mushrooms1 poisonous ketchup1 and poisonous soda water6 ,read this1 and wonder how you live6 ,while we thus suffer under accumulated miseries brought upon us by the unprincipled avarice and cupidity of others1 it is surely incumbent on us not wantonly to increase the catalogue by any negligence or follies of our own4 ,will it be believed1 that in the cookery book1 which forms the prevailing oracle of the kitchens in this part of the island1 there is an express injunction to 8boil greens with halfpence in order to improve their colour80--,that our puddings are frequently seasoned with laurel leaves1 and our sweetmeats almost uniformly prepared in copper vessels8 ,why are we thus compelled to swallow a supererogatorary quantity of poison which may so easily be avoided8 ,and why are we constantly made to run the risk of our lives by participating in custards1 trifles1 and blancmanges1 seasoned by a most deadly poison extracted from the prunus lauro-cerasus8 ,verily1 while our present detestable system of cookery remains1 we may exclaim with the sacred historian1 that there is indeed 8,death in the ,pot40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,a ,treatise on ,adulterations of ,food1 ,,and ,,culinary ,,poisons1 ,exhibiting the ,fraudulent ,sophistications of ,bread1 ,beer1 ,wine1 ,spirituous ,liquors1 c4 and ,methods of detecting them4 ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum4 7,from the ,edinburgh ,review1 ,no4 ,,lxv4 ,page #aca47 ,it is curious to see how vice varies its forms1 and maintains its substance1 in all conditions of society2--and how certainly those changes1 or improvements as we call them1 which diminish one class of offences1 aggravate or give birth to another4--,in rude and simple communities1 most crimes take the shape of violence and outrage--in polished and refined ones1 of ,fraud4 ,men sin from their animal propensities in the first case1 and from their intellectual depravation in the second4 ,the one state of things is prolific of murders1 batteries1 rapines1 and burnings--the other of forgeries1 swindlings1 defamations1 and seductions4 ,the sum of evil is probably pretty much the same in both--though probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened stages2 the sharpening of the intellect1 and the spread of knowledge1 giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal propensities4 ,among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and enlightened society1 and owe their birth1 indeed1 to its science and refinement1 are those skilful and dexterous adulterations of the manifold objects of its luxurious consumption1 to which their value and variety1 and the delicacy of their preparation1 hold out so many temptations2 while the very skill and knowledge which are requisite in their formation1 furnish such facilities for their sophistication4 ,the very industry and busy activity of such a society1 exposes it more and more to such impostures2--and by the division of labour which takes place1 and confines every man to his own separate task1 brings him into a complete dependence on the industry of others for a supply of the most necessary articles4 ,the honesty of the dealer1 and of the original manufacturer1 is the only security to the public for the genuineness of the article in which he deals4 ,the consumer can in general know nothing of their component parts2 he must take them as he finds them2 and1 even if he is dissatisfied1 he has in general no effectual means of redress4 ,it will be found1 that as crimes of violence decrease with the progress of society1 frauds are multiplied2 and there springs up in every prosperous country a race of degenerate traders and manufacturers1 whose business is to cheat and to deceive2 who pervert their talents to the most dishonest purposes1 prefering the illicit gains thus acquired to the fair profits of honorable dealing2 and counter-working1 by their sinister arts1 the general improvement of society4 ,in almost every branch of manufacture1 there are fraudulent dealers1 who are instigated by the thirst of gain1 to debase the articles which they vend to the public1 and to exact a high price for what is comparatively cheap and worthless4 ,after pointing out various deceptions of this nature1 ,mr4 ,accum1 the ingenious author of the work before us1 proceeds in his account of those frauds1 in the following terms4 #8,soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a considerable portion of fine white clay1 brought from ,st4 ,stephen's in ,cornwall4 ,in the manufacture of printing paper1 a large quantity of plaster of ,paris is added to the paper stuff1 to increase the weight of the manufactured article4 ,the selvage of cloth is often dyed with a permanent colour1 and artfully stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a fugitive dye4 ,the frauds committed in the tanning of skins1 and in the manufacture of cutlery1 and jewellery1 exceed belief4' pp4 #bg-bi4 ,what is infinitely worse1 however1 than any of those frauds1 sophistications1 we are informed1 are carried on to an equal extent in all the essential articles of subsistence or comfort4 ,so long as our dishonest dealers do not intermeddle with these things1 their deceptions are comparatively harmless2 the evil in all such cases amounting only to so much pecuniary damage4 ,but when they begin to tamper with food1 or with articles connected with the table1 their frauds are most pernicious3 in all cases the nutritive quality of the food is injured1 by the artificial ingredients intermixed with it2 and when these ingredients1 as frequently happens1 are of a poisonous quality1 they endanger the health and even the life of all to whom they are vended4 ,we cannot conceive any thing more diabolical than those contrivances2 and we consider their authors in a far worse light than ordinary felons1 who1 being known1 can be duly guarded against4 ,but those fraudulent dealers conceal themselves under the fair show of a reputable traffic--they contrive in this manner to escape the infamy which justly belongs to them--and1 under the disguise of wealth1 credit1 and character1 to lurk in the bosom of society1 wounding the hand that cherishes them1 and scattering around them poison and death4 ,it is chiefly for the purpose of laying open the dishonest artifices of this class of dealers1 that ,mr4 ,accum has published the present very interesting and popular work2 and he gives a most fearful view of the various and extensive frauds which are daily practised on the unsuspecting public4 #8,among the number of substances used in domestic economy1 which are now very generally found sophisticated1 may be distinguished--tea1 coffee1 bread1 beer1 wine1 spirituous liquors1 salad oil1 pepper1 vinegar1 mustard1 cream1 and other articles of subsistence4--,indeed1 it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state2 and there are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine4--,some of these spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used as food2 and as1 in these cases1 merely substances of inferior value are substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients1 the sophistication1 though it may affect our purse1 does not injure our health4 ,of this kind are the manufacture of factitious pepper1 the adulterations of mustard1 vinegar1 cream1 c4 ,others1 however1 are highly deleterious2 and to this class belong the adulterations of beer1 wines1 spirituous liquors1 pickles1 salad oil1 and many others4' pp4 #b-d4 ,there are1 it appears1 particular chemists who make it their sole employment to supply the unprincipled brewer of porter and ale with drugs1 and other deleterious preparations2 while others perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant1 as well as to the grocer and oilman--and these illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method of a regular trade4 #8,the eager and insatiable thirst for gain' 7,mr4 ,accum justly observes71 which seems to be a leading characteristic of the times1 calls into action every human faculty1 and gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention2 and where lucre becomes the reigning principle1 the possible sacrifice of a fellow-creature's life is a secondary consideration4' ,mr4 ,accum having exhibited this general view of his subject1 proceeds to enter into an examination of the articles most commonly counterfeited1 and to explain the nature of the ingredients used in sophisticating them4 ,he commences with a dissertation on the qualities of good water1 in which he briefly points out the dangerous sophistications to which it is liable1 from the administration of foreign ingredients4 ,but in the case of water1 the adulteration is purely accidental1 which cannot be said of the other articles specified by ,mr4 ,accum4 ,in the making of ,bread1 more especially in ,london1 various ingredients are occasionally mingled with the dough4 ,to suit the caprice of his customers1 the baker is obliged to have his bread light and porous1 and of a pure white4 ,it is impossible to produce this sort of bread from flour alone1 unless it be of the finest quality4 ,the best flour1 however1 being mostly used by the biscuit-bakers and pastry-cooks1 it is only from the inferior sorts that bread is made2 and it becomes necessary1 in order to have it of that light and porous quality1 and of a fine white1 to mix alum with the dough4 ,without this ingredient1 the flour used by the ,london bakers would not yield so white a bread as that sold in the metropolis4 ,wine appears to be a subject for the most extensive and pernicious frauds4 #8,all persons 7,mr4 ,accum observes7 moderately conversant with the subject1 are aware1 that a portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines1 for the purpose of brightening their colour2 that ,brazil wood1 or the husks of elderberries and bilberries1 which are imported from ,germany1 under the fallacious name of berry-dye1 are employed to impart a deep rich purple tint to red port of a pale colour2 that gypsum is used to render cloudy white wines transparent2 that an additional astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood and sawdust1 and the husks of filberts2 and that a mixture of spoiled foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound frequently sold in the metropolis by the name genuine old ,port4' ,other expedients are resorted to1 in order to give flavour to insipid wines4 ,for this purpose bitter almonds are occasionally employed2 factitious port wine is also flavoured with a tincture drawn from the seeds of raisins2 and other ingredients are frequently used1 such as sweet brier1 orris root1 clary1 cherry-laurel water1 and elder flowers4 ,in ,london1 the sophistication of wine is carried to an enormous extent1 as well as the art of manufacturing spurious wine1 which has become a regular trade1 in which a large capital is invested2 and it is well known that many thousand pipes of spoiled cider are annually sent to the metropolis for the purpose of being converted into an imitation of port wine4 ,innumerable are the tricks practised to deceive the unwary1 by giving to weak1 thin1 and spoiled wines1 all the characteristic marks of age1 and also of flavour and strength4 ,in carrying on these illicit occupations1 the division of labour has been completely established2 each has his own task assigned him in the confederate work of iniquity2 and thus they acquire dexterity for the execution of their mischievous purposes4 ,to one class is allotted the task of crusting1 which consists in lining the interior surface of empty wine bottles with a red crust4 ,this is accomplished by suffering a saturated hot solution of super-tartrate of potash1 coloured red with a decoction of ,brazil wood to chrystallize within them4 ,a similar operation is frequently performed on the wooden cask which is to hold the wine1 and which1 in the same manner as the bottle1 is artificially stained with a red crust2 and on some occasions1 the lower extremities of the corks in wine bottles are also stained red1 in order to give them the appearance of having been long in contact with the wine4 ,it is the business of a particular class of wine-coopers1 by means of an astringent extract mixed with home-made and foreign wines1 to produce #8genuine old port1' or to give an artificial flavour and colour to weak wine2 while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white wines is the occupation of another class called refiners of wine4 ,other deceptions are practised by fraudulent dealers1 which are still more culpable4 ,the most dangerous of these is where wine is adulterated by an admixture of lead4 ,mr4 ,accum justly observes1 that the #8merchant or dealer who practises this dangerous sophistication1 adds the crime of murder to that of fraud1 and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among those customers who contribute to his emolument4' ,spirituous liquors1 which in this country form one of the chief articles of consumption1 are subjects of equally extensive fraud with wine4 ,the deceptions which are practised by the dealers in this article1 are chiefly confined to fraudulent imitations of the peculiar flavour of different sorts of spirits2 and as this flavour constitutes1 along with the strength1 the value of the spirit1 the profit of the dealer consists in imitating this quality at a cheaper rate than it is produced in the genuine spirit4 ,the flavour of ,french brandy is imitated1 by distilling ,british molasses spirit over wine lees2 previous to which1 however1 the spirit is deprived of its peculiar disagreeable flavour1 by rectification over fresh-burnt charcoal and quicklime4 ,this operation is performed by those who are called brewers' druggists1 and forms the article in the prices-current called ,spirit ,flavour4 ,wine lees are imported into this country for the purpose1 and they pay the same duty as foreign wines4 ,another method of imitating the flavour of brandy1 which is adopted by brandy merchants1 is by means of a spirit obtained from raisin wine1 after it has begun to become somewhat sour4 #8,oak sawdust1' 7,mr4 ,accum observes71 #8and a spirituous tincture of raisin stones1 are likewise used to impart to new brandy and rum a ripe taste1 resembling brandy or rum long kept in oaken casks1 and a somewhat oily consistence1 so as to form a durable froth at its surface1 when strongly agitated in a vial4 ,the colouring substances are burnt sugar1 or molasses2 the latter gives to imitative brandy a luscious taste1 and fulness in the mouth4' ,gin1 which is sold in small quantities to those who judge of the strength by the taste1 is made up for sale by fraudulent dealers with water and sugar2 and this admixture rendering the liquor turbid1 several expedients are resorted to1 in order to clarify it2 some of which are harmless1 while others are criminal4 ,a mixture of alum with subcarbonate of potash1 is sometimes employed for this purpose2 but more frequently1 in place of this1 a solution of subacetate of lead1 and then a solution of alum1--a practice reprobated by ,mr4 ,accum as highly dangerous1 owing to the admixture of the lead with the spirit1 which thereby becomes poisonous4 ,after this operation1 it is usual to give a false appearance of strength to the spirit by mixing with it grains of paradise1 guinea pepper1 capsicum1 and other acrid and aromatic substances4 ,in the manufacture of malt liquors1 a wide field is opened for the operations of fraud4 ,the immense quantity of the article consumed1 presents an irresistible temptation to the unprincipled dealer2 while the vegetable substances with which beer is adulterated1 are in all cases difficult to be detected1 and are frequently beyond the reach of chemical analysis4 ,there is1 accordingly1 no article which is the subject of such varied and extensive frauds4 ,these are committed in the first instance by the brewer1 during the process of manufacture1 and afterwards by the dealer1 who deteriorates1 by fraudulent intermixtures1 the liquor which he sells to the consumer4 #8,the intoxicating qualities of porter 7he continues7 are to be ascribed to the various drugs intermixed with it2' and1 as some sorts of porter are more heady than others1 the difference arises1 according to this author1 #8from the greater or less quantity of stupifying ingredients' contained in it4 ,these consist of various substances1 some of which are highly deleterious4 ,thus1 the extract disguised under the name of black extract1 and ostensibly destined for the use of tanners and dyers1 is obtained by boiling the berries of the cocculus indicus in water1 and converting1 by a subsequent evaporation1 this decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass1 possessing in a high degree the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry from which it is prepared4 ,quassia is another substance employed in place of hops1 to give the beer a bitter taste2 and the shavings of this wood are sold in a half torrified and ground state1 in order to prevent its being recognised4 ,not only is the use of all these deleterious substances strictly prohibited to the brewer under severe penalties1 but all druggists or grocers convicted of supplying him with any of them1 or who have them in their possession1 are liable to severe penalties2 and ,mr4 ,accum gives a list of twenty-nine convictions for this offence1 from the year #ahab to #ahai4 ,from the year #ahac to #ahai1 the number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of using illegal ingredients in their breweries1 amounts to thirty-four4 ,numerous seizures have also been made during the same period at various breweries1 and in the warehouses of brewers'-druggists1 of illegal ingredients1 to be used in the brewing of beer1 some of them highly deleterious4 ,malt liquors1 after they are delivered by the brewer to the retail-dealer1 are still destined to undergo various mutations before they reach the consumer4 ,it is a common practice with the retailers of beer1 though it be contrary to law1 to mix table-beer with strong beer2 and1 to disguise this fraud1 recourse is had to various expedients4 ,it is a well known property of genuine beer1 that when poured from one vessel into another1 it bears a strong white froth1 without which professed judges would not pronounce the liquor good4 ,this property is lost1 however1 when table-beer is mixed with strong beer2 and to restore it1 a mixture of what is called beer-heading is added1 composed of common green vitriol1 alum1 and salt4 ,to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer1 capsicum and grains of paradise1 two highly acrid substances1 are employed2 and1 of date1 a concentrated tincture of these articles has appeared for sale in the prices-current of brewers'-druggists4 ,to bring beer forward1 as it is technically called1 or to make it hard1 a portion of sulphuric acid is mixed with it1 which1 in an instant1 produces an imitation of the age of eighteen months2 and stale1 half-spoiled1 or sour beer1 is converted into mild beer1 by the simple admixture of an alkali or an alkaline earth2 oyster-shell powder1 and subcarbonate of potash1 or soda1 being usually employed for that purpose4 ,in order to show that these deceptions are not imaginary1 ,mr4 ,accum refers to the frequent convictions of brewers for those fraudulent practices1 and to the seizures which have been made at different breweries of illegal ingredients--a list of which1 and of the proprietors of the breweries where they were seized1 he has extracted from the ,minutes of the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 appointed to ,inquire into the ,price and ,quality of ,beer4 ,it may be observed1 that while some of the sophistications of beer appear to be perfectly harmless1 other substances are frequently employed for this purpose which are highly deleterious1 and which must gradually undermine the health of those by whom they are used4 ,many other of the most ordinary articles of consumption are mentioned by our author as being the object of the most disgusting and pernicious frauds4 ,tea1 it is well known1 from the numerous convictions which have lately taken place1 has been counterfeited to an enormous extent2 and copper1 in one form or another1 is the chief ingredient made use of for effecting the imitation4 ,the practice of adulterating coffee1 has also been carried on for a long time1 and to a considerable extent1 while black and white pepper1 ,cayenne pepper1 mustard1 pickles of all sorts1 have been all of them debased by an admixture of baser1 and1 in many cases1 poisonous ingredients4 ,ground pepper is frequently sophisticated by an admixture from the sweepings of the pepper warehouses4 ,these sweepings are purchased in the market under the initials ,p4 ,d41 signifying pepper dust4 #8,an inferior sort of this vile refuse 7,mr4 ,accum observes71 or the sweepings of ,p4 ,d41 is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation of ,d4 ,p4 ,d41 denoting dust1 or dirt of pepper dust4' ,of those various frauds so ably exposed in ,mr4 ,accum's work1 and which are so much the more dangerous1 as they are committed under the disguise of an honourable trade1 it is impossible to speak in terms of too strong reprobation2 and in the first impulse of our indignation1 we were inclined to avenge such iniquitous practices by some signal punishment4 ,we naturally reflect1 that such offences1 in whatever light they are viewed1 are of a far deeper dye than many of those for which our sanguinary code awards the penalty of death--and we wonder that the punishment hitherto inflicted1 has been limited to a fine4 ,if we turn our view1 however1 from the moral turpitude of the act1 to a calm consideration of that important question1 namely1--,what is the most effectual method of protecting the community from those frauds8--we will then see strong reasons for preferring the lighter punishment4 ,we do not find from experience1 that offences are prevented by severe punishments4 ,on the contrary1 the crime of forgery1 under the most unrelenting execution of the severe law against it1 has grown more frequent4 ,as those1 therefore1 by whom the offence of adulterating articles of provision is committed1 are generally creditable and wealthy individuals1 the infliction of a heavy fine1 accompanied by public disgrace1 seems a very suitable punishment3 and if it be duly and reasonably applied1 there is little doubt that it will be found effectual to check1 and finally to root out1 those disgraceful frauds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,poisoning ,,of ,,food4 ,a ,treatise on ,adulterations of ,food1 ,,and ,,culinary ,,poisons2 ,exhibiting the ,fraudulent ,sophistications of ,bread1 ,beer1 ,wine1 ,spirituous ,liquors1 ,tea1 ,coffee1 ,cheese1 ,pepper1 ,mustard1 c4 c4 ,and methods of detecting them4 ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum4 7,from the ,literary ,gazette1 ,no4 ,,clvi4 #ahbj47 ,one has laughed at the whimsical description of the cheats in ,humphrey ,clinker1 but it is really impossible to laugh at ,mr4 ,accum's exposition4 ,it is too serious for a joke to see that in almost every thing which we eat or drink1 we are condemned to swallow swindling1 if not poison--that all the items of metropolitan1 and many of country consumption1 are deteriorated1 deprived of nutritious properties1 or rendered obnoxious to humanity by the vile arts and merciless sophistications of their sellers4 ,so general seems the corruption1 and so fatal the tendency of most of the corrupting materials1 that we can no longer wonder at the prevalence of painful disorders1 and the briefness of existence 7on an average7 in spite of the great increase of medical knowledge1 and the amazing improvement in the healing science1 which distinguish our era4 ,no skill can prevent the effects of daily poisoning2 and no man can prolong his life beyond a short standard1 where every meal ought to have its counteracting medicine4 ,mr4 ,accum acts the part of ,dionysius with us2 only the horse-hair by which he suspends the sword over our heads allows the point gradually to enter the flesh1 and we do not escape1 like ,damocles1 with the simple fright3 yet it is but justice to acknowledge1 that in almost every case he furnishes us with tests whereby we can ascertain the nature of our danger2 and no man could do more towards enabling us to mitigate or escape from it4 ,advising our readers to abstain from perusing the annexed synopsis till after they have dined1 that they may have one more meal in comfort ere they die1 we proceed to the various heads under which the author ranges his dread array4 ,devoted to disease by baker1 brewer1 grocer1 c4 the physician is called to our assistance2 but here again the pernicious system of fraud1 as it has given the blow1 steps in to defeat the remedy4 ,it is so horribly pleasant to reflect how we are in this way be-swindled1 be-trayed1 be-drugged1 and be-devilled1 that we are almost angry with ,mr4 ,accum for the great service he has done the community by opening our eyes1 at the risk of shutting our mouths for ever4 ,his account of water is so fearful1 that we see there is no wisdom in the well2 and if we then fly to wine1 we find1 from his analysis1 that there is no truth in that liquid3 bread turns out to be a crutch to help us onward to the grave1 instead of the staff of life2 in porter there is no support1 in cordials no consolation2 in almost every thing poison1 and in scarcely any medicine1 cure4 ,the work contains a great many excellent observations on the various sorts of water1 and the modes of conveying and preserving them for use3 it appears generally that leaden pipes and cisterns1 and copper vessels are highly dangerous4 ,good heavens6 we think we hear it exclaimed1 is there no end to these infamous doings8 does nothing pure or unpoisoned come to our tables1 except butcher's meat1 which has been rendered far less nutritive than formerly1 by new methods of feeding8 ,why1 we must answer1 hardly any thing3 for our author proceeds to shew that cheese 7,gloucester he mentions7 has been contaminated with red lead1 a deadly poison mixed with the colouring anotto1 when that article was scarce3 that pepper is adulterated with factitious pepper-corns 8made up of oil-cakes 7the residue of lint-seed1 from which the oil has been pressed71 common clay1 and a portion of ,cayenne pepper1 formed in a mass1 and granulated by being first pressed through a sieve1 and then rolled in a cask20 and further1 that 8ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a portion of genuine pepper1 a quantity of pepper dust1 or the sweepings from the pepper warehouses1 mixed with a little ,cayenne pepper4 ,the sweepings are known1 and purchased in the market1 under the name of ,p4,d4 signifying pepper dust4 ,an inferior sort of this vile refuse1 or the sweepings of ,p4,d4 is distinguished among vendors by the abbreviation ,d4,p4,d1 denoting1 dust 7dirt7 of pepper dust40 ,as we read on1 we learn the method of manufacturing adulterated vinegar1 adulterated cream1 adulterated lozenges1 adulterated mustard1 adulterated lemon acid1 poisonous ,cayenne1 poisonous pickles1 poisonous confectionary1 poisonous catsup1 poisonous custards1 poisonous anchovy sauce1 poisonous olive oil1 poisonous soda water2 and1 if not done to our hands1 of rendering poisonous all sorts of food by the use of copper and leaden vessels4 ,suffice it to record1 that our pickles are made green by copper2 our vinegar rendered sharp by sulphuric acid2 our cream composed of rice powder or arrow root in bad milk2 our comfits mixed of sugar1 starch1 and clay1 and coloured with preparations of copper and lead2 our catsup often formed of the dregs of distilled vinegar with a decoction of the outer green husk of the walnut1 and seasoned with all-spice1 cayenne1 pimento1 onions1 and common salt--or if founded on mushrooms1 done with those in a putrefactive state remaining unsold at market2 our mustard a compound of mustard1 wheaten flour1 cayenne1 bay salt1 raddish seed1 turmeric1 and pease flour2 and our citric acid1 our lemonade1 and our punch1 to refresh or to exhilarate1 usually cheap tartareous acid modified for the occasion4 ,against all these1 and many other impositions1 ,mr4 ,accum furnishes us with easy and certain tests3 his work1 besides1 contains many curious documents and useful recipes2 and it is replete with intelligence1 and often guides to the right while it exposes the wrong4 ------- ,other ,works lately published by ,,fredrick ,,accum4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,manufacturing ,,coal ,,gas1 ,for the ,lighting of ,streets1 ,houses1 and ,public ,buildings1 ,,with ,,elevations1 ,,sections1 ,,and ,,plans1 ,of the most improved ,sorts of ,apparatus now employed at the ,gas ,works in ,london1 ,and the principal ,provincial ,towns of ,great ,britain4 ,price #aes4 ------- ,,chemical ,,amusement1 ,comprising a ,series of curious and instructive ,experiments in ,chemistry1 which are easily performed1 and unattended by ,danger4 ,the ,fourth ,edition4 ,price #is4 ------- ,this ,day is published1 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,art of ,brewing1 ,exhibiting the ,london practice of ,brewing ,porter1 ,brown ,stout1 ,ale1 ,table ,beer1 and various other kinds of ,malt ,liquors4 ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum4 ------- ,by the same ,author1 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,wine ,from ,native ,fruits2 ,elucidating the ,chemical ,principles upon which the ,art of ,wine-making depends4 ,the ,fruits best adapted for ,home-made ,wines1 and the ,methods of preparing them4 ------- ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,analytical ,,mineralogy1 ,intended to facilitate the practical ,analysis of ,minerals1 by pointing out to the ,student concise ,directions for performing the ,analysis of ,metallic ,ores1 ,earths1 and other ,minerals4 ,second ,edition4 #b ,vols4 ,price #aes4 ------- ,a ,,system ,,of ,,theoretical ,,and ,,practical ,,chemistry1 ,in ,two ,vols4 with ,plates4 ,second ,edition4 ,price #aes4 ------- ,,elements ,,of ,,chrystallography1 ,after the ,method of ,hay with ,plates and ,graphic ,designs1 ,exhibiting the ,forms of ,crystals1 their ,geometrical ,structure1 and general ,laws1 according to which the immense variety of actually existing ,crystals are produced4 ,price #aes4 ------- ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,apparatus ,,and ,,instruments1 ,,with ,,fifteen ,,quarto ,,copper-,,plates4 ------- ,a ,,practical ,,essay ,,on ,,chemical ,,re-,,agents ,,or ,,tests1 ,exhibiting the general ,nature of ,chemical ,re-,agents or ,tests--the ,effects which they produce upon different ,bodies--the ,uses to which they may be supplied1 and the ,art of applying them successfully4 ,second ,edition4 ,illustrated by a ,series of ,experiments4 ,price #is4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the references to figures #a through #d on pages #acj and #acb do not exist in any edition of the book4 ,this has been confirmed by the ,project ,manager4 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74